LIBRARY

.UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS

^^Jtrr^

THE AUSTRALASIAN

Feuit Gultueist,

CONTAINING

Full and Complete Information as to the History, Traditions, Uses, Propagation
and Culture of such Fruits as are suitable for Victoria, New South Wales,
South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand;

Descriptive Lists of the Principal Varieties of Fruits,

With Remarks as to their Adaptability

for Particular Purposes.

By DAVID ALEXANDER CRICHTON,

Laie Ex'pert and Lecturer upon "Fruit Culture" and "Special Agricultural and
Horticultural Industries" to the Victonan Department of Agriculture,

[COPTRiaHT RESERVED BY THE AUTHOR.]

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA'
DAVIS

MJELBOUEN E.-
ALEX. M'KINLEY & CO., ALFRED PLACE, COLLINS ST. EAST.

1893.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 vyith funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/australasianfrui06tricrich

PREFACE

Nearly seventeen years ago I was induced to begin the publication of a
work called the Australian Horticultural Magazine, on such lines as,
when complete, would entitle the book to rank as an encyclopaedia of
gardening for this part of the world. Such a publication was then, and
is now, greatly needed, as kindred works which have been written in
Europe or America necessarily fall short of the requirements of culti-
vators in this part of the world. The plan I adopted was to deal with
each plant specially, in an article which gave the fullest information
as to its history, traditions and uses. I also gave full directions for
cultivation as adapted to Australian practice, and all necessary infor-
mation as regards propagation and other essential matters. The publi-
cation was carried on for two years, but circumstances prevented me
from continuing it sufficiently long to make it the complete work as
desired. Among the many articles that appeared in this work were a
number dealing with fruits, and these I have utilised to some extent in
the present publication, consequently several of the articles that appear
in the Australasian Fruit Culturist are based upon older writings of ray
own which have been previously published. Others, however, have been
specially written for the present work. I may also state that the whole
of the matter has been carefully prepared and arranged, so as to fully
meet the requirements of fruitgrowers at the present time. The cultural
directions, as also those for propagation, are thoroughly practical, and are
based upon my personal experiences and observations in various parts
of Australia extended over a long period. Too frequently books
published in this part of the world, and purporting to deal with
agriculture or horticulture, are but little more than compilations from
works published in Europe or America, where the conditions are widely
different to those that obtain in Australia. Then again, the compilers
of these works are prone to affirm whatever opinions are expressed by
their authorities, and these are often conflicting, and consequently
puzzling, to ordinary persons who are seeking for information. I have

IV.

acted diflferently, and prefer giving advice upon my own responsibility
rather than quote the opinions of others, no matter how high may be
their reputations as authorities.

In compiling the lists of fruits I have closely consulted the works of
Dr. Hogg, who is justly regarded as the leading British pomologist, and
the late H. J. Bowling, the most prominent American authority. The
<lescription of many of the varieties, as given in the present work, are
based to some extent upon the writings of these two authorities, and
more especially as regards form and colour of the flesh. In such matters
as the colouring of the skin, size, quality and keeping properties, neither
British nor American standard works should be regarded as absolute
authorities in this part of the world, as many varieties are materially
modified by climatic conditions. Some varieties, and more especially as
regards Apples, are more highly coloured than in England or America,
and can scarcely be recognised under their original descriptions. Then
again with Pears, some varieties develop far higher qualities in Australia
than when grown in colder regions, and consequently are really superior
to their descriptions as given in British or American works. I have
endeavoured, as far as is practicable in a work of this kind, to describe
varieties as we may expect them to grow in this part of the world. In
order to afford as much practical information as possible, I have, in
dealing with most of the varieties, given particulars as to the ripening
period, quality and uses of the fruit, hardiness of the plant and other
essential matters that may prove serviceable. Cultivators, however,
must bear in mind that results are often modified by local conditions,
and of these due account must be taken. For instance, the ripening
period may be mateiially accelerated by a northern slope upon which
the sun has great power. To some extent the ripening period may also
be hastened or retarded by the nature of the stock, an influence that is
not sufficiently recognised. As a matter of course, the last-named
influence may also have an important bearing upon the growth,
hardiness and bearing qualities of the trees.

In the lists of fruits I have used English synonyms freely, being of
opinion such information will be serviceable to many in enabling them to
recognise varieties that are often cultivated under two or more names.
Then again, [many persons from the United Kingdom and their descen-
dants often onlyj know certain varieties under local names, and are

V.

unacquainted with their more general ones. Therefore I have given all
the English synonyms that are likely to prove serviceable to cultivators.
Foreign synonyms I have used to a more limited extent, as many of
them are meaningless to all but small sections of the community. A.S a
matter of course, I have found it necessary to give a number of French
synonyms in the lists of Grapes, Pears, Apricots, Peaches and Plums "as -
many of the finest varieties of these fruits have originated in France or
Belgium. Only such synonymous names, however, as are in use more
or less have been given.

The many pictorial illustrations that appear in the work will, I trust,
aflford much practical information upon such important subjects as the
cultivation, propagation, pruning, and training of fruit trees. In fact,
it is only by this means that the writer can, in many cases, convey his
meaning clearly to his readers.

In conclusion, I may state that my aim has been to produce a work
that will prove serviceable to fruit cultivators of every class, in Victoria,
New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand. The work will give the most complete
information respecting every kind of fruit used by mankind in its natural
state, arranged in such a way that persons without technical knowledge
can fully utilize the matter. I am sanguine that my anticipations in
this respect will be realized, and that I shall in the future have the
gratification of knowing that my work has proved serviceable to fruit-
growers in all parts of Australasia.

DAVID A. CRICHTON.

llEeiUFF. HANSEN,

EDIBliE Ff^UlTS

Almost without exception, the useful varieties of fruits now-
cultivated in our orchards and gardens hive originated from types that
are vastly inferior, and in some cases comparatively worthless. The
process of amelioration has been gradually brought about by care,
forethought, and skill in cultivation for the most part, though perhaps
sometimes chance has assisted the work of improvement. We have no
reliable records as to when improvements in many of our most popular
fruits first began, but it is known for a certainty that at a very early
period kinds were grown by ancient nations that were far superior to
the original types. Pliny mentions that in his time the Romans had
"Twenty-two sorts of Apples, three of Apricots, a variety of Plums,
Cherries, Peaches, Nectarines, and Almonds; as also various sorts of
Olives." These improvements were, no doubt, brought about by careful
selection from seedlings possessing desirable properties, liberal culti-
vation that would pre-dispose to free development, and judicious
pruning to concentrate the energy of the plants. As a rule, any
substantial changes were brought about gradually, and the process of
amelioration was extended through several generations. In modern
practice improvement has to be etfected on similar lines, but as culti-
vators have varieties to start with greatly in advance of the original
types from which they sprang, amelioration is more quickly and easily
effected. As regards nearly all our ordinary fruits, the varieties in
cultivation are numerous, and in fact far more so than is necessary for
practical purposes. New ones are being rapidly added to the already
heavily-weijj;hted lists, and in many cases it is hard to say what claim
these seedlings have to be accepted. In too many cases they have
nothing but novelty to recommend them, as in other respects they are
no better than, if not inferior to, varieties in cultivation. This, in my
opinion, is a very undesirable state of affairs, and it would be well if
we could prevent any addition to our present heavy lists, except in the
case of a variety possessing special merit. If by careful hybridization
a fruit can be raised which combines the good qualities of two high-
class varieties, such an addition will be an acquisition. For instance,
if an Apple can be raised that possesses the high flavour and colour of
the Ribston Pippin, as when grown in a cool climate, with the keeping
properties of the Stone Pippin or French Crab, such a variety will be
invaluable. If cultivators will work in this direction, their efforts
may be useful, but to bring forward chance seedlings having no special
merits lays them open to grave censure. It is very easy to raise
varieties by simply sowing stones and pips of various fruits, but useful

acquisitions are seldom obtained without careful hybridization or cross-
breeding, Sometimes natural crosses occur from the action of insects,
but if cultivators wish to raise new varieties of merit they must
cross-fertilize by artificial means. Hybridization is effected by removal
of the stamens or male organs in the flowers, and dusting the stigmas or
mouths of the pistils or female parts with pollen obtained from another
variety. By this means some of our finest varieties of fruit have been
originated, but cultivators must bear in mind that in cross-breeding
there is no certainty as to what the results may be, and seedlings will
often be disappointing to their raisers.

Propagation.

Fruit trees and shrubs are propagated by various means, viz., seeds,
cuttings, suckers, layers, grafting, budding, and inarching.

Seeds. — Seed, as a matter of course, is the source of new varieties,
but only a comparatively few cultivators devote themselves to the
raising of these. But seedlings are raised in large quantities to supply
stocks, upon which known and desirable varieties can be budded or
grafted. Seedlings undoubtedly afford better stocks than can be
obtained in any other way, and they should be used as far as practicable.
The seedling is a new plant with a distinct individuality, and will, in
all probability, prove more vigorous and thrifty than a stock obtained
from layers or cuttings. As far as practicable, therefore, seedlings
should be used in preference to stocks raised from other sources. In
certain cases, as for instance in propagating the Apple or the Grape
Vine, there are special reasons for departing from this practice, but it
should be adopted to as great an extent as possible. In raising seed-
lings for stocks, care should be taken, as far as is practicable, to sow
seeds of such kinds as are likely to give the best results. Varieties
often differ materially in vigour, habit of growth, and in other ways ;
and though seedling plants often vary considerably from their parentf,
yet the probability is that the great majority will be of the same
character. No precise directions can be given upon this point, but as
a rule growers should avoid using the seeds of any varieties that in
their habit of growth possess undesirable qualities, such as throwing
up suckers too freely, wanting in vigour, <fec. It must also be remembered
that, with most of our cultivated fruit trees, varieties differ materially
in their growth and requirements, and what may prove a suitable
stock in one case will be quite the reverse in another. I am quite
certain that the unthiiftiness of trees in many cases is caused by
unsuitable stocks. Fruit-growers must also bear in mind that some
stocks are better adapted to particular soils than others. As a rule,
strong hardy varieties will give better seedling stocks for heavy or wet
soils than kinds that are less vigorous. As regards the other points
mentioned, I am unable to lay down any absolute rules, but I strongly
advise growers to experiment with seedlings from various sources
as stocks.

Suckers. — Varieties are perpetuated and increased by the removal of
a portion of the plant, and making it by various means into a new
dne. In some cases this is done by means of suckers, which are shoots
sent up from the roots or underground stems of many kinds of trees
and shrubs. Suckers of some trees, and more particularly Pears,
Quinces, Plums, and Cherries, are frequently used as stocks for budding
and grafting, but they are, generally speaking, less vigorous than
seedlings, and retain the tendency of their parents to throw up shouts"
from their roots. Figs are often propagated by removing the suckers and
planting them out direct. The usual method of propagating Kaspberries
is also by suckers, which form the canes. The runners of Strawberries
are simply overground suckers, which have power to form perfect plants.

Layers. — This method of propagation is sometimes adopted, but it
is open to the objection that the plants are less vigorous and thrifty
than seedlings. Sometimes it is employed for' raising blight-proof and
dwarfing stocks for the Apple, and the Olive is often increased by this
method. Layers are simply cuttings that are rooted without being
separated from the parent plants. The operation is readily performed,
all that is necessary being to bend down the branches and insert a
portion 3 or 4 inches deep in the ground, leaving the end above the
surface. The rooting of the branch will be facilitated by cutting a
notch just below a bud on the buried part, or making a slit upwards
from 1 to 2 inches in length. Hooked pegs are generally used to keep
the branches in their places, and in fixing the earth care should be
taken that the slit portion is kept open to some extent. Deciduous
trees may be layered at any time after the fall of the leaf, but the best
time is just before active growth commences in the spring. Evergreens
may be layered at various times, but the most favourable period is early
in the autumn. What is called Hillock layering is practised by some
growers, and more especially with dwarf Apples, the Fig, Quince, and
Hazel. When this practice is adopted, the stocks are cut back close to
the ground in spring, or early summer, and a mound of earth 6 or 8
inches deep is placed over the stump. Young stems will start, and form
roots, and in the following autumn or winter these plants should be
separated from the parent stems. Trees treated in this way may be
layered yearly.

Layering.

Crook for pegging down Shrub layered by covering the shoots

layers. and pegging them down.

Tree layered with notched branches to facilitate the formation of roots.

Layer with a rin^ of bark removed from one branch (A), and a slit in the
other (B) ; either practice facilitates rooting.

Layer of grape vine with branch entirely covered, making a plant at
every joint. Cross marks showing where the young plants should be cut back
at the first pruning.

Cuttings. — All fruit trees and shrubs may be propagated by cuttings,
and some kinds are commonly raised by this method, such as the Grape,

Currant, Gooseberry, Fig-, Hazel, Mulberry, and Quince. Good plants
of all these fruits may be obtained from cuttings, but in the case of
other kinds growth is too slow and weakly to allow this method to be
utilized. In fact, excepting the kinds named, cuttings will never make
vigorous and thrifty plants. Cuttings of GooseVjerries and Currants
should be taken off when the plants are pruned, leaving them about
12 inches long, making the base just below a bud, with as clean a cut aa_
possible. The cuttings should be inserted about half their depth in the
ground, and all buds below the surface, except the two lower ones,
ought to be removed, in order to check the tendency to form suckers.
The cuttings may be planted at any time before the spring, but it is
advisable to get them in earlier than other fruits, because growth
becomes active sooner. Grape cuttings should be made from 10 to 15
inches long, with four or tive joints, and ought to be planted about half
their depth in the ground. They should be selected from well-ripened
wood of the previous season's growth, and shoots that have home fruit.
The very best cuttings are those taken from the losver part of the shoots,
and if they can be taken off" with a piece of the old wood attached, or
what is technically called a heel, thny will root with greater facility.
It is not advisable to plant Grape cuttings early, as they generally make
a better start if put in after spring has commenced. Figs and Hazel
nuts may be readily propagated from cuttings of the last season's wood,
from 10 to 15 inches long, preparing and planting them as recommended
for the Grape. Most trees propagate most readily from cuttings of the
previous season's growth, but they may be formed from older wood in
some cases. The Mulberry and Olive wiir strike freely from wood
of various ages, and large branches may be rooted without difficulty.
Though cuttings may be struck when planted out where the trees are
to remain, yet the safer plan is to set them in nursery beds, where the
cultivator can give them the necessary care and attention till they are
rooted. Though in the case of a vineyard this practice will entail a
little more labour, yet the chances of rooting the plants will be much
better. Complaints are often made that cuttings, and more especially
those of the Grape, fail to root freely ; but this is in most cases due to
causes that the grower can control. Sometimes the cuttings are allowed
to get dried too much from exposure before they are planted, when, as
a matter of course, their vigour is impaired. Then, again, they often
perish through the land becoming soddened, or from its getting dried
up. The greatest care should be taken to protect all shoots intended
for cuttings from exposure to atmospheric influences after they are
separated from the parent plants. Much injury is often the result of
this exposure, and as a rule all cuttings, or wood intended for them,
should be wholly or partially covered with moist soil or sand till
required for planting. The rooting of all cuttings will Joe greatly
facilitated by placing a layer of broken charcoal, say about an inch
deep, underneath. Let the charcoal be broken to the size of peas and
under, and let the heels of the cuttings rest upon the top of the layer.
The writer, from a long experience, can confidently recommend this
plan.

1. Ordinary cutting of
the previous season's
wood. Cross line showing
the depth it should be
planted.

2. Cutting with a heel
or small portion of two
year old wood attached.

3. Mallet cutting with
a solid piece of two year
old wood attached.

Eye cutting planted
horizontally.

Eye cutting planted
vertically.

Eye-cuttings. — This is a method of propa-
gation adopted with some fruit-bearing plants,
and more especially the Grape. It is service-
able for increasing choice or scarce varieties
of Grapes quickly, as plants may be obtained
from every bud ; but for ordinary purposes
the method offers no particular advantages.
When this mode of propagation is practised,
plump well-formed buds should be selected,
with about a couple of inches of the wood
below and half-an-inch above the eye at-
tached. These eye-cuttings should be either
planted horizontally in sand or light soil,
about two inches below the surface, pressing
the earth rather firmly about them ; or they
may be placed vertically with the eye a
little below surface level. The best time
for planting is just as growth is commencing
in the spring, and rooting will be facilitated
if the cuttings can be placed in a hotbed,
which will supply a steady bottom heat.

F Eoot-cuttmgs. — Some kinds of fruit trees and shrubs can be readily
propagated, by pieces of the roots, and this mode of increasing stocks
is often serviceable. For the purpose, fleshy pieces of the roots must
be taken from 2 to 4 inches in length, and in early spring these
should be planted about an inch below the surface in sand or light
soil. If placed in a hotbed, with a steady bottom heat, these root-
cuttings will strike more readily than in the open ground. This mode

of propagation is often practised successfully with Cui rants, Goose
berries, and Raspberries.

Grafting.

This is a method most generally adopted in the propagation of fruiL
trees, and more especially those having pips, such as the Apple, Pear,
and Orange. Grafting has been practised from a remote period of the
world's history, and its value was well known to the ancient Greeks and
Komans, according to some of their historians. By grafting, the
cultivator is enabled to establish a particular kind of fruit upon a plant
of another variety. The theory of grafting is based upon the power of
union between the young tissues of the stock or rooted plant and the
scion or branch that is worked upon it. When these parts are in
perfect contact, the ascending sap of the stock passes into the scion, and
this is excited into activity and a perfect union is formed. It must
be understood, however, that the union does not extend over the whole
surfaces of the cut stocks and scions, but only at the points where the
sap exudes between the wood and the inner bark. Consequently,
the success of the operation of grafting depends upon the smoothness of
the cut portions of stock and scion and the accuracy of the joining.
There must be an exact meeting of the inner barks of the two, or
otherwise the union will not be perfected, and the scion will die.
Grafting is confined within certain limits, and can only be usefully
employed between plants that are allied, and which have a similarity in
structure. As a rule, trees cannot be grafted successfully out of the
natural order to which they belong, and the closer the affinity between
stocks and scions the more perfect will the unions be.

The Uses of Grafting — The fruit cultivator obtains advantages in
various ways from the practice of grafting. In the first place, it enables
him to perpetuate particular varieties readily which are slow to
propagate by cuttings or layers, and cannot be raised with certainty
from seed ; secondly, it enables him to work choice but delicate
varieties upon more robust stocks than their own, and consequently to
obtain better returns; thirdly, it allows the cultivator to improve old-
established trees of inferior varieties by working better sorts upon them ;
fourthly, it enables the grower, as in the case of blight-proof Apples,
to utilize particular stocks that are obnoxious to insects or fungi ;
fifthly, grafting enables the grower to obtain dwarf trees, as in the
case of Apples worked upon the Paradise or Doucin, and the Pear upon
Quince stocks ; sixthly, by means of grafting the cultivator can hasten
the bearing of trees and test seedling varieties quickly, which otherwise
would not bear for a number of years.

Modes of Grafting. — There are a great number of ways in which
grafting may be effected, but the same principle applies to each one.
The variety of methods is due mainly to the differences in the sizes and
ages of the stocks, and no practically useful purpose would be served by
describing all the modes of grafting that are practised, as in many cases

there are but slight diflerences,
and in others they aie more fanci-
ful than serviceable. The follow-
ing methods are most generally
practised, and are ample for the
requirements of cultivators : —

Splioe or Whip Grafting is one
of the most simple forms, and can
be practised in cases where the
stock and scion are equal in size.
All that is necessary is to make
a perfectly smooth cut, slanting
upward, in the stock, and a corres-
ponding one downward with the
scion, to make the two fit pre-
cisely ; bind the two firmly to-
gether with a strip of calico or
other material that will answer
the purpose, and cover with
grafting wax or clay to exclude
the air. This is a very sure and
neat way of grafting.

Tongue-grafting resem-
bles very nearly the
method last described,
except that, instead of
the simple" splice or join,
a tongue is made to
hold the stock and scion
together more firmly.
This is an advantage in
some cases. The tongue
is formed by making a
downward slit, from half-
an-inch to an inch deep,
commencing near the top
of the prepared face of
the stock, and' taking out
a thin tongue of wood ;
then make a slit on the
cut face of the scion, to
form a tongue or wedge
to fit into the opening
made in the stock. In r
fixing the parts, make the
inner bark of each meet

Splice or Whip Grafting.
B

(A) The stock. (B) The scion.

(C) Fixed in position.

Tongue-grafting.

exactly at least on one (^) The prepared stock. (5) The prepared scion

side. After the operation

(C) Fixed in position.

is complete the parts must be securely tied and made air-tight by the
use of clay or wax, as recommended for splice-grafting.

Cleft-grafting is a mode commonly practised for large stocks or trees
that have been headed back, and whose branches are too thick for
tongue or splice grafting. It is effected by cutting off the branch
of the stock at a right angle, smoothing it with a sharp knife, and
splitting one or more clefts about 2 inches deep with a mallet and_
chisel. The scion is prepared by sloping the lower portion in the form
of a wedge about an inch and a-half long, taking care to make a smooth
surface and keep the bark perfect on the side that is to be outward,
which should also be a little thicker. The cleft must be then opened
with a chisel and the scion carefully pushed into its place, taking care
that its inner bark tits that of the stock. One, two, or more scions may
be inserted upon the one stock, in accordance with its size and the
purpose of the cultivator.

Cleft Grafting with a Single Scion.

A

f

:h

J

1. The scion inserted
in the stock.

2. Tbe scion with sloping
cut like wedge. {A) Bud at
the shoulder. {B) Section
showing shape of the wedge.

3. The stock cut and
split. {A) Sloping cut.
{B) Horizontal cut. -^ ^

10

Cleft Grafting with a Single Bud.

Cleft Grafting with
Two Buds.

(A) The scion furnished with a single bud (a),
(5) showing cut portions of the scion.

(B) Stock with cleft ready for the scion.

(C) Scion fixed in its place.

{A) The stock.

(-B) Top of stock headed

(C) Cleft in stock.

(D) Scions.

{E) Mode of tying.

Saddle-grafting, — This mode of grafting is largely practised, and is
very popular with many cultivators. It is performed by cutting the top
of the stock so as to form a wedge, splitting the scion in the centre and
paring the inner parts so as to make two tongue-like pieces. These must
be placed astride the stock, secured by tying, and covered with some
grafting composition. This mode affords the largest surface for the
union of stock and scion, and the latter has a firm hold. It is best
adapted for stocks and scions that are equal, or nearly so in size, but
may be applied successfully in other cases.

Shoulder-grafting is performed by cutting a shoulder in both stock
and scion, as shown in the illustration, and making a perfect union.
This method is useful in enabling the operator to get a firm and secure
join.

Notch-grafting is a substitute for cleft-grafting, over which in some
cases it has an advantage. It is effected by taking out a triangular
piece of wood from the head of the stock, instead of splitting a cleft, and
shaping the scion to make a perfect fit. For large branches it is a neat
and effective method, but it is not so quickly done as other modes.

11

Saddle Grafting.

Shoulder Grafting.

1. Prepared stock and scion.

2. Stock and scion fixed.

(A) The scion. (B) The stock.
Stock and scion fixed in their places.*,

Notch Grafting.

1. Prepared stock. 2. Prepared scion. 3. Stock and scion fixed.

12

Crown or Rind Grafting. — This is a method of grafting which is
often practised with old trees. With this method the branches are cut

across as directed for cleft-graft-

Ordinary Crown Grafting.

1. Prepared scion.

2. Stock with scions fixed.

ing, and slits are made on the sides
from the top, so as to penetrate
through the inner bark. The scion
is cut sloping as in whip-grafting,
and the bark of the stock raised
carefully. Then the scion is in-
serted, without bruising, between
the wood and the inner bark.
The edges of the bark of the stock
are then brought close to the scion,
and the graft is bound and waxed
or clayed. An improved method,
now extensively practised by Euro-
pean fruit propagators, differs from
the ordinary system of crown-
grafting in two important points.
In the tirst place, the stocks are cut
obliquely instead of at right angles,
by which means they are better
protected from the weather. Then,

by leaving a tongue on the inner side of the scion, which fits accurately
on to the sloping face of the stock, there will be a correspondingly
larger space in contact, and consequently a better chance of a strong
union.

Improved Crown Grafting.

{A) The stock with top cut obliquely at {B) ; bark raised on one
side of the stock at (C). (D) Bark not raised. {E) Alburnum and (6?)
Lower part of scion to be covered by the lip (C). {I) Strip removed from
lower part of scion. (J) Union completed. Section of the stock shown
by {B), with lip or portion of the bark raised from the wood.

13

Root Grafting.

Soot-grafting. — This is often practised when
ordinary stocks are scarce. Also with Apples,
which must necessarily be worked on blight-
proof stocks that cannot be obtained from
seedlings, as with other fruits. Pieces of the
roots from 3 to 5 inches in length are used, and
these are simply splice or whip grafted. The
union may also be effected by cleft or veneer
grafting.

The stock. (A) The

sloping cut.

(B) The tongue.

The scion. (A) The

sloping cut.

(B) The tongue.

The stock and
scion united.

EooT Grafting With a Tongue.

Cutting of an Apple grafted
with a piece of root, (a)
Piece of root, (h) Cutting
and root united. Black
cross line showing the
depth for planting.

An old root stock
cleft grafted.

u

Side Grafting. — This mode is practised for supplying deficiencies in the
branches of a tree or shrub. In a great many cases, owing to accidents
of various kinds, wood or fruit branches are destroyed, and this mode
of grafting is employed to replace them. Then, again, it enables the
cultivator to place branches where they will be serviceable, but have not
grown naturally. In fact, this mode is well worthy of more attention ;
and more especially in the case of young trees, as it aflfords a good means
for repairing deficiencies in growth. It is effected by inserting the scion
between the bark and alburnum, or into the latter itself, without
heading back the stock. The operation may be performed with a
dormant bud early in the spring, as in ordinary grafting, or when growth
has advanced in the early summer, as with budding. When the scion
is an evergreen it should not be cut from the parent tree till the last
moment, and its leaves must be left. Scions of deciduous trees should
have their leaves removed. There are two modes of side grafting, one
being with a simple branch from four to eight inches long, the lower
part being shaped with a long splice cut. A T slit is made in the stock
and the scion is inserted, as in budding. The second mode is with a
based branch, which is prepared and inserted the same way. After being
fixed in their places the scions must be securely bandaged; and covered
with grafting wax or clay to exclude the air.

Side Grafting.

Grafting with a based branch Side-grafting with a single branch.

15

Veneer Grafting.

Veneer Grafting. — This
method is somewhat similar
to "Side Grafting," and
may be practised either
with dormant buds in the
early spring, or towards the
end of the summer and
autumn. By this method
the scion, with a very
smooth splice cut, is made
to fit the side of the stock
exactly, the bark of the
latter being either removed
altogether or simply raised.
There are several forms
of veneer grafting, but
the'same principle applies
to] all. This mode of
grafting is useful in sup-
plying deficiencies in the
branches of trees and
shrubs.! ._, i

Veneering with Strips.

Terminal Grafting.

(A) The scion, cut with an even double slope (a). (JB) Phe stock, with
cleft in the centre. (B C) The stock and scion in place.

16

Grafting with Fruit Buds.

Terminal Cleft Grafting. — This mode is found useful with the
Walnut, and trees that are coniferous. It should be performed in the
spring when the sap is rising. The top of the stock is split as repre-
sented in the illustration, and the scion with its terminal bud inserted,
or, if necessary, the terminal bud is removed and another leading one is
left.

Graftivg ivitli Fruit Buds. — European fruit growers often adopt the
practice of grafting branches bearing fruit buds upon others that are not
fully supplied. These branches may
be either from one portion to
another of the same tree, or they
may be taken from other plants of the
same family. This method will often
be found useful in practice, as it is
a common thing for some trees to
have a superabundance of fruit buds,
while others have but few. The
operation is performed as in side
grafting.

Season for Grafting. — The proper
time for grafting deciduous trees is
in the latter part of the winter, or
early in the spring, just before active
growth commences. As a matter of
course, the precise time will vary to
some extent according to the climate
and other local conditions. Some
kinds of fruits also begin to make
growth before others, and the earlier
they are the sooner should they be
grafted, as a rule. The Grape, how-
ever, is an exception to this rule, and
generally takes best when grafted
after growth is in full activity.
When grafted earlier the plants
bleed too freely, and a union is less
certain. Oranges and other ever-
greens should be grafted a month or
six weeks later than deciduous trees.
Evergreens may also be grafted suc-
cessfully late in the summer or early
in the autumn, when a fresh growth
of wood usually commences. It has
been found by experience that in the
case of deciduous trees the success
of grafting is more certain when
the growth of the stocks is a little
in advance of the scions, and the
circulation of sap more active. In

Grafting with scions bearing
fruit buds.

Grafting with a fruiting spur.

17

order to secure this advantage^ the cuttings for scions should be removed
from the trees in the winter, and kept in a cool place till they
are required. Straight thrifty shoots of the previous season's growth
must be selected for the purpose, and the scions should each have
three or four buds. It is advisable that scions should be selected only
from healthy vigorous trees, and those from weakly or sickly sources
ought to be rejected, as being likely to inherit the failings of Ihetr
parents. Care should also be taken, as far as may ha practicable, to use
scions from trees that are most perfect in character, as they often vary
considerably in this respect. Scions should not be allowed to suffer
from exposure to the air, and losses often occur through carelessness in
this respect. If the bark is much shrivelled it will be advisable to
discard the wood, as when it gets into that condition the vitality of the
branch is greatly impaired.

Preparing Grafting WaoL.—1n modern practice grafting wax is
extensively used by propagators, as it is a much neater and a more
perfect protection than clay, as generally used formerly. Ordinary
grafting wax is made from beeswax, resin, and tallow in equal propor-
tions. It may be applied directly round the graft, or spread in a melted
state over strips of cloth or paper, which can be wrapped round the
stems. What is known as French grafting wax is of two kinds, one
being made of one part each of pitch and beeswax, and two parts of
cowdung boiled together ; this is applied in a fluid state direct to the
graft. The other kind is composed of equal parts of beeswax, resin and
turpentine, which mixture is spread warm upon slips of cloth or strong
paper, which are wrapped around the graft. Various other grafting
compositions are in use by European cultivators, but all are to a large
extent made of resinous materials. One of the most popular is com-
posed of 28 parts of Burgundy pitch, an equal quantity of black pitch,
beeswax 6 parts, yellow ochre and grease of each 14 parts. These
materials are thoroughly mixed by boiling. When used the composition
is warmed sufficiently to bring it into a liquid state, but not made hot
enough to injure the tissues of the bark when applied.

Preparing Grafting Clay. — This material is obtained by taking two
parts of clay or stiff loam, and one-third cowdung, with a little hair as
used by plasterers. Work the mass well so that the materials are
thoroughly incorporated, and of such a consistency that the clay will be
plastic and easily spread over the grafts.

Inarching or Grafting by Approach.

This is one of the oldest methods of grafting, nature having taught it
to mankind by examples of plants growing near to each other, being
joined together by their branches, stems or roots, through con-
tact. By this practice the stems or branches of two plants may
be united with less risk than by ordinary grafting, as the scion
is attached to its parent plant, and therefore able' to obtain
sustenance from it, till it becomes independent through a union
with the stock. Inarching is also serviceable in enabling the

18

cultivator to make
good deticiencies in
the branches of trees
readily and expediti-
ously. In order to
practise this method,
however, the plants
to be worked must
either be growing
close to each other,
or the one from which
the branch is to be
taken will have to be
portable. European
cultivators, who
largely follow this
practice, grow trees
in pots specially for
the purpose. It is
considered to be an
excellent and sure
way of working ever-
green plants. There
are different ways of
inarching, but, as in
other modes of graft-
ing, whatever plan is
adopted there must
be a smooth and
perfect union be-
tween the bark of
the stock and the
scion. In some cases
the union is effected
by simply paring
smoothly a piece of
the stock and scion,
and fixing them
firmly together, and
in other cases notches
or tongues are made
so that the parts may
be perfectly and
securely fitted. The
joined parts must be
securely bandaged to
keep them firmly in
position till the union
is perfect

Inarching with a Tongue.

t

(A) The scion. (B) The stock. (C) The union.
Inarching by Inlaying.

V

¥

The scion (D) is pared at two sides at (d). The stock
(E) is pared by forming an angular groove at (e)
into which the cut portion of the scion will fit
accurately, as shown at (F).

19

Inarching to fill a Vacant Space in a Grape Vine.

Inarching to increase the size
OF Fruit.

Inarching to increase the
size oj Fruit. — This is not a
common practice, though it is
followed to a limited extent by
European gardeners, in order
to obtain extra fine speci-
mens of fruit. The theory is
that by adopting this practice
a fruit has two sources of
nourishment — viz., from its
parent branch and the one to
which it is united. The
operation is performed by
taking a young shoot and
forming a union with the
stalk of the fruit. The best
time is when the fruit is about
half-grown, and kinds with short stalks are unsuitable.

Budding or Bud Grafting.

This is merely a form of grafting in which buds are used as scions
instead of branches as in other methods. Each bud is an individual
plant in embryo, and is capable of forming a tree under certain con-
ditions. By budding, the cultivator can attain precisely the same objects
as by the ordinary modes of grafting, and it is a method better adapted
for some kinds of trees. Stone fruits are more usually budded than
grafted, as they take more freely. Budding is also largely practised with
the Orange and other evergreens, and is preferable to ordinary grafting. It
may also be successfully practised with all other trees. As with grafting,

20

the operation may be per-
formed in various ways, but
the most general mode is what
is called shield or T budding.
This is effected by making a
straight incision in the bark
of the stock, about an inch
and a-half long, and at the top
a cross-cut, so that the whole
will form a T. The bark is
then raised from the top with
the handle or blade of the
knife for the reception of the
prepared bud. Taking hold
of the footstalk of the leaf the
bud is then gently pushed
down, as far as is necessary,
and the knife withdrawn. The
bark is then brought close and
bandaged with a strip of
worsted or other suitable
material, both above and
below the bud. Buds are
prepared by cutting them with
a sharp knife from the stems,
with a portion of the bark and
a thin piece of the wood at-
tached. Then cut the top of
the bark square, and remove
the inner slip of wood, ex-
cepting a little near the bud.
Care must be taken that
the eye or bud is not in-
jured when the wood is
removed, and if so it should
be rejected. Some propa-
gators prefer to leave a thin
slice of wood in the shield,
and when this plan is
adopted there is less risk
in preparing the buds, and
they do not dry up so
readily. On the other hand,
if there is much wood it is
likely to prevent the bark
of the shield from coming
into perfect contact with
the stock. In preparing
buds, the leaves should be

Shield Budding.

/

1. A stick of buds. 2, Marks showing
where bud should be taken from
branch. 3. Bud as taken from branch,
with slice of wood adhering. 4. Bud
with inner slip of wood removed and
ready for use.

Inserting and Tying the Bud.

1!

i'i

JEPlJi:

ii

i

II

1

1

i

1

t M

i! 1

'.ij

T slit in stock. 2, The bud inserted.
3. The bud tied.

21

cut off, but it will be advisable to leave a portion of the footstalks to
facilitate the insertion of the shields in the stocks. In a few weeks the
buds will have " taken," and this will be known by their beginning to
swell. Then the bandages must be loosened to allow growth to expand.

Inverted T Budding.

In the incision (A) the
bud is inserted from
below upwards.

The bark of the bud (B)
is cut with a point at
(a) to facilitate its
insertion.

The bud fixed in posi-
tion, as shown at (0).

Flute Budding or Grafting.

1. (^) The scion. (B) The
stock. (C) Bark of stock
removed to receive scion.

2. (A) The stock.
(J?) The scion.

Flute-grafting with
strips.

Flute Budding or Grafting. — This mode of propagation is practised to
a limited extent, and is serviceable for particular purposes. It is effected
by removing a cylinder of bark from the scion branch, furnished with one

22

or more buds, and fixing it in a prepared portion of the stock. The scion
shield may be one or moi'e inches in length, leaving the bud about the
centre. As a matter of course, the piece of bark removed from the
stock must be of the same size as the scion shield, as it is essential
that the union should be exact. If the scion shield is larger
than the diameter of the stock, a longitudinal strip of bark, equal in
width to the difference, should be removed. On the other hand, if the
stock is the larger, a portion of its bark must be left, so that there will
be no void. It is not advisable to head the stocks back until the
scions have fairly taken. Flute-budding may be performed in the
spring, when the sap begins to move, and in the autumn. The practice
may be found more especially useful with the Cherry, Fig, Chestnut,
Mulberry and Walnut.

Selecting Buds. — Some care is required in the selection of buds. They
should be invariably taken from thrifty shoots that have nearly com-
pleted their growth, and whose wood has fairly ripened. Over-luxuriant
shoots should be rejected, as likely to form trees deficient in fruitfulness.
Care should also be taken to select buds from trees that are perfect in
character. Imperfect, immature, or fruit buds must be rejected, leaving
only single wood buds for use. The wood bud may generally be known
by being more pointed than the fruit bud, though in some cases they are
both together. It is advisable to keep the buds on the shoots till they
are required for use, and if prepared previously they must be kept moist,
or otherwise they will dry up quickly and be useless. The operation
of budding should be performed on dull or moist days, or in the mornings
and evenings, when the air is cool and still, so as to lessen the risk of
the buds drying. It should also be borne in mind that in budding the
smarter the work is done the better, as quick manipulation is one of
the essentials to success.

Season for Budding. — The proper time for budding is when the bark
of the stock will separate feely from the wood — after the current
season's growth is nearly finished. It is essential that this growth
should be nearly matured, and the buds plump and well developed.
The time for performing the operation will vary to some extent according
to the nature of the trees, locality and season, and the difference will
often be considerable. As a rule, however, the work may be commenced
about midsummer or a little later, and can be continued during January
and February, taking, as a matter of course, the earlier kinds first. It
should be remembered that, in order to successfully carry on this work,
the operator must be provided with a proper budding knife ; this has a
fixed blade at one end and an ivory handle with a thin rounded edge at
the other ; the latter is used for opening the bark, which it does more
perfectly than if a knife blade is used.

Ligatures. — In all modes of budding and grafting a ligature is
required to secure the scions in their places. The tying should be done
as soon as possible after the stock and scion is fixed, as if not done
quickly the action of the air will have an injurious effect upon the bud
or graft. The best ligatures are those that will not contract or expand
to any extent under the influences of changes of weather, but which,

23

at the same time, possesses sufficient elasticity to accommodate them-
selves to the growth of the trees. Woollen thread possess all the
qualities required in a perfect ligature, and is the best material — for
budding, more especially. As a matter of course the stronger the
stocks the firmer should the ligature be. Many plants afford
fairly good material from their leaves and bark for ligatures, and
for economical reasons they will often have to be used. The ligatures
should be allowed to remain in position till the unions betweenj stock
and scion are complete, when they must be loosened.

Securing Graft or Bud Shoots.

Mode of tying up and
securing the graft on
a tall standard.

Mode of tying up several
grafts on the same
stock.

Aspect for Orchards and Vineyards.

In the cooler districts, cultivators will do well in selecting a site for
an orchard or a vineyard to choose one having an aspect between north
and east, when practicable. This aspect gives the full advantage of
the early morning sun, which is advantageous to the trees, and lessens
the risks from spring frosts. Care in this respect is more particularly
required for the more tender trees, such as Oranges and Lemons. As a
matter of course, trees may be grown successfully with other aspects.

24

but when possible the writer would advise the one he recommends. In
many case?, however, the cultivator has but little or no choice, and has
to adapt himself to fixed local conditions. Aspect in the warmer
districts is of less importance, and fortunately so, as in these localities
the ground is frequently too level to afibrd much choice.

Soils and their Treatment.

In the selection of soils, the cultivator is often limited, and he has to
utilise such as he has to the best advantage. Fruit trees are more
cosmopolitan in the matter of soils than is generally supposed, and
each kind will adapt itself to a comparatively wide range. Some soils
are, however, better suited for particular kinds of trees than others,
and these peculiarities should be utilised by the cultivator as far as
practicable. 'J hen, again, the cultivator has it in his power to modify
the character of the soil to suit special requirements by the introduction
of other materials. Something may also be done to modify its natural
character by working, draining and the use of manures.

Classes of Soils. — There are considerable variations in soils, which are
broadly divided into several classes, and, as a matter of course, there is
every intermediate form.

Clay Soils are those that contain over 50 per cent, of pure clay. They
are characterised by heaviness, stiffness in working, and impenetrability
to the admission of air and water. A very heavy clay soil is not well
adapted for fruit culture, though it may be modified to some extent by
thorough working and perfect drainage.

Clayey Loamy Soils are those containing a large proportion of clay,
but from 20 to 30 per cent, of sand. This soil, when well worked and
effectively drained, is well adapted for many fruits.

Loamy Soils are intermediate between pure clay and sand, and
may contain from 40 to 60 per cent, of either. Soils of this class are,
as a rule, well suited for most kinds of fruits, and are worked without
difficulty.

Sandy Loamy Soils are those containing 60 per cent and over of sand.
This class of soils is among the best the fruit-grower can find, as most
kinds will thrive in them, and they can be worked with facility.

Sandy Soils are such as contain 70 per cent, and over of sand. These
soils, unless they contain a large amount of vegetable matter, or are
improved by the use of clay, marl, or manure, are not well suited for
fruit culture.

Calcareous Soils. — These are such as contain over 20 per cent, of
lime, and are well suited for most fruits, especially the Grape.

Marly Soils. — These contain lime in the proportion of from 5 to 20
per cent., and are excellent for fruit culture. Marly and calcareous soils
are often used with advantage to improve other kinds of land, owing to
the liire and phosphoric acid that they contain.

Volcanic Soils. — This term is applied to those soils which have been
directly formed by volcanic action. These are to be found in several

25

parts of Australia, and are mostly rich deep chocolate land, well adapted
for the growth of Potatoes and many other farm crops. Raspberries,
Strawberries, Peaches, and a few other fruits seem to do well upon these
soils, but experience has proved that they are not so well suited for the
Apple, Pear, and various other kinds as the clayey and sandy loams.
Though the trees grow freely for the first few years, yet they give but
poor returns as compared with those obtained from other classes of soik*. _

Alluvial Soils. — These are formed along the courses of rivers and
creeks by the action of water, which has brought down and deposited
materials from higher land. Soils of this class are generally very deep
and fertile, as they contain a large proportion of vegetable matter.
They are, however, less adapted for fruit trees than many other soils, as^
lying low, they are usually more subject to sharp frosts and cold fogs
when the crops are forming. The trees have also a tendency to make
an over-luxuriant growth of wood at the expense of their fruit-bearing
powers.

Vegetable Soils. — This class is those soils that contain 5 per cent, or
upwards of vegetable matter, and they may be embraced by any of the
classes previously mentioned. A proportion of decayed vegetable
matter up to about 15 per cent, will materially assist in making any soil
fertile.

Peaty Soils. — These contain vegetable matter or humus, in excess,
sometimes to the extent of 60 or 70 per cent. As a rule, they are not
well adapted for fruit culture, except for Cranberries, unless they are
improved by the use of lime and other materials.

Sub-soils. — The sub-soil is of equal importance to the cultivator as
the soil, though this fact is too often ignored in planting orchards or
vineyards. It must be remembered that the drainage of the soil is
regulated to a large extent by the physical condition of the sub-soil.
Sometimes the soil and sub-soil are similar in character, but more
generally they differ materially in their natures. An open free sub-soil,
either sandy, gravelly, or limestone, gives the advantage of good natural
drainage, and will, to a large extent, save the cultivator the expense of
providing for it artificially. These sub-soils also make the work of
preparing the land easier, as there is not the same necessity for deep
stirring as in heavy ground. Sometimes sub-soils are too open, as is
often the case in limestone country, and as a consequence tbe land dries
up too quickly. Heavy clay sub-soils, on the other hand, require
artificial drainage, or otherwise they will often be too wet, when the trees
must necessarily suffer. Then again, if the surface soil is too compact
in texture to permit the air to penetrate to the subsoil, the latter
becomes sour, and to some extent poisonous to vegetation. Through the
imperfect decay of vegetable matter, unwholesome acids are generated,
which may have injurious effects for a long time. This will account for
the unsatisfactory results that so often occur, when a bad sub-soil is
brought to the surface in trenching land.

26
Draining.

The draining of land for orchards and vineyards is too often ignored
in the Australasian colonies, and this neglect is productive of serious
evils. A good many people seem to be under the impression that
because the rainfall is very uncertain in this part of the world, and we
are subject to prolonged and severe droughts, that the longer the land
will hold the water the better. This, however, is a wrong conclusion,
as well drained land actually retains moisture for a longer period than
when undrained. At the same time, it has a more even temperature,
being higher in the winter than undrained land, which is an advantage
to trees. There is also less danger from late spring frosts when land
is relatively dry and warm, as compared with cold wet ground.
The main objects to be attained by draining are : —

1st. To provide a quick outlet for surplus water that would otherwise
remain in the land for a long period.

2nd. To allow the rainfall to pass through the soil more freely,
carrying with it valuable fertilizing matter, by preventing water from
stagnating in the sub-soil.

3rd. To allow the air to pass into the sub-soil more freely, to act upon
the plant food, and make it available for use.

Water stagnating in a soil or sub-soil makes the land cold, sour, and
wholly or partially unworkable for a time. Then again, an excess of
water causes the exclusion of air, and without a good supply of that
element the plant food will not become soluble. It must also be
remembered that the small roots of plants often suffer severely when
growing in ground that is in a soddened state for long periods. Then
again, when the rainfall can pass through the soil freely, the land gets
the benefit of the ammonia, carbonic and nitric acids that it contains,
and these are valuable materials.

Modes of Draining. — Necessarily the system adopted in draining land
must vary according to the local conditions, and the means at the
command of the cultivator. Pipe drains are decidedly the most effective
and durable, and where the materials can be obtained they are the best.
But in many localities pipes will be too costly, and other materials must
be used, such as can be readily obtained. Stones broken to the size of
two or three inches make very good drains, and will remain effective for
years. These drains should have a layer of sods, with the grassy side
downwards, placed above the stones. Slabs make excellent drains, as
do also saplings and small branches of trees when covered with sods.
In laying drains, care should be taken that they are deep enough to be
well below the reach of cultivating implements. It is also advisable
that the drains should be a little below the depth to which the land has
been worked, so that they may draw the water freely. As to the
distances apart for drains, much will depend upon the nature of
the ground, its conformation, and other local conditions. Stiff soils,
as a rule, will want drains closer to each other than ground of a more
open texture. Then again, land that is nearly level will require drains,
to be a less distance apart than in the case of sloping ground. The

27

drains should also be so arranged as to catch the soakage in the easiest
way. It is also advisable, as far as may be practicable, to lay the
drains in such a way that they will be in the centres, between the rows
of trees.

DEAIN PIPES.

Pipes required to drain an acre of land at various widths of trenches.

Drains apart.

Feet required.

Drains apart.

Feet Required.

Ft. in.

Ft. in.

3 0

14,520

22 6

1,936

4 0

10,990

24 0

1,815

4 6

9,680

25 9

1,708

6 0

7,260

27 0

1,613

7 0

6,223

28 6

1,529

8 0

5,445

30 0

1,452

9 0

4,840

31 6

1,383

10 0

4,356

33 0

1,320

12 0

3,630

36 0

1,210

13 6

3,227

39 0

1,117

15 0

2,804

42 0

1,037

16 6

2,640

45 0

968

18 0

2,420

48 0

908

19 6

2,234

50 0

871

21 0

2,074

Preparation of the Land.

Ground for trees and vines, as also the smaller fruits, should be
carefully prepared, so that the plants may be placed under the
best possible conditions for making strong and healthy growth. A
good root-bed is required in the first place to provide the materials
for feeding the plants, and secondly, to enable the trees to get a
firm hold of the soil. Deep stirring of the soil, and loosening the
sub-soil, is the most perfect mode of preparation, as this treatment, by
allowing air to penetrate freely, assists in making the mineral plant food
soluble, gives the widest field from which the roots can obtain nourish-
ment, and allows them to get a firm hold of the ground. Heavy soils,
more especially, require deep cultivation, as otherwise they will, as
a rule, be too compact and wet. Lighter soils, and more particularly
those resting upon open, gravelly, or limestone sub-soils, may from
motives of economy be treated in a more superficial manner, but even
this class of land will, as a rule, give better results if deeply worked.

Selection of Kinds and Varieties.

It is a matter of some importance to cultivators in planting fruit
trees or vines, that they should select kinds and varieties that are likely

c

28

to give the most satisfactory results. There are various matters
deserving of the most careful consideration, in order to avoid serious
mistakes, and consequently unsatisfactory results. The first consideration
should be to plant such kinds of fruit as are best adapted for the
particular locality. Some kinds are more cosmopolitan in their
requirements than others, and will adapt themselves to a comparatively
wide range of climate and soil. Many of these, however, though they
may be cultivated under various conditions, will thrive better, and give
more satisfactory returns in some places than others. Cultivators will
do well, therefore, to give a preference to such kinds of fruit as their
localities are specially adapted for. This object should more particularly
be kept in view by cultivators for market, whose object is to get as good
returns as possible. Jn the warmer regions of Victoria, New South
Wales, South Australia, Western Australia, and in many parts of
Queensland, the fruits that should receive special attention are the
Grape, Peach, Apricot, Fig, Orange, and Lemon. All these fruits
reach the highest degree of perfection in the warmer districts, as the
strong heat and light at the ripening period develops their flavours to
the fullest perfection. Though the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, and
other fruits, that naturally belong to cooler regions, may be grown with
a fair amount of success in the moderately warm districts, yet better
results will be obtained from other localities. These fruits, when grown
in the cooler portions of the Australasian colonies, will generally be
higher in quality, and keep better than if raised in the warmer regions.
Then again, the trees are not likely to prove so durable in warm as in
cooler regions, as. their constitutions become weakened more rapidly.

I For the colder parts of Australasia the Apple, Plum, Cherry, and Pear
should receive special attention, as also the Currant, Gooseberry,
Kaspberry, and Strawberry as the fruits that will give the best returns.
The Banana, Pine Apple, Bread Fruit, Mango, Mangosteen, and other
tropical fruits are only suitable for the warmer regions of Queensland,
Northern River districts of New South Wales, and other tropical or
semi-tropical localities in Australia. These fruits all require a very
strong heat to bring them to perfection. In some districts, however,
there is a sort of intermediate climate, between the warmer and cooler
regions, and in those localities planters may indulge in a wider range of
fruits with success. Special care should be taken in planting to select
varieties of each kind that are best adapted for the particular require-
ments of the grower, who should decide as to the way in which his fruit
will be utilized before starting. If his object is to supply fresh fruit to
the market, he must, as a rule, have varieties that will yield in
succession, and those that will keep well, so that he can meet the
demand for a long period. In some localities early varieties will pay
well, but in the later districts they will often prove unprofitable, as they
will be anticipated by supplies from the warmer parts of the colony.
If the object is to grow for an export trade, such fruits as Apples and
Pears only late and long keeping varieties should be planted. It is also
advisable in the case of all dessert fruits that they should be
good-looking varieties, as well as possessing other desirable qualities.

29

Good-looking Apples, Pears, Peaches, and other fruits will always find
a more ready market than varieties that are less attractive in appear-
ance. In growing for culinary purposes, cultivators should be careful
to get the most suitable varieties, as some are greatly superior to others.
For canning and drying special qualities are also essential, and as a rule
the finest dessert varieties are quite unsuitable for these purposes. In
planting Grapes for wine, the grower should take particular care~to
select varieties that are likely to yield satisfactory results, as some are
much better adapted to particular localities than others. The writer
also specially advises cultivators, no matter what their purposes may be,
not to plant many varieties of any kind of fruit. This is a mistake that
many have made to their detriment. More satisfaction will be obtained
from ten or even fewer varieties of Apples or Pears than a hundred,
and the same remark will apply to all other fruits. Whether for dessert,
culinary purposes, drying, canning, or wine-making, the grower will be
in a better position if he has large quantities of a few kinds rather than
small lota of many varieties. If a grower has say a ton of any particular
variety, he will be more likely to find a ready and good market for it
than he would for the same bulk made up with twenty different sorts.
"With tender-fleshed fruits, such as Peaches, Cherries, Plums, Grapes,
Strawberries, &c., cultivators must also take into consideration the
suitability of particular varieties for packing and carrying, as some are
much better adapted to these purposes than others.

Planting.

Season for Planting. — There is some difference of opinion among
cultivators as to the most favourable times for planting, and too many
are content to follow the practice of others without giving the subject
much consideration. Many suppose that if the trees are planted at any
time between the autumn and early spring that is all that is necessary.
Others favour planting early in the winter, and some prefer to wait till
the spring is close at hand. According to the experience of the writer,
the most favourable time for planting deciduous trees is towards the end
of the winter. When planted earlier, and more especially in the months
of June and July, when the soil is cold and wet, the trees often suffer
materially from their inactive roots being soddened. They have to
remain in this condition for some time before their roots are fully active,
and if they have escaped injury they have made no headway, and might
just as well have remained in the nursery beds. On the other hand, if
planted later in the season root action commences at once, and the trees
quickly recover from the shock caused by removal. Late planted trees
will necessarily be just as far advanced as those put in early in the
winter, and there will be less risk of their being injured. Oranges,
Lemons, and other evergreens should, when practicable, be transplanted
late in the summer, or very early in the autumn. The ground is then
warm, root action commences at once, and the plants get fairly estab-
lished before the cold weather sets in. It must be remembered,

30

however, that plants cannot be safely shifted with a soft woody growth
upon them, as is often the case in the autumn. "When suitable plants
cannot be obtained in the autumn, it will be advisable to delay the
planting of evergreens till late in the spring, or even the beginning of
summer, and on no account should it be done during the dead winter
months. Many young trees perish through being planted at an unsuitable
time of the year. The very best time for planting evergreens is just
after midsummer, if the necessary care in shading and watering can be
given. At this season of the year they are nearly stationary, though
soon afterwards active growth commences. This the plants would have
the advantage of, and be able to get thoroughly established before the
winter sets in.

System of Planting. — Orchards and vineyards should be invariably
planted in straight lines, so as to enable the ground to be worked in the
most convenient manner. They should be either planted in squares, or
in the Quincunx style, which allows the ground to be worked in three
directions. As a rule, it will be advisable to plant each kind of fruit,
or even varieties, by themselves, to facilitate treatment. This is more
especially essential with irrigation, as one kind may require watering
when another does not. In order to economise space, some growers
plant intermediate trees, and this is a very good plan provided it is
not allowed to interfere with the growth of the permanent plants.
These temporary trees will often give good returns, and have also a
beneficial effect by acting as nurses to the permanent ones. It is a
common practice in Europe to plant dwarf trees or bushes between the
larger trees, and this plan may often be adopted with advantage in this
part of the world.

Mixed Planting.

^QO OeO 06« o« OO

• •

\ t

t

O Permanent Trees. x Temporary Trees. o Bushes.

31
Quincunx Planting.

^ # # # a ^ a

Care in Lifting^ Packing, and Planting, — ^Trees are too commonly
taken up in such a way that their roots are seriously injured, and
though in removing them from the nursery beds the plants must
necessarily suffer to some extent, yet care will reduce the injury to a
minimum. Every care should be taken in lifting the trees to preserve
as many of the roots as possible, and more especially the small and
delicate fibres. The more there are broken and bruised the greater will
be the loss to the trees, as they are all required to assist growth. If
trees could be lifted with every fibre intact, as may be done with a
plant turned out of a pot, it would be an advantage. This, however,
is impossible, but the closer we can approach this state of affairs the
better. When the trees are taken up, the roots should not be exposed
to the atmosphere more than can be helped. Too frequently trees are
left exposed for long periods, and consequently they are seriously injured.
Deciduous trees will stand a little more neglect in this respect than
others, but exposure is hurtful, and should be avoided. Evergreens, and
more especially the Citrus family, will be seriously injured if their roots
are exposed only for a very short period to a dry atmosphere. Exposure
of the roots for a few minutes to a harsh drying wind will, in most cases,
cause the leaves to wither and fall, and the loss of foliage is a serious
drawback to the plant, and may prove fatal. Every care should, then,
be taken in handling and packing that the roots are covered from the
time the plants are lifted till they are fixed in their places. In planting
all kinds of fruit trees and Grape vines, care should be taken to allow
ample room for development, or otherwise they cannot become thrifty,
large, and long-lived plants. Particular directions upon this point will
be found in the articles dealing specially with each kind of fruit. Care
should also be taken not to plant too deeply, a mistake that is very often

32

made Many of the losses that occur with young trees may be credited
to over-deep planting. Trees should be planted but a very little deeper
than they were in the nursery beds, the upper roots being merely below
the surface. The roots should be carefully spread out in every direction,
to enable the young trees to get a firm hold of the ground on each side,
and to obtain the widest area for getting nourishment. Before planting
it will be advisable to carefully remove any broken . or bruised roots ;
these, if allowed to remain, cannot in their mutilated condition assist in
supplying the plant with nourishment, though they may rot off and
affect the sound roots. Trees will often require to have their tops
reduced or ** headed back" at the planting time, so that the roots and
branches may fairly balance. As a rule, the greater the quantity of
roots they have lost by removal, the more should the heads be cut back.
On the other hand, if there has been only a slight loss of roots, the
heads may be left fuller.

Bad and Good Planting.

Eoots arranged properly.

>'^ -^

3 3 :S S

Eoots badly arranged.

33

(a) Planted too deep. (b) Planted properly.

Table showing the number of trees required to plant an acre of land
at distances from 30 to 10 feet apart

Distance.

Number
per Acre.

Distance.

Number
per Acre.

Feet.

Number.

Feet.

Number.

30

48

17

150

28

55

16

169

26

64

15

193

24

75

14

222

22

90

13

257

20

100

12

302

19

120

11

360.

18

134

10

435

The Use of Manure.

Soils cannot remain fertile unless they contain all the materials that
are necessary for the support of the plants. And not only is the
presence of these materials necessary, but they must be in soluble forms,
so that they can be absorbed by the roots of the plants. A soil may
contain lime, potash, phosphoric acid, and other mineral materials in
abundance, yet it will be wholly or partially barren if these substances
are in an insoluble condition. For this reason cultivators must not
depend too much upon soil analyses to show them what their land can
produce. These tests are all very well in their way, and no doubt they
will afford information that may be usefully applied, but it must be
remembered that the agricultural chemist merely ascertains the pro-
portion of minerals held by the soil, whether they are immediately
available for plant food or not. These minerals must be rendered soluble
by certain decomposing forces, to enable them to be absorbed by the
small rootlets of the plants. Water and air are the chief factors in
making the soil materials soluble, and, therefore, the land should be
placed under such conditions as will allow these elements free action.
This will in a large measure be eff"ected by working the ground
thoroughly and providing for perfect drainage.

Fruit trees and shrubs, like other plants, must be able to obtain the

34

necessary amount of food from the soil, otherwise they cannot perform
their functions properly. These trees are, when bearing, very exhaustive
to the soil, as they are always abstracting from it materials in the same
proportions. In the case of an ordinary farm or garden crop, by
changing the plants, as some absorb different materials to others, the
drain can be more equalized. There may be naturally a large amount
of plant food in the soil, which the trees may draw upon for a consider-
able time, but sooner or later the land must become exhausted more or
less, without assistance from the cultivator. A great many trees fail pre-
maturely through the lack of proper nourishment. Sometimes they will
grow to some extent, but fail to produce crops, through some deficiency
in the soil. The dropping of the blossom without setting, or the young
fruit after it has set, is, in many cases, the result of the lack of proper
food for the trees. Old fruit trees will often require a dressing of manure
to keep them in a thrifty condition ; without this assistance they cannot
possibly give satisfactory returns to the cultivator when the land has
become more or less exhausted. The condition of these trees and the
returns they give should be a sufficient guide to cultivators as to when
manure is required. If growth is not satisfactory, and the trees have
been treated well in other respects, it is certain that the plant requires
some kind of food. It must also be borne in mind that the food
requirements of trees are many, as various substances are necessary to
insure perfect growth. Among these substances are several minerals,
such as lime, potash, silica, phosphoric acid, magnesia, and others, all of
which are essential to the growth of the trees. Sometimes a soil may
fail through one or more of these minerals being absent, while others
are there in abundance, as the minimum governs the whole. Soils
naturally contain often but small proportions of some of these essential
minerals, and, as a consequence, they soon become infertile.

The following table shows how essential minerals are removed from
the soil by fruit crops : —

Some Analyses of 100 Parts of Fruit-ashes.

Sbtimated

Phos-

Sul-

amount of

____

Potash.

Soda.

Lime.

Mag.

Iron

phoric

phuric

Silica.

Chlo

Mineral Matter

ne.ia.

Cxide.

Acid.

Acid.

rine.

removed from
an Acre of boil
by a fair Crop.

Almond...

27-95

0-23

8-81

17-60

0-55

43-63

0-37

98 lbs.

Orange ...

38-72

7-64

22-99

6-55

0-92

14-99

2-95

5-24

...

120 lbs.

Strawberry

21-07

28-48

14-21

5-89

13-82

315

12-05

1-69

68 lbs.

Olive ...

6007

...

15-72

4-38

1-19

8-35

1-19

5-58

4-55

91 lbs.

Apple ...

35-68

26-09

4-08

8-75

1-40

13-59

609

4-32

...

54 lbs.

Pear ...

54-69

8-52

7-98

5-22

1-04

15-20

5-69

1-49

...

82 lbs.

Grape ...

63-21

0-40

9-07

5-04

0-07

10-43

5-62

5-11

1-02

72 to 168 lbs

Plum ...

59-21

0-54

10-04

5-46

3-20

1.5-10

3-83

2-36

...

80 lbs.

Cherry ...

51-85

219

7-47

5-46

1-98

15-97

5-09

904

1-35

86 lbs.

Fig ...

28-36

26-27

18-91

9-21

1-46

1-30

6-75

5-93

2-69

64 lbs.

Quince ...

27-39

4-40

7-79

13-11

1-19

42-32

2-68

0-75

1-57

40 lbs.

Lemon ...

34-00

4-37

12-90

8-66

0-25

34-85

3-35

0-35

1-45

100 lbs.

Gooseberry

38-65

9-92

12-20

5-85

4-36

19-68

5-89

2-58

...

...

Chestnut

39-36

21-73

7-84

7-84

1-03

8-25

3-88

2-32

...

35

General Manures. — These are such as, owing to their complex com-
position, contain all the varied substances that have been removed from
the land by crops or the grazing of animals. The only one, however,
that fully deserves the title of general fertilizer is farm-yard or stable
manure. This fertilizer consists of a mixture of the liquid and solid
excreta of animals with straw that has been used for litter. As a
matter of course, this material will vary to some extent in composition
and value, according to the nature of the animal^ the food it has been
fed upon, and the proportion of straw it contains, but all the essential
matter for plant food will be there more or less. A compost formed of
a mixture of vegetable and animal substances makes a fertilizer only
second in value to farm-yard manure. In addition to their direct value
as fertilizers, general manures have a physical and chemical effect on
soils which should not be overlooked. The decomposition of the
vegetable and animal substances produces carbonic acid in large quan-
tities, which acts upon other materials in the soil and sets them free for
the use of plants. These manures also have a useful mechanical action
upon soils, by making them more open, and favouring the admission of
air.

Special Manures. — These may contain one, two, or more of the
essential constituents of plant food, but not all. They are a useful
class, and may often be used with great advantage to supply the soil
specially with some material which it lacks. Though these deficiencies
may be made good by general manures, yet they can often be more readily
and economically supplied by special fertilizers. The principal of the
special manures required in fruit culture are lime, bone-dust, potash,
soda, magnesia, phosphoric acid, and silica. But before using these
materials, the cultivator must know exactly what his soil requires,
otherwise he may do more harm than good. Though special manures
are effective and economical when properly used, yet it will be a waste
if they are not required. It is not well to supply lime to land that is
already rich in that material, or potash to soil that contains plenty of
that mineral, and so on. First ascertain the soil deficiencies, and then
these fertilizers may be utilised to advantage, but not otherwise. As
will be seen by an examination of the table showing the essential
mineral matter removed from land by various crops, that fruits vary
considerably in their requirements. Some kinds, such as the Grape,
Olive, Plum, Peach, Pear, Apricot, and Cherry, take up potash in very
large quantities. This is why these fruits often thrive to perfection in
volcanic soils. An ample supply of potash is, therefore, a primary
requirement with all these fruits. The Orange, Lemon, Fig, Olive, and
Plum require lime in large proportions, and this material is abundant in
many soils. Phosphoric acid is required in very large proportions by
the Almond, Quince, and Lemon, and also to a considerable though a
lesser extent by the Plum, Pear, Cherry, Orange, Strawberry, and
Apple.

The principal artificial manures that may be used with advantage in
fruit culture are as follows : —

Lime. — This material is required to some extent by all fruits, and is

36

generally to be found more or less in most soils. Yery often, however,
the land does not contain a sufficiency, and then a dressing will be
beneficial. For soils rich in vegetable matter lime is useful in
neutralising the acids that form, and it helps to make the alkalies,
potash and soda, soluble, and the land more open and friable. The
best mode of applying lime is by annual surface dressings of from seven
to ten hundred weight per acre. Lime can also be snppliiijd to the land
in the form of marl, gypsum, bone dust and superphosphate.

Potash. — In a good many soils this material is deficient, but it is
generally abundant in volcanic soils. It may be supplied economically to
the land in the form of wood ashes, which has also a useful mechanical
action upon the soil. In more concentrated forms this manure can be
supplied by chloride of potash, nitrate of potash and sulphate of potash,
but these materials at present are somewhat too costly for general use.

Kainite. — This valuable potash manure merits special attention, as in
Europe it is found to be cheap and effective. It is found in natural
deposits in Germany, and its use is extending rapidly. Kainite is not
only rich in potash, but also magnesia, and it contains about 25 per cent.
of common salt.

Nitrate of Potash — This is known commonly as nitre or saltpetre, and
in addition to potash yields nitrogen in large proportions.

Nitrate of Soda. — In Europe this fertilizer has become very popular
of late years, and large quantities are used. It is found in the rainless
regions of Chili and other South American countries. This material
contains nitrogen to the extent of about 17 per cent,, and is a good
stimulating manure for fruit trees. Apply in two dressings, one when
growth is starting, and the other when the fruit is half grown.

Sulj)hate of Ammonia. — This valuable fertilizer is obtained from a
bye product in the manufacture of coal gas. Jt contains from 20 to 25
per cent, of ammonia. When used singly it should be applied in two
dressings of half a hundredweight per acre in the early spring, and when
the fruit is about half grown. It is applied most effectively when mixed
with three times its weight of bone-dust or superphosphate.

Bone dust — The fertilizing value of bones is well known to all culti-
vators, and they make one of the best manures for fruit trees. Bones
contain a large amount of phosphoric acid, one of the principal
requirements of plants, in the form of phosphate of lime and other
useful substances, such as nitrogen and ammonia. Bones may be applied
when simply broken into small pieces, and in this form they make an
orchard fertiliser that will last for a long period. But bones are
generally reduced to the form of dust, or meal, when, of course, the
action of a given quantity is quicker, but less durable. The action of
bones as a manure will also be increased by rotting them previous to
applying the material to the land. This is effected by placing the bones
in heaps, moistening them with water, urine, etc., and covering them
with ejarth. Bone-dust may be applied in annual dressings of four or
five hundredw^eight per acre. The best time to use it is in the autumn
or early winter.

Superphosphate of Lime. — This is a valuable fertilizer, and a main

37

source of lime and pbosphoric acid. It is formed by the action of
sulphuric acid on bones and various mineral phosphates. Superphos-
phate is tho base of various fertilizers that are sold for special purposes.
A dressing of three or four hundredweight per acre will be useful in
orchards that require lime and phosphoric acid. It should be applied
annually, and early in spring is the best time to use it. Superphosphate^
may be applied freely to most soils with advantage. In chalk, or lime
soils, however, there is a risk of the soluble phosphate being rendered
insoluble, and therefore useless.

Sulphate of Iron. — Most soils contain iron in sufficient quantities for
the requirements of plants, but very often this material is not in a
sufficiently soluble state, and, therefore, not available. The deficiency
may be made good in the shape of sulphate of iron applied in the spring
after rain, at the rate of 60 lbs. per acre.

Guano. — The value of guano depends upon the proportion of ammonia
and phosphates contained in the material. These vary considerably, from
a high percentage, as in Peruvian, to a comparatively small amount in
some kinds from other parts of the world. Guano is somewhat too
forcing for fruits, though it may be used with advantage sometimes, and
more especially for strawberries. It should be used when growth is
active, at the !ate of about three hundredweight per acre of Peruvian,
and of other kinds larger proportions in accordance with quality.

Wood Ashes. — This is a very useful material, and a good source from
which potash is economically obtained. It has also a useful mechanical
action on heavy soils.

Gypsum (Sulphate of Lime). — This material occurs naturally in many
parts of Australia, and where it can be got cheaply may be turned to
good account as a fertilizer. It is not required in soils that are freely
supplied with lime, but is a good dressing for heavy clay, alluvial, or
peaty land. Fruit trees and vines will often derive great benefit from
this material, which should be applied annually at the rate of about
half-a-ton per acre.

Salt (Chloride of Sodium). — This material may be used to a moderate
extent in land that is deficient in saline matter, and will also prove
useful in helping to keep down slugs and other pests.

Soda is a special requirement for the Strawberry, Apple and Fig, and
to an important though lesser extent bv the Pear, Orange, Lemon and
Quince. It may be applied in the form of nitrate of soda.

Compound Fertilizers. — By mixing special fertilizers, according to the
particular requirements of the different fruits, cultivators are enabled
to manure their orchards to the best advantage. As a matter of course
the proportions must vary, but the particular material that will supply
the leading want must be dominant.

To Ascertain the Special Requirements of the Land. — This is not
alwaj^s an easy matter for the cultivator, and even if he can aflord the
cost of an analysis, the report of the chemist, as explained before, is not
altogether reliable. To a fairly satisfactory extent, however, the desired
information may be gained by trials of crops between the trees. Rye
absorbs potash and phosphoric acid in large quantities. Potatoes must

38

have potash and magnesia ; oats and wheat, phosphoric acid, nitrogen,
and lime ; peas, potash and phosphoric acid. If any of these crops fail,
wholly or partially, from lack of nourishment, it will enable the culti-
vator to have a pretty good idea as to what fertilizers are required.

The annexed table will give an idea as to the value of some of the
manures that are most generally used. Their composition, however, will
necessarily vary frequently owing to local conditions. Animal excreta
will vary according to the nature of the food consumed, and the value of
stable manure will also in a measure depend upon the nature of the
straw or other material used as bedding.

TABLE SHOWING THE CONSTITUENTS OF

VARIOUS MANURES.

Febulizinq Matekials : 1000 or 100

1

.

•2

o .

3

V

■§

i

liBS., Contain—

s

1

.2
a

1

4

2l

-» eg

ja

«
*§

i

1

s
.q

B

*'6

O

<

o

^

cc

^^

S

0^

OQ

s

o

1000 lbs.—

lbs.

lbs.

iba

lbs.

lbs.

lbs.

ib7

lbs.

lbs.

lbB.|

lbs.

IbT

Stable Manure, fresh

710

246

44-1

55

62

1-5

67

1-4

21

1-2

12-5

1-5

„ moderately rotted ...

750

192

580

60

63

1-9

70

1-8

26

16

16-8

1-9

„ tboroDgbly rotted ...

790

145

650

5-8

50

1-3

88

18

30

13

170

1-6

Dnngheap Liquor ...

980

7

10 7

15

49

1-0

03

0-4

01

07

02

1-2

Faeces, fresh ...

772

198

299

10-0

25

1-6

62

36

10-9

08

1-9

0-4

Urine (humau), fresh...

963

24

13 5

50

20

4-6

0-2

0-2

1-7

04

-

5-6

Nightsoil, fresh

935

51

16-0

70

21

38

09

06

26

0-5

02

40

COMMEBCIAL FeRTILIZEKS (100 IbS.)—

Peruvian Guano

14-8

51-4

358

13 0

23

1-4

110

12

13 0

lO; 1-7

13

Dried Blood

140

79 0

70

117

0-7

0-6

07

01

10

0-4

21

0-4

Phosphates (100 lbs.)—

Bone Meal, average ...

60

31-3

607

3-8

02

03

31-3

10

232

01

3-5

0-3

„ solid parts

5-0

315

63 5

35

01

02

33 0

1-0

252

01

30

02

„ porus ...

70

373

557

40

0-2

03

290

10

200

01

3-5

0-2

Bone Ash

60

30

91-0

0-3

0-6

460

12

35-4

0-4

65

Superphosphate s—

Bectified Peruvian Guano ...

160

41-9

421

10-5

20

1-2

95

10

10 5

150

1-5

11

Bone Meal, superphosphated

130

238

632

26

01

1-2

22-4

0-7

16-6

19-5

2-5

0-2

Miscellaneous—

Sulphate of Ammonia

40

—

—

200

—

—

05

—

—

58-0

30

1-4

Nitrate of Soda

26

15 5

350

02

—

0-7

1-5

1-7

Ashes, Evergreen Trees
„ Deciduous Trees

50

50

900

60

20

350

6-0

4-5

1-6

18 0

03

50

50

900

100

2-5

300

5-0

65

1-6

18-0

03

Anthracite Coal

50

5-0

900

—

01

01

?

3-0

oa

5-0

?

How and when Manures should he used. — In the case of young trees,
when it is necessary to use manure, the material should be thoroughly
incorporated with the soil to beyond the radius to which the roots are
likely to extend the first season. It is not always necessary to give
manure to young fruit trees, but when the soil is of poor quality it may
be used with advantage. As regards older trees, the writer has found
by experience that the best way of applying manure is by surface
dressing as far, or a little farther, than the roots extend. The material
should either be left upon the surface, or very lightly pointed in with
the spade or other implement, taking care not to injure the roots more
than can be avoided. Care must be taken not to give heavier dressings
than are necessary, a mistake that is too often made. Cultivators should
bear in mind that trees require a constant and moderate supply of food,
rather than heavy dressings of manure at long intervals. It is not

39

desirable that the trees should be forced into abnormal growth for a
time by an excess of plant food, and then remain in an almost stationary
condition for a period. This state of aflfairs is injurious to the constitu-
tions of trees, and is possibly the cause of disease very often. The aim
of the cultivator should be to encourage moderate and regular growth,
in preference to that which is irregular. An annual and moderate
dressing of manure will therefore be better than heavier ones given
every two or three years. The most favourable times for applying
manure is while the trees are at rest, or when making the least growth.

Mulching.

In this part of the world cultivators should adopt every possible
means for counteracting the eflFects of long summer droughts. To a
material extent this may be done by practising mulching, which is one
of the greatest aids to the cultivator in a warm climate during the
summer months. When the surface soil is covered with a layer of
litter, or other suitable material, it is protected from the direct effects of
a burning sun and drying winds. Consequently, the ground retains
moisture for a longer period than it would were the surface exposed, to
the great advantage of the trees. The retention of moisture for several
weeks longer than would be the case under other conditions may mean
the difference between success and failure, as the most critical time for
most fruit trees and shrubs is early in the summer, when the weather is
often very dry. Mulching may be applied with advantage to all kinds
of fruits, and is a specially valuable practice in the drier parts of
Australia. It is also of great value in the cultivation of bush fruits, such
as Gooseberries, Currants and Kaspberries, which are readily affected
by hot weather. Mulching should be applied early in the summer,
before the hot weather sets in, and while there is some moisture in the
surface soil. Too often the work is delayed till the soil has become
thoroughly dry, when, as a matter of course, less benefit will be derived
from the practice. The material used should be spread as far as the
roots extend, and ought to be kept away from the stems of the trees..
Too often instances are met with where the material is piled in a heap
round the stem, to the great detriment of the trees. Very frequently
trees are seriously injured when their stems are covered deeply, and
more especially if the material used is in a condition to ferment.
Another mistake, often made in mulching, is to cover the ground too
deeply. When this is the case the warmth of the sun cannot penetrate
the covering, and the ground is kept colder than it ought to be. From.
4 to 5 inches will be a sufficient depth to mulch any kind of tree.
Various materials may be used for mulching, but cultivators necessarily
must use such as are most readily obtained. The best is long stable
manure, as this not only protects the surface soils, but also supplies
nourishment to the tree. Straw or grass makes a fairly good material
for mulching, and when a large area has to be treated should be specially

40

grown for the purpose. Sea-weed may also be utilised with advantage
for mulching in localities where it can be readily obtained, and it has an
additional value because it is a material that is rich in potash.

Shelter.

Shelter is of great advantage to all kinds of fruits, and particularly
so as regards the Citrus family. Too often, however, no provision is
made for it by the cultivator. "When exposed to the full effects ot
strong harsh currents of air, many fruits suffer severely, and in various
ways. In the first place the trees often become stunted in growth or
lop-sided, and, as a rule, they do not bear so freely as when sheltered.
The fruit is also apt to be inferior in quality to what it would be under
more favourable conditions. This is more especially the case with
Oranges and Lemons, which are usually coarser, and have thicker rinds
than when grown with shelter. Then, again, fruit is more likely to be
blown off the trees when growing in exposed situations. Sometimes
the cultivator can utilise natural shelter, but more frequently he will
have to make provision for it. Belts of quick growing trees with
dense foliage and compact in growth should be planted for the purpose
when necessary. Various kinds of trees may be used, such as Pinus
insignis^ Schinus molle (Pepper tree) and Cupressiis macrocarpa, which are
all of^trong and rapid growth. Good shelter belts can also be formed from
the Osage Orange, Cherry Plum, Almond and Olive, though the latter is
somewhat slow in growth for a year or two. Care should be taken not to
plant any of the trees named so that their roots will be likely to interfere
with those of the fruit trees, as they are all great robbers, and will soon
exhaust the soil.

Guarding Against Frost.

Among the many evils that fruit-growers have to contend with not
the least is the occurrence of late frosts, which often cause an incalculable
amount of injury. Very frequently a whole crop is suddenly destroyed
by this means, to the great loss, and, perhaps, ruin, of the grower.
Vineyards are, perhaps, more injuriously affected than orchards, and in
some localities losses occur very frequently. Now it should be generally
known that danger from frost may, in a large measure, if not altogether,
be avoided by adopting a practice that is generally followed in Italy and
other parts of Europe. This practice is to make small fires at various
points in the vineyard or orchard on nights when frosts are anticipated.
These fires are made of such materials as straw, weeds, or rubbish, with
a mixture of tar, the object being to obtain a dense and heavy smoke.
These tires are kept up till after sunrise, when all danger has passed.
The smoke has the effect of preventing the dew from condensing and
freezing upon the tender foliage and shoots, and if by chance they do
get touched, they are screened from the sun's power till the increasing
temperature causes them to thaw gradually. This precaution against

41

frost can be taken at a very small cost, as the danger only lasts a week
or two, and the probability of frost can be ascertained overnight pretty
surely.

The Use of Water in Fruit Culture,

The command of a supply of water, by means of irrigation, will be of
great service to the fruit cultivator, and more especially in the drier
portions of Australia, where the rainfall is light and uncertain. In
fact, a supply of water that can be utilised at the right times may make
all the diflference between the failure and success of fruit trees or vines.
By means of the various irrigation schemes now in operation, and others
that will be adopted in the future, large areas will be made available
for fruit and other culture in localities where, without supplies of water,
growth would be uncertain, owing to the light and irregular rainfall.
But though a good supply of water is a great advantage in fruit culture
some care and judgment is required in using it. Some people have the
idea that the command of water is all that is necessary, and that
bountiful crops will always be obtained by its free use. This is a
mistaken idea, as when water is used without judgment more harm than
good may be done. As regards deciduous trees and shrubs, a supply of
water may, if required, be given wilh advantage while the fruit is
increasing in size, hut not after it is fully groiun. When fruit has
attained its full size then the period of decay begins, of which the
ripening process is the commencement. Trees then are better when
their roots are a little dry than otherwise, and water supplied at that
time will do harm. The same remarks will apply to Grape vines. An
excess of water when the fruit is fully grown will cause deterioration in
quality, and in some cases destroys to a large extent peculiar flavours
tiiat are highly appreciated. The fruit will also be more tender, and wil
not keep so well, as if grown without water. The use of water, when
growth is well advanced, is, in the case of deciduous trees, also apt to
cause a prolonged and weakly growth of wood that is not required.
This growth is at the expense of the constitution of the plant, and its
fruit-bearing powers in the future. When the trees have made a fair
summer growth of wood, and brought their fruits to maturity, they
have done their work for the season, and should be allowed to rest, or
sleep, to recuperate for the next year. If they are kept in a state of
excitement, instead of getting the rest they require, the trees must
necessarily suffer severely. In supplying water to deciduous trees, the
local conditions, such as climate, soil, and period of bearing, must
necessarily be taken into consideration. If necessary, but this is not
often the case, trees may receive a watering just as growth is starting
in the spring. On no account should water be given while the trees
are in bloom, or immediately before, as it may cause the flowers to
drop too soon. A second watering may be given, if required, after the
fruic has set. Water may be again supplied," if necessary, when the fruit
is about two-thirds grown. No more water will be required after this
stage is reached in ordinary soils, as a rule, Cultivators must bear

42

in mind that in dealing with deciduous trees or shrubs water should
ne^'er be given before growth commences in the spring, or after it ceases
in the summer. Orange trees and other evergreens require to be
treated somewhat diflferently, as they are always more or less in an
active state of growth, and consequently absorb more moisture from the
soil. These trees may require several waterings during the year, and
at any time, according to the weather ; but, as a matter of course, their
demands will be greater in the summer than at other periods. There is
another matter that cultivators must give attention to in connexion
with the irrigation of fruit trees and shrubs, and that is to make ample
provision for quick drainage, when necessary. In sandy, gravelly, or
open limestone soils there will often be sufficient natural drainage to
free the ground quickly ; but in tenacious, clayey, or loamy land the
conditions are somewhat different. This kind of soil is in danger of
becoming a bog if water is supplied in addition to the rainfall, and no
provision is made for effective drainage.

Pruning,

Pruning is one of the most important operations in horticulture, but
it is too often practised in a "rule of thumb" fashion, without any
clear ideas as to the principles upon which the art is based. It is one
of those essential operations that cannot possibly be practised with full
success unless the worker clearly understands the principles of the art.
Pruning is a means to an end, and in performing the operation the
system adopted must be governed Vjy the character of the plant and the
object to be attained. The theory of pruning is to promote development
in certain directions by checking it in others. There are two ways in
which this may be done, one being the cutting of the branches, and the
other the reduction of the roots. One method produces precisely the
opposite effect to the other, and by practising both in various degrees,
according to the local requirements and conditions of the trees, the
cultivator has the greatest command over growth that it is possible to
have by pruning, and the art of the gardener. The art of pruning is to
apply to the trees such treatment as will best accomplish some particular
purpose, and to do this successfully the operator must take into considera-
tion the peculiar circumstances of each tree before touching it, and fully
understand the result that will be the outcome of his proposed treatment.

Objects to be attained by Pruning. — Various and very dissimilar
objects are promoted by pruning, and they are as follows : — First, to
modify the form of a tree or shrub by checking the growth of certain
parts, and increasing the vigour of others by concentrating more sap
into them. Second, to promote growth and bulk by reducing the
number of branches, and diverting the strength of the plant into fewer
channels. Third to increase the productiveness of the plants by
checking over-luxuriant growth, and encouraging the development of
fruit buds. Fourth, to prevent the spread of disease by the removal
of affected branches. Fifth, to improve the size and quality of fruit by
reducing the number of bearing shoots and buds. As a matter of course,
different systems must be adopted in order to attain these various objects.

43

Pruning to modify Form. — In pruning to assist a tree or shrub to
attain a desired form, it will be necessary to take into consideration its
natural habit, the modification required, and how it is to be eflFected.
Globular and pyramidal heads are the forms most suitable to fruit trees
in tliis part of the world. The object of the cultivator should be to get
well-balanced trees or shrubs, and as perfect in form as possible. Trees
should be trained to assume the desired forms from the time they arc
planted, removing and shortening back such shoots as may be necessary.
Care should also be

taken that the foliage is
so distributed as to give
the necessary shade to
the stems and branches.
Pruning to promote
Growth. — In pruning
young trees it should be
the main object of the
cultivator for a few
years to obtain a strong
growth of wood, and the
production of fruit ought
to be a secondary con-
sideration. The stronger
their growth the sooner
will they make thrifty
and profitable trees. By
the removal of some of
the shoots, the strength
of the plant is concen-
trated into fewer chan-
nels, giving an increased
supply of nutriment to
the branches that are
left, and consequently
these increase more
rapidly in bulk than
they would do other--
wise. In the case of
}Oung fruit trees, it is
a primary object with
cultivators for several
years after planting to
encourage a strong
growth of wood, so that
the plants will rapidly
increase in size and
advance towards matu-
rity. Trees, as a rule, will
not bear freely until their

Pkuning to Form the Trees.

A two year old
tree pruned to form
a pyramid. The
small cross lines
indicating where
the branches should
be cut.

A yearling tree
witliout branches.
The cross line indi-
cating where the
stem should be cut
back.

44

Pruning a pyramid tree the
third year.

Pruning a pryamid tree the
fourth year.

Pruning a sflobular standard the Pruning a globular standard the

second year, and a cross-line show- third year ; cross-lines showing
ing where cuts shall be made. where cuts should be made.

45

growth is matured to a certain extent, and the stronger the wood while
they are youns; the sooner will they be able to produce full crops. It is
one of nature's laws that plants, as well as animals, are usually only
impelled to reproduce their kinds after a certain stage of maturity is
reached. Trees, it is true, will sometimes bear early, but any fruit
produced before a certain age or size is attained lessens the vigour of
the plants. The time required for trees to reach maturity will vary,
often considerably, according to the kinds of fruit and the local condi-
tions under which tliey are growing. Asa rule, trees may be considered
to have reached a fair degree of maturity in four or five years after they
are planted.

Pruning to increase Productiveness. — Yery frequently when trees are
growing in rich natural soils, or manure has been used too freely, they
will continue to exf)end their energies chiefly in the production of wood
and increasing in bulk, after the time when they ought to be yielding
good crops of fruit. Sometimes these strong-growing trees will bloom
freely, but the flowers wither off" without setting fruit, or perhaps the
latter may form, but drop soon after. This result is often due to the
shoots being so strong that they divert the material that is required for
the development of the fruit into woody growth. This state of afiairs
is likely to continue unless the excess of vigour is checked by the
cultivator. It is the too common practice in dealing with such trees to
thin out and head back the branches severely, under the mistaken idea
that the remedy lies in taking some of the wood away. But this is
precisely what the cultivator ought not to do, as such treatment only
aggravates the evil. The more the branches of a tree are cut away the
greater effort will the plant again make to restore the balance between
roots and branches, which has been disturbed. These over-vigorous
trees should be kept rather full of branches than otherwise, to lessen the
tendency to rampant growth. The remedy in such cases is not to cut
away branche.«, but to check the excessive vigour of the trees by
curtailing the supply of nourishment through lessening the power of the
roots. This object may be efTected by root-pruning. The usual way of
performing this operation is to cut a semi-circular trench on one side of
the tree at such a distance from the stem as will depend upon its size,
and separate all the roots that come within that radius. Make the
trench as deep as the roots extend, spade wide, and separate the roots
with clean cuts. In the following year treat the other side of the tree
in the same way. This treatment will often bring these refractory trees
into fruit-bearing condition. The most effective way of root-pruning,
however, is to carefully bare the roots of the tree to be operated upon,
and then to shorten back the coarser roots and those having but few
fibres. At the same time, all vertical roots that are over 18 inches deep
should be cut through. By adopting this plan, a better selection of
roots is obtained by the operator than by following the ordinary method,
and he, consequently, has a more perfect control over the trees. On the
other hand, however, this system entails more labour, and the operator
must have special knowledge to enable him to work judiciously. Ro:>t-
pruning may be done at any time between the fall o'^f the leaf and the

4G
Root Pruning.

Roots before Pruning marked where they should be cut.

spring in the case of decidu-
ous trees, but it is not advis-
able to delay till after active
growth has commenced. As
regards evergreens, root-prun-
ing when necessary should be
performed either late in the
summer or in the spring
when growth is becoming
active.

The productiveness of fruit
trees may also be increased by
checking the growth of the cur-
rent season's shoot?, as the more
the sap is retarded in its circula-
tion, the greater will be the ten-
dency to develop fruit buds.
This practice also encourages the
formation of fruit bearing spurs.
Growth may be retarded by pinch-
ing back the young shoots, and
twisting, bending or fracturing
wood of an older growth.

Pruning to prevent the spread
of Disease. — Whenever branches
become affected with any disease
that may have caused injury to
the wood, it will be advisable to
cut them off as far back as the
evil can be traced. Trees are
often seriously injured by dis-
eased wood being left upon them.
It will also often be advisable

^^W^

Showing growth of fibrous roots induced
by Eoot Pruning.

Pruning to Increase Phoduc-
TivENESs By Fracturing the
Branches.

47

Pruning to PtENOVATE Old Trees.

to remove branches that have been seriously injured by insects or
fungi.

Pruning to renovate Old or
Badly- Trained Trees. — Very
frequently trees become strag-
gling in growth when they get
old, if they have not been
well attended to, and it is
necessary to head them back.
By adopting this plan a fresh
growth can be obtained, which,
if properly regulated, may be
made to form compact, weli-
furnished trees in a couple of
seasons. The extent to which
trees ought to be cut back for
this purpose will, as a matter
of course, depend on their con-
dition, and the object to be
attained, but, as a rule, the
branches should be cut back
freely. Sometimes trees after
bearing heavy crops for several
years do not make enough
growth of wood, and will be
improved by cutting back.
Trees of this class should
simply have their branches
shortened back sufficiently to
cause a strong young growth
to break. It will also some-
times be advisable to cut back
severely young trees with de-
formed stems, in order to
obtain more perfect specimens.
In the case of young trees this
practice may often be adopted
with advantage, and without
any material loss of time in
bringing the plants to matu-
rity.

Pruning to improve the Size
and Quality of the Fruit. —
When trees have a tendency
to bear fruit too freely, which
is specially the case with

some kinds, and more particularly with old trees, it is necessary to
remove some of the shoots. By this means the strength of the plant
will be concentrated in fewer channels. This will cause the fruit to be

Tree before Pruninor.

Tree one year after Pruning.

48

Spur Pruning.

A. Mark showinpr where
cut should be made.

larger and better in quality than if growth is not regulated. Sometimes

it will be advisable to shorten back old spurs

as shoYvn by the illustration. Peaches,

Nectarines and Apricots require somewhat

special treatment, as not only should the last

season's shoots be reduced in number, but

those that are left must be shortened to about

half their length. The Grape also requires

special treatment in pruning in order to get

satisfactory results. This fruit plant has at

each joint of the previous season's wood a

shoot in embryo, and if ail these are allowed

to grow the branches A\ill be numerous and

weak, and the bunches correspondingly small.

In order, therefore, to get growth that will

yield serviceable fruit, it is necessary to cut

the shoots back every season to a few buds.

It is also necessary, in order to keep up the

size and quality of fruit, to thin out the

branches of trees when overcrowded, in order

that light and air may freely penetrate.

Pruning neivly-planted Trees. — It is a very common practice when
trees are planted to reduce the tops considerably without any regard to
their special requirements. Trees are often injured through being
treated in this indiscriminate way. The proper treatment is to carefully
preserve a perfect balance between the roots and the branches. If the
plant has a large number of roots, and has lost but a small proportion
by removal, the tops want to be cut back to a less extent. Eoots cannot
perform their functions properly without a corresponding leaf action.
Instances are common of robust young trees being taken up with plenty
of tops and roots, which have, owing to the unreasonable practice of
cutting away the greater part of the branches, only been able to make
a weakly growth the first season after they were planted, instead of the
strong vigour expected. This result is brought about by a diminished
flow of sap, through the branches being so reduced that the leaf surface
is not in proportion to the roots, which consequently become somewhat
sluggish in their action. Leaves are as necessary to the roots as the
roots are to the leaves, and the more perfect the balance the better.
On the other hand, when, as frequently happens, trees lose a large
portion of their roots by removal, it will be necessaiy to reduce the
heads proportionately, so that the branches can obtain proper support
from the diminished number of feeders. In all CMses, therefore, as
regards newly-planted trees they must be pruned back according to their
individual requirements, and in such a way that the balance between
roots and branches is equalised as much as possible.

Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning is a very useful practice in fruit
culture, and should be more generally adopted in this part of the world
than it is. The practice is more especially valuable for young trees, but
may be applied with advantage to older ones when circumstances will

49

permit Summer pruning, in the first place, prevents the formation of
a great deal of useless wood, and consequently lessens the work of
winter cutting, It also enables the cultivator to equalise growth, and
distribute the wood to better advantage than when the trees are left to
themselves. The term summer pruning is to some extent a misnomer, as
the work, when properly carried out, should commence in the spring,
soon after growth has started. If the trees are gone over then, and all
shoots removed that are not likely to serve a useful purpose, a great-
waste of energy is prevented, and the strength of the plant is concentrated
into useful channels. But it is not advisable at this early period of
growth to remove all the shoots except the permanent ones, and it will
be necessary to allow about twice the number to remain that will be
eventually required. The reason for leaving a full number of shoots is
that a proportionate amount of leaf growth is necessary to stimulate a
vigorous root action. When the shoots are Gin. or 8in. long they should
receive a second and final thinning out, leaving only those that are
actually required. Care must also be taken that a sufficient number of
shoots are left to furnish enough foliage to shade the stems and branches,
a most important matter in a country where the sun has great power in
the summer. Then, again, cultivators should remember that the leaves
are the lungs of the plant, and that unless it can breathe freely there
cannot be proper root action. It is essential to the well-being of these
trees that the spread of foliage should be in proportion to the quantity
of roots, in order that the plants may breathe with freedom and absorb
from the atmosphere the necessary amount of carbon. When growth is
carefully regulated the trees have a much better chance of ripening
their wood properly than when the branches are overcrowded. The
rubbing off the shoots in the early part of the season is specially
serviceable with stone fruits, as it lessens the tendency to " gum," to
which these trees are very liable when the mature wood is cut. Care
must, however, be taken in summer pruning not to cause an over-
luxuriant growth when it is not required. When a tree has a tendency
to make an over-strong growth it should be kept rather full of wood than
otherwise, as the greater the number of shoots removed the more vigorous
will the remaining ones be. The second stage of summer pruning is the
stopping of the shoots after they have made a certain amount of growth,
a practice that is specially useful in the case of young trees. Young
shoots often make a very strong growth, and, if unchecked, will attain a
great length. As these shoots will have to be shortened back it is a
better plan to check them early by pinching ofi" the points. A fresh
growth will then start, and the branches will not only be better furnished,
but the young trees will make greater progress. If pinching back at the
proper time is neglected, the young shoots may be shortened, but the
former plan is the best. It will, however, be advisable that shoots, if
necessary, should be cut back before the summer is far advanced, so that
there will be time enough for a fresh growth to start. Pinching back
the shoots, while checking woody growth, also induces the formation of
fruit buds. Summer pruning is also useful in assisting the fruit-bearing
powers of trees, as by pinching back the shoots the growth of wood is

50

retarded, and the tendency to form fruit buds is increased. No precise
time can be fixed for summer pruning, as much will depend on the nature
of the trees and their state of growth. Most generally, pincbino back
should be commenced in November or December, and may be continued,
if necessary, up to the end of the summer. Very often trees will
require a second stopping. The most effective system of suumier prunin*^
is to go over the trees two or three times in the season.

Summer Pruning.

A. Black mark showing B. Shoot pinched too 0. Pinched shoot, with
where shoot ought to far back. a new shoot,

be stopped.

System in Pruning. — The full advantages that the cultivator can
obtain from his trees by pruning will be best secured when the work is
carried on systematically from the time the trees are planted till they
reach maturity. In the case of a young tree, the pruning for two or
three years may be termed its education, as like a child it can in the
earlier stages of growth be more readily trained in the way it should go
than when it gets older. Only such branches as are required to form
the tree should be allowed to remain, and no strength ought to be
permitted to go to waste in the production of useless wood that must
afterwards be removed. The energy of the plant expended in this
manner will, for all practical purposes, be thrown away. Besides,
whenever useless branches are allowed to mature, they, as a matter of
course, weaken those that are required, by dividing the nourishment
supplied by the trees. In pruning young trees cultivators must bear
in mind that the primary considerations should be well-balanced heads,
with a regular proportion of branches on every side. Older trees, of

51

How A Young Tree Should be Cut.

Branches with black
lines {A A A) showinsf
buds shooting inwards
and (B B B) others
pointing outwards.

Branches cut at the
{BB B) or right buds.

Branches cut at the
{A A A) or wrong buds.

many kinds of fruits, will not require so much pruning as is generally
supposed if they have been carefully trained in their youth. Among
these are the Apple, Pear, Cherry, Plum, Fig, Mulberry, Orange and
Lemon, which are too frequently pruned more than is necessary, to their
great detriment. In fact, these trees are often injured by being over-
pruned. All that is necessary with mature trees of the fruits named is
to thin-out the heads when the branches are over-crowded, to remove
rank and misplaced shoots, and to shorten back others thai are making
too much headway, and which will, if left to themselves, destroy the
symmetry of the plants. Sometimes, when old trees have borne freely
for several years, they will make but a weakly growth of wood, and in
such cases it may be advisable to head the trees back, to encourage a
fresh start. By cutting the trees back to where a fresh growth is
wanted, they v.'ill often be, to a great extent, rejuvenated. In all classes
of pruning the operator should take care to make the cuts exactly where
they are required, and in the proper directions. By the making of
wrong cuts young trees are often spoiled, more or less, as explained by
the illustrations. Care should also be taken that the cuts are clean,
which is a matter of some importance.

52

How Cuts Should be Made.

^H a

Line a too far Line a h too Line ah Si per- Line a b cut

above the bud. far from the bud. feet cut. in the wron^

Line h a perfect Line c proper direstion.

cut. Line c too place for cut.
close to the bud.

Showing Cuts too much above the Buds or in wrong directions.

Showing Cuts too close to the Buds.

Pruning must be in accordance with the Habit and Requirements of
each Plant. — In pruning, the circumstances of each individual tree or
shrub should be taken into careful consideration by the operator.
Methods must of necessity vary according to the habit, age, mode of

53

bearing, and other local conditions. As instances, the Apple and Pear
require veiy different treatment to the Peach and Apricot, while a
system different from either is required by the Citrus family. Some
varieties of Apples and Pears also differ in their requirements to others,
in accordance with the habit of growth. Then, again, take the Goose-
berry ; the upright-growing kinds must, in pruning, be handled somewhat
different to those that have a pendulous habit. In pruning, the operator
should thoroughly understand what the effect of each kind of treatment
will be, so that he will be able to use the right method to effect the
desired object, and avoid mistakes that may be serious. When the
principles upon which the theory of pruning is based are understood, it
is as easy to apply them as to cut the trees indiscriminately, without
clear ideas as to what the effect will be. Success will also be far more
certain than when the beneficial result is, in a great measure, obtained
by chance.

Pruning Season. — The pruning season, to speak correctly, may
be said to extend throughout the year, according to the habits of the
various fruit trees and shrubs, and their special requirements. In the
case of deciduous kinds, the general pruning must be given at some
period between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap in the spring.
As soon as the leaves have fallen and the plants are at rest, operations
may be commenced. Early pruning is conducive to robust growth, and
when this requirement is the chief one, as in the case of young trees,
no better time can be chosen. But it must be clearly understood that
early pruning is not conducive to fruiifulness. It accelerates the
blooming period, and increases the risk of the fruit not setting, as the
earlier the flowers make their appearance the greater the danger from
spring frosts. This is one of the greatest risks the fruit-grow'er has to
contend with in many localities, and, as a matter of course, in pruning
he should endeavour to retard the flowering period as far as he can. The
most favourable period for the general pruning of deciduous trees and
shrubs is in the latter part of the winter, immediately before the sap
commences to rise. Pruning at this time of the year, when the wood is
more fully ripened, and the fruit buds are more easily recognised, is
conducive to late flowering, and consequently the danger from frost is
not so great. Then, again, the wounds heal more rapidly after late than
early pruning. Care must, however, be taken not to delay the work too
long, as if done when the sap is in full motion, the trees are apt to bleed
too freely from the freshly -made wounds. The operation should be
performed before the buds begin to swell, which in some trees will be
earlier than in others, as certain kinds start sooner in the season.
Apricots, Peaches, Nectarines, Currants and Gooseberries should be
treated first in pruning, then Grapes, Cherries, Plums and Pears,
finishing with Apples, Quinces, Figs and Mulberries. Oranges, Lemons,
Lcquats and other evergreens may be pruned when necessary, at any
time of the year. The most favourable period, however, is when the
trees are making but little growth, and a particularly good time is just
after the crop has been taken off.

Ringing to Promote Fruitfulness. — This is a practice that may often

54

be adopted witli advantage with trees that do not bear freelj, and it is
in some measure a substitute for root-pruning. The effect of ringing
strong growing trees is to check the flow of sap, lessen the tendency to
make wood, and encourage the formation of blossom buds. Ringing may
also be useful in the case of trees that flower profusely, but do not set
any fruit. This is a very common state of afl'airs, and more especially
with Pears, Apricots and Plums. It is no uncommon thing for trees
to be covered with blossoms, which drop off without leaving any fruit
behind, to the disgust of cultivators. Now this result may be brought
about by some soil deficiency, or a sharp frost, but in many cases it is
owing to the flow of sap being too strong. An excess of sap when the
trees are in blossom has a tendency to clog the reproductive organs in
the flowers, and prevents the proper distribution of the pollen from the
stamens to the pistils, and, as a consequence, fertilisation does not take
place. If this excess of sap can V)e checked at the right time the
fertilising organs can perform their functions more perfectly. The
writer, some years ago, had a number of Pear and Apricot trees, which
for several years in succession failed to bear crops t)wing to the excess
of sap at the blooming period, and after due consideration he decided
to try ringing as a remedy. It was very successful, and can be con-
fidently recommended as a practice worthy of attention by fruit
cultivators. Ringing for this purpose should be done just before the
tre'^s come into bloom, as after that stage of growth it is useless. The
ring should be made onhj half-way round the trunks and on no account
must it be carried further. The cut should be quite through the nark,
and just wide enough to break the flow of sap, or about a quarter of an
inch. It must be borne in mind that it is desirable that the wound
should heal quickly, and a narrow cut will close sooner than a broader
one.

Bending down the Branches to Promote Fertility. — This is an old
method of treating shy-bearing trees, formerly practised to a large
extent by gardeners in the United Kingdom. Latterly, however, root-
pruning, which serves in a great measure the same purpose, is more
generally preferred. The theory of *' bending down " is that it retards
the circulation of sap, and consequently checks the formation of wood,
and encourages the production of fruit buds. The operation should be
performed in the autunm or early part of the winter, all that is neces-
sary being to bend down and fasten the branches at a lower level than
where they spring from the trunks of the trees. They niust be securely
tied in this position till it becomes natural to them, and no further
assistance is required. Trees are often greatly improved in fruitfulness
by the adoption of this method, and as it can be easily practised it is
worthy of attention from fruit growers.

Treatment of Wounds. — In ihe removal of small branches by
pruning, if the cuts are clean the wounds will generally heal quickly
without any assistance. When, however, large limbs are removed from
trees, either by way of pruning or in heading back old stocks for
grafting, the exposed surface of the cut wood is liable to shrivel and
crack from the eff'ects of frost, drying winds or heat. Serious injury

55

is often caused in this way to the trees, as the cacks admit air, wateV,
insects and fungi, which often cause permanent trouble. It is advis-
able, therefore, to dress these wounds with some composition that will
exclude the air, prevent cracking, and keep the wood in sound condition
until it is covered with a lajer of baik. Various compositions are in
use, of which a gum is the base, such as " Gum lac," Gum ara}>ic, &c.
Either of these, or any of the gums which exude from wattle trees, arre
well adapted for the purpose. The gum should be dissolved in spirits
of wine till it becomes liquified to the consistence of paint, and must
be kept ready for use in securely-corked bottles. The composition
should be applied with a brush, covering the wood with a thin layer as
in painting. The composition will quickly harden and adhere firmly,
so that the air will be effectively excluded.

The Requirements in Pruning of the various Fruit Trees and

Shrubs.

Apple. — This tree bears its fruit upon wood of the previous season's
growth, and also upon short spurs of two Or three years old and
upwards. Mature trees, as a rule, want but little pruning, all that is
necessary being to thin out crowded branches, and to remove rank and
misplaced shoots. Some kinds have a tendency to bear near the end of
their shoots, and these should be pinched back by summer pruning.
Young trees must be pruned freely, so as to encourage strong growth.
Eoot-piuning will be useful in the case or over-luxuriant trees, and
should be done in the winter.

Apricot. — The fruit of this tree is mostly produced upon wood of
the previous year's growth ; but also, to some extent, upon older spurs.
Mature trees require to have the last year's shoots thinned out, and
those that are left should be shortened back to about half their length
Summer pruning will be very serviceable. Young trees must be pruned
more freely to encourage vigorous growth. Root-pruniug is seldom
required.

Cherry. — This tree bears upon spurs of two or more years' growth.
It requires but little pruning, except the removal of crowded branches
and rank shoots. Summer pruning will often prove useful. Root
pruning may be sometimes practised with advantage in the case of strong-
growing trees that do not bear freely.

Chestnut. — The fruit of this tree is borne upon wood of the previous
season's growth, and but little pruning is necessary, merely the removal
of rank or misplaced shoots, and thinning out the branches when over-
crowded. Sometimes, in the case of over-luxuriant trees, root-pruning
will have a beneficial effect.

Currant. — The Black Currant bears chiefly upon the shoots of the
previous season ; but also, though less abundantly, upon older spurs.

56

The pruning required is to keep the plants compact in shape, and thin
out the branches when too numerous. Red and White Currnnts bear
their fruit upon one, two and three-year-old wood, also on wpurs from
older branches ; generally, however, they bear more freely upon the
last year's shoots. As a rule, they require more pruning than the Black
Currant, and the shoots should be reduced in number when too nuuieious,
and shortened back to thiee or four buds. Root-pruning is not often
required, but sometimes it may be useful.

Date Plwryi. — This tree bears to a large extent upon the previous
season's wood, hut also upon older branches. When the branches are too
numerous they should be thinned out, and the last season's shoots must
be shortened back, as a rule. Summer pruning may be practised with
advantage. Root-pruning will often prove serviceable.

Fig. — The Fig usually bears two, and often three, crops in one
season, and the fruit is produced upon wood of various ages. But
little pruning is necessary, merely the removal of rank and misplaced
shoots. Root-pruning is sometimes very useful in checking over-luxu-
riant growth and promoting fertility. It is also serviceable in keeping
trees dwarf.

Gooseberry — The fruit ot this plant is borne upon the last season's
wood, and also u[)on spurs from older branches. The branches should
be thinned out sufficiently to allow light ^nd air to penetrate freely,
and none ought to be allowed to rest upon the ground. Root pruning is
rarely nece&sarjfi.

Grape. — The Grape Yine bears its fruit upon the current season's
giowth, and in order to get strong shoots it is necessaiy to shorten
back the last year's wood. In spur-pruning, tbo shoots are cut 'oack to
one, two or three eyes, according to tlieir strength. When pruned
upon the long-rod system, half the shoots are left about half their length,
and the others cut back to a single eye. Summer pruning is necessary.
Root-pruning is not often required.

Hazel. — This plant bears its nuts at or near the extreujities of the
branches, and should be pruned so as to get an equal distribution of
bearing wood. Root-pruning is useful for plants that have a tendency
to over-luxuriant growth.

Loquat. — The fruit of this tree is borne at the extremities of the
current year's growth, and but little pruning is usually required, merely
the removal of misplaced branches, and reducing their number when too
many. The most favourable time for pruning is immediately after the
fruit is gathered. Root-pruning is seldom necessary.

Mulberry. — This tree bears its fruit upon young shoots of the current
season's growth, and on spurs from two-year-old wood. In pruning, all
that is necessary is the removal of rank shoots, and crossed or crowded
branches. Root-pruning may be practised with advantage in the case of
over-luxuriant trees.

Olive. — This tree requires but little in the way of pruning after the
heads are formed, all that is necessary being to regulate growth by
thinning, and the removal of rank shoots. Root-pruning is useful in
bringing over-luxuriant trees into a fertile condition. The most favour-

57

able time for branch-pruning, when necessary, is just after the fruit is
gathered

Orange and Lemon. — The fruit of these trees is produced upon the
current season's wood, and but litttle pruning is required, as a rule ; all
that is necessary is to remove the inner and useless branches that
impede the admission of light and air, and to keep down rank shoots.
Root-pruning is rarely required. The most favourable time for pruning"
is directly after the crop has been removed.

Peach and Nectarine. — These fruits are practically the same, and as
a matter of course, require similar treatment. The fruit is produced
chiefly upon wood of the previous season's growth, and the trees require
more pruning than any other stone-bearing kinds. It is necessary, in
order to keep up a supply of vigorous young wood, that the shoots
should be thinned out and shortened back to about half their length.
Summer pruning is very serviceable, and should be generally
practised. Root-pruning is sometimes serviceable for over-vigorous
trees.

Pear. — This tree bears in a similar way to the Apple, and must be
treated in the same way to a certain extent. Root-pruning is, however,
more often required than with the Apple ; in fact, no fruit trees require
root-pruning to the same extent as Pears, as they are prone to make
woody growth in abundance and bear but little fruit. Root-pruning
will often conduce to the fertility of trees in this condition. Summer
pruning is useful.

Plum. — The fruit of this tree is borne upon spurs of one, two and
three years' growth ; but chiefly upon those of the previous season.
Bub little pruning is, as a rule, required with mature tree.«, except the
thinning out of crowded and the removal of misplaced branches. Summer
pruning is sometimes useful. Root-pruning will often have a beneficial
eff'ect when trees are making an over-strong woody growth, and yielding
but little fruit.

Quince. — This tree bears in a similar manner to the Apple and Pear,
and the main branches lequire but little pruning, except the thinning
out of crowded shoots. 'J he tree has, however, a great tendency to
produce rank shoots from the stem, and these should be cut away in
pruning. Root-pruning will often prove useful when there is an over-
luxuriant growth.

Raspherty. — The fruit of this plant is produced upon canes of the
previous season's growth. Immediately after the fruiting season is
over, the canes that have borne should be cut away, and all the suckers
or young ones, excepting from three to six of the strongest, which must
be left to supply bearing wood for the next crop. These young canes
should during the winter be shortened back to 3 or 4 feet, according to
their strength. Root-pruning is not required.

Walnut. — This tree bears upon wood of the previous year's growth,
and requires but little or no pruning. All that is necessary is to remove
rank shoots, and thin out crowded branches. Root-pruning is seldom
practised, though it may prove useful for over-strong trees that are shy
bearers.

58

Training.

Fiuit-bearing trees

and shrubs should be trained accordinsr to theii

natural habits of giowth, the peculiarities of climate, and the special
requirements* of cultivators. In the XJuited Kingdom and other parts
of Europe, various methods of
training are practised to effect par-
ticular purposes, but in this part of
the world trees are mostly grown
as standards, and to a great extent
allowed to develop their natural
forms. There are no reasons for
resorting to various expedients to
counteract climatic conditions in
this part of the world as in colder
couniries. But, at the same time,
our fruit-growers should train, as
far as possible^ so as to mitigate
the effects of extreme heat with
which they often have to contend
In the case of all standard trees,
the pyramidal or globular form
will, as a rule, be the most service-
able in this part of the world.
Some cultivators favour the thin-
ning out of the centres of the trees
to allow the stronger exposure to
sun and light, but the writer
strongly condemns this treatment.
This " 6gg-c"p " system is all very
well in a cold country, where it is
necessary to make the most of the
sun's power, but in this part of the
world more shade and less ex-
posure will be of greater advantage
to the trees. For this reason, trees
should also be trained with low
heads, which afford a more perfect
shade to the stems than taller one?,
a matter of some importance in
this part of the world. Low-
headed trees are also less liable to
injury from the effects of high
winds than tall ones, and they
aflford greater facilities for pruning
and gathering the fruit. All these
are advantages that should not be
overlooked by the cultivator.

Tree trained as a pyramid.

59

Tree trained with a globular head.

Dwarf of bush tree trained with a globular head.

60

Training for Special Purposes. — Though a natural form of growth is
best adapted for fruit trees and shrubs, as a rule, yet it may be
necessary to modify the training to suit particular purposes and to
attain special objects. Trees and bushes of pendulous growth may
require to have their lower branches cut away to a far larger extent
than those that are upright in habit. The rule in these cases should
be that every branch must hang clear of the ground. In small gardens,
where space is an object and a great variety of trees are required,
the European methods of cordon and conical training may be adopted.
There are various modes of practising the former system, but those
most generally adopted are the lateral or espalier, the upright, and the
oblique. The espalier system is adapted for the borders of walks, and
is more suitable for Apples and Pears worked upon dwarfing stocks.
In training for this purpose, one or two branches, according to whether

Cordon Training.

Dwarf espalier with one arm.

Dwarf espaliar with two arms.

Espalier with several arms.

61

Vertical cordon.

Oblique cordon.

growth is to be made in one or two directions, are formed at the top of
a short trunk ; these are trained horizontally to stakes, or upon trellises,
in the required directions, and their growth regulated and kept within
bounds by pinching back the shoots from time to time. Espaliers may
also be trained with two, three, or more tiers of horizontal branches.
The oblique-cordon system is practised by training each tree with a
single horizontal stem from which several branches are inclined at an
angle of about sixty degrees. Trees for this purpose are planted
closely, and, as with espaliers, are kept compact by frequently
pinching back the shoots. In the conical systena of training, the trees

62

are encouraged to assume the shape of an acute pyramid or cone, and
the branches are tied in so as to hang pendulous. For dwarf trees,
when space is limited, the system may be practised with advantage.
Fan and horizontal training, though commonly practised in the United
Kingdom, is of but little service in this part of the world. It is a
system by which the foliage and wood can be spread out so as to fully
expose them to the heat of the sun, a practice that may prove very
serviceable in a country where the summers are short. In this part of
the world, however, no advantage can be gained by spreading out the
branches, but, on the other hand, the trees are liable to saflFer from
exposure to the sun's power. When trees are trained in this manner
they must, as a matter of course, have due attention in frequently
stopping and otherwise regulating their shoots. Grapes have, owing to
their habit of growth, to be especially treated in training. They are
commonly trained in what is known as the "currant-bush" style, that
is, upon stems from 12 inches to 2 feet in height, with several
branches, the last season's shoots from which are cut back to one or
more eyes every season. Another system is known as the " long rod "
or '* renewal," and consists in allowing half the canes to be left from
a half to two-thirds in length, while the others are shortened back to
one or more buds ; the next year the long canes are shortened back, to
one or more buds, and the shoots from the spurs become the rods of the
following season. Under this system, vines, as a matter of course, must
be trellised, so that the shoots may be properly secured.

Gathering Feuit.

Fruits of all kinds should be gathered at such a stage of maturity as
will develop their desirable qualities to the fullest extent, or best serve
the special purposes of the cultivators. The proper degree of maturity
at which fruit should be gathered will, as a matter of course, vary
considerably according to the kind, and even different varieties of one
often want dissimilar treatment. Apples should be gathered imme-
diately before they become fully ripe. If left too long upon the trees,
the fruit, when kept, is apt to become mealy, and to lose in flavour more
or less. Pears are somewhat peculiar in ripening, and fruit in perfection
is seldom obtained if allowed to mature upon the trees. There are
exceptions to this rule, but they are very few. Many superior varieties,
remarkable for their luscious and high flavours, do not develop their
finest qualities when left to ripen upon the trees. The time the fruit
will take to come to perfection, after it is gathered, will vary consi-
derably according to the variety. From three to four days may be
sufficient to bring a Jargonelle or Windsor to perfection, whereas as
many months will be necessary for such kinds as L'Inconnue, Josephine
de Malines and Winter Nelis. Quinces should be fully ripe before thoy
are gathered. Plums for dessert should be allowed to hang till they are
quite ripe, in order that their flavour may be fully developed. If
required for prunes, or drying in other forms, it will be an advantage,

63

when practicable, to let the fruit hang till it begins to shrivel. For
culinary purposes, the fruit will be in a better condition if gathered
before it is fully ripe. Peaches, Nectarines and Apricots for the dessert
should not be gathered till fully ripe, as then their flavour is best, and
they are also in the finest condition for canning and drying. Cherries,
Gooseberries and Currants require to be fairly ripe before they are
gathered. Grapes, either for table, wine or drying, should be fully ripe
before they are gathered, as only then will their best qualities be fully
developed. To the makers of wine, raisins or currants, the degree of
ripeness is a matter of material importance. Oranges should be fully
ripe before they are gathered, as they must reach that stage before their
sweetness and flavour is perfectly developed. Too frequently they are
gathered before they are fully matured, and consequently their quality
is more or less inferior. When required for packing and exporting to
distant places, it may be necessary to gather the fruit somewhat early,
but this should never be done for a local market. Lemons should be
gathered somewhat earlier than Oranges, as no advantage is gained by
letting them remain long upon the trees. Cultivators must bear in
mind that Oranges, Lemons and other species of the Citrus family should
have their stalks cut or broken, and the fruit ought never to be pulled
from the trees. This is more specially necessary when the fruit is
required for keeping or packing. Strawberries require to be fairly ripe
before they are gathered, and the fresher they are eaten the better, as
their flavour soon passes away. Even a passing shower of rain will, in a
large measure, spoil the flavour of this fruit. In gathering and packing,
Strawberries should be handled as little as possible, and when used as a
table fruit the berries when picked ought to be placed at once in the
basket, or other receptacle, in which they are to reach their destination.
Raspberries require even greater care than Strawberries, when used as a
dessert fruit, as their rich flavour rapidly pasvses away. The berries must
be fully ripe, and gathered with the greatest care. When required for
preserving, such extreme care is unnecessary, but still it is advisable to
secure the fruit in the best practicable way. A great deal of the fruit
that is converted into jam is seriously deteriorated for want of more care
and judgment in gathering and sending to market. The Date Plum
should be allowed to hang upon the trees till it is dead ripe before it is
gathered, as a certain stage of decomposition must be reached before the
fruit is perfect. The same remarks will apply to the Medlar. The
Walnut, Cob and Filbert may be safely left till the nuts are ripe enough
to fall, though if necessary they may be gathered a little earlier. In
gathering any kind of fruit care should be taken, as far as is practicable,
that it is perfecdy dry, and more e-tpecially if it is required for keeping.
Dews should be allowed to disperse before the work commences, and on
wet days it ought to be suspended.

KEEPi>fG Fruit.

It is a matter of some importance to cultivators that they should be
able to keep some kinds of fruit for as long a period as possible, in order

64

to extend the seasonp, and the demand for their produce. Apples are
the principal fruit for keeping, and most growers have to place the main
bulk of their crops in store for a shorter or longer period, according to
requirements. As a matter of course late ripening firm-fleshed varieties
will keep better and longer than others, and they should have the
preference for the main stock, as far as is practicable, and more especially
if the grower desires to share in an export trade. There is some
diflference of opinion between growers as to whether fruit should be
kept dry or moist, and equally good authorities take opposite views.
On the one hand it is asserted positively that dampness is against the
keeping of any kind of vegetable matter, and that, consequently, it
must injure fruit. The opponents of this view declare that dryness is
more injurious to fruit in store than moisture, and quote instances of
wet cellars where it has been kept in good condition for long periods,
though water has been standing on the floors for several days at a time.
Now both these opinions may be to some extent right, and proved to be so
under certain conditions. i3ut it must be borne in mind that dampness
and dryness have really less influence upon the keeping properties of
fruits than temperature. Great and rapid changes of temperature will
tend towards decay. On the other hand, if the fruit can be kept at a
low and uniform temperature it is likely to remain sound, independently
of other influences. There need be no difficulty in settling the question
as to whether fruit houses are too dry or damp. If the fruit, after
being stored for a few weeks, begins to shrivel it is a sign that the air
is too dry. On the other hand, if the fruit decays without shrivelling
it indicates that the place is too damp. The fruit should be kept
in a cool room or cellar, where the extremes of heat or cold will not
materially eff'ect the temperature, which must be kept as uniform as
possible. Cool and serviceable stores for keeping fruit may be readily
and economically formed by an underground cellar, with the roof
slightly raised above the surface. This will always be cool and the
temperature will not vary considerably if the roof is thick and covered
with earth. As a matter of course, care must be taken that the drainage
is good, and that water will not soak in. If the excavation is made on
the side of a slope it will be easy to provide against a flow of water by
a pipe drain, which will also be of assistance in supplying cool air to the
cellar. Air should be freely admitted by openings just below the roof,
but so arranged that they can be eff'ectively closed on very hot days, or
such other times as may be necessary. The air in fruit rooms or cellars
should be kept moderately dry, but not too much so. If too dry the
fruit has a greater tendency to shrivel than it would have under other
conditions. It is also advisable that the cellar or room should not have
much light. Before Apples are packed away in the rooms, it will be
advisable to let them lie in heaps for a few days. This causes a moisture
to exude from the skins, and assists in preserving the fruit. The Apples
should then be spread out upon shelves, taking care that every one is in
sound condition. Growers in the United Kingdom often preserve Apples
well by simply placing them in heaps and covering with straw and soil,
in the same way as is done with potatoes. This plan, however, cannot

65

be commended to growers in this part of the world, as the cellar or store
room is better in many ways. Possibly the American method of storing
Apples in unheaded barrels might prove serviceable to some of our
growers. Pears, as a matter of course, require considerable attention in
storing, as most kinds have to be kept for a shorter or longer period
before they are fit for use. They require the same treatment as Apples,
but will require looking over more frequently, as some kinds ripen very
quickly. Peaches, Nectarines, Apricots. Cherries and most of the Plums
can only be kept for a few days after they are gathered, and they are
seldom stored. Some of the later Plums, however, such as Coe's Late
Ked, Ickworth's Imperatrice and others, may be preserved in good
condition for several weeks after they are gathered. Kinds that decay
quickly will all keep somewhat longer than otherwise if placed in a cool
cellar. Oranges may be kept in good condition for three or four months
if gathered before the fruit is over-ripe. The writer has kept them four
months without the slightest deterioration. They should be treated in
the same way as recommended for Apples. Lemons will not keep so
well as Oranges, as a rule, as they have a greater tendency to shrivel ;
but they will remain sound for several weeks if carefully handled and
stored in the same way as directed for Apples. The Date Plum must
be stored for two or three weeks after it is fully ripe before it is in
perfect condition. A chemical action, resulting fiom decomposition,
seems to be essential to the perfection of this fruit. Medlars must be
kept till the period of decay has fairly advanced before they can be
utilised. Bunches of Grapes may be kept fresh for a considerable time
by various methods. One plan is to hang the bunches in moderately
dry sheds or rooms in such a manner that they will not touch each other.
Another plan is to place the bunches in boxes or jars in such a manner
that they will not touch each other, filling the space between with dry
bran or sawdust. The bunches may also be kept for some time by cutting
them with a few inches of the wood attached, and inserting the ends of
these pieces in tubes or bottles filled with water. A small quantity of
charcoal should be placed in each vessel to assist in keeping the water
sweet, and as it is absorbed the deficiency must be made good. The
bunches must be looked over frequently, and all decaying berries
promptly removed, as if left they will soon affect others. The thick-
skinned and firm-fleshed varieties are better adapted for preserving by
any of these methods than others, and it may sometimes be to the
advantage of cultivators to practise them.

Packing Fruit.

This is a subject of some importance to the cultivator, and more
especially as there is a prospect of a large export trade in many fruits
being developed. But even in sending fruit to local markets, growers
will find it to their advantage to have their produce packed so that it

66

will arrive at its destination in the best possible condition. There is a
growing demand for Apples in the United Kingdom and other parts of
Europe, and before long a large and steady export trade will be
established. For export to distant countries like England, Apples
should be packed with the greatest possible care. The fruit should be
carefully selected, so that the contents of each case are uniform in
variety, size and colour. Each fruit should be wrapped singly in white
tissue or blotting paper, which will absorb the moisture that may exude
from the Apples. The writer is of opinion that, owing to its greater
absorbent power, blotting-paper will prove the most serviceable. On
no account must coloured or printed paper be used for wrapping. Be-
fore the fruit is packed, it will be advisable to spread it out in some
place where it will dry or wilt slightly. By adopting this plan the
fruit will exude less moisture in the packages than it would do other-
wise. The fruit should be packed as close as possible in regular layers,
filling the cases so that a gentle pressure is required to fasten down the
lids. Cases should be made to hold from 40 to 50 lbs. of Apples, and
must be made from some kind of wood that will not affect the flavour
of the fruit. Cases vary considerably in size and form in different parts
of the world. In the Australian colonies the case most generally used
for Apples, Pears and Oranges is 2ft. 4 inches long ; IfL. 2 inches deep,
and six inches wide, inside measurement. As to the most suitable form
of case, some difference of opinion prevails, but it ought not to be difficult
for Australian exporters to adopt a particular standard. Pears for export
require to be treated in precisely the same way as Apples. Quinces may
also be exported under similar conditions, and possibly this excellent
fruit may eventually be in demand for this purpose. Oranges and Lemons
are fruits that pack and carry well, and can always find good markets.
They should be packed as directed for Apples, but require to be dried
to a greater extent before they are put in the cases. Let them be spread
out and fully exposed to the air for four or five days previously, or, what
will be better still, place them in a room with a current of dry warm air
passing through. This treatment causes a good deal of the moisture
contained in the rind to evaporate, and, as a matter of course, a less
quantity will be given off after packing. The fruit may be exposed
till it begins to shrivel before it is wrapped and packed. In sending
Apples, Pears, Oranges or Lemons to the London or other markets, it
will be advisable to brand the cases with the names of the fruits and
varieties, and also the number each one contains. This extra care is sure
to be well appreciated by purchasers when the fruit is sold. Grapes may
possibly be one of the fruits that can be profitably exported from
Australia to Europe. The only kinds likely to prove suitable for the
purpose are those that have firm-fleshed berries which hang loosely on
the bunches, such as the well-known Muscat of Alexandria, and
others of a similar class. The bunches should be packed closely in
layers in moderately-sized boxes, filling up the spaces with some
thoroughly dry and absorbent material that will take up any moisture
that may come from the fruit. Fine cork dust is to some extent used
in Europe for this purpose, and has proved very suitable. Trials made

67

in Australia with this material have also given satisfactory results.
Though, as a matter of course, less care is required in sending fruit to
colonial markets, yet growers should always pack well and neatly.
Apples, Pears, Quinces, Peaches, Apricots, Oranges or Lemons should
be packed so that each case will contain fruit that is uniform in variety,
size and colour. The fruit should also be packed firm, so that it will
get to market in the best possible condition. Cherries should be packed^
closely in small cases containing from 10 to 12 lbs. each. Strawberries
will reach the consumer in the best possible condition if packed in small
boxes or baskets containing about 1 or 2 lb. each. These may be packed
ajj^ain into larger cases that will hold from one to three dozen of the smaller
ones, arranged in close layers. If wanted for preserving, boxes holding
from 10 to 12 lbs. may be used. Raspberries must be packed carefully
in 1 or 2 lb. boxes, if required as dessert fruit. For preserving, the
fruit must necessarily be sent away in buckets or casks, according to
the general method. As regards small fruits it is usual, in most parts of
the world, to let the boxes or baskets be retained by the purchasers, as
after being used for berries they are generally stained and unfit for
farther use. Grapes when sent to the market must be firmly packed in
layers, and the cases should be sufficiently full to require some slight
pressure in fastening down the lids.

Packages for Small Fruits. — There is a great deal of confusion in
the way small fruits are sent to market in this part of the world, as
they are packed in all sorts of receptacles, varying greatly in form and
shape. It would be well for growers to bring about a more systematic
mode of packing on a uniform basis. The following illustrations show
the packages most generaly used in England and America, and some of
them have been recently introduced to Australia. The English round
chip punnet has been for -many years the receptacle used in the United
Kingdom for Strawberries and Raspberries, it having superseded a
conical one known as the " pottle." Punnets are made of different sizes,
the one most generally used being six inches in diameter and two deep.
'J'he punnets are packed in boxes, as shown in the illustration. Of late
years square chip baskets with handles have come into favour, and
seem likely to supersede the round punnets. The handles are made to
bend down when not in use, and this facilitates the packing in boxes,
which are the same as those used for punnets. The Jersey basket, as
shown in the illustration, holds about one pound, hut though much used
in Europe and America, is objected to by some as being rather too deej)
for tender fruit. The American baskets hold from one to two pounds,
and are very useful receptacles for any kind of small fruits. This class
of baskets has been introduced to Australia, and probably their use
will soon be general. The fruit crate shown in the illustration is of
American design, and is worthy of attention from fruit growers in this
part of the world. It is constructed to hold 32 quarts, and is furnished
with a lock attached to a small chain. The party who sends the fruit
away has a key and locks the crate, and the one to whom the fruit io
consigned has a duplicate to open it upon arrival. By adopting this
precaution pilfering during transit will be avoided.

68

Packages for Small Fruits.

English Chip Punnet.

PaekinsT Punnets for Market.

Square Chip Punnet.

Packing Square Punnets.

Jersey Basket.

American Baskets.

69

American Crate.

Drying Fruits.

Various fruits can be utilised to advantage by drying, and some kinds
are in extensive demand when preserved in this way. The more
prominent of the dried fruits of commerce are the Raisin, Currant and
Fig, all of which, as has been proved, can be produced to perfection in
many parts of Australia. Among the less prominent kinds are the Apple,
Pear, Peach, Apricot, Plum, Cherry, Loquat, Date Plum and Straw-
berry. All these fruits are excellent when dried, and, if carefully
prepared, may be kept for years. In Europe and America, fruits of the
kinds named are dried in considerable quantities, and there is a great
demand for them. There are two ways by which fruit may be dried, one
being by the power of the sun, and the other by artificial heat, and, in
some cases, both methods can be utilised. Sun-drying is the system most
generally adopted in Europe, and more especially in making raisins and
currants. Grapes intended for these purposes should be allowed to hang
till they are dead ripe, when they ought to be cut and spread out upon
trays or mats, and fully exposed to the sun. The bunches should be
turned daily, so that each side is equally exposed to the sun. In order
to save labour in turning, and this is sometimes an inaportant object, a
second tray of the same size may be placed over the fruit, and the
position of both reversed by a single movement. The size of the trays is
of no material importance, but they should be uniform and not too large,
so that they may be easily handled. The time required for sun-drying
raisins will, as a matter of course, vary to some extent, according to the
weather and the size of the Grapes. Ordinary raisins, under favourable
conditions, will be sufficiently dried in about three weeks. If the con-
ditions are favourable, sultanas will be fit a few days earlier, and currants

70

will take less than a fortnight. While the fruit is drying, care must be
taken to protect it from rain and dew. As soon as the fruit is
sufficiently dry, it should be stemmed, if necessary, and placed in boxes
or casks, leaving it two or three days to slightly ferment, or " sweat."
The fruit is then spread out and left for about twenty-four hours, when
it may be packed finally. The fruit should be firmly and equally pressed
in packing, so that it will keep well and turn out in prime condition.
In Valencia, and some other parts of Spain, where the raisin-making
industry is a leading one, it is customary to dip the bunches before they
are spread in a hot lye made from the ashes of the Grape-vine and Rose-
mary, to which a small proportion of slaked lime is added. The fruit
is merely dipped in the lye for a few seconds, and the process is
supposed to hasten the curing, which doubtless it does, but no further
benefit can be derived from it. On the other hand, there is a danger of
the fruit being injured by remaining too long in the hot solution, when
there will be a probability of the skin cracking, and a portion of the
grape sugar escaping. Raisins and currants may be more quickly
prepared in kilns, especially constructed for drying, a method much
practised in America. They may also be prepared by means of artificial
heat in *' fruit evaporators." Some prefer to dry the fruit partially in
the sun, and finish by artifiicial heat, and the grower must decide which
method will suit him best. Sun-dried fruit is, however, generally con-
sidered to be superior to other kinds. Figs, for drying, should not be
gathered till they are perfectly ripe, and should be treated in nearly every
respect as recommended for raisins. They, however, require to be
dipped in boiling lye, and, being larger, are longer in drying. Another
mode of drying not so generally practised is to dip the figs in boiling
syrup for about three minutes, and then spread in the sun. Though
Figs may be dried with greater facility in kilns and evaporators, yet
they are rarely equal to those prepared by sun heat.

Plums are dried extensively in Europe, and form an important article
of commerce known as prunes. Certain kinds of Plums are used for
the purpose, and these are dried whole. Perfectly ripe fruit is chosen,
and this is prepared by partially drying it in the sun, and finishing it off
by artifi.cial heat. Full details of the process will be found in the article
dealing specially with the Plum. Various sorts of Plums are also dried
extensively by halving, removing the stones and spreading them in the
sun, or passing the truit through an evaporator. Peaches, Apricots,
Apples, culinary varieties of Pears, Cherries and Strawberries may be
turned to good account when sun-dried, or prepared by artificial heat.
Peaches and Apricots must be peeled, stoned and sliced or quartered,
Apples and Pears should be sliced, peeled and cored, the Cherries must
be split in two, and the Strawberries may be dried whole. When fully
dried, these fruits should be tightly packed in boxes or casks, and if
carefully prepared they may be kept in sound condition for some years.
As regards Peaches, Apricots and Cherries, the varieties best adapted
for drying are those whose flesh is firm. As a rule, the very luscious
melting varieties are quite unsuitable. In the case of Apples, good
cooking kinds only should be used.

71

Drying by Artificial Heat.

Though sun drying may be utilised to a great extent in many parts of
Australasia, yet artificial evaporation must necessarily be the method
adapted by the majority of fruitgrowers. This method can be practised
successfully in every district where fruit is grown, whereas sun drying
will only be serviceable in regions that are hot and dry. Various kinds^
of evaporators are in use, but though they diflfer considerably in detail
yet they all work on the same principle. This principle is to remove
the water contained in the fruits by means of swift moving currents of
strongly heated air. If the air current is not sufficiently hot and rapid
the fruit cannot be thoroughly well dried. The air may be sufficiently
heated, but if it does not pass through quickly the fruit will be more or
less cooked and deteriorated in quality. It is necessary to heat the air
to a much higher degree than would be required to bake the fruit in an
oven ; but the rapid circulation prevents injury from burning. Apples
will cook in boiling water at a temperature of 212° Fah,, or bake in an
oven at 225° Fah. ; but they will not cook or burn in an evaporator
heated up to 300° Fah., provided the air current is strong. The
evaporation of the water is a cooling process, and as the particles of
vapour are driven from the minute cells the heat surrounding the fruit
is reduced. A heat of from 240 to 250° Fah. will be sufficient for the
purpose. As a matter of course, when the main portion of the vapour
has been evaporated the heat must be reduced^ so as to prevent all risk
from burning.

The necessary chemical changes are brought about in the most perfect
manner by the use of rapid currents of strong heat, In the firsc place
the albumen is coagulated precisely the same as in an egg when boiled,
whereas by slow drying with fire heat a considerable portion is lost.
There is also less loss in the soluble starch, which is an advantage. The
pectine, or fruit jelly, either remains in the cells or on the surface,
instead of decomposing to a considerable extent and passing off, as is the
case with slow drying. Then, again, the saccharine ferment contained
in all fruits is destroyed by the strong heat. If the natural starch,
albumen and glucose are not made indestructible by perfect drying, the
prepared fruit will absorb moisture from the air, be liable to get mouldy,
and finally turn sour and decay. Fruit prepared by evaporation, in the
proper way, may be kept for years if necessary, when tightly packed in
boxes or casks. On the other hand, if imperfectly prepared, it will
not keep long, and is quite useless for an export trade.

The illustrations represent two distinct types of evaporators, of which
there are a number of kinds. The first of these is what may be termed
the upright class, to which the Zimmerman machine belongs. In these
machines the evaporating chamber is above the furnace, and the heated
air, after passing through the trays of fruit, escapes through a covered
chimney at the top. The second illustration represents a machine
known as Dr. Ryder's patent, and it is claimed for it that the air passes
off more quickly than in the upright evaporators, and that consequently
the fruit is more effectively dried.

Machine with Inclined Plane.

73
Sulphuring.

It is customary to subject pared and sliced fruit, when freshly cut,
to the fumes of sulphur for a short period. This process is called
•bleaching, and prevents the discoloration of the fruit, through contact with
the air, that would otherwise take place. In the case of apples, and many
other kinds, it is essential that the dried fruit should be of a light
colour.

The reasons for sulphuring fruit are twofold. One is to brighten the
appearance and give the prepared material a lighter colour than it would
have otherwise. The second object is to prevent the dried fruit from
being attacked by insects, as the sulphuring kills any eggs that may
exist, and prevents others from being deposited. But special care must
be taken that the sulphuring is not too strong or long continued. When
the freshly-sliced fruit is subjected to sulphur fumes for a few minutes
the gas merely penetrates the surface, and afterwards escapes during the
process of drying. But if the sulphuring is heavy and long continued, or
done after the fruit is dried^ as is sometimes the case, the gas penetrates
deeply. Badly-dried fruit that is too dark in colour is often treated in
this way to bleach it, and make a more marketable article. Fruit
sulphured over-much, or after drying, is unwholesome and very indi-
gestible, as the "sulphurous " acid originally introduced becomes after a
while " sulphuric " acid.

Sulphuring must be done in a building specially erected for the
purpose, and so arranged that the fumes may be equally and effec-
tually distributed. The fruit is arranged on the same trays as for
drying, and these, if constructed with cleats on the ends, to bear
the weight, may be piled on each other. A very small bleaching-
roona will be sufficient for a large quantity of fruit. The time required
to complete the sulphuring process will vary according to the amount of
sulphur used, and the kind of fruit ; and some little experience will be
necessary before the operator is thoroughly expert. From a quarter to
half-an-hour is the time generally allowed. The sulphur bleaching
process is applied equally to sun-dried fruit and that prepared by
artificial evaporation.

Packing Dried Fruits.

When the process of drying is complete, the prepared fruit should be
bulked in heaps or boxes, so that it may slightly ferment, or "sweat,"
as it is technically termed. This process softens the fruit and improves
its condition. Care must be taken that the fermentation is not too
strong, and in order to avoid this the fruit should be turned occasionally,
or, if in boxes, poured from one to another. The time required to
complete the process will vary somewhat according to the fruit, and
will range from forty to sixty hours. When the fruit is placed in the
boxes for market, it should be packed with care, so that it will open out
with a good "face." It is customary with European and American

74

packers to flatten some of the fruit by passing it through rollers such as
those of a clothes wringer. This flattened fruit is laid carefully the cut
side down on the bottom of the box, which is then filled up with the
quantity it is to contain. The fruit is then firmly pressed, and the lid
nailed on. The box is then inverted, the brand or label aflaxed, and
what was the bottom becomes the top of the package. Various kinds
and sizes of boxes are in use for packing dried fruits, but it will be
advisable for cultivators and manufacturers to confine themselves to a
limited number. The most suitable sizes for marketing are boxes that
will hold fifty and twenty-five pounds respectively. The boxes should
be neatly lined with white paper, in such a way that they will have a
nice appearance when opened out. Dried fruits may be packed in
cotton or canvas sacks, but they show to greater advantage, and are less
liable to injury, when arranged in boxes.

Canning Fruit.

This mode for preserving fruits has become very popular within the
last few years, and promises a much wider extension in the future. The
piocess can be successfully applied to most stone, pip or berry
fruits, but it is confined chiefly to such kinds as can be utilised for
culinary purposes. Pears are prepared by peeling, quartering and
coring. Apricots may be left whole, or halved, and the stones removed.
Peaches are treated in the same way, and may be either peeled or not, at
the option of the operator. Plums may be halved and stoned, or left
whole. Cherries, gooseberries and other small fruits are left whole.
Pine Apples should be pared and sliced. When the fruit has been
prepared in such form as may be necessary, it should be placed in the
cans, which are then filled nearly to the tops with water or syrups of
various densities, according to the nature of the fruit or the require-
ments of the operator. The lids are then fixed on, leaving a minute
vent-hole in the centre of each. The cans are then placed on iron
frames or trays, and plunged three-fourths of their depth in boiling
water. As to the time the cans are left in the boiling water some
judgment, based on experience, is required, as the necessary amount of
cooking varies with diff'erent fruits, and even the one kind under
dissimilar conditions may require a difference in treatment. When the
cans are taken out of the water they are allowed to cool, and the vent is
soldered up. The success of the operation depends in a large measure
upon the skill and judgment of those who direct the work. As a rule
canning can be carried on most successfully in factories equipped with
the most perfect labour-saving appliances, and directed by skilled experts.
The cost of a perfect plant, including the latest improved tin-working
machinery, is considerable, and operations must be upon a large scale,
with a well-arranged division of labour, in order that fruit may be
canned at a low cost, so that it can compete in the world's markets.
Though some of the larger orchardists may possibly make canning pay,
yet smaller growers will necessarily have to depend upon factories to
work up their produce.

75

Preserving Fruit in Bottles or Jabs.

This mode of preserving fruit is based upon the same principles as
canning, and is, in fact, the original method. The bottles or jars arc
filled with fruit, over which is poured water or syrup, according to the
fruit and the requirements of the operator. The bottles or jars are
then plunged nearly to their tops in a tank of boiling water, and when
taken out they must be corked quickly while hot. When they have
cooled, the corks should be sealed to keep them air-tight, and the vessels
labelled with the name of the fruit.

Jams, Jellies and Marmalade.

Copper Preserving Pans.

The preservation of fruit under these
forms has been practised from remote
periods, and considerable quantities are
utilised in this way. Formerly fruit for
these purposes was mostly treated in
small quantities for family use, but
latterly the work to a great extent has
been taken up as a regular business,
and is carried on in factories estab-
lished for the purpose. From a com-
mercial point of view these establish-
ments have the advantage, as they are
fitted up with the most perfect appli-
ances, and are under skilled manage-
ment. Consequently the factory-made
articles are more uniform in quality,
and can be produced at a cheaper rate
than those made under less favourable
conditions. These are advantages that
cannot be ignored by fruit growers,
and more especially as it is necessary to
develop an export trade in these pro-
ducts. When fruit is treated by
growers they should obtain the most
perfect appliances for boiling that are
within their reach, take the greatest
care in manipulating the fruit, and to
pack their products in a suitable and
neat way. As a matter of course, vari-
ous fruits require dissimilar treatment,
and full details will be found in the
special articles dealing with each kind.

Showing jacket with tap through
which steam is forced.

Showing how pan is swun^ on
a pivot to facilitate emptying.

76

Crystallising Fruits.

This mode of preserving is adopted to some extent in Europe for
several fruits, and it may be successfully practised with most kinds.
The theory of crystallising is to extract the watery juices from the fruit
and replace them by sugar. In the first place, the fruit should be
carefully selected, so that it is perfectly uniform in ripeness and texture.
The mode of preparation will, as a matter of course, depend upon the
fruit, and some kinds require very different treatment to others. Berry
fruits, such as Strawberries, Baspberries, Blackberries, &c., must be left
whole. Apricots, Peaches, Nectarines, Plums, Cherries and Date Plums
should be halved, and the stones removed. Loquats should have their
seeds removed. Apples, Pears and Quinces should be peeled, cored and
sliced. Small Tomatoes may be left whole, medium-sized ones halved,
and large specimens sliced. In preparing the peel of Oranges, Lemons and
Citrons, the fruits are at first quartered and soaked in a strong brine of salt
£.nd water, after which they are thoroughly washed to extract the saline
matter before the syrup is applied. Small Oranges of the Kumquat and
Mandarin sections are crystallised whole, or they may be halved. When
whole fruit is treated, the process of crystallising will be facilitated by
puncturing the Oranges with wires, which enables the syrup to penetrate
more freely. All fruits should be sufficiently ripe for their flavours to
be fully developed.

When the fruit has been prepared in whatever form may be necessary,
in accord&nce with the foregoing directions, it should be placed in
baskets, boxes or buckets, with perforated bottoms or sides, and plunged
into boiling water. The object of this is to dilute the juices, and
facilitate their extraction. Care must be taken that the fruit is not
immersed too long, as if so it will become partially cooked. On the
other hand, if immersed for too short a time the juice is insufficiently
extracted, and the absorption of syrup is checked. This is the most
important part of the process, and expertness can only be obtained by
practice. As a rule, the softer and smaller the fruit the less time should
it be immersed in the boiling water. The next operation is to place the
fruit in earthern pans or jars, and cover it with a prepared syrup. In
the case of Raspberries and other small, soft fruits, a thick syrup may
be used, as it will be readily absorbed. With larger and harder fruits
a weaker syrup should be used at first, as the sugar is absorbed more
slowly. Afterwards a thicker syrup will be necessary. In making the
syrup it is necessary to use white sugar. The fruit and syrup is allowed
to remain in the pans for several days, according. to its size, softness and
kind. Jt must be carefully watched, and if there are signs of fermenta-
tion the fruit should be heated to the boiling point, to check the working.
This process must be again repeated, if necessary, till the operation is
complete. The time necessary to complete the process of crystallisation
will, as a matter of course, vary according to the nature of the fruit, and
will range from two to six weeks. When the operation is complete the
fruit should be lifted from the syrup and allowed to dry slowly. After
it is dry it should be again dipped in a thick, hot syrup, and allowed to

77

cool slowly, so that a coating of sugar will cover the fruit. If glazed
fruit is required it should be dipped in the same way, but must be
cooled quickly.

Insects Injurious to Fruits.

The fruit cultivator has to contend against a number of troublesome
insects, some of which cause a large amount of injury to trees or crops.
These should, as far as is practicable, be kept under by such remedies
as are at command, and by adopting this plan the injurious effects of
these pests may often be considerably lessened. But though the subject
is of such vital importance to fruit-growers, yet, strange to say, only a
comparatively small number are acquainted with the habits of these
insects, or the remedies that can be adopted against them. In addition
to their scientific classification, insects, for practical purposes, are grouped
according to the manner in which they attack plants. First — Insects
destroying foliage, such as the Caterpillars. Second — Insects feeding upon
the surface of the leaf, bark or fruit, such as the Scale. Third — Insects that
bore into the fruit, such as the Codlin Moth. Fourth — Insects that bore
into the stems, branches or roots. Each of these classes will necessarily
require a different mode of treatment. In a book like this, the subject
can only be lightly treated, and to deal with it thoroughly a perfect work
upon entomology would be required. The writer proposes to draw
attention to some of the principal of our troublesome insects, though it
must be understood he does not profess to deal with the whole of them.
This can only be done by the professed entomologist. In this part of
the work only those kinds are dealt with that are generally destructive
and troublesome to various kinds of fruits. Other insects, such as the
Codlin Moth and American Blight, etc., which confine themselves to
certain kinds, will be dealt with in treating upon the par-
ticular fruits that they prey upon. The descriptions of the
insects are necessarily brief, in order that too much space will not be
given to the subject. For the same reason, the remedies are given in as
concise a form as possible, and only such as have proved effective are
recommended.

Aphides. — There are various species of this family, more commonly
known as " plant flies " or '■ lice," which are injurious to fruit trees.
Some are peculiar to particular kinds of trees, while others are more
cosmopolitan in their habits, and affect various families. The insects are
minute flies, varying in colour from green to brown, black and white.
They make their appearance at various seasons, thickly clustering upon
the shoots, leaves and flowers, from which they extract the juices, and
choke up the pores vvith their excreta. The most certain and effective
remedies are syringing with strong tobacco water or soft-soap and kero-
sene. An infusion of the leaves of the Walnut and Elderberry is also a
good application.

Caterpillars. — Yaiious sorts of caterpillars are troublesome to fruit-
growers, and when in large numbers they often do much damage.
These pests feed upon the leaves, flowers, and young fruit, and are

78

somewhat difficult to deal with. Remedies : — Their ravages may to
some extent be checked by dusting powdered lime over the trees.
Spraying with a solution of London Purple, or with tobacco, elder, or
walnut-leaf water will also help to keep them under.

Cherry Borer (^Maroga gigantella). — This is a troublesome moth, the
larvae of which is very destructive to Cheriy and Peach, as also Plum
trees. The perfect insect is small, white, with a black spot on each
wing. The larvae first tunnels under the bark, then bores into the heart
of the tree, and is indicated by sawdust excrescences. It is very
powerful, is about an inch long, and bores very quickly. Remedies : —
Syringing with kerosene emulsion, hot water, and phenyle.

Cherry Boher.

Fig 1. Branch with sawdust-like excrescences showing the effects of the
grub. 2. Larvse working in its bore. 3. Larvse (natural size). 4. Perfect
insect (natural size).

79

Crickets {Gryllus servillei). — These insects are sometimes very-
troublesome in orchards and vineyards, as they eat the bark of the
stems and branches, and often to such an extent that the trees are
destroyed, or very seriously injured. Trees can. in a large measure, be
protected from their ravages by enclosing the trunks with pieces of tin,
so as to form smooth sides, up which the insects cannot travel. As a
matter of course, no space should be left between the tin and the bark
through which they may crawl. A mixture of soft-soap, sulphur, quassia,
and Paris Green or London Purple is a good preventive. Take soft-
soap and quassia at the rate of two ounces each to every gallon of water,
and add the arsenical poison in the proportion of one ounce to every ten
gallons. Paint the trees or vines so that they will receive a good coating.
Crickets may also be kept under by poisoning them with a mixture of
arsenic and bran sprinkled on the ground.

Elephant Beetle (^Orthorrhinus cylindrirostris). — A very destructive
insect, belonging to the Weevil family. The perfect insect is dark-
brown, marked with patches of jireyish-white, and rather less than an
inch in length. The grub is yellowish-white, with a reddish-brown
head. Great ravages are caused by the insect in its larvae stage, boring
into the branches of the Apricot, Peach, Orange, Vine, and other fruit
trees or shrubs. Remedies : — The only successful method, as far as is
known, for checking this pest is hand-picking. Possibly, spraying
with some powerful solution might prove useful, as in the case of other
borers.

Elephant Beetle.

Fig. 1. Full-grown larvae. 2. Pupa. 3. Perfect insect, Male. 4. Perfect
insect. Female (side vie^v).

80

Green Beetle (Diphucephala collaspidoides). — This is a very trouble-
some insect in various parts of Australia, and more particularly in sandy
soils. It belongs to the well-known "■ Cockchafer " family, a very
destructive class of insects in European orchards. Green beetles make
their appearance in great numbers, rapidly destroy the leaves of any
trees they may attack, and they specially aftect Cherries and Plums.
The insect is about one-third of an inch in length, and in colour a
bright shining green. It usually makes its appearance in the early
summer and remains till the end of the year, when it lays its eggs and
dies. Remedies : — Spraying with kerosene emulsion, Bordeaux: Mix-
ture, and tar water will help to destroy them, as will also boiling water.
Sulphur fumes will cause them to drop from the trees, and when lying
on the ground they may be destroyed by rolling, beating, or burning.
The insects should be invariably attacked while young, being then more
easily destroyed.

Mealy Bug (Dactylopins), various species. — A well-known and very
troublesome small insect, which is covered with a thick powdery sub-
stance, hence its common name. It is often troublesome to Oranges and
other evergreen trees. Remedies : — Kerosene emulsion and strong
tobacco water sprayed over the trees.

Mealy Bug.

Insect with meal removed (highly
magnified).

Insect in natural state (magnified).

Harlequin Beetle (Diyidymvs versicolor). — Rather handsome little
insects, about half-an-inch in length, and richly maiked with yellow,
orange, red, and black. They are natives of Australia, and with other
species of the same family are widely distributed. They are said to
cause trouble by puncturing the skins of Apples, extracting the juice,
and causing the fruit to spot. Remedies : — Use lime freely, and tar
water ; also shaking the trees, to cause the insects to fall, collecting

81

them in sheets, and spraying with benzole. "When the fruit is too far
advanced for the trees to be shaken, the insects can be made to fall
freely bv making a dense smoke under them.

Harlequin Beetle.

Ficf. 1. Insect at work upon fruit. 2. Adult Male (natural size).
3. Adult Female (natural size). 4. Adult Female (under view). 5.
Insect two-thirds grown. 6. Section of fruit showing effects of insects.

Pear and Cherry Slug (Selandria cerasi). — This insect, known also as
the Slug Worm, is one of the " Saw flies,'* and is very destructive to
Pear and Cherry trees. The perfect insect is about a quarter of an inch
long, with a shining black body and transparent wings. The larvse, or

82

slug, is about half-an-inch lon^, dark green in colour, and slimy. The
insects feed upon the leaves of Cherries and Pears, which are often injured
by them. Remedies -.—Spraying with kerosene emulsion before the fruit
is far advanced in growth and dusting with lime. Hellebore as a spray
or powder.

Pear and Cherry Slug.

Fig. 1. Showing larvse upon
insect (natural size).

a leaf. 2. Larvse (natural size). 3. Perfect

Hed Spider (Tetranychus telarius). — This is a well-known minute
insect pest belonging to the Mite family, which is sometimes found
on fruit trees, and more especially Plums and Peaches. They are very
small, make their appearance in large numbers, and spread rapidly.
Remedies : — Tobacco water, soft-soap and quassia in equal proportions.
The writer can also recommend for this pest, and many others, that
boiling water be poured over leaves of the Elder {Samhucus nigra) and
allowed to stand for two or three days, when it may be applied with a
syringe or sprayer. It is a powerful and economical insecticide for any
of the Aphides, Mites, and other small pests.

Red Spider.

Fig. 1. Young insect (highly magnified). 2. Perfect insect, Male (highly
magnified). 3. Perfect insect. Female (highly magnified).

83

» *

4. Insects (slightly magnified). 5. Webs with eggs, dry and moist (highly
magnified).

Rutherglen Fly Pest. — This pest, which caused such consternation
two or three years ago, and more especially in the Rutherglen district,
Victoria, is said to be a species of RhyparochromuSy and belongs to the

EUTHERGLEN BEETLE.

Fig. 1. Branch of Cherry with insects
working. 2. Insect (slightly magni-
fied). 3. Insect (highly magnified).

84

family called Wood-bugs. It is closely allied with what the Americans
call the '' False Chinch Bug," a veiy troublesome insect. The Ruther-
glen species is small, but very destrwctive, as it appears in large
numbers and spreads rapidly. The insect acts by piercing through the
skin of the fruit and sucking the juices, which causes it to shrivel up.
It attacks nearly every kind of summer fruit, and is especially destruc-
tive to Apricots, Peaches, Plums, Cherries, and Grapes. Mr. French,
Entomologist, Victorian Department of Agriculture, says that benzole
alone seemed to be the only thing which had the merit of instantly
destroying the pest without injury to the fruit.

Scale. — There are a great number of insects known under the name
of Scale, and they belong to various families. Many fruits have their
own particular Scale insects ; while some of these pests are cosmopolitan

Prominent Types of Scale Insects.

Common Scale (Lecanium).

Mussel Scale (Aspi-

ODOTIS).

1. Insects (natural size). 2. Insect (greatly
magnified).

Oyster Scale (My::laspis).

1. Egors in shell (highly
magnified).

2. Insects (natural size).

Fig. 1. Perfect insect (natural size). 2. Perfect
insect (highly magnified). 3. Scales (highly
magnified). 4. Branch of tree showing scales
natural size.

85

in their ravages, and attack indiscrioiinately
various trees. They are all very injurious,
as they suck the juices from the plants to a
great extent. Remedies : — The Scale insects
are rather difficult to deal with, owing to
their hard shells or coverings. Kerosene
emulsion, made rather thick, is one of the
most effective applications. Common starch,
mixed as by laundresses, is a favourite remedy
with some. The stems and branches of
affected trees should also be painted with a
thick lime wash, with soft-soap added at the
rate of half-a-pound to the gallon.

Slugs and Snails. — These pests are often
very troublesome, and more particularly in
moist weather and in old gardens. They are,
however, easily detected, and can generally
be kept under with little difficulty by fre-
quently dusting lime or soot over the surface
soil, or occasionally giving a light sprinkling
of salt.

Thrips. — This is a wsll-known genus of
minute and destructive insects, which in-
cludes a number of species. They attack
many kinds of plants, the perfect insects and
larvae being generally found underneath the
leaves. Their action is to suck the sap from
the leaves, and consequently injure the trees.
They are rather difficult insects to deal with.
Kemedies : — Dusting with powdered
sulphur when the leaves are wet.
Syringing with soft soap and water
made rather thick, and used when
warm. Spraying with water in which
Elder leaves have been steeped. The
stems of the trees and branches, as
far as practicable, should also be
painted with a mixture of soft-soap,
sulphur, and lime, in about equal
proportions.

White Ants. — These are very
troublesome pests to fruit-growers
in some districts, and often do much
damage to buildings and trees.
Remedies : — Making several holes
round their nests from 9 to 12 inches
deep, pouring into each a wine-
glassful of bi-sulphide of carbon, and
then covering them tightly. Another

Cottony Cushion Scale

(JCEHYA PURCHASi).

Insects (slightly magni-
fied).

Thrips.

Fig. 1. The Larva (highly magni-
fied).

Ficr. 2. Perfect Insect (highly
magnified) .

Fig. 3. 'Side-view of Head (highly
magnified).

86

plan is to make a paste of sugar and
ai-senic, in equal proportions ; spread
on a piece of soft deal board, which
should be lightly buried near to
where the pe^ts are troublesome.
They will soon find out the piece of
board, and the paste will poison them
in great numViers.

Wood-lice. — The common wood-
louse (Oniscus asellua) is a well-known
insect that is sometimes troublesome
in Strawberry plantations, but other-
wise causes little damage in orchards
or Imit gardens. It is from half to
three-qaarters of an inch in length,
with a flat body, and 14 feet. In
colonr it is a brown, slaty blue, and
the back forms a shell. Bemedies : —
Poisoning with solations of arsenic, in
which potatoes, parsnips, or other
roots have been cooked. These should
be placed near the haunts of the
insects.

Fig. 4. Leaf showing Insects (natural

size).
Fig. 5. Perfect Insect with wings

spread (highly magnified).

Useful IvsEcm.

Though the fruit-grower is troubled by a large number of injurious
insects, yet there are others, though the list is limited, that are useful
The more prominent among these friendly insects are the true Lady-
birds, which embrace a number of species, the family being known
scientifically as the Coccinellidce. These insects, both in the adult and
larvae or young state, wage incessant war with the various kinds of
Aphides and Si^IC; and they materially assist in keeping these pests
under. All the family are very active and voracious, and they will
rapidly devour large numbers of the insects they prey upon. They are
widely distributed over the world, and some fifty distinct species are said
to be found in Australasia. The following species are the most useful and
common of those to be found in Victoria and New South Wal*:8 : —

Oreus AtLgtraUuue. — ^A steel-blue species, the larvse of which eats with
avidity the orange and other scale insects, and various kinds of aphides.
In colour the larvae is black, with a whitish line extending throughout
its length, and is a little more than a quarter of an inch long. The
perfect insect Is a steel-blue beetle, with bright red spots.

Orcut ckalybeus, another small steel-blue species, is also an effective
enemy to various scale insects It is exceedingly voracious, and carries
on an active wmHaxe against the pestv it preys npoo.

Lets eonformis is a rather large specief, with large dots, which eats
with avidity the orange and other kinds of aphi^, as also the American
or Woolly Blight that affieeU Apple treesn

87

Verariia crenata and Ualyzia galbula are two of the more conspicuous
species found in the warmer parts of Australia, and both do good service
as destroyers of aphides. Many other useful species might be named,
but a complete list would only be suitable for an entomological work.
The true Lady-birds have strongly convex backs, and the ground colour
is either red, yellow, or blue. When the ground colour is red or yellow,
the spots or markings are generally black — if the ground colour is blue,
the markings are red or yellow. The insects are prolific, and the females
lay their eggs in patches of from twenty to a hundred, on the stems or
beneath the leaves of plants, and they generally choose those affected
with plant lice or Scale. The eggs are very small, oval, and generally
pale yellow, but in some species the colour is deeper. Considering the
great service these friendly insects perform for fruit-growers, they
deserve to be better known and protected, and their increase and distri-
bution should be encouraged in every possible way.

Useful Lady Birds.

#

^ ,

!♦'*

f^

Fig, 1. Halyzia galbula (hic^hly magni-
fied). lA. Ditto (natural size).

Fig. 1. Orcus Australasitv (highly mag-
nified). 1a. Ditto (natural size).

Fi}5r. 1. Verauia frenata (highly
magnified). 1a. Ditto (natu-
ral size).

Fig. 2. Pupa enveloped in larval skin
(highly magnified). 2a. Ditto (natural
size). Fig. 3. Larviv (highly magni-
fied). 3a. Ditto (natural size).

88

Fig.l. Leis eonformis (liiofhiy magnified).
1a. Ditto (natural size). Fig. 2.
Larvae (natural size). Fig. 3. Pupa
(natural size).

Fig. 1. Orcus chalybeus, female
(magnified). 2. Head and
prothorax of male. 1a.
Ditto (natural size).

There is, however, one group of this family embracing several species,
and known scientifically as the Upilachnince, which are leaf-eating
insects, and very injurious to certain plants. They are great nuisances
to potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, melons, pumpkins, and several other
plants, which they feed upon voraciously, both in their larvae and adult
stages. These insects are often mistaken for useful speciep, and
encouraged to spread. On the other hand useful species are often con-
demned and destroyed in the mistaken belief that they feed in the same

Injurious Lady Birds.

Epilachna 28-punctata, Leaf-eating
Ladybird (highly magnified).

Fig. 1. Epilachna guttato-pustulata
(highly magnified). 1a. Ditto (natural
size).

89

"^ Epilachna 28-punctata, side-view Larva of Epilachna 28-punctata
(magnified). side-view (magnified).

Pumpkin leaf showing ravages of Epilaclma.

way as the plant-eating group. They are somewhat difficult to
distinguish from the useful kinds by the ordinary cultivator, and the
safest plan will be to take notice of the habits of any particular kind
before coming to a conclusion. When it is necessary to destroy injurious
Lady-birds the most effective means will be to spray with an arsenical
solution.

Fungi Injurious to Fruits.

Fruits often are serioudy affected by fungi, and cultivators should
therefore adopt all practicable means for keeping these pescs under.
Some of them may be checked materially, if remedial measures are
taken before the evil is wide-spread ; but others again cannot be so
readily dealt with. The kinds of injurious fungi are numerous, and
many are, unfortunately, too familiar to cultivators, but others again are
less known, and very frequently their presence is unsuspected. As a
matter of course, the writer does not propose, in a book of this kind, to

90

mention all the known species of fungi that are injurious to vegetation,
but merely a few of those that are best known and most troublesome to
fruit-growers. Some of these are more or less cosmopolitan in attacking
various fruits, others again confine themselves to single kinds or
families. These latter will be dealt with in the special articles upon the
different kinds of fruits, and those only are noticed, in this part of the
work, that are troublesome to various families. But though the list
named may not be so complete as some would wish, yet cultivators must
bear in mind that the treatment recommended for those mentioned is
also applicable to many others.

Black Knot. — This is a peculiar and con
spicuous excrescence sometimes found on stone Black Knot.

fruit trees, and more especially the Plum and
Cherry. It is rather troublesome to fruit-
growers in Europe and America, but is but
little known in this part of the world. There
is some uncertainty as to what causes the
disease, as authorities are divided in opinion as
to whether it is brought about by insects or
fungi. But the weight of authority is in
favour of the fungoid theory. The knots vary
in size, ranging from half-an-inch to twelve
inches, or more, in length. The excrescence is
generally on one side only of the branch, which
it usually kills in time. The name is derived
from the fact that the knots assume a dark
colour in the winter, and the outer surface
hardens. Remedy : — The only eff'ective way
of dealing with the evil is to cut the
excrescences away with a sharp knife, taking
care to burn them, so that the fungus germs
are effectively destroyed, or otherwise the
disease will again make its appearance very
quickly. The cut parts of the branches should
be painted over with a composition of lime and
sulphur in equal proportions, with a small
quantity of kerosene added.

Fusicladiiims. — These are a very common
and troublesome class of fungi, embracing
several species, which cause serious injury to
many fruits, and more especially Apples and
Pears. Commonly the fungus is known as
" Scab." They make their appearance on the
leaves of the trees in the spring in the form of
little dark dots. These afterwards appear upon
the young fruit, often in patches, which have the

appearance of scabs. The fungus grows upon the fruit, which is conse-
quently rendered more or less worthless. "Remedies : — Soap and sulphur,
bluestone and ammonia, green vitriol.

91

Mildew. — Various fungi pass under the name of Mildew, and some
are widely different in appearance and effects to others, and as a
matter of course the same remedies cannot be generally employed.
The greatest trouble to fruit-growers is caused by two of these fungi,
which are peculiar to the Grape, and though they are quite distinct,
yet both are popularly known as " Vine Mildew," or " Vine Moulds" -
Different kinds of Mildew affect other fruits, more or less, and some-
times cause considerable injury. This class of fungi, as a rule, increase
with great rapidity, and one tree may soon affect others. They are also
readily spread by means of affected plants from one locality to another.
But in most cases, where mildew is troublesome, there are predisposing
causes. These causes, as in the case of Canker, are various, and may be
induced by anything that lessens the vital energy of the plants. Probable
causes are over-bearing, lack of nourishment, want of drainage and
severe drought. Starved fruit trees and soddened roots may be con-
sidered the chief predisposing causes, Remedies : — In the first place, if
there are any likely predisposing causes, they must be promptly
removed, and the trees placed under more favourable conditions for
growth. The best specifics for most kinds of fungi are lime and
sulphur. These may be used separately, or blended in equal propor-
tions, and applied by dusting the affected plants. Another way of
applying these remedies is to take 1 lb. of freshly-slaked lime, and the
same quantity of sulphur, adding six pints of water. Mix thoroughly
and boil over a brisk fire for ten minutes, taking care to stir all the
time. Allow the liquor to cool, and for each pint of the solution add
six gallons of water, and apply as a spray. Particular care must be
taken to deal with Mildew as soon as it makes its appearance, as all
kinds, if allowed to make much headway, are not easily driven away.

Bust. — Several species of fungi are known under the general term
" Rust," and they are distinguished by the addition of the name of the
plant they mostly affect. Various fruits are affected \vith their parti-
cular *' Rusts," the most troublesome being one that appears on Peaches,
Almonds, Apricots, and Plums, commonly known as " Peach Rust."
When the fungus is present, the affected leaves become freckled with
yellow spots, and these sometimes unite so as to form large patches.
As a matter of course, the tissue of the leaves is injured, and they fall
to the ground. Sometimes the fruit is also affected by the fungus, to
its great detriment. Remedies : — Sulphate of iron or green vitriol as a
spray. Bluestone and lime as a spray.

Sooty Blight. — This fungus is often found upon evergreens, and more
particularly on the leaves of trees of the Citrus family. A good many
people suppose that this black matter is caused by ants, but such is not
the case. Ants are really useful scavengers to the trees, as they assist
in some measure in keeping down other small insects. In reality the
soot fungus is mainly caused by the Scale insects, as it is developed on
their sugary secretions. It also makes its appearance upon the secre-
tions left by Aphides. Remedies : — Get rid of the insects mentioned,
and the Sooty Blight will necessarily disappear. Its disappearance will
also be facilitated by dusting powdered lime over the trees.

G

92

Shot-hole Fungus.

Branch of Apricot, with Fruit, showing the effects.
Shot-hole Fungus ( Phyllosticta circumcissa). — This is unfortunately a

93

too well-known and very troublesome fungus, that often causes great
injury to stone fruit trees, and more particularly the Apricot. The
fungus affects both the leaves and the fruit, and the former have the
appearance of being riddled by shot, hence the common name. It is
somewhat difficult to keep under, and this can only be done by constant
attention. Remedies: — Spraying with (1) Bordeaux Mixture, (2) Eau^
Celeste, (3) Ammonia — Carbonate of Copper. Each will be found fairly
effective. They should be used by several applications, and the first one
ought to be given just as the leaf buds are beginning to swell. When
the leaves are about half grown a second spraying may be given, and
further applications every two or three weeks, as may be necessary.
Care should be taken to use the same preparation through the season.
Though there appears to be no absolute cure for this fungus, yet by the
judicious application of the remedies named its injurious effects may be
materially reduced.

Diseases Injurious to Fjruits.

Canker. — Fruit trees often suffer from various diseases, in addition to
the attacks of insects and fungi. One of the most destructive of these
diseases is what is rather vaguely known as " Canker," which unfor-
tunately is widely spread in this part of the world. The disease is
somewhat variable in form, and affects trees in different ways ; but the
effects are always injurious. Canker may be confined to a particular
branch, or may affect a tree generally, and sometimes it makes its
appearance on the stems or roots. This disease may be caused by
various means, and is very difficult to prevent or cure. One of the
principal causes is lack of proper drainage and deleterious matter in
the soil, as under such conditions there is a derangement in the
circulation of the sap. Excessive growth may cause canker, and more
especially if it is prolonged till much later than the proper period.
Consequently, when water is used too freely, by means of irrigation or
otherwise, this disease is not unlikely to make its appearance. Gross
shoots that have not ripened their wood properly before the appearance
of frosts are liable to injury in the form of a variety of canker. An
over-supply of manure may also cause the disease to make its
appearance. Possibly, the most common cause of canker in this part of
the world is the extremes of dryness and moisture that the trees
experience. During a severe drought, when the soil is exhausted of its
moisture, the roots are dried up, and the sap flows slowly, while the
bark shrinks more or less. When rain sets in the trees are suddenly
flushed with sap, the circulation is active, the cells are often ruptured,
and canker follows. The disease may be also caused by the scorching of
the bark of the stems by the sun, and more especially in the case of
young trees. When the scorching takes place the temperature of the
sap is raised to a considerable extent, and the circulation is materially
affected. To avoid this risk the stems of young trees should be
invariably protected from the sun till their heads are large
enough to afford a sufficient shade. Canker is sometimes caused

94

by severe and careless pruning and the exposure of rough
wounds to atmospheric influences. Root canker is often caused by the
non-removal of broken or bruised roots when the trees are planted.
The disease may also, in some cases, be the result of insects that feed
upon the bark and woody tissues. Fungi will sometimes be the cause,
and it may be brought about by lichens and mosses growing upon the
trees. As a matter of course a disease originating from such various
causes, and affecting trees in different ways, cannot be treated by any
general remedy. When branches are affected they should be amputated
when practicable. Shoots that have their points touched should be cut
back. Cankered roots should be cut away when practicable, and every
effort ought to be made to prevent the disease from spreading. But
when the trunks or roots are badly cankered, but little can be done
towards saving the trees. The disease should be treated as soon as it
can be detected, and predisposing causes must be avoided, as far as may
be practicable.

Fire Blight. — This is a disease whose origin is somewhat obscure,
and there are various opinions as to the cauae. Some authorities
consider that the disease germ is a species of bacteria, but others are
of opinion that the cause is to be attributed to influences that affect the
circulation of the sap. The writer's views are in accordance with the
latter opinion, and a long experience has convinced him that it is a
feasible one. In the summer, sometimes, when the sun is very powerful,
and the bark of the trees exposed, the sap becomes unduly heated.
When this occurs the sap does not circulate under normal conditions,
and consequently becomes more or less poisoned. This poisoned sap
will show in patches, which spread rapidly, and the wood and foliage
dry up. Trees that are affected have a withered, blighted appearance,
as if scorched by fire, and hence the name, *' Fire Blight." Sometimes
the disease attacks a tree in various places, and cause its death. In
other cases it confines its attacks to a few branches, which are destroyed,
though the tree in other parts is not affected. The disease is more
especially prevalent among pear trees, though its ravages are not
confined to them alone, as is generally supposed. As regards remedies
there are none, so far as is known. Possibly its ill-effects may be
reduced to a minimum by carefully training and pruning, so that the
foliage will afford effective shade to the stems and branches. In the
case of young trees, whose heads are not large enough to afford perfect
shelter, the stems should be protected by artificial means during the
hottest portion of the year. When the disease appears on the branches
they should be cut back some distance beyond the affected parts, so as
to get rid of as much of the poisoned wood as possible.

Gumming.— 'l^h\B is one of the most troublesome diseases with which
fruit-growers have to contend, and, unfortunately, it is very common
in this part of the world, as also in Europe and America. The disease is
confined to stone fruits, and it more particularly affects the Apricot,
Peach and Cherry. It is caused by the glutinous sap exuding from
wounds or cracks in the bark and forming masses of gum, hence
the name. The causes of this disease are not known with certainty.

95

and no thoroughly effective remedy for it has been found. One of the
causes appears to be over-luxuriant growth and an excess of sap. Severe
pruning undoubtedly is a cause of the disease, and more especially when
large branches are removed. The disease may also be induced by the
action of boring or bark-puncturing insects. In fact, wounds of any
kind in wood more than one year old encourage the direct exudation
of sap and the formation of masses of gum. The only means by which"
gumming can be reduced to a minimum is to practise systematic
summer pruning, and avoid winter cutting as far as is practicable. The
wounds made in the young shoots are small and heal quickly during the
period when growth is active, consequently there is little or no loss of
sap. When large wounds have necessarily to be made they should,
without delay, be painted over with some composition that will prevent
the exudation of the sap, and atiord protection from sun, wind and rain.
A good composition is formed by a mixture of two parts resin and one
of shellac, melted together, with a little tallow added. Though there is
no absolute cure for the disease, it will be advisable to scrape off the
gum masses upon affected trees, and paint over the parts that were
touched with the composition.

Leaf Galls. — These may be caused either by the attacks of insects or
fungi, and though in most cases they are not sufficiently numerous to
materially affect the vigour of the plants, yet sometimes they cause
serious injury. Their formation necessarily causes a derangement of the
circulatory system, more or less, and though only certain parts of the
foliage may be affected, yet the plant loses in vigour. Then, again,
these galls afford breeding grounds for the development of particular
insects and fungi. Whenever galls make their appearance, if few in
number, and they can be easily reached, it will be advisable to remove
the affected leaves by hand and burn them, so as to destroy the germs
of whatever may have caused the trouble. If this plan is not practic-
able, as will be the case with large trees, or when the galls are very
numerous, the affected plants should be frequently sprayed with some
solution for insects or fungi, as the case may demand. Bordeaux Mix-
ture and Kesin compound are effective remedies, as are also fresh slaked
lime and sulphur dusted over the foliage.

Root Galls. — Trees are often troubled with excrescences that form
upon the roots and small fibres, which consequently are unable to perform
their proper functions, and the plants perish sooner or later. On their
first appearance they are in the form of small swellings or " galls " of
various shapes, and they sometimes increase in size up to the diameter
of half-an-inch or more. Some plants will succumb in a few weeks after
they are attacked, but, on the other hand, strong, well-established trees
may be able to withstand the disease for several years. But the vitality
of the strongest trees will steadily decrease after they are attacked, and
they will gradually die off. The cause of this disease is due to Nematode
worms of various species which establish themselves in the soil. These
insects, commonly known as Thread Worms, or Flask Worms, are very
minute, and their mode of action is to bury themselves in the roots, and
whenever this is done *' galls " are formed. As the insects increase

96

with great rapidity, they are always found in large numbers, and
consequently trees are attacked in many of their roots at the same time.
There is some uncertainty as to whether the same worm attacks different
plants, or if each one has its own special insect. When land becomes
infested with these worms it is not an easy matter to destroy them, as
they spread rapidly, and are very tenacious of life. In fact, some species
can remain dormant for years, and then resume activity. Leaf, bark or
fruit-destroying pests that can be seen and got at are comparatively easy
to deal with ; but these Nematode worms may be classed as dangerous
enemies that are difficult to destroy. When trees are affected it will
be advisable to uproot them at once, as there is no known cure. In
this way it may be possible to destroy the worms if they are
merely local. But when the insects are spread through a large
area, to destroy them is a difficult matter. Possibly the most
effective way of coping with the evil is to keep affected land free
from vegetation for a time, so that through lack of sustenance the
insects will die out. This cannot be done without the destruction of the
trees or other plants, but even this heroic remedy is necessary, or
otherwise the worms may spread over large areas. Various chemicals
in solution have been recommended, but they are somewhat uncertain
in their action, and are open to the objection that they may poison the
soil as well as the worms. Possibly some effective means of destruction
may be discovered and it will be well if such is the case, as the evil is
serious, though not generally known. Without doubt many trees die
from the attacks of these Nematode worms in what appears often a
mysterious way, and the true cause unsuspected.

Various Forms of Fruit Tree Poot Galls.

-A' ■•

Fig.

€rrape.

Peach.

Boot hot. — This disease, which often causes serious trouble, is most
commonly caused by fungi, though sometimes it is due to insects.

97

There are various kinds of fungi that cause the trouble, some confining
themselves to particular plants or families, while others take a wider
range. In most cases these parasites attack plants that are wanting in
vigour from some cause, in preference to those that are robust and
healthy. Sometimes, however, they attack trees that are perfectly
healthy. The effects of root rot are very injurious, and if unchecked
the affected plants must sooner or later perish. The disease is ratEei~
difficult to cure and ordinary remedies are somewhat uncertain in their
action. One remedy is to carefully amputate all diseased pieces of roots
before the malady has obtained a strong hold. When plants are badly
affected the better plan is to root them up altogether. But even after
the plants are removed it must be remembered that fungus germs may
remain in the soil, and affect trees that have replaced those destroyed.
Therefore, before replanting, it will be advisable to adopt any practicable
means of destroying the germs of fungi. In the case of small fruits,
such as Strawberries and Raspberries, which are prone to the attacks of
root fungi, affected plantations should be entirely destroyed, and the
land not used again for the same purpose for at least three or four
years. It will also be advisable, when orchard trees have suffered from
this disease, not to replant land if there are reasonable grounds for
believing that it contains fungus germs.

Sunburn. — This complaint, known also under the terms of
" Sunstroke" and " Scalding," causes a considerable amount of damage in
this part of the world, and more particularly in the case of young trees.
It occurs on very hot days, when there is little wind stirring, and the
full power of the sun falls on the bark of the trees. The effects may be
noticed by patches of discoloured bark on the northern or sunny side of
the trees. Very frequently in the case of young trees the bark is
discoloured in a regular strip on the exposed sides. As to what extent
this scorching affects the constitutions of the trees is not known with
certainty, but it is reasonable to suppose that the abnormal excitement
of the sap, which must necessarily take place, will prove injurious.
Sometimes the burning is so severe that the affected bark is actually
killed, and even the wood is often injured ; and such results are
undoubtedly very injurious to the trees. Then, again, it must be
remembered that dead or ruptured patches of bark afford harbour for
the germs of insect and fungoid parasites. Many thousands of young
trees in this part of the world are seriously, and sometimes fatally,
injured from the effects of sunburn. In order to prevent injury it is
advisable to keep the heads of trees low, and to arrange growth, as far
as may be practicable, so that the wood will be effectively shaded by the
foliage. When the heads of the trees are not large enough to afford
the necessary shade, the stems should be protected by covering them
during the hot weather. Strips of bark from small saplings make
excellent coverings, and they have the additional advantages of being
easily obtained in most localities, and they require no tying. Wrap-
pings of canvas, straw or other materials may be used if most convenient.
Care, however, must be taken to remove tne wrappings in the autumn,
when the sun has lost some of its scorching power, as it is essential that

98

the bark of the trees should be exposed fully to the light for the greater
part of the year.

Insecticides and Fungicides.

Fruit-growers are apt to be puzzled by the many remedies sug-
gested by entomologists and vegetable pathologists for coping with the
numerous insects and fungi that are injurious. They are also often
uncertain as to the preparation of these remedies, and when and how to
apply them in the most effective way. This want the writer proposes
to supply, as far as is practicable, in the following remarks, but as a
matter of course the subject has not been dealt with so exhaustively as
some may consider desirable. The first essential in treating insect or
fungoid pests is that the grower should clearly identify the particular
one or the class it belongs to, in order that the proper remedies may be
applied. This is a matter of primary importance, as without this
knowledge time and materials may be wasted. The next consideration
is how the various remedies, either simple or compound, can be most
effectively applied. These specifics are used in the forms of powders
for dusting, paste for painting, in a liquid form for spraying, and vapour
or smoke. Consequently, the fruit cultivator must take care to utilise
each form in the proper way, and in such a manner as will be productive
of the best results.

The remedies most commonly used at the present time for insects are
based upon arsenic, petroleum, and pyr^thrum, or their compounds.
The first of these classes acts upon the stomach and are serviceable
against the mandibular insects or those with biting mouths. The second
and third act by contact with the bodies of insects, and can be applied
more generally.

Alkaline Wash. — A useful preparation for destroying borers and
other insects in the trunks of trees. It is made by mixing a strong
solution of washing soda with soft soap till it has the consistency of
paint.

Ammoniacal Solution of Copper Carbonate. — This mixture has been
used successfully to destroy Grape Mildew, Fusicladiums, and some
borers. It is prepared as follows : — Three ounces of copper carbonate
dissolved in one quart of ammonia. When used, dilute with 22 gallons
of water. A weaker solution is made by using 28 gallons of water. Use
as a fine spray.

Benzole. — This remedy is the only proved effective one for the
Kutherglen " Fly " pest, and its use is recommended against other
insects that attack fruit as it is ripening. It kills insects by contact,
and leaves no perceptible flavour upon the fruit. When used, the
benzole must be kept well stirred, and distributed as a very fine
spray.

Bisulphide of Carbon. — A powerful and useful insecticide for many
root-feeding insects and ants. Its vapour has a deadly effect upon
insect life, and all other living animals, therefore it must be used with

99

caution. Apply it by making small holes round the affected trees ; and
into each of these pour about half a wine-glass of the material. Being
very volatile, the holes must be firmly covered up immediately, and the
insecticide kept in tightly-corked vessels. It is a very cheap remedy,
and this is a recommendation.

Bluestone {Sulphate of Copper). — This material is used in several
compound mixtures, as follows : — Bluestone and Ammonia, dissolve 1 lb.
of bluestone in a gallon of warm water, then add IJ pints of ammonia
and 20 gallons of water. Useful as a spray for Mildews, Rusts and the
softer insects. Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda),
dissolve 2 lbs. of bluestone in a gallon of water, and the same quantity
of sodium carbonate, in separate vessels. Then add 1 J pints of ammonia
and 30 gallons of water. Use as a fine spray. Useful specially for
JB'usicladium or Scab Fungi j also for Mildews, Rusts and the softer
insects.

Bordeaux Mixture. — Bluestone, 5 lbs., dissolved in 4 gallons of warm
water ; fresh slaked lime, 3 lbs., dissolved in 3 gallons of warm water.
When cold, pour the lime-water into the bluestone solution, and
thoroughly mix the ingredients. Add 20 gallons of water, and use in the
form of a fine spray ; or may be dried without adding water, and used as
a powder. Useful for vine and some other Mildews, Fusicladiums, Peach
Rust, Black Spot on vines, and is also serviceable in dealing with some
of the troublesome plant insects. If the arsenical product called
" London Purple," which is obtained in the manufacture of aniline dyes,
is added at the rate of 1 lb. to 100 gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture, the
latter will be a still more effective application against insects.

Carbolic Acid Emulsion. — A useful mixture used as a wash for bark
Scales and Borers. It consists of one part carbolic acid to seven parts
of a solution made of one pound of soap dissolved in two gallons of water.

Caustic Soda and Potash. — One pound of concentrated lye, the same
quantity of caustic soda, and half-a-pound of commercial potash.
Dissolve in six gallons of water. This is an excellent wash for
deciduous trees in the winter, as it materially assists in destroying
insect and fungoid germs.

Eau Celeste. — This consists of lib. sulphate of copper, IJ pints of
ammonia, and 22 gallons of water. Dissolve the sulphate in 2 gallons
of hot water, then add the ammonia, and afterwards the remainder of
the water. Considered a good remedy for Black Spot in vines and
various Mildews. Use as a fine spray.

Eau Orison. — This is a popular remedy in some parts of Europe for
various kinds of Mildew. It is made by mixing 31bs. of lime, the same
quantity of sulphur, and 6 gallons of water, and boiling till reduced to
2 gallons. When used dilute with 100 parts of water. Use as a fine
spray.

Elder-leaf Water. — An infusion of the leaves of the Elder (Sain-
hucus) is a powerful, useful and excellent insecticide, that should be
generally used. It is very effective for any kind of Aphis, Thrips and
Red Spider. Take leaves fresh from the tree and pour over about
twice their bulk of boiling water, covering the vessel to keep the steam

100

in. Let the leaves scak for 48 hours, then pour off the liquid, and
apply as a fine spray.

Hellebore. — Powder of hellebore, applied either dry or in a liquid
fora), was formerly considered to be one of the most useful insecticides
for Caterpillars and other soft-bodied pests, but now it appears to be less
popular, though for no apparent reason, as it is very effective. Lightly
dust the powder where necessary, or if required, apply as a spray ; mix

1 lb. to 10 gallons of water.

Kerosene. — This is one of the cheapest and most effective materials
for destroying insect pests, and is also useful in checking the spread of
some fungi. It is mostly used in the form of an emulson, in which
soap is a prominent factor, and other materials may be added to effect
special objects. Solutions may be made of different degrees of strength
to suit various purposes. No 1 (strong) may be made by dissolving

2 lbs. of soft or ordinary soap in 2 gallons of boiling water ; add
2 gallons of kerosene while boiling hot, and churn violently till the oil
is emulsified ; then add thirty gallons of water and use as a spray. This
emulsion may be used for deciduous plants before growth commences,
and on hard-leaved evergreens. No. 2 (mild) use the same proportion
of soap and water, but only half the quantity of kerosene. This pre-
paration will be better adapted for the more tender-foliaged trees. The
blending of the oil with the soapy water will be facilitated by first
mixing the kerosene with an equal bulk of milk and violently churning
it. Kerosene emulsion is an excellent remedy for the Scale insects
when sprayed or syringed over the trees. Various additions may be
made to these emulsions to increase their effectiveness for particular
purposes. Thus, 2 oz. of Balsam of Fir added to 20 gallons of the
mixture will make the material more adherent to the surface of the
leaves. A small quantity of carbolic acid will increase the effect upon
some insects ; so will London Purple, in the proportion of 1 oz. to 20
gallons. Kerosene mixed with castor, linseed or whale oil in the
proportion of one part to four of oil makes a useful winter dressing
for the trunks and branches of deciduous trees that are troubled with
Scale.

Lime. — This is a very serviceable insecticide, and may be used to
advantage in various forms. Slaked lime is a good remedy for Cater-
pillars, Slugs, Snails, Wood Lice, and other pests, when dusted over the
foliage and under the trees. It also checks Scale insects to some
extent, and facilitates the dispersal of the Sooty Blight upon Orange
and other evergreen trees. It is useful also in combination with blue-
stone, as previously stated. When mixed in the proportion of two
parts to one of sulphur, with sufficient water to bring it to the consis-
tency of a thick paint, adding half a pint of kerosene to 2 gallons, it
makes an excellent dressing for the stems and branches of fruit trees.
When painted with this mixture, many crevices, in which lurk the
germs of insect and fungoid pests, will be filled, and their development
prevented. It is an excellent practice to dress all fruit trees and vines
with this mixture every year. Gas lime is useful when scattered over
the ground in keeping down Slugs, Snails and other pests.

101

London Pur fie. — This is an active arsenical poison, which is very
highly recommended by American authorities as a powerful insecticide
against various plagues ; it is a by-product in the manufacture of dyes. It
should be mixed at the rate of of 1 lb. to 200 gallons of water. Being
a powerful poison, it must be used with care, and only while the fruit
is very small or after it is gathered. Said to be one of the best remedies
for the Codlin Moth and similar insects.

Paris Green {Ar senile of Copper). — Another very active arsenical
poison, which is strongly recommended by American entomologists.
It may be prepared in the same way as London Purple, and used for
similar purposes. As the powder does not dissolve, it must be kept
well stirred while being used. It is an excellent insecticide for all
classes of leaf and fruit-eating insects. Paris Green may also be used
eflfectively in a dry state when mixed with wood ashes, lime or flour,
and dusted over the affected parts.

Pyrethrum, — The powder obtained from the flowers of two species
of Pyrethrum has long been known as possessing powerful properties as
an insecticide, and is largely used for dressing animals under the name of
" insect powder." It is very effective with Aphides and other small
insects, but it is too costly to be generally used. In using, sprinkle the
powder over the affected plants by a dredger or the sulphur-bellows. It
may also be used as a liquid in the proportion of one ounce ot powder
to two gallons of cold water. Apply as a spray, and as the material
is not poisonous may be used safely when fruit is advanced in
growth.

Quassia. — This gives a very bitter solution that is useful in keeping
down the various species of Aphides and preventing their coming.
Boil lib. of quassia chips in 3 gallons of water for two hours. Apply
as a fine spray.

Resin Compound. — This is formed by dissolving lib. of caustic soda
in a gallon of boiling water. Take away half the mixture, then add
81bs. of resin slowly to the remainder, keeping the whole boiling, and
stirring rapidly. When thoroughly dissolved, slowly add that portion
that was held back. Dilute with sufficient water till it will pass readily
through a thin cloth. Before using increase the bulk to 30 gallons by
the addition of water. Use with a fine syringe or spray. This is
considered to be an excellent remedy for the Scale insects. Two ounces
of London Purple added is said to make the compound still more
effective.

Salt. — This material may be used in moderate quantities to keep
down Slugs, Snails and Caterpillars, by sprinkling it overground infested
by these pests. Care must, however, be taken not to use it too freely,
as though in moderate quantities it is beneficial to most soils, yet an
excess may produce very injurious effects.

Soap. — In various forms soap is very useful as an insecticide, and
either the common or soft soap makes an excellent wash for trees, when
diluted in hot water. They are also very serviceable when used in
combination with kerosene, sulphur and other things.

Soot. — This is useful as a substitute for lime when dusted over plants,

102

or around them, to keep down Caterpillars, Slugs or Snails. Rather more
lasting in its effects than slaked lime.

Sulphate of Iron {Green Vitriol). — This is said to be a very effective
and cheap remedy for Mildews and Rusts. Mix at the rate of lib. to 5
gallons of water. Apply as a spray when the atmosphere is damp, or
in the evenings. This material may also be used in stronger solutions
for watering the surface soil, where fungus germs are supposed to be. In
addition to its value as a fungicide, sulphate of iron is also serviceable
as a manure.

Sulphur. — An old and excellent remedy for various fungi, and more
especially the Oidium on vines, for which it is the most effective cure.
Sulphur may be used as a powder dusted over the affected plants, or as
a preventive. The fumes are also very effective when the sulphur is
burnt, not only for fungi, but also with some of the smaller insects.
Powdered sulphur may also be used with advantage in combination
with soft-soap and lime.

2W Water. — This is of some value as an insecticide, as it is very
obnoxious to many pests, such as Caterpillars, Slugs and Wood Lice. One
pound of tar to 50 gallons of water will yield a strong* solution, which
may be used as a spray, or sprinkled over the surface soil, as may be
necessary.

Tobacco. — This is an old-fashioned but excellent insecticide, and may
be applied with advantage to the Aphides and other soft small insects.
It may be used as a powder, in a liquid form and as a vapour or smoke.
Snuff or powder may be dusted over plants that are affected with any of
the small "flies" with good effect. Tobacco water, made by steeping
the leaves or stems in water for 48 hours, is a very effectual application
when sprayed or syringed. The vapour or smoke, as a matter of course,
can only be used effectively in an enclosed space, and is scarcely
practicable by fruit-growers. Tobacco may also be used to advantage in
combination with sulphur and soap.

Walnut-leaf Water. — Though it is not generally known, the leaves of
the Walnut yield an excellent insecticide that is very effective in keeping
down Aphides, Red Spider, Thrips and other of the smaller pests. Take
fresh leaves and pour over them about twice their bulk of boiling water ;
let them soak for 48 hours, pour off the liquor and apply as a fine spray.

There are also many excellent proprietary insecticides and fungicides
which may be used with advantage by fruit-growers.

FEUITS-SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

ABOH.
History.

This fruit is obtained from two species of Vahea, florida and Owariensis
(formerly known as Landolphia), a genus belonging to the natural order
Apocynaceae or Dogbane family. They are strong-growing, climbing
plants, indigenous to Western Africa, and adapt themselves to rather a
wide range of elevation, being found on the high lands up to 2500 feet
above the sea. The fruits are the size of small oranges or less, and have
a sweet but slightly acid pulp, which is greatly relished by the natives.
They are valuable as ornamental plants, as they produce abundantly,
and in succession, large white jessamine-scented flowers. The species
named, and others, also yield caoutchouc in great abundance, and are an
important source of supply for this valuable materia). Aboh is the
native African name.

The order Apocynacese, like Solanacese, is remarkable for embracing a
number of highly poisonous plants and others possessing wholesome
properties. It includes the Oleander (Nerium)^ which is a deadly
poison. The Periwinkle (^Vinca) is astringent and acrid, and others
have similar properties. One of the most deadly plants of the order is
Tanghinia venenata {Cerbera Tanghin), the famous Ordeal Tree of
Madagascar, formerly used as a supposed test of the guilt or otherwise
of those charged with certain crimes. On the other hand, another plant
belonging to the family, Taherncemontana utilis, the Cow or Milk Tree of
the West Indies, yields a wholesome juice, which is largely used as milk
in Demerara and other places.

Cultivation and Propagation.

Being natives of Western Africa, the plants that yield the Aboh
fruit will only thrive in the warmer regions of Australia. The fruit is
almost unknown in this part of the world, but might probably be found
worth cultivating in a congenial climate. As the plants are strong
feeders a rich deep soil is essential. When not naturally rich manure
should be used freely in preparing the land. Being climbers the plants
will require trellises or other suitable supports, and they are admirably
adapted for covering fences and outbuildings in tropical or semi-tropical
regions. Propagation is readily effected by seeds, which should be sown
while fresh, covering them to the depth of half-an-inch. When the

104

young plants are a few inches high they may be planted out where
required. Cuttings of the half ripened young shoots will strike freely in
sand or light soil, under a hand glass, inserting them about an inch
deep. Perhaps the easiest and surest means of raising plants is by
layers, as the branches will root freely and quickly if simply covered
with soil at the parts where they are wanted to strike.

AFRICAN ALMOND.

History.

The plant called the African Almond is known botanically as
Brahejum stellatifolium (^ stellatum )^ and it belongs to the natural order
Proteacese or the Protea family. It is an evergreen shrub, or small
tree, with long lanceolate leaves, and produces racemes of white,
sweetly-scented flowers. There is some similarity between this plant
and the Queensland Nut (Macada^nid), to which it is closely allied. The
fruit or nuts have a hard outer shell, with a single kernel, which, when
roasted, has a somewhat similar taste to the Chestnut. When eaten
raw the nuts possess poisonous properties, but are considered wholesome
after being roasted. The plant is indigenous to a wide area in South
Africa, where it thrives in sandy and peaty soils.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The African Almond can be utilised as an ornamental plant, as its
foliage is very eflfective among other shrubs. It is a moderately hardy
plant, and will adapt itself to various soils and climates. But it thrives
best in a sandy or peaty soil. As, like most other plants belonging to
the same order, it is capable of resisting the efTects of drought, it might
be turned to account in the dry interior districts of Australia. Though
the fruit is inferior in quality to many other nuts, yet the hardiness of
the plant under certain conditions will cause it to be sei-viceable.
Propagation may be eflfected by seeds, layers and cuttings. Seeds may
be sown at any time, and should be covered to the depth of an inch.
Notched layers will root freely if put down early in the spring or
autumn. Cuttings of the ripened wood of the past season's growth,
with the leaves left on, will rtrike freely in a frame or under a hand glass.
They should be inserted about two inches deep in sand or light soil.

AKEE.
History.
This is the fruit of Blighia sapida {Cupania sapida), an evergreen
tree belonging to the natural order Sapindacese, or the Soapwort family,
so called because the berries of a plant included in it (Sapindus
saponaria) are used as soap in the West Indies. The same family
embraces the Chinese fruits known as Longan and Litchi, and the well-
known European Horse Chestnut. The Akee is a native of Western
Africa, and was taken to the West Indies by Captain Bligh, who also
introduced the Bread Fruit to that part of the world, and became still

105

more famous by the mutiny of the Bounty in the South Seas. The
botanic name was given in honour of Captain Bligh. Akee is
the native African name. It forms a handsome tree, with large,
broad, shining leaves, and attains a height of thirty feet or more.
The flowers are white, pro-
duced in racemes from the
axils of the leaves, and as
they are very fragrant, can
be utilised for perfumery.
The fruit is as large as a
goose e:gg, and of a reddish
orange colour. It contains
a yellowish pulpy flesh, in
which are embedded three
black seeds. The edible por-
tion of the fruit has a plea-
sant sub-acid flavour, and in
the West Indies it is very
popular. It is, however,
considered to be most desir-
able when cooked.

Akee.

Cultivation and Pkopagation.

As the Akee is a tropical fruit it can only be successfully cultivated
in the warmer parts of Australia. It is, however, said to be more
hardy than many other tropical fruits, and to be even able to withstand
slight frosts. In sheltered places on the eastern coast of Australia
north of the Clarence River, this tree should thrive well, and it ought to
be at home in the Northern Territory and any of the sub-tropic regions.
It will thrive in any ordinary good soil, but does best in a rich open
sandy loam. AVhenever the climate is congenial the tree is worthy of
attention, owing to its handsome foliage and flowers, as an ornamental
plant, independent of its value as a fruit. Propagation may be effected
by seeds, layers or cuttings. Seeds should be sown soon after the fruit
is ripe, covering them an inch in depth. Layering may be done at any
time of the year, but the most favourable periods are early in the
spring, and at the beginning of autumn. Cuttings of the youn^
shoots, when the wood is about half ripe, with the leaves left on, will
strike freely in a frame or under a hand glass. They should be inserted
about two inches deep in light rich soil or sand.

ALMOND.

History.

The Almond will thrive in many parts of Australasia, but yields larger
and more certain crops in the medium warm districts as a rule. It is,
however, very unreliable in localities that are subject to late spring frosts.
Botanically the Almond is known as Prunus Amygdalus {^Amygdalus
communis of some botanists), and it belongs to the natural order

106

Rosacece, sub-order Amygdalece. In its natural state it is widely-
distributed, being found in many parts of Western Asia, Northern
Africa and Southern Europe. Some authorities consider that the
Almond originally came from the same source as the Peach, both having
similar foliage and wood, but upon this point the evidence is not clear
enough to allow a definite conclusion. There are two classes of Almonds,
known respectively as '' sweet " and " bitter," and these by some
botanists are set down as separate species — the former being called
Arrygdalus dulcis and the latter Amygdalus amara. The bitter Almond
is somewhat more robust and hardy than the other kind, and the
blossoms are larger and paler, but in other respects there is but little
difference in the appearance of the trees. Both classes again embrace
" hard " and '* soft " shelled varieties, the latter being the sorts mostly
cultivated for commercial purposes.

Uses.

Sweet Almonds are largely used by confectioners, and are also
commonly eaten with raisins and other dried fruits. Considerable
quantities are raised for these purposes in Southern Europe and Syria,
where the cultivation of the Almond is an important industry. Both
the " bitter" and the "sweet" Almond, by pressure, yield a bland oil in
large proportions, which is used extensively for culinary and other
purposes. It must be remembered, however, that by distillation the
bitter Almond yields a deadly poison, known as ''essential oil of almonds,"
and therefore great care should be taken that the refuse from the press is
not placed in the way of children or farm stock. The material that
remains after pressing the oil from the " sweet" Almonds makes excellent
food for cattle, sheep or poultry, and may also be turned to account for
flavouring confectionery and pastry.

The cultivation of the Almond should prove profitable in many places,
and more especially in the moderately warm districts. There is a
considerable demand in the colonies for "soft" shell Almonds, and if in
the future a surplus is produced a good market can be found in Europe.
As an oil-yielding plant the Almond should also prove profitable, and
for this purpose alone it deserves attention. If properly treated, the
kernels will yield as high as 25 per cent, of their weight of excellent
oil, which will always find a market, locally or otherwise.

Cultivation.

The trees will grow in any ordinary good soil, though they thrive to
the greatest perfection in a rich, sandy loam of fair depth, with a
gravelly subsoil. In preparing the land, let it be worked deeply, and
more especially if it is heavy, compact soil. Drainage should also be
provided for when necessary, as the Almond will not thrive in ground
that is soddened for any length of time. The best time for planting is
July or early in August, according to the locality, and care must be
taken not to put the trees too deep in the ground. If planted in orchard

107

style, the space between the trees should be from 24 to 30 feet apart,
according to the robustness of the variety and the nature of the soil.
Almonds, and more especially the robust bitter varieties, make very
effective breakwinds for orchards or vineyards when planted round the
boundaries. When used for this purpose the trees may be planted about
10 feet apart in the lines. In the case of young trees, some attention
in pruning is necessary, so as to get strong and well-formed specimens
quickly. Mature trees will require but little pruning, and may be left
pretty much to themselves. Let the ground be kept as free from weeds
as possible, and mulch the surface soil as far as the roots extend before
the warm weather sets in. Propagation is effected as with the Peach,
and for details see article upon that fruit.

In making a selection of Almonds, the " sweet " soft-shelled varieties
are the more desirable sorts, as their produce is most in demand. They
also yield a larger weight of kernels, the proportion to the shells being
about one-half. The weight of kernels in the hard-shelled kinds will
range from 25 to 35 per cent. On the other hand, however, growers
must remember that the soft-shelled sorts are more tender than the other
class, and consequently are more liable to injury from frosts. They are
also less robust in growth. Almonds should be gathered as soon as the
husks or outer coverings have burst open. The best mode is to spread
canvas under the trees and shake down the Almonds. They can generally
be brought down by jarring the branches if they do not fall readily with
an ordinary shaking. Removing the husks by hand is a slow and
troublesome process, but there are machines of American manufacture
that do the work cheaply and quickly. As a light colour is essential to
meet market requirements, the Almonds are usually subjected to a
bleaching process with sulphur. This treatment, however, must not be
given till the Almonds are perfectly dry, and the process should only
last about half-an-hour, or even less in some cases. There are a number
of varieties belonging to the '' soft " shelled class to be found in nursery
catalogues^ but the following list embraces all that are most deserving of
attention : —

Jordan {Tender-shelled^ Soft-shelled Sweet, Ladies'* Thin-shell). —
This is one of the best soft-shell Almonds, and is largely used as a dessert
fruit, also by confectioners. The shell is large and very tender ; kernel
large, white, and sweet. Fruit ripens early. Tree robust, and bears
well. Flowers very small, pale-red, and are produced at the same time
as the leaves. Brand's Jordan, Large Paper Shell and Nonpareil Paper
Shell are sub-varieties, and all excellent kinds.

Large-fruited Sweet (Sweet Hard-shelled). — This is the only hard-
shelled variety that is worthy of attention, as its kernels are used to
some extent in confectionery, being somewhat stronger in flavour than
the other sorts. The tree is also somewhat hardier and more vigorous.
Seeds large, long and broad ; kernels large, sweet and well flavoured.
Ripens very late.

Pistache. — An early variety, highly esteemed in France and other
parts of Europe, but not well-known in this part of the world. The fruit
is smaller than the other kinds, the stone terminating in a sharp point,

H

108

and is about the size and shape of a Pistachia nut CPistachia vera),
hence the name. The shell is tender, but not so soft as the Jordan
varieties, the kernel being sweet and well-flavoured.

Sultana. — This is an excellent soft-shell Almond, somewhat similar
to the Jordan, but not quite so large, and ripens a week or two later ;
kernel sweet and well-flavoured, and largely used by confectioners in
Europe.

ANCHOVY PEAR.

History and Uses.

The Anchovy Pear is a West Indian fruit, produced by a tall, slender,
upright tree, without branches, which attains a height of from 40 to 50
feet. Botanically, it is known as Grias cauliflora, and it belongs to the
Barringtonia section of the Myrtaceae or Myrtle family. The trunk of
the tree is bare, and terminates with a crown of smooth, glossy, elliptical
leaves, which are from two
to three feet in length, and
proportionately broad. Large
white flowers grow out of
the stem below the leaves.
The fruit is large, oval in
shape, brown russet in colour,
and has a single kernel. It
has a flavour somewhat simi-
lar to that of the Mango,
and is used in the same way
as that fruit, when fully ripe,
and in the form of a pickle
when gathered green. The
fruit is highly prized in the
West Indies, but has not
received much attention in
other parts of the world.

The Anchovy Pear — Grias Cauliflora.

Cultivation and Propagation.

This fruit being a native of a warm region can only be grown success-
fully in the tropical or semi-tropical parts of Australia. It would thrive
in localities where the Banana, Mango and Pine Apple will flourish.
In suitable localities it might prove worthy of attention, and the fruit
may, when better known, become popular. Like most tropical plants,
this tree requires a rich soil, and will thrive to perfection in a sandy
loam. It must also be well protected from high winds, and the most
suitable locality for this tree is a sheltered valley. Propagation can
only be practically eff'ected by seeds, though cuttings of the heads and
stems will strike root under a glass or in a frame. Seed may be sown
at any time of the year, covering it about two inches deep. Young
plants from seed may be planted out the following season.

109

APPLE.

The Apple is par excellence the principal fruit of the cooler regions of
the world, being more widely used and generally cultivated than any
other kind, and it remains longer in season. This fruit is very popular,
and it is utilised in a variety of ways. When eaten raw the fruit is
considered to be wholesome and refreshing by most persons, and, there-
fore, it is in great demand. For culinary purposes the Apple is also
consumed in large quantities, and is utilised in various ways. In some
parts of the world considerable quantities of the fruit are turned to good
account in a dried state, and in the shape of cider it supplies a staple
beverage in some parts of England and other European countries, as
also in the United States of America. The Apple will thrive to
perfection throughout the larger portion of Australasia, and is more
especially suited for the more elevated and cooler regions. It is a fruit
deserving of greater attention from cultivators, as there is a large and
rapidly-expanding home demand, and an outlet in the United Kingdom
for any surplus that can be raised for many years to come.

History of the Apple.

The Apple belongs to the natural order Hosacece, or the Rose family
(sub-order, Fomeoi), and is known botanically as Pyrus malus. The
generic name is supposed to be derived from peren, the Celtic word for
the Pear — a fruit to which the Apple is very closely allied. The
common, or English, name is said to have originated from the Celtic
apball or abhall, derived from ball in the same language, and signifying
a round body. In its wild state the species is indigenous to the United
Kingdom and throughout a large portion of Northern Europe. It is
also found in a wild state in some parts of Northern Asia. In its wild
state the fruit of the Apple is widely different in appearance and quality
from the modern cultivated varieties, being small, astringent, acid and
unpalatable. The wild fruit in England is commonly known as the
"Crab Apple." There is no certainty as to when or where the first
improvements originated, but, according to historical records, it must
have been at a very early period.

Pyrus coronaria, a robust species, yields the American " Crab
Apple," and Pyrus rivularis^ also an American species, growing in the
North-western portion of the continent, furnishes an edible fruit that
is eaten by the Indians as food. Pyrus salicifolia, or amygdalceformis,
a European species, also yields edible Apples. Possibly by cultivation
these species might be improved, or they may be crossed with varieties
of Pyrus malus. They might also prove serviceable for stocks if fairly
tried.

The Apple appears to have been well known and extensively used by
the early Hebrews, Greeks, Romans and other ancient nations, as it is
frequently mentioned by their writers. It is frequently referred to in
the fables and traditions of these peoples. The allegorical tree of

no

knowledge, the fruit of which is supposed to have tempted Mother Eve
in the Garden of Eden, is said to have borne Apples. Then, again,
according to the legends of some of the old writers, the golden fruits in
the orchard of Hesperus, which were guarded by a sleepless dragon,
eventually slain by Hercules, were also Apples. Other ancient
authorities, however, inform us that it is the Orange, and not the
Apple, that is referred to in those legends. According to their
historians, the Apple appears to have been extensively cultivated by the
nations of antiquity. Cultural knowledge to some extent appears also
to have advanced considerably among these people, as they practised
several of the arts in propagation and otherwise that are now common
with modern growers. The art of pruning appears to have been
generally practised. Pliny informs us that the art of grafting was well
known and largely practised in his time, and he speaks of its value in
the most enthusiastic and extravagant terms. This writer also informs
us that in the villages around Rome the culture of the A pple was a most
profitable industry, and that single trees were often let for one season
for a sum equal to about £2 10s. of our money, and gave a better
return than could be obtained from an ordinary farm. This appears to
be a somewhat highly-coloured statement, yet we must remember that
Pliny is generally regarded as one of the most reputable and reliable of
the ancient historians.

In Britain the ancient Druids reverenced both Apple and Oak trees,
for the reason that the Mistletoe grew upon them only. The Mistletoe
being the only parasitical plant known to these people, from its habit of
growing upon the trees named, was supposed to have a divine origin,
and was consequently highly venerated. It must be understood that
the only fruit known to the ancient Britons was the wild or Crab Apple.
There is some uncertainty as to when the improved fruit was first
known in Britain, but there is good reason for believing that the
Romans when they invaded England introduced such varieties as were
cultivated in their own country. For several centuries history is mute
as to any progress that may have been made, and there are no reliable
tecords till the reign of Henry YIII. We are informed that in the
16th year of that monarch's reign Pippins were first introduced to
England *' from beyond the seas." They were called pippins on account
of the trees being raised from the pips or seeds, instead of being grafted
plants. The first-named variety on record is the Nonpareil, which is
said to have been taken to England from France in the time of Queen
Mary. Gerard, in his " History of Plants," published near the end of
Queen Elizabeth's reign, mentioned six desirable kinds, including the
*' Quoining" (Queening or Queen of Apples), Summer Pearmain, Winter
Pearmain, Nonpareil, Costard and a dwarf sweet-fruited sort called
Paradisus (Paradise). These names are still to be found in modern
catalogues, but, except in the case of the last-mentioned one, it is
doubtful whether they are identical with the original varieties. As
regards the Paradise, the sort now known as such, and used as a stock
for dwarf trees, seems to be identical with the kind mentioned by Gerard.
This writer also speaks highly in praise of cider, though that beverage,

Ill

said to have been known at the time of the Norman Conquest, was not
common in England till the reign of Charles I. This writer also
informs us that *' there is made an ointment with the pulp of Apples,
swine's grease and rose-water which takes away the roughness of the
skin, and is called pomatum." In the cider districts of England it was
formerly a common practice to salute Apple trees in the hope of obtaining
a great crop the following season, and this custom existed quite recently
in some places. The ceremony consisted in pouring a portion of the
contents of a wassail bowl of cider, with a piece of toast in it, about the
roots of the trees. Pieces of toast were also hung in the branches of the
most barren trees, and the owner, with his family and servants, would
dance around them and sing appropriate songs. A large round Apple
called the Costard, from historical records, appears to have been the
kind most generally grown in England before the better sorts became
numerous. From this the old English term Costard Monger (now
Costermonger) came to be applied to dealers who hawk fruit and
vegetables for sale.

Uses of the Apple.

As to the various ways of utilising the fruit, and the inducements to
the cultivation of Apples as a commercial speculation, I am of opinion
that there is a wide and profitable field in Australasia. There is in all
the colonies a large and increasing demand for fresh fruit, both for
dessert and culinary purposes, which lasts throughout the year. After
this demand is supplied, a good market can be found in the United
Kingdom for any surplus that we may have to spare for many years to
come. It has been already proved that Apples can be profitably
shipped to England, and it is only a question of time for a large trade
to be developed. In opening up and continuing this trade Australasian
growers have the great advantage, owing to our seasons being different
from those of Europe and America, of being able to place large quantities
of fruit in the British market when the main supplies from other
sources are exhausted. In some countries, and more especially the
United States, it is a common practice to dry Apples, and in the last-
named country the industry has assumed large proportions. American
dried Apples are in great demand for home use, and large quantities are
exported to various parts of the world. The practice of drying
deserves the attention of colonial growers, who may by this means be
enabled to utilise unmarketable varieties or avoid sacrificing fruit in
glutted markets. There cannot fail to be a good home demand for
dried Apples if once brought into general use, and after supplying our
wants there is no reason why a large export trade should not be
developed. The process of drying is simple, and may readily be carried
out by any cultivator. If drying is carried out upon a large scale it
will, as a matter of course, be most economically and effectively per-
formed by means of *' evaporators " or ovens, through which currents
of heated air extract the moisture from the fruit. On a small scale,
when the climatic conditions are favourable, the produce may be

112

prepared by diying it in the sun. In either case the fruit — which must
be sound — should be carefully peeled, cored and cut into slices about
the eighth of an inch thick. When the fruit is thoroughly dry it should
be packed away in air-tight cases, casks or jars, pressing the material
firmly. The quantity of Apples required to make 1 lb. of dried fruit
will vary to some extent with the density and juiciness of the variety,
but it is generally from 4 to 5 lbs. Many kinds of Apples may be
utilised in this way, but some sorts are much better adapted for the
purpose than others. In the list of varieties at the end of this article
particulars will be found as to the varieties especially suitable for
drying.

Apple Butter. — An article called " Apple Butter" is much used in
some parts of America, where it is very popular. It is prepared by
stewing sliced sweet Apples in new cider until they become soft and
pulpy, after which the material is packed away in jars or casks till
required for use. In France a somewhat similar product is made by
stewing the fruit in new wine instead of cider. Possibly Apples might
to some extent be utilised in this way in Australia. As to the other
uses to which the Apple may be put commercially, the unfermented
juice, when evaporated, yields a sort of molasses, which is much used in
the United States In perfumery the pulp of the fruit mixed with lard
forms a good pomatum, which can be flavoured according to fancy
with various extracts. The wood of the Apple tree is very hard and
durable, being fine-grained and compact, and is much used by turners in
Europe. When stained black it is often used as a substitute for ebony
by cabinetmakers and others.

Cider. — Apples are used extensively in some parts of England for making
cider, as also in France and Germany. In the United States and Canada
they are used to a still larger extent. Whenever cider is made in
quantity it appears to have become the popular beverage of the
community, and its consumption is extensive. As to whether cider is
likely to become a popular beverage in Australia it is hard to say, but
there is certainly a strong probability that if growers would turn their
attention in this direction, a local market could be found for a not
inconsiderable quantity. It is a beverage that would be likely to find
much favour during the hot months, were it obtainable at anything near
the prices that rule in other countries. The making of cider would be
one of the safe-guards against over-production and glutted markets for
fresh fruit. As a matter of course, there are kinds of Apples that are
specially suited for making cider, and when grown for this particular
purpose they should have the preference. The kinds that are specially
suitable are those that have a piquant, sharp flavour, abundance of juice,
and a fair amount of sweetness. But any kind of Apple maybe turned
to account for making cider, though the yield may be smaller, and the
quality not of the highest standard. It will be far better to turn crops
to account in this way than let them go to waste, even if they are not
the best for the purpose. There is no particular skill required to turn
Apples into cider, and any grower can easily acquire the necessary
knowledge. Cider should be made from fully but not over-ripe Apples.

113

These should be crushed in a mill till they become a uniform mass of
pulp. This material is then allowed to stand from twenty-four to fofty-
eight hours, according to the atmospheric temperature, to engender a
slight fermentation. The pulp must then be passed through a press,
and the liquor as it flows should be strained through a hair or
other cloth. It should then be run into perfectly sweet and clean casks,
which must be placed in a cool cellar or other place to ferment, leaving -
the bungs out. When the strong fermentation ceases, which will
generally be the case in two or three weeks if the weather is favourable,
the bungs should be fixed in the casks loosely. After a while, when
fermentation appears to have altogether ceased, they may be tightened,
taking care, previously, to make good any deficiencies in the casks. The
cider should be allowed to remain in the casks until it becomes clear
and bright, when it must be racked off. The clarifying process may be
hastened by the use of isinglass at the rate of 1 oz. to a barrel of
cider.

Conditions Necessary For Cultivation.

The Apple may be grown successfully in many parts of Australasia,
but the localities specially adapted for it are those which possess a com-
paratively cool and moist climate. In these cooler districts the trees
are likely to be longer lived, to attain a greater size, and to bear better
and more regular crops than in less congenial localities. At the same
time, the fruit will, as a rule, possess a higher flavour and keep much
better. In the medium warm districts, the trees may grow well for a
few years, and bear freely, but they will be comparatively short-lived,
and the fruit is apt to be deficient in flavour, and does not keep well as a
rule. Tropical regions are unsuitable for the Apple, as the heat is too
great. Cultivation may be carried on successfully in various soils,
but the one above all others is a strong deep calcareous loam with a
gravelly or marly subsoil. When such a soil is available it should
invariably be chosen, though any good deep cultivation land may give
satisfactory results. Some vaiieties will adapt themselves to particular
soils or localities much better than others, thriving and giving good
returns where others fail. Horticultural science has not yet shown the
reason for these differences, and, as a consequence, no precise rules can
be laid down as a guide in making selections. The writer has a theory
that these peculiarities are not so much due to the varieties themselves
as to the stocks upon which they are worked. More precise knowledge
upon this point than growers now possess is much required, but doubt-
less it will be obtained in time, and then cultivators will know what
stocks are best suited to particular varieties, soils and districts.

In preparing land for Apples or any other fruit trees it will be
advisable to do the work thoroughly, as a good foundation is as neces-
sary for an orchard as a mansion. As a rule, the ground should be
broken up to the depth of 15 inches at the least, and 18 inches or
2 feet will be still better, and more especially in heavy soils. In light
or shallow ground, where the subsoil is loose gravel, marl or sand, the

114

necessity for deep working is not so great. Care should be taken in
preparing the land not to turn up a poor subsoil to the surface, it being
sufficient to merely move or stir the ground. Many have made the great
mistake of trenching up several inches of a bad subsoil to the surface,
and the unsatisfactory results have caused them to condemn deep
working. Drainage is a matter that should receive due attention, as
trees cannot thrive if they are standing in soddened ground for
lengthened periods. Whenever the soil is heavy and retentive, ample
provision should be made for quickly carrying away any excess of water.
The common practice of simply digging holes for fruit trees, and leaving
the other portion of the ground, cannot be too strongly condemned, and
it is the cause of many failures. These holes after heavy rains simply
become so many basins of water, and trees growing in them must
necessarily suffer. In very light soils, or where the subsoils are either
open gravel, sand or lime-stone, there is often sufficient natural drainage,
and therefore no occasion to provide for it. But in stiff, retentive land,
artificial drainage should always be provided for as far as is necessary.
Deeply-worked and well-drained soils hold moisture during periods of
drought longer than shallow or wet land ; and, in the winter, through
an excess of water being avoided, the temperature is several degrees
higher. Then, again, owing to the more perfect aeration of the ground,
the plant food that it contains is more readily soluble and available for
the trees. The foregoing remarks are applicable to other fruit trees
than the Apple, and will not be repeated at length in the following
articles.

Selecting Trees and Planting.

In selecting young trees, give a preference to those that have strong
clean stems, and are worked upon suitable stocks. Care should be taken
not to expose the roots to a drying atmosphere, as is too often done
thoughtlessly. For free-growing trees worked upon ordinary stocks the
distance apart should not be less than 24 feet, and even 27 or 30 feet
will be better. Under ordinary favourable conditions these trees will
attain a good age, and must have room for their development. In
Europe and America many instances are known of an Apple tree
attaining an age of over 100 years. Care must be taken not to plant
too deeply, a very common mistake that is the cause of many failures.
It is sufficient to place the trees so that the crowns, or upper roots, are
merely below the surface. Before the trees are put in the ground all
broken or bruised roots should be removed, as when allowed to remain
they are of no service to the plants, but are liable to become cankered
and cause serious injury. Planting may be done at any time between
the fall of the leaf and the spring, and some difference of opinion exists
as to the advantages of early planting or otherwise. According to the
observations of the writer, the most favourable time is in the latter part
of the winter — a week or two before active growth commences. For
small gardens, where it is necessary to economise space and a large
number of varieties are required, it may be an advantage to grow dwarf

115

trees, worked upon the Doucin or Paradise stocks. By using these
stocks the trees will not be much larger than gooseberry bushes, and
may be planted 6 or 7 feet apart. This mode of cultivation is not likely
to find much favour with growers for market who have plenty of space
at their command, as the trees require greater care, are more troubled
with blight, and are comparatively short-lived. As a matter of course,,
the trees when planted should be securely staked and tied, so that they
will not be damaged by heavy winds and rains.

Training and Pruning.

Fruit trees should invariably be trained with low heads in this part
of the world. Trees with high heads sufifer more from strong winds than
others, and also through their stems being insuflSiciently shaded from
the sun. Young trees are more especially liable to injury through the
bark being scorched by the sun's power. In order to avoid this con-
tingency, it will be well to cover the stems of young trees during the
summer months with strips of bark or some other material that will
answer the purpose. Young trees require more attention in pruning

Wood Branch. Two year-old Fruiting Branch Branch showing the ten-

Branch, showing one year-old. All dency of some varie-
Fruit Buds. the Buds are ties to bear on the

Fruit ones. points of the shoots.

116

than those that have reached a mature age, as the object of the grower is
to assist development as much as possible. His aim is a strong woody
growth in particular directions, and well-balanced and symmetrical heads.
To attain this object but a few branches are left, and the strength of the
plant concentrated in to a limited number of channels. All shoots not
likely to serve a useful purpose should be removed. Though as a rule
in shortening back the shoots of young trees, it will be advisable to cut
the points outioards, yet with some kinds this system must be reversed.
Upright growing varieties should be invariably cut with outward buds.
On the other hand, varieties that are inclined to pendular or horizontal
growth require to be cut with inward buds, so as to encourage the
branches to rise. By assisting to throw the new growth upward for a
year or two better formed trees can be obtained than by allowing the
branches to spread too much. Summer pruning is very useful with

Upright Tree cut back to outside
Buds.

Spreading Tree cut back to inside
Buds.

young trees, as by rubbing off unnecessary shoots a waste of energy is
prevented to a great extent. Care must, however, be taken not to thin
out the shoots too much, as a fair proportion of foliage is required for
shade and to promote healthy root action. The ends of the shoots must
also be pinched back when necessary to prevent a straggling growth and
keep the trees compact and well furnished. Mature trees, if they have
been well managed when young, will in most cases require but compara-
tively little in the way of pruning. As a rule, all that is necessary is

to keep the heads moderately
open, to remove misplaced
shoots or rank ones growing
from the stems, and to shorten
back those that are running
away from their fellows. Then,
again, some varieties have too
great a tendency to produce
their fruit towards the ends of
the branches, and these should
be kept shorter than others.
Care must also be taken not to
let the trees make a weakly
extended growth, which is a too
common thing in this part of
the world, and to prune so that
the heads will be compact and
well furnished. The ordinary
pruning may be done at any
time while the trees are at
rest, but growers must bear in
mind that if the operation is

Tree the second year after it is planted.
Cross lines, showing where the branches
should be cut.

A good form for an Apple Tree.

118

performed very early it is favourable to the production of wood,
and if done late in the season it is more conducive to fertility
and therefore best suited for mature trees. Koot-pruning may be
practised with advantage in the case of over-luxuriant mature trees
which make an abundance of wood but produce little or no fruit. It is
a too common practice, in dealing with trees of this class, to top prune
and thin out the branches severely, but this is just the thing that ought
not to be done, and cultivators must understand that the more trees are
cut the more woody growth will they make. The proper treatment is to
check growth rather than stimulate it, and this may be eflfected by root-
pruning. This operation can be performed at any time while the trees
are at rest, and may readily be effected by digging a semi-circular trench
a spade wide at such a distance as will depend upon the size of the
trunk. Cut all the roots in this trench, and the following season treat
the other side of the tree in the same way. By adopting this plan trees
will often be brought into good bearing condition.

Keeping Clean.

Clean cultivation is essential to the successful culture of the Apple
and other fruit trees in this part of the world. An undergrowth of grass
and other vegetation absorbs a deal of nutriment and moisture in the
summer that otherwise would be available for the trees. Though
orchards in grass may do very well in the United Kingdom and other
parts of the world, yet experience has taught us that a different system
must be adopted here. The cleaner the surface can be kept the better,
and weeds should never be allowed to make much headway if it is
possible to prevent them. But, though cleanliness is desirable, the too
common practice of roughly ploughing or digging between the roots of
mature trees cannot be too strongly condemned. When these operations
are performed roughly a large proportion of the upper rootlets are des-
troyed or injured. These rootlets are the mouths or feeders of the trees,
provided by nature to supply plant food ; and it stands to reason, if a
large percentage are destroyed, growth must suffer more or less. It
would be wiser to preserve these feeders as much as possible, unless root-
pruning is required, and the work can be better done with the scarifier
or hoe than the plough or spade. The work can also be more economi-
cally done, as four or five scarifyings or hoeings will not entail more
labour than one ploughing or digging. The frequent stirring of the
surface soil is also exceedingly beneficial to the trees. The practice of
mulching is deserving of general adoption, as in this part of the world
it is of great assistance to the cultivator during the summer months.
Long stable manure, straw, grass, seaweed, or any other material that
will answer the purpose should be spread as far as the roots extend
before the hot weather sets in, taking care to keep the stems of the trees
free. When the surface soil is protected by this means from the direct
action of a burning sun and drying winds, the moisture that is in the
ground is conserved to a large extent, and will last much longer than
otherwise.

119

Manuring.

In the cultivation of the Apple and other fruits caro must be taken
that the trees are not allowed to suffer through lack of proper nourish-
ment. Their wants must be supplied, or otherwise they will fail more
or less. Many people seem to be under the impression that if the trees"
are cared for till they reach maturity they ought then to yield crops for
all time without receiving anything in return. This is unreasonable, as
if the soil is not compensated for what it yields in the shape of plant
food the supply of the latter must become exhausted sooner or later.
Lack of attention in this respect is the cause of so many fruit trees
dying off prematurely, to the disgust and disappointment of their owners.
Many trees that go off from supposed diseases or insect and fungoid
attacks simply die from sheer starvation through neglect. Cultivators
should never allow their trees to suffer through the lack of proper food.
Though sometimes soils naturally contain a large amount of plant food,
yet this cannot be expected to last for all time. Every crop removes
materials in certain proportions, and these should be returned in the
shape of manures, in order that the supply may be kept up. An
occasional dressing of manure will be of great assistance to old fruit
trees, and materially aid in keeping them in a thrifty condition.
Special manures are also serviceable to make good the deficiencies in
the soil caused by the exhaustion of lime, potash, and other essential
materials.

Watering.

"When a supply of water, by irrigation or otherwise, is at the com-
mand of the cultivator it gives him a very great advantage, as he is
able to stimulate the growth of his trees when otherwise they would
languish from the effects of drought. But with the Apple and other
deciduous fruit trees water must be used with judgment — it should be
used only when it is wanted and in proper quantities. The number of
waterings required must, as a matter of course, depend to some extent
upon the season and the character of the soil. Three or four waterings
will usually be quite sufficient for all practical purposes in the driest
season. If the winter has been dry a good soaking may be given in
the spring, just as growth is commencing; another maybe given as
soon as the fruit is fairly formed ; the third (and fourth, if necessary)
may be given when the fruit is from two to three parts grown. Water
after the fruit attains its full size does more harm than good, and causes
deterioration in quality. The fruit, also, becomes more tender, and will
not keep or carry so well as it would if grown with less water.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected in a variety of ways, but for the per-
petuation of established varieties the usual methods are budding and
grafting. Grafting is most generally practised with the Apple, the best

120

time for performing the operation being immediately before the sap
commences to rise in the spring. The stocks now generally used in this
part of the world for the Apple are the Northern Spy for the stronger
kinds and the Winter Majetin for those that are less robust. Both
these kinds are absolutely proof against the American Blight or Woolly
Aphis, and have given satisfaction. The Irish Peach, New England
Pigeon, Isle of Wight Pippin and Devonshire Stubbard are also more or
less blight-resisting. The same quality is also claimed for several colonial-
rajised seedlings, but further experience is required before they can be
ranked as absolutely blight-proof varieties. An addition to the list of
non-blighting kinds will be an advantage, as it will allow a wider
selection of stocks. We may in this way get stocks better adapted for .
particular climates, soils and varieties than those now generally used
For dwarf trees the Doucin or Broad-leaved Paradise and the English
Paradise stocks must be used. European cultivators use the ordinary
Crab Apple to a large extent as a stock when large trees are required.
For trees of smaller size the Siberian Crab finds favour with many.
Stocks are obtained from cuttings, which usually strike freely, but their
growth may be accelerated by grafting small pieces of root upon them
before putting them in. Budding, though not nearly so generally prac-
tised as grafting, is preferred by some growers, and may be successfully
performed during the growing season when the bark will separate freely
from the wood. Usually the best time for budding is a little past mid-
summer. For the propagation of new or rare varieties budding is a
useful method, as it allows every bud to be utilised. Layering is a
method practised for the raising of dwarf stocks, but not to any great
extent. It should be done during the winter. New varieties, as a
matter of course, can only be obtained from seed ; and if a quantity of
pips are sown they will for a certainty produce in time a number of
kinds. Some of these may possibly be useful kinds, but the number of
Apples under cultivation at the present time is so large that it is not
desirable to add to the list, except in the case of varieties having
qualities that specially recommend them. If we can get a new variety
that is earlier, later, more highly-flavoured, or will keep better than
others of its class, then it may be regarded as an acquisition. Then,
again, if cultivators, by cross fertilisation, can manage to raise varieties
which combine in the one firuit the distinctively good qualities of two
older sorts, the horticultural world will gain — for instance, a combina-
tion of the rich flavour of the Pibston Pippin with the keeping quality
of the French Crab or Stone Pippin would be an undoubted acquisition.

Insects.

Various insect pests are troublesome to the Apple, and several to
a considerable extent. The following is a descriptive list of the more
prominent insects that specially affect this fruit : —

American Blight. — This troublesome pest, known also as the Woolly
Aphis {Schizoneura lanigerd), is widely spread through the Australasian
colonies. Its peculiar white woolly appearance, which is too familiar

121

Amekican or Woolly Blights.

Branches of Affected Tree.

Larvse (highly magnified).

Perfect insect (highly magnified).

to fruit-growers, renders a description unnecessary. Various remedies
are in use, and each one finds numerous advocates. Painting the
affected parts with a mixture of kerosene and soft-soap, in about equal
proportions, is an old and fairly effective remedy. Resin compound is
a good remedy that has been used with great success in America. This
should be applied with a fine syringe or spray pump during the time the
trees are at rest. When the disease is upon the roots of the trees, one
of the best remedies is, in the winter, to bare the main ones as rcuch as
possible, and apply a thick dressing of slaked lime.

Apple Beetle. — This insect is known scientifically as Doticus pestilenSf
and is likely to prove a troublesome pest to Apple trees. It is a very
small brownish beetle, with comparatively long legs, and is as yet but
little known. The grub of this beetle perforates Apples, which in about
a month begin to shrivel, and it remains and develops in the withered
fruit till it is ready to deposit its eggs for the following season.
Remedies : — Kerosene emulsion and resin compound.

122

Apple Moth {Curve-winged) {Erechthias mystacinella). — This is a
very small motb, but is a very destructive insect. It is destructive to
Apples and other trees, through the larvae boring into the branches,
interrupting the flow of sap, causing them to break off, and also the
formation of knots on excrescences. Kerosene emulsion is said to prove
an effective remedy.

Apple Moth (Light-brown) (Caccecia responsana). — A troublesome and
widely-distributed insect, commonly known as the Australian Apple
Moth. The perfect insect is light-brown, with lightly-bronzed wings,
which are about three-quarters of an inch across. Its action is similar
to that of the Codlin Moth, and it destroys fruit in the same way.
Remedies : — The same as for the Codlin Moth.

Apple Boot Borer [Leptops Hopei). — A very des- Apple Root Borer.
tructive indigenous beetle, belonging to the Weevil
family. In colour it is a light greyish-brown,
and its body is more than half-an-inch in length.
Its mode of action is to bore into the roots of the
trees, and it destroys their vitality. Remedies : —
Let holes, about half-a-dozen in number, be made
with a crowbar round the stem of an affected tree.
The holes should be from 6 to 12 inches deep ;
pour in about a wine-glassful of bi-sulphide of
carbon, then cover as tightly as possible. Paint-
ing the larger roots with corrosive sublimate is also Perfect insect
likely to be effective. (natural size).

Apple Borer Beetle. — This is a very small but destructive beetle, known
scientifically as Rhizorpertha collaris. It is widely distributed in all the
colonies, and its depredations among Apple trees are great, though it
attacks many other kinds, including indigenous timbers. Its mode of
attack is to bore holes into the wood, in which the eggs are deposited and
hatched. Remedy : — Scraping off of loose bark, and syringing with a
strong solution of kerosene emulsion.

Apple Borer Beetle.

lf> ^

Perfect insects (natural size). Perfect insects (magnified).

Codlin Moth {Carpocapsa pomonella). — A well-known and terribly
destructive insect, which causes great losses to growers of Apples, and
to some extent attacks Pears. It is very widely spread, and cultivators
in many parts of the colony are seriously troubled with the pest. The
moth in colour is light-brown and bronze, and measures with wings
extended about half-an-inch across. The larvae or grub is yellowish-
white, with a very dark-brown head. Remedies : — Bandaging the tree

123

with strips of cloth or other material to trap the larvse, large numbers
of which can be caught in this manner and destroyed. Hanging lanterns
in the trees, with dishes of water and kerosene under them, when the
moths are about. All the nocturnal moths readily approach light, and
manyof this and other kinds may be trapped and destroyed by adopting-fehis-
plan. Spraying with solutions of kerosene emulsion and the arsenical
compounds known as London

Purple and Paris Green are
also eflfective. One spraying
should be given as soon as
the fruit has formed, and a
second one two or three weeks
later. Possibly something
may be done towards mitigat-
ing this pest by the introduc-
tion and cultivation of natural
enemies. Several of these are
known, and probably more
will be discovered. An Aus-
tralian beetle {Telephorus
pulchellus) is known to be an
active enemy, as is also an
American species {Chauliog-
nathus pennsylvanicus). Vari-
ous American flies are also
known to be parasites of the
Codlin Moth.

CoDLiN Moth.

Apple showing Caterpillar of Codlin Moth
at work.

Perfect insect on win|
(natural size).

Perfect insect in
repose (natural size).

Caterpillar (enlarged).

Showing how the Cater-
pillar eats into the Fruit.

An American enemy of An Australian enemy of
the Codlin Moth (C^aw- the Codlin Moth {Tele-
liognaihus pennsylva- jphorus pulchellus) .

124

Scale. — Several of the
insects known under
this name are more or
less injurious to Apple
trees, but the one most
to be dreaded is the
Apple Mussel Scale
(ispic?io^is), which is un-
fortunately very widely
distributed throughout
Australasia. For treat-
ment see page 85.

Fungi.

The Apple, like other
fruits, suffers a good
deal from the attacks of
fungi, which embrace
several species, though
the majority of cultiva-
tors are unconscious of
many of these enemies.

Apfle Scab or Black
Spot [Fusicladium den-
driticum). — This is the
most widely-spread and
best- known of fungi that
attacks the Apple, and
a troublesome one to deal
with. It causes great
damage to the fruit,
which is marked with
unsightly scabs and
cracks that materially
injure its appearance, if
it is not absolutely des-
troyed. When attacked
while small the young
Apples either drop off
the trees, or they crack
and shrivel up so as to
be useless. If attacked
at a more advanced stage
of growth the Apples
may reach maturity, but
they will carry unsightly
scars. Sometimes the
scabs will cause one side

American Enemies of the

Moth.

Pimpla annulipes (greatly magnified).

Macrocentrus delicatus (greatly magnified).

125

Apple Scab or Black Spot.

of a fruit to be drawn and prevent it from assuming its proper
shape. The leaves are also seriously affected by this fungus, which
appears at first in dark green spots. Afterwards the spots assume
a brownish colour and the tissue cracks and dries up, leaving holes
in the leaves. Sometimes the spots are so numerous that the leaves
are reduced to fragments. The spores of this fungus are pro-
duced in enormous numbers, and each one under favourable con-
ditions may develop into a " scab." Remedies : — The affected leaves
and fruit, when practicable, should be destroyed by fire — that is,

126

Bitter Eot

such fruit and leaves as may fall or can readily be gathered.
Spraying with Bordeaux Mixture, Eau Celeste, or Ammonia Carbonate
of Copper. One spraying should be given just as growth is starting in
the spring, but before the floi^ers appear. A second spraying should^be
given when the leaves are half-grown, and further ones at intervals^of
two or three weeks till the fruit has attained about two-thirds of its
growth.

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. — This disease is
caused by a fungus known scientifically as
Glceosporium versicolor. It is widely spread,
but does not affect all Apples to the same
extent, and some varieties are comparatively
free from its attacks. Others, again, are
specially liable to it, and many losses occur
from it, though the true cause is not sus-
pected by cultivators. The disease first
makes its appearance when the Apples are
beginning to ripen, and, hence the name
" Ripe Rot." The fungus first makes its
appearance in the form of small circular
brown spots on the surface of the fruit.

These spots rapidly increase in size till they measure a quarter-
of-an-inch across, or more. At this stage of growth the spores are
developed and scattered, and the old spots continue to increase in
size till they, more or less, cover the fruit. The effect upon the
fruit is that it becomes brown and rotten, and has an intensely bitter
flavour ; consequently, the disease has obtained the name of " Bitter
Rot." This fungus propagates with great rapidity, and if not kept in
check will cause serious damage in an orchard. Though generally
regarded as an Apple pest, this fungus is said to also affect several
other fruits. Remedies : — All aff'ected fruit should be destroyed as far
as may be practicable, as each spot contains some thousands of germ
spores. Spraying with (1) Ammonia Carbonate of Copper, (2) Blue-
stone and Sodium Carbonate, (3) Bordeaux Mixture. IJse as recom-
mended for Apple Scab.

Mouldy Core. — This is a somewhat obscure

disease, though it is supposed to be caused by

some mould fungus that first appears upon

the core, hence the name. The fungus germs

are supposed to enter the fruit through the

eye, from which there is a passage to the core.

The spores germinate in the eye, and then

force their fine threads to the interior of the

fruit, i'rom the core they again fructify, and

the threads gradually force their way into the

pulp. This is a very troublesome disease, and „ i -, ^

4. i. J i. 1. 1 1 -.1 A 1 xi ^ Mouldy Core,

not easy to detect or deal with. Apples that

are aff'ected often appear to be sound, but on cutting them in halves the

cores, and sometimes a considerable portion of the flesh, are found to be

127

mouldy, and more or less rotten. In the more advanced stages of this
disease the fruit becomes thoroughly rotten. As the disease works
from the centre of the fruit, fungicides cannot be applied, and there are
no known remedies. It might be eradicated by destroying affected
fruit for a season or two, and, consequently, getting rid of the germs.
But as it does not affect all varieties of Apples, perhaps the safest plan^
will be to discard those sorts that are specially liable to its attacks.
The varieties most liable to this disease are those having the more open
passages between the eyes and the core chambers.

Powdery Mildeio. — This disease is somewhat prevalent, and, strange
to say, atiects young trees to a greater extent than old ones. It is
caused by a fungus known as Podosphcera Kunzei, which appears upon
the young leaves and branches in the form of a white felt, and hence the
name. Powdery Mildew. The leaves when attacked turn brown,
become brittle and dry, and fall off. As a rule, the foliage near the
points of the shoots suffers most, and affected trees sometimes have the
appearance of being scorched. The disease spreads rapidly, and should
be dealt with promptly as soon as it is detected. Remedies : — Ammonia
Carbonate of Copper, or Eau Celeste, applied as a spray as recom-
mended for the Apple Scab.

Disease.

Water Core. — This is a term applied to the supposed cause of the
transparent, or waxy, appearance that may sometimes be noticed in
Apples. Sometimes the fruit is only partially transparent, but in other
cases the whole of the flesh has this appearance. The cause is an excess
of water in the tissues of the fruit, to the exclusion of air. The name
has originated from the fact that the disease (if it is really one) generally
originates from the core. This, however, is not invariably the case, as
frequently it starts from the outside of the fruit. There is no accounting
for the appearance of this complaint, though it is supposed to be through
the absorption of an excess of water from the stalk cavity. As a rule
it is most prevalent after heavy rains, and generally makes its appear-
ance just as the fruit is beginning to ripen. Some varieties are very
liable to it, while others are rarely or never affected by this disease.
Possibly the reason why some kinds are affected to a greater extent
than others is that their flesh tissues are moi-e open. There are no
remedies for Water Core, and in order to avoid it, the only thing in the
power of cultivators is to reject such varieties as appear to be most liable
to it.

Types of Apples.

There are several types of Apples, but their classification according
to well-defined characteristics that could be easily recognised is a work
of the future. Though some pomological writers of repute have made
efforts in this direction, yet no one has succeeded in producing a satis-
factory scheme. Apples are mainly classed as Codlins (or CodUngs),

128

Nonpareils, Pearmains, Pippins, and Keinettes, indiscriminately.
Though formerly the meaning of these terms may have been well
understood, this is not the case at the present time, and people do not
know how to distinguish one class from the other. The Codlin
section seems to have been kept more true than any other to a distinctive
type. The word was originally written codling, from coddle, to stew or
boil, in allusion to the value of this section for culinary purposes.
Nonpareil is a French word, meaning incomparable, but varieties to
which this term is applied have nothing to distinguish them from
Pippins or other classes. The term Pearmain means pear-shaped, and,
though appropriate to some of the kinds classed under the name, it is by
no means suitable for others. The term Pippin originally signified a
seedling, but now has lost that meaning, and is applied to varieties,
grafted or budded, that diflfer materially in characteristics.

Varieties.

There are an immense number of varieties in cultivation — in fact, far
more than are required for practical purpose?. In Australasia we have a
large number, most of the leading European and American varieties
having been imported. Australasian growers have also been active in
producing new kinds, and our lists contain several superior colonial
varieties. As a matter of course, a great many varieties that have been
introduced are comparatively worthless, because other kinds have proved
to be superior to them. Many kinds alter materially from their
characteristics in Europe or America, some improving and others falling
off. Consequently, a correct estimate of the value of any variety cannot
be obtained from the description given by European or American writers.
Many of the British varieties have considerably more colour than when
grown in the United Kingdom, and to such an extent sometimes that
they are difficult to recognise under their original names. Though many
popular kinds have been originated within the last few years, yet there
are some sterling old sorts that can still hold their own. For instance,
the celebrated Kibston Pippin was raised in Yorkshire considerably more
than 100 years ago, and the equally famous Golden Pippin, which was
originated in Sussex, can claim to be older still. As regards the last-
named Apple, it is said that the Empress Catharine of JRussia was so
passionately fond of this variety that she employed special messengers
to bring her supplies from England.

Qualities Bequired in Apples.

The qualities required in Apples must depend to some extent upon
the objects of the grower. Dessert Apples should not be above medium-
size, regular in form, well coloured, and the fruit must be firm, crisp,
juicy and pleasantly flavoured. Culinary or kitchen Apples should
possess the property of cooking evenly into a tender pulpy mass, those
having an acid flavour being the best. The terms, dessert and culinary
Apples, are somewhat arbitrary, as some of the finest flavoured of the

129

former are excellent for cooking. Then, again, some varieties generally
regarded as cooking Apples are also first class for eating. It must
also be remembered in using Apples for culinary purposes, that some
varieties contain naturally far more sugar than others. Consequently,
sugar should be used with more descrimination than it usually is. Cider
Apples should be firm and juicy, with a piquant flavour. For drying,
most culinary sorts are available, though some, which are particularised
in the list that follows, give more satisfactory results than others. ~ln~
making a selection the grower must also take into consideration local
conditions to some extent. If he intends to supply the colonial markets
with fresh fruit, he will require early, medium and late varieties. On
the other hand, if he grows for exportation the kinds selected should
be those that keep and carry well, and early sorts will be useless. The
same remark will apply to Apples grown for drying and cider making.
But for whatever purpose Apples may be grown it is unwise for growers
to have too many varieties. More satisfaction is likely to be obtained
from a dozen kinds than from a hundred.

Gathering and Storing.

The earlier varieties «how, in various ways, when they are ready for
gathering, but the later kinds give fewer signs, and some little judgment
is required to secure them in the best possible condition. There are
three tests by which the cultivator is supposed to be able to tell when
a crop is fit to gather. The first of these is when the Apples begin to
fall of their own accord, but this is by no means a reliable teat, as fruit
will often begin to drop before it is properly ripened. The second test
is when the fruit stalks will separate from the branches when lightly
raised, and this is a fairly safe guide. The third test is when the pips
become plump and brown, and perhaps this may be regarded as the
safest criterion. It is not advisable to wait till the pips become
thoroughly black, as the fruit will then be rather over-ripe for keeping,
though it will be in excellent condition for present use. If Apples are
left too long upon the trees they are apt to become mealy when stored.
The Apples should always be gathered in dry weather, and they must
be handled with the greatest care from the time they are taken from the
trees till packed for market, or stored away. If required for export to
Europe, or other distant parts of the world, the fruit should be exposed
to the air for a day or two, so that it will wilt slightly. When this
plan is adapted, a good deal of moisture exudes from the skins, and less
is given off during the period of transit. Full directions for packing
and storing are given at page 66.

Markings in Apples.

There is some confusion as regards the coloured markings of Apples,
and the descriptions often fail to convey to the mind exactly what is
meant. The following definitions of the terms used may therefore prove
serviceable to many : —

130

Striped. — When there are alternating broad lines of colour.
Streaked. — When the lines are long and narrow.
Blotched. — When there are broad and abrupt markings.
Splashed. — When tlie coloured markings are narrow and much broken.
Stained. — When the markings are of a light shade and broken.
Marbled. — When the stripes are wide, irregular, and faint.
Clouded. — When there are broad blotches of colour showing faintly.
Mottled. — When the skin is thickly and irregularly covered'with faint
dots.

Dotted. — When there are more or less dots upon the skin.
Spotted. — When the dots are large.

Principal Forms of Apples.

Round or Roundish. — When the outline is round, or nearly so, the
length being about equal to the breadth.

Flat or Oblate. — When the ends are much compressed, the width
being considerably greater than the length.

Conical. — In the form of a cone, tapering from the base to the eye.

Ovate or Egg-shaped. — When the form is somewhat similar to an

Ribbed. — When there are ridges running from the stalk to the eye.

In addition to these main forms there are numerous modifications of
each, and sometimes it is difficult to find any single term that will give
an exact description of the shape of an Apple. To some extent, how-
ever, this difficulty is surmounted by the use of such compound terms
as roundish-conical, roundish-oblong, and others. Certain peculiarities
of form are also described as angular and one-sided.

Principal Fo-rms of Apples.

Kound.

Conical.

Ovate.

131

Flattened or Oblate.

Oblong.

Eibbed.

Varieties.

The following list includes most of the principal European, American
and colonial varieties. Sectional illustrations show the normal forms of
many prominent varieties, but cultivators must bear in mind that some
kinds will often differ considerably. In fact, it is not an uncommon
thing for two or three distinct forms to be found upon the one
tree.

Adams' Pearmain {Matchless, Norfolk Pippin). — A first-class and
popular variety, supposed to be of English origin. Eruit medium-
size, oblong-conical, and very distinct in shape. Skin greenish-yellow,
thickly tinged and striped with red. Elesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, with
a brisk rich flavour. Ripens late, will keep for several months ; is a
first-class dessert Apple, and well suited for an export trade. Tree strong,
and an excellent bearer.

Ailes. — An excellent American variety, with large oblate or flat fruit.
Skin yellowish-green, thickly striped and flushed with red. Elesh
yellowish, crisp, juicy, with a rich brisk flavour, ripens late, and will
keep a very long while ; an excellent Apple for cooking and for dessert
when kept for a few months. Suitable for export. Tree vigorous and
productive.

132

Jidanas' Pearmain.

;^A^

Alfriston

133

Alfriston (Lord Gwyder^s Newtown Pippin, Oldaher's New, Shepherd's
Seedling). — An old and popular English variety, with large roundish
fruit, which is slightly ribbed. Skin greenish-yellow, netted with russet,
with a little colour. Flesh, yellowish white, crisp, juicy, with a brisk,
acid flavour. Kipens late, keeps well, and is an excellent culinary
Apple. A good kind for local markets, and also for export. Tree
strong^ and a good bearer. — -

Allanbank Seedling. — An excellent and popular culinary variety, with
large roundish-conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with faint streaks of
red. Flesh firm and juicy. Ripens medium late ; and is a first-class
cooking Apple.

Ainerican Golden Pippin (Golden Apple, Newtown Greening, New
York Greening). — An American variety with medium-sized oblate fruit.
Skin deep-yellow, with a brownish-blush, thickly sprinkled with grey
dots, and slightly netted with russet. Flesh yellowish- white, crisp,
juicy, sub-acid. Kipens late, keeps well, and is a good dessert Apple.
Tree strong, spreading, and prolific.

American Golden Russet ( Bullock'' s Pippin, Golden Russet). — A very
popular American Apple with roundish-ovate fruit, rather below the
medium size. Skin dull-yellow, thickly sprinkled with russet. Flesh
yellowish, tender, juicy, with an aromatic flavour. Kipens medium
late, and will keep three or four months. A good dessert Apple. Tree
moderately robust, but very productive.

American Summer Pearmain. — A very good early American variety,
with medium-sized oblong fruit. Skin richly streaked with red and
yellow. Flesh yellow, very tender, with a rich pleasant flavour.
Ripens about mid-season. Tree moderately vigorous and fairly pro-
ductive.

Annie Elizabeth.

134

Annie Elizaheth. — An excellent and popular English variety, with
large round showy fruit, prominently ribbed. Skin yellow, richly
striped with red. Flesh yellowish white, crisp, juicy, with a sharp
flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long time ; is an excellent cooking or
dessert variety, and suitable for export. Tree vigorous and a free
bearer.

Aromatic Russet (Brown Spice, Eook^s Nest, Spice Apple). — An old
English variety, with medium-sized conical fruit. Skin green, with a
brownish cheek, and nearly covered with dark-grey russet. Flesh
greenish-yellow, firm, crisp, juicy, and richly aromatic. Ripens late,
keeps well, and is a first-class dessert Apple. Tree vigorous, upright,
and a great bearer.

Ashmead's Kernel. — A first-class English variety, with roundish-oblate
fruit, rather below medium-size. Skin greenish-yellow, with a brown
tinge, and marked with russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy and
richly flavoured. Ripens lat€, keeps well, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Tree hardy and prolific.

Baddow Pippin {Spring Ribston). — An excellent English variety,
with medium-sized fruit, roundish-oblate, with ribs on the sides, and
corresponding ridges at the crown. Skin yellowish-green, with a dull
red cheek. Flesh greenish-white, firm, crisp, juicy, with a flavour
somewhat similar to the Ribston Pippin. Ripens late, keeps well, and
is a good dessert variety,

Baldwin (Butters^ Woodpecker). — One of the best and most useful of
the American Apples. Fruit large, roundish. Skin yellow and orange,
richly striped with red, and slightly streaked and dotted with russet.
Flesh yellowish-white, crisp, tender, slightly sub-acid, with a rich pleasant
flavour. Makes a good dessert Apple, cooks well, and is suitable for
drying. Ripens medium late, and may be kept for some time. Tree
strong and an abundant bearer.

Barcelona Pearmain (Speckled Golden Reinelte, Speckled Pearmain). —
A variety of uncertain origin, popular in some parts of England. Frwit
medium-sized, roundish-oblong. Skin nearly covered with red, and
speckled with large dots of russet. Flesh yellowish-white, firm,
crisp and highly aromatic. Ripens late, keeps well, and is an
excellent dessert Apple. Tree strong, hardy, and an excellent
bearer.

Bauman^s Reinette. — A Belgian variety, with medium-sized roundish-
oblate fruit. Skin highly coloured with red. Flesh yellowish-white,
firm, juicy and highly flavoured. Ripens late, keeps well, and is a
good culinary Apple.

Baxter's Pearmain. — An English variety, with large roundish-conical
fruit. Skin pale-green, with shades and streaks of red. Flesh yellowish
firm, juicy, and briskly sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep for several
months, and excellent either for dessert or cooking. Tree hardy,
vigorous and productive.

Beauty of Hants. — This is a comparatively new English variety,
with large roundish-conical fruit. Skin deep-yellow, heavily striped with
red. Flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet and well flavoured. Ripens medium

135

late, keeps for some time, and an excellent cooking Apple. Tree robust
and a good bearer.

Beauty of Kent. — A handsome English variety, with large roundish-
ovate fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, heavily marked with stripes of dark-
red. Flesh juicy, crisp, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Rip£ns_
medium late, will keep fairly well, and a good culinary Apple. Tree
strong, upright, and bears freely.

Bedfordshire Foundling {Cambridge Pippin). — A first-class English
culinary variety, with large roundish slightly ribbed fruit. Skin deep-
green, with a yellowish tinge on one cheek. Flesh yellowish-white,
juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens late, keeps well, and is an
excellent cooking Apple. Tree strong and prolific.

Ben Davis (Baltimore Red, Carolina Red Streak, Kentucky Pippin^
Red Pippin, Victoria Pippin). — A popular and very good American
variety, with medium-sized, or larger, roundish-conical fruit. Skin
yellow, but nearly overspread with stripes and splashes of two shades
of red. Flesh white, tender and sub-acid. Ripens late, keeps well ; a
good dessert and showy market fruit ; also a good Apple for exporting.
Tree bears early, is very productive, and as it blooms late is suitable for
districts where frosts linger in the spring.

Benoni. — An excellent early American variety, with roundish-conical
fruit, rather below medium size. Skin pale-yellow, striped, shaded and
marbled with dark-crimson. Flesh yellowish, juicy and pleasantly sub-

Ben Davis.

136

acid. Ripens second early, and is a nice dessert Apple. Tree vigorous,
hardy, upright, and a prolific bearer.

Bess Pool. — An old and excellent English variety, with showy conical
fruit, above medium-size. Skin yellow, washed and striped with red.
Flesh white, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. Ripens late, keeps well,
and a good Apple for dessert or cooking.

Benoni.

Blenheim Pippin.

137

Betty Geeson. — An excellent old English culinary variety, with large
roundish fruit. Skin green, with faint stripes. Flesh juicy and briskly
flavoured. Itipens late, will keep for several months, and is a first-class
cooking Apple. Tree hardy and a good bearer.

Blenheim Pippin (Blenheim Orange, Northwick Pippin^ Woodstoek-
Pippin). — An old and very popular English variety, with large roundish-
conical fruit. Skin deep orange-yellow, heavily stained and striped
with dull-red. Flesh yellowish, juicy, with a sweet pleasant flavour, i
Ripens medium late, keeps fairly well, and is good both for dessert and
cooking. Suitable for export. Tree robust and an abundant and
regular bearer.

Blondin. — An American variety, with large oblate, often unequal,
fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, splashed and striped with red, and dotted
with grey. Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, and briskly flavoured. Kipens
medium late, keeps well, and a good dessert Apple.

Blue Pearmain. — An American variety, with very large regular
roundish-conical fruit, Skin dull-green, thickly striped with purplish-
red, and covered with bloom that gives a bluish appearance. Flesh
yellowisb, juicy and aromatic. Ripens well, keeps a long time, and is a
good dessert variety. Suitable for export. Tree robust and bears
moderately well.

Bonum. — An American variety, with medium-sized oblate fruit.
Skin mostly shaded with deep crimson, with splashes and stripes of
deep-red. Flesh white, often stained next the skin, firm, juicy, mildly
sub-acid, and richly flavoured. Ripens late, will keep several months,
and is a good dessert and market Apple. Tree vigorous and an early
and abundant bearer.

Borovitsky. — A Russian variety, with medium- sized roundish-
angular fruit. Skin yellowish-white, faintly striped with pale-red.
Flesh, white, juicy, sweet, briskly flavoured, and a good early dessert
Apple.

Borsdorffer (Garnet Pippin. Queen' s^ King George). — An excellent
German dessert variety, with small roundish-oblate fruit. Skin pale-
yellow, with a full deep-red cheek, and sprinkled slightly with russet.
Flesh yellowish-white, firm, crisp, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour.
Ripens late and keeps well. Suitable for export.

Boston Russet (Howe's Busset, Putnam Russet, Roxbury Russet,
Warner Russet, Sylvan Russet). — A popular and excellent American
variety, with medium-sized roundish fruit, flattened at the ends. Skin
thickly covered with brownish-russet. Flesh greenish-white, juicy, sub-
acid, and richly-flavoured. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and is an
excellent dessert Apple ; also suitable for drying and export. Tree
vigorous, bears early, and is very prolific.

Brabant Bellejleur (Iron Apple). — A first-class variety, of Dutch
origin, with large roundish-oblong slightly-ribbed fruit. Skin pale
yellow, rather heavily striped with red. Flesh firm, juicy, with a rich
sub-acid flavour. Ripens rather late, and will keep some time. A
first-rate cooking Apple, and also useful as a dessert fruit.

Braddick's Nonpareil (Ditton Nonpareil), — An excellent English

138

variety, with roundish-orate medium-sized fruit, compressed at the
ends. Skin green, tinged with yellowish-brown, and a brownish-red
cheek. Flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet, and aromatic. Hipens late, keeps
well, and an excellent dessert Apple. Tree strong and usually a very
free bearer.

Boston Kusset.

Brownlee's Eusset.

139

Bramley's Seedling. — An English variety, with large roundish-
conical fruit. Skin yellow, heavily tinged with red, and striped with a
deeper shade. Flesh yellowish-white, tender, brisk, and pleasantly sub-
acid. Ripens late, may be kept for a long time ; is an excellent
culinary Apple, and good also for dessert. Tree hardy, vigorous, and_a
good bearer.

Broiunlee's Russet. — A popular English variety, with large roundish-
ovate fruit, rather flattened. Skin thickly covered with russet, and a
brownish-red cheek. Flesh greenish-white, juicy, sweet, aromatic, and
briskly flavoured. Kipens late, keeps well, an excellent dessert Apple,
and also good for cooking. Tree vigorous and prolific.

Bucki7igham {Bachelor, King, Queen). — A good American variety,
with medium-sized to large roundish-oblate fruit. Skin thickly shaded,
striped, and splashed with two shades of red. Flesh yellowish, tender,
juicy, and sprightly sub-acid. Ripens very late, will keep for some
time, and is an excellent dessert and market Apple. Tree moderately
vigorous and productive.

Buff. — An American variety with large roundish irregular fruit.
Skin pale yellow overspread with broad broken stripes and splashes of
dark-crimson. Flesh white, juicy, breaking, sub-acid. Ripens late,
keeps well, and a good dessert Apple. Tree vigorous and productive,
but rather liable to blight.

Buncombe {Red Winter Pearmain). — A variety of American origin,
with medium-sized roundish-oblong fruit. Skin pale yellow, mostly
shaded with maroon, and thickly sprinkled with large light dots. Flesh
yellowish-white, tender, juicy, mildly sub-acid, and slightly aromatic.
Ripens late, keeps a long time, and an excellent dessert Apple. Suitable
for export. Tree moderately vigorous, of upright growth, and a good
and regular bearer.

Cannon Pearmain. — An American variety, with medium-sized
roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, striped and marbled with red and
dark-crimson with large grey dots. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, with a
brisk sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and is a good
dessert and market Apple. Suitable for export. Tree vigorous and
very productive.

Carlisle Codlin. — An old English variety, with ovate and angular
fruit above medium-size. Skin pale yellow, speckled with russet.
Flesh white, crisp, and juicy. Ripens rather late, will keep for some
time, and an excellent culinary Apple. Tree hardy and an abundant
bearer.

Carolina Red June. — An American early variety, with oval irregular
fruit, medium-sized or under. Skin nearly wholly covered with deep
purple-red. Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a brisk sub-acid flavour.
Ripens very early ; and a good dessert fruit. Tree vigorous, bears early
and abundantly.

Carter's Blue {Lady Fitzpatrick). — An American variety of excellent
quality, with roundish-oblate fruit, above medium size. Skin yellowish-
green, washed and striped with dull-red, and covered with a blue bloom.
Flesh yellowish- white, crisp, juicy, sugary, and aromatic. Ripens late,

uo

will keep a long time, and is a first-class Apple for the dessert or
cooking. Tree vigorous, productive, and an early bearer, but very subject
to blight.

Cellini. — An old and popular English variety, with above medium-
sized roundish fruit. Skin deep-yellow, thickly streaked and mottled
with dark-crimson. Flesh white, juicy, with a brisk aromatic flavour.
Ripens medium late, will keep fairly well ; is an excellent culinary
Apple,Jand may be used as a dessert fruit. Tree moderately vigorous
and bears freely.

CelUni.

Chamberlain's Late Scarlet. — An excellent late dessert Apple, with
showy medium-sized fruit. Skin deep-yellow, richly streaked with red.
Flesh firm, juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens late, keeps well, and
suitable for export.

Christie's Pippin. — An excellent English dessert Apple, with roundish
fruit below medium-size. Skin deep-yellow, mottled with red, and
dotted with russet. Flesh, yellowish- white, juicy, with a brisk sub-
acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long time, and a good market,
kind. Tree moderate in growth, but a very good bearer.

Chronical {Cotton Apple). — An American variety, with medium-sized
slightly-conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with splashes and stripes
of dull-red and light dots. Flesh, yellowish-white, compact, juicy and
mildly sub-acid. Ripens later, will keep for many months, and an

Ul

excellent dessert and market Apple. Tree hardy, thrifty, and a moderate
and regular bearer.

Clay gate Pearmain. — A well-known and popular English variety, with
medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin greenish, yellow with a \
brownish-red cheek, and dull-red dashes and stripes. Flesh yellowish,
juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour, somewhat similar to the Ribsten -
Pippin. Ripens late, keeps well, and a first-class dessert variety.
Suitable for export. Tree robust, and an abundant bearer.

Cleopatra (New York Fippin, Ortley Pippin, Yellow Pippin, White
Pippin, White Belljlower). — A well-known and excellent American ]
variety that is very popular in Australia. Fruit medium to large, and I
in shape oblong-conical. Skin a rich deep yellow, with sometimes a /
sunny cheek. Flesh white, fine grained, juicy, sub-acid, and pleasantly '
flavoured. Ripens late, keeps a long time ; an excellent culinary Apple,
useful as a dessert fruit, and one of the best sorts for an export trade.
Tree strong, hardy, and generally bears very freely.

Cleopatra.

Cockle Pippin (Nutmeg Pippin). — A first-class English dessert
variety, with medium-sized conical and slightly-ribbed fruit. Skin
yellow, thickly covered and dotted with brown russet. Flesh, yellowish,
firm, juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens late, and will keep
for several months. Tree hardy and prolific.

Cooper^s Market. — A showy American variety, with medium-sized
roundish-conical fruit, somewhat similar to Cox's Orange Pippin. Skin

142

greenish-yellow, flushed and striped with two shades of red. Flesh,
white, tender, with a brisk acid flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long
time ; an excellent dessert Apple, and suitable for export. Tree hardy,
vigorous and very productive.

Cornish Aromatic. — A well-known and popular English variety, with
roundish-angular fruit, rather above medium size. Skin deep yellow,
with a full deep-red cheek, and thickly marked with russet on the other
side. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy and briskly aromatic. Kipens
late, will keep three or four months, and a first-class dessert Apple.
Tree moderately vigorous and prolific.

Cornish Gilliflower (Cornish July-Jioicer). — Another old and popular
English variety, with roundish-conical slightly-ribbed fruit, rather above
medium-size. Skin dull dark yellowish-green, thickly tinged and
striped with brownish-red. Flesh, yellowish, firm, very juicy, with a
rich aromatic flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and is a good
dessert Apple. Tree strong and fairly prolific, though in England it
has the reputation of being .a shy bearer.

Court Pendu Plat [G anion's Pippin^ Russian, Wollaton Pipjmi).^-
A popular French variety, with medium-sized roundish-flat fruit. Skin
nearly covered with rich deep crimson, with a little greenish-yellow on
the shaded side. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, with a brisk acid flavour.
Ripens medium late, keeps for some time, and a good dessert or cooking
Apple. Tree vigorous and a good bearer.

Court Pendu Plat.

Coicrt of Wick (Golden Drop, Fry's Pippin^ Knight wick Pippin,
Week's Pippin, Yellow Pippin). — A popular old English variety of the
Golden Pippin class, with small roundish. oblate fruit, somewhat
flattened. Skin yellow, with an orange cheek slightly flushed with red.
Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, with a rich pleasant flavour. Ripens late,

U3

will keep for a long time, and is a first-class dessert Apple. Tree hardy,
vigorous and very prolific.

Coxs Orange Pippin. — A. well-known and highly-esteemed English
variety, with medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin greenish-
yellow, shaded, splashed and mottled over most of the surface wiUi
bright-red. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy and briskly flavoured. Ripens
late, will keep for some time, and is a favourite dessert and market
Apple. Suitable for export. Tree strong and a good bearer.

Cox's Pomona. — This is another well-known and popular English
variety, with ovate fruit, medium-sized or larger. Skin deep-yellow,
streaked and shaded with bright crimson. Flesh white, tender, juicy,
with a brisk subacid flavour. Ripens medium late, will keep for some
time, an excellent culinary Apple, and useful as a deesert fruit. Tree
vigorous and fairly productive.

Cox's Pomona.

Cox's Red Leaf Russet. — An excellent English dessert variety, with
medium-sized roundish-oblate fruit. Skin thickly covered with brown
russet. Flesh greenish-white, juicy, with a brisk rich flavour. Ripens
late, keeps a long time, and one of the best dessert Apples of the russet
class. Tree strong and productive.

Craike's Seedling. — A very good Victorian Apple, raised in the
Sandhurst district, after the style of the Stone Pippin, from which it
has evidently originated. Fruit similar to the Stone Pippin, though not

\

144

quite so large, but with ratter more colour. Flesh very juicy, crisp
and briskly flavoured. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and an excellent
market Apple.

Cullasaga. — An American variety, with a large roundish fruit,
inclining to conical. Skin yellowish, to a large extent shaded and
striped with crimson, and sprinkled with large dots. Fruit, yellowish,
firm, moderately juicy, and mildly sub-acid. Ripens late, keeps well,
and is an excellent dessert and cooking variety. Tree strong and very
prolific.

Devonshire Quarrenden (Bed Quarrenden, Sack Apple). — An old and
popular English variety, with medium-sized roundish fruit, somewhat
compressed at the ends. Skin covered with very deep dark crimson.
Flesh greenish-white, crisp, juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour.
Ripens medium early, and is a good dessert and cooking Apple, but
will only keep a short time. Tree hardy and an excellent bearer.

Devonshire Red Streak. — This is another old and well-known English
variety, with medium-sized, or under, roundish-conical fruit. Skin
yellowish-green, thickly-striped with red and dotted with brown.
Flesh yellowish white, juicy, brisk and well flavoured. Ripens about
mid-season ; not a good keeper ; a moderately good dessert variety, but
an excellent cider Apple. Tree robust and very prolific.

Downton Pippin {Downion Golden Pippin, Elton Pippin, KnigMs
Golden Pippin, St. Mary's Pippin). — A very old and well-known
English variety, a seedling from the famous Golden Pippin. Fruit
small, but a little larger than the Golden Pippin, roundish and flattened
at the ends. Skin bright-yellow. Flesh yellowish, crisp, with a rich
brisk sub-acid flavour. Ripens medium late, and will keep for two or
three months. An excellent dessert variety. Tree moderately vigorous
and bears freely.

Dr. Hogg. — An excellent English variety, with fruit rather above
medium-size, roundish-ovate, and prominently ribbed. Skin deep-
yellow, with a full red cheek and faint stripes of crimson with traces of
russet. Flesh white, crisp, juicy, and briskly flavoured. An excellent
culinary variety, and keeps for several months. Tree robust and a good
bearer.

Dredgers Fame. — A very useful English variety, with roundish-ovate
fruit, medium-sized or over. Skin greenish-yellow, with a red cheek
and patches of thin russet. Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, crisp, juicy,
sweet, and briskly-flavoured. Ripens medium lafee, keeps well, and
suitable for dessert or cooking. Tree vigorous and bears freely.

D. T. Fish. — A recently introduced English variety, with large
roundish obtusely-angular fruit. Skin bright yellow, with a slight
flush red cheek and dotted with small specks of russet. Flesh tender,
juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep two or
three months, and is an excellent dessert, cooking and sauce Apple.
Tree said to be vigorous and prolific.

Duchess of Oldenherg (Beauty of Newark). — A first-class and popular
Russian variety, with medium-sized, or over, roundish-oblate regularly
formed fruit. Skin deep-yellow, heavily flushed and streaked with

145

crimson. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, with a sprightly sub-acid[flavour.
Ripens early in the autumn ; is an excellent dessert or culinary Apple,
but does not keep long. Tree very hardy, vigorous, bears freely, and is
nearly blight proof

Duchess of Oldenberg,

Dumelow's Seedling.

146

Duke of Devonshire. — An English variety, with medium-sized
roundish-ovate fruit. Skin lemon-yellow, with a dull-red cheek and
veined with russet. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, with a rich aromatic
flavour. Ripens late, will keep a long time, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Tree moderately vigorous and productive.

Dumelow's Seedling (JVormanton Wonder, Wellington). — A well-
known first-class English variety, with large roundish fruit, compressed
at the ends. Skin yellow, with a blush check and marked with russet.
Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, with a pleasant acid flavour. Ripens late, is
a very long keeper and one of the best culinary Apples. Suitable also
for drying and exporting. Tree robust and an excellent bearer.

Dutch Mignonne (Copmanthorpe Crab, Stettin Pippin). — A well-
known and popular old variety, raised in Holland, with medium-sized
roundish-oblate fruit. Skin dull-yellow, with a blush cheek and mottled
with russet. Flesh yellowish, juicy, slightly sub-acid, and highly
flavoured. Ripens late, keeps a long time, a good dessert Apple, and a
suitable kind for export. Tree strong and an excellent bearer.

Dutch Mignonne.

Early Harvest (July Pippin, Yellow Harvest). — An excellent
American variety with medium-sized roundish fruit. Skin bright pale-
yellow, with a few faint white dots. Flesh white, crisp, juicy, with a
rich sprightly sub-acid flavour. Ripens in early summer, and is an
excellent dessert and cooking Apple. Tree hardy, vigorous, and very
prolific.

147

Early Harvest.

Early Joe. — This is an American variety, with small oblate fruit.
Skin yellowish, shaded and striped with red, and dotted with green.
Flesh whitish, tender, juicy, with a piquant vinous flavour. Ripens at
mid-summer ; and is a popular dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous
and a fairly good bearer.

Early Julien. — An old Scotch variety, with medium-sized roundish
slightly-flattened fruit. Skin pale-yellow, with an orange cheek. Elesh
yellowish-white, very juicy, with a brisk aromatic flavour. Kipens at
mid-summer ; and suitable for either dessert or cooking. Tree strong,
hardy, and a great bearer.

Early Nonpareil [Summer JVonpareil). — A very old English variety,
at one time popular, and still worthy of a place in an orchard. Fruit
medium-size, or under, roundish-oblate. Skin dull-yellow, spotted
with russet and grey dots. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, brisk, with
a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens soon after mid-summer ; and a suit-
able Apple for either dessert or cooking. Tree hardy, robust, and
very prolific.

Early Red Margaret {Eve Apple, Bed Jimeating, Striped Juneating,
Striped Quarrenden). — An English Apple, which is popular on account
of its earliness. Fruit medium-sized, roundish-ovate, and tapering
towards the eye. Skin heavily covered with stripes and shades of dark-
red. Flesh white, juicy, with a brisk vinous flavour. Ripens very
early, and therefore greatly in demand, and is a good dessert fruit, but
soon gets mealy. Tree robust, a good bearer, and not usually much
affected by blight.

Early Stravjherry {American Red Juneating) . — A very early American

148

variety, with small roundish fruit. Skin finely striped, and stained
with two shades of red upon a yellow ground. Flesh white, slightly
tinged with red next the skin, tender, sub-acid, with a pleasant brisk
aroma. Ripens very early, and is a favourite dessert fruit. Tree strong
and productive.

Emperor Alexander {Alexander, Aporta, Bussian Emperor). — A well-
known, showy, and popular Russian variety. Fruit very large and
nearly heart-shaped. Skin greenish-yellow, thickly striped with red.
Flesh yellowish- white, crisp, juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens late in
the summer, is a good culinary Apple, and may also be used for dessert,
but will only keep a limited time. Tree vigorous and a free bearer.

Emperor Alexander.

\

English Russet. — A variety of uncertain origin, with medium-sized,
roundish fruit, somewhat flattened. Skin thickly covered with light-
brown russet. Flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, with a brisk pleasant
flavour. Ripens late, will keep a long time, and is a useful dessert
Apple. Tree strong and prolific.

Esopus Spitzenburg. — An excellent American variety, with large
oblong fruit, tapering towards the eye. Skin nearly covered with lively-
red, and dotted with pale-russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy with a
rich brisk flavour. Ripens late, will keep a long time, and is a first-

149

class dessert Apple. Suitable also for export. Tree fairly robust and a
very good bearer.

English Russet

Esopus Spitzenburg.

150

Evening Party. — A first-class American Apple, with fruit below
medium-size and rather flattened. Skin yellow, with a dark-red cheek
and stripes and splashes of crimson. Flesh whitish, juicy, crisp, with a
vinous aromatic flavour. Kipens late, keeps a long time, and is an
excellent dessert variety.

Fall Pippin {Round Pippin, York Pippin). — This is supposed to be
an American variety, but its origin is uncertain. Fruit large, roundish,
and a little flattened. Skin yellow, with a brownish-bluish cheek and
a few scattered dots. Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a rich aromatic
flavour. Ripens in the autumn, will keep for some time, and a useful
dessert or cooking Apple. Tree strong, hardy and productive.

Fear It's Pippin {Clifton Nonesuch, Ferris Pippin^ Florence Pippin).
— An old and popular English variety, with medium-sized roundish-
oblate fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, russety round the stalk, with a
flush cheek and streaks of red. Flesh greenish -white, juicy, rich and
well flavoured. Ripens late, keeps for a long time, and is a good Apple
either for dessert or culinary purposes. Tree hardy, robust and an
excellent bearer.

Five-crowned Pippin {London Pippin, Royal Somerset). — A very
old, excellent and popular English variety. Fruit above medium-size,
flattened and angular, with five prominent ridges round the crown.
Skin deep-yellow, with a tinge of red. Flesh yellowish-white, firm,
with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens very late, an excellent
keeper, a good cooking Apple, and useful as a dessert fruit ; also an
excellent variety for drying, and for an export trade. Tree robust and
a good bearer.

Five-Crowned Pippin.

151

Ilower of Kent. — A well known and excellent English variety, with
large roundish-conical irregularly-ribbed fruit. Skin dull-yellow,
washed and striped with dull and bright red. Flesh greenish-yellow,
very juicy, with a pleasant brisk sub-acid flavour, liipens in the
autumn, will keep for two or three months, and is an excellent cooking
Apple. Tree strong and bears freely.

Forge. — An old and useful English variety, with medium-sized
roundish-oblate obscurely-ribbed fruit. Skin deep-yellow, flushed,
striped and mottled with red. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, sweet,
with a fine aromatic flavour. liipens late, and will keep a long time.
A good culinary Apple, and also suitable for making cider. Tree robust
and a heavy and regular bearer.

Fox Wlielio. — An old English cider Apple, with medium-sized fruit,
ribbed at the crown. Skin yellow, flushed and striped with red. Flesh
firm, very juicy and sharply sub-acid. Ripens in autumn, and is an
excellent Apple for cider, but not worth cultivating for other purposes.
Tree hardy, strong and prolific.

French Crab {Claremont Pippin, Easter Pippin, Winter Greening).
— An old English variety, held in great esteem for its long-keeping
qualities. Fruit globular and above medium-size. Skin dark-green,
becoming yellowish as the fruit ripens. Flesh greenish-white, firm,
juicy and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens very late, and may be kept for
twelve months or more. An excellent culinary Apple, a good dessert
fruit, and suitable for export. Tree vigorous and bears abundantly.

Gladney's Red. — An American variety, with medium-sized roundish
fruit. Skin thickly shaded, striped and mottled with light-red. Flesh
yellowish, firm, moderately juicy, sub-acid, with a slight aromatic
flavour. Ripens in the autumn, will keep two or three months, and is
a good dessert Apple. Tree moderately robust and prolific.

Gloria Mundi.

152

Gloria Mundi {Baltiinore Pippin, Mammoth, Monstrous Pippin, Ox
Apple). — A useful and showy variety of uncertain origin, with fruit
very large, roundish and somewhat flattened. Skin greenish-yellow,
with a faint blush cheek. Flesh white, juicy, with a pleasant acid
jflavour. Ripens in the autumn, will keep two or three months, and is
an excellent culinary Apple. Tree robust and productive.

Golden Harvey (Brandy Apple). — An old English variety, with
small nearly round fruit. Skin roughly russety on a yellow ground,
with a tinge of red on the cheek. Flesh yellow, juicy, sub-acid, with an
aromatic flavour. Ripens late, keeps fairly well ; a good dessert, and
first-class cider Apple. Tree moderate in growth, but bears freely.

Golden Knob. — An English variety, with small fruit, roundish and a
little flattened. Skin yellow, much covered with russet, and a reddish
tinge on one side. Flesh greenish-white, juicy and well flavoured.
Ripens late, keeps well, and is a good dessert Apple. Tree strong and
prolific.

Golden Nohle. — A favourite old English variety, with large roundish-
conical fruit. Skin clear bright-yellow, with small spots and patches of
russet. Flesh yellow, tender and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens in the
autumn, will keep two or three months, and is a good culinary Apple.
Tree strong and a free bearer.

Golden Pippin {Old Golden Pippin). — A first-class and well-known
old English variety, which has been cultivated for nearly 250 years.
Fruit round, small and regularly formed. Skin deep golden-yellow,
with white specks and dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish, brisk, juicy
and highly flavoured. Ripens in the autumn, keeps fairly well, is a
good dessert Apple, and suitable for making cider. In England this
variety keeps better than here, and is superior in flavour, being
generally considered to be the Queen of Apples. Tree strong and a
good bearer in cool localities.

Golden Pippin.

153

Golden Reinette {English Pippin, Dundee^ Elizabeth, Megginch
Favoufite, Princess Noble, Wyker Pippin). — A very popular and excellent
dessert apple of English origin. Fruit below medium-size, regular,
roundish, and a little flattened. Skin smooth, golden-yellow, flushed
and streaked with red on one side, and dotted with russet. Flesh
yellow, crisp, juicy, and briskly sub-acid. Ripens medium late, wilL
keep two or three months, and is a good dessert apple. Tree moderately
vigorous and productive.

Golden Eeinette.

Golden Russet {English Golden Russet). — An old and popular English {
variety, with medium- sized roundish-oblate fruit. Skin thickly covered '
with bright-yellow russet. Flesh yellowish white, firm, juicy, and
mildly sub-acid. Ripens late, keeps well, and is a good dessert apple.
Tree strong, prolific, and an early bearer.

Golden Winter Pearmain {Hampshire Yellow^ King of the Pippins^
Southampton Pippin). — An old and favourite English variety, with
medium-sized pearmain-shaped fruit. Skin deep yellow, flushed and
streaked with red. Flesh yellowish-white, firm, juicy, with a sweet
aromatic flavour. Ripens medium late, will keep three or four months,
and a good apple either for dessert br cooking and suitable for export.
Tree moderately vigorous and a free bearer.

Gooseberry Pippin. — A good and popular old English variety, with
rather small roundish fruit, somewhat flattened. Skin greenish-yellow,
with splashes and marblings of red. Flesh greenish-white, tender,
juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep for a long period,
a good dessert apple, and suitable for an export trade. Tree robust and
productive.

154

Grangers Pearmain (Grangers Pippin). — An old English variety of
excellent quality, with, large roundish- conical fruit. Skin yellow, with
broken stripes of red and white specks. Flesh yellowish-white, crisp,
•juicy, with a brisk, pleasant flavour. Ripens late, will keep for three or
four months, and is a first-class culinary apple. Tree vigorous and an
excellent bearer.

Gravenstein. — A well-known and popular German variety, with large
round flattened fruit, a little one-sided. Skin pale-yellow, heavily
striped and marbled with deep-red and orange. Flesh yellowish-white,
crisp, vinous, and aromatic. Kipens about mid-season ; is an excellent
dessert or culinary apple, but will not keep long. Tree hardy, robust,
and very prolific.

Gravenstein.

Greenup^s Pippin. — An English variety, with roundish fruit, rather
above medium-size. Skin yellow, with a bright red cheek. Flesh
yellowish- white, juicy, sweet, with a brisk sub-acid flavour. Ripens
medium late, will keep three or four months, and is a very good culinary
apple. Tree hardy, strong, and a great bearer.

Hamhledon Deux Ans. — An old and popular English variety, with
large roundish fruit, rather broadest at the base. Skin yellowish-green,
with a deep blush cheek, and heavily striped and splashed with red.
Flesh greenish-white, firm, crisp, and richly flavoured. Ripens late,
keeps for a long period ; is a good dessert or culinary apple and suitable
for export. Tree vigorous and productive.

155

JJanwdl Souring. — A first-class old English culiliary variety, with
medium-sized roundish-ovate fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a red blush.
Flesh firm, crisp, and briskly acid. Ripens late, keeps a long time,
cooks well, and is a good cider Apple. Tree strong and productive.

Harvey (Dr. Harvey). — One of the oldest English varieties, with
large roundish-ovate fruit. Skin greenish yellow with a re4 blush and_
russet tracings. Flesh white, crisp, juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid.
Ripens medium late, will keep three or four months, and is a good
culinary Apple.

Hawthorndtn. — An^old and favorite Scotch variety, with roundish
flattened fruit, rather above medium-size. Skin yellowish green, with a
deep blush. Flesh white, juicy, with a pleasant flavour. Ripens medium
late, will keep two or three months, is an excellent culinary Apple, and
suitable for drying. Tree robust and a great bearer.

Hawthornden.

Herefordshire Beefina. — A recently introduced English variety, that
comes to us with a high character. Fruit medium-size or over. Skin
nearly covered with dark-red, and dotted with light-brown spots,
especially round the base of the fruit. Flesh greenish-white, very firm,
and slightly acid. Ripens late, keeps well, and said to be an excellent
Apple for cooking and drying. Tree said to be of vigorous growth, and
a constant and heavy cropper.

K

166

Herefordshire Pearmain (Old Fearmain, Royal Pearmain). — An old,
well-known, and popular English variety, with rather large roundish-
conical fruit. Skin yellowish-green, flushed, shaded, and marbled with
dark-red, and dotted with russet specks. Flesh yellowish, crisp, firm,
juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will keep a long time,
suitable for dessert or cooking, and is a good Apple for export. Tree
robust and prolific.

Hoary Morning (Dainty, Downy, Sam Rawlings). — A well-known
English variety, with large roundish-conical fruit, somewhat flattened.
Skin yellowish, thickly striped and splashed with red, and covered with a
thick bloom, like thin hoar frost. Flesh yellowish-white, tinged with
red next the skin, crisp, juicy, and slightly acid. Ripens after mid-
season, will keep a few weeks, and is an excellent cooking or drying
Apple. Tree vigorous and prolific.

Hoary Morning.

Hollandhury (Hawherry Pippin, Horsley Pippin, Kirlce's Admirable).
— An old English and popular variety, with large roundish fruit, flattened
at the ends, and prominently ribbed. Skin greenish-yellow, but heavily
flushed and striped with bright-red. Flesh white, juicy, and briskly
sub-acid. Ripens in the autumn, will keep for two or three months, and
is a first-class culinary Apple. Tree strong and bears freely.

Holstein's Alpine Seedling. — An excellent Victorian variety, raised in
the Bright district. Fruit medium-sized roundish-conical, Skin nearly
'covered with deep bright-red. Flesh, yellowish, firm, juicy, with a
piquant sub-acid flavour, Ripens late, will keep a long time, and an
excellent market Apple,

I

167

Hoover (Wattaugah).— One of the best and most popular of ^ the
American varieties, with roundish fruit, medium sized or over. Skin
overspread \^ith red, with darker stripes and light dots, with thin russet
near the stalk. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and richly sub-acid. Ripens
late, will keep for several months, suitable for dessert or cooking, and a
good Apple for market or export. Tree strong and prolific.

HOOVCT.

Hubbard's Pearmain. — An excellent old English variety, with small
roundish-conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, often covered with pale-
brown russet. Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with a rich sugary aromatic
flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and is one of the richest dessert
Apples. Tree vigorous and a very good bearer.

Irish Peach (Early Grojton). — A well-known old English variety,
with roundish flattened fruit, medium- sized or under. Skin nearly
covered with brownish-red. Flesh white, tender, juicy, and well flavoured.
Ripens before mid-season, is a fairly good dessert fruit, but will only
keep a short time. Tree ha^dy, prolific, and not subject to bHght.

Isle of Wight Pippin (Orange Pippin). — A very old English variety,
with medium-sized roundish fruit, a little flattened. Skin deep yellow,
with an orange-brown cheek and traced with thin russet. Flesh yellow,
firm, juicy, with a pleasant aromatic sub-acid flavour. Ripens medium
late, will keep for three or four months, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Tree moderately vigorous and fairly productive.

. 158

Iiish Peach.

JewetVs Best— An American variety of excellent quality, wit!) large
oblate or nearly globular fruit. Skin greenish -yellow, heavily shaded
with deep-red. Flesh yellowish -white, juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid.
Ripens late, keeps well, and is a good dessert Apple. Tree strong, hardy,
and px'oductive.

Jollj/ Beggar. — A favorite old English culinary variety, with large
roundish fruit. Skin pale-yellow, with an orange cheek. Flesh white,
juicy, aud briskly sub-acid. Ripens medium late, and will keep two or
three months. Tree hardy, comes into bearing early, and an extraordinary
heavy cropper.

Jonathan (King Philip). — This is one of the finest and best of the
American varieties. Fruit medium-sized or larger, roundish-conical, and
tapering towards the eye. Skin overspread with deep-red, with darker
stripes. Flesh white, sometimes tinged with pink, tender, juicy, with a
sprightly vinous flavour, Riijens late, will keep a long time, is an excellent
dessert Apple, and suitable for export. Tree very hardy, vigorous, and
a free bearer.

Joanneting (Golden Beauty, Juneating). — A very old and formerly
popular English variety, with small round flattened fruit. Skin light-
yellow, with a red blush. Flesh white, crisp, and pleasantly flavoured.
Ripens about mid-summer, and is a useful early dessert Apple. Tree
vigorous and a fairly good bearer.

Keddleiiton Ftp-pin^ — An English varietj', with small regularly formed
conical fruit. Skin briglit-yellow with veinings and specks of russet.

159 .

Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, with an aromatic flavour, RipeHS late,
keeps well, and is a first-rate dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous
and j)roductive.

Jonathan.

Kentish Filihasket. — A well-known and popular English variety, with
very large roundish-angular fruit. Skin ojreenish -yellow, with a brownish-
red blush, and streaked with diarker-red, Flesh yellowish- white, tender,
juicy, and sub-acid. Kipens after mid-season, will keep a few weeks, and
is an excellent kitchen Apple. Tree strong, hardy, and prolific.

Kentucky Red Streak (Winter lied Streak J. — An excellent American
variety, with medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow,
heavily shaded with dark pur[:(lish-red, and indistinctly striped, also
spotted with light dots so thickly as to give a mottled appearance.
Flesh white, tender, juicy, and mildly sub-acid. Ripens late, \Yin keep a
long time, a good dessert and cooking Apple, and suitable for export.
Tree vigorous, productive, and a regular bearer.

Kerry Pippin (Edmonton Aromatic l^ippin).—A\\ old and popular
Irish variety, with medium-sized oval fruit, flattened and wrinkled at the
eye. Skin pale-yellow, tinged and streaked with red. Flesh yellowish,
firm, crisp, juicy, with a rich sugary flavour. Ripens towards the end of
summer, will keep for several weeks, and is a first-class dessert Apple.

Kesivick CodUn. — A w^ell-known and popular old English culinary
variety, with large conical irregularly angular fruit. Skin greenish-yellow,
with a faint blush on one side. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, and
pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens about mid-season, is an excellent Apple
for cooking or drying, but will ia^iily keep a few weeks. Tree vigorous,
prolific, and an early bearer.

160

Keswick Oodlin.

King of Tompkin*8 County.

161

King of Tompkiri't County (King AppUy Tommy Bed J. — A showy and
good American variety, with very large globular inclining to conical fruit.
Skin yellow, deeply shaded, splashed and striped with red. Flesh
yellowish, juicy, tender, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens late, keeps
a long time, and is a good dessert or culinary Apple. Tree vigorou»,
spreading, a regular bearer, and heavy cropper.

Lady Apple (Api). — A French variety, popular in Europe, with very
small round flattened fruit. Skin smooth and glossy, with a brilliant-red
cheek upon a deep-yellow ground. Flesh white, crisp, juicy, and
pleasantly flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for a long period, and is a
handsome little dessert Apple. Tree hardy, vigorous, and bears freely
the fruit forminc: in bunches.

Lady Apple.

Lady Henniker.

162

Lady Henniker. — A popular and showy English variety, with large
roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, richly streaked with red. Flesh
yellowish- white, juicy and well flavoured. Ripens late, keeps well, and is
an excellent dessert and culinary Apple. Tree strong and productive.

Lamb Ahhei/ Pearmain. — One of the finest old English dessert Apples.
Fruit medium-sized roundish-conical flattened at the ends. Skin greenish-
yellow, splashed and striped with two shades of red. Flesh yellow, crisp,
juicy, with a rich sweet aromatic flavour. Ripens late, keeps for a long
period, and well suited for an export trade. Tree fairly vigorous and
very prolific

Lamb Abbey Pearmain,

Lane's Prince Albert. — A newly introduced English Apple, which is
said to possess great merit. Fruit large, varying in shape from conical to
ovate. Skin pale-yellow, heavily streaked and tinted with deep-crimson.
Flesh very firm, crisp, juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens late, keeps well,
and said to be a high-class culinary Apple. Tree robust, very hardy, and
bears freely.

Late Wine. — An excellent American variety, with roundish-conical
fruit, rather below the medium size. Skin shading from light to dark
crimson and purplish-red. Flesh white, tender, juicy, and sub-acid.
Ripens medium late, will keep two or three months, and is a good Apple
for either dessert or cooking. Tree vigorous, bears early and freely.

Lemon Pippin. — An old and popular English variety, with medium
sized oval fruit. Skin lemon-yellow. Flesh yellowish- white, firm, juicy,
with a brisk flavour. Ripens late, will keep well, and is a good Apple
for dessert or cooking. Tree moderately vigorous, and bears freely.

Herefordshire Pearmain.

Letvis' Incomparable. — An excellent English variety, with large conical
fruit. Skin lively-red, streaked with a darker shade. Flesh yellowish,
firm, crisp, juicy, with a slight aromatic flavour. Ripens medium late,
will keep for three or four months, and is a good dessert and culinary
Apple. Tree hardy, strong, and productive.

Lincolnshire Holland Pippin (Striped Holla, ul Pippin). — An old
Enghsh variety, with large roundish flattened fruit. Skin yellow, with
stripes of red. Flesh white, crisp, and slightly acid. Ripens medium
late, will keep for two or three months, and is a fairly good cooking
Apple. Tree strong and prolific.

Lnddivgton Seedling (Stone's Apple).— A recently introduced English
variety, and said to be a first-class Apple. Fruit large and showy. Skin
shining yellowish-green, with a brown-red cheek and broken streaks of
crimson. Flesh white, solid, tender, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour.
Ripens late, will keep for a long period, and said to be an excellent
culinary Apple. Tree vigorous, prolific, and comes into bearing early.

Lodgemore Nonpareil CGlissolds Seedling). — A favourite English
variet}, with medium-sized roundish fruit. Skin deep-yellow, with a
blush of red on one side and dotted with grey. Flesh yellowish, firm,
crisp, juicy, with a rich aroma. Ripens late, can be kept for a long time,
is a first-class dessert Apple, and suitable for export. Tree strong and
productive.

Lord Biirghley. — An excellent English variety, with medium-sized
roundish fruit, slightly flattened, ribbed at the eye, and somewhat angular.
Skin g«jlden-yellow, with a deep crimson cheek and dotted freely with

164

russet specks. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, with a rich fine flavour.
Ripens late, keeps for a long period, a first-class dessert Apple, and
suitable for export. Tree vigorous and a very good bearer.

Lord Derby. — An English culinary Apple of excellent quality, with
large roundish fruit having prominent ridges. Skin dark-green, with
russet dots. Flesh greenish-white and very juicy. Ripens late and will
keep for several months.

Ix)rd Grosvenor. — An English variety, with large roundish-conical fruit,
irregularly and prominently ribbed, and puckered towards the eye. Skin
pale-yellow, with traces of russet. Flesh white, tender, juicy, and sub-acid.
Ripens early, and a good cooking Apple. Tree a very good bearer.

Lord Lennox. — A very useful English dessert variety, with rather small
roundish-oblate fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a bright-red flush and
streaked with a darker shade. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, and highly
flavoured. Ripens late, is a first-class dessert Apple, and will keep for a
long time. Tree strong and prolific.

Lord Nelson fKirke's Lord, Nelson). — A well-known and popular
Fuglish variety, with very large roundish fruit. Skin pale-yellow
heavily streaked with red. Flesh yellowish-white, sweet, and juicy
Ripens after mid-season, suitable for cooking and dessert, but is not a
very good keeper. Tree vigorous, very hardy, and bears freely.

Lord Nelaon*

165

Lord Suffield. — A valuable and popular English variety, considered by
many to be an improvement upon the Keswick Codlin. Fruit above
medium-size, conical. Skin greenish-yellow, with a slight red tinge upon
the cheek. Flesh white, firm, juicy, and briskly flavoured. Kipens after
mid-season, will keep for several months, is one of our best cooking
Apples, and a good kind for cider. Tree hardy, strong, and a great
bearer.

Lord Wolseley. — An excellent New Zealand variety that has obtained a
high reputation, and is said to be a cross between the Irish Peach and
Stone Pippin. Fruit medium-sized roundish-conical. Skin light-green.
Flesh firm, juicy, and briskly flavoured. Ripens late, keeps for a long
time, and is a good dessert and culinary Apple. Tree robust, a heavy
cropper, and said to be quite blight -proof.

Lucomhe's Seedling. — An English variety, with large roundish-angular
fruit. Skin yellowish-green, with darker spots and streaked with crimson
on one side. Flesh white, juicy, and pleasantly flavoured. Ripens late,
will keep a long time, and is an excellent cooking Apple.

Maclean's Favorite. — A first-class English variety, with medium-sized
roundish fruit. Skin yellow. Flesh crisp, juicy, with a flavour resembling
the Newtown Pippin. Ripens medium late, will keep two or three
months, and is a good dessert Apple. Tree not very robust, but an
excellent bearer.

McAfees Nonesuch. — An American variety, with large globular fruit,
inclining to oblate. Skin yellowish-green, shaded and heavily striped
with crimson. Flesh whitish, solid, crisp, and sub-acid. Ripens late,
keeps a long time, and is an excellent dessert Apple. Tree strong and
very productive.

M auk's Codlin (Frith Pitcher, Irish Pitcher, Irish Codlin). — An old
English culinary Apple, with medium-sized conical fruit. Skin pale-
yellow, with a blush-red cheek. Flesh yellowish-white, crisp, sub-acid,
with a slight aroma. Ripens in the autumn, mil keep two or three
months, and is an excellent cooking Apple. Tree hardy, productive, and
comes into bearing early.

Maideits Blush. — A handsome and useful American variety, with
medium-sized, or over, roundish-conical fruit. Skin pale-yellow, with a
deep-crimson cheek widely spread. Flesh white, tender, and pleasantly
sub-acid. Ripens about mid-season, will keep for several weeks, suitable
for both dessert and cooking, and an excellent apple for drying. Tree
rolust and v^ery prolific.

Manningtons Pearmain. — A high-class English variety, with medium-
sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, heavily shaded and splashed
with red, with tracings of russet and dotted with grey. Flesh yellow,
firm, crisp, juicy, sweet, with an aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will
keep for several months, and is an excellent dessert Apple. Tree hardy,
productive and an early bearer.

M argil {Ntverfail, Murches Pippin). — An old English variety, with
small ovate-conical slightly-angular fruit. Skin orange, streaked and
mottled with red with tracings of russet. Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with
a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long period, and is

166

one of the richest flavoured dessert Apples. Tree moderately robust and
a fairly good bearer.

Mannington's Pearmain.

Margii.

167

Marston's Red Winter. — A useful and excellent American variety, with
roundish conical fruit, above the medium-size. Skin ground colour
yellow, but very heavily shaded and striped with crimson and sprinkled
with minute dots. Flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, and pleasantly
sub -acid. Ripens late, will keep for several months, and an excellent
dessert or culinary Apple ; also suitable for export. Tree hardy, of
moderate growth, and a great bearer.

Maveracl^'sSiveet, — A good American variety, with large roundish-oblate
fruit. Skin yellow, but mostly shaded, with rich deep-red, and sprinkled
with grey dots. FlesJi yellowish, tender, rich, and sweet. Ripens late,
will keep for three or four months, and is a good cooking or dessert
Apple. Tree vigorous, productive, "and an early bearer.

McLellan. — An American variety, with large roundish-oblate fruit.
Skin yellow, richly splashed, striped, afid marbled with red. Flesh white,
very tender, with a rich sweet vinoiis flavour. Ripens late, will keep
for a long period, a good dessert and culinary Ap2>le, and is suitable for
drying. Tree vigorous, productive, and a regular bearer.

Mela Gar la (Male Car la, Charles Apple). — A well-known and popular
Italian variety, with medium-sized roundish-ovate fruit. Skin thin, of a
clear waxen-yellow on one side and bright-crimson on the other. Flesh
white, very juicy, sweet, aromatic, with a vinous flavour. Ripens late,
keeps for several months, and is a delicious dessert Apple. Tree somewhat
tender in cold districts, but thrives iti warmer localities, and bears freely.

Meloii Apple.

168

Melov Apple (Norton's Melon ^ Watermtlon). — An excellent American
variety, with medium-sized, or larger, roundish-oblate fruit, narrowing a
little towards the eye. Skin lemon-yellow, with a light-crimson cheek,
and splashed, striped, and mottled with a darker shade. Flesh yellowish-
white, tender, crisp, juicy, sweet, and vinous, with a delicate aroma.
Ripens medium late, will keep for three or four months, and is a fine
dessert Apple. Tree only moderately vigorous but a good bearer.

Mere de Menage.

' - Mere de Menage {Comhermere Apple, Flanden^ Pippin). — A showy
variety of uncertain origin, somewhat similiar to the Emperor Alexander.
Fruit very large roundish-ovate. Skin nearly overspread with red, with
numerous darker streaks. Flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, and briskly
sub-acid. Ripens about mid-season may be kept for a few weeks, is a
good cooking Apple, and suitable for drying. Tree strong and bears
freely.

Minchall Crab (Lancashire Crab). — An old English culinary variety,
with large round fruit, considerably depressed. Skin greenish-yellow,
with traces of russet and one side tinged and striped with dull-red.
Flesh white, firm, and briskly acid. Ripens late, keeps a long time, and
is a good cooking Apple. Tree hardy and a good bearer.

Minier^s Dumpling. — An English variety, with large roundish, some-
what flattened, and slightly angular fruit. Skin dark-green, with a dull-

169

red cheek. Flesh greenish -white, firm, juicy, and sub-acid. Ripens late,
keeps for a long period, and is a first-class cooking and drying Apple.
Tree robust and an excellent cropper.

MohUs Royal. — A large and excellent culinary variety, which is some-
times known as Fillbasket. Fruit very large, round, and somewhat
flattened. Skin bright-green, with a yellow tinge and a brownish-red
flush. Flesh firm, very juicy, with a brisk sub-acid flavour. Ripens
after mid-season, is an excellent cooking Apple, and suitable for drying.
Tree robust and a free bearer.

Morgan's Seedling. — An excellent and popular variety, with medium-
sized roundish fruit. Skin yellow, with stripes of red. Flesh juicy and
well flavoured. Ripens late, keeps well, and a good dessert or culinary
Apple. Tree strong and a prolific bearer.

Moss's Incomparable. — An English variety, with medium-sized roundish-
oblate fruit, bkin yellow ground, heavily streaked with red. Flesh
yellowish, crisp, and juicy. Ripens after mid-season, and is an excellent
dessert or cooking Apple.

Mr. Gladstone. — A very popular English variety, with rather small to
medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin heavily shaded with dull-red,
and thickly striped with crimson. Flesh tender, juicy, with a brisk
pleasant flavour, ripens early, and a first-class dessert Apple. Tree
vigorous and bears freely.

Munroes Favourite. — A popular culinary variety, with very large
roundish-conical irregular fruit. Skin yellowish-green, with a slight red
cheek. Flesh juicy and briskly flavoured. Ripens medium late, is an
excellent cooking Apple, and will keep for some time ; suitable for export
Tree hardy, robust, and very prolific.

I^ewtown Pippin (American Newtown Pippin, Brooke's Pippin, Hun^s
Newtown Pippin, Green Winter Pippin). — A well-known and popular
variety of American origin, with medium-sized roundish rather irregular
and slightly ribbed fruit. Skin olive-green, with a brownish-red cheek,
dotted with grey specks, and tracings of russet near the stalk. Flesh
greenish- white, crisp, very juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens
late, may be kept for a long period, is a first-class dessert Apple, and also
suitable for export This Apple is largely shipped from America to the
British market. Tree moderately vigorous and a fairly good bearer.

New England Pigeon. — An American variety which is blight-proof.
Fruit medium -sized, rather irregular roundish-conical. Skin highly
coloured. Flesh juicy and well flavoured.

Nev) Rock Pippin. — An English variety, with medium-sized, roundish,
flattened, and somewhat irregular fruit. Skin dull-green, with a brown
blush and traced with russet. Flesh yellow, juicy, firm, and well flavoured.
Ripens late, will keep three or four months, and is a good dessert variety.
Tree vigorous and productive.

Newtown Spitzenburgh (Burlington, Matchless, Ox Et/e). — A first-class
and popular American variety, with medium-sized roundish-oblate fruit.
Skin yellow, sprinkled with grey specks, washed with light-red, and
heavily striped and splashed with a deeper colour. Flesh yellow, crisp,
tender, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. Ripens late, keeps a long time,
and is a fine dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous and bears freely.

170

Nichajacl', {Carolina Spice, Bed Pij^jnn, Winte?^ Rose). — One of the
best and most popular of the American varieties. Fruit medium -sized
or over, roundish-oblate. Skin nearly covered with red, splashed and
striped with a darker shade, and speckled with small yellowish dots.
Flesh yellowish, compact, juicy, and pleasantly flavoured. Ripens late, a
very long keeper, a good dessert and market Apple, and suitable for
export. Tree robust, very hardy, and bears in abundance.

Nickajack.

Novesuch. — A very old popular and excellent English variety, with
medium-sized round flattened fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, striped and
spotted with dull-red. Flesh white, tender, juicy, aud pleasantly sub-
acid. Ripens after mid-season, will keep for several weeks, and is a
useful Apple either for dessert oi- cooking. Tree vigorous and a good
bearer.

Nonpareil [English Xonjoareil, Hunt's Nonpareil, Lovedon^s Pippin). —
A very old and well-known English variety, with medium-sized roundish-
conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a brownish-red cheek and
patches and tracings of russet. Flesh greenish-white, crisp, aromatic,
with a sprightly sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long time,
and is a first-class dessert Apple. Tree vigorous and very productive.

Norfolk Bearer. — A useful English variety, with medium-sized roundish
fruit, somewhat angular round the eye. Skin yellowish-green, with a
heavy dark-crimson cheek. Flesh greenish- white, juicy, tender, crisp,
with a brisk agreeable flavour. Ripens medium late, will keep three or
four months, is an excellent culinary Apple, and suitable for making
cider. Tree strong, hardy and a very great bearer, hence the name.

171

Nonpariel.

Norfolk Beefing.

Norfolk Beefing (Norfolk Beaufin, Catshead Beefing, Read's Baker). —
A very old and well-known English variety, with large round fruit
slightly flattened. Skin dull-green, with a deep brownish-red cheek.
Flesh greenish-white, firm, crisp, juicy, with a brisk acid flavour. Ripens
late, will keep for a very long time, is a first-rate cooking Apple, and one
of the best for drying. Tree robust and prolific.

172

Northern Greening (W aimer Court).— A. very good old English culinary-
variety, with large roundish ovate fruit. Skin dull yellowish-green,
strewed with large grey dots, with a brownish-red cheek Flesh greenish
white, juicy, and sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep a long time, and is an
excellent cooking Apple. Tree strong and generally bears freely.

Northern Spi/. — A well-known useful American variety, which is
highly valued through its being blight-proof. Fruit rather large ovate-
conical. Skin yellow, but to a large extent covered with streaks of light
and dark red. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, slightly sub-acid, and
richly flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for a \ery long time, is an
excellent dessert and market Apple, and suitable for export. Tree
robust, upright in growth, is late in coming into bearing ; rather shy in
fruiting for a few years, but afterwards bears as freely as other kinds
This variety, owing to its being blight-proof, is used as a stock for
grafting other kinds upon.

Northern Spy.

OsHn (Arbroath Pippin, Mother Apple).— An old Scotch variety, with
medium-sized roundish rather flattened fruit. Skin lemon-yellow, sprinkled
with a few greyish-green dots. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy, with a
rich aromatic flavour. Ripens at mid-season, and is an excellent summer
dessert Apple, but will only keep a few weeks. Tree vigorous, hardy,
and very prolific.

173

Fearsons Plate. — An old and excellent English variety, with rather
small roundish-flattened fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a red cheek.
Flesh greenish-white, crisp, tender, juicy, with a brisk sub-acid flavour.
Ripens late, will keep for several months, and is a first-class dessert Apple.
Tree moderately vigorous and bears freely.

Pearson's Plate.

Pease^ood's Nonesuch.

174

Peasegood's N'onesuck. — A popular and useful variety, with large
roundish-oblate fruit. Skin yellow, with red stripes. Flesh very juicy
and briskly flavoured. Ripens rather late, is an excellent culinary or
dessert Apple, and keeps well. Tree strong and an abundant bearer.

Feck's Pleasant ( Waltz Apple). — An excellent American variety,
belonging to the Newtown Pippin class. Fruit above medium-size,
roundish, and slightly ribbed. Skin deep-yellow, with a bright-red blush
and dotted slightly with grey. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, and well
flavoured. Ripens late, an excellent keeper, and a good table Apple.

Perfection (Shepherd's Perfection). — A variety of excellent quality,
raised at Somerville, in Victoria, which is to some extent in appearance
and quality similar to the well-known Scarlet Nonpareil. Fruit above
medium-size, roundish ovate. Skin greenish-yellow, richly striped and
dashed with different shades of red. Flesh white, juicy, and highly
flavoured. Ripens medium late, will keep for a long time, and is an
excellent dessert Apple ; also a good Apple for exporting. Tree vigorous,
an abundant bearer, and but slightly affected by blight.

Pineapple Russet. — A first-class English russet variety, with medium
sized, roundish-ovate, and somewhat angular fruit. Skin greenish yellow,
dotted with white, and thickly covered on one side with light-russet.
Flesh yellowish- white, tender, juicy, with a sprightly pineapple flavour.
Ripens medium late, may be kept two or three months, and is a good
dessert Apple. Tree of moderate growth and a fairly good bearer.

Pitmaston Nonpareil (Russet Coat Nonpsireil). — An English variety,
with medium-sized roundish-oblate fruit. Skin dull-green, with a faint-
red cheek, and covered with thin yellow-russet. Flesh greenish-yellow,
firm, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripens medium-late, may be kept two
or three months, and is a good dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous
and a fair cropper.

Pomme de Neige.

175

Pomme Je Neige (Fo.meuse, S^ioiv /I/j^^/c),- An excellent and favorite
variety from Canada, and probably of French origin. Fruit medinm-sized
or under, roundish, somewhat flattened. Skin with a ground of greenish
yellow, but heavily marked with blotches, shades, and stripes of red.
Flesh very white, tender, juicy, with a rich and slightly aromatic flavour.
Ripens medium late, and will keep two or three months. Tree moderately
robust, bears freely, and is but little aff'ected with blight.

Prince Bismarh —A showy, well-known, and popular Victorian variety,
said to have been raised at Carisbrook. Fruit very large, roundish-
conical, and somewhat similar to Emperor Alexander. Skin yellow,
heavily streaked with different shades of red. Flesh creamy-white, crisp,
juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens about mid-season, will
keep for a few weeks, and is a good Apple either for dessert or cooking.
Tree robust, hardy, prolific and an early bearer.

Prince of the Pippins. — A very good Victorian variety with medium -
sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin heavily flushed and striped with
various shades of red. Flesh juicy, firm, and highly flavoured. Ripens
after mid-season, is a very good dessert Apple, and keeps moderately well.
Tree fairly vigorous and a free bearer,

Queen of the Pippins {Reine des Reinettes). — A variety of uncertain
origin, with medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin deep bright-
yellow, shaded, splashed, and marbled with red, and a few grey dots,
Flesh yellowish- white firm, crisp, juicy, and slightly aromatic. Ripens late,
will keep three or four months, and is a first-class dessert Apple. Tree
moderately vigorous, and a good bearer.

Red Astrachan.

176

Red Astrachan (Anqlesea Pippin). — A well-known, popular, and useful
Swedish variety, with roundish-ccnical fruit, somewhat angular. Skin
almost entirely overspread with deep bright-red, and covered with a white
bloom. Flesh white, crisp, moderately juicy, sub-acid, and well flavoured.
Ripens early, is an excellent dessert Apple, and a serviceable market
variety. The fruit however will only keep a short time, and must be
gathered before it is dead ripe, or otherwise it becomes too mealy. Tree
hardy, vigorous, very prolific, and an early bearer.

Red Inqestrie. — An old and excellent English variety, with rather small

roundish-oblong fruit. Skin deep-yellow, with a heavy-red cheek and

.speckled. Flesh pale-yellow, firm, very juicy, with a rich flavour.

Ripens late, will keep three or four months, and is a first class dessert

Apple. Iree moderately vigorous and generally bears freely.

Redstreak (Herefordshire Redstreak, Scuddamore's Grab). — A first-class
old English cider Apple, with medium-sized roundish fruit. Skin deep-
yellow, streaked all over with red. Flesh yellowish, firm and sub-acid.
Ripens medium late, may be kept for a few weeks; is a good culinary
Apple, and one of the best kinds that can be grown for cider. Tree very
robust, hardy, and a great bearer.

Reinette du Canada.

177

Red Warrior. — An American variety, somewhat re=5embling Nickajack,
with large roundish oblate fruit. Skin nearly covered with stripes and
marblings of two shades of red. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, and well
flavoured. Ripens late, will keep a long time, and is a good dessert or
cooking Apple. Tree vigorous and productive.

Reinette du Canada {h'ortugal, St. Helena Russet). — One of the best
known and most useful Apples, which, notwithstanding its name, is of
doubtful origin,, but supposed to have been raised in France. Fruit very-^
large, roundish-conical, angular, and somewhat flattened. Skin greenish-
yellow . marked with brown, and sprinkled with patches and dots of russet.
Flesh white, firm, juicy, with a rich sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, will
keep a very long time ; is a good dessert Apple, and excellent for cooking.
It is also one of the best Apples for an export trade. Tree vigorous in
habit, hardy, and very productive.

Reinette Rouge Hatif. — A handsome and useful early French variety
with medium-size roundish fruit. Skin thickly striped with red and
carmine. Flesh firm, juicy, and richly flavoured. Ripens early, and is a
very good dessert Apple. Tree moderately robust and generally a good
cropper.

Reinette van Motis. — An excellent dessert Apple, whose origin is
uncertain. Fruit below medium-size, roundish-ovate, flattened, with five
slight ribs. Skin rich-yellow, witli an orange-red cheek and a thin,
coating of brown russet. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, sub-acid, with an
aromatic flavour. Ripens late, can be kept for a long period, and is a
first-cla^s dessert Apple Tree strong and bears freely.

Rhode Island Greening {Burlington Greening., Jersey Greening). — An
excellent and well known American variety, with, large roundish fruit, a
little flattened. Skin greenish-yellow, and sometimes a dull blush near
the stalk. Flesh yellow, crisp, very juicy, with a rich sub-acid flavour.
Ripens late, will keep for a long time, and is a good culinary and dessert
^■^pple. Tree very hardy, robust, and a good bearer.

Rihston Pippin (^Formosa Pippin, Glory of York, Traver's Pippin). —
A well-known old English variety, which in the United Kingdom is
considered to be the King of Apples, on account of its rich, pecuUar, and
distinct flavour, and being a good keeper. In this part of the world,
however, it does not maintain its high English character, as there is a
great falling off in flavour, and the fruit will not keep for any length of
time. Fruit medium-sized or larger, roundish. Skin greenish -yellow,
clouded and streaked with dull-red. Flesh, yellow, crisp, juicy, with a
rich aromatic flavour when perfect. Ripens soon after mid-season, and
will keep for three or four months. Tree not very robust, a good bearer,
but rather liable to blight. Better adapted for the colder parts of Aus-
tralasia than other districts.

Rokewood (Bullock's Seedling) — A very good variety raised in Victoria,
which promises to prove a useful acquisition to the list of cultivated
sorts. Fruit roundish-conical and regularly shaped. Skin deep-
orange, heavily shaded with crimson and dotted with brown-russet.
Flesh yellowish, firm, and juicy, with a rich aromatic flavour. Ripbns
late, will keep for a very long time, is an excellent dessert Apple,

178

and a good kind for exporting. The original tree lias proved to be a
regular and heavy bearer.

Bibston Pippin.

Komanite*

179

Ho'nianite. — A first-class American variety, with roundish-conical fruit.
Skin yellow ground, but nearly overspread with bright-red and sprinkled
with light dots. Flesh yellowish, juicy, mildly sub-acid, and pleasantly
flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for a long time, an excellent dessert
Apple, and suitable for export. Tree vigorous, hardy, and very pro-
ductive.

Home Beauty {GilleWs Seedling). — An excellent American variety, with^
large, ronndish, and &!^<j;htly conical fruit. Skin ground-yellow, but to a "
large extent shaded ana striped with bright-red and sprinkled with light
dots. Flesh yellowish, juicy, with a sprightly sub-acid flavour. Ripens
late, may be kept for a long period, is a fii-st-cla&s dessert Apple, and an
exeellent variety for a local market and export. Tree vigorous and a good
bearer.

Rome Beauty.

Rosemary Russet. — An old English variety, with medium-sized roundish-
conical fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a light-red blush and covered
with thin pale-russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, with a rich aromatic
flavour. "Hipens medium late, will keep for three or four months, and is
an excellent dessert Apple, Tree moderately vigorous and a fairly good
bearer.

Ross' Nonpareil. — A good old Irish variety, with medium-sized roundish
fruit, narrowing a little towards the eye. Skin covered with thin brown-
russet, with a faint-red cheek. Flesh greenish-white, with a pleasant
aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will keep three or four months, and a very
good dessert Apple. Tree strong and bears profusely.

Royal Russet (Leather coat Russet). — An old En lish variety, with
medium-sized roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellowish-green, mostly covered

180

with light-brown russet. Flesh greenish-white, firm, briskly acid, and
slightly aromatic. Ripens late, will keep for a long period, and is an
excellent culinary Apple. Tree vigorous, hardy, and productive.

Ryme {Caldwell) — A first-class and popular old English variety, with
medium-sized, or larger, roundish-oblate regularly-formed fruit. 8kin
yellow ground, but to a great extent shaded with red. Flesh yellowish,
firm, juicy, sub-acid, and well flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for a
long time, and an excellent dessert and culinary Apple ; also a good
variety for exporting. Tree robust and an excellent bearer.

Sam Young {Irish Rmset). — An old Irish variety, with rather small
roundish, slightly flattened, and regularly formed fruit. Skin bright-
yellow, nearly covered with grey-russet, with a reddish tinge on the
cheek- Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, and richly flavoured. Ripens late,
will keep for three or four months, and is an excellent little dessert Apple.
Tree hardy, robust, and' productive.

Scarlet Nonpariel. — A well-known and very popular old English variety,
with medium-sized, roundish, somewhat flattened^ regularly-formed fruit.
Skin greenish-yellow, richly striped and shaded with red. Flesh yellowish-
white, firm, juicy, and rich flavoured. Ripens medium late, will keep
for several months, and is one of the finest dessert Apples. Is also a
very popular market variety, and suitable for export. Tree moderately
robust and a good bearer, but often badly affected by blight.

Scarlet Nonpariel

Scarlet Pearrnain {BeWfi Scarlet, Hood's Seedling, Oxford Peach). — A
first-class old English variety, with mediuni-jsized conical fruit. Skin

181

yellow ground, but to a large extent covered with various shades of red.
Flesh white, slightly tinged with pink, crisp, juicy, sub-acid, and
pleasantly flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for several months, and is
an excellent dessert Apple. Tree robust and very prolific.

Scarlet Pearraain'

Shepherd^s Fame. — An old English variety, with large roundish-oblite
slightly-ribbed fruit. Skin deep-yellow, richly streaked with various
shades of red. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, and well flavoured.
Ripens late, will keep three or four months, and is a good dessert or
culinary Apple.

ShocUei/. — A first-class American variety, with roundish-conical fruit,
rather below the medium size. Skin pale-yellow ground, but overspread
with red and with conspicuous minute dots. Flesh yellowish-white,
crisp, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. Hipens late, will keep for a very
long period, and is an excellent dessert Apple, a profitable market
variety, and suitable for export. Tree moderately, vigorous, very
productive, a regular cropper, commences to bear early, and does not
suffer much from blight.

Shorland Queen. — An excellent Victorian variety, with medium-sized
conical fruit. Skin richly flushed and streaked with red. Flesh juicy
and pleasant.

SmaiCs Admirable. — A good English variety, with roundish-ovate and
somewhat flattened fruit, above medium-size. Skin of a uniform

182

lemon colour. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, sub-acid, with a rich delicate
flavour. Ripens medium late, will keep three pr four months,
and is a good dessert or culinary Apple. Tree a very prolific bearer, and
well suited for dwarf culture.

Shockley.

Smith's Cider. — An American variety, with medium-sized to large
roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, shaded and striped with red, and
thinly sprinkled with grey dots. Flesh whitish, juicy, crisp, and mildly
sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep several months, and is an excellent
culinary and cider Apple, Tree very vigorous, hardy, and a heavy
cropper.

Stamford Pippin. — An old and popular English variety, with medium-
sized roundish-ovate fruit. Skin bright-yellow, with a deep-orange cheek.
Flesh yellowish, crisp, very juicy, with a brisk pleasant and slightly
aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will keep three or four months, and is a
good Apple for dessert or cooking. Tree moderately robust and a fairly
good bearer

Stansill. — A first-class American variety, with roundish-oblate fruit,
medium-sized or larger. Skin yellowish-green, richly striped with red,
and sometimes a blush cheek. Flesh yellow, juicy, sub-acid, and well
flavoured. Ripens, late will keep a long time, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Suitable for export. Tree vip:orous, hardy, productive, and an
early bearer.

Stewarts Seedling, — An excellent Victorian variety, raised in the
Ballarat district, with roundish ovate fruit, above the medium-size. Skin

183

yellowish-green, heavily flushed, and shaded with red. Flesh greenish-
white, juicy, with a good flavour. Kipens late, will keep several months,
and is a first-class dessert Apple ; also suitable for export.

Stone Pijypin — A well-known and popular English variety, which is
largely cultivated in Australasia. Fruit medium-sized, or larger,' roundish-
conical. Skin pale-green, sometimes with a brownish-red tino-e on the
cheek, and dotted with white specks. Flesh greenish-white, firm, crisp,
juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a very
long time, and is a first-class culinary and dessert variety ; also a-^ood
Apple for exporting, and one of the most popular kinds for our local markets.
Tree upright in habit, vigorous, hardy, and a very free bearer.

Stone Pippin.

Striped Beefing. — An excellent old English culinary variety, with large
roundish and slightly-flattened fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, almost
entirely covered with broken streaks and patches of red. Flesh yellowish,
firm, crisp, juicy, with a pleasant acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep
for a long time, is a first-class culinary Apple, and well suited for drying.
Tree vigorous and prolific,

Sturmer Pippin. — A popular and first-class old English variety, with
roundish somewhat flattened fruit, medium-sized. Skin yellow, with a
brownish-red cheek. Flesh yellowish, firm, with a rich sub-acid flavour.

]H4

Ripens late, will keep for ca long period, and ranks as one of the finest
dessert Apples. A very popular variety in our local markets, and
suitable for export. Tree hardy, thrifty, and bears freely.

Summer Fearmain (Autumn JPearmain). — An old English variety, with
medium-sized, or lai'ger, roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, striped
and mottled with red and orange, and dotted with brown. Flesh
yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, with an aromatic flavour. Ripens medium
late, will keep for three or four months, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Tree rouust and productive.

Summer Goh^en Pippin. — An old and good English variety, with ovate
fruit, below the medium size. Skin bright-yellow, with an orange-red
cheek Flesh yellowish, firm, very juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. An
excellent early dessert Apple, but will only keep a few weeks. Tree
moderately robust and a free bearer.

Swaar {Hardwich) . — A first-class American variety, raised by a Dutch
settler, that derives its name from the unusual weight of the fruit, which
in Low Dutch means heavy. Fruit roundish-oblate, large, and regularly
formed. Skin deep-yellow, with numerous brown specks and faint
traces of russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, with a rich aromatic
flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long period, is an excellent dessert
or culinary Apple, and suitable for export. Tree vigorous and a very
good cropper.

Sykehouse Russet. — An old English variety, with rather small roundish
fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, with a brownish-red cheek and partially
covered with russet. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, with a sub-acid flavour.
Ripens late, will keep four or five months, and is an excellent dessert
Apple. Tree robust, spreading in habit, and productive.

Sandringham. — A recently imported English variety, and said to
possess valuable qualities. Fruit large, conical, and very heavy. Skin
green, sprinkled with small russet spots. Flesh greenish-white, firm,
crisp, juicy, and sub acid. Ripens late, will keep for a long period, an
excellent cooking Apple, and suitable for the dessert.

The Queen. — A variety imported two or three years ago from England
with a high character. Fruit medium-sized to large, roundish -oblate,
with a ribbed eye. Skin lemon-yellow, but almost covered with bright-
crimson, with broken streaks and patches or darker-red. Flesh white,
tender, and juicy. Ripens late, a good cooking and dessert Apple, and
will keep a long time. Tree bears freely.

Tower of Glammis (Carse of Gowrie, Glammis Castle). — An old and
popular Scotch variety, with large roundish-conical and somewhat unequal
sided fruit. Skin pale-yellow, with a blush of red on the cheek. Flesh
whitish, crisp, very juicy, and briskly sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep
three or four months, and is a first-class cooking variety, also suitable for
drying. Tree robust, hardy, and a free bearer.

Twenty Ounce (Aurora, Coleman, Cayuga Bed Streak, Lima, M organ! i
Favorite). — A favorite and useful American variety, with very large
roundish slightly uneven fruit. Skin greenish-yellow, heavily splashed,
marbled, and striped with red. Flesh greenish-white, crisp, juicy, and
briskly sub-acid. Ripens medium late, will deep for three or four months,

185

is a good culinary Apple, and suitable for drying. Tree hardy, vigorous,
and a free and regular bearer.

The Queen.

Twyford Beauty. — An excellent Victorian variety, with medium sized
roundish conical fruit. Skin yellow, with a blush cheek and broken
streaks of red. Flesh crisp, juicy, and richly flavoured. Ripens medium
late, and is a good cooking and dessert Apple. Tree a free bearer.

7uscaloo.m. — An American variety, with medium-sized, or larger,
roundish- conical fruit. Skin yellow, shaded, striped, and marbled with
red, speckled with a few grey dots, and russety near the stalk. Flesh
yellowish, firm, juicy, and mildly sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep three
or four months, and is a good, dessert or culinary Apple. Tree moderately
vigorous, spreading in habit, and productive.

Wadhurst Pippin. An old English culinary variety, with medium-
sized, \)r larger, roundish-conical, and somewhat angular fruit. Skin
yellow, splashed and marbled with red on, the check. Flesh yellowish,
c ri.'- p, juicy, and briskly acid. Ripens medium late, will keep three or
four months, and is an excellent cooking Apple. Tree strong, hardy, and
bears freely.

WaWiam Ahhey Seedling. — An excellent English variety, with large
roundish-conical fruit. Skin yellow, with a red blush on the cheek and
speckled with minute russet dots. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, and
pleasantly flavoured. Ripens medium late, will keep three or four months,
a good culinary Apple, and when cooked is a pale-amber colour. Tree
moderately vigorous and a good bearer.

186

Wageiier.— A first-class American variety with medium-sized, or larger,
roundish- oblate fruit. Skin yellow ground, but heavily shaded with
crimson, obscurely striped with red, and sprinkled with light dots. Flesh
yellowish, tender, juicy, with a brisk vinous flavour. Ripens late, will
keep a long time, and is an excellent dessert Apple. Tree hardy, thrifty,
and an early bearer.

Warner's King. — A good and useful English culinary variety, with
large roundish-ovate fruit. Skin deep-yellow, marked with patches and
dots of russet, Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a brisk sub-acid flavour.
Ripens late, may be kept for a long period, and an excellent cooking
Apple. Tree very hardy, vigorous, and an excellent bearer.

Westfield Seek-no- Further. — An American variety, with roundish-conical
regularly formed fruit. Skin nearly covered with pale or dull red, and
sprinkled with obscure russet dots. Flesh whitish, tender, juicy and
well flavoured. Ripens late, will keep for some time, and is a good
dessert and culinary Apple. Tree thrifty and prolific.

White Calville.

fo,!nlf ^«"^^(^«^^^^^'^ Blanrhe^ White Winter CaMlle).-kn old and

veiow wH ' ^"'^ ''"^"^'' '^^^^ extending to the crown. Skin deep
yellow, with sometimes a faint blush of red on the cheeks. Flesh white

187

tender, very juicy, with a slightly aromatic flRvour. Ripens soon after
mid-season, will keep two or three months, and is a good dessert or
culinary Apple. Tree robust and productive.

White Spanish Reinette (Cobbetf.s Fall Pippin^ Eeinette Blanche
(TEspagne). — A very old and popular Spanish variety, with very large
roundish -oblate fruit, somewhat angular. Skin greenish yellow, with an
orange-red cheek and sprinkled wHh brown dots. Flesh yellowish-white,
crisp, tender, with a rich sub-acid flavour, Ripens late, will keep for au.
long time, and is a good culinary and also a dessert Apple. Tree hardy,
vigorous, and a very good bearer.

Whorle Pip2nn {Thorle Pippin). — An old and good English variety,
with roundish-oblate fruit, rather below the medium size. Skin nearly
covered with bright-crimson. Flesh yellowish white, firm, crisp, very
juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens about mid-season, will keep for a few
weeks, and is a useful summer dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous
and a fairly good bearer.

Winter Codlin. — An old English culinary variety, with large roundish
conical fruit, five-sided and ribbed. Skin yellowish-green, with sometimes
a blush cheek and sprinkled with a few grey dots. Flesh greenish-white
tender, juicy, and sub-acid. Ripens late, will keep three or four months
and is an excellent cooking Apple. Tree vigorous, spreading in habit
and productive.

Winter Ilawthornden {^New Hawthornden). — A culinary Apple of
EngHsh origin, similar in appearance to the old Hawthornden, but later,
and a better keeper. Skin yellowish-green, with a brownish-red cheek.
Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens
medium late, will keep three or four months, and is a good cooking
Apple. Tree rather dwarf in habit, but an abundant and early bearer. M

Winter Majetin
M

188

Winter Majetin. — An English variety that has become well known and
popular as it is not affected by the American blight, and therefore
largely used to supply stocks for grafting other kinds upon. But is is an
excellent variety to grow for its fruit, which is large, roundish, and has
at the apex five prominent crowns like the London Pippin. Skin
yellowish-green, with a dull-red cheek. Flesh gieenish-white, firm, with
a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, may be kept for a long period,
and is an excellent culinary Apple, Tree hardy, robust, and bears very
freely.

Winter Pearmrdu {Old Pearmain). — One of the oldest varieties in
cultivation, and supposed to be of English origin. Fruit large roundish-
conical. Skin greenish-yellow, with a lively red cheek. Flesh yellowish-
white, firm, crisp, juicy, with a brisk and pleasant flavour. Ripens late,
will keep for a long period ; a valuable Apple for dessert or culinary
purposes, a popular market kind, and suitable for export. Tree hardy,
and an excellent bearer.

Winter Quoining [Winter Queening). — Another very old English
variety, with medium-sized, or larger, conical fruit. Skin ground greenish-
yellow, with a widespread red cheek and streaks of the same colour.
Flesh greenish-yellow with an aromatic flavour. Ripens late, will keep
for a long period, and is a good apple either for dessert or cooking. Tree
hardy and an excellent bearer.

Winter Strawberry. — An American variety, with medium-sized,
roundish-conical fruit- Skin yellow, shaded and striped with red.
Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, slightly sub-acid, with an aromatic flavour.
Ripens late, keeps a long time, and is a useful dessert or culinary Apple ;
also suitable for exporting. Tree moderately vigorous, upright in habit,
and a good and regular bearer.

Wine Sop {Wine Sap)' — A first. class and very useful American variety,
with medium-sized roundish-oblong fruit. Skin ci fine dark-red, with a
few streaks and a small patch of yellow sometimes. Flesh yellowish,
firm, crisp, juicy, with a rich flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long
time, and is an excellent dessert Apj^le. It is also a first-class cider
variety, and the fruit has the good quality of hanging well upon the trees
after it it is ripe. Tree very hardy, will thrive in almost any soil, and it
is considered in America to be one of the most profitable varieties.

Worcester Pearmain. — A recently introduced English variety, said to
be of excellent quality. Fruit medium-sized or larger, roundish-conical.
Skin nearly covered with bright scarlet-red. Flesh tender, juicy, and well
flavoured. Ripens after mid-season, will keep for several months, and
useful both as a dessert and cooking Apple. Tree said to be strong and
productive.

W(>rmsley Pippin, — An English variety, with medium-sized, roundish
fruit, narrowing towards the eye. Skin greenish-yellow, with an orange-
red flush on the cheek, and dotted with dark specks. Flesh white, crisp,
juicy, and highly flavoured. Ripens soon after mid-season, will keep for
a few weeks, and is a good dessert and culinary Apple,. Tree moderately
strong and bears pretty freely.

Wyken Pipiin^ {Arley^ Girkin Pippin, Wanoickshiie Pippin,) — Avery

189

old but excellent English variety, with roundish-conical somewhat flattened
fruit, rather under the medium size. Skin yellowish -green, with a dull-
orange cheek and dots and tracings of russet. Flesh greenish-yellow,
crisp, very juicy, with a sweet rich flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a
long period, and is a first-class dessert Apple. Tree hardy, upright in
growth, and a free bearer.

Worcester Pearmain.

^Fa^es.— A first-class and popular American variety, with rather small
oblate fruit. Skin nearly overspread with shades, stripes, and splashes of
red, and freely sprinkled with light dots. Flesh white, sometimes stained
near the skin, tender, juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens late, will
keep a long period, and is an excellent little dessert Apple. Tree strong,
upright in habit, and a heavy bearer.

Yetlov) Bellefleur (Bishops Pijjj^in, Lady Washington, Wa?v'eji Pippin).
— An excellent American variety, with very large oblong and somewhat
irregular fruit. Skin pale-lemon colour, with often a slight blush on the
cheek. Flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, with a slightly sub acid flavour.
Ripens late, will keep for a long time, and is a first-class cooking or
dessert Apple. Tree moderately vigorous and a free and regular bearer.

Yellow ^tiDtown Pippin (Albermarle Pippin). — An American variety,
somewhat like the common Newtowii Pippin, but with harder flesh, and
rather more flat in shape,. Skin deep-yellow, with sometimes a red
cheek- Flesh firm, crisp, juicy, with a rich flavour. Ripens late, will
keep for a long period, and is a good des.sert and cooking Apple, Tree
hardy, robust, and an excellent bearer.

190

Yellow Bellefleur.

Yellow Newtown Pippin.

191

Yorkshire Benutt/. — A good English culinary Apple, wit'i large
roundish-oval fruit. Skin yellow-green, with a rich flush on the cheek
and large dots of russet. Flesh juicy, and pleasantly sub-acid. Ripens
after mid-season, is a first-class cooking Apple, and will keep for a few
weeks. Tree a good bearer.

Yorkshire Greening (Ooates, Yorkshire Goose Sauce). — An old and
excellent English variety, with large roundish-oblate irregular slightly-
ribbed fruit. Skin dark-green, with shades and broken stripes of dull-— ^____
red and traces of russet. Flesh greenish- white, firm, crisp, very juicy,
with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Ripens late, will keep for a long time,
and is a first-class cooking Apple. Tree vigorous, hardy, and very
productive.

Crab Apples.

The term " Crab Apple '' is applied to the fruit of several species of
the genus Ptjrus when growing in a wild or unimproved state. There are
various kinds in cultivation, though they are mainly grown for ornament,
the fruit being of but little value for commercial purposes. Several are
utilized for making cider and preserving, but the fruit is too harsh to be
utilized in any other way, though very attractive in appearance. The
Siberian Crab {Pyrus haccata) has been used with eff'ect in hybridizing
the ordinary varieties of Pi/rus malus, and some good kinds have been
obtained in this way. Several good American Apples are said to have
originated in this way, the Crab giving a harder constitution, which makes
them better adapted for certain localities than the ordinary sorts. The
following list embraces the more popular kinds : —

Coral. — Raised in America, a variety with very small conical fruit,
flattened at tiie ends. Skin rich-yellow, with a crimson cheek. Flesh
yellowish, crisp, juicy, and sprightly acid.

Currant. — A variety with fruit not larger than Currants, and like
them borne in clusters. Skin red, slightly striped with a deeper tint.
Flesh rather harsh . Very ornamental.

Foxley. — An English variety raised from the Siberian Crab. Fruit as
large as Cherry Plums, roundish-oblate, and produced in clusters. Skin
deep-yellow. Flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, sub-acid. Is used for cider and
preserving.

Ladij Crab. — A handsome English variety somewhat resembling the
Lady Apple in appearance, hence its name. Fruit roundish-oblate and
about the size of a large Cherry. Flesh yellowish, moderately juicy, and
sub-acid. Very ornamental.

Marengo. — A handsome variety of the Siberian Crab, with roundish-
oval fruit, which is rather larger than that of the parent. Skin warm-red
on a yellow ground, with a few scattered dots. Flesh yellowish-white,
crisp, juicy, and sub-acid. An ornamental variety, and one of the best of
the Crab Apples.

Scarlet Siberian {Cherry Crab). One of the handsomest and most
popular of Crab Apples for ornament. Fruit small, roundish-oblong, the

192

size of a Cherry, and in colour a bright shining scarlet. Flesh crisp,
juicy, and sub-acid.

Transcendent. — An early variety, with roundish-oblong fruit, which is
rather large for its class, and slightly ribbed. Skin golden yellow, with a
rich crimson cheek, covered with a white bloom. Flesh creamy-yellow,
crisp, juicy, and somewhat astringent. A very ornamental variety.

2'ransparent. — A pretty variety, with small roundish-flattened fruit.
Skin yellowish white, with a waxy appearance. Flesh translucent, juicy,
with a briskly acid flavour. Makes a good ornamental tree.

Yellow Siberian (Amber). — A handsome variety, somewhat similar to
the common Siberian, but the fruit is a little larger, and in colour a fine
golden-yellow, with sometimes a tinge of red.

APRICOT.

History.

This fruit belongs to the natural order Bosaceoe, or the Rose family
sub-order Amygdalece, its botanical name being Armeniaca vulgaru.
By some botanists it is classed as a plum, under the name of Prunwi
Armeniaca. There is no certainty as to where the Apricot originated, as, in
its wild state, it is widely diffused in Asia and Northern Africa. It is said
to be found growing naturally in Barbary, Egypt, China, Japan, Persia,
India, on the slopes of the Caucasus, and in other countries remote from
each other. The scientific name has been obtained through the Apricot
almost covering the slopes of the mountains of Armenia, nearly up to
the margin of perpetual snow. By the ancient Romans this fruit was
known as the Early Persian Apple [Mala per sica pi^ecocia), because it
ripened before the Peach and most other kind^. This name was in time
shortened to Precocia, and from this the common name is supposed to
have originated. -In the early English horticultural works this fruit was
always styled A-precok, and it was not till the end of the 17th century
that the word Apricot was used. Some authorities, however, are of
opinion that Apricot has been derived from the Arabic name of the fruit
Berkoche.

The Apricot is said to have been introduced to England in the reign
of Henry VIII., but according to some accounts it was known in that
country at a much earlier date. Being of a somewhat tender nature for
the climate of the United Kingdom, the Apricot never became so popular
as the hardier fruits, and in that part of the world, where it can only be
successfully cultivated with the protection of walls, its use has been mainly
confined to the wealthier classes. In milder climates it does well as a
standard, and under favourable conditions becomes a thrifty tree of from
twenty to twenty-five feet in height.

Uses.

In addition to its value as a dessert fruit and for culinary purposes, the
Apricot is utilized to a great extent in various other ways. Very large

193

quantities of the fruit are used for making jam and jelly. The Apricot is
also extensively used for canning, and when preserved this way is
preferred by many to any other fruit. For drying there is no better
fruit than the Apricot, and none in greater demand. In the south of
Europe and America large quantities of Apricots are now dried and
exported to other countries. Drying may be affected by simply splitting
the fruit, removing the stones, and exposing it, the cut side uppermost,

upon trays to the sun till the moisture has evaporated. The fruit m?ky~

also be dried with artificial heat in an evaporator. Apricots are excellent
when preserved in syrup or brandy, and the Chinese by these means can
keep the fruit for several years, so that it will retain its full flavour. In
the south of Europe an excellent wine is commonly made from the Apricot,
and by distillation it yields a highly flavoured spirit. The Chinese make
lozenges from the clarified juice of the Apricot, and when these are
dissolved in water they afford a very agreeeble beverage. From the kernels
of the wild Apricot, which affords but little pulp, these people also
extract an oil that is greatly esteemed. The wood of the Apricot is fine
grained, takes a good polish, and is much used by the Chinese and
Japanese for cabinet work and other purposes. Sometimes these people
use a yellow dye for woollen cloth which is extracted from the young
shoots.

Cultivation.

The Apricot may be grown successfully in most parts of Australasia
but it is a fruit better adapted for the warmer than the cooler districts
In the warmer parts (not tropical), the fruit develops the richest flavour
and is produced with greater certainty. This fruit deserves special atten-
tion from growers in any of the moderately warm districts, as there is a large
and growing demand for dried and canned Apricots. Produce prepared in
these ways is in great demand locally, and if in the future a surplus is
obtained, a market can be opened for it elsewhere. Cultivators must,
however, bear in mind that, either for canning or drying, varieties with
fruit that has a firm, tough fibre are preferable to those whose flesh is
more melting and juicy. Apricots are broadly divided into two classes,
viz. — Freestones, whicli separate readily from the seeds ; and cling-stones,
in which the flesh adheres to the stones. As this fruit is only in season
for a comparatively short period of the year, cultivators require but a
few sorts, which will give greater satisfaction than a large number. If
dessert fruit is required, the grower should select not more than half-a-
dozen kinds, highly flavoured and luscious, as also to mature early, at
mid-season, and late. The requirements for drying or canning have been
already stated, and it does not matter whether the sorts are early, medium
or late.

Apricots will thrive in any ordinary good soil, but the one most
congenial is a rich sandy loam. The ground should be deeply stirred,
when the soil is heavy more especially, and the root bed ought to be from
fifteen to eighteen inches deep at tht^ least. In loose land, or when the
subsoil is an open sand, gravel, or limestone, the necessity for deep working

194

is not so great. Drainage should always be provided for in heavy, retentive
soils, as Apricots are especially liable to suffer if the ground remains
soddened for any length of time. In the case of land with open gravelly
or sandy subsoils, there will often be sufficient natural drainage, but if
not provision must be made for it.

Planting may be done at any time between the fall of the leaf and the
time when growth commences, but the writer prefers from the end of July
to the middle of August, according to the district. Vigorous young trees,
with straight stems, well-formed heads, and plenty of fibrous roots, should
be selected in preferance to others. The trees should be planted not less
than eighteen feet apart, and care must be taken not to place them too
deeply in the ground. It will be sufficient if the upper roots are just below
the surface, In order to fully utilize the ground, temporary trees may be
planted between if desirable, but care must be taken that tiiey are not
allowed to remain long enough to injure the Apricots. Before the hot
weather sets in it will be advisable to uiulch the trees four or five inches
deep with long stable manure or other convenient material, taking care to
spread it ovei* the ground as far as the roots extend. Care must also be
taken to keep the mulching material clear of the stems of the trees. The
surface should be kept as free from grass and other weeds as possible, as
an undergrowth of this kind is injurious, and more especially in the spring
and early summer. The work of keeping down weeds is most economically
and effectively done by frequent and light stirrings of the surface soil wdth
scarifier or hoe. Deep ploughing or digging is hurtful, causing much
damage to the roots, and should be avoided as a rule. Apricots like all
fruit trees, mu.^t be supplied with congenial food, and as the land becomes
exhausted suitable manures should be given to make good any deficiencies.
Even the richest soils will fail sooner or later if the materials exti acted
from them are not returned in some sliape or form, and their wants should
be attended to before the trees suffer to any extent. Ordinary manure will
generally keep the trees in a thrifty state but if there are special
deficiencies — as for instance, a lack of lime, or other necessary mineral —
these should be supplied.

Pruning.

The Apricot requires more attention in the way of pruning than any
other stone fruit, excepting the Peach and Nectarine. The fruit is
mainly produced upon wood of the previous season's growth, but also to
a large extent upon spurs of older wood. It is advisable in pruning to
thin out the previous season's shoots when too numerous, shortening
those that are left to one or two leaf buds beyond two or three well-
developed fruit buds. By adopting this method of pruning growth is
kept compact, and the fruit is not only finer but is produced more
regularly than if the wood is left to advance at random. In the case of
young trees, a strong and regular growth of wood is more required for
two or three years than the production of fruit, and the shoots should be
thinned out and shortened so as to best effect this object. tSunimer
pruning should be practised when practicable, and more especially in the

195

Branch showing Fruit
Buds. A Place where
it should be cut.

The same Branch the
following season if not
shortened back.

Branch the second year
Line A showing where it
should be shortened to
strengthen the lower
branches.

case of young trees, as it helps to conserve the energies of the plants and
lessens the necessity for trimming in the winter. Care must, however,
be taken not to bare the trees too much, as a good proportion of foliage
is essential to perfect root action ;ind is also wanted to shade the trees.
It is advisable to always train the trees with low heads, which are, for
various reasons, preferable to tall ones. The fruit on low-headed trees
suffers least from the effects of liigh winds and is more easily gathered,
there is a better shade for the stems (a matter of some importance in this
part of the world), and pruning is more easily effected. Koot prunir.g is
not often required by the Apricot, though it may sometimes be practised
with advantage when trees are making an over-luxurious growth of wood
and produce but little fruit. Sometimes trees will produce flowers in
abundance but little or no fruit sets. When this happens it is a good
plan to ring the bark half-way round the tree just as it comes into
flower. The writer for several years adopted this practice with success,
and through it managed to obtain crops that otherwise would have been

196

failures. Late frosts often seriously injure or destroy crops of Apricots,
and in order to avoid this risk the writer has with success built light
roofs of brushwood over the trees, which remained while the danger lasted.
The plan is not expensive, and can be easily followed. The directions
are as follows : — Sink firmly in the ground at equal distances four posts
or saplings, nail lighter ones or battens across the tops, and then cover
with a light layer of bushes. It is astonishing what an amount of pro-
tection this covering gives, and the extra trouble and expense will
generally prove a sound investment in localities where late frosts are
troublesome.

Propagation.

Propagation is effected by seeds, budding, and grafting. Plants from
seeds aie, as a matter of course, uncertain in character, which is not
known till the fruit is produced. Budding is the method most usually
adopted for perpetuating recognised varieties, and may be performed at
any time during the growing period when the bark rises freely from
the wood. The work, however, is mostly done within a few weeks
after midsummer. Apricots, as a rule, thrive best when worked upon
their own stocks, and there can be no doubt but that, as in the case of
other trees, the closer the affinity between root and scion the more
enduring is the tree likely to be. Very frequently the Apricot is worked
upon the Plum, Peach, or Almond, but these stocks, as a rule, are not
desirable except to meet peculiar local conditions. Plum stocks are
objectionable because of their tendency to throw up suckers, which are
troublesome to the cultivator, and, though growth may be vigorous for a
time, the trees often go off at an early age. The Cherry Plum is less
objectionable than other Plums, and trees worked upon it will often attain
a good size and age. For heavy soils, or where retentive sub-soils are not
far below the surface, the Plum will often prove the better stock. When
worked upon Almond or Peach stocks the trees will often make vigorous
growth for a few years, but they are generally short-lived and more prone
to diseases than when grown upon their own roots. Some growers are
of opinion that the Almond is a seviceable stock for the Apricot in very dry
soils, but this has not been sufficiently proved. Grafting is less practised
than budding in raising Apricots, and should be done, if necessary, before
growth becomes active in the spring. Stocks for either budding or
grafting should invariably be seedlings, as suckers and layers never make
good trees.

Varieties.

The following list embraces the most desirable varieties ; —
Beauge. — A hardy, prolific and very late variety, belonging to the
Moorpark class. Skin deep yellow, with a red tint on the sunny side.
Flesh deep-yellow, firm, but scarcely so well flavoured as the Moorpark
and some otner varieties, and separating freely. Stone large, and kernel
bitter. A good sort for carrying well, canning, and drying.

197

Bleriheim (Shipley's),— An early prolific variety, with medium-sized,
round, moderately rich, and juicy fruit' Skin deep yellow. Flesh
yellow and full flavoured. Stone roundish, kernel bitter. Suitable for
canning and drying.

Breda,

Beauo;6.

Breda. — A hardy, me Jium early variety, said to have originated in
Africa, with rather small, roundish fruit, compressed at the sides. Skin
deep orange, dotted with brown spots next the sun. Flesh deep orange,
highly flavoured, and separating freely from the stone. Stone small,
round, kernel sweet, and used as a sweetmeat in some parts of Europe.
Tree vigorous and prolific.

Brussels. — A vigorous, hardy, mid-season variety, with medium-sized
oval fruit, flattened on the sides. Skin pale yellow, with white dots on
the shady side, and red ones towards the sun. Flesh yellow, firm, free,
and moderately well flavoured. Stone small, and kernel bitter. Tree a
good bearer, and will thrive in poorer soils than some varieties.

Canino Grosso — An Italian
variety, which produces large
oval fruit, and ripens early. Skin
orange, deeply marked with red
next the sun. Flesh reddish-
yellow, high flavoured, melting,
and free. Stone large, and kernel
bitter. Tree hardy and prolific.

Camphellfield Seedling. — An
excellent variety, with medium-
sized, roundish-oval fruit, and
ripening early in the season. Skin
deep orange-yellow. Flesh yellow,
melting, juicy, well flavoured, and
free. Stone small, and kerne
bitter. Canino Grosso.

198

Early Moorpark. — A variety very similar in appearance and quality to
the ordinary Jfoot^park, but ripening two or three weeks sooner. Fruit
roundish, inclining to oval, with deep yellow skin, mottled and dotted
with red on the sunny side. Flesh in all respects the same as the
Moorpark. IStone oblong, large, and kernel bitter.

Golden Drop. — An excellent variety, said to be a seedling from Xfusch
MuscK bearing medium-sized roundish-oval fruit, which ripens early in
the season. Skin deep orange, suffused with crimson next the sun.
Flesh deep-yellow, firm, with a rich tine flavour, and free. Stone small,
with a bitter kernel.

Hdtive d'Anvergne. — A medium early variety, with roundish-oval fruit
of moderate size. Skin deep yeLow, with a darker tinge next the sun.
Flesh yellow, juicy, with a pleasant brisk flavour, and separating freely,
Stone medium sized, and kernel bitter. Tree vigorous, and bears freely.

Hemskirk. — An old English variety, belonging to the Moorpark class,
having large roundish fruit, flattened at the sides, and ripening medium
early. Skin orange, tinged with red on the sunny side. Flesh deep
orange, very juicy, with a rich luscious flavour, and separating freely
from the stone. Stone small, and kernel bitter. Tree hardy, vigorous,
and an excellent bearer,

Kaisha. — A well-known variety,
supposed to have originated in Syria,
and belonging to the Moorpark
type. Fruit medium-sized, roundish,
and ripening at mid-season. Skin
pale yellow, mottled and tinged with
red next the sun. Flesh pale yellow,
tender, very juicy, sugary, highly
flavoured, and separating freely from
the stone. Stone small, roundish,
with a sweet kernel.

Large Earhj {Gros Precoce). — A
variety of French origin, with large
rather oblong fruit, much flattened Kaisha.

at the sides, which ripens very early

in the season. Skin pale orange, with a deeper tinge and red dots next
the sun. Flesh deep orange, juicy, with a rich luscious flavour, separating
freely from the stone. Stone large, rather flat, and kernel bitter. Tree
vigorous, But sometimes a rather shy bearer.

Lorge lied {Gros Bouge). — A late-fruiting variety of the Peach- Apricot
class, and supposed to be of French origin. Fruit large, roundish, and
of a deep orange-red colour. Flesh yellow, juicy, well flavoured, and
separates freely from the stone. Stone large, and kernel bitter. Tree
hardy and vigorous.

Mansfield ^Seedling. — An excellent variety, with large roundish fruit,
which ripens late. Skin pale yellow, tinged with red on the sunny side.
Flesh deep yellow, juicy, luscious, and separates freely from the stone.
Stone large, kernel bitter. Tree hardy and prolific.

199

Large Early

Moorpark

Afoorparh — This is an old and well-known variety, the type of its
class, which has been cultivated in England for more than 1 60 years.
The fruit is large roundish-oval, and compressed on the sides. Skin pale
yellow, with a deeper tint and red specks on the sunny side. Flesh
bright orange, very juicy, flavour rich and luscious, separating from the
stone freely. Stone rough, large, and kernel bitter. Tree vigorous and
a free bearer. This varietj^ takes its name from Moorpark, an estate in
England, where it was first cultivated. It is one of the finest Apricots
for the dessert, and is, as also others of its class, well suited for canning
and drying.

Montgamet. — A French variety, with small oval fruit, rather com-
pressed on the sides, ripening medium early. Skin pale yellow, slightly
tinged with red next the sun. Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, sub acid, and
adhering to the stone. Stone round, small, and kernel bitter. Tree
hardy and thrifty, and fruit useful for culinary purposes and jam.

Musch Musch. — This variety takes its name from Musch on the
frontiers of Turkey in Asia, and is common to many parts of Syria and
Egypt. The fruit is small, round, and ripens rather late. Skin deep
yellow, and orange-red next the sun. Flesh yellow, tender, very sweet,
and separates freely. Stone small, kernel sweet. Tree moderately
hardy, and free bearer. This is the sweetest of all Apricots, and in
Turkey the fruit is dried in large quantities.

Orange (Boi/al George, JRoj/al Persian, Royal Orange). — A variety
with large roundish fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin pale orange,,
with a deeper shade tinged with red next the sun. Flesh deep orange,
firm, moderately juicy, and ndhering to the stone. Stone small, smooth,
kernel sweet. Tree vigorous and prolific,

OitlHn's Early Peach. — A variety of the Peach Apricot, from which it
does not difi'er materially except in the period of ripening, which is about
three weeks earlier. Fruit large, somewhat flattened. Skin bright

200

yellow, tinged with red towards the sun. Flesh deep yellow, juicy,
sugary, with a rich luscious flavour, and separating freely from the stone.
Stone large, kernel bitter. Tree hardy and very prolific. This variety
is well adapted for canning or drying, and should find a place in every
orchard.

Peach Apricot {Royal Peach). — This variety originated in Italy, and
has always been held in high repute. Fruit large, somewhat flattened,
and ripening late in the season. Skin pale yellow, tinged with red on
the sunny side. Flesh deep yellow, juicy, with a rich delicate flavour,
and separating freely. Stone large, flat, rugged ; kernel bitter. This
variety and others closely allied are somewhat similar to the Moorpark
class, and are supposed to have originated from the same source. It is
an excellent kind for canning and drying.

Pennant HilVs Oval. — This is an excellent variety raised in New South
Wales, with large, showy, oval fruit, which ripens rather late. Skin deep
yellow, with a red tinge on the sunny side. Flesh bright yellow, high
flavoured, firm, but less juicy than the Moorparh, and separates freely
from the stone. Stone large, kernel bitter. Tree robust and a good
bearer. An excellent kind for canning and drying.

Pine Apple (Ajianas). — A rather late variety, with large, roundish,
somewhat flattened fruit. Skin deep yellow, with a red cheek on the
sunny side. Flesh deep yellow, tender, with a rich sugary flavour,
somewhat resembling that of the Pine Apple, and adherent to the stone.
Stone large roundish-oval, and kernel bitter.

Pc'l Masculine. — A very hardy and productive variety, bearing small
roundish fruit, which ripens early in the season. Skin bright yellow,
with a deeper tinge and red spote next the sun. Flesh yellow, juicy,
and rather musky. Stone small, thick, and kernel bitter.

Poman {Trampart^nt). - A. vigorous, hardy, and prolific variety, with
large oval fruit, slightly compressed, and lipening at mid-season. Skin
pale yellow, with a red tinge on the sunny side. Flesh deep yellow,
rather dry, not very high flavoured, and separating freely from the stone.
Stone large, oblong, and kernel bitter.

Pennant Hil's Oval. Turkey

201

Royal. — A French variety of the Moorparh class, with large ova^
slightly compressed fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin yellow,
with an orange tinge on the sunny side and slightly shaded with red.
Flesh bright yellow, juicy, rich, vinous, and separates freely from the
stone. Stone large, oval, and kernel bitter. An excellent Apricot,
suitable for dessert, canning, or drying.

Sardinian — A very hardy and prolific early variety, with small roundish
fruit that ripens at the beginning of the season. Skin pale, tinged and
spotted with crimson on the sunny side. Flesh pale, juicy, with a sweet,
sprightly flavour. Stone small, and kernel bitter.

aS'^. Amhroise. — This is a large, medium early Apricot of the Moorparh
type, with oval, compressed fruit. Skin deep yellow, with a reddish
tinge on the sunny side. Flesh firm, rich, juicy, sugary, and somewhat
adherent to the stone. Stone large, with a bitter kernel. Tree hardy,
vigorous and a good bearer.

Stewart's — This is a variety with medium-sized oblong fruit, especially
valuable as it ripens very late. Skin deep orange, with a red tinge next
the sun. Flesh deep yellow, juicy, and well flavoured.

Turkey. — This is a hardy, vigor ous, free-bearing variety, with medium-
sized round fruit, not compressed, ripening at mid- season. Skin deep
yellow, mottled with orange next the sun. Flesh pale yellow, firm,
juicy, sweet, pleasantly sub-acid, and separating freely from the stone.
Stone large, rugged, with a very sweet kernel.

Viard. — An excellent variety belonging to the Peach-Apricot class, with
medium-sized roundish-oval fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin
bright pale yellow, with a reddish tinge towards the sun. Flesh pale
yellow, juicy, rich, melting, and separates freely. Stone medium-sized,
and kernel bitter. Tree vigorous and prolific,

ARGAN.

History and Uses.

This is a widely spreading but somewhat low evergreen, tree with
small leaves, indigenous to Barbary and other parts of North Western
Africa. Botanically it is known as Argania sideroxylon, f Sideroxylon
spi7iosi/m, Eleodend7-on argania)., and it belongs to the natural order
Sapotaceae, the Sappodilla or Star Apple Family. Several plants be-
longing to this family yield edible fruits, and one, Isonandra gtitta,
is the principal source from which gutta percha is obtained. The Argan
flourishes in the driest districts in its native country, and has the
reputation of being a very long lived and hardy tree. It is an abundant
bearer, the fruit being fleshy and about the size and shape of a small plum.
In its native country the fruit is utilized to a large extent for feeding
cattle, who are very fond of it. But in chewing the cud the kernels are
ejected, when they are collected and crushed for oil. The kernels yield
a large proportion of excellent oil, Tiie wood is close grained and hard,
and well suited for turnery and other purposes.

202
Cultivation and Propagation.

The Argaii is a hardy tree and will adopt itself to a somewhat wide
range of climate or soil, and may be grown with more or less success in
any district where there is little or no trouble from frosts. It is a tree
specially well adapted for the warm interior districts of Queensland and
Western Australia, and would prove very serviceable to the owners
of stock. Probably if this tree were acclimatised in congenial regions it
would increase nntunilly and spread over large areas. As an ornamental
tree the Argan is worthy of cultivation, and in dry districts it might
advantageously be grown for shade. The trees should be planted in well
prepared ground, at such distances apart as will allow ample room for
free development. Propagation may be effected by seed, suckers, layers,
and cuttings. Seed should be sown soon after it is ripe, covering it an
inch and a half deep. When the young seedlings are large enough to
handle, transplant into small beds, leaving them about six inches apart.
The following season they may be planted out. Suckers from the roots
make very good plants if taken off carefully in early spring or autumn.
Plants are readily raised from layers, which should be put down either in
the spring or autumn. Cuttings of the current seasons's wood, when
fairly ripened, will strike in sand or light soil.

AUSTRALIAN APPLE.

Australia is not rich in native fruits, and the great majority of such as
are edible are so inferior as compared with exotic kinds that have been
introduced, that they are not worth cultivating, except as ornamental
plants. There are two or three exceptions, and it is possible that some
kinds now worthless for their fruit, may in time be improved by cultiva-
tion. But though of but little commercial value, the writer is of opinion
that his work would be incomplete without referring to indigenous
fruits. The fruits of many species are known under vernacular names,
which have been given from some real or fancied resemblance to well-
known exotic kinds, though they may belong to very different families.
These are dealt with by the writer in this portion of his work. Another
class are merelj' indigenous species of fruits that are cultivated, and these
are placed with the families they belong to.

The fruit known in some of its native localities as the Australian
Apple is yielded by a tall evergreen tree known botanically as Achras
australis (Sideroxylon australe of some botanists). It belongs to the
natural order Sapotaceae and is indigenous to Eastern Queensland and the
northern coast rivers of New South Wales. The fruit is similar in
appearance to a moderate-sized plum, and the flesh is succulent, though
somewhat harsh. In many localities the fruit is better known as the
Native Plum. The tree when growing under favourable conditions
will attain a height of forty or fifty feet, but in poor soils it becomes
stunted. It is an ornamental tree, and is worthy of a place in the

203

shrubbery. Any ordinary good soil will suit this tree, but it thrives best
in rich deep land and sheltered situation. It may be grown successfully
in localities where the climate is not colder than in Sydney. Prc>pagation
is easily effected by seeds, layers, and cuttings of the current season's
shoots, when fairly ripened.

AUSTRALIAN CHERRY.

The Australian Cherry, or Native Cherry as it is more generally
called, is a tree with foliage and habit of growth similar to a Cypress
belonging to the natural order Thymelacese or the Daphne fanjily. It is
indigenous to a considerable part of Eastern Australia, and is also found
in other colonies. Botanically it is known as Exocarpus rupressiformisy
the specific name being derived from ex'^ outside and karpus a fruit, in
allusion to the curious position of the latter which protrudes from the
points of the fleshy receptacles. The berries have a harsh astringent
flavor, but they are often eaten by children where the trees grow
naturally. For its fruit this tree may be considered absolutely worthless,
but its Cypress like foliage and compact habit of growth entitles it to
rank as a good ornamental plant. It is very hardy, may be grown in
almost any soil or situation, and will thrive in any locality where the
frosts are not severe. Propagation is readily effected by seed, and plants
may be obtained by either cuttings or layers.

AUSTRALIAN CRANBERRY.

The fruit most generally known as the Native Cranberry, is
produced by a plant known botanically as Lissanfhe sapida belonging to
the natural order Epacridese or the Epacris family. It is indigenous to
the Blue Mountains of New South Wales and other parts of Eastern
Australia, and is an erect shrub growing to a height of two or three feet.
The flowers are white, produced in loose racemes, and the fruit is red,
about the size of Currants. The fruit has a somewhat mealy pulp
and an acid flavour. The term Native Cranberry is also applied
to the fruit of several species of Styphdia, and more particularly to
S. humisi/usa and aS^. pinifolia, which are also known as Groundberries.
They are dwarf shrubs indigenous to New South Wales, Victoria, and
Tasmania.

AUSTRALIAN DAMSON.

What is known as the " Native Damson " is the fruit of Nageia
spinulosus, {Podocarpus spinulosus) an evergreen tree belonging to the
natural order Taxaceae or the Yew family. It is indigenous to the
northern coast districts of New South Wales and Queensland, The tree

204

attains a height of from thirty to forty feet, is of compact habit of growth,
and well adapted for ornamental planting. The fruit which in some
localities is also known as the Native Plum, is a small black drupe,
having a somewhat austere flavour. The tree is not worth cultivating
for its fruit, but is worthy of attention as an ornamental plant. It will
succeed in any locality that is not subject to frost. Propagation is most
generally effected by seeds, but if necessary plants may be obtained from
either layers or cuttings.

AUSTRALIAN DESERT LEMON.

The plant known under this name is Atalantia glauca a medium-sized
tree belonging to the Aurantaceae or Citrus family. It is indigenous to
various parts of Queensland and New South Wales, and is found more
especially in hot arid districts. The fruit which is also known as the
Native Kumquat is bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, and
has a sharp acid flavour. Probal^ly it might be improved in size by
cultivation. Though the fruit in point of utility is far inferior to the
ordinary Lemon yet as the plant is very hardy and capable of with-
standing long and severe droughts it might prove worthy of being
cultivated in some of the dry interior parts of Australia. Propagation is
readily efi^ected by seeds. Plants can also be increased by layers and
cuttings of the previous season's wood which will strike freely in sand or
light soil.

AUSTRALIAN MULBERRY.

The fruit most widely known under this name is yielded by Pipturus
argenteiis a tree belonging tj the order Urticaceae or the Nettle family.
It is indigenous to Queensland and New South Wales. The fruit is
whitish, insipid, and of no value commer( ially though it is eaten by the
aboriginals. Another fruit known in some localities as Native
Mulberry, is Hedycarya Cunninghami (augusiifolia) a tall shrub or
small tree belonging to the natural order Monominiaceae. The fruit is a
small, nearly globular succulent berry, somewhat unpalatable, but eaten
by the aboriginals. It is indigenous to Queensland, New South Wales
and Victoria. The term Native Mulberry is also applied to the fruit of
Litsea dealbata a tall robust tree belonging to the Laurineae or Laurel
family. It bears small gobular fruit which are also known as Pigeon
Berries.

AUSTRALIAN CURRANT

History and Uses.

This is one of the best of our Australian fruits, and is well deserving of
attention for cultivation. It is the plant known in New South Wales

206

as the Native Currant, and botanically as Leptomeria acida^ a genus
belonging to the natural order Santalacece or the San tal wood family.
The plant is a perennial shrub with slender foliage, somewhat like that of
the Broom (Spartmm), and is an ornamental species. It is found
growing plentifully in the sandy soil around Sydney and Botany Bay,
but also in other localities in New South Wales where the land is different
in character. The plant is also indigenous to several of the other colonies.
The fruit is about the size of, and similar in appearance to, the unripe
berries of the Red Currant, but does not grow in bunches. It is intensely-
acid, and so much so that it cannot be eaten in its natural state. This
acid flavour is peculiar and unique, as no amount of sugar will obliterate
it entirely. The fruit makes an excellent jam, which the writer can
recommend as possessing a very palatable flavour, quite distinct from
any other kind of fruit. In making the jam, sugar should be used very
freely, and must at the least be weight for weight with the fruit. When
carefully made the jam may be kept in good condition for several years.
The plants yield fruit very regularly, and in fairly large quantities.

Cultivation.

Though as yet, as far as the writer is aware, the Native Currant has
not been cultivated as a fruit plant, it is certainly worthy of attention.
There ought to be no great difficulty in growing it, as may be assumed
from the fact that it has been cultivated in Europe for many years as an
ornamental pot plant. It is a plant that would be specially well adapted
for peaty or sandy soils containing a fair amount of vegetable matter.
This plant resists drought well, and may be grown in any climate where
the frosts are but light. The fruit would necessarily become popular
when generally known, and doubtless will alwaj^s find a ready sale. The
natural sources of supply in New South Wales are getting exhausted
through the careless destruction of the plants, and if the fruit is to be
preserved it must be systematically cultivated.

Propagation.

Propagation may be eff'ected by seed.s or cuttings, ^eed should be
sown in rich sandy soil, in pots or boxes, covering it to the depth of
half an inch. When the young plants are fit to handle they should be
potted off singly into small pots. They are likely to do best in pots, as,
like many of our native plants, they are somewhat difficult to shift if
their roots get broken, as must necessarily be the case when they are
lifted from the ground. Plant in lines four or five feet apart, leaving tbe
same distance between in the rows. The most favourable time for
planting is early in the autumn, though it may be done successfully in
the winter or spring. Cuttings of the ripened wood will root readily in
sand if placed under a bell glass, but, as a rule, better plants will be
obtained from seed. After they are established the plants require but
little care, and they will be able to stand heat and drought with impunity.
A plantation will last several years without requiring renewal.

206

Fruits passing under the name of Native Currants are also yielded by-
two other plants, but they are far inferior to those obtained from
Leptomeria acida. One of these plants is Coprosma liillardeira, an
evergreen shrub belonging to the order Rubiacese. It has round
fruit about the size of small peas, and is indigenous to Victoria, New
South Wales, and Tasmania. The other is Myoporum serratum, a shrub
belonging to the order Myoporinese. Commonly it is known as the
Native Myrtle, Native Juniper, and Cockatoo Bush. The fruit is a small
globular blue berry. This plant is indigenous to Victoria New South
Wales, South Australia, West Australia, and Tasmanin.

AUSTRALIAN NUT.

Brancli showing Foliage and Fruit.

207

Nut, natural size. Kernel, natural size.

History and Uses.

This is a handsome evergreen tree indigenous to the coastal districts of
Southern Queensland and the northern rivers of New South Wales. It is
commonly known as the Queensland Nut, but the one used in the heading
is more appropriate. Botanical ly it is known as Macadamia ternifolia,
and it belongs to the natural order Proteaceae. The tree attains a height
of from forty to fifty feet, and has deep green leaves from five to eight
inches long, generally serrated, but sometimes not. The flowers are white,
produced in long racemes, and in great abundance. The fruit is nearly
round, and from three quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. These
nuts, which have very hard shells, enclose a kernel similar in appearance
to a Hazel Nut. but richer in flavour. As the trees are very prolific, they
are worth cultivating for the sake of their nuts, in congenial localities.
They are also well worthy of attention as ornamental trees, and their
handsome evergreen foliage will be seen to advantage in the shrubbery.
Tlie tree is also of some value for its timber, which is of a red colour,
beautifully marked aud close grained, being well adapted for the use of
cabinet makers and turners.

Cultivation.

The Australian Nut may be grown successfully in localities where
frosts do not occur, bet it is useless to plant it in the cooler districts. It
may do well in all but very stiff soils, but thrives best in a deep sandy
loam where the drainage is perfect. Shelter is also required, as the trees
are apt to suffer when exposed to the full effects of strong winds. The
best time for planting is in the autumn, though it may be done at any
time between then and September. If planted as orchard trees the
distance apart should not be less than thirty feet, as that space will be
eventually required by the branches, though not for many years. While
the trees are young they should be pruned so as to get them into the
desired form. When they get larger they vAW require but little attention
in the way of pruning, all that is necessary being to regulate the growth
of over-vigorous shoots, and to thin out the branches when the heads are
too much crowded.

208

Propagation.

Propagation is most readily effected by seeds, but plants may be obtained
from layers and cuttings. Seeds may be put in at any time, planting
them an inch deep in light soil. As the nuts are very hard, they will, in
the ordinary way of planting, take a long titne to germinate, and this
process may be facilitated, if desired, by placing them previously in a
heap of some material in a sta^e of fermentation from heat. When three
or four inches high the young plants should be lifted from the seed bed
and transplanted into another, or placed in pots. Layering should be
done early in the autumn or late in the spring. Cuttings of the ripened
wood of the current season's growth will strike in sand or light soil under
a hard glass or in a frame.

AUSTRALIAN PEACH.

The plant most generally known as the Native Peach is a small tree
called Santalum Preissianum {acuminatum) belonging to the order
Santalacese, or the Santalwood family. This plant, however, most
commonly passes under its aboriginal name of " Quandong." It is an
evergreen with pale green foliage. The succulent fleshy part of the fruit,
as also the kernels are edible and used as food by the aborigii als, but the
flavour is not very inviting. The hard nuts are extensively used by
jewellers for necklaces, pins, and brooches, and are often carved with
pretty designs. The Quandong is indigenous to the dry interior districts
of Australia, and covers large areas. It is a handsome ornamental tree of
compact habit, and the peculiar pale green foliage contrasts well with the
darker hues of other shrubs. This plant, however is somewhat capricious
under cultivation, and will not bear transi)lanting The name. Native
Peach, is in some localities applied to Owenia acidula, which is described
under the heading of Australian Plums.

AUSTRALIAN PLUMS.

Fruits of various kinds are known under the name of Native Plum in
different parts of Australia. What is known as the Illawarra Black Plum
is the fruit of Cargdlea australis [Diospyrus Cargillea, Maba Cargillea)^
a small evergreen tree belonging to the order Ebenacese or the Ebony
family. The fruit is harsh in flavour, and about half-an-inch in diameter.
It is indigenous to Eastern Australia from Queensland as far south as
Illawarra. Another species. Cargillea pentamera, which is indigenous to
the same regions, yields a fruit called the Grey Plum, which is similar in
size and flavour tu the other kind. Oivenia acidula, an evergreen tree
attaining a height of from thirty to forty feet, is the Sour Plum of Queens-
land, and also passes under the name of the Native Peach. It belongs to the
natural order Meiiacese. Two other species of Owenia vis ceranfera and
venosa also yield fruits similar to the preceding, and these pass under, the

209

one name of Plums. These species are indigenous to Queensland and the
north east portion of New South Wales. All the species yield strong and
finely grained wood What is known as Davidson's Plum in Northern
Queensland is Davidsonia pruriens, an evergreen tree belonging to the
natural order Saxif rageae. This fruit is somewhat remarkable as one of the
few edible kinds included in the Saxifrage family. The fruit is dark b ue,
similar in appearance to a plum, varying somewhat in size, but often as
large as a hen's egg, the seeds being comparatively small It has an~
acid and somewhat sharp flavour, but is pleasant and wholesome.
According to Baron von Mueller it is indigenous to the forest ranges of
the coastal districts extending from Northern Queensland to the northern
part of New South Wales. Chri/snphj/Uum pjmniferurn , a small evergreen
tree indigenous to North Queensland, yields a fruit called a Plum in some
of its native localities. The fruit is about the size of an Orleans Plum,
and is somewhat austere in flavour. This tree belongs to the order
Sapotaceae, and is the only species of the genus found in Australia.
Spondias glabra, an evergreen small tree belonging to the order Ana^ar-
diaceae, indigenous to the tropical coast regions of Queensland, is known
in some places as a Native Plum. The fruit is from an inch to an inch
and a-half in diameter, shaped like a plum, flesh reddish-yellow, with a
sharp acid flavour. Spondias Solandri, a closely allied species also yields
and edible plum-like fruit. This is a more hardy species, and extends to
the south of the tropical zone. All the trees mentioned may with
advantage be cultivated for ornament, and it is pos'sible that the fruits of
some of them may be improved by cultivation.

AUSTRALIAN POMEGRANITE.

This is the vernacular name of a small evergreen tree, growing from
fourteen to twenty feet high, known botanically as Capparis Mitchdli, and
belonging to the order Capparidacese, or the Caper family. It bears orange
coloured fruit from one to two inches in diameter, with a fairly agreeable
pulp. Another species, Capparis arborea, a somewhat larger tree, also
yields an edible fruit similar in size and quality. The last named species is
known in some localities as the Orey Plum and Caper Tree The first is
rather widely distributed through Victoria, New South Wales, and Queens-
land, and thft second is indigenous to the two last named colonies Both
are ornamental trees, and are worth cultivating as such in congenial
localities.

AVOCADO PEAR.

History and Uses.

This fruit, which is also known as the Alligator Pear and Subalterns
Butter, is indigenous to the West Indies, Mexico, Brazil, and other
■warm regions in South America. It is a handsome spreading evergreen

Avocado Pear.

210

tree growing to the height of about

20 feet, and is known botanically

as Persea gratt'.mma (Laurus

Persea), natural order Lauraceae

or the Laurel family. The leaves

are oblong, with thick prominent

veins, and the jQowers are a

greenish-yellow. The fruit is in

shape similar to a large pear, and

often attains a weight of two

pounds. In flavour the flesh is

rich and luscious, and is by many

thought to be the most delicious

fruit known. It. is eaten fresh,

and used to some extent when

sliced for salads. Very often it

is boiled as a vegetable, and eaten

with salt and pepper. Through

being used in this way it is slso known as the Vegetable Mnrrow

Fruit. Owing to the lusciousness of the pulp, it is usual to use lime

juice, vinegar, or spice with the cooked fruit to reduce its richness. The

pulp yields about eight per cent, of oil, and the seeds have some

medicinal value.

Cultivation and Propagation.

This fmit, being a native of warm regions, can only be grown success-
fully in those parts of Australia where the climatic conditions are congenial
It will, however, adapt itself to a wider range of climate than many other
tropical fruits, and is successfully cultivated on the Azore and Canary
Islands, as also at Madeira, where the conditions diff'er considerably from
those of its native habitat. The Avocado Pear may be grown successfully
through the greater part of Queensland, and more especially in regions
bordering the sea-coast, and it would thrive in the Northern River districts
of New South Wales. It is also a fruit well suited to the Northern
Territory and other tropical and sub-tropical regions. Independent of its
value as a fruit tree, the Avocado Pear is worthy of cultivation for
ornament in congenial localities. Propagation is readily eff'ected by
layers or cuttings of the ripened wood taken off at a joint, and inserted
about two inches deep in sand or light soil. Plants may also be readily
obtained from seed.

BANANA.

HiSTOEY.

Strictly this name belongs to Musa sapitntum, though it is also
generally applied to the fruit of Musa paradisiaca more correctly
known as the Plantain. Some botanists maintain that the Banana

211

Banana.

is merely a variety of the
Plantain, and it is a diffi-
cult matter to define the
boundary line >)etvveen the
two. The Banana has a
shorter and thicker fruit
than the Plantain, but there
is not much dilBFerence in
flavour. The stems of the
Banana are also more spot-
ted, but they do not differ
much in other respects.
Though the fruit used in
these colonies is commonly
known as Bananas, they are
in reality Plantains. Musa
is the type of the natural
order Musacese, and the
species rank among our
largest herbaceous plants.
The stems are soft, varying from four
to fifteen feet in height, with leaves
measuring from six to ten feet in
length with a proportionate breadth.
The species are indigenous to the
wanner parts of Asia, and the useful
kinds have been widely distributed
by mankind through the tropical
regions of the world.

Uses.

The Banana is one of the chief
food plants in most tropical countries,
and is extensively cultivated. It
is a fruit that is produced within a
year of the time of planting, and will
yield a larger amount of food from
a given area than any other plant.
According to a calculation made by
Humbolt the celebrated German Plantain,

traveller and scientist, an area that

will yield thirty-three pounds of wheat and ninety-nine of potatoes will
'produca four thousand pounds of Bananas. Consequently the produce of
Bananas in proportion to wheat is 133 to 1, and potatoes 44 to 1.
Another great recommendation for the Banana is that the fruit is pro-
produced in succession, and is in season throughout the year. The
bunches are pn)duced at the top of the stems, th^ young fruit surrounding
tlie flower stalk. Bunches will carry from sixty to two hundred and

212

fifty fruit, and will often weigh over one hundred pounds. The largest
number of fruits upon the bunches is obtained from the Chinese Banana,
{M'lsa Cavendishii), a distinct species. This species is also known
variously as If. Chinensis, M. Nana, and M. Begia. The fruit of the
Banana is highly nutritive, and is a staple food in most tropical countries.
Bananas are also highly appreciated as a dessert fruit in countries where
there is no occasion to depend upon them as food. In India, and other
countries, the fruit is largely used when cooked, in various forms as well
as in a fresh state. The pulp is also used in the same way as butter
when spread upon bread. Bananas are to some extent utilised in India
and China when dried, and if properly prepared they can be kept in
good condition for several years. The ordinary mode of drying is to
remove the skins and expose the fruit on boards or mats to the full power
of the sun, taking care to turn it every day till the process is complete.
As in drying other fruit, care roust be taken that the Bananas are not
exposed to rain or dew during the process. When the fruit is thoroughly
dry it should be packed firmly in regular layers in small boxes or jars till
required for use. If large quantities of fruit have to be dried it may be
an advantage to employ artificial heat with an evaporator, as by this
means the work can be done more expeditiously. Fruit of the Banana
can be turned to account in the form of meal or flour which is very
palatable, easy of digestion, and an excellent food for invalids or infants. It
also makes palatable puddings and custards, and is considered to be very
nourishing. Meal is prepared by slicing and drying, and afterwards
grinding the fruit. This meal if carefully prepared can be kept for a
long period in close jars or boxes. The fruit by fermentation and
pressure will yield a palatable wine, and by distillation a strong and
excellent spirit can be obtained.

Cultivation.

The Banana flourishes to perfection in tropical and sub-tropical regions,
and will be a profitable fruit to grow in those portions of Australia
embraced by those terms. But it is more hardy than many other
tropical plants, and may be grown successfully in the warmer
portions of the temperate zone. The Banana delights in a rich deep
soil, and is specially well adapted for alluvial land, bordering rivers
or creeks. If the land is not naturally rich it should be made so, by
the free use of manure. In preparing the ground it should be stirred
to the depth of at least eighteen inches, so that the plants will have
plenty of root room. If necessary, provision must also be made for
drainage, as though the banana requires a fairly moist soil, yet it will
not thrive when water is stagnating at its roots. Shelter is an
important matter in the cultivation of Bananas, as the plants suffer
severely when exposed to strong winds. If no natural shelter exists
it must be provided by planting dense break-winds of suitable trees.
Plantations of Bananas may be made at any time, but the most
favourable periods are September and March or April. In order to
give the plants ample room for development, and allow^ space for

213

working, they should be aiTanged so as to stand about fifteen feet apart.
Planted this distance apart 193 plants will go to an acre. The
plantation must be kept as free from weeds as possible, and more
especially while the plants are young. When older, with a good
spread of leaves, weeds will prove less troublesome. Bananas will
commence to yield fruit in from nine to eighteen months after they
are planted, according to the size and vigor of the plants. A stem
bears only one bunch, and as soon as the fruit is removed this shouldr-
be cut away, being of no further use. As the plants gain in strength
the number of stems will increase. These stems are formed by
suckers which spring from the roots, and a strong plant will have
them in all stages of development, from the one with its full grown
bunch of fruit to another a few inches above the ground. When
used in the locality where grown, or for a near market, the bunches
should be cut as the fruit shows signs of ripeness. If required for
sending long distances, or export, it will be necessary to cut the
bunches at an earlier stage. The bunches ripen readily in dark
rooms or cellars, or when covered with sand or soil. In addition to
cutting away the old fruiting stems, it will be advisable to thin out
8ome of the suckers when too numerous, removing the more weakly
ones. As the Banana is a very exhausting crop, frequent dressings of
manure are necessary to keep the land in good heart. With good
management a plantation will give good returns for seven or eight
years. The Chinese or Cavendish Banana is somewhat more hardy
than the other kinds, and may be grown successfully with less heat.
It has also the recommendation of being more dwarf in habit, as it
rarely exceeds six feet in height, and is consequently less liable t.o
injury from high winds.

Propagation akd Planting.

Bananas are propagated by the removal of suckers or young shoots
that spring from the roots of the old plants. In taking them off as
many roots as possible should be removed with them. Care should
be taken in planting, that the holes are sufficiently large to allow the
roots to be regularly spread in a horizontal position. Deep planting
must also be avoided and it will be sufficient to place the roots two
or three inches below the surface. When the roots are arranged in
their places they should be covered with finely pulverized earth, and
this must be firmed by pressure with the foot of the planter.

BAOBAB.

History and Uses.

Baobab is the native name of the fruit of Adansonia digitata, an
evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Sterculiaceae. It is indigenous
to a large portion of Western Africa, and is said to be the largest fruit
tree in the world, though its height is not proportionate to the size of the

214

trunk and the spread of the branches. Only under exceptional circum-
stances does this tree attain a greater height than twenty-five feet, but
specimens are common whose trunks are from twenty to thirty feet in
circumference. The branches will extend from the main stem forty or
fifty feet, and are sometimes as thick as the trunks of fairly-sized trees.
The flowers are white,
and the fruit, which is
from eight to twelve
inches in length, is
covered with a green
velvety down, changing
to brown when dry. The
pulp, in which numerous
seeds are imbedded, has
a slightly acid and very
agreeable flavour. The
juice mixed with sugar
is considered to be a
pleasant drink, and also
a specific for pestilential
fevers. The leaves dried
and reduced to powder
are extensively used by
the Africans to mix with their food, as they are considered to be eff'ective
in diminishing excessive perspiration. By Europeans the leaves and bark,
as also the fruit are used medicinally in cases of diarrhcea, feveis and
other maladies. The bark of the tree is turned to good account by the
Africans for making ropes and cloth. The Baobab is known under the
English names of Monkey's Bread and Sour Gourd. An allied species.
Adansonia Go'egorii, commonly known as the Gouty Tree and Cream of
Tartar Tree, is indigenous to Northern Australia, and has qualities that
should command attention in tropical regions. In habit of growth it is
somewhat similar to the African Baobab, though not so large, and from
its apparently swollen trunk the name Gouty Tree has originated. The
fruit is about six inches in length and three or four in diameter, the pulp
having an acid taste somewhat like cream of tartar, hence the other
vernacular name. The wood of the Australian species is very soft and
spongy, retaining a considerable amount of water which it will yield by
pressure. This peculiarity alone \^ould make the tree serviceable in
some regions.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Baobab.

The African Baobab, as also the Australian species, being natives of
tropical regions, can only be cultivated in those parts of Australia where
the climatic conditions are similar. In suitable localities both should
prove useful acquisitions for their fruit, and also as ornamental trees.
They would be at home in the coast districts of Queensland and the
Northern Territory, or any other region where the Banana and Pine Apple

215

will thrive. The trees will thrive in any ordinary good land, but the
most congenial 8oil is a deep, rich, sandy loam. Baobab trees in their
native regions attain a great age, and there are specimens living supposed
to be over one thousand years oid. Propagation is affected by seeds
which may be sown at any time, layers which root freely if put down in
the autumn or spring, and cuttings of the previous season's wood, inserted
in sand in a frame, or under a glass.

BARBERRY.

History and Uses.

Edible fruits are obtained from several species of Berberis, a genus
which is the type of the natural order Berheridacoe. The name is derived
from the Arabic Berbri/s. They are mostly deciduous shrubs, found
growing in mountain regions in various parts of the world- In the United
Kingdom the fruit of Berberis vulgaris, a species indigenous to most
parts of Europe, is used to some extent under the name of Berberries or
Barberries. The berries are red, grow in bunches, are intensely acid,
and cannot be eaten in a raw state. 'I hey, however, make a piquant
acid jelly when preserved with sugar, which is considered to be of some
medicinal value, and also a pleasant pickle. This species was formerly
very common in England, but it has been banished to a large extent of
late years, from the general belief that the plants afforded breeding
grounds for the rust fungus that is so troublesome to wheat crops. It
embraces a number of varieties that vary considerably in habit, foliage,
and colour of the fruit, which includes various shades of red, purple,
violet, black, yellow, and white. Berberis Canadensis, which yields the
American Barberry, is somewhat similar to the European species, and by
some botanists is considered to be identical. Berberis Fremo7iti, a
handsome American evergreen species, grows eight or ten feet high, and
and bears ovate dark blue berries about the size of small Currants.
Berberis Siberica is a Siberian dwarf species with oval red fruit. Berberis
huxifolia, a South American species, yields comparatively large black
fruit, which is less acid than the common Barberry, but more astringent.
This fruit is used to some extent in Chili and Peru. Two species from
the Himalayas known as Berberris Asiatica and Berberis Nepalensis^ the
latter being an evergreen shrub, also yield edible berries that are utilized
in their native localities.

Cultivation and Propagation.

In this part of the world the BerbeHs family are well known as
ornamental shrubs, and many species are cultivated as such, but they are
not utilised as fruit-bearing plants. It is somewhat doubtful whether
they will ever become popular as such, as they are grtatly inferior

216

Bahbebry.

to other fruits that can be
as readily grown. As orna-
mental plants, however,
they are well worthy of
cultivation, and possibly
some people might like to
grow them for the double
purpose. They are very
hardy, will thrive in many
parts of Australasia, and
more especially in the cooler
regions. Any of the species
will readily adapt themselves
to various kinds of soil,
though, as a matter of
cours*», they will flourish
more in good than in poor
land. They may be intro-
duced with advantage to
any garden, and are very
effective ornamental plants
when growing in the front
of shrubberies. Plants are
readily obtained from layers
or cuttings. The former will
root freely if the branches
are layered in the spring.
Cuttings btrike readily in
light soil, in the open gronud
if put in before the spring
growth commences. Pro-
pagation may be readily
effected by suckers which
are generally produced freely from old plants and also by seeds.
Seeds should be sown as soon as possible after the berries are fully ripe,
covering them half an inch deep.

Plant showing Flower and EYuit.

BARBADOES GOOSEBERRY.

This name is applied to Peiresha aculeata {Cactus Feireskia), a
plant belonging to the Cactacea or Cactus family. It is a native of
the West Indies, and differs from other genera belonging to the same
order, in having woody branches and proper leaves. In habit of
^ro'wth the branches have a tendency to trail, or they may become
climbers under favourable conditions, and, again, the plants may
be shrubby. The branches are round, and furnished with thick flat
leaves, more or less covered with stiff spines. The fruit attains the
size of a large Gooseberry, and has a juicy pleasant flavour. It is

217

used to some extent in the West Indies, both, fresh and preserved.
The young leaves are also turned to account in making salads. The
Barbadoes Gooseberry is scarcely worth cultivating for its fruit, as
superior kinds are obtainable from other plants. As, however, it is a
drought-resisting plant, it may prove useful in the arid desert regions
of Australia. Being a native of a warm climate, this plant will only
flourish in tropical or sub-tropical regions. Propagation is affected
readily by cuttings and seeds. The name Barbadoes Gooseberry is
sometimes applied to Physalis pubescens, a plant closely allied to the _
Cape Gooseberry, and described under that heading.

BHEL FRUIT

History and Uses.

Bhel, or Bael, is the Hindustani name for the fruit of ^Egle
marmelos, a large evergreen shrub belonging to the natural order
Aurantacese or the Orange family. It is indigenous to India and
other tropical regions in Asia. The flowers are red and white, very
fragrant, and will yield a choice perfume. The fruit is similar in
size and shape to an orange, but has a hard rind. It contains from
ten to fifteen cells, which are filled with a transparent glutinous pnlp
that has a fragrant and delicious flavour. So tenacious is this
substance that it may be drawn out into fine threads. Medicinally
the fruit is considered to be a valuable aperient, and when dried is
used as an astringent. From the rind a useful perfume is extracted.
The English name for the fruit is Bengal Quince.

Cultivation and Propagation.

As this fruit is a native of tropical regions, it will only thrive in
those parts of Australia where the conditions are similar. It may be
grown successfully in many parts of Queensland, Port Darwin, and
other regions within or near the tropics. In congenial localities this
excellent fruit may be cultivated with advantage, as it is generally
appreciated by those that are acquainted with it. This plant will
thrive in any fairly good soil, and in cultivation requires similar
treatment to an Orange tree. Propagation is effected by seeds,
layers, and cuttings of the ripened wood of the past season's growth.

BILBERRY.

History and Uses.

The British Bilberry, BleabeiTy, or Whortleberry (as it is as often
called) is known botanically as Vaccinium mi/rtilhis, and belongs to
the natural order Vaccinaceae. It is closely allied to the Cranberry,
and is indigenous to the greater part of Europe, Northern Asia, and
North America. The plant is a deciduous erect shrub, which attains
the height of from three to five feet, and its fruit is similar in size to
black Currants, but have a bluish tint, and are covered with a grey

218

bloom. The fruit has a pleasant acid flavour, somewhat like the
Cranberry, and is largely used in the northern countries of Europe
and America, either raw with sugar and cream, in tarts, or preserved
in the form of jam and jelly. When eaten in either form the fruit is
considered to be wholesome, and to have useful medicinal properties.
The juice of the berries is also said to be used as a hair dye in some
parts of Northern Europe when mixed with the bark of the Alder tree.

Cultivation & Propagation.

This plant is found growing natui^ally in peaty soils, and yields its
fruit in great abundance. Though this fruit has, as yet, received no
attention in Australasia, it might prove to be worth cultivating in some
of the colonies. Possibly this plant might be naturalized in the
alpine regions with advantage. It requires a peaty or sandy soil
containing a good proportion of vegetable matter.

In preparing land for this crop, stir deeply without bringing up the
under soil, and make provision for taking away any surplus water
that is likely to hang in the ground. Though this fruit likes a fair
amount of moisture it will not thrive in boggy land, though some
other species of the same family will do so. Plant in rows like vines,
leaving a space of from eight to ten feet between. The time for
planting is between the fall of the leaf in the autumn and the starting
of growth in the spring. A plantation will last for a number of years,
and when fairly started requires only a moderate amount of attention
in keeping clean. But little pruning is required, all that is necessary
being to keep the plants shapely, and to thin out the branches when
overcrowded.

Propagation may be effected b}- seeds, cuttings, layers, and root
suckers. Seeds should be sown in a frame or pots as soon as possible
after they are obtained. When the young plants are large enough to
handle they should be pricked out into beds, lea^dng them three or
four inches apart, or shifted into small pots. Shift them again when
the plants require more room, and the following season plant out
where required. Cuttings of the previous season's wood, if put in
before growth commences, will strike in sand or light soil. Layers
should be put down before the spring, and will furnish good plants
the following season.

Other Species.

Various other species of Vaccinium yield edible berries, and might
prove worthy of attention from fruit cultivators. Prominent among
them are the Bog Bilberry or Grreat Whortleberry (Vacdm'um
uliginosum), which is indigenous to Europe, Northern Asia, and
America, and in habit is similar to the common Bilberry, but the
fruit, though nearly alike in colour, is more astringent and inferior.
This species flourishes in boggy land, and might prove serviceable in
some localities. Two North American species, Vaccinium Canadense
and Vaccinium JPennst/lvanicum, which are very closely allied, yield
what in the United States are known as Blueberries or Huckleberries,
which are highly valued in that part of the world. These and other
useful species will be dealt with under a separate heading.

219

BARBADOES CHERRY

This is the vernacular name for the fruit of Malpighia glabra, an
evergreen tree, and Malpighia punifolia an evergreen shrub belonging to
the natural order Malpighiacese. Both are indi.genous to the West
Indies and tropical America, the former being cultivated to some extent
in those regions for the sake of its fruit, which in shape and size is
similar to the common Cherry, The fruit is juicy and refreshing,
and much appreciated in the' West Indies. As both species are-
indigenous to tropical regions they can only be cultivated successfully in
those parts of Australia where the climatic conditions are similar. They
would probably prove serviceable fruits in many parts of Queensland and
North Australia, and are also worthy of cultivation for ornamental
purposes, as their bright evergreen foliage is very attractive. Their
pretty rose coloured flowers are also a recommendation. Both species
thrive best in a light rich soil. Propagation may be readily effected by
seeds, layers, and ripened cuttings of the current seasons growth under a
glass.

BEARBERRY

HiSTOEY AND USES.

The plant know^n under this name is A rctostci'phylos Uva-nrsi, which
belongs to the natural order Ericaceae, or Heath family. Formerly it
was called A rbutus Uva ursi. It is an evergreen trailing plant having
white flowers, and it is indigenous to the alpine and northern regions
of Europe, Asia, and America. It is to be found growing in various
parts of Scotland, as also in Wales. The plant has leaves somewhat
similar to those of the Cranberry, and the same trailing habit of
growth. The fruit is red, and also somewhat similar but smaller and
more dry and mealy. In some localities the fruit is used in the same
wa}^ as Cranberi'ies, but it is greatly inferior to them. The plant in
some parts of America is known as the Hog Cranberry, in others
Upland Cranberry, and also under the name of Grouseberry. As
the whole plant has astringent properties it is used to some extent
medicinally, and more especially the leaves, which are also some-
times utilized as a substitute for tea. Another species of this genus,
Arctostapki/los manzaiiita, is the Mexican Manzanita (Little Apple).
The fruit is a dull red, mealy, and pleasantly sub-acid. It is used
to some extent by the Mexicans, and is eaten freely by birds and
various animals.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Bearberry grows naturally in poor dry heathy soils, and might
prove serviceable in some of the alpine regions of Australia
Tasmania and New Zealand. Though not nearly so valuable as the

0

220

Cranberry, yet it has the advantage of being able to flourish in
poorer and di'ier land. Propagation is easily effected by seeds, or by
layers from the ti-ailing stems which i-oot freely.

BLACKBERRY.

History and Uses

Under the name of Blackberries or Brambles are included several
species of the genus Hubus, which belongs to the natural order Rosaceea.
The genus is widely dispersed, and species are found in Europe, Asia,
Africa, North and South America, and Australia has also I'epresenta-
tives. All the species yield edible fruits of more or less value,
including the Raspberry, and several are worthy of attention by
cultivators. The common or English Blackberry is Buhus fruticosus,
a thorny rambling plant, which is found growing naturally throughout
Europe, Middle and Northern Asia* It adapts itself to a variety of
soils and other local conditions, and in England and other European
countries the fruit, which is produced in abundance, is extensively
used for dessert, in tarts and puddings, or, when preserved, in the
form if jam. It also makes an excellent wine. The common Black-
berry has been naturalized in many parts of Australasia, but it does
not maintain its European reputation as a fruit-producer, as the crops
are often poor and uncertain. Then, again, from the rapid growth
and straggling habit of the plant, it is apt to spread and become a
noxious weed if not kept within bounds by constant attention. This
has proved to be the case in many localities, and consequently the
Blackberry has obtained a somewhat bad reputation. A little care,
however, in trimming will keep the plants in order, and in suitable
localities it may be cultivated profitably for its fruit, and as a hedge
plant. Other European Blackberries are obtained from Muhus
corylifolius and various other species, and some of these are worth
cultivating for their fruit. North America is rich in having several
useful species of Bubus, some of which yield excellent fruits that are
much cultivated in the United States, but are scarcely known in
Europe or Australia. The more prominent and useful of the American
species are Buhus cimeifolius, or Sand Blackberry, which attains a
height of three or four feet, is shrubby in habit, and produces well
flavoured, black, medium-sized berries that ripen late. This species
grows naturally in light sandy soils. Buhusvillosus is a robust upright
species, known in America as the High Blackberry. It attains a
height of eight or ten feet, and has very strong thorns. Several
excellent varieties have been raised from this species, including the
Lawton. Bubns vitifolius is the Californian Blackberry. It is a
strong free-growing species, with large, oblong, well flavoured fruit.
Some of these have been crossed with the Raspberry, and the results
have been some very desirable varieties. The British Dewberry is
the product of Bubus ccesms, a species indigenous to Europe, Northern

221

and Western Asia, which is extremely hardy and will stand extremes .
of heat, drought, and frost. This fruit is popular in the countries of
Northern Europe, being eaten fresh and preserved in various ways.
The fruit also has the advantage of lasting for a considerable time,
and till late in the season. This species might possibly prove worthy
of cultivation in the cooler portions of Australasia. The American
Dewbury is the product of Ruhus Canadensis, which is extensively
distributed over the North American continent. It is a trailing
prickly plant with large black fruit of excellent quality, which is^
largely used in Canada and the United States. This species and its
varieties may also be introduced with advantage to some localities.
The Cloudberry of Northern Europe is JR^ibus Chamcemoras,. a, her-
baceous perennial species whjch flourishes in cold regions. The
berries which are as large as small Strawbei-ries, are in colour from i-ed
to amber, very wholesome, and are largely used fresh or preserved, in
Scotland, Sweden, Norway, and some parts of Russia. This plant
might possibly succeed in most alpine regions, and prove worth}- of
cultivation. Several Indian, Japanese, and other species of Rubus
may also possibly be utilized with advantage.

Cultivation and Propagation.

All the species and varieties of the Bramble family are easily
cultivated, as most of them will readily adapt themselves to soils of
different character, though they thrive to tha greatest perfection in a
rich sandy loam. They are better adapted for the cooler than other
districts, and more particulaily for alpine regions, where the fruit
of all kinds is richer in flavour than .when produced in warmer
localities. Propagation is readily effected by suckers fi'om the roots,
or cuttings, which strike freely in sand or light soil if put in early in
the spring. Plants may also be readily obtained from layers, as
branches quickly produce roots if covered with a little soil. The
trailing kinds require the support of a fence to keep them up, and
may be successfully cultivated as hedges round orchards or paddocks.
As a matter of course, the plants must be well cut back every winter
to keep them within bounds, and care should be taken not to let
growth get too dense. The following list includes most of the best
kinds either species or varieties, some of the latter being hybrids of
uncertain origin, and others having as much of the chai*acter of
the Raspberry as the Blackberry, though classed as such : —

Species and Varieties.

Common Blackberry {English Blackbeny). — Fruit medium size,
roundish-conical, deep shining black, sweet, jnicy, and pleasantly
flavoured. Strong in habit, trailing, and a prolific bearer in cool
mountain districts.

Clovdberri/. — Fruit medium-sized, colour from red to amber, juicy
and slightly sub-acid, habit herbaceous, and will thrive only in moist
alpine regions.

222

CnwdelVs Enrlij. — A popular Amei'ican variety, wMeli begins to
ripen very eai-ly in the season. It continues to yield fi-uit for a long
period in the season. The fruit is large and Avell flaA'oured, and the
plant hardy, robust, and very jjrolifie.

Dewberry. — Fruit niediuni-sized, bluish black, juicy and well-
flavoured. Habit trailing, sti-ong, and suitable for cool districts.

Dorchester. — An American hybrid variety. Fruit lai'ge oblong-
conical, colour deep shining black, sweet and highly flaAX)ured, large
grain, ripens and carries well. Habit strong, upi-ight, and prolific.
Ma}' be grown Avhere the Raspberry thiiA^es.

English Blackberry.

Hima layan. — A useful and popular kind. Fruit very large, roundish-
conical, juicy, with a pleasant flaA^our, and is produced in succession.
Habit trailing and strong, and a good bearer. Will adapt itself to a
wider range of climate than the English Blackberry, but thrives to
the greatest perfection in cool regions.

Kittatwriy. — A popular American A^ariety Avhich is extensively
cultivated in th United States. Fi-uit lai'ge to A^ery large, roundish-
conical, fine glossy black, juic}^ firm, Avitli a lich sAveet fiavour.
Habit upright, very hardy, a free bearer, and lasts for a long period.
Requii'es similar conditions to the Raspberry.

223

Kittatinnj'.

Lawton (Neiv Rochelle). — A fine American variety. Fruit very
large, oval, intensely black, jnicy, sweet, with a ricli flavoni'. Habit
strong, rambling, with large spines, very hardy and pi-odnctive.
Ripens rather late and lasts a long period Will adapt itself to
various soils, and will thrive in any of the cooler districts^

224

Low lU<(ckherry (American Dewberry, Trailing Blackberry). — An
American species with A^ery large, I'onnclish-oblong, black fruit, juicy,
sweet, and highly flavoured. Habit strong, and is a low trailing
prickly shrub. Suitable only for alpine regions.

Dorchester.

Wilson's Early.

Wilson's Early. — ^An excellent Ameiican variety with very large,
oblong-oval, slightly pointed, deep black beiTies, and one of the
earliest Blackberries. The fruit has a rich sweet flavour, with a firm
flesh, and bears packing and carriage better than most other kinds.
In America it is considered to be one of the best BlackberHes for
market.

Wilson Junior. — This is a seedling from Wilson's Early and said
to be superior to its parent in size and productiveness. It is also
a Yery early kind, and in other respects similar to the parent.

BLOOD PLUM.

History and Uses.

This fruit is obtained from a small evergi-een tree belonging to the
Anacardiacese or Cashew Nut family, known botanically as lloematos-
tajphis IlaHeri. It is indigenous to West Africa, and more especially to
the River Niger districts. The leaves are winged, and the small white
flowers aie produced in i:)anicles. The fruit is about the size of small
Damsons, and is borne in bunches somewhat similar to Grapes. It
is bright crimson, like blood, hence the vernacular name, and the
scientific one has the same origin. The fruit has an acid flavour,
and is much relished by the natives of countries where it is indigenous.

225

Cultivation and Propagation.

Though the Blood Plum is an edible fruit, it is not of sufficient
value to make it worth cultivating for economical purposes. As an
ornamental tree it may be worthy of attention in tropical or sub-
tropical regions, Being a native of warm regions, as a matter of
course, it cannot be cultivated in any but the warmest parts of
Austi'alia. Propaga ion may be effected by seeds, layei's, or cuttings
of the previous season's wood.

BRAZIL ALMOND.

History and Uses.

This is an evergreen tree known as Geoffroya superha, and belonging
to the order Leguminoseae. It attains a height of thirty of forty feet,
and has winged glossy leaves and yellow flowers. The fruit is about
the size of a Walnut, and has a greenish yellow skin covered with
thick down. The pulp is fleshy, and encloses a very hard mit-like
seed. By the South American Indians the pulpy portion of the
fruit is used for food, and they turn the kernels of the seeds to
account in the same way. The fruit is commonly known in South
America under the name of Almender. The wood is very hard, fine
grained, takes an excellent polish, and is used to some extent
for fine cabinet work.

Cultivation and Propagation.

This tree is not likely to be cultivated to any extent in Australia, as
its fruit is insipid, and greatly inferior to many other kinds, though
the seeds or nuts have a fairly good flavour. As it is indigenous to
warm regions it is suitable only for tropical or semi-tropical localities.
Being a drought resisting tree, it might prove useful in some of the
hot, diy, interior districts. It is also worth cultivating in shrubberies
as an ornamental plant. The best mode of propagation is by seeds,
but plants may also be readily obtained from cuttings of the ripened
wood.

BRAZIL NUT.

History and Uses.

The Brazil Nut is the fruit of Bertholletia excelsa a large handsome
tree belonging to the Lecythideae section of the natural order
Myrtaceae. It is an evergreen with large smooth broad leaves nearly
two feet in length, and attains a height of from 100 to 150 feet. The
fruit grows upon the upper branches, and when mature, forms a
perfect ball about six inches in diameter. It consists of an outer

226

wood}^ sliell which is closely packed [with rough shelled thiee-sided
nuts, about an inch and a half in length. Each of the larger shells
contains from five to eight nuts. When fully ripe the fruit falls from
the trees, and the nuts are eagerly collected, forming an important
article of food for both men and some of the lower animals in their
native localities, where they are known under the name of Juvia.
Considerable quantities of the nuts are expoi'ted to Europe, where
there is a large demand for them. This tree forms perfect forests
in its native localities, and it is dangerous to enter them at the period
when the fruit ripens, as being so large and heavy, it falls A\dth gTeat
force. In addition to its value as an edible nut, the kernels by
pressure yield a fine bland oil which is used to some extent by
watchmakers.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Brazil Nut can only be successfully cultivated in the tropical
portions of Australia. Being a valuable tree it is worthy of attention
in congenial localities. It grows naturally in deep rich soils bordering
the rivers Amazon and Oronoca, and will doubtless thrive well in the
coast districts of Queensland and North Australia. Propagation is
most commonly effected by seeds, but cuttins:s of the ripened wood
will strike in sand or light soil.

BREAD FRUIT.

History and Uses.

The Bread Fruit is a handsome evergreen tree known as Artocarpus
incisa (communis) belonging to the Artocarpese section of the UrticacesB
or Nettle family. It is indigenous to Tahite, and other of the South
Sea Islands, as also the Molucca and Sunda Islands. The botanic
name is derived from artos bread, and cm'pus a fruit, in allusion to the
purpose for which it is. used. The tree attains a height of from
twenty to thirty feet, and has large bright-green deeply lobed leaves
which measure from eighteen inches to two feet in length. There
are both male and female flowers, and the fruit is globular or oblong,
from nine to twelve inches long, and somewhat similar to a melon.
The fruit is marked wdth a number of diamond shaped scars or facets,
and the so called Bread is a white spongy substance. The true fruit
consists of seeds or nuts, that are embedded in this spongy mass.
These seeds are however, seldom produced by trees under cultivation.
Bread Fruit, like the Banana, is a staple article of food with the
natives of many of the South Sea Islands. They prepare the fruit
by roasting it till the outside covering, or shell, is charred sufficiently
for it to be rubbed off. The pnlp is then eaten, and has a flavour
which may be compared to that of ordinar}^ bread and Chestnuts
combined. It should be eaten fresh, as when allowed to get stale,
the material becomes harsh and woolly. Many Europeans are partial

227

to the Bread Fruit, and use it when baked, boiled, and in various
other ways. It is considered to be wholesome and palatable. The
fruits are produced in succession for eight or nine months in the year.
Besides its value as a food plant the Bread Fruit is serviceable to the
South Sea Islanders in various other ways. The inner bark is
converted into a coarse kind of cloth, and the light yellow wood is
utilised for various purposes. A tenacious gum or caoutchouc is
obtained from the milky juice of the tree.

The earliest account of the Bread Fruit was given by Captain-
Dampier, who voyaged through the South Sea Islands over three
hundred years ago. His description of the tree was a very glowing
one. The scientiiic men who accompanied Captain Cook in his
voyages had a very high opinion as to its value, and in his official
report, Di*. Solander the botanist, stated it to be " the most useful
vegetable in the world." These
representations induced the
British Government to take
steps for the introduction of the
Bread Fruit to the "West Indian
Colonies. With this object in
view, a vessel called the Bounty,
was fitted out expressly and
placed under the command of
Captain Bligh. The object
however was not attained then,
owing to a mutiny among the
crew, and seizure of the vessel

by the malcontents, which are Bread Fruit

matters of history. A few years
afterwards, however the object was successfully accomplished by a
vessel under the command of the same officer.

A tree called Treculia africana, belonging to the same natural order,
yields what is known as the African Bread Fruit. It is an evergi^een,
attaining a height of from twenty to thirty feet. The fruit is about
twelve inches in diameter, but, unlike the ordinary Bread Fruit, the
only portion used is the nuts or seeds. These seeds, which are
numerous, are ground into meal and used as food by the natives of
tropical West Africa, where the tree is indigenous.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Bread Fruit can only be successfully cultivated in the tropical
or sub-tropical regions of Australia. In congenial localities it is a
serviceable fruit, and is also worthy of attention as an ornamental
tree. Theie are several varieties that are known, and their fruit
varies somewhat in size, and also in the period of ripeuing. By
carefully selecting the kinds, a supply of fruit may be obtained
throughout the year. A rich, deep, and moderately moist soil is re-
quired by the Bread Fruit. Shelter is also essential to the well-
being of the trees. Propagation is easily effected by suckers, which

228

are generally produced freely from the roots. Cuttings of matured
wood may be struck in sand under a glass, but they are very uncertain.

BREAD NUT.

This name is applied to the fruit of a large evergreen tree known
as Brosimum A licastrum belonging to the Artocarpeae section of the order
[Jrticaceee. It is indigenous to the West Indies, and is allied to the
Bread Fruit. The fruit is the size of large Plums, and is used by the
negi'oes, when baked with salt, fish, or meat, and as a pickle. When
roasted the fruit has a similar taste to a Chestnut, and is both whole-
some and palatable. The leaves and young shoots are used to some
extent in Jamaica for feeding cattle, and are said to make excellent
fodder. An excellent timber is also obtained from this tree. This tree
will only thrive within the sub-tropics, but in regions that are suitable,
it is worthy of attention for its fruit, and also as a fodder plant. It is
also desirable as an ornamental tree. The Bread Nut will thrive in
any ordinary good soil, but prefers a rich deep sandy loam. Prop-
agation may be effected by the same means as recommended for the
Bread Fruit.

BUFFALO BERRY

History vnd Uses.

This is a deciduous shrub, or small tree, known botanically as
Shepherdia argentea belonging to the natural order of Eleagnaceae. It
is indigenous to a considerable portion of North America, where its
fruit formerly, was greatly valued by the aboriginal Indians. In
some parts of America the fruit is more generally known as " Rabbit
Berry." The leaves are oblong, silvery white on both sides, and the
small yellow flowers are borne in the axils of the branches. There
are both male and female flowers borne on separate plants, the former,
or sterile ones, having a four-parted calyx and eight stamens. The
female, or fertile flower, has an ui^n shaped calyx enclosing an ovary
which develops into a round berry like fruit about the size of a
Currant. The fruit is in colour a dull red, and has a sprightly acid
flavour. It is borne in compact clusters, and ripens late in the
summer or autumn. The fruit is produced abundantly and makes a
very good preserve. It may also be used with advantage when fresh,
for pies and puddings. Another species Shepherdia canadensis also
yields an edible fruit, somewhat similar in appearance, but less acid
in flavour and rather insipid.

Cultivation and Propagation

The Buffalo Berry may be cultivated successfully for its fruit in
the cooler regions of Australia, and is well adapted for Tasmania and

229
Buffalo Berry.

Branch showing Flowers, Foliage and Fruit

New Zealand. As it is a free bearer it may prove a very useful fruit
in many localities. As an ornamental plant it is well worthy of a
place in the shrubbery or pleasure garden, where its beautiful
silvery white foliage will be very elfective. The thorn-like character

280

Male Flowers.

Female Flowers.

of the small branches also make it a very suitable plant for hedges.
The Buffalo BeiTj may be cultivated successfully in any ordinary
•good soil, but it is partial to deep moist land that boi-ders rivers and
creeks. There being both male and female plants it is necessary
that at least one of the former to six of the latter should be included
in a plantation. The plants should be arranged so as to stand about
twelve feet apart. Propagation may be readily effected by seeds,
cuttings, suckers or layers. Seed should be sown thinly while fresh,
in shallow drills, covering it an inch deep. The following season the
young plants should be placed in rows a foot apart, leaving twice that
space below the lines. They will usually bloom the third year from
the seed, when the male and female plants can be separated. Layers
root freely, the proper time for this method being in the spring.
Suckers from the roots are sometimes produced, and these if taken off,
make very good plants. Cuttings of the previous seasons wood will
root freely if planted in the spring.

CAMBUCA.

This is the native name for the fruit of Marliera glomerata, a tall
evergreen shrub, or small tree, indigenous to Brazil, and belonging to the
order Myrtaceae. The fruits are about the size of Apricots, pleasantly
flavoured, and are popular in their native country. Another species,
Marliera tomentosa, indigenous to the same country, yields sweet berries
about the size of Cherries, known by the native name of Guaparanga.
Both kinds may be grown successfully in the tropical and sub-tropical
regions of Australia, and, being handsome plants, are worthy of cultivation
for ornament only. They are also deserving of attention as fruit-bearing

231

trees in suitable localities. They will thrive in any ordinary good soil.
Propagation is eifected by seeds, which shoidd be planted two or three
inches deep, layers, and cuttings of the ripened wood of the current
season's scrowth.

&"

CAPE CHESTNUT.

History and Uses

This is a beautiful evergreen tree known to botanists as Calodendron
Capense, and belonging to the natural order Rutaceae, or the Rue family.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and attains a height of forty or fifty
feet. The leaves are broad and eliptical, and the flowers are white.
The fruit is five-celled, and enclosed in a five-angled prickly capsule. In
flavour it resembles the Chestnut, hence the common name, and it is
used both raw and when roasted.

Cultivation and Peopagation.

The Cape Chestnut may be cultivated successfully in all but the coldest
districts in Australia and New Zealand. It is a remarkably handsome
tree, makes rapid growth, and may be used with advantage in ornamental
plantations. This tree is also well adapted for avenues and parks. As a
fruit tree it is well worthy of attention, as it yields its palatable nuts
freely. It may be grown successfully in any ordinary good soil, and
requires but little attention after it has made a fair start. Propagation
is easily effected by seeds, which sliould be sown in the spring or autumn,
covering them about two inches. Young plants may also be obtained
from cuttings of the ripened shoots of the current season's growth, which
strike freely in sand or light soil under a glass.

CAPE GOOSEBERRY

History and Uses.

The plant bearing this name is a native of tropical America,
known to botanists as Phnsalis Feruviana, and belonging to the
natural order Solanacea?. It is a perennial plant in warm regions,
but in colder countries it becomes an annual. In some of the colonies
the plant is cultivated to a limited extent for its fruit, but it has not
received much attention generally, though it is w^ell Avorthy of a
place in the gai'den. The fruit is produced in abundance, has a
pleasant acidulous flavour, and may be eaten fresh or preserved in
the form of jam. It is yellow, about the size of a small Cherry, and
is covered with a bladder-like calyx, from which circumstance the
generic scientific name lias been derived. The common name is by
no means appropriate, as the plant is not a native of the Cape of

232

Good Hope neither has the fruit any resemblance to a Gooseberry.
Closely allied to the Cape Gooseberry is the Strawberry Tomato, or
Winter Cherry, which is the f i-uit of Phy sails A Ikekengi, a perennial
species, said to have originally come from Persia, but now widely
distributed throughout Southern Eui-ope, North Africa, and Asia,
extending to Japan. This plant is more hardy than the Cape
Goosebeny, very pi-olific, and ripens its fruit later in the season.
The fruit is red, pleasantly flavoured, very wholesome, and may be
used fresh or preserved. Another closel}^ allied and useful species is
Physalis pubesce^u, which yields a fruit known as the Barbadoes
Gooseberry or Gooseberry Tomato. It is an annual plant, and a
natiA^e of the warmer parts of North and South America. The fruit
is small, pleasantly acidulous, and much appreciated in the countries
where it is found.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Cape Gooseberry, StrawbeiTy Tomato, and Gooseberry Tomato,
ma}^ be grown successfully in all but the coldest pai'ts of Australia
with a little care, and deserve more attention than they now receive.
They however require a rich soil and a sheltered situation, and thrive
best in a highly-manured sandy loam. Though the two first named
are naturally perennial, yet it will be advisable except in the warmer
regions, to renew them annually, as they are apt to get cut back in the
winter by frosts. The seed should be sown as with Tomatoes, and it
will be an advantage to get the plants started as early as possible.
Plants may be forwarded considerably by sowing the seed in a hot
bed, and potting off the plants as soon as they are large enough to
handle. As soon as all danger from frost has passed the plants may
be put out where they are to remain. Plant singly in rows three or
four feet apart, 'leaving the same distance between in the lines.
Weeds should be kept down as far as is practicable, and moi-e
especially during the early stages of growth, so that the plants will
be able to make fair headway. Mulching ma}' be used wath advan-
tage if the gi'ound is covered before the hot Aveather sets in. By
adopting this plan the surface moisture will be retained much longer
than otherwise, to the great advantage of the plants.

CAPE PLUM.

This is the common name for the fruit of Carissa grandiflora, a thorny
South African shrub, belonging to the natural order Apocynaceae. The
fruit is similar in size and shape to a small plum, and makes an excellent
jam. Another species, Carissa Carandas, indigenous to India and China,
a large spiny shrub, yields a small plum-like fruit known as the Carandas,
which is used for pickling and preserving as a jam. The fruit of a
species indigenous to East Australia, (Carissa Brownii) which is some-
what similar, can also be utilized for the same purposes. All the species
named may jje grown successfully in the southern colonies of Australia,

233

and New Zealand. They are handsome ornamental shrubs, are well
adapted for garden hedges, will adapt themselves to any soil or situation,
and are able to withstand long droughts. Propagation is most readily
effected by layers, which should be put down early in the autumn or
spring. Cuttings of the ripened shoots of the current season's growth
will strike readily in sand under a glass. Plants may also be raised from
seeds, which should be covered to the depth of half-an-inch.

CAPSICUM.

History.

Capsicum is a genus belonging to the natural order Solanaceae, and
derives its name from the Greek Kapto, to bite, in allusion to the pungent
properties of the fruit. There are a number of species, including annuals,
biennials, and perennials, all possessing similar properties more or less.
They are very widely dispersed, species being indigenous to both the
East and West Indies, China, Japan, and Egypt, as also Brazil, Mexico,
and other tropical parts of South America. Many of the species differ
considerably from others in the shape, size, colour, and pungency of their
fruits. Some of the species embrace several varieties, and these often
differ materially in various ways from the parent plant. The small
fruited kinds are more familiarly known to many as Chilies, which is
said to be the Mexican name of the genus.

Uses.

Capsicums are used in a variety of ways, and they form an essential
part of several well-known condiments. They are largely used in
making mixed or other pickles, either when green or ripe, to give
pungency. In the preparation of what is known as Chili Vinegar,
Capsicums are the principal ingredient, and they are largely used for
seasoning various dishes. Large quantities of Capsicums are used in the
manufacture of Cayenne pepper, which is the most pungent of all
condiments. In preparing Cayenne pepper the fruit is gathered when
perfectly ripe, and dried in the sun, after which it is ground to a powder
and mixed with a proportion of salt, but only a small quantity. The
powder is then thoroughly dried and packed away in air-tight bottles or
jars. When required for pickles the fruit may be used either green or
ripe. Before using the fruit the seeds should be removed, and the pods
soaked in salt and water for twenty -four hours. It is advisable to change
the water after the fruit has been soaking twelve hours. The fruit, after
the soaking process, should be thoroughly drained, and then it may be
used either by itself or with other materials, by pouring boiling vinegar
over it, and filling into bottles or jars. These, after their contents have
cooled, must be tightly stopped to exclude the air. Chili Vinegar is
made by putting a handful of fruit into a bottle, filling up with vinegar,
and corking tightly.

234

In the West Indies a preparation called Cayenne Pepper Pot is much
esteemed and extensively used. It is made from the ripe pods, which
are first thoroughly dried by the sun, and then placed in earthen pots in
layers, with flour between each. The vessels are then placed in an oven,
and slightly heated to remove any moisture that may remain. After this
process the fruit is taken out of the vessels without the flour, and the
pods and seeds are ground into a fine jDOwder. Flour is then added in
the proportion of one pound to an ounce of the powder^ and yeast as in
making ordinary bread. The whole is then mixed well together, and
made into small flat cakes which are baked in the ordinary way. These
cakes may be kept for a considerable time, and are reduced to powder
when required for use. In India a very popular preparation called
Mandram is made chiefly from Capsicums. It is made from the ripe pods
which are cut and mixed with thin slices of Cucumber, garlic, or shallots
chopped fine, with a small quantity of lime juice and wine added. These
materials are well mixed, and vinegar poured over them, when they are
ready for use. This is considered to be an excellent preparation for
stimulating the appetite. Capsicums or preparations made from them
are used extensively by the natives of countries where they are indigenous,
who consider them to have valuable properties.

Medicinally the Capsicum possesses some valuable qualities, and is
serviceable in various complaints. The pods and seeds contain a warm
acrid oil which is considered useful in promoting digestion, for invigora-
ting the blood, assisting the action of the bowels, and correcting flatulency
arising from the use of vegetables. For lethargy, coma, and delirium,
which often accompany tropical fevers, a poultice of the bruised seeds is
said to have a more speedy remedial effect than anything else. In
dropsical complaints a small quantity of the powdered seed is said to
frequently affbi-d relief when other remedies fail. Capsicums are some-
times used successfully in cases of yellow fever, and are said to have a
soothing effect upon the stomach, and to often cause a favourable turn in
that complaint. Sometimes the seeds are used as a remedy for pleurisy
and paralysis, being bruised, mixed with lard, and rubbed upon the
aflfected parts. When used for these complaints, this remedy is said to
frequently afford substantial relief when others fail. Capsicums have
been used beneficially in cases of scarlatina, and as a throat gargle when
mixed with barley water for sufferers from influenza. The pepper is
oiten used effectively as a cure for tooth-ache when placed in the cavities
of hollow teeth. In cases of opthalmia from relaxation of the membranes
of the eye, the greatly diluted juice is said to have been employed with
good effect, and in some parts of South America it is used by the Indians
to strengthen their sight when they are spearing fish. If the pods of
Capsicums are thrown upon a fire, a strong pungent vapour is produced
that is noxious to most persons, as it will cause sneezing and even
vomiting. Capsicums are generally admitted to be wholesome when
used in moderation, but when used in excess by themselves or in prepar-
ations in which they form the basis, they are injurious, and the frequent
cause of liver complaint. The fruit gathered fresh and eaten in small
quantities before meals is said to be an aid to digestion, but when used
too freely the stomach is liable to injury.

235

Cultivation.

The Capsicum is a tender plant, and cannot withstand frosts or cold
winds consequently, it is no use attempting to cultivate when those
contingencies are probable. The plants thrive to the greatest perfection
in the warmer portions of Australia, where the perennial species will
retain their vigor for several years. But it is quite possible to grow the
annual species to perfection, and also other kinds with extra care, in the

cooler districts, as also in Tasmania and New Zealand. In the medium

warm or cooler regions it is useless either to sow seed or plant in the
open ground till all danger from frost has passed. But growth may be
forwarded by growing seed in a hot bed in winter, potting off the young
plants as soon as they are fit to handle, and keeping them steadily
growing till the season is sufficiently advanced for planting them out.
In the warmer regions not subject to frost, planting or sowing should be
done early in the spring. The biennial and perennial species will make
uninterrupted growth through the winter in tropical or semi-tropical
regions, but in cooler localities they must be slightly sheltered to protect
them from the effects of frosts. In the colder districts it will be necessary
to take up and house the plants during the winter, in order to preserve
them. Capsicums may be classed as ornamental plants, and, independent
of their value for economic purposes, are desirable for flower gardens,
where their high coloured fruit is very effective. When grown as a crop
Capsicums should be planted in rows, four or five feet apart, leaving the
same distance between in the lines, according to the growth of the kind.
All the species are strong feeders, and require a rich soil to bring them to
perfection.

Propagation.

Capsicums are usually raised from seed, but, if necessary, the biennial
and perennial species may be readily propagated from cuttings. When
seed is required the largest and best shaped pods should be selected for
the purpose, allowing them to get thoroughly ripe. The pods should
then be allowed to get thoroughly dry, and,' when practicable, the seed
ought to be left in them till it is required for use. Seed should be sown
in light rich soil, covering it to the depth of a quarter of an inch. It
may be sown in the open ground, but the results will be more certain if
a frame is used. When the young plants are about two inches high, they
should be replanted into small beds, or potted, to remain till five or six
inches in height, when they may be planted out permanently. They
may be planted direct from the seed beds, but there will be less risk by
transplanting previously as recommended. Cuttings of the young shoots,
taken off three or four inches long, will strike freely if inserted about
an-inch deep in sand or light soil.

Species.

The following list includes the most desirable species in cultivation,
an 1 each of these has several varieties that differ more or less from their
parents.

p

236

Capsicum annua {Guinea Pepper). — This is an animal species, indige-
nous to India, and was the first of the family known in Europe. It is
stated to have been introduced to England over 300 years ago. This
species grows about two feet high, and includes varieties with both red
and yellow fruit, as also those with long slender pods, and others with
round thick ones.

Bullock's Heart.

Bird Peppar.

Cherry Capsicum.

Chili Pepper.

237

^[onstrous.

Lon,' Cayenne.

238

Capsicum haccatum {Bird P€2:)per). -Thi% is a shrubby perennial species,
whose native country appears to be not known with certainty, though
some authorities are of opinion that it originally came from Brazil. The
plants grow from eighteen inches to two feet in height, and have slender
branches and small leaves. There are varieties with both red and yellow
fruit, which is small and intensely pungent.

Capsicum cerasiforme {Cherry Capsicum). — This is an annual species from
the West Indies, which derives its name from the shape of the fruit,
which, in size and form, resembles a Cherry. The plants grow to the
height of about two feet, and are more spreading in habit than most
other kinds. There are several varieties with both red and yellow fruit,
which is very acrid.

Capsicum frutescens {Shruhhi/ Capsicum). — This is a perennial shrubby
species, which, according to some authorities, is indigenous to South
'America, while others give India as its native country. This is the
species that is chiefly used for making the Cayenne pepper of commerce,
owing to the durability of the plant, and its freedom in bearing. It
includes varieties with both red and yellow fruit, which is smnll and very
pungent, and produced in great abundance.. Under favourable con-
ditions this species will continue to bear freely for three or four years,
after which the plant should be renewed.

Capsicum grossum ( Bell Pepper, BullocTcs Heart, Bull JS'ose). — This is
a biennial species from India, which attains a height of two or three feet.
There are several varieties with both red and yellow fruit, which is very
large, being often three or four inches in diameter. The fruit is in
flavour much milder than the other kinds, and is well adapted for pickles
when great pungency is not required. As the varieties of this species
have large, showy, and singular-looking fruit, they may be used very
effectively as ornamental plants.

Capsicum longum. — This is an annual South American species, which
is utilized to some extent in making Cayenne pepper. It grows about
two feet high, and bears long pungent fruit.

Capsicum sinense {Chinese Capsicum). — This is an ornamental shrubby
perennial species, which grows about two feet high. The fruit is bright
yellow, ovate in shape, and moderately pungent.

CARAMBOLA.

History and Uses.

This name is applied to the fruit of Averrhoa Caramh(>la, an evergreen
tree belonging to the natural order Oxalidaceae, or the Wood Sorrel family.
It is a native of Ceylon and India, and attains a height of twenty or
thirty feet. The flowers are a greenish-red, produced in racemes, and the
fruit is oval, about the size of a hen's egg, with three ridges or angles.
The pulp is soft, juicy, and refreshing, one kind being sweet and used as
a table fruit, while the other is sharply acid and utilized for cooking and

preserving. The green fruit is also turned to account as a pickle. Very
closely allied to the Carambola is the Blimbing, the Indian name for the
fruit of Averrhoa Bilimbi, a beautiful evergreen tree. It is indigenous to
India, grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and has winged leaves,
which are slightly sensitive when touched or shook. The flowers are
reddish-yellow, and the fruit is oblong and about the size of an Egg
Plum. The Pulp is juicy and pleasantly acid. It is used in the same
way as the Carambola. The mode of bearing is somewhat singular ia
both species, as the flowers and fruit are frequently produced upon the
trunks below the leaves.

Cultivation and Propagation.

As the Carambola and Blimbing are so ck»sely allied, and come from
the same regions, they require precisely similar treatment. Though
natives of warm countries they are not so tender as many other tropical
plants, and are said to be able to stand light frosts with impunity. They
may be cultivated successfully in any portion of Australia within the
sub-tropical regions, and even further south in warm sheltered spots in
the coast river districts of Northern New South Wales. Where the
climatic conditions are favourable both trees are well worth cultivating
for the sake of their fruit, which is greatly relished in India. The plants
require a fairly good soil, and should be sheltered from strong winds.
Propagation is mostly effected by seeds, which should be sown when
fresh, covering them to the depth of an inch. Cuttings of the ripened
wood will strike in sand under a glass.

CAROB.

History.

This is a handsome and useful evergreen tree belonging to the natural
order Leguminos^e, known botanically as Ceratonia siliqua. It is most
commonly known as the Carob . but also under the names of Locust,
Algaroba, and St. John's Bread Tree. The latter name has originated
from the tradition that the fruit of this tree supplied food to St. John the
Baptist in the Wilderness. Throughout Palestine the most familiar name
is **The Locust Tree." Carob is derived from keras^ a horn, in allusion
to the shape of the pods, or "beans," as they are most commonly called.
Algaroba is a Spanish form of Carob, and is applied to other trees
belonging to the order Leguminosae that have sweet edible pods, The
Carob is indigenous to Palestine and other regions along the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and under favourable conditions attains
a height of forty to fifty feet. It is a compact growing tree, with dark
green shining foliage- There are both male and female flowers, which
usually are produced upon separate trees, but not invariably. Sometimes
both classes of flowers are produced upon the one tree, and occasionally

240

the flowers are hermaphrodite, that is, furnished with stamens and pistils.
The flowers are reddish, small, and produced in racemes. When the
female flowers are fertilized they are succeeded by curved pods about an
inch in width, and from five to ten in length.

Uses.

The Carob is used extensively in its native regions, as also in tlie South
of Europe and Northern Africa as food for horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs.
It is also frequently used as food by human beings. In Egypt, Italy,
Spain, Turkey, and Syria, the ground pods are mixed with maize meal,
and made into bread. In the first-named country and throughout
Palestine, a sweet syrup or honey is extracted from the pods, and forms
and important article of diet. AH kinds of stock are very fond of Carob
beans, and the flesh of cattle, sheep, and pigs is said to be greatly
improved by their use. Dairy cows are said to yield more milk when
supplied with Carob beans, while at the same time it will be richer in
cream.Large quantities of the pods are imported to Great Britain every
year from eastern Mediterranean coantries, and they are used as horse
feed, as also for cattle and sheep. They are very nourishing, as they
contain about 66 per cent, of sugar and gum. Some or the patent
mixtures sold as " cattle food " are largely composed of meal made from
Carob beans. The pods are dried, ground, and used as a substitute for
chocolate. With the addition of water and fermented, they are converted
into a palatable beverage, and a good spirit may be obtained from them
by distillation. A medicinal syrup is also extracted from the pods.
While green, the pods contain a large percentage of tannic acid, and con-
siderable quantities are used in the preparation of Morocco and other fine
leatheis. The fruit-bearing trees are usually very prolific, and in their
native regions a plantation is considered to be of equal value with a
vineyard or olive grove. According to Chambers, instances are on record
of single trees yielding nearly half a ton of pods in a season. Under
ordinary favourable conditions the Carob will attain a great age. Many
trees are known to be over a hundred years old, and still in a flourishing
condition. The Carob should be widely cultivated in Australia as a tree
supplying food for stock. Being in a large measure able to resist drought,
it is a tree deserving of special attention in the dry interior districts of
Australia. Being a handsome tree, the Carob may also with advantage
be planted for ornament, and large specimens afford a grateful shade in
warm regions. This tree also makes an excellent breakwind for vineyards
or orchards in hot dr}^ districts when planted close, though it is some-
what slow in growth for a few years. The wood of the Carob is hard,
heavy, fine-grained, and valuable to cabinet makers and turners.

Cultivation

The Carob will adapt itself to a wide range of climate and may be
cultivated successfully throughout a considerable portion of Australasia.
In fact it will thrive in any locality where the frosts are not severe. It

Raceme of Male
Flowers.

241

Carob.

Seeds, Raceme of Female Flowers

Pods or Beans.

242

is equally accommodating as regards soils, and will thrive in light sand,
gravel, or rich alluvial ground. But it is more especially at home when
planted in calcareous or limestone soils. As a matter of course, however,
trees will grow faster and stronger in rich than in poor land. The land
should be prepared by working it to the depth of at least fifteen inches,
and, when necessary, drainage must be provided for, as the Carob cannot
stand its roots being sodden ed. Planting should be done early in tho
autumn or spring, taking care not to expose the roots. If grown for
their fruit alone, the trees should be planted at least twenty-four feet
apart, in order to allow room for development. When planted as a
breakwind, from ten to twelve feet apart will be a proper distance. As a
matter of course, it is only the female and hermaphrodite trees that will
bear fruit, and there must be to the former a proportion of male plants,
say about one in ten. This will be a diflficulty with cultivators when
seedling trees are used, as their sex cannot be ascertained till they flower.
It will not arise, however, when trees have been propagated by layers,
cuttings, or grafting, as the plants will then be the same as their parents.
In the early stages of growth it will be necessary to prune the trees so as
to get compact, well-formed heads and clear stems for three or four feet
above the ground at the lea,st. The Carob is slow in growth for the first
few years, and also in coming into bearing. Seedlings are nine or ten
years old before they begin to bear, but trees from layers, cuttings, or
grafts will generally begin to yield fruit in six or seven years. When
from twelve to fifteen years old, the trees are usually in, full bearing
condition, and, as a rule, they yield regular and heavy crops. As soon
as the pods are fully ripe they will begin to fall from the trees, and the
common way of using them for live stock, in the countries where they are
grown for the purpose, is to let the animals pick them up. If required
for storing, however, the pods may be shaken from the trees, or beaten
off with light poles, taking care to spread them out till they are thoroughly
dry. If packed in heaps when taken direct from the trees, they are apt
to ferment, turn colour, and deteriorate in quality.

Pkopagation.

The Carob may be propagated by seeds, layers, cuttings, grafting, and
budding. Plants are easily obtained from seed, but the great drawback
to this method of propagation is that the grower is always uncertain as to
the sex of the trees. Seed may be sown at any period of the year, but
themost favourable time is early in the spring. As the outer covering of
theseeds is very hajd, they should be prepared by pouring boiling water
upon them, and must then be allowed to soak for about a week or ten
days. They should then be sown in light free 3oil, covering them to the
depth of half-an-inch, and pressing the earth firmly upon them. The
young plants will be ready for putting out in the following season.
Layers may be put down early in the autumn or spring, preparing them
with a tongue or heel. Cuttings will strike readily in sand or light soil
if put in towards the end of the summer or in autumn. They should be
made from the ripened wood of the current season's growth, leaving them

243

about six inches lopg, shortening back the leaves, and inserting them
about two inches deep. Grafting may be done jnst as growth is beginning
to get active. Budding should be done after mid-summer, when the
current season's growth has matured to some extent, and while the bark
will rise freely from the wood. Both budding and grafting may be
practised with advantage in the case of seedling trees, so as to insure the
right proportion of male and female plants.

CASHEV\^ NUT,
History and Uses.

The Cashew Nut is known botanically as Anacardium occidentale, and
it is the type of the natural order Anacardiaceae. It is a handsome
evergreen tree, growing to the height of from fifteen to twenty feet, and a
native of the West Indies. The leaves are somewhat like those of the
Walnut, and have a similar smell. The sweet-scented reddish-green
flowers are produced in corymbs, and the so-called fruit is formed by the
enlargement of the foot stalks, or peduncles. This fleshy substance is as
large as a moderately-sized orange, and possesses an agreeable sub-acid
flavour, but is somewhat astringent. It is largely used in the East and
West Indies, as also in tropical America. The true fruit is a heart-shaped
nut that is formed at the end of the fleshy peduncle. This nut is an
inch or more in length, and contains two shells, the outer one being
smooth and ash-coloured. There is a space between the two shells that is
filled with a thick, black,
caustic juice, which is
utilized in dying and for
marking linen. Within the
inner shell is the kernel,
which contains a sweet
milky juice, and is very
palatable when eaten fresh.
The kernels are eaten like
Chestnuts, either raw or
when roasted. They are
said to be used to some
extent to improve the flavour
of chocolate. By pressure
an oil equal to olive may
be obtained, and the trunk
and branches of the tree
when wounded yield a
material similar to gum
arable. Cashew Nut.

244

Cultivation and Peopauation,

As the Cashew Nut is a native of tropical regions, it can only be grown
in those parts of Australia where the climate is congenial. Being a
handsome evergreen tree of moderate growth, it is worthy of cultivation
for ornamental purposes, independent of the value of its fruit. It will
thrive in any ordinary good soil, but prefers a rich sandy loam of moderate
depth. The trees for a year or two after planting will require some little
attention in pruning to make them shapely, but afterwards the only care
required is to keep the weeds down. Propagation is most usually effected
by seeds, which should be sown in spring or autumn, covering them about
two inches. Plants may also be readily obtained from cuttings of fairly
ripened wood of the current season's growth, with the leaves left on,
which will strike freely in sand under a glass.

CHERRY.

HlSTOlIV.

Botanically the Cherry is now known as Cerasus, but a few years
ago it was classed with the Prunus, or Plum family, from which,
however, it differs materially. It belongs to the extensive natural
order Rosaceee, or Rose family, which embraces many o^f our
cultivated fruits. The generic name is supposed to have originated
from Cerasus, a town in Armenia, from whence the Cherry was
introduced into Eui^ope. The common or English name Cherry Avas
originally Cherise, taken from the French term Cerise, which had its
source in Cerasus.

This favourite and useful summer fruit is supposed to have
originated in Asia Minor, and according to historical records, was
introduced into Europe by the Roman general Lucullus about seventy
years previous to the Christian era. Soon after its introduction to
Italy it became a very popular fruit with the Romans, and was
rapidly distributed through the European continent. Pliny mentions
eight kinds of Cherries as being known to the Romans in his time,
and he specially notices one vaiiety that never appeared to be ripe,
having a hue between green, red, and black. The same writer
informs us that Cherries were carried to Britain before the Christian
era. He also tells us that "if Cherries are eaten (swallowing the
stones) from the tree while the dew is upon them in the morning it
is a good cure for gout in the feet."

Though the Cherry is said to have been introduced to Britain by
the Romans at a very early date, yet, if so, it must have been lost
during the Saxon era, as it is not mentioned in the records of that
period. Some old writers inform us that Cherries were commonly
sold in the streets of London very early in the fifteenth century,
while others assert this fruit was re-introduced lin the beginning of
Henry VIII. 's reign. According to the latter assertion, Cherry trees

245

were introduced from Flanders, and first planted at Sittingboume in
Kent, a county ever since famous for this fruit. Historical records
inform us that in the year 1540, one season's fruit in a Kentish
Cheny orchard, thirty-two acres in extent, sold for £1000 — a very
large sum at that period. Old records also inform us that early in
the sixteenth century Cherries were commonly sold in the streets of
London, and that it was usual to announce the commencement of the
season by carrying boughs loaded with fruit through the principal
thoroughfares.

Cherries vary considerably in their characteristics, and there are
doubts as to the sources from which some of the classes have been
derived. Attempts have been made by prominent writers upon the
science of pomolog}' to classify the different types of CheiTies, but
efforts have not been so successful as could be desired, and a more
perfect system is required. The well-known English pomologist, Dr.
Hogg, classes Cherries in two main divisions, one of which he calls
Geans, and this includes the Heart and Bigarreau sections ; the other
division termed Griottes embraces the Duke and Morello sections.
These divisions are subdivided again, the distinctions being based
upon the shape of the fruit and the colour of the flesh and juice.
Mr. Downing, the celebrated American pomologist, simply divides
Cherries into two classes — one comprising the Heart and Bigarreau,
and the other the Duke and Morello sections. Most of the names
used to identify the divisions and sections are of French origin, some
retaining their purity, while others have been coiTupted. Gean is a
corruption of the French word Guigne, which means a Heart Cherry.
The pui'e name is, however, used by many in preferance to the word
gean. The name Bigarreau is applied to a section having firm,
fleshy fi-uit, though literally it means a white " Heart Cherry."
Griotte means literally a " Black Cherry." but the name is now
applied generally to the tender-fleshed Cherries. Duke is an ab-
breviation of " Mayduke," a prominent variety in its class, that name
being a coiTuption of Medoc, a province in Fi-ance, in which this
kind is supposed to have originated. Morello comes from the French
Morelle, the name of the Morel, on account of the original type being
supposed to have a flavour somewhat similar to that esculent fungus.

Most of the Guigne or heart Cherries, have originated from Cerasus
avium, the wild, black Cherry, which is common to the woods of the
United Kingdom and many other parts of Europe. This is a very
hardy and robust species, which attains a large size when growing
under naturally favourable conditions. The other portion of the
Guigne family comes from Cerasus Juliana, another robust species,
which grows wild in many parts of Southern Europe. The Bigarreau
family have originated from Cerasus duracina and Cerasus caproviana
both species being common in the southern parts of Europe. The
Duke and Morello sections have come from Cerasus vulgaris, the wild,
red, sour cherry which is found growing naturally in the United
Kingdom and in many other parts of Europe. Cerasus Padu^, a small-
gi-owing species common to many parts of Great Britain, but more
plentiful in Scotland than in England, is the Bird Cherry. This

246

name lias been obtained through the fruit being largely consumed by
birds. The fruit of this species is black, small, and austere, but
though unpleasant to the taste it is used to some extent for flavouring
whisky and other spirits. Cerasus Malmleh is the Perfumed Cherry,
a species indigenous to Austria and Hungary, and largely used as a
dwarfing stock for the common varieties. The wood is highly
perfumed, hence the common name, and much valued for cabinet
work. The fruit is small, black, asd shining, and so hard before it is
fully ripe that it is often pierced and used as a substitute for beads.
Cerasus emargt'nata is a very robust American species, that attains a
height of twenty to twenty-five feet. It bears abundantly small
I'oundish fruit that has a very bitter and astringent flavour. Possibly
this species if fairly tried, would be found to be a useful stock for
ordinary Cherries. Cerasus ilicifolia is the Evergreen or Holly-leaved
Cherry of California. It is a handsome small tree, with bright
shining dark-green foliage, and is worthy of attention for ornamental
purposes. The fruit is black or red, about half-an-inch in diameter,
having a pleasant sub- acid flavour, but somewhat astiingent, and the
kernel has a rich almond flavour. Cerasus serotina the Black Cherry
of North East America is a hardy species found mostly oil poor land
near the sea coast. It has pleasant vinous flavoured, but slightly
bitter fruit. Cerasus tomentosa a Chinese species yields an edible fruit
of fair quality. Both the English and the Portugal Laurels, though
differing materially in appearance and in other ways from our edible
Cherries, belong to the same family, the former being known as
Cerasus Icturo-cerasus and the latter as Cerasus lusitamc((. Several
species and varieties of the Cherry family in addition to those already
mentioned are used solely for ornamental purposes. The more
prominent of these are the Large Double-flowering Cheriy, a strong-
growing variety of Cerasus avium, which blooms profusely early in
the spring and produces large pure-white flowers an inch and a-half
in diameter. The Dwarf Double-flow^ering Cherry is a variety of
Cerasus vulgaris, very dwarf and compact in habit, with flowers
somewhat similar to the last mentioned kind but not quite so large.
The Weeping Cherry is a fruit-bearing variety of Cerasus vulgaris,
with slender weeping branches and myrtle-like foliage. The
Chinese Double-flowering Cherry is Cerasus sennilata This species
is rather dwarf in habit, and produces in abundance white flowers
slightly tinged with pink.

Uses.

The Cherry is a popular and excellent early summer dessert fruit,
and is also largely used for culinary and other purposes. As table
fruit the Heart and the Bigarreau sections possess the best qualities,
and are most generally cultivated. The Duke and Morello sections
are the best for culinary purposes and some other requirements.
Large quantities of Cherries are now preserved by canning, the
varieties best adapted for this purpose being those that are somewhat
tough in fibre and rather tart in flavour. The fleshy sorts make an

247

excellent preserve when halved, stoned, and dried, either by sun
power or by artificial heat. An excellent wine can be made from
Cherries, the Duke and Morello sections being most suitable for
the purpose. In Europe the fresh fruit, and more especially that of
the wild species, is used extensively for flavouring brandy. The
fa^'ourite liqueurs, Noyau, Ratafia, Kirschwasser, and Maraschino, are
either wholly or partially obtained from Cherries. Kirschwasser is
made by distilling the juice of the common Black Heart Cherry after
it has fermented, the stones being ground up and mixed wdth it.
Maraschino, which is chiefly made in Italy, is distilled from the juice
of Heart Cherries after it has slightly fermented, a portion of the
leaves and kernels, dried and powdered, being added with honey.
Ratafia and Noyaii are flavoured to a considerable extent by the
kernels of CherHes. Trees of all classes of edible Cherries yield
gum in large quantities, which is highly nutritious and almost
identical with gum arable. Medicinally the bark is used as a tonic
and astringent by the Scandinavian races, and liquoi* distilled from
the fruit of the wild Cherry Cerosus imum is said to be used with
advantage in cases of convulsions. Cerasiu Padus, the Bird Cherry,
yields a lage proportion of prussic acid from the leaves by distillation,
and a decoction of the fruit has proved useful in cases of dysentery.
The wood of the common Cherries is hard, tough, tine grained, and
takes a good polish, which makes it valuable to cabinetmakers and
turners. The wood of the Bird Cherry is beautifully veined, and
though not attaining a large growth it is highly prized for fancy
work by European cabinetmakers.

Cultivation

The Cherry thrives to the greatest perfection in a moderately cool
climate, but it may be grown successfully in all but very warm
regions. In the warmer districts, however, the trees are not likely to
prove so durable and profitable as when grown in a more congenial
climate. Any ordinary good soil is suitable to the Cherry, which will
readily adapt itself to various classes. The most favourable soil,
however, is a rich, deep, sandy or gravelly loam, with an open sub-
soil. In preparing the land for planting let it be thoroughly worked
and stirred to the depth of at least fifteen inches, and more especially
if the soil is heavy and retentive. In the case of light, open land,
with a free sub-soil, a deep ploughing may be a sufficient working, as
the roots will be able to find their way down without much assistance.
Perfect drainage is essential, as the trees will never do any good if
their roots stand in soddened ground for lengthened periods. If the
natural drainage is insufficient it should invariably be provided for
when the land is prepared for planting. Trees may be planted at
any time between the fall of the leaf and the starting of growth in
the spHng, but the most favourable time is from the beginning of
July to the middle of August, according to the locality. Strong,
straight-stemmed, young trees, with well-balanced heads, should be
selected, and these ought to be taken up with as little injury to their

248

roots as possible. Do not exjjose the roots foi* any length of time to a
drying atmosphere, and remove any that are broken or bruised. Care
must also be taken not to plant too deeply ; if tire upper roots are
just below the surface it will be sufficient. Trees when they attain
their full growth, require to stand not less than eighteen feet apart ;
but many growers pi'efer them worked on dwai-fing stocks, and plant
closer. The Cherry is not a long-lived tree like tlie Apple, Pear, or
Orange, and will seldom last in this part of the world more than
twenty yeai-s, even under the most favourable conditions.

The ground should be kept as clean as possible, as an undergrowth
of gTass and weeds is injurious, and more especially in the spring or
early summer, as it helps to exhaust the moisture in the soil. Clean
the gi'ound with the scarifier or hoe in pi-eferance to plouglftng or
digging deeply, as the less the roots are disturbed the better. Before
the hot weather sets in, it will be advisable to mulch the trees as far
as their roots extend. Keep the trees in good heart if necessaiy by
the use of manure, and do not let them become stunted or sickly
through lack of proper nourishment.

Pruning and Training.

The Cherry must be pruned with judgement, as it is somewhat
impatient of the knife. Young trees must have their bi'anches
reduced in number and shortened back when necessary, to promote a
strong woody growth and get the plants into the proper shape.
Matui-e trees require but little pruning as a rule — merely the removal
of rank and misplaced shoots and shortening the branches when
necessar}' — to preserve the compactness and symmetry of the trees.
The Cheiry produces its fruit on small spurs of two, three, or more
years' gTowth. The necessity for Avinter pruning may be obviated to
a large extent by nibbing olf superfluous shoots early in the summer.
Root pruning may be practised with advantage when trees are
making an over-luxuiiant gi-owth of wood and pi'oducing but little
fruit. Cherry ti-ees should invariably be trained with low heads,
as when grown in this way they suffer less fi-om strong winds,
afford a better shade for the stems, the fruit can be gathered with
the least trouble, and the work of pi-uning moi-e easily done.

GrATHERlNG AND PACKING.

Cherries must be gathered as soon as they are sufficiently ripe,
taking care to pick with the stalks attached, and not to injui-e the
buds,. The fruit should be picked when perfectly drj-, and "vvhen
not heated by the sun. Boxes holding about ten pomids are the
most suitable packages as regards size, and these when sent long-
distances to market, snould be arranged in crates that Avill hold
twelve. The fruit should be closely, evenly, and neatly packed in
the boxes, so that when opened it will show to the best advantage.
Too fi-equently Cheriies are merely thrown into the cases, to the

249

injury of the fruit, and causing it have a less attractive appearance
than would be the case with careful packing.

Propagation.

Propagation is eifected chiefly by budding, though grafting is
sometimes practised ; and trees may be raised fi'om layers, suckers,
and seeds. Seedlings, as a matter of course, are uncertain in
character, and are seldom raised except for stocks. Budding may
be done at any time when the bark of the current season's growth
will separate freely from the wood, but as a rule the most favourable
period is soon after mid-summer. Grafting can be done just before
growth starts in the spring, but it does not olfer such advantages
as budding. Stocks are often obtained from layers or suckers, but
these never make good trees, and therefore only seedlings should be
used. Seedlings of any strong variety may be used as stocks, but
those that have a tendency to throw up suckers freely should l)e
avoided. The stock most generally used in this pai't of the world
is the common Mazzard, which has given fair satisfaction. Cerasus
Padus, the Bird Cherry, is sometimes used as a stock, especially
for varieties belonging to the Duke class, for which it has proved
suitable. Morello and Mahaleb stocks are frequently used for
dwarfing trees, the last-mentioned kind being specially Avell adapted
for shallow or poor soils.

Varieties.

There are a great many varieties in cultivation, but a limited
selection will be sufficient for cultivators as a rule. The following
list embraces a large number of reputable varieties : —

Archduke. — A variety belonging to the Duke class, with large,
roundish, heart-shaped fruit, which ripens late in the season. Skin
thin, dark red to black. Flesh deep red, tender, juicy, sweet, and
briskly flavoured. Tree vigoi-ous and prolific.

Autumn Bigarreau {Belle Agcithe).- — This is a useful variety, raised
in Belgium, belonging to the Bigarreau section, Avith small, heart-
shaped fruit produced in clusters, especiall}-^ valuable as it comes to
matui'ity very late in the season and will hang on the trees for a long
time after it is ripe. Skin dark crimson, lightly mottled with
yellow. Flesh yellowish, firm, sweet, and well flavoured.

Belle de Choisy. — A French variety, belonging to the Duke class,
with large, round fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin pale
amber, mottled lightly with i-ed, very thin and transparent, showing
the flesh beneath. Flesh amber coloured, melting juicy, rich, sugary
with a slight sub-acid flavour. Tree hardy, vigorous, and a fairly
good bearer.

Belle d'Orleavs. — This is a very early variety, belonging to the
Guigne class with medium-sized, roundish fruit. Skin pale yellow,
tinged with red on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish white, very
juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Tree vigorous in habit, and
generally bears well.

250

Archduke.

Belle d' Orleans,

Autamn Bigarreau.

Belle de Choisy.

251

BiKarreau.

Belle Magnifique.

Bigarreau de Hildesheim

Biganeau de Holland.

252

Belle Magnijique. — A French variety belonging to the Morello
class, with large, roundish fruit, inclining to lieart-shape, which
ripens late in the season. Skin a uniform bright red when fully ripe.
Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, with a sprightly sub-acid flavour.
Tree hardy, vigorous, and very productive. Fruit excellent for
culinary purposes, and for dessert when fully ripe.

Bigarrean. — This fine old variety is the type of the Bigarreau
section. The fruit is very large, obtuse heart-shaped, and ripens at
mid-season. Skin pale yellow, waxy, spotted and marbled w itli red.
Flesh pale yellow, firm, rich, and highly flavoured. Tree vigorous,
spreading in habit, and a free bearer.

' Bigarreau <h Ilildeshei'm^ — A German variety, Avith medium-sized
heart-shaped fruit, which ripens late in the season. Skin pale
yellow, mottled with red next the sun. Flesh pale yellow, firm,
sweet, and luscious. An excellent late Cherry.

Bigarreau de Hollaiid {Spotted Bigarreau). — An excellent and
popular variety, with large, regular, heart-shaped fi'uit, inclining to
oblong, which ripens about mid-season. Skin pale amber yellow,
with a light red cheek, dotted and marbled with crimson. Flesh
yellowish white, firm, juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Largely
used in America for canning. Tree robust and productive.

Bigarreau (le .\fezel {Motist7'<ms Heart). — -A variety with very large,
obtuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin deep
shining red, approaching to black at maturity. Flesh high coloured,
firm, juicy, and well flavoured. Tree vigorous, wide- spreading and
a fi-ee beai^er. An excellent and profitable Cherry.

Bigarreau Napoleon. — Though marked in nurserymen's catalogues
as a distinct vaiiet}^, this is similar in every respect to Bigarrean de
Holland, and they appear to be identical.

Black Eagle. — An excellent old English variety, said to be a cross
between a Bigarreau and the Mayduke. The fruit is medium-sized,
heart-shaped, and ripens immediately after the Black Tartarian. Skin
deep purple to nearly black. Flesh deep purple, tender, very juicy,
and highly flavoured. Tree vigorous, with large foliage, and a good
bearer.

Black Hawk.- — An American variety of repute, belonging to the
Guigne class, with large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens
medium early. Skin purplish black. Flesh dark purple, moderately
firm, juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Tree robust, spreading, and
fairly prolific.

Black Heart. — An old English variet}-, belonging to the Guigne
section, with heart-shaped fruit, rather above the medium size, and
ripens medium early. Skin dark purple to black. Flesh purple,
tender, juicy, and sweet. Tree very robust, grows to a large size, and
bears freely.

Black Tartarian {Black Circassian, Black Russian). — This excellent
and well-known variety belongs to the Guigne class, is supposed to
have originated in Russia or some part of Western Asia, and was
introduced to England about a hundred years ago. Fruit large,
obtuse heart-shaped, and ripening medium early. Skin bright

258

Black Eagle.

Bigarreaii de Mezel.

Black Heart.

Black Hawk.

254

Cleveland Bigarreau.

Black Tartarian.

Downton.

Bohemian Black Bigarreau.

255

ptu'plisli black. Flesh purplish red, juicy, firm, and rich, with a
ismall stone. Tree reniai-kably hardy and i-obust. eiect in habit, with
large foliage, and beai/s freely.

Bohemian Black Bigarreau. — -A German variety with very large,
roundish heart-shaped fruit, which ripens early. Skin black and
shining. Flesh very dai-k, firm, juicy, and richly flavohired. Tree
vigorous, hardy, and moderately productive. This is an excellent

Cherry, and one of the earliest of the Bigarreau section. _

^Cleveland Bigarreau. — An excellent American variety, with large
obtuse heart-sliaped fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin pale
yellow, with a deep red cheek. Flesh yellowish white, moderately
firm, very juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Tree very thrifty and
productive.

Downton. — An old and reputable English variety, belonging to the
Bigarreau class, with large, roundish heart-shaped fruit, which
ripens a little after mid-season. Skin semi-transparent, pale yellow,
stained with red dots and marbled with red on the sunny side. Flesh
yellowish, tender, richly flavoured, and slightly adhering to the stone.
Tree robust with a spreading head, and moderately productive.

Early Black Bigarreau. — A fine early variety, with large, distinctly
heart-shaped fi-uit. Skin deep black. Flesh dark purple, firm, sweet
and richly flavoured. Ti-ee strong,* and bears modei*ately well.

Early P^irple Guigne {Early Purple Griotte, German Maydiike). — An
excellent vai'iety, of doubtful origin, and the earliest dark Cherry in
cultivation. Fruit medium size, roundish heart-shape. Skin very
dark purple black. Flesh purple, tender, juicy, with a rich, SAveet
flavour. Ti'ee hai-dy, sti'ong*, spreading, and a good bearer. One of
the best earl}' black Cherries.

Early Lyon.s. — This is an excellent early black Cherry of the Guigne
class, which idpens immediately after the Early Purple Guigne.
Fruit large, obtuse heart-shaped. Skin very deep purple. Flesh
stained with red, tender, juicy, sweet, and rich. Tree thrifty and
pi'olific.

Early lied Bi arreau.— An excellent early Bigarreau, which ripens
some days before others of its class. Fruit large, and decidedly heart
shaped. Skin bright red, and transparent. Flesh yellowish white,
very firm, sweet, and richly flavoured. Tree robust, spreading, and
bears freely.

Early Rivers. — A variety belonging to the Guigne class, which
ripens very early, and bears medium-sized, heart shaped fruit. Skin
pirrple black. Flesh purple, tender, juicy, and sweet. Tree hardy
and prolific.

Elton.— An old and popular English variety, belonging to the
Bigarreau section. Fruit large, heart-shaped, rather pointed, and
ripens at ]nid-season. Skin thin, pale yellow, tinged and mottled wdth
red on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish white, moderately firm, juicy,
sweet, wdth a very luscious flavour. Tree vigorous, and bears freely.

Empress Eugenia. — ^A variety belonging to the Duke class, with
large roundish fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin deep bright

256

Early Black Bigarreau.

Early Purple Guigne.

Early Lyons.

Early Bed Bigarreaii.

257

Empress EageniM.

Florence.

258

red to pnrple. Flesh reddish, very firm, juicy, sweet, and richly
flavoured. Tree compact, rather dwarf in habit, and prolific,

Florence {Knevett's Late Bigarreau). — An excellent and popular
late Cherry, belonging to the Bigarreau class, and said to have been
originally taken fi-oni Florence, in Italy, to England, hence its name.
Fruit large, roundish heart-shape, and ripens late in the season. Skin
pale amber, flushed and mottled with bright red. Flesh pale amber,
firm, very juicy, and highly flavoured, the stones being rather small.
Tree robust, and a free bearer after a few years' growth. This is
one of the best late varieties, as it is popular, carries well to market,
and has the additional good quality of hanging some time after it is
ripe.

Frogmore Early Bigarreau. — A very early English Cherry, with
large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit. Skin pale waxen yellow, suffused
with deep red. Flesh pale amber, very tender, melting, juicy, and
pleasantly flavoured. Tree an abundant bearer, and strong in habit.

Gascoignes Heart (^Bleeding Heart, Herefordshire Hearty Red Heart).
— ^A very old English variety of the Guigne class, with medium-sized,
heart-shaped fruit, which ripens at mid-season JSkin deep bright red.
Flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, and moderately well flavoured.
Tree strong in habit, but often a shy bearer.

Governor Wood. — An excellent American variety, belonging to the
Bigarreau class, with large, roundish heart-shaped fruit, which ripens at
mid-season. Skin pale yellow, marked and mottled with bright red.
Flesh shghtly firm, juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Tree vigorous and
very productive.

Heart oj Midlothian. — A- variety belonging to the Guigne class, with
large, heart-shaped fruit, which ripens early. Skin nearly black. Flesh
purple, juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. , Tree prolific and hardy,

Jeffrey's Duke {Cherry Dulce^ Jeffrey s Royal). — A variety belonging to
the Duke class, with medium-sized fruit, produced in thick clusters, and
ripening at mid-season. Skin deep red to black. Flesh rather firm, very
sweet, juicy, and well flavoured. Tree compact in habit, and bears freely,

Kentish (Common Red, Pie Cherry). — This is one of the oldest of
English Cherries, and one of the best for preserving. It belongs to the
JVJorello class, and bears medium-sized roundish fruit, which ripens about
mid-season, and will hang on the trees for some time. Skin at first pale
red, becoming darker as the fruit matures. Flesh tender and juicy with
a brisk, acid flavour, which is lessened as the fruit ripens. The fruit
increases materially in size after it begins to colour. This kind is also
remarkable for the tenacity with which the stone adheres to the stalk,
and advantage is taken of this pecuUarity to draw them out when the
fruit is preserved. Tree vigorous, spreading in habit, matures early, and
is very productive.

Late Bigarreau. — A fine variety, with large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit,
which ripens about the same time as Florence. Skin deep yellow,
suffused with bright red. Flesh yellowish, very firm, sweet, and highly
flavoured. Tree strong, and very productive.

Lake Duke. — This is one of the best varieties of the Duke class. Fruit

259

Frogmore Early Bigarreau.

Gascoigne'8 Heart.

Governor Wood

He-irt of Midlothian.

260

Kentish,

Jeffrey's Duke.

Late Bigarreau.

Lake Duke

261

large, obtuse lieart-shaped, ripens late and gradually, and hangs well
after it lias matured. Skin dark red when fully ripe. Flesh tender,
juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Tree vigorous for its class, and
bears fairly well. An excellent Cherrj' for culinary purposes.

Mail Bul-e {Earhi Duke). — A very old and popular English Cherry,
and the type of the class known as Dukes. Fruit large, roundish
flattened at both ends, produced in thick clusters, and ripening early in
the season. Skin bright red, changing to a darker tint as it matures.
Flesh reddish, tender, juicy, and pleasantly flavoured when thoroughly
ripe. Tree robust, upright, and bears freely. An excellent Cherry for
preserving and culinary purposes.

Morello {Milan). — This is an old and well-known Cheny, and the type
of the section known as Morellos. Fruit large, roundish, and ripening
late in the season. Skin dark red to nearly black when fully ripe.
Flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour.
1 ree hardy and prolific. One of the best Cherries for culinary purposes,
and it will hang on the trees a long while after it is ripe.

Ohio Beaut fi. — An American variety of repute, belonging to the Guigne
section, with large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit, ripening early. Skin pale
yellow, suffused with red. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, and
brisk flavoured. Tree vigorous, sj)reading in habit, and productive.

0.>- Heart {}hdlock\s Heart, Lions Heart). — A variety belonging to the
Guigne class, with large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens at mid
season. Skin dark purplish red. Flesh reddish, somewhat firm, with a
brisk flavour. Tree robust, and a fairly good bearer

liival. — An English variety, belonging to the Bigarreau class, with
small, obtuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens verj' late in the season.
Skin pur[)lish black. Flesh firm, sweet, and well flavoured. Tree
vigorous, and very productive- Valuable for its latenness and the length
of time the fruit will hang after it is ripe.

Rocl'port Bigarreau. — A fine American variety, with large, roundish
heart-shaped fruit, which ripens early in the season. Skin pale amber,
heavily suft'used with bright red and mottled with carmine. Flesh
yellowisli-w])ite, firm, juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Much used for
canning in America. Tree strong, upright in habit, and a good bearer, f

St. Margare/s [EWiorn, Large Black Bigarreau, Tradescant' s Heart).
— This is a popular and valuable late Cherry belonging to the Bigarreau
class, with very large, obtuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens towards
the end of the season. Skin deep purple to black. Flesh dark purple,
firm, adhering to the stone, sweet, and pleasantly sub-acid. Tree of
vigorous habit, and a good bearer.

Ihvuford Jiigarreau. — A Victorian variety of great merit, raised by the
late Mr. T. C. Cole, and very popular with many growers. Fruit large,
obtuse heart-shaped and ripens medium early. Skin deep bright red.
Flesh firm, juicy, and highly flavoured. Tree rt)bust and prolific.

Waterloo. — An English variety, belonging t;) the Guigne class, with
large, ol)tuse heart-shaped fruit, which ripens medium early. Skin daak
purple to black. Flesh reddish purple, tendei', juicy, and highly flavoured.
Tiee fairly vigorous, and a moderate bearer.

262

May Duke,

Ohio Beauty.

Morello,

263

Rival,

Rcckport Bigarrer

Wcrder's Early Black.

Waterloo.

Werder's Early Black. — A German variety, belonging to tlie Guigne
class, with large, obtuse heart -shaped fruit, which ripens imniediateJy
after Earhj Purple Guigne. Skin tough, shining, deep purple to black.
Flesh purplish red, tender, juicy, sweet, and luscious. Tree vigorous.,
spreading in liabit, and a good bearer.

2(34

CHESTNUT.

History.

The Chestnut is a handsome deciduous, tree l3elonging to the natural
order Amentaceae (CorylacetJe of some botanists). Botanically it is known
as Gastanea vesca, the gene^c name being taken from a town in Thessaly,
where at one time the trees were very numerous. Formerly this tree was
generally known as Fag us castanea, a name still used by some writers
The ("Chestnut is supposed to be a native of Asia Minor, where it is to be
generally met with. It is said to have been first taken to Europe by the
Greeks at a very early period, and soon after its culture was taken up by
the Romans. According to history, the Chestnut was very popular among
the nations of antiquity, and the nuts were extensively used. Pliny
informs us that in his time eight varieties were cultivated, and that the
nuts, when ground into meal, furnished bread in large quantities for the
poorest class of the Roman population. The nuts were not only considered
to be very nutritious, this writer further informs us, but their use was also
recommended to persons who were in the habit of spitting blood.

The chestnut is supposed to have been introduced to England at the
time of the Roman invasion, but this is somewhat uncertain. That it has
been long established in that country is, however, beyond doubt, as there
are many trees recorded as having attained a great size and age. Ireland
has also produced some notable specimens, and in Sc^otland some very
large trees have existed. Formerly in the United Kingdom the Chestnut
appears to have been more generally used and popular than it is now.
As a material for bread the fruit was at one time used in considerable
quantities. It was also generally used for thickening soups, as a stuffing
for turkeys, and when stewed in cream it was a fiivourite dish. In the
south of Europe, and more especially in Spain, the Chestnut is very
widely cultivated, and generally used. In France and Italy the fruit is
extensively used as food by the poorer classes. A very curious custom is
said to have been formerly followed in some parts of Spain on All Souls'
Day, when people would go from house to house t<i eat Chestnuts with
their neighbours. Their reason for this practise was that they believed
that every Chestnut eaten in this way would deliver a soul from purgatory.

The origin of the common name Chestnut is not known for a certainty.
According to some authorities it originated through the nut being
enclosed in a covering or chest. Others, however, consider that the
name was given through the nut at one time having been regarded as a
specific for chest diseases. The latter supposition is probably the most
correct one, seeing that ancient nations attributed virtues to the nuts for
pulmonary complaints. By many writers it is spelt Chesnut instead of
Chestnut, and very good authorities favour this mode. The tree is often
called the Sweet Chestnut to distinguish it from the Horse Chestnut,
which belongs to quite a different family. It is also commonly known as
the Spanish Chestnut, because it is extensively cultivated in Spain.

Under favourable conditions in Europe the Chestnut attains a great
age and size. It is recorded that in Gloucestershire, England, a tree,
supposed to be 1100 years old, measured fifty-two feet round the trunk.

265

A tree at Hitclieii in Hertfordshire, is said to have had a circumferance of
forty-two feet, five feet from the ground ; and another at Great Crawford
Park, Dorsetshire, measured thirty-seven feet round, J3ut the most note-
worthy specimen as regards size and age grew in Italy, and was known
as the Chestnut of Mount Etna. This remarkable tree is by far the
largest on record, as, according to report, its trunk was over 200 feet in
circumference. A common name for this tree was the Chestnut of the
Hundred Horses, from the tradition that Jean of Arragon, attended by a
hundred cavaliers, took shelter under its immense branches during a-
heavy tiiunderstorm. It may be interesting to some to learn tJiat the
town of Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, England, is supposed to have obtained
its name through the large number of Chestnut trees that formerly grew
in the locality.

' Uses.

The fruit of the Chestnut is farinaceous to a very large extent and less
oily than any other uut. In its raw state it is very indigestible, and when
used it is generally roasted and eaten with salt. The demand for the
nuts in this part of the world will probably always be limited, as, though
they are largely used in France, Spain, and in other parts of Europe as a
bread material when mixed with flour or meal, the people of Australasia
are not likely to adopt the same practise. As a timber or shade tree the
Chestnut is worthy of being generally cultivated. The wood is light,
cross-grained, durable, and will stand well in ^vater or under ground. It
contains but comparatively little sap w^ood, and consequently yields a
greater proportion of hard timber than the oak and many other trees.
Many well authenticated instances are recorded in Europe of the durability
of Chestnut timber. In one instance a post, upon which a gate had
swung for fifty-two years, was taken up and found to be nearly as sound
as when placed in the ground. In another case a barn constructed of
■Chestnut wood was thirty nine years afterwards found to be sound in
every part. Formerly in England Chestnut wood mixed with oak was
extensively used in the construction of buildings and in making furniture.
It was also utilized to a large extent in making wine and beer casks.
The bark of the Chestnut is astringent and is sometimes used by
tanners and dyers. The Chestnut makes an excellent shade tree, and is
well adaptf^d for street planting in some districts. It has been used very
successfully for this purpose in the town of Heathcote, Victoria, whose
main street is adorned with some noble specimens.

Cultivation.

The Chestnut may be grown successfully is many parts of Australasia,
and seems to be perfectly at home in either the cool or medium warm
districts. It will grow in any ordinary good soil, but thrives to
perfection in a deep sandy loam, with a moderately dry subsoil.
Calcarous soils are those that are the least suitable for the purpose.
The land should be worked deeply, if it is heavy more especially, as
the trees require freedom for their roots. In light, open soils the
necessity for deep culture is not so great, but it is better to work the
ground well. Drainage must be provided for when necessary, as the

266

trees will not stand tlieir roots being in saturated ground for any length
of time. In selecting young trees choose those with clean, straight
stems and a fair proportion of roots. Under favourable conditif)ns the
trees will attain a large size in time, and they consequently require
plenty of room for their developement. From thirty to thirty-five feet
apart will not be too great a distance for Chestnut trees. As a matter
of course, many years will pass before the trees will require all the space,
and in the meantime it may be utilized for Peaches and other com-
paratively short-lived trees or cultivated for vegetable crops. But little
attention in the way of pruning is required by the Chestnut, except in
the case of young trees, which must have their growth regulated so as
to get large and symmetrical specimens in as short a time as possible.
In the case of mature trees all that is necessary is the removal of rank or
misplaced shoots, slightly thinning the branches when too numerous, and
shortening back growth that is straggling. Sometimes trees will have a
tendency to over luxuriance and yield but little fruit, when root pruning
may prove beneficial. This operation should be performed in the winter,
before active growth commences. The fruit is borne upon the wood of
the previous season, and is generally allowed to fall from the tree when
fully ripe. If the nuts are required to be kept for any length of time
they will retain their freshness for a considerable period if packed in dry
sand or soil.

Clean cultivation is quite as necessary for the Chestnut as for any
other fruit tree. An undergrowth of herbage is particularly injurious
during the early summer months. Light and frequent stirrings with
the scarifier or hoe are better for keeping down weeds than deep
ploughing or digging. The less the roots are disturbed by the cultivating
implements the better. Before the hot weather sets in the trees should
be mulched to the depth of four or five inches as far as their roots extend.
Old trees must be kept in good condition, by the use of manure
occasionally if necessary. As to when manure is required, the cultivator
must necessarily judge for himself from the appearance of his trees.

Pkopagation,

Propagation is eflected by seeds, cuttings, layering, grafting and
budding. Plants are easily raised from seeds, which should be sown late
in the winter or early in the spring and covered to the depth of about
three inches. The following season the young trees should be planted
out in rows about thirty inches apart, leaving a foot of space between in
the lines. In another year the young trees will be ready for planting
out permanently. Cuttings strike freely, and may be put in at any
time between the fall of the leaf and early spring. Plants are readily
obtained from layers, which should be put down at the same period as
recommended for cuttings. Grafting is generally practised, as it brings
trees into bearing earlier than those raised from seed. The operation
should be performed just before the sap commences to rise, and the scions
must be taken from well ripened wood. Budding is sometimes practised
for the same reason as grafting. It should be performed in the summer,
when the bark will rise freely upon the wood ; and mature, plmnp, and
well-formed buds should invariably be used.

267

Varikties.

Tlie Cliestiiut is limited to a few cultivated varieties, of which the
most popular are as follows : —

Banlcs' Prolific. — A verj^ free-bearing variety, and nuts of good size.

Devonshire {N'eiv Prolific). — This variety is generally a free bearer, has
fair sized nuts, and ripens a little earlier than other sorts. Tree vigorous.

Downton (Knir/hfs Prolific). — An old and reputable variety, which is
distinguished by shorter spines on the husks than the Devonshire. Tree
strong in growth, and a fairly good bearer.

Mammoth. — A newly introduced variety, with very large nuts, and
said to be strong in growth and prolific.

CHILIAN HAZEL.

This is a beautiful evergreen tree known botanically as Guevina
avellana, belonging to the natural order Proteacese. It is a native of
Chili and other parts of South America, and attains a height of thirty or
forty feet The foliage is bright green, and the snowy-white flowers
which grow in spikes, are produced simultaneously with the ripening of
the fruit of the previous season. When grown for ornamental purposes,
the contrast between the flowers, foliage, and coral red fruit is very
eff'ective. The nuts are known in Chili under the name of Avellano.
They are about the size of large Hazel Nuts and have a very pleasant
flavour. The wood is tough and elastic, and is said to be useful for
many purposes, and more particularly boat building. The Chilian Hazel
may be grown with success in the Southern Colonies of Australia, as also
in Tasmania and New Zealand. It is a very desirable ornamental tree,
independent of the value of its fruit which is produced freely. Any
fairly good soil is suitable, but a well drained sandy loam is most
favourable. Propagation is effected by seeds, layers, and ripened cuttings
of the current season's growth, which strike readily in sand or light soil.

CHINESE OLIVE.

This name is applied to the fruit of Canarium commune, a shrub
belonging to the natural order Burseraceae. It is indigenous to Java and
the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The fruit is a three-sided drupe the
size of a small Plum, which contains a large proportion of oil that is of
commercial value. From the stem a gum is obtained which
contains a considerable quantity of a stimulant volatile oil utilised for
various purposes. The Chinese Olive can only be grown successfully in
moist tropical regions, but as an oil yielding plant is not so valuable as
many others. Propagation may be readily effected by seeds, layers, and
cuttings of the ripened shoots of the current season's growth.

CHINESE RAISIN.

The plant known under this name is Hovenia dulcis. a small tree from
Japan, belonging to the order Rhamnaceae or the Buckthorn family. It

R

268

grows to the height of from fifteen to twenty feet, and though classed as
an evergreen is not absolutely one. The fruit is of no value, but the
fleshy flower stalks are edible, and have, when fresh, a sweet and some-
what luscious flavoar. When dried, these stalks taste somewhat like
raisins, hence the common name. The Chinese Raisin may be grown
with success in the semi-tropical parts of Australia, and in other regions
where the winters are mild and frosts not troublesome. It will adapt
itself to any ordinary good soil, and requires but little care after it has
become fairly established, In congenial climates, this tree makes a good
ornamental plant, and may be used with advantage for that purpose.
Plants may be obtained from layers which should be put down in the
spring, or cuttings of the ripened wood, which strike readily in sand
under a glass.

CHOCO.

History and Uses.

This is the native name for a perennial trailing plant belonging to the
order Cucurbitacese, or the Cucumber family, which is indigenous to
Central America. It is also known as Chayota, and Portuguese Squash.
Botanically it is known as Sechium edule. In growth it is similar to the
Vegetable Marrow, bears a yellow flower, and fruit in appearance some-
what like a Quince, but much larger. The plant is very prolific, and one
will yield over one hundred fruits in a season. The fruit has but a
single seed, which often germinates before the former has fully matured.
The fruit is turned to account for both man and beast, but the plant is
cultivated chiefly for its large fleshy roots which often weigh over twenty
pounds. They contain a large proportion of starch, and have a flavour
somewhat similar to the Chestnut, These roots are used extensively by
the negroes in the West Indies, also as food for stock, and more especially
to fatten hogs.

CULTIVATON AND PROPAGATION.

The Choco can only be cultivated successfully in the warmer parts of
Australia, but it is well worthy of attention in congenial localities, as a
valuable economical plant for stock. Like other plants of the Cucumber
family it requires a rich soil, as strong and rapid growth is essential. As
regards planting, and after cultivation, the treatment in every respect is
required as for the Vegetable Marrow. In localities where there are slight
frosts the stems will die back, but they will shoot from the roots again.
Propagation is most usually efl"ected by seeds or young plants that have
stai ted in the fruits, but cuttings of the current season's growth will
strike in sand under a glass or in a frame.

CHUPA.

Chupa is the native name of the fruit of Matisia cordatay an evergreen

269

tree indigenous to Peru aud other parts of South America, belonging to
the order Sterculiacese. It is a handsome tree, attaining a height of fifty
or sixty feet, with broad cordate leaves and Mallow-like flowers borne
upon the trunks and branches. The fruit is oval in shape, four or five
inches in length, and from two and a half to three in diameter. It
contains five cells, each one enclosing an angular seed about an inch in
length. The fruit is highly appreciated in its native countries, where_
it is generally used. Its flesh has a flavour somewhat similar to an
Apricot, but has a rather stringy fibre. The Chupa may be cultivated
successfully in either of the Australian Colonies, as also in New Zealand.
As it is a handsome evergreen tree it may be used with advantage for
ornamental purposes, independant of any value possessed by its fruit. It
may be grown successfully in any average good soil, and should be treated
as an ordinary evergreen tree. Propagation may be effected by seeds,
which should be planted three inclies deep, or ripened cuttings of the
current season's growth, which will strike in sand or light soil.

COCOA NUT.

History and Uses

This is a well-known fruit that is extensively cultivated in the coast
regions of tropical countries, and it is generally admitted to be one of the
most useful plants grown for the service of mankind. There is a saying
that it has as many uses as there are days in the year. This plant
supplies food and drink with its fruit, the shells are converted into
domestic utensils, the stems and leaves afford materials for building and
thatching houses, the fibres are used for cordage and other purposes,
while the juice from the stems yield sugar, wine, and spirits. The Cocoa
Nut is a Palm known botanically as Cocos nucifera. It is supposed to
be a native of the South East coast of Asia, but is now found growing
naturally in regions not far from the sea in India, tropical Africa, and
numerous islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The Cocoa Nut
Palm attains a height of from fifty to a hundred feet, and when growing
under favourable conditions will live from eighty to a hundred years or
more. There are no branches and the flowers are produced at the top of
the trunk. The nuts are produced in bunches of from ten to twenty or
more. They are about a foot in length, triangular in shape, and covered
with a thick coating of fibre which encloses the familiar hard shelled nut.
While the nut is green it is filled with a sweetish refreshing liquor,
but as it ripens, a formation of albumen takes place upon the inner side
of the shell, producing that white, firm, pleasant flavoured, but very
indigestible substance, which is known as the kernel. The Cocoa Nut
is very nutritious owing to the large proportion of fixed oil that it
contains. This large per centage of oil however is the cause of the nuts
being so indigestible. The dried kernels are exported from many of the
South Sea Islands, under the name of Copra, for the sake of the oil,

270

which is extracted by pressure. The oil when purified, is largely used in
cookery, and for other purposes. The coarser or thicker part of the oil
is utilised in the manufacture of stearine candles. In the process of
purifying, glycerine is obtained in quantity. The fibrous covering of
the nut, known as Coir, is extensively used for making mats and various
other purposes. From the sap of the Cocoa Nut Palm a liquor is
obtained which yields by evaporation a large proportion of sugar, which
n India is called Jagery. When fermented this liquor passes under the
name of Toddy^ and by distillation the spirit known as Arrack is obtained.
The juice is obtained by boring holes in the stems and collecting the
material in jars. When plants are used for this purpose, they are not
allowed as a rule, to bear fruit. The stems of the Cocoa Nut Palm are
tough and durable, and yield what is known as Porcupine Wood.

Cl'ltivation ani> Pjfui'A (.nation.

The Cocoa Nut Palm can only be grown with success in the tropical
coast regions of Australia and the South Sea Islands* It delights in a
rich open sandy loamy soil near to t)ie sea shore. The plants should
stand about twenty feet apart, taking care not to place them too deep
in the ground. In rich soil the plants Avill come into bearing in five or
six years from the time they are planted, but in poorer land develop-
ment will be slower, and eight or ten years may pass before fruit is
produced. i^fter the plants commence to bear the}^ yield crops with
great regularity, and seldom fail. They are also very prolific, and
mature trees yield a large number of nuts. Propagation is invariably
effected by seeds, and the nuts should be i»lanted about six inches deep.
They are commonly planted where the nuts are to remain, but a surer
method is to raise them in a nursery, and transplant when they are
large enough. A good way of raising plants is, get some large bamboo
stems, cut them in pieces about nine inches in length, place the nuts in
them and plant. By adopting this plan the pieces of Bamboo will
serve as pots, and the young Palms can be lifted and planted out
without their roots being materially disturbed.

DOUBLE COCOA NUT.

This is quite distinct from the ordinary Cocoa Nut, being produced
by Lodoicea sechellarum, a handsome Palm indigenous to the small group
of islands known as the Sechelles. This is considered to be the largest
and most remarkable of all Palms as it often attains a heiglit of more
than a hundred feet, the stem being from eighteen inches to two feet in
diameter, and the summit crowned with very large fan shaped leaves.
The fruit is very large, oblong, and covered with a thin skin or rind.
This covering encloses two vary large oblong nuts firmly united together,
the pair generally weighing from thirty to forty pounds. The fruit is
produced in bunches of from eight to ten. As the nuts hang for a long

271

while and take several years to ripen, they are not much used as food,
though edible. The large shells are however used by the Sechelle islanders
for making various useful domestic articles, and the wood and leaves are
turned to account in the erection of dwellings, and for other purposes.
The Double Cocoa Nut may be grown under the same conditions as
Cocos nucifera, and requires similar treatment as regards cultivation and
propagation.

COCOA PLUM.

This name is applied to the fruit of Chrf/sohalatius Icaco^ an evergreen
shrub or small tree indigenous to the West Indies. The genus is the
type of the order Chrysobalanaccfe, which formerly was classed as a sub-
order of RosacefB. The flowers are white, and the small pulpy Plum-like
fruit is palatable and largely used in its native regions. Being a native
of tropical countries, the Cocoa Plum can only be cultivated successfully
in the warmer regions of Australia, where it may be utilised as an
ornamental plant, as also for its fruit which makes an excellent preserve.
Any ordinary good soil is favourable, but the plant thrives in a sandy
loam. Propagation is easily effected by seeds, which should be planted
about three inches deep, layers, or cuttings of the ripened shoots.

CORNEL.

History and Uses.

The Cornel i« a deciduous small tree indigenous to the North of
Europe and Asia, known to botanists as Conius mascula, and the type
of the order Cornaceae or the Dogwood family. The fruit is also known
as the Cornelian Cherry and Cornel Plum. The generic name comes
from Comic a horn, from the hardness and durability of the wood. The
specific name mascula, or mas as it is is often called, owes its origin to
the singular circumstance that trees from seed invariably bear only
staminate or male flowers for years. Afterwards they bear flowers of
both- sexes, and fruit. The common family name Dogwood is said to
have originated through the wild tree being formerly in England called
Dogberry Tree and Hounds Tree. The flowers are small, yellow,
arranged in clusters, and make their appearance before the leaves. The
fruit is oval, about an inch in length, and in colour a reddish scarlet.
There is also a variety with yellow fruit. In flavour the fruit is acid
and austere, but it makes a very good preserve. Formerly, when better
fruits were less plentiful than they are now, the Cornel was more generally
used in Europe. Jt was formerly commonly mixed with Apples and
Pears in making cider or periy. The wood of the Cornel is very hard
and durable and was formerly in great rei^ute for making arrows and
javelins. Cornel trees when growing under favourable conditions will

'11')

attain a great age, and instances are on record of specimens o^e two
hniidied years old.

Cornel

C C LTIVATIO X A^ D Pi J 0 1 ' AG ATIOX .

The Cornel may be cultivated successfully in the cooler regions of
Australia, as also in Tasmania and New Zealand. It is however,
scarcely worth cultivating for its fruit which is vastly inferior to many
other kinds. As an ornamental j^lant it is worthy of a place in a
garden or shrubbery, as its bright coloured fruit which hangs on the trees
for a long jDeriod, has a pleasing effect. The tree is very hardy, will
adapt itself to any soil or situation, and requites but little care. Propa-
gation may be effected by seeds, layers, cuttings, budding and grafting.
Seeds produce the most vigorous trees, but for the reason already named
they take a long time to fruit. As stocks for grafting or budding,
seedlings are very serviceable. The seed should be planted two inches
deep in the autumn. Layering is the most general means of propagation,
and branches put down in the spring will yield strong plants the
following season. Cuttings as a rule strike slowly and should be taken

273

from the last season's shoots. Grafting should be done in the spring
when the sap is beginning to move and budding after mid-summer, as
soon as the wood has matured sufficiently for the bark to rise freely.

CRANBERRY.

History axd Uses.

Cranberries are Alpine fruits indigenous to the northern regions of
Europe, Asia, and America, where they are found growing in peat bogs or
other situations where there is permanent moisture. There are several
kinds, which are obtained from various species of Vaccinium, a family
that is the type of the natural order Vaccinacea?. The botanic name
comes from the Latin language, but to what plant it was originally
applied is doubtful. Formerly the family was known under the name of
Oxycoccus, which is at the present more generally used than Vaccinium.
This word comes from '^ Ox its'" (sharp) and '^kokkos'' (a berry), in
allusion to the sharp acid flavour of the fruit, and is a very suitable name.
The English name is supposed to have oiiginated from the appearance
of the flower bud just before it expands, which has a fancied resemblance
to the head of a crane, hence the term " Craneberry " or " Oanberry."
The British Cranberry is obtained from Vaecinimn OxyroccuH' {Oxi/coccus
2)alustns), a trailing, evergreen shrub, growing naturally in many parts of
Europe, Middle and Northern Asia, and also found in North America.
It bears in abundance scarlet berries like Currants, which are used to
some extent in tarts, or preserved, and are considered to be wholesome
and cooling to the blood. The American Cranberry is the product of
Vaccinium macrocarpon {Oxi/coccns macrocarpus) , a trailing, evergreen
bush growing about three feet high, and bearing in large quantities
bright scarlet berries. The fruit is much larger than the British
Cranberry, and movQ valuable for cultivation. Enormous quantities are
obtained from natural and artificial jilantations in the eastern United
States and Canada where the fruit is highly prized and generally used.
Besides the demand for home consumption there is also an extensive
trade in Cranberries between America and Europe. Vaccinium Vitis
liloea (a dwarf, evergreen, shrubby species) also yields a Cranberry,
bearing purplish-red fruit, which is utilized to a large extent. This
species is widely distributed, being found in l^^urope, Northern aiid
Middle Asia and North America. Possibly other species of Vaccinium
might be worth cultivating as Cranberries, and investigations in this
direction are desirable. Some Species yield useful fruits known by other
names— such as the ]3ilberry, or Whortleberry of the United Kingdom,
and the Blueberry, or Huckleberry, of America.

Cranberries are utilized in a variety of waj s. In the first place they
ai-e largely used in a fresh state for tarts and puddings, and are considered
to be very wholesome when eaten in this way. They are also largely
used to accompany pork and other luscious meats, as their acidity
counteracts the richness of these materials. Cranberries make a palatable

274

BeU

275

sauce that is generally relished. It is made by dissolving one pound of
loaf sugar in a pint of watei*, bring to a Vioil, and pour the liquid over a
quart of fruit. Boil foj* a quarter of an hour and cool slowly. Cranberries
are a serviceable fruit when canned or bottled. The fruit should be stewed
for about a quarter of an hour, place while hot in the cans or bottles, and
make air-tight. Cranberry jelly is made by adding water to the berries
in the proportion of half-a-pint of the former to a quart of fruit, and stew
slowly till they are soft. Then mash the berries, strain the juice through^
a jelly bag, and to each pint add one pound of pulverised white sugar,
sugar. Boil slowly till the jelly forms, taking care to skim the surface
from time to time to remove impurities.

OuJiTIVATION

Though the Cranberry has received but little or no attention in the
Australasian Colonies, there is no reason why it should not be profitably
cultivated in some localities. It would thrive in the cool moist mountain
regions of New South Wales and Victoria, and is suitable for many
localities in Tasmania and New Zealand. In its native regions the
Cranberry is found growing in wet peaty swamps, but it may be grown
in open sandy loam that can be kept moderately moist. This plant
however, is somewhat peculiar in its requirements and will only thrive in
a loose soil that will not pack. The Cranberry flourishes to the greatest
perfection in equal proportions of well decayed vegetable matter and
coarse sand. But though the Cranberry requires a soil that will be
always moist, yet it does not like stagnant water, and consequently in
preparing the ground due provision must be made for drainage. The
command of a running stream of water will be a great advantage in
cultivating this fruit. In preparing for a plantation the first thing to be
done is to cut drains sufficiently large, deep, and numerous to carry off
quickly any excess of water. The ground, as a rule, should be worked
deeply. It is customary with American growers in preparing swamp
land, to cover the surface with a layer of sand which serves a twofold
purpose, as it improves the soil and gives a clean surface for the plants.
These layers of sand vary in thickness from three to six inches, according
to the nature of the under soih Planting may be done at any time
between the autumn and early spring, the most usual method being to
plant in rows three or four feet apart. The plants should stand about
eighteen inches apart in the lines, and ought to be put in with a
horizontal inclination, each row sloping the same way, so as to facilitate
the rooting of the stems. A plantation of Cranberries when growing
under favourable conditions, will last for many years. If the plants
show signs of failing vigour, a winter top dressing of vegetable mould,
wood ashes, or thoroughly decayed manure will be serviceable. A
Cranberry plantation will begin to yield a full return in three years, by
which time the plants will have covered the surface of the ground. The
plants are very prolific and yield large and profitable crops. In America
a hundred bushels per acre is considered to be only a fair ordinary yield.
Returns of three and four hundred bushels per acre are not uncommon,

276

Showing the proper wny to Plant.

^^ ^^ ""^^ j>^ ^^^

Usual way of arranging the rows.

Yarikties.

Cherrv.

and according to J. J. Wliite an American writer upon Cranberry culture,
in one instance a return of nine hundred aud seventy bushels per acre
was obtained. Formerly it was customary in America to gather the
crops with implements called Cranberry rakes, but it has since been

277

found more profitable to revert to picking. The work of picking is, in
America, done principally by women and children, at a cost of about two
shillings per bushel.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by seeds, cuttings, or the rooted plants
from the trailing stems. Seeds germinate freely if sown in beds as soon
as they are ripe, but this mode of increase is slow, and therefore not to
be commended. Cuttings root freely, and even small pieces of the stems
that have passed through a chaffcutter, set wide, will grow. This method
is commonly practised by American growers. If, however, rooted plants
can be obtained readily ; as will always be the case where there are
established plantations, they will be better than cuttings.

Varieties

There are several varieties cultivated by American growers which
differ in the size, shape and colour of the fruit, but not in other respects.
In fact the varieties can only be determined when the plants are
fruiting. Size and colour are the principal consideration with growers.
Large dark red berries are always more saleable than others- The
varieties chiefly cultivated in America are as follows.

Bell. — So named from the fruit resembling a bell in shape.

Bugle. — This is a long-fruited variety, and derives its name from a
fancied resemblance to the beads known as bugles.

Cherry. — A round-berried variety having the shape and colour of a
red Cherry ; hence the name.

CREAM FRUIT.

This name is applied to the fruit of Roupellia grata an evergreen
shrub indigenous to Western Africa, belonging to the order Apocynacese.
Occasionally the plant will assume a climbing habit, but it more
commonly retains its shrubby form. The flowers are white with a pink
tint, and are freely produced. The fruit when wounded yields a whitish
thick palatable juice, like cream in appearance, hence the common name.
The negroes are very partial to this juice, which is generally used by
them when it can be obtained. It is considered to be wholesome and
excellent for allaying thirst. Being a native of a hot region, the Cream
Fruit can only be cultivated with success in the tropical parts of
Australia, where it would probably be worth cultivating for its fruit, and
also as an ornamental shrub. It requires a moderately rich sandy loamy
soil, and must be sheltered from strong winds. Propagation may be
readily effected by layers, and ripened cuttings of the current season's
growth will strike in sand.

278
CUCUMBER.

History.

The Cucumber is a well-known annual trailing plant known to
botanists as Cuciimis sativm and belonging to the natural order
Cucurbitace<e. The generic name is derived from curvus crooked, in
allusion to the form the fruit generally assumes. It is generally supposed
to be a native of the East Indies, but, as with many other economic
plants, there is no certainty as to where it came from originally.
Cucumbers appear to have been well kncnvn to the nations of antiquity,
and according to their writers they were generally cultivated. Records
are in existence that show this plant was cultivated in Egypt, Persia, and
Syria over three thousand years ago. The Hebrews also appear to have
been well acquainted with this plant from a very early period, and
tradition says that one of the complaints made by the Israelites to Moses
in the wilderness was the want of Cucumbers, to which they had become
accustomed to during their stay in Egypt. The Cucumber was probably
introduced to Europe by the Romans, as it is certain that that nation
cultivated this plant as early as the first century, if not sooner.. Cucum-
bers were greatly prized by the Roman patricians, and the Emperor
Tiberius is said to have been so partial to them that his table was
supplied throughout the year, and for the greater portion they were
grown by artificial means.

The mode of artificial cultivation as practised by the ancient R.omans,
appears to have been essentially the same as that which is adopted by
modern gardeners. They were well aware that a rich soil, warmth and
moisture, were essentials to the successful culture of Cucumbers and that
growth could be stimulated by the application of artificial heat. It was
a common practice with the Romans to grow them in large baskets filled
with horse dung and rich soil. Thin plates of Laj^is specidaris or talc
were placed over the baskets, and this mateiial admitted light nearly as
freely as our modern glass. At night these baskets were placed under
shelter. Pliny informs us that Cucumbers were also commonly grown
in large boxes arranged on wheels which were moved about at pleasure.
Several other ancient writers speak of Cucumbers and the practices
adapted in their culture. Palladius writing in the year 151, directs the
seed to be macerated in water before it is sown, and the fruit to be grown
in tubes to increase their length. Quintillius and Columella give similar
directions, and add, that as the fruit increases in length when near water,
therefore dishes filled with water sljould be placed within a few inches of
the points of the Cucumbers. Some of the early Greek writers
recommended that previous to sowing the seed should be steeped in milk
and honey in order to prevent bitterness in the fruit. Though to us this
may appear to be an absurd practice, yet strange to say it was believed
in, and followed by the celebrated English johilosopher Lord Bacon.

From' historical records Cucumbers appear to have been grown in
England from about the middle of the fourteenth century. Owing

279

however, to the unsettled state of affairs that afterwards occurred the
plant appears to have been lost, but was re-introduced in the time of
Henry VIII. In a book called The Gardeners Lahi/rinth published in
1577, it is recommended that Cucumbers should be trained upon trellises,
as the fruit is liable to injury when left lying upon the ground. Instruct
tions are also given in this book for keeping the plants supplied with
moisture by means of pieces of worsted, an end of each being buried in
the soil close to the plants, while the other extremeties are placed in
water which was supposed to filter through them. Gerard wnting~in~
1597, mentions two sorts as being known in his time, one of these he
calls Ciicumis vulgari,% which is supposed to be identical with what is
now^ called the Short Prickly. The other sort Gerard terms Cucumis ex
Hispanica or the Spanish Cucumber, Avhich appears to have been an
improved kind, as the fruit is described as being a foot long. Some
curious ideas appear to have formerly existed regarding Cucumbers, and
the effects produced by eating them. Gerard in his book quaintly says
that " If they are eaten as a potage with mutton and oatmeal for break-
fast, dinner and supper, without intermission for three weeks, it doth
perfectly cure all mariner of sauce phleghm or copper faces, red and
shining fiery noses, (as red as red roses) with pimples, pumples, and such
like precious faces."

The forcing of Cucumbers was commonly practised in England in the
latter part of the sixteenth century and Gerard gives full directions for
making hot-beds with stable manure. The system was very similar to
that practised by modern gardeners, uith the exception that the beds had
hoops or poles fixed over them upon which were spread mats, straw,
painted cloth or other contrivances to afford protection from the weather
glass being then unknown. Parkinson writing in 1627, describes six
varieties (Cowcumbers he calls them ) and makes the first mention of glass
being used in growing them artificially. In 1717 the first treatise written
upon the Cucumber, by Samuel Collins, appeared in a work called
Faradise Retrieved. Switzer an English horticulturist of repute in his
day, writing in 1727, boasts of the great advance made in the cultivation
of Cucumbers in the few preceding years. " Foruierly " he says " they
could not be obtained for the table previous to the latter end of May, but
now they are to be had early in March or sooner." It is recorded
that in 1721 a brace of fine Cucumbers were presented to George I. on
New Years Day, they being the first ever raised in midwinter. They
were grown by Sir Nathaniel Head's gardener at Stoke Newington, near
London. As a matter of course readers must bear in mind that in
Europe the season's are the opposite of those in Australasia.

Uses.

Cucumbers are agreeable and refreshing wiien used as salads or other-
wise, and more especially in warm weather, but they contain but little
nourishment, as the percentage of water in the fruit is about ninety-seven
per cent. Owing to their cool and watery nature they are somewhat
difficult to digest, and should be used with great caution by delicate

280

people or those that are subject to dyspepsia. Robust persons however,
may eat them without ill effects, if taken in moderation with the addition
of salt, pepper, vinegar or oil. During warm weather they are not only
refreshing but they are also supposed to stimulate the appetite for food.
Cucumbers are extensively used for pickling and they ai^e often grown
specially for the purpose. They are also preserved for winter use by
steeping them in brine and packing in casks. When preserved in this
way they are very tasty and serviceable for winter or ship use, as they
are available when they cannot be obtained in the ordinary way.

Cultivation.

Cucumbers are strong feeding plants and require a rich soil and an
ample and regular supply of moisture to bring them to perfection,
therefore water must be used freely in dry weather. When grown in the
open ground the most generally adopted plan is to make holes three or
four feet in diameter, and place in each a barrow-full of well rotted
manure, then filling up with soil. But the better plan is to thoroughly
work the whole of the ground so as to allow the roots a wider range,
and avoid the risk of an excess of water, which is very likely to occur if
the hole system is adopted, as when the ground is retentive each one
becomes after heavy rains, simply a tank for a time. When seeds are
sown, the usual plan is to put in seven or eight Avhere each set of plants
are required, placing them two or three inches apart, and about an inch
deep. The distance between each set of plants should be from nine to
ten feet. Some growers prefer the plants to stand singly instead of in
sets of three, and if this plan is adopted they should be arranged about
three feet apart in the lines. The seeds will quickly germinate, and as
soon as the young plants have made their first pair of leaves, they should
be thinned out to the three strongest, leaving a space of from six to nine
inches between. The spare plants may be taken up and transplanted if
wanted, as they bear the operation well if they are removed carefully.
Some people prefer to raise the plants in a frame and transfer them
to the open ground when large enough. This plan offers some
advantages, as primary growth will be more under the control of the
cultivator, and the plants will be earlier. As the Cucumber is a very
tender plant it is useless to sow or plant in the open ground till all
danger from frosts is passed. The time for a first sowing or j^lanting will
necessarily vary considerably in different parts of Australasia, and
cultivators will- have to use their judgment. In sowing or planting early
there will always be some risk from frosts or bleak winds, and as a
safeguard it will be advisable to place casks, boxes, sugar baskets with the
bottoms removed, or even a few bushes round each plant or set. Hand
glasses however, will be a still better safeguard, but they are too expensive
for general use. In order to keep up a regular supply of fruit throughout
the summer, it will be necessary to put in succession, crops at intei^als of
a month or six weeks up to February.

When the vines begin to run it will be advisable to stop them after
they have made five or six joints, by pinching off the points of the shoots.

281

The object of this is to induce the formation of lateral shoots and get the
ground covered regularly. As a rule not more than two or three main
branches are required for each plant. The lateral branches should be
pinched back at one joint above a fruit, and they will form other shoots
which in their turn must be treated the same. As the plants progress in
growth the surface soil should be loosened and covered with a layer of
stable manure or some other suitable material as a mulching. This will
not only check excessive evaporation, but also afford the plants an extra
supply of nourishment. If the branches are trained regularly over the
mulched ground, and pegged down, they will throw out roots at the
joints and by this means enable the parent plants to obtain extra
nourishment. When the branches become too crowded they should be
thinned out or otherwise they will become too weakly to produce fine
fruit. As soon as the fruit is fit for use it should be removed, whether it
is required or not, as if allowed to ripen the productiveness of the plant
will be checked. Cucumber plants are often attacked by a mildew, and
more especially towards the end of the summer or in damp weather.
Whenever there are any signs of this mildew the affected plants should
be dusted with powdered sulphur and a Jittle caustic lime sprinkled over
the ground around them. They should also be watered about once a
week with a solution of common salt, in the proportion of two ounces to
a. gallon of water.

In order to obtain Cucumbers out of the regular season it is usual to
grow them with the aid of artificial heat, either in glass houses or frames
fitted with hot water pipes, or by the aid of stable manure, tan, and
other fermenting materials, in hot beds. As a matter of course a regularly
heated house or frame is the least troublesome means, but a hot bed is
more suitable for the greater number of cultivators, for economical
reasons. In preparing a hot-bed the dimensions of the frame that is to
stand upon it should be first taken, and the ground marked in accordance.
Four stout stakes should then be driven into the ground at the corners,
but a foot further out than the space that has been marked. When
stable manure is used it should be previously prepared by turning and
mixing two or three times, using water if it is too dry. If tan is used it
should be fresh. The prepared niaterial should be built up within the
stakes as solidly as possible, to the height of three or four feet. In three
or four days it will have sunk considerably and another twelve or eighteen
inches of the material may be added* The frame should then be lifted
on, keeping it level and square so that about a foot of the bed will
project all round. The frame should be left uncovered for four or five
days to allow the rank vapours to escape, and then a layer of rich soil
about six inches deep should be spread over the manure. In the centre,
or where the plants are to be fixed, raised mounds several inches above
the surface should be made. Seeds or plants may then be put in, and
should receive the same treatment as recommended for outdoor culture.
As growth progresses fresh soil should be placed round the mounds till
the bed becomes level or nearly so. When the heat of the beds begins to
decline the projecting sides should be removed and replaced with fresh
material in an active state of fermentation. This operation must be

282

Gberkin.

Yellow Dutch.

288

Small Bussian.

repeated as often as it is necessary, Jia a steady heat is essential to success.
Though Cucumbers when grown by artificial heat can be obtained at any
time of the year, yet, as a rule, they are only cultivated in this way in
order to have them a few weeks earlier than from the open ground.
Very few people care for Cucumbers till the warm weather sets in, and
July or August will be sufficiently early to start the plants in heat. Early
plants for the open ground may be obtained by starting the seeds in a
hot-bed, putting the young plants into small pots and keeping them
growing steadily till they can be safely placed in the open ground.

Propagation.

Cucumbers are generally raised from seed and this is the most easy
method. Propagation, however, may be readily effected by cuttings of
the young shoots taken off just below a joint and inserted an inch deep
in light rich soil. Plants raised by this means are, as a rule more
prolific than seedlings, but the fruit is usually smaller, and the practice i»
not worth following, except in the case of new and choice varieties that
are wanted to increase quickly. Seed should invariably be saved from
the finest and best shaped fruit, and these as a rule are those that are
first produced by the plants. The fruit should be allowed to ripen before
it is removed from the vines, and care must be taken that no other species
of the ftimily are growing near. No plants are more easily crossed than

284

those belonging to the Cucumber family, and it is impossible to obtain
seed that will come true if two or more kinds are growing near to each
other. Seeds will retain their vitality for eight or ten years, and if
there are any doubts as to their soundness, they may be readily tested by
placing them in water, when all that float should be discarded as
worthless.

Varieties

There are a great many varieties of the Cucumber in cultivation, but
as regards many of them the differences are but slight, and it is somewhat
difficult to distinguish one from another. This confusion is intensified by
by the fact that local circumstances, such as climate, the nature of the
soil, and slow growth will often materially affect the size, shape and
quality of the fruit. The Cucumbers that are most esteemed are those
that are long and straight, though there are really no sound reasons
for this preference. Long Cucumbers are no better in flavour
than short or medium ones, and the plants that yield them are generally
not so prolific as others. Rapid growth is essential to a first-class
Cucumber, as when development is slow the fruit is apt to have a bitter
and somewhat disagreeable flavour.

CURRANT.

History.

The Currant belongs to the natural order Grossulacetie, and is closely
related to the Gooseberry. It was formerly supposed to be identical
with the Corinthian Grape, and from this idea the common English
name has originated. At one time in England this fruit was known as
Corans, this name being afterwards changed to Currans and again within
a, comparatively recent period to Currant. Botanically the Currant is
known under the name of Rihes, from two species of which the ordinary
cultivated edible varieties have originated. The l^hick Currant comes
from Rihes nigrum, a species indigenous to many parts of Northern
Europe and more especially Russia. The source of the Red Currant is
Rihes rnhrum, which is also indigenous to many parts of Northern Europe.
The White Currant is merely a form of the red, Rihes rnhntm Both
species are to be found growing wild in some parts of England and
Scotland, mostly in moist, deep soils on the outskirts of woods.

Several other species of Ribes yield edible Currants which are utilized
more or less in their native regions. The more noteworthy are Rihes
uureum, a species widely dispersed in East America, which embraces
several varieties, with fruits varying- in colour from yellow to brown and
black. The berries are somewhat larger than those of the common Black
Currant which they resemble in colour and taste. Rihes hracteatum a
Oalifornian species yields a fruit which in appearance and flavour is

285

somewhat like the Black Currant. Rihes ceremn an American species
yields red sweetish berries. Rihes floridum is the Black Currant of
North East America. In colour and flavour the fruit is similar t<3 the
common Black Currant- Rihes tenniflornm, a species found chiefly in
the mountain regions of America, yields palatable yellow fruit. Rihes
Grifitld a species indigenous to the Himalayas, and found growing at an
altitude of from ten to three thousand feet, has fruit similar in colour to
the Red Currant, but larger and having an austere flavour. Other
Indian Mountain species may also prove useful for their fruits.

The Currant does not appear to have been known to the nations of
anti([uity, as no mention has been made of it by their writers. There is
no account of its being cultivated in Great Britain previous to the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. Gerard, who wrote towards the close of this period,
describes this fruit as a sort of Gooseberry, Soon after this, however,
the (hirrant appears to have become a popular British fruit, and ever
since finds a place in every garden of the Unitad Kingdom. Black
Currants were formerly known in some parts of England as Squinancy
Berries, from thair supposed efficacy when taken as a remedy for quinsy.
The inner bark of the wood was formerly very popular as a remedy for
jaundice and dropsy.

Uses.

The Currant is an excellent dessert fruit, and is also valuable for
culinary purposes. Both red and white Currants contain a large propor-
tion of malic acid, and medicinally they are cooling and grateful to the
stomach. The fruit is mildly aperient, lessens the secretion of bile, and
is benefical in scorbutic complaints. With some temperaments the too
free use of the fruit causes a tendency to flatulence and indigestion. As
regards the Black Currant, the fruit, leaves and wood each contain tonic
and stimulating properties. The jelly and juice are medicinally valuable
for various complaints, more especially for catarrh. The leaves have a
strong and peculiar flavour, particularly when young, and were formerly
much used in adulterating tea. When carefully dried they make a very
fair substitute for genuine tea. In Russia a drink made from dried
Black Currant leaves is a common beverage with the poorer classes of the
people. The roots of both species contain a peculiar astringent property,
and are sometimes utilized in medicine. Currants, both red and black,
are very largely used for jams and jellies, for which there is an extensive
and increasing demand The fruit may be preserved fresh for a long
time in bottles of water or canned in the ordinaiy way. To preserve in
this way, the bottles or cans should be filled nearly to the top with fruit
and water, and then placed two or three minutes in boiling water, after
which they must be tightly corked or sealed to prevent the admission of
air. An excellent wine can be made from either black or red Currants,
fermenting it either with sugar or without according to requirements.
After fennentation, the wine should stand in the casks five or six
months before it is used. If carefully made, Currant wi)ie will keep for
years, and it is a very pleasant beverage.

286
Cultivation.

Currants, both black and red, will only thrive well in the cooler and
more elevated districts, and cannot be grown successfully in the warmer
portions of Australasia. These fruits are specially suitable for culture in
the vicinity of mountain ranges, where the rainfall is above the average.
Any ordinary good land is suitable for Currants, but the most favourable
soil is a deep, rich, sandy loam, that does not get very dry in the simimer.
If the soil is of a poor character, the deficiencies should be made good by
manure when the ground is prepared. As with fruit trees, when the
ground is deeply worked, it offers the most favourable conditions for
growth. When the land is of a heavy nature it should invariably be
loosened to the depth of at least fifteen inches. Deep working is not so
essential in light soils having free subsoils. Care must be taken when
the ground is deeply worked not to turn up more than a couple of inches
of a bad subsoil to the surface. Many people have made this mistake to
their cost. Drainage must be provided for when necessary, as, though
Currants like a fairly moist soil, they will not thrive with water
stagnating at their roots for any length of time. Heavy land generally
wants assistance in the way of draining, but in lighter soils resting upon
open gravel or sand there is often sufficient natural outlet for the water.

The plants should stand in rows, six or eight feet apart each way, so as
to allow plenty of room for development From the middle of July to
the first week in August is the most favourable period for planting,
though it may be done at any time between the fall of the leaves and the
starting of spring growth. In choosing plants, give a preference to
young ones that are of strong growth and well shaped. The after
treatment required will be keeping the ground free from weeds (and
more especially in the spring and early summer) and stimulating the
vigour of the plants by the use of manure when necessary. In destroying
weeds the surface should be lightly stirred frequently in preference to
deeply ploughing or digging, which often injure the roots materially.
Before the warm weather sets in it will be advisable to mulch the surface
soil, to prevent rapid and excessive evaporatioi . Mulching is good for
all fruits, but more especially for Curnmts and others that are partial to
cool and moist regions. Currants will often retain their vigour for a
dozen or more years, but it will be advisable, as a rule, to renew
plantations in about six or seven j^ears.

Pruning.

As regards pruning there is some difference in the repuirements of the
red and black fruited species. The red and white varieties bear their
fruit upon one, two, and three year old shoots, as also on spurs from
older wood. The greater portion of the fruit is, however, usually borne
upon the wood of the previous season. In pruning, the system generally
adopted is to cut back the main previous season's shoots to from four to
six buds, thinning out the branches when too numerous so that growth
will not be crowded, and shorten close the lateral shoots. As a rule the

287

white varieties are less robust than the red ones, and do not require quite
so much pruning. The Black Currant bears its fruit chiefly upon the
wood of the preceding season, and, though far less abundantly, upon older
spurs. Less pruning is required than for the Red Currant ; all that is
necessary is the removal of superflous shoots, and preventing a crowded
growth, as also the shortening back occasionally of branches to keep the
plants shapely. Summer pruning may be practised with advantage in
the case of either class, as it prevents a waste of energy. Rub off the
surplus young shoots as soon as they have fairly started, but leave
sufficient to provide ample foliage for shade, which is very essential to
Currants.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by seeds, layers or cuttings, the latter
being the method most usually practised. Seed is only used when new
varieties are required, and ordinary cultivators seldom adopt this mode of
raising plants. Seedling plants will bear the second or third year from
the time of sowing, and their qualities are therefore soon ascertained.
As a rule seedling Currants vary but little from their parents, though, as
a matter of course, they differ occasionally. Plants can be readily
obtained from layers, but this method of propagation is not practised to
any large extent. The most general method is by cuttings, which should
be selected from well ripened wood of the previous season's growth. The
cuttings should be about twelve inches long, and these ought to be planted
four eyes below ground, in rows about two feet apart, leaving a space of
nine or ten inches between in the lines. Keep the ground free from
weeds, mulch the surface, and if necessary, supply water. The following
season the plants will be ready for the permanent plantation, or they can
be allowed to remain f<ir another year if necessary, in which case the
shoots must be shortened back and thinned out according to requirements.

Varieties.

There are many varieties in cultivation, but a limited selection will
serve all practical purposes. The following list embraces most of the best
sorts in each class :—

Black Currants.

Black Naples. — This is one of the finest and best in its class. Bunches
short, and berries very large. Flavour good, and superior to most other
varieties. Plant vigorous, hardy, and very prolific.

Cartpys Black Champion. — This is a comparatively new English variety,
which has become popular in Europe. Bunches and berries large, and
fniit well flavoured. Strong in growth, and bears profusely.

Kentish Hero. — X hardy and prolific varietj'-. Bunches a good size.
Berries large and well flavoured.

Lee's Prolific, — A. robust, very free-bearing variety. Bunches medium-
sized. Berries large, uniform, and possessing a sweet, rich flavour.

288

Long-bunched lied.

La Versaillaise

Red Dutch.

Cherry.

289

La Fertile.

^Ylute Imperial.

Ogdeiis Black {Black Grape). — This variety is
somewhat more hardy than the Black Najyles,
but not quite equal to it in quality. Bunches
a fail size. Berries large, and of good quality.
Plant very prolific.

Red Cukeants.

Victoria.

Champagne {Pheasant's Eye). — This variety is remarkable for its large
bunches of pale pink fruit, which appear to be intermediate between the
Bed and White Dutch. Berries medium-sized, and very acid.

Cherri/. — A robust, hardy variety, bearing short, thick bunches, and
ipening earlier than most other kinds. Berries very large, deep red in
colour, and rather acid in flavour. An excellent and prolific market
variety.

La Fertile. — A French variety, of vigorous, upright habit, and a very
free bearer. Bunches long. Berries large, dark red, and similar in
flavour to the Bed Dutch.

La Hdtive. — This is a vigorous and prolific French variety, which
matures early in the season. Bunches medium-sized. Berries large,
dark red, and well flavoured.

290

Di VersaiUaise (Fertile d' Angers, Imperial Bed).— An excellent
variety, of French origin, and one of the best Red Currants. Bunches
long and heavy. Berries of the largest size, and well flavoured. Plant
very prolific, vigorous in habit, with large foliage.

Loiig-hiuiched Red [Wilmofs Red). — This is very hardy, robust, and
productive variety, bearing bunches that are often six inches in length.
Berries large, deep red, well flavoured, and mature rather late.

Red Dutch (31 organ'' s Red, Red Grape). — An old and well-known
variety, producing medium.sized bunches. Berries deep red, large, with
a pleasant, subdued acid flavour. Plant hardy, upright in habit, and
very productive.

Victoria {Goliath, Houghton Castle, Rabi/ Castle). — This is an excellent
and useful late variety, with very long bunches. Berries large, bright
red, and somewhat more acid in flavour than the Red Dutch and most
other kinds. An abundant bearer, and the fruit will hang longer after it
is ri])e than most other sorts. Plant hardy, and spreading in habit.

White Currants.

Wlute Butch ( White Cyrstal, White Grape. White Leghorn). — This is
decidedly one of the best of the white varieties. In habit, productivenes,
and size of bunches it is similar to the Red Dutch, but the fruit is somewhat
sweeter and ripens a little earlier. The berries are large yellowish white,
transparent, and pleasantly flavoured.

White Ivipei'ial. — A new variety, of high character, which has proved
a useful acquisition. Bunches long and regularly set. Berries large,
very transparent, and well flavoured, l^lant hardy, upright in habit, and
very productive.

CUSTARD APPLE.

This name is applied to the fruit of various species of Anona, a genus
that is the type of the order Anonaceae, or the Custard Apple family.
They are evergreen shrubs or small trees, and most of them are natives
of the West Indies. The name Custard Apple is most generally applied
to Anona reticulata which attains a height of twelve to fifteen feet, and
bears large rough-skinned fruit which has a consistance and flavour some-
what similar to a custard, hence the name. Anona squamosa yields a
fruit somewhat similar in appearance to the globe Artichoke, which is
known as the Sweet Sop. It has a scaly rind and a rich luscious pulp
that has been compared to clotted cream and sugar, with a flavour of
cinnamon. Anona muricata, a small tree, is known as the Sour Sop. It
has a large oval heart-shaped fruit with a greenish yellow skin and a
whitish pulp, which in flavour is pleasantly compounded of sweetness and
acidity. The whole plant has a flavour somewhat similar to that of the
Black Currant. These species are extensively grown in India, the West
Indies, and other tropical countries, their fruit being considered very whole-
some and refreshing. Anona palustris, a medium-siz^d shrub, is the

•J91

Alligator Api^le of the West Indies. It has shining, smooth, heart-shaped
fruit, which in flavour is vastly inferior to the other kinds, though it is
sweetish and not unpleasant, but is strongly narcotic. The wood of this
species is very soft and compressible, and is largely used as corks in the
West Iiidies and ISouth America. Anotia cherimolia a Peruvian species
yields the fruit known as the Cherimoyer. It is the hardiest of all the
species, grows to the height of twelve to iifteen feet, has cheerful light green
foliage, and highly fragrant flowers. The fruit when ripe is purple, with
a rough skin, somewhat heart-shaped and has a sweet pleasant flavour.
It is necessary that the fruit of any the species should be fully ripe or
nearly so when gathered as taken off the trees too soon it lacks the proper
flavours. A large proportion of Custard Apples sent from Queensland
to the other colonies are gathered before they are sufliciently ripe, and
they sutter materially in quality from this cause. Riper fruit, as a matter
of course, will require greater care in packing, but it will obtain better
prices, and cause many to become partial to Custard Apples who would
not otherwise care for them.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The true Custard Apple, as also the Sweet Sop, Sour Sop and Alligator
Apple can only be cultivated in those parts of Australia where the climate
is warm and moist. They are specially well adapted for the rich soils
to be found in the Northern coast river districts. Shelter from strong
winds is also essential to success.

The Cherimoyer, being more hardy, Custarp Apple.

can be cultivated successfully in
sub-tropical regions, as also in New
South Wales, South and West
Australia, in mild localities where the
frosts are verj^ slight. All the species
require a rich deeply worked soil
that can at all times be kept
moderately moist, as the trees cannot
withstand drought. In making a
plantation the trees should be arranged
in rows, leaving a space of about
twenty feet between them. Care
should be taken not to plant too
deeply and it will be sufficient if the
upper roots are merely an inch or l.—Sour Sop. 2.— Sweet Sop.
so below the surface. Young trees

should have their growth regulated from time to time, to get them into
shape, but when they reach maturity they require but little pruning.
It is a good plan to mulch the surface soil before the hot weatlier sets
in, to conserve the moisture. Propagation is effected by seeds, which
should be put in when fresh and covered about an inch deep, and layers
which if put down in the autumn or early spring, soon make strong
plants. Plants may be obtained from ripened cuttings of the current
season's wood, which will .strike in sand under a glass

292

DATE.

HiSTOflY.

The Date is one of the most useful phmts to mankind in the warm arid
regions of Africa and Asia, as it will thrive in localities where no other
serviceable tree can grow. It is the only useful tree found upon the
margins of the great African and other deserts, and it occupies large
tracts of country exclusively. This plant also occupies the oasis or fertile
spots in these deserts, and affords the only vegetation that is to be found
in many of tho^e localities. It also furnishes the only food plant that is
to be met with in these arid regions. Dates are the fruit of a Palm
known to botanists as Fhwnix dactylifera which is indigenous to North
Africa, Arabia, Egypt, Persia^ Palestine and other parts of Asia. It
attains a height of from sixty to eighty feet, and exceptionally over one
hundred. There are no branches, and the stems are surmounted with a
crown of leaves. The Date Palm is dioecious, which means that there
are both male and female plants, the flowers of the former being
somewhat ths larger. T]ie flower branches or spikes spring from the
base of the leaves and are at first enclosed in sheaths or spathes. A full-
grown tree bears annually from six to ten bunches of fruit, each weighing
from twelve to twenty pounds. Sometimes a single bunch will consist
of over two hundred Dates, and yields up to four hundred weight are
recorded, from a single tree. The Date Palm attains a great age, and it
is said that plantations two hundred years old have yielded heavy crops.

Uses.

The Date Palm is utilised in a variety of ways in those countries
where its cultivation is general. In Barbery, Egypt, Turkey, Arabia and
Persia, Dates are the principal article of food for the bulk of the people.
In fact the Date crops are of as much importance to the inhabitants of
these countries as the grain harvest in other regions. When the Date
harvest is secured there is great rejoicing and it is the principal operation
from an fCgricultural point of view. The fruit is eaten fresh wlien in
season, and dried for the remainder of the year. It is very nourishing a&
it contains about »58 per cent of saccharine matter. Drying is effected
by spreading the fruit upon mats and exposing it to the sun. For full
details as to the process of drying, see special remarks upon the subject
page 69. The fruit by pressure yields a rich syrup, which when mixed
with water and fermented makes an intoxicating liquor, and from this a
strong spirit is obtained by distillation. But not only does the Date
Palm prove serviceable by means of its fruit, as its sap can also be
utilized. This sap when dried yields sugar, by fermentation an
intoxicating liquor, and when distilled a spirit known as arrack in India.
The extraction of the sap however, is destructive to the trees, and is
usually only practised with those that are unfruitful, or to reduce the
number when they are growing too thickly. In extracting the sap
the most usual method is to cut off the crowns when the plants are in

293

full growth. From a nuiture tree the sap will flow at the rate of about
a gallon per day for the first fortnight, and at a gradually falling rate
up to six weeks or two months. Arrangements are made for the reception
of the sap as it exudes from the trees^ and the receiving vessels should
be emptied daily. The Date Palm is utilized in various other ways, as
the fibrous parts of the stems are made into coarse ropes, mats and
baskets, and the leaves are turned to account for similar purposes.
From the medullary portion of the stems a farinaceous substance
resembling sago is obtained, though in small tpiantities. ~

Cultivation.

The Date Palm is speciallj' suitable for cultivjition in the dry interior
districts of x\ustralia included within the tropical or sub-tropical regions.
It may also be grown successfully in warm districts outside of those
regions, provided the winter temperature is not too low, and frosts are
not troublesome. As an ornamental plant only the Date Palm may be
cultivated successfully as far south as Victoria, but a higher winter
temperature is necessary for the production of fruit. It is however well
worthy of cultivation for ornament, as it is a very handsome plant. As
an avenue tree in the hot dry districts it is to be commended, as its leaves
afford a dense and grateful shade. This tree is not particular as to soil,
and will thrive in poor sandy land where most other plants will refuse
to grow. As a fruit-bearing tree it thrives best in regions where there
is great heat and dryness in the atmosphere, but at the same time
it likes a steady supply of moisture at the roots. It is a tree that is
specially suitable for planting near to rivers, lakes and dams in the
interior, and also alongside irrigation channels. The Date Palm will
also thrive in land that contains a large proportion of salt, and in
which few other trees can be grown In making a plantation the
trees should stand not less than tyventy feet apart, and ought to be
arranged in regular rows. If i^lants from oftsets or suckers are used
they A\'ill begin to bear in five years, and yield full crops in ten years.
When the plants are from seedlings it will be seven or eight years
before they begin to bear. They are many varieties of Dates which
differ considerably in the size, shape and colour of their fruit, as also
the times of ripening. As yet, however, we have no reliable d<(ta as to
the respective merits of the different varieties, as but a limited number
have as yet been introduced to Australia, and these have not Jiad a
thorough trial. As there are both male and female plants, there must,
as a matter of course, be a proportion of the former in each plantation,
in order to obtain fruit. Opinions vary somewhat upon this subject,
but the writer would recommend one male tree to twenty. In order
to ensure fruitfulness it is necessary to artificially fertilize the female
flowers with the pollen from the male ones. This is done by cutting
the spathes of the male flowers before they open, and placing pieces in
the spathes of the fruit-bearing plants.

PrOPACxATIOX.

The Date Palm may be easily propagated either by seed or suckers.

294

Seedlings are, however, uncertain as to whether the plants will be male
or female, and it is impossible to tell the ditlerence till they flower.
Seeds should be planted an inch deep in light sandy soil. They may be
sown at any time, but the most favourable periods are at the end of
summer or in the spring. When three or four inches above ground the
young plants should either be placed singly in small pots or transplanted
into beds. The following season they will be ready for planting out
permanently. The more reliable and most generally adopted means of
propagation is by suckers that are freely produced at the base of the
stems of old plants. These should be taken up carefully with as large
a proportion of roots as possible, avoiding exposure to sun and
wind. These sucker plants will be of the same sex as the trees they
are taken from, and consequently planters can make sure of having
them in due proportion.

DATE PLUM.

History and Uses.

This fruit is obtained from a tree known botanically under the
name of Diospyros kaki, and belonging to the natural ordei* Ebenacese,
or the Ebony family, most of the species of Avhich are remarkable for
the hardness and dark colour of their wood. The name is derived
from dios (divine) and pyrus (a Pear) in allusion to the rich flavour
of the fruit and the shape of some of the varieties. The common
name Date Plum has originated from the adaptibility of the fruit for
drying and packing in the same way as the Date. Very commonly
the fruit are called Persimmons, but that name more propei-ly
applies to the American species of the family, Avhich differ widely
fi'om Diospyros kaki in appearance and uses. The Date Plum is
peculiar to China and Japan, and is highly esteemed for its fruit in
both these countries, where several varieties are cultivated exten-
sively. Large quantities of the fruit are di'ied and preserved in the
same way as Figs, and in this form the Date Plum is very popular.
In fact many consider it to be greatly superior to the Fig. Several
other species of Diospyros jield edible fruits, yet all of them are
vastly inferior to the Date Plum. Diospyros decandro, found in
Cochin China, bears a yellow fruit that is largely eaten by the
natives. Diospyros edulis yields an edible fiuit, used in some parts of
China and India. Diospyros lotus, a species common to the south of
Europe and indigenous to the greater part of Asia, yields the ordinary
Date Plum or Lotus, that famous fruit which, according to the
traditions of the ancients, had the power of causing oblivion. The
fruit in appearance is somewhat similar to black Cherries, is edible,
and used both fresh and preserved. Diospyros Maboh, an cA^ergreen,
shrubby species, jdelds the Mabola Plum of the Philippine Islands.
The fruit of Diospyros melanoxylon, is eaten in some parts of India,
though inferior to other kinds. An American species {Diospyros

29o

tcauta), indigenous to Mexico and Texas — a rather strong-growing
tree— is said to yield a very palatable fruit when fully ripe. Anothei
Amei'ican species {Diospifros virginiarm) — a strong-growing tree —
which attains a height of sixty or seventy feet, is the true Ameiican
Persimmon. The fruit is in appeai'ance something like a Medlar,
and about the size of a Greengage Plum. It is not nearly equal to
that of the Chinese Date Plum, but has a rich, sweet flavour when
dead ripe. The wood of this and other species is valuable, and
utilized for many purposes undei* the name of ebony or ironwood.

Though the fmit of various species is utilized in different parts of
the world, yet all are vastly inferior to the Chinese or Japanese
Date Plum, the produce of Diospyros kaki. This species embraces a
number of varieties, which vary considerably in size, shape, and
depth of colour, as also in flavour. As this fruit has not been*
generally cultivated in Australia the experience as to the relative
meiits of the varieties introduced is too limited to arrive at positive
conclusions at the present time. Some certainly appeal* to be
vastly superior to others, but further expeidence regarding this
fruit is necessary. It must also be remembered by cultivators
that the fruit wants keeping for some days after it is gathered before
it is eaten, to obtain it in perfection. If eaten direct from the tree,
though apparently the fruit may be fully ripe, yet the flavour will
be compai-atively poor, if not quite insipid. Many growers have
made this mistake, and as a consequence the fruit has been condemned
as being inferior to what it was expected to be. Though some-
varieties will doubtless be found inferior to others, yet before dis-
carding them the fruit should be tested when in the best possible
condition, that is in about ten days or a fortnight after it is gathered..
Then again, the fruit should not be taken from the trees till it is;
well ripened. The full richness and sweetness of flavour seems to
depend upon chemical decomposition in the fruit. If wanted for
drying the fruit must be treated the same, in order to fully develop
its sweetness and flavour. Drying is easily affected by spreading the
fruit upon trays and exposing to the sun, turning it several times,.
pre\-iously removing the skins, Avhich are intensely astringent. For
the same reason when the fruit is eaten fresh care should be taken
that the inner part of the skin does not come into contact with the
mouth. The dried fruit makes an excellent sweetmeat, and will
doubtless become popular when it is more generally known.

Cliltivation and Propagation.

The Date Plum may be grown successfully in most parts of
Australasia, but it will probably give the largest retuiiis in the medium
warm districts. It is a deciduous tree, is somewhat slow in growth, does^
not attain a very large size, and commences to bear when four or-
five years old. As the trees increase in age they bear more freely up
to a certain limit, and as a rule, ai-e fairly prolific. Tlie ground
should be deeply worked, and when necessary dminage must be
proA'ided for, as the trees cannot thi'ive Avith an excess of water at

296

their roots. Planting may be done at any time during the Avinter,
but the most favourable period is July or up to the middle of August,
according to the localit}'. The distance apart should be from twenty-
one to twenty-four feet, and care must be taken not to plant too
deeply. Young trees should have their groAvth regulated so as to
to obtain strong and well-formed specimens as soon as possible.
Summer pruning may be practised with advantage with young trees.
Older trees must have their growth regulated according to their
requirements ; and, as the fruit is chiefly produced on the young
growth, the last season's shoots should be shortened back and thinned
out every winter. Keep the ground as free from weeds as possi])le
by frequent light tillage, and before the hot weather sets in mulch
the sui'face soil as far as the roots extend. Propagation is effected
by seeds, layers, grafting, or budding. Seedlings will often come
fairly true, but still there is a doubt about them, and they are mostly
raised for stocks. They should be sown in shallow drills as soon as
the fruit is ripe, covering them an inch deep. The next season the
young trees should be planted in rows, leaving them nine or ten
inches apart in the lines. The following year they will be i-eady for
w'orking. Layers strike freely, but as a rule they do not make such
durable and well-sha])ed trees as can be obtained by other means.
Grafting and budding upon seedling stocks of their owii species are
the uKjst generally |)ractised methods foi- perpetuating particular
varieties. These operations are performed in the same way and
times as is suitable for other deciduous trees.

DURION.

History and Uses.

This is the Indian name of the fruit of Durio Zehethiniis, a robust
ev^ergreen tree belonging to the order Sterculiaceae, whicn attains a
height or seventy or eighty feet. It is indigenous to various parts of
Southern Asia, and grows to great perfection in the ]Malayan
Archipelago and the islands of the Indian seas. The flowers are
pale yellow, produced from the main stems and largei- branches.
The fruit is as large as a man's head, being generally about ten
inches in length by about seven in breadth. It has a thick hard
rind which is covered with warts and short strong pi-ickles. The
inner portion consists of several cells Avhich contain the seeds and
these are about the size of pigeon's eggs. The seeds ai-e surrounded
by a thick cream- like substance which is the portion of the fi'uit
that is utilized. The flavour of the fruit to persons unaccust(mied to
it is at first most revolting, as its odour may be compai-ed to rotten
onions, en* decaying animal matter. This sti'ong smell is caused by
the presence of a large proportion of sulphuretted hydrogen. The
feeling of disgust, however, soon passes away, and when that
is overcome, it is generally admitted by those who have eaten

297

it, that the Durion is one of the most palatable fi-uits, and
equal in flavour to the Mango. The fruit is in fact considered to be
an exquisite delicacy, and in
addition very nourishing and
easy of digestion. It is a
great favourite with the natives
of Borneo, Sumatra, Java and
Malaya Avho use it in large
quantities. Europeans residing
in those regions also become
partial to it.

Cultivation and Propagation.
As the Durion is a native of
moist tropical regions it can
only be successfully cultivated
in the warmest parts of
Australia. It w^ould probably
thrive in the coastal regions (jf
Northern Queensland and
North Australia. The most
suitable localities are rich deep

soils, bordering rivers or creeks where there is shelter from strong
gales. Propagation is easily effected by seeds, which should be
planted about two inches deep. They may be planted at any time
of the year, but in the autumn or spring are the two most favourable
periods. Plants may also be obtained from ripened cuttings of the
current season's g-row th, with the leaves left on, which will strike
freely in sand or light soil.

Durion.

EDIBLE ACORNS.

Several species of Oak yield Acorns that are turned to good account
as food for mankind in various countiies. Quercus Castanea, an
evergreen American species, commonly know n as the Mexican Oak
Chestnut, yields Acorns that are in flavour something like the
Chestnut, and are used to some extent as food in Mexico. Quercus
Garri/ana, a North West American species, commonly known as the
Californian White Oak, has Acorns having a sw^eet agreeable flavour,
which are eaten to some extent. This species attains a large size,
and its timber is pale, hard grained, and very durable. Quercus Lohata,
another species indigenous to North West America, known as the
Sacramenta White Oak, has fairly sweet Acorns, which were formerly
one of the staple articles of food with the aboriginal Indians.. The
tree is tall and mde spreading, and its wood is of good quality.
Quercus turbijietla, a shrubby species Avhich attains a height of only a
few feet, has very sweet Acorns that are used as food. It is a native
of California, and other parts of North West America. Quercus
cuspidata, an evergreen tree of large proportions from Japan, bears

298

small Acorns in bunches which ai'e regulaidy sold as food in its native
country. These Acorns have a sweet, pleasant flavour, and when
baked taste somewhat like Chestnuts. Anothei' evergreen species,
Quercus glabra, has Acorns that are largely used as food in its native
country. Edible Acorns, largely used as food in China, ai-e obtained
fix)m Quercus cornea, an evei-green tree of moderate growth indigenous
to that counti'v.

Cultivation a^d Propagation.

All the species mentioned will thrive in the temperate regions in
Australasia. They Avill also freely adapt themselves to various local
condition of soil and climate. Though their cultivation as food-
yielding trees for mankind would be of little practical value in this
part of the woild, yet they might prove w^orthy of attention for
feeding some classes of live stock. Pigs are remarkably fond* of
Acorns, and all the species mentioned are relished by cattle, hoi-ses,
and poultry. As ornamental trees all the species are w^orthy of
attention, and are well adapted for parks and shrubberies. Some of
them may also prove worthy of cultivation for the sake of their
timber, which is highly appreciated in their native countnes. Pro-
pagation is genei'ally effected by seeds which should be planted soon
after they are I'ipe, covering them to the depth of two inches. Plants
may be obtained from layers or cuttings, but these never make good
ti'ees, which can onlv be obtained from seed.

EGG PLANT.

History.

This plant, which also passes under the English names of Guinea
Squash and Vegetable Egg, is know^n botanically as Solaanm melongena,
and it belongs to the natui*al oi'der Solanacese. It embraces a number
of varieties bearing blue or pm*ple flowers, and fruits varying con-
siderably in shape, size, and coloui*. The one after which the plant
is named is known as ovlgerum, its fruit in shape and colour bearing
a perfect resemblance to a hen's eg^, though sometimes it is much
larger. There are also purple, red, violet, yellow, and striped fruited
varieties of various shapes. In Prance the fruit passes under the
name of Aubergines, and in other places they are known as Bringals,
Brinjals, and Begoons. In its natui-al state the species is very w^idely
distributed, as it appears to be indigenous to India and various other
parts of Asia, as also Northei'n Africa and Tropical America. Ac-
cording to Bai*on von Mueller, *S'. insanum, S. longuni, S. serpintinicm,
S. luidiitum, S. ferox. S. album, and S. j^sewlo-saponaceum are closely
allied sjDecies, and may prove useful esculents. Solanum muricatmn,
a shrubby South American species, known in Peru as the Pepino,
may also prove serviceable. The fruit of this species is egg-shaped,
about six inches in length, white with purple spots.

299

The commoii Egg Plant a|)])ears to have been cultivated in England
as 6arly as the latter pai't of the sixteenth century according to
histoHcal records. Gerard, in a work published in ir)96, says that
the plant has somewhat doubtful qualities, and advises people to use
it Avith cai'e, or to leave it alone altogether and be satisfied with such
fruit as they know to l)e wholesome. This opinion was doubtless
based upon the popular prejudice that formerly ])revailed in the
United Kingdom against plants belonging to the vSolanum family, as
they were all supposed to possess deleterious qualities. A closely
allied species, Solanuui Insavnm (esculentum), was commonly known as
the Mad oi- Raging Apple (Mala Tnsana) from its supposed identity
with the Male Mandrake of the ancients, which is stated to have
caused madness in those Avho ate it. Though these prejudices against
the family gradually disappeared, yet, strange to say, though a useful
esculent, the fi'uit of the Egg Plant has never come into general use
in the United Kingdom. In France and other countries in Europe,
however, the fruit is in general use, and large quantities are sold in
the markets of Paris and other large cities, where they are as common
as Tomatoes. The most popular varieties in Europe are the purple
fruited kinds, which are more generally cultivated than others. The
fruit is also extensively used in America, and more especially in
Southern United States, where it is a common dish w^itli all classes of
the community. In the Australasian Colonies the fruit of the Egg
Plant is but seldom used, though it can be gi'own with little trouble.
Sometimes plants are grown, but chiefly as curiosities owing to the
curious appeai'ance of the fruit, and but comparatively few people
appear to know its value for culinary purposes.

Uses.

The fruit of the Egg Plant can be used either when green or ripe.
When used green the most common method is to boil it in the same
way as a vegetable marrow, to which it has some resemblance in
flavour. Sometimes the fruit is peeled, scored thickly with a knife,
and oil poured over it to soak into the cracks, after which it is
sprinkled w4th bread crumbs, salt, vinegar, pepper, and herbs being
added to taste, and then it is baked. In Italy and France a common
way of using the ripe fruit is to cut them in slices half-an-inch thick,
and soak them in water eight or ten hours to remove the bitter
flavour. The slices are then squeezed to press out as much of the
juice as possible, parboiled, and afterwards fried in oil or butter with
grated bread crumbs, seasoning of pepper, salt, and chopped herbs
being added according to taste. Another popular way of using the
fruit is to scoop out the insides and fry them in oil or butter, and
boil the outsides whole. Wlien they become soft they are taken out
of the water, the insides replaced, and then sent to the table. Some-
times the fruit is simply cut in halves lengthways, the seeds removed,
and the spaces filled wath chopped herbs and other seasoning, after
which they are baked or fried. The ripe fruit of the Egg Plant can,

T

300

if required, be kept for a considerable time, and will be found very
serviceable as a winter vegetable.

Cultivation.

The Egg Plant may be cultivated successfully in all the Australasian
Colonies. Independent of the value of the fruit for culinary purposes,
the plants may be utilized to advantage for ornament in pleasure
gardens. When used for this purpose their flowers are showy, and
the bright-coloured and curiously-shaped fi'uit of most of the varieties
is very effective in miscellaneous beds and borders. Any ordinary
good garden soil is suitable for the Egg Plant, but it will only thrive
to perfection in rich gi'ound. In preparing the land, manure should
be used freely when necessary, and the ground deeply worked. It is
essential in the cultivation of this plant for culinary purposes that
growth should be strong and rapid. When grown as a crop the
plants should be arranged in rows, four feet apart, leaving about
three feet between in the lines. As the plants are tender, they
cannot be safely planted out till all danger from frost has passed
unless means are taken to protect them. The plants should be kept
as free from weeds as possible, and more especially during the early
stages of growth. Before the hot weather sets in it will be advisable
to mulch the surface soil between the plants to conserve the moisture
as much as possible. Should the plants show any tendency to make
straggling growth, they must be kept within bounds by pinching
back the shoots from time to time. As the plants require a steady
supply of moisture, water should be used freely in diy weather, and
growth will be materially assisted by the use of liquid manure
occasionally,

Propagation.

As a rule the Egg Plant is propagated from seeds, though, if
necessary, plants may be obtained from cuttings of the young shoots,
which root freely in sand under a glass. Seed should be saved from
the largest and most perfect fruits, which, as a rule are those that
are first formed. The fruits must be allowed to get perfectly ripe
before they are gathered. If required for home use the seed can be
allowed to remain in the fruit till it is wanted, but, if necessary, it
may be taken out, washed, dried, and packed away in paper bags.
Seed will retain its vitality for about seven years, and will sometimes
germinate when eight, nine, or ten years old. The seeds should be
sown in rich, finely-prepared soil, covering them to the depth of half-
an-inch. It is the better plan to sow it in pots or small frames
rather than in the open ground. If early plants are required, and
in many localities it will be an advantage to have them, they may
be obtained by sowing in a hot bed as recommended for Cucumbers
(see page 2ftl). Before putting them in the open ground, plants
raised by artificial heat should be gradually hardened off, so that
they will not be materially affected by the change. It will also be

301

advisable to shade fom the sun for a few days till the plants are
established by sticking a few small branches round them, or in some
other way.

Varieties. *

The following list embraces some of the best and most distinct
varieties, of which there are many : —

Blank Pekin. — A moderately robust variety , with large pyriform
fruit. Colour, a very dee]) black-purple. ~

Blaek Pekin.

LoBg Purple.

White Fruited

Large Purple.

802

Chiriese Lmig White. — Tliisis a late and soDiewliat tender kind, with
pale green foliage. The fruit is Avhite, eight or nine inches in length
and ahont two and a-luilf in diameter, more oi- less curved.

Large Purple (America?/ Large Purj^Je^ Bound Purple). — This
variety has remarkably large fi-uit from seven to eight inches long,
and six or seven in diameter. Colour, deep purple, with occasional
stripes of yellowish-green. The plant is hai-dy, compact in habit, and
fruits ratliei- early in the season.

Long Purple. — A hardy and prolific kind, Avith fruit from six to
eight inches in length, slightly curved. Colour, light pur])le, usually
marked or blotched Avith yelloAvish-green. Plant moderately hardy.

Scarlet Fruited. — A handsome Aaiiety, Avitb brilliant scarlet fruit,
which in shape and size is similai' to a lien's e^^. This variety is
chiefly cultiAated as an ornamental plant, and seldom for culinary
purposes. It is someAvhat tender in habit, and ripens late.

White Fruited.— Th'm is the common vai-iety from Avhich the name
is deriA'ed. The fruit is milk Avhite, similar in shape to a hen's egg,
and ranges from three to tiAe inches in length, and fi-om tAvo to three
in diameter. This is one of the earliest, hardiest, and most productiA'e
varieties.

ELDER.

History and Uses.

The European Elderberry is knoAvn botanically as Sarnhvcus nigtri
and it belongs to the natural order Caprifoliacese, or the Honeysuckle
family. The generic name is said to be deriA^ed from Sambnca, a
musical instrument, some of the earliest of these l)eing made from
the Avood of the Eldei-. The specific name nigrn is deiiAcd from the
dark colour of the fruit. ScA'eral species of the family yield berries
that are sometimes used for making Avine and medicinal j)urposes,
but only to a small extent as comj)ai*ed Avitli the common Elder
(S(fmbucus rtigra). This species is indigenous to the United Kingdom
and many other parts of Europe, being a common plant in the foi-ests
and hedgeiOAVs. It is a A-ery hardy plant, and Avill flourish in the
most bleak situations, and at the same time its gi'owth is A^ery
rapid, though, as a rule, it does not attain a large size, seldom
exceeding tAventy feet, but, exceptionally, larger trees haAC been
knoAvn.

In England and some of the northei-n counti'ies of Europe it is a
common practise to make Avine from the deep purple oi' black bennes,
Avhicli are produced in great abundance. Elderberry Avine is a
popular beverage Avith many during the Avinter season, being
generally considered to be a comforting draught when warmed and
spiced and taken before going to bed. It is also considered to he an
excellent remedy foi- colds. From the Avine an excellent spirit can
be obtained by distillation. Both the flowers and the bei'ries have a
faint, sickly smell that is unpleasant and hurtful to some people, and

:\0^

for this reason the Ekler should not be planted too near dwellings.
Medicinally, the flowers, berries, leaves, and bark, are considered to
be sei'viceable for certain complaints, though they are not in such
high repute as they were formerly. The berries at one time held
high rank among the remedies for fever, gout, i-heumatism, and
cutaneous disorders. Both tlie berries and flowers act as aperients.
The beri'ies are also reputed to possess narcotic properties to some
extent. The flowers are used as a fomentation and in the preparation
of cooling ointments. To a large extent tliey ai-e also used by-
distillation in the preparation of Elder flower water, which is a
popular application in cases of inflammation and cutaneous eruptions.
The bark of the Eldei* is strongly purgative, and was formerly
considered to be a sovereig-n remedy for di-opsy. When boiled in
lard the leaves form a good unguent, formerly in general use by
farriers. They are not touched by horses or cattle, but sheep will
sometimes, eat them. They are obnoxious to many of the smaller
insects, and assist in keeping them away. Branches hung up in
dwelling-houses or stables will, to some extent, mitigate the pest of
flies in summer, and when placed about the heads of hoi-ses the
animals get great relief. An infusion of the leaves makes an
excellent insecticide for aphides, thi-ips, red spider, and mealy bug*.
The leaves are also said to banish moles and mice and other vermin.
When young the wood of the Elder is brittle, bat with age it
becomes hard and tough and can be utilized for various purposes
where these qualities are desirable. Owing, however, to the large
propoi'tion of spongy pith, it does not take rank among timber trees.

Other species whose fruits are utilized are Samhucus australis a
native of South America Somhucus canadensis^ (Canadian Elder) a
robust species indigenous to North Eastern America which is used to
make a wine, and has also valuable medicinal qualities. Samhucus
glauca is the Califoiiiian Elder, a robust species which attains a
height of about twenty feet and is very prolific. The fruit is used to
some extent in its na.tive country in the same way as the common
Eldei'. Samhucus Gaitdichaudiana an Australian species found in all
the colonies except West Australia, and Samhucus xanthocarpa^
indigenous to Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, yields
sweetish fruit that is eaten by the aboriginals.

Though the Elder flourishes in man}^ parts of Australasia, and
more especially in the cooler regions, yet its value seems to be
altogether ignored. Trees are by no means uncommon, and the
writer has come across veiy fine specimes in various localities, but
the fruit or flowers are seldom utilized as in Europe. As a rule it is
simpl}' grown as an ornamental plant, and growers seem to have no
knowledge as to its economic value. Possibly in time it will receive
gi^eater attention, and will be utilized as in other countries.

Cultivation and Pboi'agation

The Elder ^vill grow in any ordinary soil, and its cultivation is
very simjde. Prepare the gi-ound as for other trees, and, if a regular

804

plantation, set tlie plants out about twenty-one feet apai-t. The
plant, however, does well as a hedge, and makes an excellent
breakwind for the more tender fruits. When requii-ed as a hedge it
may be planted five or six feet apart, and the plants must be Avell
cut back for a year or two to induce a bushy bottom growth.

Propagation is most usually effected by cuttings which strike
finely in sand or light soil. They should be from twelve to fifteen
inches long, and must be put in just befoi'e spring commences.
Plants can also be readily obtained from layei-s which may be put
down at any time Avhen growth is active. Bat little pruning is
required, all that is necessary being to thin the branches when too
numerous and to regulate growth to effect other objects.

ELEPHANT APPLE.

The fruit known under this name is the product of an evergreen
small tree belonging to the order Aurantacea?, or Orange family, and
known to botanists as Feronia elepha'nhim. It is a nati\'e of Southern
India, and has bluish- white flowers. The name is derived from
Feronia, the Goddess of forests, in allusion to the natural^ habitat of
this tree. The fi^uit is the size of a large Apple, and has a hard, woody
rind, with numerous seeds embedded in a pulp that is pleasantly sub-
acid, with a flavour somewhat similar to the Bhel Fruit or Bengal
Quince.

Being a native of a warm country the Elephant Apple can onl}- be
successfully cultivated in the tropical regions of Australia. As a
commercial fruit it is scarcely woi'th cultivating, but in congenial
localities it is Avoi-thy of attention as an ornamental tree. It requires
an open soil, lich in vegetable matter, and must be sheltei'ed from
high winds. Propagation is easily effected by seeds, Avhich should be
sown when fi-esh, covering them an incli deep. Plants may also be
obtained from layers and cuttings of the ripened wood of the current
season's gi'owth. Avhich strike freely in sand^ under a glass.

EUGENIA.

History and Uses.

Several species of Eugenia, a genus belonging to the natural order
Myrtacece or Myrtle family, yield edible fruits of more or less value,
which are utilized in various parts of the world. They are all
handsome evergreen shrubs or small trees, and are rather widely
distributed, species being found in Australia, Polynesia, India, South
Africa, Ceylon, and South America. In some of the countries to
which they are indigenous several of the species are regarded as
useful fruits, but in Australia, though several are cultivated as
ornamental plants, they are not utilized in any other way. Though

305

some of the species belong to ti'opical countries, and are tlierefore too
tender for cultivation in the Southern Colonies, yet there are several
natives of cooler regions that thrive well in all but very cold districts.
These may be worth trpng, and though they may not prove quite
satisfactory as fruit-bearing plants, yet their ornamental appearance
Avill make them attractive as evergreen ti'ees or shrubs. The fruits
of the various species diffei* considerably in size, colour, and flavour,
some being as large as small Apples, while others are only the size of
Currants. The relative value of the fruits of many of the specjes
have not been precisely ascertained, and it is possible, by hybridi-
zation and careful culture, to impi'ove upon the original kinds, as
has been done with many other fruits

The principal fruits obtained from this family are what are
know^n as Rose or Malay Apples, which are the products of Eugenia
Jambos {Jambosa vtilgaris) and Eugenia Malaccensis), Indian species.
These bear fruit sometimes as large as small Apples, the pulp of
which is juicy, wholesome, and agreeable. These and other tropical
species, can only, as a matter of course, be cultivated in the warmer
parts of Australia, and therefore are not likely to receive much
attention in other regions. Eugenia unijfora (Michelii), a South
American species known as the Bi*azilian Cherry, with frait the size
of Cherries, is more hardy, and will grow in the medium warm
districts where frosts are not severe. It is a handsome oi'naniental
evergreen. Eugenia Ugni, a Chilian species, yields a fruit that is
veiy popular in its native country, and largely cultivated. It bears
small dull purple fruit about the size of a marble, and yields a
pleasantly flavoured pulp and an aromatic juice, Avhich when mixed
with water makes a refreshing drink. This species is an evergreen
shrub which will thrive in all the milder districts. Eugenia
myrti folia (australis) is a handsome Australian species w^liich attains
the size of a large shrub. It bears oval, crimson, small fruit which
is juicy, acidulous, and very palatable. The tree is very ornamental,
and may be grown successfully in all the milder districts. Eunenia
Smithii, {}ff/rtu,s Smithii,) another Australian species, is the "Lilly
Pilly " of New South Wales. It has small waxy white fruit that is
edible but inferior to other kinds, yet its handsome foliage makes it
a desirable ornamental shrub. It is one of the hardiest species and
will thrive in all but the cold distiicts.

Among the many other species of Eugenia that yield edible fruits
worthy of attention. Baron von Mueller, in his valuable work
" Select Plants for Industrial Cultui'e," makes the following selection,
Eugenia Hallii, a Peruvian sjjecies with lai'ge fruit. Eugenia Jamhohwa^
a S})ecies indigenous to Southern Asia, Polynesia, and Eastern
Australia, w ith fruit the size of Cherries. Eugenia cordifolia^ a species
from Ceylon, with fruit about an inch in diameter. Eugenia mahoides a
species from Bi-azil, with fruit the size of small Chei-ries. Eugenia
Nhanica., a Brazilian species with fruit the size of large Plums. This is a
popular table fruit in its native country. Eugenia pifriformis, another
Brazilian species with large palatable peai'-shaped fruit known in
Brazil undei* the name of Uvalho de Campo. Eugenia revoluta, a

306

species from Ceylon, where it grows in elevated regions, with fruit
the size of a lai'ge Cherry. Etigema rotundifolia^ this species is also
from elevated I'egions in Ceylon, growing to an attitude of 8000 feet,
and has fruit as large as a Cheiiy. Eugenia supra-axillaris a
Bi'azilian species with large palatable fruit commonly known in its
native country under the name of " Tata." Eugenia Zeyheri^ this is
a robust South African species which attains a height of about
twenty feet and bears fruit the size of Cherines. It must also be
stated that the fi'uits of any of the before-named kinds make
an excellent conserve, similar to that made from the Guava, to Avhich
they are closely allied.

Cultivation ani> Propagation.

Any of the hardier Eugeniaa may be cultivated without difficulty
in congenial localities. They will not stand sevei-e frosts, however,
and must be sheltered from the effects of strong Avinds. Any faii'Iy
good soil is suitable for them, but they will thrive best in a rich
sandy loam. The ground should be well pj-epared, and drainage
provided where necessary. If planted in shrubberies cai-e must be
taken that sti'onger trees do not interfere with the growth of the
plants. Keep the ground as clean as possible, and mulch the sui-face
before the hot weather sets in, which will materially assist the plants.
Seeds may be sOAvn at any time, covering them an inch deep. When
large enough to handle, the gTowing plants should be potted off
singly, or planted out in beds, whei-e they must be kept till the
following season. The quickest Avay of obtaining plants is by layers,
which may be put down in the spring or late in the summer.
Cuttings of the i-ipened wood of the previous season's growth will
strike in sand or light soil, if placed under a handglass, and be fit for
planting out the following season.

FIG

History and Usks

Botanically the Fig is known under the name of Ficus^ the origin of
which is unknown, and it belongs to the natural order Urticacese, or
the Nettle family. The edible Fig of commerce is Ficjs Carica, a
species indigenous to the greater portion of Asia and Northern Africa.
It has been naturalized in the south of Europe from time immemorial,
and ranked among the necessities of life with the nations of antiquity.
The Fig appears to have been a popular and generally used fruit with the
Hebrews, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. By the ancient Jews this
fruit appears to have been highly valued, as it is frequently mentioned in
Bible history from the time of Moses. In Greece when Lycurgus decreed
that the Spartans should dine in a common hall, Figs were included in

307

{he contributions that each individual had to make to the general stock.
The Athenians considered this fruit to be of such great importance to
the welfare of the community that they prohibited its export. This
decree, however, was not generally popular, and was so frequently
evaded that it became necessary to employ officials specially to detect
breaches of the law. These officers were called Hukophanti (meaning,
literally, discoverers of Figs), which in time became a term of
reproach. From this name the English word sycophant is said to be^
derived. According to ancient historians, the Fig was always carried
immediately after the Grape vine in the processions in honor of Bacchus,
the god of wine. This deity was supposed to derive his vigour and
corpulence from eating Figs as well as drinking wine. Saturn, one of
the ancient deities, who was supposed to have introduced agriculture into
the Roman states, was always represented with a crown of Figs.
Cleopatra, the most luxurious of queens, is said to have had the asp,
which deprived her of life, introduced in a basket of Figs. Among the
Romans the opinion prevailed that plants had their sympathies and
antipathies, and, according to Pliny, they were in the habit of planting
rue near their Fig trees. This practice, he informs us, caused the fruit
to be sweeter, while at the same time the rue would grow with more
than ordinary luxuriance and have a more intensely bitter taste*

Great medicinal virtues were attributed to the Fig by ancient nations.
According to Pliny, among the Romans the fruit was considered to be
the best restorative food, for persons recovering from sickness, and he
tells us that '' Figs increase the strength of young people and preserve
elderly ones in good health, making them look younger and preventing
wrinkles." He further informs us that "Figs were considered to give
corpulency and strength, and that it was usual with the athletes in the
public games to eat large quantities." This writer also tells us that in
his time no less than twenty-nine distinct varieties of Figs were known
and cultivated by the Romans. In modern medicine the fruit is
considered to be demulcent and laxative. When (piite ripe the fruit
becomes highly flavoured^ and is very wholesome and digestible when
eaten in moderate quantities. If it is eaten too freely, or if the fruit is
not thoroughly ripe, some people are apt to suffer from flatulence or
diarrhoea. Sometimes the fruit is eaten to remove habitual costiveness ;
and, when split and roasted, Figs are often used as poultices for ulcers.

The Fig is said to have been introduced to England in the beginning of
the sixteenth century, during the reign of Henry YIII. Probably, however,
it was introduced at a much earlier date by the Romans, when they invaded
the country. Being more tender than many other fruits, and requiring
protection in cultivation, it never became popular with the bulk of the
people in any part of the United Kingdom. In fact, according to the
old writers, this fruit appears to have been held in great contempt in
England, and this is how such expressions as " Not worth a Fig," and
" A Fig for such rubbish," had their origin. These expressions are used
up to the present time, and are frequently heard. It is said to have
been the custom of the Italians and Spaniards of the middle ages to give
poisoned Figs to those upon whom they wished to have revenge, and

808

probably this practice may have been the cause of vulgar prejudice that
formerly prevailed against this fruit in England. This prejudice,
however, no longer exists in that ctmntry, where the fresh fruit is now
largely used for dessert, and is highly esteemed by most people. In the
south of Europe, throughout Asia and a considerable portion of Africa,
dried Figs is an important item in the diet of the inhabitants. They are
also an important article of commerce in some countries, and more
especially France, Spain, Italy, Turkey, and Syria.

The process of drying is simple, and easily carried out. In the
countries where the Fig is an article of commerce, the practice is to
gather the fruit when it is perfectly ripe and dip it in a scalding-hot lye
made with the ashes of the tree. The fruit is merely dipped, and not
allowed to stand in the lye, after which it is spread out on trays or
mats and exposed to the sun. The fruit mu>»t be turned daily till it is
thoroughly cured, taking care that it is not exposed to the rain or night
dews. When the fruit is sufficiently dry it must be piled loosely in
boxes or casks lor two or three days. After this is done the Figs should
be tightly packed in layers in small boxes or dmms, in which they are
sent to market. Another method of drying, practised to some extent, is
to plunge the fruit into a boiling syrup of sugar for about two minutes
and then dry in the usual way. The practice of drying in slow ovens
has been introduced of late years, and more especially in America, by
growers on a large scale. This plan is no doubt the most ecDUomical,
easiest, and surest method of curing, as the grower has the most perfect
control over his fruit, and the process can go on uninterruptedly through
changes of the weather. On the other hand, however, sun-dried fruit,
when carefully prepared, is generally superior to that which is manu-
factured by artificial heat.

The Fig may be grown successfully in nearly every part of Australasia,
and its cultivation should be more general than it is at present It is
one of those fruits that are likely to prove of great value in the future.
For the fresh fruit the demand will always be somewhat limited, as in
that state the Fig only keeps a short time, and its carriage is difficult for
long distances. Probably, however, better and more certain supplies
for our local markets may induce a larger consumption. In the pro-
duction of dried Figs there is a wide field open to the energies of
cultivators residing in favourable localities. The Fig is a fruit specially
well adapted for the warm interior districts of Australia, where it
flourishes as well as in any other part of the world and yields heavy
crops. As yet growers have scarcely turned their attention to this
industry, but the results obtained by a few enterprising pioneers show
clearly that there is a great deal to be done in this direction. There is
no reason whatever why growers should not make the drying of Figs an
important business, and they will always be likely to command good
markets for their produce. Even to supply the local demand, which is
now met from outside sources, a considerable quantity of fruit is
required. Then after this demand has been supplied, there ought to be
no great difficulty in finding good markets elsewhere for any surplus that
we may raise.

809
Cultivation

Any fairly good soil is suitable for the Fig, and it does equally well
in neavy or light land. The land should be well worked if of a heavy,
retentive character, but in light, porous soils deep stiring is not so
essential. Drainage must be provided for when necessary, as the Fig,
even more than many other trees, is impatient of its rov>ts standing for
a length of time in soddened ground. Fully-developed trees, when
growing under favourable coaditions, will attain a height of from
twenty to twenty-flve feet, and must not stand closer than from twenty
four to twenty-seven feet if it is desired that they should grow to the
largest size. Some growers, however, do not care about large trees, and
prefer those that are more dwarf in habit. There is some reason in this
preference, as dwarf trees are more easily managed in gathering the
fruit and other respects. Dwarf trees are also more suitable for small
places, where a number of fruits are required upon limited areas. Trees
may in a great measure be kept down by severe root pruning and
avoiding highly stimulating manures. The most favourable time for
planting is in July, though it may be done at any time between the fall
of the leaf and the starting of growth in the spring.

The Fig requires but little in the way of pruning when the trees
reach maturity if growth has been properly regulated previously. Young
trees, as a matter of course, must have their branches thinned out or
shortened, in order to get a strong w^oody growth and heads of the
desired form. Sometimes, owing to local circumstances — such as a very
rich soil, using manure too freely, or the natural vigour of the variety — •
trees will make a rampant growth of wood, and produce but little fruit.
This is a very common thing with Figs, and the evil can only be
counteracted by root pruning, which should be done before growth
commences. By adopting this plan the growth of over-luxuriant trees
will be materially checked, and in most cases their fruitfulness is
increased.

The Fig always produces two, and sometimes three, crops of fruit,
which are borne upon -wood of various ages. As a rule the second
crop is the largest, and yields the best fruit. Fructification occurs in
a somewhat singular manner, there being no visible flowers, and fruit
rises from the A\-ood in the shape of small buds. These are perforated
at the ends, but do not show^ the organs of fructification, which are
concealed within. As the fruit enlarges the flower comes to maturity
in its concealment. The pollen, being confined in this manner, requires
the assistance of insects to disperse it, as wn'thout this help the fruit
becomes abortive and drops off early. European cultivators assist in
bringing about fertilization, or caprification as it is termed, ])y inserting
straws, w^hich have been dipped in olive oil, to mix the pollen. In
Turkey and Syria the opei'ation is assisted by hanging branches of
the wild Fig in the trees. These wild Figs are infested with a species
of cynips, which, in its winged state, penetrates the cultivated fruit,
and so effectively disperses the pollen. This insect, which is known
as BJastophaga psnes, {grossum) and commonly as the Caprification

310

Insect, has been introdnced to New South Wales at the instigation
of Baron Von Mueller and the Australian Association for the
Advancement of Science. It should be known howevei-, that some
good authorities are doubtful as to the vakie of this insect to the
cultivators of Figs.

Prepared Cutting.

Plants from Cuttings.

Flute or Annular Budding,

As in the case of other fruits, the Fig does best when its roots have
not to contend with an undergTowth of weeds. The gi'ound should,
therefore, be kept as clean as possible by fretjuent scarifying- and

311

hoeings, taking care not to distui'l) tlie roots to any great extent.
Before the hot weather sets in, let tlie ground be mulched thi-ee or
four inches deep, to check rapid evaporation and conserve moisture as
much as possible. The Fig tree is a rather strong feedei;, and, if
necessary, must be kept in good heart by the use of manure occasionally.
Manure in large quantities, howe\'er, or when of too forcing a nature,
is apt to cause over- luxuriance in growth, which is not desirable.
When gi'own under favourable conditions the Fig is naturally a very
long-lived tree. The first trees introduced from Italy to England
by Cardinal Pole in 1525, and planted it in the grounds of Lambeth
Palace, wei-e alive and floui-ishing but a few years ago. They were
of the kind known as tlie White Marseilles, and when over three
hundred years old bore excellent ci-ops of fi'uit. Another tree of tlie
same variety brought from Aleppo by a Dr. Pocock was planted at
Oxford in 1648, and up to 1819 it was in a flourishing condition,
bearing heavy croj^s. INfany othei' well authenticated records exist
of Fig trees attaining great ages. The wood of the Fig tree is light
and spongy, and but of little value commercially. In the south of
Europe it is sometimes used, when charged with oil, for polishing
iron and steel. Foi'iiierly it was extensively used by the Egyptians
in embalming the bodies of their dead.

Propagation.

Propagation is effected by seeds, eyes, cuttings, layers, grafts, buds,
and suckers. Seeds will vegetate freely as a rule, and the plants
generally come fairly true to their parents, but they are several years
before they fruit. Cuttings root freely in sand or light soil, and
produce vigorous, well-shaped plants. Those of last season's wood,
ten or twelve inches long, should be selected, and planted in rows
about thirty inches apart, leaving a space of a foot between in the
lines. Insert the cuttings about half their depth in the soil.
Layers root i-eadily, and very good plants may be obtained b}' this
means. If desirable, plants may also be obtained fi-om single eyes,
with a fair portion of wood attached, and planted two or three inches
deep. This method, however, is only serviceable in allowing particular
varieties to be propagated more quickly than could be done in the
ordinary way. Suckei-s are freely produced, and plants obtained by
this means are those mostly used. Grafting may be pi-actised, as also
budding, both methods being useful in perpetuating varieties (juickly
and in substituting better for inferior kinds. What is known as
annular, flute, oi- whistle budding is popular with European gardeners
in propagating Figs. Full dii-ections are given at page 21 for practising
this method. Probably if the j)ractices of grafting and budding were
more genei-ally adopted with the Fig, as vWth most other fruits, it
would be an advantage to gi'owers. Varieties of fruits are often
altered materially in chai*acter by the influence of the stocks upon
which they are worked, and doubtless the Fig may be acted upon
by the same means.

312

Varieties

The varieties of the Fig are numerous, and the following selection
embraces most of those that are reputable. The list includes several
French, Italian, and Spanish varieties that are reputed to be specially
well adapted for drying, but which, as far as the writei* is a\vai*e of,
have not been introduced to the Austi-alasian Colonies.

Bee de Perdrix. — A Spanish variety, with highly flavoured fruit,
rather below medium size, pyriform in shape, and an excellent Fig

Brown Ischia.

White Adriatic.

Brown Turkey.

Smyrna.

\

813

for drying. Skin dark purple, with a rich bloom. Flesh dark rose
coloured, firm, sugary, and jnicy. Tree moderately vigorous, and a
free bearer.

Black Boiirjassotte (Precoce Noire). — A very early French variety,
with medium-sized, roundish oblate fruit. Skin quite black, and
thickly covered with a blue bloom, cracks in lines when fully ripe.
Flesh deep red, firm, syrupy, and very highly flavoured. Tree
vigorous and prolific. ~

Black Genoa (Nigra). — This variety, which is supposed to be of
Italian origin, bears large oblong fruit, very broad at the apex, and
slender towards the stalk. Skin deep purple-black, covei'ed thickly
with bloom. Flesh deep red, juicy, sweet, and well flavoui'ed. Tree
very robust, hardy, and prolific.

Black Ischia (Blue Ischia). — An Italian vaiiety, with medium-sized
turbinate fruit, flattened at the top. Skin deep purple-black. Flesh
deep red, sweet, and luscious. Tree hardy, very prolific, and bears at
:an early period of growth. Fruit ripens a little after the Black
Genoa.

Black Provence (Black Marseilles). — A French variety, with
roundish oblong fruit, rather below the medium size. Skin brownish-
black. Flesh red, tender, very sweet, and luscious. Tree hardy,
very prolific, and bears at an early age. Ripens rather early.

Bordeaux (Vwlette, Violette de Bordeaux).— A. desirable French
variety, with large, long pyriform fruit. Skin black, thickly covered
with bloom, and when dead ripe splits in lines. Flesh yellowisn-red,
tender, juicy, and sweet. Tree robust, and a moderately good bearer.

Brown Ischia. An excellent Italian variety, with medium-sized
roundish fruit, which ripens early. Skin light chestnut brown. Flesh
reddish-purple, very sweet, and highly flavoured. Fruit somewhat liable
to crack and burst in wet seasons. Tree hardy and robust, and a heavy
bearer.

Brown Turkey {Blue Fig, Blue Burgundtf, Brown Italian, Brown
Naples). — This is a popular Fig of Italian origin, with large oblong or
pyriform fruit, whicli ripens early. Skin brownish- red, covered with a
thick blue bloom. Flesh red, very sweet, and luscious. Tree very
hardy, and a regular and abundant bearer.

Brunsioick Black (Naples, Broivn Ilamhurgh). — This is an excellent
variety of doubtful origin, and one of the best of the dark-skinned sorts.
Fruit large and pyriform. Skin deep vioiet-brown. Flesh reddish-pink,
sweet, and richly flavoured. Tree very hardy and prolific.

Castle Kennedy. — This is an old and popular variety in the United
Kingdom, and derives its name from Castle Kennedy in Scotland, where
it has been cultivated for considerably more than a hundred years. The
fruit is very large, obovate in shape, and remarkable for its earliness,
being ripe several days before most other kinds. Skin pale dingy-brown
mottled with grey. Flesh pale, with slight stains of red in the centre,
tender, sweet, and fairly well flavoured. Tree hardy, of vigorous habit,
^nd an abundant bearer.

Col di Signora Blauca. — An Italian variety of high quality, said to be

314

well adapted for drying. Fruit medium-sized, pyriform, with a rather
long neck. Skin thick, yellowish-green, thickly covered with bloom.
Flesh deep-red, firm, syrupy, and very highly flavoured. Tree said to be
robust and prolific.

Cot di Signora ^ero. — Another excellent Italian variety, that ripens
late, and said to be specially suitable for drying. Fruit above medium
size, long, and pyriform. Flesh very dark red, and exceedingly sugaiy
and highly flavoured. Tree reputed to be vigorous, and a free bearer.

D'Or de Laura. — A. French variety, said to be excellent for drying.
Fruit rather under medium size, oblong. Skin yellowish-green. Flesh
richly flavoured and sugary. Tree reputed to be hardy and prolific.

Early Violet. — A variety of doubtful origin, with small roundish fruit,
which ripens very early in the season. Skin reddish-brown, with a thick,
blue bloom. Flesh red, and well flavoured. Tree hardy, remarkably
prolific, bears early, and generally three serviceable crops. Though the
fruit is small, this variety is valuable for its earliness and freedom in
bearing.

Malta (Small Brown). — A small but very richly flavoured variety of
doubtful origin, suitable for drying, whose fruit will hang on the trees
till it gets shrivelled, when it becomes a pleasant sweetmeat. Fruit
roundish, and ripens late. Skin pale brown. Flesh pale brown, and
very sweet. Tree fair, vigorous, and bears freely.

Pean Dure {Peldure), — Another French variety, said to be admirably
well adapted for drying. Fruit medium-sized, pyriform, with a short
neck. Skin pale yellowish-green. Flesh pale red, sweet, firm, and rich.
Tree fairly robust and prolific.

Smyrna. — A variety with medium-sized, or under, sweet, richly
flavoured fruit. This variety is one of the best drying Figs, and largely
used for the purpose. It is, however, doubtful whether the true variety
has yet been introduced to Australasia.

White Adinatic. — This name has been given by the Americans to an
excellent Italian variety which is known in its native country^ as Fico di
Fragola, or the Strawberry Fig. It is a hardy, robust, and prolific
variety. Fruit above medium size, pyriform, with medium neck and
shoi-t stalk. Skin yellowish- green, and very thin. Flesh Strawberry-red,
when dry a pale yellow, very sweet and rich. A good variety for
drying.

White Genoa, (Large White Genoa). — An Italian variety, with large
roundish obovate fruit. Skin pale greenish-brown. Flesh pale red,
sweet, and highly flavoured. Tree less hardy than some kinds, and bears
moderately well.

]Vhite Ischia (Green L'fchia). — Another Italian variety, with small
roundish fruit, which ripens a little late. Skin pale yellowish-green.
.Flesh reddish-purple, very sweet, and luscious. Tree small in habit,
bears very early, and is remarkably prolific.

White Marseilles (Rahy Castle, White N^aples, White Standard). — An
excellent French variety, with round fruit rather above the medium size.
Skin yellowish-green. Flesh pale brown, juicy, sugary, and very highly
flavoured.

iNoex^

VOL. 1.

The Scmntific Names and Synonyms are printed in Italics.

Mr A

Aboh

113

„ Cranberry

273

A chras australis

202

., Dewberry

221

A dansonia digit a ta

213

Amygdalis amara

106

„ Gregorii

214

,, communis

105

^gle Marmetos ...

217

,, dnlcis ...

lOG

African Almond ...

104

Anacardiun occidentale .

243

„ Bread Frnit

227

Analysis of Fruit Ashes .

34

Akee

104

Anchovy Pear

108

A Igaroba ...

239

Anona Cherimolia

291

Alligator Apple

291

„ muricata ...

290

„ Fear

209

„ palustris ...

290

Alkaline Wash . . .

98

„ reticulata ...

290

Almender ...

225

„ squamosa ...

290

Almond

105

Aphides

77

Almonds, Variet

[ES.

Apple

„ Bettle

„ Borer Beetle

109
121
122

llrand's Jordan ...

107

Jordan

107

,, Moths

'. 122

Ladies Thin-shell ...

107

,, Root Borer

122

Large-fruited Sweet

107

Scab

124

Large Paper-shell

107

„ Scale

124

Pistache

107

Soft-shelled Sweet ...

107

Apples, Vabietie

s.

Sultana

108

Adam's Pearmain ...

131

Sweet Hard-shell el

107

Ailes

131

Tender shelled

107

Albermarle Pippin

189

Alexander ...
Alfriston ...

148
133

Alluvial Soils

25

American Blight ...

120

Allanbank Seedling

133

II.

American Golden Pippin ...

133

Buff ...

American Golden Russet . . .

133

Bulloch's Pippin ...

American ^ewtoivn Pippin

109

Bullock's Seedling ...

Amen can Red Juneating ...

147

Buncombe ...

American Summer Pearmain

133

Butters' Woodpecker

Anglesea Pippin ...

176

Burlivgton

Annie Elizabeth ...

134

Burliriqton Greening

Api

161

Caldwell

Aporta

148

Calville Blanche ...

Arbroath Pippin ...

172

Cambridge Pippin

Arle}/

188

Cannon Pearmain

Aromatic Russet ..

134

Carlisle Codlin

Ashmead's Kernel...

134

Carolina Red June

Aurora

184

Carolina Red, Streak

Autumn Pearmain

184

Carolina Spice

Bachelor

139

Carter's Blue

Baddow Pippin ...

134

Carse of Gowrie

Baldwin

134

Catshead Beefing ...

Baltimore Pippin ...

152

Cayuga Red Streak

Baltimore Red

135

Cellini

Barcelona Pearmain

134

Chamberlain's Late Scarlet

Bauman's Beinette

134

Charles Apple

Baxter's Pearmain...

134

Christie's Pippin ...

Beauty of Hants ...

134

Chronical ...

Beauty of Kent ...

135

Claremont Pippin

Beaut}/ of ]\'avark ...

144

Claygate Pearmain

Bedfordshire Foundling ...

135

Cleopatra ...

Bell's Scarlet

180

Clifton Nonesuch ...

Ben Davis ...

135

Clissold's Seedling...

Benoni

135

Coates

Bess Pool

136

Cobbett's Fall Pippin

Betty Geeson

137

Cockle Pippin

JJis/iop's Pip in ...

189

Coleman ...

Blenheim Orange ...

137

Combermere Aj^ple

Blenheim Pippin

137

Cooper's Market ...

Blondin

137

Cop)manthorpfe Crab

Blue Pearmain

137

Cornish Aromatic ...

Bonum

137

Cornish Gilliflower

Borovitsky

137

Cornish Jidy Flower

Borsdorifer

137

Cotton Apple

Boston Russet

137

Court Pendu Plat

Brabant Bellefleur

137

Court of Wick

Braddick's Nonpariel

137

Cox's Orange Pippin

Bramley's Seedling

139

Cox's Pomona

Brandy Apple

152

Cox's Red-Leaf Russet ...

Brookes Pippin ...

109

Craike's Seedling

Brownlee's Russet

139

CuUasaga ...

Brown Spice

134

Dainty

Buckingham

139

Devonshire Quarrenden ...

111.

Devonshire Red Streak .

144

GilleCs Seedling ...

Ditton Nonpariel ...

137

Girkin Pippin

Doimiey

156

Gladney's Red

Douuito)! Golden Pippin .

144

Glammis Castle

Downton Pippin ...

144

Gloria Mundi

Dr. Ilarve//

155

Glori/ of York

Dr. Hogg

• 144

Golden Apple

Dredge's Fame

144

G oh J en Beaut 1/

D. T. Fish

144

Golden Drop

Duchess of Oldenberg

144

Golden Harvey

Duke of Devonshire

146

Golden Knob

Dumelow's Seedling

146

Golden Noble

Dundee

153

Golden Pippin

Dutch Mignonne ...

146

Golden Reinette ...

Earli/ Crofton

157

Golden Russet

Early Harvest

146

Golden Husset

Early Joe ...

147

Golden Winter Pearmain ...

Early Julien

147

Gooseberry Pippin

Early Nonpariel ...

147

Grange's Pearmain

Early Red Margeret

147

Grange's Pippin ...

Early Strawberry ...

147

Gravenstein

Easter Pippin

151

Greenup's Pippin ...

Edmonton Aromatic Pippii

I 159

Green Winter Pippin

Elizabeth

153

Hambledon Deux Ans ...

Elton Eiiypin

144

Uauq^shire Yelhnv

Emperor Alexander

... 148

Hanwell Souring ...

English Golden Russet

153

Hardivlck ...

English Nonpariel

170

Harvey

English VipxAn

153

llawherrti Fip)pin ...

English Russet

148

Hawthornden

Esopus Spitzenburg

148

Herefordshire Deefing

Eve Appjle ...

147

Herefordshire Pearmain ...

Evening Party

150

Herefordshire Red Streak

Fall Pippin

150

Hoary Morning ...

Fameuse

175

Hollandbury

Fearn's Pippin

150

Holstein's Alpine Seedling...

Ferris' Pippin

150

Hood's Seedling

Five-crowned Pippin

150

Hoover

Flanders Pippin ...

168

Horsleij Pippin ...

Florence Pippin ...

150

Howes Russet

Flower of Kent

151

Hubbard's Pearmain

Forge

151

Hunt's Newtown Pippin ...

Formosa Pijipin ...

177

Hunt's Nonpariel ...

Fox Whelp

151

h'ish Codlin

French Crab

151

Irish Peach

Frith Pitcher

165

Irish Pitcher

Frf/s Pippin

142

Irish Russet

Garnet Pippin

137

Iron Ajyple

Gmrnon's Piijpin ...

142

Isle of Wight Pippin

IV

Jersey Greening ...

177

McAfee's Nonesuch

165

Jewett's Best

158

McLean^s Favourite

165

Joaniiettiiig

Ld8

McLellan

167

Jolly Beggar

158!

Maiden's Blush

165

Jonathan ...

158'

Male Carla

107

Jul 1/ Pippin

UGi

Mammoth ..

152

Juneatiny ...

168 j

Mank's Codlin

165

Keddleston Pippin

158!

Mannington's Pearmain

165

Kentish Fillbasket

159

Margil

165

Kentuchy Pippin ...

135!

Marston's Red Winter

167

Kentucky Bed Streak

159 :

Matchless ...

131

Kerry Pippin

159

Matchless ...

169

Keswick Codlin ...

159

Maverack's Sweet ...

167

King

139

Merjqinch Favourite

153

King Apple

161

Mela Carla

167

King George

137

Melon Apple

168

King of the Pippins

153

Mere de Menage ...

168

King of Tomkins County . . .

161

M inch all Crab

168

King Philip

158

Minier's Dumpling. . .

168

Knight's Golden Pippin . . .

144

Mobb's Royal

169

Knightwick Pippin

142

Morgan'' s Favourite

184

Kirke's A dmirable . .

156

Morgan's Seedling...

169

Kirke's Lord Nelson,

164

Moustrous Pippin ...

152

Lady Apple

161

Moss's Incomparable

169

Lady P'itzpatrick ...

1.39

Mother Apple

172

Lady Henniker

16-2

Mr. Gladstone

169

Lady Washington ...

189

Munroe's Favourite

169

Lamb Abbey Pearmain

162

Murches Pippin ...

165

Lancashire Crab ...

168

Never/ail ...

165

Lane's Prince Albert

162

Newtown Pippin ...

169

Late Wine

162

New England Pigeon

169

Leathercoat Russet...

179

iVetv J/awthornden. . .

187

Lemon Pippin

162

New Rock Pippin ...

169

Lewis's Incomparable

163

NeiV York (xreening

133

Lima

184

Neiv York Pipjnn ...

141

Lincolnshire Holland Pippin

163

Newtown Greening...

133

Loddingtoji Seedling

163

Newtown Spitzenburgh

169

Lodgemore Xonpariel

163

Nickajack ...

170

Ljoiidon Pippin

150

Nonesuch ...

170

Lord Burghley

163

Nonpariel ...

170

Lord Derby

164

Norfolk Dearer

170

Lord Grosvenor ...

164

Norfolk Jleauji-n ...

171

Lord Gwyders Newtown

Norfolk Beefing

171

Pippin

133

Norfolk Pippin

131

Lord Lennox

164

Norm<(ntou Wonder

146

Lord Suttield

165

Northern Greening

172

LordWolseley '

105

Northern Spy

172

Lovedon''i3 Pippin ...

170

Norton's Melon

168

Lucombe's Seedling

165

Northwick Pi2)pin ...

137

V.

N'utmeg Pippui ...

141

Round Pippin

Oldacre's Xew

IVS

Roxhury liusset

Old Golden PqjjJtu

152

Rot/a I Peanmnn ...

Old .Pe<fr?uain

156

Royal Russet

Old Fe((rm<(iii

188

Roga I Somerset

Orange Pippin

157!

Russet Coat Nonpariel

Ortlei/ Pippin

141^

Russian Emperor ...

Oslin

172

Russian

Ox Apple ...

152

Rymer

Ox J!:i/e

169

Sack Apple

Oxford Pettcli ... ...

180

Sam Raw lings

Pearson's Plate

173

Sam Young

Peasegood's Nonesuch

174

Sandringham

Peck's Pleasant

174

Scarlet Nonpariel ...

Perfection ...

174

Scarlet Pearmain ...

Pineapple Russet ...

174

Scuddamore's Grab

Pitmaston Nonpariel

174

Shepherd's Fame ...

Ponime de Neige ...

175

Shepherd' >< Perfection

Portugid ...

177

Shepherd's Seedling

Prince Bismarck ..

175

Shockley ...

Prince of the Pippins

175

Shoreland Queen ...

Princess Xoble

153

Small's Admirable...

Putnam Russet

137

Smith's Cider

Queen

139

Snoiv Apple . .

Queen of the Pippins

75

Southampton Pippin

Queens

137

Speckled Pearmain

Read's Baker

i71

Speckled Golden Reinette

Red Astrachan

176

Spice A2)pl€

Red Ingestrie

176

Spring Ribston

Red Ju eating

147

Stamford Pippin ...

Bed Quarrendeu ...

144

Stansill

Red Pippin

135

Stettin Pippin

Red Pippin

170

Stewart's Seedling...

Red Streak

176

Stone Pippin

Red Warrior

177

Stone's Apple

Red Winter Pearmain

189

St. Helena Russet ...

Reiitette JUanche d^Espag}ie

187

St Mary's Pippin

Reinette du Canada

177

Striped Beefing

Keinette Rouge Hatif

177

Striped Holland Pippin

Reinette van Mons

177

Striped J ton eating ...

Reine des lU'inettes

175

Striped Quarrenden

Rhode Island Greening . . .

177

Stunner Pippin

Ribston Pippin

177

Siunmer Golden Pippin

Rokewood ...

177

Sum^ner Nonpariel

Romanite ...

179

Summer Pearmain . . .

Rome Beauty

179

Swaar

Roo/vs Nest

134

Sykehouse Russet ...

Rosemary Russet ...

179

Sylv<fu Russet

Ross Nonpariel

179

The Queen...

150
137
156
179
150
174
J 48
U2
181^
144
156
180
184
!80
180
176
181
174
133
181
181
181
182
175
158
134
134
134
134
182
182
146
182
183
163
177
144
183
163
147
147
183
184
147
184
184
184
137
184

VI.

Thorh Fijipin.
Tomviy lied
Towur of Glainmis . .
Traoers Pippin
Twenty Ounce
Tvvyford Beauty . . .
Tuscaloosa ...
Victoria Pipjjiv
Waclhurst Pippin . . .
Wagener ...
\V< (Inter Court
Waitliam Abbey Seedlin
WdUz Apple . .

Warner's King
W((rner Rxsset
Wdrren Pippin
WarwicJcslm-e Pippin
Wntennelon
Wdttaugah ...
Week's Pippin
Wellington ...

Westfield Seek-no- h'urtlier
WItite Ikl I flower ...
White CalVille
White Pippin
White Spanish Keinette
White Winter Calville
Whorle Pippin
Wine Scj) ...
Wine Sop ...
Winter Codlin
]Vinter Greening ...
Winter Hawthorndcn
Winter Majetin
Winter Pearmain . . .
Winter Queening . . .
Winter- QuoJning ...
Winter Red Strenk
Winter Rose
Winter Strawl^erry
Woodstock Pippin ...
Wolhiton Pippin ...
Worcester Pearmain
Wormsly Pippin
Wyken Pippin
Wf/ker Pippin
Yates

Yellow Bellefleur ...
Yelloio Harvest

187
161
184
177
184
185
185
135
185
186
172
185
174
186
137
189
188
168
157
142
14(3
186
141
186
141
187
186
187
188
188
187
151
187
188
188
188
188
159
170
188
137
142
188
188
188
153
189
189
146

Yellow Newtown Pippin . .

189

Yelloiv Pippin

142

Yellow Pippin

141

Yellow Pippin

142

Yorkshire Beauty ...

191

Yorkshire Goose Sauce

191

Yorkshire Greening-

191

York Pippin

150

Crab Apples.

A niher

192

Cherry Crah

191

Coral

191

Currant

191

Foxley

191

Lady Crab ...

191

Mareno'o ...

19!

Scarlet Siberian ...

191

Transcendent

192

Transparent

192

Yellow Siberian

192

Apricot

192

Apricots, Varieties.

A lianas

200

Beauge

196

Blenheim ...

197

Breda

197

Brussels

197

Canipbellficld Seedling

197

Canino Grosso

197

Early Moorpark

198

Golden Drop

198

Gros Precoce

198

Gros Rouge

11)8

Hative d'Auvergne

198

Hemskirk ...

19 >

Kaisha

198

Large Early

198

Large lied ...

198

Mansfield Seedling

198

Moorpark ...

199

Montgamet

199

Musch Mu&ch

199

Orange

199

OuilUn's Early Peach . .

199

Peach Apricot

l?00

Pennant Hill's Oval

200

Pine Apple

200

VIT.

Red Masculine

200

Barbadoes Gooseberry

216

Roman

200

>5 5? • • •

232

Royal

201

Barberry ...

215

Royal George

199

Bearberry ...

219

Jloyal Orange

199

Begoons

298

Royal Teach

200

Bell Pepper

238

Royal Persian

199

Bending Down Branches ...

54

Sardinian ... ...

201

liengal Quince

-2ir

SJiipley's

197

Benzole

98

St. Ambroi.so

201

llerhevis Asiatica ...

215

Stewart's ...

201

„ hiLvi folia ...

215

Transparent

200

„ Canadensis

215

Turkey

20!

„ Freemonti

215

Viard

201

„ Sepalensis

215

,, Siherica ...
„ vulgaris ...

215
215

Arbutus, Uva-Ursa

219

A rctostaphylos Manzanita . . .

219

Bertholettia excelsa

225

,, Uva-Ursa ... .

219

Bhel Fruit

217

Argan

201

Bigarreau Cherries

^45

A rgania sideroxylori

201

Bilberry

217

Armeniaca vulgaris

192

Bird Cherry

245

A rtocarpus commums

226

„ Pepper

238

y, mcisa ...

220

Bi-Sulphide of Carbon

08

Arsenite of Copper

101

Bitter Rot

126

Aspect for Orchards and

Blackberry ...

220

Vineyards
Aspiodotis ...

23

84

Blackberries, Varietius

•

A talan tia glauca ...

204

Americ'in Dewherry

224

Auhergine ...

298

Common ...

221

Australian Apple ...

202

Cloudberry...

221

„ Cherry

203

Crandell's Early ...

2 'J 2

,, Cranberry

203

Dewberry ...

222

„ Currant

204

Dorchester ...

222

„ Damson

203

Eno^lish

221

„ Desert Lemon ...

204

Himalayan...

222

,, Mulberry

204

Kittatinny ...

2 2

Nut

206

Lawton

223

„ Peach ...

208

Low Blackberry ...

224

„ Plums ...

208

New Rochelle

223

„ Pomegranate ...

209

Wilson's Early

224

Avelhnio ...

267

Wilson Junior

224

A iipwlinn ri'i liyyilv)

930

,, Carambola

2.38

Black Currant

284

Avocado Pear

209

„ Knot

90

Bad and Good Planting . . .

32

„ Spot

124

BaeJ Fruit ' ...

217

Blastop)haga, psnes ...

309

P>anana

210

„ grossum

309

Baobab

213

Bleaberry ...

217

Barbadoes Cherry ...

219

Blimbing ...

239

VITI.

Blood Plum

224

Carandas ...

232

Bhiestone ...

99

Carbolic Acid Emulsion ...

99

r>og Bilberry

218

Care in Lifting, Packing, kc.

31

Boiiedust ...

36

' Cargillea austral is...

208

Bordeaux Mixture ...

99

„ peritamera

208

Brahejnm f^tellatij'oiium

104

Carissa Brovmii

232

Brazil Almond

22o

„ Carandas ...

232

Brazilian Cherry ...

305

„ grandijlora

232

Brazil Nut ...

225

Carob

239

Bread Fruit

2^Q

Carpocapsa pomonella

122

„ Nut

228

Cashew Nut

243

Bringals ...

298

Castanea vesca

264

Bniijals

29«

Caterpillars

77

British Cranberry ...

273

Caustic Soda

99

„ Dewberry ...

220

Cayenne Pepper ...

233

Brosinmm Alirantrnm

228

CerasNs avium

245

Budding

19

„ C apron 2 aria

245

Bud Grafting

19

,, diiracina ...

245

Buffalo Berry

228

,, emai'ginata

246

Cactus Pieredia ...

216

,, Hid folia ...

246

Caccccia responsana

122

,, Juliana ... '" ...

245

Calif ornian Blackberry

220

,, lanro-ceraKi's

246

Elder ...'

303

„ liisitanica ...

246

Calodend7'<m Capense

231

Mahal eh

246

Cambuca ...

230

,, Padiis

2i5

(^anadian Elder

303

,, scroti 11 a ...

246

Canarium commune

267

,, serridata ...

246

Canker

93

„ tomentosa ...

246

Canning Fruit

74

,, vulgaris

245

Cape Chestnut

231

Ceratonia siliqua ...

239

„ Gooseberry ...

231

Chauliognathuspensijlvanicns

123

„ Plum...

232

Chayota

268

Caper Tree ...

209

Cherimoyer

291

Capparis arborea ...

209

Cherry

244

„ Mitchelli

209

„ Borer

78

Capsicum ...

233

„ Slug ... ...

81

Capsicums, Varieties.

Cherries, Varieties.

Bell Pepper

238

Archduke ...

249

Bird Pepper

238

Autumn Bigarreau

249

Bull Nose

238

Belle Agathe

249

Bullock's Heart

238

Belle de Choisy ...

249

Cherry

238

Belle d' Orleans

249

Chinese

238

Belle Magnifique ...

252

Guinea Pepper

236

Bigarreau ...

252

Long

238

Bigarreau de Hildesheim ...

252

Shrubby

238

Bigarreau de Holland

252

Bigarreau de Mezel

o ri rt

Jj'Vl

Cnrambola

238

Bigarreau Napoleon

252

IX.

Black Circassian ...

252

St. Margaret's

Black Edglc

252

Tradescant's Heart

Black Hawk

252

Twyford Bigarreau

Black Heart

..* 252

Waterloo ...

Black Russian

252

Werder's Early Black

Black Tartarian

252

Bleedivg Heart
Bohemian Black Bigarreau

•>.'') 8

. . ..dOO

255

Bullock'' s Heart ...

261

Cherry Capsicum ...

Gherrt/ Diike

258

Chestnut ...

Cleveland Bigarreau

255

Chilian Hazel

Common lied

1?58

Chilies ...

Downton ...

255

Chili Vinegar

Early Black Bigarreau

255

Chinese Banana

Early Duke

261

Olive

Early Lyon.s

255

„ Raisin

Early Purple Griotte

2 5

Chloride of Sodium

Early Purple Guigne

255

Choco

Early Red Bigarreau

255

Ckrysophyl I um pru ti iferum

Early Rivers

255

Chupa

Elklwrn

261

Cider

Elton

255

Clay Soils

Empress Eugenia ...

255

Clayey Loamy Soils

Florence ...

258

Cleft Grafting

Frogmore Early Bigarreau

258

Cloudberry

Gascoigne's Heart ..

258

Cockatoo Bush

German Mayduke ...

255

Cocoa Nut ...

Governor Wood

258

„ Plum

Heart of Midlothian

258

Cocos uucifera

Herefordshire Heart

258

Codlin Moth

Jeffrey's Duke

258

Coir ..

Jeffrey'' s Royal

258

Compound Fertilizers

Kentish

258

Copra

Knevetfs Late Bigarreau •

258

Copromia Billardeira

Large Black Bigarreau

261

Cordon Training ...

Late Bigarreau

258

Cornel

Late Duke •••

258

Cornel Phmi

Lion's Heart

261

Cornelian Clierry ...

May Duke • • •

261

Cornus mascida

iMilan

361

Cottony Cushion locale

Monstrous Heart ...

252

Crab Apples

Morello

261

Cranberry ...

Ohio Beauty

261

Cream Fruit

Ox Heart

261

Crickets

Pie Cherry...

258

Crystallizing Fruit

Bed Heart ...

258

Cucumber ...

Rival

261

Cucumis ativus

Rockport Bigarreau

261

Ciipania S'qnda

Spotted Big< i rrea u, ...

252

Currant

X.

Currants, Varieties.

BLACK.

BJ<ich Grape

Black Naples

Carter's Black Champion ...
Kentish Hero
Lee's Prolific
Ogden's Black

RED.

Champagne

Cherry

Fertile d' Anger's ...

Goliath ...

Houghton Castle ...
Imperial lied
La Fertile ...
La Hatiye ...
Jja Versaillaise
Long-bunched lied
Morgan's Red
Pheasant's Ei/e
Rahy Castle ...

Red Dutch...

Red Grape

Victoria

Wilmofs Red

WHITE.

White Crystal
White Dutch
White Grape
White Imperial
White Leghorn

Custard Apple

Cuttings

Ijacti/lo^jius

Date'

Date l^lum ...

D'lvidsoihia prurie^ts

Davidson's Plum ..

Dewberry ...

Diospijros Cargillea
,, deeandra

,, edidis

Kakl ..
J J loins

MaboLa ..

289
287
287
287
287
289

,, melanoxylon

„ temna ...

,, Virginiana

Dindijmds versicolor
Diphiicephda collaspidoidet
Diseases Injurious to Fruits
Dogberry Tree ...
Dogwood ... ... " ...

Doticns pestilens
I Draining ...

2g() i Drain Pipes

289 I Drying Fruits

LH)0
290
290
290
289
289
290
290
290
289
290

by Artificial

Heat

Durion

Durio Zehcthinns ...
Eau Celeste
„ Grison
Edible Acorns
„ Fruits

Egg Plant

Elder

Elder Leaf Water . . .
()Q0 i Eleodendron argania
oyQ ; Elephant Apple
,, Beetle
English Blackberry
Kpilachiia ...
Erechthias mystaclnetla
Espaliers ...
Eugenia

Eugenia Australis ...
, , cordifolui

200
290

290
290
290

290
290

290
4
80
29
20-4
209
209
220
208
294
294
294
294
294

Uallii ...
„ Jandjuiana
„ Jambos ...
,, maboid&s ...
„ Malaccensis
„ myrti folia
,, XJianica ...

5 J pyiformis
,, revohtta ...
,, rotunili folia
,, supr(( ajcillaris

Ugni
,j nni flora ...
„ Vd'yheri . . .
Fag as Castanea
Feronia elephantnm

294
295
295

80

80

93
271
271
121

26

27

69

71

296

296
99
99

297
1

298

302
99

201

304
79

220
88

122
60

304

305

305

305

305

305

305

305

305

305

305

305

306

306

305

305

306

264

304

XT.

Ficus Carica

306

Fungicides...

98

Fig

306

Fungi Injurious to Fruits ...

89

Figs, V^

.RIETIES.

Fusicladimns

Fui^icladinm dendriticmn ...

90
124

Bee de Perdrix

312

Gathering and Storing App^

es 129

Black Bourjassotte

313

„ Fruit

62

Black Genoa

313

Gean Cherries

245

Black Ischia

::^i3

General Manures ...

- 3,1

Black Mill miles

313

Geoffroya su.perha ...

225

Black Provence

813

Glwosjjorium versicolor

126

Jjlue BuruiuJy

313

Gooseberry Tomato

232

Blue Fig ...

313

Grafting ...

7

Bine Ischia

313

„ with Fruit Buds . .

16

Bordeaux ...

313

„ by Api)roach

17

Bro/rn Ifamhugrh

313

Great Whortleberry

218

Brown Ischia

313

Green Beetle

80

Broivn It<tlian

313

„ Vitroil

102

Brmon Naples

313

Grey Plum

208

Brown Turkey

313

Grias cauliflorus ...

108

Brunswick Black

313

Griotte Cherries ...

245

Castle Kennedy

313

Groundberries

203

Col di Signora Bla

nca ... 313

Grouseberry

219

Col di Sigdora Ner

0 ... 314

Gryllus Servillei ...

79

D'Or de Laura

314

Guano

37

Early Violet

314

Guaparanga

230

Fico di Fragola,

314

Guarding against Frost

40

Green Jschia

314

Ouevina aveUano ...

. 267

Larqe White Genoi

314

Guigne Cherries

245

Malta

314

Guinea Pepper

236

Naples

313

,, Squash

298

Nigra

313

Gumming ...

94

Peau Dure ...

314

Gypsum ... ...

37

Peliliire

314

Hcematostaphis Barter i

224

Precoce noire

313

llidyzia galbula,

87

Ruby C<(stle

314

Harlequin Beetle ...

80

Small JJrown

314

Heart Cherries

245

Smyrna

314

lied year ya C nnninghami . .

204

Violette

313

Hellebore ..

iOO

VioleUe e Bordfiai

u' ... 313

High Blackberry ...

220

White Adriatic

314

Hog Cranberry

2.19.

White Genoa

314

Holly-leaved Cherry

e46

White Ischia

314

Hounds Tree

271

White Marseilles

314

Hovenia dntcis

267

White Naj^les

214

How a Young Tree Slioulc

White Standard

314

be Cut

51

(hit^ shonlrl bp inarl^

.^9

Fire Blight

94

„ Manures Sliould b

e

Flute Budding

21

Used

38

„ Grafting

21

I eery a Purchasi ...

85

XII.

Illawarra Black Plum

208

Maraschino

Inarching ...

17

Markings in Apples

„ to Increase the

Mar Hera glomerata

Size of Fruit

19

„ tomentosa

„ to Fill Vacant

Marly Soils

Spaces

IJ

Maroga cjigaritella ...

Injurious Lady Birds

88

Matisia covdaia ...

Insecticides

08

Mealy Bug ..

Insects Injurious to Fruits

77

Mexican Little Apple

Ja^ery

270

Mildew

Jambosa vulgaris ...

305

Mixed Planting

Jams and Jellies ...

75

Modes of Draining

Juvia

22G

„ „ Grafting

Kainite

36

Morello C^herry

Keeping Fruit

G3

Mouldy Core

Kerosene ...

100

Mulching ...

Kirchwasser

247

Miisi Caveiidishi ...

Lady Birds

87

,, Chin en. His

Ldiulolphia florid a ...

103

„ nana...

„ Owarieiisis

!03

,, paradisiaca ...

L( turns Persea

210

y . JUgia ... < ...

Layering ...

3

„ sapientnm ...

Leaf Galls..

95

Mussel Scale

Lecaiiinin ...

84

Myopronm serratam

Leis conformis

86

Mnrtus SmitliU

Ijeptomeria acida ...

205

Mi/til(fspis ...

Lpetops Iloptei

122

X((geia spinulnsus ...

Ligatures ...

22

Native Apple

Lilly Pilly

305

., Cherry

Lime

35

,, Cranberry ...

• >

iOO

„ Currant

Lissanthe siqiida

20:3

,, Damson

Litsea de ((batu

204

„ Desert Lemon

Loamy Soils

24

„ Elder

Locust Tree

i39

„ Juniper

Lodoicea .'<eche/larnm

270

„ Kumquat ...

London Purple

101

„ Mulberry ...

Af<tba Curgillea

208

„ Myrtle

MabolaPlum

294

„ Nut

M<(cad((mia terni/olia

207

„ Peach

Macrocen trus delicntns

124

„ Plums

Mad Apple

299

„ Pomegranate

Male Mandrake

299

Nitrate of Potash ...

Ma Ipighia glabra ...

219

,, ,, Soda

„ puni folia

2i9

Noyau

.Malay Apple

305

Objects Attained by Pruning

Mandram ...

234

Oniscus a. He litis

Manures

33

Orcus anHralasice ...

Manzanita ...

219

,, chali/beus

XTIT.

0 rthorrhin us cylir) drirostrh

79

,, Season

53

Oivenia acidiiJa

208

Prunus amygdalus. ..

105

„ cerasiferd ...

208

„ armeniaca ...

192

„ veiiosa

208

Pyrethrum ...

101

Oxycoccus macrocarpus

273

Pyrus amygdalceformis

109

,, pahisfn's

273

,, haccata

191

Oyster Scale

84

,, coronaria

109

Packing Fruit

65

„ mains

-109

Packing Dried Fruit

73

,j rivniaris

109

Packages for Small Fruits...

67

„ saHcifolia ...

109

Pear Slug ...

81

Qualities Required in Apples

128

Peaty Soils

25

Quandong ...

208

Pepino

298

Quassia

101

Perfumed Cherry ...

246

Queensland Nut ...

207

Per sea gratissimd ...

210

„ Sour Plum

im

Persimmon...

295

Qtierciis castaii ea ...

•J97

Phmnix dactyUfera

292

,, cornea

298

Phi/Uostict<( circnmcissK

92

,, cuspidata ...

297

PhysaHs Alkekeiigi

232

garryana

007

,, Peruvian ua

231

,, glabra

298

„ pi/bescens ...

232

„ lobata

297

Peireskia acnleata ...

216

„ turbinel/a —

297

Pimpla a'liiuUpes ...

124

Quincunx Planting

31

Pipturiis argenteus. ..

204

liabbit Berry

208

Planting

29

Raging Aj^ple

299

Podocarpus spin uIosns

203

Ratifia

247

Porcupine Wood ...

270

Red Currant

284

Portuguese Squash

268

Red Spider

S2

Potash ...

36

Requirements in Pruning . . .

55

Powdery Mildew ...

127

Resin Compound ...

101

Preparing Grafting Clay . . .

17

Rhizorpertha cnllaris

122

„ „ Wax ...

17

Bhyparochromvs ...

83

Preparation of the Land . . .

27

Ribes aureum

284

Preserving Fruit in Bottles

75

,, bracteatum ...

284

Principal Forms in Apples

130

„ cereum

285

Propagation

2

„ floridum

285

Pruning

42

„ ^Griffithi

285

„ to Modify Form ...

43

,, nigrum

284

„ ,, Promote Growth

43

„ rnbrum

284

„ „ Increase Produc-

,. teunijlorum ...

285

tiveness

45

Rind Grafting

I'J

„ to Prevent the Spread

Ringing to Promote Fruit-

of Disease

46

fulness

53

„ to Renovate Old

Ripe Rot

106

Trees

47

Root Cuttings

6

„ to Improve the Fruit

47

„ Galls

95

„ Newly Planted Trees

48

„ Grafting

13

„ in Accordance with

„ Pruning

4G

Habit

52

„ Rot

96

XfV.

Rose Apple

305

„ spinosum

201

JloHpellia grata

'277

Slugs

85

Riibus coesius

221

Snails

85

,, Canadensis ...

221

Soap

101

„ Cliamcemoras

221

Soda

37

„ CorylifoHus ...

220

Soils and their Treatment . . .

24

„ cuneifoliits ...

220

Solainnn alhnm

298

,, fruticosns ...

220

,, escuhntum

299

Riihus viUosus

220

,, . ferox

298

„ vitifoUm

220

„ insanmn ...

298

Rust

91

,, I on gum ...

298

Rutlierglen Fly

83

,, melon gena

298

Saddle Graftiiifi^ ...

10

,, mnncatum

298

Salt

37

oviger'tm ...

298

)) ••• • • •

101

„ pseudo-saponaceiim

298

Samh'ictis ((Nstralis ...

303

,, serpintinum

298

,, canadensis

303

„ >in datum ...

298

,, 6randichaiidi((na _

303

Soot

101

„ glauca ...

303

Sooty Blight

91

„ y/?ym ...

302

Sour Gourd

214

„ mnthocarpt

303

Sour Plum...

208

Sand Blackberry ...

220

» Sop

290

Sandy Loam Soils...

24

Spanish Chestnut ...

264

Sandy Soils

24

Special Manures ...

35

Santalum acumination

208

Splice Grafting

8

„ Preisi^annm

208

Spon dias gla bra

209

Sea I dins

97

„ Sohmdr?

209

Scale Insects

84

Spur Pruning

48

Schi'^orieura lanigera

120

Sq>riiia)) // IJerv'ies...

285

Scorching ...

97

St. John\^ Bread ...

239

Season for Budding

22

Straivherry Fig

314

„ „ Grafting

16

„ Tomato

232

„ „ Planting

29

Styphelia hnmisifnsa

203

Sechitmi ednh^

208

„ pinifolia

203

Securing Graft and Bud

Subalterns Batter ...

209

Shoots

23

Sub soils ...

25

Seeds

0

Suckers

3

Sehmdria cerani

81

Sulphate of Ammonia

30

Selecting Buds

22

„ Copper

99

„ Ki nds and Varieties

27

„ Iron ...

37

Shelter

40

,, ,,

102

Shepherdia argentea

228

Sulphur

102

„ canadensis

228

Sulphuring dried Fruits ...

73

Shield Budding

20

Summer Pruning ...

48

Shot-hole Fungus

92

Sunburn ...

97

Shoulder Grafting ...

10

Sitiistrohe ...

97

Shrubby (Capsicum ...

238

Super-phosphate of Lime ...

30

Side Grafting

14

Sweet Chestnut ...

204

SuLroxyJon anstrale

202

,, Sop

290

XV.

Table of Manures . . .

38

Vacci in iirn ni'/rti II us

217

Tar Water

102

OxifCOCCKS

273

Tata

800

,, Ferinsf/lvaiiicinn 218

Telephorus 2:>itlchel(t(s

123

,, idigiuosam

218

Terminal Grafting . . .

16

,, Vitis-Idece

273

Tetra n yclius teJuriiis

82

V((hei( Jiorida

103

Thrips

8r.

„ Oivariensis ...

10':5

Tobacco

102

Vegetable Egg

...^ -^^

Tongue Grafting ...

8

,, Soils

25

Training

58

Veneer Grafting

15

Treatment of Wounds

54

Verariia creiiata

87

Trecidia africana ...

227

Volcanic Soils

24

U&eful Insects

^Q

Walnut-leaf Water...

102

„ Lady Birds...

87

Water Core

127

Use of Manure

33

Whip Grafting

8

„ Water

41

White Ants

85

Uses of Grafting ...

7

Whortleberries

217

Uvallio de Canipo ...

305

Wintei- Cherry

232

Vacci Ilium C'niadense

218

Wood Ashes

87

„ mdcrocarpon

273

Woodlice ...

86

THE AUSTRALASIAN

FRUIT OULTURIST,

CONTAINING

Full and Complete Information as to the History, Traditions, Uses,
Propagation, and Culture of such Fruits as are Suitable for Victoria,
Ne^ South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand;

ALSO

Descriptive Lists of the Principal Varieties of FrvdtSj

With Remarks as to their Adaptability

for Particular Purposes.

VOL. 2.

By DAVID ALEXANDER CRICHTON, E.R.H.S.,

Late Expert and Lecturer upon ^' Fruit Culture'' and ''Special A ^cultural and
Horticultural Industries " to the Victorian Department of Agnculture.

[COPYRIGHT RESERVED BY THE AUTHOR.]

MELBOURNE:

MINERVA PRINTING WORKS, ANDERSON ST., MELBOURNE W.

1893.

3
FIG MARIGOLD.

This is the common name for various sj^ecies of Mesembryantheiniim
which yield succulent fruits somewhat similar in appearance to small
Figs. They are succulent or fleshy leaved plants belonging to a niitural
order, of which they are the type, known as Mesembryaceae or Ficoidae:
The species known are very numerous, the great majority being natives of
South Africa. What is known as the Hottentot Fig is obtained front-two
distinct species, viz., M. acinaciforme and M. edule, A somewhat similar
fruit is obtained from J/. cequiU iter ale, which is indigenous to Australia
and the west coast of America, as also from other species. The fruit has
a sweetish pulp that is grateful to the palate. The leaves of these species
may 1)6 used as a vegetable when boiled, and are eaten by sheep and
other stock. The Hottentot Figs will thrive in the dry interior districts
of Australia, and are worthy of attention for their fruit in some localities,
and also as vegetable and fodder plants. The indigenous species named
(J/, (jequilaterale) thrives well in salt land of all descriptions, and is a
valuable plant for binding sea coast and other sandy soils. Propagation
is readily effected by seed which is freely produced, or pieces of the stems,
planted as cuttings, can be rooted without difficulty.

FIVE CORNER.

This is the common name of an Australian plant, an evevgreen
shrub of loAv growth, belono-ing to the order Epacridacea^, and know*
botanically as Sttjphelia viruJiflora . The fruit is very small, oval in
shape, and contains a comparatively large seed which has a thin
coveHng of gelatinous flesh that has a sweet and pleasant taste. The
common name has originated owing to the calyx, or husk, having five
angles. Though the fruit is of comparatively small value compared
with others, yet it is very popular with childi'en in localities where it
is indigenous, and is to some extent collected for sale in Sydney and
its suburbs. The plant is indigenous to the coast regions of New
South Wales, and is generally found in sandy and peaty soils.

The plant is not worth cultivation for its fruit as other kinds are
vastly superior, but being a neat shrub of compact growth, it deserves
attention for ornamental purposes, and its light green flowers conti-ast
well with others. Propagation may be effected by seed, layers, or
cuttings of the young shoots, which will strike in sand under a glass.

GAULTHIERIA.

History and Uses, • '-

This is a genus of ornamental evergreen shrubs belonging to the na,tural
order Ericaceje. They are chiefly natives of cool regionn in North
Western America, and two of the species yield fruit that is largely used
by the inliabitants of the countries where they grow naturally. GauUhiMa

ShaUoUy a spreading shrub, attains a height of from four to ten feet. It
bears white flowers, and the fruit, which is produced in great abundance, is^
when ripe, a purple-black. The fruit is pleasantly flavoured, and is largely-
used, in a fresh state, and also when dried by sun heat for winter use.
It is also turned to good account for making jam and jelly. GaulthieHa
myrsinitesy a procumbent shrub indigenous to Northern California, Oregon,,
and British Columbia, produces fruit in great abundance, which is in
colour scarlet. With the exception of being somewhat more aromatic,
the fruit has similar properties to the other species, and is used in the
same ways,

OULTIVATIOK AND PROPAGATION.

The Gaulthierias can only be cultivated successfully in the colder parts
of Australasia. They would thrive well in the alpine districts, and their
fruits are likely to prove useful acquisitions, as when known they would
doubtless become popular. Both species thrive best in moderately moist
peaty soil, and attain perfection under somewhat similar conditions to the
Cranberry. When grown for their fruit the plants should be arranged in
rows, abodt ten feet apart. As ornamental plants they may be utilized
with advantage in congenial localities. Propagation may be effected by
seeds, which should be sow^n early in the spring and covered to the depth
of half-an-inch. Plants may alsc> be readily obtained from layers which
strike freely if put down early in the autumn or spring.

GEEBUNG.

This is the common name for the fruit of several species of Persoonia,.
Australian shrubs or small trees belonging to the order Proteacese. They
are indigenous to the coast districts of New South Wales and other regions,
andhave handsome bright green foliage that makes them very attractive as
shrubs. The foliage is much used in Sydney in the formation of wreaths
for decorations, as the leaves retain their rigidity longer than most other
evergreen shrubs. The fruit is about the size of a small Cherry, the
mucjiaginous flesh covering a large seed. In flavour it is very insipid,
s%litly astringent, and it is absolutely worthless as a fruit, though it is
'eateO with relish by aboriginals and children. The wood is light coloured,
hard and durable, and is excellent for tool handles and similar purposes.
The various species are not worth growing as fruit plants, but in congenial
locaTities they are worthy of attention as ornamental shrubs. They thrive
in sandy or peaty soils, and may be grown in localities where the frosts
are but light. Propagation is ettected by layers, and cuttings of the
ripened wood of the current season's growth will strike in sand under a
glass.

GEN I p.

This is the name of an evergreen tree, indigenous to Guiana and other
parts of tropical South America, belonging to the order Clinch on acesft

(Rubiaceae), and known botanically as Geriipa Americana. It attains a
height of about thirty feet, has handsome foliage, and bears pale yellow
flowers. The fruit, which is about the size of an ordinary <'>range, has a
thick rind or shell, containing a brown pulpy flesh whicli has a flavour
somewhat similar to Orange marmalade. It is a popular fruit in Guiana,
where it is commonly called Marmalade Box. This tree can only be
grown successfully in the tropical regions of Australia, but where the
climatic conditions are favourable it is worthy of attention both for its
fruit and as an ornamental plant. It requires a deep, rich, and modera,tely
moist soil, and must be sheltered from strong winds. Propagation is
readily effected by layers, which should be put down early in the autumn
or spring. Cuttings of the ripened wood of the current season's growth
root freely in sand under a glass.

GINGERBREAD PALM.

This plant, which is also known as the Doum Palm is indigenous to
Egypt, Arabia,, Nubia, and Abyssinia, and its fruit is used as food by the
inliabitants of those countries It attains a height of about thirty feet,
and is known botaaically as Hi/pliceiie cnnita [Thebaica). After a few
years growth branches are formed, each one being surmounted with' a
crown of fan-shaped leaves. The fruit is produced in large pendulous
bunches of from one to two hundred. Each fruit is the size of a small
Aj)ple, the outer portion being a fibrous sweetish pulp, having a flavour
somewhat similar to Gingerbread, hence the common name. Several
other species of Hyphjene yield edible fruits, and might prove worthy
of cultivation in congenial regions. The Gingerbread Palm and kindred
species can only be cultivated successfully in the warmer parts of Australia.
It can stand heat and drought well, and would probably prove a useful
fruit for the dry interior districts of the northern colonies This Palm is
also well worth cultivating for ornament in warm dry regions, and makes
a good avenue plant. As regards cultivation and propagation, the methods
are precisely the same as those recommended for the Date Palm.

GINGERBREAD PLUM.

The fruit known under this name is produced by Parinarium macro-
phyllum, a handsome evergreen small tree indigenous to tropical West
Africa, belonging to the Chrysobalaneai section of the order Rosaceae.
The tree has fine large foliage, odorous white flowers, and Plum-like
fruit having a pleasant flavour somewhat like Gingerbread, hence the
name. Parinarmm excelsnm, also a West African species, is a lai'ge
evergreen tree attaining a height of about sixty feet, with long leaves and
large terminal branches of scented white flowers. The fruit is produced
in great abundance, and is about the size of an Orleans Plujn, but it 'is
dry and insipid in flavour as compared with the Gingerbread Plum. It

k known under the names of Grey Plum and Rough Plum. Farinarwm
Nonda is a species indigenous to North Eastern Australia, known as the
Nonda Tree, and recommended by Baron von Mueller for trial culture.
It is a handsome evergreen tree, and attains a height of about sixty feet.
The fruit is Plum-like, and is rather mealy, but possibly might be
improved by cultivation. The Gingerbread Plum and kindred species,
being natives of tropical regions will only thrive in the warmer parts of
Australia, where they are worth cultivation both for their fruit and as
ornamental trees. Propagation is readily effected by seed and layers.
Plants may also be obtained from cuttings of the ripened wood of the
current season's growth, which strike freely in sand under a glass.

GOAT NUT.

This name is used in California for the fruit of Simmondsia Calif ornica,
& low-sized shrub of rigid habit belonging to the order Brexaceae. It is
indigenous to California and other parts of North West America, and
grows naturally under widely different conditions as regards soil and
climate. This plant flourishes equally well near to the sea coast, in
mountain districts, or the interior desert regions. It bears regularly and
profusely Acorn-like Nuts, which have a pleasant flavour. The Goat
Nut will thrive in any part of Australia excepting the tropical regions, as
also in Tasmania and New Zealand, and owing to its hardiness and
profuseness in bearing is worthy of attention, though the fruit is greatly
inferior to many other Nuts. It may be grown successfully in almost
any kind of soil or situation, and even in the most exposed places.
Probably if tried it would prove a serviceable plant for hedges. Propa-
gation is easily eff'ected by seeds, which should be planted an inch deep.
Layers put down in the spring root readily, and cutting will strike freely
if put in at the same season of the year.

GOOSEBERRY.

History.

This familiar fruit is known botanically under the name of Whes, and
it belongs to the natural order Grossulace*. The genus embraces a
number of species, natives principally of the northern regions of Europe,
Asia, and America, and only three or four are found in other parts of the
world. With a few exceptions all the species are deciduous small shrubs,
^nd, while only a few yield serviceable fruits, several others are used for
prnamental purposes. The Gooseberry has originated from Rihek
<yroiw/an<i;^. which embraces seven or eight sub-species, and is indigenous
to ai?eat . fritain and many parts of Northern Europe. The specific
name conies' from the Latin grossur—n small, green fig. There is some

uncertainty as to the source from which the English name has been
derived. According to some authorities, Gooseberry is a corruption of
of Gorseberry, a name given on account of the bushes being prickly, like
gorse or furze. Others assert that the name was originally Grosberry,
derived from the specific one. Then, again, other writers say that the
name originated through the fruit being commonly used in England
as a sauce for young, or green geese. In some of the northern counties
of England the fruit is commonly known as the Feaberry (Fever Berry)
In some places this name is abbreviated to Feabes. A common name
for the fruit in Scotland is Grozet or Grozer. Carberry is another name
used in some parts of England for this fruit. In its wild state the
fruit of the Goosebery is very small, and has a poor appearance in
comparison with the cultivated varieties. Unlike most improved fruits,
however, the Goosebery in its wild state has a richer flavour, if anything^
than the improved varieties. Cultivation has greatly altered the fruit
in size, but has not improved its flavour.

Edible fruits that may be classed as Gooseberries are yielded by several
American species, the more prominent being as follows. Rihes cynoshata
which is widely distributed in the United States and Canada, where it
is known as the Prickly-fruited Gooseberry. Bibes divaricatum which is
also widely dispersed, yields a small but pleasant fruit, as does also Bihes
hirtellum. Bibes Menziesii a species indigenous to California, has large
but somewhat dry berries. Rihes niveum, an Oregon species, has small
dark berries that have a rich vinous flavour, but are somewhat acid.
Bibes oxycanthoideSj indigenous to the mountain regions of California,
where it is found at an attitude of from six to nine thousand feet, has
pleasantly flavoured berries of medium size. Bibes quercetorum^ a species
with well flavoured berries, is the Wild Gooseberry of California. Bibes
rotundifolia a species with small richly flavoured berries is indigenous to
Canada and the Northern United States.

Tlie Gooseberry appears to have been quite unknown to the nations of
antiquity, as no mention is made of it in their records. As to when it
was first cultivated in England there is no evidence, but it was
mentioned by the oldest writers upon British husbandry (Tusser and
Gerard). The last-named writer says that in his time Gooseberries were
generally used " in sauces for meats, also in broths, to which they not
only gave a pleasant taste but made them serviceable to those troubled
with the ague." Parkinson, another standard English writer, tells us that
in his time *-the green berries were much used when boiled as a sauce for
meat or fish, and more especially with mackerel.'' Gordon, a prominent
Scotch horticulturist, writing in 1774, enumerates twenty varieties of
Gooseberries as being cultivated in his time. Among the sorts mentioned
by him are the Champagne, Ironmonger, and one or two others that still
hold their own in collections.

Uses.

The Gooseberry is a useful fruit, both for dessert and culinary purposes,
and it is turned to good account in several other ways. As a dessert

8

fruit it must be thoroughly ripe, as otherwise its flavour is not developed
and it is somewhat indigestible. For culinary purposes the fruit is
mostly used before it bec.omes ripe. Gooseberries are used in a green
state extensively for puddings and tarts, being, when cooked, both
wholesome and palatable. The unripe fruit may be kept for a long
time in bottles with water, and large quantities are preserved in this
way. In preserving in this way, the bottles are filled nearly to their
tops and then plunged for two or three minutes in boiling water, after
which they are tightly corked and sealed to prevent the admission of
air. For canning the Gooseberry is one of the best of fruits and is in
steady and increasing demand. In the form of jam the Gooseberry
makes an excellant and popular preserve, and for this purpose it may be
used either when green or ripe. Gooseberries yield an excellent and
palatable wine, which when carefully made from the most suitable kinds
and well matured, is somewhat similar to champagne. Wine is made
by pressing thoroughly ripe berries (as in the case of Grapes), straining
off the juice, and allowing it to ferment. When fermentation ceases it
should be put into casks, and after standing five or six months, may be
racked off and bottled. The wine may be used as soon as it is bottled,
but it will be improved if allowed to stand for a few months. If
carefully made. Gooseberry wine may be kept for many years, and its
quality Avill improve with age.

Cultivation.

The .Gooseberry thrives to perfection in a cool and moist climate, and
is a fru^t specially adapted for elevated localities and mountain ranges.
It is useless to attempt its culture in the warmer districts. The flavour
of the fruit is more highly developed in a cold region, as long as there is
sufiicient warmth to ripen it. Fruit grown in the north of Scotland is
by general consent admitted to have a higher flavour than that which is
grown in the southern parts. In England also the Gooseberry is more
highly flavoured in the northern than in the southern counties and more
generally cultivated. Lancashire, in particular, has been, specially noted
for Gooseberry culture for a long period, and many of the best varieties
have originated in that county. Under the most favourable conditions
the Gooseberry will attain a great age, and instances are on record of
plants in Great Britain that were over forty years old and then yielded
good crops of fruit. As a rule, however, there is a falling off in the yield
and size of the fruit when the plants have passed their prime, which is
usually the case when they are six or seven years old. The finest fruit
and the best crops are invariably obtained from young plants, and
plantations should be renewed at intervals of not more than seven or
eight years.

Though the Gooseberry may be grown successfully in any fairly good
land, yet it thrives best in a rich, medium-light soil. To some extent the
size and quality of the fruit is influenced by the character of the soil.
For highly flavoured dessert fruit a rich, light, sandy loam, resting upon
a gravelly subsoil, is the most suitable. If large Gooseberries are

required, a strong loam, highly enriched, will give the most satisfactory-
results. In preparing the ground let it be worked deeply, as a good root
bed is a great advantage. Drainage must also be provided for if
necessary, and if the soil is not sufficiently rich use enough manure to
give the plants a fair start. Planting may be done at any time while
growth is at rest, but it is advisible not to delay till after July. In
selecting varieties the cultivator should bear in mind the object he has
in view, and choose those adapted for his requirements. Care should
also be taken to select well-shaped, vigorous-looking young plants, "The
distance between in planting should be eight to ten feet each way.
Keep down weeds by constant attention, but as the plants are apt to
suffer when their roots are disturbed to any extent the work should be
performed with care and as lightly as posssible. The Gooseberry is very
impatient of drought, and it will be advisable to conserve the moisture in
the soil as long as possible by mulching four or five inches deep early in
the season, This mulching will also assist in supplying nutriment to the
plants, which are strong feeders, and whose roots are never quite inactive.
Plantations of Gooseberries must be kept in heart by the use of manure
when necessary, and the plants should never be allowed to get stunted
through lack of nourishment.

Summer Pbunino. X Showing where Shoots should be pinched back.

10

Prepared Cutting

Branch showing one and two year old wood.

X — Showing where some of the side shoots

should be cut back.

Plant second year from the Cutting.

Black lines showing where to cut.

Dotted lines showing where branches

will be the following season, ojsasj

The fruit of the Gooseberry is produced both upon the last season's
wood and spurs from older branches. As a rule the bushes require a
regular pruning every winter, but to some extent the system must be
varied according to the habit of the variety and the age and growth of
the plant. The upright growing kinds, as a matter of course, require

11

somewhat different treatment in 2>runing to those that have drooping
branches. Then, again, if specially large fruit is required, for show
or other purposes, the shoots must be thinned out and shortened
back more than would otherwise be necessary. As a general rule in
pruning the branches should be shortened back and thinned out
sufficiently for the circulation of air and light and to keep the plants
compact. Care must also be taken to prune so that no branches will rest
upon the ground. Summer pruning is useful, as it conserves the energy
of the plant and saves cutting to some extent in the winter. The practicft
consists in rubbing off superfluous shoots as soon as growth has fairly
started, and afterwards stopping those that are too vigorous.

Propagation.

Propagation is effected by seeds, layers, and most generally by cuttings.
Seed is seldom used except for the raising of new varieties, and ordinary
cultivators rarely trouble themselves to raise plants by this means. The
seed should be sown in shallow drills as soon as the fruit is ripe, and
covered with soil to the depth of half-an-inch. In the following winter
the young plants should be transplanted in rows about two feet apart,
leaving from twelve to fifteen inches between in the lines. The plants
will generally fruit the second year, when those that do not come up to a
fair standard should be weeded out. Plants are readily obtained from
layers, but this mode of propagation is not widely practised. The most
generally adopted way of raising plants is by cuttings, which root freely.
They should be selected from the previous season's growth from strong
plants, leaving them about a foot long when the tops are cut off. Insert
the cuttings about six inches deep after removing all the buds that would
be below the surface, and press the soil firmly. The following season the
plants will be sufficiently rooted for planting out permanently. A par-
tially shaded and moderately moist piece of ground is the most suitable
location for a cutting bed.

Varieties.

(Gooseberries vary considerably in size, colour, shape, and quality, and
an immense number of varieties are cultivated. As a general rule, the
thinner the skin the finer the flavour of the fruit, but there are exceptions.
The yellow-fruited kinds, and more especially those of a deep amber hue,
are considered to be the richest in flavour. The red-fruited kinds have,
as a rule, a more acid flavour than the yellow sorts, but there are many
exceptions. For instance, the Red Champagne variety is one of the
richest and sweetest of Gooseberries. The green-fruited kinds are
generally inferior to the yellow and red sorts, but to this rule there are
also many exceptions. The white-fruited kinds are the poorest of all in
flavour, but as this class, and also the green-berried section, comprise a
numbei* of large and fine-looking varieties, they are grown rather exten-
sively for culinary and exhibition purposes.

12

The following list embraces a number of the leading varieties in ench
class : —

Red GoosEBERiiiEs.

Beauty — A useful late variety, with long berries. Skin deep red
tinted with pink. Flavour good. Plant strong, spreading, and a good
bearer.

Billt/ Dean, — An old and popular variety, with large berries. Skin
red. Flavour very good. Plant vigorous and prolific.

Companion. — This is a useful early variety, with medium-sized berries.
Skin bright light red, thin, and very hairy. Flavour rich. Plant
sj)reading in habit, and a very good cropper,

Clayton. — A good mid-season variety, with very large long berries.
Skin dark purplish-red with broad light veins. Flavour very' good.
Plant robust, somewhat pendulous in habit, and bears freely.

Conquering Hero. — A mid-season variety, with very long well-pro-
portioned berries. Skin dark red dotted with grey, and slightly hairy.
Flavour good. Plant strong in habit, large, and spreading, and a fairly
good cropper.

Croivn Boh. — An old and favourite variety, with very large oblong
berries, ripening at mid-seascm. Skin bright red with a tinge of green
near the stalk, thin, and hairy. Flavour first-class. Plant strong,
pendulous in habit, and an abundant bearer.

Dan's Mistake. — A useful variety, with medium-sized berries, which
ripen at mid-season. Skin bright light red tinted with pink, hairy.
Flavour fairly good. Plant robust, erect in habit, and prolific.

Dr. Hogg. — A desirable variety, with long somewhat fiat-sided fruit.
Skin purplish-red with veins of a deeper colour, slightly hairy. High
flavour. Plant of strong, upright habit, wood short-jointed, leaves large,
and a good bearer.

Foreman. — An excellent medium early variety, with large long
berries. Skin smooth, colour very dark red. Flavour very good. Plant
strong, spreading, with long pendulous shoots.

Forester. — An early variety, with plump short fruit. Skin hairy,
bright red. Flavour sweet and rich. Plant erect in growth, and a very
free bearer.

Ironmonger {Hairy Black). — This is one of the oldest varieties in
cultivation and is a general favourite. Berries small and roundisli.
Skin hairy, very dark red. Flavour rich. Plant spreading in habit, and
very prolific.

Lion's Provider. — An excellent and useful mid-season variety, with
large long handsome berries. Skin bright light red with a pink tinge.
Flavour good. Plant produces long erect shoots, and bears very freely.

Red Champagne. — A favourite old variety, with small roundish fruit.
Skin thick, hairy, deep red. Flavour very sweet and rich. Plant very
«rect in growth, and bears in great abundance. One of the most popular
dessert Gooseberries.

Red Bobin.^ -An excellent early variety, with plump berries of medium

18

size. Skin hairy, very dark red. Flavour rich. Plant erect in habit,
and a prolific bearer.

Red Warrington (Aston, Volunteer). — This is an old and popular late
variety, with roundish oblong berries, above medium size, and will hang
well after they are ripe. Skin hairy, deep red. Flavour fairly good.
Plant strong, pendulous in habit, and very prolific. This is one of the
best varieties for culinary use and preserving.

Rifleman {Duke of York, Royal Anne, Admirable). — A first-class lafe "
variety, with large roundish berries. Skin hairy, deep red. Flavour
very good. Plant robust, erect, and a free bearer.

Rough Red {Red Hairi/, Scotch Red). — An old and favourite variety,
with small round berries. Skin hairy, dark red. Flavour sweet and
rich. A good preserving variety. Plant strong, spreading in habit, and
very prolific.

Rloughbot/. — A fine and useful late variety, with very large long
berries. Skin smooth, bright light red with a yellow tinge. Flavour
very good. Plant spreading, and bears freely.

Slaughterman. — An early variety, with fine large long berries. Skin
thin, slightly hairy% dark red and mottled. Flavour first-class. Plant
pendulous in growth, and an excellent bearer.

Whinhams Indiistry. — An excellent and popular variety, with very
large berries, and in England considered one of the best early market
Gooseberries. Skin a dark dusky red. Plant robust and very prolific.

Gf; K KX OOOS K M V. \{ U IKS.

Drill. — A late and excellent variety, wdtli large long berries Skin
smooth, deep dull green tinged -with yellow. Flavour good. Plant
vigorous, with a spreading' habit, and bears abundantly.

Fearless. — A very good mid-season variety, with plump berries of
medium length. Skin smooth, light green suifused with grey.
Flavour good. Plant strong, spreading, and bears fairly well.

General Markham. — A fine, medium early variety, Avith large long"
berries. Skin smooth, dark Ibright green with veins of a lighter
colour. Flavoui' very good. Plant sti-ong, with lai'ge foliage, and a
prolific bearei'.

Glenton Green {Hedgehog). — A mid-season variety with medium-
sized berries. Skin rather thick, ver}' hairy, bright gi'een with
lighter veins. Flavour sweet and i-ich. Plant strong, pendulous,
and an excellent bearer.

Green Gascoigne {Early Green, Green Hairy). — A very early vaiiety,
with small round berries. Skin thin, thickly covered with hairs,
dark green. Flavour very sweet and luscious. Plant strong, very
erect in habit, and bears freely.

Green Overall. — An excellent early variety, with plump round
berries of medium length. Skin thin, smooth, deep gi^een. Flavour
sweet and rich. Plant robust, spreading in habit, and bears very
freely.

Green PHnce. — A medium early variety, w4tli thick long berries.

14

Skin thin, slightly covered with hair, pale light gi*een. Flavour
good. Plant vigorous, spreading, and an excellent bearer.

Gretna Green. — A mind-season variety, with round plump berries
of medium length. Skin hairy, dark bright green. Flavour sweet
and good. Plant strong in habit, erect, and very prolific.

Heart of Oak. — This is an excellent and popular old variety, with
large oblong berries. Skin thin, smooth, pale green with yellowish
veins. Flavour sweet and luscious. Plant strong, pendulous in
habit, and a heavy bearer.

Jolly T'ar.— Another excellent and popular old variety, with large
obovate berries. Skin smooth, deep green. Flavour first-class. Plant
robust, pendulous in habit, and an abundant bearer.

Laurel {Green Laurel^ Green Willow). — This is an excellent medium
early variety, with large obovate berries. Skin pale green. Flavour
sweet and luscious. Plant erect, and very prolific.

Pltmaston Green Gage. — ^A desirable vaHety, with small obovate
berries. Skin smooth, bright gTeen. Flavour rich. Plant erect in
habit, and bears well.

Plunder, — A medium early variety, with large long beiTies. Skin
smooth, light green tinged with white. Plant vigorous, spreading
in habit, and a very free bearer.

Prog7r88. — A late variety, with long berries a little flat-sided.
Skin slightly covered with hair, pale green. Flavour good. Plant
strong, pendulous in habit, and very prolific.

Safety. — A mid-season variety, with long tapering berries. Skin
thin, smooth, pale gi'een. Flavour sweet and luscious. Plant robust,
spreading in habit, and an abundant bearer.

Sir Charles Napier. — This is a good variety, with large berries of
medium length. Skin smooth, deep green with lighter veins.
Flavour good. Plant vigorous and prolific.

Shiner. — A variety with very large and heavy roundish berries.
Skin smooth, light green tinged with white. Flavour good. Plant
vigorous, spreading in habit, and bears abundantly.

Telegraph. — An excellent late variety, with large long beiTies.
Skin smooth, deep bright green with light veins. Flavour very
good. Plant strong, erect in habit, with short joints, and a good
bearer.

Thumper. — A first-class late variety, with large plump berries of
medium length. Skin hairy, deep gi-een. Flavour very good.
Plant moderately robust, erect in habit, Avith short-jointed wood,
and bears freely.

Thunder. — A good early variety, with plump berries of medium
length, Skin hairy, deep green. Flavour very good. Plant
moderately robust, erect in habit, Avith short-jointed wood, and bears
freely.

White Gooseberries
A Ima* — A useful variety, with large plump berries of medium

15

length. Skin smooth, greenish white. Flavour good. Plant strong,
spreading in habit, and an excellent bearer.

A ntagonist — This variety is one of the largest white Grooseberries
in cultivation. Berries very large and long, ripening at mid-season.
Skin hairy, creamy white with pale green veins. Flavour very good.
Plant very robust, spreading in habit, and bears in great abundance.

Bright Venus. — An excellent rather late variety, with medium-
sized obovate berries, which hang well after they are ripe. Skm
slightly covered with hair, greenish white. Flavour very sweet and
luscious. Plant strong, rather erect, and a good bearer.

Careless. — One of the best of the white varieties, with large long
berries. Skin smooth, creamy white. Flavour good. Plant vigorous,
spreading in habit, and bears very freely.

Cri/stal. — A useful very late variety, with small roundish berries.
Skin thick, smooth, creamy white. Flavour fairly good. Plant
moderately vigorous, spreading in habit, rather pendulous, and a
fair bearer

Elizabeth. — A fine medium early variety, with large long berries.
Skin smooth, greenish white. Flavour good. Plant strong, pendulous
in habit, and a prolific bearer.

Hero of the Nile. — A mid-season variety, with plump berries of
medium length. Skin smooth, greenish white. Flavour good.
Plant moderately vigorous, spreading in habit, and bears freely.

Jenny Jones. — A medium early variety, with large long berries.
Skin smooth, thin, greenish white. Flavour sweet and rich. Plant
strong, spreading, and a moderately good bearer.

King of Trumjps. — This variety has thick plump berries of medium
length. Skin slightly covered with hair, dull greenish white. Flavour
good Plant moderately strong, pendulous in habit, and a free bearer.

Lady Leicester. — An early variety, with plump berries of medium
length. Skin hairy, greyish-white with green veins. Flavour good.
Plant moderately robust, erect in habit, and prolific.

Mitre. — A variety ripening at mid-season, with thick round berries.
Skin hairy, greyish-white. Flavour very good. Plant strong erect in
habit, and an excellent bearer.

Moreton Lass. — An excellent mid-season variety, with thick roundish
berries of moderate length. Skin smooth, creamy white. Flavour sweet
and rich. Plant strong, erect, and bears very freely.

Postman. — A desirable variety, with large round berries of medium
length. Skin hairy, white, with broad green veins. Flavour good.
Plant very vigorous, spreading, and a good bearer.

Queen of Trumps. — A first-class early variety, with large long berries.
Skin smooth, dull greenish -white. Flavour rich. Plant very robust,
spreading in habit, and a good cropper,

Sheba Queen. — A variety with large obovate berries. Skin greyish-
white and downy. Flavour very good. Plant strong, erect in habit, and
a good bearer.

Snowball. — This variety has large round fruit of medium length.
Skin hairy, creamy white. Flavour good. Plant strong, spreading, and
prolific.

16

Snowdrop. — An excellent variety, with thick plump berries of medium
lengtli. Skin thin and hairy, greyish white with broad green veins.
Flavour rich and luscious. Plant vigorous, spreading, and prolific.

Tallf/ llo. — This variety has large long oval berries. Skin hairy,
greenish-white. Flavour fairly good. Plant strong, erect, and a free
bearer.

^Yllite Lion. — A first-class late variety, with very large long berries.
Skin greyish-white. Flavour very good. Plant strong, pendulous, and
prolific.

Whitesmith {Lancashire Lass). — An old and popular variety, with
large roundish oblong berries. Skin creamy white. Flavour very good.
Plant strong, erect, and a free bearer.

Yellow Gooseberries.

Broomgirl. — An excellent old variety, which ripens early, and has
large plump berries of medium length. Skin thin and hairy, dark
yellow shaded with olive brown. Fruit sweet and highly flavoured.
Plant robust erect in habit, and bears very freely.

Catherina. — A medium early variety, with large long berries. Skin
slightly covered with hair, bright de6p orange. Flavour sweet and
luscious. Plant moderately robust, spreading, and a fairly good bearer.

Criterion. — An excellent variety, with plump berries of medium length,
Skin slightly hairy, dark greenish-yellow. Flavour very good. Plant
vigorous, spreading, slightly pendulous, and bears very freely.

Early Sulphur (GoldeT) Ball). — A very early variety, with medium-
sized roundish oblong berries. Skin hairy, pale yellow. Flavour fairly
good, but not e(|ual to many other varieties. Plant strong, erect, and a
great bearer

Garibaldi. — A variety with large long well-formed berries. Skin
hairy, bright deep yellow. Flavour sweet and rich. Plant strong,
spreading in habit, and very prolific.

Gipsy Queen, — A first-class early variety, with large fruit of medium
length. Skin pale yellow, blended with white. Flavour sweet and
luscious. Plant moderately vigorous, spreading, and a good cropper.

Goldjinder. — A desirable variety, with very large long berries. Skin
hairy, light yellow. Flavour very rich. Plant robust, spreading, and
prolific.

High Sheriff. — An excellent variety, with large round berries. Skin
very hairy, deep orange. Flavour sweet and rich. Plant strong,
pendulous, and an excellent bearer.

Leader. — One of the best yellow varieties, with large berries of medium
length. Skin smooth, thin, dull greenish-yellow. Flavour very rich.
Plant robust, spreading and a very free bearer.

Jjeveller. — Another of the best yellow varieties, with large long berries.
Skin smooth, dull greenish-yellow. Flavour sweet and rich. Plant
vigorous, spreading, and an excellent bearer.

Moreton Hero. — A first-class variety, w^ith large long berries. Skin

17

thin, smooth, pale yellow. Flavour very rich. Plant strong, erect, and
prolific.

Mount Pleasant. — A late and excellent variety, with large long
berries. Skin hairy, deep orange yellow. Flavour rich. Plant strong,
spreading, and a free bearer.

Perfection. — A variety with large roundish berries of medium length.
Skin thin, slightly hairy, light yellow. Flavour sweet and luscious.
Plant fairly vigorous, and a moderately good bearer. __ _

Pretty Bo//. — A very good variety, with large berries of medium length
Skin hairy, bright orange, mottled with a deeper shade. Flavour rich.
Plant moderately vigorous, and very prolific.

Bailway. — A good late variety, with large roundish fruit of medium
length. Skin dull greenish-yellow Flavour good. Plant strong,
spreading in habit, and bears freely.

Smiling Beaut tf. — A variety with large oblong berries. Skin thin,
smooth, deep yellow. Flavour very rich. Plant robust, pendulous, and
a good cropper.

Irumpeter. — A desirable variety, with large long berries. Skin
smooth, dull pale orange. Flavour good. Plant strong, spreading, and
prolific.

Two to 0)1 e. — A variety with large long berries. Skin thin, hairy,
bright golden yellow. Flavour good. Plant robust, spreading in habit,
and a free bearer.

Yellow Champagne {Hairy Amber). — An old and favourite variety,
with small roundish berries. Skin hairy, deep yellow. Flavour very
sweet and rich. Plant vigorous, erect in habit, and very prolific.

Yelloiv Warrington {Yelloio Aston).— A useful old variety, with
medium-sized roundish oblong berries. Skin hairy, deep yellow.
Flavour rich and luscious. Plant strong, pendulous in habit, and
bears abundantly.

GOURDS.

HisTORV AM> Uses

The plants known under this name, embrace several species of
Cucurbita Avhicli is the type of the order Cucurbitacese or the
Cucumber family. They include the Pumpkin, Squash, Vegetable
Marrow, Calabash Grourd, and other kinds. Several of them are
largely cultivated as vegetables, some are utilized in other ways, and
many are grown as purel}- ornamental plants. The various kinds
differ considerably in the size and shape of their fruits, which in
some cases assume fantastic forms. Pumpkins, or Pompkins, have
originated from two species, viz., Cucurbita maodma, which is the
source of large fruited varieties and Cucurbita Pepo the parent of
the smaller kinds. There is some uncertainty as to the origin of
these species, but probably they belong to Eastern or Central Asia.
The various kinds of Pumpkins are excellent as a vegetable when

2a

18
Forms of Pumpkins.

Turks Cap.

Ironbark

Large Oval. J^'lat.

Forms of Squashes.

Electors Cap

Eound Warted.

19

Forms of Squashes.

Ohio.

Patagonian.

Chestnut.

Crookneck.

Waited or Early Bush
Crookneck.

Portmanteau n
Nqapohtan.

20
Forms of Squashes

Hubbaid.

Brazilian Sugar

Forms of, Vegetable Marrows

Common Forms.

Long White.

Italian Green Striped.

21

Forms c»i- Lagexaria Vulgaris.

Long-fruited Gourd.

Long Siphon Gould.

Flat or Plate Gourd.

Club Gourd.

Siphon Gourd,

22

ripe, and may be kept in good condition for several months. They
make^also a very g-ood vegetable when used young. As food for
cafcfele; the Pumpkin is also deserving of attention. They are
extensively cultivated in some parts of Australia and more especially
in New South Wales, where they are often grown with the maize
crop^.

What is known as the Squash has its source in Cncurhita melopepo
which however is considered by some botanists to be merely a variety
of C. Pepo. Fruits differing widely in form and size commonly
bear the name of Squash and many would be more correctly classed
as Pumpkins. The fruit of several varieties is largely used as a
Tegetable and these kinds are generally cultivated.

The Vegetable Marrow or Succade Gouid as it is sometimes called,
has its source in Cucurhita ovigera which some botanists consider to
be merely a form of C. Pepo It is said to have oi-iginated in Persia,
and was first taken to Europe about seventy years ago. The fruit of
the Vegetable Marrow can be utilized as a vegetable in various
stages of growth, and when used green is better than that yielded by
any other plant of the same family. Though generally used gi^^en
when partially grown, the ripe fruit also makes an excellent
vegetable, and it may be kept for a considerable time. It makes an
excellent winter vegetable and should be largely used as such.
When the young unripe fruit is used it should be i-emoved from the
plants when not more than half grown, leaving none to mature, as
when allowed to attain its full size and ripen, the plants Avill cease to
bear freely.

Cucurhita moschata is the Musky Gourd, a species whose origin is
uncertain. This species has very large fruit and is extensively used
in Italy and other countries in Southern Europe. The Calabash or
Bottle Grourd is Lagenaria vulgaris (Cucurhita lagenaria) an Indian
species. The fruit of this species, when lipe, has a hard outer
covering or shell, and after the inside pulp is removed it is used as
vessels for holding liquid, hence the name Bottle Gourd. There are
numerous varieties of this species which differ widely in the shape of
their fruits. Lniffa cegyptica {Momordica hi fa) y'elds the fruit known
as the Dish-Cloth or Sponge Gourd. The flesh of this Gourd consists
of a porous sponge-like substance which is very soft and pliable.
For use in the bath it is preferred to the ordinary sponge by many
and also for kitchen use.

Cultivation and Propagation.

All the species and varieties of Gourds require a rich soil, warmth
and moisture to bring them to perfection. They also require strong
and rapid growth for their development. All the species are tender
and cannot be safely planted in the open ground till all danger from
frost has passed. The treatment required in cultivation is, in every
respect the same as recommended for the Cucumber. Pi'opagation is
also effected in the same way. Some slight difference in practice
will, however, be necessary, as regards the distances between the

28

plants, which should be determined by the growth of the particular
kind, leaving in all cases sufficient room for- free development.
There must also be some difference in practice as regards the removal
of the fruit, as when used before it is fully developed, as with the
Vegetable Marrow, it must be taken off regularly when partially
grown. On the other hand when Gourds have to ripen, none of the
fruit should be removed, as that which is formed first is usually the
best.

GRAPE.

History.

Botanically, the Grape Vine is known as Vitis vinifera, and it belongs
to the natural order Vitacece. Vitis is derived from a Celtic w^rd, and
signifies the best of trees, in allusion to the great usefulness of the genus.
The specific name vinifera means wine-bearing. The English name
Grape comes from the Saxon " Grab " or '* Gripe," signifying a bunch or
cluster. As is the case with many other of our economical plants, the
early history of the Grape is involved in some obscurity.

Excepting the Pig, the Grape is the oldest fruit mentioned in history,
and it appears to have been cultivated by mankind from a very
remote period. The first record we have of this fruit is in the
Bible, which informs us that Noah planted a vineyard, and made use
of wine. Probably the Grape was known at a still earlier period,
though no records exist as to its cultivation previous to the Deluge.
Some learned theological writers have been of opinion that it was
the Grape, and not the Apple, as is generally supposed, which was
the forbidden fruit that tempted Adam and Eve in the Garden of
Eden. With the ancient Hebrews and contemporary nations the Grape
Vine appears to have been very popular, as it is frequently mentioned in
the Bible. Wine appears to have been in general use by the Jews, and
they are said to have had a custom of, from humane motives, plying
criminals with it before their execution, in order to stimulate them.
Vineyards were common with this nation, and at a very early period
Ararat, Damascus, and Lebanon became famous for their wines.

According to history, the Grape was first introduced to Europe by the
Greeks, who, at an early period, became renowned for their wines. This
reputation is alluded to frequently in the works of Homer, Horace, and
other ancient historians. Old Greek writers inform us also that in
making wine it was the practice of their nation to use various odoriferous
herbs, as also salt water, to give particular flavours. According to pa£fan
mythology, Bacchus was made a deity because he taught men tJie use of
wine. As the god of wine and the vintage he was always represented
with a crown of the Grape Vine. According to Pliny, Bacchus was the
first being who wore a crown. The goddess Juno was also always
represented wearing a crown of Grape leaves. The traditions of the early
Egyptians claim for Osiris the credit of being the first to grow the Grape

24 .

and teach the use of wine. Some authorities have been of opinion that
Bacchus, Osiris, and Noah were simply different names for the one
individual.

From Greece the Grape was taken to Italy, and soon afterwards it
was distributed through the other countries of Southern Europe. Soon
after its introduction to their country the Vine became very popular
with the Romans, who cultivated it extensively. According to Pliny,
no less than 195 varieties of Grapes were known and cultivated in his
time. Wine appears to have been used freely *by both Greeks and
Romans, not only for ordinary purposes, but also in oblations to the
gods when practising their religious ceremonies. But though the use
of wine was general with the Roman nation, yet for a long time its abuse
was strictly guarded against by special legislation. Young men were
not allowed to drink wine till they were thirty years of age, and women
were strictly prohibited from touching it at any time. Any breach of
the laws dealing with this matter led to very severe punishments.
According to history, a prominent Roman, Egnatius Macennis, in a fit of
anger killed his wife for drinking wine, and when tried for the offence
before Romulus he was acquitted on the ground that under the
circumstances his action was justifiable. It is also recorded that a
Roman lady of rank was stoned to death by her own relations for
breaking open a cellar and indulging in wine. Cato informs us that the
custom of kissing women originated in the desire to find from their
breath whether they had been taking wine. Gradually, however, the
severe restrictions as to the abuse of wine were relaxed, and drinking to
excess become a common practice with both sexes. So great did the
demand for wine become eventually, that vine-growing increased to such
an extent as to cause the neglect of other branches of Roman agriculture.
To change this state of affairs, Domitian issued an edict ordering that
half the vineyards should be destroyed, and prohibiting the planting of
new ones.

Great attention appears to have been given to their vineyards by the
ancients, who seem to have been well acquainted with the arts of
propagating and pruning. Pliny informs us, that, in order to encourage
pruning, wine from unpruned vines was prohibited in sacrificing to the
gods. The art of preserving Grapes, both in a fresh and dried state,
appears to have been generally j^ractised by several of the nations of
antiquity. Dried fruits, or raisins, was prepared by both Greeks and
Romans, whose practise was to dip the bunches into a hot lye made with
wood ashes, and then dry them in the sun. Fruit is prepared in Spain
at the present time in precisely the same manner. Columella informs us
that fresh Grapes were in his time preserved for long periods by packing
them in small jars, one bunch in each. The fruit was gathered when
perfectly dry and the sun shining fully upon the bunches, which were
then hung in a shady place to cool. The bunches were suspended in
the jars so that they hung by their stalks, and the space left between was
filled with chaff. Afterwards the mouths of the jars were closed tightly,
and covered with a layer of pitch or wax, to exclude the air. The jars
were then kept in cool cellars till the fruit was wanted.

25

According to history vineyards were iit one time common in England,
and the Grape is supposed to have been introduced to that country at
the time of the Roman invasion. Vineyards are frequently mentioned
in early Saxon charters, and also in the Domesday Book. William of
Malmsbury, who lived at the beginning of the twelfth century, described
flourishing vineyards as existing in Gloucestershire, and states that the
wine made from them was equal to that which was obtained from
France. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries many of the castles_
and monasteries in the southern and western counties of England appear
to have had their vineyards. If these historical records are to be
credited, the climate of England must have changed materially, or the
Grape Vine has become more tender than it was, as in that country it is
at the present time a very uncertain plant when grown in the open air
without protection. Under cover, however. Grapes are grown to a
greater degree of perfection in the United Kingdom than in any other
part of the world. Within the last few years bunches up to 26 lbs. in
weight have been produced under glass, and 10 to 15 lbs. is quite a
common weight.

Grape Cultuee as a Prominent Industry.

Among the many useful fruits none is more universally cultivated
or holds a higher rank, from a commercial point of view, than the Grape.
It is cultivated extensively in every division of the globe, and in many
countries vine-growing is a staple agricultural industry. The cultivation
of the Grape became a staple agricultural industry in France, Spain, and
Portugal at remote periods, and ever since those countries have been in
high repute for their wines. In those countries at the present day,
and also in Italy and Greece, vine-growing is a prominent industry, and
in many cases localities are turned to good account for vineyards which
are comparatively useless for other purposes. In those countries
vineyards are frequently to be seen on the steep sides of mountains,
where it would be impossible to cultivate grain or any other ordinary
crops. Throughout a considerable portion of Germany, the vine-growing
industry occupies a prominent position, as it does also in Hungary and
Switzerland. Vine-growing is also receiving a considerable amount of
attention in the United States, and more especially in California where
the production of wine and the manufacture of raisins and currants has
assumed large proportions. Great advances in Vine culture has also
been made in the Australian colonies, and more especially within the
last few years, and the annual yield of wine is now very considerable.
There is every promise that it will be much greater a few years hence,
and one of our staple agricultural industries.

The Grape is sucessfully cultivated for wine-making in European
countries up to the 51st degree of latitude. In the Southern Hemisphere
the limit is about the 40th degree. As regards altitude the highest
point at which the Grape is successfully cultivated is about 3000 feet
above the sea-level in Spain. At Teneriffe the limit of successful
cultivation is 2500, and on the Alps about 2000 feet. Though the

^6

Grape Vine will grow freely in moderately cool localities, and may
even yield heavy crops, yet the fruit always possesses more acidity
than wheti grown in warmer regions, and consequently is less valuable
for wine. A moderately high temperature is not only more favourable
to the perfect ripening of the fruit, which is essential to the production
of good wines, but the strong heat also develops more saccharine matter,
which increases their strength. Within the tropics, however, except in
very elevated regions, the heat is generally too great for the successful
cultivation of the Grape Vine, as the juices are apt to ferment before the
berries are fully ripe. In Australasia the climatic conditions vary con-
siderably, and growers for wine must always bear this fact in mind
when they are planting. The character of wines are materially
influenced by climate, as also other local conditions, and planters must
select varieties that are likely to prove most suitable. In the warm
dry districts, where there is a strong light, and a grejit heat at the
ripening period, wines rich in alcohol can be obtained, which will be
similar to the Sherry and Port of Spain and Portugal. From the cooler
districts near the coast, or more elevated regions, light dinner wines
such as Claret, Chablis, and Hock can be produced in perfection. Then,
again, in intermediate climates, such as exist in many parts of the colony,
various clas-<es of wine can be produced.

Hardiness and Longevity.

The Grape Vine is naturally a long-lived plant, and under favourable
conditions will attain a great age and size. Many instances are recorded
by ancient writers as to its great longevity. Pliny mentions a vine that
existed in his time, which was over 600 years old. Columella tells
us that Seneca possessed a large Grape Vine that produced over
2000 bunches of fruit in a year. Strabo describes a Grape Vine whose
stem was twelve feet in diameter. Theophrastus mentions a plant
that was so large that a statue of Jupiter and columns for .Juno's
Temple were carved from it. At Ravenna in Italy, the doors of the
cathedral are said to be made of vine wood. The planks being twelve
feet long and fifteen inches wide. Coming to modern times, there are
numerous instances of Grape Vines attaining a great age and size. In
Italy, Spain, and Greece, well authenticated records exist of vineyards
lasting for more than 300 years, and then yielding good crops. The
celebrated Hampton Court Vine in England, which was planted in
1769, is still in a flourishing condition, covering about 2000 feet of
wall space, and producing over a ton of fruit annually. Another
English vine, growing in Essex, and planted in 1756, has attained a
still greater size. Both of these plants are of the variety known as the
Black Hamburgh.

Uses.

Medicinally, ripe Grapes are considered to be cooling and antiseptic,
but laxative if taken in large quantities. They are considered to have

27

beneficial effects in bilious fevers, dysentery, and inflammatory infections,
Eaisins and currants are considered to be somewhat more laxative than
the fresh fruit. The unripe berries of Grapes contain free citric and
tartaric acid in abundance, which disappear as the fruit ripens. The
juice of unripe fruit, which is known as "verjuice," was at onetime
considered to be a good application for bruises. Formerly, the leaves
and tendrils of the Grape \me were used in cases of diarrhoea and
hemorrhage, or other complaints requiring astringent remedies. By
ancient nations the sap of the Grape Vine, called *' Lichrj-ma,,' was
considered to be an excellent remedy for weak eyes when applied
externally, and for the stone or gravel w^hen used internally.

The Grape Vine was utilized by ancient nations in a variety of ways.
In addition to making wine, large quantities of the fruit were eaten
fresh, or dried as raisins, and they formed a considerable item in the diet
of the people. The tendrils cut young were very popular with the
Romans as a pickle. From the Summer prunings, or tendrils cut into
small pieces and bruised, with the addition of boiling water, an
intoxicating li.{uor was obtained by fermentation. It was also customary
to use the leaves in cooking for enveloping small balls of chopped meat,
a practice still followed to some extent in various parts of Europe in
roasting small birds.

There is a wide field open to cultivators in the Australasian Colonies,
in the production of Grapes, and they can scarcely go wrong in entering
upon this industry. Whether the object of the grower be the production
of wine or the making of raisins and currants, he has a large and
exi)anding market open to him, as these products are not only required
in considerable quantities for our own use, but any surplus raised can
be profitably exported. The cultivation of the Grape Vine for wine is
likely to prove one of our staple agricultural industries, as the right
kind of produce will always be in great demand in the British market,
to which we must necessarily look to as the safety-valve against over-
production in carrying on our agricultural industries. Wine has an
advantage over some of our other farm products, as it is more valuable
in proportion to bulk, and is, therefore, better able to bear the transport
and other charges. Another advantage is that wine may be kept for
many years, if necessary, and therefore, need not be forced upon
stagnant or glutted markets. Some attention, during the last few years,
has been paid to the growing of Grapes for raisins and currants, and a
considerable area has been planted with kinds that are suitable. This
industry gives promise of expanding to large proportions, as the con-
sumption of both raisins and currants within the colony is considerable,
and after the home supply is met, there is nothing to prevent
Australian growers from finding a good market for any surplus they
may raise in the United Kingdom.

Conditions under which the Grape may be Cultivated.

The Grape Vine may be grown with success in almost any soil and
situation, and no fruit is more cosmopolitan in its requirements. It will

28

thrive more or less in most parts of Australasia, except in tropical
regions, and comparatively p<^or soils, which are useless for other crops,
may be often utilized to advantage with Grape Vines. But though the
Grape will readily adapt itself to various conditions, yet the fruit will
vary considerabl) in quality according to the climate, nature of the soil,
and treatment. As a rule, the strongest and highest flavoured wines
are obtained from calcarous or limestone soils in the medium warm
districts ; clay, schistose, and volcanic soils also yield rich wines.
Though heavy crops of fruit may be obtained from rich deep alluvial
soils, yet the wine from them will usually be only of a secondary class.
Sandy soils are more suited to the production of light than strong wines.
The same remarks will apply when the fruit is grown for raisins or
currants, but to a less extent with table grapes. As regards the site
for a vineyard, the question of aspect is not of much consequence in the
medium warm regions. In the colder districts, however, or in other
localities where the frosts are apt to linger, the aspect is a matter of
some importance, and when a choice is available, some care should be
taken to get the best one as far as is practicable. The most perfect site
is a gentle slope, with an aspect between north and east, so as to obtain
the advantage of the morning sun. Alluvial flats, or the bottoms of
gullies, where cold fogs are prevalent, should be avoided for vineyards,
as late frosts are generally common in these localities. In situations
that are liable to these late frosts, a crop of Grapes can never be
depended upon, as if they occur when the plants are in blossom, there
is small chance of any fruit setting. Proximity to mountain ranges
will often have a material efi'ect upon the climate, and consequently
upon the quality of the fniit for wine-making. The cultivator will find
it to his advantage to take into consideration all these details, in order to
obtain the maximum of success in his business.

Preparation of the Soil.

It is advisable in planting vines to prepare the ground in the best
possible manner, as far as is practicable, as a good foundation is of
greater importance than is commonly supposed. The treatment required
is not the same in all classes, and the cultivator must modify his practice
to suit local conditions. Heavy retentive soils require to be deeply
stirred, so that air may be able to penetrate freely, and to give the plants
facilities for sending their roots down. These soils are too compact to
afford a good feeding ground for the vines unless they are worked deeply.
Things are, however, somewhat different in the case of loose sandy
and gravelly soils, or where the subsoil lying near the surface is free and
open. An ordinary deep ploughing may be sufficient in these cases, as
no mechanical treatment is required to free the under soil, which is
naturally open enough, when the top crust is broken, to admit air and
allow the roots to penetrate. When such conditions exist, it is un-
necessary to spend labour and capital in stirring the land deeply. But,
unless in soils that are naturally light and open, deep cultivation should
be the rule, and any extra expunditure in this direction will generally

29

prove an excellent investment. It is true that some cultivators have
obtained satisfactory results from land that has been merely ploughed
in the ordinary way, and this fact has induced many to arrive at the
conclusion that deep stirring is unnecessary. This conclusion, however,
is wrong, as though shallow working, as previously stated, may be
sufficient for certain soils, yet it is not for others. In breaking up the
ground, though deep stirring may be necessary, it is not advisable to
turn up a bad subsoil to the surface, a mistake that has often been made.~
Whenever, therefore, the under soil is inferior, the better plan will be
to simply break or stir it, and leave it in the same position as before.
On the other hand, if the soil is uniformly good no harm will result from
turning it over. The very best means of preparing land is by hand
trenching, which disintegrates and mixe& the soil more thoroughly than
can be done in any other way. This method, however, is too costly for
the majority of cultivators, who have necessarily to study economy in
getting the ground prepared and planted. Land may be fairly well
prepared by using a subsoil plough, by which it can readily be stirred to
the depth of from fifteen to eighteen inches. The ground may also be
easily and cheaply prepared by deeply ploughing, and following in the
furrows with anotlier plough without the mouldboard.

Drainage should be provided for when necessary, and more especially
in the case of heavy soils. Though the Grape is more hardy in being
able to stand in wet land than most other fruits, yet it will thrive better
when there is perfect drainage. Whenever the water hangs for any
length of time in the ground it shows that assistance is required in the
form of drainage. Some soils, such as are sandy, gravelly, or open
limestone, may have sufficient natural drainage, when, as a matter of
course, there is no occasion to make provision for it.

Selection of A^arieties.

In making a selection, cultivators must be guided in a large measure
by the objects they have in view in utilizing their Grapes, as also the
climatic and soil conditions, which are important factors. When the
production of wine is the object the planter should carefully consider
what kinds of Grapes are likely to give the most satisfactoiy results.
He should, therefore, plant such kinds as will supply wines that can be
produced to perfection in the particular locality. Some districts are
specially suitable for wines of a particular chiss, which other localities are
unsuitable for, and this fact the grower should duly consider in making
his selection. Growers will also do weJl to bear in mind that it is
impossible to obtain superior wines of different classes from the same
vineyard. Many of the early cultivators made the great mistake of
planting many reputable varieties, and attempting to make wines of all
classes. Because they grew the same varieties of Grapes as produce
Claret, Hock, Port, Sherry, and other European wines, they have been
too often under the impression that their products w^ould be similar.
They lost sight of the fact that the various classes of European wines are
produced under widely different conditions as regards climate, soils, and

30

treatment. Though a particular kind of Grape is certainly required as
the base of each sort of wine, yet it must be remembered that results are
often materially modified by climates, soils, seasons, degree of ripeness
when fruit is gathered, and after treatment. The same kind of Grape
will, under widely different conditions, produce wine that will vary
greatly in quality. In this resi)ect, however, some varieties differ to a
much larger extent than others. Lateness in starting into growth and
ripening its fruit is also a matter that must be considered in choosing a
variety for the more backward districts, though in warmer regions this is
a matter of no great importance. As regards climate, the varieties chosen
for the cooler and moister regions should be such as produce Claret and
other light dinner wines of a similar class to those made in the French
districts of Bordeaux, liurgundy, and Champagne. On the other hand,
in the inland or more northern districts, where great heat prevails with a
dry atmosphere, strong wines similar to the Port and Sherry of the South
of Europe can be produced. Then again in some localities there is a
sort of intermediate climate where different classes of wine can be
produced in perfection. As regards the influence of soils upon the
quality of wines, it is a well-known fact that many of the choicest kinds
in Europe are the products of poor land that is unfit for general
cultivation. Some of the best vineyards of Burgundy consist of calcareous
soil containing over eighty per cent, of insoluble matter. Bordeaux has
vineyards composed of from eighty-five to ninety per cent, of pebbles
and sand. In the Hermitage district the soil is a decomposed granite
containing over seventy-five per cent, of insoluble mat.ter. In the
Champagne district the best wines are obtained from chalky soils
containing about eighty per cent, of carbonate of lime. The famous
wines of Madeira are obtained from volcanic soil containing a very large
percentage of sand and gravel. Then again in the Gironde district in
France good wines are produced from low-lying flat land, but their
excellence is said to be due to the large proportion of oxide of iron
contained in the soil. As a matter of course, Grape Vines grown in poor
soils yield much smaller crops than the same kinds growing in better
land, but the low return usually gives wine of the highest quality.
There is certainly some subtlo influence in these poor soils to cause a
higher quality in the wine, though the yield may be small. The writer is
of opinion that lists of varieties said to be better adapted for particular
localities, soils, and other local conditions are more likely to mislead than
benefit the cultivator, as from the lack of precise information there are no
data upon which absolute conclusions can be based. Some kinds are
certainly more cosmopolitan in their requirements than others, but the
main object of the cultivator should be to produce Grapes suitable for
the wines best adapted for his locality and purposes. A list of varieties
at the end of this article will afford suflicient information to enable
growers to make suitable selections.

In planting for Raisins and Currants, the selection of Grapes is more
limited, as but a comparatively few varieties are suitable. The kinds
suitable for drying are those that have sweet fleshy berries, and belong
to the Muscat section. It may not be out of place to mention th.at the

31

name Muscat, which is applied to a class of Grapes, is not derived from
the peculiar musky flavour of the fruit as is generally supposed, but is a
term applied by the ancient Romans, and signified "to attract bees," from
the great sweetness of the berries. One of the best and most generally
cultivated varieties for Raisins is the Muscat of Alexandria^ which also
passes under the name of Muscat Gordo Blanco and various other
synonyms. For Currants the only Grape is the Black Corinth, or Zante
as it is sometimes called, both names being used for the one kind. The^
source of the Sultana Raisins is the White Corinth, which has somewhat
larger berries. These are the principal kinds used, but several others may
be utilized for drying.

As regards table Grapes, the grower has a wider range in making a
selection, but, as a matter of course, he should only plant such varieties
as are likely to give him the best returns. In selecting, he should take
into consideration quality, appearance, freedom in bearing, period of
ripening, and hardiness. Early Grapes may pay well in some districts,
but not in others, and kinds that will hang long and keep well will often
give the best return. Then, again, if the Grapes have to be sent long
distances, the adaptability of the fruit for packing and carriage must also
be considered. Some kinds are excellent table Grapes, and also suitable
for wine-making, a matter of some consequence to the grower, as it gives
him the option of utilizing the fruit in two ways. Raisin Grapes may
also be used as table fruit, and there is a great demand for the Muscat of
Alexandria in its fresh state. This demand will in many cases enable
growers to sell large quantities of fresh Grapes at higher prices than can
be obtained by drying the fruit.

Pkopagation.

The Grape Vine may be propagated by seeds, eyes, cuttings, layers,
grafting, inarching, and budding.

i'^eeds are seldom used except in raising new varieties, and, as a matter
of course, there is no certainty as to what kind of fruit seedlings will
yield. The seeds should be sown early in the spring in rich light soil,
covering them to the depth of half-an-inch. When the young plants
have made their second pair of leaves, they should be carefully trans-
planted into rows, three feet apart, leaving half that distance between in
the lines. No further removals should take place till the plants fruit,
which will generally be in the second or third year, but it is often longer
before they can be tested.

Eyes. — Propagation by eyes is a very common method among European
gardeners in the cultivation of the Grape under glass ; but, as the only
advantage that ordinary vine-growers can obtain from this method is that
it enables them to propagate a particular variety quickly, thei-e is no
great inducement to practice it in this part of the world. When this plan
is adopted, the eyes should be taken from well-ripened shoots, leaving
about an inch of wood above and below. These pieces should be planted
about two inches deep, with the eyes uppermost, and as a rule they will
strike freely.

32

Cuttings. — The most general mode of propagating the Grape Vine is by
ciUt'mgs, which root with great facility. They should be made from well-
ripened wood of the previous s«jason's growth, taking care that the shoots,
are free from disease of any kind. Some difference of opinion exists as to
the best length for cuttings, but this point must, to some extent, be
decided by the locality in which tl ey are to be grown. The projjer
length will range from nine to fifteen inches, with from three to six
joints, and as a rule the cuttings should be inserted so as to only leave
one or two buds above the ground. In the warmer and drier districts^
where the dry seasons are severe, the cuttings should be planted deeper
than in cooler localities, and consequently they nmst be proportionately
longer. There is, however, no other advantage in using long cuttings,
and for ordinory conditions shorter ones are preferable. The best cuttings
are those that are taken from the lower portions of the shoots, and these
should have the preference when they can be readily obtained. Some-
times cuttings are used with a base of two-year-old wood, and these are
called, from their appearance, " mallet cuttings." These cuttings strike
freely, but only from the portion at the base of the last season's shootti

Strong: Cutting with
two joints.

Cutting with three
joints.

Mallet Cutting. I

Shield or Heel
Cutting.

and the old wood is liable to decay. To get over this drawback, some
growers make it a practice to merely leave a " shield " or " heel " of the
old wood, as shown in the illustration. Cuttings may be either planted
directly where they are to remain or rooted in nursery beds. Each plan
has its advantatres and drawbacks. As regards the first, Grape Vines do
nor bear shifting so well as ordinary fruit trees, and are often seriously
checked by removal. On the other hand, when cuttings are planted out
directly they often fail through the effects of dry weather unless they
receive special attention in watering and keeping them free from weeds.
The writer considers that the surer and more economical method is to
strike the cuttings in nursery beds, and plant out the following season.
When this plan is adopted, a large number of plants can be obtained from
a small area that can be readily attended to by the cultivator. The

83

cuttings should be planted in rows, from two to three feet apart, leaving
from four to six inches between in the lines. Many plant closer, but
this, in the opinion of the writer, is a mistake, as when the cuttings
begin to root they must have space for development. The rooting of the
cuttings will be assisted by placing a layer of broken charcoal, about an
inch thick, at the bottom of each trench so that the heels will rest upon
it. Failures often occur through cuttings being allowed to get too dry
before they are planted ; in fact, many thousands fail every year in_
Australia from this cause alone. Though the Grape possesses great
vitality, and will stand some ill-usage, yet when the wood, by long con-
tinued exposure, has its juices dried up more or less, growth becomes
uncertain. Cuttings are too frequently sent to planters with little or no
coverings to protect them, and sometimes remain for weeks in this
condition before they are put into the ground, and as a consequence a
large proportion will fail. It will, therefore, be advisable to partially or
wholly bury the cuttings in the soil till they are wanted, and when sent
away they should be packed so that they will not suffer from exposure
till they arrive at their destinations.

Showing form of Hoots from a Ion or
Cuttiiigr.

Showing Form of Boots from a short
Cutting.

Lai/ering is a method not generally practised, though it is often
useful for filling up gaps in vineyards, where plants have gone off. It is
effected by simply bending down the branches, and covering them with

2b

84

Layering.

Multiple Layer.— Layer with Plants forming from each
joint.

Layering an old vine. Lines showing where to cut
when rooted.

Plant from a Multiple
Layer.

Ordinary Layer

Layering with a reversed branch. Lines showing I Layer seperated into two
where to cut when rooted. I plants.

6h

three or four inches of soil at the part where they are required to throw
out roots. They will generally root very freely when treated m this
manner, and furnish strong plants. When a layer is put down to supply
the place of a plant that has gone off, it must be carried across in a trench
sufficiently deep to prevent any interference with the cultivating imple-
ments. Plants may also be replaced by another method known technically

Another way of Layering an old vine.

as " Reversed Layering," by which the top of the shoot is inserted in the
ground, as shown by the illustration. The branches strike readily in this
position, and their future growth is not affected, it being precisely the
same as from an ordinary layer. As a matter of course, all the buds on
the looped branch should be removed excepting those required to form
the future plant.

Grafting may be sometimes practised with advantage in working old
stocks of inferior kinds with better ones. Whenever the varieties are
not giving satisfaction, it will be advisable to replace them with better
kinds. Varieties are sometimes shy bearers when growing upon their
own roots owing to the peculiarities of soils and other local causes, but
bear freely when grafted upon other kinds. In Europe grafting is
largely practised since the advent of the Phylloxera insect which has
caused immense losses in the vineyards of France and other countries.
It has been found that the American species of Grapes, which are quite
distinct from the varieties of Vitis vinifera, afford stocks that can
withstand the attacks of the troublesome insect. There has been no
occasion so far to use these stocks in Australasia, and it is to be hoped
that there will be no need for them in the future. Grafting the ordinary-
varieties of Grapes upon stocks of species indigenous to hot countries
may also prove serviceable in the tropical portions of Queensland and
North Australia, as also in some of the South Sea Islands. Baron von
Mueller, in his work, ^'Select Plants for Iml'istrial Culture," directs

86

RtrDDING.

Stock and Scion
prepared.

Stock and Scion
fitted.

Cleft Grraftittic for tin old Stock,

attention to a number of these species. There are various methods of
grafting, and care must be taken that the one practised is suitable to the
conditions existing between stock and scion. When the stock and scion
are equal, or nearly so, in size, what is known as " whip " or '* saddle "
grafting are the best methods. For old stocks ordinary " cleft " grafting
is the method most generally practised. Full instructions as to these
forms of grafting will be found at pages 8 and 10, volume 1. Then,
again, some of the more delicate kinds thrive better upon stronger stocks
than their own, and then grafting may be an advantage. Ordinary
cleft-grating is the method most generally adopted with the Grape Vine,
and the operation should not be performed till after active growth has
commenced, and the sap is rising freely.

Inarching, or grafting by approach, is a method of propagation that
may sometimes prove useful for filling up vacancies in the branches, or
enabling new or weakly varieties to be established quickly upon robust
stocks. The operation may be performed at any time when growth is
active.

Budding is a method of propagation that is but seldom practised,
though it may be useful in some cases. Plump well-formed buds should
be chosen for the purpose, and they must be inserted as soon as the sap
is in full motion, as in budding fruit trees. Another method of budding
is to inlay a piece of wood with a bud into the stock, as shown by the
illustration. In practising this form of budding, great care must be taken
that the inserted piece fits closely into the cut made in the stock.

Plajs^ting.

In planting Grape Vines, the cultivator must be guided to a great

37

extent by practical and econotnical considerations. In the first place,
he has to decide as to what distance apart the vines should start in
order to get the maximum returns when fully established, and to enable
the work of cultivation to be carried on with the greatest facilities.
The next consideration is whether cutting , or rooted vines are to be
used, and how the plants are to be trained. Some difference of opinion
exists as to what distances the plants should be apart, and, consequently,
conflicting advice is given by authorities. The writer holds the opiinbiT
that, as with other fruits, the Grape Vine requires sufficient room for
free develoi^ment, and that it is a disadvantage to plant too thickly.
Better returns can be ol.'tained from a vineyard of well-established
vines planted at the rate of 500 to the acre than from a similar area
containing four times that number. By crowding the vines they, after
a few years' growth, must necessarily show a falling oft" in vigour
through the competition of their roots and the dimini'^hed supplies of
light, air, and plant food. It is maintained by some authorities that
Grape Vines should be ' planted closer in the cooler regions than
warmer districts, but the writer disagrees with this conclusion. Close
planting not only lessens the vigour of the vines, but also, owing to the
large amount of foliage, retards light and heat, which are primary
essentials in ripening crops in late and cool districts. According to the
experience and observations of the writer, Grape Vines should not be
planted closer than 8 feet by 8 feet, and up to iO feet by 10 feet.
These distances allow plenty of room for development, and facilities
for cultivating with horse-power. Currant Vines being of extra
vigorous habit, and requiring to be pruned long, should be planted from
fifteen to twenty feet apart. The plants should be so arranged as to afford
the greatest facilities for cultivating the ground and gathering the
crops. The simplest and most generally adopted practice is to plant
in squares, which admits of the ground being worked in two directions.
But, as a matter of course, when the vines are trellised, the cultivating
implements can only be worked in one direction. Care should be taken
in planting that the vines are regularly placed, so that the rows will be
perfectly straight every way. When the area planted is large, it should
be subdivided into moderately-sized blocks by cross-ways, sufficiently
wide for vehicles, so as to afford the greatest facilities for carr3dng
away the crop, carting manure, and other purposes. Planting may be
done at any time between the fall of the leaf and the starting of growth
in the spring, but it is not advisable to delay too long. On the other
hand, no advantage is gained by planting in the dead winter months.
If cuttings are used, they should be inserted so as to leave two eyee
above ground. They may be planted in slits made by the spade, or
small holes formed with a dibber or bar. Care should be taken that
the openings are uniform in depth, and that the earth is consolidated
round the base of the cuttings, and more especially in light soils. When
rooted plants are used, the holes should be made sufficiently large to
allow the roots to be spread out properly. Broken or bruised roots
should be carefully removed, as they will afford no assistance to the
plants, but may rot if allowed to remain. One year rooted plants

38

are, as a rule, better than those of a greater age, as the older they are
tlie more they suffer when shifted.

Tlie luunber of vines required to plant an acre can be ascertained from
the folkming table : —

Plants

to the Acre.

j

Plants

to

the Acre.

3x3

requires

4840

9x8 lequires

605

4x3

,j

H830

9 X 9

537

4x4

,,

2722

i

10 X 7

622

5x4

ti

2178

1

10 X 8

544

5x5

ft

1742

10 X 9

484

6x5

1452

1

10 X 10

435

6x6

j»

1210

11 X 11

360

7x6

1023

12 X 12

3o2

7x7

^^

888

13 X 13

257

8x7

>r

788

14 X 14

222

8x8

»»

680

15 X 15

193

9x7

>*

691

Trai

NINC.

The Grape Vine may be trained in various ways according to the
requirements or fancy of the cultivator. The one most generally adopted
in vineyards is the Currant-bush style, in which the plant is encouraged
to form several branches, each carrying one or more fruit-bearing shoots.
When the plants are trained on trellises, fences or walls, long lateral
branches should be encouraged, and spurs formed along their whole
length. Care should be taken, whatever form may be adopted, to
arrange the branches, as far as is practicable, so that each one will get
a fair share of the planters growth. In order to attain this object, the
main lateral branches should, as nearly as possible, be kept at the same
level, as there is always a tendency for the sap to rise more freely to the
upper shoots than the lower ones. The height of the stems to the
branches is of no material importance, but in all cases, the growth should
be so arranged that the bunches of fruit will hang clear of the ground.

Forming the Plaiits. — It is essential that Grape Vines should, from
the time they are planted, be trained so as to bring them into the desired
forms, whatever style of growth may be adopted. The first consideration
is to form the stems to the required height, before allowing the formation
of permanent lateral branches. If a high stem is required it will be
stouter and stronger if formed gradually, and more especially when the
(Wrant-bush style is adopted. This object will be attained by shortening
'the main or leading cane for two or three years, to two or three eyes,
according to its strength, in preferance to leaving long shoots. Some-
times, if growth is weakly, it may be advisable to shorten back the
leading cane to one eye. When planted the vine should be simply
shortened back to two, three, or four eyes, according to its strength.
The next year the same course must be followed but if the plant is
strong a second shoot from an upper bud may be preserved and shortened
back' to a single eye. The second year after planting it will be advisable

39

Pruning Young Vines.

Young Plant

The same properly Pruned and Planted

First year after Planting.
Before Pruning. Lines | After Pruning
showing where to cut.

Before Pruning. After Pruning.
Second Year after Planting. '

Third Year after Planting and subsequent Prunings

40

to cut away, clean to the stem, the lower shoot, shorten back the leading
one to two or three eyes, and also the branch that has formed below it.
The third year after the vines are planted the shaping of their stems
will be completed, under ordinary circumstances, and the shoots should
be cut back so as to form the necessary lateral brandies. The illustrations
will afford a good idea as to the way vines of different ages should be
cut to bring them into the proper forms.

Trellising.

The system of trellising in vineyards has certain advantages, as it
allows the branches to be spread out so that they can get the maxinmm
of benefit from sun and light. They can be better secured against the
effects of high winds and heavy rains, and facilities are afforded for
long-rod pruning, which is the better mode for some varieties. Some
people object to trellising, on the ground that it increases the cost of
cultivation, because horse implements can only be worked one way, and
more hand labour is required. On the other hand, it can be argued
that vines or trellises are flat on their supports, and do not take up so
much room as round-headed bushes. Consequently, the cultivating
implements can approach nearer to the plants. Trellises carried over-
head offer advantages when space is limited, or a shady walk or yard is
required. Very large returns can be obtained from vines trained in this
way, and this method is specially commended to persons having but
limited areas of ground. It is also an excellent way of training the
Currant Grape.

Tlie Thomerif System. — This method of training is practised to some
extent in France and other parts of Europe for high trellises, walls, and
buildings. By this method the drawback of having one set of horizontal
arms starting from a higher level than another, and consequently an
irregular growth, is obviated, and an area of trellis or wall space well
above the ground can be regularly covered. The theory of the system
is to form the stems either high, low, or medium, so that the crowns
will be at different heights from the ground. Each vine is trained with
either one or two lateral arms, as shown by the illustration, and these
carry the full strength of the plants. There is no limit as to the height
Vines may be trained under this system, and it is specially suitable for
the cultivation of Grapes against the sides of buildings or high walls.

The Chaintre Sifstem. — Under this system the vines are trained
with long stems and branches so as to trail over and cover the ground
surface. These branches are supported by short forked stakes, in such a
maimer that the bunches of fruit are kept clear of the ground. When
the winter pruning is given the vines are turned over into the adjoining
rows, the stakes removed, and the necessary tillage effected. Then the
stakes are fixed again and the branches placed upon them. It is claimed
for this system that through the foliage being spread out, the ground
is well shaded, and keeps moister and cooler than if it were fully
exposed to the action of sun and wind. This system entails more labour
in pruning and tilling than ordinary modes of training, as also in

41

TuEliLTSINa

Vine Trained with Two Arms.

Showing Trellised Vine in Fruit.

¥=f=^

i il

j ^^11-

m

Trellis formed of Battens and upright Wires.

harvesting the crop. In practising the Chaintre system the rows should
be farther apart than for ordinary cultivation, say from fifteen to eighteen
feet.

42
Trellising.

Fruiting Vine with One Arm.

Tlie Thomery System.

The Chaintre System

43
Pruning.

Grape Vines require regulai* and systematic pruning, in order to
distribute the bearing wood regularly, and obtain large bunches of fruit.
Most of the buds contain, in embryo, a shoot that if allowed to develop,
will produce two or more bunches of fruit, and if all these are permitted
grow, the strength of the plant will be distributed through a large
number of channels. Consequently, the shoots will be slender, anH
weakly, and the bunches and berries small. Therefore, it is necessary
to reduce the number of shoots to what the plant can support to
perfection. The system most generally practised in this part of the
world is what is known as "short-spur" pruning With this method,
the previous year's wood is shortened back to one, twc, or three buds,
according to the strength of the shoots. If there are two or more
shoots starting from near the same base, only one should be retained,
and the others cut out close to the stem. Some kinds will yield better
and with greater certainty upon longer spurs, with five, six, or seven
buds. This method may be tried with kinds that do not give satis-
factory returns under the " short-spur" system. Short pruning, generally
speaking, induces the formation of strong shoots and large showy
bunches, and hence it is well adopted for many table Grapes. On the
other hand such wine Grapes as the Burgundy and other Pinots,
Cabernet Sauvignon, and kindred varieties, whose bunches are com-
paratively small, require long pruning. In all cases the higher buds are
stronger and more fruitful than those near the base, and this is specially
the case with some varieties. Another method is what is known
as * ' long rod " pruning, which is extensively practised by European
gardeners and vine growers, and under this system one or two of the
previous season's shoots are left half their length, or longer according
to their strength. These branches are fastened horizontally to stakes
or trellises, and wdll produce several fruit-bearing shoots. A
corresponding number of the previous season's shoots should be
cut back to short spurs, with one or two buds. The main shoots
from these buds furnish the " long rods" for the following season, when
the old ones must be cut back to " short spurs." By alternating in this
way a supply of suitable wood will always be provided for. The balance,
however must always be preserved. Another system of ** long-rod"
pruning, practised to some extent by European gardeners, is to provide
for three shoots instead of two, as by the ordinary^ n etliod, and renew the
wood every third year. This system has advantages, as it affords a
better supply of ripened wood to carry the fruit-bearing shoots, and it
may be practised as easily as the more common method. Some varieties,
and more especially the more delicate or shy-bearing kinds, will yield
better crops \nth a long run of the previous season's wood than with
short spurs. An extended growth of wood appears to be more congenial
to the nature of the Grape Vine than the close cutting that pertains to
the " short-spur " system. By practising the " long-rod " method, the
advantages of a long growth can be obtained without unduly extending
the plants. When, through defective pruning or old age, branches do

44

Long Hod Prunin(

With ne EocI and Spur.

With Looped Rod
and Spurs.

With Two Rods and Spurs,

become unduly extended they should be headed back and a new growth
encouraged. In localities where frosts are troublesome, it will be advisable
to adopt the '* long-spur " system, as if the upper and more advanced
buds are seriously injured the shoots may be shortened back to a lower
bud that has not been affected. In pruning Grape Vines the cut should
invariably be from the side opposite the bud, and a little above it, slanting
upwards. Pruning may be done at any time during the winter, but it
should be delayed as long as possible. Early pruning is conducive to an
early growth in the spring, and, as a consequence, there is a greater risk
from frosts. July will be quite early enough to commence, even in the
warmer districts, unless large areas have to be treated, when it may be
necessary to begin sooner in order to get through the work in good
time. Even if the plants bleed rather freely after being pruned it does
not matter, as the the loss is merely water, and not true sap as is
generally supposed. Root pruning is not often required by Grape Vines,
though in the case of very vigorous plants it may sometimes prove useful.

Protecting Grape Vines from Frost,

A great trouble to cultivators in many localities, and even in the
medium warm districts of Australia, is the risk from frosts during the
first and second stages of growth. This risk may to a great extent be
avoided in localities where frosts are but light or unfrequent by adoptii g

46

the practice, which is general in some parts of Europe, of making small
fires that will give a dense smoke, in various parts of a vineyard. These
fires will not be required regularly, but need only be kindled on nights-
when danger from frost is apprehended. By adopting this plan losses of
crops will often be avoided, and the extra labour entailed will simply be
an insurance charge. In the cooler regions of Australia, and to a large
extent in New Zealand and Tasniaida, where frosts are more severe,

Grape Vines must be effectively protected, or otherwise the crops will

necessarily be uncertain. Vines may be effectively protected in thesa

Mixed Pruning,

Vine before Pruning

Vine after Pruning.

46

Double Long Kod Extension.

Pruning First Year.
A — The liong Rod.
B— The Spur-

Pruning Second Year.
A— Long Rod of the First

Year.
B— Long Rod from Last

Season Spur.
C — Extension Long Rod

from upper bud of A.
D— The Second Spur.

Pruning Third Year.

A— ^pur formed by cut-
ting back clos^, A '^t^^
C branch of previous
Season.

B — Long Rod Second
Year's ^Vood.

C — Extension Long Rod
from upper lUid of B.

Q) —Long Rod from last
Season's Spur.

47

regions by partially covering them with light mats made of straw or other
suitable material, from the time growth starts in the spring till all risk of
frosts is passed. This mode of protection is very common in those parts
of Europe where similar climatic conditions exist. The coverings used
most generally are straw mats, which are fixed in a nearly horizontal
position over the plants at first. As growth progresses the mats are
raised to a slanting position. In order to supply supports for the mats
it is usual, on one side of each row, to form a ridge of soil eight or nine_
inches high, and on the other side a line of stakes is fixed. The mats,
or other coverings, rest upon these earthen walls, or ridges, and are
fastened to the stakes upon the other side. Possibly strips of hessian
cloth or some similar material may, in many cases, be found to be cheaper
than mats. But whatever material is used, it must be something that
will permit the free circulation of air. It should be borne in mind that,
in affording protection to Grape Vines, not only does it prevent the ill
effects of frosts, but induces the more vigorous development of the buds,
and the fruit sets with greater certainty. Though the expense of protecting
the plants will certainly add considerably to the cost of cultivating, yet
on the other hand it makes results more certain, and in some regions will
allow the Grape Vine to be grown successfully where otherwise it would
fail. In fact, the practice of protecting Grape Vines is indispensable to
cultivators in most parts of New Zealand and Tasmania, and would prove
very serviceable in the cooler regions of Australia.

Summer Pruning.

This term includes various operations to regulate the growth of the
Vines from the time they start in the spring till the crop is fit for use.
Summer pruning is of material importance in the cultivation of the
Grape Vine, it being essential that the growth of the shoots should be
regulated so as to distribute them to the best advantage, and prevent a
waste of energy by the plants. The operations comprised under this
heading are Disbudding, Stopping, and Topping.

Disbudding. — This operation, as the term implies, consists in the
removal of surplus, and therefore useless shoots, in the early stages of
growth. Disbudding should be practised more or less with all kinds
of Grapes, but some varieties require it to a far greater extent than
others. Sometimes the necessary disbudding may be done by one
operation, but in most crises it will be advisable to go over the vines a
second time. As the plants when starting into growth usually make
more shoots than are required, it will be advisable to remove some of
them. It will, however, not be advisable to remove all the surplus
shoots at this early stage of growth, as a portion should be left for
awhile. By adopting this plan there will be a better final choice of
shoots, and more foliage to stimulate root action. The second disbudding
should take place when the shoots are six to eight inches long, or as soon
as possible after the flowers appear. In disbudding care must be taken
to remove the weaker and sterile shoots by rubbing them off.

48

Stopping. — When the fruit has formed, the tops of the shoots should
be pinched otF with the thumb and finger, three or four joints above the
upper bunch. It is not advisable to nip the shoots closer, as sufficient
foliage must be left to shade the bunches. Cultivators must also bear in
mind that each shoot 'should carry enough foliage to supply its share of
the plant food obtained from the atmosphere, and assist in promoting
healthy root action. When extended shoots are required, as will be the
case when " long-rod pruning " is practised, the branches should not be
pinched back at all.

Toppina. — In some parts of Europe it is a common practice to cut the
tops off the vines just as the fruit is lieginning to ripen so as to reduce
the amount of foliage and expose the bunches more freely to sun and
light. To a limited extent this practice is followed by some cultivators
in this part of the world. The advantages to be derived from topping will
depend upon local conditions, such as climate,
aspect, character of the season, and lateness in ripening
of the variety. In the colder regions, where the
Grape is late in maturing, the ripening period will
be accelerated by the removal of some of the
foUage, and exposing the bunches more freely to
light aud sun. Vines growing on a shaded slope,
where the sun has but little power, may also be
assisted by the reduction of the foliage. Then,
again, the removal of a portion of the foliage may
be beneficial in a late cool season, and with kinds
that are backward in ripening. Topping is not
required in the warmer regions as a rule, though
it may prove serviceable under special conditions.
Wher-e the sun is powerful and the heat great, a
gof»d shade is required, and a reduction of the
foliage is likely to do much harm. When bunches
are fully exposed to the sun's power the fruit is
liable to get scalded and seriously injured. Foreign
cultivators from the colder wine-growing regions of
Europe often fall into error through adopting
the same practice in topping their vines that they
were taught in their native countries. These people too often, in
ignorance, lose sight of the fact that, though in co(»l late regions a
reduction of the foliage is an advantage, yet, on the other hand, a full
shade is an essential requirement in the warmer districts.

Thinmng. — Sometimes more bunches are formed on a shoot than it can
bring to perfection, and it will be necessary, if fine fruit is an object, to
reduce the number. As a rule, not more than two bunches on a shoot can
mature to perfection. Some varieties set their berries very close on the
bunches, and it is a common practice with Eur()})ean gardeners to thin
them out when about the size of .small peas. If specially fine fruit is
required this practice may be adopted with advantage with close-berried
table varieties.

Stopping. — Showing
where Shoot should be
pinched back.

49

Ringing the Bearing Shoots.

The practice of ringing, or girdling, the branches, known also as
"annular incision," is followed to some extent in Europe, chiefly by
gardeners growing Grapes under glass, but is seldom adopted in
Australasia. The theory of ringing is that it assists in causing the fruit
to set, and hastens the period of maturity. Very often at the flowering
period the sap is too strong, and unless interrupted this excess of
vigour tends to the abortion of the "^

flowers. By checking the return flow
of sap this contingency is avoided.
Experience has also proved that this
treatment causes the fruit to ripen
earlier than it w^ould do otherwise,
and some growlers are of opinion that
. its quality is improved. The operation
should be performed when the flowers
are fully developed. It is performed
by the removal of a narrow ring
of bark from the fruit-bearing shoot,
below the bunch. In order to ensure ^

success the cut must be clean through ^'"'"''''''^•"^sCot"^' ^ ^''"^^^^
to the wood, and the ring of bark
should be perfectly removed. As a

matter of course, shoots treated in this w^ay will die back, and must
be cat away at the winter pruning. The practice of annular incision
is not of much value in general Grape culture, but it will sometimes
prove serviceable in regions where vines are grown undei' glass, as
will be the case in some parts of N^ew Zealand and Tasmania and
in the colder districts of Australia.

Tying

When long canes have been left they should be securely fastened
to the trellises or stakes before the leaves expand. If single stakes
are used for long canes, it will be advisable to fasten them so that
they wdll bulge out to some extent. When no suj^ports are used —
a common practice in some districts — the canes should be tied
together so as to form bows or loops. As ^'owth progresses the
young shoots should be carefully tied to their supports when they
are from twelve to fifteen inches long, or soonei- if practicable, as,
being very bi'ittle, they are easily broken off by strong winds and
heavy rains if not well secured. It is not ad^-isable, how^ever, to
make the fastenings too tight, as the branches require room for free
development. Every vine grower should make due provision for an.
adequate supply of suitable material for tying. The materials are
various, the principal being the Osier Willow, New^ Zealand Flax,
and indigenous Rushes or similar plants that grow in many localities.
Rve straw also makes a good tying material. As a mattei* of course,

2c

50

tlie material tliat is most readily and economically obtained should
have the preference, other things being equal.

Keeping the Land Clean.

An undergrowth of grass or other weeds is undesii-able in a vine-
yard, as it helps to exhaust the plant food and nioistui-e at the
expense oi' the vines. In the spring and eai'ly summer this under-
growth is specially injui-ious, as it absoi-bs a deal of moisture,
and causes the soil to dry up much moi-e rapidly than would
be the case under other conditions. The more the moisture
can be conserved in the summei', the better for the vines,
and this object will be materially promoted by keeping down
the weeds as much as possible. Sometimes continuous rains
will prevent cultivators from keeping the land clean, but weeds
should never be allowed to make headway if it is possible to prevent it.
Care should, however, be taken in destroying weeds not to work the
ground deeply among the vine roots. Deep ploughing or digging will
nectssarily injure the r* ots, more or less, and the lighter the work is
performed the better, The scarifier and the hoe are better implements
for the work than the plough or the spade. Several stirrings may be
necessary during the year to keep the weeds down ; but, as a matter of
course, the requirements in this respect will often differ materially.
These stirrings will also assist in keeping the suface soil loose — a matter
of some importance in the case of heavy soils which aie liable to cake
after rain. A loose surface is a material check to rapid evaporation, and
the finer the tilth the better. Surface stirring should be invariably
practised with irrigated land after each application of water. In
cleaning ground, advantage should be taken of bright drying days, and
on no account should the work be done while the surface soil is wet and
cloggy.

Mulching,

Mulching is not generally practised in vineyards, yet it is a valuable
aid to cultivators in dry distiicts. If the surface soil is covered with a
layer of long stable manure, straw-, grass, or other material suitable for
the purpose, it is protected from the direct influence of sun and drying
winds, and consequently their is less evaporation and the ground retains
its moisture longer. There are some who object to mulching, on the
ground that the material used harbors insects and interferes with culti-
vation. As regards the first objection, it may be admitted that mulching
does to some extent favour certain kinds of insects, but notwithstanding
this drawback, the advantages are far greater than the disadvantages.
Respecting the second objection, it may be said that, when the surface
soil is mulched, weeds grow but little during the summer, and the
ground does not require stirring. When the summer is over and the

51

Tnulching has served its purpose, it can readily be worked into the land
by the cultivating implements if the layer is not too thick. A layer
three or four inches thick will be sufficient for practical purposes.
jVlulching should be done before the hot weather has fully set in.

Manubing.

Some soils contain naturally large deposits of suitable plant food for
ihe Grape Vine, and these will require but little or no assistance in
manuring for many years. Others again are" poorer in plant food, and
.deficiences have to be made good at an earlier period, and before the
plants suffer through lack of nourishment. It is wTong to suppose that
manure is not wanted for Vines, an opinion that is common, as the
'Grape, like all other fruits, must be able to obtain the necessary amount
■of congenial plant food from the soil, or otherwise growth will fail more
or less. Though it is quite true that the excessive use of manure, while
conducing to strong growth and heavj'- crops, will cause deterioration in
the quality of fruit, and more particularly with wine Grapes, yet, on the
other hand, supplies sufHcient to keep up a healthy normal growth will
"be beneficial. In exhausted soils the fruit is not only limited in quantity
-and size, but is often also poorer in quality than it w^ould be under more
favourable conditions. Even soils that were originally rich may after
a while become more or less exhausted, and cease to give satisfactory
returns without assistance in the form of manure. Certain essential
minerals, such as lime, potash, or phosphorus, may be lacking in the soil,
and a deficiency of either will prevent satisfactory growth. Any of
these materials, when lacking, can be replaced at a comparatively small
•cost. Potash, according to the writer's experience, is more frequently
lacking in vineyards than other minerals, and many of the failures,
•either wholly or partially, are due to its absence, or presence in insufficient
■quantity. Stable or farmyard manure is an excellent general fertilizer
for weakly or exhausted Grape Vines, as it contains all the essentials
for plant growth. The work of manuring may, however, often be done
more effectively and economically by the use of special fertilizers.
Annual and moderate dressings of manure are more effective than
heavier ones given every two or three years, as steady regular growth
is better than over-vigour at one period and a lack of strength at another.
Table Grapes, as a rule, may be more freely stimulated by the use of
manure than kinds that are grown for wine, raisins, or currants, as a
lower density in the juice and a lesser degree of sweetness are of no
material importance.

Injurious Insects.

Cultivators of the Grape are troubled with various insect pests which
sometimes cause a great amount of injury The more prominent of these
are as follows : —

Common Vine Moth.
Showing Various Stages of Development.

Moth on Wing.

Caterpillar

All Natural Size.

r)8

Hawk or Celery Vine Moth.

Showing Various Stages of Development.

Pupa.

Moth on Wing.

Moth at Rest.

Caterpillar.

All Natural .Size.

Caterpillars.— '^everdl species of Caterpillars cause damage to Grape
Vines and it will be advisable to keep them down as far as practicable.
The Common Vine Moth (Agarisfa glycine) is familiar to all cultivators,
.and seldom fails to make its appearance. The Caterpillars of this species

54

are very voracious, and make great liavoc M'itli the foliage of Grape Vines-
in a short time, and very often strip the plants bare. The Moth is a
handsome insect having black wings with yellowish white markings and
when expanded they measure about an inch and a half across. This-
insect increases with great rapidity and produces two or three broods of
Caterpillars in a season. The first brood generally makes its appearance-
soon after the vines come into leaf. The eggs which are produced in
great numbers are deposited in the stakes and stems of the vines. Being
so numerous these Caterpillars are difficult to deal with when they make-
their appearance. Hellebore powder lightly dusted over the plants is
one of the best remedies. A solution of London Purple or Paris Green
in the proportion of J lb. to 100 gallons of water used as spray is also
effective. But if possible the Caterpillars should be prevented from
making their appearance, and this may be done to a great extent by
painting the stems of the plants and stakes with a thick coating of lime
and sulphur when the vines are pruned. When this practice is adopted,
immense numbers of the eggs will be destroyed. Another prominent
and sometimes very troublesome Caterpillar is the Celery, or Silver-
striped Hawk Vine Moth, {Chwrocampa celerio) This is a very large
and voracious Caterpillar that frequently causes a good deal of damage by
rai^idly clearing vines of their leaves, though fortunately these pests are not
often numerous. They are about two inches long, in colour vary from
green to brown, and are furnished with a horn-like protuberance near the^
tail. The Moth is large, measuring three or four inches across with its
wings expanded, and is of a chocolate brown with spots and markings.
It i.s nocturnal in habit, flies with great rapidity, and makes a humming
noise with its wings. The Caterpillars appear to be produced all the
while the vines are in leaf. The remedies are the same as those
recommended for the C^ommon Vine Caterpillar. Hand picking is,.
however, the most effective way of dealing with this pest, when the
Caterpillars are but few in luimber, as is often the case. There are
several different species of Hawk ^loth and other Caterpillars that eat the
foliage of Graj^e Vines and they require precisely the same treatment
as recommended for the ones described.

Phylloxera. — This is one of the most destructive insects with which
European Vine-growers have to contend and one of the most difficult to
deal with. It has caused great ravages in France and other countries
where viticulture is a prominent industry, and in some regions has
completely destroyed what previously were flourishing vineyards. It has-
made its appearance in Australian vineyards having been discovered in
the Geelong district, Victoria some few years back. Promjjt and severe
measures were adopted and there was good reason for believing that
the pest had been eradicated in Victoria. Afterwards the insect was
discovered at Camden and Seven Hills in New South Wales, and strong
eflforts have been made to eradicate it. Recently, however, the pest
has re-appeared in Victoria, in the Bendigo district. The insect
is of American origin, is known scientifically as PhijUoocera vestatn'x-
and commonly as the Grape Vine Louse It is a very small
insect, being barely visible with the naked eye, and in colour is a

P lYI-LOXREA.

Insect in Vavicu^ Stages of Development

T>arva B'ir.st Stage. \ Larva Second Stage. ' Larva Third Stage. | Perfect Insect

Winged Female
All Highly Magnified,

dull orange. There are various forms of the insect, one class being
subterranean and feeding upon the roots, while another section attacks the
leaves. Each class has breeders or " queens " which multiply with great
rapidity and more especially the serial class. This last named class is,
however, less common than the underground one. Some of the insects
produced under ground come to the surface, develop wings and become
aerial. Scientists also say that the aerial type will product- subterranean
insects. The underground form of insects attach themselves to the small
roots which they feed upon and gradually destroy the vitality of the
plants. A strong vine may be able to withstand the attack for two or
more years but it must eventually succumb to it. Roots of affected vines
become swollen in parts forming small tubercles. When the leaves are
attacked, round fleshy galls are formed often in considerable number.
Various remedies have been recommended, but none are thoroughly
effective and some are not always practicable. Among these are the
submersion of the vineyard in water, a method that is effective to a large

56

extent but only practicable in
a few cases. Sulphide of
Carbon injected among the
roots has proved successful to
a certain extent but it is an
expensive remedy. The most
effective way of dealing with
the pest appears to be the
destruction of affected plants
as soon as the insect is detected.
Should the pest make its
a])pearance in any locality it
will be advisable that the
ordinary varieties be grafted
upon what are known as
resistant stocks. These are
supplied by several American
species which are being used
very successfully in European
vineyards. Full information
respecting these kinds will be
found under the heading of
American Grapes.

Koot of Grape A'iiie in Natural Condition.

Injurious Fungi.

There are various kinds of
Fungi that are troublesome
to Grape cultivators and several
are unfortunately too well
known. As regards others,
however, our knowledge is less
perfect and there is a wide
field for further investigation.
Grape Vines are often affected
by obscure diseases and doubt-
less these in the majority of
cases are due to the action of
Fungi. In doubtful cases culti-
vators will do well to en-
deavour to ascertain, as far as
may be practicable, the cause
of the trouble and to promptly
apply the most effective
remedies. The following list
embraces the more prominent
and troublesome Fungi, so far
as they are known : —

Eoot of (J rape Vine affected with PhyJloxeia.

57

Showing effect on Grapes.

Anthracnose. — This disease Black Eot.

which is commonly known as
Bhick Spot and scientifically as
Spaceloma ampelinum is a very
troublesome fungus to Giape
Vines. It first makes its api)ear-
ance in the form of minute
black circular dots on stems,
leaves, and berries, and these
gradually enlarge till they aie
half-an-inch across or more. As
they advance in age and size
these spots bec(mie lighter in
colour. If not checked promptly
as soon as it is discovered, this
fungus spreads rapidly and will
■cause much damage. Its effects
upon both the leaves and fruit
■cause them to gradually shrink
up and drop ofi'. This pest is
not easily eradicated if it gets
■established, and though it may
be kept in check by the judicious
use of remedies, it is likely to
reappear more or less the follow-
ing season. Consequently the
cuttings and leaves of affected
plants should, as far as may be
practicable, be destroyed by
fire. The most effective remedy
is the Bluestone Ammonia
Solution used as a spray.
Apply just as the Vines are
coming into leaf, again when
the flowers appear, and give a
third spraying when the Grapes

are the size of small peas. Further applications, if necessary, should
be given at intervals of three or four weeks till the berries attain their
full size. Bordeaux Mixture and Eau Celeste also make effective sj^rays
and Sulphate of Iron is considered to be a good remedy.

Black Rot. — This disease is very often comfounded with Anthrac-
nose, but they are quite distinct. Though the effects are somewhat
similar. The fungus is known scientifically as Phsolospora {Lock-
stadia) Bidwillii. It makes its appearance in minute dots upon
foliage and fruit. These dots increase rapidly in size if not checked,
and as the fungus growth extends the leaves and fruit shrivel up.
Several remedies are used \^dth more or less success including
Bordeaux Mixture, Eau Celeste and Ammonia Carbonate of Copper.
Directions for making and using these preparations will be found

58

on page 98, volume 1. Anotliei- i-eniedy that has been used very
effectively is a simple solution of Sulpliate of Copper. It is made by
dissolving* one pcjund of Sulphate of (yoppei- in twenty-five gallons of
water using it as a spray. This sohition is a good one for spraying
the Vines before growth has started. Imt is too strong for young and
tender leaves and shoots.

Peronospoka. Viticola.
Enlarged 20<> Diameters.

A A A — Showing the Conidia or Fruiting Threads emerging from the Pores on

under side of the r.eaf .
B B — Showing the Mycehum ramifying among the Cells inside the Leaf.

59

Doivny Mildeiv. — This Downy Mildew

fungus is Pero wo5pora wY/co/« Showing Bunch badly effected.

and as it is exceedingly
troublesome to Vine growers
in Fi'ance, it is also com-
monly known under the
name of French Mildew\
This fungus makes its
appearance in minute white
spots, on the undersides of
the leaves, warm humid
weather being most favoiii--
able for its development.
These spots gradually in-
crease in size till they cover
the greater poi-tion of the
leaf surface, and the foliage
withers and decays. Reme-
dies, Bluestone and Lime
applied either as a spray or
a 2^owder, is considered to
be one of the most effective
remedies. It is prepared by
mixing ten pounds of blue-
stone with six gallons of
warm water in one vessel
and seventeen pounds of
quicklime and three gallons
of water in another. When
thoroughly dissolved mix
togethei'. and if required as
a spray add water at the
rate of ten gallons to one.
If required as a powder the
material should be placed in
shallow vessels and allow^ed

to dry by evaporation. Another fairly effective remed}^ is the
ordinary Kerosene Emulsion w4th about three per cent, of carbolic
acid and a small proportion of glycerine added. The remedies
should be applied as recommended for Anthracnose.

Mouldy Root. — This disease w^hich is perhaps better known under
its French name Poui'ridie is caused by various species of fungi
including Agaricus melleus and Dematophora necatrix the latter being
the most common. It mostly occurs in damp badly drained soils,
and is said to be more frequent in land recently taken from forests,
according to the experience gained in France, where the disease is
very destructive. When Grrape Vines are affected by this disease,
they quickly lose their vigour, assume an unhealthy appearance,
make weakly growth and gradually die away. If the roots are

60

examined a white grey or brown fungus growth will be found upon
them. This mould is at first white then changes to grey then brown
and black. It is composed of minute filaments which are matted
together and spread over the roots, and also extend some distance
into the soil. Some of these filaments come to the surface to
fructify or produce a perfect fungus. Agtiricns melleus oi- Honey
Agaric may be taken as the type of the class. This fungus is as
large as an ordinary mushroom, and is edible. The spores of this
fungus are produced in great numbers and they rapidly germinate
when the conditions are favourable. AV'henever this disease is
discovered it will be advisable to take up and destroy with fire, any
plants that are badly affected, and lime should be supplied liberally to
sweeten the soil. Prevention is, however, much better than cure
and the disease should be avoided by perfect di'ainage. Mouldy
Root is a disease that will never or rarely occur in land that is
thoroughly drained.

Oidium. — This fungus (Oidhim Ttickerii) is generally known as the
Common Mildew or Powdery Mildew and is widely prevalent in
vineyards in all parts of the world. In Australasia it is a widely
spread and very troublesome pest, some varieties of Grapes being
specially liable to its attacks. Heat combined wdth moisture seems
to be the most favoiu'able conditions for the spread of this fungus,
and it is generally woi'se in districts near to the sea coast. On the
other hand in the dry interior districts it causes less trouble, as a
rule. The Oidium is a fungus that grows upon the outer tissues of
the Vine and attacks the buds, leaves, young Avood, tendrils, flowers,
berries, and stalks. Its appearance at first is like thin white powder,
and it usually attacks the leaves first. But the l^erries seem to
attract the fungus most and they are often entirely covered Avith
its greyish white powdery looking filaments. If left unchecked the
ett'ect of the parasite is to tighten the skins of the berries and cause
them either to dry up or crack. But though the Oidium is a
troublesome fungus, yet it may be eft'ectiA^ely combatted by the use
of sulphur, provided it is not allowed to get a strong hold before the
remedy is applied. A still better plan is not to Avait for the
appearance of the fungus, but to apply sulphur as a pi-eventative and
giA^e several dressings during the season. The first dressing should
be given in the spring, soon after groAvth has started. A second one
may be given when the floAvers make their appeai'ance and others at
intervals of tAvo or three Aveeks as circumstances may require. In
applying sulphur Vine growers should bear in mind that the i-esult
may be materially influenced by atmospheric conditions. It is not
the contact of the particles of sulphur Avith the fungus that destroys
the latter, but the fumes that are caused by the action of heat.
Sulphur should therefore be applied on bright calm days and Avhile
the air is Avarm. Sulphur is usually applied by means of belloAvs
specially arranged for the purpose, but may be effectively used Avith
a common flour dredger or a bag that Avill allow it to come through.
Though sulphur in all its forms may be used, yet it should be
remembered that the finer the poAvder it is reduced to, the quicker

61

OlDILM TUCKERIl.
At an Early Stage cf Development. Enlarged 200 Diameteri

^ A — The Conidia or Fruiting Threads,
g jg_The Mycelium or Suckers.

Kipe Condition'.
Enlarged 400 Diameters^

Showing effect on Grapes A —She wing the way the Spores are emitted".

62

Tufted Leaf Blight.
Increased 100 Diameters.

will l^e its action as the greater will be the exposed surface. In
France it is a pi'actice to mix the sulphur with soot as by reason of
its dai-k colour the latter absorbs more i/eadil}' the heat from the
sun, and causes a moi'e activ^e giving off of the sulphur fumes. The
quantity of sulphur required for each di'essing must necessarily vary
to some extent according to the size of the plants, the distance apart
and the stage of growth. For a vineyard planted ten by ten about
15 lbs. will be sufficient for a first dressing, per acre. A second
dressing will take about double the quantity required for the first
one as there Avill be a much larger expanse of foliage. For the same
reason the after dressings will take from 35 to 40 lbs. each.

Tufted Ledf Blight. — This somewhat common
disease in Australasian vineyards is caused
by a fungus known as Cercospora viticol<(
(Cliulosporium umpelmum), which appears in
the form of numerous rounded or irregular
spots upon the leaves, which vary in size from
minute points to half-an-inch. These spots
when small are in colour a dark brownish
purple, but Av^ien larger they become paler in
the centre. As it develops, the fungus forms
minute tufts of black or very dark green which
are barely visible to the eye, but which when
seen under a microscope have the appearance
as shown by the illustration. This fungus
like most others produces its spores in great
numbers and increases rapidly. Though
troublesome, liowever, it is less hurtful than
some other fungi. In treating this disease it
is advisable to destroy aifected leaves as far
as may be practicable. Remedies: 1. Lime
in a powdei'ed state dusted over the affected
Vines. 2. Eau Celeste. 3. Bordeaux Mixture.

White Hot: — This disease is caused by a
fungus known as Comothi/riiim diplodeillid
which has been prevalent in various parts of

Australia during the last few years. It is a very troublesome pest,
and causes much damage in vineyards that it attacks. The effects
of this disease are similar to those produced by Anthracnose and it
is somew^hat alike in appearance to a superficial observer. It
attacks the leaves, shoots, and fruit, and seem to affect some varieties
to a much greater extent than others. When the leaves are attacked,
brown irregular patches appear upon the upper surface. Soon after
their appearance the patches are covered Avith a bluish grey mould.
When the young leaves are attacked they often turn black and
wither off as from the action of frost. As the patches mature they
break away, the spores of the fungus are spi-ead and another
germination takes place. Wlien the shoots are attacked the disease
most generall}^ appears at the joints and often runs in longtitudinal

A — Tufts bearing finger-
shaped spores growing
upon the upper surface
of the leaf.

B — Upper surface of leaf.

@ — Suckers or Roots.

68

:strips. The effects are at first small swellings and discoloration, and
the bark detaches itself in strips from the wood. The wood has a
blistered appearance and when badly attacked dies back. White
Rot sometimes attacks the bunches when the beri-ies are the size of
small peas, bnt more generally when they are fully grown, and
first appears in the form of small brown shining spots. These spots
increase rapidly, and in a few days covei' the entire surface. The
effect is that the berries gradually shrivel up and in some cases

drop off. The following preparations have pi'oved effective remedies

for the White Rot fungus: 1. Sublimated Sulphur 14 1b., Slaked
Lime 5 lb., and Sulphate of Copper 1 lb. These materials which
must be crushed to a fine powdei-, and thoroughly mixed, form a
preparation known as Sulphatine. It is applied as a powder in the
same way as sulphur. 2. Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate used as
a spray. 3. Sulphate of Iron used as a spray. Directions for
making and using N'o.'s 2 and 3 remedies will be found at pages
99 and 100, volume I. Cultivators must bear in mind that in the
use of remedies for this disease prompt action is necessary as soon
as it can be detected.

Fruit not Setting.

This is not a common occurrence, and may result from various
•causes. The most general cause is due to atmospheric conditions,
such as an abnormally low^ temperature or excess of rain at the time
the flowers make their appearance. Frost wdll often cause the
abortion of the flowers, and heavy rain sometimes washes off the
pollen, and prevents fecundation. In many cases the result is brought
about by the action of minute insects or fungi. Other probable
causes are over-luxuriant growth or want of vigour in the plant at
the flowering period. Sometimes the tendency to failure is owing to
short pruning, as some varieties have inferior fruit buds in the
•shoots near to the stocks, or none at all. Some varieties have a
much greater tendency to fail through the non-setting of the fruit
than others, which is a proof that atmospheric conditions are the
principal cause. The evil can scarcely be altogether avoided, but
cultivators may mitigate it materially b}^ excluding varieties that are
specially liable to be affected, care in pruning so that each vine is
treated according to its particular requirements, and judicious culti-
vation. The French term for the non-setting of Grapes is " Coulure,"
and this name is frequently used in Australasia.

Berries Making Irregular Growth.

Sometimes, and more especially with a few varieties, the berries
set freely, but they develop irregularly, so that while some retain
their normal size, others increase in bulk but slightly, or not at
all. Consequently, the bunches are composed of uneven berries, some

of which do not ripen properly. This defect
may be induced by various causes, the principal
one being unfavoui-able atmospheric conditions
when the flowers appeal-, which prevents the
proper development of the berries by making-
some of the blossoms abortive. When these
floAvers are rendered abortive their places are
taken by later and secondary ones which are
inferior to the first or main ones. These
secondary flowers are usually weakly, and only
develop berries when the primary ones fail.
Sometimes the evil is caused by the lack of
some essential materials in the soil, such as
potash or phosphoric acid. When the trouble
is due to the last mentioned cause the
cultivator may avoid it by taking care that
there are no soil deficiencies. If caused by
atmospheric conditions the evil cannot be
absolutely avoided, but it may be mitigated
by discarding such varieties as are specially
liable to be affected.

Cultivation Under Glass.

Ijimch with Berries of
irregular growth.

In the cooler regions of Australia, and to a large extent in Tasmania
and New Zealand, the cultivation of the Grape in the open air will
necessarily be uncertain, and the aid of glass houses will be required.
Glass houses may also be used with advantage for the pi-oduction of
table Grapes earlier in the season than they can be obtained when
growing under ordinary conditions. Gi-ape houses may be divided
into two classes, the first including structures that merely afford
protection from the changes of the weather and low outside tempera-
ture, and the other embracing buildings fitted with appliances for
supplying artificial heat to stimulate and hasten gi-owth.

Cool Houses. — The first class, or cold houses, ai-e those that will be
more generally required, and when economy is a consideration they

A Lean-to Grape House. a a — Ventilators.

A Span-roof Grape House-

65

may be constructed very cheaply. The simplest and cheapest kind of
Grrape house is what is known as the Lean to. A useful house of this
kind may be constructed as follows : — Dimensions, thirty feet in length,
fifteen in width, with a back wall ten feet high, and the front one two
feet. These walls may be simply composed of boards fixed to posts,
but, if convenient, it will be better to make them of brick or stone.
A wooden plate or cap is fixed on the top of the walls to receive the
rafters, and upon these fixed sashes rest. Ventilation is provided by
openings at the top of the back and front walls fitted with wooden
shutters upon hinges which open outward, as shown by the illustrationT

A Span-roof Grape house has the front and back walls of equal
height, as shown by the illustration, and may be constructed as
simply as the Lean-to, with the exception of the ridge, to receive the
roof. In a house of this class it is also necessary to have openings in
the ridge filled with shutters to afford the necessary ventilation.

Forcing Houses. — These are structures which can be heated
artificially to hasten growth and bring Grapes to maturity earlier in
the season than they can be obtained in the ordinary way. Houses
of this description may be constructed on the same lines as recom-
mended for cold structures, but it is necessary that the walls and
other parts should be more solid as a protection against the external
cold air and to enable the internal temperature to be easily kept up
to the proper standard. Heat is applied by means of hot water pipes
fixed low down on the inside of the walls, and supplied from a boiler
placed outside the building. Very cheap and effective boilers of
va-rious forms are now available, and the cost of heating a Grape
house need not be a very expensive item.

Treatment op Vines Under Glass.

Vines under glass, either in cold or forcing houses, should in the
first place be trained so that the branches will cover the whole of the
roof surface. The methods best adapted for the purpose are the
"Thomery" and the "Extended Long Rod," both of which have
been fully described in the section upon Training, page 38. A wire
trellis or rods should be fixed six or eight inches below the rafters
for the support of the branches, taking care that they are securely
tied from time to time as growth progresses. In order to prevent
scorching, the inside of the glass should be thinly smeared with
whitening or some similar material shortly after growth has started.
Air mtist be admitted freely, and more especially after the fruit has
set. While the plants are in blossom the houses ought to be kept
somewhat closer and warmer than usual, and at this time it is not
advisable to wet or sprinkle the foliage. At all other times the
syringe may be used freely with advantage, and more especially on
harsh drying days. In heated houses growth should be started at a
temperature of from 60 to 65 Fah., and this must be kept up till
the bunches are well developed. As a matter of course, as the
weather increases in warmth the fire heat may be reduced in

2d

66

proportion. Insects and fungi are often troublesome in cultivating
Grape Vines under glass, and care must be taken not to let these
pests get a firm hold. As soon as detected, the necessary remedies
should be promptly applied. Care should also be taken, as a pre-
ventative, to remove loose bark and paint the stems with lime and
sulphur before growth starts. It will also be advisable, in the case
of heated houses, to sprinkle powdered sulphur and lime upon the
hot water pipes frequently, as the fumes will materially assist in
keeping down Oidium and other fungi.

Thinning Bunches of Grapes.

In the cultivation of Grapes under glass it is a common practice
with European gardeners to reduce the number of berries when too
numerous. Some kinds have a tendency to set ho thickly that as the
berries increase in size they have not room for development, and
consequently do not come up to the highest standard in quality. By
thinning out the bunches the drawback is avoided, and the beiTies
attain their full size and flavour. The operation should be performed
when th<^ berries have fairly well formed, and must be done with a
pair of sharp-pointed scissors, and with great care. Sometimes a
second thinning may be necessary, and this should be done before the
berries get large enough to press each other by over-crowding. As a
matter of course, the practice of thinning is only to be recommended
for choice table Grapes, and can necessarily only be adopted upon a
small scale. It will, however, prove serviceable if specially fine
bunches are required for exhibition or other purposes.

Gathering, Packing, and Preskrving Grapes.

The Grape reaches the highest degree of perfection when allowed
to get fully ripe upon the Vine, and some kinds are richest in
flavour when permitted to hang till they begin to shrivel. If required
for packing, the bunches should be gathered when perfectly dry,
and never when there is any moisture upon them from rain or
dew. For local markets, that can be reached within two or three
days, it will be sufficient to pack the bunches firmly in the boxes
so that they will not shift. In packing the boxes, which should
not be large, the fruit must be laid in bunch by bunch, as closely
as possible, and in such a way that a gentle pressure will be
required to fasten down the lids of the cases. When packed to
travel long distances, and remain some days in the cases, the spaces
between the bunches should be filled with thoroughly dr}^ sawdust
or corkdust. Large quantities of Grapes packed this way are sent
to England from Spain and Portugal, and generally ai*rive at their
destination in prime condition. Formerly, before the advent of
steam transport, Grapes from these countries were often several
weeks in the cases before they reached the English market, and
seldom suffered to any great extent. Grapes may be preserved
fresh for several weeks by various methods. One method is to

67

suspend the bundles, so that they do not touch each other, with
strings from rods in a moderately dry room or shed ; another plan
is to place the bunches in jars or boxes, filling the spaces between
with thoroughly dry bran or sawdust. Bunches of Grapes may
also be kept for a considerable time if cut with pieces of the wood
three or four inches long attached to the stalks. The ends of these
pieces of stem should be inserted about two inches in tubes or
bottles filled with water. These are placed slanting on shelves in
such a way that the bunches will hang clear. There will be no
occasion to change the water if a small piece of charcoal has been
placed in each bottle ; it will, however, be necessary to keep the
tubes or bottles filled up as the water is absorbed.

Making Raisins and Cuerants.

Grapes can be i-eadily dfied by sun heat, and raisins or currants
^re most generally prepared by this means. This is, in fact, the
method generally adopted in European practice. Drying by fire
heat has of late years been practised to some extent, and more
particularly in California, but though this method has the recom-
mendation of being more economical and speedy, yet, as a rule, the
produce is inferior to sun-cured fruit. Various methods are adopted
an curing raisins, and even in Spain, where this industry is earned
on principally, the practice varies considerably. In the province of
Valencia the usual plan in curing is to prepare a hot \je made of the
ashes of Vine wood and Rosemary. The bunches are dipped in this
preparation, spread out in the sun to dry, and turned daily till
sufficiently cured. In the district around Malaga, which is also
noted for its raisins, the bunches are simply dried in the sun without
undergoing any pi-evious preparation. This dipping process doubt-
less hastens the curing, but in other respects no benefit can be
derived from it. On the other hand, if the bunches are kept too
long in the hot solution there will be a risk that the berries will be
partially cooked, or the skins crack and allow a portion of the Grape
sugar to escape. The easiest and quickest way of sun-drying is to
spread a layer of bunches on wooden trays of moderate size and
uniform in shape. These should be fully exposed to the sun, and the
bunches turned every day till they are sufficiently dry. Care must
be taken in drying that the fruit is not exposed to dew or rain, as if
it gets wet there is a risk of its spoiling. The time required for
•drying will, as a matter of course, depend largely upon the weather,
but also to some extent upon the size of the Grapes, and the degree
of ripeness. If the weather is clear and hot, ordinary i-aisins can be
made in twelve to fourteen days, but will require a longer time w^hen
the conditions are less favourable. Currant b, having smaller berries,
<can be dHed in a shorter period, and will generally be sufficiently
cured in a week. Sultanas require a day or two more than currants,
but less drying than the ordinary raisins. When dried by artificial
heat, the bunches are placed on open trays in a building specially

68

constructed for the purpose, and curi-ents of hot air are made to pass
through them till the surplus moistui-e has evaporated. As soon as
the drj^ng process is complete, whether by artificial or sun heat, the
fruit should be placed in heaps or boxes for a few days, when it will
slightly ferment or " sweat." The next thing will be to pack it as.
tightly as possible into small boxes or kegs, where it will remain till
required for use. When the stems have to be removed, which is
necessary with currants and some classes of raisins, it must be done,
as a matter of course, before the fruit is put into the cases. Grapes
for drying should invariably be fully ripe before they are gathered,
and when practicable they ought to be left to hang till they begin to
shrivel.

Making Grape Jam or Jelly.

Grapes can be utilized to advantage when made into jam or jelly.
All kinds may be used for the purpose, but those with pulpy and
somewhat acid berries will give the best results. Only sound Grapes
should be used, and these, when picked from the stalks, must be
boiled slowly for about four hours for jam, adding sugar at the rate
of about one pound to three pounds of fruit, or a greater proportion if
the Grapes contain a large quantity of acid. For jelly the berries
should be boiled slowly without sugar till the pulp separates freely
from the skins, when the mass should be strained through coarse
muslin or some other suitable material. To each pint of juice one
pound of white sugar should be added, and then boil briskly for
an hour. Preserve in jars as with other jams or jellies.

Wine-making.

This is a subject which the writer does not intend to treat exhaus-
tively, as there are so many details to be considered, and so much to
be said in connection with each one, that the most complete information
can only be given in a work specially devoted to wine-making. The
writer, therefore, proposes to touch lightly upon the more essential
matters in such a way that the information may be serviceable to
those whose knowledge of the subject is limited. Though the process
of making wine is simple, yet various essential matters have to be
duly considered in order to obtain the fullest measure of success.
Modifications in treatment are necessary according to the variety of
Grape, its degree of ripeness, and the class of wine that is desired.
As regards the latter requirement, it must be remembered that the
foundation of a particular class of wine is in a certain variety, which
is essential to the production of the desired article. It is simply
impossible to make a particular kind of wine without its proper base.
But the qualities of Grapes are modified materially by climate, soil,
and degree of ripeness, so that the one kind grown under different
conditions may produce wines that vary considerably in strength and
character. In the warmer districts, where there is a strong heat

69

and light at the ripening period, the Grapes will contain a large
proportion of glui.ose, consequently the wine will be richer in alcohol,
and, therefore, stronger by several degrees. In the colder regions, or
in other localities when the season is unfavourable for ripening, the
Grapes will retain more acidity and a lower proportion of glucose,
and, consequently, the wine will be lighter in character. A very wet
season, or when water has been supplied at a late period by irrigation_j_
may decrease the percentage of glucose, and make the wine very low
in quality. Then, again, if Grapes are allowed to hang till they are
dead ripe and begin to shrivel, they will be richer in glucose and
have less acidity.

. When wine of a high strength is required, the Grapes should be
allowed to hang till they attain the fullest degree of ripeness. In the
cooler districts it will be necessary, as a rule, to let the crop get
thoroughly ripe before it is gathered, as even then the fruit will,
generally contain a good percentage of acidity. Unless the Grapes are
fully ripe the wine will not be up to the highest possible standard.
On the other hand, in the warmer regions, where wines are too rich
in alcohol, it may be advisable to gather the Grapes before they get
sufficiently ripe to develop the full amount of glucose. This plan is
often adopted, and the result is wine less strong than the product of
fully ripe Grapes. Some wine-makers, however, prefer letting the
fruit attain the highest degree of maturity, and to lower the strength
of the must by adding the necessary percentage of water before
fermentation. In support of this practice it is contended that the
development of the saccharine and other matters should not be
checked, as their suppression is detrimental to the wdne. Another
mode of reducing the strength of wines is to blend with a lowei
quality of must from a different variety or locality.

Treatment of the Grapes. — When the Grapes are gathered it will be
advisable to remove all unripe or decayed berries, as these if left will
have a tendency to injure the wine. The fruit intended for white
wine is crushed and pressed directly, but for red kinds the Grapes
after being crushed are allowed to stand a few days in the vats before
the pressing takes place. Many wine-makers separate the berries
from the stalks before crushing, but this is not absolutely necessary.
The stalks during fermentation yield astringent matter the base of
which is tannin, and when this is in excess it is injurious to wines.
The skins contain the same tannin as the stalks, and the colouring
matter that is imparted to the wine. The pips contain tannin in larger
proportions, as also a considerable amount of albuminous matter,
fatty oil, gluten, and mineral salts. Though neither the stalks, skins,
nor pips contain material that can be converted into alcohol, yefc
they accelerate the process of fermentation, and greatly influence the
character of wines. A moderate proportion of tannin is beneficial to
both white and red wines, and is, in fact, essential to them. It
precipitates the albumen, improves the quality, and is not unpleasant
to the palate. On the other hand, an excess of tannin makes wine
hard, astringent, disagreeable to the taste, and heavy for the stomach.
Consequently, neither stalks, skins, nor pips should be allowed to

70

macerate in the juice longer than is absolutely necessary to effect-
certain objects that are desired. There is no danger of an excess of
tannin in white wines, as the Grapes being pressed soon after they ar&
crushed the stalks, skins, and pips do not remain sufficiently long in
the juice to part with their astringent qualities to any great extent.
In fact, in some cases the stalks may be put through the press with
the berries, in order that the necessary amount of tannin may be
imparted to the wine. In making red or other deep-coloured wines
the colouring matter is obtained from the skins, and they have
necessarily to macerate for a period, longer or shorter, in the juice.
Consequently, there is a risk of too much tannin being absorbed, and
more especially in the case of wines strong in alcohol. Therefore it
will be advisable to remove the stalks before crushing, so that a less
quantity- of tannin will be available for absorption. In crushing care
must be taken, as far as is practicable, not to break the pips, as their
oily and albuminous kernels have an injurious effect upon the wine.

Treatment of the Juice The juice, after it leaves the press, is

technically known as " must," while the mass of skins, pips, &c. left
behind is called the " marc." The strength of the must is represented
simply by the quantity of sugar contained which can be converted
into alcohol. But the test of strength does not represent the variable
quantities of acids, essential oils, salts, and other materials, each
of which has an influence upon the quality of the wine. As soon
as it is run from the press the must should be placed in large
receivers, or fermenting vats. These receptacles are mostly made
of wood, and when so, they must necessarily be made of some
kind that will not impart an unpleasant flavour to the wine. Oak
is the favourite wood for the purpose for which it is admirably
suited. Some wine-makers prefei stone or brick and cement
square tanks to wooden vats, and one class of receiver seems to
be quite as useful as the other. Closed vats are now more generally
used than open ones, as the fermentation is more regular. Fermen-
tation also goes on with more regularity and briskness in shallow
than in deep vats, and the work is sooner finished. Temperature, as
a matter of course, has a great influence upon the fermenting process,
as when low it goes on slowly, and if high makes rapid progress.
When the fermentation goes on too slowly it may be incomplete, and,
on the other hand, if too rapid there may be a material loss of alcohol
and other essentials. It is, therefore, advisable to keep the tempera-
ture as regular as possible by constructing the cellars so that they
will be least affected by the power of the sun and changes of the
weather. The fermentation may possibly be stimulated when Grapes
are gathered after the air and soil is heated by the sun, and more
especially in the warmer districts. As a rule, the higher the
temperature of the must when placed in the vats the more strong
will be the fermentation.

Artificial Fermentation .- -Some attention has during the last two or
three years been paid to a system of artificial fermentation, said to
have been practised with great success in French vineyards. The

71

investigations of Pasteur and other French, scientists have led to the
discovery that the wine "ferments," or "yeasts," are various,
according to the variety of Grape, degree of ripeness, climate,
temperature of the must, mode of fermentation, and other local
conditions. These scientists also inform us that some of the essential
qualities in wines are, to a large extent, dependent upon the character
of the fermenting yeast. Under the ordinary system the fermenting
agent must necessarily be a matter of chance, whereas it is claimed
for the new process that the wine-maker can utilize a special medium.
These mediums are selected " yeasts " which are carefully cultivated
and preserved, so that they can be applied to wines with certainty.
These " yeasts," which are known in French as " levures," are
selected from the various classes of notable wines. It is claimed for
these artificial ferments that their use ensures wines of more certain
character and uniform quality than can be obtained in the ordinary way.
Each class of " yeast " is also said to give to a wine a particular and
distinctive bouquet, more or less similar to the European wine from
which it has originated. As instances the advocates of artificial fermen-
tation claim that cultivated " yeasts " of the Pinot Noir of Burgundy
and Cabernet Sauvignon of Bordeaux will to a large extent supply the
special characteristics that have made wines from those districts famous.
Whether these claims are well founded time and experience must show.
It is probable, however, that the advocates of artificial fermentation
claim more for the system than results will warrant. Possibly it may
prove of great service to wine growers, but it is doubtful whether the
system will produce such certain and great results as is claimed for it.
It must not be forgotten that the qualities of wines depend upon many
factors, and each has a material influence. The "ferment " is only one
factor though certainly it is not the least important. It is not likely
that by merely using a cultivated "yeast" from a special French or
German wine that the products of Australasian vineyards can be made to
assume the same characters. Then, again, it must not be forgotten that
in using cultivated " yeasts " they must necessarily come in contact with
those that form naturally, and possibly results may be materially influenced
by this means. Another matter in connexion with artificial fermentation,
that will to some extent be a bar to the practice, is the fact that the
cultivated " yeasts " must be prepared by skilled scientists, and will cost
money. When the system is practised, the first consideration is to use
only the special '• yeast " that is suitable for a particular class of wines.
As instances, a Bordeaux " yeast " is best suited for Cabernet, Malbeck,
and similar kinds. A Sherry " yeast " should be applied to such
varieties as Pedro Ximenes and Doradilla, and a Hermitage " yeast "
must be used for Shiraz, Grenache, Mataro, and other sorts belonging to
the same section. In applying the cultivated " yeasts " they should first
be mixed with, say, about ten gallons of sterilised must which ought to
be freely exposed to the air for a few hours before it is used in order to
encourage active fermentation. The must may be sterilised by heating it
to 160 degrees for two or three minutes, allowing it to cool gradually to
below 70 Fah. before adding the " yeast." The prepared must is then

72

added to the main bulk, and the further treatment is the same as that
required during fermentat on in the ordinary way.

Racking ' ff the Wine. — As soon as active fermentation ceases the wine
should be drawn off and filled into smaller casks. ]^«y this means it is
separated from the lees and placed in casks that can be handled readily.
No precise rules can be laid down as to the time wine should be left in
the vats to ferment, as local conditions such as climate, season, and
variety may have more or less an influence. The safest rule to go by is
when the bubbling sound caused by the rising of the carbonic acid gas
ceases, and the thermometer only indicates a temperature a. few degrees
higher than the surrounding atmosphere. The drawing off is most
usually performed by means of a tap in the side of the vat, but very
often the work is done with a syphon. Great care must be taken,
whichever plan is adopted, that no lees are drawn off with the wine.
Activity does not altogether cease when the wine is drawn from the
fermenting vats. A limited amount of sugar, from two to four per cent,,
stiir remains, and this is slowly changed into alcohol. This process is
called "insensible fermentation," as the signs are less noticeable than in
the first, or " active fermentation." At the time it is drawn off, the wine
gets aerated more or less, and the oxygen thus asorbed assists the
fermentation of the remaining sugar into alcohol. Though the casks
may be well filled from the fermenting vat, yet a shrinkage will soon
take place from various causes, and the deficiency must be promptly
made good. If a space is lefc unfilled the wine is liable to oxidize too
rapidly. Second and even third rackings are required for some wines in
order to get rid of deleterious matter.

Blending and Fining. — When wines are deficient in any desirable
qualities, or contain some particular material in excess, blending may
often prove of great service. Very frequently wines uill contain too
much alcohol, tannin, acidity, or colouiing material, and by care and
judgment in blending these defects may often be modified. As a
matter of course, the wines used for blending must possess such
properties as are likely to affect the desired purposes, and there
should be some affinity between them and the wines they are applied
to. All kinds of wine cannot be blended together, and it will be
folly to adopt the practice with those that differ widely in character.
Sometimes wines remain turbid and cloudy, notwithstanding
various and careful rackings, and in order to assist clarification it
will be necessary to use materials to " fine " them. In the case of
blended wines, turbidity will often occui- through the dissolving
powers of the various sorts dilfering. It is essential that the matter
in suspension be removed, not only to make the wine look brighter,
but also to insure that it will keep sound. Fining may be effected
mechanically by filtering the wine through sand, or other materials
suitable for the purpose, or it may be done with albuminoid substances
whose action is mainly chemical. Albuminoid substances when
applied to the wine, form a glutinous film, the result of coagulation
caused by the tannin and acids. This film, after a few days, gradually
falls to the bottom of the cask, cariying with it all matter held in

73

suspension which affects the limpidity of the wine. The best fining,
and more particularly for delicate and old wines, is the white of eggs.
Two eggs, after the yolks are removed, diluted in a quart of wine,
in w^hich a quarter of an ounce of salt has been dissolved, will afford
sufficient finmg material fur from forty to fifty gallons. Gelatine or
isinglass acts nmoh in the same way, but rather more vigorously,
though not inflaenced by the acids to the same extent as albumen.
Fining is also useful in correcting wines that contain too much tannin; —
as it removes a considerable portion. On the other hand, it may remove
too much tannin from wines that contain but a small proportion of that
material, unless special provision is made to replace what is lost.

Aroma of Wines. — Every wine should possess a grateful odour and a
pleasant flavour for the palate. The odoriferous qualities are mainly
due to essential oils contained in cells which line the interior of the
skins. Some Grapes have these oils more pronounced in their develop-
ment than others, and this is especially the case with the " Muscat "
section, which are remarkable for their peculiar flavours. These essential
oils supply what is known as the aroma to both fruit and wines. The
strength and character of these flavouring materials may vary considerably
according to local conditions, such as climate, character of the season,
ripeness of the Grapes, and nature of the soil. Though special aromas
are peculiar to particular varieties or classes of Grapes, yet they will be
higher or lower according to the local influences named, and may also be
materially affected by defective fermentation, or excess of tannin or
other matter in the wine. What is known as the " bouquet " is produced
by volatile ethers, and more especially acetic ether formed by the action
of alcohol upon the acids. As this action goes on very slowly, these
odoriferous ethers generally exist in greater proportions in old than in
new wines ; to some extent these compounds are also influenced by the
slowness or quickness of the fermenting process. The " bouquet " of
wines is volatile and unstable, and is easily dissipated by exposure
to the air. This will account for the falling off in flavour so noticeable
with some wines soon after the corks have been drawn from the bottles,
or when decanted.

Mdturing Wines. — The object for keeping wine in casks for two or
more years before bottling it, is to allow the necessary latent or silent
fermentation by the action of oxygen obtained from the air. When the
wines are racked off, a considerable proportion of the carbonic acid gas
escapes, and at the same time air is absorbed. The influence of the air
is of great importance to the future of the wine, and will make itself
felt more or less till the supply is completely shut off through the use
of bottles It is essential that this action should be very slow, and
therefore, it is necessary to keep the casks well filled with wine, to
prevent air from entering them in excess. This secondary fermen-
tation not only acts upon the sugar contained in the wine, but also
upon the acids which are decomposed to some extent, and the colouring
matter which is gradually precipitated. When the silent fermentation
is complete, and the time for this must necessarily vary according to the

74

character of the wine and the treatment it receives, the process of
maturing is finished by bottling it off. If left too long in the cask there
may be a falling off in aroma or colour, which the maker must be careful
to guard against. The bottles must necessarily be securely fastened,
and only new and sound corks should be used. Cellars for storing
should be dark and cool, and the more regular the temperature can be
kept the better. Some of the lighter wines attain the highest degree of
perfection in seven or eight years, but the stronger kinds may improve
up to twenty years old or over.

Condensed Must. — A practice has been introduced within the last few
years, and is now followed to a great extent in some parts of Europe, of
condensing must by evaporation. Under this system it is materially
reduced in bulk, and can be more readily exported to other countries,
than wine in its natural state. In many of the principal wine making
districts of Europe the produce of the local vineyards fall short of the
requirements, and has to be supplemented by supplies from other
countries. Condensed Must serves the purpose equally well as a made
wine, and there is less cost in carriage, as also generally a saving in
customs charges. The process is carried on upon exactly the same lines
as in condensing milk. By evaporation in vacuum pans the bulk of the
water is removed while the sugar and other essential components remain.
When the process is complete the Must is reduced to a thick mass,
having the appearance of treacle. This material when filled into casks
or jars will keep good for years, and may be fermented at any time by
the application of water. The saving in bulk by condensation is about
two thirds. When fermented it is necessary to mix Grape skins with
the Must as these afford the required tannin, colour, and flavour. There-
fore it is usual in exporting to send tightly packed skins of the same
variety, in the proportion of one barrel to six of Must. When unfermented,
condensed Must is said to yield a pleasant non-alcoholic beverage that
may be used without scruple by the most rigid teetotalers. Possibly
the condensing of Must may be found to offer advantages in some parts
of Australasia.

Varieties.

There are a very large number of Grapes in cultivation both for
dessert and wine-making purposes, but the kinds suitable for drying are
comparatively few. A limited number is all that are required for any
purpose, and growers will do well not to plant too many sorts. The
following list embraces all the more noteworthy kinds : —

A leppo {Chasselas Panache, Morillon Panache, Baisin Suisse, StHped
Muscadine, Variegated Chasselas). — A singular French variety, remarkable
for its variegated berries, which are mostly striped with white, red, and
black in distinct lines. Bunches medium-sized, loose. Berries roundish,
medium-sized, and thin skinned. Flesh juicy and well flavoured.
Ripens medium early, and is good for dessert or wine.

75

Alicante (Black Lisbon^ Black PortugaU Black PalestinCy Black
Spanish, Black St. Petei-'s — An excellent and showy late table Grape,
supposed to be of Spanish origin. Bunches large and usually set well.
Berries large, oval, jet-black, with a blue bloom, and a rather tough skin.
Flesh tender, juicy, with a flavour similar to the black Hamburgh.
Ripens late, will hang well, and is also a good wine Grape.

Aramon {Burchard£s PHnce, Plant Bicke, Ugni Noir). — A popular
French wine Grape. Bunches large, long, tapering, and well set.
Berries large, round, black, and thick skinned. Flesh tender, juicy, and
moderately well flavoured. Ripens rather late, is very prolific, and yields
a good light wine. Extensively cultivated in the south of France.

Aucarot. — A popular French wine Grape, which is similar in appear-
ance and quality to the White Burgundy (Finot Blanc),

August Frontignan (Muscat d'Aoiit). — An early table variety of French
origin. Bunches medium sized. Berries deep purple, round, inclining
to oval. Flesh rich and juicy, with a slight Muscat flavour. Valuable
for its earliness.

Barh'irossa (Brizzola, Rossea). — An excellent Spanish dessert Grape.
Bunches medium sized, shouldered. Berries above medium size, thin
skinned, pale red, with a grey bloom, and slightly oval. Flesh juicy,
sweet, with a very rich Chasselas flavour. Ripens at mid- season.

Baxter'^ Sh^-rr//. — A popular white Grape of uncertain origin. Bunches
large and rather loose. Berries large, oval, yellowish-green, and thin
skinned. Flesh juicy and sweet. A prolific bearer, and makes a strong
wine. Ripens about mid-season.

Black Champion (Champion Hamburgh), — An English table variety of
excellent quality. Bunches large and thickly set. Berries deep black,
with a blue bloom, large, oval. Flesh slightly firm, very juicy, sweet,
well flavoured, and has but few seeds. Ripens several days earlier than
the Black Hamburgh.

Black Cluster (Auvergne, Black Morillon, Burgundy, Early Black,
Morillon Noir, Pinot Noir). — A hardy and prolific wine Grape, which is
extensively cultivated in France and Germany, and has received a
considerable amount of attention in Australia. Bunches rather small,
closely set, compact, and tapering. Berries deep blue-black, small,
roundish-oval, and rather thick skinned. Flesh juicy, sweet, with a
vinous flavour. Ripens at mid-sea.'*on, and is chiefly used as a wine
Grape.

Black Corinth (Currant Grape, Pa^solina, Zante), — A small seedless
Grape, which yields the ' ' currants " of commerce. Bunches small and
compact. Berries very small, and sometimes irregular in size, black,
round, and thin skinned. Flesh sweet and highly flavoured. Ripens
after mid-season. Being of strong growth the plants require plenty of
room, and should be pruned with long shoots. Though some suppose that
the Zante is a distinct variety, yet it is in every respect identical with the
Grape under notice.

Black Damascus (Damascus, Worksop Manor). — A good late table
Grape of English origin. Bunches large' and loose. Berries large, round,
but sometimes irregular in size. Skin thin, deep black. Flesh juicy.

76

sweet, and richly flavoured. Ripens very late, and best adapted for
warm districts.

JUack Frontignan (Black Frontignac, Black Muscat, Muscat Noir). —
A useful Muscat variety. Bunches medium sized, clylindrical, and
compact. Skin brownish -black. Berries medium sized and round.
Flesh juicy and luscious. Ripens after mid-season, makes a rich wine,
and can also be used as a table Grape.

Black Hamburgh {Black Hamh70, Browv Hamburgh, Hampton Court,
Heel Hamburgh). — A well-known and popular table Grape, and can also
be utilized for wine. Bunches large, heavily shouldered, and well set.
Berries large, regular, globular to oval, with a rather thick brownish-black
skin. Flesh very juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens medium early, is
very hardy, thrives well in most localities, and is an excellent bearer.
Yields a pleasant light wine.

Black Aialvasia. — A strong growing, hardy variety of uncertain origin.
Bunches medium large and loose. Berries large, oblong, reddish-black.
Flesh juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Ripens medium early, is an
excellent table Grape, and makes a strong luscious wine.

Black Morocco {Black Muscatel, Morocco, Mogul, Red Muscatel). — An
excellent late-keeping table Grape, Bunches large and loose. Berries
oval, large, but often irregular, with a thick reddish-brown skin. Flesh
firm, sweet, improves in flavour after hanging for a time, when it becomes
very rich. Has but few seeds, and may be utilized to advantage as
a raisin Grape. Ripens very late.

Black Muscadine (Black Chasselas, Chasselas, Chasselas Noir). — An
excellent table Grape, and may be utilized for making a fruity wine.
Bunches medium sized, compact, and regular. Berries medium sized,
round, inclining to oval, with a purplish-black skin covered with a blue
bloom. Flesh juicy, sweet, with a slight musky flavour. Ripens about
mid-season.

Black Prince (Boston, Pocock's Damascus, Langford^s Incomparable).
— A well-known and excellent English table variety, which may also be
turned to account for making wine. Bunches large, long, loose, and
generally without shoulders. Berries large, oval, with a thick purplish-
black skin covered with a deep blue bloom. Flesh tender, very juicy,
sweet, and richly flavoured. Ripens immediately after the Black
Hamburgh.

Black Tripoli (Frankenthal). — A good variety, very similar in the
appearance of the fruit, flavour, and other respects to the Black Hamburgh,
but not identical.

Bowood Muscat (T'ynningham Muscat). — An excellent table Grape of
English origin, and a seedling from Muscat of Alexandria, which it
resembles to a great extent, but it is supposed to set more regularlj'-, and
the wood is shorter jointed. Ripens after mid-season, and is a good
raisin Grape.

Buckland Sweetivater. — A very good early table Grape of English origin,
and yields a light wine. Bunches large, well shouldered, and closely set.
Berrie^ large, round, inclining to oval, with a thin pale amber skin, and
few seeds Flesh veiy juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens early,
is very hardy and prolific.

77

Cabernet Sauvignon {Carbinet, Navarre, Petit Cabernet, Vidure^
Vinidure). — An excellent and popular French wine Grape. Bunches
small to medium size, conical, shouldered, loose, and rather long. Berries
small, round, with a thick black skin, and covered with a blue bloom.
Flesh juicy, with a vinous flavour. Kipens at mid-season. This variety
is extensively grown in France, where it is considered to be one of the
best red wine Grapes, and it is also a favourite in Australia.

Calabrian Baisin {llaisin de Calabre). — A very late table variety that
will hang for a long time. Bunches very large, often over twelve inches
in length, tapering, and slightly shouldered. Berries large, round, pale
yellow. Skin thick but transparent. Flesh moderately firm, sweet,
and well flavoured. Ripens late, bears freely, and makes a good pudding
raisin.

Canon Hall Muscat. — An English table variety, and a seedling from
Muscat of Alexandria. Bunches large, loose, and more tapering than
those of the parent. Berries as large, but rounder. Flesh firm and
sweet, but not quite so highly flavoured as the Muscat of Alexandria.
Bipens after mid-season, is hardy and prolific, and a very good raisin
Grape.

Carignane {Catalan). — A useful and popular French red wine Grape.
Bunches large and compact. Berries medium sized, oblong, with a
reddish-black skin. Flesh juicy and brisk. Ripens at mid-season, and
is an abundant bearer. This variety is extensively cultivated in France,
and is regarded as a first-class wine Grape,

Carmenere. — A French wine Grape very similar to. if not identical
with, Cabernet Sauvignon.

Carmenet {Cabernet Franc ^ Cabernet Oris, Gros Cabernet). — Another
French wine Grape which is very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon, but the
berries are larger and have thinner skins. The finest Claret is made
from Grapes of the Cabernet class.

Centennial. — This is a handsome white table Grape, raised in the
Bendigo district, Victoria, and said to be a sport from Waltham Cross.
The bunches are very large, long, tapering, and well shouldered. Berries
very large, oblong, yellowish-green. Flesh juicy, medium firm, and well
flavoured.

Champion Muscat {Champion Hamburgh Muscat, Muscat Champion).
— A first-class English table Grape, raised from Mill Hill Hamburgh,
fertilized by Canon Hall Muscat, and possesses the desirable properties of
both parents. Bunches very large and well shouldered. Berries large,
roundish, with a black skin covered with a light bloom. Flesh tender,
juicy, and rich, with a distinct Muscat flavour. Ripens after mid-season.

Chapfal. — A French table Grape of excellent quality Bunches large*
Berries large, round, inclining to oval, with a pale yellowish- white skin.
Flesh juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Ripens late, and bears very
freely.

Chasselas Musque [Musk Chasselas, Muscat Muscadine, Tokay Muscat).
— A table Grape of first-rate quality, and one of the richest flavoured
belonging to the Chasselas section. Bunches medium sized, shouldered,
long, tapering, and rather loose. Berries above medium size, round, with

78

a pale amber skin covered with a thin white bloom. Flesh juicy, sweet,
with a high Muscat flavour. Ripens at mid-season, bears freely, and will
make a good wine,

Chasselas Hose de Faliaiix {Chasselas <fe Negreponty Chnsselas Rose
Jalahert). — A very good table and wine Grape. Bunches medium sized,
long, and compact. Berries large, round, somewhat flattened, with a
tough pale red skin. Flesh juicy, sweet, with a slight but distinct Muscat
flavour. Ripens about mid-season, and is a great bearer.

Chasselas Royal. — An excellent table Grape of English origin, suitable
also for wine. Bunches medium sized, thick, and short, with shoulders.
Berries large, round, with a pale amber skin. Flesh juicy and richly
flavoured. Ripens about mid-season, and is very prolific.

Chasselas Vibert. — An early table and wine Grape belonging to the
Sweetwater section. Bunches medium sized, long, cylindrical, and well
set. Berries large, round, with a thin pale amber skin. Flesh tender,
juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens several days before Golden
Chasselas, is very hardy and prolific.

Cinsaut. — This variety is very similar to Ulliade, if not identical with
it.

Citron Frontignan {Muscat Citronelle).— An excellent French table
and wine Grape. Bunches small and cylindrical. Berries medium sized,
quite round, with a tender greenish- white skin covered with a thin bloom.
Flesh firm, very juicy, with a Frontignan aroma and distinct Citron
flavour. Ripens at mid -season, and bears freely.

CLairette (Blanquette). — A hardy and prolific French variety. Bunches
medium sized. Berries pale green, small, oval. Flesh juicy and well
flavoured. An excellent and popular wine Grape in France, and also a
good table variety. Ripens rather late, and keeps well.

Cornichon {Finger Grape, White Cucumber, Bee d'Uiseau). — The
common name of this variety is derived from the peculiar shape of the
berries. Bunches medium sized, round, and loose. Berries very long,
tapering at both ends. There are two varieties, one with green and the
other with reddish berries. Flesh firm, juicy, and pleasant, and a thick
skin covered with a grey bloom. Ripens very late, and is useful on that
account as a dessert Grape.

Dolcetto {Bignona, Nebhiola). — A hardy and useful Italian variety.
Bunches medium sized, pyramidal, and long. Berries medium sized,
black, with a rich bloom, and thick skin. Flesh juicy, with a pleasant
vinous flavour. Ripens medium early, is very prolific, and makes a good
red wine.

Doradillo {Jean Blanc, Plateado, Plateadillo). — A useful Spanish
Grape. Bunches large, conical, and shouldered. Berries large, oval,
pale amber, and thin skinned. Flesh firm, sweet, and richly flavoured.
Ripens late, is very prolific, a fine dessert Grape, and makes a good
light wine.

Duchess of Bacchugh. — A first-class English table Grape, said to
have originated between Chasselas Musque and Muscat of Alexandria.
Bunches large, long, tapering, well set, and shouldered. Berries medium
sized or over, round, yellowish, with a grey bloom. Flesh tender, juicy,

79

witli a rich Muscat flavour. Hardy, prolific, and ripens about mid-
season.

Duke of Buccleugh. — An excellent English table Grape. Bunches
well formed, large, compact, with broad shoulders. Berries very
.large, round, of a deep amber. Flesh juicy, with a flavour somewhat
similar to the Black Hamburgh. Ripens rather early, and is one of the
largest-berried white Grapes.

Dutch Sweetivater [Perle Blanche). — An old, well-known, and useful
€arly variety. Bunches above medium size, shouldered, lf)ose. Berries^
large, but some badly developed, pale green, covered with a grey bloom.
Flesh tender, very juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens early, a good
dessert Grape, and makes a fair light wine.

Early Ascot Frontignan (Muscat Frontignan). — A good early table
Grape. A seedling from Muscat Hatif de Saumer, crossed with
Chasselas de Musqu^. Bunches medium sized and well shouldered.
Berries medium sized, round, deep amber. Flesh firm, juicy, with a
Muscat flavour. Ripens medium well.

Early Black Frontignan [Muscat Frecoce d'Aout). — A highly-flavoured
€arly French Grape. Bunches medium-sized, compact. Berries black,
medium sized, and round. Flesh juicy, sweet, with a rich Muscat
flavour. Ripens very early, is a good dessert and also a wine Grape.

Early Black July (Black July, July Grape, Madeleine Noir, Morillon
Hatif Raisin Frecoce). — A very early French Grape, and chiefly valued
on that account. Bunches small and cylindrical. Berries black, with
a, thick bloom, small, and round. Flesh juicy, but not highly flavoured.
Ripens very early, is a saleable table Grape, and makes a good light
wine.

Early Malingre (Madeleine Blanche de Malingre, Precoce de Malingre,
Precoce Blanc). — A very early French white Grape which comes in about
the same time as the Early Black July. Bunches medium sized, some-
what loose. Berries yellowish-green, medium sized, roundish-oval.
Flesh juicy, but not highly flavoured. Valuable as a table Grape from
its earliness only, and makes a fair light wine.

Early White Malvasia (Grove End Sweetwater, Early Leipzic, Early
Chasselas, Early Keinzheim, Mornas Chasselas, White Melior). — A use-
ful early Grape of the Chasselas class. Bunches medium size or over,
loose, tapering, and occasionally shouldered. Berries, thin skinned,
greenish-yellow, and round. Flesh juicy, sweet, and well flavoured.
Ripens early, is a good table Grape, and makes a light wine of good
quality.

Esperione (Aspiran, Espiran, Turner's Black, Verdai). — A good
Prench wine Grape, and also an excellent table variety. Bunches large
4ind shouldered. Berries large, purplish-black, with a thick bloom, and
round. Flesh rather firm, juicy, and fairly well flavoured. Ripens
about mid-season, and is a good bearer.

Fintitido. — An Italian Grape belonging to the Black Hamburgh class,
but ripens some days earlier. Bunches large, compact, and shouldered.
Berries large, round to slightly oval, reddish-black. Flesh juicy, sweet,
and well flavoured. A useful table Grape, and will make a good light wine.

80

FoUe Blanc {PicpouilU Blanc, Plant Madame). — A white Grape
largely used in France for making brandy. Bunch medium sized and
close. Berries medium size, round, light green. Makes a somewhat
poor wine which is mostly used for blending with stronger kinds. Plant
robust and prolific.

Frontignan {Frontignac, Muscat Frontignan, Muscat). — Several
varieties are included under the names of Frontignan or Muscat, all of
them possessing a peculiarly rich musky flavour. They differ only in
colour, and have medium sized, compact, cylindrical bunches. Berries
round, medium sized, thin skinned, juicy, and highly flavoured. See
Black, Red, and White Frontignan.

Furmint, [Formint, Tokay). — A Hungarian variety, and the kind
used chiefly in the production of the celebrated Tokay wine. Bunches
small to medium size. Berries golden yellow, round, rather small, and
often without seeds. Flesh juicy and sweet. Kipens at mid-season.

Gamay. — A wine Grape extensively cultivated in the vineyards of
France. Bunches medium sized and compact. Berries black, with a
blue bloom, medium sized, round to slightly oval. Flesh iuicy, but low
flavoured. Ripens about mid season, very hardy and prolific. There are
several sub-varieties which do not differ materially, and all yield wine of
comparatively low quality as a rule, though under specially favourable
conditions better results are sometimes attained.

Gouais {Burger Blanc, Ebling). — This variety is alsd extensively
cultivated in French vineyards. Bunches medium sized and compact.
Berries yellowish-green, thin skinned, rather large, and round. Flesh
juicy, but poor in flavour. Ripens about mid-season, and is a very great
bearer. Makes a wine of poor quality, but useful for blending with
kinds that have an excess of tannin.

Golden Chasselas {Amber Muscadine, Amiens, Ckasselas Blanc, Chas-
selas Dore, Ckasselas de Fontainebleau, Royal Muscadine), — This is one
of the finest and best Grapes belonging to the Chasselas section.
Bunches large, compact, and shouldered. Berries thin skinned, pale
amber, large, round, inclining to oval. Flesh tender, juicy, and very
highly flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, is hardy and prolific. A
first-class and popular dessert Grape, and makes an excellent strong
wine.

Golden Champion. — An English table Grape of excellent quality.
Bunches large, well shouldered, and tapering. Berries deep amber, very
large, ovate to round. Flesh firm, juicy, and highly flavoured. Ripens
medium early, hardy, strong, and prolific.

Golden Hamburgh. — A first-class English table variety. Bunches
large, shouldered, loose, and branching. Berries thin skinned, pale
yellow, large, and oval. Flesh tender, very juicy, sugary, and richly
flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, and bears freely.

Grenache {Roussilon). — An excellent and popular French wine Grape,
which is extensively cultivated in the vineyards of Southern Europe.
Bunches large and compact. Berries thin skinned, red, with a grey
bloom, medium sized, round, inclining to oval. Flesh juicy and well
flavoured. Ripens about mid-season, bears freely, and yields a strong

81

rich wine. There i« also a white sub-variety, which differs only in the
colour of the skin.

Gros Colman. — A showy black English table variety. Bunches very
large, round, and compact. Berries of an unusual size, being often as
large as small plums, thick skinned, purplish-black, and round. Flesh
very juicy, sweet, but not highly flavoured. Ripens after mid-season.

Gros GuiUdiime [Pennington Hall Hamburgh, Seacliffe Black). — An
excellent table Grape, which sometimes passes under the names of
Barbarossa and St. Peter's, but incorrectly. Bunches very largeT"
shouldered, compact, and tapering. Berries hirge. round, inclining to
oval, deep black, with a thin bloom. Skin tough but not thick. Flesh
tender, juicy, and well flavoured. Kipens very late, will hang for some
time after it is ripe, and bunches may be kejjt for several weeks.
Improves in flavour after being kept a while. Being tough skinned it
packs and carries well, and is a good market Grape.

Gros M(/roc {Marocain). — A very good French table Grape. Bunches
large, long, and shouldered. Berries reddish-purple, with a heavy bloom,
thick skinned, large and oval. Flesh tender, juicy, and richly flavoured.
Ripens about the same time as the Black Hamburgh, is hardy and prolific.

Ingram s Hardy J^roUfic. — An excellent free-bearing table Grape of
English origin. Bunches large, long, tapering, witiiout shoulders.
Berries medium sized, well set, black, with a blue bloom, and perfectly
oval. Flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet, and richly flavoured, with a slight
Muscat aroma. Ripens at mid-season, and is remarkably prolific.

Jura Black Musc((t (Muscat Xoir de Jura). — A very good table Grape.
Bunches medium sized, long, and tapering, with slight shoulders.
Berr-ies purplish-black, with a thin bloom, above medium sized, and oval.
Flesh tender, very juicy, with a rich flavour and slight Muscat aroma.
Ripens at mid-season, and a prolific bearer.

Lady Doivnes [Lady Downes Seedling). — A valuable late table Grape
of English origin, raised from the Black Morocco, fertilized with a
Chasselas, Bunches large, rather loose, and shouldered. Berries above
medium size, black, thick skinned, and roundish-oval. Flesh firm, juicy,
sweet, rich, with a faint trace of Muscat in the flavour. Ripens late,
will hang a long time without shrivelling, of vigorous habit, and a free
bearer.

Madresjield Court Black Muscat. — An excellent and popular English
table Grape. Bunches large and long. Berries large, bluish-black, and
oval. Flesh juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Ripens late, hangs
well, is hardy and prolific.

Malaga. — This name is applied to several varieties, some of which
differ widely in appearance and flavour. It is one of the synonyms for
the Muscat of Alexandria. See lied and White Malaga.

Jfalbeck. — A popular French red wine Grape, which is extensively
cultivated in French, German, and Swiss vineyards. Bunches large,
branched, and somewhat loose. Berries above medium size, red, with a
violet bloom, and round. Flesh juicy, and fairly well flavoured. Ripens
about mid-season, is hardy, and generally bears freely. Largely used in
making French Claret wine.

2e

82

Malvasia [Malvosie). — Several varieties are known under this name
which differ only in colour. They are in flavour somewhat similar to the
Frontignan class, and make a rich sweet wine. See Black Malvasia.

Marsanne. — A French variety very similar in appearance and quality
to the White Hermitage, but has somewhat smaller berries, which are
thicker skinned.

Mataro (CataUai, Esparte, Lanihruscat, Mourvedre) . — A red wine
Grape supposed to be of Spanish origin, which is popular, and grown to a
large extent in Southern Europe. Bunches medium sized, closely set,
with light shoulders. Berries medium sized, black, with a thick bloom,
and round. Flesh juicy, but not well flavoured. Ripens rather late, is
very hardy, and a great bearer. Makes a very good wine.

Merlot [Plant Medoc). — A popular French variety which is hardy,
strong in habit, and very prolific. Bunch medium sized, long, and
CMiical. Berries bluish-black, small, and round. Makes an excellent
light wine of the Claret class. Kipens medium early, and a good variety
for (;ool districts.

Miller^s Burgundy {Fromente, Meunier, Jfille?' Grape, Morillou
Taconne, Pinot Meunier). — A good and popular French wine variety,
and is also an excellent table Grape. Bunches medium sized, short, and
compact. Berries rather small, thin skinned, black, with a blue bloom,
and round, inclining to oval. Flesh tender, juicy, sweet, and highly-
flavoured. Ripens after mid-season, is hardy and prolific. Extensively
cultivated in France as a wine Grape. It is distinguished from other
kinds by its white downy leaves, and hence it has obtained the name of
Miller Grape.

Mondeuse {Maldoux, Monteuse, Persaigne, Savoi/anne). — A hardy
French Grape that will thrive in almost any soil, and is very prolific.
Bunches medium sized or larger. Berries blue-black, medium sized,
slightly oval. Flesh juicy and somewhat acid. Ripens medium late,
and in France is a favourite Claret Grape. There is a white variety
known as Mondeuse Blanc which differs only in the colour of the fruit.

Morrastel (Mourrastel, Perpignan). — This variety is almost, if not
quite, identical with the Mataro.

2forrillon. — Several varieties are known under this name, which differ
but little except in the colour of the fruit. See Black Cluster, Miller's
Burgundy, and Pinot Blanc Chardortay. The Morrillon varieties are
largely used in making Champagne.

}fourisco. — An excellent Portuguese variety. Bunches large and
pyramidal. Berries large, black, oval, and well flavoured. Flesh juicy
and sweet. Makes a rich strong wine, and is also a good table Grape.

Mrx. Pince's Black Muscat. — An excellent English table Grape.
Bunches, large, shouldered, well set, and tapering. Berries medium
sized, purplish-black, with a thin bloom, perfectly oval, with thick tough
skins. Flesh rather firm, sweet, moderately juicy, with a rich Muscat
flavour. Ripens late, will hang well, is very hardy, and bears freely.
Makes good raisins.

Muscat de Saumer (Early Saumer Frontignan, Muscat Hatif de
Saumer, Precoce ^fusque). — A good early table Grape, lipening about

83

the same time as the Early Black July, from which it was raised.
Bunches small, shouldered, and very compact. Berries medium sized
thin skinned, pale green, with an amber tinge, round, sometimes flattened.
Flesh firm juicy, sweet, with a rich and distinct Muscat flavour, very
•early, and bears freely.

Muscat of Alexandria {Alexandrian Muscat^ Ckarlesworth Tokay ^
Muscat Escholatd, Muscat Gordo Blanco, Muscat Gre.c, Muscat of
Jerusalem, Muscat Bomaine, Tottenham Park Muscat). — A well-known
and popular table and raisin Grape, which is supposed to have originated
in Western Asia. Bunches large, long, shouldered, and loose. Berries
pale amber, thick skinned, mostly large, but often irregular in size-
Flesh firm, not very juicy, but very sweet and richly flavoured. Eipens
after mid-season, hangs well, is vigorous in habit, and bears freely in the
warmer districts, but not so well in the cooler regions, where the bunches
are more irregular. One of our best raisin Grapes, and has been planted
•extensively during the last few years in Australia. Makes also a fairly
good but somewhat strong wine. Some people are under the impression
that Muscat Gordo Blanco is a distinct variety, but this is not the case

Muscat Hamburgh (Black Muscat of Ale.xandri((, Red Muscat of
Alexandria, Snoiv's ^fuscat Hamburgh). — A very highly flavoured
English table Grape. Bunches large, shouldered, and loose. Berries
large, but often irregular in size, deep black, with a blue bloom, tough,
but not thick skinned, roundish-oval to oval. Flesh very juicy, sweet,
with a peculiarly rich Muscat flavour. Ripens rather late, and sets best
in the warmer districts. The richest flavoured of all the Muscat Grapes.

Palomimi Blanche (Listan). — A good Spanish variety somewhat similar
in appearance to the Golden Ghasselas. Bunch medium to large, and
•cylindrical. Berries medium sized, oval, and in colour a rich amber.
Makes an excellent wine, and is also a useful table Grape.

Panse Jau.ne (Grosse Panse, Raisin de Pause). — A Spanish variety
largely grown in the Malaga province for making raisins. Bunch large,
long, and tapering. Berries thick skinned, amber, transparent, large
oval, with a thick bloom. Flesh firm, sweet, and well flavoured. A
good raisin and table Grape, but is somewhat uncertain except in
medium warm districts. Somewhat similar in appearance to the Muscat
of Alexandria.

Varsley-leaved. Gha^ssela.^' (Ciotat, Mahnsey, .Uuscadine, Raisin
d^ Antriche). — An excellent and prolific variety with fruit veiy similar
to the Golden Ghasselas, and ripens about the same time. Foliage
peculiar, somewhat like the leaves of parsley, hence the name.
Makes a rich wine.

Pedro Ximenes. — A largely cultivated and popular Spanish wine
'Grape. Bunches medium sized, shouldered, long, and conical.
Berries medium sized, thin skinned, pale amber, and oblong. Flesh
juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens after mid-season, makes
strong gi'owth, and beai's freely. Makes a full-bodied wine.

Pinot. — Sevei'al excellent French Avine Gi-apes are classed under
the name of Pinot which, in some cases, is interchangeable with
Burgundy and MorrlUon. See Black Gluster^ Miller's Burgundt/, and
White Burgundy,

84

Pinot Blanc Chardonay {Auverr/nat, Epinette, Morn J Ion Bhmc, Plant
bore). — An excellent sub-vai*iety of the White linrgftndij, which it
i-esenibles to a gi-eat extent, but differs soniewJiat in foliage, and is
considered superioi- by many growers. Tliis A-ariety is used to a
large extent in France in making Chablis wine.

Pinot Gris {AnvergiKit Gris, Heurot^ Fromentot). — A populai- variety
with fi'uit similai- in size, foi-m, and quality to Miller s Bnrgiiiidtf-, but
the berries ai'e of a reddish-pink colour instead of lieing black.

Pulsart {Blussarf, Mescle, Plant d'Arhois Pouhart). — This is a
vigorous Fi-cnch variety. Bunch medium size, Jong, shouldered,
loose. Berries dark, thin skinned, medium sized, oval. Flesh juicy
and fairly well flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, and makes an
excellent wine.

Purple Constantia (Black Oonstantia, Purj)le Fo^ontignan , Violet
Frontignan). — A first-class table Grape, and also makes an excellent
full-bodied wine. Bunches lai'ge, long, and tapering, Avith small
shoulders. Berries dark purple, with a blue bloom, large, and round.
Flesh juicy, sweet, with a rich Muscat flavour. Ripens about mid-
season, and bears fi'eely.

Raisin des Dames (Ladies' Raisin). — -A very good French table and
raisin Gri-ape S(miewhat similar to the Muscat of Alexandria, but
with palei' beiTies. Bunches large, shouldered, and rather loose.
Berries pale yellow, thick skinned, lai-ge, and oval. Flesh firm,
juicy, SAveet, and rich. Ripens aftei mid-season, hangs Avell, and
bears freely.

Bed Chasselas (Chasaelas Rouge, Red Mitscadine). — A gootl Fi-ench
Grrape, suitable either for the table or Avine. Bunches medium sized,
loose, and shouldered. Berries tliin skinned, red, medium sized, and
i^ound. Flesh A'ery juicy and well flavoured. Ripens at mid-season,
and is a gi-eat bearei-. Makes a good light wine.

Red Frontignan (Grizzly Frontignan, Muscat Gris, Muscat Rouge, Red
Muscat). — A highly flaA^oured French wine Grrape, but may also be
used as a table variet3\ Bunches medium sized, and generally
cylindrical, Avitli small shoulders. Berries medium sized, skin thick,
pale red, and round. Flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet, Avith a rich
Muscat flavour. Ripens about mid-season, and does best in Avarm
districts. Makes a strong full-liodied Avine.

Red Hermitage (Shira?., Schiraz). — A \^ery popular and excellent
Avine Grape, said to have been originally obtained from Persia.
Bunches medium sized, long, and compact. Berries rather small,
bluish-black, rather thick skinned, and oval. Flesh juicy and well
flavoured. Ripens after mid-season, is verp hardy, bejirs freely and
regularly. Extensively grown in France, whei-e it forms the base
of the celebrated Hermitage wines, and is widely cultivated in
Australia.

Red Midnga. — This variety, Avhich is knoAvn in some parts of
Austi-alia simply as Malaga, is of somewhat uncei-tain origin.
Bunches large, shouldered, and loose. Berries large, oval, dull red,
thick skinned. Flesli firm, SAveet, and Avell flavoui-ed. A good raisin
Grape, and excellent table A'ariety, and as it packs nnd carries Avell, a

85

suitable kind for export. Ripens sifter mid-season, and may be kept
for a considerable time.

Red Prince. — A very useful and showy table Grape. Bunches very
large, long, and well sliouldei-ed. Berries large, brownish-red, round
to roundisli-oval. Flesh juicy, tender, and pleasantly flavoured.
Ripens after mid-season, is very hai'dy, and bears freely. Makes a
fairly good light wine.

UiesJiiig {White Riesling). — A well-known and excellent German
wine Grape. Bunches medium sized and compact. Berries thin
skinned, amber green, rather small, round to oblate, and closely set.
Flesh tender, sweet, and very juicy. Ripens after mid- season, ts-
very hardy and prolific. A favourite variety in France and Germany
for Hock wines, and popular witli Australian cultivators.

Royal Ascot — An excellent English table Grape. Bunches medium
sized or over, compact, Avith shoulders. Berries black, with a thick
bloom, medium sized, round to oval. Flesh rather firm, juicy, with a
flavour somewhat similai' to Black Hamburgh. Ripens at mid-season,
is hardy and prolific.

Royal Vineyard- — A first-class late English table Grape. Bunches
large, well set, and generally- long and tapering. Berries large, pale
amber, thin skinned and transparent, roundish-oval. Flesh firm,
crackling, sweet, and highly flavoured. Ripens very late, hangs
well, and bears freel}^. Might prove a good raisin Grape in the
warm districts.

Semillon Blanc {Chevrier, Columhier^ Goidu Blanc). — An excellent and
popular French wine Grape somewhat similar in appearance and
quality to the White Sauvignon, but preferred by some growers as
being more prolific. Bunch medium sized and close. Berries
medium large, round, yellowish-green, thin skinned. Flesh juicy
and pleasant. A leading variety foi* Sauterne wine.

Shepherd's Riesling. — A fine sub- variety of the Riesling which is
superior to the ordinary kind in having larger and better flavoured
Grapes. The bunches are also finer. Ripens same time as the
Riesling, and is a first-class wine Grape, and fairly good for the
table.

Sherry (Xeres). — A Spanish Grape. Bunches compact, very large,
being often from four to six pounds in weight with ordinary treat-
ment. Berries yellowish -gTeen, thin skinned, lai'ge, round, and closely
set. Flesh juicy, sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens about mid-
season, is very hardy and a pi'olific bearer, but suffers much from
wet weather. A fairly good table Grape, and excellent for wine.

Sweetwater {Chasselas Royal, Early Stveetivater, White Muscadine). —
An old, well-known, and popular Grape. Bunches medium sized,
compact, and regular. Berries yellowish-green, medium sized, and
round. Flesh juicy and sweet, but not very highly flavoured.
Ripens medium early, is very hai'dy and prolific. A very good table
Grape, and makes an excellent wine.

Syrian (Jetvs, Palestine). — An excellent late Grape from Western
Asia, and said to be the kind mentioned in the Bible as being brought
by the Israelites from the land of Canaan, the bunches of which

86

were so large that two men were required to carry them. Bunches>
rery large, conical, and broad shouldered. Berries thick skinned,
tawny-yellow, large, and oval. Flesh firm, crackling, moderately
juicy, and highly flavoured. Ripens late, hangs well, and bears
abundantly. Would probably pi-ove a good i-aisin Grape in the
warm districts. Bunches are commonly from six to ten pounds in
weight, and have in England been gi-own ovei* twenty pounds, the
bunch measuring over twenty-one inches in length, with shoulders
nineteen and a-half inches across.

Terret. — Several sub-varieties pass uiulei- this name that differ
only in the colour of the fruit, which is respectively black, white,
and red. Bunches large and conical. Berries large, oblong. Flesh
juicy and well flavoured. All the kinds make a good light wine.

Thompsort^s Seedless. — A Grrape is cultivated undei' this name in
America to some extent, but there appeal's to be some doubt as to
whether it is a distinct vaiiety or merely a form of the White Corinth
[Sultana). It is said to have been introduced to America from Turkey,
and is described as being rei-y similar to the Sultana, but to have
longer bunches, and to be somewhat sweeter. This Grape is also
said to make a raisin equal in ^[uality to the Sultana, and to be very
prolific.

Tinto (Tintiirier). — A hardy wine variety, and one of the few Grapes
that yield a red juice. Bunches small and c*ompact. Beri-ies red,
small, and round. Flesh very juicy and low flavoured. Ripens after
mid-season, a moderately good bearer, and does faii'ly well in the
cooler regions. Makes a Avine of rather low quality.

Traminer {Fromente, Houselet). — An excellent German wine variety ►
Bunch medium size, conical. Berries medium sized, ovoid, light red.
Flesh juic}' and slightly acid. Hardy and pi'oliflc. Makes a good
wine of the Hock class.

Trebhiano (^Ei^haltis, Macc<(heo, Trehhiano Bianco, Trebhiano VerOy
Ugin Blanc). — An excellent late Italian table Grape. Bunches very
large, broad shouldered, and well set. Beriies yellowish-green, thick
skinned, medium sized, and o^al to round. Flesh Arm, crackling,
sweet, and richly flavoui-ed. Ripens very late, hangs well, and an
excellent bearer. Might prove a serviceable i*aisin Grape in the
warmer disti-icts.

Irentham Black. — An excellent table Grape. lunches very large,
well shouldered, and tapering. Berries black, with a thin bloom, large,
and oval. Flesh melting, very juicy, sweet, and richly flavoured.
Ripens at the same time as the Black Hamburgh, but will hang much
longer. Hardy, vigorous, and a good bearer.

Trovereii Frontir/nan {Troveren, Muscat Trovereu).—A French variety
somewhat similar to the White Frontignan, but with finer bunches and
berries. Bnnches large, well set, and compact. Berries pale amber,
large, and round. Flesh firm, juicy, with a rich mild Muscat flavour.
Ripens about mid-season, and is fairly prolific. A good table Grape, and
makes a rich full-bodied wine.

Ulliade (Boudales, Qullade. Pi^nelas. UUiade JSoir). — A very good
and useful table variety and an excellent wine Grape. Bunches rather

87

large, loose, and shouldered. Berries purple-black, thin skinned, large,
and roundish-oval. Flesh firm, juicy, and well flavoured. Ripens about
mid-season, is very hardy, and an excellent bearer.

Verdal {Aspiraii Blanc).— A late wire Grape of French origin which
is both hardy and productive. Bunch medium size, short, and heavily
shouldered. Berries medium size, slightly oval, thick skinned, yellowish-
green. Flesh juicy and not very sweet. Makes a light wine of high
quality, and is also a good table Grape.

Verdeilko {Madeira Wine Grape). — A well-known and popular wiiiB"
Grape. Bunches medium sized or under, compact, and well set. Berries
thick skinned, yellowish green, below medium size, sometimes unequal,
and roundish-oval. Ripens about mid-season, and is a moderately good
bearer. This Grape is extensively cultivated in the south of Europe,
where it forms the base of the celebrated Madeira wine. It is also grown
to some extent in Australia, and has the character of being very subject
to the oidium.

Verdot. — A popular French variety, and one of the principal Claret
Grapes. It belongs to the Cabernet section, and is very similar in
appearance and quality to the Sauvigiion variety, but is considered to be
somewhat inferior in bouquet. Bunch somewhat smaller than Cabernet.
Berries rounds black, thick skinned, small, with rather large seeds.
Flesh juicy and vinous. Ripens medium late, and a free bearer.

Walthtm Cross. — A first-class English table Grape. Bunches very
large, long, tapering, and well shouldered. Berries pale amber-yellow,
very large, oblong-oval. Flesh firm, solid, and richly flavoured. Ripens
rather late, hangs well, and bears freely. Might prove a good raisin
Grape in the warmer districts.

Wantage {Flame-coloured Tokai/, Lombardi/y Red Rhenish., Med
Tidirida). — A very hardy and prolific Grape. Bunches very large,
closely set, and well shouldered. Berries pale red, large, and round,
i^'lesh juicy, sweet, and fairly well flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, is
robust and very prolific.

West's St. Peter's (Black Lombardy, Foonah, Baisin des Cannes,
jR((ishi de Cuba). — An excellent and handsome late table Grape.
Bunches large, well shouldered, and tapering. Berries deep black, with
a heavy bloom, large, and roundish-oval. Flesh tender, very juic}^, with
a fine rich flavour. Ripens very late, hangs well, is robust, hardy, and
bears heavy crops

White Biirgnndy (Pinot Blanc). — A good French wine Grape, and one
of the best in its class. Bunches small to medium sized, compact, and
cylindrical. Berries yellowish-green, small, roundish-oval. Flesh juicy
and moderately sweet. Ripens medium early, is hardy and prolific.
Very popular as a wine Grape in France, and cultivated to some extent in
Australia.

White Corinth (Corinthe Blanc, Stoneless Uound-berried, Sultana^
White (Jnrrant, White Kishmish). — A highly-flavoured seedless Grape
that yields the Sultana raisins. Bunches small, shouldered, and loose.
Berries pale amber, rather small, and round. Flesh firm, moderately
juicy, and highly flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, is very strong in

88

habit, aud bears heavy crops. A protituble Grape for tlie warmer
districts, but requires plenty of room for irrowth, and must be pruned
long.

White Frontigiuiii {Muscat lllanc, Jtaim}i iJe FroiitiipKUi, Whitr
Ccnstaiitia, WJiit'' Muscat). — Bunches medium sized, without shoulders,
compact, and cylindrical. Berries yellowish-green, medium sized, and
round. Flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet;, with a rich Muscat flavour.
Ripens aWout mid-season, and is an abundant bearer. A good ta^'ile
GrajDC, and makes a strong full-bodied wine.

White Hermitaqe {Ilousf<anue).—A favourite French wine Grape.
Bunches medium sized and compact. Berries thick skinned, deep amber,
small, and round. Flesh juicy, with a vinous flavour. Ripens about
mid-season^ is hardy and very prolific. Cultivated to a large extent in
European vineyards, and is popular with many growers in Australia.
Makes a high-class wine.

White Lisbon ( White IJainhurgh, White Portugal, White Raisin). — A
showy white table Grape. Bunches large and somewhat loose. Berries
yellowish- white, large, and oval. Flesh firm, crackling, not very juicy,
sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens late, will hang for a long time, and
keeps well. Hardy, vigorous, and prolific. A good table Grape, and
can be dried for raisins. This Grape is exported fresh in large quantities
from Portugal to England and other parts of Europe, and the supplies
extend for several months.

White Malaga. — An excellent Spanish table and raisin Grape.
Bunch large, loose, and well shouldered. Berry very large, oval, thick
skinned, yellowish-green. Flesij firm, sweet, and richly flavoured.
Plant strong and prolific in medium warm districts, ^^ipens rather late,
bears packing and carriage well, and suitable for exporting.

White JSice. — A vabiable and popular white Grape Bunches very
large, well shouldered, and loose. Berries pale amber, touj.'h, but thin
skinned, large, and roundish. Flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet, but not
very highly flavoured. Ripens about mid-season, is vigorous in habit,
and a great bearer. This variety often produces vei'y large bunches, and
British gai'deners have grown them over twent}- pounds in weight.

White Sanvignon {Sauvigiioii Blanc). — An excellent French wine
Grape. Bunches rather small and compact. Berries yellowish-green,
thin skinned, transparent, medium sized, roun.iish-oval Flesh juicy and
well flavoured. Ripens at mid-season, is hardy, robust, and prolific.
Extensi\^ely cultivated in France, and makes a choice wine.

White Toka;i {Toka-i). — A vigorous and productive variety of uncertain
origin. Bunches medium large, compact, and well shouldered. Berries
yellowish -green, medium sized to large, round, thin skinned. Flesh juicy
and well flavoured. Makes a good wine and is an excellent table Grape.
Ripens medium late.

Wort' en Hall. — An excellent and popular table Grape of English
origin. Bunches large and showy. Berries large, black. Flesh sweet,
jui;y, and well flavoured. Ripens about mid-season.

Zinfandel. — A Hungarian variety that has proved to be a serviceable
wine Grape in some i)art.s of America, and may prove useful in this part

S9

of the world. lUuiclies large ami shouldered. Berries deep black,
medium sized, round. Flesh juicy, and somewhat acid until dead ripe.
Makes a strong \vine of the Port class.

Table Varieties Suitable for Keepinit and Exporting.

Alicante

lUiick Morocco

lioicooj Musciit

Calahrian Uaiiii.ii

Carum HaU Muscat

Coriiichoii

Dorwlillo

Gros Gnillaume

Gros Maroc

Lad// Downe's

Madresjlehi Court /Hack Muscat

.Urs. /^i))ce\s Black Muscat

Mnscat of A 1e.ramlri'(

Pause Jaiive

Haisht </es Dames

Red Malaga

Ixo/jal Viiie/jard

Syrian

Trehhiano.

Waltham Cross

White Lisbon

White .Ualaga

Varieties Suitable for Drying.

Black Corinth ( CnrrantJ
Black Morocco
Bowood Muscat
Calabrian Haisiii
Canon HaU Muscat
Muscat of AlexaTidria
Raisin des Dames

Red Malaga

Syrian

Trehhiano

Waltham Cross

White Corinth (Sultana)

White IJshon

White .^falaga

Varieties for the Principal Classes of Wines.

As previously stated, the character of each class of wine depends
mainly upon the kind or kinds of Grape from which it is made. The
varieties are, in fact, the foundations of the wines, and are absolutely
essential. But cultivators must bear in mind that varieties will, more or
less, give different results according to the character of climate and soil,
for which due allowance must be made. Kinds that yield light wines in
the cooler regions will, as a rule, give much stronger ones when grown in
warmer districts. The varieties that are chiefly used in producing the
light wines of France, Germany, and other parts of Europe will, there-
fore, not necessarily give the same results in Australasia unless under
similar conditions of climate and soil. In Australasia, however, there is
such a wide range of climate that suitable regions can be found for
producing wines of every class that has made a reputation in Europe.
It is also probable that in time other classes of distinct and superior
wines will be developed, which will become equally popular with those
now in existence. The following list shows the varieties chiefly used in
Europe for the different classes of wine : —

Burgundy. — The wine known under this name is made from various
kinds belonging to the Burgundy or Pinot section.

90

Chahlis — White Burgundy and kindred varieties.

Claret. — Cabernet (all kinds), Carmenet, Clairette, Garna}/, MalbecJc,
MerJot, Mondeuse, and Verdot. Cabernet Sauvigimii and Malbeck are
the staple varieties used in n.aking the famous Claret of Chateau Lafitte,
Chateau Margaux, and other leading brands.

Chctinpagiie. — ^This wine is made from varieties of the Hiirgundi/ clas<<»
which includes the kinds known as Aiicarot, Moi^rillov, mul Fino' both
dark and white. The black varietie.s are, however, more generally-
preferred than the white.

Hermitage — Red Hermitage (^cliiraz) and White Hermitage
(Houssairne).

HocTc. — Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, Riesling, and Traminer.

Madeira — Verdeilho.

Muscat or Frontignan. — The various sub-varieties of the Frontignan
class, as also other sorts having a strong Muscat flavour.

Port. — Grenache, .Uataro, and Zinfandel.

Sauterne. — Semi I Ion and White Sanvignon.

Sherry. — Barters Sherry, Golden Chasselns, Mourisca, Palomina^
Pedro Ximeues, Sherry, and Verdeilho.

Tokay. — Furmint and White Tokay,

Vakieties of Wine Grapes best Suited for Particular Climates.

Cool Regions. — Aucarot, Burgundy (varieties), Cabernet (varieties),
Carmenet, Clairette, Gamay, Merlot, Mondeuse, Pnlsart, Sanvignon, and
Verdot.

Cool to .Medium Warm Regions. — Black Hamburgh, Carignane.,
Furmint, Grenache, Malbeck, Morrillon and Riesling .

Warm to Medium Warm Regions. — Aramon, Esperione, FrontignaUj
JJoradillo, Malvasia, Mataro, Morrastel, Ulliade, and Verdeillw.

Any Region. — Baxter^ s Sherry, Chasselas (varieties), Gouais, Red and
White Hermitage.

Varieties of Wine Grapes for Particular Soils

Limestone. — Burgundy (varieties), Malbeck, Malvasia, Mondeuse, and
Pulsart.

Gravelly. — C<tbernet (varieties), Carmenet, Merlot, Sanvignon, and
Semillon

Granitic. — Gamay, Grenache, Pedro Ximeues, Red Hermitage, Riesling ^
and White Hermitage.

Any Kind of Soil. — Aramon, Black Hamburgh, Carignane, Dolcetto,
Doradillo, Gouais, Frontignan, Furmint, Verdeilho, and Verdot.

All varieties of Grapes will thrive fairly well in loamy or sandy soils of
moderate depth, and more especially when resting upon open clay or
gravelly sub-soils.

American Species.
American Grapes are quite distinct from the varieties of Vitis vlnifera,

91

and are represented by several species, which differ considerably in habit,
foliage, form, flavour of the fruit, and in other respects. They are vastly
inferior to the European varieties for wine or as table Grapes, and are
useless for other purposes. With the exception of a very few varieties,
they have a peculiarly strong harsh musky flavour, which is commonly
termed " foxy," and, therefore, can never rank upon an equality with
other Grapes. Notwithstanding this drawback, however, they are largely
cultivated in the United States, chiefly on account of their being more
hardy than the varieties of Vitis vim/era, and being better able to
withstand severe cold weather. The Americans turn them to account for
wine to a large extent, but the produce is vastly inferior to that obtained
from the European Grapes. There are no great inducements to plant
American Grapes in Australasia for their fruit, as a better class will give
more satisfactory results. Possibly, however, they might prove serviceable,
owing to their hardiness, in some of the colder regions, where the climate
is too severe for the choicer kinds. They have within the last few years
been introduced to some extent into European vineyards as '* Phylloxera-
resisting '' stocks for varieties of Viti-^ ciiufer((. It must be understood
that the American species are by no means proof against this destructive
Grape pest, but, on the other hand, they are much affected by it. They
have, however, the power of being able to bear the attacks of " Phylloxera '^
without receiving radical injury. In this part of the world we shall
probably also have to make use of these resistant stocks in the future,
and cultivators should turn their attention to them. There are many
species of American Grapes, and some of these have numerous varieties,
more or less cultivated in the United States, but a limited selection
of those that are most prominent and distinct will be sufficient for
practical purposes.

Vitis ^Estivalis {^Summer Grnpe{. — A hardy and fairly strong species,
embracing numerous varieties, producing variable bunches of small
thin skinned berries. Flavour less harsh and " foxy " than most other
kinds. It is widely distributed through the eastern and central regions
of the United States. The more prominent varieties are P)lack July, Box
Grape, Missouri, Birdseye, Norton's Virginia, and Warren.

Vitis Arizonica. —A strong hardy species indigenous to Arizonica, and
extending to California. Bunches small. Berries small, and have a
fairly pleasant flavour. Said to be a useful stock for Vitis vinifera, but
can only with certainty be raised from seed, as cuttings are difficult to
root.

Vitis Berlaiidieri, — A robust species said to furnish a good stock for
the ordinary varieties. Bunches small and close. Berries black, round,
with a rather sharp flavour.

Vitis Californica. — A Californian species which appears to be closely
allied to Vitis Arizonica »

Vitis Candicans {Mustang Orajie). — A strong growing species that
bears freely, but the bunches are small. Berries large, black, with a
harsh unpleasant flavour. It is indigenous to Florida and Texas, and
flourishes^ in a warm dry climate.

Vitis Cinerea. — A vigorous spreading species, bearing small bunches.

92

Berries small, black, with a sharp acid flavour. This species, which has
an afliiuity with Vitis Arizonica^ is indigenous to the regions of the
Middle and Lower Mississippi.

VitU Conlifolia {Chicken Gr (pe, Frost Grupe^ Winter Grape). — A very
strong growing species, bearing small bunches. Berries small, black to
amber, and sharply acid. Ripens very late. Found from Canada to
Florida.

Vitu Lahrusca (Fox Grape). — This species embraces a large number of
varieties, several of which rank among the best sorts of American Grapes.
The varieties differ considerably in the size and form of the bunches and
colour of the fruit. The general characteristics, however, are medium to
large bunches, tough thick skins, wdth pulpy berries, having a strong
musky flavour. Growth less vigorous than some other species, but fairly
robust. One variety, the Isabella, is the best-known American Grape in
Australasia, where it has been cultivated for at least a quarter of a
century to the writer's knowledge. It is very hardy, productive, and
often bears a good second crop. The bunches are medium sized, and the
berries purple-black, large, oval, and having a flavour similar to the Black
Currant. Ripens at midseason, makes a moderately good wine, and is
excellent for jam or jelly. Among the other varieties the most notewothy
are Catawba and Concord, both of which are popular in America. Widely
distributed from Canada to Florida.

Vitis Riparia [River Grape, Sand Grape). — This species incbides
several varieties that are popular American Grapes. The characteristics
of the species are a slender but widely spreading growth, wdth small
bunches and berries, and tou>:h sharply acid pulp. As a matter of course,
however, the varieties differ to some extent. The more prominent
varieties are Clinton and Tayloi*. Indigenous to the northern and central
regions of the United States to the Rocky Mountains.

Vitis Rubra (Cat Vine). — A robust species bearing small bunches of
rather insipid Grapes. Indigenous to Illinois and adjoining States, and
grows naturally upon deep alluvial soils that border rivers or creeks.

Vitis Bupestris {Rock Grape., Sugar Grape). — An inferior species, and
a light and irregular bearer. Bunches and berries small, with a harsh
flavour. Indigenous to the region from Missouri to Texas.

Vitis Vidpina {Vitis Rotuiulifolia, RuUace Grape, Bullet Grape.) — A
very vigorous and distinct species, which is peculiar to the Southern
United States. The principal variety is the Scuppernong, which has a
strong growth, and is found in its native habitat climbing to the tops of
tall trees. It diflers from any other kind of Grape in bearing its fruit
upon older instead of the young wood. Bunches small and loose, with
from four to six berries upon each. Berries lai'ge, round, dark red, and
thick skinned. Flesh pulpy, with a strong aromatic flavour. Plant very
hardy and a free bearer, but will not thrive in a cold region.

Iliibrid varieties. — A laige number of hybrid varieties have been raised
in America by crossing the native Grapes with Vitis vinifera Some of
these are of fairly good quality, but none are of suflicient value to be
worthy of cultivation in Australasia, as European varieties will give far
better results.

93
Australian Species.

Several species of Mtis are indigenous to Australia that yield edible
fruits, which, however, are vastly inferior to the European or even
American kinds. Possibly they might be improved by cultivation, and
several are worthy of attention as ornamental plants. Baron von Mueller
in his Select E.rtra Tropical Plants, directs attention to several species.

Vitis acetosa — An evergreen species of somewhat herbaceous habit
indigenous to Carpentaria and Arnheim's Land. Berries from purple-to-
black, not large, edible. Plant vigorous, but suffers from slight frosts,
and is only suitable for warm regions. The whole plant is pervaded with
acidity, and the leaves have proved useful in cases of scurvy.

Vitis R>aiidiniana (Cisstis aritartica, Vitis aiitarticd), — A robust, woody,
evergreen, climbing species indigenous to Eastern Australia as far south
as Gippsland. Berries globular, small, black, edible, and produced freely.

Vitis hypoglanca [Cissus austral asica., Gippsland Grape, Native Grape).
— A very strong evergreen climbing species which attains a great size
with age. It is found in Eastern Austialia from Queensland as far south
as Gippsland. The fruit is black, and the size of small Cherries,

Vitis optaca {Burdekin Vine, Cissn.s opaca). — An evergreen species
indigenous to Queensland. Berries juicy, but somewhat pungent. This
species has large tuberous roots, like yams, which are eaten when boiled.

Otheh Species.

There are several Asiatic and African species of Vitis which yield
edible Grapes, and many of these may, if fairly tried, prove serviceable in
the tropical portions of Australia. Baron von Mueller recommends trials
of the following : — F?'^?> indica. a species with small edible berries
indigenous to mountain districts in Ceylon and India ; Vitis Blumeana,
Vitis hevigata, Vitis mutahilis, and Vitis thi/rsifor'a, species from the
mountain districts of Java, with palatable berries as large as small
Cherries ; Vitis i^nperialis, from Borneo ; V^itis anriculata and Vitis
elongata, from the mountain regions of Coromandel, each producing large
juicy berries ; Vitia qiiadrangvlaris, a species extending from Arabia to
India and Central Africa has also large edible fruits; Vitis Schimperi ana,
an African species extending from Ahyssinia to Guinea, with edible
berries, said to be similar in appearanc to bunches of Frontig^iac Gra^jes.
Other species might also prove useful acquisitions for the tropical regions
of Australia.

GRAPE PEAR.

This is one of the common names for the fruit of Amelanchier Batr<fa-
pitim, a handsome deciduous tree indigenous to North America which
attains a height of about thirty feet. It belongs to the Pomea or Apple
section of the natural order Rosacese. The fruit of this and other species
is also known in America as "June Berries," and the tree passes under-
the name of " Shadbush." This tree is very prolific, and bears in great

94

abundance small dark purple fruit, which has a pleasant sub-acid taste,
and ripens early in the summer. It is a very hardy tree, and will tlirive
in almost any kind of soil even though it may be of a poor character.
Being a native of cool regions it is best adapted for elevated or mountain
districts, but it may be grown successfully in moderately cool localities.
Several other species yield fruits that are utilized more or less. As
the trees are very ornamental when in Hower, and the foliage is
cheerful, they may be utilized in shrubberies effectively. Propagation
may be readily effected by seeds which should be sown in the autumn,
covering them an inch and a-half in depth. Plants can be easily obtained
from layers, which should be put down before growth begins to start in
the spring. Cuttings of the last season's wood will also strike freely if
put in early in the spring.

GUAVA.

History and Uses.

The fruit known as Guavas is obtained from various species of the
genus Psidtum, all of them being natives of Central and South America
or the West India Islands. According to the botanical dictionaries the
scientific name is derived from Fsidion , the Greek term for the
Pomegranate. There are no records as to the origin of the common name
Guava. The Guavas belong to the natural order Myrtaceje, or the
Myrtle family, and all are handsome evergreen trees or shrubs, worthy of
being cultivated for ornament, irrespective of the value of their fruit.
Though the name has been taken from the Greek, the family, as a matter
of course, was quite unknown to ancient nations, and was not brought
under the notice of European cultivators till long after the discovery of
the American continent. They have not received so much attention in
the south of Europe, where the conditions are favourable for their growth,
as they deserve ; l3nt in the West Indies and some parts of South America
they are highly appreciated and extensively used in a fresh state and also
preserved as jelly.

Guavas are deserving of more attention in Australasia than they receive
at the present time, as their fruit is wholesome, and the trees, owing to
their compact growth and handsome dark evergreen foliage, may be
utilized with advantage in shrubberies. The species yielding useful
fruits arc numerous, but the hardiness and value of many of these
are, as yet, but imperfectly known, and the species generally cultivated
are but few. Of these, again, the majority are too tender for cultivation
in Victoria, New Zealand, and Tasmania, though they thrive to perfection
in the northern colonies, where the summer heat is greater.

Species.

The most desirable species is Fsidium Cattle yanuw (commonly known
as the Black, Purple, and Cattley's Guava), a native of South America,

95

introduced to Europe in 1818. This species is more hardy than any
other of the family, as far . as is known, and will thrive in any part of
Australia where the frosts are not severe. It is very prolific, bears large
and certain crops from an early age, the fruit being deep purple berries
about an inch long having a pleasant sub-acid flavour which is peculiarly
their own. The fruit is cooling and refreshing when eaten fresh, and
furnishes a very popular jelly which is greatly in demand- This kind
will, under favourable conditions, attain a height of from twelve to
fifteen feet, but its growth is somewhat slow, and for some years afterHt-
is planted this species may be classed as a shrub. It will bear freely
from the height of two feet upwards, and its bright green foliage and
compact habit of growth are strong recommendations as an ornamental
plant for the pleasure garden.

PsicUu7n pi/ri fern III is the
Yellow or White Guava, a species
highly prized in the west Indies
and other tropical countries, where
its fruit is largely used fresh and
for jelly. It is, however not
sufficiently hardy for cultivation
except in the warmer parts of
Australia, and it thrives well in
•Queensland and the northern coast
districts of New South Wales and

the Northern Territory. The fruit Yellow Guava.

is about the size of a hen's egg,

and the pulp varies in colour from cream to reddish according to the
variety.

Psidium pomifencni (the Aj^ple or Red Guava) has a fruit somewhat
similar in size and shape to the Pomegranate, with reddish flesh and a
very sharp acid pulp which renders it unfit for the dessert, though it is
excellent when made into jelly. This species is too tender for cultivation
except in the warmer parts of Australia. Both this and the previously
mentioned species attain the height of from fifteen to twenty feet.

Possibly many other species of Guava will be found suitable for
cultivation in Australasia and deserving of attention. Several are
commended by Baron von Mueller in his work, " Select Extra-Tropiatl
Plants. "" They are as follows : —

l^sidiiini acidimi. — A native of the higher regions of the Amazon in
South America. Fruit pale yellow, the size of a small Apple. Attains a
height of .about thirty feet.

Psidiinn Araca. — Extending from the West Indies to Southern Brazil
and Peru, and found in high and dry localities. Fruit greenish-yellow,
and of high quality.

Psidium <(rhoreum. — A Brazilian species with highly flavoured fruit the
size of a large Cherry.

Psidium clu-ifHophi/Uum. — A South Brazilian species known in its
native country under the name of Gaahiroha do Mato. Fruit the size of
a small Cherry, and tree attains a height of about thirty feet.

Fsidiiim dneietna. — Another Bruziliaii species yielding palatable fruit.

Fsidium cordatmn. — A species attaining tlie size of a tree. This is
the Spice Guava of the West Indies,

PsidJiim cuneatmn and I*sidm7n qrandifoliiiin aie l)>th robust l^razilian
species which bear fruit as large as Cherry Plums.

Psidium iDcine-sceas and Psidinm lineatifol'nnn are shrubby species
from Brazil, which attain a height of eight or ten feet. The fruit of both
is of good quality, and about the size of a large Cheiry.

Psidium vKtlifoJium is a species from Uruguay with fruit about an
inch in diameter.

Psidium polifc"n'po>i. — A small shrubby species from Brazil to Guiana
and Trinidad. Produces in great abundance, and almost continuously,
highly flavoured yellow berries the size of a large Cherry.

Psiainm rufmn. — A shrubby hardy species from the mountain regi(»ns
of Brazil, which attains a height of about ten feet. Fruit the size of a
large Cherry, and very palatable.

Cultivation.

The Guava will thrive in any ordinary good land, but the best soil is
an open sandy loam, containing a fair proportion of vegetable matter.
In preparing the ground, let it be well stirred to the depth of at least
fifteen inches unless naturally very light and open, when a simple
ploughing or digging will suffice. Drainage must also be provided when
necessary, as water stagnating at their roots is very injurious to the plants.
The trees may be planted from eighteen to twenty feet apart. During
the first two or three years they require some attention in pruning, so as
to obtain strong growth in certain directions. After that the trees will
require but little pruning, all that is necessary being to regulate the
growth when too thick and to stop or remove rank or misplaced shoots.

The ground should be kept as free from weeds as possible, and covered
with a mulching before the hot weather sets in. As the trees are strong
feeders, care must be taken not to let the soil get impoverished, and a
dressing of manure occasionally will be of great assistance. Shelter from
strong winds will be of great service to the Guava, as with all other
evergreens, and if it does not exist naturally should be provided for by
the planting of breakwinds.

Propagation.

Propagation is readily effected by seeds, cuttings, and layers. Seeds
gi*t>w freely, and the plants usually come true, but about three years will
elapse before they are ready for planting out. They may be sown at any
time of the year, but autumn or spring is the best. Cover the seed half-
an-inch deep. Cuttings of the current seaspn's growth, when the wood
is fairly ripe, will strike freely in sand or light soil in a frame or under
a hand-glass. Plants can be obtained readily from layers put down early
in the autumn or spring-

97
HACKBERRY.

This is the American name for the fruit of a hardy deciduous tree
belonging to the order Urticaceae, known as Celtis occidentalism which
attains a height of from seventy to eighty feet, and is indigenous to the
eastern portions of North America. The fruit is also known as the
Sugar Berry. The fruit is a small drupe, which has a sweet pleasant
flavour. It is a handsome tree, and may be planted to advantage in
shrubberies and parks, but it is only suitable for the cooler regions of
Australasia. Another species, Celtis aiistralis, is the Lotus tree of
Southern Europe, North .\merica, and Asia, whose small sweet fruit is
largely used. It attains a height of forty or fifty feet, makes a slow
growth, but lives to a great age, and in Europe there are trees supposed
to be fully a thousand years old. Though called Lotus, this tree must
not, however, be confounded with another which passes under the same
name {Zij/yphus Lotus), which is a species of Jujube. Neither must it
be confounded with the sacred Lotus of the ancient Egyptians, which is
supposed to be the fruit of an aquatic plant (Nelumbium speciosum),
Celtis orien talis, a small evergreen tree from India, yields a small black
fruit that has a sweet pleasant flavour. Trees of this species also exude^
in large quantities, an edible gum somewhat similar to that obtained
from the Cherry and Plum. This species requires warmer regions than
either the Hackberry or Lotus. Other useful species are Celtis Selloiviana
from Argentina, which grows to the height of about forty feet, and Celtis
sinensis (Celtis Japonica), a hardy, deciduous, robust tree, known in
Japan as the " Henoki." The fruit of both species is pleasant, but
rather small. All the large species yield useful hard-grained woody
which is used to some extent b) turners, cabinet makers, and for musical
instruments. Propagation in the case of all the species is readily effected
by seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep, or layers put
down early in the spring.

HANCORNIA.

This is a small evergreen tree belonging to the order Apocynaceas, or
Dogbane family, indigenous to Brazil and other warm regions in South
America. Botanically it is known as Hancornia speciosa. The fruit is
as large as medium-sized Plums, and has a very pleasant flavour. It is
vernacularly known as " Mangaihas," and greatly appreciated in its native
regions. The tree is also valuable commercially for its " Caoutchouc," or
" Rubber " which it yields in large quantity, and of excellent quality.
The Hancornia can only be grown successfully in the warmer parts ot
Australia, where there is no trouble from frosts. It is suitable for many
parts of Queensland, the northern coast river districts of New South
Wales, ond similar regions. In congenial localities it is worthy of
attention, both as a fruit and " rubber " yielding tree, and also as an
ornamental plant. Propagation is effected by seeds, which should be

2f

98

covered an inch and a half deep, or layers put down early in the spring
or late in the autumn.

HAWBERRIES.

Though they are not " berries " according to strict botanical rules, the
writer has taken the liberty of coining the tern) " Hawberries " for the
fruits of various species of Gratcegus, as it is expressive and more
euphonistic than the word " Haws." The Cratoegus belongs to the
natural order Rosaceie, and most of the species are more familiarly known
under the names of Hawthorn, Quick, and Whitethorn, and they are
chiefly used as hedge plants, for which they are admirably adapted, being
low in growth and liberally furnished with strong thorns or spikes. The
fruit of all the kinds is edible, but as regards most of the species it is too
small and insipid to have any commercial value. Several species,
however, bear larger and more serviceable fruits, which are utilized more
or less. Crataegus Azarolits, a species indigenous to South Eastern
Europe and Western Asia, yields somewhat large, meally, and pleasantly
acidulous fruit, which is utilized in a fresh state and also for preserving.
The fruit of this species is used to some extent in Italy under the name
of"Azarole." In the United Kingdom it is commonly known as the
"Welsh Medlar." Cratcegus cestwalis, a species indigenous to the
eastern portions of the United States, produces rather small but juicy
and palatable fruit having an acid flavour. This fruit in America is
commonly known as the "Apple Haw." Cratcegus Aronia, a robust
bushy species, widely dispersed through Southern Europe and Western
Asia bears large, palatable, fleshy, deep red fruit. Cratoegus Mexicana
(Mespilus Mexicana) is a handsome shrubby species from Mexico, with
edible fruit about an inch long. All the species of Cratoegus, with one or
two exceptions, are deciduous shrubs or small trees, and most of them
bear white flowers, though in a few cases the blossoms are purple, pink,
crimson, or scarlet, and there are varieties with double flowers. Any of
the species make serviceable ornamental plants, and when in bloom are
specially attractive. They are best adapted for cool and comparatively
moist regions, and will thrive in any ordinary good soil. Propagation is
easily effected by seeds, which should be sown in the autumn or early
winter, covering them an inch deep. Cuttings strike freely if put in
early in the spring, and plants can be obtained readily from layers put
down at the same period of the year. If necessary, species and varieties
may also be propagated by budding and grafting. Various species of
Crataegus are sometimes used as ^'stocks," upon which Apples and Pears
are grafted, but the practice is less common than it was formerly. These
" stocks " have a dwarfing tendency, and generally speaking are less
durable than Apples or Pears.

HAZEL.

History a^d LIsks
This plant yields the small nuts known respectively under the names of

99

Hazel, Filbert, and Cob, and is known to botanists as Coryhis avellana.
It belongs to the natural order Amentacea3 (Cupuliferae of some botanists),
or the Catkin -bearing family. The generic name comes from the Greek
Korys (a helmet), in allusion to the calyx covering a greater part of the
fruit. The specific name is derived from Avellino, a town near Naples,
where the plants at one time grew in great abundance. By the early
Romans the fruit was called Nux Avellano. It is not quite certain how
the name Hazel originated, as authorities differ considerably. According
to some, the word came from the Saxon, and signified a head-dress, in
allusion to the fruit being covered with a husk. Others assert the word
is derived from the German hoes (a behest), from the circumstance that a
Hazel stick was commonly used in driving cattle or compelling slaves to
work. The Hazel bears unisexual flowers, or the male and female
separately. First to appear are the male blossoms, or catkins, the fine
yellow dust upon them being the fertilizing pollen. The female blossoms
are of a pinkish colour, very small, and growing close to the sides of the
shoots.

Corylus avellmm embraces a number of sub-species, all of which are
deciduous shrubs or small trees. They are indigenous to most parts of
Europe, and are abundant in the woods and hedgerows of the United
Kingdom. From this section we obtain our ordinary Barcelona, Filbert,
and Cob nuts, the classes known to growers. Some have supposed that a
distinct species (Cori/his maxima) is the source of the Red Filbert, but
there is no clear evidence that such is the case. The Filbert class, which
•comprises a number of varieties, is distinguished from the others by the
nuts being oblong in shape, like finger nails, and covered with long husks.
The word Filbert is simply a corruption of full beard, a name originally
given in allusion to the length of the beards or husks. The Cob section
embraces varieties that have round and broad nuts with short husks, that
generally separate more freely than in the Filbert class. Cob is an old
English word meaning thick. Other species of Corylus utilized for their
nuts are: — C. America, a native of North America, of l(»w habit, and
bearing small, hard-shelled fruit ; C. cohcrmi, a species indigenous to
Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, which bears freely, and yields large
nuts that are pleasantly flavoured. This is the tallest of the species, and
will attain a height of fifty or sixty feet. C. jjontica, which produces
fruit somewhat similar to the Barcelona nnts, is largely grown in Turkey
and other parts of Eastern Europe. C. rostnitd, a low-growing species
indigenous throughout North America, has small but very sweet and
pleasantly flavoured nuts. Possibly some of these species might prove
serviceable if fairly tried, but intending cultivators for profit had better
confine themselves to varieties of Corylus avellana.

The cultivation of the Hazel should prove a profitable industry in
suitable localities. A considerable quantity of nuts are consumed in
Australasia, but at present the greater portion has to be imported. If the
local supply was larger the consumption would probably greatly increase,
and if at any time there should be a surplus in the colonies a market can
be readily found elsewhere. Though the Hazel is not a timber tree in
the strict sense of the term, yet its wood is valuable and used for

100

many purposes in Europe. It furnislies lioops for casks, and makes
excellent walking sticks, fishing rods, and handles for tools. Hazel
wood is used in large quantities for making crates or baskets. It is
also extensively used in Europe for making charcoal of superior
quality used in the manufacture of gunpowder. Coryhis colurna,
owing to its more robust gi-owth, will yield the largest Hazel wood,
and might prove worth}' of cultivation for this purpose.

Cultivation,

The Hazel thrives in a comparatively cool and fairly moist locality,
and the most favourable conditions for successful cultivation exist
in the more elcA^ated regions or the gullies and slopes of mountain
ranges. Plants, however, will adapt themselves to various climatic
conditions, and may be grown with more or less success in many
districts, excepting the warmest and driest. Any ordinary good soil
will suit the Hazel, but the best is a light loam with a gravelly

Nut Weevil.
{Bahminus nucum.)

Insect Magnified.
Showing Insect natural size, jincl Grub emerging

sub-soil. When the ground is very rich there is often a tendency to
an over-luxuriant growth of wood at the expense of the crop of fruit.
In preparing land for the Hazel it is advisable, as with other fruits,
to stir deeply, and more especially in heavy soils. Drainage must
also be provided for if necessary, as, though the plants require moist
ground, yet they cannot thrive if the water stands in it for any length
of time. Planting may be done at any time during the winter, but
July is the most favourable pei-iod. The plants should stand about
ten feet apart in the rows, so as to give them ample room for develop-
ment. The best mode of training is to form the heads upon single
stems about eighteen inches high. In pruning the young plants the
growth should be so arranged as to form compact and well-balanced
heads. After the heads are jierfect the bi'anches should be thinned

101

oat eveiy wiiitei' wlien too iiiimei-ous, and those that are left must be

shortened back according to their growth. This mode of pruning

keeps tlie plants dAvarf .and compact, and insures an even distribution

of the l)earing wood. It is not, however, advisable to shorten back

too hard, as this practice causes a tendency to over-luxuriant woody

growth. In England the custom in jDruning is to keep the

centres of the plants open,

but in this part of the Types of Nuts

world, owing to the. greater

power of the sun, it is better

to have them closer. On the

other hand, growth should

not be allowed to get too

dense, and the fact of the

nuts being borne on the

extremities of the shoots is

proof that light and air are

important essentials. Some- Filbert. Cob

times, owing to an over-rich

soil or other local circumstances, the plants have a tendency to make

an over-luxuriant growth of wood, and produce but little fruit. When

such happens to be the case root pruning will generally have a

remedial effect. When properly managed the Hazel will yield heavily

:and remain productive for a number of years. In Kent, England — a

county noted for nuts, and where there are a large number of

plantations— a ton and a-half of nuts per acre is often obtained in

one crop.

Propagation.

Propagation is effected by seeds, suckers, layers, and grafts.
When raised from seed the varieties are uncertain, and will often
differ materially from the parent plant. The nuts should be sown in
the autumn, covering them about two inches deep. The following-
winter the young plants should be set out in rows thirty inches
apart, leaving half that space between them in the lines. In the
following year the young plants may be set out permanently. The
most common method of propagation is by suckers, which are freely
produced and fui-nish fairly good plants. These may be taken off at
any time when the plants are at rest, taking care to lift a fair
proportion of roots with them. Strong plants are easily and quickly
produced from layers, which should be put down during the winter,
and will be read}^ for shifting the next season. Cuttings may be put
in at any time between the fall of the leaf and the starting of growth
in the spring. It, however, takes much longer to obtain strong
plants by this method than from either layers or suckers. Grafting
is practised for rapidly increasing choice varieties, the substitution of
better kinds for inferior ones, and inducing early maturity. Probably
cultivatoi's will find that seedlings grafted with reputable varieties

102

will, as in the case of otliei- fruits, prove more durable plants tlian
those obtained from suckers or layers. ,

Varieties.

A number of varieties are in cultivation, but for all practical
purposes a few are sufficient. The following list embraces the most
desirable sorts : —

Aveline de Provence. — This is the Barcelona nut of commerce-
Nuts small, rather pointed, with thick shells. Plant of moderate
growth, but a heavy cropper, and nuts ripen late in the season.
Grreatly inferior to the Cob and Filbert nuts.

Cosford (Thm-shelled). — This is one the finest varieties belonging to
the Filbert section, and is one of the most profitable for cultivation.
The nut is large, oblong, remaining in the husk. Shell very thin, and
easily broken. Kernel large, full, and well flavoui-ed. Plant of
moderate growth, erect in habit, very prolific, and bears in clusters of
from three to five. An early variety.

Daviana [Duchess of Edijihiirgh). — A useful and popular variety,
named in honour of the celebrated scientist Sir Humphry Davy. Nuts-
large, roundish ovate, with smooth husks rather long. Shell thin, pale
brown. Kernel large and well flavoured.

Dovjnton (Atlas). — This is an excellent nut belonging to the Cob
section. Nuts large, broad, and parting freely from the husk. Shell
dark brown, thick, and hard. Kernel large, full, and well flavoured.
Plant strong, upright, and produces its fruit at mid-season. This variety
is said to have originated from an African species (Corj/lus Algierensis).

Duke of Edinburgh (Princess Royal). — A very good variety belonging
to the Filbert section. Nuts large, ovate oblong. Husk as long or
longer than the nut. Shell dark brown, moderately thin. Kernel large,
plump and well flavoured.

Eugenia. — An excellent variety belonging to the Filbert section.
Nuts very large, oblong. Husk the full length of the nut. Shell bright
Hght brown. Kernel large and well flavoured.

Frizzled Filbert (Cape Nut). — -A distinct and useful variety. Nuts
very long, oblong in shape, and somewhat flattened. The husks are
much longer than the nuts, and are deeply toothed and reflexed, having
a frizzled appearance, hence the name. Shell pale brown and thick.
Kernel large, full, and well flavoured. Plant moderately robust, very
prolific, and bears in clusters of four or five. A very late variety.

Lambert's Filbert {Filbert Cob, Kentish Cob, Spanish Nut). — This is
one of the best Filberts. Nuts large, oblong, furrowed, somewhat
compressed, and remaining in the husk. Shell pale brown, thick.
Kernels full and well flavoured, but are better after they have been
gathered a few months. Plant of medium growth, very prolific, and a
certain bearer. Ripens at midsummer. Nuts of this variety hasre been
kept sound for four years in England.

Mervdlle de Bollwyller. — A German variety belonging to the Cob
section. Nuts large, broad, round at the base but tapering somewhat to

103

the point. Husks of medium length. Shell light brown, rather thick.
Kernel large and sweet. Ripens at mid-season. Plant hardy and very
prolific.

Norwich Proliiic. — A serviceable variety belonging to the Cob section.
Nut large, roundish. Shell pale brown, thin. Kernel plump and of
good quality. Plant strong, hardy and very prolific.

Nottiiiqham Prolific {Dwarf Prolific, Pearson'' 8 Prolific'). — A hardy
useful variety belonging to the Cob section. Nuts medium sized, short,
and thick. Shells rather thick. Kernel full and sweet. Plant vigorons,-
very prolific, and bears freely when young. Ripens medium early.

Purple Filhert {Purple-leaved). — An old and favourite variety remark-
able for its reddish-purple foliage. Nut rather small, ovate. Shells
thick and hard. Kernel full, covered with a thin purple skin, and highly
flavoured. Plant fairly vigorous and bears freely. This variety may be
planted with advantage in shrubberies, as its fine dark foliage is very
effective.

Red Filhert {Bed, Hazel). — An old and popular variety, from which
the Purple Filhert has originated. Nuts ovate, rather small. Shells
hard and thick. Kernel full, covered with a thin red skin, and very
sweet. Plant moderately strong, but an abundant bearer.

WehVs Prize Filhert. — This is an excellent and comparatively new
variety, raised by Mr. Webb, of Berkshire, England, who devoted many
years to the special cultivation of nuts. Nuts large and long. Shell
thin. Kernel full, covered with a white skin, and well flavoured. Plant
vigorous and prolific.

White Filhert {Wmtham Pari'). — This is an old and well-known
variety, similar in growth and other respects to the Red, Filbert. Nuts
ovate, rather small. Shell thick and hard. Kernel full, covered with
thin white skin, and very sweet. Plant moderately strong, and bears
freely.

HERBERT VALE CHERRY.

The fruit known under this name is the product of an evergreen small
tree or shrub known botanically as Antidesma Dallachyanum, belonging
to the order Stilaginacese. It is indigenous to the Rockingham Bay and
other northern coast districts of Queensland. The fruit is light-coloured,
the size of large Cherries, and is produced in racemes or bunches. It has
a sharp piquant flavour, somewhat similar to the Ked Currant, and makes
a very good preserve. This may be fairly regarded as one of the best of
our native Australian fruits. The Herbert Vale Cherry will only thrive
in the warmer portions of Australia, and requires a rich soil and shelter.
Several other species of Antidesma from India and Africa yield edible
fruits, and may be utilized in warm regions. Propagation is effected by
seeds, which should be covered an inch and a-half deep, or layers put
down in the autumn or spring. Ripened cuttings of the last season's
wood with their leaves on will strike in sand under shelter.

104

HICKORY.

History and Uses.

The Hickory is closely allied to the Walnut, both being formerly
classed as one genus, but by modern botanists they have been separated.
Botanically the genus is known as Cari/a, the ancient Greek name for
the Walnut. There are a number of species, all of them being natives of
North America, where they are widely distributed. In America several
species are highly valued for their nuts, which are extensively used in a
fresh state, and also utilized for oil, of which their kernels contain a large
proportion. All the species yield valuable timber, which is useful for a
variety of purposes, and is extensively used in America. The trees are
hardy, will adapt themselves to various local conditions, and most of the
species will thrive where the Walnut succeeds. Being compact in habit
and ornamental, the Hickories would probably prove effective and useful
for landscape planting or as street trees in some localities. Though at
present the family is scarcely known in Australasia, it is worthy of
attention from cultivators. All the species require precisely the same
treatment in cultivation as the Walnut, and are propagated in a similar
manner. For full details refer to article on the Walnut.

Species.

The following list comprises the principal species ; —

Carya alha (Shelbark Hickory), — This species was formerly known
as Juglans alha, or the White Walnut, and is one of the most useful
of the family. The trees are strong, shapely, attain a height of eighty or
ninety feet, and yield in great abundance the most popular kind of
Hickory nuts. These nuts are not quite so large as English Walnuts, are
lighter in colour, have smoother shells, and yield a larger proportion of
oil. The wood, which is somewhat similar to English ash in ajjpearance,
is very tough and elastic, and suitable for a variety of purposes. In
America it is extensively used by agricultural implement makers, by
coachbuilders for poles and shafts of carriages, for hoops, and a number
of other purposes where wood is required to withstand severe and sudden
strains.

Carya amara (Bitter Nut or Swamp Hickory). — This species grows
in low moist ground, and has a very bitter taste, hence its common names.
The nuts are small and covered with thin white shells, which are
readily broken between the fingers. They are produced in great abun-
dance, but are of no value except for oil and feeding pigs. The tree
grows seventy or eighty feet high, and the wood is of fair quality and
may be utilized for several purposes, but is inferior to that produced by
many of the other species.

Carya aquatica (Water Bitter Nut). — This is a low-growing tree
which flourishes in swamps, where the other kinds will not exist. It
produces freely small, reddish, thin-shelled nuts, which are intensely

105

bitter, and is of no use except for making oil. The wood is greatly-
inferior to most of the other kinds.

Cari/a microcarpa (Balsam Hickory). — Under favourable conditions
this species attains a height of from seventy to eighty feet, and is a
handsome well-furnished tree. The nuts are small, with very thick shells,
and the kernels have a pleasant flavour. The wood is pale, heavy,
compact, and strong, and is utilized to a considerable extent in America.

Carya oliviformis (Pecan Nut).^ — This is a handsome species wMch
grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, and makes a more rapid -
growth than other kinds. The nuts, which are prodnced in great abun-
dance, are smaller than Walnuts, and have smooth and very hard shells,
the kernels being sweet and pleasant. They are largely used in America
for eating, and are an important article of commerce. The wood is
compact, heavy, cross-grained, and durable, and it possesses great strength
^nd elasticity. It is used extensively in America for furniture, imple
ments, and a variety of other purposes.

Carya porcina {glabra) — (Hog Nut). — This species attains a height
of from seventy to eighty feet, and forms a stately tree. The nuts, which
iire freely produced, have snooth, thick, and very hard shells, the kernels
being sweet and pleasant, but somewhat difficult to extract. They are in
some parts of America extensively used for feeding swine, and hence the
common name of the nut. The wood is of a reddish colour, very hard
and tough, and extensively used in America by coachbuilders and for
making tool handles.

Carya sulcata (Furrowed or Shagbark Hickory). — This species thrives
best in land where there is always plenty of moisture, growing to the
height of seventy or eighty feet. The nuts have deeply indented or
furrowed shells, hence the common names, and the kernels have a pleasant
flavour. The wood is pale, tough, durable, and utilized for many
purposes.

Carya tomentosa (Mocker Nut, White Heart Hickory). — This species
grows seventy to eighty feet high, and prefers a somewhat drier soil to
most of the other kinds. The nuts, which are freely produced, are small,
nearly quadrangular in shape, and have very thick shells. The kernels
are sweet and well flavoured, and contain a large proportion of oil, but
they are not readily extracted from the shells owing to the strong
partitions inside. Owing to the existence of this peculiarity the name
Mocker Nut has originated. The wood is heavy, durable, and remarkable
for elasticity and strength. It is used to a large extent in America for
furniture, and by coach and implement makers.

HIMALAYAN APPLE.

This name has been given to the frait of ''^pondias mangifera^ a
•deciduous small tree from India, where it is found in the lower regions
and ascending the Himalayas to the height of five thousand feet. It
belongs to the natural order Anacardiacea^. The fruit is about the size
of a medium-sized Lemon, and has a pleasant flavour somewhat similar to

106

ail Apple. The Himalayan Apple may be grown successfully in all parts,
of Australasia where the frosts are but slight, and in congenial localities
is worthy of cultivation as an ornamental plant. Propagation is effected
by seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-lialf deep, layers put
down early in the spring, or well-ripened cuttings of the previous season's-
wood.

Tlje fruits known as " Hog Plums" in the West Indies are furnished
by various species of Spondins, and more especially by Jutea a,nd purpurea.
The Tahite Hog Plum is the fruit Spondias cytheria, a handsome, large,
evergreen tree of spreading habit. The fruit is smooth, a golden yellaw,
the size of a large Plum, produced in clusters, and having a fleshy pulp
and large seed. The flavour is aromatic and somewhat like the Pine-
Apple.

HONEYBERRY.

The fruit known under this name is the product of Meh'cocca hijuga, a
small evergreen tree belonging to the order Sapindacea). The generic
name is derived from mel, honey, and coccas, a berry, in allusion to the
sweetness of the fruit. It is indigenous to the West Indies and Central
America, where it ascends to elevated regions. The fruit is i-nund, l)lack,.
and about the size of Damsons. It has a sweet pleasant flavour, and is
largely cultivated in the West Indies, where it is commonly known as the
Jamaica Bullace. Several other species of Melicocca yield sweet edible
fruits, and may be classed as " Honeyberries." All of them also yield
edible seeds which, when roasted, have a flavour similar to Chestnuts.
The whole of the species being natives of warm regions will not succeed
where the climate is cold. They will thrive in tropical or semi-tropical
regions, and may also be grown successfully in other parts of Australasia
where there is no trouble from frosts. The Honeyberry thrives best in a
rich, light, loamy soil, and requires shelter from strong winds. In
congenial localities it is well worthy of attention as a fruit tree, and also-
as an ornamental plant. Propagation is effected by seeds, which grow
freely, and should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Plants may alsa
be readily obtained from layers, and ripened cuttings of the young wood
will I'oot in sand or light soil.

HUCKLEBERRY.

History and Uses.

The fruits known in America under the name of Huckleberries include
several species of Gagha^sacia and Vacciinitm, which were formerly
classed as one genus, but have now been divided by botanists into
separate genera. Both belong to the order Ericaceae or Heath family,
though some botanists class them as Vaccinaceoe. There are numerous

107

species, both of Gaglussacia a,nd VacciniumjUome oeing indigenous to Europe
and Asia, but the great majority are natives of America. They are
mostly low-growing shrubs, but a few species attain the dimensions of
small trees. The fruits of several species are highly appreciated in the
United States and Canada, where they are known as Huckleberries,
Blueberries, or Dangleberries, according to the various species. The

Swamp Huckleberry.

108

fruits are pleasant to eat, are excellent for cooking and preserving, and
they are turned to good account by drying. An excellent wine can also
be made from the berries of any of the species.

Cultivation and Propagation.

Huckleberries can only be cultivated successfully in the colder parts of
Australasia, and they are specially suitable for alpine regions. In suitable
localities they are well deserving of attention, as the plants are prolific,
require but comparatively little care, and a demand for the fruit is
certain wherever it is known. Then again, as the berries are firm they
stand package and carriage better than many other small fruits, and can
be sent long distances to market without difficulty. Provided the climate
is suitable, Huckleberries will adapt themselves to a variety of soils, and
while some of the species are found growing naturally in swamps there
are others that are indigenous to high and dry ground. Cultivators of
this fruit must, therefore, in making a selection of kinds, give the
preference to those species that are likely to be best adapted for the local
conditions. In making a plantation the plants should be arranged in
rows, allowing them to stand from nine to twelve feet apart, according to
the growth of the species used. But little pruning is required except to
keep the plants shapely. Propagation may be easily eflfected by seeds,
which, however, being very small, require some care in treatment. They
should be sown thinly in finely-prej^ared soil, covering them about a
quarter of an inch deep. It will be advisable to afford the protection of a
frame or box, so as to avoid risk from heavy rains, sun, and wind. The
following season the young plants may be planted out. They will come
into bearing in three or four years. Plants, however, are most readily
obtained from layers, which should be put down early in the spring.

Species.

The fruits of various species vary to some extent in colour, shape, and
quality, but all are palatable and useful. The following list includes the
leading American species : —

Black Huckleherrii {Gaylusmcia resinosa). — A deciduous low shrub
growing to the height of three or four feet. It is indigenous to North
Eastern America, and grows naturally in swampy ground. Fruit black,
without bloom, and lia« a pleasant flavour.

Blue Danqleherry {Gaybissacla froiulosa). — A deciduous species
growing from four to six feet high, indigenous to North Eastern America,
and found in swampy land. Fruit dark blue, covered with a thick bloom,
sweet and pleasant.

Canadian Blueherri/ {Vacdninm Caiiadcnse). — This species is widely
distributed through the North Eastern portion of the United States and
Canada, its habitat being low-lying ground. It is a dwarf deciduous
shrub, very hardy and prolific. The berries are blue, very large, and
possess a somewhat aromatic flavour. This is a popular kind for cooking,
preserving, and drying.

109

Dwarf Blueherri/ {Blue Huchleherri/, Vaccinium Pennsj/lmnicum). —
This is a deciduous dwarf species growing from two to three feet high,
indigenous from Maryland northward. It has blue fruit which is
produced in great abundance. This species is much prized in America
for its earliness.

Swamp Blueberry (Higk-hicsh IJuclcleherry, Vaccinmm corinnhosum). —
A robust deciduous species growing from six to twelve feet high, widely
distributed in North East America, and common to swampy ground*
Fruit rather large, bluish-black, and covered with bloom. Flavour sweet
but sprightly. Ripens late in the season, and in America is considered
to be one of the best Huckleberries.

Many other species of Gaylussacia and Vaccinmm yield fruits that may
be classed as Huckleberries, and possibly some of them might prove
serviceable if tri,ed. The more prominent are as follows : — Vaccinmm
coes2ntosum, a deciduous dwarf species with blue berries, found in North
America as far as Labrador ; Vaccinmm leucanthum, a robust species
forming a small tree, with blackish berries, from the mountain regions of
Mexico ; Vaccinium 7ni/rtilloides, a dwarf bushy species producing large
berries known vernacularly as Bluetts, indigenous to North Eastern
America, including Canada and Labrador ; Vaccinium ocddentale, a species
growing about eight feet high, with small dark blue berries, indigenous to
North West America from California to British Columbia ; Vaccinium
ovafolium, a low, somewhat straggling species with large blue berries,
indigenous to North West America from California to Oregon. Vaccinium
ovatum, a species growing from six to eight feet high, with small, dark
blue berries, indigenous to North West America from California to British
Columbia.

INDIAN FIG.

This is a common name for the fruit of several species of Opuntia, a
robust ard hardy genus of the order Cactacea or Cactus family. The
fruit is also known familiarly as the Prickly Pear. With the exception
of the common species (Opuntia vulgaris) and one or two others they
are natives of the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, where they
thrive in the hottest and most barren regions. They have no leaves but
thick flattened fleshy stems, which are superposed one upon another.
The fruit is from one to two inches in length, pear or Qgg shaped, and is
in colour from green to yellow or red, according to the species. The
stems are plentifully furnished with sharp spines, and the fruit is covered
by numerous tufts of smaller ones. This peculiarity makes the plants very
formidable when grown as hedges, as no animals will face them. On the
other hand, however, the numerous small spines upon the fruit, which
causes trouble in handling and preparing, materially prevents its use.
The fruit when ripe is juicy, well flavoured and pleasant to eat (when
pared). It makes a good jam and jelly, and forms an excellent pickle.
The fruit also makes an excellent vegetable when boiled in the same way

110

as a vegetable marrow. The juice, when extracted by pressure, is
fermented and made into an intoxicating drink by the Mexicans.

The more common species is Opuntia vulgaris, which is widely dispersed
through the south of Europe, Africa, and Asia, and has become well
established in Australia where it is grown in many places as a hedge
plant. The fruit of this species is extensively used in Italy, where it
covers large tracts of the barren lava slopes of volcanic mountains, and it
is commonly sold in the markets. The other prominent species whose
edible fruits are used are OpmUia Ficn-sindica and Opuntia Tuna, both
from South America. In this part of the world Indian Figs, or Prickly
Pears, are generally looked upon as noxious plants as they are apt to
spread with great rapidity, are difficult to keep within bounds, and are
not easily destroyed. In fact, these plants have become a pest in many
localities, and special legislation has been adopted to • deal with them.
But notwithstanding the drawbacks to their cultivation, these plants will
prove useful to settlers in the hot, dry, interior districts, where there is a
liability to long and severe droughts. These plants will flourish under
such conditions, and will yield a plentiful supply of palatable fruit, also,
when cooked, a nourishing vegetable when no others can be obtained.
It is scarcely necessary to give directions as regards cultivation and
propagation, as all the species will thrive in any soil, even the most
barren, and every piece of stem thrown down will root and make a plant.

Other Edible Cactus Fruits.

Several species of the genus
Cerexs yield palatable fi-uits
which are known as Strawberry
Pears. The fruits vary in size
from a large Gooseberry to an
Orange, according to the species.
They have a better flavour than
the Indian Figs, and are very
palatable and nutritious. Some
of the species have a robust
upright growth of several feet,
while others have procumbent
or trailing stems. The principal
fruit-bearing kinds are Cereus
Englemanni, a dwarf species
vdth scarlet flowers, from Utah;
Cereus Quixo, a tall hardy
species, from Chili ; and Cereus
Tlmrheriy a strong tall species,
from Mexico and Arizona.

Strawberry Pear

INDIAN HILL-GOOSEBERRY.

This is the Anglo-Indian name for the fruit of Myrtus tomentosa

Ill

{Rhodomyrtas tomentosa), an evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to
the order Myrtaceae, or Myrtle family. It is indigenous to mountain
regions in India, China, and Ceylon to an elevation of over 8000 feet.
It is plentiful in the Nielgherry Hills, where the fruit is much appreciated,
and hence the popular name. The fruit is dark purple and somewhat
similar to a Gooseberry in size and appearance. When ripe it has a
sweet and somewhat aromatic, but palatable, flavour when eaten fresh,
and it makes an excellent jam and jelly which are similar to that made,
from the Guava. The Hill-Gooseberry may be grown successfully in
most parts of Austi alia, excepting the very cold and also arid tropical
regions. It is a compact growing, handsome, ornamental plant, and is
well worthy of a place in the shrubbery, independent of its value as a
fruit producer. The plant is fairly hardy, and will adapt itself very
readily to various conditions of soil and situation, but will not thrive in
land that lacks effective drainage. Propagation is most rapidly effected
by layers put down late in the summer or early in the spring. Plants
may be also readily obtained from seeds, which should be covered an inch
and a-ha'f deep, and cuttings from ttie ripened wood of the current
season's growth will strike in sand if protected from sun and wind.

INDIAN PLUM.

The fruit known under this name is furnished by an evergreen, small,
thorny tree or shrub known botanically as Flacourtia cataphracta, belonging
to the order Flacourtiaceas. It is also known as the Puneala Plum.
Another species, Flacortia Ramontchi {Flacourtia sapida), yields what is
known as the '' Batoka Plum." It also passes under the name of Mada-
gascar Plum. Both are natives of India, and the latter is also indigenous
to Madagascar. They have white flowers and Plum-like fruits which are
sweet but somewhat acrid, though both make a very good preserve. Both
species will only thrive in those parts of Australasia that are not troubled
with frosts. They will thrive in any ordinary good soil, and in congenial
localities are worthy of attention as ornamental plants. They also make
excellent hedges. Several other species yield fruits of more or less value
and all are useful ornamental trees or shrubs. The more prominent are
Flacourtia inermis, known in India as Tomi Tomi, a medium sized tree,
but whose fruit is inferior to that of the species previously named.
Flacourtia sapida is, as regards appearance and fruit, very sindlar to the
last named species. Flacourtia sepiara is a shrubby species growing six
or eight feet high, with small and inferior fruit. It is thickly covered
with strong sharp thorns, and makes a formidable hedge. The wood of
the tree kinds is valuable, being close grained, takes a fine polish and is
durable. In India it is used for a variety of purposes. Plants are easily
obtained from seed, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep,
layers, or ripened cuttings of the last season's growth, which strike freely
in sand or light soil.

11:;

JACK.

The Jack, or Jaca, fmit is furnished by Artocarpus integrifolia, a large
evergreen tree closely related to the Bread Fruit, and belonging to the
order Urticacpai. It is a native of India, and resembles the Bread Fruit
Tree to a great extent in its fruit and mode of growth. The names Jack
or Jaca are said to be corruptions of the Sancrit " Tchackka^' which
signifies the name of the fruit but not the tree. The fruit is very large,
often measuring from twelve to eighteen inches across, and weighing from
forty to fifty and, exceptionally,
seventy to eighty pounds. It has
a coarse, warted, thick skin, and the
pulpy mass within contains a large
number of seeds, which are the true
fruits. The pulp is eaten raw or
prepared in various ways, and the
seeds, when roasted, are somewhat
similar in flavour to Chestnuts. The
milky juice, in India, is believed by
the natives to abate swellings when
mixed with vinegar, and the leaves
are considered to be good for
cutaneous eruptions. Both the root
and the juice are said to be useful in
cases of diarrhoea. The wood of the
Jack, which is at first pale but after-
wards becomes like mahogany, is Jack,
valuable and used for making picture
frames and a variety of purposes.

The mode of bearing is somewhat curious, as at first the fruit is produced
upon the branches, afterwards upon tha trunks, and when the trees get
very old it also grows from the roots.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Jack, being a native of tropical regions, can only be successfully
cultivated in the warmer parts of Australia, and it cannot be expected to
thrive south of Brisbane. It is a serviceable tree in congenial localities,
and is also w^orthy of attention as an ornamental plant. A rich, deep,
and moderately moist soil suits it best, and shelter from strong winds is
essential to the well-being of the trees. There are a number of varieties
which diff'er more or less in size, quality, and period of ripening. One of
the most popular varieties in India is one called the Honey Jack. The
varieties ripen in succession, and the fruit lasts in season for a consider-
able time. Propagation is readily effected from seeds, which should be
planted an inch and a-half deep. Plants may also be readily obtained
from suckers that spring from the roots.

113
JUJUBE.

History and Uses

The fruits known as Jujubes are obtained from several species of
Zizyphus, shrubs or small trees with hooked spines belonging to the
natural order Rliamnaceae. Zizi/phus vulgaris, a small tree, is widely
dispersed through Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia "to '
China, and it ascends the Himalayas to the height of over GOOO feet. It
has scarlet fruit about an inch long, having a pleasant flavoured pulp
and is known as the European Jujube. The fruit is eaten fresh and also
in a dried state. When fresh the fruit is somewhat acid, but after being
dried it becomes much sweeter. Zizi/phus Jujiiha is a small evergreen
tree which is dispersed through India, China, tropical Africa, and extends

JUJUBK.

2g

114

to Noi-tli Eastern Australia. The fruit varies from red to yellow,
according to the variety, and is somewhat similar to a Plum. In Queens-
land it has leceived the name of Torres Straits Plum owing to its being
found growing naturally in the north east districts. The truit is some-
what mealy, but pleasantly flavoured, and is largely used both fresh and
in a dried state in India and China. Zizi/j^hus Lotus, an evergreen
shrub, is the Lotus or Lote-bush of the classics, from whence the
Lotophagi were named. It is a native of Africa, but is widely dispersed
in the European countries that border the Mediterranean Sea. The fruit
is somewhat smaller and less sweet than the common .lujube, but it has an
agreeable sub-acid flavour, and large quantities are used both fresh and
dried in the countries where it is found. Zizi/phvs 7nucron<(ta is an
evergreen shrub of medium growth indigenous to South Africa. It has
rather small, yellow, farinaceous berries which, when dried and pounded,
yield a meal which is made into a sort of bread that is both palatable and
nourishing. Zizyphus yEnoph'a, an evergreen shrub, has been called the
Australian Jujube because it is found in Carpentaria and other northern
coast districts. It is, however, also indigenous to India and other parts
of Asia. The fruit is somewhat small, but has a pleasant acid flavour.
Ziztiphus Parrjii is a species indigenous to California. It bears small
fruits of fair quality about the size of Damsons. Among other species
deserving attention for their fruits the following are mentioned by Baron
von Mueller : — Zizii'plius Joazeiro, a Brazilian species suitable for arid
regions ; Zizyphus mistal, a flne tree from Argentina ; Zi^i/phus rugosa,
a small and comparatively hardy tree from Nepaul and other mountainous
parts of India ; and Zizyphus sinensis, a species from China and Japan.

Cultivation and Pkopagation.

The Jujube can only be cultivated successfully in the warmer parts of
Australia, or in temperate regions that are not aflected by frosts. Some
species, however, are much more hardy than others, and cultivators have
some scope in being able to select according to their requirements. As
fruit-bearing plants the principal species of Jujube are well worthy of
attention in congenial localities. In countries where it is known, there is
a considersble demand for the fruit, and there is no reason why it should
not be equally popular in the Australasian colonies. It is a fruit specially
worthy of attention for drying, and when prepared by this means it is
probable that an export trade can be found for surplus produce. The
trees will do in any fairly good soil, but tliey thrive best in a rich sandy
loam, deeply worked and well drained. Shelter is also essential to the
well-being of the plants. In making a plantation for fruit the trees
should be arranged from twenty to thirty feet apart, according to the
growth of the species used. Independent of their value as fruit trees,
any of the species of Jujube may be used to advantage as ornamental
plants for shrubberies and gardens as they are both handsome and
effective. Propagation is most readily effected by seeds, which grow
freely, and should be planted about an inch deep. Plants are readily

115

obtained from layers, and cuttings of the ripened wood of the current
season's growth will root in sand if protected from sun and wind.

JUNIPER.

The Juniper family embraces a large number of species, many of which^^
yield valuable timber that is utilized for various purposes, and edible
fruits are obtained from several. The genus belongs to the order
Coniferae, and is very closely related to the Cypress family. The
succulent cones (commonly called berries) of Jnrriperiis co7nmu7iis. or
(>^ommon Juniper, a dwarf shrubby species indigenous to the United'
Kingdom and other parts of Europe, are used largely for flavouring gin.
The oil made from the fruit is also used medicinally. Jimiperus
driipacece, a species indigenous to Syria and other parts of Western Asia,
yields a sweet edible fruit, known as the Plum Juniper, which is highly
esteemed in its native regions. It is a compact handsome species, and
attains a height of about thirty feet. The Common Juniper will only
thrive in the cooler regions of Australasia. The Plum Juniper may be
cultivated over a wider range, and will flourish in all excepting tropical
or dry interior districts. It is a handsome ornamental tree, and worthy
of a place in the shrubbery. Proj^agation is most generally effected by
seeds, which should be planted an inch deep. Cuttings will strike in
sand if well sheltered, but this means for raising plants is slow and
somewhat uncertain.

KAI APPLE,

This is a tall evergreen shrub belonging to the order Bixacea^, and
known botanically as Aheria cafrn. It is indigenous to Caffraria and
Natal, as also other parts of South Africa, the fruit being highly
appreciated by the natives of those countries. The fruit is the size of a
small Apple, in colour is a rich golden yellow, and has a palatable
flavour when used fresh, and is excellent when cooked or preserved. It
has rich green foliage, and is worthy of cultivation as an ornamental
plant, independent of its value as a fruit. As the plant has strong spines
it is also very suitable for hedges. It will thrive in any part of Austra-
lasia excepting regions where frosts are severe. Propagation is readily
effected by either seed, layers, or ripened cuttings of the current season^s

wood.

I —

KOLA NUT.

This is the name for the seed of Stercidia acuminata, an evergreen tree
that attains the height of thirty or forty feet, and belongs to the order
Sterculiacea^. It is indigenous to West Africa, where it is considered to

116

he. a valuable tree. The flowers are white, and the fruit is jDroduced in
follicles of several nut-like seeds which are brown and about the size of
pigeon's eggs.. These seeds also jjass under the name of Goora Nuts.
The negroes use them generally, as when chewed they are supposed to
allay thirst, ward off hunger, prevent fatigue, and promote digestion. In
fact, these seeds are supposed to have stimuhiting properties similar to
those attributed to the '^Coco" from South America. The chewing of
these seeds is also said to enhance the flavour of anything that may be
eaten directly afterwards, and to make even putrid water agreeable.
This tree is only suitable for tropical or sub-tropical regions, but would
probably prove serviceable in hot interior districts, where it is worthy of
a trial. Several other species yield edible seeds, one of the principal
being Stercnlia quadrifkla, which is indigenous to Northern and Eastern
Australia. It bears freely black seeds which have a nutty taste, and is
known to aburiginals as the " Calool." Stercnlia CartJutginensis, from
Brazil, St€?xuh'a nohiJis, from India, and Stercnlia iirens, from the same
country, are all fine, handsome, evergreen trees that bear palatable
Almond-flavoured seeds, and may be planted with advantage in congenial
regions. Trees of this family will thrive in any fairly good soil. Pro-
pagation is most generally effected by seeds, which should be planted
about an inch deep.

LEMON BERRY.

This is the vernacular name in California for the fruit of Bhiis integH-
folia, a robust evergreen shrub indigenous to that country and Mexico.
The genus Wms belongs to the Anacardiacete, or Cashew Nut, family,
and embraces a large number of species. Most commonly the genus is
known as " Sumach," and several species yield commercial " tannin " in
considerable quantities, while some are remarkable for their strong
poisonous properties. The species under notice bears deep red berries
that are very sour, and these are encrusted with a white oily substance
that is even more acid, which crystalises upon the surface. These berries
are used to some extent when fresh, and also after being dried, for
making an acid drink in the same Avay as the Lemon is used, hence the
common name. This drink is said to be pleasant and refreshing, and the
Mexicans credit the fruit with some medicinal virtues. Ji/ins ovata,
another Calif ornian species, is known in its native country as the " Sugar
Tree." It is an evergreen shrub, but less robust than the " Lemon
Berry," and is found growing in desert mountain regions. The berries
are also smaller, and though they are similarly covsred with a white
substance, they are sweet like sugar, hence the cammon name. The fruit
with its coating is said to make a pleasant drink, either when fresh or
dried. The coating, when dried, has the consistency of beeswax, and is
said to have been formerly gathered by the Indians, and stored as food.
Thes.e people also eat the fruit of RhuM trilobata, vernacularly known as
the "Squaw Bush," which has a pleasant though rather sharj^ acid
flavour. Plants are readily obtained from seed which should be covered

117

to the depth of an inch. Layers root freely if put down in the autuiiin
or spring, and cuttings of ripened wood of the current season will strike
in sand, if protected from the weather.

LIMONIA.

This is a genus of evergreen shrubs or small trees belonging toJthe
order AurantaceiB, and closely allied to the Lemon and Lime. The most
prominent species is Limonia acidlssima, a shrub growing from six to
ten feet high, indigenous to India, where it is found up to an elevatioti
of 4000 feet. It has small, white, and very fragrant flowers and
yellowdsh-red globular fruit about tlie size of a Cherry. The pulp'is
flesh-coloured and intenseh' acid. It is used in its native regions in
a fresh state owing to its supposed medicinal qualities. The fruit is
also considered to be an excellent tonic Avhen di'ied, and to be useful
in cases of fever and small-pox. The other species do not differ
matei'ially except in the case of Limonia scandens, which is a climbing
species from China. All the species of Limonia are fairly hardy, and
may be grown successfully in all but the coldest districts in
Australasia, and they will thrive in any fairly good soil. Propagation
is easily effected by seeds, which should be covered an inch deep, or
layers. Cuttings Avill also root freely in sand if protected from the
weather.

LI-TCHI.

History and Uses.

Li-tchi, or Leecliee as it is often written, is the Chinese name for
the fruit of yephelium Li-tchi (Dimocarpus Li-tchi, Euphoria Li-tchi)^ an
evergreen medium-sized tree belonging to the order Sapindacese. It
is a native of Southern China, Cochin China, and the Philippine
Islands, and with the Chinese is considered to be one of their most
useful fruits. The fruit is nearly round, from an inch and a-half to
two inches in diameter, and has a tough, brittle, chocolate brown
rind, or skin, which is covered by wart-like protuberances. The fruit
is borne in large bunches, and each contains a considerable number.
When ripe the fruit is filled with a white and nearly transparent
jelly-like pulp, in which lies a rather large, shining, brown seed. In
flavoui- the fruit is sweet, pleasant, and refreshing when used fresh,
and is popular with the Chinese. It is also extensively used in a
dried state by the Chinese, and large quantities in this form are
exported to Europe, where it is highly appreciated. The fruit is
dried whole in the same way as small Plums, and when the process
is complete it is black and very similar in appearance to Prunes.

Cltltivation and Propagation.

The Li-tchi may be cultivated successfully in regions longing from

118

tlie tropical zone to medium warm districts in Australia as far south
as the Hunter River. It is specially well adapted for regions where
a strong moist heat prevails duiing the summer — such conditions as
exist in the coast districts of Queensland and New South Wales.
Possibly, this tree would also be well adapted for Northern
Australia. The Li-tchi flourishes in any rich open soil, which should
be deeply worked, and shelter is essential to the well-being of the
trees. In making a plantation the trees should be placed in rows,
not less than twenty-four feet apart, as they will require that space
foi- free development. Independent of its fruit, the Li-tchi is worthy
of being cultivated foi- ornamental pui-poses in localities where it will
tliHve, as it has beautiful Laurel-like foliage, handsome white flowers,
aud makes a very effective tree for shrubberies. Propagation may be
easily effected by seed or layers. Seed should be sow^n in rich light
soil, covering it an inch and a-half deep. Layers should be put down
late in the summer oi; early in the spi^ng.

LONGAN.

This is the Chinese name for the fruit of Nephelium Longanam
{Dimocarpits Longari, Euphoria Longava), an evergreen tree which
attains a height of about forty feet under exceptional circumstances, and
is indigenous to Southern
China and India. The tree
is very similar in appearance
to the Li-tchi, but the fruit
is smaller, vaiydng from an
inch to an inch and a-half
in diameter. In flavour it is
very similar, but is generally
preferred by the Chinese to
the Li-tchi, as they consider
it to be sweeter and to
possess medicinal qualities.
Most Europeans, however,
rather prefer the Li-tchi on
account of its larger size and
its more showy appearance.
Tlic fruit of the Longan is
used in precisely the same
way as the Li-tchi, and the
same remarks will apply Longan,

as regards cultivation and
propagation.

LOQUAT.

History and Uses.
Botanically the Loquat is most generally known as Eriohotrya aponica

119

and it belongs to the large natunil order Rosacete, or the Rose family. The
generic name comes from erion (wool) and botrifs (a bunch of grapes), in
allusion to the woolly appearance of the fruit and its mode of growth.
It was formerly called Mespiius japoiiicrt, and by some botanists it has
been recently re-named Photlnid enohotrt/a. It is a native of Japan and
China, and derives its common name from the first named of these countries.
This fruit appears to have been confined to its native countries till near the
end of the last century, when it was introduced to England under the
name of the Japanese Medlar, which it retained for a considerable time.~
The Loquat was introduced to New South Wales in the early days of that
colony, and is a well-known and popular fruit in the neighbourhood of
Sydney and in other coast districts. In the other colonies it has not
i^eceived so much attention as it deserves, considering its useful
qualities. As a fruit-bearing tree it is valuable, being very prolific,
and seldom failing to produce a crop when growing under fairly
favourable conditions. When eaten fresh and fully I'ipe the fruit is
refi'eshing and grateful to the palate. Foi* culinary purposes it is
(jxcellent, nnd it makes a very palatable jam. The fruit can also be
presej-ved by drying after the seeds are removed, and if carefully
prepared will keep for j^ears. Fruit intended for drying should be
thoroughly ripe, as otherwise its flavour is not fully developed.
Drying may be effected by halving the fruit and exposing to the sun,
or it may be done more quickly, if desired, by artificial heat.
Independent of its value as a fruit pi'oducer, the Loquat is a hand-
some evergreen tree, and well adapted for planting in ornamental
grounds or shrubberies. The foliage is distinct and striking, and
makes an effective contrast with man}- other ornamental trees and
shrubs. The Loquat is also effective as a shelter tree on the boundaries
of vineyards and orchards, while at the same time it yields a return
in its crops of fruit.

Cultivation.

The Loquat may be giown successfully in those parts of Australasia
that ai'e not subject to heavy frosts. Tliough the trees will stand
three or four degi-ees of frost with impunity, yet a lowei* temperature
will not suit them, and they ai'e better adapted for the w^armer
disti-icts than cold ones. They are also likely to thrive better on
sloping ground, where they will get the full benefit of the early
morning sun, than Avlien growing in low-lying localities, Avliere the
frosts and winter fogs ai-e heavy. Loquats will thrive in any
ordinary good soil of modei'ate depth, but they delight in a rich sandy
loam. In preparing the land stii- the ground deeply, as deep
cultivation is of material importance to the well-being of the trees,
which require a good root bed. It is also essential that the land
should be drained, if necessary, as the trees ai-e rather impatient of an
excess of w^ater standing at their roots. The best time for planting,
when trees in a suitable condition can be obtained, is early in the
autumn, when the ground is warm, so that the plants get the
advantage of a quick start, and are able to get fairly re-established
befoie the cold weather sets in. Trees, however, should not be

120

shifted till their summer growth has faii'ly hardened, as when too
soft and tender it is apt to die back. If trees cannot be planted in
the autumn it will be advisable to wait till early in the spring, as
they are apt to suffei* severely if shifted during the Avinter. It is a
mistake to transplant these trees in June or July, as is too frequently
done. As with Oranges and other e\ei*greens, special care must be
taken in ti'ansplanting Loquats not to let the roots be exposed to a
diy atmosphere. If planted in oi'chard fashion the trees should
stand twenty-four feet apart to allow room for full development ;
when planted for breadwinds they should stand about twelve feet
apart. Young trees must be pruned freely to secure strong growth
in the required directions. Mature trees will i-equire but little
pruning, all that is necessary being the removal of dead, rank, and
misplaced shoots, and thinning out the branches when too much
crowded. The ground at all times ought to be kept as free as possible
from weeds, and the surface soil should be mulched to the distance
the roots extend before the hot weather sets in. The Loquat is a
strong- feeding tree, and to keep it in good heart an occasional dressing
of manure must be given unless the soil is naturally rich. When
trees are neglected in this respect their growth becomes Aveak and
straggling, and they soon cease to yield payable crojDS of fruit.

Propagation.

Strange to say, though the Lo<|uat luis been cultivated for a long
period in Australasia it has been greatly neglected, so far as naming
and perpetuating superior varieties as in the case of all other culti-
vated fruits. The trees now gi'own, as a rule, are simply seedlings,
whose fruit may be either inferior or superior, and, as with all other
kinds, there will be no certainty as to its quality until the plant
bears. Sometimes there is a large propoi-tion of flesh in proportion
to the size of the seeds, and, consequently, the fi'uit is superior. On
the other hand, very often the seeds ai*e disproportionately large, and
they are only thinly covered with flesh, wdien the fruit may be
considered to be inferior. It is quite easy for cultivators to make
selections from the finest and most useful fruits, and perpetuate them
by budding and grafting. Were this plan to be adopted, inferior
kinds would soon be made to give place to varieties known to possess
the best qualities. Grafting may be easily effected, but the writer
has found that budding is a still better means of pi'opagation.
Seedlings are readily obtained, and will be ready for working in
their second year. Seeds should be sown soon after the fruit is ripe,
coveiing them to the depth of two inches. Plants can be readily
obtained from layers, but these, as a rule, do not make such strong
trees as seedlings.

MAMMEE.

History and Uses.
This is the native Indian name for the frait of Mammea Americana,

121

a lai'o-e and liandsonie tree l)elongiiig to the natural order Guttiferae.

It is an evergi'een, has large and handsome foliage, attains a height

of sixty or seventy feet, and

has a spreading liead. It is

a native of the West Indies

and tropical South America.

The flowers are Avhite, and

the fruit, which is also known

as the " Mamniee Apple " and

-•' Wild Apricot," is somewhat

similar in size, shape, and

colour to a large russet Apple.

It has a thin skin, which

peels off readily, and the pulp

is somewhat like that of an

Apricot, having a rich and

delicious flavour. Each fruit

contains tw'o or three seeds,

which are resinous and in- Mammee'

tensely bitter. The Mammee

is generally cultivated in the West Indies, where it is a very

popular fruit. It is eaten fresh or when cut in slices and soaked

in wine or syi'uj). The fruit is also excellent when preserved in sugar.

Cultivation and Propagation.

Being a native of warm regions, the Mammee, as a matter of
•course, can only be cultivated successfully in those parts of Austral-
asia where the climatic conditions are somewdiat similar. This tree
would be suitable for such pai-ts of Queensland, Northern Australia,
and the South Sea Islands where great heat and moisture prevail
•during the summer. It is Avell worthy of attention as a fruit tree in
localities where the climatic conditions are favourable, and also for
ornamental purposes, as its foliage is handsome and attractive. The
Mammee also makes an excellent shade tree, and is, thei-efore, very
suitable for street planting in regions where it will thrive. The
Mammee will thrive in any ordinary good soil, but does best in a
I'ich sandy loam. In a plantation the trees should stand not less than
forty feet apai't in order that they may have room for free develop-
ment. Propagation is most generally effected by seeds, which should
bo planted two inches deep. Plants may also be obtained from
cuttings of the ripened shoots of the current season's growth, with
the leaves unshortened, which will strike in sand if protected from
the Aveather.

MANGO.

History and Usks.
The Mango holds the same position among fruits in the tropics as

122

the Apple does in cooler regions, and is widely cultivated. It is a
handsome evergreen tree of spreading habit, and attains a height of
fifty or sixty feet under favourable conditions. Botanically the
Mango is known as Mangifera indica, and it belongs to the order
Anacardiaceae, or the Cashew Xut family. It is indigenous to the
warmer regions of Asia, but has been widely distributed, and is now
generally cultivated in most countries situated within or near to the
tropics. The flowers are a greenish-yellow, and the foliage is some-
what similar to the Walnut.
Thei'e are numerous varieties
whose fruits differ consider-
ably in shape, size, coloui-,
and quality. In form the
fruits vary from round to
kidney shape, and some are
compressed or flattened. The
fruit varies greatly in size,
according to the variet},
and range from four ounces
to a pound and a-half in
weight. There is also a wide
range as regards quality, some
varieties producing luscious
fleshy fruit ; with others it
is coarse and sti-ingy, and
sometimes it has an unplea-
sant turpentine flavour. In
colour the ripe fruit varies,
according to the kind, from
pale to dai'k green, and

lemon yellow to deep orange, and the best sorts yield a grateful
odoar. The fruit contains a comparatively large seed, to Avhich the
pulp adheres somewhat firmly. The Mango is generally admitted to
be one of the most palatable fruits when eaten fresh, and it is
extensively used in this way in countries where it is grown. It can
be turned to good account as jam and jelly, and makes an excellent
sweetmeat when preserved in sugar or spirits, and also when dried.
The unripe fruit is also used to a great extent as a pickle, and the
Mango Chutnee of India has a world-Avide reputation. Medicinally
the resinous juice of the tree is in India considered to be serviceable
for dysentry. The wood of the Mango is rathei* soft, and soon decays
when exposed to wet, but in India it is utilised for a variety of
common purposes. It is said to improve with the age of the ti-ees.

Mango.

Cultivation.

The Mango can only be cultivated successfully in those parts of
Australasia classed as tropical and sub-ti-opical I'egions, or in
specially suitable localities along the Pacific Coast a few miles

123

further sontli. But the Mango is much more hardy and cosmopo-
litan in its habits than many other tropical fruits. The Mango may
be gjown successfully in any ordinary good soil, but it thrives best
in a rich, deep, sandy loam. It is essential that the ground should
be well prepared, and effective drainage provided, if necessary, as the
Mango cannt»t thrive in a wet soil. Effective shelter must also be
provided, when necessary, as the trees and crops are apt to suffer severely
when fully exposed to high winds. Permanent trees should be planted
not less than thirty feet apart so as to allow space for free development.
It will be some years, however, before the trees fully occupy this amount
of space, and temporary ones may with advantage be planted between.
By adopting this plan not only can a better return be obtained from the
land, but the temporary trees will act as nurses in affording shelter to
the others. The best time for planting is in the autumn, but if that is
impracticable it should be done early in the spring. While young the
trees should have their growth regulated from time to time so as to
bring them into the desired forms, but when mature they re([uire but
little in the way of pruning. The trees will usually begin to bear in
three or four years from the time of planting, and afterwards they
generally yield regular and payable crops. Weeds should never be
allowed to make nmch headway in a Maiigo plantation, and, as far as
l>racticable, the surface soil ought to be kept loose by frequent stirrings.
This is more especially necessary in the case of irrigated land, which is
apt to cake hard after each watering. Mulching is very serviceable in
]Mango culture, and a coating about four inches thick of straw, grass, or
litter should always be apjjlied early in the summer. Mangoes, being
strong feeding and heavy bearing trees are exhausting to the soil, and
manure may be used with advantage from time to time in moderate
dressings. Mangoes are some^vhat liable to the attacks of " scale "
insects, but these pests, if not allowed to make too much headway, can
generally be kept down by using the ordinary remedies. (See vol. 1,
page 84).

Gathering and Packing the Fruit.

The ^fango season in Australia lasts for several months, according to
the varieties grown and the localities. When required for home use
the fruit she mid be left upon the trees till it is fully coloured in order to
obtain it in the highest degree of perfection. If wanted for export the
fruit must necessarily be gathered somewhat earlier, or just as it begins
to turn colour. It should be handled carefully so as to avoid bruising,
and packed securely in medium-sized cases in such a way that there will
be no shifting till the fruit reaches its destination. If properly packed
and handled fruit should keep in good condition for at least a month if
stored in a cool place. A limited trade is already carried on from
Queensland to the other colonies, as also from the northern coast river
districts of New South Wales, w^hich is likely to assume much larger
proportions in the future. This trade has been materially kept back by
growers sending fruit insufficiently ripe and lacking in the rich flavour

124

required in tlie Mango. Though the fruit may often be seen in the shops
of Sydney, Melbourne,, and other cities, yet a real good specimen is rare,
and, consequently, but few people are induced to purchase. In fact, the
samples offered are too often quite insi})id, and people who try them are
disappointed and disgusted. There is no reason why Mangoes of the
finest varieties in the best possible condition should not be obtainable in
any part of Australasia ; and this fine fruit, if it could be had in perfection,
Avon Id be in great demand.

Propagation.

As with other cultivated fruits, desirable varieties of the Mango must
be propagated by budding, grafting, layering, and cuttings. Budding
and grafting are the quickest and most effective methods. The most
suitable stocks ;ire two-year-old seedlings, though yearling plants may be
used if others are not available. Grafting should be done in the spring
when growth becomes active, and budding about mid-summer. Various
methods of grafting may be adopted to suit the size of the stocks and
other local conditions. Inarching is also a somewhat popular method for
propagating Mangoes. For full directions as regards budding, grafting,
and inarching see articles under those headings in vol. 1. Seeds should
be sown as soon as they are available, covering them an inch and a-half
deep. The following season the young plants should be arranged in
nursery rows, where they must remain till " worked."

Varieties.

The varieties in cultivation are numerous, but a few kinds are sufficient
for practical purposes. Among the sorts introduced to Australia the
following varieties have given s;itisfaction t^ —

A Iphonzo. — A free bearing variety with reddish-orange, nearly heart-
shaped fruit, weighing about eight ounces. The flesh is sweet, luscious,
and slightly aromatic, being a little fibrous next to the seed.

iien.ijiiJe. — A prolific variety with pale yellow fruit, weighing about
eight ounces. Flesh luscious, with a rich perfume, and somewhat fibrous
near to tlie seed.

Dolidohl. — This is a variety with very large fruit which often ranges
from a pound to a pound and a half in weight. The fruit is oval, some-
what compressed, and in colour is dark green, with brownish stripes and
dots. The flesh is rather fibrous, and the flavour fairly good, but this
variety in quality is greatly inferior to others. Better for preserving
than eating when fresh.

Gratisidma. — This is a prolific variety with bright yellow, cone-shaped,
but slightly curved, fruit, weighing about eight ounces. Flesh very
sweet and luscious, with a pleasant aromatic flavour, and nearly free from
fibre.

Gumpohr. — A moderately prolific variety with medium-sized pale green
or lemon coloured fruit. The flesh is rich, slightly aromatic, and somewhat
fibrous near the seed.

125

Saiigier. — A variety with bright yeUow medium-sized fruit. Flesh
sweet, fragrant, and luscious.

Strawherri/. — This is a robust and very prolific variety with olive
green fruit, flushed with crimson on the sunny side, and weighing about
three quarters of a pound. Flesh sweet, aiomatic, and luscious, with a
little fibre next to the seed. Experience has proved this to be one of the
finest varieties grown in Australia.

MANGOSTEEN,

History and Uses.

The Mangosteen, or Mangostan as it is sometimes written, is the fruit
of Garcinia Mangostana, a handsome evergreen tree of moderate size,
belonging to the natural order Guttifera^ or the Gamboge family. It is
indigenous to Java, Sumatra, and the Molucca, or Spice, Islands. The
fruit is as large as a medium-sized Orange, and has a thick, succulent,,
reddish-brown rind, covered
w4th warts or tubercles, with a
crown of rays at the ajiex.
The inside consists of a white
juicy pulp that has a delicately
acid and particularly rich
sweet flavour, which has been
likened to a combination of
Strawberry and Pine-Apple.
From its whiteness and grateful
flavour the pulp has also been
likened to perfumed snow.
The pulp is divided into a
number of sections by thin
partitions in a somewhat
similar manner to the Orange.
The Mangosteen is generally

admitted to be one of the finest tropical fruits, and is highly ap-
preciated in countries where it grows naturally, or can be cultivated.
It reaches the highest degree of perfection when allow^ed to get fully ripe
upon the tree, and is best when eaten quite fresh. The fruit is not only
palatable and refreshing, but is considered to have a medicinal value in
cases of fe"ver and other complaints, and may be freely eaten with safety
by persons suffering from any disorder. An astringent juice obtained
from the rind is considered to be an excellent sj^ecific in cases of
dysentry.

Several other species of Garcinia yield serviceable fruits, which are
utilized more or less in their native countries. The principal of these is
Garcinia cornea or Horny Mangosteen, a rather tall evergreen tree
indigenous to mountain regions in Java- The vernacular name is derived

Maxgosteen.

126

from the colour of the wood, wliich resembles horn and is tongh, hard,
and heavy. The fruit is excellent, though not so good by a long way as
the Mangosteen proper. G<ircinia celebica, an evergreen tree indigenous
to the Celebes and Macassar, yields a fruit known as the Celebes
Mangosteen. It is somewhat larger than the Mangosteen proper, but in
quality is greatly inferior. G((rclm<( pendnnculata, a robust evergreen
tree which attains a height of fifty or sixty feet, has rich yellow fruit
which often reaches two pounds in weight. The fruit is intensely acid,
and in India is used by the natives in h)calities where it grows as a
substitute for the Lime. It is a native of Southern India. Gnrcinia
pictnratdf another Indian evergreen species which becomes a tall robust
tree, yields fruit whose seeds supply an oil, which is used to a large
extent as a substitute for "ghee" Gcwcuna purpure((, also a robust
evergreen tree indigenous to Southern India, is known as the Mate
Mangosteen. The fruit of this species is smooth, and Ijoth skin and tiesh
are of a deep purple colour. In flavour the pulp is somewhat acid, but
Agreeable, though vastly inferior to the ^langosteen proper. The seeds
yield an oil from which is made an article of food in India known as
Kakum butter.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Mangosteen and its kindred species, being natives of the tropics,
can only be cultivated successfully in warm and moist regions. Probably
suitable localities may be found for them in the northern coast districts of
Queensland and North Australia. It is perfectly useless, however, to
attempt the cultivation of these trees unless the climatic conditions are
favourable. In suitable localities the Mangosteen is well worthy of
attention as a fruit, and should be generally cultivated. It will thrive in
any fairly good soil, but does best in a friable sandy loam, which should
be worked deeply, and drainage provided when necessary. Shelter must
be provided when it does not pxist naturally, as the trees will not stand
exposure to strong winds. The trees in a plantation should stand not
less than twenty feet apart, in order to allow room for free development.
As ornamental trees the Mangosteen and ether species of Garclnia may
be planted with advantage in congenial localities, as their bright evergreen
foliage is very attractive. Propagation is most usually effected by seeds,
which should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Plants, however, may,
if necessary, be readily obtained from layers, and ripened cuttings of the
current season's wood may be rooted in sand if protected from sun and
wind ,

MANILLA tamarind.

This name has been given to an evergreen tree belonging to the
natural order Leguminosa?, known botanically as Iiiija dnlcis, whose fruit
is somewhat similar in appearance to the real Tamarind {Tamarliidus
iridic (). The tree attains the height of about thirty feet, has finely cut

127

foliage similar to an Acacia, and bears yellowish -green flowers. The
fruit is produced in pods, or beans, two or three inches long, which
contain a sweet edible pulp that is both pleasant and wholesome. It is
used to some extent by the natives of Manilla and other places in the
Philipine Islands, hence the common name. It is also known as the
" 8appan " tree. Though the Manilla Tamarind is now freely dispersed
through the Philipine Islands and other parts of Asia, it is supposed to
have come originally from Mexico. The wood is hard, fine-grained, and .
suitable for a variety of purposes. A somewhat similar fruit, both in
appearance and quality, known as the Sweet Tamarind, is obtained from
Inga edalis, a very closely allied species. Both species will thrive in
regions ranging from tropical to medium warm, and are worthy of
attention both as fruit-bearing and ornamental plants. They also make
excellent hedges. Propagation is most readily effected by seeds, which
should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Plants may also be obtained
by cuttings of ripened wood of the current season's growth.

MARMALADE PLUM.

This name has been given to the fruit of Liicuma mammosa {A chras
tnanimosa), a handsome evergreen tree of medium size belonging to the
order Sapotacese, and a native of South America. The fruit is as large
as an Egg Plum, and the pulp tastes somewhat like marmalade, hence the
common name. Sometimes the tree is called Marmalade Tree. Several
other species of Liicuma yield rich and palatable fruits. The Marmalade
Plum and its kindred species can be grown successfully in sub-tropical
regions, as also in other localities in the warmer districts where there is
no trouble from frosts. They ai-e all handsome trees with fine foliage,
and are worthy of being cultivated either for ornament or fruit in
congenial localities. Any fairly good soil is suitable, but the trees should
be sheltered from high winds. Propagation is most generally eifected by
seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Plants may also
be obtained from layers, and cuttings from the ripened wood of the
current season's growth will strike in sand if protected.

MARMALADINAH.

This is the vernacular name for A lihertia edulis (Mekmojpstdium nigrum)^
an evergreen tree of medium growth indigenous to Brazil and other
tropical parts of South America. It belongs to the natural order
Rubiaceai (Cinchonacse of some botanists). The tree has handsome
foliage, creamy white flowers, and pleasantly flavoured Plum-like fruit.
Being a tropical tree the Marmaladinah can only be cultivated successfully
in the warmer portions of Australia, where it is well deserving of
attention both for its fruit and as an ornamental plant. Naturally this
tree flourishes in the driest regions of tropical America ^ and, therefore,

128

would probably prove suitable for many of the warm interior portions of
Australia. The tree will adaj^t itself to almost any soil or situation,
provided there is effective drainage. Propagation is easily effected by
seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Layers will
root readily, and ripened cuttings of the current season's growth will
strike in sand if i)rotected from the weather.

MEDLAR.

History and Uses.

This fruit is not cultivated to any great extent, and is not likely to be
used extensively, but many people are partial to it, and it is worth a
place in an orchard. Botanically it is generally known as MespUus
f/ermanica, and it belongs to the natural order Rosacea. The name
comes from mesos (a half) and 2^iio.s (a bullet), in allusion to the peculiar
form of the fruit. SomeT modern botanists have discarded the name
Mespilus, and call the tree Fi/nis geiinanica, which, in English, means
German Apple. The tree is closely allied to the Apple, but the fruit is
harder, more austere, less juicy, and cannot be eaten till it is well
advanced towards decay. When the fruit arrives at this stage it is highly
appreciated by many, but on the other hand, the Medlar is by no means-
generally popular. Medicinally the fruit is considered to be wholesome
and slightly laxative. The Medlar is indigenous to the south of Europe
and Western Asia, being a middle or small-sized tree covered with spines
in its wild state. It seems to have been naturalised throughout the
greater part of Europe, but its use has always been limited, and no
traditions exist respecting it as is the case with most other fruits that
liave been long known. The Medlar is of slow growth in comparison
with the Apple and the Pear, but under fcivourable conditions it will live
to a great age. The wood of the Medlar is very hard and durable, and i&
utilized to some extent in Euro^^e by turners and cabinet makers.

Cultivation.

The Medlar will thrive in many j^arts of Australasia, excepting tropical
regions, and will do in any ordinary fair soil. In preparing the ground
for this fruit stir deeply, and provide for drainage where necessary. If
planted in orchard fashion the trees should be placed about eighteen to
twenty feet apart. As, however, two or three trees will generally be
sufficient in a garden, they may often be planted with advantage in odd
corners, where they will not interfere with other kinds. They may also
be planted with advantage in miscellaneous shrubberies, as their bright
foliage and fruit make a fine contrast with many other trees. But little
pruning is required, all that is necessary being to regulate the growth of
young trees and to thin out the heads of older ones when the branches
are too numerous. The ground should be kept as free from weeds a*

129

circumstances will permit, and the surface soil ought to be mulched early
in the summer to conserve the moisture as much as possible.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding, and
grafting. Seeds are slow to vegetate, and often do not germinate till the
second year. Cuttings strike freely, but they do not make such goTjd
trees as can be obtained by other means. The same remark will apply to
plants raised from layers. Grafting and budding are the most generally
practised methods of propagation, as the strongest plants are obtained by
these means. The stocks may be either seedling Medlars or whitethorns,
the latter affording very good trees. Unlike most other cultivated fruits,
the varieties of Medlars are not numerous, and, consequently, a selection
is easily made.

Varieties.

The varieties are as follows : —

JJiitck {Broad-leaved Dutch, Large Dutch). — This is the kind most
generally cultivated, as the fruit in size is greatly superior to that of the
other sorts. It is sometimes two and a-half inches across, and very much
flattened. The eye is very wide and open, and unequally rent, sometimes
to the circumference of the fruit. In flavour the fruit is good, but
somewhat inferior to the Nottingham.

Nottingham {Narrow-leaved Dutch, Small-fruited). — This kind is in
size considerably smaller than the Dutch, but is more highly flavoured.
Its fruit is usually about one and a-half inches in diameter, and turbinate.

Stoneless {Sans Noyau, Sans Fepins). — This is a very small-fruited
variety, in shape resembling the Nottingham, but somewhat inferior in
flavour. It is rarely more than one inch in diameter, and quite free from
seeds or woody core.

MELON.

History and Uses.

Melons, strange to say, are usually classed with vegetables, which is
probably owing to the fact that they are annuals, and generally cultivated
as kitchen-garden plants. Tliey are, however, justly entitled to a
prominent position among other fruits. The plants are known botanically
under the name of Cucnmis, and they belong to the natural order
Cucurbitacese, or Cucumber family, which also embraces the Pumpkin,
Gourd, Squash, and Vegetable Marrow. The name Cucumis comes from
curvus (crooked), in allusion to the form the fruit of the Cucumber
usually assumes when growing naturally.

The Rock, or Sweet, Melon is known as Cucnmis melo. Melo is the

2h

130

Greek word for Apple, and is the source of the common name. It is
supposed to be a native of India or Persia, but as it has been widely
distributed in Asia, Africa, and the south of Europe from a remote period
in the world's history, it is somewhat doubtful as to where the Melon
originated, History informs us that the Melon has been a popular fruit
from time immemorial, and that it was highly appreciated by the nations
of antiquity. Report says this fruit was first taken to Italy from
Armenia by the Roman general LucuUus about seventy years before the
Christian era. According to their writers the Melon was a fruit highly
prized by the ancient Romans. Both Pliny and Columella inform us that
the Emperor Tiberius was particulary fond of Melons, and they describe
contrivances by which they were procured for him at all seasons of the
year. These were buildings or pits heated with fermenting materials
upon a similar principal as the hot beds of modern gardens. This
appears to have been the earliest record of plants being grown in
artificially-heated structures. Shortly after the Melon was taken to
Europe a distinct kind either originated in, or was introduced to, a
village a short distance from Rome, called Cantalluppi, and became very
popular. This kind is supposed to be the source of the Cantaloupe
section, which is quite distinct from the others. From Italy the Melon
soon spread to various parts of Europe, and in the warmer countries it
quickly became popular. There is no authentic record of the Melon
being introduced to England before towards the end of the sixteenth
century. When first grown in that country the plant was generally
known as the Musk Melon, from the peculiar and agreeable scent of the
ripe fruit. This name, however, has been discarded for some years, and
when it is necessary to distinguish the fruit from others of the same
family, it is usually called the Sweet, or Rock, Melon.

The Sweet Melon is an annual, and naturally a climber when it has
the opportunity, but failing that it becomes a trailer. It has fruit richer
in flavour and more luscious than that of any other plant belonging to
the same natural order. In Arabia, Persia, and other parts of Asia
Melons are an important item of diet, and are extensively used as food by
the natives of those countries for several months in the year. They also
supply a liquor, whioh is a popular beverage in the countries named,
where its use is general. This liquor is obtained by piercing the fruit
when fully ripe, and making a hole to the centre of the pulp. The
opening is then securely stopped with wax, and the fruit allowed to remain
on the stalk for three or four days, when the liquor is ready for use. A
palatable liquor can be obtained from the fermented juice of the Melon,
and when this is distilled it yields a strong spirit.

Cultivation.

Rock Melons can be grown successfully in any good garden soil, but
they thrive best in a rich, open, sandy loam. They are strong feeders,
and require plenty of nourishment ; therefore, well-rotted manure should
be freely used when the ground is prepared. It is advisable to work the
ground deeply and thoroughly, and, when necessary, drainage must be

131

provided for. A common plan is to make holes three or four feet in
diameter, and from fifteen to eighteen inches (ieep, filling them up again
with manure and soil. This method is not to be commended, and more
especially in stiff retentive laud, as the holes, though filled in, will after
heavy rains be so many tanks of water, greatly to the detriment of the
plants. The better plan is to work the whole of the ground, and put
in drains where they are required. In loose sandy or gravelly soils,
where the water can soak away freely, there is no particular objectioTT
to the system of making holes. As the plants are very tender, it is
useless to sow or plant in the open ground till all danger from frost
has passed. In the warmer parts of Australia a commencement may
be made about the latter end of August, but in the cooler districts it
will be safer to wait till several weeks later. In all cases it will
be advisable to give a little protection till the young plants are firmly
established.

The most usual mode of sowing is to put in from six to nine seeds
three or four inches apart, covering them about an inch deep. Between
each of these clusters a space of nine or ten feet is left. When the first
pair of rough leaves make their appearance the plants are reduced in
number to the three strongest. If required, those that are removed may
be transplanted, as the plants, when young, bear shifting very well.
Some growers prefer rows of single plants, leaving them about two feet
apart in the lines. If early plants are required they may be obtained by
putting seeds in pots or boxes filled with rich soil, which may be placed
in a hot bed. As soon as the first pair of rough leaves make their
appearance the young plants should be potted off singly into small pots,
and shifted into larger ones as growth advances. They must be kept
steadily growing till the season is sufficiently advanced for planting them
out. Care must, however, be taken that they do not become drawn and
weakly, and in order to prevent this they should be kept near the glass,
and air freely admitted when the weather will permit.

As soon as the plants begin to cover the ground their branches should
be regularly distributed and fastened with pegs to keep them in their
places. The surface soil should be kept loose by frequent stirrings, and
ought to be covered with a mulch three or four inches deep as the
brandies advance in growth. It is advisable to stop the main shoots at
the fourth or fifth joint beyond where a fruit has set in order to promote
the growth of lateral branches. These laterals may again be stopped at
two or three joints beyond the fruit. Melons and all other plants
belonging to this family produce both male and female flowers, the latter
being easily distinguished by the embryo fruits being attached to them.
These will not mature unless fertilized by the pollen from the male
flowers. This is generally effected by the aid of insects, which travel
from one flower to another. Sometimes, as for instance when the plants
are grown in houses or frames, it is neceasary to fertilize by artificial
means. This is easily effected by dusting the pollen of the male blossoms
over the others with a feather or camel's hair pencil. When the female
flowers are fertilized, the fruit begins to swell, and after a sufficient
number have set according to the strength of the plants all blossoms

132

should be removed as soon as they make their appearance. When the-
fruits attain the size of a hirge hen's egg it will be advisable to place-
under each a piece of Avood, stone, or slate to prevent them from being
injured through resting upon a damp soil.

While the fruit is swelling, the plants may be freely supplied with
water in dry weather. When, however, growth is complete, and the-
fruit is ripening, water is not required, and will do more harm than good,
as it lowers the quality of the fruit. The flavour of the fruit may be also-
materially influenced by the state of the weather at the ripening period.
Bright and dry weather is more favourable to the development of high
flavour than dull or wet days. Plenty of light and air are essentials in
the development of high quality, and sometimes, when too numerous, the
branches will require to be thinned out. Care must, however, be taken-
not to remove too much of the foliage, as a certain proportion should be
left for shade. When exposed just before the ripening period to the full
power of the sun, the fruit runs a chance of getting scorched and spoiled.
In order to lessen this risk it will be advisable to place a handful of
straw, grass, or similar material over each fruit. By adopting this plan
the fruit will be prevented from scorching to a very large extent.
Ripeness is indicated by the change of colour and the development of the-
rich perfume, as also by the foot-stalk cracking away from the fruit. The
last-named indication is the best, as it shows that the fruit has reached
the most perfect stage of ripeness.

In the United Kingdom and the northern parts of Europe the Melon is-
often grown entirely by artificial heat with great success. This practice
is scarcely necessary in this part of the world, where the climatic
conditions are more congenial to the plant. It may, however, be advisable
to adopt it in the colder districts, and also when fruit is required out of
the ordinary season. Plants can be grown successfully in frames or
houses heated by stable manure, tan, leaves, or other material in a strong;
state of fermentation, or, better still, by the use of hot water.

Propagation.

Melons are usually propagated by «eed, but they may be readily
increased by cuttings if desirable. In saving seed the most perfect and
finest fruit should be selected for the purpose. Plants of this family are
readily hybridized, and varieties cannot be obtained true if others^
belonging to the same genera are growing near enough to have an
influence. The seed will retain its vitality for ten or a dozen years, and
has been known to keep got)d for more than twenty years, Some
authorities consider new seed to be greatly inferior to the old, because'
they suppose plants raised from the former have a greater tendency to run
to vine, and to be less fruitful than plants from older seed It is^
doubtful, however, whether there are any solid grounds for this suppo-
sition . Many growers prefer seed when it is four years old to that of
any other age. Cuttings will strike freely if taken oft" below a joint
and inserted an inch deep in sand or light soil. These plants, as a rule,
are very prolific, but, generally speaking, they are less robust thaui

133

seedlings. This method of propagation is seldom adopted except in the
<;ase of new vaiieties which are required to increase quickly, or when
«eed cannot be readily obtained.

Classes.

llock Melons are classed in two divisions, which are known respectively
^s Green-fleshed and Scarlet-fleshed. Each division embraces a large
number of varieties, and these are to be found in seedsmen's catalogues?
These, however, often get so mixed by natural hybridization that there
is much confusion respecting them, and they are sometimes not easily
recognised. Unless the seed can be saved without risk of its being
afi'ected by other members of the family growing in the same locality, a
variety cannot be depended on. Owing to this difficulty seed of the
most reputable varieties will often produce plants that yield fruit difterent
in many respects to what has been expected. Taking these matters into
consideration, no useful purpose will be served by giving a list of
varieties.

Water Melon.

The Water Melon (known as Cucurhita citrullus or Cucumis citrullus)
is a very popular and useful fruit in tropical and semi-tropical countries.
It is naturally a very widely dispersed plant, and it is indigenous to
Western Asia, the south of Europe, Egypt, and South America. The
fruit, which often attains a considerable size, is sweet, very succulent, and
cooling. Tt is highly prized by the natives of Egypt, Syria, Turkey, and
other warm countries in Asia, Africa, and America, where it is extensively
cultivated. It thrives well in the warmer parts of Australia, but it is
not so well adapted for the cooler regions, though it may be cultivated
■successfully in these localities with a little extra care. In its cultivation
this plant requires similar treatment to that recommended for the Bock
Melon, but it is more hardy and vigorous, and requires more space
between the plants. Growers will often, and more especially in cold late
districts, find it an advantage to forward the plants by raising them in
heat, and so getting a start early in the season. Too frequently the
plants are late in making their growth, aud, as a consequence, the fruit is
small, deficient in quality, and comes in so late that it is not properly
appreciated. There are numerous varieties of the Water Melon in the
catalogues, but as they readily mix they are somewhat confused. The
best fruits are those that have a red or deep pink pulp, with plenty of
juice. Ripeness may be ascertained by lightly pressing on the Melon
with the hand, when, if mature and fit for use, the fruit will be heard to
orack slightly.

MELON SHRUB.

History and Uses.
The plant known under this name is Solanum Guatamalense^ a small

134

and somewhat shrubby species of a large fsimily that is the type of the
order Solanaceae. It is, as the specific name implies, a native of
Guatamala and other tropical parts of South America. The fruit ^s the
size of a small Apple, globular, and in colour is yellow, splashed with
^^olet. Its flavour has been described as a blending of Rock Melon and
Tomato, but, as with many other fruits, a taste has to be acquired before
it is relished by most people. The fruit is used to a considerable extent
in its native regions, and is highly appreciated. Various other species of
Solanum produce fruits somewhat similar to that of the Melon Shrub,
and may be classed under the same heading. The principal of these are
as follows : — Solanum ^tluopicuin, a herbaceous species from tropical
Africa, with large, red, globular fruit ; Solavnm edn/e, a species from
Guinea, with yellow fruit the size of small Apples ; Solannm Gilo^ a
species from tropical America, with round orange-coloured fruit ; Solnnum
macrocarpinn^ a perennial herbaceous species indigenous to Mauritius and
^Madagascar, with globular yellow fruit the size of small Apples ; Solarium
Q'litoeiise, a shrubby species indigenous to South America from Equador
to Peru. The fruit in size, shape, and colour is somewhat similar to a
small Orange, and has a rich fragrant flavour. Solannm torvum, a
shrubby species indigenous to the West Indies and tropical America, has
medium-sized, yellow, round, well-flavoured fruit. Fruit of good quality
is also yielded by Solanum .Flnmiera, a West Indian species. Solainim
Topiro and Solanum sisymhrifolinm., the two latter from South Ameiica.
An Australian shrubby species, Solan nrn vescum, called by the aboriginals
*' Gunyang," yields an edible fruit, but must be fully ripe when eaten, or
otherwise it has deleterious properties. It is indigenous to South
Eastern Australia and Tasmania.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Melon Shrub and kindred species of Solanum are worthy of
attention as fruit-yielding plants in localities suitable for their growth.
They may be also classed as useful ornamental border plants, the species
bearing flowers, either white or of difterent shades of blue, in profusion,
and in succession for long j^eriods. The high-coloured fruit of some of
the species also adds to their value as ornamental plants. The species
named vary to some extent in hardiness, according to the countries they
come from, and, as a matter of course, those from tropical regions are
more tender than others. They are specially well adapted for the warm
and medium warm regions of Australia, where the Melon Shrub and
other shrubby kinds will thrive with little care. These plants may be
also grown successfully in the cooler parts of Australasia if treated in the
same way as the Egg Plant or Tomato, viz., placing them in the open
ground when all danger from frost has jijissed. Respecting the details of
cultivation and propagation, the same directions will apply in every
particular to those given in the article upon the Egg Plant in volume 1.

MEXICAN BANANA.

This name has been given, in Texas and California, to the fruit of

185

Yucca baccdta, a low evergreen shrub with long narrow foliage belonging
to the natural order Inliaceae, or Lily family. The plant is also known
as the Dagger Plant, Spanish Bayonet, Datile, Wild Banana, and Wild
Date. It bears creamy white, waxy,
bell-shaped flowers upon a tall
central spike, and these are followed
by fruits the size of small Bananas
and somewhat similar to them in
appearance. The fruit has a sweet
taste somewhat similar to a Fig, and
is fairly palatable. This plant is
indigenous to Colorado, Mexico,
Southern California, Texas, and other
parts of North America. This plant
is able to withstand long and^severe
droughts with comparative impunity,
and it is, therefore, well suited for
the dry interior districts of Australia.
As a fruit-bearing plant, however,
it is scarcely worth cultivating, as
there are far better kinds, but in some
cases it may be utilized with advan-
tage. The plant, however, yields a
valuable commercial fibre,- and is
worthy of being cultivated chiefly on
that account. It will thrive in any
fairly good soil, and may be grown
successfully in all but the coldest
parts of Australasia. If grown for a
fibre crop, the plants should stand

twelve feet apart, in rows. Propagation is effected by suckers, which
are freely produced from the roots of old plants.

Mexican Banana.

MISSEL.

This is the vernacular name in Guiana for the fruit of Blakea quinque-
nerin((, a small evergreen tree, indigenous to tJie West Indies and some
parts of tropical America, belonging to the natural order Melastomacese.
It has handsome white flowers and fine foliage, and, therefore, is worthy
of attention as an ornamental plant. The fruit is a yellow berry, enclosed
in a bell-shaped calyx. It has a rich pleasant flav^our, which has been
likened to that of Raspberries and cream. The Missel, being a native of
warm regions, as a matter of course, can only be successfully cultivated
in the tropical or sub-tropical parts of Australia. In congenial localities
it is worthy of attention as a fruit tree and as a handsome ornamental
plant for the shrubbery. Any fairly good soil is suitable, but the most
favourable is a rich sandy loam containing a good proportion of vegetable

136

matter. Propagation can be etfected by seeds, which should be phuited
an inch and a-half deep. Layers root readily, and plants may also be
obtained from ripened cuttinfijs of the current season's growth, which will
strike in sand if protected from sun and wind.

MONSTERA.

History and Uses.

The fruit known under this somewhat curious name is the product of
Mon stern deliciosa, an evergreen climbing plant with handsome foliage,
belonging to the order Aroideae (Araceai of some botanists), or the Arum
family. The meaning of the generic name is unknown, but the specific
one {deliciosa) is in allusion to the rich and grateful flavour of the fruit.
The plant is a native of Mexico, Guataraala, and other parts of tropical
America, and in its natural habitat attaches itself to trees by strong aerial
roots. Formerly the plant was known as
P/alodendron pertusum, the generic name
being derived from Fhth (to love) and
dendron (a tree), in allusion to its climbing
habit. The plant has also passed under
the name of Tornelia fragrans. The leaves
are large and thick, borne upon long foot
stalks, and much divided on the margins,
as will be seen by the illustration. They
are also curiously perforated with irregular
holes. The flowers are large, yellowish
at first, enclosed in spathe which afterwards
opens partially, and eventually drops off,
leaving the fruit, which has somewhat the
appearance of a Pine-Apple, though longer
and more slender. The fleshy fruit has a
rich luscious flavour, and is highly appre-
ciated in its native regions. The fruits
mature in succession, and remain in season
for three or four months. Maturity is not
indicated by any change of colour, as is
the case with most other fruits, but may
be known by a fragrant odour and by
the covering scales at the base beginning
to drop off Ripeness commences at the
base, and proceeds gradually after the fruit
is cut Unless it is thoroughly ripe the
fruit will lack perfection, and probably Fruit of Monstera.

fail to give satisfaction. Very often

persons eating this fruit are troubled by a slight tickling sensation in the
throat, which is caused by minute sugar crystals, but the sensation is but
momentary, and causes no trouble.

137

Plakt of Monstera.

138

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Monstera can be cultivated from tropical to medium warm
i-egions in well sheltered situations. It will do well in tlie gi'eater-
part of Queensland, the northern coast river districts of ^ew South
Wales, and other regions having somewhat similar climatic conditions.
It i-equires a rich open soil where its roots can penetrate deeply in
search of moisture. When the soil is suitable the roots will make
their way for a considerable distance fi-om the stem. As the plant
is a climber it must have a support, one of the best being the trunk
of a dead tree. But this kind of support is not always available, and
more especially in making a regular plantation. Stout posts about
nine inches in diameter and eight or nine feet long will, however,
make very serviceable supports, if firmly fixed in the ground. Posts
with forks or branches will, as a rule, prove more serviceable than
])lain ones. A somewhat shady situation during the hottest part of
the day is most congenial to the Monstera, as when fully exposed the
foliage is apt to get burned and injuied. Therefoi-e, artificial shade
should be provided when it cannot be had naturally. Planting
should be done late in the summer or early in the spiing. The
young plants should be fastened to their supports at first, but the
ferial roots will soon take a firm hold. The plants are prcjlific, and will
generally begin to bear regular crops in three or four years. It takes
a long time for the fi-uit to reach perfection, as the crop of one season
does not ripen till the next one. The plants, when growing under-
faA'Ourable conditions, will bear freely for many years. In addition
to the value of the Monstera as a fruit-producing plant, it is very
ornamental, and worthy of cultivation on that account in suitable
localities, and also as a pot plant in colder i-egions. Propagation is
usually effected by layers, formed by simply placing steni.'^ upon the-
surface of the ground. These will throw out roots at nearly every
joint, and nothing more is necessary than to cut through the stems
and lift the young plants when they are ready for removal.

MULBERRY.

History and Usks.

The Mulberr}^ is known botanically under the name of Moriis, and
belongs to the natural order Ui'ticaceae, or the Nettle family. Morus
comes from the Celtic mor, and signifies black, in allusion to the-
colour of the fruit of the common Mulberry. The family embraces a
large number of species, which are widely distributed, representatives
being found indigenous to Australia, China, India, Japan, Mauritius,
Persia, Tartary, Tui-key, North America, and South America. Most
of these are deciduous trees, but some few are evergi-eens.

The only species that is generally cultivated for the sake of its
fruit is the English, or Black, Mulberrv, a tree familiar to everyone^

139

and to be found in most fruit gardens. This s])ecies, knoi
nigra, is supposed to have originated in some part of Central Asia,
and to have been taken to Grreece and Rome at an early period, and
in both countries it appeai-s to have quickly become a popular fruit.
The fruit was supposed to have medicinal virtues by the Romans,
who used it as a remedy for diseases of the mouth, windpipe, and
stomach. They also used the leaves and roots as remedies for the
same complaints. The Black Mulberry is supposed to have been
introduced to England at the time of the Roman conquest, but there
are no records of its cultivation in that country previous to the
sixteenth century. With the exception of Morvi< rubra (Red
Mull)erry) the Black Mulberry is the hardiest, strongest, and largest
species, and its fruit is superior to that of any otlier kind both in
size and flavour. Though the trees are slower in growth than the)
other species, they possess more vitality and aj-e longer lived. There
are now trees in existence in England which are known to be over
three hundred years old. The Black Mulbei-ry is a wholesome and
refreshing dessert fruit, and is excellent for tarts and puddings. It
makes an excellent jam or jelly, and a palatable wine can be made
from the fermented juice. The fruit, when not too ripe, makes a
very tasty pickle with salt and vinegar. Mulberry juice also makes
a first-class vinegar. The wood is tough and durable, and in Europe
is turned to good account for various purposes. The bark is tough
and fibrous, and is often used for making mats and baskets. For
feeding silk-worms the leaves may be utilized, but they are not nearly
so valuable for this pui'pose as the different varieties of Morus alba
(White Mulberry).

Morns alba (White Mulberry). — This species is indigenous to some
parts of India and China, and is largely used for feeding silk-worms.
Tlie species embraces a number of vaiieties, which differ more or
less, but all possess the same essential pi'oj)erties. These are known
as rosea (vose-coloiived), multicat(Hs (many-stemmed), Indica (Indian),
J<(ponic(( (Japanese), Morettiana (Morett's), latifoh'a (broad-leaved),
Sinensis (Chinese), puini litis (dwarf), Italica (Italian), tortuosa (bend-
ing irregularly). All these are simply vai-ieties of Jforus alba.
According to records that have been handed down, the silk-worm
was introduced from China to Greece by two Persian missionary
monks about the j'ear 550. But we have no account of the intro-
duction to Europe of the White Mulberry, which is the best for
feeding silk-worms, till the latter part of the sixteenth century.
Probably the Chinese have always used this kind, as, according to
their historical records, that nation has practised sericulture for four
thousand five hundred years. China, Japan, and Italy are now the
principal sericultural countries, and the inthistrv employs a great
many people. Morus alba rosea is the favourite variety with many
Italian and French growers, who consider it to be superior to all
others from the thickness of the leaves and the amounfL of nourish-
ment they afford to the silk-worms. Morus alba multicaulis produces
a large bulk of leaves, but French sericulturists consider them to be
too watery and to have a tendency to pi-ovoke disease among the

140

•worms. The White Mulberry and its varieties may be grown
successfully in any oi'dinary fair soil, and in most localities. The
fruit is comparatively useless, but the wood is durable and the bark
t(Uigh and fibrous like that of the Black Mulberry. As the trees do
not attain so large a size as the other species, they may be planted
much closer, and are often used for hedges or breakwinds. When
grown for feeding silk-worms, the production of an abundance of
leaves is the chief requirement, and the trees must be treated
accordingly. They may be planted in vows about ten feet apart, and
trained Avith low stems from one to two feet high. The plants must
be kept dwarf by cutting back the branches every winter to one or
two buds. By keeping the heads low the work of gathering the
leaves is facilitated, while the close pruning causes a strong growth
■of foliage

Morus rubra (Pennsylvanica) — (Bed Mulberry). — This is a !North
American species of robust habit, quick growth, and larger than
any other kind, often attaining a height of sixty or seventy feet. In
America it is sometimes cultivated for its fruit, which is, however,
though palatable, far inferior to that of the Black Mulberry. The
timber is compact and durable, and may be utilized for various
purposes. In cultivation precisely the same treatment is required
as is recommended for the Black Mulberry.

Morns celtidifoUa. — A South American species indigenous from
Peru to Mexico, to an elevation of eight thousand feet, yields an
edible fruit, which, however, is far inferior to the Black Mulberry.
A somewhat similar species is Morus insig?us from ^ew Granada, and
found at an elevation up to eleven thousand feet.

Morus 'pajyyrifera {Brousonettia papyrifera) — (Paper Mulberry).- -
This is a quick-growing species, indigenous to China, Japan, and
some of the South Sea Islands, that might prove worthy of attention,
In Japan it is cultivated extensively for making paper, in the same
way as osiers are gi'own for the basket-makers. When the leaves
fall in the autumn the young shoots of the season are cut, tied in
bundles, and boiled till the bark is loosened. The bark is then slit
lengthways, stripped from the wood, and soaked in water till tlie
coloured or external part will separate. The bark is then sorted,
boiled till it can be easily separated by the fingers, and thoroughly
washed. After that it is placed upon tables and beaten with w^ooden
mallets till the pulp assumes the required consistence. It is next
dressed with rice starch and an infusion of Manihot roots, and then
the sheets are placed one by one on flat tables in piles and subjected
to great pressui'e. Paper made in this way is coarse but strong, and
the fibre can also be used for textile fabrics. The fruit and timber
are of no value comparatively. Trees of this species are naturally
rather small, and if cultivated for their bai'k, must be planted and
treated the same as the White Mulberry. In all other respects the
treatment recfuired will be the same as recommended in the following
directions for the Black and all the other species.

Cultivation.

The Black Mulberry may be grown in almost any soil and locality,

141

but it thrives best in a rich deep loam. Though no garden is
complete without this fruit, yet, as it only lasts for a short season, a
few trees will generally be sufficient for practical purposes. The-
trees are very vigorous, and will extend their roots a considerable-
distance, and, consequently, care must be taken that they are not too-
near to other trees. If they are within range of less robust trees
they become great robbers when they get large. In planting let the
ground be well loosened, and provide for drainage when necessary..
Planting may be done at any time between tlie fall of the leaf and
August. For the first few 3'ears the trees will require care in. •
keeping down weeds and mulching, but when they get large they
require but little attention in these respects. Young trees must be
pruned and trained so as to promote strong growth and obtain well-
formed specimens as soon as possible. The fruit of the Mulberry is-
borne upon the young growth, as also upon spurs fix>m older wood.
Mature trees require but little pruning as a rule, all that is necessary
being to remove rank shoots or misplaced branches and to thin out
the wood when too crowded. Root pruning will sometimes have a
beneficial effect in tne case of over-luxuriant trees that do not bear
freely. Before the ripening period it will be advisable to cover the
ground as far as the branches extend with clean gi'ass, straw, or some
other material, so that when the fruit falls it will be kept clean.

Propagation.

Propagation with all classes of Mulberries may be effected by seeds,,
cuttings, layering, grafting, and budding. Seeds are but seldom
used, as trees can be raised so much quicker by other means. They
should be sown early in the spring in light rich soil, covering them
about a quarter of an inch deep. Cuttings strike very freely, and^
as branches of any size will root, large trees may quickly be obtained
by this means. It is no uncommon thing for branches ten or twelve
feet long to be struck without difficulty. Ordinary cuttings are
usually selected from the last season's wood, shortened to about
fifteen inches long. These are planted about half their depth in the
ground, previously removing the buds that would be below the
surface. Layers strike freely, and this method is often adopted for
rooting large branches quickly. Grafting and budding are but
seldom practised, but occasionally they may prove serviceable
methods.

MYRICA.

History and Uses.

Myrica is a genus of shrubs, or small trees, which form a section of
the order Amentacese. The name is derived from myrio (to flow), in
allusion to the habitat of some of the species, which are found on the-

142

banks of streams. 'J^he genus includes both evergreen and deciduous
species, natives of both temperate and tropical regions, and are
widely distributed, representatives being found in Europe, North and
South America, India, China, and South Africa. They have small
drupaceous fruits, which, in several species, contain a large propoi-tion
of wax that is turned to good account commercially. Several species
yield edible fruits that are used more or less in their native i-egions.
Myrica cerifera, a deciduous, shrubby, North American species, is
commonly known as the Candleberry, Bay Myrtle, and Wax Myrtle,
owing to the large proportion of wax obtained from the fruit. This
wax, which is of a greenish colour, is extracted by boiling and used
in the manufacture of candles. Myrica wax is harder, heavier, and
more brittle than beeswax. MAjrica co7-difoHa, a South African
•evergreen shrub, yicMs a large proportion of wax. Myrica ser?'at<i, a
dwarf evergreen shrub from South Africa, is another useful wax-
yielding species, as is also Myrica qiiercifolia from the same region.
Myrica Gale is the Gale or Scotch ]Myrtle, which is common in
marshy land in North Britain. Myrica rubra is a fine oi-nameutal
species, indigenous to China and Japan, with edible fruit. It is an
evergreen shrub or small tree. Jfyrica Faya, a small evei-green ti-ec
indigenous to the Azore and Canary Islands, as also Madeira, yields
fruit that makes a palatable preserve. Myrica sapidn, a handsome
evergi'een tree indigenous to India and Borneo, where it is found at
an elevation of seven thousand feet, yields a somewhat palatable
fruit which is eaten to some extent in its native regions.

Cultivation and Propagation.

The Myricas are all ornamental plants, and are worthy of (culti-
vation on that account irrespective of any value they may have as
producers of edible fruits and wax. As the various species belong to
;such widely different regions there need be no difficulty in making a
selection suitable for any part of Australasia. Some species will
flourish neai- to the troj)ics, others in cool mountain regions, and many
in the medium districts. Some kinds will thrive in poor sandy or
peaty land, and othei's flourish near to the sea coast. Pi-opaga-tion
is easily effected by seeds, which should be planted an inch aud
a-half deep. Plants may be readily obtained from layers ])ut down
in the autumn or spring, and cuttings of the last season's wood for
deciduous species, and the ripened current year's growth, for ever-
greens, will strike in sand.

MYRTLE.

History and Usp:s.

Though Myrtles are usually regarded as merely ornamental plants
yet several species yield edible fruits that are utilized more ov l(^ss

143

The genus is the type of the very large order Myrtaceae, and embraces
:a great many species, the majority being evergreen shrubs, while a
few are small trees, and, in one or two exceptional cases, large ones.
The fruits are somewhat similar to Guavas and Eugenias, which are
"Closeh' allied. One of the finest kinds is Mi/rtus edulis, a handsome
i^ree growing to the height of twenty-five feet, indigenous to Uruguay,
which yields pleasantly flavoured fruit as large as a small Apricot.
Myrtiin inccuKf, a dwarf shrub from the River Plate, yields small-but
pleasantly flavoured berries, which are eaten raw, and make a
palatable jelly. Mip'tus mucronata^ a rather dwarf species from the
same region, yields fruit the size of small Grapes, which has a pleasant
flavour. Myrtus tomentosa, a medium- sized shrub indigenous to India
■and China, pi-oduces dark purple berries the size of Cherries, which
have a sweet aromatic flavour, ^fyrtns nnmmularia, a trailing plant
indigenous to South America from Chili to Patagonia, is the Cran-
berry Myrtle. It bears small fleshy fruit that has a sweet and
agreeable flavour. Myrtxs Ugni is a hardy shrubby species indigenous
to Chili, whose small but pleasantly flavoured fruit is known as the
Chilian Guava. Other species of Myrtle also yield edible fruits, and
are, therefore, worthy of attention.

Cultivation and Propagation.

All the Myrtles are compact ornamental plants, and very
desirable foi- gardens and shrubberies. The greater number of the
species are faii-ly hardy, and will adapt themselves to a great variety
of soils and climate. Some kinds again are specially well adapted for
the colder regions of Australasia. Propagation can be effected by
^eeds, which should be covered an inch and a-half deep. Plants can
be readily obtained from layers, which should be put down late in the
summer or early in the spring. Cuttings of the fairly ripened wood
of the current season's growth will strike in sand if protected from
sun and wind.

NARRAS.

This is the aboriginal African name for the fruit of Acanthosicyos
horrida^ a curious, erect, thorny shrub belonging to the order Cucur
bitacea?, or Cucumber family. It is indigenous to Angola, Bengueh
Dammerland, and other parts of South Africa. The plant grows j^id
thrives in barren sandy wastes, and seems to be quite independejit of
rainfall. This is owing to its wonderfully strong roots, vvliich
penetrate many feet deep into the soil in search of moistui-e. The
plant has no leaves but is plentifully supplied with formidable double
spines, and the bushes when growing together, soon make an
impenetrable thicket or hedge. The fiuit is the size and coloui' of
a large Orange, and is thickly covered with short bristles. The pulp
has a pleasant acidulous flavour, and is said to be very wholesome

144

and nourishing. The seeds are also edible, and used extensively by
the Africans. The Hottentots are very partial to tlie fruit, and are
said to fatten when they feed upon them, as tliev do in localities
Avhere they grow. The |)lants are wondei-fully prolific, and over two
hundred fruits are said to have been counted upon a single bush.
Probably the Narras would be found a useful ])lant in the dry
interior districts of Australia, where the rainfall is limited, and it is
woi-th trying. It will afford palatable fruit and noui-ishing food in
dry arid regions where but few other plants Avill exist, and it may
be used with advantage to bind shifting sands. On the other hand,
however, care must be taken to keep the Nari'as plant under control,
as it is of strong growth and rambling habit, and possesses great
vitality, so if allowed to spread it will probably become a noxious
weed like the Prickly Pear and Sweet Briar in some localities.
Propagation is easily effected by seeds, which should be planted an
inch and a-half deep. Plants ai'e also readily obtained from layers
and cuttings.

NATAL PLUM.

This name has been given to the fruit of two species of Arduina^
handsome small evergreen shrubs, indigenous to South Africa,
belonging to the order Apocynaceae. The fruit is also known as the
Matingola Plum. Arduina bispinosa, which is remai-kable by the
stout twin spines upon its branches, hence the specific name, has
bright green foliage, and bears in profusion white highly pei-fumed
flowers, which are produced in succession for a long period. The
f i-uit is oval, the size of a small Plum, and has a pleasant I'efreshing
flavour. Arduina grandi^ra is somewhat similar, but is rather more
i-obust, and has larger flowers. Both species will thrive in most
parts of Australasia, excepting tropical regions and localities where
frosts are severe. They will thrive in any ordinary good soil, and
should be generally cultivated as garden shrubs. Propagation is
easily effected by seeds, which should be covered to the depth of
half-an-inch. Plants can be quickly obtained from layers, which
root readily, and more especially if put down late in the summer or
earh' in the spring.

NEGRO PEACH.

Tlve fj'uit known under this name is produced by Sarcocephalus
esculentus, an evergreen shrub belonging to the order Rnbiaceae,
indigenous to the west coast of Africa. Its flowei's are small, pro-
duced in terminal heads, and the fruit consists of a number of
one-celled berries, which are united together, and' assume a form
somewhat similar to a Peach, though more irregular, but widely
different in colour and quality. Its colour is brown of varying

145

shades, and the surface is covered witli small tubercles. The centre
of the fruit consists of a firm and somewhat drv pulp, hut this
becomes softer and more palatable as it approaches the outer covering-,
the flavour being somewhat similar to a Strawberry. The pulp,
however, is somewhat fibrous, and contains many seeds. The fruit is
greatly esteemed by the natives of West Afiica, and hence its
common narue. Being a native of tropical Africa, the Negro Peach

can only be grown successfully in the warmer regions of Australia

It thrives best in a rich open soil, but may be grown successfully in
any faii-ly good gi-ound. Plants are easily obtained from seeds,
which should be covered half-an-inch deep. Propagation is also
i-eadily effected by layers, and cuttings from ripened wood of the
current season's growth will root in sand if protected from the
weather.

OAK CHESTNUT.

This is the vernacular name for various species of Castanopsts, a
genus closely allied to the Sweet Chestnut, and belonging to the
order Amentacea?. They are all tall, handsome, robust trees, and
the family is repi-esented by Chinese, Californian, and Indian species.
The nuts are smaller than Chestnuts and have a pleasant flavour.
The Californian Oak Chestnut, or Chinquapin as it is commonly
called, is Castav apsis chrysophylla^ a fine lofty tree growing, under
favourable conditions, to a height of over a hundred feet, but in very
poor soils growth is often much smaller. The nuts are similar in size
and shape to those of the Hazel, but somewhat more pointed, and the
shell is hard. They have a sweet pleasant flavour. This species is
indigenous to Western America from Oregon to Monteroy, and grows
in mountain regions up to an elevation of six thousand feet. It
yields excellent timber, which is used to some extent by joiners,
wheelrights, aud other tradesmen. The Chinese Oak Chestnut is
Castanopsis jucund((, a robust species with pleasantly flavoured nuts.
Castanopsts argentea^ a handsome tall species indigenous to mountain
I'egions in India, yields pleasantly flavoui-ed nuts. The same may be
said of Castanopsis Indica, another Indian mountain species. Other
species of Castanopsis are also worthy of attention. All the species
yield serviceable timber as well as edible nuts, and being also
handsome ornamental trees they may be cultivated with advantage.
They will thrive in most parts of Australasia, the exceptions being
'tropical or arid interior regions. Oak Chestnuts will adapt them-
selves to a variety of soils, but, as a matter of course, will thrive best
and attain the largest size in deep rich land. PropagJition is effected
by seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep.

OLIVE.

History.

The Olive belongs to a famih' that embi^aces a large number of

" 2i

146

species, all of them being evergreen ti/ees or shrubs, which may be
utilized i'oi' garden decoration. Xo family of plants is more widely
dispersed over the world, as species ai-e found indigenous to the soutJi
of Europe, North Africa, Cape of Good Hope, Noi'th America, Syria,
India, China and Australasia. Botanically the genus is known as
Olea^ and it is the type of tlie natural order Oleacece. The name is
derived from Elaia, the Greek for Olive. The most valuable species
is Olea enropea (known also as Oka satw<(), from which the Olive oil
of commerce is obtained. This species, notwithstanding its specific
name, is supposed to have been inti-oduced to Europe from Asia by
the Greeks at a very early period. The Olive appears to have been
highly valued by all the nations of antiquity, and it is frequently
mentioned by their historians, both saci*ed and profane. According
to the Hebrew traditions, when Noah was in the Ark an Olive branch
was brought to him by the bird he had sent foi'th, as a sign that the
great flood was subsiding. From this circumstance the Olive has
been generally accepted as the emblem of peace by the Jewish and
Christian nations. By the early Greeks the Olive was held in the
highest veneration, and the oil was freely used at religious ceremonies
in libations to the gods, whilst its use for dietary purposes was
general. Branches of the Olive also formed the wreaths of the
victors in the Olympic games. In the fables of this nation, Minerva
and the Graces are represented as being crowned with Olive branches.
When the festivals in honour of Minerva were held it was customary
for all who attended to make contributions of Olives. Those who
excelled in the public games at these festivals were crowned with
wreaths of Olives obtained from the Grove of Academus, near Athens.
Plato having established a school of philosophy in this locality, all
places of learning wei*e afterwards called academies, and hence the
modern name. In the Greek mythology thei-e is a curious but
interesting account as to the origin of the Olive. According to the
fable a dispute arose between Neptune and Minerva as to which of
them should have the right to give a name to a new city built by
Cecrops. As they could not agree the dispute was referred to a
council of the gods, who decided that the contestant who produced
the most beneficial gift to mankind should have the preference.
Neptune, striking the ground with his trident produced a horse, and
Minerva caused an Olive tree to spring from the ground. The assembled
gods gave their decision in favour of Minerva, as they considered that
the Olive, being the emblem of peace, was better for mankind than war,
which the horse was supposed to typify. By other ancient nations the Olive
was also held in high esteem, and was supposed to possess many valuable
qualities. By the Hebrews, Egyptians, and Syrians the oil was exten-
sively used for dietary and medicinal purposes. It was considered by
these nations to be useful in chest diseases, cases of stone or gravel to
open the urinary passages, and as an antidote for corrosive mineral
poisons. Olive oil was generally used in baths, being supposed to warm
the body and act as a preventative of colds. Wrestlers in the public
games were also in the habit of anointing their bodies with Olive oil.
According to Pliny, we learn that, excepting the Fig and Grape, no fruit

147

was held in such high esteem by tlie Romans as the Olive. There arc
two distinct t3'pes of Olen enrojiea, one representing the plant in its wild
state, and the other t le imjjrovement that has been bnmght about by-
cultivation. In its natural state the Olive is a small tree or shrub with
spines on its branches, and producing but comparativelj^ little fruit.
This type is to be found in Greece and various parts of Western Asia and
North Africa. The improved type is a taller and larger tree, which,
under favourable conditions, will attain a heigh of thirty-five to ^r^
feet, and wlio.se branches are free from .spines. It also bears much more
freely than the wild type, tlie fruit being a drupe similar in shape to a
damson, with a fleshy pericarp, which has a nauseous bitter taste.

Uses.

In modern medicine Olive oil is considered to be nutrient, emollient,
and laxative. For chest diseases its use is often prescribed with advantage.
It is freely used in the preparation of ointments, liniments and plasters.
When rubbed into the skin by continued friction the oil is said to have
proved a preventative of contagion from fevers and the plague. The
bark, which is very bitter and astringent, is said to be an excellent
substitute for Cinchona or Peruvian bark. For dietary purposes Olive
oil is in great demand among the nations of Southern Europe, and it
appears in some form at nearly every meal. The unripe fruit is
extensively used as a pickle, and is considered to be serviceable in
promoting digestion, increasing the appetite, and neutralizing the effects
of intoxicating drinks. The Castile, or Spanish, soap is made by mixing
Olive oil with soda. A soft soap is also made by mixing oil with potash.
The wood of the Olive when it reaches maturity is hard and compact,
though somewhat brittle It is of a pale reddish colour, takes a fine
polish, and is used by turners and toy-makers t<^ some extent in Europe
and Asia. The flowers of Olea fragmns, a highly-scented species, are
used in China for flavouring tea.

Olive Culture as an Industry.

Olive cultivation is a staple agricultural industry in Italy, Spain,
Portuo-al, Greece, and the South of France, .ind in all those countries it
affords a large amount of employment. In these countries Olive culti-
vation is generally regarded as a sure and profitable industry, the returns
being fairly regular, and a market always open for the produce. Another
advantage is that the trees will stand drought better than most other
fruits, and are, therefore, si)ecially well adapted for our interior districts.
They are not liable to serious attacks from insects and other pests, and
under fairly favourable conditions will attain a great age. There are
now existing in Greece and other parts of P'urope trees that are known to
be several hundred years old, and they still yield good crops of fruit.
In Italy there is a common saying that if a man desires to leave a good
inheritance to his children he should plant Olive trees. From experience
it has been found that in Europe the Olive can be cultivated successfully

148

in localities where the mean teniperati^re averages from fifty-eight to
sixty-six degrees, and that the trees are not materially injured hy four or
five degrees of frost. Proximity to the sea is in Knrope also generally
considered to be a favourable condition in the cultivation of the Olive.
In may parts of Australasia the conditions for the culture of this fruit are
quite as favourable, so far as regards climate and soil, as they are in the
Olive-growing countries of the south of Eurojte. The warmer districts
are specially suitable, but the Olive may be grown with success in all but
the ci^ldest regions. Though as yet this plant has received but little
attention for commercial purposes, and its cultivation has hardly passed
the experimental stage, yet many good specimens of oil have been
produced from various localities. There is no reason why Olive culture
should not prove a profitable agricultural industry if carried on under the
proi»er conditions. A considerable quantity of Olive oil is used in
Australasia, and the fruit is in demand to some extent as a pickle. Our
growers ought certainly to be able to comnumd the home market, in
competition with European producers. Though labour is more costly
than in Europe, yet on the other hand Australasian growers will have the
counter-b;i lancing advantage of a home market and the saving of packing
and other exporting charges, which materially lower the prices to European
cultivators. Then, again, it must be remembered that Olive-growing to a
limited extent need not interfere with any ordinary farm industries, as
the necessary work can be done chiefly at times when other crops require
but little t)r no attention, and the fruit can be gathered with the labour
of women .'uid children.

Cultivation.

J'rejKiration <tf the Larid and Pluntiiicf. — The Olive may be grown'
successfully in any fair, ordinary good, garden soil, but it thrives to
perfection in a calcareous loam with a moderately dry subsoil. Stiff clay
is uncongenial, and the tree, as a rule, does not do well in granite soils.
Limestone formations give usually the heaviest crops, and the fruit yields
the largest proportion of oil. The best situation for an Olive plantation
is a gentle slope, with an aspect that allows the trees to get the full
benefit of the early morning sun. Deep culture, as in the case of other
trees, is essential to the Olive, and more especially if the soil is close and
tenacious. When i)racticable the ground should be stirred to a dejtth of
at least fifteen inches, except in very light land, when an ordinary
ploughing may be a sufficient preparation. Drainage must be provided
when necessa!-y^ as the Olive is \Qry sensitive to an excess of water at its
roots, and will not thrive in soddened ground. Trees may be planted at
any time between April and September, the former being the most
favourable month, if j)lants in suitable condition for removal can be
obtained. When planted in the autumn, while the ground is warm from
the summer heat, growth becomes at once active, and the trees get fairly
staited before the cold weather sets in. But it must be borne in mind
that the trees .-ire not fit for transplanting unless their summer growth
has hardened, as otherwise their shoots will die back. If the trees are

149

not in fitting condition to be shifted iii the autumn it will be advisable to
wait till the spring, and on no account should planting be done during
the winter months. Olive trees will, if left to themselves, attain a large
size, but many growers prefer a dwarfer class, so as to facilitate pruning
and gathering the fruit. If the trees are to be allowed to attain their
full size they should be planted not less than twenty-four feet apart.
For dwarf trees the distance should be about fifteen feet apart. -

Selectinr/ Trees. — Olive trees raised from seed will come into bearing
when five or six years old, but they will not yield payable crops till four
or five years later. Trees from cuttings, suckers, or layers will begin to
bear much sooner than seedlings. Much, however, will depend upon the
varieties, as some are longer in coming into bearing than others. There
are a large number of varieties under cultivation in the Olive-growing
countries of Europe. French catalogues enumerate over fifty varieties,
Spanish cultivators are acquainted with as many more, and in Italy and
Greece they are numerous. Tliere are wide diflerences between many of
these varieties in the habits, foliage, and hardiness of the trees, as also in
the size, shape, and colour of their fruits. There are also material
differences in the quantity and quality of the oil yielded by various sorts
of Olives. As to the selection of varieties, our experience in Australasia
as yet has been too limited 11) enable growers to say precisely which
kinds are absolutely the best. Those who intend planting, however,
will do well to get such kinds as have proved to be fairly good in the
colonies.

Pritiihig and Trainimj. — In pruning and training Olive trees it is
advisable to keep the heads low, and more especially for the first two or
three years. Young trees should have their growth regulated rather
freely, as the principal object is a strong woody growth in particular
directions. When the trees arrive at maturity but little in the way of
branch pruning is required, and more especially if the specimens are to
grow their full size. If low trees are refpiired they must, as a matter of
course, receive any necessary pruning to keep the heads down and the
branches from extending too much. The branches should be thinned out
when too numerous, and rank or misplaced shoots ought to be removed.
When growing in rich soil, or if manure has been used too freely, trees
sometimes have a tendency to make an over-growth of wood, but produce
little or no fruit. Moderate root pruning will check this tendency, and is
one of the most effective methods by which over-vigorous trees may be
brought into a fruitful condition. Judicious root pruning will also
materially assist in preventing trees from getting larger than the grower
desires. Another method effective in inducing fruitfulness when trees
are over-luxuriaiit is to cut a narrow half ring round the trunk in the
spring.

Keeping the Land (Jlemi and Mannrlng. — As with other fruits, Olive
plantations should be kept as free from weeds as possible, but care must
be taken to work the ground lightly, so that the roots are not disturbed
to any great extent. The vigour of the trees should be kept up, if
necessary, by the use of manure. Old plantations often require assistance
in this way, and trees frequently suffer in growth or fruitfulness through

150

lack of nourishment. Lime, potash, and bone dust are excellent fertilizeis
for tbe Olive, and manures containing them are valuable. Ordinary
farmyard manure is also a certain and effective material. In applying
manures, either special or ordinary, it is advisable to give liglit and
frequent dressings in preference to heavy ones at long intervals. A light
yearly dressing is, for instance, better than a heavier one once in two or
three years. Manuring, if necessary, should be done immediately after
the fruit has been gathered. Mulching will be of great assistance to
Olive trees, as, though they will stand the effects of dry weather better
than most other fruits, yet they will be more thrifty when the surface
soil is screened from the full effects of a burning sun and drying winds in
the summer.

Making Oil.

Olives for oil should be gathered as soon as they become fully ripe,
and the time for maturing ^xi\[ often vary considerably, according to the
variety and locality. Consequently, the season for gathering in some
countries extends over two or three months. The most careful Olive
cultivators in Euroi)e gather the fruit by hand, but it is a common
practice in Spain and Italy to knock it off the trees with sticks. Another
common practice is to wait till the fruit falls from over-ripeness. Hand
picking is certainly the best, though the more expensive and least
exjjeditious method, as it allows the fruit to be gathered in the best
possible condition, and the trees are not injured. The extraction of the
oil may be effected in various ways, and requires no special skill on the
part of the grower. When the fruit is gathered it is usually spread out
on a wooden or earthen floor two or three inches deep for three or four
days, so that it can dry to some extent without heating. In this condition
the fruit may be kept for two or three w eeks if necessary without injury.
Care must, ho\\ever, be taken not to keep the fruit too long before
pressing, or the oil may turn rancid. The method of extraction most
generally adopted is to reduce the fruit to a pulp, after w^hich it is placed
in coarse linen sacks, and subjected to a regular and heavy pressure. In
Spain the sacks are made from Esparto Grass, which has a strong wiry
fibre, is cheap, and answers the purpose well. It is not advisable to fill
the crushing sacks to their full capacity, as a little slackness is essential to
the free extraction of the oil. After the Olives have been put through
the press the cakes of pulp are broken up and subjected to a second
pressure, and this process is again repeated if necessary. The juice, as it
runs from the press, is received in vessels to settle. Much of the foreign
matter quickly separates, the oil appearing upon the surface, and must be
skimmed off from time to time The liquor should also be occasionally
stirred to facilitate the rising of the oil. Some makers follow the plan of
running the juice, by means of pipes, into tanks of cold water in order to
obtain the oil quickly. The proportion of oil to the juice Avill, as a
matter of course, vary to some extent according to the varieties, some
being much richer than others. The degree of ripeness also has its
influence, fully matured fruit being richer in oil. The proportion will

151

also vary between first and second, or snbsequent, crushings. Upon an
average, from fifty to sixty pounds of fruit are required to make a gallon
of oil. Scru|>ulous cleanliness is essential in every operation, as the oil
ha« a tendency to attract odours. In fact, Olive oil is one of the chief
mediums u<ed by perfume makers to extract odours from flowers. Before
tlie oil is bottled it is usual to filter it through a layer of cotton wool so
as to remove any foreign matter. Oil of the best quality is as clear as
water, and is obtained by simply pressing the fruit. In the Oltve^
growing countries of Europe it is usual to treat the pulp, mixed with
water, a second time with a greater pressure, the product being an
inferior oil.

PicKLiN<i Olives.

Olives for pickling should be fully grown, but may be either green,
wholly or partially ripe. They should be picked and handled with care
so as to avoid bruising, and, as far as practicable, the fruit in each lot
ought to be alike in size and colour. The next thing is to steep the fruit
in water containing a good proportion of lime and potash to extract the
bitterness. After the Olives have been steeped for twenty-four hours the
water should be poured off, and its place supplied with fresh water.
This process should be repeated for several days till the fruit has lost the
greater portion of its bitterness. The Olives should then be placed in
bottles and covered with salt and water, using the former rather freely.
It will be necessary to securely fiisten the bottles to keep out the air.
When carefully prepared in this way, sound Olives will keep good for
many years.

Propagation.

Propacration is easily effected by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers,
budding, and grafting. Eaising plants from seed is a somewhat slow
process, as two or three years must elapse before the seedlings are large
enough to be planted out. Then, again, seedling trees take a much
longer time before they yield fruit than those which have been raised by
other methods. Neither can the grower make sure of his varieties from
seedling plants. Seed may be sown at any time in shallow drills,
covering it an inch deep. The following season the young plants should
be transplanted in rows two feet apart, leaving about fifteen inches
between them in the lines. Cuttings strike freely, and this method of
propagation is the one most generally adopted. Branches of various
sizes may be struck freely, and sometimes these large cuttings are several
feet in length and their stems as many inches in diameter. The best
time for putting in cuttings is in the autumn or early in the spring.
Plants can be readily obtained from layers, which may be put down at
any time of the year. Suckers, which are generally freely produced from
the roots of old trees, yield fairly g<M)d plants, which may be taken oft'
and planted at any time between April and September. Budding and

152

Cutting from Y^miiir Wood.

Plant from a Cutting of Young WoikI.

grafting are serviceable methods where seedling stocks are available.
These methods are also useful in enabling growers who have established
trees of poor kinds to replace them with better varieties, l^udding may-
be done at any time of the year when growth is active, and the bark can
be raised freely. The work is generally done by ordinary buds, as is the
case witli other fruit trees. Another method, known as " Plate Budding,"
is to remove a square piece of bark, or plate from tlie stock and replace it
with another one attached to the scion or bud. As will be seen by the
illustration, the tiap of bark from the stock is not removed, but hangs
down, and after the bud is fixed it is drawn up again and tied firmly, and
forms a shield for the new piece. This method is useful in protecting the
newly inserted buds. Grafting may^ be practised in various ways, in
accordance with the age of the trees and the objects in view. The most
common methods are " Cleft " and ''Side" Grafting. Sometimes small
branches are grafted, and this method, which is also known as " Twig
Budding," has advantages under certain circumstances. By this method
the leaves are in great part removed, and the main portion of the wood

158
Plate Budding.

Showing lunv Plate is Prepared.

Plate Buds Fixed.

Showing how a Hud Shoot should be Supported.

154

Branch Budding.

Grafting.

Cleft Grafting.

Side Grafting.

conij>c>suig the heel of tlie scion. The base of the scioJi is then inserted
into a cut made in the bark of the st(»ck as in ordinary budding. Grafting
may be done when growth is active, but the most favourable time is early
in tile summer.

Insects and Diseasks.

The Olive does not suffer to so great uii extent as m;iny otlier fruit
trees from the attacks of insects or fungi, and it is seldom affected by
disease. The only insects that cause seiious trouble are various kinds of
Scale, which sometimes affect trees that lack vigour through poverty of
soil or other causes, but seldom attacks those that are healthy and robust.

Black ok Olive S(;ale.

A — Branch with Insects Natural Size.
B — Insect Magnified,

One of the most troublesome of these insect.s is the Black, or Olive iScale
{Lecdriinm Oleu). Another is the White Scale {AspUiif>t'is Nerii)^ which
is also known as the Oleander Scale. These insects not only do injury to

156

White or Oleander Scauo.

Male Scale
(Magnified).

Female Scale
(Magnifietl).

.S-%S^

Fully Dev^eloped
Male Insect
(Magnified).

Fully Developed

Female Insect

(Magnified).

Brancli showinj^ Insectg (Natural Size).

the foliaye but also cause blotches upon such fruit as they come in contact
with. They a so cause the trees to have a sooty appearance. Jiemedies,
Kerosene Emulsion or Resin Compound, both being effective. These
remedies should be applied as sprays as soon as the insects are detected.
Full directions as to the preparation and use of the compounds will be
found at pages 100-101, volnme 1.

Varieties.

There are many varieties cultivated in Europe, but only a few have, as

157

yet, been tried in Australasia. The following list includes a number of
reputable sorts : —

Avgulom (GaUirigiie, Laurine). — A French variety with medium-sized^
reddish-black fruit. Fairly good for oil, and makes an excellent pickle.

Atrorubens (Salieme, Saverne). — An excellent French variety with
▼iolet-black fruit, covered with a thick white bloom. Length nearly an
inch, oval, rounded at the base, with a pointed top. Makes a fine oil.

Atroviolacea. — A robust and very productive French variety. Fruit— ^
roundish-ovate, medium-sized, bluish-black. An excellent kind both for
oil and pickling.

Atrovirens (Fointn, Pimchvda). — This is a French variety with large
oval fruit. Prolific and a good sort for oil.

Cnillet BUnic. — A French variety with lartre, oval, pale green fruit.
Very prolific, bears regular crops, and makes a first-class oil.

Coil let Rouge {Fig(inter). — A French variety with large, oval, reddish
fruit. The tree does not attain so large a size as many other kinds, but
bears very freely and regularly. Yields a large proportion of oil, which
is of high quality.

Carrasqaena (Redoaun de Cotignat). — A fine Spanish variety with
reddish-black, nearly round fruit about an inch lon,i<. Excellent both for
oil and pickling,

Ceretocarpa (Cornezuelo, Odoraiit, Lnqvoii^e, Lnques). — A late Spanish
variety with oval, pointed fruit about an inch long. Makes an excellent
oil.

Colchonwfa. — A Spanish variety with red, round, slightly pointed fruit
about an inch long. Very prolific, and yields a large proportion of oil.

Cohimella. — A French variety with dark purple, broad oval fruit
nearly an inch long, the seeds being comparatively small. Bears freely,
ripens late, and yields a rich oil.

Corregiolo {Frantq/o, Gros.'^tgo). — An Italian variety with fruit about
three-quarters of an inch long, obovate, rather broad at the point and
narrow at the stem end. Moderately prolific, and makes a first-class oil.

Cotignac (Pardiguiere). — A French variety with roundish- oval fruit
about three-quarters of an inch in length. Yields a large proportion of
excellent oil.

ICmpeltre. — An excellent Spanish variety with dark violet, ovate fruit
ab(»ut an inch long. Yields a large proportion of excellent oil, and a
good variety for pickling.

Hispalensis {Gordal, Ocal, Olivo Real). — Arobu-<t Spanish variety with
bluish-grey, nearly round fruit about an inch long. Chiefly used for
pickling, and considered to make an inferior oil. Tree makes quick
growth, and attains a large size. This variety may be used with
advantage as a stock for less vigorous but better kinds.

Jitvaluno. — A Spanish variety with bluish-grey, egg-shaped, and slightly
pointed fruit over an inch in length. Ripens late, yields a large
proportion of rich oil, and a good variety for pickling.

Mdcromrpn. — A Spanish variety with very large, reddish-purple, ovate,
pointed fruit. Ripens late, and makes a gjod oil.

Mnxhna [yfadrileno, Olivo Morcal). — A Spanish variety with large.

158

Atroviolacea.

AiroriibenB.

Ceretoca,r]ia.

cordate, round fruit about an inch long. An excellent variety t<»r
pickling, and makes a fairlv good oil.

XevadilJo Blanco {Arfjentuf t. Doncelj Moradillo, OjibJanco, OHvo Lucio).
— A Spanish variety witii pale green, broad ovate fruit about an inch
long. Tree robust, bears fieely and regularly, and the fruit yields a large
proportion of fii-.st-class oil. '

159

Gulumella.

Nevadillo Negro

Macrccarpa

Ovalis

160

Xevaclillo Xegro.- — A hardy Jind excellent Spanish variety with [)nr|>le-
black, egg-shaped fruit about an inch long, having a turned point. This
is a very prolific variety that ripens late, and makes a high chiss oil.

Ohionga. — A variety of uncertain origin with dark purple. club-.shai)ed
fruit, broad at the point, narrow at the stem, and nearly an inch long.
Tree prolific. Fruit makes a good oil, and, as it loses its bitterness
quickly, is specially suitable for pickling.

Ojillo de Liehre (Ojo de JAehre). — A Spanish variety with violet-black,
nearly round fruit about an inch long. Ripens medium early, and makes.
an excellent oil.

OHviere. — A French variety wdth medium-sized pointed fruit.
Rich in oil, and also good for picklinpc

Ovffh'.s {AcqtiUln, Lechin, PtcJiolin, Saurine). — A very prolific Spanish
variety with reddish, broad oval fruit two thirds of an inch in length.
Makes a good oil, and is well suited for pickling.

Fendoiiliere. — A strong-growing French variety with a drooping habit.
Fruit large, oval, and yields a rich oil. Tree very prolific, and attains a
large size.

Pendnlina. — A French variety with oval fruit, pointed at both ends,
about three-quarters of an inch in length, and borne in clusters. Makes
a good oil, and, as the fruit readily parts Avith its bitterness, is well
suited for pickling.

Picudo {Fetudill((). — A Spanish variety with large, reddish-purple, egg-
shaped, rather pointed fruit. Prolific, yields a good oil, and Avell suited
for pickling.

PolymorpJm. — A A-ariety of uncertain origin with i-eddish-])ui-ple,
oblique ovate, pointed fruit three-quarters of an inch in length, and
borne in clusters. Ripens rather late, and well suited for pickling
when ripe, as it has a firm flesh.

Pomiformis {Ampoidlean, Manzanillo). — A popular Spanish variety
with shining, black, round-oval fruit about an inch in length. Ripens
rather early, makes a good oil, and is well suited for pickling, as the
fruit parts with its bitterness quickly.

Racimal [Boteillan, Boutiniere, Rihien, Rapugetie). — An excellent
Spanish variety with deep violet, round-oval fi-uit about an inch long.
Very hardy and prolific, i-ipens early, bears regularly, and makes a
good oil.

Rai/Tnet. — A French variety with reddish, large, oval fruit. Yields
a large pi-oportion of excellent oil.

Redondillo. — A Spanish variety with bluish-black, round-oval fruit
about an inch long. Very prolific, and yields a rich oil.

Regalts [Primeau de Catignac, Sevillano). — An excellent Spanish
vaiiety with bluish-black, round ovate fruit about an inch long.
Ripens medium late, has rather firm flesh, makes a good oil, and well
suited for pickling.

Rostrata (Cat/07i, Rapanier, Cornaud, Corniand, Courgnale, Corriicahraj
Plant de la Fane, Plant dc Salon). — One of the leading Spanish
varieties with black-red, oval, pointed fruit about an inch long. Tree
hardy, prolific, large, and fruit makes a fine oil.

161

Oliviere.

Pendoulier-?.

Pomiformis.

'Z.)

Rostrata.

162

Kacimal.

Kubicans.

Pendulina

163

Rubra Caillon.

Variegata.

Uvaria.

Verdi go.

164

Ruhicans {Cayonere, Marvailletta, Rouget, Mougette). — An excellent
and popular French variety with large, reddish-purple, roundish-oval
fruit. Hardy, prolific, and bears regularly. Makes a good oil, and
well suited for pickling.

Bubra Caillon. — A French variety with jet black, small, oval fruit
about half-an-inch in length. Hardy, very prolific, and comes into
bearing at an early age. Fruit ripens early, and yields a good oil.

Uvaria. — A vai-iety of unknown origin with dark purple, oval fruit,
rounded at botk ends, and about three-quarters of an inch long. The
fruit is borne in Grape-like bunches, and the name is, therefore, very
appropriate. Prolific, makes a good oil, and suitable for pickling.

Vnral Blai.co {Bldiiquette) — An excellent Spanish variety with red,
roundish ovate fruit about three -quarters of an inch long. Makes a
first-class oil, and Avell suited foi- pickling.

Varal Negro {Alameno, Cagon, Xasies). — A Spanish variety with
violet-black, roundish-ovate fruit about an inch long. Yields a large
propoi'tion of rich oil . Tree very prolific, bears earh". and does not
attain a large size.

Variegata (Marhree, Figale, Pigau). — A A'er}' popular and widely
cultivated Fi-ench variety. Fruit purple, with white dots, oval,
albout an inch long. Makes an excellent oil, and well' suited for
pickling.

Vercligo {Verdal, Verddu, Terdial). — An excellent Spanish variety
with violet-black, nearly round, but pointed, fruit about an inch in
length. Hardy, prolific, ripens early, makes a first-class oil, and well
suited for pickling.

ORANGE

AND OTHER SPECIES OF THE

CITRUS FAMILY.

Among the many valuable fruits that are cultivated in the Austra-
lasian colonies, none hold a higher position than the Citras family.
Fruit of this faniih' is more generally popular than any other kind,
and its use is common in all civilized parts of the world. Oranges
are enjoyed by those who are suffering from sickness as well as by
people in robust health, and very frequently they are the onl}' fruit
Avhich can be used by the sufferei-s from disease. Fi-uit of this family
will keep on the trees after it is ripe for a longer period than any
othei- kind, and will bear cariiage better. It is also less liable to
injury from storms and changes of Aveathei' than most other fruits,
and, owing to the thickness of the rind and the ai-omatic oil it
contains, it suffers less from the attacks of biixls and insects. Oianges
are more or less in season all the year round, and no other fruit has
the same advantages in this respect. Trees of the Citrus family also

165

yield laro^e and certain crops, as a rule, in comparison with other
fruits. Besides their value as fruit producers, the trees, owing to
their beautiful foliage and compact gi'owth, are also very serviceable
as ornamental plants for the pleasure garden, and they are very
effective for shrubberies, eit hei- planted singly or in groups.

Some few years ago it Avas supposed by many that the Orange and
Lemon could onl}^ be successfully cultivated in localities near to the
sea-coast, but experience has pi-oved that they will thi-ive to perfection
in many of the inland districts of N^ew South Wales, South Australia,
Queensland, and Victoria, They may also be successfully cultivated
in the milder parts of New Zealand. Many have recently turned
their attention to the culture of Citrus fruits in the well-grounded
belief that they are likely to give good returns to the planters.
Having had a rather extensive experience in the cultivation of these
fruits, the writer can say that there is a good foundation for this
belief, and it is certain that the Orange and Lemon may be grown
most successfully in many districts, provided the trees receive the
attention they require. In fact, the cultui'e of Citrus fruits will
probably rank among the most profitable of our agricultural industries
in the future, as there is a rapidly expanding home market for them,
and any surplus that may be produced can be sold to advantage in
other parts of the world. The climatic and soil conditions are as
perfect as in any of the older countries where the Orange and Lemon
are largely cultivated, and Australasian-gi'own fruit is in season when
the ordinary sources of supply for Europe and America are exhausted.
Australian growers have a great future before them in exporting
Oranges and Lemons to Great Britain, the United States, and Canada
at certain periods of the year when the supplies from Southern Europe,
California, and Florida have ceased owing to the season's being over.
There is nothing to prevent the Australian colonies from becoming
large exporting countries if the Orange-growing industry is carried
out with judgment and energy. From the writer's experience he
has arrived at certain conclusions as to what is required to allow the
Citrus family to be cultivated successfully, and these are dealt with
at length in the following remarks.

HiSTOEY.

The various useful species of the Citrus family are supposed to have
originated in China and Central Asia, and to have been taken to Syria
by the Arabs. ISTo species seems to have been known to the ancient
Hebrews, Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans, as they are not mentioned by
the writers of these nations. There is some uncertainty as to when they
were first known in Europe, but the Citron is said to have been intro-
duced to Italy in the second century. The Sweet Orange appears not to
have been known till the fourteenth century, according to historical
records, being introduced by returning crusaders from Palestine. The
Lime and Lemon were not known till a century later, and the Shaddock
not till a much later period. The first mention of the Citrus fruits

166

among ancient nations is by the Arabs, wlio not only used Oranges and
Lemons in the ordinary way, but extracted oil from both fruits and seeds,
as also citric acid. According to Galessio, the Arabs discovered the
Orange tribe in a part of India farther in the interior than Alexander
had penetrated. The culture of the Citrus family in Europe has been
principally confined to Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, the Azore Islands,
and some parts of the south of France, those being the only countries
possessing a suitable climate. ^lore attention has been paid to their
culture in Italy than in any other country, and a very large number of
varieties are grown, with but a comparatively few of which we in
Australasia are acquainted. Risso, an eminent Italian botanist residing
at Nice, published at Paris, in 1818, a history of the family, in which he
enumerated and described one hundred and sixty-nine varieties, which he
divided into eight classes, as follows : — forty-three Sweet Oranges, thirty-
oae Bitter Oranges, five Bergamots, eight Limes, six Pampelucos, twelve
Sweet Limes, forty-seven Lemons, and seventeen Citrons. On the other
hand, Linnaeus only admitted that the Citron and Lemon were distinct
species, while some botanists have decided the Shaddock to be the only
one that was a separate species, and that all tiie others had originated
from the Citron. For all practical purposes, however, the useful kinds
may be divided into ten species, which will be dealt with in detail
further on.

Uses of Citrus Fruits.

Oranges and several other species of the Citrus family are utilized to a
great extent and in various ways. Sweet Oranges and those belonging
to the Mandarin class are in great demand for eating, and, perhaps, are
more generally used than any other fruits, as they are in season the
greater part of the year. An excellent wine can be made from the juice
of the Sweet Orange, and this, by distillation, yields a strong but
palatable spirit. The Bitter, or Seville, species is used extensively in
Europe for making Orange Marmalade, Avhich is more generally used
than any other kind. The rind of the Bitter Orange is also utilized in
large quantities when preserved in sugar, and is sold under the familiar
name of candied peel. In the south of France and Italy the Bitter
Orange is cultivated extensively for perfumery purposes, as two pounds
of the flowers are said to yield an equivalent to three pounds of the other
kinds. One ton of flowers is calculated to produce forty ounces of otto,
which on an average is worth twenty pounds, and the water remaining is
worth another ten pounds. An essential oil, called Oil of Neroli, is also
extracted from the flowers by distillation, and is yielded, according to
Professor Balfour, at the rate of one ounce to five hundred and fifty
pounds of flowers. Oil of Neroli is extensively used in perfumery, and
forms a portion of the well-known Eau de Cologne. It is also used to
some extent for flavouring liqueurs. The rind of the Orange yields an
aromatic essential oil, which is contained in small cells, and may be
extracted by pressure or distillation. Among other uses to which the
fruit is put is the flavouring of the liqueur Cura^oa by the use of the

167

immature fruit of the Seville Orange. The unripe fruit is also preserved
in syrup and crystallized, and used as a sweetmeat. In speaking of these
products it may be observed that the difterent varieties of the Sweet
Orange and the other species of Citrus contain the same properties, but
in a lesser degree, and will yield the same extracts, but in smaller
quantities There is no reason why the manufacture of Orange marma-
lade should not prove a profitable industry in Australasia^ and growers
would do well to turn their attention in this direction. It is quite _
possible, also, that the Bitter Orange might be profitably cultivated for
perfumery purposes, and it would certainly be worth trying. The Lemon
is utilized in various ways, and is a very serviceable fruit. Its juice
contains a large proportion of citric acid, and, when diluted with water,
makes an agreeable and refreshing beverage. Lemon juice is in large
demand for cooling and effervescing drinks, and is used to a great extent
under tht-, name of " Lime Juice," as also in the manufacture of citric
acid. Tlie peel is also dried and preserved in sugar, and by distillation
yields what is known as Oil of Lemon or Essence of Lemon. The Lime
has similar uses in every respect to the Lemon. The Bergamot is by
some authorities regarded as a species, but others consider it to be merely
a form of the Lime. A volatile oil, called Oil of Bergamot, is extracted
from the rind, and, according to Professor Balfour, is obtained in the
proportion of two and a-half ounces from a hundred fruits. The Citron
may be used for the same purposes as the Lemon, though the juice is less
acid. It is used to some extent for marmalade and candied peel. From
the rind an extract called Oil of Citron is obtained. The flowers are
very strongly scented, and may, therefore, be used with advantage for
perfumery. The Sweet Lemon may be used tor marmalade and candied
peel, but it is inferior to other species. The Shaddock makes a fairly
good preserve, both pulp and rind being used. Medicinally the Orange
and other fruits of the Citrus family are of great value. The fruit of the
Orange is wholesome, nourishing, and helps to purify the blood. The
juice of the Lemon, Lime, and Qitron has a great effect upon the blood,
and is a preventative and remedy for scurvy and other skin diseases. It
is an excellent remedy and preventative for gout and rheumatism, and
also for malarial fever, ague, and other complaints. The dried peel of all
the species of Citrus is a mild tonic and carminative, and may be used
with advantage for some diseases. The wood of the Orange is hard,
tough, fine-grained, and takes an excellent polish. In Europe and
Western Asia it is used by turners and for fine cabinet work.

Hardiness and Longevity.

When the climate and soil are not absolutely uncongenial there ought
to be no great difficulty in cultivating the Orange successfully, provided
that its wants are duly attended to. Trees of this family are not as
delicate as is generally supposed, and they may be profitably cultivated
under various conditions of soil and climate. They will stand a consi-
derable amount of h«at and some degrees of frost with impunity, provided
that their particular requirements receive due attention. When carefully

168

cultivated and growing in a congenial soil and situation, the trees will
often attain a great ^ize and age. There are in Spain and Italy trees
whose ages are said to range from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
years, and they are still healthy and vigorous. In the convent of St.
Sabina, at Rome, there was an Orange tree thirty-two feet high, said to
be over six hundred years old ; and at Nice there was a tree over fifty
feet high, with a trunk that took two men to embrace it, and yielding
from six thousand to seven thousand fruit every year. One of the
largest and finest Orange trees in France grew at Versailles, and was
known in the neighbourhood as the Grand Bourbon. It was raised from
seed which is said to have been sown in 1421. We have also records of
trees grown at Beddington^ Surrey, England which were grown under
shelter and attained an age of more than a hundred years. These trees
were obtained from seeds sown by Sir Francis Carew, who obtained them
from his uncle, the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh. At Hampton Court
Oranges were also successfully grown under the same conditions, some of
which are stated to have attained an age of over two hundred years.
These instances are mentioned to show that the Orange is one of the
longest-lived fruit trees if it meets with congenial treatment. But though
the trees of this family are vigorous and long-lived when growing under
the most favourable conditions, yet they are not likely ta give much
satisfaction to growers unless they are well and rationally treated. The
wants of this family are peculiar, and differ to some extent from those of
other fruit trees. The writer believes that the chief cause of non-success
in Orange culture is not so much due to the effects of soil and , climate as
carelessness or ignorance in the treatment of the trees. Too many people
who plant Orange and other fruit trees seem to think that after an
orchard is fairly started, and the trees have made a few years growth, no
farther assistance or caie is lequired except to keep down the weeds.
This class of cultivators expect to take from the trees heavy crops year
after year with little attention, and are surprised when they begin to fail
in vigour. When not carefully attended to and supplied with proper
nourishment, trees must necessarily begin to fail when comparatively
young, and when this occurs the cultivator generally blames either the
climate, soil, season, or insects instead of ascribing the failure to the true
causes — neglect and starvation.

Requirements of the Citeus Family.

From a careful consideration of the subject, based upon many years'
experience and observation, the writer believes the essential conditions
for the successful culture of the Orange family to be as follows: —

1. A suitable climate and soil.

2. The perfect preparation of the soil.

3. The selection of healthy young trees.

4. A full and regular supply of congenial food for the trees.

5. A supi>ly of water during periods of drought.

6. To disturb the roots as little as possible.

7. To keep the ground free from weeds and other undergrowth.

8. Shelter from strong winds.

169

Cultivators must bear in mind that each one of these conditions Is
essential to the most perfect success in the cultivation of the Citrus
family, and it is not sufficient if some are provided for and others-
neglected.

Soil and Climate.

The Citrus family will do very well in any ordinary good soil of fair,
depth, and on any site which is not too wet or exposed. Low-lying land,
where the temperature is often very low in the winter and spring; where
fogs are heavy and frequent, and the sides of bleak hills should be equally
avoided by Orange cultivators as a rule, The most favourable soil is a
strong sandy loam with a gravelly or open subsoil. Limestone soils are
also specially well adapted for the growth of the Orange family. The
cultivation of Citrus fruits will prove a very profitable industry in the
warmer regions of Austalasia. The conditions of soil and climate in
many of these wide regions are as perfect as can be desired by the
cultivator, and the only other requirement is a supply of water to
contend with dry seasons.

Though the Orange family is specially suitable for warm districts, yet
they may also be cultivated successfully in other localities, provided the
winters are not too severe. The trees will stand three or four degrees of
frost with impunity, but not more. When planted in the cooler districts
the most favourable site for an orangery is a gentle slope, with an aspect
between north and east, so that the trees may get the full benefit of the
early morning sun. Planters, however, are not always in a position to
make the most perfect choice of soil and situation, and must make the
best of existing conditions. In the warmer districts the aspect of an
orangery is not of so much importance.

Preparation of the Soil.

In preparing for Orange trees it is advisable to break up the ground to
the depth of from eighteen inches to twenty-four inches when circum-
stances will permit. The soil should also be thoroughly broken and well
mixed, as a fine tilth is grateful to the roots of the Orange family.
Trenching with the spade is by f«r the most effective way of preparing
the ground ; but the work can be done more quickly and economically
by the use of the plough and subaoiler. A good depth of well-worked
soil gives the trees a wide field to obtain nourishment from, and places
them in the best position to withstand the eftects of dry weather. It is
not advisable, however, in preparing the ground to turn up much of a
bad subsoil, and when this exists cultivators should simply stir and break
it to the depth of a few inches, leaving it in the same position as before.
Perfect drainage is essential in the cultivation of the Orange family, as
the trees cannot thrive when water is stagnating at their roots. Due
provision for effective drainage should always be made when the ground
is prepared. In light soils, on sloping ground, or when the subsoil is
open, there will often be sufficient drainage naturally. When, however,

170

the soil is heavy and retentive, or on flat ground, with a close subsoil,
the cultivator should always provide for effective drainage. Underground
drains are preferable, and the distance apart must, of course, depend
upon the conformation of the ground. If the ground has only a slight
fall, parallel drains between every other row of trees will be necessary to
allow each tree to get an equal and thorough drainage. On steeper
slopes a less distance will suffice, according to the nature of the soil, and
the more heavy and tenacious it is the closer must the drains be. In
preparing the ground, any deficiencies sliculd, if possible, be rectified,
and practical men need scarcely be told that there is a great difference in
the character of various soils, some being deficient in certain properties
which others have in excess. If soils are lacking in lime, potash, or other
material that is essential to the growth of the trees, the deficiencies must
be made good to make cultivation successful.

Selecting Young Trees.

In planting trees of this family due care should be taken that none but
healthy and vigorous plants are selected. This is a matter of essential
importance, as if the trees are unhealthy or weakly in constitution they
are not likely to give the grower the same satisfaction as more vigorous
plants will do. In selecting trees planters should give the preference to
those having a healthy dark green foliage, and avoid those which have a
sickly yellowish appearance. It is also a matter of some importance that
the young trees have been raised from vigorous parents. " like has a
tendency to produce like " is one of nature's laws in the vegetable as well
as the animal kingdom, and if young trees have been raised from
debilitated parents they are liable to inherit weak constitutions. It
stands to reason, therefore, that the stocks should be vigorous and
suitable, and that the scions, whether for grafting or budding, ought to
be taken from robust healthy trees.

Planting,

If circumstances will permit, the most favourable period of the year
for planting trees of the Orange family is from the middle of March to
the end of April, according to the nature of the season and locality,
though it may be done successfully at other times. When the trees are
planted early in the autumn, as the ground contains a considerable
amount of warmth, root action begins quickly, the plants soon recover
from the check caused by removal, and they get fairly established before
the winter sets in. If trees are planted later on during the winter
months growth is necessarily less active, and the plants are very liable to
suffer from the effects of frosts and bleak winds. When it is not
convenient to plant in the autumn it is better to wait till September
rather than put the trees in during the winter months. As a rule,
however, trees should not be shifted after their growth has fairly started
or before the summer growth has matured. It must be clearly understood,

171

however, that though autumn planting is advocated, when practicable, for
the reasons named, it is essential that the trees are in a fitting condition
for shifting. As a matter of fact, very frequently the summer growth
does not mature early enough for the trees to be shifted in the autumn.
Under such circumstances cultivators must necessarily wait till a later
period. In shifting trees of the Orange family the greatest care should
be taken not to injure or lessen the number of roots more than can be
avoided, as the plants require all their feeders in making a new start.
Care must also be taken not to expose the roots to a dry atmosphere, and
they should be effectively protected from the time they are lifted till
they are planted. An soon as each plant is taken up cover the roots so
as to prevent them from being injured by either sun or wind, as they are
rather delicate and very susceptible to injury from these causes, and if
allowed to get dry the plants will be almost sure to lose their foliage, and
very likely die altogether. Uncover the roots of each plant singly as
soon as the hole is made ready for its reception, then put it in its place,
and cover up the roots as expeditiously as possible. Be careful in
planting to spread out the roots in every direction, and see that none of
them are tangled or doubled up. When any of them are bruised or
injured they must be removed with a clean cut or they will rot and
perhaps canker the others. Care must also be taken not to plant the
trees too deep. If possible a moist or dull day should be chosen for
planting trees of this family , as less care is then required. After planting
give the trees a good watering over the tops, and afterwards occasionally,
according to the state of the weather. Some difterence of opinion exists
among practical men as to the advisability of cutting back the heads of
newly -planted trees. According to the writer's experience, the cutting
back of the branches must be determiued by the quantity and condition
of the roots. If the plants have suffered severely in loss of roots by
removal the heads should be reduced in proportion. On the other hand,
if the roots are nearly perfect the trees will require but little in the way
of heading back. Young trees will have a much better chance if shel-
tered from the effects of cold drying winds for a few months till they get
thoroughly established. Though giving shelter requires some extra
labour, yet cultivators will be more than repaid by the lessened risk with
their trees. In planting trees of the Citrus family many people commit
the great mistake of placing them too close to each other. Most kinds of
Oranges will require for free development a space of at least twenty-four
feet from tree to tree. The Mandarin section, however, being less robust
in habit than the other kinds, may be planted from fifteen to eighteen
feet apart, according to the growth of the variety, Lisbon Lemons,
Limes, and Citrons may be planted about eighteen feet apart, as they are
less robust in habit than most of the varieties of Oranges. While the
trees are young the spaces betw^een may be utilized for growing Peaches
and other fruits or vegetables But care must be taken that they do not
interfere with the growth of the Citrus family.

Supplying the Trees with Nuteiment.

Trees of the Orange family cannot thrive unless they have a regular

172

supply of congenial food. Tlieir reqiiiremeuts are greater than those of
other fruit trees in this re^.^pect, there being always a steady drain upon
their energies. No sooner has one crop matured than another requires
support. This severe drain upon the trees must be compensated by an
ample supply of congenial food ; otherwise the plants will become
weakened and liable to the attacks of disetise and insects. Trees must
necessarily pine away and die if they do not obtain sufficient nourish-
ment to support healthy growth. Cultivators too frequently make
the mistake of expecting their trees to remain healthy and bear
heavy crops year after year without anything being returned to the soil in
the shape of manure. It is chiefly owing to this unreasonable mode of
treatment that so many trees fail while comparatively young, whereas
they ought to live and flourish for lengthened periods. An ample supply
of nourishment is also essential to the quality of the fruit, which will
necessarily be inferior if the trees lack vigour owing to an impoverished
soil. In many of the old Orange orchards in New South Wales the
quality of the fruit has materially deteriorated of late years through the
neglect of the owners in not maintaining the fertilit}' of the land. In
fact, owing to this neglect, a large proportion of the Oranges grown in
the Parraoaatta and other districts have been so inferior in size and
quality as to be almost useless for market purposes. Such a state of
affairs is due entirely to neglect and carelessness, and could be avoided by
rational cultivation. No fruit will respond to good treatment better than
the Orange, but it will not stand neglect. But, on the other hand,
cultivators must bear in mind that though Orange trees require plenty of
nourishment to keep them in a healthy vigorous condition, yet manure
should not be given in excess, as under such circumstances a rank and
unhealthy growth is stimulated for a short period that is followed by a
reaction which is injurious. Whatever manure is used ought not to be of
a forcing character or violent in its action, but should yield a gradual,
regular^ and lasting supply of nourishment to the trees. As regards the
most effective and economical way of supplying food to the trees of the
Citrus family, the writer has arrived at the conclusion, from his experience,
that surface feeding is the best plan for mature trees. The best general
fertilizer is stable manure This should be applied as a mulching over
the surface as far as the roots extend. Lay it on in a layer three or four
inches deep, and as the manure decays add fresh material from time to
time. The main dressing should be applied in September or October,
and, as a matter of course, the layer ought to be thicker during the
summer than in the winter. When this system is adopted, the trees not
only get the benefit of a continuous supply of nourishment, but also the
advantage of having their roots effectively protected by mulching. If the
soil is deficient in lime, potash, or other essential materials, its wants
must, as a matter of course, be supplied by special manures. Very
frequently, and more especially ir old orchards, the supplies of lime or
potash will have become exhausted, and cultivators should not fail to find
out these deficiencies before the trees suffer to any material extent. An
occasional dressing of bonedust or lime under the layer of mulch will
generally prove serviceable to the trees. In the case of young trees the

173

ground, as a matter of course, should be well manured at the start if
requisite, and free supplies given afterwards.

PRirNiN<j AND Training

Like all other fruit trees those of the Citrus family require some
attention in pruning. But the operati<m should be performed in a
rational manner with a due regard to the natural habits of the treet*^
their age, and condition. The operation of pruning is too often performed
without much discrimination, and the trees cut in such a manner as is
productive of more harm than good. In pruning trees of the Orange
family cultivators should be careful in using the knife or saw, and no*
more cutting ought to be done than circumstances render necessary. In
the case of trees which have arrived at the full-bearing age, but com-
paratively little is required in the way of pruning except for any special
purpose. The removal of rank shoots, dead or diseased wood, and the
thinning out of the branches when over-crowded so as to allow light and
air to penetarate freely is all that is generally required in the shape of
pruning. In the case of young trees a different way of treatment i^
necessary, as the object of the cultivator is the development of a strong
growth of wood in particular directions, and to bring about the desiredj
result the knife must be used more freely. Young trees, in the first
place, should have sufficient lateral shoots left to balance the plants in
each direction and form the heads. As a rule, shoots w^hich are not
required for the development of the trees should be cut away close to the
main stems. It is better, however to leave a few more shoots than those
which will be ultimately required to form the trees in order to afford the-
stems the necessary protection fr(»m the sun, removing them as the trees
increase in size. In training trees of the Citrus family it is desirable
that the branches hang to within about two feet of the ground so as to-
protect the trunks from the heat of the sun in summer. It is not an
uncommon thing for trees to be trained high so that horse-power culti-
vating implements can be used close to the stem, but the practice is bad.
The writer holds the opinion that the cracking or discolouration of the
bark in Orange and other fruit trees, which is so common in this part of
the world, is often caused by the sap fermenting through the action of
the sun. By training the heads low tlie^-e will be no trouble caused by
the exposure of the trunks. Besides, trees with low heads are less liable
to suffer from the effects of high winds. It is not advisable to let young
Orange trees bear too freely, as the production of fruit lessens the growth
of wood. The growth of wood in young trees is the principal considera-
tion. Trees should be five years old before they are allowed to bear
heavy crops, as by that time they will have attained a fair amount of
growth.

Proteotino the Hoots.

In the cultivation of trees o^ this family and other evergreen fruits, it
is advisable to place them under such conditions that their roots will not

174

How a Young Tree should be Planted. Desirable Form of Orange Tree.

Desirable Form of Orange Tree

175

be subject to the extremes of drought and excessive moisture in the soil,
or to sudden changes of temperature. Unless means are taken to prevent
it, the sudden changes which often occur from severe drought to excessive
rain, and vice versa, will cause great variations in the temperature of the
soil, and these should, be avoided by the cultivator as much as possible.
This may be done to a great extent in the first place by trenching and
draining the ground thoroughly, so as to secure the most perfect root-bed,
and secondly by mulching the surface soil so as to shelter it from the ftrfi
power of the sun and drying wind In deeply-worked, well-drained land
the temperature is higher in winter and lower in summer than in shallow
or undrained soil, and it is not so readily atfected by atmospheric changes.
Consequently, trees growing in deep, well worked, and properly-drained
land are placed under the most favourable conditions for making steady
growth, are not as liable to injury from frost, and in no danger of
becoming injured through their roots getting soddened. Then, as regards
the protection of the trees by mulching, the cultivator must bear in mind
that when the trees are growing under the most favourable conditions the
masses of delicate rootlets or feeders which lie near the surface are not as
easily injured by the power of the sun as when the ground is fully
exposed, and the supply of moisture lasts much longer.

Disturbing the Roots.

In the cultivation of trees of the Orange family it is a matter of essential
importance that the roots should not be disturbed to any great extent.
The common practice of digging or ploughing among the roots cannot be
too strongly condemned. These operations cannot be performed without
destroying a great number of the small fibrous roots, or feeders, a large
proportion of which lie near the surface. These roots are all required to
supply the trees with nourishment, and if a quantity is destroyed, as
must be the case when the surface soil is broken up by either the plough
or spade, the loss will be felt more or less. The best plan is, as far as is
practicable, never to disturb the surface soil at all, leaving each layer of
mulching to lie till it decays ; and the only cultivating implement which
should ever be used in an orangery is a hand or light horse hoe to keep
down the weeds.

Keeping the Land Clean.

It is a matter of material importance, in cultivating trees of this family,
that the ground should be kept perfectly free from weeds, grass, or any
other kind of undergrowth. When weeds are allowed to make headway
they absorb a considerable amount of plant food and moisture, which
otherwise would be available for the support of the trees. The loss of
these materials must necessarily be felt by the trees, and more especially
the exhaustion of surface moisture during the dry summer months.

Watering in Dry Weather.

No fruit trees require so much attention in watering as those belonging

176

to the Citrus family. In fact, crops cannot be depended upon unless tlie
trees can be supplied with water during periods of drought. The trees
are always in an active state of growth, and the roots absorb a great deal
of moisture from the soil. This moisture must be replaced from some
source, or otherwise root action is interfered with more or less, and the
trees suffer. The easiest and most effective way of supplying water is by
a system of irrigation. This mode should be adopted when practicable,
as it will prove a great aid in the culture of the Citrus family. As
regards the watering required by trees of the Citrus family, no precise
rules can be laid down, as much vi-ill necessarily depend upon the
character of the season and nature of the soil. As a general rule, the
trees should never be allowed to flag through lack of moisture at their
roots. On the other hand, however, water should not be used more
freely than is necessary, as when supplied in excess the fruit is liable to
become coarse, wanting in flavour, and too tender for packing and
keeping.

Shelter.

Shelter from bleak winds is necessary to the successful cultivation of
the Oranure family, and no trees suffer more by exposure, both as regards
their health and the quality of the fruit. In exposed situations the trees
have a tendency to produce thick-skinned fruit deficient in juiciness and
flavour, and the produce of the choicest varieties is sometimes so altered
in character as not to be recognised easily The value of effective shelter
is fully appreciated by European cultivators, and invariably provided for.
At St. Michael, one of the Azore Islands, where Orange-growing is the
staple industry, the cultivators commonly shelter their ti-ees from the
bleak winds which sweep over the Atlantic by means of stone walls of
fiom twelve feet to twenty feet high. When there is no shelter naturally,
cultivators should always make provision for it by planting belts or lines
of quick-growing trees to serve as break winds. If the area is of large
extent it will be necessary to have cross break winds in additiorj to those
on the boundaries. There are many quick-growing dense-foliaged trees
which will answer the purpose. Care must, however, be taken that the
roots of these breakwinds do not interfere with those of the Orange trees.
As an eff'ective breakwind, and more especially as a iSecondary one, some-
thing may be said in favour of the Olive, which answers admirably, though
it does not make such rapid growth as some other trees. On the other
hand, however, its roots are less troublesome when it gets large, and Uie
tree itself yields a return in fruit.

Propagation.

The Citrus family can be propagated from seeds, layers, cuttings,
budding, and grafting. Seedling plants are, as a matter of course,
uncertain as to the quality of their fruit, and some years will elapse
before they come into bearing. It is no uncommon thing for trees to be
eight or ten years old before they begin to fruit, and their value ascer-

177

tained. As a matter of course, seedling trees may turn out to be
excellent varieties, but, on the other hand, the fruit may be very inferior.
Therefore, it is not wise to depend upon seedlings for a plantation of
Citrus fruits except as stocks that have been grafted or budded with
approved varieties.

Raising PL<iiiU from Seed. — Seedling J3lants make the best "stocks,"
and should be used exclusively. The seed should be sown thinly in rows
about two feet apart, or in small beds, covering it about an inch deep.
It should be sown soon after it is taken from the fruit if practicable, and
if it has to be kept any time before sowing, care must be taken that the
seed does not get too dry. The young plants, as soon as they are large
enough to handle, should be thinned out so as to stand about six inches
apart. In localities where the sun has great power it will be advisable
to slightly shade the rows or beds, as the case may be. The following
season transplant into rows three feet apart, leaving about fifteen inches
between the plants in the lines. Many growers plant closer, but it is not
well to overcrowd the young trees, as they require room for development
both for their roots and branches. The plants will be ready for working
the second year.

Li(;ieriiig. — Plants can be readily obtained from layers, which root
freely, but the trees are, as a rule, not so vigorous and durable as those
raised from seed. This mode of propagation is, therefore, not to be
commended as a means for obtaining trees under ordinary conditions. It
may, however, be adopted without any drawback with the Kumquat,
Myrtle-leaved, and other dwarf species of Orange grown merely as
ornamental plants. Layers may be put down at any time, but the most
favourable periods are late in the summer or autumn and early in the
spring.

Cuttings. — Plants of any species of the Citrus family may be obtained
from cuttings of ripened shoots of the current season's growth, w^hich will
readily strike in sand or light soil if placed in a frame or under a glass to
protect them from the weather. This method of propagation is, however,
not to be commended except for special purposes, as the plants are slow
in growth, and, as a rule, do not make such robust and long-lived trees as
seedlings.

' Budding. — There is some difference of opinion among growers as to
whether budding or grafting is the best mode of propagating the Citrus
family. Budding is not so generally practised as the other method,
though it finds favour with many experienced cultivators, including the
w^riter, who considers it the best mode of working trees. One great
advantage obtained by budding, and a very important one, is that, the
trees being worked well above the ground, there is less risk of the dise^ise
known as "collar rot'' than when the union is under or near to the
ground, as it usually is with grafted plants. This mysterious and
destructive disease seems to attack trees most readily at the point of
union between stock and scion when it is near the surface of the ground*
and the risk is materially lessened when the plants have been budded
well up the stems. The time for budding will depend, to some extent,
upon local conditions such as the character of the season and climate. It

2k

178

may be done in the spring, provided the bark of stock and scion will rise
freely. Eai-ly buds, when they have a good start, generally make a
strong growth during the following summer and autumn. Sometimes
the conditions for budding are not favourable till after mid-summer.
Buds put in at this season of the year generally take well, but they do
not usually make such strong growth the first season as the earlier
worked plants. Buds may also be put in in the autumn, but these often
remain dormant till spring, and seldom make much headway till after the
winter. In selecting buds a preference should be given to those that are
plump and well matured, and care must be taken that none are defective.
After the buds have made a fair start, the stocks should be cut back a
few inches above the unions. As growth proceeds the young shoots
should be carefully tied to stakes or other supports, as they are easily
broken otf by high winds or heavy rains. In working old trees the
better plan is to lightly shorten back the heads and work a number of
buds upon them. This is better than heading back closely, working a
few branches, and forcing a strong growth of young wood. Buds, if
necessary, may be inserted in wood several years old, but, when practi-
cable, the preference should be given to younger branches. When old
trees have been worked, the better plan, after the buds have made a good
start, is to reduce the tops gradually in preference to cutting them back
all at once. By adopting this plan the young growth will have the
advantage of sliaxie, which is a matter of some importance, in the summer.
In removing the old branches the cuts should be clean, and it is advisable
to paint the wounds over with some composition that will protect the
wood from the effects of sun, wind, and rain.

Grafting. — Tliis method of propjigation is the one most generally
adopted in Australia, and the greater portion of the trees sold by
nurserymen are raised by this means. Grafting may be done successfully
at various periods of the year, but the most favourable time is in the
spring when growth is becoming active. The operation may also be
successfully performed late in the sunmier or early in the autumn in
regions where there is a second growth after the breaking up of the dry
season. In grafting great care should be taken to obtain the scions from
vigonjus, healthy, and thrifty trees, and not from those that are diseased
or weakly. .As regards the working and heading bnck of old trees, the
same directions will apply as given in the section referring to budding.

Stocks for J > adding or Grafting. — Growers of Citrus fruits differ
considerably in opinion as to what are the best stocks for budding and
grafting, some authorities being in favour of one kind, while men of
equally good repute give the prefeience to another sort, and some will
condemn both and claim that a particular species is the only one to be
relied upon. In this part of the world the Rough, or Common, Lemon
has been hitherto chiefly used as a stock for the varieties of Sweet
Oranges, and also the Lisbon Lemon. Trees raised in this way have,
generally speaking, given fairly satisfactory results in most localities. It
is claimed for these trees that the roots are more hardy than those of the
Orange, that they adapt themselves with greater facility to widely
different soils, and that being more fibrous the plants are shifted with

179

less risk than if growing upon other stocks. It is also claimed for the
Rough Lemon that it will stand drought better than other stocks, and be
least affected by wet soils. American authorities in California and
Florida are mostly in favour of the Bitter, or Seville, Orange as a stock
on the ground that it is not affected by the " Collar Rot." It is, however,
somewhat doubtful whether this stock is really proof against the disease
as supposed. Many years ago, to the Avriter's own knowledge, the Bitter
Orange was strongly recommended in New South Wales as a stoclTb^
high authorities, and many cultivators made use of it. After many
years' trial, however, the results have not equalled the high expectations,
and many experienced cultivators have arrived at the conclusion that as
a stock the Bitter Orauge gives no advantage over the Rough Lemon.
There is no reason, however, why both the Sweet and the Bitter Orange
should not be widely used as stocks, as both yield robust and long-
lived trees. The closer the affinity between stock and scion the more
vigorous and durable is the tree likely to be in the opinion of the
WTiter, and, consequently, the Orange should receive more attention for
stocks. * Citrus trijoh'atc has of late years received some attention as a
stock for tlie Sweet Orange, and appears to have given satisfaction to
many who have tried it. This stock is hardy, shifts well, and is said to
be little affected by disease. It has a dwarfing tendency, and may,
therefore, prove serviceable for the Mandarin section and other small-
growing kinds.

Injurious Insects.

The Citrus family, like most other fruits, is liable to the attacks of
various insects, which often cause much trouble and loss to cultivators.
When any of these pests make their appearance, efibrts, as a matter of
course, should be promptly made to check or destroy them. Apply the
most effective remedies in the best possible ways, and a great deal can be
•done by cultivators to mitigate the evils, if they are not actually
eradicated. But in addition to applying the various insecticides, care
should be taken, as far as is practicable, to remove causes that may
predispose trees to the attacks of insects, fungi, or disease. When such
causes are allowed to remain, though evils may be combatted to some
extent, yet the trees will always be ready subjects for fresh attacks. If
the trees are well cared for, and due provision made for their various
requirements, they will be far less liable to be attacked by some insects,
fungi, or disease. Healthy vigorous trees are comparatively free from
the attacks of many pests, but when, through any cause, their growth is
interfered with, various insects and fungi soon make their appearance.
Prepare and drain the ground thoroughly, plant healthy trees in a pro]>er
manner, feed the trees according to their requirements, give the necessary
shelter, mulch before the hot weather sets in, and trees of the Citrus
family will suffer far less from insect and otlier pests than if carelessly
cultivated.

The insects that are injurious to the Citrus family are somewhat
numerous, and, as a matter of course, each class must be treated with

180

remedies suitable to its form and habits. In the foUowiug list tlie more
prominent and best known species are included, as also representatives of
the various classes : —

Afhides. — Several species of " fly " are more or less injurious to trees
of the Citrus family, the most prominent and troublesome one being the
Orange Aphis {Siphonophora ^nirantAi). This is a small dark-coloured
fly somewhat similar in appearance to the Black Peach Aphis. It chiefly
attacks the young shoots and buds, and often causes much injury.

Orange Aphis.

Winged Feraale (Magnified).

Insects (Natural Size)

Pupa (Magnified).

Wingless Female (Magnified).

Another very troublesome species is SiphonopJiora citrifolii, which has
]>roved to be very injurioufe in some parts of New South Wales and
Queensland. It is somewhat similar to the previously mentioned species

181

in appearance and liabits, but is lighter in colour. Aphides not only
injure the trees by feeding upon the foliage and young shoots, bat,
through theii' excreta, are also one of the causes of the lii) sightly '' Sooty
Blight " that frequently disfigures trees of the Citrus family. Remedies
— Various means may be adopted with success in dealing with Aphides,
1, Ker«xsene Emulsion. 2, Tobacco Water, 3, Soft Soap and Tobacco
Water, i, Quassia, o, Elder Leaf Water, <), Walnut Leaf Water, also
various patent insecticides. All the remedies named are effective,~and:
should be applied as fine sprays in the evening. Full directions for
preparing and using the various remedies will be found in volume 1 ,
pages 90 to 1 02.

y^/r;'5.— Several kinds of boring insects cause damage to Citrus trees,
and very often do serious injury. Prominent among this class of pests is
a longicorn beetle known as Uracanthas cr</ptoplKigi(s^ which is rather
widely distributed in New South Wales, and perhaps in other colonies.
The damage done by this insect in its grub or larval stage is very
considerable. The full-grown larva is large as compared with the perfect
insect, or beetle, and usually measures from tw^o and a-half to three inches
in length. It is nearly cylindrical, and has a small pointed head. In
colour it is pale yellow, with a black head. The pupa is about two
inches and a-half in length, and in colour is yellowish-brown. The beetle
is a slender brownish-grey insect, measuring about an inch and a half in
length. This pest is propagated by the parent beetle depositing its eggs
on the smaller branches of the trees, and as soon as they are hatched the
young larva begins to eat its way into the wood. The grub seems to
prefer the centre of the branch that it attacks, and makes a clean
cylindrical bore, often to a considerable length. It attacks both branches
and trunk, and enlarges its burrow as it increases in size, making small
openings occasionally to the side. The result of an attack from these
insects is that the branches become weakened and break off, and the trees
fail in health when the trunks are aifected. Orange and other trees of the
Citrus family are sometimes attacked with insects belonging to the Weevil
family, as also other beetles. The Elephant Beetle in particular is very
destructive to trees of the Orange family. Boring pests are very difficult
to deal with, and there are no absolute remedies or preventatives. For
those kinds that make their attacks above ground, the better plan is
to watch for the eggs or germs, and destroy them as far as is practicable.
The trunks of affected trees should be dressed with Alkaline Wash
occasionally. If boring insects have attacked the roots the best remedy
is Bi-sulphide of Carbon. Full directions for preparing and using these
remedies will be found at pages 88 and 89, volume 1.

Fruit-€(iting Beetles. — Sometimes Citrus fruit are injured by the larvaj
of small beetles (or bugs, as they are sometimes called), which puncture
the rinds and extract the juices of Oranges and Lemons. Sometimes they
make imnunerable [)unctures in the fruit and cause it to shrivel or fall off
prematurely. These insects also attack the buds and young shoots often
in this way, causing serious injury to growth. One of the most trouble-
some of this class of insects is the Orange Bronze Beetle {Oncoscelin
sufcive)itris), which is widely distributed in the northern districts of New

182
Orange Boring Beetle.

Pupa
(Natural Size).

Section of Stem showing Burrow
made by the Grub.

Perfect Insect (Natural Size).

Orange Fruit Beetle.

I.arva. Perfect Insect

(Bath One-tbird larger than Natural Size)

188

South Wales and Queensland. The insects are propagated by eggs, which
are laid in patches of from six to thirty on the leaves of the trees they
feed u[)on. These eggs usually hatch out early in the spring, and the
young greenish-white larvjie at once commence the business of their lives.
As they get older their colour changes to reddish-brown, and when fully
grown they are about three-quarters of an inch in length. The perfect, or
winged, insect is the same size as the larva, or a little larger. In colour
it is a dark bronze brown above and reddish-yellow beneath. Tlifi3e_
insects and kindred ones are somewhat difficult to eradicate. Spraying
with weak solutions of Paris Green or London Purple has to some extent
proved effective in destroying them. Three or four sprayings may be
necessary, and should be given while the insects are in their wingless
state. Another fairly successful way of dealing with them is to spread
sheets upon the ground and shake the insects from the trees — the same
as is done with the Plum Weevil (Curcnlio). In the cool of the morning
or on dull days the insects are somewhat torpid, and will fall in large
numbers if the trees are shaken or jarred. Those that fall upon the
sheets are easily collected and destroyed.

Orange Moth. — Though not so widely spread or troublesome as many
other pests, this insect, which is known to entomologists as Hydmsa spy
sometimes causes considerable damage to trees of the Citrus family. The
larvae are small, black, haiiy caterpillars, which feed upon the leaves, and
are very voracious. The perfect insect is a handsome moth, the body of
which is black with deep yellow marking.^, and the wings black with

Orange Moth.

Pupa (Natural Size). Peiiect Female Insect

(Natural Size).

Caterpillar (Natural Size).

"#

Ichneumon Parasite
(Natural Size).

Perfect Male Insect (Natura Size).

Ichneumon (Magnified.

18-i
Lemon Scale.

Female Scale Male Scale

(Both M.'ignitifd).

Fruit showing Scale (Natural Size).

Larva Winged Male

(Both Magnified).

Long Scale.

Branch showing Insects (Natural Size). Feraalc (Magnified). Male (Magnified).

I8r>

■t.)range blotches. Remedies : The treatment required is the same as for
other leaf-feeding caterpillars, viz., spraying with solutions of Paris Green,
London Purple, Tobacco Water, Kerosene Emulsion (mild). Elder Leaf
Water, and Walnut Leaf Water. Lime dusted over the trees helps
materially to keep all kinds of caterpillars in check. Hellebore powder
is also a very effective remedy. Full directions for the preparation and
use of the remedies named will be found in pages 90 to 102, volume I.
This insect, however, and others of the same class have natural eneniics~
in the form of "•' fly " parasites, one of them being shown in the illustration.
These parasites materially assist in preventing the spread of the Orange
Moth.

Rt(sf Mite. — It is not an uncommon thing for Oranges to have a brown
rusty appearance, which is very much against them when they are sent to
market, and sometimes causes them to be almost unsaleable In the
Orange orchards of New South Wales this discolouration is called the
" Maori " disease, in allusion to the brown appearance of the fruit. The
•cause of the evil is a very small four-legged " Mite," known as Pkf/toptus
oleivorus, and insect closely allied to the Pear Mite. This insect punctures
the oil cells of the rind and causes the oil to exude. This oil, after
escaping from the cells, dries upon the rind, and exposure to the air gives
it the dark rusty appearance. The insect usually makes its appearance
•early in the summer, and continues its work till the beginning of the
winter. It often attacks the fruit when it is small, and not only gives it
an unsightly appearance, but prevents it from attaining its normal size.
When the fruit becomes badly discok)ured it is, as a rule, deserted by the
" Mites," who seek fresh pastures. Remedies : 1. Kerosene Emulsion,
used as a spray, 2. Whale-oil Soap in the proportion of one pound to fifty
gallons of water, also used as a spray. The spraying should be done in
the evenings, and ought to be commenced as soon as the insect is detected.
If allowed to make much headway the insects will be able to cause the
iliscolouration of the fruit, and remedial measures will be comparatively
useless. It may also prove necessary to give several sprayings to keep
the insects under.

Sc((/e. — The insects commonly known under this name are the most
troublesome pests with which the growers of Citrus fruits have to contend.
Tliey include several species, each embracing numerous varieties, and all
are injurious to a great extent. Some kinds confine themselves to
particular plants, while others are more cosmopolitan in their habits and
attack various trees and shrubs. The principal kinds that attack trees of
the Citrus family are as follows : — Black, or Olive, Scale {Lecauium oJea).
— This is a medium-sized dark-coloured insect which greatly affects Olive
trees, hence the name. It, however, is equally troublesome to the Citrus
family, and often causes serious injury. Lemon Scale {Mt/til<ispts citricoJa).
— This insect affects both foliage and fruit when it makes its appearance,
and often quite disfigures the latter. It is an elongated and slightly
curved " Scale," as will be seen by the illustration, and is of a dark
•colour. Long Scale (Aspidiotns GloverU). — This insect is long, hence its
•common name, and very destructive to the foliage of the trees it attacks.
Purple Scale {Aspidiotus a'tHcol</). — This insect appears to be very

Branch sbowiug Insects (Natural Size)

Female (Magiiitied). Male (Magnified.)

Woolly Scale.

Female, Upper View
(Magnified) ,

lii

Winged Male (Magnified).

Leaf showine Insects 1 Female under view showing Eggs
(Magnifi^ed). I (Magnified).

187

similar to, if not identical with, the Lemon Scale. Red Scale AsjndiotKs
corcinens. [Aspidiotu-^ anravtii, Aonidia mira'iitii). — This is one of the
most destructive and widely distributed ctf the Scale insects. It is
indigenous to tlu- south of Europe, but is now widely distributed in
Australasia and America. The insect is in colour a reddish-brown, and
comparatively small in size. It attacks indiscriminately the trunk,
branches, leaves, and fruit, and multiplies with great rapidity. If not
kept under by prompt treatment as soon as it is discovered, this pest willr
cause serious injury to the trees that are attacked by it. Soft Orange
Scale {Lecariii(7)i hesperidnm). — This is a troublesome species in some
localities, but it is not so widely distributed as many of the other Scale
insects. It is comparatively large, light brown in colour, and the insects
are generally groui)ed in bunches. White, or Oleander, Scale {Aspldiotm
nerii). — This insect specially affects the Oleander, and hence one of its
common names. It also attacks the Olive, and very often trees of the
Citrus family. Various other fruits, as also many ornamental trees and
shrubs, are liable to its attacks. It is in colour pale brown, of medium
size, and in shape nearly circular. The insects attack all parts of the tree
indiscriminately, and the fruit more especially. They affect Lemons-
perhaps more than Oranges, and when the fruit is infested it is often
seriously injured in quality. Woolly, or Fluted, Scale (Iceri/a Purchasi),
— This insect, which also passes under the name of Cc)ttony-cushion
Scale, is supposed to be indigenous to Australia, and is found upon
various native trees and shrubs. It is certainly one of the worst of the
Scale insects, as it increases with great rapidity, and is very voracious.
The insect has developed a strong predilection for trees of the Citrus
family, and is often very destructive. Tiiis insect is comparatively large
and long, the upper side being somewhat in the form of a cushion. It is
covered thickly with a white woolly or cottony substance which has a
fluted appearance, and hence the common names.

Scale insects of all kinds are injurious to the trees they attack, but, as-
a matter of course, some are far more injurious than others. They feed
u[)On the juices of the plant, and, when in large numbers, must, as a
matter of course, lessen the vigour of the trees. Their effect upon the
foliage can be clearly seen by the pale blotches that surround the insects,
which contrast with the darker green of the leaves. When the fruit i»
attacked badly it generally becomes paler in colour, and often has a
shrivelled and unwliolesome appearance. Very often when the insects
are numerous at the base near to the stalk, the fruit drops from the tree
Ijrematurely. Scale insects, by means of their excreta, or Honey -dew so
called, are also the main cause of what is known as the Sooty Blight or
Soot Fungus which so often makes its appearance upon trees of the
Citrus family. ^lany people are under the impression that ants are the
main cause of the sooty appearance because they are often seen in large
nimibers upon affected trees This is not so, however, as the ants are
really useful scavengers who assist in clearing the trees of other insects.
Kemedies : I . Kerosene Emulsion is regarded as one of the best remedies
for the Scale insects. It should be used as a spray, and applied in the
evenings. 2. Resin Compound. This preparation, used as a fine spray.

Branch showing Insects (Natural Size).

Female (Magnified).

Male (Magnified).

^

Insect
(Natural Size).

Parasites of Scale Insects, Flies.

Insect on the Wing
(Magnified).

Lestojihoiius Icerycf;,

Insect at Kest
(Magnified).

Insect (Natural Size),

Insect (Magnified). Insect at Rest (Magnified).
Hi/men optera us Insect.

1S9

ENEMiiJi? OF Scale Insects, Ladybirds.

Perfect Insect.

Pupa.

(All Magnified).

•^nw^

Larva.

Insect on the Wing (Natural size).
yovius cardinaUs.

Noviiis beJhfs.
Perfect Insect (Magnified).

I^hizohnis sp.
Perfect Insect (Magnified).

Leaf witli Insects (Natural 8ize).

is also one of the best remedies. Full directions for mixing and using
these preparations will be found at pages 1 00 and 10!, volume i . Lime
dusted over the trees checks most of the Scale insects to some extent, and
assists in removing Sooty Blight from the leaves. As a matter of course,
the remedies should be applied while the insects are few in number if

190

practicable, as it will be much more easy to deal with them then than
when they are numerous. It will also be necessary to make several
4ipplications of whatever remedy may be used, as one or two are seldom
thoroughly effective.

Natural enemies : The Scale insects, like others, have their natural
enemies, Avhich materially assist in preventing their increase. Several
kinds of insects feed upon them to some extent, prominent among which
are various species of Ladybirds. Some of these are very active and
voracious, and both in the larva and perfect state wage incessant war
with various kinds of Scale insects. These Ladybirds are indigenous to
Australia, and, owing to their usefulness as Scale destroyers, have been
introduced to American orchards with excellent results. Some of these
insects are shown by the illustration in various forms, and particulars
respecting others will be found at pages b7 and <S8, volume 1. Scale
insects have also natural enemies in various ''Flies," some of them being
very destructive. Two of these are shown by the illustration. Parasitical
fungi probably assist in keeping down this class of pests, but though this
is known to a limited extent, our knowledge upon this point is very
imperfect. It is within the range of probability that careful investigations
will enable cultivators in the not distant future to combat Scale and
•other insect pests to a great extent with their natural enemies.

Case Moths. — These insects derive their common name from the
-coverings or cases with which they are enveloped, and they are famili;u- to
most people who are connected with orchards. There are several species,
all of which are more or less injurious to the foliage of fruit trees. One
of the most destructive of these insects is the Large Stick-case Mi^th
(Metura elongata), which affects various fruit trees, and is very partial to
those of the Citrus family, and often proves very destructive to the foliage
and shoots, as also to flowers and young fruit.. The young larvte are at
first very minute, but they rapidly increase in size. They are very
voracious even at the earliest stage, and from that period they also
commence to spin or form their cases. In the perfect insect the male is
A quick-Hying bright-coloured moth. The females have no wings, and
are practically caterpillars. Remedies : 1. Sprayings with weak solutions
•of London Purple or Paris Green. 2. Hellebore Powder, dry, dusted
•over the foliage, or used as a spray when mixed with soft soap and water.
When used in this way the proportion should be one pound of Hellebore,
three pounds of soft soap, and forty gallons of water. Full directions for
the preparation and use of the remedies will be found at page 101,
volume 1. Powdered lime dusted over the trees will also assist in keeping
•down the pest when in its larval state.

Other Insects. — -Trees of the (Jitrus family ai'e also liable to the attacks
•of tlie insects known as Mealy l^ug, Red Spider, and Thrips, more or less.
Remedies for these are described at pages il8 to 102, volume 1.

Injurious Fuxoi.

The Citrus family, like others, are to some extent troubled by various
iinds of fungi, but less so than many other fruits. In tlie majority of

v.a

Stick-case Moth.

Pupa (Natural Size)

Larva (Natural Size)

Perfect Female (Natural Size)

Perlect Male (Natural Size)

Larva in Case (Natural Size)

192

cases the attacks of these vegetable parasites are made upon trees that,
from other causes, are in an unhealthy condition, or those that have been
injured locally. There are in fact, always predisposing causes to bring
on the attacks of many kinds of fungi.

Mildew. — Mildew in various forms will sometimes be found upon root*
that have been damaged by careless cultivation. These fungi will also
often attack the roots of trees tJiat have become inactive for any length of
time through the dryness of the soil, or when standing in soddened
ground. Mildew fungi will sometimes appear above ground upon
diseased wood arising from sunburn, canker, or injury to the bark. They
also generally accompany the Collar Rot. The best remedies for this
class of fungi are lime and sulphur, either singly or in combination dusted
or painted over the affected parts.

Fusicladiums. — This class of fungi, commonly known as " Scab," veiy
often affects Citrus fruits. They make their appearance both upon the
leaves and fruit in the form of small dark dots, and often in patches,
which have the appearance of scabs. F>uit attacked with this fungi are
rendered more or less worthless. Remedies : i . Ammoniacal solution of
Copper Carbonate. 2. Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate. 3. Bordeaux
Mixture. 4. Eau Celeste. 5. Soap and Sulphur. 6. Sulphate of Iron.
Each of these remedies is fairly effective if used as fine sprays in the
evenings, but only when the foliage is dry. It will be advisable to spray
the affected trees several times at intervals of two or three weeks, ((/ul the
same remedy should he used throughojit. Full directions for preparing
and using the funajicides named will be found at pages 98 to 102, vobmie
1.

Sooty Blight. — This unsightly fungus particularly affects the Citrus
family, though it is found more or less upon various evergreen trees and
shrubs. It makes its appearance upon the excreta left by Scale insects
and Aphides, though many peoj^le are wrongly under the impression that
it is caused by Ants. This fungus is not specially hurtful to the trees,
though, as a matter of course, it and the material upon which it develops
injure the affected foliage by stopping the pores and impeding transpira-
tion. Remedies : The Sooty l^light will gradually disappear from trees
if the insects that cause it are destroyed. By dusting powdered lime
over the affected trees after the cause has been removed, its disappearance
wdli be facilitated.

Diseases.

Canker. — Trees of the Citrus family frequently suffer from the
complaint known as Canker, a disease that assumes various forms.
Sometimes it affects the roots, at others the trunks, and frequently it is
confined to the branches. This disease may result from various causes
such as defective drainage, the use of strong forcing manures, or an over-
supply of water. It may be caused by drought or frost, as also by
deleterious matter in the soil. Any of these causes may affect the flow of
sap and induce Canker. Root Canker is often caused by rough
cultivation, and may also result from the action of insects or fungi

VJ'S

Stem and Branch Canker may result from an irregular flow of sap, and is
sometimes caused by the scorching of the bark, local injuries to the trees,
as also the attacks of iusects and fungi. Canker is a very difficult disease to
deal with, and growers should try to prevent it by avoiding, as far as may
be practicable, any of the pr(jbable causes named in the foregoing remarks.
Prevention is better than cure in most cases, but especially so as regards
Canker, When the disease does make its appearance it is somewhat
difficult to check it, and there are no absolute remedies. AH that can
be done when the roots are aftected is to promptly cut away the diseased
parts to such an extent as may be necessary and practicable. The same
system must be adopted when the branches are attacked. Should,
however, either roots or stems be badly cankered, it will be the wisest
plan to destroy the trees, as the chance of curing them is but slight.

Collar Hot. — This is the most destructive and troublesome disease
that att'ects the Citrus family, and often causes serious losses to
growers. It also is known as Foot Rot, Grum Disease, and Sore Shin,
while in tlie south of Europe it passes under the name of Mai di
Goma. This disease is said to have first made its appearance about
Mty yeai's ago in the Orange groves of the Azore Islands. Soon
after it spread to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea,
and since has been a serious evil to European cultivators. It has
also been very destructive in the Australasian Colonies, and equally so
among the orangeries of California and Florida. The disease is a
mysterious one, and it has not been ascertained clearly what is the
cause or causes. Tliougli various theories have been propounded,
further observation is necessary before we can be positively sure of
the cause of this evil. The disease attacks the trees near to the
sui-face either above oi* ])eIow the soil, its first appearance being"
indicated by the exudation of a few small drops of gum f i-om the
bark. These increase in size, and the bai'k gradually I'ots away and
drops from the stem. Afterwards the surface of the wood becomes
affected, and the tree gradually dies away. Soon after the tree has
become affected, the foliage begins to have a yellow and sickly
appearance, and when this is observed an examination of the base of
the stem should be made. Among the theories propounded as to the
cause of the disease are want of proper drainage, unsuitable soil,
planting too deep, and allowing water to lie round the stems of the
trees. These things are all of great importance to the health and
vigour of the trees, but it is doubtful whethei' any one of them is the
real cause of the disease. The most probable cause is sudden and
extreme variations of temperature in the surface soil surrounding the
stems, which affect the regulai- flow of sap, and cause contractions
and expansions of the bark. As the disease always attacks the lower
part of the stem near to the surface of the ground either below or
above, the cause certainly seems most likely to be the i-csult of
])eculiar soil conditions.

The disease is a very difficult one to deal with, and though, if
action is taken at an early stage it may be checked to some extent,,
yet there is no absolute remedy. The treatment likely to be of
service is to carefullv remove the affected bai-k, and cutting awav

2l

194

sufficiently far back to be quite cleai* of tlie disease. Tlie bared
portion of the stem should then be tlr-essed with a composition made
of ten pounds of lime, five pounds of suli)hur, four pounds of sulphate
of coppei-, and a gill of carbolic acid. Mix these materials thoroughly,
using enough water to make of the consistence of a thick jjaint, and
apply with a brush. Pieces of sound bark fnnn the same or other
trees may afterwards be grafted into the places. If, however, the
Avood is aft'ected, a cure is hopeless, ami to spend time and laboui* in
treatment will be a waste. The better plan with such trees is to
destroy them as soon as is practicable. Though the disease is not
easily cured cultivators may do much towards preventing it from
coming. In the first place, as it seems to affect trees chiefly near
the place of union between stock and scion it will be advisable to
give the preference to budded rather tlian grafted plants. Budded
plants being worked higher up the stems than those that are grafted,
the union of stock and scion is farther i-emoved from the part liable
to be attacked, and, consequentl3% the risk of the disease is lessened.
The writer has found by his own experience that budded trees are
comparatively free from this destructive disease. Some authorities
assert that this disease may be avoided by using varieties of the
Bitter Oi'ange {Citrus Bigaradia) as stocks, but this has not yet been
proved beyond doubt. Possibly the Bitter Orange stock may have
some influence in lessening the i-isk fi'om the disease, but according
to the experience of the writer its use will not entirely avoid the
evil. Possibly, however, some species of the Citrus family will
prove a thoroughly preventative stock, and experiments in this
direction are likely to prove serviceable.

Sunburn. — Trees of the Citrus family are often more or less injured
through the bark of the stems being scorched by the sun. The
complaint more especially affects young ti-ees Avhose heads are not
large enough to shade the stem, and whose bark is somewhat tendei*.
Older ti'ees, however, suffer from Sunburn. This disease may be
noticed by Iji'own ])atches or strips on the bark ui)on the sides of the
stems most exposed to the sun. The scorching occurs on very hot
days when the air is very still, and is sometimes so severe as actually
to kill the affected portions of the bark. When the trees are affected
the cii'culation of the sap becomes iri'egular, and, as a matter of
course, the vitality of the plant suffers more or less. It is the
writer's opinion that many trees become unhealthy and die off pre-
maturely from their bark being affected by Sunburn. And not only
are the trees injured directly through the circulation of the sap
being disturbed, but they are predis])Osed to the attacks of certain
insects and fungi. The affected bark becomes ruptured by shrinkage,
and often dies altogether, and in either case it affords harbour foi*
the germs of insect and fungoid pai-asites. In order to avoid Sunburn
it is, in the first place, advisable to ti-ain trees with low heads, and in
such a way that the foliage will effectively shade the stems fi-om the
full power of the sun. As regards young trees, however, the heads
for a year or two after planting are not large enough to afford the
ro<piisite amount of shade, and the cultivator must protect the stems

I9r)

firtificially. This may be done by bandaging the stems with bagging, '
matting, straw, grass, rushes, or any other material tliat will answer
the pnrj)Ose. One of the best mediums for tlie ])Ui'pose is strips of
bark taken from young "gum " or " Avattle '" saplings, which, when
placed round the stems, require no tying, and olfer the advantage of
being easily obtained in most localities. Cultivators should, however,
bear in mind that though stem wrappings are a great protection to
young trees during the hot season, yet they must be removed as soon-
a« the power of the sun decreases in the autumn. It is essential that
the bark of the the stem should have the full benefit of exposure to
air and light for the greater pai-t of the year in order that it may
perform its functions properly. When the bark is badly discoloured
it is a good plan to carefully cut out the affected parts and graft into
their places healthy pieces. By adopting this plan the evil Avill
often be ett'ectually cured. Tn this, howeve)-, as with other complaints
that can be avoided, prevention is always better than cure.

GATHKKIXr!, StORIXG, AND PaOKJXG.

Oranges. — Tn gathering Oranges care should be taken not to injui-e
the fruit in handlino-, as the slig-htest bruise or scratch will cause
•early decay. The fruit hangs very tight to the stems, and when
required for keeping or shipping ought to be cut and not pulled.
Fruit that has t(^ tind a local market may be allowed to get fully ripe
upon the trees, but if i*ec|uii'ed for shipment it should be gathered
just as it begins to turn colour. Fruit should never be picked for
packing while wet with rain or dew, and any that are imperfect
ought to be rejected. It will be advisable to delay packing for two
or three days aftei* tlie fruit is gathered to get rid of some of the
moistui-e in the I'ind, as Avhen slightly dried the Oranges pack closer
■and better, and are more likely to arrive at their destination in
prime condition. The boxes should be unifoi-m in size, and so
•constructed as to permit free ventilation. Each box should contain
fruit that is perfectly even in quality, and the number ought to be
marked upon the case. The safest way of packing for shipping long
distances is to wrap each fruit singly in tissue paper. The boxes
■should be tilled sufiiciently to I'equire a gentle pressure in nailing
on the toj)S, taking care, however, not to bi-uise the fruit. Fruit in
transit requires an even teuiperatui'e, and if subjected to extremes
of heat and cold is liable to spoil, notwithstanding all care in gathering
and packing. As a mattei- of course, wdien the fruit is required for
lo(;al mai'kets less attention is necessary, but still care in gathering,
sorting, and packing will generally pay growers.

Lemons. — As regards licmons, the same directions will apply as
given for Oranges, so far as regards care in gathering and handling,
in order to prevent bi'uising or otherwise injuring the fruit. Lemons,
unlike Oranges, should not be allowed to i*i])eii upon the trees, as
when allowed to do so the skin increases in thickness and pnffiness,
while, on the other hand, the (piantity of juice decreases in proportion.
The economical I'equirements in Lemons arc thin I'inils with a small

196

pro]>ortioii of" pitli, and an abundance oF juice. The fruit is in the
best possible condition for meeting these recjuii-enients whengatliered
quite green, and sevei-al weeks before it would ripen uj)on the ti-ees
if allowed to do so. ISo absolute rule caiv be laid down as to the
proper time for gathering, as much will depend upon the variety^
season and locality. The safest rule will be to cut tlie fruit Avlien it
is from two and a-half to three inches in diameter, leaving Lemons
below that size for furthei' development. The removal of the large
fruit in this way relieves the trees considerably, and gives tlie
younger Lemons a better chance to increase in size. As a matter of
course, Lemons gatliei'ed as recommended ai-e not mai-ketable at once^
and they must be kej)t in store till they are of the oi'thodox colour.
They should at first be allowed to stand in the cases they were
gathered into at tlie trees foi- ten days or a foi-tnight. Dui-ing this,
time a considerable amount of moisture will exude from the skins
and escape. The Lemons are then taken out of the cases and arranged
in single layers upon trays or shelves and placed in a chamber whei-e
light can be excluded, but which at the same time is well ventilated,,
and can be kept at a medium low and even tempei'ature. A dry
cellar, cool shed, or cupboard may be used as a store, but if large
quantities of fruit have to be treated, it Avill be advisable to build a
house specially for the purpose. As a matter of course, in filling tlie
trays or shelves, all damaged or defective Lemons should be carefully
excluded. If the fruit has been carefully gathered and handled it
may be kept in good condition for several months by this mode of
treatment. As a matter of course, some of the Lemons will spoiL
but if the essential conditions are duly provided for, the percentage
of losses will not be large. Li addition to being able to market the
fruit in the best possible condition, this mode of treatment will
enable the grower to keep it till it will fetch the highest prices. It
is true that fruit preserved in this way will shrink considerably in
size, sometimes to the extent of one-third, but, on the other hand, it
will invariably realize mucli bettei- j)i'ices than the coarsei- and
thicker skinned Lemons that are allowed to ripen upon the trees.
When packed for exportatioii the fruit, as a matter of course, should
be less advanced in ripeness than if intended foi- a local market, and
should not have commenced to turn yellow. Care should also be
talvcn that the fruit in each case is as even in appeai-ance and size as
it is possible to get it. It should be wra])ped in paper, and in all
other respects tieated i)recisely the same way as that recommended
for Oranges.

Limes. — The desirable qualities in this section of the Citrus family
are the same as with Lemons, viz., thin skins ajid abundance of juice.
They, therefore, rerpiire precisely similar treatment as regards
gathering, storing, and packing, and tl-e same dii'ections Avill apply
in every respect.

Citrons, IShcddochs, and Sireet Lemons. — Wlien either of these fruits
is wanted for its juice it should be gathered and stored as recom-
mended for the Lemon, and not be allowed to ripen upon the tree.
If, however, the fruit is required for marmalade or candied ])eel, it

197

^vill be advisable to let it colour on the tree, tliou,o-li it ought not be
allowed to get over-Ti])e. If required for exportation these fruits
must, as a inattei- of course, be gathered and packed before they
begin to turn colour.

.Makin<; (■AXniKK Pkkl.

Candied Peel of the Citron, Lemon, and Orange is prepared_in
large quantities in Eur<)])c, and more especially in Italy, and the
industry is of some im])oi'tance. It is also worthy of attention in
Australasia, as there is locally a demand for considerable quantities,
and if a surplus is jiroduced outside markets can always be found.
In preparing the peel the tirst process is to halve or quarter the
fruits and remove the pulp from the rind. The rind is then boiled
in a copper vessel for from one to two hours in order to soften it and
to alloAv the sugar to be readily absorbed. The next process is the
gradual absorption of the sugar, and this goes on for eight or ten
<lays. The Italian method is to use large earthenware jars about
four feet higli and two feet six inches in diameter. A jar is filled
with the rind, and a ^eak solution of syrup is poured over it. A
weak solution is moi'e readily absorbed at tirst than a thicker s^-rup.
The next da}^ the syru]5 is drawn oif and a someAvhat stronger one
used. This process is re])eated for eight days, and each time a
stronger syrup is used. To facilitate operations a jar is tilled with
fresh rind every day, and the syrup from the one commenced yester-
day is used for the now lot, ami so on. As a matter of course, the
strength of the syrup is kept up to regular standards throughout the
whole period. After the rind has passed through the soakings in the
jars it is slowly boiled for an hour in a syrup of forty degi-ees'
density. AVhen I'emovcd from the fire the material is poured upon
trays composed of coarse wire netting placed over Avooden troughs,
and the syrup that has not been absorbed drains off, and the peel is
allowed to (by. Another operation has now^ to be performed, and
this is to cover the peel with a layer of crystals. This is done by
dissolving sugar in water, so as to form a thick syrup, and immersing
the peel in it. The peel is then again allowed to diy^ upon the trays,
and the candying is complete. The prepared peel is then carefully
packed in small boxes lined with Avhite paper, and is ready for
export.

Sometimes the fruit is In'ought from distant regions^ and cannot he
utilised quickly. The practice then is to halve the fruit and pack in
barrels filled Avith a fairly strong brine. AVhen this course is adopted
it is necessary, after removing the pulp, to soak the skins for a few
days to remove the salt that has been absorbed, changing the water
several times.

Marmalai>k.

]Ma)'malade inade from the varieties of the Seville Orange is a
favourite conserve, and its use is general. Ihe Sweet kinds may also

198

be used for the purpose, )nix tliev are not iieiirly so good as tlie others.
All excellent niannaiude oan be made from the Knmquat, as also from
the Lemon, Citron, Sweet Lemon, and Sh.iddock. In making marma-
lade with Seville Oranges it will be necessary to use an equal weight of
sugar and fruit. The Oranges are first cut into halves or quarters and
boiled for about two hours till the rinds become soft. When sufficiently
tender pour oft* the water, which should be preserved, and slice the fruit,
rind and pulp, into tine shreds. Make a syrup in the proportion of two
pounds of sugar to a quart of water. Let the fruit soak in the syrup for
about six hours, then simmer for half-an-hour, and boil briskly till the
material jellies. The water from the first boiling should be used in
making the syrup. Precisely the same directions can be given for
making Lemon, Sweet Lemon, Citron, or Shaddock marmalade, but the
first-named fruit requires a larger proportion of sugar.

Wine.

Palatable wine can be made from the Orange, Citron, or Lemon by
fermenting the juice in combination with sugar and water. For Orange
wine the proportion should be a gallon of water and three pounds of
sugar to each pint of juice. Boil for several hours and then strain, and
jmt into a cask to ferment, adding a small quantity of yeasts When the
fermentation ceases, the oask should be made air-tight, the liquor allowed
to stand for several months, and then bottled oft*. Precisely the same
directions will apply to the Citron and Lemon, but the proportion of
sugar should be varied somewhat, according to the natural svv'eetness of
the fruit. Some people like the wine to have the flavour of the peel, and
when this is the case the rinds of several fruits should be steeped for two
or three days, and the water poured into the cask. It is also customary
with some people to add small quantities of brandy.

Species and A^arieties.

Their are a large number of species belonging to the Citrus family, but
only a few are valuable commercially. These include the Sweet Orange,
Bitter Orange, Mandarin Orange, Kumquat Orange, Lemon, Sweet
Lemon, Lime, Bergamot, Citron, and Shaddock. Each of these species
embraces varieties more or less numerous, and dift'ering to some extent in
size, form, and qualities. The following remarks will supply such
particulars as are likely to prove practically useful respecting each species
of the Citrus family and their most useful varieties. They supply a
practical, though concise, description of the useful species and a number
of the better known varieties, as also their peculiarities and uses. The
lists of several species might have been extended, but larger ones would
serve no practical purpose. But it must be remembered that though the
descriptions will show the normal character of species and varieties,
Citrus fruits are apt to vary considerably in quality, according to climate
and local conditions. In cold climates, or when growing in exposed
situations, the fruit is a[)t to have a thicker and coarser rind and possess

199

less juice and sweetness than when grown in a warm and sheltered
locality. Young Orange trees almost invariably produce fruit with
thicker rinds and inferior in quality to that obtained from older trees.
Theretore, cultivators must not too hastily jump to the conclusion that
their trees are not the supposed kinds. Very frequently the fruit from
young trees has none of the character of the variety it belongs to. The
same remarks will apply more or less to the various other species of the
Citrus family. The fruit will also vary considerably both in size and
quality, according to the climate and soil, and a variety grown unlTef"
different conditions will often be difHcult to recognise as the one kind.
Shelter has an important bearing upc»n the quality of Citrus fruits, and
more especially Oranges. Then, again, the size and flavour of Oranges
is affected to some extent by the health and vigour of the trees, and
this, in a large measure, will de})end upon the system of cultivation.

Sweet Oranges.

This class belongs to a species which is known botanically as Citrus
auraritlKvi (dnlcis), embracing a large number of cultivated varieties, all
of which possess the same essential qualities. The fruit is wholesome
and useful medicinally, and the rind is a mild tonic. Essential oil is
extracted from the rind, and the flowers yield a popular perfume, but to a
far less extent than the Bitter Orange. For perfumery purposes this
species is less valuable than the ]>itter Orange. The varieties named are
chiefly those that have been cultivated successfully in Australia.

A //sops Gem. — A very good Australian variety raised in the Parramatta
district. New South Wales. Fruit medium-sized, round, and rather
flattened. Skin medium smooth and a bright colour. Juicy and well
flavoured.

Caprenf. — An imported variety. Fruit small, somewhat similar to the
Mandarin in shape. Skin medium smooth and dark coloured. Compact
in growth, with handsome foliage, and bears freely. Juicy and sweet.

China. — An imi)orted variety. Fruit medium-sized or under, round,
slightly flattened. Skin very thin, shiny, smooth, and rather dark in
colour. Very juicy, and richly flavoured, but when over ripe the fruit is
apt to fall from the tree A regular and heavy bearer, but requires a
warm district.

Coi/r/uon.— Tlun'e is but little, if any, ditt'eience between this Orange
and the one known as the Parramatta Fruit large and round. Skin
bright and medium snu)oth. Juicy and well flavoured. Tree hardy and
prolific.

E.iefer. — A good Australian variety raised at Seven Hills, in the
Parramatta district. Fruit large, round, and somewhat flattened. Skin
moderately smooth and iuiglit coloured. Juicy and pleasantly flavoured.
Tree robu.-^t. prolific, and the fruit hangs well.

Fedcrntioit. — An Austvalijin Orange of excellent quality raised in the
Parramatta district. F'rnit large and round, and ripens late. Skin thin
and rather pale cohmred. Jnicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Tree
vigorous, and bears very freely.

200

Frorit'igndu. — A first-class variety of uncertain origii). Fruit medinn-
sized and r<»und. Skin thin, smooth, and briglitly cc»loiired. Flavour
excellent, and very juicy.

Goosehen-ij. — A very early and })rolific variety. I'ruit small, round,
and rather flattened. 8kin deeply coloured and moderately siixioth.
Flavour very good. Tree hardy and a very free bearer.

HohUfast. — An excellent Australian variety raised in the Parranuitta
district. Fruit large, round, inclining to oval. .Skin light coloured and
smooth. Very juicy and highly flavtmved. Tree vigorous, and considered
to be one of the most ])rolific of the Orange family. Ihe fruit hangs well
on the trees, and hence the name.

lloh'oi/d'8. — An excellent European variety, but the imin^rted name

Jaffa.

201

t
hits been lost, ai\d that of the introducer, the late Mr. A. T. Holroyd, of
Parraiiuitta, given. Fruit large and round. Skin deep coloured,
medium thin, and moderately smooth. Very juicy and sweet. Tree
strong and a very free bearer.

Jaf(u — An excellent variety from the Levant, and extensively grown
in Turkey, Egypt, and the countries of Western Asia. Fruit large,
oval, somewhnt narrowed at the base. Skin smooth and highly coloured.
Very sweet and juicy. Tree of medium growth and very prolific, but
requires a fairly warm climate.

Joppa. — This is a very popular variety in tL^alifornia, where it was
raised from seed brought from Joppa in Palestine, and hence the name.
The fruit is large and oval. Skin thin and deeply coloured. Very sweet
and juicy, with very few seeds. Tree moderately robust and a good
bearer.

Majorca. — -This variety has medium- sized to large nearly oval fruit.
Skin thin, smooth, and of a deep colour. Very sweet and juicy. Tree
prolific and moderately hardy.

Malta [Blood Omiig€).—T\n.^ variety derives its second name from its
dark-coloured fruit, which is blotched with red stains. Fruit medium-
sized, round, inclining to oval. Skin thin, medium smooth, Flesh juicy,
but heavily stained with purplish-red. It is hardy and prolific, and the

Malta.

202

Navel.

fruit is of good ({uality, but it has never become popular in this i)art of
the world owing to the colour of the pulp, and cannot be recommended
for commercial purposes in comjiai-ison with the Parramatta and Siletta.

Navel (Bahia). — This variety [)roduces large, showy, high-flavoured fruit
without seeds, and has at the end a navel-like scar where the floAver has
been. This variety is a somewhat shy bearer unless when grown under
very favourable conditions, and requires a sheltered situation, as it is less-
hardy than many of the other soits. This kind, owing to its fine appear-
ance and rich flavour, has been termed the King of Ora!)ges. Fruit
large, roundish-oval. Skin bright dark, medium thin, and moderately
smooth. Flesh juicy and ve y highly flavoured.

Nev^ Caledonian. — A variety of uncertain origin, but brought to-
Australia from New Caledonia, and hence the name. Fruit medium-sized
or over, round, inclining to oval. 8kin thin, smooth, and pale coloin-ed.
Flavour very good.

203

Parramatta {VaramaWi SeeJUng). — This is an excellent and veiy
useful variety of uncertain origin which is grown extensively in tiie
orangeries of New South Wales. It is one of the hardiest sorts, and
yields regular and heavy crops of medium-sized well-flavoured fruit. The
writer can strongly recommend this variety for general cultivation in
medium cool districts. Sometimes this sort is sent out V)y nurserymen as-
the Pennant Hills or Kissing Point Orange and under other local names.

PedTce'ii Gem, — An Australian variety raised at Seven Hills, in tl_ie^
Parramatta district. Fruit medium size to large, round, and rather
flattened. Skin light coloured, thin, and smooth. Juicy and sweet-
Tree robust, and an abundant bearer. A first-class Orange.

P'Ynime d'Adam {Adam's Apple). — This is a French variety which is^
remarkable through having a protuberance at tlie apex of the fruit like a
Lime. Fruit moderately sweet and juicy, but inferior to many other
varieties. Not worth cultivating except for variety.

Portugal. — This variety, which comes from the country whose name it
bears, has medium-sized roundish fruit Skin bright yelloAV and thin..
Juicy and sweet. Tree robust and prolific.

Pye's Early Acme. — An excelleiit Australian variety raised by Mr. T..
Pye, of Seven Hills, New South Wales. Fruit above medium size,
round, and rather flattened. Skin bright coloured, thin, and smooth.
Flesh very juicy and sweet. Tree vigorous and a regular and very free-
bearer. Ripens very early and keeps well.

Pye's Late Acme. — Another excellent Australian variety from the same-
raiser. Similar in appearance and quality with the preceding sort, but
ripeais several weeks later.

Queen — An Australian variety raised in the Parramatta district.
Fruit medium-sized or larger, round, inclining to ovate. Skin thin,,
medium smooth, and rather light in colour. Flesh juicy and well
flavoured.

liibhed Orange. — Fruit medium-sized, roundish, flattened, and regularly
ribbed. Skin deep coloured, moderately thin, and medium smooth.
Juicy and sweet.

Rio. — This variety is supposed to be of Brazilian origin. Fruit
medium to large, roundish-oval. Skin deep coloured, thin, and smooth..
Juicy and sweet. Tree nearly thornless, moderately robust, bears freely,.
but ripens somewhat irregularly. Most suitable for the warmer districts.

lliiby. — -An Australian variety of great excellence raised at Seven Hills..
Fruit small, round, and flattened, »Skin smooth, thin, and deep coloured.
Flesh juicy and highly flavoured. Tree a heavy cropper.

SaUmna. — A Japanese variety, which has, to some extent, the character
of the Mandarin class. Fruit medium-sized or under, somewhat flattened,
deeply coloured. Sweet and well flavoured. Tree very hardy, prolific,
and well suited for medium cold districts.

Silettd {Cluster Orange. — -As its second name signifies, this variety bears-
its fruit in bunches, and is a useful and profitable kind. It is one of the
hardiest kinds, is verj' prolific, bears regularly, and the fruit is of good size-
and excellent in flavour. This is a soi-t that the writer would recommend
to be included in every collection in medium cool districts. Fruit largCy

204

Queen.

Rio.

205

round. Skin bright coloured, medium thin, and moderately .smooth.
Juicy and good.

.S'^. Mich<tel\^. — This is a variety that has a high reputation for the
quality of its fruit, which is very thin skinned and sweet when grown
under favourable conditions, Like the Navel, however, it is le.ss hardy
tlian some other kinds, and requires a sheltered situation. Wlien grown
under favourable conditions this variety is very prolific, but if circum-
stances are uncongenial it is a shy bearer, and the fruit is apt to lose its
high character. Fruit large and round. Skin a bright deep colcmr, very
thin, and smooth. Quality first-class.

Sugar Oixivge. — As its name iuiplies this is a very sweet Orange. It
is of Australian origin, and was raised in the Parramatta district. Fruit
medium-sized or under, round, and flattened somewhat like a Mandarin.
Skin deeply coloured, medium thin, and rather smooth. Tree an
abundant and regular bearer.

Tahiti. — A higlily flavoured European variety. Fruit medium-sized or
smaller. Skin bright deep colour, smooth, and thin. Juicy and ver}'
sweet. Tree somewhat tender, and will only thrive in warm localities.
A variety from New Caledonia has been introduced as the Tahiti, but it
in no way resembles the true kind.

Tangenne. - A popular European variety. Fruit medium-sized or
under, round, and somewhat flattened. Skin deep coloured, thin, and
smooth. Flesh very rich and juicy. Tree somewhat tender, and recjuires
a warm locality.

Siletta

206

bt. Micliael's

Valencia. — A Spanish variety which ripens somewhat hite in the
•season. Fruit large, roundish-oval Skin bright yellow, thin, and smooth.
Very sweet and juicy. Tree fairly hardy, vigorous and prolific.

Washiiuftoii Xavel. — A supposed new variety has been introduced from
California under this name with the claim that it is quite distinct to the
ordinary Navel. It is somewhat doubtful as to whether this is a new
variety or merely the ordinary Navel changed somewhat in character by
local conditions. This is a very common occurrence with the Citrus
family, and the writer believes it is so in this case. It is claimed in
California that the Washington Navel is superior to the ordinary kind
because it bears more regularly and freely, and if this quality is
lasting, it will certainly prove a useful sub-variety, but time only will
show its character in Australasia.

White Orange. — A very early and excellent Australian variety raised in
the Parramatta district. Fruit medium-sized or over, round. Skin thin,
•smooth, and very light coloured, hence the name. Flesh juicy and of
high quality. Tree a great bearer, and as hardy as the Parramatta or
.Siletta.

Bitter Orances.
The Seville or Bitter Orange is classed as a distinct species, and is

207

\kiio\vii botauically as Citrus viihjnru (I>iga radio). It is not much
'Cultivated in this part of the world, as the fruit is too bitter to be
palatable. But in other countries it is turned to good account. This
kind in Europe is extens^ively used for making marmalade and the
familiar candied peel. The flowers have a much stronger perfume than
those of the Sweet Orange, and, consequently, are more generally used in
the preparation of oils and essences. Many varieties are cultivated in
Europe, but a few only are known in Australasia, though they are
■sufficient for practical purposes. The celebrated French Orange tree,
'Grand Bourbon, alluded to previously, belonged to this class. The
following list embraces the most desirable varieties : —

China. — A hardy and very prolific variety. Fruit medium-sized,
•obovate, juicy, and moderately bitter. Skin bright coloured and
moderately thick.

Common Seville. — Fruit medium-sized or larger and round. Skin
■bright coloured, moderately smooth, and medium thin. Flesh juicy and
bitter flavoured. Tree hardy and very prolific.

Poor Man's Orange. — A very hardy, vigorous, and prolific variety.
IFruit very large, round, inclining to oval, and produced in clusters. Skin

Poor Man's Orange.

208

deep coloured, thick, and rough. Flesh juic)^ and less bitter than the
Cominoii Seville.

Navel Seville. — A hybrid variety, combining in appearance the character
of both parents. Fruit medium-sized, roundish-oval. Skin light coloured,
medium smooth, and moderately thick. Flesh juicy and slightly bitter.
Can be used for preserving, but has no special recommendations.

Seedless {Bigaradier savs Grains). — A strong-growing variety with
large roundish fruit, ykin rough and deeply coloured. Juicy and
moderately bitter.

MaNDAKIN OUAX(iES.

This class of Orange belongs to another distinct species known
botanically as Citrus nobih's {Xliculitreusis). There are numerous varieties^
all bearing comparatively small thin skinned fruit, quite distinct in
appearance and flavour to the other kinds. The trees are also smaller in
growth and more hardy than the other kinds, and may be grown success-
fully through a wider range of climate. This class, independent of their
value as fruit-bearing trees, are well adapted for shrubberies and gardens,
where they are very effective. Most of the kinds bear very freely, but
the fruit of some is nnich superior in <|uality to that of others. The
following is a list of the n\ost desirable kinds, each including several
sub-varieties : —

Emperor. — The largest and finest variety in the Mandarin class.
Fruit large. Skin deep coloured. Flavour first-class. Tree a free
bearer.

Canton. — Fruit much smaller than that of the Euiperor. Skin very
deeply coloured. Flavour fairly good. Tree hardy and prolific.

Thorn //. — A prolific and very good variety. Fruit smaller than the
Emperor, and paler in colour. Flesh j uicy and i)leasant. Hardy and a
free bearer.

KuMQUAT Oranges.

The Kumquat is another species, known botanically as Citrus japonica^
and it embraces several varieties. All the kinds are small trees, or more
properly shrubs, and are valuable chiefly as ornamental plants for the
pleasure ground. The fruit is small, bitter, and only serviceable when
candied or preserved as marmalade.

Myrtle-leaved Orange.

An ornamental species with myrtle-like foliage, and of dwarf compact
habit, known botanically as Citrus myrtifoHa. Yvmi very small and of
no c(miniercial value.

Lemons

The Lemon, botanically known as Citrus Uniouium, is a popular and
largely cultivated species. It has smaller fniit than the Citron, and the

209

juice is more acid. The peel is aromatic and tonic, and yields an
essential oil called " Oil of Lemon." Several varieties are in cultivation,
which differ more or less in size, shape, and quality. The one known as
the Lisbon is decidedly the most popular and generally cultivated in
Australia, as it is prolific, fairly hardy, and produces large and well
flavoured fruit. There are several sub-varieties of the Lisbon, such as
the "thornless" and the "variegated," differing from the parent to the
extent their names imply. Other varieties are, however, quite equal to
the Lisbon in quality, and will, in some cases, give more satisfactory
returns. The more generally known kinds are as follow : —

Common [Milk Lemov, Hough Lemon, Wild Lemon). — A veiy hardy
kind, and generally used as a stock for Oranges and Lemons. Fruit
roundish-oval, medium-sized. Skin very rough. Flavour inferior,
and not worth cultivating for its fruit.

Eureka — ^A variety recently introduced fi'om California, and very-
popular in that country. Fruit medium-sized, oval. Skin bright
yellow, thin, and smooth. Very juicy and briskly acid. Hardy and
prolific, but foliage often thin and not sufficient to effectually shade
the fruit, which, consequently, often gets sunburnt.

Genoa. — An excellent and pi'oliffc variety. Fruit medium-sized,
oval, bright yellow, thin skinned, very jnicy, and nearly seedless.
Also keeps well. Tree of moderate growth, and nearly thornless.

Heong Leorig. — A Chinese variety. Fruit large, roundish-oval.
Skin bright yellow, medium smooth, and rather thick. Useful only
for preserving.

Lisbon. — Fruit large and long. Skin bright yellow, moderately
smooth, and thin. Very juic}^ and briskly acid. Prolific, hardy, and
one of the best market varieties.

Sicilian. — A popular Italian variety. Fruit medium-sized, oval,
briglit yellow, and juicy. Tree vigorous and bears freely.

Villa Franca. — This is one of the finest and most profitable varieties
in cultivation. Fruit medium large, oblong, slightly pointed at the
end, very juicy, and nearly seedless. Skin bright coloured and very
thin. Tree thornless, or nearh" so, very hardy, prolific. Foliage
strong and abundant,

Savekt LE-MONS.

What is known as the Sweet Lemon is Citrus lumia, a species but
little cultivated. It has a thick rind and pale pulp, not acid, and
may be used for marmalade or candied ; but it is inferior to other
kinds foi- these purposes, and hardly worth .growing. Tliere are
several varieties whicli diff'er considerably in shape, colour, and
thickness of the rind, but all possess tlie same essential qualities.

LlMKS.

The Lime, Citrus limetfa, is a smaller growing tree than either the
LeuKm or Orange, and the fruit is used for vai'ious pui-poses. The

2 m

210

fruit lias a sub-acid slight!}' bitter flavour, ^ itli Kimilar properties to
the LeuK^n, and its uses are the sauie. There are several vaj-ieties in
cultivation, all being more tender than the Orange or Lemon, and
they are not likely to thrive exc^ept in Avarm and sheltered localities.
The principal kinds are as follo^vs :—

Adarris Apple {Pomme (VAdam). — Fi'uit large, somewhat like a
Shaddock. Skin veiy thick and rough. Flesh deeply stained Avith
red and veiy^ bitter. Only lit for preserving.

Persiicn, Sweet Lime. — Fi'uit I'oundish, something like an Api-icot in
shape. Skin tawny -yellow, smooth, and thin. Flesh juicy and
without acidity.

West Indian. — Fruit very small and oval in shape. Skin bright
yellow, smooth, and thin. Very juicy, acid, and the kind used chiefly
for making the lime juice of commerce.

Bekgaistots.

The Bergamot is known as Citrus l>ergamia, but some authorities
consider it to be merely a form of Citrus limetta (the Lime). The
fruit is used for the same purposes as the Lime, and from its rind the
peculiar volatile oil known as Oil of Bergamoi is obtained. There
are several varieties which diffei* somewhat in the shape of their fruit,
which varies fi-om pyriform to oblong. In Italy a double flowei-ed
vai'iety called ]\rellai'Osa is most highly prized.

CriRONs.

The Citron, which is a type of the family, is Citrtis medico. It is
less robust in habit than either the Sweet oi' Seville Orange, and has
lighter green foliage. The fruit is oblong, with a veiy i-ougli and
thick rind, and in flavour is less acid than tlie Lemon. This species
is not much cultivated, though the fruit makes a good marmalade,
and the peel when candied is excellent. The flowers have also a very
powerful odour, and may be used profltably for pei'fumery pui'poses.
Several vai-ieties are to be found in nursery catalogues, but there is
no material difference in quality between most of them. The following
are the pi-incijjal sorts : —

Bengal — Fruit large, roundish-oval. Skin very rough. Used for
preserving, and one of the best varieties. Tree bears freely.

Lovg Citron. — Fruit very long and somewhat pointed. Skin thick,
rougli, and better adarpted for candied peel than other varieties.

Short Citron. — Fruit much smaller than the preceding variety.
Skin also less thick and rough. Tree very prolific.

Fiji Lkmcln
A species of the Citi'us family (Citrus Figiensis), which differs to

211

some extent from the Citron and Lemon, tliongli possessing more or
less tlie <|iialities of both, has been reeently intro(hiced to Australia
under the name of the (xiant Lemon of Fiji. It was disco vei'ed at
Fiji, and is said to have flowers and foliage that resemble those of the
Citron, wliile tlie fruit lias the acidity of the Lemon, Avith a fragrance
peculiar to itself. The fruits are very lai'ge, averaging tlii-ee or four
pounds, but s(unetime* attain a weight of six pounds. They are not
pointed like Citrons, but are nearly rcmnd and slightly oval. The skin
is similar in colour to tlie Lemon, and deeply ])itted, but not marked liKc
the Citron. It is about an inch thick in the thinnest part, and over two
inches at the eiuls. The l)ulpy part is about five inches in diameter,
and the juice fairly abundant. From 'the skin a good preserve can
be made Avhich has its own peculiar flavour. 'Iliis species Avill
j^robably j)rove sei'viceable in the warm ])arts of Australasia for its
fruit, and may possibly prove a useful stock in these regions foi* other
kinds of Citrus fruits.

Shaddocks.

The Shaddock, Sweet Ball, Pompelmouse, Pomplemous, Pompoleon,
or Pomelow, as it is sometimes called, is Citrus decumana, a species
with very large coarse fruit, which is sometimes twenty pounds in
weight. It is not much cultivated in this part of the world, but
gi'eatly prized in India, China, and the West Indies, where it is
generally used. It Avas introduced into the West Indies from China,
its native country, by a Captain Shaddock, from Avhich circumstances
it derives its common name. There are several varieties, some
having fruit with i-eddish, and others white, pulp, which may be
used for preserving. The trees are robust, bear freely, and make
good stocks for other kinds of the Citrus family. The kinds known
in this part of the world are as follows :—

Large. — Fruit lai'ge, round, and somewhat flattened. Skin smo(^th,
dull yellow, and moderately thick. Used for preserving.

Fear-shdped. — Fruit similar in shape to a very lai-ge obtuse Pen-r.
Skin smooth, creamy-yellow, with a medium thick skin. Can be
used for pi*eserving.

Pomelow. — Fruit xqvj large, round, and rather flattened. Skin
yellowish-green, with a thick and veiy tough rind.- Used for
presei'ving.

AUSTWAMAX Sl'KCIKS OF Cl'I'RCS.

Among the few indigenous fruits that are deserving of attention
are two species of the Citrus family. Citrus ((ustnifasicd, A^ernacularly
known as the Finger Lime and Native Lime, is an evergreen shrub
or small tree, which attains a height of fifteen to twenty feet, and is
indigenous to the (toast regions of Queensland and Northern Xew
South Wales. Tlie fi'uits are two or three inches long, narrow, with
a shape that might be likened to a finger. Iience the common name.

212

In flavour they are sharj^ly acid, and the juice may be used as a
substitute for the Lemon. The wood is yellow, hai'd, and close-grained.
Citnis Planchoni [Citrus cmstraJis, Limonia a>fst7'ah's).—T\uH is a fine
evergreen tree indigenous to the coast districts of Queensland and
Northern New South Wales, which attains a height of fort}- or fifty
feet. It is commonly known as the Native Orange. The fruit is
about an inch and a-half in diameter, almost globular in shape, and
yields a sharply acid juice. The wood is hard, fine-grained, and
takes an excellent polish. Both these species are worthy of attention
in the semi-tropical coast regions of Australia as ornamental plants,
and possibly their fi'uits may be impi-ovedby cultivation. They may
possibly also prove useful stocks for other species of the Citrus family
in congenial localities.

PALILLAS.

This is the Peruvian name for the fruit of C ampomanesia linearifoliay
an evergreen small tree indigenous to South America, also known as
a species of Psidium, or the Guava family. It belongs to the order
Myrtaceae, and attains a height of twenty or thirty feet. The fruit
is the size of a small Apple, and in colour is a deep yellow. It has a
pleasant acid flavour, and makes a good preserve. The tree is fairly
hardy, and may be grown successfully through the greater part of
Australasia, excluding the very cold and also the tropical regions.
As an ornamental plant the Palillas is worthy of a place in shrubberies,,
and it may with advantage be cultivated for its pleasant Guava-like
fmit. Propagation may be eftected by seeds, which should be
covered to the deptli of half-an-inch. Plants are readily and quickly
obtained from layers, and cuttings from ripened wood of the curi'ent
season's growth will root in sand if protected from the weathei'.

PALMS.

Yielding Ediisle Fruits.

Several genera of the Palm family that yield important commercial
fruits, including the Cocoa Nut, Date, and Gringerbread, have been
dealt with in special articles, but there are others which, though less
prominent, are well deserving of attention as economical plants. The
principal of these are dealt with collectively in this ai'ticle, though
possibly one or two useful kinds may have been overlooked by tlm
writer.

Braliea dulcis and llralien ednlis, two compact growing species, Avhich
attain a height of al^out twenty feet, and ai'e indigenous to Lower
California, yield large clusters of Plum-shaped fruit thnt often weigh
from thirty to forty pounds. The fi-uit is somewhat harsh, but m

•218

greatly relislicd by pigs, sheep, and other animals. These Palms are
fairly hardy, and Avill thrive in all except the coldest parts of
Austi'alasisi.

Boras.siis HdhelUfonnls, a s]>ecies indigenous from India to the Persian
Gulf, is a noble and useful Palm, commonly known as the '* Palmyi-a."
It has fan leaves, attains a height of from eighty to a hundred feet,
and produces large bunches of fruit. The fi-iiits are large, and used
foi' food. From the saj) a large propoi-tion of sugar and wine, or
toddy, is obtained. The sap is obtained by making incisions in the
unexpanded Hcmer stalks, /jorassus JEthio picas, a kindred species
indigenous fi-om Egypt to Zanzibar, also yields an edible fruit and a
large amount of sugar and wine from the sap. It is a gigantic Palm,
sometimes the stem being eight oi* nine feet in diameter, and the
leaves ten or twelve feet across. Both species attain a great age,
and are said to live over two hundred yeai-s. In addition to the
value of their fruit and sap, the leaves are also turned to good account
for making baskets, mats, and ropes. Tliis genus will only thrive in
tropical and semi-tropical regions, but in suitable localities either
bpecies is well worthy of attention, both as economical and scenic
plants.

Attalea fainfera , a Brazilian species, yields seeds known as Coquilla
Nuts. This species can only be grown in wai-m regions.

Arecn catechu, an Indian species, yields seeds known as Betel Xuts,
which possess stimulating properties. It requires a Avarm climate.

Bactris Gaslpces (Gnilielmn sptciosa), a handsome species indigenous
to Venezuela and other countries bordering the Amazon and Orinoco
Rivers, is known as the " Peach Palm." It is a wing-leaved species
which attains a height of forty or fifty feet. The fruit is in form
like a hen's egg, but much larger, and is produced in large bunches.
The yellow pulp covering the seeds is firm and mealy, and has a
sweet pleasant flavour. When cooked the fruit is said to combine
the flavour of a Potato and a Chestnut, but to be superior to either.
This fine Palm is well deser\dng of attention in tropical and semi-
tropical regions, both for its fruit and as an ornamental plant.

JJi'plotheiuinm maritimuni, a dwarf Brazilian species, yields a fruit,
the sweet outside pulp of which is edible. The juice of the stem by
fermentation also yields an intoxicating beverage, and, consequenth^
the species is known as the Wine Palm. A kindred species, Di2)lo-
theniium campestre, of dwarf habit, from the same regions, also yields
an edible fruit. These plants can only be grown successfully in
tropical or semi-tropical regions, but are worthy of attention as
handsome oi-namental Palms in congenial localities, irrespective of
their value as fruit-bearing species. Another recommendation is
that the}' will stand long droughts with impunity, and are, thei-efore,
specially well adapted for dry interior regions.

Elau fjuinensis and Elais melariococca, West African species, yield a
valuable commercial oil, Avhich is obtained by crushing and pressing
the palpy fruit. The fruit of the last named species is edible, and it
also yields a palatable beverage from the fermented juice, consequently
it has received the name of the Wine Palm. Both these Palms ai-e

2U

well deserving- of atUMition iii tropical to medium warm regions as
economical and ornamental plants.

Jubcea spectahilis, a tall, strong, and comparativel}' liardy C^iilian
species, is known as tlie Coqiiito Palm. It will attain a height of
fifty or sixty feet, but makes slow growth. The kernels of the seeds
are edible, and the sap yields a sweet substance somewhat similar to
treacle. This handsome Palm is much more hardy than most of the
other kinds named, and niay be cultiyated in localities where the
frosts are light.

Phofiiix sylvestris, a species belonging to the Date Palm family, is
■utilized to ^ gi-eat extent in India, its natiye country, as a sugar-
producing plant. It grows to the heiglit of about forty feet, and
bears large bunches of reddish-yellow berries, which are edible but
greatly inferior to the Date. Sugar is obtained in lai'ge proportions
from the sap, which flows from incisions made in the upj^er part of
the stems without matei-ial injury to the plants. From the sap by
fermentation a species of arrack is obtained. This Palm will thriye
in dry regions and in almost any soil or situation, eyen in drift sands
near to the sea coast. It is also moderately hardy, and may be
grown in all but the colder districts.

Phoenix farwif era, a hardy dwarf species indigenous to India and
China, has shining black berries that haye a s\yeet mealy pulp.

Phoenix reclinata, a hardy South African species, grows about forty
feet high, and has sweet mealy fruit. The two last-named species
can be grown in any locality where frosts are not seyere. All the
species are handsome ornamental plants.

Sahal iimhraculifera is a noble fan-leaved Palm from the West
Indies, where it is known as the " Palmetta." Tt attains a height of
from eighty to a hundred feet and a girth of five or six feet. The
fruit is large, dark-coloured, and is borne in large panicles or bunches.
The sweet mealy pulp is edible and palatable.

Sahal Blackhutmiaria, another West Indian species, mLso yields edible
fruit, and is somewhat similar to the previous one. From the leaves
of both these species hats, baskets, and mats are made. Though
these Palms belong to tropical regions they will adapt themselves to
medium warm districts, and tlirive Ayliei'cver the Citrus family can
be cultivated. Several other species of Sahal yield edible fruits, and
all are handsome ornamental plants.

Washingtonia Jilifcra ( Brahea Jilamentosa, Pritchardia filifera). — This
is the Fan Palm of California, and is ])erliaps one of the hardiest of
the American species. It attains a height of about fifty feet, and
has a noble appearance. The fruit consists of small black berries
borne in clusters, the bunches ranging from ten to twenty pounds in
weight. The mealy i)ulp has a sweet and very pleasant flavour, and
the fruit is used in its native regions, Avliich extend from Arizona
and Colorado to Southern California. Washingtonia rohiista, another
Californian species, is equally hardy, and also yields an edible fruit.
These Palms may be generally cultivated from the semi-tropical to
the medium cool districts, excepting where frosts are severe. They

215

will thrive in any ordinary soil, and are Avorthy of attention both for
their fruit and as ornamental plants.

PAP AW.

HisTORv AND Uses.

The fruit known under this name is the product of Carica Pcqyaya^
a small evergreen tree belonging to the order Papayace}^. (By son e
modern botanists it is classed as a section of Passifioraceae). It is
indigenous to the West Indies and tropical America to Peru, but has
been widely distiibuted through the warmer regions of Asia and
Africa. The tree attains a heiglit of about twenty feet, and has no
branches, the heads, which have a Palm-like appearance, being
composed of masses of large leaves with \gvj long footstalks. The
stem is hollow, and this,
as also the leaves and
fruit, contain a large pro-
portion of acrid milky
juice. This juice when
diluted with water is used
for washing meat, wliicli
it preserves and makes
tender by slackening the
fibres. It is also used
medicinally as an anthel-
mintic and aid to digestion.
There are both male and
female flowers, which ai'e
pi'oduced upon different
trees. The female flowers
are greenish-yellow, bell-
shaped, and the fruit,
which vai-ies somewhat in
shape, is the size of a
snuill Melon. The fruit is
palatable, and is eaten raw
with sugar in the same
Avay as Melons, when
cooked, presei'ved in sugar,

and, when half-grown, pickled in vinegar. A kindred species,
Carica Candamarcensis, a small slender tree fiom Ecuador, where it
gi'ows on the slopes of the Andes to an elevation of nine thousand
feet, also yields a good edible fruit. This fruit, Avhich is from six to
nine inches long and nearly as broad, possesses a rich perfume, and is
very palatable. The fruits ripen in succession, and are in season for
a considerable time.

Papaw.

216

Cultivation and Proi'agaitox.

Tlie Papaw and its kindred speries can only be gi'own snccessfully
in regions that are vvai'ni and fi-ee from frost. A ricli so'l, warmth,
and shelter are essentials, as also moisture. In congenial localities
this fruit is well worthy of attention. In making a plantation the
distance ajjart should be not less than twelve feet, and care must be
taken that there is a fair proportion of male plants, say one in ten.
But little further care is necessary exce})t keeping down weeds while
the ])lants are small. The trees are not long lived, and a plantation
will only last ji^ew years.

Propagati(m is easily effected by seeds, Avhich germinate freely.
They may be sown at any time, and should be covered to the depth
of an inch and a-half .

PAPPEA.

This is a South African evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to
the natui'al order Saj)indacefe and known to botanists as l^appea
Capensis. In its native regions it is genei-ally known in the English
vernacular as the "Wild Plum." The fruit is as large as a medium-
sized Cherry, but in appearance is similar to a Plum. It has a
pleasant flavour, and in its native regions is considered to be a useful
fruit. A good preserve is made fi-om the fruit, Avhich also yields by
pressure a vinous beverage. From the seeds an oil is obtained which
is said to have the same properties as castor oil. The Pappea is
fairly hardy, and may be grown successfully in most parts of Austral-
asia, excepting tropical and very cold regions. It will also thrive in
almost any soil or situation. Propagation is effected by seeds, which
should be planted two inches deep, layei-s ])ut down in the autumn or
spring, or cuttings of the ripened shoots of the current season's
growth.

PASSION FRUIT.

Several species of Tasfi{fiora yield edible fruits, though only a few
are utilized. These are the Common, Small, or Purple-fruited Passion
Fruit, the Grrenadilla, the Large-fruited, the Water Lemon, and
another species known as Decaisne's. The Common Passion Fruit
is Passijlora eduJis, a native of Southern Brazil, a species with bright-
dark evei-green foliage. This species has purple fruit the shape and
size of a hen's Ggg-. which is produced in gi-eat abundance. The fruit
contains a rich succulent pulp, which is agreeabh' sub-acid and
pleasantly flavoured, and is very cooling and refieshing when taken
in hot weather. It is moi'e popular in Austi-alasia than any other
species, and is the well-known Passion Fruit of the shops. The

•217

reasons for tbis jjopularity are tliat this species is hardiei* than other
kinds, and, therefore, better adapted to the climate of the cooler
regions, and tliat it bears more pi-ofusely and with greater certainty.
TJie fruit is produced in succession, and the plants yield more or less
through the greatei- portion of the year. This kind may be grown
successfully in all but the colder parts of Australasia, and. it is a
very profitable fruit. In localities where frosts are troublesome it will be
advisable to plant in sheltered situations. Being a cheerful evergreen,
this species is admirably adapted for covering unsightly buildings in*
fences, and it is a fruit specially deserving of attention from cottagers
and others having limited areas of ground. It may be grown successfully
in a town or suburban back yard and trained over an out-building, taking
up but little space. When grown in this way it serves as a useful
ornamental plant and gives a good return in fruit.

Other Edible Species.

The Grenadilla is the fruit of Passijiora qiiacb-angalan's, a West
Indian species, though the term is often applied to the other kinds. This
species has fruit six to eight inches in length, and somewhat similar in
shape to a small vegetable marrow. It is of a yellowish-green colour
when ripe, and yields an agreeable and juicy sub-acid pulp. The quantity
of pulp, however, is much less in proportion to the size of the fruit than
with the Small Passion Fruit. The plant is also much more tender in
habit, and even under the most favourable circumstances bears less freely.
It is strong in growth, and has fine deep evergreen foliage, but it is too
tender to thrive in any but the warmer districts and in sheltered situations.
The Large Passion Fruit is the product of Pas.sijiora macrocarpa, which
is a native of Brazil and Peru. This species produces fruit from six to
eight pounds in weight, and yields a pleasant sub-acid pulp. As with
the Grenadilla, however, the quantity of pulp is small in proportion to
the size of the fruit. The plant is strong in growth, produces an
abundance of bright deep green foliage, but bears much less freely than
the Common Passion Fruit, and is only suitable for the warmer regions.
The fruit of Pasaijlora Decuisnuina is somewhat similar to the Grenadilla
in quality, but rather larger. The plant is also somewhat similar in
habit and foliage, and is too tender for cultivation except in medium
warm regions. The Water Lemon is the fruit of Fassifiora laurU'olta, a
species indigenous to tropical South America and the West Indies. It is
a strong-growing species, Avith handsome bright green foliage and beautiful
and fragrant fiowers. The fruit is about the size and shape of a Lisbon
Lemon, and contains in the pulp a large proportion of rather Avatery but
agreeably flavoured juice. It is very popular in the West Indies, where
the use of the fruit is supposed not only to allay thirst, but also to promote
an appetite and elevate the spirits. This species can only be cultivated
successfully in warm regions, and is too tender for the colder parts of
Australasia except when grown under shelter. The following species also
yield edible fruits: — Passijlora alata, a strong-growing species from
Brazil, Pas.sfJ^o7'a mucronat i, also from Brazil, Pamijioru j^^data, a species

218

indigenous to tlie West Indies and Guiana, and Fassifora tillifoHa, a
Peruvian species. These species are all handsome evergreen climbers,
and are worthy of attention as ornamental plants in localities suitable for
them, and at the same time they will yield palatable fruits. The fruit of
all the species may be kept in good condition for several weeks after they
are gathered if picked when fully, but not over, ripe.

Cultivation.

All the species of Passion Fruit are strong-growing plants, and require
a rich soil to bring them to perfection. Manure should be used freely in
preparing the ground except in the case of land that is naturally very
rich. Plants may be readily obtained from seed or cuttings, the former
being the most general method. Seeds should be sown in rich sandy
soil, covering them to the depth of a quarter of an inch. It is better to
sow in pots, boxes, or frames, as the cultivator is then in the most
favourable position to give any necessary attention. When the young
plants are large enough to handle they should be potted singly in small-
sized pots or pricked out into sheltered beds, leaving them about six
inches apart. They will be ready to plant out the following season.
Cuttings of the young shoots will generally strike freely in sand or light
soil if put in either in the spring or autumn. When rooted they should
be treated as recommended for cuttings. The only species worth
troubling about for genend cultivation is Passiyfora ethtUs, as it is the
only one that is sufficiently hardy to give satisfactory returns in all but
warm regions. Though the most favourable positions for it are against
fences, walls, or out-buildings, as it then gets better shelter, yet it may
also be grown in regular plantations when circumstances are favourable.
A sheltered situation is, however, necessary, and the plants will not thrive
in localities where the frosts are heavy. Plants may be put in rows
eight or ten feet apart like vines, leaving the same distance between in
the lines. Stakes with wires or battens should be placed to form trellises,
and to these the shoots must be fastened from time to time. The ground
should be kept as free from weeds as possible, and more especially in the
spring and early summer, and before the hot weather fairly sets in it will
be advisable to mulch the surface soil. But little further care is required
except the tying and trimming of the shoots occasionally. Plants under
ordinary favourable conditions will live and yield heavy crops for several
years without renewal. There is a good demand for Passion Fruit
throughout Australasia, and its cultivation should prove profitable in
many localities.

PEACH AND NECTARINE.

History.
The well-known and popular Peach has originated from Amf/ydaJis

219

jjersicu^ ov, as it is termed by some botanists, Persica vnff/aris and Pnuius
persicd, a tree belonging to the Amygdalete section of the natural order
llosacece^ or the Rose family. The Nectarine has originated from the
same source, and though cla^rsed separately there is no substantial
difference between these fruits, excepting that one has a downy, and the
other a smooth, skin. It is not known as to which form is the original
type of fruit, or as to its native countrj' with certainty. It is widely
diffused through the greater part of Asia, and has been cultivated by the
inliabitants of that part of the world from time immemorial. It is saidTo
have been tirst introduced to Europe by the Emperor Claudius, who obtained
it from Persia. When first brought to the Roman States it was called Malum
persicifm, or the Persian Apple, and this is the origin of the word persica.
The word Peach comes by degrees from the same source, and is compara-
tively modern, the fruit being described by old British writers under the
names of peske, peesk, peshe, and /^fc/^e. The generic name Ami/gdalis
comes from amysso (to lacerate) , in allusion to the deep fissures on the
stones.

By the ancient nations of Euro})e tiie Peach w\is looked upon with
suspicion when first introduced, it being generally considered to possess
poisonous properties. Pliny informs us that one of the kings of Persia
sent it to Egypt in order to poison the inhabitants. These ideas as to
the deleterious properties probably originated through the Peach being
confounded with the Bitter Almond, a tree to which it is closely allied, if
it has not originated from the same source. The prejudice against this
fruit, however, gradually wore away, and in time it became very popular.
With the Chinese the Peach has always occupied a prominent position
among fruits, and they have many traditions respecting it. One of these
gives an account of a Peach tree that only bore once in a thousand years,
the fruit of which when eaten conferred immortality upon those who
partook of it. According to another of these traditions there was a
Peach which had been growing upon a mountain from time immemorial,
guarded by a hundred demons, whose fruit if touched produced instant
death.

Uses.

The Peach is =?aid to have been first cultivated in England about the
middle of the sixteenth century, but as in that country it is somewhat
tender and requires to be grown against walls or other shelters, it never
became common and poi)ular in the same way as the Apple, Plum, and
Cherry. In all the southern countries of Europe, where it thrives to
perfection, the Peach has from time immemorial been a favourite fruit,
and generally cultivated. By the inhabitants of these countries the fruit
is also utilized in many ways. The Peach is also a very pctpular fruit in
America, where it is extensively grown from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
The fruit of the Peach when consumed ripe and fresh is very wholesome,
and may be eaten without risk by persons having the most delicate
stomachs. For culinaiy puri)Oses it is excellent, either when ripe or in a
green state. Peaches are an excellent fruit for canning, large quantities

220

in America and Europe being utilized in this way. They are also in
demand for this purpose in Australasia, and our colonial factories are now
using large (|uantities. This demand is expanding with each succeeding
year, and the trade is likely in time to assume large proportions. In the
south of Europe and America, and more especially in California, Peaches
are utilized to a large extent by drying, and this mode of preservation is
deserving of attention from Australa.sian cultivators. The drying i^rocess
is easily effected by halving the fruit, removing tbe stones, and exposing
it upon trays or mats to the sun, leaving the cut sides uppermost.
Another mode is to slice the Peaches, and when prepared in this way
they can be dried somewhat quickei'. If drying is carried on upon a
large scale, the most economical plan will be to use evaporators specially
designed for the purpose, and which may be obtained at a moderate cost.
Cultivators must bear in mind that for either canning or drying sorts
having a firm flesh and tough fibre are better than the more luscious and
melting varieties that are so excellent for the dessert. When halved or
sliced, Peaches and Nectarines are often preserved in brandy or other
.spirit, and in this form make a palatable sweetmeat. The j uice of the
Peach makes an excellent cider, and large quantities of the fruit are
utilized in this way in America. In preparing this beverage the same
directions will apply as given for the making of cider from the Apple,
(See article upon that fruit, page 112, vol. 1). An excellent spirit called
Peach brandy is also obtained from the fermented juice by distillation.

Medicinally the flowers and kernels of the Peach contain a large
proportion of prussic acid, as also does the young green fruit. Fatal
results have been recorded of children Avho have eaten these too freely.
Formerl)^, a decoction of the flowers was often used as an aperient for
children suffering from worms. The leaves, after being boiled in milk,
were also sometimes used for the same complaint. From the leaves
bruised in water and distilled, an extract is obtained called Peach water
which is used for flavouring in cookery. The bruised leaves are also
sometimes steeped in spirits, to which they communicate a flavour some-
what similar to that of the liqueur called Noyau.

Conditions Necessary for Cultivation.

The Peach may be grown successfully in most parts of Australasia, and
it will adapt itself to a wide range of climatic conditions. A warm
climate where there is a strong heat at the ripening stage is, however,
most congenial to the Peach. It is a tree specially well adapted for the
warm inland districts of Australia and New Zealand, where it thrives to
l^erfection and develops the flnest qualities in its fruit. Peach culture,
and more especially in the warmer districts, is likely to prove in the
future a profitable industry. The home demand for fresh fruit is increasing
rapidly, and will expand still more freely when the supply is larger and
more regular, as it will necessarily be as cultivation progresses.

Peaches may be grown successfully in any fairly good soil, but they
thrive to the greatest perfection in a rich sandy loam resting upon a

221

gravelly or limestone formation. Heavy wet deep clay land is the least
favourable location. In preparing the land, excepting in very light open
soils, it should be invariably stirred to a depth of not less than fifteen
inches in order to secure a good root-bed (Jare must also be taken to
secure perfect drainage, as the Peach is rather touchy if its roots are in
saturated ground for any length of time. The trees may be planted at
any time between the falling of the leaves and the middle of August, but
planting should not be delayed till growth becomes active. Vigorous
straight-stemmed trees with well-balanced heads and plenty of rooTs
should always be chosen. Peach trees are not so long lived as many
other fruits, and more es|)ecially in this j^art of the world, where
plantations will rarely last longer than fiom twenty to twenty-five years,
even with the most careful treatment. From twenty-one to twenty -four
feet apart will be ample space for Peach trees. It is particularly necessary
that the ground should be kept as free from weeds as possible. The
Peach, like other deciduous fruits., is liable to suffer from an undergrowth
of vegetation. Keep the weeds down with the scarifier or hoe in pre-
ference to roughly working the ground with the plough or spade. It is
an excellent plan to mulch the surface as far as the roots extend early in
the season, before the settled hot weather comes. By adopting this plan
the moisture contained by the soil is conserved to a very great extent.
Peach trees are very exhausting to the soil, and they must be supplied
with manure when necessary to keep them in good condition. Trees
often fail to produce crops, or die off prematurely, through the lack of a
suitable supply of food. Cultivators should be able to judge from the
appearance of the trees as to whether they require more nourishment.
After a few years' growth an annual or biennial dressing of farm-yard
manure will generally prove serviceable, and if there are any special
deficiencies in the soil, such as the lack of lime, potash^, tkc, they should
be made good.

Pkuxing and Training.

Winter Fruning. — The Peach and Nectarine require more pruning
than any other orchard trees to keep them in good bearing condition.
In the case of young trees the main object is, as a matter of course, to get
a vigorous growth and direct it into certain channels so as to have large,
well-furnished plants as soon as possible. The production of wood is at
this stage the princi['al consideration, and the trees must have their
branches thinned out rather heavily, taking care, however, to leave
enough foliage for shade. As the trees advance in growth the production
of fruit will be the piiniary object. The fruit is produced almost entirely
upon wood of the previous season's growth, and, as these shoots only bear
once, extra pruning is required to keej) the trees shapely and well-furnished.
If left unpruned new shoots will be produced near the points of the old
ones, and growth will be weak and straggling. It is, therefore, essential
that at the winter pruning, the youi]g shoots of the previous sejison should
be shortened back to a few buds. This shortening back is a material
check to over-bearing, and at the same time ensures the production of

Winter Pbuning

P'ig. 2 — Shoot properly Pruned, witli a
young one springing from the base,
which will be the bearing wood next
season.

Fig. 1— Ordinary Shoot of the Previous
Season. liine showing where it
should be cut back.

Fig. 4-- Unpruned Branch with Weakly Shoots.

Fig. 3 — Double Shoots,

223

strong fruit-bearing wood for the following season. The practice also
enables the cultivator to distribute the bearing wood more regularly and
to fill up vacant spaces readily. It should not be forgotten by the
operator that he is pruning both for the present and future. As a rule,
the wood should be shortened back according to its strength, short if
weak, and longer if strong, or say from five to nine inches. Sometimes
very short shoots are produced h.nver down upon the branch than the
main ones, which have several flower buds and a terminal wood bud.
These shoots do not require to be cut back, and they often produce tTic
finest fruit.

The illustrations will materially assist in showing the effects of pruning.
Figure 1 shows an ordinary shoot of the previous season's growth, and
how it should be treated. Figure 2 — A shoot properly pruned, with
young one for next season springing from near the base. The following
winter the parent shoot may be cut back to the base of the younger one.
Figure 3 — Showing the growth of double shoots, one or both of which
may be retained, according to circumstances. Figure 4 sJiovvs the
probable form of growth No. J will make if left unpruned. Figure 5
shows an over vigorous shoot with wood buds only. Figure G shows a
.short lower shoot or spur.

Summe)' Fr"7ung. — Disbudding, or summer pruning, may be practised
with great advantage, and more especially in the case of young trees.
This practice conserves the energies of the trees, facilitates the ripening
of the young wood, and lessens the work of winter pruning. Summer
pruning is eliected in the first place by rubbing off surplus shoots before
growth has made much headway. Care nnist, however, be taken not to
remove too many shoots, as a good supply of foliage is wanted for shade,
and is also essential to healthy root action. As growth advances, if
necessary, the shoots may be again reduced in nuniber, taking care to
distribute the foliage regularly so that it will afford an effective shade.
Shoots that make an over strong growth, say when fifteen or sixteen
inches in length, should be stopped by pinching off the points with the
thumb and finger. This practice will, generally be an effective check t(j
excessive growth, but sometimes these branches will again make an (wer
luxuriant growth from the new shoots they put forth. When it will be
necessary to pinch back again they are eight or nine inches long. Some-
times shoots show soon after growth commences by their strengtJi and
vigour that they are likely to be unfruitful, or what the French term
gourmand branches, and these should be pinched back short as soon as
their character has been ascertained. This will probably induce the
formation of two fruitful branches in place of the old one. Sometimes it
will be advisable to pinch back shoots though they may not be over
luxuriant in order to equalize growth in the case of young trees, or to
induce the formation of branches to fill up vacancies.

Hoot Prniiing. — Root pruning is not often required, biit when, owing
to a very rich soil or other local circumstances, trees are making a)i over
growth of wood and producing but little fruit, it may be practised with
advantage.

Headhuj Old Trees. — AVlicn trees have been alloAved to o-row

224

Winter Pruning.

SUMMEK TKUNING.

Line showing where the Shoot should
be cut back

Fig. 5 — Barren Shoot of the Previous
Season. Line showing where it
should have been cut iback in
Summer Pruning.

Lines showing where to cut when a Second
Stopping is necessary.

Fig. 6« A short lower Shoot or Spur.

225

unpruned, or when the shoots have not been properly sliortened back
every year, they are apt to make a weak and straggling growth of
branches and cease to yield satisfactory crops. Then again these
ti-ees are specially liable to injury from exposure to strong winds,
and the breaking of the branches from the weight of the fruit. Trees
of this class, when healthy, may be renovated by cutting back the
heads to stimulate a growth of strong young branches. This
operation should be perfoi'med in the winter or before growth starts
in tlie spring. The better plan is to cut back only half the branches
one season and the remainder next je^ir. By adopting this system
growth will be more regular, and better protection afforded to the
young shoots. Weak and unshapely trees can often, by heading back,
be turned into compact well-furnished spefimens that will yield good
crops. As a matter of course, however, the practice will be of no use
if the trees are debilitated from disease.

'Training. — Peaches and Nectarines should be invariably trained
wdth low heads, which are not so liable to injury from strong winds
as tall trees, and at the same time afford a better shade to the stems,
which is a matter of some importance in a warm climate. Low
heads also afford greater facilities f oi' gathering the fruit and pruning.
Various forms of training may be adopted, according to the fanc}' of

Young Tree making
Natural growth.

Young Tree properly-
Trained.

A good form for a Peach
Tree

cultivators, but none is l)etter for standard trees than the "globular"
head, as shown by the illtistration. Tliis mode of training enables
the trees to withstand tlie effects of high winds with the least injury,
and affords the requisite shade to the stems and branches. In the

3n

226

United Kino'doni and other parts of* Europe, owin^- to climatic
conditions, Peaches growing in the open ground have to be trained
upon Avails with a sunny aspect. This mode of training is not required
in Australasia, speaking generally, though tlie practice might prove
useful in some of the coldest districts. It might also prove service-
able in hastening maturity, but this object can be more surely and
effectively attained by growing the trees under glass.

THiNNJNti I'll 10 Crop.

Peach and Nectarine trees are frequently over prolific, and set
more fruit than can be bj^ought to perfection. When such is the
case it will be an advantage, if practicable, to thin out the crops at
an early stage of growth. Fine w^ell-flavoured fruit cannot be
obtained from overcrowded branches. Cultivators should bear in
mind that a comparatively small number of really good Peaches Avill
give a much better return than twice the quantity of inferior fruit.
The best time for thinning is when the fruit is about the size of
marbles, and care must be taken not to remove more fi'uit than is
necessary. When circumstances will permit, it Avill be better i;iot to
reduce the crop too much at first, but to thin out a second time after
the " stoning " period, w^hich is a somewhat critical stage with the
Peach and Nectarine, as during this time a proportion of the fruit is
apt to fall. This is more especially likely to be the case in wet soils
after heavy rains, or in irrigated land if water is used at the " stoning "
stage. Cultivators should remember that though thinning out
reduces the number of fruit, yet it does not necessarily lessen the
weight of the crop, Avhile at the same time there will be a vast gain
in qualit}-^. Though the operation of thinning is so much extra
labour, yet it will prove a profitable investment for gi'owei's, Avho
should adopt it as far as may be practicable.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding,
and grafting. Trees are easily raised from seeds, and plants obtained
by this means seem to be more vigorous and better able to Avith stand
disease than others. The greatest draAvback to the culture of Peach
trees is that in many districts, and moi-e especially the cooler ones,
they haA^e of late years been so badly blighted. According to recent
observations of the writer in various districts, he found that seedling
Peaches growing where soiun do not so readily get blighted as those
that haA^e been planted in the ordinary Avay. Of course, seedling
Peaches cannot be depended upon as regards variety, as they often differ
materially from their parents. They may be good or bad^ and a Peach-
stone may produce a Nectarine, or vice versd. But there is no reason
Avhy seedlings should not be raised Avhere the trees are Avanted, budding
them Avith the desired varieties. Stones should be sown in the autumn,

227

covering tlieiii to tlie depth of two or three inches. Plants may be easily
obtained from cuttings or layers, which strike readily, but these methods
iire but little practised and not to be recommended, as trees raised by
them are wanting in vigour. Budding is the most general method of
propagation, and, as a rule, trees sent out by nurserymen are raised by
this means. The operation may be performed at any time during the
summer, when the bark separates freely from the wood, but is usually
done as soon after mid-summer as is practicable. Grafting is not
commonly practised, as in the case of all stone fruits budding is~a
preferable method of propagation. As a rule, the trees should be worked
upon Peach or Nectarine stocks, which, in most localities, will make the
most thrifty and durable trees. They will, in ordinary soils and warm to
medium climates, yield better crops, be less liable to gumming or other
■diseases, and live longer than trees worked upon the Almond or Plum,
which are used as stocks to a large extent. But in the warmer districts
and very dry soils, more especially those containing a large proportion of
lime. Peaches sometimes do best upon Almond stocks, and refuse to
thrive upon their own. Under such conditions Almond stocks must
necessarily have the preference, and these should be raised from robust
varieties. On the other hand, the Plum may prove the most suitable
stock in the colder districts or in v/et heavy soils, as it is far more hardy
than the Peach. Plum stocks have also a dwarfing tendency, and hasten
]naturity, which may be an advantage in cold districts, both as regards
^arliness of the crop and the ripening of the wood. The Cherry Plum is
one of the best kinds for stocks, though others may be used for the
purpose.

IxjuRious Insects.

The Peach suffers from the attacks of various insects, and often to a
■very serious extent. Cultivators will do well to watch carefully for the
appearance of these pests, and apply the best remedies as soon the
presence of the insects is ascertained. It will also be advisable, as far as
may be practicable, to adopt preventative measures, and reduce the risk
•of insect attacks to a minimum. The more prominent insect pests are as
follows : —

Aphides. — Several kinds of these insects are very troublesome to Peach
trees, and if allowed to luake headway cause serious injury to both foliage
and fruit. The two worst species of these insects are known as the
''Black Aphis" and the "Green Aphis." More commonly they are
known as the ''Black" and "Green Fly." Scientists class them as
species of the genus Myzus. The Black Aphis makes its appearance very
■early in the season, sometimes even before growth commences, Tli-e
other species makes its appearance somewhat later in the season. These
insects are specially injurious to the young leaves and flowers, from
which they absorb the juices, and they are also very destructive to the
tender shoots. They increase with great rapidity if they are unchecked,
and sometimes destroy completely the foliage of a tree. Affected leaves,
through their juices being extracted, become contorted and wrinkled, and.

228
Peach Aphis.

Branch showing Insects natural size, and Contortions or " Curl " in the Leaves.

Female Insect (Highly Magnified).

as a matter of course, are unable to perform their proper functions.
These insects are also a cause for the appearance of the Sooty Blight, or
Smut Fungus, which is developed upon their excretions. Aphides are
often associated with the " Blister," or " Curl," disease, though they are

229

not tlie cause of it as is coinmouly supposed. Trees affected with the
disease, however, afford the insects facilities for coiiceahiient in the twisted
leaves, and increases the difficulty in dealing with them. Remedies : — 1.
Tobacco Water. This is an old-fashioned , but an excellent and effective
remedy. 2. Quassia Water. 3, Kerosene Emulsion. 4. Resin Com-
pound. 5. Elder Leaf Water. 6 Walnut Leaf Water. Each of these
remedies should be used as a fine spray, and, as the young foliage of the
Peach and Nectarine is very tender and easily injured, care must be
taken not to use strong solutions. Several sprayings may be required,
and these should be given at short intervals tor as long a period as may
be necessary. Full directions for preparing and using the various
remedies will be found at pages 99 to 102, volume 1.

Borers. — Peach trees are liable to suffer from the larvse or grubs of
several kinds of beetles and weevils, and they are often affected to a
serious extent. Some of these pests are fiiirly well known to cultivators,
but as to others their habits and life histories are more obscure, and there
is a wide field for investigation. One of the most destructive of these
insects is the Peach-tree Borer (Trochilium exitiosum), which also is very
troublesome to Plum trees. This insect in its larva stage eats into the
bark of the stem just below the surface of the ground, and will sometimes
completely girdle the tree. The presence of the insect is indicated, upon

Peach Tree Bober.
Perfect Insects (Natural Size).

Male. Female.

scraping away tlie soil, by the exudation of gum mixed with an excretion
resembling sawdust. The perfect insect is a four-winged moth somewhat
resembling a wasp (see illustration), which has but a very short existence
and is rarely seen. It deposits its eggs, which are very minute, in the
bark at the foot of the tree, and these soon hatch, when the young larvas
at once commence the work of their lives. The next season these grubs
€ncase themselves in sawdust-like cocoons, and from these the perfect
insects emerge. The Elephant Beetle (Oi'thorrhiniis cijlindrirostris) often
proves destructive to the Peach by boring into the branches in its larval
Btage, Several kindred species of the weevil family also attack either

230

branches, stems, or roots. The Cherry Borer {Maroga gigantella) is-
another troublesome insect to Peach trees. Remedies : — The most
effective way of dealing with these pests when above ground or just
below the surface is hand picking as soon as the insects are discovered.
2. Syringing the affected stems or branches with a strong kerosene-
emulsion, or hot water after scraping off the loose bark. 3. When the
insects attack the roots, holes should be made with a crowbar, and into
each one place a small quantity of bi-sulphide of carbon. For full
particulars respecting this remedy see page 98, volume 1.

Caterpillar'^. — Various kinds of these insects attack the foliage, and
more especially early in the season. They also feed upon the flowers,
and to some extent upon' t]i€ young fruit. Eemedies : — 1 . Powdered
Lime. 2. Hellebore Powder dusted over the trees frequently. 3,
London Purple or Paris Green, in solution, used as a spray. 4. Tobacca
Water. Full information as to the preparation of these remedies will be
found on pages 100 to 102, volume 1.

Red S2:)ider. — This minute insect often affects Peach and Nectarine
trees, and more especially during protracted dry weather. It increases
with great rapidity and causes serious injury by feeding upon the juices-
of the leaves. For remedies and full description of the insect see page
82, volume \.

Scale. — Various species of Scale insects more or less injuriously affect
Peach trees, and more especially when they are unhealthy or lacking
vigour from the effects of dry weather, poverty of the soil, the want of
drainage, or other causes. One of the most common and troublesome
species is the one krown as Brown Scale {Leca)>him hemisjphcericnm).,
which is very widely distributed. Ptemedies : — 1 . Kerosene Emulsion.
2. Resin Compound. 3. Soap and Water applied hot. For particulars
as to these remedies see article upon Insecticides, page 98, volume 1.

Tliread Worms. — Peach trees sometimes suffer from the attacks of a
minute insect commonly known as the Thread Worm, also as the Gall
Worm and Nematode Worm. The scientific name of the insect is
Tj/lenchus arenarins. These insects bury themselves in the roots and
form swellings^ or galls as they are commonly called. They increase with
great rapidity, and when a tree is attacked by them, are always found in
large numbers. When trees are attacked by these pests there is very
little chance of their being cured, as the soil becomes infested with them.
For a full and complete description of these insects see article upon Root
Galls, page 95, volume 1 .

Thnjps. — These troublesome minute insects often seriously affect Peach
trees, and more especially after mid-season and prolonged dry weather.
They are found chiefly upon the under sides of the leaves, to which they
are very injurious, as they feed upon the juices. For remedies and
description see article upon Thrips, page 85, volume 1.

Injukious Fungi.

Curl Blight — This is one of the most troublesome pests with which
cultivators have to contend in localities where it is prevalent. The cause

231

is a minute fungus known as Ej'ouscus deformans, Avhich makes its
appearance in a somewhat mysterious manner. There is some difference
of opinion as to the nature of this fungus, but the most feasible theory is
that its ayipearance is due to a very low temperature after the trees have
started into growth. Very often in the spring or early summer, after
several mild or comparatively warm days there will be a sudden change to
sharp cold winds and a corresponding low temperature. This theory is
supported by the fact that the more delicate varieties usually sutler the
most, and trees that are well sheltered are the least affected. When
attacked by the Curl Blight, which is also known as the Blister Blight,
the mid-rib and veins of the leaves become swollen and distorted, forming
wart-like masses. During this malformation the leaves twist and curl in
a peculiar manner, their tissues are destroyed, and they cease to perform
their proper functions. The Curl Blight is a difficult complaint to deal
with, and though it may be checked more or less by careful and prompt
treatment there is no absolute cure. Preventatives : — 1. Provide effective
shelter from cold winds. 2. Work the trees upon robust stocks. 3,
When practicable raise the stocks from seeds where the trees are required,
so that they need not be shifted. 4. Keep the trees in a healthy
vigorous condition by the use of manure when necessary. Remedies : —
1. Sulphate of Iron. 2. Bluestone and Ammonia. 3. Bluestone and
Sodium Carbonate. 4. Eau Celeste. 5. Eau Grison. These remedies
are all used as fine sprays, and should be applied several times at short
intervals. Care should be taken to use somewhat weak solutions, as the
foliage being tender is liable to injury from strong ones ; and whatever
remedy is chosen should be used throughout. Full particulars as to the
preparation and use of these remedies will be found in the article upon
Fungicides, page 98. volume 1.

il/*7c?e?6-.— Peach trees often suffer from various forms of jMildew, and
more especially in localities where the temperature at times is very low
after growth has commenced. Sometimes Mildew is the result of weak-
ness through over-bearing, poverty of soil, drought, or excess of water at
the roots. In fact, debility from any cause predisposes trees to the
attacks of Mildew and other fungi. All kinds of Mildew increase with
great rapidity when unchecked, and prompt measures should be adopted
as soon as any white spots are detected. The most simple and effective
remedy is Lime and Sulphur, which is a certain cure if applied in good
time. For fuller particulars see article upon Mildew, page 91, volume 1.

Root Fiwgufi. — Various kinds of Fungi often aftect the roots of Pe'ach
trees, and sometimes to a serious extent. Their origin is somewhat
obscure, and their appearance may be due to various causes, such as
extreme dryness of the soil or the use of rank manure. It may also make
its appearance upon n^ots that have become ruptured or cankered from
rough cultivation, the attacks of root-feeding insects, or the unhealthiness
of the trees. Remedy : — The most effective way of eradicating root fungi
is to water the surface soil occasionally with a strong solution of Sulphate
of Iron.

Bust. — This fungus is widely spread through Australasia, as also other
parts of the world, and often causes serious injury to the foliage of Peach

and Xectarine trees. It is known to Peach Kust.

scientists as Fnccin'm pruni, and recently

it has been re-named Uromyces amugdalL

Tliongh most commonly known as tlie

Pea<;h iUist this fungus is also common

to the Almond, Apricot, and Plum. It

generally makes its appearance about

mid-summer or soon after, but, as a

matter of course, the time will vary

according to tlie climate and season.

Sometimes, however, this pest appears

much earlier in the season. The fungus

first makes its appearance in the form of

minute yellow dots upon the upper sides

of the leaves, and these expand in size till

they run into each other and form blotches.

The under sides of the leaves have

corresjDonding dots and blotches, and from

these the spores are distributed. The

blotches gradually become darker, and

finally assume a rusty brown colour. The

spores are produced in great abundance,

and when discharged are spread widely

by the wind. Sometimes this fungus also

attacks the fruit, which it causes to

assume a blistered or scabby appearance.

Owing to the colour of the affected

foliage the pest often passes under the

name of the Yellows, but is quite distinct

from the disease known under that name

in Europe and America. The Rust fungus

injures the trees by absorbing the sap

from the leaves, and preventiuL;; them

from performing their ordinary functions,

causing them to fall prematurel}', and,

consequently, preventing the proper

development of the young wood and

fruity buds, wdiich is a matter of material

imjjortance. Preventatives: — 1. Collecting

and destroying by fire all affected leaves

before the dispersal of the spores, which is •

only practicable in the case of small trees. 2. Dressing the stems and

branches in the winter with a composition cf lime and sulphur or potash.

3. The use of potash manure or wood ashes freely about the roots.
Remedies : — 1. Sulphate of Iron used as a spray, and watering the soil
with a stronger solution, or for the latter purpose this material may be
used as a fine powder in the proportion of al30ut half-a-poiind to a medium-
sized tree. 2. Pordeaux Mixture. 3. Bluestone and Ammonia.

4. Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate. Particulars as to the preparation
and use of these remedies are given on pages 99 and 102, volume 1.

Showing Fungus on the Upper
Side of a Leaf.

233

Diseases.

Canker. — This somewhat obscure and variable disease often affects
Peach trees in ditfereut forms, and in all cases canses serious injury.
Sometimes the branches are atfected, when portions of the bark and wood
beneath become discoloured, gradually wither and become dead. Very
frequently the disease appears \i[)on the points of the young shoots, which,
consequently, wither and die back. Then, again, sometimes the roots axa
the parts that are affected The disease may arise from various causes,
such as extremes of dryness or moisture at the roots, injury by insects, or
mutilation either to the roots or branches, tkc. Remedies: — The only
effective w^ay of dealing with this disease is to amputate the parts that are
affected when practicable, either roots or branches. For further particulars
as to this disease see article upon Canker, page 93, volume 1.

Gu7nming. — This is one of the most troublesome and common diseases
that affect the Peach and Nectarine, as also other stone fruit trees. As
the name implies, it shows itself by the formation of masses of gum, which
exude from cracks or wounds in the bark of the trees. The causes of this
disease are not known for certainty, and probably they are various. For
full particulars respecting this disease and its treatment see article upon
Gumming, page 94, volume 1.

Leaf (rails. — This disease is somewhat common to the Peach, as also
various other fruit trees. The " Galls " may be caused by the attacks of
either insects or fungi, and though when few in number, as is frequently
the case, they do not materially itijure the trees, yet when numerous they
are a check to healthy leaf action. Remedies: — 1. Bordeaux Mixture.
2. Resin Compound. Using both as fine sprays, 3. Lime and Sulphur
dusted over the foliage. For further information see article upon Leaf
Galls, page 95, volume 1.

lioot Gout. — Sometimes the roots of Peach trees are studded with
irregular swellings, which assume the form of wart-like knots and rings,
and these are often discoloured or cankered. In appearance they are
somewhat like roots affected by Thread, or Nematode, Worms, previously
described, but the trouble comes from other causes. As in the case of
some other diseases the causes are obscure, but probably are the result of
injuries causing ruptured roots through rough or careless working among
them, the use of over strong manures, or possibly the punctures of minute
insects. Roots affected in this way become brittle, and gradually cease to
perform their proper functions. They have also a tendency to produce
adventitous buds and send up suckers. Remedies : — When but slightly
affected, the roots should be opened out and the diseased ones cut away
to such an extent as may be practicable. If the roots are badly affected
there is but small hope of a cure, and the better plan will be to destroy
the trees at once.

Yelloivs. — This name appears to be applied to several obscure diseases
in various parts of the world for the reason that the foliage of affected
trees has a yellow or pale appearance. Sometimes it is applied in
Australasia to trees that are affected with Rust, but more frequently to
those whose foliage is unhealthy through weakness induced by poverty of

234

Peach Yeli,ov\s

Branch showing ^Yeakly Autumn Shoots.

Brunch showfng an Abnormal
Tufted Grov.th.

Fruit affected by the Disease.

•235

V\ \i

Hx^VinMt'/

Tree Dying from the Disease.

236

■soil, want of drainage, or other causes. These forms of Yellows, which
also pass under the name of Jaundice, may be cured if treated at an early
stage of the complaint by removing the causes and amputating such parts
of the trees as are aifected by disease. There is, however, another form
of Yellows which is very destructive in America and to a less extent in
Europe, but the writer is not certain as to whether this disease is as yet
to be found in Australasia. It is uncertain as to whether this disease is
of American origin, but it has caused the destruction of an immense
number of Peach trees in the United States. This disease first makes its
appearance upon the fruit, which becomes spotted and ripens abnormally
early, sometimes a month before the proper time. The spots vary in
colour, according to the variet}-, from a dull red to a deep purple.
Underneath the skin, below the spots, the flesh is blotched and streaked
with red. The foliage at first is apparently healthy, but as the season
advances it assumes a yellowish tinge, which gradually deepens to reddish-
brown, and the leaves twist and curl. Another indication of the disease
is the starting into growth of the young buds upon the current season's
wood as soon as they are formed. Pale weak sprouts also spring from
abnormal and obscure buds that are developed in the bark. The flowers
of affected trees make a much earlier appearance than usual, and are often
iproduced in the autumn. When trees become affected by this disease
they gradually die off, generally branch by branch. Sometimes they will
go off after the first season, but often linger on for two or three years.
There is no known cure for this disease, and should it make its
appearance, affected trees must be promptly rooted out and destroyed.
The disease may be transmitted by cuttings, grafts, or buds from affected
trees, and, consequently, in propagating great care is necessary.

Selection of Sorts.

Peaches are broadly divided into two classes, called respectively free-
stones^ or meJters, and cling-siones, or pavie^. The first-named class
comprises those kinds that separate freely from the stones. In the
•cling-stone class the jiulp adheres firmly to the seeds. Each class
embraces a number of varieties named and cultivated, and the list is
being added to every year. The varieties difi*er wddely in size, shape,
colour of the skin and flesh, juiciness, flavour, and in the time of ripening.
In making a selection cultivators must* take all these matters into
consideration, as also the purposes for which they are growing the fruit.
As dessert fruit, fine-looking luscious juicy varieties are desirable, and
•earliness and lateness of ripening are considervHtions that must not be
ignored. For canning or drying, the requirements are a firm flesh and a
tough fibre. If wanted specially for cider-making or distilling, the
varieties should be juicy and free bearing.

Varieties of Peaches.

There are an immense number of varieties in cultivation, and, as new
sorts are readily obtained, the list is rapidly extending. The descrij^tions

237

given are the normal ones, but cultivators must bear in mind that cJimate-
is an important factor in develojung the qualities of Peaches. The
following catalogue embraces most of the principal varieties : —

Alexandra {Alexandra Noblesse). — An excellent English variety, a
seedling from the well-known Noblesse. Fruit very large, round, and
ripens early. Skin pale, with a few red dots on the sunny side, and
covered with a thick down. Flesh pale, very juicy, tender, melting, rich,,
vinous, and separates freely from the stone.

Alexander's Earii/. — A recently introduced American free-fetaue_
variety. Fruit medium to large, roundish, but slightly pointed, and
ripens very early. Skin very dark red. Flesh juicy, melting, and well
flavoured.

Amsden's Jime. — An American free-stone variety of recent introduction..
Fruit above medium size, round, and ripens very earl}'. Skin very highly
coloured with red. Flesh pale, juicy, melting, with a good flavour.

Barnngton {Ihichingham Mignorme). — An excellent old English free-
stone Peach. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to ovate, and ripens at
mid-season, a few days after the lioijal George. Skin greenish-yellow,,
marbled with red on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish, slightly tinged,
with red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich flavour.

Barton's Neivington. — A very good variety raised in Victoria. Fruit
medium-sized, roundish, and ripens a little after mid-season. Skin
greenish-yellow, tinged with red on the sunny side. Flesh juicy, melting,
well flavoured, aad separates freely from the stone.

Bellegarde {Belle de Tilleviont, French Royal George., Galaiide^ Noire
de Montrevil, Violette lldtive). — An old and excellent French free-stone
Peach. Fruit large, round, and regular, ripens about mid-season. Skin
nearly covered with deep red, and streaked with a darker tint. Flesh
pale yellow, slightly red at the stone, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour.
Suitable for canning.

Brigg's Red Mag. —An American variety of good quality, specially
valuable for its earliness. Fruit medium to large, free- stone, and ripens
very early. Skin nearly covered with bright deep red. Flesh creamy-
white, very juicy, and pleasantly flavoured.

Comet. — An English free-stone variety, a seedling from the Salwag..
Fruit large, round, and ripens a little after mid-season. Skin pale
yellow, with a crimson cheek. Flesh pale yellow, juicy, and melting.
Suitable for canning.

Conhling. — A newly introduced American free-stone variety. Fruit
large, roundish, and ripens a few days later than the Early Crawford.
Skin yellow, with crimson velvet cheek. Flesh golden yellow, juicy, and
well flavoured. A good Peach for canning.

Cooled ge's Favourite {Early Red Rareripe). — An excellent American
free-stone variety. Fruit lai'ge, roundish, and ripens medium early.
Skin smooth, pale, with a rich crimson mottled cheek. Flesh very juicy,
melting, sweet, with a rich high flavour.

Crawford's Earhj {Early Crauford, Early Malecoton). — An American
free-stone variety of great excellence. Fruit very large, roundish-oblong,,
and ripens medium early. Skin yellow, with an orange-red cheek. Flesh

238

yellow like an Apricot, a little red towards the stone, melting, sweet,
witli a rich luscious flavour. This is a Peach specially suited for drying
or canning, and is worthy of general cultivation.

Crawford's Early

CrawfonVii Late (Superb Malecoton). — Another superior American
variety from the same source as preceding one. Fruit similar to Craw-
ford's Edrhf in size, form, and colour, but ripens about three weeks later
This variety is also specially worthy of attention for canning and drying.
\ >l)agmar. — An English free-stone variety, raised by Mr. Rivers from
Early Albert., which that gentleman also raised. Fruit medium-sized or
over, round, and lipens medium early. Skin very downy, pale yellow,
but nearly covered with minute crimson dots, so dense that they nearly
form a solid mass of colour, and give the fruit a mottled appearance.
Flesh white, very melting, vinous and richly flavoured.

Deardon's Seedling. — A excellent free-stone l^each raised in Victoria.
Fruit largje, round, and ripens late. Skin yellowish-green, with a red
cheek. Flesh melting, very juicy, and finely flavoured.

Desse Tardive. — A first-class French free-stone variety. Fruit large,

239

round, rather flat at the top, .'iiid ripens towards the end of tlie season.
Skin pale, tliickly covered witli small red dots, and a pale red cheek.
Flesh pale greenish-white, with a rosy tinge next the stone, melting, very
juicy, sweet, vinous, and highly flavoured. An excellent late Peach

Dr. Hogg. —An excellent free-stone variety raised in England by Mr.
Rivers from a French Peach. Fruit very large, round, and ripens early
in the season. Skin thin but tough, lemon coloured, dotted with crimson,
with a faint red cheek. Flesh yellowish- white, somewhat firm, but
melting, with a rich sugary flavour. A large showy Peach, very earfy,-
<ind bears carriage well.

Dnl-e of Edinburgh. — A first-class free-stone variety raised in Victoriju
Fruit large, round, and ripens a little after mid season. Skin yellowish-
green, with a deep red cheek. Flesh melting, juicy, and well-flavoured.

Early Admirable {Belle de Vitr//). — A very good French free-stone
variety, with large, roundish fruit, which ripens medium early. Skin
pale 3^ellow, with a bright red cheek. Flesh creamy-white, with a tinge
of red next the stone, juicy, melting, with a rich sweet flavour.

Earl// Albert. — An excellent English free-stone Peach raised by the
late Mr. Rivers. Fruit above medium size, roundish, and ripens early.
Skin greenish-yellow, with a dark red cheek. Flesh white, with a faint
red tinge next the stone, juicy, with a rich sugary flavour.

Earl// Alfred. — An English Peach of excellent quality raised by Mr.
Rivers from a seed of H Kilt's Taivrii/ Nectarine. Fruit medium to large,
roundish, and ripens early. Skin i)ale yellow, with a mottled crimson
cheek. Flesh yellowish- white, juicy, melting, and richly flavoured.

Early Anne {Green Xutmeij). — An old English free-stone variety, with
medium -sized, round fruit, which ri])ens very early. Skin pale, with a
faint red cheek. Flesh white, moderately juicy, and fairly well flavoured.

Early Jleatrice. — This is a useful free-stone variety of English orio-in,
raised by Mr. Rivers, and valuable for its earliness. Fruit medium-sized,
and ripens very early. Skin creamy -white, with a marbled red cheek.
Flesh white, juicy, and well flavoured.

Early Grosse Jfignonne (Mignonhe Ildtive). — An excellent French
free-stone variety, with large roundish fruit, which ripens medium early.
Skin pale, with a red cheek strewed with bright crimson dots. Flesh
creamy-white, lightly veined with red, very juicy, melting, and richly
flavoured.

Early Xevnngton {Americou Early Xewington). — A fine Peach of
American origin, quite distinct from other sorts known as Bewingtons.
which are cling-stones, while this is a free-stone, though sometimes it
^adheres slightly. Fruit large, round, and ripens early. Skin yellowish-
white, with a red cheek, dotted and streaked with crimson. Flesh
creamy-white, with red next the stone, juicy, melting, with a rich vinous
flavour.

Early Txivers. — A fine English free-stone Peach raised by the late Mr.
Rivers. Fruit large, roundish, and ri})ens very early. Skin pale yellow,
with a light red cheek. Flesh white, juicy, melting, with a brisk pleasant
flavour.

Early Silver, — Another fine English free-stone variety, raised by Mr«

240

Rivers from a seed of the H7wV(? Nectarine. Fruit iarge, roundish-ovate,
and ripens luediuni early. Skin creamy-white, with a faint blush of red
on the cheek. Flesh white, very juicy, melting, with a rich brisk vinous
flavour.

Early Silver.

Early York (Chancellor, Early F^irjile). — An old English free-stone
variety, with roundish-ovate fruit, which ripens medium early. Skin
pale, dotted with red, and a deep red cheek. Flesh greenish- white, very
juicy, melting, with a briskly rich flavour.

Early Victoria. — An English free-stone Peach raised by Mr. Rivers
from a seed of Early York, which it to a large extent resembles, but
ripens rather earlier. Fruit medium-sized, roundish, and ripens early.
Skin pale, with a deep red cheek. Flesh creamy- white, very juicy,
melting, with a sweet brisk flavour.

Exquisite. — A fine handsome Peach of American origin. Fruit very
large, roundish oval, and ripens at mid-season. Skin deep yellow like an
Apricot, with a dark crimson mottled cheek. Flesh deep yellow, veined
and stained with red next the stone, melting, juicy, rich, and vinous.
Suitable for canning.

241

Flat China {China Pench, Java Peach). — A very distinct variety
which is useful for its earliness, tliough only second-rate in quality.
Fruit quite flat, from two to three inches across, and about a third of the
diameter in thickness. Ripens earlier than any other variety. Skin pale
green, with sometimes a tinge of brownish-red. Flesh greenish-white,
very juicy, pleasant, but not highly flavoured. This variety is a prolific
and very early bearer

Foster. — A popular American free-stone variety. Fruit uniformly
large, and ripens early. Fruit roundish, slightly flattened. Skin deep
orange, with a red cheek. Flesh yellow, very rich, and juicy. Hardy,
productive, and a favourite canning variety in America.

Grosse Mignonne {Avarif, Early Purple, Early Vineyard j For sterns
Early, French Mignonne, Royal Kensington, Royal Sovereigriy Superb
Royal). — An excellent, well known, and popular free-stone variety of
French origin. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat flattened, and ripens at
mid-season. Skin pale greenish-yellow, mottled with red, and a brownish-
red cheek. Flesh yellowish-white, tinged with red next the stone, juicy,
melting, with a rich vinous flavour.

Hames' Early Red. — An American free-stone variety, with round,
medium-sized fruit, which ripens early. Skin pale, but nearly covered
with deep red. Flesh greenish-white, very juicy, sweet, and well
flavoured.

Haled Early {Early German). — A first-class free-stone variety of
American origin, which ripens early. Fruit medium size, nearly round,
Skin yellowish-green, nearly covered with dark red. Flesh creamy-white,
juicy, melting, sweet, and well flavoured.

Jjady Ralmerston. — A fine and popular English variety raised by the
late Mr. Rivers from a stone of the Fine-Apple Nectarine. Fruit large,
roundish, and ripens rather late Skin deep yellow, marbled and flushed
with crimson. Flesh pale yellow, juicy, and well flavoured. A good
variety for canning.

Late Admirable {La Royale, JucUVs Melting, Peche Royale, Teton de
Venus). — An old, excellent, and popular French variety. Fruit very
large, inclining to oval, terminating with an acute swollen nipple, and
ripens rather late. Skin pale yellowish-green, with a light red cheek, and
marbled with a deeper tint. Flesh greenish-white, with red veins near
the stone, very juicy, melting, and richly flavoured.

Lemon Clingstone. — A fine American variety, which is a great
favourite in the United States for canning. Fruit large, oblong, with a
large swollen nipple like Late Admirable, and ripens about the same time
as that variety. Skin pale bright yellow, with a purple-red cheek.
Flesh yellow, slightly red at the stone, firm, with a rich sprightly vinous
flavour.

Lord Palmerston. — An English variety raised by th^ late Mr. Rirers
from a seed of the Princexs of Wales. Fruit very large, and ripens late.
Skin pale, with a little red on the cheek. Flesh yellowish-white, deeply
stained with red at the stone, to which it adheres somewhat, firm, juicy,
and well flavoured.

Magdala. — This fine free-stone variety is of English origin, and was

2o

242

Lady Palmerston.

raised from a stone of the Orange Xectariue. Fruit large, and ripens at
mid-season. Skin nearly smooth, creamy- white, marbled with crimson.
Flesh juicy, melting, and in flavour a combination of Peach and Nectarine.

Nohhsse {Lord Montague's, MelUsh's Favourite, Vanguard). — A very
popular, and well-known old English free-stone variety. Fruit large,
roundish-oblong, terminating with a small nipple, and ripens about mid-
season. Skin pale yellowish-green, with a red cheek, and clouded with a
darker red. Flesh creamy- white, very juicy, melting, and highly flavoured.

Old Newington (Newington, Large Newington). — An old and well-known
English cling-stone variety, which has been cultivated for over two
hundred years. Fruit large, roundish, and ripens a little after mid-season.
Skin pale yellow, with a rich deep red cheek, with streaks of a darker
tint. Flesh yellowish- white, deep red at the stone, to which it adheres
flrmly, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour.

Oldmixon Clingstone. — An American variety that is very popular in
the United States. Fruit large, roundish-oval, and ripens a little after
mid-season. Skin yellowish-white, with a cheek varying from pale to
deep red, and dotted with, crimson. Flesh creamy-white, very juicy, firm,
,vith a luscious rich high flavour.

Orange Cling-stone. — An excellent American variety. Fruit large,
round, with no point at the apex, and ripens medium late. Skin deep

243

•oranf^e, with a red cheek. Flesh deep yellow, firm, juicy, with a vinous
flavour. An excellent Peach for canning and drying.

Facie (Jf Pompone (Gros Malecoton^ Pavie Monstrueux, Pavie Rouge),
— All old and useful French cling-stone variety. Fruit very large,
Toundish-oval, terminating with an obtuse swollen nipple, and ripening
very late. Skin yellowish- white, but covered to a great extent by deep
red. Flesh yellowish-white, deep red at the stone, to which it adhe,res
^ery firmly, juicy, sweet, with a vinous musky flavour.

Plquet^s Lite. — A fine American free-stone variety, with large round
fruit, which ripens late. Skin deep yellow, with a red cheek. Flesh
yellow, melting, sweet, with a rich aroma. Suitable for canning and
<irying.

Prince of Wales. — An excellent English free-stone Peach raised by the
late ]Mr. Rivers from a seed of Pitmamn Orange Nectarine. Fruit very
large, roundish, rather flattened, and ripens very late. Skin pale green,
with a dark red cheek, and covered with a thick down. Flesh greenish-
white, stained with red next the stone, juicy, melting, sugary, with a
vinous flavour.

Princess of Wales. — Another good English free-stone variety raised by
the late Mr. Rivers from a seed of Pavie de Pompone. Fruit very large,

Noblesse.

244

Old Newington.

round, terminating with a nipple, and ripens very late. Skin creamy
white, slightly shaded with pale red. Flesh white, deep red next the
stone, juicy, melting, and very richly flavoured.

Red Italian. — A very fine free-stone Peach of doubtful origin. Fruit
very large, roundish, and ripens late. Skin bright yellow, with a heavj^
deep red cheek. Flesh juicy, rich, and highly Havoured. An excellent
variety for canning.

lied Jfagdale7i (French MaqdaJen^ Madelewe de Courson, Madeleir/e
Rouge).— A favourite old French free-stone variety. Fruit medium-sized,
rather flattened at the stalk, and ripens at mid-season. Skin pale
yellowish-white, with a lively red cheek. Flesh white, tinged with red
next the stone, juicy, sugary, ^vith a rich vinous flavour.

Reine des Vergers {Monstrueuse de Done, Orchard Queen). — Ad
exeellent old French free-stone variety. Fruit very large, roundish -oval,
and ripens a little after mid-season. Skin pale green, profusely dotted
with red, and a bright red cheek. Flesh greenish- white, deep red next
the stone, rather firm, juicy, with a sprightly vinous flavour. An
excellent market Peach from its size and because it carries well, and
might prove suitable for canning.

Roi/al Charlotte (Kew Early Purple, T^ord Fauconherg's, Lord Nelsons).
— A fine old and favourite English free-stone variety. Fruit rather large.

245

roundish-ovate, and ripens about mid-season. Skin greenish -white, with
a^Jdeep red cheek. Flesh creamy-white, pale red next the stone, juicy,
vinous, with a rich flavour.

Rix/at George {Ecirlji Bourdine, Superb).— An excellent and well-know^n
English free-stone variety that has been extensively cultivated for many
3^ears in Europe, where it ranks as one of the leading Peaches. Fruit
large, round, somewhat depressed, and ripens' before mid-season. Skin
;i)ale, with a broad deep red cheek, and dotted with red. Flesh creamy^
white, deep red at the stone, very juicy, melting, with a rich luscious
flavour.

Royal George.

Boyal George Cling-stove. — A very good Peach which is generally
known under this name in the colonies, though why so called is not
known. It more properly belongs to the Newington family, and the two
varieties under one name cause confusion. Fruit large, round, and ripens
About mid-season. Skin pale, with a dark red cheek. Flesh firm, juicy,
-and well flavoured.

Salwaj/. — A useful English free-stone variety, with medium-sized fruit,
which ripens very late. Skin rich deep yellow like an Apricot. Flesh
•deep yellow, very juicy, and highly flavoured. Suitable for canning.

Shanghai. — A variety of Chinese origin, with large roundish-oval fruit,
which ripens a little after mid-season. Skin pale yellowish-green, with a

246

slightly red cheek. Flesh greenish-yellow, melting, juicy, with a rich-
flavour, and adheres slightly to the stone.

Smithes Newington [Early Keivington Clingstone). — An English
variety, with medium-sized roundish-oval fruit, which ripens medium
early. Skin pale yellow, with a lively red cheek streaked with a deeper
tint. Flesh pale yellow, tinged with light red next the stone, juicy, and
well flavoured.

»^'tKmp the World. — An excellent American free-stone variety with au'
uncouth and absurd name. Fruit very large, roundish, inclining to
oblong, and ripens about mid-season. Skin pale, thickly dotted witL
red, and a bright red cheek. Flesh creamy-white, juicy, melting, and
richly flavoured.

Susquehanna {G^^iffiths'' Mammoth). — Another fine American free-stone
Peach. Fruit large, nearly globular, and ripens about mid-season. SkiiL
rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red. Flesh deep yellow, juicy,,
sweet, with a rich vinous flavour. Suitable for canning.

WaJhurton Admirable. — An English free-stone variety, with large round
fruit, which ripens somewhat after mid-season. Skin pale yellowish-
green, with a crimson streak, and mottled with a darker shade. Flesh
yellowish-white, juicy, and well flavoured. A good late Peach.

Waterloo. — A cling-stone variety ef excellent quality. Fruit medium-
sized, round, and ripens very early. Skin creamy, deeply suff'used witli.
red. Flesh juicy and highly flavoured.

Whatmough's March. — An excellent Peach raised in Victoria, with
large fruit, which ripens very late. Skin highly coloured with red.
Flesh juicy and well flavoured.

Yellovj Admirable {Abricotee, Apricot Peach, Golden Rarenpe, Orange-
Peach). — A good old French free-stone variety that is worthy of more
attention than it receives in this part of the world. Fruit large, roundish-
oval, and ripens very late. Skin deep yellow, with a pale red cheek.
Flesh yellow, a little red next the stone, firm, not very juicy, with a rich
flavour somewhat similar to an Apricot. An excellent Peach for canning:
and drying.

Yellow Alberge {Gold Fleshed, Golden Mignoniie, Purple Alberge). —
Another good old French free-stone Peach, with medium-sized round
fruit, which ripens a little before mid-season. Skin deep golden-}' ellow,.
with a dark red cheek which extends over the greater part of the fruit.
Flesh deep yellow, and red next the stone, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant
vinous flavour. Suitable for canning.

Yelloiv Italian. — A very fine cling-stone Peach of uncertain origiui.
Fruit very large, roundish, and ripens very late. Skin bright orange,.
with a slight flush of red on the cheek. Flesh firm, sugary, and highly
flavoured. A first-class Peach for canning or drying.

Varieties of Nectarines.

The following list comprises the best and most popular varieties : —
Albert. — A fine English variety, raised from the White JSectarinCy
which ripens at mid-season. Fruit large and round. Skin greenish-

247

white, with a pale red cheek. Flesh pale red towards the stone, from
which it separates freely, juicy, melting, with a brisk pleasant flavour.
Somewhat tender in cold districts, but a useful Nectarine for warmer
localities.

Ikdgoivan. — An English variety with large, roundish, slightly ovate
fruit, and nearly allied to Violette HMive, but is more hardy and vigorous.
Skin pale green, mottled with red on the shaded side, and deeply flushed
with red next the sun. Flesh greenish-white, veined with red next-ihe-
stone, from which it separates freely, melting, juicy, and highly flavoured.
Eipens medium early. Tree robust and very hardy.

Downton. — An old but first-class English variety, a cross between
Elruge and Violette Hdtive. Fruit large, roundish-oval. Skin pale
green, with a red cheek. Flesh greenish-yellow, tinged with deep red
next the stone, melting, juicy, with rich flavour. Ripens a week earlier
than the EJo^uge. Free-stone.

EaThj Newivgton (Early Black, Lucomhes Seedling). — A very early
English variety, and one of the best cling-stone Nectarines. Fruit large,
roundish-ovate. Skin pale green ground, but nearly covered with bright
red, and mottled with a darker tint. Flesh greenish-white, deep red
near the stone, juicy, sugary, and highly flavoured. A much earlier and
rather better flavoured variety than the Kevjington.

Eh-u"-.

Elruge" {Claremont, Oathmls, Sjprw grove). — An old and very popular
English free-stone variety, which deserves a place in every collection. Fruit
large and oval. Skin pale green, richly suffused with dark red, and

248

dotted with small spots. Flesh greenish-yellow, tinted with red next the
stone, melting, very juicy, and highly flavoured. Kipens at mid-season.
Hardiviche. — A verj hardy and prolific English variety raised from the
Elruge, Fruit very large, almost round, and inclining to oval. Skin pale
green, and covered to a large extent with dark purplish-red. Flesh
greenish-yellow, with a tinge of red next the stone, from which it
separates freely, melting juicy, and rich. Kipens a little before the
J^jlruge,

Hunt's Tawny.

Hunt's Tawny. — An excellent old English free-stone Nectarine, and
one of the best of the early varieties, as it is very hardy and prolific.
Fruit medium-sized, roundish-ovate. Skin pale orange, with a dark red
cheek, dotted with specks of russet. Flesh deep orange, juicy, melting,
and highly flavoured.

Imperatrice. — This is a hardy and prolific free-stone variety which
somewhat resembles Violette Hdtive, but is not so red near the stone.
Fruit medium size, roundish-ovate. Skin yellowish-green, with a heavy
purplish-red cheek. Flesh yellowish- white, melting, juicy, and very
richly flavoured. Fruit will hang on the trees till it shrivels and becomes
a perfect sweetmeat. Ripens at mid- season.

Lord Napier. — An English free-stone variety raised from a stone of
the Early A Ihert Peach. Fruit large, and ripens very early in the season.
Skin cream colour, with a delicate red cheek. Flesh creamy-white, juicy,
and luscious.

Newington [Old XewingtoUy Smith's Nnoinqton, Rough Roman). — A
very old and popular English cling-stone variety. Fruit large and nearly

249

round. Skin nearly covered with deep red, and mottled with a darker
hue. Flesh yellowish-white, tinged with deep red next the stone, firm,
juicy, and richly flavoured. Fruit will hang till it shrivels, when its
flavour is most perfect. Ripens at mid-season.

Pine- Apple. — This is an English free-stone variety raised from the
Pitmaston Orange, and by some considered to be superior to the parent.
Skin deep orange, with a red cheek. Flesh orange, juicy, with a piquant
vinous flavour. Ripens medium late, and is an excellent variety.

Pitmaston Orange ( WUliams Orange), — An excellent English yellow
free-stone variety of vigorous habit. Fruit large, roundish-ovate. Skin
deep orange, with a brownish-red cheek. Flesh deep yellow, tinged with
red next the stone, melting, juicy, sweet, and richly flavoured. Ripens
•at mid-season.

Prince of Wales. — A fine free-stone variety raised by Mr. Rivers, of
Sawbridgeworth, England, from a Peach stone. Fruit very large, slightly
oval, and will hang long (ju the tree after it is ripe. Skin greenish-
yellow, with a deep dull red cheek. Flesh yellowish- white deep red near
the stone, juicy, with a rich vinous flavour. Ripens rather late.

Rivers^ Orange. —A variety raised by Mr. Rivers from tlie Pitmaston
Orangey which it resembles to some extent, but is somewhat hardier and
more prolific. Fruit large, roundish-ovate. Skin deep orange, with a
brown-red cheek. Flesh yellow, sweet, and well flavoured. Ripens at
«iid-season.

Rivers^ White. — This is another variety raised by Mr, Rivers from a
.«tone of the White Nectarine. Fruit large, nearly round. Skin greenish-
white, with a slightly red cheek. Flesh white, very iuicy, high flavoured,
•and separates freely from the stone. Ripens at mid-season.

Roman (Red Roman, Old Roman). — This is the oldest variety on
record, being mentioned by Parkinson, an English writer, in 1629. It
has retained its popularity to the present time, and is to be found in
most collections. Fruit cling-stone, large, roundish, a little flattened at
the top. Skin nearly covered with brownish-red, with russety specks.
Flesh greenish-yellow, deep red next the stone, rich, juicy, with a high
vinous flavour. Ripens a little after mid-season. Tree very vigorous and
productive.

Stanivick. — A very good late free-stone variety of English origin, but
raised from a stone brought from Syria. Fruit large, roundish-oval.
Skin pale green, with a deep purplish-red cheek. Flesh white, melting,
sugary, and highly flavoured.

Stanwick Elruge. — A fine free-stone Nectarine of English origin,-
obtained by crossing two well known and popular varieties. Fruit large,
.and ripens medium late. Skin pale green, richly suffused with deep red.
Flesh juicy, and combines the flavour of both parents.

Victoria. — This is a prolific, hardy, and excellent free-stone Nectarine,
raised by Mr. Rivers from a cross between the Stamoick and Violette
Ildtive. It is somewhat similar to the Stanivick, but ripens several days
earlier. Fruit large, roundish-oval. Skin greenish-yellow, with a deep
crimson cheek. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, sweet, with a rich flavour.

Violette Grosse — A free-stone variety of French origin, which is

250

Pitmaston Oiange.

Stamvick Elruge.

251

somewhat similar to Violette Ildtive, but the fruit is larger, not quite so-
good in flavour, and ripens about a fortnight later. Fruit large, roundish-
ovate. Skin yellowish-green, flushed and marbled with violet-red. Flesh
yellowish-green, sweet, and pleasant, though less vinous than Violette
native.

Violette Hdtive [Earh/ Violet, Violet Aromatic, Hampton Court). — This
is an excellent and useful French free-stone variety. Fruit large, roundish-
ovate. Skin yellowish-green, largely covered with purplish- red, and
mottled with a deeper colour. Flesh yellowish-green, deep red next the
stone, melting, juicy, with a very rich flavour. Ripens early.

PEA NUT.

History and Uses.

The plant that yields what are variously known as Pea Nuts, Earth'
Nuts, or Ground Nuts is known botanically as Arachis hypogcea, and"
belongs to the large natural order Legiiminosce, or the Pea family. It is
an annual plant and a Native of Brazil. The Nuts are the seeds which
are formed in pods, and these in a singular manner approach the earth,,
which they penetrate to the depth of several inches. The pods are
developed and matured when buried in this way. The plant attains the-

Plant.

Fruit (Natural Size).

height of fifteen to eighteen inches, is of a spreading habit, and covers
the ground quickly. In its native country the Pea Nut is grown exten-
sively for eating, after being roasted, as also for the manufacture of oil, of

2.V2

which it yields a large proportion. The plant is also extensively cultivated
in the United States, India, China, and other countries, both for its Nuts
and the manufacture of oil. The. oil is obtained by pressure, and the
Nuts are said to contain nearly fifty per cent. This oil is said to be
equal to tliat obtained from the Ob've. and is not so liable to become
rancid very quickly. The cake that remains after the oil is expressed is
a valuable material for feeding stock, and more especially dairy cattle or
pigs. From the tops of the plants, when cut green and dried, a very
nutritious hay is obtained, which is said to materially increase the milk
of cows. For the Nuts there is an enormous demand in some countries,
^nd more especially in the United States, where they are eaten very
generally. In these colonies there is but a comparatively moderate
demand as yet, but probably it will be greatly increased in the future.
The plant may be grown successfully in all but the coldest parts of
Australasia, and is certainly worthy of more attention than it now
receives. Cultivators would probably find the Pea Nut a profitable crop,
as considerable quantities are now imported, which might be raised in the
colonies, and if the demand for the produce is not equal to the supply,
the surplus may always be utilized for making oil.

Cultivation.

The Pea Nut may be grown successfully in any ordinary good soil that
is not too heavy, but it thrives to the greatest perfection in light calcareous
or &andy ground. In preparing the land it must be remembered that
deep and thorough cultivation is essential to the obtaining of a strong
growth and a heavy crop. Ordinary deep ploughing may be sufficient in
rthe case of very open soils, but when the ground is heavier it will be
advisable to subsoil. The seeds should be planted in rows about three
feet apart, leaving half that space between in the lines. The seed should
be covered to the depth of about two inches. As regards the proper time
for planting, the middle of August will be early enough in the more
forward districts^ and, as a matter of course, some weeks later' in the
.cooler regions. Special care must be taken to keep the plants free from
weeds in the early stages of growth, but after they get well started they
will be able to hold their own without much attention. As soon as the
ifiowers make their appearance it will be advisable to earth up the rows,
.as is done with potatoes and some other crops, so that the pods will
readily reach the soil. In harvesting the crop care should be taken to
lift the plants free from the soil, using a fork, as a spade is likely to
injure many of the pods. After the plants are lifted they should be left
•on the ground for a day or two to dry, when the pods may be gathered
and stored away. The shells, however, must be allowed to get thoroughly
dry before the pods are stored in bulk, or otherwise they are in danger of
heating or rotting. When carefully dried they will keep for a considerable
time, but fresh seeds are sweeter and more palatable than old ones.
Should the weather be unfavourable for drying on the ground when the
^ods are lifted, they should be spread out in a loft, or some other place
under cover, till they are fit for storing. The Pea Nut is a very prolific

25S

plant, and a return of fifty buskels per acre is regarded as a fair average-
crop in ordinary favourable soils. But returns up to as kigli as one
hundred and twenty bushels to tlie acre have been recorded.

African Earth Nut.

Voandzeia suhterr'niec {Glycine suhterranea), an annual plant belonging
to the order Leguminosie, is somewhat similar in appearance to the Ega,
Nut, and can be utilized in the same way, but is less valuable as a,
commercial plant. It is indigenous to Africa as far south as Natal and
the island of Madagascar, where the native name is Voandzou, hence the
generic one. In some parts of Africa the plant is most generally known
as the Bambarra Nut. The plant grows in the same way as the Pea Nut,
forcing its pods into the soil, and the seeds have similar properties. lu'
cultivation precisely the same treatment is required as also in making use
of the seeds.

PEAR.
History.

The Pear is very closely allied to the Apple, and ranks highly among
the fruits that flourish in temperate climates, Botanically it is known as
JPyrus communis^ and it belongs to the Pomeai section of the large natural
order JRosacece, or the Rose family. The common, or English, name comes-
from the French^o^V^, which is supposed to be derived from the Latin ^yr</5.
The Pear is indigenous to the United Kingdom and various other parts of
northern Europe, as also to northern Asia, China and Japan. In its wild
state the Pear is a thorny tree bearing harsh, tough, and unpalatable fi*uit,
which differs widely in qualities from that produced by the cultivated]
varieties.

Other species yielding edible fruits which may be classed as Pears are
Pyrus auriculaons {Fyrus Bolhvylleriana, Pyrus PoIvaHa), the Boll wilier
Pear, a species indigenous to Germany and other parts o-f northern
Europe ; Pyrxs sinensis, a Chinese species which yields a serviceable fruit,
one of its most prominent varieties being known as the Sand Pear.
Useful hybrids have been obtained between this species and varieties of
Pyrus communis, and more will possibly be done in the same direction.
Pyrus nivalis, a species indigenous to middle and southern Euroi)e, yields
a fruit known as the Snow Pear. This species grows in high mountain
regions that are too cold for the ordinary Pear, and the fruit does not
ripen till the advent of snow, hence the common name. The fruit is
palatable, though greatly inferior to the best varieties of the ordinary
Pear, and makes very good perry.

From historical recc»rds the Pear appears to have been generally used
and cultivated by several of the nations of antiquity. It appears to have
been equally popular with the Syrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.

254

Homer mentions this fruit as being cultivated in the garden of Laertes,
-the father of Ulysses. This fruit is also mentioned by Virgil, Theo-
phrastus, and Pliny. The last-named writer informs us that a number of
varieties were cultivated by the Romans in his day, including both
summer and keeping (or winter) Pears. He also particularly mentions a
popular fermented liquor made from the juice of the fruit, which appears
the earliest record relating to the beverage known as perry. Though the
Pear is indigenous to the United Kingdom, yet there are good grounds
for believing that the Romans, after the conquest, introduced improved
varieties to Britain and cultivated them. As in the case of many other
fruits, there are no very reliable accounts of the Pear through the middle
ages, but it appears to have been popular and generally cultivated. But
it was by slow degrees that the fruit became plentiful and commonly used
in England. There is a tradition that King John was poisoned at the
monastery of Swinsted by a dish of Pears, and whether true or false, the
story implies that the fruit was deemed worthy of being offered to a
monarch as a luxury. In an old book of household accounts of Henry
VIII. there is an item of two pence " to a woman who gaff the Kyng
peres." Gerard, one of the earliest English writers, says that in his time
great attention was paid to this fruit by the nurserymen around London ,
The neighbourhood of Worcester at an early period became celebrated for
the cultivation of this fruit, and that city has three Pears included in its
arms.

But though the Pear has been popular and generally cultivated in the
United Kingdom and in other parts of Europe for centuries, the varieties
of the present time are very different to the kinds formerly known. It
was not until late in the seventeenth century that any substantial
improvements in the fruit were obtained, but kinds then introduced were
far behind the modern varieties. It is only since the commencement of
the j^resent century that the skill and perseverance of horticulturists have
raised the Pear to its present high standard of excellence. The highly
developed varieties now generally cultivated greatly excel most of the
older kinds in desirable qualities. To Belgian and French horticulturists
we are indebted for the greater number of our cultivated varieties, and
this fact accounts for so many French names. Professor Von Mons, who
is the raiser of many of our most esteemed varieties, is said to have
devoted the whole labour of his life to the improvement of the Pear, and
during his career raised and fruited no less than one hundred thousand
seedlings. British growers, however, have to be credited with the raising
of many sterling varieties as well as their Belgian and French confrcrets.
Several excellent varieties have also been raised in America. The
Chinese claim to have cultivated the Pear to great perfection for centuries
before it received attention in Europe, and to have raised some choice
varieties. The celebrated traveller, Marco Polo, states that when in China
he saw Pears of the enormous weight of ten pounds each, which were
white-fleshed, melting, and richly flavoured. This account must have
been a grossly exaggerated statement, as there are no such Pears
cultivated by the Chinese at the present time, and, in fact, their Pears
are greatly inferior to the European varieties.

255

Uses.

The Pear is extensively used as a dessert fruit, and as such is highly
•esteemed. For this purpose the fruit is in season for eight or nine
months in the year. There is a large home demand for Pears which
is rapidly expanding, and a good outlet for a considerable surplus may be
found in exporting fresh fruit to England. x\s in the case of Aj^ples,
Pears can be delivered in the English market, owing to the diiferelice^
between our season and that of Europe, when there will be but little
■competition from other countries. Many kinds are suitable for culinary
purposes, though they are not used nearly to the same extent as Apples,
•feome sorts are excellent for canning, and there is a considerable and
growing demand f<^r this purpose. The culinary sorts may be preserved
by drying in the same way as x\pples and other fruits, and will keep a
long time, if required, when carefully prepared- They should, for this
purpose, be treated precisely the same as recommended for Apples. In
France, Belgium, and the United States large quantities of Pears are
preserved in this way, and the method is worthy of attention from
Australasian growers. The fermented juice of the Pear, known as perry, is
a favourite beverage in some parts of England, France, and Germany, as
■also in the United States. It is made precisely in the same way as cider,
and for full directions see article upon the Apple, page 112, volume 1.
Some people prefer perry to cider, as it is stronger and more richly
flavoured. Perry can be made from all kinds of Pears if gathered before
they are fully ripe, but the best varieties for the purpose are those that
have plenty of juice and a somewhat sharp flavour. The making of perry
may be made a safety valve against over-production, and, consequently,
should receive more attention from groAvers. The wood of the Pear tree
is closer grained than that of the Apple, and less liable to decay or the
attacks of insects. In Europe it is extensively used by turners, and in
the manufacture of picture frames. When stained black, Pear wood is
frequently used by cabinetmakers and others as a substitute for ebony.
Sometimes the leaves are used in the preparation of a yellow dye.

Hardiness and Longevity.

The Pear is the hardiest of our cultivated fruits, and will adapt itself
to a wide range of soils and climates. It may be grown with more or
less success in nearly every soil and situation, and it will stand, when
long established, more neglect than any other fruit tree. But the Pear
thrives to perfection in a strong rich loamy soil of moderate depth, with
an open gravelly subsoil. Xery rich or deep soils are not so suitable for
Pears, as the trees, when planted in them, have a tendency to produce
wood too freely at the expense of their fruitfulness. Very wet soils are
also uncongenial, as the trees are impatient of their roots being in
saturated ground for long periods. When growing under favourable
•conditions Pear trees have been known to attain a great age and size.
In Europe various instances are on record of trees attaining ages of froai

256

one hundred and fifty to two hundred years, and still being vigorous, and
in one case a tree is said to have been over four hundred years old.

Prepaeation of the Soil.

As with all other fruit trees, in preparing the ground the work should
be done well at starting. If heavy and retentive, the ground should be
broken up to the depth of at least Bfteen inches. In the case of lighter
soils the necessity for deep working is not so great, as the roots will be
able to push their way. Drainage must be provided for whenever
necessary, and this will generally be the case in heavy land. When the
soils are sandy or gravelly there may be sufficient natural drainage.
When grown upon free stocks Pears require plenty of room for the
development of the trees, and should not stand closer than from twenty-
four to thirty feet apart. Some growers, however, prefer to have a
dwarfer class of trees, and this object can be attained by propagating
upon Quince stocks. Trees upon Quince stocks may be planted twelve to
fifteen feet apart.

Pruning.

As a rule, the trees should be trained with low heads to afford shade to-
the stems in the early stages of growth and to better withstand the effects
of high winds. Young trees should be pruned so as to obtain a strong
wood growth, through a few of the branches, in the required directions.
Summer pruning, or disbudding, early in the season will be serviceable in
the case of young trees, as it conserves their strength and lessens the-
necessity for heavy winter cutting. Mature trees, as a rule, will require
but little pruning if they have been properly treated when young. All
that is necessary is to thin out when the branches are too crowded, the
removal of rank, misplaced, or diseased shoots, and stopping those that
are straggling. Pears on free-growing stocks, and more especially when
growing in deep rich soils, have too often a tendency to make an over-
luxuriant growth of wood and produce but little fruit. The most effective
remedy in these cases is root pruning, and for directions as to how thas>
should be done see page 45, volume 1. Ordinary pruning may be done
at any time when the trees are at rest, but the writer prefers to wait till
the latter part of the winter.

Training.

Pear trees may be trained in various forms, according to the fancy of
the cultivator, the habit of the variety, and the nature of the climate.
They are most usually grown as standards in Australasia, either with
globular or pyramidal heads. The upright -growing kinds adapt them-
selves readily to the latter form, and the spreading trees are better
tra-ined in the first-named style. Sometimes trees are trained in the
conical, or " quenouille," style, but this form necessitates a good deal of
attention, though it is useful for small places where space is limited.

Fruit and Wood Buds.

a a— Fruit Spurs on Two Year old wood.

a a a — Wood Buds.

b b b b b b— Fruit Buds.

Tkaimns.

Espalier with several Arms.
2p

258

Pear Tree trained in the Conical or Quenouille Dwarf Pyramid.

Style, with Weeping Branches. *

Some growers prefer dwarf trees worked upon the Quince to larger ones,
and there is a good deal to be said in their favour. In the first place,
both trees and crops are more readily managed by cultivators, and there
is less risk from high winds. The next consideration is that the trees
usually come into bearing earlier. Then, again, this class of trees takes
up less space than larger ones, and, therefore, is better adapted for small
gardens or orchards where space is limited and many varieties are wanted.
Dwarf trees may be either trained in the bush or pyramid style, according
to the habit of the variety. But whether the trees be large or dwarf, or
in whatever form they may be trained, it is advisable to distribute the
foliage in such a manner as to shelter the stems and branches from the
full power of the sun. It is a bad practice to open the centres of the
trees, as is often done, except in cold regions, where it may be an
advantage to admit the sun's power freely. The Pear gives good results

259

when trained on the cordon system under certain climatic conditions,
which, however, are unfavourable through the greater part of Australasia,
as the trees are too much exposed to the full power of the sun. In some
of the colder regions, and more especially in Tasmania and New Zealand,
the system may be practised with advantage. For particulars as to
cordon training see volume 1, page 60.

Cultivation. ^

It is advisable to keep the ground as free from weeds as possible, and
more especially in a plantation of young trees. An undergrowth of
weeds speedily exhausts the surface moisture, to the great detriment of
the trees. Large well-established trees do not suffer to the same extent
from this cause as young ones, but they will be in a better positi(»n if the
land is kept clean. Let the land be kept as clean as possible by frequent
light surface stirrings, which are better than deep ploughing or digging
as a rule. Sometimes, however, if root pruning is required, a deep
ploughing or digging may prove serviceable. As a matter of course,
suckers must be kept down by constant attention, as if allowed to make
headway they are troublesome to deal with. Mulching is serviceable to
the Pear, and more especially in the case of young trees. It should be
done before the hot weather sets in, covering the surface soil as far as the
roots extend. Old trees will often require assistance in the shape of
manure, and their wants should be attended to before their health is
impaired. Care must, however, be taken not to overfeed the trees when
supplying them wdth manure, as when this is done they are apt to make
too much wood. Small and frequent supplies are more effective than
heav}'^ manurings at long intervals.

Peopagation.

Propagation may*be effected by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layers, grafting,
and budding. Seeds are used for raising new varieties, and stocks for
grafting and budding. The pips should be sown in the autumn or spring,
<30vering them an inch deep. The next season the young plants
should be planted out in nursery lines, and will be fit for working the
following winter. Plants will readily strike from cuttings or layers, but
these, as a rule, do not make such good stocks as seedlings. Suckers are
often used as stocks, but they are inferior to seedlings. Grafting is the
method of propagation most usually adopted, and should be done
immediately the sap begins to rise in the spring. Budding is less frequently
practised, though it is preferred to grafting by some growers, as it can be
4one after mid summer, when there is less work in hand than in winter.
If necessary, trees may be budded in the spring with either wood or fruit
buds. This is a useful practice for filling vacancies on branches with
either class of buds. The buds are cut off in the ordinary way, but
instead of removing the wood it is allowed to remain. Insert the buds
with the attached wood in the usual way, and tie securely. Though the
union may be not so readily effected as in ordinary budding, yet the thin

260
Gkafting Old Trees.

Tree before it is headed back. | Tree worked with many Grafts. | Tree worked with

a few Grafts.

Tree worked with Fruit Buds,
a— Bud prepared.

Double Grafting.

261

piece of wood seems to lessen the risk of absolute failure. This method
of buddij)g may also be practised late in tlie summer and autumn. Very
frequently this method will prove useful when the ordinary budding
has failed. The stocks used most generally are seedlhig Pears for
free-growing trees, and Quinces for dwarf-growing specimens.
Seedlings will, as a matter of course, vary considerably in habit,
but those raised from sorts that naturally make but a moderate growth
will be likely to give better stocks than plants obtained from very strong-
kinds. Stocks doubtless have a material influence upon the varieties
worked upon them, and, consequently, their selection should receive
greatet care from cultivators than it usually does. No rules for selection
can be laid down absolutely, as at present our knowledge as to the
influence of the stocks is too limited for positive conclusions to be arrived
at. Trees on Quinces are dwarfer in habit than those worked
upon free stocks, come to maturity sooner, and bear shifting better.
Some kinds that have naturally a tendency to rampant growth bear more
freely upon Quince stocks, and in others the flavour of the fruit is
improved. Dwarf trees also ofler advantages in gathering the fruit and
pruning, and they are specially useful for small places where a good
collection is required upon a limited area. On tlie other hand, however,
growers must remember that trees worked upon Quince stocks will be much
shorter lived than others. Neither will they be able to withstand the efi'ects
of severe droughts with such impunity as trees worked upon Pear stocks.
As regards the Quince for a stock there is, however, some uncertainty,
as though many varieties do very well upon it, yet it appears to be quite
obnoxious to others. In some cases, too, though the trees may grow
freely, yet the influence of the Quince stock deteriorates the quality of
the fruit. But, on the other hand, some varieties of Pejirs are improved
in quality when worked upon Quinces. When varieties refuse to thrive
upon Quince stocks or become deteriorated in quality, the difficulty may
be surmounted by what is known as double grafting. Under this system
kinds that are known to take well upon the Quince stocks are grafted
direct, and then other varieties are worked upon them. This practice is
now very generally adopted, and is usually successful in attaining the
object in view. Among the kinds that have proved specially suitable for
working direct upon the Quince are Beurre (VAmanlis, Beurre Diel,
Duchesse (V Aiigoulem.e, Easter Beurre., GJou Morceau., Louise Bonne oj
Jersey., and Ylcar of Winkjield. It is usual to graft the Quince low, as
the stem does not expand freely and increase proportionately with the
Pear worked upon it. Another mode of double grafting, which may
prove serviceable in certain cases, is to use Pear stocks, work them with
Quinces, and upon these again graft Pears. This practice has been
successfully adopted with over-vigorous stocks, and the modifications
resulting from the check caused by the sap passing through the Quince
wood has materially influenced the growth and fruitfulness of the trees.
We have yet a great deal to learn as to the efi'ects of double, triple, and
even multiple grafting, and experiments in that direction may prove of
great value. When the effects of these methods are thoroughly understood,
it may be possible to have trees prepared to suit every variety of soil and

262

climate, and to place them under such conditions as will make them
yield regular and heavy crops of the finest quality. Formerly, European
cultivators grafted the Pear extensively upon the Whitethorn {Crataegus
oxijcantha). White Beam (Pf/ms aria), True Service (Pf/rus domestica).
Mountain Ash (Pt/rus aitcuparia). Wild Service (Pi/r>fs torminatis), and
Medlar as dwarfing stocks. Though still used to some extent these stocks
are going out of fashion, as the Quince is found to answer a deal better^
and none of them are worthy of much consideration in Australasia.

Injurious Insects.

The Pear does not suffer from the attacks of insects to the same extent
as many other fruits, but it is liable to injury more or less from certain
orchard pests.

Aphides. — Sometimes, soon after starting into growth in the spring,
the trees are attacked by a species of aphis that often does considerable
damage to the young shoots and flowers. Should the insects appear
when growth is further advanced, they do not produce such injurious
effects. They are, however, undesirable visitors at all times, as they feed
upon the juices of the leaves, young shoots, blossoms, and fruit, and must
necessarily cause injury to the trees more or less. Therefore, these insects
should be kept down by every practicable means. Remedies : 1 . Tobacco
Water. 2. Quassia Water. .'3. Kerosene Emulsion. 4. Resin Compound.
Directions for preparing and using these remedies will be found at pages
99 to 102, volume 1.

Borers. — The larva? of several kinds of beetles or weevils sometimes
attack Pear trees, which, however, suffer less from this class of pests than
the Apple, Peach, and some other fruits. The more prominent of these
insects are the Apple Borer Beetle, Apple Root Borer, Cherry Borer, and
Elephant Beetle. Full descriptions of these insects and their habits and
the remedies for them will be found in volume 1.

CaterjnIIars. — Various species of Caterpillars feed upon the foliage of
the Pear, and more especially in the spring or early summer. The most
troublesome of these is what is commonly known as the Pear or Cherry
Slug {Selandria cerasi), which often causes a considerable amount of
injury to trees This insect is widely distributed throughout the world,
being very troublesome to European and American cultivators, as also in
many parts of Australasia. A full description of this pest will be found
in the article upon Injurious Insects, page 81, volume 1. Remedies : 1.
Powdered Lime. 2. Hellebore Powder. 3. Dry wood ashes or finely
pulverized earth dusted over the trees. 4. London Purple or Paris
Green used as a spray. Information as to the preparation and use of
these remedies will be found at pages 100 to 102, volume 1.

Peir Mite. — This very common and troublesome insect is known
scientifically as Phytoptns j^yri, and it specially affects Pear trees . It is
a very minute insect, so small as to be scarcely visible with the naked eye,
and it belongs to the same class that causes scab, itch, and other skin
diseases in animals. The eggs are supposed to be deposited in the buds,
and the young insects attack the bursting leaves in the spring. They

263
Tear Mitk.

Showinp^ affected Leaves.

Perfect Insect, magnified 400 Times.

work their way under the surface of the leaves, and more especially the
under sides, and these have a blistered ajjpearance. The insects remain
in chambers within these blisters, and are seldom to be found upon the
surface of the leaves. As the season advances, the blisters increase in
size and number, and those first formed assume a brown appearance very
similar to that caused by the Scab Fungus. In fact, the effects of the
insect are often supposed to be those of the fungus, which is unfortunate,
as the remedies for these pests differ widely. Kemedies and preventatives :
1. Burn the leaves of affected trees when practicable. 2. Kerosene
Emulsion used as a spray when the buds are bursting into leaf, again
after the fruit has set, and a further sjDraying after the crop has been
gathered. 3. Resin Compound used as recommended for Kerosene
Emulsion. 4. Paint the trees in the winter with a mixture of two parts
lime, one of sulphur, and one of soft soap, adding sufficient water to
make the composition workable. Further information about the remedies
recommended will be found at page 98, volume 1.

Bed Spider. — This troublesome minute insect will sometimes attack
the foliage of Pear trees, and more especially towards the end of the
summer after protracted dry weather. For treatment see page 82,
volume 1.

264

Scale. — Several kinds of this class of insects are injurious to Pear and
other trees, and various species have been described in the articles upon
the Apple, Olive, Orange, and Peach. One, however, is especially
troviblesome to the Pear in America, and more especially in California,
where it is commonly known as the Pernicious Scale and San Jose Scale.
Scientifically it is known as Aspidiotns 2')^rriiciosuii. This insect has been
found in New South Wales, but it is uncertain as to whether it has as yet
spread to any of the other colonies. The adult female Scale measures
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, is circular, rather flat, and of
a grey colour. The male Scale is longer than the female, and much
darker in colour. This insect attacks the leaves and fruit, as also the
wood of the branches and trunk. It increases with great rapidity, and
sometimes three distinct broods are hatched in a season. The insects
also spread themselves quickly, and, if once introduced, will soon affect a
whole neighbourhood. Another specially troublesome species is the
Greedy, or White, Scale (As2ndiotus rapax)^ which particularly affects
the Pear, though it attacks many other trees. It is about one-sixteenth
of an inch in diameter, gvQj in colour, and more convex than the
Pernicious Scale. It is rather widely distributed throughout the
Australasian colonies. Remedies for all Scale insects : 1 . Kerosene
Emulsion. 2, Resin Compound. 3. Soap and Water applied hot.
Particulars as to the preparation and use of these remedies will be found
in the article upon Insecticides, page 98, volume 1 .

Thrips. — Sometimes these minute insects attack the leaves of Pear
trees, and more especially late in the summer They seldom, however,
cause any material injury to the trees, though they are undesirable
visitors. For full description and remedies see page 85, volume 1.

Injueious Fungi.

The Pear, like most other trees, is liable to the attacks of various fungi,
some of which do a good deal of injury.

Mildeiv. — Though several fungi classed as Mildew more or less affect
Pear trees, yet, generally speaking, they are not very common, and do
not usually cause serious damage. Sometimes the young growth is
affected by a Powdery Mildew, which causes the foliage to shrivel, dry
up, and assume a brown appearance. Very commonly tlie effects of this
fungus is supposed to be Fire Blight, which is quite a different complaint.
Not unfrequently some form of Mildew may be found upon the r(.)ots of
trees that are unhealthy from various causes Mildew will also at times
appear upon mutilated roots Remedies : When the Mildew is upon the
leaves or branches, J. Ammoniacal Solution of Copper Carbonate. 2.
Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate. When the Mildew is at the roots
those affected should be cut away when practicable, and a dressing of
lime applied to the soil. Watering the ground with a solution of Sulphate
of Iron will also prove serviceable. For full particulars as to the
preparation and use of the remedies named see article upon Fungicides,
page 98, volume 1.

Fear Scab. — This fungus, which is also known as the Pear Blight, is

Showing eli'ect upo.i Foliage antl Fruit.

very widely distributed throughout the Australasian colonies, and causes
a vast amount of injury. The fungus is known to botanists as Fusicladimn
jpyrinu7n, and is very closely allied to the species that causes the Apple
Scab. In fact, some authorities consider them to be identical, though
differing slightly in form. The fungus makes its appearance early in the
season in the form of dark green spots or patches upon the leaves, fruit,
and young shoots. These spots in time turn grey or brown, crack, and
dry up, leaving holes in the leaves. When the young fruit is attacked, it
either falls from the trees or cracks and shrivels up, and is worthless. If
attacked at a later stage, the Pears may reach maturity, but they will
have unsightly scars ^ and are often drawn out of their proper shapes.
Remedies and preventatives : 1. Burn the leaves from affected trees to
the extent that is practicable. 2, Bordeaux Mixture. 3. Ammonia
Carbonate of Copper. 4. Eau Celeste. Full directions for preparing
and using these remedies will be found at page 98, volume 1.

Diseases.

Canker. — Pear trees are often affected by various forms of Canker,
which frequently make their appearance without apparent causes. Some-
times it appears at the roots, at others upon the branches, and, again, it
may attack the stems. Canker may be produced by excess, or lack, of
moisture at the roots, or follow as a result of mutilation, and the attacks
of insects or fungi. It may be caused by the roots penetrating into a
bad subsoil, the use of rank or over-stimulating manures, and various
other causes. For the fullest information as to this obscure disease see
article iijDon Canker, page 93, volume 1.

266

Fii^e Blight. — This is another obscure disease which specially affects
Pear trees, and often causes serious injury. Opinions differ somewhat as
to the nature of this disease and its causes, but it is probably due to
influences upon the circulation of the sap. Complete information upon
this subject will be found in an article upon Fire Blight at page 94,
volume 1.

Gathering, Storing, Packing and Exporting.

Unlike most other fruits. Pears, as a rule, should not be allowed to
ripen on the trees. ]Vrost varieties are finer in flavour and keep better if
gathered before they are fully ripe. Many sorts that are insipid and
comparatively worthless when allowed to hang till they are fully rii^e
possess the highest qualities if gathered at the proper time. There is a
great difference in the requirements of various sorts as to the time of
rij)ening after the fruit is gathered. From three to six days will be
sufficient to bring the fruit to perfection after it is gathered in the case of
some of the summer Pears. As regards the winter kinds, five or six
weeks up to ten or twelve will often be required. The proper time for
gathering Pears is, as a rule, when the stalks will separate easily from
the wood when the fruit is gently raised. The seed test may also be
adopted, as in the case of Apples. If the seeds are black or brown, hard,
and plump, it is a fairly good sign that the fruit is sufficiently ripe for
gathering. Every care should be taken to gather Pears at the proper
time. When gathered too soon they are apt to shrivel, and seldom attain
their proper flavour. On the other hand, when left too long upon the
trees the fruit is apt to become mealy and wanting in flavour. In
gathering the greatest care should be taken in handling the Pears so as to
avoid bruising. Pears are stored for a double purpose, in the first place
to preserve them, and, secondly, to get them to ripen perfectly. The
storehouses should be dry, well ventilated, and be kept at a fairly even
temperature at all times. Sudden changes of temperature are injurious,
and should be avoided by every practical means. A fruit room for Peai'S
should be kept somewhat drier than one for Apples, as more moisture is
given off by the fruit. Consequently, it is not advisable to store long
keeping Pears and Apples in the one room. The most favourable
temperature is one ranging from forty to forty-five degrees Fah. The
fruit should be placed upon shelves formed of battens with spaces
between, in single layers, taking care to exclude all blemished specimens,
though touched ever so slightly. Light should be carefully excluded
from the store room unless for special reasons, as it is an exciting agency,
and accelerates the ripening of the fruit. After being placed in store
Pears should be handled as little as possible and, as a rule, left to ripen
naturally. Sometimes, however, it may be necessary to hasten the
ripening period, and this may be done by raising the temperature and
admitting light. In packing Pears more care is required than for Apples,
as owing to their shapes the stalks are apt to damage the adjoining fruit
if not properly arranged. When Pears are packed for export extra care
must be taken in the first place that the kind is suitable and will not be

267

over-ripe when it arrives at its destination. As a matter of eoiirse, fruit
for shipment to the United Kingdom and other distant countries should
be packed several weeks before it would ripen in the ordinary course.
Each Pear should be carefully wrapped in white tissue, or thin blotting,
paper and placed in close layers so that they cannot move in tbe cases.
Probably the best mode of packing would be to have a tray for each layer
of fruit so as to avoid undue pressure. This plan could be easily adopted
at a small additional expense. Packing in trays would also give- au
advantage in allowing a better circulation of air among the fruit, a matter
of some importance during a long voyage. For the same reason, in
shipping Pears, care should be taken that the place set apart for them on
board ship can be well ventilated and kept at a medium low and even
temperature throughout the voyage. These remarks will apply more or
less to all fruits exported, but more especially to the Pear, which requires
far more care than the Apple, Orange, or Lemon.

Selection of Varieties,

As in the case of other popular fruits, there are a great number of
varieties in cultivation, and several hundreds have been introduced to
Australasia. In fact, the?*e are far too many for practical purposes, and
the lists are perfectly bewildering to ordinary cultivators. All the leading
European kinds are to be found in nurserymen's catalogues, which also
include several Australasian seedlings of merit. As a rule, growers of
Pears, whether upon a large or small scale, will find it to their interest to
confine themselves to a limited number of varieties. More satisfaction is
likely to be obtained from a dozen sorts than a hundred. The qualities
desirable in dessert Pears are that they should not be too large, but
juicy, sugary, tender, melting, and highly flavoured. For culinary
purposes Pears should be large, juicy, firm, and crisp. If wanted for
canning, those kinds are best whose flesh remains white instead of
changing to pink or red, as the majority do. For drying the same
((ualities are required as for culinary Pears. The kinds specially adapted
for making perry are those that bear freely and produce juicy and rather
sharply flavoured fruit.

Principal Forms of Pears.

Piriform. — When tapering from the eye to the base, and the sides
more or Icvss hollowed (concave).

Long Fyriform — When long and narrow and tapering to a point at
the stem.

0 bin se-pj/ri form. — When the luwer part of the fruit is broader than in
the other pyriform types.

Obovate. — When the fruit is nearly in the form of an egg, the small
end being next to the stalk.

Turbinate cr Toy-slia'ped. — When the sides are rounded and the fruit
tapers to a point at the stalk.

268
Principal Forms op Pears.

,'^^^k

Pyriform. Long Pyi-iform. Obtuse Pyriform.

Oval.

^^Siaa^aauUlii

Obovate.

Hound.

Turbinate.

Oval. — When the fruit is largest in the middle and tapers more or less
at both ends.

Hound. — When the outline is round or nearly so.

There are numerous modifications of all these forms to be found among
Pears, and sometimes in order to describe fruit correctly it is necessary
to combine two terms, such as roundish-oval, roundish-obovate, &c.

Varieties.

The following list embraces many of the leading varieties. The
descriptions given are the normal ones, but it must be understood that
Pears often vary considerably in form. Climate also materially influences
the colour and quality of the fruit, and the same variety will often diflfer
considerably from its normal type owing to local conditions. Variations
in size, form, and quality may be also brought about by the infiaence of
the stocks the trees are worked upon.

Alexandre Bivort. — An excellent Belgian variety with medium-sized
obtuse- pyriform fruit, which ripens late. Skin pale yellow, dotted and

patched with russet. Flesh white, with a

slight

reddish

269

melting, and richly flavoured. Tree vigorous ;pnd compact in growths
►Suitable for export.

AJ thorp Crammie. — A good Pear of doubtful origin with medium-sized
roiindisli-obovate fruity which ripens at mid-season. Skin pale green,
dotted with russet. Flesh white, juicy, and well flavoured. Tree
hardy, robust, and prolific.

Ananas [Ananas cPEte). — A Dutch variety with large pyriform fruit,,
which ripens at the beginning of summer. Skin yellowish-green, thirrkly
covered with brown russet dots. Flesh white, melting, with a pleasant-
aroma. Tree i-obust and prolific.

Ananas.

Aston Town. — An English variety of high quality with small roundish
fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin greenish-yellow, thickly
dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish-white, melting, and highly flavoured.
Tree vigorous, attains a large size, and bears freely.

Autumn Bergamot {Bnrjamot, English Bergamot, Yorh Bergamoi), —

370

An old English variety of good quality with medium-sized rather flattened
fruit, which ripens towards the end of summer. Skin yellowish-green,
flushed with red, and dotted with grey russet. Flesh greenish-white,
sugary, juicy, with a moderately rich flavour. Tree vigorous and a free
bearer.

Baronne de Mello.

Autumn Cohwr (De Bavay). — A French Pear of fairly good quality,
but not equal to many others. Fruit medium size, obtuse-pyriform, and
ripens somewhat after mid-season. Skin pale yellow, dotted with russet.
Flesh yellowish-white, sugary, a little gritty at the core, with a pleasant
rich flavour. Tree robust and bears freely.

Baronne de Mello (Benrre Van Mona). — A Belgian variety of excellent
quality with large irregular pyriform fruit, which ripens towards the end

271

of suranifcr. Skin greenish-yellow, nearly covered with dark russet, and
thickly dotted. Flesh greenish-yellow, fine grained, sugary, melting,
with a rich flavour. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive.

Belle Julie, — A Belgian variety of first-rate quality with medium-sized
obtuse-pyriform fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin greenish-
yellow, thickly marked with russet. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, melting,
sugary, with a rich aroma. Tree vigorous, forms a pyramid, and bears
freely.

BeUusime (Vlliver {Belle Noisette^ Teton de Venus). — An old French
Pear that is excellent for cooking. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, and
ripens late. Skin greenish-yellow, with a slight flush of red, and thickly
dotted with russet. Flesh white, sweet, mellow, and free from grittiness.
Tree robust and fairly prolific.

Be/gamotte (VEsperen. — A first-class Belgian variety with medium-sized
irregulai-oblate fruit, which ripens late. .Skin greenish-yellow, thickly
covered with dark brown russet, which makes it rough. Flesh yellowish
white, juicy, melting, sweet, and highly flavoured. Tree robust, forms a
<jonipact pyramid, and bears freely. Suitable for export.

Bear re cVAmanlis. — A Belgian Pear of high quality with large some-

Beurre d'Anjou

272

what irregular obovate fruit, wbicli ripens late. Skin yellowish-green,
flushed with reddish-brown, and thickly dotted and splashed with russet.
Flesh white, melting, sugary^ with a slight and pleasant aroma. Tree
hardy but somewhat straggling in habit, and though fairly prolific is.
rather uncertain in its yield. Better adapted for cold than warm districts.
Suitable for export.

Beurre Bosc.

Beurre d'AnJou (Xe Plus Menris of the French, but quite distinct from
the variety known under that name in Australasia). — A superior variety,
supposed to be of French origin, with large obtuse-pyriform fruit, which
ripens towards the end of sunnner. Skin greenish-yellow, with a slight
flush of red, freely dashed with russet, and sprinkled thickly with reddish-
brown dots. Flesh white, tender, very juicy, melting, with a l)risk and
pleasant flavour. Tree vigorous and productive. Suitable for export.

278

Beurre cVAi^emherg {Beurre Desrhamps, Beurre Burchardt, Colmar
Deschamps, Diic (V Aremherg , UOrpheUve). — A French variety of great
excellence with medium-sized obovate fruit, which ripens late and keeps
well. Skin yellowish-green, thickly dashed, veined, and dotted with
reddish-russet. Flesh white, melting, very juicy, vinous, with a rich
aroma. Tree pyramidal and a good bearer. Suitable for export.

Beurre de Brignais.

Beurre de rAssomptwii. — A French variety, which ripens before
mid-season, with large irregular obtuse-pyriform fruit. Skin yellow,
dotted, marbled, and splashed with reddish-brown. Flesh white, juicy,
melting, slightly sub-acid, and pleasantly flavoured.

Beurre Bercknian^s. — An excellent Pear of Belgian origin with obovate-
pyriform fruit, medium-sized or slightly larger, which ripens late and
keeps well. Skin pale yellow, thickly covered with splashes and specks
of russet. Flesh white, tender, juicy, sugary, and richly flavoured. Tree
vigorous, pyramidal in form, and a free bearer. Suitable for export.

Benrre Bosc [Beurre d' Apremont, Beurre Ftose, Calebasse Bosc). — This
is a well-known and poi)ular Belgian Pear of great excellence. Fruit
large, pyriform, sometimes a little uneven, ripens late, and keeps well.
Skin thickly covered with brown russet. Flesh white, juicy, rich, and

2q

274

pleasantly aromatic. Tree strong, pyramidal in habit, a regular and good
bearer. Suitable for export.

Beurre Brettoneau {Galebasse d'lliver^ Dr. Brettoneau). — An excellent
and useful variety of Belgian origin with large somewhat irregular pyriform
fruit, which ripens late and keeps well. Skin thickly covered with brown
russet, f'lesh yellowish-white, firm, sugary, vinous, with a pleasant aroma.
An excellent Pear for stewing, canning, and drying, and also for the
dessert when fully ripe. Tree vigorous, hardy, and prolific, but is some-
what long in coming into bearing.

Beurre de Brignais (Des Nonnes, Nuns Pear, Poire des Nonnes). — An
excellent variety of uncertain origin. Fruit medium-sized, roundish-
oblate, ripens early in the autumn, and* keeps well. Skin greenish-brown,
with numerous grey dots. Flesh white, melting, very juicy, with a rich
aromatic flavour. Tree hardy, vigorous, and prolific.

Beurre de Capiaumont (Beurre A urore, Calebasse Vusse). — A very
popular and excellent Pear of Flemish origin which should be included in
every selection. Fruit medium-sized, pyriform, ripens late, and keeps
well. Skin thickly covered with cinnamon, with an orange red blush,
and strewed with small grey dots. Flesh white, juicy, melting, sugary,
and highly flavoured. Tree robust, hardy, and a very free and regular
bearer. Suitable for export.

Beurre Clair gean (Clairgeau de
Nantes). — A French variety with
large showy pyriform somewhat
irregular fruit, which ripens
towards the end of summer.
Skin lemon yellow, with a slight
flush of orange red, and thickly
covered wdth patches and dots of
russet. Flesh yellowish-white,
juicy, sugary, slightly gritty, with
a vinous musky flavour. Tree
hardy, very productive, and comes
into bearing early. Suitable for
export.

Beurre Defais. — A French Pear
of good quality. Fruit rather
large, obtuse-pyriform. Skin pale
yellow, dotted and netted with
russet. Flesh w^liite, juicy, melting,
sweet, and slightly aromatic. Tree
vigorous and productive.

Beurre Diel {Beurre Incomparable,

Beurre Magnifiquey Beurre Moyal,

Beurre Vert). — A well-known and

popular Belgian variety with large

fruit varying from obovate to

obtuse-pyriform, which ripens late

and keeps well. Skin yellow, „ . i ,^ •

^ •' ' Beurre de Capiaumont.

275

Beurre Clairgeau.

thickly dotted and marbled with russet. Flesh yellowish-white,
tendei', juicy, sugary, rich, with a fine ai'oma. Tree very hardy,
robust, and a free bearer. Suitable for export.

Beurre Giffard (Poire Gifard). — A French Pear of good quality
which ripens early in the summer. Fruit medium-sized, pyriform.
Skin greenish-yellow, mottled with red. Flesh white, melting, jnicy,
sugary, with a vinous and aromatic flavour. Fruit must be gathered
■early, and will only keep a few days, like the Jargonelle. Tree of
moderate growth and a fairly good bearer.

Beurre GouhaU (Poire Goubalt), — -A French A^ariety with medium-
sized, roundisli-obovate fruit, which ripens a little before mid-season.

276

Skin green even when quite ripe. Flesh white, melting,, juicy, and
j)]easantly, thougli not highly, flavoured. Tree vigorous, productive,
and a very early bearer.

Beurre Gris d' River Noveau {Beur^^e de Fontenaij , Beiirre de Lucon,
lieurre Gris d' Hirer, Beurre Gris Superior, Doyeime Marhre, St. Michael
d^Hiver). — A first-class French variety. Fruit medium to large^
7'oundish to obtuse-pyriform. Skin nearly covered with light golden
russet and thickly dotted, with a blush cheek. Flesh white, juicy,
sugary, melting, with a rich and slightly aromatic flavour, liipens
late, keeps a long time, is a first-class dessert Pear, and suitable for
exporting. Tree moderately vigorous and bears freely.

Beurre Hardy. — An excellent dessert Pear supposed to be of Belgian
origin. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, and ripens towards the end of
summer. Skin yellowish-green, thickly covered with russet dots.
Flesh white, melting, very juicy, sweet, with a rich aroma. Tree
robust and a free bearer.

Beurre de Jonghe. — A very good Belgian variety with laro-e obovate-
pyi'iform finiit, which ripens rather late in the summer. Skin dull

Beurre Diel.

Beurr6 Hardy.

278

yellow, thickly covered witli pale
brown russet*. Flesh yellowish-
white, fine grained, jnicy, melting,
and richly flavoured. A first-class
Pear that keeps well. Tree robust
and prolific. Suitable for exporf .

Benrre lie Koimig [August de
Maraise, Conving^ De Conick). —
A Belgian variety. Fruit medium,
ranging from- obovate to obtuse-
pyriform, and ripens early in the
aiitunin. 'Skin yellowish-green,
with russet dots and marblings.
Flesh white, juicy, and well
flavoured.

Be^irre Langelier. — An excellent
dessert Pear raised in Jersey.

Beurr6 Giffard.

BeuiTc de Koning.

279

Frjiifc medium-sized, obtuse-
pyriform, ripens late in the
summer, and keeps well. Skin
greenish-yello \v , with a crimson
flush on one side, and thickly
dotted with russet. Flesh
white, juicy, melting, some-
what gritty, with a brisk rich
vinous flavour. Tree vigorous
and productive.

Beurre de Nantes (Beurre
JVantai-s). — A very good
variety. Fruit medium to
large, pyrifoi-m. Skin gi-een-
ish-3'ellow, nearly covered
with pale russet, and a
flushed cheek. Flesh some-
what coarse gi-ained, with a
sweet vinous flavour. Ripens
medium late, and will keep
for several weeks.

Beurre Sterckman's.

Beurr6 de Nantes.

Beurre Bance (^Beurre
de Fla iidre, Beurre Ephi e,
Beurre d'Hiver). — An
old, well-known, and
popular Belgian Pear,
valuable for its late-
ness and good- keeping
property. Fruit vary-
ing from medium to
large, obtuse-pyriform.
Skin dark gi^een even
at maturity, dotted with
numerous russet specks.
Flesh greenish-white,
melting, a little gritty
at the core, very juicy,
sweet, and highly fla-
voured. Tree hardy, a
free bearer, and some-
M'hat pendulous in habit
Suitable for exioort.

280

Benrre Sterckman^s (BeUe Alliance, CaUhaase Sterckman's, Boye^me
SterckmarCs). — A first-class Belgian dessert Pear. Fruit medium to
large, oblate-pyriform, and ripens late in summer. Skin bright
gi'een, with a flush of red on one side, and thickly dashed and
speckled with russet. Flesh yellowish -white, melting, juicy, sugary,
with a pleasant vinous and aromatic flavour. Tree vigorous and
bears f reel v.

Beurre Superlin.

Beurre Superfin. — An excellent and useful French variety. Fmit
medium size or above, roundish- pyrifoi-m, and ripens at mid-season.
Skin lemon yellow, with a slight red flush on one side, and thickly
covered and dotted with cinnamon russet. Flesh fine grained, very
juicy, with a brisk vinous flavour and rich aroma. Tree hardy,
moderately vigorous, rather slow in coming into bearing, but a good
and free cropper when at full age.

Bishops Thumb. — A very old English variety but little known in
this part of the Avorld, but an excellent dessert Pear. Fruit large,
oblong, tapering irregularly, and i-ipening after mid-season. Flesh
greenish-yellow, juicy, melting, sugary with a rich vinous flavour.
Tree very hardy and an abundant bearer.

281

Black Achan (Achan, Black Bess, Winter Beurre). — An old and
well-known Scotcli Pear, which may be found serviceable in the
colder districts, but it is unsuitable for warmer regions. Fruit
medium-sized, obovate. Skin dark greyish-green, with dull brownish-
red on one side. Flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, melting,
sugary, with a strong aroma. Tree hardy, and bears freely in cold
regions, but somewhat shy in other localities.

Bloodgood.

Bloodgood. — An American early dessert Pear, which is very
popular in the United States. According to American authorities it
possesses a higher and better flavour than any other early Pear.
iFruit medium size, obovate, and ripening very early. Flesh yellowish-
white, melting, juicy, sugary, with a rich aromatic flavour. Skin
yellow, netted and dotted with russet. Tree moderately robust, and
bears early and regularly.

Bon Chretien Foiulante. — A Flemish Pear of high quality. Fruit
rather large, regular, roundish- obovate, and ripens the latter part of
summer. Flesh yellowish-Avhite, very juicy, melting, somewhat
gritty round the core, with a rich and pleasant flavour. Skin pale
green, to a large extent covered with russet, and freely dotted. Tree
moderately hardy, bears early and freely.

282

BHtish Queen. — An English Pear supposed to have l)een raised from
Marie Louise, which it somewhat resembles. Fruit large obovate-
pyriform, and ripens towards the end of summer. Skin smooth and
almost covered with a thin coat of cinnamon russet, with a blush of
red on one side. Flesh yellowish-white, fine gi^ained, melting, sugary,,
and highly flavoured. Tree hardy and vigorous.

Brockworth PavJc {Belle de Zees, Boiive WEzee, Bonne d'Haies, Bonne
de Zees, Charles Frederic). — An excellent and useful Pear of French
origin. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, and ripens medium late..

Conseiller De La Couv,

Skin light yellowish-green, with patches and dots of russet. Flesh
white, juicy, and well flavoured.

Brooin Park. — An English variety' of gTeat excellence as a dessert
Pear. Fruit rather above medium size, roundish-obovate, and ripens

283

towards the end of the summer.
Skin yellow, sprinkled with cinna-
mon russet. Flesh yellowish-white,
melting, juicy, sugary, with a rich
musky flavour. Tree hardy, vigorous,
and an excellent bearer. Suitable
for export.

Brown Benrre {Beurre Gns, Beurre
Rouge, Golden Beurre, Grei/ Benrre,
Red Butter). — An old French Pear of
great excel ler.ce. Fruit large,
obovate, and ripens soon after mid-
-season. Skin almost covered Avith
brown russet, with a faint tinge of
red on one side. The colour, how-
ever, vai'ies to some extent in
various localities, which accounts

Clapp's Favourite.

Citron cles Cannes.

for the different names.
Flesh yellowish-white,
tender, juicy, buttery,
Avitli a rich vinous
flavour and musky
aroma. Tree robust
and a free bearer.

Ccdebasse Grosse{C(de-
hasse Roi/aJe). — A Bel-
gian variety with very
large pyriform fruit,
often over six inches
long, which ripens
towards the end of
summer. Skin greenish-
yellow, thickly strewed
and dotted with russet.
Flesh coarse grained,
crisp, juicy, and sweet.
Tree vigorous and fairly
productive. Not equal
to many other varieties,
but suitable for stewing.

284

CatiUac (Bell Pear, Chartreuse, Grand Mogul, Grand Monarqae,
Pound Pear). — A very old and nseful Fi-ench Pear that is excellent
for culinary purposes. Fruit very large, broadly turbinate, ripens
late, and keeps some time. Skin brownish. yellow, tinged witli red
on one side, and freelj^ covered with large russet specks. Flesh
white, crisp, gritty, firm, Avitli a faii-ly good flavour. Suitable for
stewing, drying, and possibly for canning. Tree hardy, I'obust, and
a friirly good bearer.

Compte de Flandre.

Channwntel (Beurre de Clvimnontel , Beurre d'Hiver, Grey Achanj
Winter Beurre). — A very old and favourite French Pear largely
cultivated in Europe, but not mucli in this part of the world. Fruit
large, pyriform, ripens late in the summer, and keeps well. Skin
yellowish-green, a little rough, brownish-red on one side, and thickly
covered with patches and spots of russet. Flesh yellowish -white,
melting, sugary, with a rich and pleasant aroma. Tree vigoi'ous and
bears fi^eely. Suitable for export.

Citron desCarmes {Earl rj Chaumontel , Madeleine, Magdalen). — Avery
early French Pear, and one of the first in the market. Fruit small,
obovate-pyriform. Skin yellowish-green, with sometimes a faint tinge of
red on one side. Flesh white, juicy, melting, and sweet. Useful for its
earliness. Tree strong and prolific.

285

Clapj)s Favourite. — An American dessert Pear that is very popular in
the United States. Fruit large, obovate or obtuse-pyrifonn, and ripens
at mid-season. Skin pale lemon yellow, thickly sprinkled with brown
dots, and sometimes patches of russet, and dashed with red on the sunny
side. Flesh white, fine grained, juicy, rich, sweet, with a vinous aromatic-
flavour. Tree vigorous, upright, and prolific.

Doyenn6 Bou&soch.

Compte de Fknvlre {St. Jea)^ Baptiste). — An excellent Belgian variety
with large obtnse-pyriform fruit, which ripens late and keeps well. Skin
nearly covered with russet. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, melting, rather
gritty, sweet, and richly flavoured. Tree vigorous and a free bearer.
Suitable for export.

Compte de Lamy [Beurre Cartet, Beiirre Quetelet, Dirigle7\ Marie
Louise Nova).— A. first-class dessert Pear of Belgian origin. Fruit
medium size, roundish-obovate, and ripens late in the summer. Skin
yellow, with a brownish-red cheek, sprinkled with patches and dots of
russet. Flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, melting, sugary, and richly
flavoured. Tree hardy, spreading, and prolific. Suitable for export.

Conseiller De La Cour (Due d'Orleavs, Grosse Marie, Marechal De La
Cour). — An excellent Belgian variety, and one of the best Pejirs in

286

cultivation. Fruit large, oblong-pyriform, and ripens after mid-season.
Skin greenish-yellow, with patches and dots of russet. Flesh yellowish-
white, juicy, melting, with a rich vinous flavour. Tree moderately
vigorous, bears freely, and retains its foliage for a long period.

Doyenne du Cornice.

Crassane {Bergamotte Crassane^ Beurre Plat, Crassane cCAutoiwie,
Flat Butter). — A very old and popular variety supposed to be of French
origin. Fruit medium size or larger, roundish-oblate, flattened, and
ripens rather late. 8kin yellow, thickly veined and dotted with grey
russet. Flesh white, rather coarse grained, juicy, sugary with a pleasant
flavour. Tree hardy, vigorous, but sometimes a shy bearer. Suitable
for export.

Doyenne Boussoch {Alberti?ie, Beurre de Merode, Beurre Magnijique,

287

Beiirre de Waterloo, Double PhilUppe). — An excellent Belgian variety.
Fruit very large, roundish- obovate to oval pyriform, and ripens a little
after mid-season. Skin rough, deep yellow, netted and dotted with
russet. Flesh yellowish-white, tender, melting, juicy, vinous, with a
delicate agreeable aroma. Tree hardy, vigorous, spreading in habit, and
bears freely. A good market variety.

Doyenne dn Cornice. — A first-class French variety with large fruit
varying from roundish to obtuse-pyriform, which ripens after mid-seasen,—
Skin pale yellow, thickly sprinkled with dots and patches of russet.
Flesh yellowish-white, very tender, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous,
with an agreeable musky flavour. Tree moderately vigorous, upright,
<ind bears freely. Suitable for export.

Doyenne d'Ete

Doyenne Defais.—k fine and useful French dessert Pear. Fruit
medium size or under, roundish-obovate, ripens late, and keeps well.
Skin pale yellow, thickly covered with light russet dots and splashes.
Flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, with a fine musky aroma. Tree
hardy, moderately vigorous, and an excellent bearer.

Doyenne d'Ete {Doyenne de Jiiillet, Jolimont, Summer Doyenne). A

well-known very early Pear of Belgian origin, and valuable because it
comes in about the first in the season. Fruit small, roundish-obov^'
Skin yellow, thickly covered with small russet dots, and someti
slight red blush on one side. Flesh white, juicy, melting, and siv

\

288

Useful for its earliness,. but the fruit soon decays. Tree hardy, bears
early and abundantly.

Doyenne Robin. — A French variety of high quality. Fruit above
medium size, round to roundish obovate. Skin pale yellow, mottled and
dotted with russet. Flesh melting, juicy, with a rich and delicate aroma.
Ripens early in the autumn.

Doyenne Eobin.

Dr. Nelis. — An excellent Belgian variety with small to medium-sized
obovate fruit, which ripens a little after mid-season. Skin greenish-
yellow, with a tinge of red on one side, with patches, streaks, and dots of
russet. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, tender, sweet, with a pleasant
slight, vinous flavour. Tree moderately vigorous and bears freely.

Duchesse cVAngouleme {Beiirre Soule, Duchesse). — An excellent and
popular French variety. Fruit large to very large, roundish-oblong to
obovate, and ripens a little after mid-season. Skin dull greenish-yellow,
thickly streaked and freckled with pale brown russet. Flesh w^hite,
tender, rich, juicy, with a fine aroma. Tree strong, upright in growth,
and bears well.

289

Duchesne de Herri iVEtr {IJiirhe.ss (h Herri, l)iichesi<€ de Berri de Xantes).
— A good and useful early French variety. Fruit below niedimu size,
roundish-obovatc to obscure )»yriform. 8kin smooth, shiny, pale yellow,
strewed with sujall ri:sset dots and patclies round the eye and stalk.
Flesh white, juicy, with a pleasaut vinous flavour. Ripens before
mid-season.

Duchesse de Bern d'Ete.

Bxchessr a' Orleans (Benrre St. Nicholas, Due d' Orleans, St. Nicholas).
— A first-class and popular French Pear. Fruit rather above mediimi
size, elongated pyriforni, and ripens at mid-season. Skin yellowish-green,
with brown dots, and sometimes a faint red cheek. Flesh yellowish-white,
melting, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous, with a fine aroma. Tree strong,
upright, and a verj^ good bearer.

Duraudeau (De Tongres). — A French variety and one of our finest
dessert Pears. Fruit large, obtuse ])yriform, ripens late, and keeps well.
Skin pale yellow, thickly covered with cinnamon russet, which is deeper
on the sunny side, the whole V)eing thickly sprinkled with brown dots.
Flesh white, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, with a rich sugary
flavour. Tree vigorous, bears early, and is very productive. Suitable
for export.

Duchfss d'Hiver {Tardive de Toulouse, Winter Duchess). — An excellent
French Pear which ripens very late and keeps well. Fruit large, obovate-
pyriform. Skin dull green, thickly shaded and spotted with russet.
Flesh white, juicy, sweet, and pleasant. Tree vigorous, prolific, and an
early bearer. Suitable for export.

2u

/

290

E((ster lieurre {Jjer(/<i matte d^IUver, Bergamotte Turdive, Beurre
Aiif/laise, Benrre de Boqucs, Beurre Sonpe, Doijenne d^Alencoii^ Doyenne
d' River), — An old and very popular variety of doubtful origin, and in
Europe considered to be one of the very best late Pears. Fruit large,
obovate, inclining to oval. Skin brownish-green, with a darker cheek,
strewed with patches and large dots of russet. Flesh white, juicy,
melting, with a sweet rich Havour. Tree strong, upright, and a good
bearer. A good dessert Pear, keeps well, and suitable for exporting.

Easter Beurre.

Kmlle d^Heyst. — A Belgian variety with large oblong-pyriform fruit,
which ripens after niid-season. Skin bright yellotv, with an orange
cheek, thickly netted, patched, and dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish-
white, juicy, melting, very sweet, with an aromatic flavour. Tree hardy,
spreading, and a very prolific bearer.

Eyevjood. — An old and excellent English variety with Bergamot-shaped
fruit below medium size, which ripens late in the summer and keeps well.

291

Skin greenisli-yellow, thickly covered witli dots and patches of russet-
Flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, tender, nieiting, with a fine aroma, and
sprightly vinous flavour. Tree very hardy, vigorous, and an excellent
bearer. fSuitable for exp<^rting.

Figue de jXaples [Beicrre Broince, Comtesse de Frenol, Fig Fear of
Naples, Fourcroi/). — A Belgian Pear of excellent quality, though from
the name it might be supposed to be Italian. Ii'ruit medium size,
obovate-pyriforrn, and ripens at mid-season. Skin greenish-yellow,
shaded and marbled with red on the sunny side, and thickly netted,-
patched, and dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, sweet,
and well flavoured. Tree vigorous, upright, and a fairly good bearer.

Emile d'Heyst.

Flemish Beautri (Belle de Bois, Belle de FlmuJers, BexiT^ de Bois,
Beiirre de Bourgogne^ Beurre J)avt/^ Beurre d'Elherg^ Bearre Frokhmi^
Beiwre St. Amou7\ Beurre Spence). — A very old and well-known variety

292

supposed to be of Belgian origin. Fruit medium size to large, obtuse
pyriform, and ripens at mid-season. Skin nearly covered with reddish-
brown russet, and red on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy.

Flemish Jjeuutv.

tender, sugary, witli a rich flavour. Tree hard}', robust, bears early, and
is a wonderfully free bearer. An excellent variety, but the fruit must be
gathered somewhat earlier than most Pears,* as if left too long it becomes
inferior.

Fondante (VAntomne (Arhre Superhe, lielle Lucrative, Bergainotte
Fievee, liergdmofte Lucrative, lleurre (VAlhret). — An excellent Flemish
dessert Pear. Fnut medium size, varying in form from globular to
obtuse-pyriform, and ripens late in the summer. Skin pale green, with
light patoiies of russet. Flesh white, juicy, melting, with a rich sugary
flavour. Tree moderately vigorous and a free beai-er.

Forelle (Trout Pear). — An excellent German variety called Trout Pear
from its speckled appearance. Fruit medium size, ovate-pyriform, ripens
in the autiunn, and keeps well. Skin bright yellow, with red dots, and
washed with red t)n the sunny side. Flesh white, melting, juicy, slightly
vinous, and whII flavoured. Tree hardy, robust, and prolific.

293

Fondante d'Automne.

G tinsel's Bsrgamot.

294

Frederic de Wurtemhirg (King of Wiirtemhvrf), .Vf^/aille d'Oj%
VermiUion d'Ete). — A variety of doubtful origin with medium to l;irge
irregular pyriform fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin deep
yellow, Avitli a rich crimson cheek, and thickly marbled and dt>tted with
dull red. Flesh white, juicy, sweet, and highly flavouretl Tree strong
and a fairly good bearer.

Forelle.

GuriseVs J>erf/amot {Bonne Rouge, Jirocas lifrffamofte, Dunnanty Gurle^
Jieurre, Ive^ llcrgariiot, ^Staunton). — An old and well-kno\M) English Pear.
Fiiiit medium to large, roundish-obovate, much flattened, ;iiid ripens
about mid-season. Skin rough, yellowish-brown, thickly sprinkled Avith
russet dots. Flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, with i\ ricl-i aromatic-
flavour. Tree very robust, bun a somewhat uncertain bearer.

General Todtlehen— An excellent Belgian Pear. Fruit above medium
size or large, obtuse-pyriform, and ripens in the autuum. Skin greenish-
yellow, patched, netted, and dotted with brown russet. Flesh whitish-
yellow^, juicy, melting, slightly vinous, with a pleasant aroma. Tree
vigorous, spreading, and productive.

Glou Morcean [lle'it^'e de Cambron, Jieurre d' Harden pont, Heyrre de
Kent, Beurre TAmihurd, Cohnar d' Hirer) . — An old and well-known
Flemisb Pear which is very popular in Europe. Fruit me>limu to large.

295

varying in fomi, from obovate to obtuse-pyriform, ripens late, and is a
good keeper. Skin greenish-yellow, with markings and dots of grey
rasset. Flesh white, juicy, melting, sugary, and pleasantly flavoured.
Tree robust, spreading, and a free bearer. An excellent late dessert Pear.
Also suitable for canning.

Green Chisel {Madeleine Vert). — An old English Pear which formerly
was very popular, but is now excelled by otlier kinds. Fruit small, and
grows in clusters, roundish-ovate, and ripens about mid-season. Skin
green, with sometimes a brownish cheek. Flesh juicy, sweet, and \v%\\
flavoured. Tree hardy, vigorous, and generally bears freely.

6^ro.s Figue {Figue d'Alevcon, Figue d'Hiver). — An excellent French
variety with large long pyriform fruit, which ripens late. Skin golden
yellow, with a brownish cheek, with patches and dots of russet- Flesh
greenish-white, juicy, tender, melting, sweet, and richly flavoured. Tree
hardy and prolific.

Glou Morceau.

llacon^s Incomparahle {Downhaiib Seedling). — An excellent English
dessert variety with medium-sized, or over, roundish fruit, which ripens
late and keeps well. Skin dull yellowish-green, strewed with russet dots
and streaks. Flesh white, melting, sugary, vinous, with a ricli aroma.
Tree very hardy and an unusually free bearer.

296

Hiif/shes Prince Consort. — A first-class English Pear, a cross between
Beurre d'Aremberg and Passe Colviar. Fruit large to very large, oblong,
ripens late, and keeps well. Skin yellowish-green, thickly covered with
russet dots. Flesh yellowish- white, melting, rather crisp, very juicy,
sweet, vinous, and has a peculiar rich flavour, which is quite distinct.
Tree robust, and a fairly good bearer.

Jargonelle.

Iluyshts Prince of Wales {Hiu/sh''.'s Bergamot). — An English variety
obtained by Mr. Huyshe from a cross between Marie Louise and GanseVs
Bergamot. Fruit large, roundish-oval to oblong, ripens late, and keeps
well. Skin yellow, thickly covered with cinnamon russet. Flesh
yellowish-white, juicy, tender, melting, and richly flavoured. Tree
vigorous, spreading, and productive. A first-class Pear suitable for
exporting.

Hngshe's Princess of Wales. — This is also an excellent English variety
raised by Mr. Huyshe. Fruit medium or above, oblong, ripens late, and
a good keeper. Skin lemon yellow, sprinkled with patches, veins, and
dots of cinnamon russet. Flesh yellow, very juicy, melting, rich, with a
fine aroma. Tree robust and productive. Suitable for exporting.

Jlngshe's Victoria. — Another first-class English Pear, raised by Mr.

297

Huyslie from a cross between ^farie Louise and Gnnsel^s llercjamot^
Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform. ripens late, and keeps well. Skin yellow,
heavily patched, netted, and dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish-white
juicy, melting, slightly vinous, with a rich sugary flavour. Tree strong
spreading, and productive. Suitable for exporting.

Jalousie de Fontena)/ {l)cUe d' Eaquermes, Fonteimy Vendee). — A very
good French dessert Pear. Fruit medium size, obtuse-pyriform , and
ripens after mid-season. Skin greenish-yellow, with a reddish cheek, and
thickly patched and dotted with russet. Flesh white, melting, and richly
flavoured. Tree vigorous, yields early, and an abundant bearer.

Josephine de Malinet:

Jdrgoiielle {Beau Present^ Belle Vierge, Beiirre de Paris, St. Lomhert,
St. Samson^ Sweet Summer). — A very old and well-known variety of
uncertain origin, though probably it first came from France. Fruit
medium size or over, long-pyriform, and ripening early in the season.
Skin yellowish-green, and sometimes a little reddish-brown on the sunny
side. Flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, with a pleasant flavour. Tree
vigorous, hardy, and bears very freely. This variety is useful for its
earliness, but it decays very quickly, and must be used within two or
three days after it is gathered.

298

Jeui} de Witte (Benrre de Hamptieiine, Dial, Passe Cohnar Francois).
— All excellent Flemish variety with medium-sized roundish obovate-
pyriforni fruit, which ripens late and keeps well. Skin yellowish-green,
thickly dotted, splashed, and netted with russet, with a red blusli towards
the sun. Flesh white, juicy, melting, sugary, and highly flavoured. Tiee
vigorous, upright, and prolific.

Josvphine de Malines. — A Belgian variety of great excellence, and one
of our best long-keeping Pears. Fruit medium size or over, roundish-
oblate, and slightly pyriform, ripens late, and will keep for several
months. Skin greenish-yellow, thickly patched and netted with russet,
and strewed with minute brown spots, i'lesh yellowish- white, with a
tinge of pink, juicy, melting, sweet, with a rich aroma. Tree hardy,
vigorous, and productive. A good Pear for the home market or an export
trade.

L'Inconnue.

Keifer {Keijfer's Hyhrid, KeAffers Tear). — An American Pear said to
be a hybrid between the Chinese >^and Pear and Williams' Bon Chretien.
Fruit large, ranging from oval to pyramidal. Skin golden yellow, often
tinged with red. Flesh juicy, melting, and generally well flavoured, but
is somewhat variable in quality. Kipens hite, keeps a long time, and is
an excellent stewing and canning Pear. Tree hardy, robust, and very
prolific.

Knighfs Monarch {Monarch). — An excellent English dessert Pear.
Fruit medi\im size, roundish, ripens late, and may be kept for some time.
Skin yellowish-green, thickly covered with patches and dots of russet.

299

Flesh yellowish- white, very juicy, melting, rich, sugary, with a piquant
and pleasant aroma. Tree hardy, pyramidal, and very productive.
Suitable for exj^orting.

Leopold the First. — A Belgian variety of good quality, and a useful
late Pear. Fruit medium size, oval, inclining to pyriform, ripens late,,
and keeps well. Skin greenish-yellow, thickly flaked and dotted with
russet. Flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, melting, rich, sugary, with a
pleasant aromatic flavour. Tree hardy, pyramidal, and a fairly good
bearer.

Louise Bonne of Jersey.

LUriconu.iie ([ncornnie Van Moiis). — An excellent Belgia^i Peav, an(J
one of the best of the late keeping sorts. Fruit medium or under, oval-
pyriform, ripens late, and may be kept for several months. Skin rough,
greenish-yelloWj very thickly patclied and dotted with russet. Flesh
creaniy-wliite, firm, juicy, sugary, rich, with an agreeable art)nKi. Tree

hardy, vigorous, npright, and a free bearer. A good Pear for exporting
to Europe.

Madame Cole.

Louise Jjoniie of Jers"\i (^Bergamotte (V Avranches, Beurre (VArdmlore,
Bonne de Longueval, De Jersei/^ William the Fourth). — An excellent and
popular French dessert Pear. Fruit medium size or over, pyriform, and
ripens at mid-season. Skin pale green, brownish-red next the sun, and
thickly covered with brown and grey dots. Flesh greenish-white, juicy,
and melting, with a rich vinous tiavour. Tree vigorous and very prolific.
^. Madame Cole. — A first-class Australian variety raised in Victoria by
the late Mr. J. C. Qo\q from the Wintei^ Nelis, hybridised with Beurre
Clairgeau. Fruit medium size, roundish-ovate, frequently irregulai".
Skin almost covered with reddish russet. Flesh yellowish, juicy, sugary,
with a rich flavour. Ripens late and keeps well.

k^ Madame Eiize {Madame Eliza.), — A popular Belgian variety. Fruit
large, ovate-pyriform. Skin pale yellow, with patches, tracings, and dots
of reddish-brown russet. Flesh melting, juicy, with a rich and slightly
vinous flavour. Ripens late, and will keep two or three months. Tree
robust and prolific.

301

Madame IlenH Desportcs. — A French Pear of good <iiuility. Fruit
niedmin size, roundisli-obovate, and ripens about mid-season. Skin
rough, thickly covered with cinnamon russet. Flesh yellowish-white,
tender, juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured. Tree moderately vigorous
and prolific.

Madame Treyve (Souvenir de Madame Tret/ve). — An excellent French
dessert Pear. Fruit medium size or over, obovate-pyriform, and ripens a
little after mid-season. Skin pale yellow, dashed and dotted with russetj_
and a reddish cheek next the sun. Flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet,
rich, with a delicate aroma. Tree via;(»rous and a ver^* <;«)od V)earer.

Madame Eli/e.

Marie Louise (Braddich's Field Staudard, Marie Chretien ne, Marie
Louise Delcourt, Princess de Pai'me^Van Donckehxar. — A well-knowii and
veiy popular ])elgian Pear, Fruit medium to large, oblong-pyriform,and
ripens a little after mid-season. Skin rich yellow, sprinkled and mottled
with light ru.'^set on the sunny side. Flesh white, melting, very iuicy,

302

■with a rich saccharine and vinous flavour. Tree vigorous and an
excellent bearer.

Madame Treyve.

M'ork Louise d'Uccle. — An excellent l^elgian variety raised from a seed
of Marie Louise. Fruit rather above medium «ize, roundish-pyriform,
and ripens soon after luid-season. Skin thickly netted, patched, and
dotted with russet on a yellow ground, with a brown tinge «)n the sunny
side. Mesh white, juicy, melting, with a rich vinous flavour. Tree
vigorous, upright, and productive,

Millot de Xancy. — A Belgian variety of first-rate quality. Fruit above
medium size, oblong-obovate, and ripens towards the end of summer.
Skin dull yellow, very thickly dotted with brown, with a coppery red
cheek. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, melting, with a rich aromatic
flavour. Tree vigorous and bears freely.

Napoleon (Beurre Autien, Beurre Napoleon, Bon Chretien Napoleon,
Napoleon d'Hiver, Hoi de Borne, Sucree Doree). — A French Pear of
excellent quality. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, ripens late, and
keeps well. Skin pale yellowish-green, covered with numerous minute
brown dots. Flesh white, melting, very juicy, with a rich sugary and
pleasant flavour. Tree thrifty, comes into bearing early, and yields
heavy crops as a rule.

803

Xe Plus Mem-is. — A first-class Belgian dessert Pear. Fruit medium
size, roundish-turbinatej and somewhat irregular, ripens late, and keeps
for some time. Skin rough, dull yellow, thickly covered with dark
brown russet. Flesh yellowish-white, melting, juicy, with a rich sugary
and vinous flavour. Tree vigorous, upright, and a fairly good bearer.
Suitable for exporting.

PanaUse cVAutoiniie (Calebass Base, Mane Nuuvelle, Princesse
M((i'i(uine). — A Belgian dessert variety of high quality. Fruit
medium size, pyriform, and ripens late in the summer. Skin nearly
covered with rough dark cinnamon russet. Flesh rreamy-white,
melting, juicy, with a rich vinous aromatic flavour. Ti'ee very
vig'orous and productive.

Paradise d'Automne.

Passans de Portugal {Poire CkenWe, Summer Portuc/al). — A mid-
season dessert variety of doubtful origin. Fruit medium size and
under, noundish-oblate. Skin pale yellow, with a reddish-bi-own

804

cheek. Flesli white, ci-isp, juicy, sugary, with a fine aroma. Tree
fairlv robust, comes into bearing- early, and yiehls well.

Seckle,

Passe Colmar (^Ananax d^Hiver, Bturre de Argensony JJeurre Colmar
Gris, Colmar Bonnet, Colmar Dore, Colmar Epweu.r, Colmar d'llardeu-
pontj Fondante de Mons).—A well-known, excellent, and popular
Belgian variety. Fruit medium size and over, varying from obovate
to obtuse -pyriform, and i-ipening in the autumn. Skin deep yellovv\
thickly sprinkled with brown russet. Flesh yellowish-white, very
juicy, tender, melting, sugary, vinous, with a rich aromatic flavour.
Tree strong, pyramidal, and a fi-ee bearei".

Peach Pear (Poire Peche). — An excellent early dessert Pear of
Belgian origin. Fruit medium size to large, roundish or irregularly
oval, and rij)ens very early. Skin smooth, greenish-yellow, with a
blush of red on the sunny side, and netted and dotted with russet.
Flesh yellowish-Avhite, very juicy, melting, sugar}', vinous, with a
rich flavour. Tree modei-ate in growth and vei-y productive.

Pitmaston Duchess (Pi'tmastou Duchesse d'Angouleme). — An excellent
English vai'iety raised fi-oni Dvchesse d^Angouleme. Fruit large,
oblong-obovate, and ripens late in the summei'. Skin yellow, mai-ked
with light russet. Flesh yellowish-white, juicy, melting, and finely
flavoured. Ti-ee vigorous and prolific.

Poire de Jjerriays. — A first-class variety of French origin. Fi-uit
medium size, roundish-obovate, and ripens at mid-season. Skin
greenish-yellow, with a shade of brown on the sunny side, and

30.")

thickly sprinkled with brown and grey dots. Flesh white, juicy,
melting, with a slight vinous flavour. Tree robust and bears freely.

Uousseht de Utattganlt {BeUislme de I*rovence).—A good early
German variety. Fruit medium size oi* under, pyriform, and ripens
before mid-season. Skin yellowish-green, splashed, netted, and
dotted with russet, and a brownish blush on the sunny side. Flesh
vei-y juicy, melting, sugary, and highly flavoured. Tree robust,
pyi'amidal, and an excellent beaier. -^

Sand Pear {Chinese). — A vigorous Chinese species with large
glossy foliage. Fruit medium size to large, roundish-pyriform, and
ripens after mid-season. Skin gi-eenish-yellow, and covered with
rough sand-like russet. Flesh firm, juicy, and suitable for stewing.
Might prove serviceable by crossing with other Pears.

SecMe (New York Red Cheel', Shakspeare). — A first-class American
Pear, quite distinct from other varieties. Fruit small, obovate,
regular, and ripens after mid-season. Skin brownish-green, with a
lively red russet cheek. Flesh creamy- white, buttery, very juicy,
melting, w ith a peculiar and lich spicy aroma. Tree very hardy and
a prolific bearei*.

Soldat Espereri (A a gust Van Kransj Soldat Lahoureur). — An
excellent Belgian dessert variety. Fruit rather large, roundish-
obovate, and ripens after mid-season. Skin yellow, patched, netted,
and dotted with russet. Flesh yellowish- white, very juicy, sugary,
with a rich aromatic flavour. Tree vigorous, upright, bears early
and abundantly.

Souvenir du Congress. — An excellent French vai-iety. Fruit large
to very large, i-anging t'l-om obtuse to long pyriform, and ripens in
the summer. Skin bright yellow, with a flushed cheek. Flesh
juicy and melting, with a flavour somewhat like WiUiams' Jktn
Chretien^

Spanish Bon Chretien (lion Chretien d'Antomne, Safran d'Automney
Spanish Warden, Vandgck). — A very old and useful culinary Peai- of
uncertain origin. Fruit large, pyriform, ripens late, and keeps a
long time. Skin greenish-yellow, well covered with cinnamon russet,
and a deep flush next the sun. Flesh white, crisp, with a musky
ai-oma and brisk flavour. Tree hardy and bears freely. An excellent
Pear for stewing oi- drying and exporting.

St. Mic/mel Archangel. — A French dessert Pear of good quality.
Fruit rathei' above medium size, obovate-pyriform, and ripens after
mid-season. Skin smooth, golden yellow, speckled with small red
dots like Forelle, and a crimson cheek on the sunny side. Flesh
yellowish-w^hite, tendei-, juicy, melting, sugary, Avith an agreeable
aromatic flavour. Tree robust and pi'oductive.

Slimmer Benrtr d'Aremberg. — ^A first-class eai-ly English vai-iety.
Fruit medium size or under, sliort obovate, and ripens soon after- the
Jargonelle. Skin pale yellow, netted and patched wath russet.
Flesh white, tender, juicy, melting, vinous, with a brisk aroma.
Tree hard}-, robust, and a veiy free bearer.

Summer Bon Chretien {Florence d Ete^ Gratioli, Large Sugar). — This
Pear is .of uncertain orioin, but is one of the oldest, having been

2.S

306

caltivated in Europe for over three hundred years. Fruit rather
hirge, bell-shaped or pyrifoi-m, and i-ipens a little before mid-season.
Skin yellow, with an oi'ange i-ed blush next the sun, and dotted with
small gTeen specks. Flesli yellowish- white, erisp. juicy, sweet, and
pleasantly flavoured. Ti'ee robust and prolific.

Swan's Egg, — ^An excellent old English variety. I^'i-uit medium
size, roundish-ovate, and ripens in the autumn. Skin smooth,
yellowish -green, covered with pale brown russet, and flushed Avith
brownish-red next the sun. Flesh very juicy, tender, with a pirpiant
musky flavoui'. Tree robust, very hardy, and an excellent bearer.
Suitable for exporting.

Theodore Van Mons

Tardif de Mons. — A good dessert l\'ar of lielgian origin. Fruit
medium size, oblong-obovate, and ripens in the autumn. Skin
yellow, strewed with i-usset dots, and an orange cheek next the sun.
Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a rich sugary flavour. Tree
moderately i-obust and a faii-ly good bearer.

307

Theodore Van Mans. — A Belgian variety of (3xcellent (|aality,
Fi'uit medium size or above, oblong-pyriform, and ripens after
mid-season. Skin greenish-yellow, strewed with traces and dots of
russet. Flesh cream3^-white, juicy, melting, and well flavoured.
'^I^'ree vigorous, upright, and productive.

Thompson's, — An English variety, and one of the finest dessert
Pears. Fruit medium size, obovate-pyriform, ripens late, and keeps
for some time. Skin pale yellow, with patches, streaks, and dots of
russet. Flesh white, very juicy, melting, rich, and sugary, with a
Hue aromatic flavour. Ti-ee liardy, vigorous, and a good bearer.
Suitable for exporting.

Triomphe de Jodoigne. — A Belgian variety of excellent quality.
Fruit large, (jbovate to obtuse-pyriform, and ripens late in the
sumuier. Skin giecuisli-yellow, with patches, nettings, and dots of
russet, and a reddish cheek on the sunny side. Flesh yellowish- white,
juicy, sugar}^, with a brisk musky flavour. Tree vigorous and
productive.

Urbaniste.

XJrhaniste {Be'irre Drapiez, Beurre Gens, Beurre Fieqaery, Louis de
Orleans).— An excellent Flemish dessert varietv, and one of the most

;^08

serviceable. Fruit medium size or over, obovate-pvriforin, ripe]l^^
after mid-season, and will keep for several weeks. Skin pale yellow,
thickly covered with markings and dots of i-usset, and mottled with
reddish-brown. Flesh Avhite, juicy, tendei-, luelting, rich, suo-.m-y,.
with a slight aroma. Tree Lardy, viuorous. ])yr<iniidal, and a vt-rv
free bearer.

Viear of ^YiMktield.

Uveda/es St. Germaw (Abbe Monr/ein, Auclerwv, Belle (h Jerset/y.
Bolivar, German Baler, Pickering's Warrfev, Winter Bell). — A variety
of uncertain oiio-in. and the laro-est Penr known, the fruit weio-hino-^

from tlii-ee to four poinids. Fruit long piriform, ripens late, and
keeps for a lont^ time. .Skin dark green, with a brownish -red clieek,
thickly sprinkled and dotted with russet. Flesh white, tirm, crisp,
and juicy. I'ree very robust, liardy, and an excellent bearer. One
of tlie best stewii:^g Pears, and may be turned to account by drying.
Also suitable for exporting.

White Doyenne.

Van Mors Leon le Clerc. — An excellent French variety. Fruit
large, oblong-oliovate, ripens late, and will keep for several weeks.
Skin dull yellow, covered with dots and tracings of russet. Flesh
yellowish- white, very juicy, melting, with a rich sugary flavour.
Ti'ee strong. ]»yramidal, and bears fi'eely. A fine dessert Pear, and
suitable for ex])orting.

Van de Wef/er Bates.- — A Belgian v«ariety, and an excellent late
Pear. Fruit below medium size, roundish-obovate, ripens late, and
will keep a long time. Skin pale lemon, thickly covei'ed Avith small
dots and tracings of russet. Tree vigorous and a fairly good bearer.
Suitable for exporting.

810

Veonilam (Black lienrre, SpHng Beurre), — An old Kng-lisli Tai-iety,
useful as a cooking Pear. Fi'uit rather large, obovnte, ripens late^
and will keep for several montlis. Skin dull gi*een, tliickly eovej'ed
with brown russet and grey dots. Flesh white, crisp, iirm, and
juicy. When stewed assumes a tine deep red colour. Tiee very
hardy, robust, and prolitic. An excellent Peai- for stewing and
dr\'ing, and suitable for exporting.

Williams' Bon Chretien.

Vicar of WinlcjiehJ (Jielle Andrienve, BeVe de Herri, Belle Heloise, Boi^
Fapa, Clion, Cornice de Toulon y Monsieii}' Le Cure). — An excellent and
popular French variety, and one of our tinest and most useful Pears.
It was introduced to England by the Yicar of Winktield, in Berkshire,
and hence its name. Fruit large, pyriform. f!e(|uently one-sided,
ripens late, and will kec]) for several months. Skin greenish-yellow.

311

with a tinge of red on the sunny side. Flesh white, melting, juiey,
sweet, with Ji rich flavour. Tree vigorous, hardy, and very prolific,
bearing more regularly than most kinds. This variety is somewhat
simihir to Napoleon, with wliich it is often confounded. It is an
excellent market Pear, and suitable for an export trade. If used
before it is fully ripe, this variety is also a good cooking Pear. Also
suitable for canning.

Windsor.

White J)o(/eiive (Beurre Blanc, Citron de Septtmhre, Snow Pear,
Wanvick Beraamot, White. Butter).— A very old Frencli variety that
has been in cultivation foi- more than two centuries. Fruit medium
size or OA'er. obovate. and I'ipens after mid-season. Skin smooth and
shining, pale yellow, with sometimes a faint tinge of red next the

:n2

sun, and strewed with small dt)ts. Flesli wliito. buttery, melting,
sugary, with a rich piquant ^■in<.us flavour, l^ee hardy, u|)right,
and a free bearer.

WilUanu Bov Chretien {Bnrtlett of the AmtM-icans. Dehmault,
Duchess, Poire GuiUinune). — An old and po])ular KiigHsh variety, and
one of our finest summer Pears. Fruit large, oblong to obtuse-pyriform,
lipens early in the summer. Skin smooth, greenisli.yellow, some-
times ha\'ing a faint blush on the sunny side. Flesh white, very
juicy, melting, Avith a rich aromatic flavour. Tree robust, hardv,
and very prolific. 'J'his is decidedly the most po])ular summer Pear,
and is the variety chiefly used for canning.

Winter Nelis.

Wiii'hor (Bellissime, JieUe Tongne, Cape Pear, Figue, GrosKe Jargonelle,
Summer Bell). — An old variety of doubtful origin that was foj-merly
very popular, but is now to a large extent rej)laced by newer kinds.
Fruit large to very large, pyriform or bell-shaped, ripens early in the
summer. Skin greenish-yellow, with an orange tint on the sunny
side. Flesh white, tender, melting, with a brisk sweet flavour. Tree
very robust, attains a large size, and bears abundantly.

31;^

Winter Bon Chretien (Bon Chretien tVJIiver^ Bon Chretien tie Tours^
UAngaisse^ De Saint Martin). — The oldest Pear known, historical
records showing that it has been in cultivation in Europe for over
four hundred years. It is the source from which the other Bon
Chretien varieties have been obtained, and supposed to be of French
oi'igin. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, ripens late, and keeps for
several months. Skin dull yellow, Hushed with l)roAvn on the sunny
side, and strewed Avith small I'usset dots. Flesli white, juicy, crisp,
and sweet. Tree robust and prolific. This Peai- is better adapteiT
for cooking and di*ying than for dessert.

Zephirin Gregoire.

Winter Cole. — An excellent dessert Pear, a seedling from Winter
JSIelis, raised in Victoria by the late Mr. J. C. Cole. Fruit medium
size, roundish-obovate, i-ipens late, and keejjs well. Skin yellowish-
green, thickly covered with pale i-usset. Flesli white, very juicy,
melting, with a sweet i-ich flaAOui*. Tree A^igoi-ous and bears freely.
Suitable for exporting.

Winter JVelis (Bergamotte Thoiiin, Beurre de Malines, Colmar d'Hioer,
Nelis d'Hiver). — A Flemish variety of high quality that is very
popular. Fruit medium size or a little under, roundish-obovate,

814

ripens late, and will keej) several months. Skin dull yeliowisli-
gi-een, thickly covered with russet dots and patches. Flesh yelkmish-
white, very juicy, buttery, meltino-, with a rich saccharine aronuitic
Havoui*. Tree strong, hardy, but a somewhat uncertain bearer. A
o'ood dessert Pear, and suital)le for expoi-ting.

Zephirin Gregoire. — An excellent Belgian dessert Pear. Fruit
medium size, roundish-obovate to pyriform, ripens late, and* keeps
for several weeks. Skin dull o-reenish -yellow, clouded and dotted
with cinnamon russet. Flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, melting,
sugary, w^itli a rich and powerful aroma. Tree robust, pyiamidal,
and an excellent bearer. Suitable for ex])oi'ting.

PIGEON PLUM.

This name has been given to the fruit of two evergreen shrubs or
small trees indigenous to West Africa, and known to botanists as
Chr)/sohalanus eJipticus and C. In feus, belonging to the order Chrysoba-
lanaceae. The name is derived from chrifms (gold) and halaniii< (an
acorn), in allusion to the colour and shape of the fruit in some of the
species. Another species, Chrysohalanus Icaco, yields the Cocoa Plum,
which is described at page 271, volume 1. The species now under
notice yield pleasant succulent fruits somewhat like small Plums.
They are both compact handsome shi-ubs, and may be used for
ornamental planting in congenial localities, but being natives of a
warm climate they will only thrive in the tropical portions of
Australia. They thi'ive best in a rich deep loamy soil, but may be
gi'own in any fairly good ground. Propagation is most readily
eifected by seeds, which should be planted two inches deep. Plants
may be easily obtained from layers, and cuttings of ripened shoots of
the current season will root in sand if protected.

PINE-APPLE,

HlSTUKV AN I' L'SKS.

This popular fruit is indigenous to tropical South America, but it
is now naturalized in most of the warmei- regions of the globe, and
is very widely cultivated. It is known to botanists as Ananas sativa
{Anavassa sativa, Bromelia sativa), and it belongs to the order
Bromeliaceae. In habit the plant is a herbaceous perennial, and
bears its fruit upon a short stem springing from the crown. The
Pine-Apple is in reality a number of small but distinct fruits closely
bound together and forming a head. Each separate pip is a fruit in
itself. The Pine-Apple is widely cultivated in tropical and semi-
tropical regions, and its fruit is consider-ed to be one of the richest
for flavour that the world has produced. It is highly valued as a

315

dessert fruit by most peisons not only in regions where it is g-rown
but in colder ones to wliifli it is exported. This fruit is also
cultivated artificially in the United Kinofdoni and other countries
where the climate will not allow it to be i^i-own in the open ground,
so liighly is the Pine-Apple apprecinted. "I'he fruit is extensively
used in cookeiy- and for flavouring confections and liqueurs, and
makes delicious jam, jelly, and marmalade. Pine- Apples are also
used to a large extent for bottling and canning, for whicli purpose

Pine-Api'le.

the fruit is cut into slices or cubes about a-quarter of an inch thick.
They are preserved in a syrup more or less dense according to the
natural sweetness of the fruit. The process is precisely the same as
in bottling and canning other fruits, and for full details see page 74,
volume 1. Before the fruit is r-ipe it is caustically acid, and its use
in that state will cause ii-ritating or poisonous effects. In small
quantities the acrid juice of the green fruit is used medicinally for
Avorras and other intestinal parasites. In addition to its usefulness
as a fruit, the Pine-Apple fi'om its leaves yields a valuable commercial
fibre. This fibre, which is known as " Pina," is very fine and strong,
and can be utilized in the manufacture of fine cloth, as also coarser
fabrics and cordage.

Cultivation.

As the Pine-Ap])le is a nati^'e of a warm region it can only be-
en Itivated successfully as a commercial crop in the tropical and
sub-tropical portions of Australasia. It is, however, more hardy

ttliaii many otliuL* tropical plants, and will s^row — and also ripen its
fruit — in sheltered localities as far south as Sydney. The plant is
■quite at home in the coast districts of Queensland and the northern
part of New South Wales, and in some localities its cultivation lias
become an important industry. (Considerable quantities of fruit
are now sent from these districts ro the southern colonies and
Xew Zealand, and the trade is ex|)andino-. Pine- Apples are well
adapted for the warm regions of Xorth Australia, as also in AVest
Australia and some parts of South Aiisti-alia. Tn congenial localities
the Pine-Apple generalh" proves a pi-otitable crop, as a plantation
will yield from three to four thousand fruits per acre. This ci-op
requires a I'ich open soil containing a go(3d proportion of vegetable
matter, and it should be of fair depth. If the ground is not
sufficiently ricdi it should be improved by the free use of well decayed
manure. The ground should be deeply worked, as a g(^od root bed is
-essential, and, if necessary, provision must be made for effective
drainage. Shelter should also be provided if it does not exist
naturally. The plants should be arranged in rows about four feet
4ipart, and leaving from tw^o to three feet between in the lines,
according to the growth of the variety. It is advisable to plant
with regularity so as to facilitate the use of the horse-hoe in keeping
the land clean. Care must also be taken to firm the soil round the
roots when the ])lants are put in. and more especially in light open
ground. The best time for planting is early in the autumn, or, if
that is not convenient, in the spring. Crops planted in the autumn
Tusually give the quickest return. After planting, weeds should be
kept down by frequent hoeings, and when practicable it Avill be an
advantage to mulch between the plants before the hot season sets in.
A iDlantation will come into bearing in fi*om eighteen months to two
y^ears, accoi-ding to the strength of the ])lants wdien put in and the
•growth they make. A plantation will yield pa^^able crops for four or
live years, after wdiich the jdants get weakly and cease to give good
marketable fruit. The fruit attains the highest degree of perfection,
as a rule, when allowed to remain on the plants till it changes
•colour, as then only is the ricli flavour developed to the fullest extent.
When required for shipment, however, the fruit must necessarily be
•cut before it is fully coloured.

In the cooler regions of Australia, l^asmania, and New Zealand,
lovers of this grand fruit wdio wish to obtain it in perfection may
•easily grow^ the Pine-Apple in glass houses or frames with the aid of
artificial heat. All that is necessary is to plant in rich open well
<lraiiied soil, which by means of hot Avater pipes can be heated to
sibout seventy-five degrees Fair., and a few degrees higher aftei' the
fruit has foi*nied. Care must also be taken after the fruit has
formed to maintain a good circulation of air, avoiding, ho\^■ever,
strong cui'rents, and let the plants have a free light.

Pkopagation.

Plants may be obtained from seeds, crowns, suckers, and cuttings

317

from the stems. The Hi'st-named method is slow and tedious, and
seldom adopted except for raising new Aarieties. Crowns, or the-
tufts that OTOW on the top of the fruits, make good plants, but they
are usually longer in coming into bearing than suckers. The most
expeditious and serviceable, as also the most generally adopted,.
method of propagation is by suckers. These should be carefully
I'emoved from the parent plants when required for planting, or they
may be planted in close rows, nursery- fashion, and shifted to theii-
jiei-manent places afterwards. Plants may be obtained from short
stem cuttings planted just below the surface, but this mode of
propagation is only serviceable when a rapid increase of stock is
requii-ed.

Varikties.

There are many varieties of tlie Pine-Aj)ple in cultivation, but
three or four will be sufficient for all practical purposes. The-
following list embraces some of tlie best and most poj)iilar sorts : —

Blach Aittigua (Brown Antigua). — This variety has purple flowers^
and nai-i-ow leaves with short rigid spines. Fruit medium-sized^
cylindrical, inclining to oval, pips lai'ge and prominent, colour deep,
ochre. Flesh pale yellow, slightly fibrous, juicy, and well flaA'oured,
but the fruit should be cut as soon as it begins to colour, as when,
allowed to get fully ripe u])on the plant it detei-iorates.

Black Jamaica. — An excellent, useful, and com])aratively hardy
^^vai-iety which ripens its fruit at all seasons. Flowers purple, leaves
dark green, narrow, with small spines. Fruit medium-sized, oval,,
and somewhat compressed at both base and crown, pips medium size,.
colour brownish-orange. Flesh pale yellow, firm, slightly stringy,,
and very highly flavoured.

Charlotte Rothschild. — An excellent variety with lilac flowers and
short, broad, bluish-green leaves with strong spines. Fruit cylindri-
cal, very large, being commonly from six to ten ])Ounds in weight,,
deep 3'ellow, pips large and flat. Flesh yellow, tender, juicy, and
richly flavoured.

Enviile. — A vai-iety with lilac flowers and tall conical fruit six or
seven pounds in weight, in colour a i-eddish-oi-angc, pips medium-
sized and pointed. Flesh pale, without much flbre, sweet, and rich,,
but scarcely so highly flavoured as the Queen and some other kinds.

Lemon Qveen {lUirhaihes Queen).- -T\ns, variety has large lilac
flowers. Fruit cyliiulrical, medium to large, pale lemon colour, and
pips i-athei- above the medium size. Flesh pale yellow, transparent,,
jnicy, sweet, but not so highly flavoured as some other varieties

Monsterat {Brazil, New lii'plej/, St. Vincent's Cockscomb). — A jiiirple
flowered variety with medium-sized cylindrical orange coloured fruit
with a copper tinge. Pips medium size. Flesh solid, lemon coloured,
semi-ti-ansparent, slightly stringy, juicy, sweet, but also has a
sub- acid flavour.

Providence {White Providence). -An old and populai- variety with
laro-e fruit varving fi'om cvlindrical to oval, which often attains a

818

weiglit of twelve to fourteen pounds. Flowers dark purple, fi-uit
reddish-yellow, pips very large. Flesh very jiale, solid, juicy, aiul
nieltin,^, but somewhat poor in fl.ivour.

Queen {Coninton Queei , Ol<i Queen).-— Thin is one of the most useful
mnl pojiular vai-ieties, as it matures early, is comparatively hardy,
and is considered to be one of the best kinds for summer crops.
Flowers lilac, leaves long and smooth Avitli very few spines. Fruit
cylindi-ical, weighing from five to ii^n pounds, deep orange, pips
rather small but prominent. Flesh |)iile yellow, slightly fibrous,
very juicy, sweet, and i-ichly flavoured.

Ripley {Old Riplti/). — An old and popahir variety Avith purple
flowers. Fruit moderately laige, ranging f lom cylindrical to ovate,
in colour a pale copper, and pips above medium size. Flesh pale
yelloAV, firm, crisp, juicy, very sweet, and highly flavoured.
. Ripley Queen.— This is a sub-vaiiety of the Queen, and the fruit is

similar in appearance and quality, but the leaves are somewhat
broader.

Uough-leouced Cnyenne {Prichly Cayenne).- -A. variety with lihic
flowers and long leaves thickly covered with strong spines. Fruit
large, Aveighing from six to eight pounds, cylindrical, tapering a little
towards the crown, dark orange, Avith light })ips. Flesh pale yelloAv,
not Aery juicy, but Avell flavoured.

Smooth-le'ived Cayenne. — An excellent and popular Aariety, and
^^ considered to be one of the best Pines for winter crops. Fruit
pyramidal-, large, Aveighing from seven to ten pounds, deep orange,
Avith pips large and flat. Flesh pale yellow, juicy, SAveet, and highly
flaA'oured- Flowers purple, and leaves long and smooth with very
feAv spines.

Trinidad {Fitch Lake). — This variety has tall, shoAvy, and very
large fruit, Avhich has been groAvn oA^er tAventy pounds in weight,
Fruit conical, deep orange, with large roundish pips. Flesh yelloAv.
melting-, and sweet, with a rich and ]>leasant flavour.

PIQUILLIN.

This is the vernacular name in South Amei-ica for the fruit of
Condal/a microphylla {Zizf/i>hus microphyll((), a small evergreen shi'ub
belonging to the order Rliamnacea\ It is indigenous to Chili and
other parts of 8(uith America in the medium cool regions. The fruit
is the size of a Cherry, succulent, and when fully ripe has a SAveet
pleasant flaA'our. In its native regions it is well appreciated Avhen
eaten fresh, and it is also utilized Avhen dried. The Piquillin may be
cultivated successfully in those parts of Australasia Avhere there is no
trouble from frosts, as also in medium wariu i-egions, either as a fruit
plant or ornamental shrub. It Avill thrive in any ordinary good soil,
but prefers an o]ien sandy loam. Propagation may be effected by
seeds, Avhicli should be planted about an inch deep. Plants can be
easily obtained from layei-s, and cuttings from ripened wood of the

819

carreut season's jj-rowtli w'u] strike freely in sand or light soil if
protected from the wc^atliei-.

PISTACHIO NUT.

Hf STORY AND UsKS.

Tlie Xut bearing this name is the product of a deciduous ti:iie,
kiunvn botanically as Fistacia vera, which belongs to the natural
order Anacardtacete, or the Caslie^v Nut family. It is indigenous to
.Syria and Pei-sia, but has from an early period been largely gi-o^vn in
Fi'ance, Italy, Spain, and other countries of Southern Europe. The
Nuts, Avhich are freely produced, are enclosed in a reddish pulp, and
<H)ntain gi'eenish oily Almond-like kernels, whicli are sweet and
agreeably flavoured. These Nuts ai"e extensively used in Europe in
oookeiy and confectionery in the .same way as sweet Almonds, and
their flavour is greatly appreciated. The trees are robust, and will
often attain a height of thiity feet or more when growing undei*
favourable conditions. They are also fairly hardy, and will thrive in
regions wliere the frosts are not very severe.

CuL'iivAriox.

In Australasia the tree may be grown to perfection in all but tjie
very cold districts, and its cultivation ought to prove profitable, as the
Nut, being a good substitute for the Almond, and possessing a distinct
flavour of its own, must necessarily be in great demand by confectioners.
It may be grown succes.sfully in any fairly good land that is not too wet,
and it will adapt itself readily to various localities. Being a tree with
very handsome dense foliage, it is valuable for ornamental jnirposes, and
may be planted witli advantage in parks or shrubberies. The Pistachio
is also a .serviceable tree for street planting, and may be used for this
purpose with advantage in many localities.

Propagation.

Propagation is effected by seeds, layers, and cuttings. Plants can
readily be obtained from seeds, provided they are fresh, but if old they
have less vitality. They should be sown in a light rich soil, covering
them to the depth of an inch. When large enough to handle, the young
plants should be transplanted in rows, or potted off. The following
season they will be ready to plant out. Layers strike freely if put down
in the spring, and yield very good plants. Cuttings will also root readily
if taken off just before the spring and inserted in sand.

PLUM.

History.
The Plum is known botanically as Prunus, and belongs to the natural

320

order Hosacect, which embraces so many of our cultivated fruits. Frumis
comes from y>r////^, the Greek name of the fruit. As to the origin ot the
English name there are no records, but probably it is derived in some way
from Friiiiiis. The principal varieties now in cultivation are supposed to
have originated from Prmins domeMica, a species indigenous to the United
Kingdom and the greater portion of Europe and Northern Asia. In its^
wild state this species i.-s a h»w-growing tree thickly covered with sharp
strong spines, and producing small astringent fruit, which is very different
in many respects to that of the cultivated varieties. Fr^nus insitUia. a
species indigenous to Great Britain (where it is commonly known as the
Bullace), but also found in many otlier parts of Europe, is supposed to be
the source of the Damson. The original species bears small round black
fruit, which possesses a sharp astringent flavour. There are, however,
sub-species which bear green or pale yellow fruit, which is larger and
more palatable than that produced by the original type. Though
generally admitted to be a distinct species, yet some botanists affirm that
it is merely a variety of l^runus domesticjt. The Cherry Plum is Fritmis
myrithalatia [Priuins c.erusifeni). also generally classed as a distinct
species, though some botanists maintain that it is a variety of P;•/?/^^^s■•
domestica. Frxntis sjiinosn, a dwarf bushy species indigenous to the
United Kingdom, and common to many parts of Europe, is the Sloe or
Blackthorn. It includes several sub-species, all of which are thickly
covered with spines, and bear small Plum-like fruit which is intensely
astringent.

Among other species yielding edible fruits that may be classed as
Plums are the following : — Fruniis Americawi, a species indigenous from
Canada to Mexico, growincj from ten to fifteen feet high. The fruit i»
roundish-oval, small, thick-skinned, and includes both red and yellow
varieties, which are known in America as the Wild .Red, or Yellow,
Plum, also as the Canada Plum. Flesh juicy, with a pleasant sub-acid
flavour. Fru7ius Bokhni-ensis, a species indigenous to Bokhara and
Afghanistan, yields a medium-sized fruit known as the Bokhara Plum,
large quantities of which are sun dried and sent to India, rrmii/.f
chicasa (Primus (nigusttifolia), a species indigenous to the southern
portion of the United States from Arkansas to Texas, is known as the
Chickasaw Plum. The fruit is round, about three-quarters of an inch in
diameter, thin skinned, and ranges in colour from red to reddish-orange.
Flesh juicy and pleasantly sub-acid. This species has foliage somewhat
like the Peach, and varies in height according to locality from a low shrub
of three or four feet to a small tree of twelve to fourteen feet. Frmiwi
demi.sm, a species indigenous to Utah and California, is known as the
Utah Plum. It is a shrub, and bears in great abundance snudl and
somewhat harsh acid fruit. Primus marifima, a low straggling shrub
indigenous to ejistern North America, where it is mostly found near the
sea coast, is known as the Beach Plum and also as the Sand Plum. The
fruit is roundish, about an inch in diameter, and in colour rangCvS from
red to purple. The fruit is juicy but somewhat austere in flavour, though
it makes a good preserve. Pranns Simoni, a Chinese species, yields a
fruit of good quality known as the Apricot Plum. Fi-unns sidjcordafa, a

:^2i

species indigenous to California and other parts of North West America,
a shrub grooving ten or twelve feet high, yields a palatable fruit that is
utilized to a great extent in its native regions. There are two varieties,
one having round yellow fruit the size of large Cherries, and the other
has fruit in form and colour similar to Damsons.

There is no certainty as to when the Plum first became a cultivated
fruit, but probably the earliest improved varieties originated in Western
Asia, as the fruit appears to have been well known to the ancienjt
Persians, Syrians, and Egyptians. Afterwards it appears to have become
very popular with the Greeks and Romans. As regards its use by the
last-named nation, Pliny informs us that in his time a great many-
varieties were known. The Damson, or Damascene Plum as it was
originally called, as its name implies, oiiginated in Damascus, and is the
earliest kind on record. It is said to have been introduced to Italy
about a hundred years before the Christian era. For its medicinal
qualities the wild Plum was held in high repute by Greeks and Romans,
who were in the habit of using the bark of the tree as an astringent in
cases of intermittent fever.

Plums of various kinds appear to have become common in England
about the middle of the fifteenth century, most of them having been
introduced from France, Italy, and other parts of Southern Europe.
One of the earliest introductions was the well-known Orleans Plum, a
French variety still held in high repute. The popular Green Gage was
also introduced from France, where it was known under the name of
Reine Claude, but it is supposed to have originated in Greece. This
variety is said to have been taken to England towards the end of the last
century, along with a number of other trees, by Sir Thomas Gage. It so
happened that this particular Plum tree had lost its name, and when, in
time, it fruited, the gardener christened it Green Gage in allusion to its
colour and in honour of his employer. Some authorities, however, assert
that the Green Gage was known in England at a much earlier period,
though under another name.

Uses.

The Plani is an excellent dessert fruit, though it is not so extensively
used for this purp(»se as some other kinds, as it is commonly supposed to
cause indigestion and flatulence. The fruit is, however, perfectly
wholesome if eaten in moderate quantities and when fully rij^e. The
skin of the Plum is very indigestible, and should never be eaten, and
more especially by persons who have weak stomachs or are otherwise out
of health. For culinary purposes Plums are extensively used, and large
quantities are preserved in various M^ays. The Plum is considered to be,
when cooked, a very wholesome fruit. Medicinally it is mildly laxative,
and .has a purifying effect upon the blood. For canning there is now a
considerable demand for Plums, and this mode of preserving is increasing
in popularity. Fruit preserved by this method will keep for any length
of time, and is available for use at periods of the year when the fresh
Plums are out of season. The canning process will also allow our

2t

322

growers to open up an export trade after our home wants are supplied.
For preserving in the form of jam Phims are very extensively used, and
more so than any other fruit. The drying of Plums is an important
industiy in some parts of Europe, and more especially in France and
Italy, where the fruit forms an important article of commerce under the
names of Prunes and Prunellas. Several kinds of Plums are used for
these purposes, the most suitable being those that have firm fleshy fruit
and hang lon^o upon the trees. There is some difference in the methods
of drying in ditterent districts, but only in details, and in the main the
practice is uniform. Culinary Plums may also be preserved by simply
splitting the fruit, removing the stones, and exposing the halves to the
action of the sun, the cut side uppermost. Fruit preserved in this way
will retain its original flavour, and when carefully prepared and packed
will keep for years. The fruit may also be dried by means of artificial
evaporators, and when large quantities have to be treated, this method
will generally prove more effective and economical.

The juice of the Plum when fermented makes a very palatable wine,
and by distillation yields a good spirit. Large quantities of fruit are
utilized in this way in some parts of Europe. Any kind of Plums can be
used for these purposes, but those having plenty of juice and containing a
large proportion of saccharine will yield the best returns. Damsons are
largely used in making wine or spirit, and the juice is sometimes employed
for colouring or flavouring chee«e, which is known as '' Damson cheese."
The fruit of the Sloe is in Europe often made into a conserve with sugar,
and formerly the juice was extensively used in the adulteration of port
wine. The leaves of the Sloe were also used extensively formerly in the
adulteration of tea. ^ledicinally the unripe fruit and leaves of all the
species contain prussic acid in large proportions, but the Prnnus sjnriosa
(Sloe) family to a greater extent than the others. The bark of the Plum
tree, which is very astringent, is sometimes used medicinally, but to a
greater extent formerly than now. From the bark of the wild Pruiius
domestica a good yellow dye for woollens is obtained, while Prunus spinosa
yields a red colouring material. The wood of all the species of Plums is
fine-grained, hard, and durable, and though not attaining a great size is
extensively used by European cabinetmakers, and in the manufacture of
musical instruments.

Preparation of the Soil and Planting.

Plums are very hardy trees, and may be grown successfully under
various local conditions and in most parts of Australasia, excepting
tropical regions. They are likely to thrive best, however, in a moderately
cool climate when planted in a deep rich loamy soil. The land should be
deeply worked, and more especially if the soil is heavy, as a good root-
bed is essential. Drainage must be provided for when necessary^ as a
wet retentive soil is uncongenial to the trees. Trees should be planted
not less than twenty -four feet apart in order to allow ample room for
development. As, however, it will be some time before they require the
whole of this space, it is a good plan to plant intermediate temporary

323

trees of either Plums or other fruits, to be removed when necessary.
These temporary trees assist in utilizing the land, and act as nurses to the
others. Planting may be done at any time between the fall of the leaf
till the spring growth commences, but the most favourable period is from
the beginning of July to the first week in August, according to the
locality. Strong straight-stemmed young trees should be selected, and
these ought to have well-formed heads, and roots in proportion.

Training and Peuning.

Trees should invariably be trained with low heads, as tall specimens
suffer more from strong winds than short ones. Low-headed trees also
afford a better shade for the stems, and give greater facilities for gathering
the fruit and pruning. Young trees will require more attention in
pruning than old ones, as their branches must be thinned out and

Branches of the Plum.

(A) Two year old wood.
{B\ One year old wood. (C
and D) Fruit spurs.

Fruit Spur upon older wood.

shortened back according to their special
requirements in order to promote a strong
growth of wo^d and get the heads into the
desired form as quickly as possible. Mature
trees will require but little pruning as a
rule, all that is necessary being the removal
of misplaced and diseased wood or rank
shoots, and thinning out the branches when
the heads get too crowded. Too frequently
Plum trees are pruned more heavily than is
necessary, and more harm than good is done.
The necessity for winter pruning may in a
large measure be avoided by disbudding or
removing surplus shoots early in the summer
before growth has made much headway.
This practice is specially to be commended
in the case of young trees. Very frequently,
owing to local circumstances such as a very
rich soil, the too free use of manure, or the

;]24

nature of tlie variety, trees will have a tendency to make an over-luxuriant
growth of wood, and at the same time they produce but little fruit.
In such cases root pruning is likely to prove the most effective remedy.
For detailed directions for root pruning, see article upon the Apple in
volume 1.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by various means, including seeds,
cuttings, layers, suckers, budding, and grafting. Seeds are, as a matter
of course, the only means by which new varieties can be obtained.
Seedlings are also raised in large quantities for stocks, and the Cherry
Plum is in great demand for this purpose. Some growers object to
seedling stocks as being too vigorous and having a tendencj^ to throw up
suckers. Those who hold this opinion prefer stocks that are raised from
layers or cuttings, the varieties most generally used in this part of the
world being the Julian for free-growing stocks, and the Muscle for those
that are less robust. The Cherry Plum is also a favourite stock, as it
throws suckers less freely than some kinds- A variety known as the
French Cherry Plum is preferred by many to the common kind. As in
the case of other fruits, there can be no doubt about seedlings affording
the most durable and thrifty stocks. They must, however, be raised
from such kinds as are likely to prove suitable for the varieties worked
upon them Varieties differ very considerably in their habits, and
seedlings from very strong ones are likely to make over-vigorous stocks
for less robust sorts. When this is the case suckers are produced freely,
and in all probability the fruitfulness of the trees and the quality of the
fruit are often materially affected through lack of congeniality between
the stock and the scion. There ought to be no great difficulty in raising
seedling stocks that will be in sympathy with the varieties worked upon
them. Varieties are most generally perpetuated by budding, and this
operation may be performed at any time during the growing season, when
the bark will rise freely from the wood, but, as a rule, the most favourable
time is soon after mid-summer. , Grafting is less practised than budding,
and may be done just before growth commences in the spring. As to the
relative merits of the various stocks opinions vary considerably, but the
writer considers that under ordinary circumstances the Plum should have
the preference, as likely to give the most durable trees. Then, again, the
Cherry Plum seems to offer greater advantages than other kinds for
ordinary purposes, and more especially in light sandy soils. In America
the Canada Plum {Pritvns Americana) is used successfully as a dwarfing
stock for poor, stiff, and wet soils, and may, if tried, prove serviceable in
Australasia. The Peach makes a fairly good stock in dry hot districts,
though the trees are not likely to be so long-lived as if worked upon
Cherry Plums. The Almond is also a very good stock for dry districts,
and more especially in soils containing a large jjroportion of lime.

\
Injurious Insects.

The Plum often suffers from the attacks of various insects, and these

10 K

should be kept under as much as ))ossible by the prompt use of remedies
<is soon as they make their appearance. The more troublesome of these
2)ests are as follows : —

Aphides. —Various species attack the trees and cause more or less
damage, the most prominent being known as the Plum Aphis (Aphis
priinifolia), a small dark-coloured fly. For remedies see article upon the
Orange, page 181, and volume 1, pages 90 to 102.

Movers. — Plum trees are liable to the attacks of the Elephant and other
beetles of the Weevil family, which, in their larval stage, bore into The"
branches, stems, or roots. For treatment see page 181, and volume 1,
pages 88 and 89.

Curculio {Cenotrachelus nenuphar, Umchceniis nenuphar). — This insect,
which belongs to the Weevil family, is very destructive in America and
Europe, but so far it has not proved specially troublesome in Australasia.
It particularly affects Plums, but it also attacks^ though to a less extent.

Curculio.

Fruit showing Insect depositing its Egg.
(Natural Size).

Fruit showing Larva working.
(Natural Size).

Larva (Slightly Magnified). Pupa (Magnified). Perfect Insect (Magnified).

Apricots, Peaches, Cherries, Ap[)les. Pears, and Quinces. The perfect
insect is a small dark brown beetle about a-quarter of an inch in lengtli,

the sheaths

the

being slightly marked with a lighter

826

colour. The female makes a hole in the fruit, deposits a single egg, and
then forms a crescent-shaped slit below it. The work of the insect is
easily detected by these crescent slits. Each female lays from fifty to a
hundred eggs, and deposits from five to ten per day. The larvje when
hatched resemble small glossy yellowish-white maggots with reddish-
brown underneath and pale brown heads. When fully grown the larva?
desert the fruit, which usually falls prematurely, and penetrate the ground
to the depth of a few inches, and remain till they reach the perfect state.
The perfect beetle feeds both upon the fruit and leaves, as also upon the
young bark. The period at which the fruit falls after being punctured
depends upon its age at the time it is attacked. Young fruit will
generally drop in ten days or a fortnight after it is punctured, but if not
attacked till the stone has hardened, it may remain upon the tree till
nearly the ordinary period. Sometimes it will ripen with a sound
appearance, but is spoiled by the grub inside. The Curculio travels by
flying, but only on warm bright days. As a rule the beetles confine
themselves to the same trees or others near to them, but sometimes they
are carried half a mile or more b}^ strong winds, and thus spread to fresh
orchards. When in flight they usually travel within a few feet of the
ground, and they have been successfully kept from fruit ^-ardens by
means of fine wire nettings fixed to the height of nine or ten feet upon
fences.

Kemedies : — These are various, but some merely repel and do not
destroy the insects. Spraying with Tobacco Water, Lime Water, and
Salt and Water while the fruit is small belong to the first-named class of
remedies. The most eftective way of dealing with the pest is to collect
the perfect insects by jarring the trees under which sheets have been
spread. The best time for this operation is in the cool of the morning,
when the injects are somewhat torpid and fall easily. Jarring should be
effected by a smart blow from a hammer or mallet, placing a piece of
board between to prevent injury to the bark. The sheets must then be
gathered uj) carefully, and the insects destroyed. Fallen fruit from
attected trees should be promptly gathered up and fed to pigs, or
destroyed, in order to kill the larvae. When practicable it is a good plan
to let pigs have the run of an affected orchard, as they quickly pick up
the fallen fruit. Geese and fowls also eff'ect the same object, but to a
more limited extent.

>S'ca/e.— Various kinds of Scale insects will attack Plum trees, the
worst being the Apricot Scale (Lecaniuin pruuiosinn), lUack or Olive
Scale {Lecanium olea), and the Pernicious Scale (Aspdiofus perniciosvs).
For descriptions of Scale insects and their treatment see pages 185 and
187, also page 84, volume 1.

Various Other Injects. — Mealy Bug, Red Spider, and Thripts are often
troublesome to Plum trees. For descriptions of these pests and their
remedies see pages 80, 82, and 84, volume 1.

Injurious Fungi.

Various species of fungi are more or less injurious to the Plum, though

327

generally speaking this fruit does not suffer to the same extent from these
evils as the Peach and some other kinds. The more troublesome kinds
are as follows : —

Mildeiv — Plum trees are liable to various forms of Mildew, some of
which affect the roots, and others the young wood, foliage, or fruit. The
causes are invariably local, and when these are removed and remedies
applied promptly there will be no difficulty in effecting a cure. For
further information see page 231 and also article upon Mildew, page 91,
volume 1. —

Root Fungus. — Trees often suffer from the attacks of fungi at the
roots, owing generally to local predisposing causes, which are various.
For further information and remedies see article upon the Peach, page
231.

Bust. — This fungus causes serious inj'ir}^ to the foliage of Plum trees
in many localities, and is widely spread throughout the Australasian
colonies, as also in Europe and America. It is identical with the fungus
known as Peach Rust, which is fiilly described at page 231 in a special
article which also gives directions for treatment.

Diseases.

The Plum, like many other trees, is liable to various diseases, which
often cause serious injury. Our knowledge respecting these diseases is
by no means so perfect as could be desired, and there is a wide field open
for careful investigation and experiment. The more prominent and
common diseases are as follows : —

Canker. — For a full description of this disease, its causes, and. treatment
see the special article upon Canker, page 93, volume I .

Gumming. — Full particulars respecting this troublesome disease will be
found in the special article upon Gumming, page 94, volume I.

Leaf Galls. — Sometimes the foliage of Plum trees suffers to some
extent from this disease, full particulars- respecting which will be found
in a special article upon Leaf (rails, page 95, volume 1.

Sliver Disease. — This name has been given in New Zealand to a
destructive disease that is causing some trouble to the fruit growers of
that colony, but has not, so far as the writer is aware, been discovered in
other parts of Australasia. The attention of the writer of this work has
been drawn to this disease by Mr. J. C. Blackmore, the New Zealand
Government Pomologist, who describes it as the worst evil with which he
has to contend. He also says that it is spreading rapidly and has
extended to many districts, not confining its attacks to the Plum as at
first, but also affecting the Apple, A])ricot, Cherry, Peach, and Nectarine.
The disease makes its appearance in the spring soon after the leaves are
developed, sometimes affecting a solitary branch and at others many.
Its appearance is made known by the foliage having a lighter colour than
usual, and as the season advances the leaves gradually assume a lustrous
silvery appearance, hence the name Silver Disease. Leaves affected by
this disease are unable to perform their proper functions, and, consequently,
the growth of the trees is checked. From the leaves the disease extends

328

to the wood of the branches^ which become discoloured and dry, and
invariably die off soon after growtlj commences in the following season.
The real nature of this disease and its causes are at present unknown, and
possibly it may long be classed among the many mysterious evils with
which cultivators have to contend. In the opinion of the writer there is
some affinity between this disease and the Peach Yellows described at
23age 233, the symptoms and effects being very similar. If so the better
plan is to root out aifected trees and destroy them, as the injuries are
radical and cannot be cured. If, however, the disease is of fungoid
origin, as it may be, spraying with Suljihate of Iron, Bluestone and
Ammonia, or similar fungicides will prove beneficial.

Gathering and Packing.

Plums attain the highest degree of perfection when allowed to get
thoroughly ripe upon the trees, as then only is their flavour fully developed.
Consequently, when required for dessert or drying, they should be
allowed, as far as is practicable, to ripen fully before they are gathered.
Sometimes, however, when required for a distant market it will be
necessary to gather the fruit somewhat early. When required for cooking
or jam it is not necessary to wait till the fruit gets fully ripe, and the
Plums may be trathered as soon as they are fairly coloured and
moderately soft, hi sending to market the Plums should be uniform in
size, and closely packed in the cases so that they will not shift. Though
Plums as a rule are not suitable for storing, yet several of the late kinds
may be preserved in good condition for a few weeks. These should be
arranged upon shelves in single layers in a dark room or cellar where the
temperature is medium low and regular. If wrapped singly in tissue
paper they may be kept still longer if required.

Making Prinks.

The fruit must be thoroughly ripe before it is gathered, as then it is
richest in saccharine, which is essential to a full and luscious flavour. It
is advisable to let it hang upon tlie" trees till it begins to shrivel, and
some growers allow the fruit to remain till it drops off. When this plan
is adopted it is customary to place straw, grass, tfcc. under the trees to
prevent bruising, which is injurious to the fruit. This i)lan has its
drawbacks, as the process of harvesting is slow, and gathering up the
fallen fruit is tedious and laborious. It is a better plan to place sheets
under the trees and jar the branches as soon as the fruit is sufficiently
ripe. This process may be repeated daily or every second day till the
crop is secured. If gathered by hand it will be advisable to go over the
trees several times in order to secure the crop in the best jDossible
condition. In France the common mode of drying is, after the fruit is
gathered, to spread it out in trays of wood or wickerwork and expose for
about two days to the sun till it becomes soft. The trays are then placed
in a baker's oven heated to from a hundred and five to a hundred and
twenty degrees Fall, and allowed to remain for two hours. The fruit is

:^29

then allowed, to cool, is turned on the trays, and sul^jected to another
heating of a hundred and forty to a hundred and forty-five degrees. The
proceiss of cooling and turning is again repeated, and then a third and
final henting is given, this time the temperature being raised to about a
hundred aud seventy degrees. This method is practised generally by the
smaller growers in France, but of late years the larger and more
enterprising manufacturers make use of evaporators, which do the work
more effectively, rapidly, and at far less cost for labour. In some parts
of Europe and generally in California, sun drying is the common method
of making Prunes. The fruit, when gathered, is usually graded, or
sorted into various sizes, as the work of drying is facilitated when each
tray contains Plums uniform in size and quality. Special grading
machines are in use in America, but the work can be fairly well performed
by passing the fruit over a slightly inclined plane with openings or slots
of varying width at intervals, through which the Plums drop according
to their size. The fruit may also be quickly graded by passing it through
trays of wire netting with meshes of various widths. In Californian
practice, before the fruit is placed upon the drying trays it is dipped for
half a minute in a boiling hot solution of one pound of concentrated lye
and ten gallons of water. The object of this dipping is to remove the
bloom and at the same time slightly crack the skins and facilitate tlie
work of drying. Great care must be taken not to immerse the fruit
longer than the time mentioned, as otherwise the skins will crack too
much, and there will be a loss of sugar. When dipped the fruit should
be placed in baskets, boxes, or buckets with open wire bottoms or sides.
After the fruit has been dipped it should be thoroughly rinsed in cold
water to remove traces of the lye, and then spread out upon the drying
trays. The time required for drying will necessarily depend upon the
size of the Plums and the weather, and may vary from a week to a month.
When the fruit has been sufliciently dried, it should be placed in bins or
boxes to slightly ferment, or " sweat," for about a fortnight. During this
process the fruit should be turned and mixed frequently by shifting from
one box to another, in order to prevent ov^er-strong fermentation and
cause evenness in quality. When sufficiently sweated the fruit is dipped
a second time in boiling water — plain or with the addition of glucose
glycerine, salt, or colouring matter. The object of the dipping is to kill
any insect or fungoid germs, and the various additions are supposed to
deepen the colour and give a gloss to the fruit. After the second dipping
the fruit is again spread upon the trays and exposed to the sun for two
or three hours, when it will be ready for packing. In packing care
should be taken that when the cases are opened the fruit will appear to
the best advantage. The boxes should be carefully lined with white
paper, and the top layer of the fruit ought to be nicely faced, or
flattened. This facing can be readily effected by flattening some of the
fruit between rollers and placing it regularly at the bottom of the boxes.
These are then filled tightly and fastened so that when opened out the
part first filled will be the top of the box. The boxes ought to be uniform
in shape and size, and should be made to hold ten, twenty -five, and fifty
pounds respectively. As regards size, the first grade will be Prunes that

go from thirty-five to forty to the pound, second grade, forty to fifty,
third grade, fifty to sixty, fourth grade, sixty to seventy, fifth grade,
seventy to eighty.

Selection of Varieties.

There is a vast nuniben of Plums in cultivation, and European
catalogues contain the names of several hundred varieties Within the
present century a great deal has been done in the way of raising new
varieties, many of which are greatly superior to a number of the older
kinds. English and French raisers have for many years vied with each
other in the production of new and choice kinds, and other European
countries have contributed to the list. We have also to thank American
raisers for some of our choicest and most popular Plums. Australasian
catalogues contain lists of all the best-known varieties, which are so
numerous as often to cause trouble in making a selection. Planters in
making a selection should duly consider the purposes they have in view,
and choose accordingly. For dessert Plums the re(juirements are juiciness,
with a rich or luscious flavour. It is also advisable to have a due
proportion of early, medium, and late varieties, so as to keep up a supply
for as long a period as possible. For culinary purposes those varieties
are best that have a brisk sub-acid flavour. If wanted for canning or
drying, the kinds selected should be those whose fruit is fleshy and has a
tough fibre. For making Pi-unes particular kinds should also be chosen.
But for whatever purpose the fruit may be required, growers will do well
not to have too many varieties, as a few well-selected kinds will give
more satisfaction than a large number.

Varieties,

The following list embraces most of the more pronunent and desirable
varieties, and will afford an ample selection for all practical purposes : —

Angelina Biirdett. — An excellent English dessert variety which rii)ens
medium early. Fruit round, above medium size. Skin thick, dark
purple, covered thickly with brown dots and a heavy bloom. Flesh
yellowish, juicy, highly flavoured, and separates freely from the stone.
Fruit will hang on the trees till it shrivels up, when its flavour is very
rich. Tree hardy, robust, and prolific. Suitable for drying.

Autumn Coinpote. — This is an excellent culinary Plum, raised in
England by the late Mr. Rivers, which ripens about mid-season. Fruit
oval and very large. Skin yelloAv and deep bright red. Flesh yellow, a
little coarse, juicy, pleasantly sub-acid, and adheres to the stone. Tree
vigorous and fairly productive. This is an excellent variety for preserving
and drying.

Iklguin Purple. — A Belgian variety, with roundish-oval fruit, rather
above medium size, which ripens a little before mid-season. Skin deep
purple, with a thick bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, rather coarse, very
juicy, sugary, and adheres slightly to the stone. Tree strong and prolific.
This is one of the best varieties for cooking and i^reserving.

HSl

Angelina Burdett.

Autumn ro?r,? 6te.

Belle de ISeptembre.

Belgian Purple.

Belle de Septemhre {Autumn Beauty ^ Van Moiis Af^c/).— Another useful
r)elgian variety, with large roundish-oval fruit, which ripens about
mid-season. Skin thin, light reddish-purj.le. with small yellow dots.
Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, sweet, vinous, and adheres slightly to the stone.

882

Brahy's Green Gage,

Blue Imperatrice.

Coe's Golden Drop.

Blue Perdigon.

Tree vigorous and a very free bearer. Tliis is a first-class culinary and
preserving variety.

Jj/ite Superb. — An excellent late variety raised in Mctoria by the late
Mr. T. C, Cole. Fruit large, bluish-violet, with a thin bloom. Flesh
greenish-yellow, juicy, with a rich flavour.

Botari. — A Japanese variety of upright habit, strong growth, and very
prolific. Fruit medium-sized, roundish, a dull yellowish-red. Flesh
sweet, juicy, and richly flavoured. _

J)rahi/'s Green Gage (Berne Claude de llrahy). — A useful medium
early Plum of the Green Gage class with very large fruit. Skin thin,
greenish-yellow. Flesh greenish -yellow, sugary, rich, and adhering
slightly to the stone. An excellent dessert variety. Tree vigorous and
productive.

IWyanston's Green Gage. — A variety similar in all resjjects to the
ordinary Green Gage with the exception that it ripens ten to twelve days,
later.

lliue Imperatrice {Imperairice Eugenia). — An excellent late Plum of
French origin with medium-sized obtuse-oval fruit. Skin deep purple,
with a thick bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, rather firm, not very juicy ^
rich, sugary, and adhering to the stone. Tree strong and prolific. This
is an excellent Plum for the dessert or preserving, and is suitable for
drying. It will hang on the trees till it shrivels, can be kept some time
after it is gathered, and carries well.

Blue PerdrigoiK — An old and reputable variety of Italian origin, with
medium-sized oval fruit, which ripens early. Skin reddish-purple, with
small yellow dots. Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, sugary, richly flavoured,,
and adhering to the stone. Tree somewhat tender, but bears freely.
This is a good Plum for the dessert or preserving, and is suital^e for drying.

liurhanlc. — A strong and very prolific Japanese vai-iety of upright habit.
Fruit almost globular, from one and a-lialf to tw^o inches in diameter,
cherry red, mottled and dotted. Flesh sweet, juicy, with a pleasant but
peculiar flavour. Stone very small.

Chahot. — A vigorous and prolific Japanese variety. Fruit large,,
roundish, greenish-purple. Flesh firm, juicy, and well flavoured.

Chemj {Earl 11 Scarlet, Miser Plum, Mi/robalan^ Virgiinan Cherry). —
This is a distinct species of Plum, known to botanists as Pruvus
mi/rohalaiia, which bears medium-sized round fruit that ripens before any
other kind comes in. Skin deep bright red. Flesh greenish, very juicy,
with but little flavour, and adhering to the stone. Chiefly used for
cooking and preserving. Tree very robust, grows rapidly, and quicklj^
attains a larga size. Useful when planted as a breakwind for orchards,
and often used as a stock for other Plums. There is a sub-variety with
pale yellow fruit.

Coe\s Golden Drop (Golden Drop, Golden Gage). — An old and favourite
English variety with very large oval fruit, which ripens late. Skin pale-
yellow, with numerous dark red spots. Flesh deep yellow, rather firm,
sugary, rich, and adhering to the stone. Tree vigorous and productive.
This is an excellent Plum for the dessert, cooking, canning, and drying,.
Makes an excellent Prune.

:^34

Coe's Late lleil.

D'Agen.

l)e Moiitford.

Dennistoirs Superb.

Coe's Late Red (St. M((rt/'n, St. Martin Rouge). — A popular and well-
known English variety with medium-sized roundish fruit, which ripens
very late. Skin light purplish-red. Flesh yellowish, firm, flavour brisk,
and separates freely from the stoite. Tree robust and a very free bearer.
This variety is valuable for its lateness. It will hang well after the fruit
is ripe, and may be utilised for drying or cooking.

835

Czar. — A very popular English variety, a seedling from Prince
Englebert, which it resembles somewhat, but is rounder. Fruit large,
roundish-oval, dull blackish-red. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, and well^
flavoured. Eipens, early, and in England is considered to be one of the
best culinary and market varieties.

D' Agen {Bargundy Prune, Frmie (VAgen, Prune d Ast, Prime d^Eritej
«bY. Mauriii). — A French variety, with medium-sized oval fruit, which
ripens rather late. Skin very deep purple, covered with a thick blooHi.
Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, sweet, rich, and adheres slightly to the stone.
Tree of medium growth and very prolific. An excellent preserving and
drying Plum, and largely used in France for making Prunes.

Denniston'' .< Superb. — This is an excellent dessert Plum of American
origin, belonging to the Green Gage family, with roundish slightly flattened
fruit above the medium size, which ripens a little after mid-season. Skin
pale yellowi.sh-yreen, with blotches and dots of pale purple, and overspread
with a thin bloom. Flesh firm, juicy, sugary, with a brisk flavour, and
adheres to the stone, which is small. Tree very vigorous and productive.
An excellent variety for the dessert, and als(j suitable for canning.

Be Montford. — A useful French variety with medium-sized roundish-oval
fruit, which ripens before mid-seast)n. Skin dull purple, with russet dots
and a thin bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, sweet, rich, and
separates freely from the stone. Tree moderately vigorous, rather
inclined to spread, and very prolific. A drying Plum.

Diamond. — This is a well known and generally cultivated English
Plum with large oval fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin very dark
purple, thickly covered with bloom. Flesh deep yellow, moderately juicy,
with a brisk sub-acid flavour, somewhat coarse, and separates from the
stone, but not very freely. Tree hardy, robust, and a very heavy cropper.
One of the best Plums for cooking and making jam.

Diapree Rouge {Diaper, Imperial Diadem, Fued Diaper), — A very good
French variety with large oval fruit, which ripens a little after mid-season.
Skin pale red, thickly covered with small brown dots and a thin bloom
Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, moderately juicy, sugary, rich, and separates
from the stone, but not very freely. Tree fairly robust and a very good
bearer. This is a very good dessert Plum, and useful for canning.
- Drap d'Or {Cloth of Gold, }RrabeUe Gross, Yelloio Damask, Yellow
Perdrigon. — This variety, which is supposed to be of French origin, has
fruit similar in size and shape to the Green Gage, but dift'ering in colour,
nnd ripening about a Aveek earlier. Skin thin, deep bright yellow, with
numerous crimson specks. Flesh yellow, melting, with a rich sugary
flavour, and separates freely from the stone. Tree moderately robust and
a fairly good bearer.

Early Favourite {Pivers Earhf Favourite, Rivers^ Xo. 1). — This is a
very useful English Plum, raised by the late Mr, Rivers, with roundish-
oval fruit below medium size, which ripens very early in the season.
Skin very dark jiurple, dotted with russet, and covered with a thick
bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, sweet, vinous, and separates freely
from the stone. Tree hardy, strong, and a good cropper.

Early Green Gage {Peine Claude- I/dtive), — A useful very early Plum

836

Diamond.

Diapree Eouge.

Drap d'Or.

Eaiiv Favourite.

of the Green Gage class, supposed to be of French origin, with rather
small round fruit. Skin yellowish-green, with a reddish cheek, and
sprinkled with a few dots. Flesh yt-.Uow, very tender, juicy, sugary,
richly flavoured, and separates freely from the stone. Tree fairly
vigorous and prolific.

Earhj MiraheUe (Mirahelh.' J'lccoce). — This is ;i very early French
variety with small round fruit. Skin golden yellow, with a few crimson
dots. Flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, with a rich luscious flavour, and
separates freely from the stone, which is very small. Tree vigorous and
bears abundantly.

Earlji Orleans [(J rhtivood' >< Orleaiit<, II<iin])toti Coitrf^ Xefi' OrleariSj
Wilmot's Orlmns). — This is a sub-variety of the common Orleans, which
it resembles to some extent, but is somewhat richer in flavour, and ripens
about a fortnight earlier. Tree moderately vigorous and bears fairly well.
This is a useful culinaty variety.

Enrhj lUvers (Earh/ Proline). — A valuable English Plum with
roundish-oval medium-sized fruit, which ripens very early. Hkin deep
purple, covered with a thin bU)om. Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, sweet,
pleasantly sub-acid, and separates freely from the stone. Tree vigorous,
very hardy, and a heavy bearer. This is one of the most v:duable early
Plums, and is useful fur the dessert, cooking, and prcfccrving.

Fothtringham {Fotherlncjat/, Grove House Purple, <S/ieeii). — -An old and
popular English variety with medium-sized obovate fruit, which ripens
early. Skin deep reddish-purple, with a thin bloom. Flesh pale greenish-
yellow, firm, sugary, with a pleasant sub-acid flavour, and separates freely
horn the stone. Tree robust and prolific. This variety is useful for the
dessert, culinary purposes, canning, and dryiiig.

French Prune {iS<drd Cntktrine). — This is a very old and popular
variety in France, where it is grown extensively in some districts for
making Prunes. It is also greatly esteemed for the dessert and preserving.
Fruit of medium size, obovate, narrowing considerably towards the stalk,
and ripens about mid-season. Skin pale yellow, with a few red dots and
a thin bloom. Flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, rich, sugary, with a
piquant flavour, ;md adheres slightly to the stone. Tree fairly vigorous
and a good 1 nearer.

General, Hand. — This is an excellent ximerican preserving Plum with
very large roundish-oval fruit, which ripens about mid-seascn. Skin
deep golden yellow, slightly marbled with a lighter tint. Flesh p;de
yellow, firm, not very juicy, sweet, rather coarse, and separates freely
from the stone. Tree very vigorous and prolific. This Plum is well
sAiited for canning and drying.

General Sn'oo. — A .Japanese vai'iety with large fi-uit somewhat similar
to an Apricot in appearance. Flesh rich and luscious, with a distinct
flavour. Tree strong, hardy, and pro.ific.

G<rmau Pmiie {ZJinnad\ A'arl// Pnss/an, Qnetsche, Street Prmit). — -A
variety of doubtful origin, but very [»o[)ular and extensively cultivated in
(.leraiai)}' and other parts of Central I'Aiiope. The fruit is long oval
swollen on one side, and narrowing towards the stalk. It ripens a little
after mid-season, and will hang till it begins to shrivel. Skin dark
purple, slightly dotted with russet, and covered with a thick bloom.
Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, moderately juicy, sweet, and piquant,
separating freely frtun the stone, which is long and flat. Tree vigorous
and an abundant bearer. This variety makes an excellent Prune, and is
a good Plum for cookinic and preserving.

S:^S

Fotheringliam.

Early Rivers.

Frencli Prune.

General Hand.

Golden Esperen. — An excellent American dessert variety witli large
roundish-oval fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin tliin, golden-
yellow, tinged and mottled with pale green, and sliglitly dotted with
crimson. Flesh bright yellow, very juicy, with a rich sugary flavour, and

8o^0

Golden Esperen.

German Prune.

Green Gage.

Goliath

separates freely from the stone. Tree of moderate growth, inclined to
spread, and a very good bearer. This is a fine dessert l^lum.

Goliath {Caledonian, St. ClonJ, SteetW Emperor, Wilrnofs Late Orleans)
— Ihis is an old and favourite English variety with roundish-oblong fruit*

340

which ripens a little before inid-secisoii. Skin deep reddi.sh-[>urple, but
paler {»n the shaded side, iiiid covered with u thin bloom. Flesh yellow,
juicy, with a plejisaiit brisk flavour, and adheres to the stone. Tree
robust and prolitic A fine show}' Plum, excellent for cooking and
preserving, but only a second-class dessert variety.

Green (jfttfje {Ahricot \'ert, Uraclford Gn'/e. Ida Gage, Islewortk Gogey
Queen Claudia, TWme C/mide). — This is one of tlie best-known, richest-
flavoured, and most popular Plums, and is supposed to have originated in
Greece. Fruit medium size, round, and ripens about mid-season, Skin
deep yellowish-green, and when fully ri[»e dotted and marbled with red.
Flesh greenish-yellow, very juicy, tender, with a sugary rich flavour, and
separates freely from the stone. Tree moderately robust, short jointed,
spreading, and a good bearer. This is one of the finest dessert PlumSy
and also valuable for canning and preserving.

Guthrie s Late Green Gage. — An excellent Scotch variety, ef|ual to the-
common Green Gage, but somewhat larger, and ripening from a fortnight
to three weeks later. Skin yellow, clouded with pale green, and covered!
Avith a thin bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, rich, highly flavoured,,
and adheres to the stone. Tree hardy, robust, and prolific, A good
canning and [»reserving Plum.

Iluling^s Superb {Gloivp. de Neio York, Kei/sers PInm). — This is a
first-class American variety with very large roundish-oval fruit, which
ripens about mid-season. Skin greenish-yellow, thinly covered with
bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow, sugary, rich, with a brisk flavour, and
adheres to the stone. Tree very vigorous, upright in growth, with large
foliage, and a fairly good bearer.

Ickwortk Imph'((trice. — -This is one of the finest English dessert Plums,,
with large obovate fruit, which ripens very late. Skin deep purple,
netted Avith pale yellow streaks. Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, juicy, sweet,,
with a peculiar rich and pleasant flavour, and adhering to the stone,,
which is rather small. Tree moderately robust and a fairly good bearer.
This Plum will hang upon the tree till it shrivels, and if gathered and
wrapped in tissue paper can be kept fresh for several weeks. It is a
variety si>ecially adapted for drying, and will make a good Prune.

Imperiale de Milan {Prune de Jfihm). — This variety is supposed to
have originated in Italy, and is an excellent late dessert and preserving:
Plum. Fruit rather large, ronndish-oval, and ripens somewhat late. Skin
dark i)ur[)le, dotted with yellow, and covered with a thick bloom. Flesh
yellowish, firm, juicy, sweet, with a rich musky flavour, and adhering to-
the stone, Ti-ee vigorous, spreading in habit, and a free bearer. This
variety is suitable for drying.

Imperial Gage. — This is an American variety of repute, raised from a
seed of the common Gi-een Gage, which in many respects it resembles.
Fruit rather above the medium size, roundish-oval, and ripens .-i little-
after mid-season. Skin }»ale green, tinged with yellow, marbled with dull
green, and covered with a thick bloom. Plesh greenish, very juicy, rich,,
with an agreeable fljivour, and separates freely from the stone. Tree very
free in growth, and bears abundant croi)S, In America this variety has-
the reputation of being one of the most productive and i)rofitable of Plums >
Suitable for canning.

841

Guthrie'js Late Gree^i Gj

Huling's Superb.

Ickwoill) Impciatiice

hnp('nale <le Milau.

34=2

Imperial Gage

Jefferson.

Kelsey.

Italian Prune.

Italian Prune {Fell ember g, Italian Quetsche, Semi am).— This, is a
variety of supposed Italian origin with niediiim-sized oval fruit, which
ripens late in the season. Skin dark purple-blue, covered with a thick

348

bloom, and dotted ^itli yellow. Flesh deep yellow, firm, juicy, sweet,
well flavoured, and separating freely from the stone. Tree vigorous,
spreading, and a free bearer. This is an excellent Plum for the dessert
or preservin*:, as also for drying, and makes a good Prune.

Jefersoii. — An excellent American variety with large oval fruit, slightly
narrowed towards the stalk, and ripening about mid-season. Skin golden-
yellow, flushed with red on the sunny side, sprinkled with red dots, and
covered ^ith a thin bloom. Flesh deep orange, firm, juicy, highly
flavoured, and separates freely from the stone. Tree moderately vigorous
and a regular and free bearer. This is an excellent dc^ssert Plum and a
good one for canning.

Jodoigne Greev Gage. — A French variety of the Green Gage class
with large roundish fruit, Avhich ripens late in the season. Skin thin,
greenish-yellow, with a blush of red and yellowish dots next the sun,
and covered with a thick bloom. Flesh pale yellow, firm, juicy, sugary,
richly flavoured, and separates from the stone. Tree vigorous and
productive. This is a first-class dessert variety, and is also suitable for
cooking and canning.

Jnly Green Gage. — A very early variety belonging to the Green Gage
class with fruit similar in appearan(;e and flavour to the parent of that
section. An excellent and useful Plum on account of its extreme
earliness.

Keheij. — An excellent Japanese variety. Fruit roundish heart shape,
in colour a blending of yellow and purple, and from one and a-half to two
inches in diameter, with a distinct suture. Flesh firm, adhering to the
stone, which is small, sweet, with a rich pleasant flavour. Tree strong,
very prolific, of upright habit, with narrow leaves. This is an excellent
preserving Plum.

Kirke's. — An English variety of repute with roundish-oblong fruit
above the medium size, which ripens about mid-season. Skin dark
purple, with a few deep yellow dots, and covered with a dense bloom.
Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, juicy, sugary, with a rich flavour, and
separating freely from the stone. Tree robust and bears freely. This is
an excellent dessert Plum.

Late Black Imperial. — A free-bearing English culinary variety. Fruit
medium-sized, reddish -black. Flesh firm, juicy, with a ])iquant sub-acid
flavour.

Late Black Orleans. — A very prolific English variety. Fruit medium-
sized, black, with a rich bloom. Flesh sweet, juicy, and well flavoured.

Ijate Hirers. — A useful English variety with roundish fruit rather below
the medium size, which ripens very late. Skin very dark purple, almost
black. Flesh apricot yellow, rich, sugary, very highly flavoured, and
adhering to the stone. Tree vigorous and prolific. This is one of the
richest flavoured late Plums.

LiegeVs A'pricot. —A French variety with medium-sized roundish fruit,
which ripens after mid-season. Skin yellowish-green, like that of the
Green Gage, and covered with a thin bloom. Flesh greenish-yellow,
juicy, tender, with a rich sugary flavour, and separating freely from the
stone. Tree fairly vigorous, and a moderately good bearer. This is

844

Late Black Orleans.

Late Eivt

Liegel's Apricot.

an excellent dessert Phiin, and has a peculiar flavour differing from all
others.

MitrhelsoiCa. — An English variety with oval fruit somewhat above the
medinni size, which ripens about mid-season. Skin black, sprinkled with
a few light brown dots, and covered with a thin bloom. Flesh yellow,

;^4:

Oiieans.

McLaughlin.

mmimiimfi

OuUin's Golden.

Pond's Seeding.

tender, very juicy, sweet, well flavoured, separating freely fiom the stone.
Tree hardy and a very lieavy bearer, the fruit l.eing produced in clusters.
An excellent preservin-r Plan,, somewhat similar to the Diamond, but
sweeter and rather smaller.

McLnnrh1iH.—X useful American variety of the Green Gage class with

:U6

Jarge nearly round oblate fruit, wliicli ripens medium early. Skin thin
and tender, bright yellow, dotted and mottled with red, and covered with
a tJiin bloom. Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, very sweet, luscious, and adheres
to the stone. Tree hardy, vigortms, and very productive. This is an
excellent dessert Plum, and suitable for canning and drying.

Orleans (Bed Dnmnsl-). — An old and popular English variety with
medium-sized round fruit, which ri[)ens a little before mid-season. Skin
tender, reddish-purple. Flesh yellowish, tender, sweet, briskly flavoured,
and separating freely from the stone. Tree hardy, vigorous, and uniformly
productive. This is an excellent culinary and preserving Plum.

Onllin's Golden {Oullin's Gage, Heine Claude Frecoce). — This is a
showy and excellent dessert Plum of German origin. Fruit rather large,
roundish-oblong, and ripens medium early. Skin rich yellow, dotted
with crimson, and covered with a light bloom. Flesh yellow, tender,
juicy, sugary, with a rich flavour, and adheres slightly to the stone. Tree
robust, of pyramidal habit, and very productive. This is one of the finest
dessert varieties.

Peach {Heine Claude Berger). — An excellent early dessert variety.
Fruit very large, roundish-oblate, and somewhat flattened at the ends.
Skin bright salmon red, dotted with amber. Flesh tender, juicy, and
luscious, separating freely from the stone.

Pershore. — A popular culinary variety in England, where it is largely
grown for market purposes. Fruit golden yellow, and in shape somewhat
similar to the White Magnum Bonum. Flesh juicy, with a rich sub-acid
flavour, and adheres to the stone. Tree prolific, fruit ripens medium
early, and is an excellent preserving Plum.

Pond's Seedling (Fou thill, liuugariau Prune , Povd's Purple). — A
well-known and popular English variety with large oval fruit narrowing
towards the stalk, which ripens at mid-season. Skin dark red, sprinkled
with brown dots, and covered with a thin bloom. Flesh dull yellow,
firm, but juicy, wdth a sweet and pleasant flavour, and adhering to the
stone. Ti'ee very vigorous and productive. This is a valuable culinary
Plum, and may be used for canning or drying.

Prince Englehert. — This is an excellent Plum of Belgian origin with
large oblong-oval fruit, which ripens a little after mid-season. Skin very
deep purple, wdth minute russet dots, and covered with a heavy bloom.
Flesh yellowish-green, rather firm, juicy, sweet, with a brisk rich flav(>ur,
and adheres to the stone. Tree vigorous and a very heavy bearer. This
variety is excellent for the dessert or culinary purposes, and may be used
for canning or drying.

Purple Gage (Peine Claude Yiolette, Violet Gage). — This is an
excellent variety whose origin is unknown, but it has been a popular
Plum both in England and France for a long period. I'ruit roundish
like the Green Gage, of medium size, and ripens late. Skin rather thick,
violet-purple, dotted with pale yellowy, and covered with a light bloom.
Flesh greenish-yellow, firm, sugaiy, with a rich high flavour, and
separating freely irom the stone. Tree moderately vigorous and a fairly
good Ijearer. An excellent dessert Plum which will hang on the tree till
it shrivels, and may be utilized by drying.

:u;

Purple Gage

Prince Englebert.

Reine Claude de Bavav.

lied Mugnuui Bonum.

:5-48

lied Magmuii Jyomun [Floreiice, Imperial Purple Egg, Bed Egg,
Piifjile MagnHm liotnnn, ImperI'd Violet). — An old and well-known
English variety with large egg-shaped tVnit, which ripens a little after
niid-sea«on. Skin }>Hle to deep red, s])rinkIod with grey dots, and covered
with a Slight bloom. Flesh 3'eilo\vish-grcen, firm, not very juicy, briskly
flavoured, and .separates frecl}'' from tlie stone. Tree fairly vigorons and
a good bearer. This is a good culinary l^hnn, and may be utilized for
•canning or drying.

Heine Claude de Havaif {lUivai/s Green Gage). — A useful dessert
variety of French origin with large ronndisli fruit of the Green Gage
class, which ripens late in the season. Skin greenish-yellow, with
splashes of dull gaeen, covered with a thin bloom. Flesh yellow, tender,
very juicy, sweet, highly tiavoured, and separates freely from the stone.
Tree vigorous and very productive.

Ueine Victoria. — An excellent late French variety that must not be
confounded with the English Victor .a, as they are quite distinct. Fruit
dark reddish-purple, above medium size, short oval. Flesh juicy, richly
flavoured, and separates freely from the stone.

Robe de Sargent. — This name is, by Hogg and other writers, said to be
a sjmonyni for D'Agen, but in America an excellent Prune Plum is grown
under the same name which is quite distinct in form and other respects.
The American Plum has a deep purple skin approaching to black, is oval
in shape, and medium-sized. Flesh greenish-yellow, sweet, and richly
flavoured, and adheres slightly to the stone. Tree upright and a jjrolific
bearer. A popular Plum in America for dr3'ing and preserving.

lloyal Dauphine, — A useful culinarj'^ Plum which ripens medium early.
Fruit large, oval. Skin pale red, dotted and mottled with darker and
lighter shades, with a violet bloom. Flesh greenish-yeliow, juicy,
sub-acid, and separates freely from the stone.

Satsuma {Ja,pan Blood. Plmn). — A Japanese variety with large almost
globular fruit from two to two and a-half inches in diameter. Skin dark
brick red. Flesh dark red, juicy, with a brisk pleasant flavour. Stone
small and pointed. Tree hardy, vigorous, and very prolific.

Silver Prune. — A variety under this name is very popular in California
as a drying Plum, but there is but little, if any, diflerence between it and
Coe's Golden Drop, from which it is said to be a seedling.

Simoni's Plnm {Chinese Apricot Plum). — This is a distinct Chinese
species {Frunus Sivioni) whose fruit ditt'ers in many respects from the
other kinds. Fruit large, n^und, flattened, with a deep suture and very
short stalk. Skin a dark cinnabar or brick red. Flesh firm, rich, sweet,
with a peculiar flavour which has been likened to a blending of the
Banana and Pine-Apple, stone small. Tree vigorous, hardy, well suited
for hot dry districts ; foliage a very light green. Fruit ripens early and
bears packing and carriage well.

Standard of England — A useful English culinary variety with ovate
medium-sized fruit, which ripens a little after mid-season. Skin purplish-
red, with numerous yellow dots, and covered with a thick bloom. Flesh
yellowish-green, rather firm, juicy, modei'ately sweet, with a brisk flavour,
and separates freely from the stone. Tree vigorous and prolific.

J41)

.Sutsuina.

Standard of England.

Kobe de Sargent.

Simoni's Plum.

St. £tieune.~This is an excellent and very early dessert variety with
in^dium-sized ruundisli-oval fruit. Skin thin, greenish-yellow, shaded,
marbled, and dotted with crimson. Flesh yellow, tender, juicv, sugary [
richly flavoured, and se[»arating freely from the stone. Ti ee moderate in
growth and a fairly ffood beai'er.

8.50

St. Etienne.

i>t. ,5ifartin's Quetclie.

Victoria.

St. Martin s Qnetsche, — Tliis is a very late Prune variety from
Germany witli medium-sized ovate fruit. Skin pale yellow, with a white
bloom. Flesh yellowish, firm, sweet, with a rich flavour, and separates
freely from the stone. Tree hardy, a very free bearer, and the fruit
will hang till it shrivels. This is an excellent Plum for drying, and
makes a good Prune.

SuUan. — An excellent English culinary variety, a seedling from JielU
de Septembre. Fruit large, rcmndish-oval. Skin reddish-purple. Flesh
firm, juicy, with a brisk flavour.

351

Tronspareiit Gage {Diaphane, Heine Cbvtde Biaphane). — A French
variety of the Green Gage class with roundish-oblate fruit above the
medium size, which ripens about mid-sccison. Skin thin, and so
transparent as to show the texture of the flesh beneath, greenish-yellow,
speckled and marbled with red. Flesh greenish yellow, rather firm, very
juicy, with a rich sweetness, and separating readily from the stone. Tree
vigorous and a good cropper. This is a lirst-class dessert variety.

Victona (Alderton, Denyers Victoria, Sharps Emperor). — An Englr^h
variety with large roundish-oval fruit, which ripens rather late. Skin
light red, thickly speckled with grey dots. Flesh yellow, juicy, sweet,
pleasantly flavoured, and separating freely from the stone. Tree hardy,
robust, and productive. A good culinary variety.

W(f shim/to II [Bolmar, Franlcliii, Parker's Mammoth, Phillip /.). — This
is a handsome American Plum with very large roundish-ovate fruit,
which ripens medium early. Skin deep yellow, with a pale crimson
blush and dots. Flesh yellow, firm, very sweet, luscious, and separates
readily from the stone. Tree a strong groAver, with large foliage, and
bears very freely. This variety makes a good Plum for the dessert, and
cun be utilized for culinary purposes or canning and drying.

White Magnum lioiium [Egg Plum, Imperial Blanche, White Egg,

White Mogul, White Imperial, White Holland, Yellow Magnum Bonvm).

— An old, well-known, and popular English variety with large egg-shaped

Washington.

White Magnum Bonuni.

852

fruit, wliicli ripens medium early. Skin bright-yellow, with numerous
white dots and covered with a thin white bloom. Flesh yellow, coarse
'•rained, firm, with a brisk sub-acid flavour, and adheres to the stone.
Tree vigorous Jind [)roliflc. This is an excellent culinary Plum, and
suitable for drying or canning.

White Fenh'u/o)) {JJriy/iole, Maitre Clmide, Perdrigoii Bla/ir,). — A
French variet} with medium-sized oval fruit narrowing towards the stalk,
which ripens a little before mid-season. Skin pale yellow, strewed with
Avhite dots, and sometimes small red spots. Flesh firm, juicy, ricli^
slightly aromatic, and separates freely from the stone. Tree moderate in
growth and fairly productive. This is a very good drying and preserving
variety, and makes an excellent Prune.

Winesott?' {L'other/uvm). — An English Plum, valuable f(»r culinary
])urposes or preserving, with medium-sized oval fruit, which rij^ens at
mid-season. Skin dark 2)uriile, covered with darker specks. Flesh
greenish-yellow, pleasantly sub-acid, and adheres to the stone. Tree
vigorous and a free bearer.

Yelloiv ImyerKtrice i^Alte.^i^e Jjlanche). — This is an excellent dessert
variety of French origin witli large roundish-oval fruit, which ripens early.
Skin deep golden yellow, slightly marked with red tow^ards the stalk.
Flesh yellow, juicy, sugary, richly flavoured, and adheres to the stone.
Tree modenitely vigorous and a fairly good cropper. Suitable for drying,
and makes a good Prune.

DAMSONS.

There is a number of varieties of Damsons in cultivation, but the'
following selection embraces those that are most distinct and useful : —

Amencau. — This is a line variety with large fruit that has a pleasant
flavour, and ripens rather late. Tree very hardy and prolific.

Cole's Prolific. — A desirable variety raised in Victoria by the late Mr.
Cole, which ripens rather earlier than the other sorts. Fruit large and:
well flavoured. Tree vigorous and an abundant bearer.

Critten (lints [Cluster, Critfendon^s JProUjic, Proltjic). — An Englisli»
variety of repute. Fruit very large, roundish-oval, deep black, well
flavoured, and ripens early. Tree robust and very prolific.

English {Common, J » lack. Purple). — A well-kno\vii variety with
medium-sized well-flavoured fruit, which ripens early. Tree very hardy,
rigorous, and a heavy bearer.

Shropshire {DamoHce>ie, Long Dcimsov, Prune Damson). — A first-class
and popular English variety. Fruit large, deep purple, well flavoured,
the flesh adhering to the stone. Hardy and prolific.

White Damson. — Fruit below medium size, oval, yellowish-green..
Flesh yellow, sweet, and well flavoured. Moderately prolific.

POMEGRANATE

History.

The Pomegranate is known botanically as Funici granafiC'^^.iind ib

853

belongs to the natural order Mf/rtxcciX, or the Myrtle family. The name,
according to some writers, signifies '-from Carthage," where the tree is
said to have been gn)wn extensively : other authorities derive it from
Puniceiiit (scarlet) in alhision to tlie colour of the flowers. In its natural
state it is rather widely dispersed, and is found in most parts of Western
Asia and Northern Africa. It a[>j»ears to have been held in high esteem
by the nations of antiquity, and is frequently mentioned in their histories.
The Pomegranate, according to l>ible history, was, together with the
Vine, Fig, and Olive, among the earliest fruits that were cultivated by
mankind. We also learn frcmi the same scturce that it was one of the
fruits that the children of Israel murmured for when passing through the
wilderness. In the heathen mythology the Pomegranate also appears to
have been a highly valued fruit, as ,) uno is sometimes represented with it.
The Jews in Western Asia and the south of Europe use the fruit largely
in their religious ceremonies.

Uses.

The fruit of the Pomegranate is largely used in the warmer countries of
the old world, as its juice is considered to be very refreshing. It is
grateful to the palate, possesses a peculiarly pleasant acid flavour, and
assuages thirst well. Possessing such useful qualities it is consequently
highly prized and generally cultivated in fSouthern Europe, Northern
Africa, and throughout Asia. The Pomegranate is also useful in other
ways, and may be utilized for tanning, dyeing, and medicinally. The
bark is rich in tannin, yielding sometimes as much as thirty per cent,,
and is largely used in preparing morocco leather in some parts of the
world. The flowers were formerly used to some extent for dyeing cloth
red. A dye can also be obtained from the skins of the fruit. The skins
are very astringent, and an infusion is sometimes used in cases of
dysentery. The root bark is also sometimes used for the same complaint.
Independent of its value as a fruit-bearing tree, the Pomegranate is
worthy of attention as an ornamental plant. It is a very handsome small
tree or shrub with deep shining green foliage, and the bright red flowers
are produced in succession for several months. This tree is specially
adapted for cottage gardens and shrubberies. There are several varieties,
having single or double fl'.'wers of vai-ious shades of red, yellow, and
white, all of which are suitable for ornamental jjlanting ; but if fruit is
the obj«ct the common Punira (/ramitvm is the kind that should be
chosen.

CULIIVATION.

The Pomegranate will thrive in all but the coldest parts of Australasia,
and will stand a few degrees of frost with impunity. It will also succeed
in any ordinary good soil, but thrives best in a deep rich sandy loam.
The trees are strong feeders, and in jtoor land manure should be used
freely. The ground should be well prepared by working it deeply, and
when necessary drainage must be provided. When grown as a regular

854

plantation the trees should be planted about eighteen feet apart. The
young plants will require some attention in pruning to keep them shapely
and to secure a strong growth of wood. ]\Iature trees will not require so
much pruning, all that is necessary being the thinning out of the branches
when too numerous, the removal of rank or misplaced shoots, and stopping
those that are making too much growth. It is advisable to keep tlie
ground as free from weeds as possible by frequent light stirrings, taking
care not to disturb the roots to any extent. Before the warm weather
sets in the surfiice soil should be mulched four or five inches deep as far
as the roots extend, but care must be taken to keep the material clear (»f
.stems of the trees. Shelter is of great assistance to the Pomegranate,
and should be provided when necessary. When grown under favourable
conditions the Pomegranate will attain a great age, and there are in
France several specimens wjiich are known to be over two centuries old.

Propagation.

Propagation may be effected by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding, and
grafting. The iirst is a slow method as compared with the others, and is
but seldom practised. Cuttings of the previous year's growth strike
freely if taken off just before growth starts in the spring. Insert them
about three inches deep in sand or light soil. Plants are readily obtained
from layers, which may be put down early in the spring or in the latter
l)art of the summer, Grafting and budding are methods by which
particularly choice varieties may be increased quickly, but for ordinary
purposes they are seldom practised.

QUINCE.

History.

The Quince belongs to the Pomese section of the natural order Rosacea^
and is known botanically as Pi/rus Cydonia, and also as Cydonia vulgarift.
The last-mentioned specific name has originated from the supposition that
the fruit was first cultivated at Cydon, a city in the Island of Crete.
The common English name Quince is supposed to be a corruption of
the French name coigiiass. The Quince is indigenous to various countries
in Central, Eastern, and Southern Europe, and is also found in some
parts of Western Asia. From time immemorial the Quince appears to
have been cultivated, and by several of the nations of antiquity it was
held in high esteem. By the Greeks and Romans the fruit was recognised
as the emblem of love, happiness, and fruitfulness. The Quince Mas also
dedicated to Venus, and the temples of Cyrus and Paphos were profusely
decorated with this fruit. Some authorities consider the Quince to have
been the Golden Apple that, according to the fable, grew in the Garden
of the Hesperides. Pliny mentions several kinds as being grown in Italy
in his time, and speaks highly of the medicinal virtues of the fruit. He

855

says, " Quinces, if eaten wlien quite ripe, are good for those who spit
blood or are troubled with lut-morrhage, and that the raw juice is a
sovereign remedy for swollen spleen, dropsy, or a difficulty in drawing
the breath." Further this writer says, " That the flowers, either fresh or
dried, are good for inManiniation of the eyes, and that pieces of the root
are worn as a charm against scrofula. By Columella the Quince is highly
spoken of, and he says that it was regarded as one of the most pleasant
and wholesome fruits. The Quince is said to have been introduced to
England towards the end of the sixteenth century, and soon became
popular on account of its supposed medicinal properties The celebrated
philosopher, Lord Bacon, appears to have held the fruit in great esteem,
as in his writings he says that it is good for strengthening the stomach.
Gerard, writing a few years after its introduction to England, informs us
that in his time the Quince was generally planted in hedges, the fruit
being used for making marmalade. This marmalade was a very popular
preparation for a long period in England, chiefly on account of its
supposed medicinal virtues. Aftei- a time the Quince seems to have lost
its popularity in the United Kingdom, and latterly it is but little
cultivated.

Uses.

In many parts of the south of Europe the Quince is a very popular
fruit, and it is largely used in various ways. This fruit is also very
popular in Australasia, and is cultivated to some extent in all the colonies.
Considerable quantities are used in making jam, jelly, and marmalade,
and by many these conserves made from Quinces are considered to be
superior to those obtained from any other fruit. In making jam the
fruit is pared, quartered, and cored, and boiled steadily for eight or ten
hours, adding twelve ounces of sugar to each pound of fruit. For jelly
the fruit is preserved in the same way and then boiled for several hours,
after which the juice should be strained through a jelly bag or piece of
folded muslin. A pound of white sugar should then be added to every
pint of juice, and boil till the mass becomes jelly. In making marmalade
only perfectly ripe fruit should be used, and this must be prepared as
for jam and jelly. Care, however, must be taken to save all the pips, as
they abound in mucilage, and greatly improve the marmalade. Place the
fruit and pips in large jars, which should be stood in water, and this
must be boiled till the Quinces are quite soft. The pulp must then be
strained through a fine sieve, and three-ipiarters of a pound of white
sugar should be added to every pound of fruit. The sugar should be
boiled to a syrup before it is used. After mixing the sugar the pulp
should be boiled for an hour, and then it will be ready for placing in the
jars. The word marmalade is derived from the Portuguese name of the
Quince, marmelo. The fruit is commonly used fresh for culinary
purposes, and many people are very partial to Quinces when utilized for
tarts, puddings, and when stewed. The Quince can also be turned to
good account for making cider, or wine as it is sometimes called. This is
made in precisely the same way as Apple cider, and for full directions see
article upon the Apple, volume 1 . Another method is to add a gallon of

water and three |)oui)ds of wliite auguv to every gallon of (^ihice Juice.
When properly matured, Quince cider is considered to be a wholesome
and ]ialatable beverage, but it requires to stand about twelve months
before it is in the best condition. By distilling the fermented juice a
strong spirit can be obtained. Medicinally the seeds of the Quince are
considered to be useful for some complaints, and when boiled in water
they yield a mucilage which is sometinjcs used as a demulcent. The
fruit in various forms is considered to be cooling, slightly astringent, and
stomachic.

Cultivation.

The Quince may be cultivated in most parts of Australasia successfuUvr
and seems equally at home in the warm as in the colder districts. It will
also adapt itself to various soils and situations, but thrives best in rich
land and in localities where it can obtain a good supply of water at its
roots. When practicable it should also be sheltered from stormy winds,,
which in exposed places are apt to injure the fruit by knocking them
against each other. Preijare the ground as for other fruit trees, working
it deeply unless it happens to be very light and porous. Provide also for
drainage if necessary, as will be the case in heavy soils, as though the
Quince likes fairly moist ground it will not thrive when its roots are
soddened for any length of time. As a rule, the trees do not attain so
great a size as the Apple, Pear, and many ether trees, and eighteen feet
will be a sufficient distance apart. The ti-ees should invariably be trained
with low heads. In pruning young trees the shoots should be thinned
t)ut freely so as to get a vigorous growth and the plants into the desired
forms as quickly as possible. Mature trees require, as a rule, but little in.
the way of pruning. All that is necessary, except for special reasons, is
to thin out the branches when over-crowded, and regulate rank or
straggling shoots. The fruit is mt>8tly borne upon wood of the previoui*
season's growth, and also upon older spurs. The trees have generally a
tendency to produce a number of rank shoots from the main stems, as
also suckers from the roots, and these should be removed while young.
Very often, owing to local circumstances, such as the too free use of
manure, or a naturally over-rich soil, the trees make, year after year, a
heavy growth of wood and [H'oduce but little fruit. When this happen*
root pruning will generally prove an eflective remedy. The most
fiivourable time lor pruning either branch or root is in July or August.
It is advisable to keep the ground as free from weeds as possible, and
before the h(»t weather sets in the ground should be mulched as far as the
roots of the trees extend.

Propagation.

Propagation is readily effected by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding, and
grafting. Seedlings are raised chiefly for stocks upon which approved
kinds are grafted or budded, and Pears are often worked upon them. As
stocks for Quince many i)refer them to cuttings or layers as giving
stronger, more durable, and cleaner stemmed plants. When used as a

stock for the Pear the Quince has a dwarfing tendency, and is commonly
used by nurserymen in raising low-growing trees. In some cases Pears
are also materially improved in quality when worked upon the Quince
stock. Seed should be sown in the autumn, covering it to the depth of
an inch. The following year plant out the young seedlings in rows thirty
inches apart, leaving half that .space between the plants in the lines.
They will in the next season be ready for working, or planting out.
Cuttings root freely, a))d plants are often obtained l>y this means. They
should be planted in the latter part of the winter or early spring, leaving
them about a foot long, and inserting them about five inches into the
ground. Layering is a method by which large plants may be obtained
<[aickly, and it can be done at various times oi the year, but early in the
spring is the most favourable period. Neither layers nor cuttings are
likely to yield such vigorous plants as seedlings, though they furnish a
coiisidei-able proportion of the plants that are sold, (drafting and budding
should be more generally practised, and may be done at the same periods
of growth as for other deciduous fruits.

Insects, Fux«.r, and Diseases

The Quince is liable to be attacked by the various pests that affect the
Apple and Pear, but rarely suffers to the same extent. Should any of
these evils make their appearance, full particulars respecting them and
modes of treatment will be found in the articles upon the -Apple and
Pear.

Varieties.

The varieties of the (^Juince are not numerous, as is the case of most
other fruits, and the following list embraces the principal sorts : —

Anger's. — A hardy robust variety which is grown largely as a stock for
the Pear. Fruit medium-sized roundish, similar in shape to the Apple-
shaped, but smaller and greatly inferior in quality. It also ripens at a
later period. Tree vigorous, has large leaves, and grows late in the
season.

Apple-shaped {Orange). — This variety produces large roundish fruit
somewhat similar in shape to an Apple. Skin a fine golden colour.
Flesh strong in flavour and cooks well. Ripens a. little earlier than the
other varieties. Tree robust, hardy, bears freely, and does better in cold
districts than the other kinds.

Fear-shaped (Oblong). — This variety has pyriform fruit rather longer
than the preceding one, and is somewhat paler in colour. The fruit is
firmer in texture than the Aitple-shaped, is not so juicy, nor so valuable
for culinary purposes or preserving. It ripens somewhat later, and will
keep better than the first-named variety. Tree vigorous and a fairly good
bearer.

Portugal. — This is the best variety for a mild climate, and does
remarkably well in most parts of Australasia. The fruit is of the largest
size, in shape obtuse-oval, and the skin is a bright pale yellow. Flesh
milder in flavour than the other kinds, and when cooked turns a fine

:^58

deep red colour. This kind is largely used for culinary purposes and
preserving. Tree hard}' and prolific. Ripens about tlie same time as the
last-named variety.

RecCs Mammoth. — An excellent American variety with fruit similar in
appearance to the Ap2yle-sha2>ed, but ver}'^ mucli larger, and ftrst-class in
quality. Tree vigorous and prolific.

RAMBUTAN.

This is one of the names used in India for the fruit of Nepheluun
lappaceum (Euphoria Nephelium, Sct/talia liajahutan), an evergreen small
tree belonging to the order Sapindacese, and closely allied to the Li-tchi
and Longan. It also passes under the vernacular name of Rampostan.
This tree is indigenous to South India, the Malay Archipelago, and other
parts of Southern Asia. It is generally cultivated in India, Avhere its
fruit is greatly appreciated and by many preferred to the Li-tchi. The
fruit is oval, about two inches long, slightly flattened, and covered with
soft fleshy spines. The pulp has a pleasant sub-acid flavour. The fruit
is used in the same way as the Li-tchi, and for full particulars as to
cultivation see article upon that fruit, page 117.

An allied species, JS'ej^helium pinnatum, yields the fruit known in Fiji
under the native name of " Dawa." It is indigenous to Fiji, the New
Hebrides, and other South Sea Islands, and is a handsome evergreen tree
attaining a height of fifty or sixty feet, The fruit is about the size of a
"Walnut, and contains a glutinous honey-like pulp, which is greatly
relished by the South Sea Islanders in localities where it grows. This
species may be cultivated under the same conditions as required for the
others, and similar directions will apply.

RAMLEH.

This is the native name for the fruit of riernrdin iliilcu {mpida), a
small evergreen tree indigenous tc* Burmali, Sumatrn, and the Malay
Peninsula, belonging to the order Sapindace«Tc. The tree has entire
oblong leaves, yellow flowers, and bears smooth yellow fruit about the size
of a large Gooseberry, which has a sweet luscious pulp, and is greatly
CwSteemed by the Burmese. In some of its native regions the fruit is
known as the Choopah. This tree can only be successfuly cultivated in
the tropical portions of Australia, but in congenial regions it is worthy of
attention both as a fruit-yielding and as an ornamental plant. Propagation
can be readily effected by seed, which should be planted an inch deep.
Plants may be obtained from layers, and cuttings of ripened wood of the
current season's growth will strike freely in sand if protected from the
weather.

359

RASPBERRY.

HiSTOEY.

The Raspberry is known botanically as Unhns [(Uvkk, and it belongs to
the natural order Jiosacece, or the Rose family. The generic name litthus
comes from the Celtic r«6 (red), in allusion to the colour of the fiuit in
many of the species. Its specific name originated with the ancient Greets,
who called the fruit Idjrus on account of its growing in abundance upon
Mount Ida. The common English name, Ras|.l)erry. is said to have been
given on account of the rasping roughne?«s of tlie stems. This fruit is
indigenous to the greater part of Europe, and is to be found growing
wild in many parts of the United Kingdom. It is also wideh- spread
through Northern Asia. Like all other cultivated fruits the Raspberry
has been greatly improved by tlie hand of man, and the highly-flavoured
garden varieties of the piesent day ai-e widely different from the fruit in
a wild state.

The Raspberry appears to have been well known to the nations of
antiquity, and it is frequently mentioned by their writers. Palladius, a
Roman, writing in the fourth century, mentions it among the generally
cultivated fruits of his time. Pliny also mentions it as a valuable fruit.
For « enturies the-Raspberry has been one of the most generally cultivated
fruits in the northern countries of Europe, and in the Ignited Kingdom
it has always been a favourite.

Several other species of Jx'idms yield edible fruits that are classed as
Raspberries, and the majority are woilhy of attention from cultivators.
The most prominent of these is the Black Cap Raspberry (liubus
occirleu frills), also known as the Thimbleberry, a North American species
of strong growth. This species embraces a number of varieties bearing
large well-flavoured fruits, which in colour are mostly either deep purple
or black. Some varieties, however, have fruits that in colour are of
various shades of red, while t)thers range from pale yellow to orange.
Varieties of the Black Cap Raspberry are extensively cultivated in
Amei-ica, but they have not become popular in Europe, and are almost
Jinknown in Australasia. The American Red Raspberry ( liubus st7'igosus)
is another species which includes several varieties that are generally
cultivated in the United States. The stems are strong and upright, with
stift' straight thorns, and the frliit, which is well flavoured and freely
produced, is of medium size, varying in colour from l)right crimson to
deep red. according to the variety. ihese tw^o kinds and liubus hkeus
(Common Raspberry) are the only species that are largely cultivated for
their fruits.

Other species worthy of notice are the White-stemmed Raspberry
(liuhus Icucoilermifi), a native of California and o^her parts of North West
America. It is a strong-growing species with stout curved thorns and
large ]ileasantly flavoured fruit, which varies in colour from brownish-
yellow to black. It is closely allied to h'nhus oca'denta'is, and some
authorities consider it to be merely a variety. The Showy Raspberry

360

(Rubus .^pectahili'<), so called from its large conspicuous red flowers, is a
robust upright hardy species indigenous to California and North West
America to Alaska. The fruit is large, ovoid, varying from red to yeUow,
and hiis a brisk pleasant flavour. The Salmon Berry of California is the
fruit of Huhiis yutkaiKt.s {velutinu^), a shrubby species indigenous to
Western America and northward to Alaska. The fruit is salmon red,
with a dry and someA'hat musky flavour, and consists of but a few large
gra!)is. The Purple Flowered Raspberry (^Hahus odorattis) is a shrubby
species remarkable for its liandsome purple flowers. It is very closely
allied to Rubus Xutkamts, and is indigenous to the greater part of North
Amoricji, growing chiefly in liigh rocky places. This species is also
sometimes called Thimbleberry and also Mull)erry. Other American
species are Rubus (ielicf'osn.s, an erect shrubby j)lant with large pleasantly
flavoured fruit. It is indigenous to the south-west portion of the United
States. Rubus triviallft is ant)ther shrubby species from the southern
States with large black well flavoured fruic. Rubus urshius (macropetahis)
is a unisexual shrub indigenous to California and Oregon, which bears
black, large, oval, and very sweet fruit.

The Indian Raspberry is Rubus Jlaous {ellipticns), a strong-growing
evergreen species indigenous to the mountain regions of India, where it is
found at elevations of from four to seven thousand feet. The stems are
fully an inch in diameter at the base, and are armed with stout formi<lable
thorns. The plants are prolific, tlic fruit being borne upon the terminal
shoots of the current season's gr^iwth, and forms loose panicles of from six
to eighteen berries. In colour the fruit is pale yellow, and it possesses
the true Raspberry flavour, with a pleasant acidity. This species might
prove serviceable in regions that are i«)o warm for the common Raspberry.
Rubus lasiocarpus and Rubus ttpuHfolhis, two closely allied species
indigenous to the mountain regions of India, C-eylon, and .Java, yield
large and palatable fruits. Rubus reticulatus. another Indian UKnnitain
species, has large red pleasant fruit, which is produced in succession for a
long period. The three last-named species might prove serviceable ifi
those parts of Australia that are too warm for the ordinary Raspberi y.
Several species of Rubus are indigenous to Eastern Australia, though
they extend to other countries . One of the best known is Rubus rosifolius,
which passes under the name of the Native Raspberry. This species is
also found in many parts of Africa and Asia. The fruit is produced in
succession, and is somewhat poor in flavour, but improves in tropical
regions. Rubus mollacanus (rugosus) is another species found in Eastern
Australia as far south as Gippsland, but it also extends to New Guinea,
Fiji, the Philippine Islands, China, and India. It is robust, tall,
somewhat rambling in habit, and has small red fruit having a slight acid
flavour. Rubus parvifolius, is a species also found in Eastern and
Southern Australia, though it extends to Japan and other parts of Asia.
The fruit is of medium size and fairly palatable, its flavour being better
in mountain legions than in the lowlands. Rubus GunnianuSj a small
herbciceous species, is tlie Tasmanian Native Raspberry, and is the
principal indigenous fruit found in Tasmania. It grows in alpine regions
only, and produces red juicy fruits, but it is more closely allied to the

861

Cloudberry (Jiubus ChamcEmorns) than the Raspberry. A closely allied
s])ecies is Rnbufi geoiles, indigenous to Chili, Patagonia, and other parts
<^i South America, as also the Falkland Islands. It is herbaceous, and
bears greenish-yellow pleasantly flavouied fruit, which resembles tlie
Cloudberry. Ui(bu'( imperia/is, another South American species from
Argentina and Brazil, yields large and palatable fruit, as also does /iiib".s
HamdeHsis, a species from the Sandwich Islands.

Uses.

The fruit has a peculiar flavour that is grateful to most palates, but it
is volatile and easily destroyed. When the fruit is fully ripe a shower of
rain may destroy its peculiar aroma, and if the berries ai-e kept for a few
days before they are used their rich flavour will have gone. In order to
obtain the fruit in the highest state of perfection it should be eaten when
fresh gathered, or as soon after as possible. When sent to market the
fruit as it is picked should be placed in tlie receptacles it is to be eaten
from, and handled as little as possible, In a fresh state the Raspberry is
considered to be one of the most wholesome fruits, as, unlike many others,
it does not undergo acetous fermentation in the stomach. Medicinally
the fruit is considered to act beneficially in cases of gout and rheumatism.
Raspberries are used in large (quantities for making preserves, and jam
made from this fruit is more popular than any other kind. The fruit is
also largely used in the manufacture of sweetmeats and a popular syrup.
From tin; juice an excellent wine can be made, and a good spirit by
distilling. The juice is also largely used for flavouring spirits and ices.

Cultivation.

The llaspberry thrives best in a cool climate, and is not a suitable fruit
for the warmer districts. It thrives well in many of the cooler parts of
Australasia, and is particularly well adapted for mountain regions. W^hen
the climatic conditions are favourable the Raspberry is a very profital)le
ifruit to cultivate. It will succeed in any ordinary good ground, but
thrives best in a rich strong loamy soil. The ground should be
deeply \Norked, and drainage must be provided for if necessary.
Planting may be done at any time l)etween April and August, but
unless circumstances make it necessary it is not advisable to delay
till late in the season. The ordinaiy mode of jjlanting is to place
the canes about six inches apart in bunches of thi-ee in rOAvs four or
five feet each way, and tying each group to a single stake. Some
growers prefer to plant single canes eighteen inches apart, witTi a
space of about five feet between the ro\>s. 1 1 is advisable to shorten
back the canes in planting in order to encoui-age the plants to make
strong gi'owth the first season. By the adoption of this plan strong
well-fui-nished plants will be obtained sooner than if the newly
planted canes were left long. A good idea of the effects of the
treatment recommended may be obtained from the illustiations. A
Ras]>borry [)lantation Avill reach ])erfection in about three years afte?-

362

it is formed, and if properly treated will last for a lon^- period. As-
a rule, liowever, it will not be advisable to let it stand for more than
eight or nine years, as better results will be obtained from youno-er
])lants. The ground should be kept as free from weeds as possible
bv freipient light scarifyings or hoeings, taking cjiie to injure the-

Medium strong plant.

Probable growth of the same
plant if cut back to the
black mark.

Probable gruwtli of a-
strong' plant if not
cut back the first
season.

roots as little as possible. Deep digging or ploughing should never-
be ])raetised, as these operations destroy a large proj)oi-tion of the-
roots and w^eaken the plants. Before the hot weather sets in let the
whole surface of the ground be covered with a mulching of stable
manure, straw, grass, or any other material that will answer the
purpose. By this means the ground Avill be kept cool — a favourable
condition for the Raspberry in the early summer months and the
surface moisture will be conserved to a very gi'eat extent. If stable
manure is used it will not only prove serviceable as a mulching, but
supply as it decays nutriment for the plants. Ras|» berries are
strong-feeding plants, and old plantations Avill generally be materially

363

assisted by the use of inanure. Manure should be supplied in the
winter and lig-htly forked in, disturbing the roots as little as possible.

PrUXIXC and TRAlNINf;.

The Raspberry lias strong spreading perennial roots, uhieh throw
up a number of stems or canes every summer. These bear fruit the
second year and then decay, being replaced by younger canes.;,
conseijuently, the beai'ing or two-year-old canes must be cut away-
after they have done fruiting. The young canes will generally be
too numerous, and they must, if necessary, be i binned out to the
re(juired number while they are small. The number of canes to be

Training.

To Single Stakes.

With Hoops.

364

left must depend to a great extent upon the strength of the plants,
and will vary from thiee to six. In the latter* part of the winter or
early in the spi'ing before growth eonmiences, the young canes shouhJ
be shortened hack according to their strength, leaving them from
thirty inches to four feet long. At the same time they should he

Trellising.

Trellising with Posts and Hails.

Trellising with Stakt

securely tied to their suppoits. The Raspberiy niay be trained in
vai'ious ways, according to the means and faiury of the cultivator and
the nature of the climate, as also to suit special local conditions.
'^Phe most generally adopted mode is to have a single stake for each
plant and fastening the canes to it before growth commences.
Training with hoops is an excellent method, but it is scarcely
practicable except foi' small gardens, as its practice entails the
exjienditure of much time and labour. It is effected by using two
stakes and a hoop fi'oni a small barrel or piece of wire to form a
circle. The canes ai-e tietl inside the hoop, which prevents them
from being blown abont b}' the wind, and at the same time the
foliage and fruit is moi*e freely exposed to light and air than when
the stems are tied in bunches to single stakes. Raspberries are often
groAvn without any sup])orts, and Avhen this system is adoptinl a
preference should be given to varieties with short sturdy canes.

H66

Another wav of doing without stakes is to tie the canes to tliose of
tlie adjoining plant, as shown hv the illustration. Trellising is often
practised, but it is better adapted for cold regions tlian others. The
advantages of this system are that when the canes are spread out tlie
fiaiit is more fully exposed to the light and air, and tliat, consequently,
it n'pens sooner, more regularly, and has a more perfect flaA'Our than
when the plants are bunched u]» to single stakes. On the other hand,
liowever. in regions where the sun has great power the spreading out
of the canes and foliage adds to the I'isk of scorching, Avhich ofte^ii ~
causes injury to the crops. The ordinary way of ti-clli.sing is to j)lace
stakes along the rows at intervals of ten or tAvelve feet to support
hattens or wires, to which the canes must he tied, spi'cading them
out so as to cover the spaces as legularly as possible. Another mode
of sjH-eading out the growth is to place stakes ahout two feet from
tlic plants on either side in the rows and tie a ]K>rtion of the canes to
each, as shown by the illustration. Raspberries may also sometimes
he trained upon walls oi* fences with advantage, and more especially
in sliaded situations, where the crops will be serviceable througb
heing later than when grown under ordinary conditions.

PrOPAGA'IION.

Raspberries may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, and
suckers. Seed is seldom used, and only for raising new varieties.
]i, should be saved from the finest berries, fully ripened, and ought
to be sown in the autumn or early spring. It should he sown in rich
soil, covering it to the depth of an eighth of an inch. Tt is better to
sow in pots, boxes, or frames, as more attention can be given than in
the o])en grouiul. When the young plants are about two inches high
they should he transplanted into small beds ahout six inches apart.
They will usually fruit the second year, but sometimes not till the
third. Plants are readily propagated by cuttings or hiyers, but these
UK'thods are but little practised. The most common method of
propagation is by suckers, which are freely p?*oduced and have merely
to be I'emoved from the pai'ent plants. In the case of new or choice
varieties, which are Avanted to increase quickly, tlie object can be
readily attained by planting pieces of the roots in i-ich soil.

Itsmurtous Inskcts.

A/Ju'des.- \nv\Oiiii insect pests attack i]\v Uasphei-ry, though it,
])erhai)s. suffers from them to a less extent tJian many othei* fruits.
Aphides of various kinds often attack the foh'age soon after growth
commences or later on in the early summer, causing more or less
injui-y. When these insects make their aj)f)earance it will be
a(ivisal)l(' to ])romptly spray or syringe the plants with some liquid
renu'dy. Full particulars respecting these insects aiul the remedies
for them will be found at page 77, volume I. A kindled insect,
fonnnonlv known as the Flea-louse {Pxf/J Iff trip}/ nctctrf)^ filsro cmines

86()

some ti-oul)le in R{ii>pberry plantations, it is a small insect vety
similar in appeamiice to an Aphis, but moves with a jumping motion
like the Flea, hence the common name. This insect is A^evy
destructive, causing- the foliage to shrivel and (•url, as also the points
of the young shoots. Remedies : — It requires similar treatment to
that recommended fen* the Aphis family.

Beetle. — An insect known as the Kaspbeiry Beetle (Bj/furKs
toDientofiii.s-) is a vGvy trcmblesome pest in Europe, but the writei- is
not quite certain whether it hns as yet made its way to Australasia.
Pi'obably it l»;is, and if not we liave an insect very similar to it. Tlie
Raspberry lieetles are small dark broAvn insects about the sixth t>F an
inch in lengtli and having six feet. Tliey make their appearance as
soon as growth commences, and feed ujion the young shoots. As tbe

Raspberry Beetlk,

Larva and Peifect Insect.
(Naturul Size\

Larva and Perfect Insect.
(Magnified).

Showing the Larva at work and bow the
Fruit is effected.

flower buds make their appearance the female deposits its eggs
singly in tliem, and the young larva-, or grubs, hatch out just as tlie
fruit has formed. These grubs aiv brownish-yellow, with dark
markings and beads, are about half nn inch in length, and have six
legs. As soon as they are hatched tbe larva) commence to feed upon
the fruit, and either destroy it altogether or some of the carpels as
shown in the illustration. Eventually tlie grabs, after completing
their work, fall to the ground, change into their chrysolis form, and

mi

remain (lariiii,^tlie winter. Remedies :— I. Digging and hoeing tl.e
snrfaee soil so as to destroy as many of the chry solids as possible.
2. Collecting and destroying the insects in the perfect, or Beetle,
sta«>'e. 8. Dusting lime over the plants when the insects are in the

larval stage.

. nV('^77. -The insect known as the Raspberry Weevil (Oturri/nrhns
pici2)''ii) belongs to the same family as the s(nnewhat familiar Elephant
JBeetle. It is%ery destructive not only to Raspberries, but to many
other cultivated plants. It is a small light brown insect about-ai — -^
quarter of an inch in length, and upon its back are spots and lines of*
a dai'k coloui-. The insect has six legs, black feet, and a spoon-sha])e(l

Weevil

l.arva (Natural Si/e), Perfect Insect (Natural Size). Larva (Magnified).

rosti-uni or snout. It makes its ajipearance in the spring or early
summer, lemaining concealed in tlie earth all day and feeding only
by night. These insects feed upon the leaves and buds, which they
punctui-e with their strong snouts, and seriously weaken the plants.
As the summer advances the insects descend to the ground, w^here
they lay their eggs, and in a short time the larva?, which are small
white legless grubs with brown heads, are produced. These grubs
feed upon the roots of the plants till they assume their pupa form,
and appear as perfect Weevils in the spring. Remedies : — The same
methods may be adopted as recommended foi* the Raspberry Beetle.
Othei- species of the Weevil family are also troublesome in RaspbeiTy
{)lantations, both in their larval and [)erfect state, and require
somewhat similar treatment.

Variolar Other Insects. — Caterpillars of various kinds ai'e often
troublesome in the sjjring oi- early summer. Red Spidei* often
attacks Raspberry plants late in the season, and more especially if it
ha^s been a dr}^ one. Tlirips are also sometimes troublesome.
Particulars respecting these classes of insects and the modes of
dealing with them will be found at page 77, volume 1.

Injurious Fux(u.

M?/dew. — This name is applied to various kinds of fungi that have
a white or powdeiy appearance, and often somewhat vaguely. The
name has been applied to a veiy desti'uctive root fungus that has
within the last few years caused gi'eat trouble to the Raspberry
growers in the Lilydale district, Victoria, where the cultivation of

H6S

the fruit is a prominent irulusti-v. It is also proving a serious evil in
otlier localities in AustrMlusiu. The disease makes its appearance
u])on the roots in the form of a mass of white thread-like fibres,
which feed upon the juices of the plants, causing decay and,
eventually, death. Plants, when attacked, soon begin to lose vigour,
and their foliage becomes yellow and sickly. There is no known
remedy, though probably watering the surface soil occasionally with
a solution of Sulphate of Iron would check the spread of the fungus,
if it did not destroy it. When a plantation is attacked tlie wisest
and safest plan is to dig up and destroy the affected plants by
bui-ning them. Care should be taken that the fungus does not
s[)j-ead, as it does readily, both above and below the surface soil, if
affected plants are allowed to remain. This fungus, though very
destructive to the Raspberry, is not peculiar to that plant, but also
attacks many of our indigenous trees and shrubs.

Rust.— The leaves of the Raspberry are often affected by a reddish
species of rust (Uredo rnbronm), and sometimes to such an extent as
to have a sickly appearance. The cause or causes are uncertain, but
probably mainly result fiom uncongenial soil conditions such as
extremes of wet and dryness, lack of nourishment, or the use of rank
manure. Remedies: — 1. Sulphate of Iron. 2. Bordeaux Mixture.
8. Bluestone and Ammonia. Particulars as to the use of these
remedies will be found at jjages 99 and 102, volume 1.

Varieties.

There are a number of vai'ieties of Raspberries in cultivation, some
having red, and others yellow, fruit. The following list embraces
tliose that are most popular and useful, and growers must remember
that a few sorts ai-e better for practical purposes than a large
number : — -

Burnet (Co)'rnveir.s Proline, Larije, Bed, Lord E.cmoutJis). — An old
English variety with large roundish-conical dark red fruit. The berries
are somewhat larger than those of the Jied Antvjerp, but not quite so
highly flavoured. Plant strong, an abundant bearer, and ripens early.

Belle de Fontenny {Ama:o7i, Belle d'Orle/ms). — A French variety with
large long conical fi'uit of a deep red colour, and possessing a good
flavour. Plant somewhat dwarf in habit, has very large foliage, and
bears late in the season. The plant has also a tendency to throw up
suckers profusely, and unless these are kept down it is a shy bearer.

lielle de P((1lan.— An excellent French variety with large obtuse-conical
fruit of a bright crimson colour, with large grains. Juicy and rich.
Plant robust, with strong upright canes, and very prolific.

Ilriuckle's Orange (Oi'ati(jr). — An American variety with large conical
bright orange fruit, which is juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured.
Generally considered to be the richest flavoured yellow Raspberry.
Plant strong and very productive. Ripens early. The plant throws up
suckers abundantly, and these must be kept down, or otherwise the fruit
will not be plentiful.

;]i)9

Carters Proline. — An Ei)gli«h variety with large deep red roundish-
conical fruit, which is rather firm and has an excellent flavour. Plant
strong, prolific, and ripens its fruit early.

CornivelVs Yellcnc. — This is one of the best of the yellow-fruited kinds,
and is of English origin. Fruit large, well flavoured, uud is prodiiced in
early summer. Plant robust and a regular cropper.

Pushing. — An American variety of good repute with large bright red
conical fruit witli a brisk acid flavour. Plant moderately vigorous and a
good cropper. An early summer bearer. -

F(tUotf (Filhi/). — A. favourite English variety with large obtuse-conical
high flavoured purplish-red fruit, which ripens in early summer. Plant
robust and generally a free bearer, but feels the eft'ects of drought more
than some other kinds.

Franconin {Xaojuf). — -An early French variety with large obtuse-conical
purplish-red fruit, which has a brisk sub-acid flavour, and is excellent for
preserving. The fruit is also flrnier than most kinds, and, therefore,
bears carriage bettor. Plant strong, has large ft>liage. and a very free
bearer.

r>arnet.

lielle (le Fontenay.

Hello de Pallaii.

Hrinkle's Orange.

Carter's Prulitic

870

KiievetVs Giant. — An Kiiglisli variety with very large deep red
rouiidisli- conical berries, which have a rich flavour and ripen niediiun
early. Plant very robust and productive.

Northumberland Filhaxket. — An English variety of high repute with
large deep red roundish-conical fruit, which has a pleasant slightly aind
flavour, and ripens in early summer. Plant robust, hardy, and a very
good bearer.

Cushinj

Franconia.

Fastolf.

Knovett's Giant.

North umberland Fil basket.

October Red. — A French vaiiety with large bright red roundish-conical
highly-flavoured berries, which ripen their main crop late in the summer
and autumn, and are produced in succession. Plants strong and bear
freely, but a full crop can only be obtained from the young canes of the
same year's growth. Oldei- canes will yield berries, but they will be
smaller and less abundant than those from a younger growth.

October Yellou:- — This is also a French variety, with large yellow
berries, but in all other respects it is similar to the October lied.

J^rlnce of WaJes. — An Fnglish summer-bearing variety with large
roundish-conical fruit, deep bright red in colour, with a pleasant brisk
flavour. Plant strong, productive, and only throws comparatively few
suckers.

371

Red A ittwerp (Burlei/, Late HeariiKj). — This is an old and popular
variety, and, notwithstanding its name, is of English origin. Fruit large,
nearly globular, dark red, juicy, with a rich brisk flavour, Phiiit strong,
a free bearer, and can generally be depended upijn for a crop.

Rivers' Monthly {Large Monthl;/). — A valuable English late -ripening
variety, which produces its fruit in succession for a considerable period.
In favourable seasons fruit may be obtained without a break for six or
seven weeks. The foliage is, however, somewhat tender, liable to get
scorched, and the plants are seriously affected by drought. FruTt
roundish-conical, bright red, and well flavoured. Plant strong and very
prolific.

October Red.

Prince of Wales.

Red Antwerp.

Rivers' Monthly.

Semper Fidelis.

Victoria.

Semper FideHtt. — This is an excellent and useful English variety with
large conical dull red sub-acid fruit, which ripens medium early, Tliough
the berries are not so highly flavoured as tliose of some other kinds they
are excellent for preserving, and as the variety is a sure cropper it is one
of the most profitable for ma^-ket purposes. Plant vigorous and hardy.

372

Vice-President French {French). — An American variety with large
roundish-conical fruit of a deep red colour, juicy, with a rich flavour, and
ripening rather late in the smumer. Plant strong and very productive.

Victoria {Iiocfer's ] ictoria). — An English variety with large dark red
roundish-conical berries possessing a high flavour, ripening towards the
end of summer and in autumn, and coming in a little before the Octoher
Red. Plant only moderately robust, but bears fairly well.

Yellow Antiverp (DouUe-hearlng Yellow, White Antwer})). — An old
English variety somewhat similar in habit and bearing qualities to the
lied Antwerp, but the fruit, which is pale yellow, has a sweeter flavour.
Plant vigorous and a free bearer. There is a sub-variety called the Sveet
Yelloiv Antwerp with deeper-coloured and somewhat higher flavoured
fruit, but the plants are less robust and do not bear freely.

Black Cap Ivaspberries.

This is a distinct class from the ordinary Raspberries, embracing a
number of varieties of Rnhiis occidental Is^ an American species commonly
known as the Thimbleberry. Though the term " Black Cap " is applied
to this section the fruit varies in colour, according to the variety, from
deep black to purple, orange, bright yellow, and bufl". In America
varieties of this class receive a good deal of attention, and are extensively
cultivated, but they have not found much favour in Europe, and are
scarcely known in Australasia. Probably this section would be found
useful in cool mountain districts, as they are hardy, prolific, and the fruit
is of good quality. The followino- list embraces a selection of desirable
varieties : —

American Black (/J lack C<fp Rasjyherrij. Black Baspherrij). — This is
the original species, indigenous to most parts of the United States. Fruit
medium size, roundish-oval, black, with a bloom. Flavour sweet and
pleasant, but the seeds are numerc»us and disproportionate to the amount
of flesh and juice. Plant hardy and variable in habit, and roots from the
ends of the young- canes.

Autumn Black. — This is a variety raised in England by the late ]Mr.
Elvers from a cross between the Black Cap Raspberiy and the English
Blackberry { Rubxs frtitico.'^/is). The plant has to some extent the
rambling habit of the Blackberry, but the fruit is a true Raspberry.
Fruit medium size, reddish-black, with a brisk and pleasant flavour.
Plant very robust, prolific, and a late bearer.

Cataivissa. — A jtrolific variety of branching habit which often j^roduces
a second, or autumn, crop. Fruit medium-sized, round, dark reddish-
purple, juicy, and well flavoured, and chiefly produced at the ends of the
shoots.

Mammoth Cluster [Large Miami, McConnick). — This is a favourite
variety in America, where it is extensively cultivated, Fniit very large,
round, purple-black, well flavoured, aiid ri|)ens rather late, tlants hardy,
vigorous, and productive.

Miami. — A hardy, vigorous, prolific, and serviceable variety. Fruit
large, roundish- oval, brownish-black, juicy, sweet, and well flavoured.

378

Ohio Eoerhearlng {Montkly Black Cap). — A very popular and excellent
variety largely cultivated in America. Fruit large, black, sweet, juicy,
and pleasantly flavoured. Plant upriglit in habit, has numerous strong-
hooked spines, makes robust growth, and bears more or less in succession
till late in the autumn.

Manmiotli (.■luster.

Miami.

Ohio Everl)earing.

Philadelphia.

JPkiladelphia.—A hardy and pi«oductive variety with erect bi-anching
canes. Fruit medium to large, dark red, with a brisk sub-acid
flavour.

374

Seneca. — An excellent and productive variety wliicL ripens at
mid-season between the early and late kinds. Fruit large, oval,
black, with a slight bloom, juicy, and Avell flavoured.

SAPODILLA PLUM.

Hie fruit known under tlds name is the product of Achras Stvpota
{Sajyota Achras). a large evergreen tree ^\ith white floAvers indigenous
to the West Indies and tropical South America. It belongs to the
order Sapotace?e, which embraces many genera that yield useful
edible fruits. Achras is the Greek name foi* the Pear, and was applied
to the genera in allusion to the shajie and colour of the fi'uit. The
fruit is as large as a medium-sized Quince, witli i-eddish-yellow flesh
which has a rich perfume and a delicious flavour. In addition to its
value as a fruit tree the Sapodilla Plum yields gutta-percha in
considerable quantities, and medicinally the bark is a useful tonic,
while the seeds are aperient and tonic. An Australian species, Achras
australis (Sideroxylon anstrale), an evei-green tree indigenous to
Queensland and the coast ri^ei' districts of Northern New South
Wales, beais a Sapodilla Plum that is tolerably good fruit, but which
is greatly inferior to the exotic kind, tliough the ti-ee is more hardy.
This species is also known under the name of Australian Apple. (For
full description see page 202, volume 1). Tlie Sapodilla Plum
requires a rich loamy soil, and the West Indian species, as a matter
of course, can only be grown successfully in tropical or semi-tropical
regions. The Australian species, being someAvhat more hardy, may
be grown in medium warm districts. Being handsome evergreen
trees, both species are worthy of attention for ornamental purposes
as w^ell as for their fruit in congenial localities. Propagation is
mostly effected by seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half
deep. Plants may be obtained from layers, and ripened cuttings of
the current season's growth strike readih in sand iinde]' shelter.

SAPOTA.

This is a handsome evei/gi-een ti-ee. known to botanists as Casimiroa
eduHs. belonging to the natural order Aurantacea*. and closely allied
to the Citrus fandly. It is a native of Mexico, where it grows up to
an elevation of about seven thousand feet. By the Mexicans it is
called Zapote. The tree attains a height of about thirty feet, and
makes a compact and dense gi'owtli. The fruit is about the size of a
Cherry, pale yelloAv, and must be dead ripe before it is fit to eat.
When fully matured the flesh is melting like that of the Peach, has
a. rich sub-acid flavour, and is said to induce sleep. The seed is said
to possess deleterious qualities. The Sapota may be grown success-
fully from medium warm to temperate regions, where the fi-osts are

;i7o

Imt liii'ht, and is well wortliv of attention as an ornamental tree.
Propagation is most readily affected b}' seeds, which should be planted
Mn inch deep. Cuttings made from ripened wood of the cnrrent
season's growth will strike in sand if placed in a close fraine where
thev will be protected from atmosidieric influences.

SAPUCAIA NUT.

The Nuts known under this name are the product of Lfcijhi^ ollaria,
an evergreen tree indigenous to tropical Souili America, belonging to
the Le(tythidea^ section of the ()r<ler Myrfacea'. The specific name
signifies an oil jar, in alhision to the form of tlie capsnles. The tree
attains a height of about sixty feet, has yellowish-white flowers, and
its fruit consists of hard woody urn-shaped capsnles about six inches
in diameter, and somewhat similar in form to those of the Eucalyptus
family. These capsules are furnished with a lid at the apex about
two inches in diameter, and \vhen thoroughly 7'ipe these coverings
fall off with sharp cracking reports, and the seeds fall to the ground.
The capsules, howevei-, remain upon the trees after they are empty
for, a considerable time, and are then called Monkey Pots. Each
capsule contains a number of soft-shelled seeds, or Nuts, fi-om one to
two inches in length, which have a sweet pleasant flavour, and are
eaten either raw or roasted. The seeds ai-e greatly relished by
monkeys, which are numerous in the native regions of this tree, and
these sagacious little animals ai-e said to watch for the repoi-ts made
by the lids when separating from the capsules. Leciithis Zahacajo^
another large evergreen tree, a native of the same regions, also yields
similai" nuts. Being natives of tropical regions, the Sapucaia Nut
trees can only be grown in the warmer pai'ts of Australasia. In
congenial localities they are well worth cultivating for their Nuts,
and also as handsome ornamental trees. Pi-o])agation is most I'cadily
effected by seeds, which should be planted ;ibout two inches deep.
Layers root freely, but, as a matter of course, they can only be
obtained from small plants, and cuttings of i-i])ened wood of the
curi"(?nt season's growth will strike in sand if protected from the
wt'at liei-.

SEA-SIDE GRAPE.

I'his is the common but somewhat Inappropi-iate name of Coccohba
uvifeni {]>(irvi flora), a medium large evergreen ividn indigenous to
Central America northward to Florida and the West Indies. It
belongs to the natural order Polygonacea>. or Bu(;kwlieat family,
which comprises but very few woody plants. The greenish-white
flowers are produced in spikes, and these art; followed by bunches of
small dark blue berries, which are edible and j)ossess a sweet or
sub-acl<l flavour according to the varieties, of which there are several.

H7G

As the tree grcnv« naturally hi sanely sea-(•()a^^t soils, it iiuiv, in waiiiv
regions, be planted Avitli adAantage in similar localities. From the
M'ood an asti-ingent substance called Jamaica Kino is extracted, and it
also fields a red dye. Several other species of Coccoloba yield edible
fruits and possess similar properties, bnt Avith one exception [Coccoioha
Leogaueusi,s) they are indigenous to inland districts of* tropical South
Ameiica. Pro])agation may be eifi cted by seeds, Avhich should be
planted an inch and a-half deej). and ripened cuttings, of the current
seas(m's i^rowth. in sand without shorteniuii: the leaves.

SERVICE.

The Service is a well-knoAvn tree in the I nited Kingdom and
other noi'thei'u countries of Europe. >vhere it is Aalued cliiefly for its
wood and for ornament, though the fruit is utilized to a limited
extent. There are tw^o kinds, one being known as the Tiue Service
{Pyrus domesticif or Fyrus 6or6?«s),«and the other the Wild Service
{Pyrus torminalii* or Cratcegus tormnia/ls). They belong to the Pomea
section of the (^rdei' Rosacea^, and are closely related to the Ap]>lc
and Pear. The True Service is indigenous to the United Kingdom
and many other parts of Northern Europe. It is a large decirluous
tree of spreading habit with winged leaves, an<l bears in profusion
fruit about the size of large Gooseberries which varies in shape from
oblong to round. In flavour the fi-uit is austere and insipid, but is
used as food in Kamschatka and othei* i*egions in Xorthei'n Europe
after being mellowed by the action of frost. It hangs upon the trees
the greater portion of the Avintei*. and hmg after the leaves have
fallen. The fruit is sometimes used for making cider, either by itself
or when mixed with Apples. The wood is compact, strong, and
durable, and in Europe is used to some extent for tool handles an«l
the Avooden parts of implements.

The Wild Service is a larger tree which is indigenims to the Unitcid
Kingdom and other parts of Xorthei'n Europe. It bears in profusion
large bunches of broAvn fruit about the size of small (xooseberries.
Avhich are edible, but sonieAvhat harsh and insijiid. The Avood is
white, coinjiact. hard, and tough, and in Europe is used for Aarioiis
purposes Avhen strength and dui-ability are required.

Closely allied to the Service is the Mountain Ash or Rowan (Pyrus
aucuparia), a handsome small tree Avhicli attains a height of about
thirty feet. The fruit is produced in profusion, and is of an orange
I'ed colour, but is only valuable for its sliOAvy appearance in the late
autumn or Avinter. There is also a variety AA^th yellow fruit. The
timber is hard, tough, and dui'able, and the suckers, Avhich spring
freely from the roots, as also Avdth the Service, are in Europe utilized
for making hoops for casks and otliei* pui-poses.

Propagation in each can lie readily effected by seeds, Avhich should
be planted an incli deep. Plants may also be easily obtained from
layers or cuttings. Formerly both species of SerAice AAcre often used

:{77

by Imii'<)])C'5iii gardeners as stocks foi- tlie A])ple and Pear, but of hvto
yeaj'S tliey are seldom employed for the purpose. Botli kinds of
Sei'vice and the Mountain Ash are better adapted for the cooler parts
<.)f Australasia than other i-egions, and they are well suited for
elevated and mountain districts. They may, however, be grown in
nieciium cool distrii'ts with success, and Jire worthy of attention as
ornamental trees, and also for their timliei*.

SERVICE BERRY.

The plant known by this name is a small deciduous many-branched
tree belonging to the Pomea section of the order Rosaceae. It is
indigenous to Xortli Ameiicfj, and is known botanically as Atrielanchier
satigfdnea [.Mespibis CanncUims, l*yrus sangainea). The flowers precede
the foliage in the spring, and the trees ai*e brilliant masses of pure
white blossoms; conseqiicMtly, the plant is also known as the Snowy
Mespilus. The small purple-black fruit is about the size of Cherries,
and has a sweet and pie :i sunt fhnour. As an ornamental plant, the
Service Bei*ry is worthy (jf attention in the colder regions of
Australasia, though its fruit is of less value than many other kinds.
Propagation is rc^adily effected by seeds, cuttings, and layers. Seeds
should be planted an inch deep, cuttings put in in the spring, and
plants ma\' be layered before they start into growth.

SHERBET SHRUB.

"^IMie plant knowii umler this name is Greioia asiatica, an evergreen
shrub indigenous to India, Persia, and otlier parts of Asia, belonging
to the natural order Tiliacea^. It has purple flowers, elm-like foliage,
and makes a good oniamental shrub. The small fruit has an acrid
acid, but also a pleasant, flavour, and is utilized to some extent in the
manufacture of sherbet, henin^ the common name. This shrub may
be grown successfully in regions ranging from ti-opical to medium
warm, and will thrive in any fairly good soil. Propagation is effected
by seeds, which should be cov^ered an inch deep, or plants may be
obtained readily from layers. Cuttings of ripened wood of the
cui-rent season's gro>vth also strike fi'cely in sand if protected from
the weather.

SOUARI NUT.

The Souari Nut is the product of Cari/ocar nuciferwn, an evergreen
tree with broad tj-ifoliate leaves growing to the height of from eighty
to a hundred feet, and belonging to the order Rhizobolacea?. It is a
native of Guiana and other parts of tropical South America. The

378

fi-Liit is nearly round, witli a hard reddish-brown outer covering
enchasing a white pulp in which four or a k'ss number of seeds or
Nuts are embedded. These seeds are kidney-sha])ed, somewhat
flattened, and have hard shells covered with small tubercles. The
kernels have a sweet pleasant flavour soniewhat similar to the Hazel
Nut, but are more oily. Owino- to the lara-e i)r()[)<)rtion of oil in them
they are also commonly known as Buttei- Xuts. Similar Nuts are
obtained from Caryocar hiitryo.vnri, also a native of Gruiana. which
differs from the flrst -named species in hnving its leaves five-parted
instead of three, and the seeds are somewhat more oily. This species
is also known as Pekea hutrt/osa and PeTcea tuberailata, and the seeds
pass under the name of Pekea Nuts. As both species are natives of
warm regions they can only be successfully cultivated in the tropical
and sub-tropical parts of Australasia. In suitable localities they are
wo)*thy of cultivation for their Nuts, which are fi'eely produced and
will always find a ready sale, 'i'he Nuts are also valuable for their
oil, which is of a superior kind. As ornamental trees both species
are also worthy of attention. Propagation is generally eft'ected by
seeds, which should be covered two inches deep. If young plants
are available propagation may be easily effected from layers, and
cuttings of the current season's growth may be struck in sand if
protected from sun and wind.

STAR APPLE.

This is a handsome evergreen tree with spreading branches known
to botanists as ChrysophyUnm Cainito, belonging to the order Sapotacese.
The generic name is derived from chrysos (gold) and 2^hyl Ion (a leaf),
in allusion to the undersides of the leaves being densely covered with
deep yellow shining hairs or down. The tree attains a height of
thirty oi forty feet, hjls white flowers, and fruit as large as a
medium-sized Apple. The fruit consists of ten cells, each ccmtaining
a single seed, and Avhen cut thi*ougli the centre before the seeds
harden the halves have a rayed or star-like appearance, and hence the
common name. The fruit is also known as the Cainito. When fully
ripe the gelatinous pulp has a pleasant flavour, but previously to
maturing it is remarkably asti-ingent. There are several varieties,
which differ slightly in shape and quality. The Star Apple is a
native of the West Indies, and can only be gi-own successfully in the
trojncal and semi-tropical regions of Austi-alia. Sevei-al ether species
of Chrj/sophyUiim yield edible fruits of less economic value than the
Star Apple, They are mostly natives of the West Indies, tropical
America, or West Africa, and reqaij-e the same treatment as the Stai*
Apple. Lucuma Cahn'to, a closely-allied species from Peru, yields a
faii'ly good fruit known as the Peruvian Cainito. This species is
more hardy than the Star A])ple, and may be grown successfully in
medium warm regions. ChrymphyUum pruniferi(ra {Ntemeyero pruiv'fera)
is the Australian Cainito, and is also known as an Australian or

;379

Native Phim. For a full description of this tree see page 209^
volume 1.

The Star Apj^le and the other species mentioned are handsome
trees and worthy of attention for ornamental planting, iiTespectiAc of
the value of their fruit, in localities where the climate is congenial.
Thej will grow in any ordinary good soil, but thrive best in a deep
rich well-drained loam and in sheltered situations. Propagation may
be effected by seeds, which shtmld be planted an inch and a-half
deep. Cuttings of the ripened Avood of the present season will^^^et
freely in sand if placed in a close frame, and when pi/acticable plants
can be readily obtained from layers.

. STRAWBERRY.

HlSTOKY.

The Strawberry belongs to the natural order of Bosacece, and i*^
knoAvn botanically as Fragaria. This name comes from the Latin
fragrans (fragrant), in allusion to the strong and pleasant odour of
the fruit. The common or English name is supposed to have
originated fi'om the pi*actice of laying straw under the fruit to keep
it clean. Some authorities, however, contend that the name was
originally Straybei'ry. in allusion to the runners trailing along the
ground and forun'ng young plants away from the parent one. There
are a number of species, and the family is widely diffused, represen-
tatives being found in the temperate zones of Europe. Asia, and both
North and South America. The numerous varieties now cultivated
have originated from sevei-al species which, as a rule, alter materially
in character Avhen bi'ought under cultivation.

Strawbei'i'ies appear to have been unknown or neglected by the
nations of anti(juity, as tliey are not mentioned by the early Greek
and Roman writei-s upon agriculture. In England they appear to
have been systematically cultivated for hundreds of years, as Stray-
berries are mentioned in old records from the time of Henry VI. In
the latter part of tlie fifteenth century the garden of the Bisho]) of
Ely, situated in Holborn, London, was noted for the fine Strawberries
grown in it, and Shakspeare makes ]>i-t)niinent allusion to this
circumstauce in one of his plays. Tlie kind then grown is su])posed
to have been the coninioii Wood Strawberry {Fragaria vesca). which
was doubtless the first species brought under cultivation. Tliis
species gi'ows wild in the woods in the United Kingdom and many
other parts of Europe, and is also found in North America. In its
native state it produces an abundance of small red fruit, which is
I'ather poor in flavour, but under cultivation its quality is gi*eatly
improved. The Alpine Strawberry comes from the same species
{Fragaria vesca). This kind is more vigorous in growth than the Wood
Strawberry, and bears larger and better flavoured fruit. This Strawberry-
is very prolific, and under liberal treatment will yield more or less fruit

for several iijontlis in succession. There are t>vo sections, tlie red and the
white, the latter liaving fruit that is paler in colour and scarcely so acid in
flavour as the foi-iuer, but in other respects they are alike. Each section
also embraces several varieties. Fr<((pirl<i coliiiia, a species found in
various parts of Northern Europe, bears fruit somewhat similar to
Fragariii t'esra, and is commonly known as the Hill Strawberry. Some
authorities, however, considei- that this species is merely a form of
Fracforia lu^sca.

The first of the large-fruited kinds grown in England was known as
the Hautbois, and is supposed to have originated from the Mountain
Strawberry'' of iJohemia (Fragarin ehitlor). The name Hautbois (pro-
nounced lioboy) is French, and means literally high wood, and probably
originated through the species growing naturally in mountain forests.
Some authorities, however, contend that the name is derived from the
circumstance of the fruit stems rising well above the leaves. In the
older English works upon gardening the name is generally written
hautboy. The fruit of the Hautbois is very highly flavoured, with an
aroma differing from that of other kinds, and for a long period it was the
most popular Strrwberry that was cultivated. In the course of time the
name came t<» be applied commonly to any kind of fine Strawberries, and
" ripe hoboy " is still a prominent London cry during the sunnner.
Fragaria virginiana, the Virginian or Scarlet Strawberry, a species with
highly coloured fruit, was introduced to England from America early in
the seventeenth century. Parkinson, an English horticultural writer of
repute, wh,> wrote about this time, mentions the following kinds as being
cultivated : — Ked and White Wood, Green, Virginian, and Bohemiaii, the
last-mentioned doubtless being identical with the Hautbois. Frogarin
chilensis, the C^hilian Strawberry, was taken to England early in the
eighteenth century, but it never became very popular. It has large Avhite
fruit with very little colour, and though sweet and pleasant lacks liigh
flavour and juiciness. This kind is not grown much in Victoria, but it is
very popular in some parts of New South Wales, and more especially
around Sydne}^, where it is generally cultivated under the name of
Hautbois, to which it is not entitled. In fact, many prefer this
Strawberry to the other kinds, and growers like it because the fruit is
firm and can be carried to market with less difficulty than the ordinary
sorts. Fragarlo gnimlij^ora (Ananas, cali/cina), the Pine-Apple Straw-
berrj% was introduced to Europe about the middle of the eighteenth
century from South America. From this species many of the finest
varieties belonging to the Pine section have originated. Prominent
among these are the P»ritish Queen, Carolina Superba, and Frogmore
Late Pine.

Uses.

The Strawberry is a very popular fruit, and also a very wholesome one.
It may be safely eaten by the most delicate persons without fear of an}'
ill effects, as it does not undergo acetous fermentation in the stomach,
which is the case with most other fruits. 1'he peculiar rich flavour of the
Strawberry is unsurpassed by that of any other fruit, and there are few

wlio do not highly appreciate it. Medicinally, Strawberries are siijjposed
to be beneficial in cases of gout, rheumatism, stone, gravel, and consumption.
The juice is also considered to be serviceable iii dissolving tartareous
incrustations that collect upon the teeth. In addition to the grateful
flavour of the fruit to the palate, the pleasant sub-acid juice is very
refreshing, and more especially in hot weather. In France and other
parts of Europe a favourite cooling drink is made from the juice when
mixed with water, with lemon and sugar added. Strawberries make an^
excellent preserve, and in the form of either jam or jelly are ver\' popular.
The juice by fermentation makes a strong, rich, and palatable wine, and
from this an excellent spirit can l)e obtained by distillation.

Imperfect Flowers.

The flowers of the Strawberry are usually bi-sexual, or furnished with
stamers and pistils, the essential organs for the production of fruit.
Sometimes, however, vaiieties are produced whose flowers are without
stamens, or male organs, and contain pistils, or female parts only. As a
matter of course, plants in this condition cannot produce fruit unless
fertilised by the pollen of others that are furnished with stamens. With
some varieties the lack of stamens is a characteristic, and these are known
as pistillate sorts, but it is not uncommon for kinds that usually have
perfect flowers to occasionally become unfruitful owing to the suppression
of the male organs. A good idea of the difference between perfect and

Perfect Flower Enlarged

pistillate flower.s may be obtained from the ilhistnitions. Figure A
represents a bi-sexual, or perfect, flower showing the pistils in the centre,
with the stamens arranged in a circle an.und them. "^I'lte stamens are

882

tlitterent in appearance to the pistils, being longer, and at the end of each
is a small knob called the anther. The anthers contain the pollen, a hne
powdery substance that is essential to fructification. Figure B shows a
j)istillate flower. Figure C represents a section of a perfect flower, and
affords another vie^v of the arrangement of stamens and pistils. From a

Pistillate or Imperfect Flower Enlarged.

Section of Perfocl Flovv(

botanical point of view the true fruit of the Strawberry is what we call
seeds, which are embedded upon a fleshy receptacle. But though the
effect of the pollen simply perfects the seeds, yet if these are not properly
formed the receptacles do not enlarge, but wither off. Sometimes plants
have stamens and no pistils, but this is not common, and is a sign of
degeneracy, and such varieties should be promptly replaced by more
reliable ones. Pistillate varieties will yield good crops, provided they
are fertilised by the pollen of other kinds growing close to tliem through

888

the working of bees imd otiier insects. It may be stated, however, tliat
the pistillate varieties are chiefly of American origin, and that the
European kinds generally cultivated are, as a rule, perfect. Therefore,
cultivators in Australasia need have but little trouble as to the sexuality
of their Strawberries.

Cultivation.

Climate and Soil. — Strawberries may be grown successfully in many
parts of Australasia, but they are better adapted for the cooler regions
than the warmer districts. Fruit produced in cool districts is generally
superior in flavour to that raised in warmer localities. It is generally
admitted that Strawberries raised in the north of England have, as a rule,
a better flavour than those produced in the southern counties. Then,
again, fruit raised in Scotland is popularly supposed to be richer in
flavour than the produce of England. The StraM^berry is a fruit specially
well adapted for cool elevated regions and the slopes of mountain ranges.
It will, however, thrive fairly well in all but tropical and semi-tropical
regions in Australasia. Strawberries may be grown successfully in any
ordinary good soil, but they thrive to the greatest perfection in a ri ch
deep sandy loam. Some varieties will do better in light soils than otheVs,
but their i3eculiarities in this respect can only be ascertained by experience.
The time of fruiting will be influenced to some extent by the aspect of
the ground in cool districts, and growers by this means may accelerate
or retard their crops by several weeks. For early crops the most
favourable situation is a slope having an aspect that is northerly, so that
the plants will have the full power of the sun. On the other hand, if
late fruit is required, a southern s]oi)e upon which there is comparatively
little sunshine is the best aspect. In Eiirope it is a common j^ractice
when early fruit is required to make special beds slo}ie so as to get as
much sunshine as possible.

Preparing the Ground. — In preparing laud for Strawberries deep
cultivation is essential, and more especially in stiff soils. When they are
able to do so the roots will penetrate to a considerable depth in search of
food and moisture. It is not an uncommon thing in loose soil to find
roots from two to three feet below the surface. Deep rooting is a great
advantage, as when the roots are well below the surface the plants are less
liable to suffer from the effects of drought, and at the same time liave a
larger area to extract their food from. In preparing land for Strawberries
drainage must always be provided for when necessary, as the plants are
liable to suffer from the saturation of their roots, and more es])ecially
when they are deep in the ground.

l^lantiiiy. —The most favourable time for planting is in the autumn, as
soon as possible after the dry season has broken up. At this period of
the year the ground contains a great deal of heat, growth is active, and
the young plants are able to make good headway before the winter sets
in. During the winter they continue to make good progress, and are
able to carry full crops the next fruiting season. Though planting may
be done during the winter or spring, the returns the first season will not

884

be SI) good as if the plants were put in in the autumn. For garden or
hand cultivation the most convenient way of growing Strawberries is to
plant them in beds, each containing three rows. These rows should be
fifteen inches apart, and twelve inches ought to be left between the plants
in the lines. Two feet and a-half of s[>ace is left between the outside
rows of each bed, and alotig the centre a twelve inch path should be
marked oif. By adopting this system of planting, every part of the
ground is accessible for gathering the fruit and other purposes without
the necessity of trampling over the rows, an advantage worthy of
consideration. For field cultivation with horse-power implements, it will
be necessary to plant wider, and the rows should not be less than two feet
apart. Before the young plants are fixed in their places the roots if long
should be shortened back to about half their length. This operation

PATH

:^ *********#**# *
***************
#**********#***

PATH

***************

-::• ,4fe * i,-, * * * ■"• * -::, *; i- a. ^, a.

i:. i:- i\i ;.« a- a- * •::- -A' i:- ■}:- -::• * ^^ «

PATH

removes the portions that get broken when shifted, and the roots that are
left are more easily arranged in the ground when [»lanted. The shortening
process also causes the growth of root fibres from near the ends, as also of
additional ones from near the crowns. From the illustrations a good
idea may be obtained as how the roots should be trimmed, and the
probable effect upon the future growth. When plants have only short
roots, as is often tlie case with plants shifted early in the autumn,
trimming back is unnecessary. In planting it is also necessary to trim
oif the greater portion of the old leaves, leaving but two or three of the
central ones. Tliis is if the plants have been taken up in the ordinary
way with their roots freed from the soil. On the other hand, however,
if the plants are shifted with a ball of earth to each without material
disturbance to the roots, there is no occasion to shorten back the foliage.
Care should be taken in planting not to expose the roots to a drying
atmosphere, and, when practicable, moist, dull, or calm weather should be
chosen fot the work. It will be advisable in planting to spre.-id the roots
out horizontally, as far as may be practicable, just below the surface soil.

385

PLAXTIN(i

Pruning the Boots.
Line showing where to cut.

Though this method entails
more labour, yet it place.^
the plants underthe best con-
ditions for making vigorous
growth. Very often, how-
ever, both for economy and
quickness, planting is done
with a dibber. The plants
should not be placed too
deep in the ground, and it
will be sufficient if the
crowns are just below the
surface.

Keeping Doion Weeds. —
In order to grow Straw-
berries successfully it is
essential that the plantation
should be kept free from

Roots arranged in the best way.

Koots as generally arranged.

2x

Root growth after Pruning.

886

weeds, which, [previous to the fruiting .season at any rate, must never be
allowed to make miicli headway. They should be kept down by frequent
liglit stin-ings of the surface soil, taking care to disturb the Strawberry roots
as little as possible. As soon as the fruit begin.%to swell the ground between
the plants should be covered with short grass, fine straw, or other suitable
material, in order to keep the l)erries clean. This covering will also act
as a mulching, checking rapid evaporation, and preventing the surface soil
from caking from the effects of the sun and drying winds. Should the
weather be dry ^hen the fruit is forming it will be advisable to water the
plants when 'practicable. Water under such conditions is very serviceable,
and its command will give cultivators a great advantage. Wateiing,
however, should always be done thoroughly, and o-rowers must remember
that one good soaking is better than a dozen light sprinklings. Strawberry
plants at the fruiting ])eriod Avill take up a considerable (quantity of watt^r
with advantage, but it should not be supplied too freely so as to sodden
the ground.

Removul of liiuin/rs. — All runners should be removed previous to the
fruiting season as soon ;is they make their appearance, and for this
purpose the beds must be looked over frequently. If the runners are
allowed to remain it is at the expense of the fruiting power of th'e plants.
Even after the fruiting season it is advisable to remove the runners unless
young plants are required, though it is not so essential as before the crop
is produced. When treated in this way some kinds will often produce a
good second, or autumn, crop. The writer has freqiiently had this
experience, and more especially with that excellent and well-known
variety, TroUo2y'\^ Victoria.

Manuring. — Strawberries are very strong-feeding plants, and require
plenty of nourishment to bring the crops to perfectioti. In preparing the
ground well-rotted manure should be used freely, and bone-dust may be
employed with advantage in strong soils. The following winter the beds
should receive another good dressing, working it in lightly and disturbing
the roots as little as possible. Strawberries remove from the soil soda
and potash in very large proportions ; consequently, fertilizers rich in
these materials are very serviceable manures. Wood ashes may be used
freely with advantage both in heavy and light soils. Seaweed is also an
excellent manure owing to the large amount of potash in it, and should
be used freely in localities where it can be readily obtained. Super-
i)hosphate, guano, poudrette, and other concentrated manures may be used
with advantage to a moderate extent, but in excess they are liable to
injure the plants. Rich black soils containing large proportions of
vegetable matter from swanqjs are of great manurial value for land
intended for Strawberries, and more especially light loamy or sandy
ground. This material should be spread over the surface and allowed U)
lie for a few weeks before the ground is broken up. Liquid manure may
be used with great advantage to Strawberry plants after the flowers make
their appearance, but at an earlier stage of growth it stimulates the leaves
more than the fruit. This valuable manure should lie invariably used
when practicable, taking care not to wet the foliage or fruit in applying
it. • '

387

Renewal of Plantations. — Though Strawberry plantations will last
several years and give good returns, 3'-et the better plan is to renew them
after two seasons' growth. Young plants will, as a rule, bear more freely
and produce better fruit than older ones. Planters should renew half the
area under Strawberries every season, and by this means they will always
have beds in the most thrifty condition. In the warmer districts where
\oiig summer droughts are common, Strawberries often give the most
satisfactory returns if the plantations are renewed every year. Plantations
in these dry localities suffer severely from the effects of sun and drought,
unless they receive an amount of attention and care which in many cases
it is impossible to give them. On the other hand, by treating the plants
as annuals and breaking up the plantation after the fruiting season, the
cultivator will have no trouble during the summer. It is also advisable
to change the land frequently, as Strawberries are a very exhausting crop.
Strawberries are frequently used as edging plants for walks in kitchen or
cottage gardens, but they are not well adapted for this purpose, as their
growth is not sufficiently compact, and their runners are apt to be
troublesome. The Alpine section is the best for this purpose, as the
plants do not, as a rule, produce runners.

CULTIVATIUX UXDKR GlASS.

lu Europe it is a common practice to grow Strawberries under
glass, either in pots or when planted in beds in fiumes or houses.
Though in tlvis part of the world artificial cultivation is not of so
much impoi'tance as in the northern countries of Kui-ppe, yet it may
prove serviceable under certain conditions, and more especially in the
cooler regions of Australasia. Strawberries may be grown under the
shelter of glass without artificial heat simply to obtain fruit a week
or two in advance of the usual time. Plants in pots may be grown
under the same conditions for table decoration, and, being very
effective when used in this way, they are well deserving of special
attention for the purpose If Strawberi'ies are I'ecpiired out of
season the plants should be grown in h(jt beds or heated houses or
frames kept at a temperature of from sixty -five to seventy degrees by
day and fift^^-tive to sixty-five at night. T\\q plants must be watered
suffi(,'iently to keep the soil moderately moist, but not soddened, and
should be frequently syringed or sprinkled over the foliage till tliey
come into flower, when the tops ought to be kept rather dry till after
the fruit has set. Air should be admitted freely in the day time,
taking care that the plants are not exposed to sti'ong currents. In
growing plants under glass, either forced or otherwise in pots or in
beds, a rich open soil is essential, and well -rotted manure m^i}^ be
used freely. It is also necessary that the pots or beds, as the case
may be, should have effective drainage. Anotliei- essential is that the
plants should be close to the glass, or othei-wise they will become
di'awn and weakly. Various styles of houses are in use for growing-
Strawberries, according to the fancies or requirements of cultivators.
One of the most serviceable structures is shown by the illustration,

888

and is used to some extent in the United Kingdom. This is a simple
" Lean-to" house Avith the roof formed of several short frames, like a
fiio-ht of steps, instead of having tlie usual slope. These frames open
in sections, as shown by the engraving, and the tniIti\-ator has ready
access to the plants. Stages are fixed below tlie roof eitlier for pots
or boxes of soil at such a depth that the plants will just keep clear of
the glass. This is both a serviceable and very cheap style of house.

An Economical and Serviceable Forcing House.

Pkotectixg the Fruit.

As soon as the fruit begins to form it will be advisable to cover the
surface soil between the plants Avith a thin layer of short grass, fine
straw, or other suitable material to keep the berries clean, as when
not protected in this way they are apt to be more or less gi'itty.
This covering also acts as a mulching, checks evaporation from the
surface soil, and prevents it from caking hard thiougli the action of the
sun and wind. It is a common practice in Euro})e to use a kind of
tile for keeping the fruit of Strawberries clean and the surface soil
moist, as also for hastening maturity. These tiles are made in two
parts, as shown by the illustration, and when joined together are
about twelve inches square. They are from an inch to an inch and
a -half thick, and the opening for the plant is four or five inches in
diameter. When the ground is covered by these tiles the soil
will retain moisture for a long time, as evaporation necessarily goes
on slowly. Fruit resting upon the tiles also ripens more rapidly than
under ordinary conditions. On the other hand, however, in regions
where the sun has great power, fruit resting upon tiles is liable to
injury from scorching. Another objection to tiles is they afford
harbour for slugs, woodlice, and other insects. As a matter of course,
when tiles are used they should be removed as soon as the plants
have done fruiting so as to allow- the air free access to the soiL

389

Another mode of protecting the fruit from dirt is by the use of what
arc known as Strawberry vases. These vases are about twelve
indies in diameter, made of the same material as flower pots, and are
in shape like round dislies, as shown by the illustration. The fruit

Strawberrv Tilt

Strawberry Vase.

either rests upon tlie sides, or hangs over the edges, of these
receptacles, and, thei-efore, clear of the ground. It is also claimed in
favour of the Sti*a\vberry vase that its use ensures the plant the full
benefit of tlie rainfall from passing showers, and facilitates ordinary
waterings. Owing to their cost and the extra labour in using them,
neither tiles nor vases are likely to be largely used by those who
grow Strawberries for market. They are, however, worthy of
attention from amateurs and others who cultivate for their own
pleasure.

Picking,

StrawbeiTies should be gathered when perfectly dry, but not while
the fruit is heated by the sun. In the morning and evening are the
best times, generally speaking. The flavour of the fruit is strongest
in dry weather, and the slightest shower will effect it to some extent.
Tlie fine aroma peeuliai' to the Strawi)erry is not quite so evanescent
as that of the Raspberry, but it is by no means durable, and the
berries are in the highest state of perfection when freshly gathered.
The fruit being also very tender is easily injured by frequent
handlings or the pressure caused Avlien the berries are heaped in
masses. In order to obtain Strawberries in the highest state of
perfection, the fruit, as it is gathei*ed, should be placed in the
receptacles from which it has to be eaten. This is the practice with
growers in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, and has
been the rule for generations. There ought to be no great difficulty
in adopting a similar system in this part of the woild. When such a
pi'actice cannot l)e adopted conveniently the fruit should be handled
with the greatest care, and as few times as possible. The custom
prevalent in this part of the world of weighing or measuring the
fruit by retail dealers should not be tolerated on any account. It is

390

imposRible to follow sucli a practice witliout damaghig tlie beriics
more or less and spoiling their fiavoui*.

Profagatiox.

Propagation jnay be efl'eeted hy seed, runners, and division of the
])lants. Seed is seldom used, and only for raising new \-arieties,
except in the case of tlie Alpine section, which seldom produces
ranners, and is sometimes increased by this method. The seed
should be saved from the finest berries, and must be fully ripe wlien
gathered. The bei-ries should be squeezed by hand in water, and the
seeds, which are on the surface of the pulp, will, when detached from
the skin, sink to the bottom. After several washings, to remove as
much of the pulp as possible, the seeds should be sti'ained through a
cloth and dried. It should be sown in the autumn or spring in light
rich open soil, covering it about an-eighth of an incli deep. Tt is
better to soav in boxes, frames, or pots so that more care can be gi\ en
than in the open gi-ound. When the young plants have made foui*
leaves they should be transplanted about three inches apart into
small beds. The following season they will be ready for the ordinary
pUmtations. lliough seedlings are but seldom i-aised, it is probable
that growers inight iind it to their advantage to obtain plants in this
way occasionally. In some localities there are complaints of Straw-
berries failings though foi-merly they flourished, and it is possible
that seedlings, having greater vitality, might with advantage take
the places of the older varieties, whicli appear to have become
weakened in constitution. Young plants are so freely produced by
runners in the case of most of the varieties that nt) other method of
propagation is needed. Tlie best plants are those that ai-e first
formed on the runners, In the absence of runners, as in the erase of
the Alpine section, young plants are readily obtained by dividing tlie
old crowns.

Injuriocs Ixsfx'ts.

ApMcles. — IMiese insects are of ten troublesome to Strawberry ])lants,^
attacking tlie leaves, as also the roots when the surface soil is
sufficiently open to allow them to ^e\ into the ground. As they
appear in large numbers and feed upon the juices of the plants, they
are, consequently, a serious evil. Therefore, cultiAators should
promptly deal Avith this pest as soon as it makes its appearance.
I'^or further information as to Apliides and their remedies see page
77, volume 1.

Beetles. — Several kinds of true Beetles, both in their larval and
perfect state, prey upon Strawberry plants. These insects range in
size, accoi'ding to the species, from a quarter to three-quarters of aii
inch, in colour from grey to dark brown, and are provided with six legs.
Tlie larvop are yellowish-white, with broAvn heads, .and vary from
half-an-inch to an inch and a-half long, according to the species.

891

t^trawberrv Beetle.

These grubs attack and feed upon the roots, and oiLcii caiisc- ^'^•eat

havoc to tlie plants. The perfect Heetle feeds hotli upon tlic foliage

and roots, and is nocturnal in its hsibits, buryijig itself in tlu- soil in

tlie day time. Remedies: — 1. J^oosen the soil frequently so as to

give facilities for birds to find the grubs, to Avhich the inscctivoi-ous

kinds are very ])artial. Magpies and crows are xovy

fondof these grubs, as are also fowls. 2. The Beetles,

being nocturnal, may be tra})ped in lar-ge numbers

when active by means of floating lights placed in

dishes tilled with water. 8. When the insects arc

very numerous it will be advisable to destroy

affected plantations, and fresh ones should not hv

made in or near the same spots for a year or two.
Calerpillars. — Various species of Caterpillars arc

troublesome, and often cause serious damage to tin*

foliage and fruit. These insects are most numei-ous

in the early part of the summer, though they often

make their ap])earance in spring and autumn.

Some kinds are known as '' Leaf-rollers," because

in feeding they fold up the leaves, tlie edges of wlncli they fasten

together with their fine silken threads. This peculiarity adds to the

difficulty of dealing with the insects, as remedies in tlie form of

powders or liquids do not readily reach them. Eemedies: — Lime,

soot, or hnely-powdered earth dusted o^er the plants frequently.
Crown liorer. — This insect [Tylodei^ma fragaria) is

a small Beetle belonging to the Curculio family.

It is brown, about an-eighth of an inch in length,

and half that in breadth, the I)ack being covered

with numei-ous dark stripes and spots. The grubs

of this insect bore into the crowais of the plants, as

their name indicates, and destroy both leaves and

flower stalks. There is no absolute remedy foj-
these pests, though they may be kept in check to
some extent by dusting the crowns of the plants
\Vith lime or soot occasional!}'. When n plantation
is affected by this ])est the wisest plan is to desti-oy
it as soon as the crop is removed, as then the bulk
of the gi'ubs is still in the crowns of the plants.

Strawherrif Beetle. — This is a very destructive insect in Strawberry
l)lantations, and is found in many parts of Australasia. The Beetle
is small, of a di-ab colour, witli black and Avhite markings, belonging
to the Weevil family, and is known scientificalh' as Rhvnarta perdrix.
The larvae are yellowish-wdiite in colour, and slightly lai'ger than the
one shown by the illustration in the crown of a plant. Both in the
larva and perfect state this insect is very injurious to Strawberry-
plants, and it also preys upon Raspberries, thougli to a less extent.
In its larva state the insect bores into the crow^ns of the plants and
causes their destruction. The perfect insects feed upon the stalks of
both leaves and flowers, in which they make channels, as shown by
the illustration. Tlie Beetles make their appearance in the early

Strawberry
Crown Borer.

392

part of the summer, and immediately begin to propag'ate ; consequently,
a few weeks afterwards the larva^ come upon the scene and commence
the work of their lives. The Beetles having wings can readily travel
considerable distances, and, consequently, when they make their
appearance, often spread rapidly over a wide area. Remedies: — I.

Australian Stkawjikkry Beetle.

Perfect Insect (Natural Size).

Perfect Insect (Magnified).

LarvH (Mrtgniticd).

Showing I.arva at work in the
Crown of the Plant.

Pupa (Magnified).

Showing how the
Perfect Insect eats
furrows in the Leaf
Stalk.

When the larvae are numei'ous and many plants atlected, it will be
advisable to root up the latter and destroy them. 2. Dust the beds
with quicklime occasionally as a preventative, and also after the
insects make their appearance. 3. Water with liluestone and
Ammonia or Bordeaux Mixtui-e, but not while the fi-uit is forming,

393

as both these remedies are poisonous. 4. Water with a solntion of
Tobacco, Elder Leaves, or Walnut Leaves. Full particulars as to
the i)reparation of these remedies will be found at pages 99 to 102,

volume 1.

Weevil. The Strawberry Weevil {Otiorynchus sulcatiis) is a small

wingless insect belonging to the ('urculio famil3\ In colour it is
jiearly black, its length is about.a-third of an inch, and it is provided
with six legs. The larvae ai-e creams-white, hairy, without legs, an4
jibout a-third of an inch in length. They feed upon the roots and
leaves, both in their larval and perfect state, and often cause a
considerable amount of injury. This insect does not confine itself to

Strawberry Weevil.

^

Larva (Natural Size). Larva (MH<:nifie(l). Perfect Insect

(Twice its Natural Size),

the Strawberry, but also affects the Raspberry and other plants,
though not to the same extent. Another species, commonly known
as the Red Legged Weevil {Otiori/itrhus tmehricosus)^ is another species
of similar habits, and equally destiuctive to Strawberry plantations.
It is the same size, shining black in colour, with red legs. The
larvae is similar to that of the first-named species. Various other
species of Weevil are also more or less troublesome to Strawdierry
cultivators. Remedies : — The same as recommended for the Rasp-
berry Beetle at page 367.

Various Other Insects. — Red Spider. Slnga, Snails, and Thrips nre all
more or less troublesome t«) Strawberry plants, and should be kept
under by all practicable means. For full particulars respecting the
pests and their i-emedies see special chapter upon Insects, page 77,
volume I.

Injurious Fungi.

Leaf Bliffht.— StvAwhevvy plants are often affected by a fungus that
tippears in the form of spots upon the leaves, and which sometimes
causes serious damage. The spots are at first small and dark brown
or purple in colour, but they increase in size afterwards, and assume a
lighter hue. The fungus gi'ows i'apidl\ , and in a few weeks either
destroys or seriously injures such leaves as it attacks. When the
plants are attacked early in the season the fungus also spreads to the
flowei* stalks, and by exhausting the juices either prevents the
bei-ries from forming oi* causes them to shrivel up and wither off

394

at an early stage. The fungus propagates rapidly, and the si>ores are
widely distributed by every putt' of wind. Remedies: — 1. As soon as
the fungus is detected remove all the affected leaves carefullj and burn
them. In this way it is quite possible to get rid of the pest if it is dealt
with at an early stage. 2. When not very bad the fungus may be kept

Strawberry I.ea>' Blight.

Spores of Fungus
(Magnified HOO Times).

Affec;tcd J -eaves.

in check to a great extent by spraying the plants with either x\ninioniacal
Solution of Copper Carl)onate, Bordeaux Mixture, Eau Celeste, or
Sulphate of Iron. Directions for preparing and using these fungicides
will be found at page 98, volume 1. When plants are badly affecteJ it
will be advisable to remove and destroy tliem as soon as practicable .so as
to prevent the fungus from spreading.

Mildeiv.— Sometimes Strawberry j^lants are attacked by various forms
of Mildew, either upon the roots, leaves, or flower stems. The most
general cause is the want of drainage, but the result may be due to the
use of strong fresh manure. llemedy : — Water with a soluti».n of
Sulphate of Iron.

395

Hunt. — \'arious forms of linst affect StrawlxTrv j)laiits, .•uicl soinetiines
oausf serious injury l>otli to the f(»liage and fiiiit. The principal kind is
what is known as Strawberry Brand {Aregma <Mtu<atum), whicli is very
wndoly s}>read, and is in Euro[>c considered to be a very destructive
fuimus. This fungus generally does not make its appearance till the

Strawberry Br and.

Affected r.eaf. Spores of FuniriK (Greatly Magnified),

summer has well advanced ; consequently, the plants do not suffer till
after the fruiting period. It makes its appearance iu minute yellow
spots, and usually on the upper sides of the leaves. Remedies: — 1.
Sulphate of Iron. 2. Bordeaux Mixture. 3. Bluestone and Ammonia.
4. Bluestone and Sodium Carbonate. Each remedy should be applied as
a si-rny, and whatever one is chosen (mght to be used thioughout. Full
directions as to the preparation and use of these i-emedies will be found
on pages 99 and 102, volume 1. Other species of Bust fungi sometimes
attack Strawberry plants, and all require the same treatment. When,
however, plants are badly attacked, it will be advisable to remove the
leaves and destroy them by burning.

Varieties,

riiere are a great number of varieties of Strawberries in cultivation,
but growers, either for market or private use, will find a limited number
will give more satisfactory results than a larger one. The following list
enjbraces the most popular varieties, and among them are to be found all
the desiraVile qualities to be found in Strawberries : —

Adutiral Dnndas, — An excellent English variety with large roundish-
conical fruit, irregular, and often angular. Skin pale scarlet. Flesh
juicy, with a brisk rich flavour.

Ajax.—Xw English variety of vigorous habit with large roundish
irregular fruit, often deeply furrowed. Skin dull brick j-ed. Flesh
reddish, solid, juicy, and briskly flavoured. Blant hardy and vigorous.

lilack Prince {litaclc Imperial., Aherdeei) Sfnil'/'ff). — An old and
popular English variety which ripens very early, and is largely used for

896

Black Prince

Admiral Dundas.

Boule d'Or.

Caj)tain.

British Queen.

Carolina Superba

897

Compte de Paris

Cockscomb.

Deptford Pine.

Dr. Hog^

l^reserving in the United Kingdom. Fruit small, obovate, a purple-red
in cokmr, and po^>sessing a brisk* sub-acid fiavouv. Plant vigorous and a
very heavy bearer.

Boule (/'Or. — x\ French variety with large roundish much -flattened
fruit. Skin bright orange scarlet. Flesh white, juicy, and richly
flavoured.

liri'tish Queen. — An English variety which lias been very popular in
Gr^eat Britain for a great many years ovviiig to the high quality of its fruit,
which has an exquisite flavour. In Australasia, however, it does not
tlirive as a rule, and rarely bears well, so it is a variety that cannot be
recommended. Fruit large, cockscomb-shaped, and often flattened.
Flesh white, firm, and juicy.

898

Captain {The Ca^taiu). — A comparatively new English variety uitli
large ovate regular fruit, sometimes inclining to cockscomb, which ripens
early. Skin pale red. Flesh pale, firm, witli a brisk pleasant flavour.

Carolina Superha. — This is a well-known variety of English origin
with large fruit inclining tt) cockscomb shape. Fruit pale red. i'lesh
white, firm, possesses a very rich flavour, aiid ripens about mid-season.
Plant robust, but a somewhat uncertain bearer in this part of the world,
and cannot be depended upon.

Cockscomb. — A handsome and useful variety, raised in England, with
very large pale scarlet berries, mo.stly cockscomb-sliaped, and ripening at
mid-season. Flesh white, with a very hazy tinge, and richly flavoured.
Plant strong, hardy, and an excellent bearer.

Compte de Paris. — A useful variety of uncertain origin with large
scarlet obtuse heart-shaped ben-ies, which ripen at mid-season. Flesh
pale red, solid, with a brisk sub-acid flavour. Plant robust and bears
very freely.

heptfonl Fine. — This is an old English Strawberr}^ and for quality is
worthy of a place among the best of the newer varieties. Fruit large,
cockscomb-shaped, bright scarlet, and very glossy. Flesh firm, witii a
rich and slightly sub-acid flavour. Plant vigorous, but sometimes a shy
bearer.

Dr. J/ogg. — An English variety of repute with very large cockscomb
shaped fruit, which ripens a little after mid-season, 8kin pale red.
Flesh firm, juicy, sweet, with a very rich flavour. Plant robust, hardy,
and an abundant bearer.

Due de Malakojf.— Tliis is an excellent French variety with large
roundish or cock'^comb-shaped berries, which ripen at mid-season. Skin
deep red. Flesh pale red, sweet, and liighly flavoured. Plant strong
and bears freely.

Due de Malakott".

Duke of Kdinburcrb.

399

Eclipse.

Eleanor.

Edith.

Elton.

Filbert Pine.

Duke of ' Edinburgh. — A fine English variety, a cross between Elton
Fine and KeerHs Seedling. Fruit large, conical, sometimes inclining to
cockscomb, and in colour dark crimson. Flesh firm, juicy, with a rich
brisk flavour.

Edith. — An excellent and very popuhir variety raised at Malvern, a
suburb of Melbourne. The fruit is large, well coloured, and has a rich
and pleasant slightly sub-acid flavour. Plant strong, very hardy, and
prolific, and can always be depended upon for a crop. It can be grown
successfully in most soils and situations, and comes in very early, the
fruit of this variety being generally first in the market.

Eclipse. — A good English variety with conical or cockscomb-shaped
fruit somewhat above the medium size. Skin bright glossy red and

400

\ shining. Flesh white, firm, rich, with a highly aromatic flavour. Plant
^ robust and a great bearer,

Ele<mor (Cri/stnl Palace). — This is an English variety with very
large regular conical fruit, which ripens about mid-season. Skin deep
crimson. Flesh firm, reddish, juicy, slightly sub-acid, and a little of the
]>ine flavour. Plant hardy, very strong in growth, and a fairly good
bearer.

Elton (Elfon Pine). — An old but good English variety which ripens
I very late. Fruit large, ovate, sometimes cockscomb-shaped. Skin bright

and

shining.

Flesh reddish, firm, with a pleasant sub-acid

crimson

flavour. Plant vigorous and an excellent bearer.

Filbei't Pine {MyaWs iieedli)iq). — An excellent late English variety
with berries rather above medium size, conical, and occasionally cockscomb-
shaped. Skin dull purplish-red. Flesh white to pale pink, firm, rich,
and briskly flavoured, with a fine aroma. Plant vigorous, hardy, and
very prolific. This kind has also the reputation of being suitable for
very light soils where some of the other varieties will not thrive.

Frogmore Late Pine. — Another excellent late English variety with
large conical or cockscomb-shaped fruit. Skin dark red and very glossy.
Flesh red, tender, very juicy, and highly flavoured, having a rich pine
aroma. Plant strong and prolific.

Goliath {Kitlei/s). — An English variety with very large irregular often
cockscomb-shaped berries, which ripen at mid-season. Skin deep red
throughout. Flesh white, solid, with a rich brisk high flavour. Plant
hardy, very vigorous, and bears profusely.

Hoveifs Seedling {Germantown, Young's Seedling). — An American
variety which has a high reputation in the United States, but has never
become popular in Great Britain or Australia. Probably, if tried, it

Frogmore Late Pine.

Goliath.

401

might prove a serviceable sort in some localities. Fruit very large,
roundish-oval or conical, and ripens at mid-season. Skin deep scarlet and
very glossy. Flesh firm, juicy, sweet, with a rich agreeable flavour.
Plant very hardy, vigorous, and productive.

James Veitch. — A fine P]nglish variety which ripens medium early.
Fruit large, roundish, and in colour bright red. Flesh firm, pale, very
juicy, and well flavoured. Plant robust and a good bearer.

Hovey's feeedling.

James Veitch.

John Powell.

Jucunda.

John Potvell. — This is a first-class variety of English origin with large
long ovate berries, which ripen at mid-season. Skin bright deep red and
very glossy. Flesh white, very firm, sugary, juicy, with a rich pine
flavour. Plant vigorous and usually a free bearer, but it is sometimes
rather shy.

402

Jaciinda. — A very good European variety of uncertain origin. Fruit
large, conical, and ranging in colour from bright crimson to dark red.
Flesh firm, juicy, and richly flavoured.

Keen's Seedling,— A. very old, popular, and excellent English variety
which is generally cultivated in the United Kingdom. It does not,
however, thrive in this part of the world, and is a very shy bearer.
Fruit large, roundish, sometimes cockscomb-shaped, which ripens medium
early. Skin dark bright red and glossy. Flesh red, firm, juicy, brisk,
and has a pleasant sub-acid flavour. Plant vigorous, and in Great
l^ritain is regarded as (uie of the most productive and regular bearing
Strawberries.

Keen's Seedling.

La Chalonnaise.

La Constante.

La Chdhnnaise. — A French variety with large conical berries which
ripen at mid-season. Skin bright pale red. Flesh white, juicy sweet,
with a rich flavour. Plant strong, hardy, and prolific.

La Constante. — Another French variety with a high European reputa-
tion, which it does not maintain in this part of the world. Fruit large,
conical, regular in form, and ripens medium early. Skin deep bright red.
Flesh white, with a red tinge, firm, juicy, and richly flavoured. Plant
moderately vigorous, and has the character of a free bearer in England,
but in this colony it is somewhat shy.

La Beine. — This is another French variety with a high European
reputation that does not maintain its character in this part of the world.
According to Dr. Hogg, the fruit is large, conical, or wedge-shaped.
Skin of a pale flesh colour. Flesh juicy, sweet, and highly flavoured.
Plant vigorous and prolific. In Victoria the plant is a shy bearer, and
the fruit inferior to many other varieties.

Mammoth — An English variety with immensely large flattened
irregularly-shaped berries, which ripen at mid-season. Skin deep red and
very glossy. Flesh red, firm, solid, and has a brisk pleasant flavour.
Plant moderately robust and sometimes a shy bearer.

4.03

La Heine.

Noble.

Myatt's Pro] i tic.

404

Al<(rguerite {La Margnerite). — A well-known and popular variety of
French origin with very large conical or cockscoiub-.shaped fruit, which
ripens very early. Skin bright shining red. Flesh white, tinged with
pink, firm, moderately juicy, and sweet, but lacking a high flavour.
Plant robust, hardy, and bears freely. This is a favourite kind in
Australia on account of its earliness, as also because the fruit being firm
carries well to market.

Ma9/ Queen, — A very early English variety with rather small roundish
fruit. Skin yellowish-red. Flesh white, juicy, and very pleasantly
flavoured. Plant moderately strong and a very free bearer. The onl}'
recommendation this Strawberry has is its extreme earliness.

Myatt's FroUfic {Wonderful). — A first-class English variety with very
large conical, ranging to cockscomb, fruit, which is often fingered. Skin
pale red. Flesh white, juicy, sweet, with a rich aromatic flavour.

NohJe. — A recently introduced English variety that is valuable for its
earliness. Fruit large, roundish. Flesh firm, juicy, with a brisk flavour,
l^lant strong and bears profusely.

Omar Pacha {Myatt's Eliza, Rival Queen). — A first-class English
variety with medium-sized oval dark red berries, which ripen at mid-
season. Flesh reddish-white, firm, solid, very juicy, and highly flavoured.
Plant robust and productive.

Oscar. — An early English variety with large angular fruit, which is
sometimes flattened or wedge-shaped. Skin dark shining red. Flesh
reddish, firm, solid, juicy, and richly flavoured. Plant strong and an
abundant bearer.

Uscai-

Pioneer.

Fioneer. — An English variety with medium-sized fruit varying from
conical to obovate. Skin a very dark red. Flesh reddish, firm, juicy^
with a brisk flavour. Plant strong, very prolific, and as early as
Marguerite.

-ior)

Premier.

President.

Prince Arthur.

Princess Pi.oyal.

Princess of Wales.

Premi€7' (British Queen Seedling). — This is a rather popular English
variety with large riniiidish-ovate berries, which ripen at mid-season.
Skin bright red and very glossy. Flesh white, firm, juicy, and highly
flavoured. Plant robust, but in this part of the world has sometimes
proved a shy bearer.

President. — A hardy robust variety of uncertain origin that has been
found well suited for heavy soils. Fniit large, roundish-conical, and in
colour a deep red. Flesh reddish, solid, juicy, with a rich luscious
flavour. Plant vigorous, hardy, and generally a free bearer.

Prince Arthur (Ingram's). — A very prolific English variety of excellent
quality. Fruit medium-sized, conical, and in colour a bright crimson.
Flesh white, solid, very juicy, with a brisk rich pine flavour.

Princess Royal (CuthilVs). — An excellent English variety with medium-

40G

sized roundish-ovate berries, \^]iich ripen at mid-season. Skin from deei>
to pale red. Flesh white, with a deep red tinge, verj^ rich, and highly
flavoured. Plant strong and an abundant bearer.

Princess of W<(/es [Knighfs). — This is an excelJent very early English
variety which ripens its fruit about the same time as the May Queen, to
which it is greatly superior both in size and quality. Fruit large,
cockscomb-shaped, and corrugated. Skin deep red throughout. Flcvsh
tinged with red. tender, juicy, and has a rich pine flavour. Plant
vigorous and prolific.

Hiffeman. — A fine English vnriety with large ovate or cockscomb-shaped
fruit, which ripens at mid-season. Skin bright salmon-red. Flesh white,
solid, firm, juicy, and richly flavoured. Plant vigorous and an abundant
bearer under favourable conditions. Has proved better adapted for the
cooler districts than around Melbourne.

Rifleman.

Koyal Sovereign.

Sharpless.

Sir Charles Napier.

407

Sir Harrv.

Sir Joseph Paxton

Triomphe dc GaTul.

Trollope's Victoria.

Hoyal Sovereign. — A recently introduced English variety belonging to
the British Queen section. Fruit very l«irge, oblong, conical, colour a
bright glossy scarlet, and ripens early. Flesh firm, juicy, with a rich
flavour similar to. that of the British Qmen. Plant strong and very
prolific.

Sharpless. — An American variety that is popidar in the United States.
Fruit large to very large, irregular, roundish-conical, and often cockscomb-
shaped. Flesh pink, firm, sweet, with a rich aromatic flavour. Plant
hardy, vigorous, and very prolific.

408

Sir Charlef N^dpier. — An English variety with large ovate flattened or
wedge-shaped berries, which ripen early in the season. ISkin pale or
bright scarlet and very glossy. Flesh, white, firm, solid, sub-acid,
pleasant, but not high flavoured. Plant somewhat tender in habit, but a
fairly good bearer.

Sir Hari'ii. — A. very hite and useful English variety, a cross between
British Qneen and Keen's Seedling, and a standard market Strawberry in
Great Britain. It does not, however, do so well in Australia, except
in the copier districts where it flourishes. Berries large, cockscomb-
shaped. Skin deep purplish-red. Flesh red, tender, juicy, and highly
flavoured. Plant robust and a free bearer when growing in congenial
l(;)calities.

Sir Jost;ph Buxton. — This is an excellent early English variety with
large roundish berries. Skin bright glossy red. Flesh pale red, firm,
rich, and highly flavoured. Plant strong and productive.

Triomphe de Gaud. — A Belgian variety of high quality with very large
roundish flattened, and often cockscomb, fruit. Colour bright crimson.
Flesh firm, juicy, witli a sweet rich, flavour. Plant hardy, vigorous, and
productive.

Vicomtesse Hei.ricart de Thurj.

Vineuse de Nantes.

TroUopes Victoria ( Victoria). — An English variety of great excellence,
and one of the best Sti'awberries for most parts of Austialasia. Fruit large,
roundish-ovate, and legularin outline. Skin dee]> bright red. Flesh pale
red, tender, juicy, with a pleasant slightly sub-acid flavour Plant vigorous,
and in this part of the world bears more freely and regidarly than any
other variety. As a bearer it can always be depended upon more than
any other kind, and it will adapt itself well to various soils and climates.
It ripens early, and comes in immediately after Edith and La Marguerite.

Vicomtesse Henrictrf h Thurt/ (Duchess de Trhilse, Garibaldi). — A
French variety with a high reputation in Europe, but shows a falling off in
character when grown in Australasia. Fruit above medium size, roundish-

409

conical. Skin dee[) red. Flesli pale red throughout, firm, solid, sweet,
brisk, and richly flavoured. Plant fairly vigorous and a very abundant
bearer.

Vineuse de X((iites. — An excellent Belgian variety with medium to
lar^'e flattened fruit. Colour rich glossy crimson. Flesh reddish, solid,
and sweet, with a peculiarly rich vinous flavour.

ALPINE STRAWBERRIES.

This class shoidd receive more atttention, as although the fruit will not
compare with the common Strawberries in size (h- high flavour, yet, as it
is produced in succession for several months in the year, it can often be
utilized to advantage, and more especially by private growers who
cultivate for pleasure. One ,sc(-tion, the Bush Alpines, is also serviceable

Plant oj- Dush Alpine. Fruit of Busli Alpine.

for edgings, as the plants do not form runners, and, therefore, do not
make straggling growth. The propagation of this section is generally
effected by division of the plants, but some growers prefer to raise them
from seeds. The following list embraces the principal varieties : —

Br>me de Gilbert — A French variety with reddish -brow^n fruit some-
what larger than that of the other sorts. Plant strong, prolific, and an
abundant bearer.

GaJland. — Another French variety with dark red medium-sized fruit.
Plant hardy and prolific.

Red Alpine {lied Moiithl(/). — This is the common Alpine. Fruit
small, red, conical in shape, and is produced for several months in cool
and moderately moist h)calities. Plant hardy and strong.

Bed Bush Alpine {Moiithlj/ Hush Alpine). — This variety makes its
growth in compact tufts, or bunches, and has no runners but the fruit
in size, shape, colour, and flavour is similar to that of the common Red
Alpine.

410

Triompke de Holland. — A Dutch variety which is considered to be a
great improvement upon others belontcing to the chiss. Fruit large for
its cLass, roundish-conical in shape, and in colour a bright red. Flesh
juicy, sweet, with a rich aromatic flavour. Plant vigorous, compact in
growth, and very productive.

Brune de Gilbert. Triomi)Le de Hollande.

White Alpine (White Monthly). — This variety is in growth and all*
other respects similar to the Red Alpine except in the colour of the fruit,
which is greenish-white.

White Bush Alpine (White Monthbj Jinsh Alpine). — Precisely similar
in every respect to the Red Bush Alpine with the exception that it has
greenish- white fruit.

WOOD STRAWBERRIES.

These are the Wild Strawberries of Europe, which are found growing
in the woodlands of many countries. They bear in abundance small
round delicately-flavoured berries, which are similai- in appearance to
those of the Alpine section with the exception that they are rounder.

There are two varieties known respectively as the Bed Wood, and White
Wood, the only difference between them being the colour of the fruit, as
their names imply.

HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRIES.

This class of Strawberries has (piite a distinct flavour from the other
class, the varieties are limited in number, and most of these are shy
bearers. The following list comprises the best sorts : —

Belle de Hordelaise. — -A French variety with large ovate deep crimson
berries. Flesh firm and rich Plant very vigorous and productive.

Prolific (Conical, Double-hearing^ Musk Ilautbols) — This variety has
large dark purple berries. Flesh firm, juicy, sweet, with a musky flavour.
Plant strong and prolific.

411

r>olIe de Bordelaise,

Prolific.

Roval Hautbois.

Uoyal Ilanthois. — One of the best varieties in its class. Fruit large,
roundish-conical, and in colour dark crimson. Flesh whitish, tender,
sweet, and highly fiavctured- Plant vigorous and a free bearer.

CHILIAN STRAWBERRIES.

This is another distinct class comprising several varieties, the priiicij>al
being as follows : —

lied Chilian [FrencK). — This variety has large conical pale dull red
berries. Flesh very firm, hollow cored, with a sweet flavour. Ripens
]<-ite.

fVilmot's Superh. — An Enylisli variety with large showy roundish or
cockscomb-shaped berries of a deep pink colour. Flesh firm, hollow-
cored, and has a fairly good flavour. Ripens at mid-season. Plant
>troiiu^ and a medium bearer.

Red Chilian.

Wiliiiofc's Siiperl).

White Chilian.

41-2

White Chilian {Yellow Chilian). — A variety with very large showy
roundish or irregular berries of a yellowish-white colour, with a pink
cheek. Flesh firm, sweet, and pleasantly fiavoured. Plant hardy, strong,
and fairly productive. This variety is grown in some parts of Australia
as the Hautbois, and its flavour is liked by many. It is also a favourite
market variety in some places because it packs and carries w^ell.

STRAWBERRY TREE.

This name has been given to Arbtitus nnedo, a small evergreen tree
belonging to the order Ericacej^, or Heath family, because its fruit is
supposed to resemble in appearance that of the Strawberry. The tree is
also known as the Winter Strawberry because its fruit is produced in the
winter. It is indigenous to the south of Europe, and is common in a wild
state about the Lakes of Killarney in Ireland. The generic name comes
from the Celtic arhoise (signifying austere or rough), in allusion to the
quality of the fruit, it being vastly inferior to the Strawberry, which it is
supposed to resemble. It is, however, not unpalatable, and has a some-

Strawberrv Tree.

418

what agreeable acid flavour. When eaten in any quantity the fruit is
said to produce narcotic effects. In Corsica the juice of the fruit is
converted into wine, which is a fairly palatable beverage, but if drank in
excess has powerful narcotic effects. From the wine by distillation a
strong spirit is obtained. The Strawberry Tree is a very handsome
evergreen with bright glossy foliage and beautiful pearl white flowers,
which are produced in the early winter months, and last for a considerable
time. The fruit is also handsome, being about the size of Cherries, and
in colour from bright yellow to orange and deep red. It will hang for a
considerable time, and adds greatly to the beauty of the trees during the
winter months. There are numerous varieties which differ somewhat in
the size and form of the leaves, as also in colour, some having pink
flowers. They are all very desirable ornamental plants, and should be
generally planted in shrubberies. They will thrive in any ordinary good
soil, and more especially a sandy loam, and will adapt themselves to a
great variety of climate from the coldest to medium warm regions.
Propagation may be eftected by seeds, which should be covered half an
inch deep. Plants are easily and quickly obtained from layers, and
cuttings of the ripened wood of the current season's growth will strike in
sand in a frame or under a glass.

TAHITI APPLE.

This name has been applied to the fruit of Spondias dulcis, a noble
evergreen tree which attains a height of fifty or sixty feet. It is
indigenous to various parts of Polynesia, and belongs to the natural order
Anacardiaceiv. The fruit is also known as the Vi, or Wi, Apple. The
trees bear freely, and the fruit, which often weighs a pound or over, has
an agreeable flavour somewhat similar to an Apple. In its native regions
it is highly appreciated as an eating fruit, and makes an excellent presers-e.
The Tahiti Apple may be cultivated successfully from tropical to medium
warm regions that are not too dry. It rec[uires a rich soil, shelter and a
moderately moist climate. Propagation is easily effected by seeds, which
should be planted two inches deep. Cuttings of the ripened wood strike
freely in sand under shelter, and plants may be readily obtained from
layers when they are available.

TAHITI GOOSEBERRY.

The fruit known under this name is the product of Ci'cca disticha
{rhf/llanthus Ci'cca], a small evergreen tree with light green feathery
foliage, belonging to the order Euphorbiaceie. The common name is a
curiously inapt one, as the fruit does not in any respect resemble a
Gooseberry, and neither is the plant a native of Tahiti. It is indigenous
to India and other warm regions in Asia, and usually bears two crops in
the year. The flowers are green, and the fruit is round, ribbed, and

414

flattened, .soiiie>\liat like a large thick button, with a liard seed in the
centre. When ripe it is a waxen white in colour, and has a sharp acid
and somewhat austere flavour. It is not palatable when eaten raw, but is
excellent for tarts and puddings, makes a pleasant jam and a tasty pickle.
Medicinally the seeds are cathartic and the root purgative. This tree may
be grown successfully in medium warm to tropical regions, and will
thrive in any fairly good soil. As it has handsome graceful foliage it is
worthy of cultivation as an ornamental plant in congenial localities.
Plants are readily obtained from seeds, which should be covered an inch
deep. Layering is another ready means for propagating, and strong
cuttings strike freely in sand if i)rotected froni the weather.

TAMARIND.

History and Uses.

The Tamarind is a large handsome evergreen tree which, under
favourable conditions, attains a height of seventy to eighty feet, and has
widely spreading branches. Jt belongs to the natural order Leguminoseae,
and is indigenous to various parts of tropical Asia and Africa as far north
as Egypt. The Tamarind was also foujid by l^aron von Mueller growing
in north Western Australia, and a closely-allied species, if not identical,
is indigenous to the West Indies. Botanically it is known as Tamarindus
Indica, the generic name being derived from Tamar (the Arabic name for
the Date Palm) and Indus (Indian), and, therefore, means Indian Date.
The West Indian species is known as Taiwirmdns occidentaUs, and it
differs but slightly, if at all, from the tirst-named kind. The foliage of
the Tamarind is bright green, each leaf being furnished with a dozen pairs
or more of small leaflets, and the trees aftbrd a dense shade which is very
agreeable in a warm climate. The flowers, when they make their
appearance, are white or nearly so, but afterwards they change to pale
yellow. The fruit is pro<luced in the form of flat pods, which vary in
length from three to six inches and are more or less curved. There are
several varieties which difl'er, though not to any great extent, in the size
of the pods and the colour and acidity of the pulp. The pods consist of
shells enclosing an acidulous pulp, varying in colour from light brown to
reddish, in which from four to a dozen seeds are embedded. In countries
where the Tamarind is indigenous or cultivated, the fruit is used in
various ways, and is very popular. Et is extensively used in cookery, and
more especially in making curry, and also in the preservation of fish. A
refreshing drink is made by pouring boiling water over the fruit, and
this beverage is used medicinally as a laxative and a cooling draught in
cases of fever. The fruit is preserved either with or without sugar, and
exported in casks or jars. For medicinal purpt)ses, for which the
Tamarind is used extensively, the pulp is better when prepared without
sugar. The medicinal and other useful qualities are due to the presence
of butyric, citric, formic, and tartaric acids in the pulp. Another mode

415

of preserving the fruit is by drying with sugar and packing like Dates or
Fig?,, or in small bundles. The wood of the Tamarind is heavy, hard,
firm, and durable. It affords excellent timber for building and other
purposes, and also makes a superior charcoal.

Tamarind.

CULTIVATIOX AND PROPAGATION.

The Tamarind being indigenous to warm regions can only be grown
successfully in tropical or semi-tropical parts of Australasia, or in
localities further south where the climatic conditions may be favourable.
It is only in warm humid regions that the Tamarind will flourish, and it
is a tree well suited for the coast regions of Queensland, northern river
districts of New South Wales, many parts of North Australia, the north-
west portion of West Australia, and will thrive to perfection in all the
warmer islands of Polynesia. Wlienever the climatic conditions are

416

favourable the Tamarind may be profitably ctiltivated for its fruit. It is
also a handsome ornamental tree, and in troincal regions is admirably
adapted for street planting, as it affords a dense shade. The Tamarind
will grow in any ordinary good soil, but thrives best in a rich deep sandy
loam with perfect drainage. Propagation i>; most generally effected by
seeds, which should be planted an inch and a-half deep. Being very
hard, the seeds are often slow in germinating, and previous to sowing it
is advisable to pour boiling water over them and let them soak for about
three days. Germination may also be accelerated by sowing in a hot-bed.
Cuttings strike freely in sand if placed in a frame or under a glass, and
plants may be readily obtained from layers when low trees are available
to furnish them.

VELVET TAMARIND.

This nam.e has been given to Codarinni acutifolixm, a small evergreen
tree attaining a height of about twenty feet indigenous to West Africa
and belonging to the order Leguminosete. It has pale red fit)\vers and
small pods somewhat similar in size and form to a Filbert Nut, which are
covered with a beautiful black velvet-like down — hence the common
name. They contain an agreeable acid pulp, which is used by the negroes
for food and also to make a refreshing drink. It possesses to some extent
similar properties to the ordinary Tamarind, and may be used for the
same purposes. Coming from a warm climate this tree can only be
grown successfully in tropical regions in Australia. For cultivation and
propagation the directions given for the Tamarind will apply in every
respect.

TELFAIRIA.

Telfairid peclato (Jollijffa africana) is a strong-growing perennial
evero-reen twiner whose shoots, under favourable conditions, will extend
far and cover a considerable amount of space. It bears in great profusion
beautiful lilac fringed flowers, and by European gardeners is held in high
repute as an ornamental plant. It is a native of West Africa, and belongs
to the order Cucurbitacete, or the Cucumber family. The fruit is
generally a great size, often attaining a weignt of fifty or sixty pounds,
and is somewhat similar in api)earance to a large long Water Melon.
Each fruit contains a great number of seeds as large as Chestnuts, which
under pressure yield a considerable proportion of excellent oil. The
seeds are also boiled and used as a vegetable- The large fleshy roots are
also sometimes cooked and used as a vegetable. Both fruit and roots
make excellent food for pigs, and in congenial localities the plant might
prove worthy of cultivation for that purpose solely. The Telfairia may
be grown successfully from tro[>ical to warm temperate regions, and will
thrive in deep rich soils. It bears freely, and yields a large bulk from a

417

small area. To grow it in perfection the sii[)port of a trellis or fence is
required, but it may be allowed to trail over the ground like a Pumpkin.
Plants are very easily obtained from seed, \\-hich should be sown in the
spring and covered an inch deep. If necessary, however, plailts may be
readily obtained from cuttings, which strike freely in sand in a frame or
under a glass. While the plants are making their growth it will be
advisable to pincli back the shoots at the points two or three times to
induce the formation of lateral bi-anclies and to cover the space to the
best advantage. In all other respects the same treatment is required su^
recommended for Gourds at page 22.

TEN CORNER.

This is a familiar local name around Sydney for the fruit of Stemoithera
pinifolia, a pretty native small shrub belonging to Eitacridaceje, or
Epacris, famil3^ It is indigenous to sandy soils near the coast in East
Australia, and its handsome rosy crimson flowers are familiar in localities
near to Sydney. The fruit is small, oval, and consists of a comparatively
large seed with a thin covering of gelatinous flesh, the calyx having
numerous angles — hence the name. As a fruit it is but of small value,
though children around Sydney, and other localities where it grows, are
partial to it. For ornamental planting this shrub is very effective, and is
well suited for light sandy soils. It also is well adapted for pot cultivation-
Care must be taken, howevei-, in cultivation, as with many of our native
plants, not to use stimulating manures. Propagation may be readily
effected by seeds, which should be covered to the depth of about three-
quarters of an inch. Plants may also l»e easily obtained from layers, and
ripened cuttings of the current season's growth will strike in sand under a
U'lass 01- in a frame.

TOMATO.

History,

Tomatos, of which there are several species, are mostly annual plants,
belonging to the natural order Sidunacea, or the Solanmn family.
Botanically they are known under the name of Lt/copersicon, which is
derived from Lt/kos (a wolf) and Persicon (a Peach), in allusion to the
fruit being deceptive and not possessing so rich a flavour as its handsome
appearance would lead peoi)le to expect. Tomato is the South American
Indian name, under which the fruit was introduced to Europe by the
Spaniards. Formerly they were most generally known in England a,s
Love Apples, but the origin of this name is unknown.

With a few exceptions the species that yield edible Tomatos are natives
of Mexico or South America. The oldest, best-known, and most
generally used species is Li/coperdcon esculeiiium {Solanicm Lijcox>erdr.u7ri)y

2z"

418

which was taken to l^uro{)e by the .Spaniards about tJie middle of the
sixteenth century. Tliough introduced to Spain the fruit came into
general use first in Italy, and Prance was the next country where it
became popular. It was taken to England in 1590, but for many years
after its introduction it was grown only as a curiosity. For a very long
period the belief was common thcit the plant possessed deleterious
properties on account of belonging to the same natural order as the Deadly
Nightshade and other highly poisonous plants, and, consequently, there
was a strong prejudice against it. After a time, however, this prejudice
gradually wore away, and the fruit began to be appreciated, but the
Tomato has only become really poi)ular in the United Kingdom within
the last half-century. When Tomatos first began to find favour in
England they were prepared for table, according to Gerard, in the
following way : — " The fruit was cut through the middle so as to make
two equal parts, to[>s and bottoms. These were then broiled over a brisk
fire for a few minutes with the cut part upperuKjst to keep the juice in,
adding pepper and butter to taste." Gerard further tells us in his quaint
style "that when prepared in this manner they form a dainty dish fit for
a queen."

Uses.

Tomatos are now very generally and extensively used in a variety of
ways, and more especially in warm climates. In the south of Europe
they are very popular, particnl-irly in Italy, while in France their use is
general. In the United States tlie fruit is extensively used in various
ways, and in the Australasian colonies it is in great demand. Medicinally
Tomatos are considered to be very wholesome, and their use beneficial in
various complaints. They are said to be a substitute for calomel when
that drug cannot be used without injury to the constitution. Their use
in any shape is considered as an aid to digestion, and more esjjecially
when rich meats have been eaten. It was customary formerly at the
cannibal feasts in Fiji and other South Sea Islands for the n.atives to eat
an indigenous species {Lt/copersicon avthropophagoruTn) to assist the
digestion of the large quantity of human flesh that they consumed on
these occasions. The foliage of the Tomato, as also that of several other
kinds of Solanum, is obnoxious to some forms of insect life, and an
infusion of the leaves used as a spray is a good remedy for Aphides and
other soft-bodied pests. When planted near fruit trees the Tomato is also
supposed to keep away various insects.

Tomatos can be utilized in a great variety of ways, and either when
ripe or in a green state. The ripe fruit is extensively used when raw,
eaten plain with or without meat, or mixed in salads. When fried or
baked with meat they are very palatable, and are extensively used for
flavouring sauces, soups, and gravies. An excellent and popular sauce is
made from Tomatos, and also a very tasty and relishing catsup. They
enter largely into the composition of the East Indian Chutnej'-, and can
be converted into an excellent jam. The fruit is also sometimes dried
with sugar to imitate Figs, and a very palatable wine can be made from

419

it. In its green state the fruit is often usee! for tarts or puddings, being
flavoured with lemon or tartaric acid. The small green fruit also makes
an excellent pickle by pouring boiling vinegar over it.

Tomato Sauce. — There are various methods for making this sauce, but
the following one can be commended : — Bake the fruit gently till it
becomes soft, when the skins should be removed and the pulp rubbed
through a fiair sieve or coarse open cloth. To every quart of pulp add an
ounce of garlic and the same quantity of shallots, both chopped very line,
with half-a-pint of vinegar. Boil well for about three hours and let^irt-
«tand till cold, when the sauce should be bottled, leaving out the corks
for two or three days, after which time the bottles must be securely
closed. Cayenne pepper, Chili vinegar, grated ginger or nutmeg, cloves,
Allspice, mace, peppercorns, <kc. may be used for flavouring, according 'to
taste, before the pulp is boiled.

Tomato Chntnei/. — This can be made in the following manner : — To
twelve pounds of fruit add one pound of salt, two pounds of coarse sugar,
one ounce of Cayenne pepper, half-a-pound of garlic, the same quantity of
mustard, one pound of raisins, and spices according to taste. In the first
place, the fruit must be strained to separate the skins and seeds before
the other ingredients are added. It is also necessary that the garlic and
raisins should be chopped very fine. Add one quart of vinegar, and then
boil for three or four hours. When cool it should be bottled as
recommended for sauce.

Tomato Jam.. — This is an excellent conserve when carefully made, and
spare fruit can always be turned to good account for this jDurpose. The
following will be found a good way of making it : — Boil the fruit after
the skins have been removed for about an hour over a slow fire, and then
pour off as much of the watery juice as can be separated. Then for every
pound of fruit add an equal weight of white sugar, and for every three
pounds the juice and peel of a good sized Lemon, the latter being cut into
small pieces. 15oil well for seven or eight hours, and then treat it the
same as other fruit jam.

Dried Tcmatos. — Tomatos dried in the same way as Figs make a very
palatable sweetmeat. For this purpose medium-sized fruit of tbin
skinned varieties is the most suitable. The fruit should first be dipped in
boiling water to loosen the skins, which must be removed. ITien it
sh(mld be placed in layers in jars or other vessels with sugar between
them. Let them stand for two or three days, then pour off" the syrup,
which should be boiled till no scum will rise. This syrup should then be
poured over the fruit and allowed to remain for a week. The fruit must
then be taken oat of the syrup, laid upon trays, and dried in the sun in
the same way as Raisins or Figs. Care must be taken during the process
of drying that the fruit is not exposed to rain or dew, or it will be in
danger of spoiling. The time required for drying will, as a matter of
course, vary according to the time of the year and the weather. When
thoroughly dry the fruit should be packed tightly in small boxes,
sprinkling white sugar between the layers. Fruit prepared in this way is
excellent, and when carefully dried will keep good for several years.

Tomato Wbw. — This is a palatable and refreshing beverage when

420

carefully made and matured. It is made in the following manner: —
Take thoroughly ripe fruit, remove the stalks, wash perfectly clean, and
press so that the juice will be extracted. Then pass through a fine
strainer, and to every gallon of juice add three pounds of white sugar.
Brown sugar may be used instead of white, but if it is the wine will not
be so clear and sparkling. The juice then should be placed in a cask and
allowed to stand a few days to ferment, after whicii it must be treated in
the same way as other wines.

Canned Tomatos. — These have of late years become very popular, and
large quantities of fruit are now used for this purpose. The demand is
also rapidly increasing, and growers will have a good outlet in this
dire(;tion for a large rpiantity of produce. Canned Tomatos are prepared
in , the same way as recommended for Grooseberries, and for full
details refer to the article upon that fruit. Tomatos may also be
preserved whole in bottles or jars, the treatment required being
nearly the same as for canning.

Cl'ltivatiox.

Being" strong-feeding plants Tomatos can only be grown to
perfection in rich soil, and unless the land is very good manure
should be used freel3\ The ground should be deeply worked and
■well broken up, and more especially in dealing with stiff heavy soils.
As it is a tender plant it is useless to sow or plant in the open ground
until all risk from frost has passed. The time for getting in a crop-
will, as a matter of course, vary to some extent, according to the
locality, but as the plants are tender the rule should be never to sow
or plant in the -open ground when there is any risk from frost unless
protection can be afforded.

The best way of growing Tomatos is to plant in rows four or five
feet apart, leaving about half that space between the jjlants in the-
lines. It is also advisable to support the plants, so as to prevent the
branches fi-om lying on the ground. This may be done by placing
sticks against them in the same way as is practised in growing peas,
or, better still, they may be trellised. These trellises may be formed
with posts and wnre or battens, as may be most convenient. To-
these supports tlie branches should be fastened, using broad ties so-
as not to cut the stems. When the branches are allowed to lie upon
the ground the fruit does not ripen so quickly or so well, and it is
nioi'e liable to rot and suffer from insect pests. Plants may be kept
compact in shape and well furnished by nipping off the points of the
branches in the early stages of growth. Tomatos require a constant
moisture in the soil, and will suffer severely if the ground gets-
thoroughly dry ; therefore, water should be used freely in dry
weather. Being very strong-feeding plants tliey will also derive-
great benefit from the application of liquid manure about once a
week. The necessity for watering will not be so great if the ground
is carefully mulched before the hot weather sets in. Though-
Tomatos are fairly hardy, except as regards frosts, yet the plants are-

4-21

apt to suffer unless sheltered from strong winds. They also require
shelter from V>oth sun and wind when newly planted, and this object may
be obtained by sticking a few bushes round tliem.

Propagation.

It is a great advantage to get fruit early in the season, and this (»bject
may be effected by sowing seed in a hot-bed a few weeks before it can be
placed in the open ground Young plants raised in this way should, as
soon as they are fit to handle, be potted off singly into small pots and
kept growing steadily till the proper time arrives for planting them out.
By adopting this plan fruit can be obtained several weeks earlier than by
sowing in the open ground. In sowing the seeds should be covered about
half-an-inch deep. When raised from seed sown in the open ground the
young plants should be thinned out as soon as they can be h-^ndled, as
when left too long they are apt to become drawn and weakly. As a rule,
however, it will be advisable to raise the plants in beds and transplant
afterwards.

Though Tomatos are usually raised from seeds, yet they may, if
necessary, be readily propagated by cuttings, which strike freely in sand
or light soil if placed in a frame or under a hand glass. Plants raised
from cuttings are generally more prolific than seedlings and come into
bearing sooner. They are, however, usually less vigorous, and the fruit,
as a rule, smaller. Seed will retain its vitality for two, and sometimes
three, years, but it cannot be depended upon after the second season.

Species and Varieties.

There are a very large number of varieties in cultivation, and they
represent several species, but the majority have originated from Lt/coper-
sicon esculentum. They differ materially in shape, colour, and other
essentials, there being varieties with red, yellow and white fruits. The
red-fruited varieties are the most numerous and more generally cultivated,
while the white kinds are the least popular. Besides tbe one. already
named, two other species contribute mainly in supplying the cultivated
varieties. Lt/copersicon cerasiforme, a Peruvian species, is the source of
the Cherry and Red Currant Tomatos ; the Pear and Plum Tomatos have
originated from Lycopei^sicon pyriforme. The varieties are nowr so
numerous and intermixed that no useful purpose will be served by giving
a list of names, but growers will find ample selections in seedsmen's
catalogues.

Several species of Solanum yield useful edible fruits that may bo
classed as Tomatos, and are, therefore, worthy of attention as cultivated
plants. The principal of these are : — Solanum .Ethiopicum, an annual
plant indigenous to tropical Africa. It bears large red globular fruit,
^\'hich is largely used in its native regions. SoJaimm edule, a species
indigenous to Guinea, yields yellow edible fruit as large as small Apples.
Solanuvi Gilo, a species from tropical America, bears large round orange-
coloured fruit, which is used to some extent in its native regions.

422

Solarium Qmtoense, a shrubby Soutli American species, indigenous fro m
Ecuador to Peru, bears round juicy orange-coloured fruit as large as
small Apples, which has a peculiar but pleasant flavour. Solan wn torvmn
is another shrubby species -widely distributed in the warmer regions of
South America from Mexico to Peru, as also in the West Indies. The
fruit is round, yellow, as large as medium-sized Plums, has a fairly good
flavour, and is said to be very wholesome.

Skruhby Tomato. — This name has been given to Sobinnm Uporo, a
strong-growing species indigenous to various islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Shrubby.

Curr:int.

42:^

It is a prolific species that bears large round red fruit, which in size and
flavour is similar to an ordinary Tuuiato. 'J'liis species is quite as hardy
as the common Tomato, and as it yields its fruit for a long period is
deserving of extended cultivation. Water in which the leaves of this
species have been soaked quickly becomes mucilaginous, and is said to be
an effective remedy for dysentery.

Tree Tomato. — The plant known under this name is Solnnum betaceum
(C yphomandra hetacea). a tall evergreen shrub or small tree whiehr
sometimes attains a height of twenty feet. It is indigenous to Central
America, where its fruit is generally used, as also in other warm countries.
The fruits are the size of large Plums, produced in succession, have a real
Tomato Havour, and are yielded through the greater part of the year.
x\s the fruit can be used for the same purposes as the ordinary Tomato,
this species is well deserving of attention in congenial localities. Another
recommendation is that the plant will bear the first or second year from
the time it is planted. It is also worthy of attention as an ornamental
plant, as its large light green foliage is very effective in shrubberies. The
Tree Tomato is about as hardy as the ordinary kinds, and is, therefore,
t)nly suitable for warm to medium regions where frosts are not tn»uble-
some. It may, however, be successfully cultivated in moderately cool
localities if well protected from frost duriug the winter months.
Effective shelter is also required for this plant, as its foliage suffers
severely from the effects of cold strong winds.

TREBIZONDE DATE.

The fruit passing under this name is that of Eleagnus hortemis
[an(/ustifoIia, ort'entalis), an evergreen shrub or small tree, growing from
fifteen to twenty feet high, belonging to the order Kleagnacese. The
generic name is derived from elcna (an Olive) and a<fnns (chaste), in
allusion to the form of the fruit and the appearance of the tree. It is
indigenous to the greater portion of Asia, including China and Siberia,
the northern parts of Africa, and the south of Europe. The leaves have
a hoary appearance, in shape they are somewhat similar to those of the
Willow, aud the small yellow flowers are strongly perfumed. The fruit is
oval, soi)iewhat similar to a large Olive, has a stony seed, and is
jtroduced in great abundance. In Persia the fruit is dried and eaten in
the same way as the Date, hence the common name, and it is also
pounded and made into cakes. Several other species yield edible fruits
that are utilized in various parts of the world, the more prominent being
as follows : — Elcagnits arhorea, a robust evergreen small tree, a native of
N'ey)aul and other parts of Asia. Kleagrtus conferfa, a strong growing
deciduous scandent shrub from the same regions, has fruit as large as
Damsons of a pale red or Cherry colour, and very acid. Both species are
icenerally eaten in their native countries, aud make very good preserves.
The last-named species passes under thi- name of the Wild Olive.
I'jlmffinis umhtJlatns is a deciduous small tree from Tapan which bears in

-424

Trebizonde Date — Branch with Fruit.

great abundance sweet and pleasantly flavoiired fruit that is highly
appreciated in its native country, where it is eaten both in a fresh and
dried state. Eleagiuii^ longipes, a recent introduction from Japan, with
handsome foliage, silvery on the under side, is very prolifiic, its bright red
fruit being highly palatable. All the species come into bearing early, and
yield their fruit through the greater portio n of the year.

As ornamental plants the species ofe Eleagnus named are all well
deserving of attention, as they are very ffective in shrubberies. Their
foliage, and more especially the evergreen species, is very attractive, and

425

the fruit adds materially to their eiFectiveness. They are moderately
hardy, can withstand drought to some extent, also light frosts, and may be
grown successfully in from medium cool to warm districts. They will
also thrive in any fairly good soil that is not too wet or compact. Plants
•of any of the species may be easily obtained from seeds, which should be
covered an inch deep. Propagation is also readily effected by layers, and
•cuttings of the ripened wood will strike freely in sand or light soil if
protected from sun and wind. -^

TRIPHASIA.

TriphdMd ((>(,r(fntiol<( is a small evergreen shrub indigenous to China
and other parts of South Eastern Asia belonging to the order Aurantacefe,
•or Orange family. It is also known as Triphasia trifoUata and Limonia
trif'Ainfa. The Howers are white and highly fragrant, and the fruit is
small, but swett, juicy, and pleasantly flavoured. This plant is worthy
of attention for ornamental purposes, and possibly may prove serviceable
to the perfimie maker. It is moderately hardy, will thrive in any region
where the Orange can be successfully cultivated, and requires somewhat
similar treatment. Propagation may be efl'ected by seed, which should be
covered to the depth of half-an-inch. Cuttings of the present season's
growth, when ripened at the base, will strike in sand under a glass or in
a frame, and plants may be readily obtained from layers.

VANGUERIA.

The fruit known under this name is the product of two species of
Vaiiguef^'a, evergreen shrubs or small trees indigenous to Africa belonging
to the order Rubiacea^. Vangueina eduli.<<, whose fruit is also known as
Voa Vanga, a native r>f the warmer regions of Africa, and also of
Madagascar, has fruit the size of ordinary round Plums. Vdnguej^ia
infausta is indigenous from tropical Africa to Kaffr.iria and Natal, and
has somewhat larger fruit, which has a pleasant flavour. Both species
are moderately hardy, though coming from tropical regions, and may be
grown successfully in the warmer parts of Australasia where the winter
temperature is moderately high. Both species are ornamental plants, and
as such worthy of attention in congenial localities, irrespective of their
value as fruit shrubs. Propagation is readily efl'ected by seed, which
should be covered an inch deep. Ripened cuttings of the new wood will
strike in sand in a glass or frame, and plants are easily obtained from
layers.

V/ALNUT.
History.
The Walnut is known botanically as Juglans, and it is the type of the

426

natural order of Juglandacece. There are several species, all of them
being stately deciduous trees, which attain a large size, and are valuable
l)0tli for their fruit and timber. Some species are widely distributed
through the cooler parts of Asia and are also found in Eastern Europe,
while others are indigenous to North America. The Comnmn, or
English, Walnut {Jugldus regia) is supposed to have originated in Persia
or China, as it is found growing naturally in great abundance in the
higher parts of tliose countries, as also in the Caucasus. Among the
early (Ireeks the fruit was generally known as Persicon, or the Persian
Nut, in allusion to the country from which it was obtained. Afterwards-
the Greeks called the plant Caryon, because (according to some
authorities) of the strong smell of the leaves, which caused heaviness.
Other authorities inform us that this name comes from Carya, the
daughter of Dion, King of Laconia, who was changed by Bacchus into a
Walnut tree. The Walnut is said to have l>een introduced to Italy in
the time of Tiberius, and rapidly became popular with the Romans, who
culled it Jovis Glans, or Jove's Nut, and from this the botanical name
has been derived. B}/ the Romans the Walnut was used extensively
upon all festive occasions, being ranked as the Queen of Nuts, and from;
this circumstance the specific name of regia originated. The English
name Walnut was originally Gaul Nut, owing to the supposition that the
tree had been first obtained from France.

For its supposed medicinal qualities the Walnut appears to have been
held in great esteem by ancient nations, who employed it as a remedy in
many complaints. Pliny speaks highly of its virtues, and says, "The
more Walnuts are eaten, the more worms will be driven out of the
stomach," and he says further, " If eaten before meals they will lessen
the effect of any poison that may be in the food." The bark of the
Walnut tree was considered to be a sovereign remedy for the ringworm,
and, when chewed fasting, an antidote for the bite of a mad dog. We
are informed that Mithridates, King of Pontus, recommended the
following preparation as an antidote against poison: — ^Two dry Walnut
kernels, as many Figs, and twenty leaves of rue, beaten into a mass, with
a grain of salt" This mixture he advises should be used in the morning,
and says it will prevent the ill effects of poison taken the same day.
Walnuts were eaten to prevent an unpleasant breath after eating onions.
The bruised leaves, after being steeped in vinegar, were also used to take
away pains in the ears. But, though the Walnut was so highly esteemed
foi- its many supjjosed medicinal virtues, yet the smell of its foliage was
thought to be productive of headache and othei- troubles. For this reason
it was considered unsafe to plant trees near dwelling houses or to sit
beneath their branches. The Walnut was supposed by the Romans to
have a great antipathy to the Oak, and Pliny says that these trees would
never thrive when growing near to each other. Some few years ago the
opinion was entertained by many British gardeners that Strawberries
would not thrive if growing in the vicinity of Walnut trees.

The Walnut was probably taken to Britain at the time of the Roman
invasion, though in botanical dictionaries 156*2 is the date given for its
introduction. It appears to have been for centuries a very popular tree

427

ill Kiigland, not only for its fruit and timber, but also for its supposed"
medicinal value. The bark was generally used as an emetic, either in a
green or dried state, and the unripe fruit was considered to be an
invaluable remedy in cases of worms, and to prevent infection from
contagious distempers, such as the plague. Medicinally, Walnuts were
considered to be very wholesome, and the oil obtained from them was
supposed to be a sovereign remedy for stone or gravel. It was formei-ly
a common practice in England to preserve the Nuts when young and_
green as a sweetmeat. This was effected by gathering the Nuts before
the shells hardened, and boiling them till they became tender. For every
pound of fruit an equal weight of sugar, with sufficient water to make a
tliick syrup, with cloves and small pieces of Lemon peel to flavour, and
this was poured over the boiled Nuts, They were allowed to stand for
ten days, and then boiled for several hours, after which the mixture was
gradually cooled and sealed down in airtight jars till required for use.
The green fruit was also often sent to table after being boiled for three or
four hours in a thick syrup.

Uses.

Though at the present time the Walnut scarcely ranks so high in
public estimation as it did formerly when so many virtues were attributed
to it, yet it is still cultivated extensively in Europe, and utilized for
a variety of purposes. The Nuts are greatly esteemed for the dessert,
and are relished by most people. They can be kept sound for a long
period, and when the kernels begin to shrivel if soaked in milk and water
for ten or twelve hours they will generally become plump again. Under
pressure the kernels yield a bland oil in large proportions, and this is
frequently used as a substitute for Olive oil. The seeds of the Black
Walnut [Jiiqlans nigra) are, however, more oily than the English Walnut.
As a rule, the Nuts are left to ripen on the trees and fall of their owii
accord. The green Nuts make an excellent and popular pickle when
used just before the shells begin to harden, which may , be easily
ascertained by pricking them with a pin. The leaves, green Iruit, and
husks, when macerated in water, yield a bitter astringent liquor which is^
useful for destroying insects, and more especially those of the Aphis
tribe. From the husks a permanent dye is obtained, which will
effectually stain the skin, nails, and hair a dark brown. It will also hav&
the same effect upon wool. The green husks, after soaking several days
in a strong solution of salt and vinegar, yield what is known as Walnut
ketchup, which is much used as a condiment, aad forms a leading
material in the composition of Worcestershire and other leading table
sauces. The use of the Walnut medicinally in modern times is not
nearly so extensive as formerly. In some parts of Eastern Europe an
infusion of the leaves mixed with lard is considered to be a useful
remedy for scrofula and other skin complaints. The Circassians are said
to pierce the trees in the spring, collect the sap, which is allowed to
coagulate, and is then used for diseases of the lungs or in cases of general
debility. The oil, which is white, sweet, and without unpleasant odo\uv

428

is nsed for mixing delicate colours in painting, in cookery, for lamps, and
for polishing woodwork. The material left after the oil is expressed from
the kernels makes an excellent food for cattle, pigs, or poultry. As in
tlie case of the maple and some other trees, the Walnut contains a good
proportion of sugar in the sap, and this may be utilized if necessary by
tapping the trees in the spring when growth is most vigorous, collecting
the juice, and evaporating it in the usual way. It is not advisable,
however, to cultivate the Walnut as a sugar-yielding tree, as other plants
will give much more satisfactory returns.

The wood of all the species is very valuable, and they are worthy of
cultivation as timber trees alone, without regard to their other qualities.
Walnut wood is hard, tough, fine grained, durable, is not liable to warp
or split, is not subject to the attack of insects, and takes a fine polish.
It is largely employed by cabinetmakers, and was still more extensively
■used in Europe formerly before the introduction of mahogany and other
choice woods. The wood is also used to some extent by coachbuilders,
and for the making of gunstocks is employed almost exclusively. When
young the wood is white, but as the trees get old it becomes brown. As
regards its durability, specimens of Walnut wood are to be found in
Europe in churches and other buildings, also in furniture, which are in a
good state of preservation, though several hundred years old. Formerly,
the demand for Walnut wood was so great in England that single trees,
when large and in good condition, often fetched from a hundred pounds
upwards. It is on record that in one case a very fine tree realized six
hundred [)ounds sterling. Though Walnut timber is less valuable now,
it still commands high prices in Europe, and the demand exceeds the
supply.

The Walnut is a tree well deserving more attention in Australasia than
it now receives as a commercial plant. The^e is a considerable local
demand for the ripe Nuts, and the greater portion of what we consume is
•now imported from Europe and America. For pickles and the making of
sauces the demand will probably rapidly increase as the supply becomes
^better and more regular. In time, possibly oil may be made from the
Walnut, which yields a large percentage. Then, again, the trees are well
worth cultivating for their timber, which, though it takes many years to
produce, cannot scarcely fail to prove a profitable investment to the
planter, as each year a plantation increases in value. Being large-growing
.and stately trees, Walnuts may be planted with excellent effect in parks
•and shrubberies, and for avenues. They are also well adapted for street
planting, and are worthy of special attention for this purpose.

CULTIVATIOX.

No fruit-bearing tree will adapt itself to the varying conditions of
climate better than the Walnut, which appears to be equally at home in
the medium warm as in the cooler districts. In fact, it will thrive in
most parts of Australasia, excepting tropical regions. Any moderately
good land wdll prove suitable to the Walnut, but it thrives to the greatest
perfection in a deep rich soil with a moderately dry and open sub-soil.

429

Trees also do well upon chalky or limestone formations. AVben growing
nnder favourable conditions the Walnut will attain a great age ;ind size.
In preparing the land let it be worked deeply, if of a heavy nature more
especially. In lighter and more open soils deep stirring is not so
essential. Drainage must also lie provided for if necessary, as the
Walnut is somewhat impatient of an excess of water at its roots. The
trees will require to stand at least forty feet apart to permit their free
development. As, however, it will be some years before they require
such an amount of space, temporary trees may be planted between, to be
removed .when necessary. In choosing trees be careful to get those with
straight clean stems and a fair proportion of roots. Planting may be
done at any time between the tall of the leaves and the commencement of
a fresh growth, but it should, if possible, be done before the end of
August. Young trees, as a matter of course, must receive careful
attention in pruning so as to insure well-formed heads as soon as possible.
But little pruning is required after the trees have been got into shape, all
that is necessary being to thin out the branches when too much crowded,
remove rank or misplaced shoots, and shorten back growth w^hen required
to keep the trees compact and symmetrical. The fruit is borne upon the
wood of the previous season. Sometimes, in the case of over-luxuriant
trees, root pruning or partial ringing may prove useful in inducing
fruitfulness. Walnuts are not liable to many of the diseases that are so-
troublesome to othei' fruits, and they are seldom attacked by insects.

Peofagation.

IVopagatiou is effected by seeds, layering, budding, and grafting.
Seed should be sown in the autumn and covered to the depth of about
two inches. The following winter transplant the young trees into i'ows
thirty inches apart, leaving half that space between in the lines. In the
ne.\t season the plants may be planted out permanently- As the plants
suffer materially when their roots are broken, the better plan is to sow
the seed singly in pots. AVhen this plan is adopted there is less risk in
shifting the young plants. Seedlings often vary considerably from their
parents, and cannot be depended iq)on for sorts. Plants are readily
obtained from layers, but they do not make such large and durable trees
as can be obtained by other means, though they come to maturity sooner.
Ihid'ding is the method most generally adopted for perpetuating varieties
and hastening maturity. Grafting is sometimes practised with the same
objects, but not to such an extent as budding, which is certainly the
better of the two methods As in the case of other deciduous trees,
grafting must be doiie before active growth commences in the spring, and
budding after mid-summer, when the bark can be raised from the wood
without difficulty. The best and most reliable trees are seedlings that
have been budded with approved varieties.

SrEciES AND Varieties.

The following list embraces several of the best-known and distinct
species, and these will serve every practical object to be gained by

480

•cultivating the Walnut family. There are several other species, but in
most cases they have little to distinguish them from those named : —

Ameincan Butter Nut {Jucfl((ns Chiearea), — This is a North American
species which grows to a height of fifty or sixty feet. The Nuts are
much indented, and have pointed ends. They are palatable, and yield a
large proportion of oil, which is of excellent quality when freshly
extracted, but it is apt to become rancid in a short time if exposed to the
air. The wood of this species is very durable, not liable to split or warp,
or to the attacks of insects. It is in great request in America by
coachbuilders, turners, and others for purposes where strength and
durability are essentials. The bark, leaves, and fruit husks of this species
•are used medicinally in America, and an extract from the inner bark is
•considered to be a mild laxative. The American Butter Nut will thrive
under the same conditions as the English Walnut.

Black Walnut {JuglanK nigra). —This is another North American
species, ^hich in its native regions attains a height of seventy or eighty
feet. The Nuts have thicker shells than, and are not equal in quality to,
the English Walnuts, but they contain a much larger proportion of oil,
which is of good quality. The Avood is tough, strong, durable, and not
liable to either warp or split. In colour it is a reddish-brown, and
ibecomea darker with age. As the wood of the Black Walnut is fine-
grained and takes a good polish it is in great demand by American, and
also European, cabinetmakers, and is also extensively used for gun-stocks.
This species grows somewhat more rapidly than the English Walnut, and
will thrive under the same conditions.

Chinese Walnut, — This is a robust tree indigenous to Central and
Eastern Asia, known botauically as Juglan.<i stenocarpa {Pteroairija
stenoptera). It bears large thin-shelled Nuts that are well flavoured.
The timber is valuable, and it is also a fine ornamental tree.

English Walnut {Commion Walnut, Juglans rQgict). — This species will,
under favourable conditions, attain a height of from eighty to a hundred
feet, and an age of several hundred years. The wood is tough, fine-
grained, and much used for gun-stocks, superior furniture, and in the
•manufacture of pianos. The Nuts are popular for the dessert and largely
used for oil.

There are several cultivated varieties, which differ materially in some
•cases in size of the trees and Nuts, flavour, earliness, and lateness. The
more noteworthy of these are as follows : —

Cluster. — An excellent English variety that bears its fruit in long
bunches or clusters, hence the name. These clusters generally consist of
;a dozen or more, the Nuts being of medium size and well flavoured.
Tree robust, hardy, and prolific.

Dwarf ProUjic {Earlj/ Bearing, Fertile, Proeparturlens). — A French
variety of but moderate growth that commences to bear while the trees
are quite young, and for this reason alone it is a desirable kind. The
Nuts are of a good size, and have well-flavoured kernels. Tree hardy and
very prolific, but is not dwarf in habit of growth in the ordinary sense of
the term. This kind has the reputation of reproducing itself true from
.seed, but the plants cannot be absolutely depended upon.

481

Highjiijer. — An English variety that has a reputation for ripenin^^ two
or three weeks earlier than the other sorts. Nuts of a good size, an<l
kernels well flavoured. Tree strong in habit and a free bearer.

Large-frKite<l {Double French). — A strong variety with very large Nuts,
which are often more than twice the size of the common Walnut. The
kernel is, however, small in comparison to the size of the Nuts, and does
not nearly fill the shells. It is pleasantly flavoured when eaten fresh,
but when kept long it becomes rancid and bitter. Tree robust and bears
fireely. Not a very desirable variety.

Late (Tardif, St. Jean). — This variety starts into growth very late in~
the season, a useful quality in districts where the frosts are troublesome
when the spring is advanced. Nuts of medium size, well filled, and
kernels of good quality. The Nuts, however, do not keep well, and
must be used quickl3\ Tree vigorous and very productive. This kind
has the reputation of coming true from seed, but will sometimes produce
plants differing from the parent.

Dwarf Pro] i tic.

Large-fruited.

Late-

Mayette.

482

Maifette. — A desirable Frencli variety that is^
very late in starting into growth, and, therefore,
specially suitable for cold regions where spring
frosts are troublesome. The Nut is large and
well flavoured. Tree hardy and a free bearer.

Thin -shelled. — This is one of the best and most
popular varieties, and should be generally
cultivated. Nuts oblong, with a well-filled shell
that is thin and easily broken. Kernel well
flavoured. Tree robust and bears very freely.
This is one of the best kinds for cultivation, as
the Nuts are more readily saleable than other
kinds.

Yorkshire. — A variety that bears large welj-
filled Nuts, which, however, are not nearly so-
big as those of the Large-fruited. Kernel large and well flavoured.
Tree strong and a very good bearer.

Thin-sbelled.

Japanese Wjilnut.— Fruit with Outer Shell or Husk. Fruit without the Outer ShelL

Japanese Witlnnt. — This is a robust, large, and very hardy species
widely distributed through Ja})an, and known botanically as Juglans
SieholdiaiKi. It has very large leaves, and produces its Nuts in clusters
of from fifteen to twenty. They have thicker shells than English Walnuts,.
but not so thick as Black Walnuts, and in appearance are similar to Pecan
Nuts, the kernels being sweet and well flavoured. Will thrive in most
parts of Australasia, excepting tropical regions, and deserves more
attention as a fruit, timber, and ornamental tree.

Persian Walnut. — This is a species indigenous to Central Asia,
extending to Russia and Persia, known as Juglans fraxi ni folia {Pterocarya:
fraxinifolia). It is a robust tree of large size, and bears in profusion
Nuts larger than Knglish Walnuts, with somewhat thinner shells, and

438

having a sweet pleasant fiavtmr. The wood of this species is Lard, fine-
grained, durable, and suitable for a variety of purposes. Thi.s species
will thrive under similar conditions to the English Walnut, and should
be generally cultivated.

V/AMPEE.

This is the ('hinese name for C'ookia punctata, an evergreen shrub f^
small tree belonging to the order Aurantacese, or Orange family. It has
white flowers, handsome winged leaves, and attains a height of about
fifteen feet. The fruit, which is al)c>ut the size of a large Grape, is
covered with a yelloAv wood}' rind or shell, contains ji richly-flavoured
juicy pulp. This fruit is very popular with the Chinese, and also in the
Indian Archipelago, where it is generally growni The Wampee may be
grown successfully in from tro}>ical to medium warm regions, and in
suitable localities is worthy of cultivation both for its fruit and as an
ornamental plant. Propagation is readily effected by seeds, which should
be covered an inch deep. Cuttings of the ripened wood of the current
season with their leaves on will strike under a glass or in a frame, and
more certainly and quickly if bottom heat can be given. Plants may be
also quickly obtained from layers, if available.

V/ATER CHESTNUT.

The plant most generally known under this name, and also as the
Water Nut, is an annual belonging to the order Onagracese, or Evening
Primrose family, known as Tvhj^ki mdevs. It is an aquatic plant widely
distributed throughout Middle and Southern Europe, some parts of Asia,
and Northern and Central Africa* The farinaceous seeds contain a large
] proportion of starch, and are used for food in some parts of Europe and
Africa. There are kindred species that may also be classed as Water
C*hestnuts, though they are commonly known under other names. The
principal of these is Trapa hispiiiom, a valuable species indigenous to
Aliddle and Southern Asia, extending to Ceylon and Japan, and is also
found on the east coast of Africa. This species, which is far superior to
Trapa natans as a food-yielding plant, is commonly known as the
Singhara Nut. The seeds abound in starch, and are geneially used
in their native regions, where they ai-e a staple food for the inhabitants.
The Nuts are carefully collected, dried, and eaten either raw or cooked,
or when ground into flour and converted into cakes, bread, or porridge.
Another useful species is Trapa licorriis, the Leng, or Ling, Nut of the
Chinese. This plant is largely cultivated in China, where the seeds
or Nuts are extensively used for food p^^rposes in a similar way to those
of the previously-named species. Both the Singhara and the Leng Nut
may be cultivated with advantage in from tropical to medium warm
regions in Australasia. When grown under favourable conditions they

43-i

are very prolific and yield a large bulk of seeds. They are well suited for
shallow lakes, ponds, or tanks, where the water is comparatively still.
Propagation is effected by dropping the seeds in the water two or three
yards apart. When the temperature of the water reaches about fifty
degrees the Nuts begin to germinate, and the young plants rise to
the surface. They float upon the water, and their leaves spread out and
gradually cover the surface if not disturbed. The plants have an
ornamental appearance, and are supposed to assist in keeping the water in
which they are growing pure, as also to check excessive evaporation,
as the surface covering of leaves neutralizes the power of the sun to
a great extent.

^VINEBERRY.

The plant to which this name has been
given is a species of Raspberry from
Japan, where its fruit is highly esteemed.
Botanically it is known as llubtis phwni-
colasi/is, and it is a strong-growing species
with an abundance of leaves, which to
some extent resemble those of the
common Raspberry, but are of a silvery
white on the under surface. The flowers

Fruit enclosed by the CpIvx.

are produced in terminal

panicles, the pedicels and

elongated calyx lobes being

densely covered with long

crimson hairs, each one

tipped with a small globular

gland. From this peculiarity

the plant derives its specific

name — phoenix (red) and

la^ios (shaggy). The fruit

is orange red in colour,

about the .size of a small

Cherry, and while unripe is covered by the calyx lobes, which fold

over it. In this way it is protected from birds, and the thick covering

Fruit after the Calyx opens.

435

of viscid liairs keeps away many troublesome insects. When the fruit
ripens the cjilyx sepals part and are thrown back, forming a flat plate.
The fruit is then fit for use, and should be promptly gathered. It is
somewhat similar to a Raspberry, though it has a distinctive flavour, and
may be used for the same purposes. The Wineberry is fjiirly hardy,
and should thrive in medium cool districts. Cultivation and propagation
nre the same as for the Raspberry.

XIMENIA.

JCimenia nmericant( is an evergreen large shrub c»r small tree, belonging
to tlie order Olacaceai, or Olax family, which, under favourable conditiims,
attains a height of about twenty feet. It is widely distributed through
tropical Asia, Africa, and America, and is also found in northern
i^ueensland. The specific name, coYisequently, is by no means an
appropriate one. The tree bears greenish-yellow strongly-scented flowers
and yellow fruit, which in size and appearance is like medium-sized
Plums. In flavour the fruit is sweet and aromatic, but is somewhat
•astringent for most palates. By the Mexicans the tree is called Alvarillo
de Campo, and the wood, which is perfumed, is used for various purposes.
The Ximenia can only be grown successfully in tropical and semi-tropical
regions, and in congenial localities is useful both as a fruit-bearing and
ornamental plant. Plants may be raised from seed, which should be
covered an inch deep. Cuttings of the season's growth when ripened will
root in sand under a glass or in a frame, and plants are readily obtained
from layers.

VOL, 2. '

7'//^ 'Srn^n/i/ic Namf^s ami St/noni/ms art' piiitted in Italics.

Aheria cafra

115

A lohis prii n if en i

325

Acanthosici/ns horrlda

143

Apricot Plum

320

Achrns <(iistralis ...

374

A7richu hi/pogwa ... ....

251

,, mammosa ...

127

Arbutus nil edo

412

,, Sap»ta

374

A rdiiina bispinosa ...

144

African Earth Nut

253

„ grandijiora

144

Agaricus meUe.iis ...

09

x\recn catechu

213

Agarista glycine ...

53

Aregma ohtiisatum ..

395

Ahhertiit eiluUfi

127

Arizona Grape

91

Alpine Strawberry...

409

Aroma of Wines ....

73

Ame'anchier botri/npiinn .

<J3

Artificial Fermentation

„ sangiiinea

377

(Grape) ... ...

70

American Butter Xnt

430

Artocaiyus integrifnlia

112

„ Grapes ...

00

A.^pidiotiis auraiitii

187

„ Ked Raspberry .

3.-S9

citricola

185

A mygdalifi ftersicn ...

2 1 8

,, cocci II ens

187

.1 lianas sativn

:U4

„ Gloverii

185

Ananassa safiva

314

Nerii

185

A uticle$ma DaJlarhift i n irm.

103

„ jierniciosiis

2G4

Antbracnose

57

„ rex>o.x ...

204

Aonidia anraiitii ...

1<S7

A ttate(t fit nifera ...

213

Apple Haw

98

Austra ian Apple ...

374

„ Guava

95

,, Oainito...

378

Aphides (Citrus) ...

180

„ Species of ('itrus

211

(Peach) ...

227

„ Grapes ...

93

„ (Pear) ...

02

„ llas])berry

3(.0

{V\\\m) ...

325

, , Strawberry r)eetle

391

(Raspberry)

3r,o

Alvar'illo de Campo

435

„ (Strawberry)

390

Azarole

98

II.

Jiactris ga.^ipces

■ 213

BuUace Grape

Bali'iiinus rincnm ...

100

Bullet Grape

Balsam Hickory ...

, 105

Burdekin Vine

Batoka Plum

HI

Burgundy Wine Grapes ...

J5ay Myrtle " ...

U2

Butter Nuts

Beach Plum

3-20

Ht/tiirn-'i tomevfosa ..

Beetle (Raspberry) ...

3GG

Cainit(»

„ (Strawberry)

3110

('alit'oriiian Vwn i'.-ilni

Bergamot ...

•J 10

Grape

I^erries Making irregular

Gak Clifsti.iit...

Growth (Grape)

0,3

,, Salmon Beiry...

Betel Nut

213

Wild Gooseberry

] Utter Nut

104

Calool

,, Orange

20C

C<wi2:>ome}iesi(( li in'nr>foli<( . . .

Black Aphis (Peach)

227

Canada Plum

,, Cap Rasi)berrv

359

Canadian Blueberry

„ Fly (Peach)...*

227

Candied Peel (Citrus)

„ Guava

94

Candleberry Myrtle

„ Huckleberry

108

Cank«^r (Citrus)

,, Mulberry . .

139

„ (l^each)

„ Rot (Grape)

57

„ (Pear)

„ Scale

1.55

(Plum)

,, Walnut

430

Cantaloupe Melon...

Blackthorn

320

(*arberry ...

Blakea quinquinerva

135

darica caiidamnrcfiwt.^

Blending Wine

72

„ p((pa:/a

Blueberries

107

Cnri/a (dba

P>lue Dangleberry ...

108

,, (tni'irc

„ Huckleberry...

109

„ aquatim

Bluetts

109

,, f/Iahra

Bohemian Strawberry

:')80

,, mirvocarpd ...

l>ukhar.i Plum

32(»

„ olioiformi.'i ...

Bollwiller Pear

253

„ p'lrcina

liorassus .Etkiopicus

213

,, snlcatit

„ jlaheUiformi.^

213

„ tomentosa

Borers (('itrus)

181

Cart/ocar hntrj/osnm

„ (Peach)

229

„ nucifermti

„ (Pear)

2G2

Case Moth...

„ (Plum)

325

Cashniroa edidis ...

Bottle Gourd

22

C ostein op."} s ai^gented

Ilrahea dulcis

212

„ chrysophiUii ...

„ edidis

212

,, iiidica...

„ filamentosa

214

„ jiiciuida

Branch Budding (Olive) ...

154

Caterpillars (Grape)

„ Canker (Citrus) ...

193

(Peach)

liroad-leaved Mulberry

139

(Pear)

Bromelia sdiva

314

1 ,, (Strawberry) ...

Ih'oiifinnettia papyrifera ...

140

i Cattleys Guava

BuUace ... '

320

1 Cat vine

Ill

Celebes .Mcingo.stcen
Celery Moth
CeHis aHstralis

, , japonica

., occidental u ...
' ,, Oriental u ...

., Selloioiaxu ...

., sinensis
Cenotracheliw nenuphar
Cercospora vif.icola . . .
Cereus Enijlenmnni

„ Qiiijjo

„ Thu'rheri
Chablis Wine Grapes
ChcbrocamjM eel trio
Cliai litre System of Pruiiiu

(Crape)
C/liampagiie Wine Grapes
Clierry Plum
(y'hickasaw Plum ...
Chicken Grape
Chilian Guava

„ Strawberi'ies
Chinese Mulberry ...
,, Oak Chestnut
,, Pear
,, Walnut ...
Chinquapin
Choopah ...
(Jhri/sohol<UL us elf pile us

,, lutei's

t'hrifsophi/lhim Coinito

,, priuiiferiim

Cicca distichu
Cissus '(ntartictt

'„ austral asico

,, opaca
Citron
Citrus I'^imiiy

,, ai'rahtiiwi ...

., inistralasica

,, a astral is

,, lienjamia ...

, , liiyaradia . . .

„ decuman a ...

„ dnlcis

„ Figiensis

„ japonica

„ limetta

120
53
97
97
97
97
97
97

325
62

110

110

no

90
54

40
90
320
320
92
143
41]
139
145
253
430
145

:\:^^

314
314
378
378
413
93
93
93
210
104
199
211
212
210
207
211
199
210
208
209

Citrus limonimn
„ lumia
„ mandurensis
„ medica ..,

,, nij/rti folia. ...
,, u obi lis
,, Planchoni ...
„ trifoliata ...
„ vulgaris
Cladiosporium ampelin um.
Claret Wine Grapes
Classes of Melons . . .
Climate for Citrus Fruits
,. „ Strawberries
Cob Nuts .
Coccoloba Leoijanensis
„ parvijiora
,, uvifera ...

Codarium acuti folium
Collar Rot (Citrus)
Common Juniper ...
„ Mildew (Grape)
,, Vine Moth
Condalia microphi/lla
Condensed Must (Grape)
Conditions under which
Grapes may bb culti-
vated ...
Coniothyrium dijtlodeilli<( ...
Cookia punctata
Coquilla Nuts
Coquita Palm
Corinth Grape
Cori/lus americaiui • • •
„ avetlana ...
„ coiurna
,, maxima ...
„ pontica
„ rostrata ...
Cottony -cushion Scale
Coulure (Grape) ...
Cranberry Myrtle
Crata'yus lestivalis ...
„ aronla ...

„ Azarolus
„ mexicana
„ tormina I is

Crown Borer (Strawberry). . .
Cucumis citrullus ...

208

iJ09

208

210

208

208

212

179^

207

62

90

133

169

383

99

370

375

375

410

193

115

()0

53

318

74

02

433

213

214

31

99

99

99

99

99

99

187

<;3

143

98

98

98

98

370

391

133

IV.

Cucumis melo

129

Doum Palm

5

Cucurbita cUriiUub ...

133

Downy Mildew (Grape) ...

59

„ layenaria

22

Drying Grapes

89

„ majcima ...

17

Dwarf Blueberry

109

„ liielopepo

22

„ Mulberry ...

139

„ mosclmta

22

Earth Nut

251

„ Ovigera...

22

Edible Cactus Fruits

110

;) Pepo

17

Kleagnus angusti folia

423

(Jurl Blight (Peach)

230

., ((rborea ...

423

Currant Grape

31

,, confer tec ...

423

Currants (Making)

67

., orientrdis

423

Ci/donia vulgaris ...

354

,, korlei sis...

423

(Jf/phomandra beUicen

123

,, longipes ...

424

Dagger Plant

135

,, umbel latus

423

Uamascene Plum ...

320

Dials guivensis

213

Damson

320

,, melanococcd ...

213

tjiemies of Scale Insects ...

189

Dam.sons, Varieties.

English Mulberry ...

138

American ...

352

„ Walnut

430

Blxd-

352

Kriohotrya Japonia '

118

CImler

352

Essence of Lemon ...

1G7

Cole's Prolific

352

Euphoria Li-tchi

117

Common

352

,, Longan i...

118

Crittendon's

352

,, Nepheliuni

358

Crittenden s Fro/ifir

352

Exoacus defornia ns

231

Damascene..

352

Exporting Grapes ...

89

English

352

,, Pears ...

2G2

Long IJdm.soii

352

Eyes (1 Propagation l>y)

31

Prolific

352

Feaherru ...

7

PriDie Damson

352

Feabes

7

Purple

352

Fever Berry

/

Shropshire...

352

Fiji Lemon

210
3

White Damson

352

Fig ^larigold

Filbert Nut

99

Finger Lime

211

Dangleberries

107

Fining Wine

72

Datile

135

Fire Blight (Pear)

260

Dawa

358

Five Corner

:\

Dematophora necatrix

59

Flacourtia cata.phracta

111

Dimocarpus Li-tchi

117

,, inermes

111

,, Longan

118

,, llamontchi

111

Diplothemium campestre ...

213

,, sapid a...

HI

„ maritimum...

213

,, sepia ra

111

Diseases (Citrus) ...

192

Flea Louse

365

„ (Olive)

155

1 Fluted Scale

187

„ (Peach) ...

233

Foot Rot (Citrus)

193

„ (Pear)

2G5

Forms of ] >ottle Gourds . . .

21

„ (Plum)

327

IV'ars

267

Dish Cloth Gourd

'22

„ I'umpkins

18

V.

Forms of Squashes ... .

19

„ Vegetable iMiir rows

20

Fox Grape

1J2

Fragaria ananas ...

380

,, cah/cina...

380

„ chtlenm's ...

380

„ collina ...

380

„ elatior ...

380

„ grandijiora

380

„ vesca

379

„ virgiriiami

380

Fjeiich Mildew (Grape) ...

59

Froiitignac G rapes ...

90

Frontignan Grapes

90

Frost Grape

92

Fruit eating Beetles (Citrus)

181

Fruit not Setting (Grape) ..

63

Furrowed Hickory

1U5

Fusicladiums (Citrus)

181

Fusicladium i^tjrinnm

265

Gale Myrtle

142

Gnrcinia celehica ..

126

,, cornea

125

,, mangostana

125

„ pendn'tcul<(t(i

126

y, pictnrata

26

,, ■purpurea .

126

Gathering Citrons ...

196

„ Grapes ...

m

,, Lemons...

195

,, Limes ...

196

,5 Mangoes

123

,, Oranges

195

i'ears

266

,, Plums ...

328

„ Shaddocks

196

Gaulthieria mj/r.slniti'x

4

„ iShaUcn

3

Gaylussacia frondosa

108

„ resin osa

108

Geebung ...

4

Genip

4

Genipa americana ...

5

German Apple

128

Giant Lemon

210

Gingerbread Palm...

5

Plum

5

Gippsland Grai)e ...

93

Girdling (Grape)

49

Glhfcine sahterraiica

Goat Nut

GooraNut...
Gooseberry

GoOSEBERRIK-i, V.VRIETIES.
GREEN.

Drill

Earh/ Greoi

Fearless

General Markham ...

Glenton Green

Green Gascoigne ...

,, Hair II

,, Laurel

,, Overall

„ Prince

„ Willoto
Gretna Green
Heart of Oak
Hedgehog ...

Jolly Tar

Laurel

Pitmaston Green Gage

Plunder

Progress

Safety

Sir Charles Napier

Shiner

Telegraph ...

Thumper ...

Thunder ...

RED.

A dmirahle . . .
A ston
Beauty
Billy Dean...
Clayton
Companion
Crown Bob
Dan's Mistake
Dr. Hogg ...
Duke of York
Foreman . . .
Forester
Hair II Black
Ironmonger
Lion's Providor

253

0

116

6

1^
13
13
13
13
13
13
14
13
13
14
14
14
13
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14

13
13
12
12
12
12
12
12
12

13

I o

12
12
12
12

\\

Plough buy ...

L". '

Aioreton Hero

IG

Red Chaiiii»agiio ...

lL>

Mount Pleasant ... ...

17

„ J J air//...

13

Perl'ecti(ui ...

■ 17

„ Robin

12

Pretty Boy

17

,, Warrington ...

13

Railway

17

Rifleman ...

13

Smiling Beauty

17

Hoi/al An tie

13

Trumpeter ...

ir

Rough Red

13

Two to One

17

Scotch Red

13

Yelloiv A.ston

17

Slaughterman

13

,, Champagne

17

Volunteer ...

13

„ Warrington

17

Whinham'8 Indu.^try

WUITK.

13

Gorseberry ...

7

Alma

It

Gourds

17

Antagonist ..

15

Grape

23

Bright A'^enus
Careless

Crystal

Elizabeth ...

15

Grape Culture as a Promi-

15
15

nent Industry
Grapes for Drying...

25

.^9

15

,, „ Exporting

8U

Hero of the Nile ..

15

„ „ Keeping

HI)

Jenny Jones

Kinu ol Trumps ...

1 >
15

„ „ Wine (Burgundy^
„ „ (Chablis)...

!)0

Lady Leieester
Lancashire Lass

15
15

r r. M ((Champagne)
„ „ „ (Claret) ...

DO
'JO

Alitre

15

„ „ (Frontignan)

DO

Aloreton Lass

15

„ ., ,. (Hermitage;

•JO

Postman

15

n „ „ (Hock) ...

90

Queen of Tru nil ).s ...

15

., ,, ,, (Madeira)

90

t 1
kSheba Quern

15

. „ „ ,, (Museat) ...

90

V

Snowball ...

15

„ „ „ (Port) ...

90

Snowdrop ...

Tally Ho

AVhite Lion

1()

„ „ (Sherry) ...

90

Hi

,, Jam

„ Jelly

Gt5

G8

Whitesmith

1 G

Grapes, Varieties.

YELLOW.

Aleppo

74

Broomgirl ...

IG

Alexandria Mnncot

83

Catherina ...

IG

Alexandrian Mnsod

.s:;

Criterion ...

IG

1 Alieantc ...

75

Early Sulphur

IG

Amber Muscadine ...

so

Garibaldi ...

IG

Amiens

80

Gipsy Queen

IG

Aramon

70

Golden BaU

IG

Aspiran

79

Goldlinder . . .

IG

Aspiran lllanc

87

Hair// J mher

17

\ Aucarot

75

High Sheriff

IG

August Frontignan

75

Leader ... ..^

IG

A uvergnat ...

. 81

Leveller

IG

Auverynat Gris

84

VIT,

Auvergne ...

Barbarossa ...

Baxter's Sherry

Bee fVOiseau

Beiirot

Bigvona

P)lack Champion ..

,, C/iasselds ...

,, Chister

,, Conatiditia ...

„ Corinth

,, Damascus ...

,, Froutigiian . . .

,, Fronti'jnac ...

„ HaDibiirgh ...

„ Ilamhro

,, July

., Lisbon

. , Lombard ji . . .

,, Malvasia

,, Morillon

,, Morocco

,, Muscadine ...

,, Muscat el

„ Muscat of Alejrn

,, Palestine

„ Portugal

., Prince

., Spanish

., St. Peter's ..

„ Tripoli . .
Jilatu/uetfe ...
lihissart
lim*oii

llouclaUs ...
])<)Wood Muscat
Jirizzola

Jh'Oicn Ilamhnrgh ...
J Auckland Sweetwater
liurckartlfs Prince
Burger Blanc
liurguiidy ...
Cabernet Franc
Orix
,, Sauvignon
Calabrian Raisin
( -'anon Hall Muscat
Carhinet
Carii'iiane ...

mlrin

75 i

Carmenere... ... ... .

77

75

Carmenet ...

77

75 i

Catalav

77

78 1

,, ... ... ...

82

84 1

Centennial ...

77

78
75

Champion Hamburgh

„ „ Muscat

75

77

70 1

,, Muscat ...

77

75

Chaptal

7JL

84

Charleswortli Tok.-iy

s:>

75

Chasselas Blanc ...

so

75

„ (le Fitutaiueble'tn ^

so

70
7o

,, de Xegrepont

Dore

7S
so

70
70

„ Musqu^ ...

^'oir

77
70

79

„ Panache...

74

75

„ Rose de Fallaux

78

87

,, Ikose Jalabert ...

78

70
75
70
70

„ Rouge

„ Royal

Rogal

„ Vibert

8t
78
85
78

70

Chevrier

sr)

83

Ciotat .

83

75

Cinsaut

78

75

Citron Froiitignan...

78

70

Clairette

78

75

Colwinbier ...

85

75

Corinth BLavc

S7

70

Cornichon . .

78

78

Currant Crape

75

84

Damascus

75

70

Dolcetto

78

80

Doradillo ...

78

70
75

70

Duchess of Buccleugh
Duke of Buccleugh
Dutch Sweetwater...

78
7!)
79

70

Early Ascot Frontignan ...

7!l

75

7;")

„ Black Frontignan ...
n -iuly

,, Chasselas

79
71/
79

i 7

y Keinzheim ...

79

77
77

,, Leipzic
„ Malingre

79
79

/ 7

\ ,, Summer Frontignan

82

77

1 „ Stceet water ...

85

t i

1 „ White Malvasia » ...

79

77

\ Mling

80

VTTT

Kpinette

U

.]fadeleine Blanche de Ma-

h'rbuhfs

^Q 1

lingre ...

79

Ksp((rte

32

Madeleine J^'oir

79

Ksperioiie ...

79

^ladresfield Court Black

Espiran

79

Muscat

81

Finger Grape

78

Malaga

81

Fintindo ...

79

Malbeck

81

Flame-col on 7^1.1 Tokay

87

Maldoux ...

82

Folle Blanc

cSO 1

M(dnisey

83

Forriiirif

80

Malvasia

S2

Fr<nil'eiithii]

76

Malvosle

S'2

Fromentc ...

82

Marocain ...

81

... ... ...

86

Marsaniie ...

82

From en tot ...

84

Mataro

82

Froiitigniin

80

Merlot

82

Frontjgnac...

80

Mescle

84

Furmint ... ... ...

80

Meunier

82

Gamay

80

Miller's Burgundy...

82

Golden Champion ...

80

Miller Grape

82

„ Chasselas ...

80

jUogul

76

„ Hamburgh

80

Mod dense ...

82

Gordo Blanco

8.3;

Mont en se

82

Gouais

80

Morn((s Ch'(sselas ...

79

Goula Blanc

85

Morocco

76

Grenache ...

80

Morrastel ...

82

Grizzly Frontignan

84

Morrillon ...

S'2

Gros (hderriet

,, Blanc ...

84

„ < 'olman

81

Hatif

79

,, Guillaume

81

,, Xoir

25

„ Maroc

81

„ Banache

74

Grosse Panse

83

,, Tacomie...

82

Grove End Sweetimiter

79

Mourisco ...

82

Ifambnrgh Muscat...

77

Moiirr-astel ...

32

Hampton Court ...

76

Mounedre ...

82

Hermitage ...

84

Mrs. Pince's Black Muscat •

82

Ingram's Hardy Prolific ...

81

M(iscadi7ie ...

83

Jean Blanc

78

Muscat

80

Jewii

85

„ Blanc

88

July Grape

79

„ Champion ...

77

Jura Black Muscat

81

,, Citron el I e ...

78

Ladies' Raisin

84

„ d'Aout

75

Lady Downe's

81

„ de Saunier...

82

„ Seedling

81

,, Kscholata ...

83

Lambmscat

82

„ Frontignart

80

Langford's Jncomparahle ...

76

n 5J

79

Listan

83

„ Gordo Blanco

83

Lomhardy ...

87

„ Grec

83

Maccaheo ...*

86

„ Oris

84

Madeira Wine Grape

87

„ llatlf de Sa timer ...

82

TX.

Muscat Hamburgh

83

Uaisln d'Antriche ...

83

,, Miiscitdine . . .

77

„ de Calabre ...

77

„ Xoir

76

„ des Carmes ...

87

„ Xoir de Jur<(

81

„ de Cuba

87

„ of Alexandria

83

„ des Dames ...

iS4

„ of Jerusalem

83

,, de Fronti gnan

S,^

„ Precoce d'Aotlt

79

,, de Panse

83

„ Romawe . . .

83

,, Precoce

79

,, Houqe

84

„ Suisse

74

,, Trove ren ...

86

Red Chasselas

84

Musk Chasselas

77

,, Frontignan ...

84

Xavarre

77

„ Hamburgh

76

Xehhioln

78

„ Hermitage

84

(Ellicule

86

,, Malaga

84

F (destine ...

85

„ Muscadine

84

Palomina Blanche . . .

33

„ Muscat

76

Pause Jaune

83

,, ,, ...

84

Parsley-leaved Chasselas

83

„ Muscatel

76

Passolin<( ...

75

„ Muscat of A lexandria

83

Pedro Ximenes

83

„ Prince

85

Pemiiiiqton Hall Hamhnn

^h 81

,, Rhenish

87

Ferle Blanche

79

„ Taurida

87

Perpignan ...

82

Riesling

85

Persaigne ...

82

I{osse((

75

Petit Cabernet

77

Rouselet

86

Picpouille JjJanc ...

80

Roussanne ...

88

Pinot

83

Rotfssilon ...

80

„ Blanc

87

Royal Ascot

85

,, ,, Chardonay

84

„ Muscadine ...

80

„ Gris...

8i

„ Vineyard

85

„ Meitnier

82

Sauvignon Blanc ...

88

» ^^^oir

75

Sitvoyanne ...

82

Plant d'Arhoi.'i

84

Schiraz

84

,, Dori'

84

Seacliffe Black

81

„ Madame

80

Semillon Blanc

85

'„ Mednc

82

Shepherd's Riesling

85

„ Riche

75

Sherry

85

PlateadiJlt,

78

Shiraz

84

Flateado

78

Snoivs Muscat Hamburgh

83

Pocock'.f Dama.^cns . . .

76

Stoneless Round-berried

87

Poona/t

87

Striped .\fnscadin e...

74

Poulsart

84

Sidtana

87

Precoce Blanc

79

Sweetwater

85

,, de Malirigre

79

Syrian

85

„ .^f usque . . .

82

Terret

86

Prnnelas

86

Thompson's Seedless

^(S

Pulsart

84

Tinto

86

Purple Constantia . . .

84

Tinturier ...

86

,, Fronti gnan . . .

84

Tohiy

80

Tohu/

88

Xeres

85

„ Muscat

77

Zante

75

Tottenham Park Muscat ...

83

Zinfandel ... ... - ...

88

Trammer ...

96

86

Trebbiano ...

„ Bianco ...

86

Grape Pear

93

„ Vero

86

Greedy Scale

264

Trentham Black

86

Green Aphis (Peach)

227

Troveren

86

„ Fly (Pwich)

227

„ Frontignaii

86

„ Gage Plum . . .
,, Gooseberries

321
13

Turners Black

79

Tt/nninghitm Muscttt

76

Grenadilla ...

217

Ugni Blanc
,, Xoir...

86

Grewia asiatica

377

75

Grey Plum...

i)

Ulliade

86

Grosherrn ...

7

„ Noir

86

Ground Nut

251

Variegated Chissela.^

74

Grocer

7

Verdai

79

Grozet

7

Verdal

87

Guabiroba de Mato

95

Yerdeilho ...

87

Guava

94

Verdot

87

Guilieliiv( speciosa ...

213

Vidiire

77

Guin Disease (Citrus)

193

Vitndure ...

77

Gumming (Peach)...

233

Vio let Frontign an ...

84

(Plum)

327

Waltham Cross ...

87

Gunyang ...

134

Wantage ...

87

Hackberry ..

97

West's St. Peter's ...

87

Hancornia ...

97

White Burgundy ...
., Con Stan tia ...

87

11 an cor Ilia .speciosa

97

88

Hardiness of the Citrus

„ Corinth

87

Family

167

,, CuciimhfT ..

78

Hardine.ss of the Grape

20

„ Currant

><7

„ „ „ Pear

255

,, Fronticjiuin ..

88

Hautbois Strawberries

410

„ Hamburgh ...

88

Hawberries

98

., Hermitage ...

88

Haws

98

,, Kishmish ...

87

Hawthorn ..

98

„ Lisbon

88

Hawkmoth

54

,, Malaga

88

Hazel , ...

9S

„ Me I tor

79

Hazel V.\rieties.

„ Muscadine ...

85

,, .Muscat

88

Atla.'i

102

„ -Nice

8S

Aveline de Provence

102

„ Portugal ...

88

Cape Slit ...

102

,, Raisin

88

Cosford

102

„ Riesling

85

Daviana

102

Sauvignon ...

88

Downton ...

102

„ Tokay

88

Durhesf< of Edinburgh

102

Wot'kso]} Manor

75

Duke of Edinburgh

102

Wortley Hall

88

\ Dwarf Prolijic

103

XI.

Eugenia ... 102

Filbert Cob 102

Frizzled Filbert 102

Kentish Cob 102

Lambert's Filbert 102

Merveille de Bollwyller ... 102

Xorwich Prolific ... ... 103

Nottingham Prolific ... 103

Fearsou's Prolijfc ... ... 103

Princess BoyaU ... ... 102

Pm-ple Filbert 103

Purple-leaved ... ... 103

Red Filbert 103

„ ffcuel 103

Sjumish Nut 102

Thill-shelled ... ... 102

Webb's Prize Filbert ... 103

White Filbert 103

Wrotkam Park 103

Heading Back Old Trees

(Peach) 223

Henoki ... ... ... 97

Herbert Vale Cherry ... 103

Hermitage Wine Grapcis ... 90

Hickory ... 104

High-bush Huckleberry ... 109

Hill Gooseberry ... ... 110

„ Strawberry ... ... 380

Himalayan Apple ... ... 105

Hock Wine drapes ... 90

Hog Nut 105

„ Plums 106

Honeyberry ... ... lOG

Honeydew... ... ... 187

Honey Jack 112

Horny Mangosteen ... 125

Hottentot Fig 3

Huckleberry ... ... 106

Hydrusa — 183

Hymeiioi^terous Citrus Pest

Parasites .. ... 188

lljfphcene crinita ... . . 5

„ Thebaica ... 5

Icerija Purchasi ... ... 187

Ichneuman Fly Parasite

(Citrus Scale) ... 183
Imperfect Flowers (Straw-
berry) 381

Indian Fig...

,, Hill Gooseberry ...
,, Mulberry ...

„ Plum

,, Raspberry ...
/n(/a did CIS

„ edulis...
Injurious Fungi (Citrus) ...
„ „ (Grape) ...

„ „ (Peach) ...

„ „ (Pear) ...

„ (Plum) ..
„ (Raspberry)
„ (Strawberry)
Insects (Citrus)...
(Grai^e) ...
«(01ive) ...
(Peach) ...
(Pear) ...
. (Plum) ...
(Raspberry)
(Strawberry)
Italian Mulberry ...
Jack
Jamaica Bull ace ...

„ Ivino
Japanese Medlar ...
,, Mulberry
,, Walnut ...
Jollijfia africana ...
Jiibea spectabilis ...
Jxglans alba

,, Cixeurea ...
,, fraxiui folia

'i^ffr<(

„ regia

,, Sieboldtiaim
,, stenvcarj)i(
Jujube
June Berries
Juniper

Juniper IIS coiir/nunis
„ dmpe.dcce
Kai Apple ...
Kakum Butter

Kola Nut

Kumquat Grange ...
Ladybirds (Useful)
Laijenariii vahjaris

109
!10
139
111
360
126
127
190
^()_
230
264
326
367
393
179
51
155
227
264
324

390
139
112
106
376
119
139
432
416
214
104
430
4^32
430
430
432
430
113
93
115
115
liri
115
126
115
208
189

xii

L6af Blight (Strawberry)...

393

Longevity of tlife Grape ...

26

„ Galls (Peach)

233 1

,, ,, ,, Orange ...

167

„ (Plum)

327 1

., ,, Pear

255

„ Roller (Strawberry) ...

391 1

Long Kod Pruning (Grape)

43

Lecaniii m hemes phericum . . .

230

„ Scale

lcS5

„ hesperidnm

187 1

Loquat

118

Oka

155

Lotus

114

„ pruniosum

32(i

Love Apple

417

Lectfthis oUaria

375 '

Lucuma Cainito ...

378

' ,, tjbucajo ...

375

„ Mammosa

127

Lemon

208

Lijcopersiron av th r( > poplin -

(foriini

418

Lkmon Varieties.

L^t/copersicon cera.si/onne . .

421

Commoii ...

209

,, esculentum ...

417

Eureka

209

,, pyrifovme

421

Genoa

209

Madagajscar Phim ...

HI

Heong Leong
Milk Lemon

209

Madeira Wine Grapes

90

209

Making Candied Peel

197

Lisbon

209

,, Grape Jam

^^

Uough^Lfn}<))i

209

„ Jelly

68

Sicilian

209

Olive Oil

150

Villa Franca

209

Orange Marmalade

197

Wild Lemon

209

„ Wine ...

198

,, Prunes

328

Raisins and Cur-

Lemon (Fijij

210

rants ... ... ...

67

,, (Sweet)

209

Mai di Goma

193

Berry

116

^lammec ...

120

„ Scale

188

„ Apple

121

Leng Nut ...

433

Mammea ayner-icana

120

Lestophowis Iccnja

188

Mandarin Orange ...

208

Lime

209

.Mangaihas ...

97

Lime Varieties.

Mangifera indica ....
Mango

122
121

Adam's Apple

210

Xfangostdii...

125

Persian Sweet Lime

210

Mangosteen

125

Pomme d'Adam

210

Manilla Tamari nd . . .

126

West Lidian

210

Manuring (Citrus)...

171

(Grape)...
(Olive)

51

149

Limonia

117

„ (Strawberry)

386

Limonia acidissima

117

Many-stemmed Mulberry ...

139

,, <tu.sfrolis ...

212

Maori Disease (Citrus)

185

,, .scan dens ...

117

Marmalade Box ...

5

,, tr'folmta...

425

Plum

127

Ling Nnt ...

433

Tree

127

Li-tchi

117

Marmaladinah

127

L^ockstxdia Bidvjillii

57

Mate Mango.stecn ...

126

Longaii

118

Matingola Plum

144

xm.

Maturing Wines ...

73

1 }f(triis papi/rifera ...

140

Medlar

128

,, Pen n sylvan tea

140

Melon

129

,, rubra

140

„ Shrub

133

Moth (Orange)

183

Melanopsidiuui inyriim

127

,, Stick Case ...

190

Melicocca hijngd

iOG

^louldy Root (Grape)

59

.1 hstmhryi (nthem urn < i ci uaci-

Mountain Ash

372

forme ...

3

,, Strawberry

380

Mesemhryanihenmin (xqui-

Mulberry ...

_138

laterale

3

^luscat Crrapes

90

M esemhryanthemwiyi ediile.. .

3

Musk Melon

130

Mespiius canadensis

377

Musky Gourd

22

„ gernianica

128

Must, Condensed ...

74

„ Japonica...

119

Mustang Grape

91

,, mexlcana

98

Myrica

141

Metitra eloitgata ...

190

cerifera

142

Mexican Banana ...

!34

,, cordi/olia ...

142

Mildew, Common (Gni[)e)

GO

^''f'y«

142

(Citrus)

192

„ Gale

142

., Downy ((Jni[)e) ...

59

,, q lie rci folia...

142

(Peach) ... ...

231

,, rnbi'a

142

(Pear)

2G4

,, S((2)ida

142

•, (Plum)

327

,, serrtda

142

,, Powdery (Grnpe)...

00

Myrtle

142

„ (Raspberry)

367

Myrtle-leaved Orange

208

„ (Strawberry)

394

Myrtus edulis

143

Milk Lemon

209

,, incaiia

143

Missel

13o

,, mucronata

143

Mite (Orange Ilust)

185

,, nnmmidaria

143

,, (Pear)

202

,, tomentosa

143

blocker Nut

105

,, Ucjfii

143

Moniordica lufn ...

22

Mytilaspis citricola

185

Monkey Pots

375

Narras ... ..:

143

Monstera ...

130

Natal Plum

144

Moustera deliciosa ...

130

Native Grape

93

Morrett's Mulberry

129

,, Lime

211

)loru}< alba

139

,, Orange

212

„ ,y indica...

139

„ Plum

378

„ J, italica

139

,, Raspberry ...

300

„ „ japovica

139

Nectarine ...

218

,, ,^ lati folia

,, „ }forrettiana ...

139
139

Nectarines, Varieties.

,, „ mulficanlis

139

Albert

240

„ ,, pumilius

139

Balgowau ...

247

„ „ rosea

139

Claremont ...

247

,, ,, sinensis

139

Downton ...

247

,, ,, fortnosa

139

E\xrly Black

247

„ ce/tidi/olia ...

UO

Newington ...

247

,? '^i^ra

139

„ Violet

251

XIV

Elruge

247

Oleo frar/rai's

Hampton dntr/. ...

251

,, mff'txt ...

. . .

Hard wick ...

24«

Olive

Hunt's Tawny

248

,, Culture as ai

I Industry

Iniperatrice

248

„ Oil ...

..

Lord Napier

248

,, Pickling

. . . . . .

Lmonibe's ^e dlimj...

24()

, , Scale

. . .

Newington...

248

Olives, \

"AlilETlE-S

Oatlaud's ...

247

Old Xemnyton

248

Acq'dUo

. .

,, Roman

249

A lamcno . . .

Pine- Apple ...

241)

AmpoidUan

,.

Pitmaston Orange . . .

249

Angulosa . . .

...

Prince of Wales

249

Argentata ...

..

Red Rovian

249

Atrorubens...

..

Pxivcrs' Orange

249

Atroviolacea

„ White

249

Atrovirens ...

. . .

Roman

249

Blauquette ...

..

Hough Roman

248

Botedlaii ...

..

Smith's Xewin (jlo n

248

Botiniere . . .

..

Spriiiggrove

247

Caillet Blanc

..

Stan wick ..

249

, , Kougc

..

Elruge ...

249

Carrasquena

Victoria

249

Cayon

..

Violet A romalic

251

,, ...

Violette Grosse

249

Ca gone re ...

..

Hativc ...

251

Ceretocarpa

..

WUliaim Oranfje ...

249

Colchonuaa
Columella ...

..

Cornaud ..

..

Negro Peach

144

Cornezuelo ...

..

Xrpkeliiim lop2)aceum

iJaS

Corniaud ...

..

,, Li-tchl ...

117

Cornicahra...

..

,, Longaniuit

118

Corregiolo . . .

...

,, pinnatwm

o:)i^

Cotigncvc . . .

xV i eiiieyeru pru n ifera

Coiirgnalt ...

..

Nonda Tree

(i

Doiicel

A^ovius JieLlns

189

Empeltre . . .

,, Cardiwdis ...

189

Fetudilia ...

Nut Weevil

\m

Fiqanier ...

Oak Chestnut

145

£ runtcbjo ...

..

Oidium

GO

Gtdliiigue ...

•

, , Tuckerii . • .

60

Gordai

. . .

Oil of Bergamot . . .

167

Grassago . . .

.. Citron

167

Hispalensis

. . .

,, Lejnon

197

Javalunu . . .

..

„ Neroli

167

La>irine

Oleander fScale

J55

Lecldn

..

Olea euro pea

14G

Laques

. .

XV.

Laqitoise
.NEacrocarpa
MndrHeiio ...

Maiizanillo...
Marhree
MarvoiUetta
Maxima

UoradiUo ...

Nevadillo Blanco ...
Negro ...
Ol)loiiga
Ocal

OjibUtnco ...
Ojillo de Liebre ...
Ojo de LAehre
Oliviere
OJivo Lucio
Alorcal

Ovalis
Piirdigiiiere
Pendouliere
Pendulina ...
Picholin
l*icuda
l^/gttle
Figun

Plant de la Fane ...
,, ,, Salon...
Poiiitu
Polymorpha
Pomiformis
Pruneaii de Cotignac
Fun('hud(( ...
Racinial
Rapanier ...
liapugette ...
Raymet
Redoiidillo ...
Redouan de Cotignat
Regalis
Bihieii
Rostrata
Roiiget
Rougette
Rubicaiis ...
Rubra Caillon

157

157

157

160

164

164

157

158

164

158

160

160

1.57

157

158

160

160

160

158

158

158

160

157

160

l<i0

160

160

164

164

160

160

157

160

160

160

157

100

160

160

160

160

157

160

160

160

160

164

1(54

164

Saliere
Sanrine
Saverne
Sevilano
Uvaria
Varal Blanco
,, Negro
Variegata . . .

Verdal

Verdaii

Verdial

Oncoscelf's .vdciventris
Opuiifia Ficiis-wdica
„ Txirta

Vulgaris ...

Orange

Aphis

Boring Beetle

Bronze Beetle

Fruit Beetle

Moth

Rust ]y[ite...

Scale

1.57
160
]57
160
164
164
164
164
164
164
164

181
110
110
109
164
180
181
181
181
183
185
185

Sweet Or.vnces, Varieties.

Ad<(ms Apple

Alsop'.s Gem

Bahia

Blood

C^aprera

(fluster

Common ...

Exeter

Federation ...

Frontignan

Holdfast ...

Holroyd's ...

Jaffa

Joppa

Majorca

Malta

Navel

New Caledonian ...

Parramatta

„ Seedling

Pearce's Gem
Pomme d'Adam ...

203
109
202
201
199
203
199
199
199
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
202
202
203
203
203
203

XYI.

Portugal ...

203

Pappea

216

Pye's Early Acme...

203

Pappea Ca])e7isis ... ...

216

„ Late „

203

Parasites of Scale Insects . . .

188

Queen

203

Parinarimn exceJsum

5

Ribbed

203

„ macrophyUiim

5

Rio

203

PannaHum iwnda

6

Satsuma ...

203

Pa.t.<t?yfora alata ...

217

Siletta

203

„ Decaisnicma

217

St. Michael's

205

,, eduJis ...

216

Sugar

205

,, la nri folia

217

Tahiti

205

,, macrocarpa

217

Tangerine ...

205

„ mucronata

217

Valencia ...

206

,, pedata ...

217

Washino-ton Navel

206

,, quadrangidaris...

217

White

200

„ tili folia...

217

Bitter Oranges, Varieties. ^

^Passion Fruit

216

Peach

218

Bigaradicir S(ws Grains ...

208

„ Aphis

227

China

207

„ Borers

229

Common Seville ...

207

„ Curl

230

Poor Man's

207

,, Mildew

231

Navel Seville

208

,, Palm

213

Seedle.ss ...

208

„ Rust

231

Mandarin Oranoes, Varieties.

„ Vellows

233

Canton

208

Emperor ...

208

Peaches, Varieties.

Thorny

208

Ahricotee ...

240

Alexander's Early

237

Oregon Gooseberry

7

Alexandra ...

237

Orleans Plum

321

Alexandra Xohlesse

237

Otiorynchus picipes

367

American Earlij Nevnngton

39

„ sulcatiis

393

Amsden's June

237

„ tenehncostis . .

393

Apricot Peach

246

Packing Citrons ...

190

Avant

241

„ Grapes

66

Barrington...

237

„ Lemons ...

195

Barton's Newington

237

„ Limes

196

Bellegarde ...

237

„ Mangos ...

123

Belle de Till emont

237

„ Oranges

195

„ Vitry

239

„ Pears

266

Briggs' Red May ...

237

,, Plums ...

328

Buckingham Mignonne

237

Pallilas

212

Chancellor ...

240

Palmetta ...

2U

China Peach

241

Palms with Edible Fruits..,

212

, Comet

2.S7

Palmyra ...

213

Conkling ...

237

Papaw

215

Cooledge's Favourite

237

„ Apple

215

Crawford's Karly ...

237

Paper Mulberry

140

„ Late

238

XVII.

Dagmar

J)eardoii's Seedling
Desse Tardire

I>r, Hogg

J Juke of Edinburgh
Early Admirable ...

„ Albert

,, Anne

„ Beatrice

,, Iliad-

,, Boil relive

,, Crawford ...

, , German

,, Grosse Mignonne

„ MalecoUm ...

,. Newington ...

,, ^eimngtoii Cliugston

,, Picrple

,, Furj^le

,, Red liarefipe

,, Rivers
►Silver

. , Victoria

,, Vinef/ard

„ York
Exquisite ... ...

Flat China...

For sterns Karly

Foster

French Maqdalen ..

,, Mignonne ...
„ Royal (Jeorge
Oalande
Golden Mignonne ...

„ Bareript
Gold Fleshed
Green Xatnieg
Griffiths' Mammoth
Gros Malecotoii
Grosse Miu-noiine ...
Haines' Early Red
Hales' Early
JaiHi reach
Judd's Melting
Few Fj((rly Purple
Lady Palmerston ...
L(( Royal e ...
Large Newington ...
Late Admirable

238 I Lord Fancouherg^s
238 I „ Montague^ ...'

238 j „ A>/6'o?i'.v

239 j „ Palmerston ...
239 I Lemon Clinj^-stone
•339 I Madeleine de Coiirson
239 I „ R.onge ...

239 I Magdala

239 ! Mellisk's Favourite
247 Mignonne Ilative ...

245 Monstrueuse de Done
237 Xevniigton ...

241 Noblesse ...

239 Xoir de MontreuH...

237 Oldmixon Cling-stone

239 Old Newington ...
24G Orange Cling-stone

240 Or(()ige Peach

241 : Orchard Qjif^^n
237 I Pa vie de Pompone

239 } „ Monsfriftux ...
"239 j „ Rouge

2+0 I Fich(^ Royale
241 I Pic^uets Late

240 ! Prince .)f Wales ...

240 Princess of Wales ...

241 Purple Alherye ...
241 lied Italian

241 „ Magdale)!

244 Reine des Vergers...

241 Royal Charlotte ...

237 ,, Gpoi-ge

237 „ „ Cling-stone

240 „ Kensington ... »

246 ,, Sovereigti
'24(5 Sahvay

2.39 Shanghai

24G Smith's Newington
243 Stump the World ...

241 i Superb

241 ,, Malecotoii

241 ,, Royale

241 Susquehanna

24 I Vanguard ...

241 Violete U alive

241 Walburton Admirable

241 Waterloo

242 , Whatmough's March
241 Yellow Admirable...

xvin

Yellow Alberge

246 I

BelUssime ...

312

„ Italian

l>46

Bellissime d'Hiver. . .

271

jj

de Provence

305

Bergamot ...

269

Pea Nut

Pear

251
253

Bergamotte d'A vra n ekes . . .
,, Crassane

300

286

„ Bollwiller

253

d'Esperen . .

Fievee ...

271

„ Mildew

2G4

292

„ Mite

202

d'Hiver

290

„ Sand

253

"

Lucrative

2 '.»•_'

„ Scab

264

Tardive

290

„ Scale...

264

Thouin

313

„ Slug

262

Beurrt

'd'Albret

29e

,, Snow

253

»

d'Amanlis ...

271

Pkars, Vapjktiks.

V

Anglaise
d'Anjou

290
272

Ahhe Mongeln

308

.,

d\4premont

27:*»

A chin

281

J1

d''A7\indore

300

Alhertine ...

286

»J

dWremherg

273

Alexandre Bivort ...

268

d'Anjenson..^

304

Altliorp Crasanne ... ...

269

?5

de TAs-somption . . .

273

Ananas

269

n

A Ui'ore

274

Artanafi dC Ete ... ...

269

Autien

302

Ammas cVlIiver

304

)>

Ijerckman's

273

Anfierson ...

308

79

Blanc

31 I

A rbre Snperhe

292

J9

de Bois

29 1

Aston Town

269

5>

de Borgogue

291

A^LfpiM de Maraise

278

>J

Bosc

273

„ Van Kr((ns

305

}>

Brettonean

271

Autumn Bergamot

269

M

de Brignais

274

Autumn Colmar ...

270

,,

Bron-ee

291

Baronne de Mello .

270

5>

Burchardt ...

273

Iliirtlett

312

J5

de Camhron

294

Bean Present

297

5?

de Capiaumont

274

Belle AUidrice

280

59

Cartel

285

,, Attdriernie

310

7>

de Chftumontel

284

„ <le Herri

310

M

Clairgeau ...

274

,, de Bois

291

?9

Cohnar Oris

304

„ d^ Equertnes ...

297

99

Davif

291

„ de F I and res ...

291

99

Defais

274

„ lleloise

310

J'

Deschamps ...

273

,, de Jersey

308

99

Diel

274

„ Julie...

271

')

Drapiez

:i07

„ Lucrative

292

99

d'Klherg

29 1

„ Noisette

271

99

Epine

279

„ Tongue

312

99

de Flandre...

271»

„ Vierge

297

de Fontenay

276

„ de Zees

282

99

Froidard ...

291

Bell Pear

284

99

Gens

307

XJX.

Beurre GifFard

^llb

Bolivar

Goubalt

'21b

Jion Chi'etien d'A utomue

J)

Oris

283

Bon Chretien Fondante .

} t

Gris iVUivtr

276

d'Hiver

Gris d'Hiver Noveau

276

,, ,, XapoUou

j»

Gri8 Superior

276

de Tours

iVIhimptienvt

298

Bon Fapa...

,,

de Hardenpont

294

IJoune d'Ezee

V

Hardy

276

„ (/' Hais

)J

(.VUiver

279

,, de Lorujueval

(I Hiver

284

,, Rouge

51

hicomparahU

274

., de Zees

de Joiighe ...

276

Braddick's Field Standa

rd

,,

<le Kent

294

British Queen

,.

de Koniiig...

278

Broc((s Bergamotte

Langelier ...

278

Brockwortii Park ...

Lomb((rd ...

294

Broom Park

de Lucoti ...

276

Brown Beurre

.,

Magnifiqut

274

Calebasse Bosc

Magiiijiqiie ...

286

>? )) • • •

, .

de Malines ...

:',13

, , Grosse

?>

de M erode ...

286

„ d' /liver

J»

de Nantes ...

279

„ Rot/ale

1)

Xaidms

279

,, Sterckmuu''s

iVapoleo)! ...

302

„ Vasse

de Faris ...

297

Cape Ptar ...

„

Plat

286

Catillac

.,

Pi quern

307

Charles Frederic ...

Quetetet

285

Chartreuse ...

,,

Uaiice

279

Chaumontel

de RoqiU'8 ...

290

Chinese

,,

Hose

273

Citron des Carmes

,,

lioiiije

283

,, dc Septembre

.,

Roupe

290

ClairyeaiL de Nantes

1}

Royal

274

Clapp's Favourite ...

.,

Soule

•J88

Clio7h

,,

S pence

lMU

Col mar Bonnet

}J

iSterckman's

280

„ Deschanips

St Amour...

291

Dore

J)

St. Nicholas

289

, , E'pineux . . .

5>

Superfin

280

„ d' Hardenport

.,

Van Mons ...

•270

„ d'Hiver

Vert

274

„ deliver ...

>;

de Waterloo

28?

Cornice de Toulon ...

liisliop'a Thumb ...

2S()

Compte de Flandre

Black

Aclian

281

„ „ Lamy ...

,,

Hess ...

281

Comtesse de Frernd

*>

Heiirrc

olO

Couniug

Bloodgood ...

281

Conseillor de la Cour

XX.

Crassane ...

,, d' Aiitomiie
/)\\ ur/alsse
l)e Jlamif ...

I)e Conick

f)e Jersej/ ...
Delavault ...
f)e Ton ff res
Den Nonnes
DeSt Marti,,

Dial

JJiamant ...

Dingier

Double Vhillippe ...

Downham Seedling

Doyenne d^ A I en con

,, Boussock..,

„ du Cornice

,, Defais

„ d'Ete

,, d'lliver

,, de J nil let...

„ Marbre . . .

,, Robin

„ Sterckman's
Dr. Brettoneau
Dr, Nelis ...
Due d^A reviber/j . . .
Due d' Orleans

Duchesse

Duchess

Duchesse d'Anf/ouleme
,, de I Jerri ...
J) „ d'Ete

„ ,. de Nante

,, d'Hiver ...
„ d'Orleaii« . . .

Durandeau...

Early Chanmontel . . .

Easter Ben r re

Emile d'Hejst

English Bergnmot . . .

Eye wood ...

Figue

Fi(jae d\i lencon
,, d^ J liver ^ ...
,, de Naples ...

Fig Fear of Xnples

286

313
270

278
300
312

281>
274
313
298
204
28.)
287
•205
21)0
280
28/'
287
287
•J90
287
270
288
280
274
288
273
285
280
288
312
288
280
280
280
289
280
289
284
290
200
200
200
312
295
205
201
201

Flat HnHer

Elemisli Beauty

Florehcc d' Kie

Fondaiite d'Automuc
,, de Mous...-

Fontena,/ Vendee ...

Forelle

Fourcroij ... ' . . .

Frederic de Wurtenibiirg

Gaiisel's. Bergamot.. .

General Todtleben .

German Baker

Gloii Morceau

Golden Benrrt-

Grand Mogul

,, Mo/t'irqiie ...

Gratoili

Green Cliisel

Grey Beurre
,, Ach<(n

Gros Figue... ...

Grosse Jargonelle . . .
„ Marie

Gurles Benrre

Hacon's Incompaiable

J /uy she's Bergamo*
,, J^rince Consort
,, Prince of Wales
„ Princess of Wales
,, Victoria . .

Inconuue Van Mon.s

Ives' Bergamot

Jalousie de Fontenay
! Jargonelle ...

Jean de Witte
I Jolimoid ...
i Josephine de Malines
I Kieifer

Kiefers Hybrid ...
,, Fear

King of Wurtemberg

Knight's Monarch...

Large Sugar
I Leojiold the First ...

L'Incounue
! UOrphelhte

Louise ])onne of Jersey

Louis d' Orleans

Madame Cole

XXI.

Madame Eli/.e

oOO

Shaksi^eare

305

A7^;..

300 1

Snoiv Pear...

311

Henri J)e.s|)ortt;s...

301

Soldat Esperen

305

Trcyvc

301

„ Laboureur ...

305

M<(</e/eh/e ...

284

Souvenir du Congress

305

Ver/ ...

21)0

„ de Madame Treifve

301

Magdalen ...

284

Spanish Bon Chretien

305

Mareckal de la Cour

28-3

Spanish Warden ...

305

Marie Chrelieum' ...

301 1

Sprincf Beurre

^0^

„ Louise

-301 '

Staunton

294

,. „ Del court

301 i

St. Jean Baptiste ...

285

„ „ A'or7

285

St. Lambert

297

„ tl'Ucclc ...

3U2

St. Michael Archangel

305

„ NouveHe

303

St. Michael d'lliver

27(i

MedailletrOr

21i4

St. Nicholas

289

Millot de Nancy ...

302

St. Samison

297

Monardi ..

208

Sucree Doree

:i02

Monsieur le Cure ...

310

Summer Bell

312

Napoleon ...

302

Summer Beurre d'Aremberg

305

yapoleou d'lliver ...

302

„ Bou Chretien

305

Nelis d'Hiver

313

„ Dof/enne ...

287

Xe Plus Meuris ...

272

„ Portugal ...

303

Ne Plus Meuris

303

Swan's Egg

306

Xeiv York lied Cheek

305

Sweet Summer

297

Xun^s Pear

274

Tardif demons

306

Paradise d'Automne

303

Tadive de Toulouse

289

Passans de Portugal

303

Teton de Venus

271

Passe Colmar

304

Theodore Van Mons

307

Passe Colmar Francois ...

298

Thompsons

307

Peach Pear...

304

Triomphe de Jodoigne

307

Pickerings Wdrden

308

Trout Pear

292

Pitmaston Duchess

304

Urbaniste ...

307

Pitmaston Dnchessr d' Anr/ouleom

' 304

Uvedale's St. Germain

308

Poire de Berriays

304

V<iv Donekelaar ...

301

„ Chenille

303

Vandyck ...

305

„ (xiffard

275

Van Mon's Leon le Clerc ...

309

,, Gouhalt

275

„ de Weyer Bates

309

,, Guillaume ...

312

Vermillind'Ete

294

y des Nonnes ...

274

Verulam ...

310

„ Peche

304

Vicar of Winkfield

310

Pound Pear

284

Warwick Bergamot

311

Prin cess Marian ne...

303

White Butter

311

„ de Parmc

301

White Doyenne

311

Red Butter

283

WilUam the Fourth

300

Koi de Rome

302

\ Williams' Bon Chretien . . .

312

Rousselet de fStut^^aidt

305

Windsor ...

312

Sand Pear ...

305

Winter Bell

30H

Saffran d'A nto nin e

305

( .. Beurre

281

deckle

;J05

i ., Beurre

284

xxn.

Winter Bon Chretien

313!

Xew lliphy

317

„ Colo

313

Old Uneen

:n8

„ Nells

313

„ Hipley

318

„ Duchess

289

Pitch Lake

318

York licrgu mot

269

Prickly Caijenuc ...

318

Zepheiin Gregoire

314

Providence...

317

105

Queen

Ripley ...

„ Queen

318

Pecan Nut...

318
318

Pekea Nuts

378

Roudi-leaved Cayenne

318

,, biUri/osa

378

O J

Smooth-leaved Cayenne ...

318

„ tube renin id...

378

St. VitictnVs Cockscomb

317

Perfect Flowers (Strawberry)

381

Trinidad

318

Pernicious Scale ...

264

White Providence ...

317

Peronos/>or<i viticola

o9

Perry

255

Persian Walnut

482

Pine-Apple Strawberry

380

Persica vulgaris

219

Piquillin ...

318

Persoonia ...

4

Pistachio Nut

319

Peruvian Cainito ...

378

Pistacia vera

319

l*hi\odetidron pertumm

136

Pistillate Flowers (Straw-

l*hmnixfarinfera ...

214

berry)

382

,, reclineatum

214

Plum

319

,, st/lvestris ...

214

Curculio

325

Photinia eriobotrya

119

,, Juniper

115

Phf//I<(ntkus cicca ...

413

„ Weevil

325

Phylloxera...

,, vastatruf

54
54

Plums, Varieties.

Phsolospora BidivUlii . .

57

Abricot Vert

340

Phytoptus (tleivorus

185

A Id'^rton ...

351

pyi'^

262

.! Itesse Blanche

352

Pickling Olives

151

Angelina Burdett ...

330

Pierardia dulcis ...

358

A utnmn Beauty ... ..^

331

,, sapida ...

358

„ Compote...

330

Pigeon Plum

314

Ilavay^s Green Gage

348

Pina

315

Belgian Purple

330

Pine- Apple

314

Belle de Septembre

331

Pi:^E- Apples, A'ARiETiKrt.

Blue Imperatrice ...

333

,, Perdrigon

333

Barbadoes Queen ...

317

,, Superb

333

Black Antigua

317

Bolmar

351

„ Jamaica

317

Botan

333

Brazil

317

Bradford Gage

340

Brown Antigua

317

])raliy's Green Gage

333

Charlotte Rothchild

317

Jlrignole ...

352

Conimou Queen

318

Bryanston's Green Gage ...

333

Enville

317

; Burbank ...

333

Lemon Queen

317

, Bfvr^uinly Prune ...

335

^lonsterat ...

317

, Caledonian

339

XXTTT.

Chabot

333 (

Ida Gage ...

340

Cherry

333

Inipera trice Eugenia

333

Chinese Apricot Flam

348

Imperial Blanche ...

351

Cloth of Gold

335

„ Diadem ...

33r)

Coe's Golden Drop

333

» Gage

340

„ Late Red

334

„ de Milan

340

Czar

335

„ Purple Egg

348

D'Agen

;:;35

„ Violet

U%^

Dawisk-

337

Isle worth Gage

340

l)e Montfort

335

Italian IVune

342

Denniston's Superb

335

,, Quetsche ...

342

Deiii/ers Victoria ...

351

Japan I'lood Phnn

348

Oiamond ...

335

Jefferson ...

343

Diaper

335

JodoiLTiie Green Gtige

34 3

DiaplKOie ...

351

July Gn-fn Gage ...

343

Diapre Rouge

335

Kelsey

.343

Drapd'Or

335

Kefisers Plum

340

Early Favourite ...

33 >

Kirke's

343

Green Gacje ...

335

Late P)]ack Imperial

343

„ Mirabelle^

337

., „ Orlean!^

343

„ Orleans

337

„ Rivers

343

,, J^rolijic

.3:;7

Liegel's Apricot ...

343

„ Rivers

337

Maitre Claude

352

,, liKssiaii

337

McLaughlin

345

,, Scarlet

333

Mirahelle Grosse ...

335

Egg Phwi ...

351

,, Precoce...

337

Fellemherg...

:U2

Miser Plum

333

Florence ...

348

Mifechelson's ....

344

FonthiU

346

Myroholan ...

333

Fotheringay

337

Sew Orleans

337

Fotheringham

337

Orleans

340

Franklin ...

351

Onllins Golden

.346

French Prune

337

, , Gage

340

General Hand

337

Parkin's Mammoth

351

Saigo

337

Peach

346

German Prune

337

Perdrigon Blanc ...

352

Gloire de Xeiv York

340

Pershore

346

C olden Drop

333

Phillip J

351

Esperen

338

Pond's Prolijlc

346

Gage

333

„ Seedling

346

Goliath '

339

Prince Englebert ...

346

Green Oage

340

Prime d'Agen

335

Grimi.cood\'< Orleans

337

,, d' Aste

335

(rrove Hot) se Purple

337

1 „ d'Ente

335

Guthrie's Late Green Gaue

340

,, de Milan ...

340

Hampton Court ...

337

Purple Gage

346

FTuling's Superb ...

340

„ Magnum lionum ...

348

Hungarian Prune...

34 G

Queen Claudia

340

ickwortli Imperatricc

340

Quetsche

337

XXIV.

Red Damask

3 in

y el toy Damasl'

3.35

,, Diaper

:5:^o

Imperatrice

352

„ K9£f

;u.)

Magnum Boni(m ..

351

,, M((gnum Bonmti

:U8

,, Perdrigon ...

335

Reiiie Claude

:U0

:14-8

de Bavay

Berger

;;i(;

Pomegranate

352

de Bralnj

.">3:^

Pomelo w ... .:.

•>n

,, ., Diaphane

351

Pompelmou'n

211

Hdtive

33.5

Pomplemn.s

211

Precoce

34G

Pompolpon...

211

Vlolette

346

Port Wine (Irapes...

90

Victoria

348

Pourridie ...

59

River !< Karh/ Favourite

335

Powdery Mildew (Grapej ..

60

„ AV, f

335

Preserving Grapes...

66

jtobe de Sargent ...

348

Prickly-fruited Gooseberry

7

Uotherhahi

352

„ Pear

109

liof/al IJaujtkiite ...

348

Principal Forms of Pears .

267

Satsuma ...

348

Pritch -irdia filifera

214

Semiaro

342

Protecting the Emit o

f

S/iarp's J'J7)iper()r ...

351

Strawberries ...

388

Sheen

:537

Protecting Vines from Frosi

i 44

Silver Prune

348

Prunes

328

Simoni's Plum

348

Pj-unns aniericana...

320

Standard of England

348

„ angusti folia

320

Sfeer'.'i Emperor

339

„ hokharensis

320

St. ( 'atherine

337

,, cera.<iifera ...

320

,, Clond ...

339

,, Ohicasa

320

„ Erienne

340

,, demissa

320

,, Martin...

334

,, domestica ...

320

Rouge...

334

„ insititia

320

„ Martin's Quetsclie

3.^0

,, maj'itinia ...

320

Sultan

3.50

„ niyrohoh(na

320

Sweet Prime

337

per sic; I

219

Transparent nage...

351

,, Simon i

320

Van Mon's J led . .

331

„ spinosa

320

Victoria

351

,, sahcorda^a ...

320

Violet Gage

346

Psidivm acidnm ...

95

Virginian C It err// ...

333

,, araca

95

Washington

351

,, arbor emn...

95

White Egg

351

,, Cattle ;/aau7n

94

., Holland

351

,, Chrttiiaphi/tliim ..

95

,, Imperial

351

„ cinereum, ...

96

Magnum Boniim

351

,, cordatnm ..

96

,. Mogul

35,

., cmieatum

96

Perdrigon ...

352

,, grandi folium

96

]Vilmot\< Orleans ...

337

„ incane.^cens

96

., Late Orleans

330

,, lineatifolitirn.

96

Winesour

352

\ ,, malifoliinn

96

XXV

Pndiiim poli/carpoii

1)6

fjfirlet/

371

Pomt/eriim

95

Carter's Prolific

369

,, piii'itfiriiin

95 i

Corini'<'IPfi Vrolific... ...

368

,, rufiim

96

,, Vellow ...

369

/\<i/lla tr>/j'incfaf(( ...

365

Cusliing

36i»

ricrocin-f/a fraxiiiifolia

4:33

Dov.bl"-he({r'i.inj YeUoir

372

,, atenoptfra

480

FastoU"

369

rnrchivi pruni

232

FiJhy

:*,69

l*!nn[)kiii ...

17

Fraiicoiiia ...

3«;9

Pimeala Plum

111

French

372

l*nnic(i gr^inatam . .

352

Knevett's Giant ...

37i»

I'nrple-tinwered Raspberry

360

Large Moidhhi

37 1

1 'urple Gviava

94

„' Bed...'

368

„ Scale

185

Late Hearing

371

Piirus aria

262

Lord Exmo lit h\^

36s

,, <inciipi(ria ..■

262

Xaonii

809

., aiiricularis ...

253

Northurnberlaiid Filbasket

870

,, iUAlwyUeriaiia

253

October Red

370

,, rommurtts

253

Yellow

370

,, (Jf/donin

354

Oranqt

368

. , domesttca ...

376

Prince of Wales ...

370

,, germam<'(i ...

128

Red Antwerp

371

,, iiicdlis

253

River's Monthly ...

371

., Polveria

253

Ragen^' Victoria ...

372

,, Sangninea ...

377

Semper Fidelis

371

,, Siuert.'iif!

263

Vice President French

371

„ Sorb II s

376

Victoria

372

,, ti)Tiilliiol h^ ...

376

Yellow Antwerp ...

372

Quiektlioni

98

White Antweri)

372

Quince

354

Cider

855

Black Cap Raspberries,

Vai:m:-

Jam

355

TIES.

„ Jelly

355

Kaekiiig ott" Wine

72

American Black ...

372

liamlmtaii ...

328

Autumn Black

372

Iwimleli

358

\ Black Cap Rasiiherrif

372

li'ainpo^/aif

358

„ Rasphemj ...

372

ilaspberry ...

359

Catawissa ...

372

,, lluKt ...

368

Large Miami

372

Weevil

367

Mammoth Cluster ...

372

1 \fcCor)tn<'l'

872

Kasi'P.kimmks, Vaimeties

Miami

372

i Monthly Black Cap

373

A mazon

:im

Ohio Everbearing . .

373

Barnet

868

Philadelphia

373

Belle de Fontenay

368

1 Seneca

373

,, d'Orl^aii.s-

368

368

1

1

„ de Indian

1

1

Brinckle's Oraiiiie.,.

368

i Red Filbert

99

XXVT.

Red Gooseberries ...

12

Unhus JVvtbini'.s ...

,, Guava

95

occidentali.s- ...

„ Mulberry

UO

odoratus

., Scale

187

opnlifolius ...

llenioval of Runners (Straw-

,, parvifohus ...

berry) ...

;i8i

,. phQ=nico/(fsly-^

Renewal of Plantations

reticiilatvs ...

(Strawberry) ...

:i87

rosi/oh'vx

Requirements of the Citi-us

ruf/osii.s

Family

1G8

specfabii/s

llhiiiaria perdrix ...

:VJ]

, . stTfiyovfM

RliAzobiiis ..

189

trivia lis

Uh<xio))i(/7tns t omen torn

111

,, iirsiiiiLK

Rhus integrifolia ...

110

Itust Mite (Orange)

,, ovata...

no

,, (Peach) "...

,, trilohafa

M6

„ (Plum)

Jiihes C(fnosbaf<(

7

,, (Rasijberry) ...

„ (Uvaricofmn ...

7

,'. (Strawberry)...

,, (/7'ossii lid-in ...

T)

Rf/nchcenus nenuphar

,, hirtellnvi

t

>Sa b(J B lackbu rn ia n a

,, Menziesii

7

y itmbramiUfera

,, iiiveum

7

Salmon Berry

, , ox (/can thoii hs

7

Sand Graj>e

,, <inerceforwM ...

i

., Pear

„ I'otiindifnlii ...

7

„ Plum

Ringing the Bearing Shoots

Sappan

(Grape)

19

Sapodilla Plum

River Grape

92

SajHita

liock Grape

92

Sa]mcaia Nut

„ Melon

129

Sa ) xoclieplta 1 n.s esculen t nt^

Root Gout Peadi)

233

Sauterne Wine Grapes

,, Funijus (J^each)

231

Scale (Citrus)

„ (Plum)

:'.27

„ (Peach)

Rose Coloured Mulberry ...

139

„ (Pear)

Rough Lemon

209

„ (Plum)

„ Plum

<5

Scar]<'t Strawbei-ry

Rowan Tree

376

Scotch Myrtle

livhns deliciosKs ...

360

Sci/taiia Rambntaii

,, ellipticiis

360

Sea Side Grape ...

,, ffavKs

300

SeJandria cerasi

., G€Ouk.S'

.3<;i

Service

Giinni<nvis ...

360

Berry

,. Iinvieiiaifi

301

Seville Orange

, /dams

:i')9

Skadbusli ...

imjjeriali.s ...

361

Shaddock ...

,, lasiocarptis ...

860

Shagbark Hickory...

,, leacodermis ...

;i59

Shelbark Hickory ...

„ macropetahia

360

Sherbet Shrub

,, MollucaniLs ...

360

Sherry Wine Grapes

XXVIT,

Short Spur Pruning (Grapt

.) 43

Sterculia acuminata

115

Showy Raspberry ...

359

, . ixirtluigineiisis

116

Shrubby Tomato ...

422

„ nohilis ...

116

Sideroxj/lon austrnle

374

,, qiiadrijida

116

Silver Disease

327

,, ureiis

116

„ Striped Hawk Moth

54

Stick Case Moth .

190

Simmoddsia califorvico

6

Storing Granges ...

195

Siphonosphora aurantii .

180

,, Lemons ...

. 1115

,, citrif»lii

180

„ Pears

26b

Sloe

320

Strawberry...

379

Snowy Mespilus ...

377

Beetle...

301

Snow Pear...

253

,, Brand...

395

Soft Orange Scale...

187

Leaf Blight

393

Solanum jEthiopicKm

134

Pear ...

100

71 ^^

421

Rust ..

395

,. betaceiun . . .

422

Tiles ...

388

,, edule

134

Tree ...

412

,. .; ...

421

„ Vases ...

389

fjiiatamaleiise

133

Weevil

393

'Gilo

134

, , jj ...

421

Strawberries, V^ari

KTIES.

,, 1 }/copersicon

421

♦

macrocdipum

134

Aberdeen Seedling...

395

Plumiera

134

Admiral Dundas ...

395

quitoense...

134

Ajax

395

,, ...

422

Black Imperial

395

xiaymhifolium

134

„ Prince

395

torvum

134

Bouled'Or

397

•1 5J

422

British Queen

397

Solcmvm topiro

134

„ ,, Seedling

405

„ uporo

42^

Captain

398

J, vescum

134

Carolina Su[>erba ...

398

Sooty P>]ight

192

Cockscomb

398

Sore Shin ..

193

Compte de Paris ...

398

Souari Nut

377

Cr(/.st(f/ Fa lace

400

South African Wild Plum.

216

CnfhilVs Vviiiccss J!ni/al .

405

Sp'icelonm (i.mpe'inuvi

57

Deptford Pine

398

Spanish Bayonet ...

135

l>i'. Hogg

398

ISpondios Cyiheria...

106

Due de Malakotl" ...

398

„ diilcix

413

Duchesse de I'remsc

408

„ lutea

106

Duke of Edinburgh

.390

„ mwitpfera

105

Edith

399

,, purpurea...

106

Eleanor

400

Sponge Gourd

22

Elton

400

Spur Pruning (Grape)

43

Elton Pine

400

Squash

22

Filbert Pine

400

Squaw Bush

116

Frogmore Late Pine

400

Star Apple...

378

Garibaldi ...

480

tStenantherd pinifoUu

417

Gennantowu

400

XXV 11 J

(roliatli ...

lOU

Iluvcy'.s »Scedliiig ...

100

Jn^ravi'x J'rincc Arthur ...

40.-)

.raines A'eitch

-to I

John Powel

401

Jucunda ...

40L>

Keen's Seedling

40l^

Kitley's

400

KnigMs Priucesg "/ Wa^es

40(3

La Chalonnaise

402

„ Constaiite

402

,, Marguerite

404

,, Reine ...

402

Mammoth ...

402

Margueri tt;

404

May (^ueen

404

Jft/atfs I'JIiza

404

'„ Prolific ..

404

,, Seedling ...

400

Noble

404

Omar Pucha

404

Oscar

404

Pioneer

404

Premier

405

President ...

40.5

Prince Artluir

405

Princess Koyal

405

of Wales

406

Piitlcman ... ... '

406

III VI (I Queen

404

lloyal Sovereign ...

407

Sharplcss ...

407

Sir Charles Napier

408

,, Harry ...

408

,, Joseph Paxton

408

The Cajjtain

398

Triomphe de Gand

408

Vicompesse Henricart de

Thury

408

Vineuse de Nantes

409

]Vonderful ...

404

Young's Seedling ...

400

Alpine Strawberries, Var

[ETIES.

Brune de Gilbert

409

Galland ...

409

Moiitld'/ Hush AlpiiK

409

Pied Alpine

409

Red Bush Alpine . . .

109

„ Monthl;/

109

Triomphe de Holhiiid

410

White Alpine

410

White Bush Alpii.r

41(1

White Monthl If ....

410

White Monthhi Bush

A Ipme

410

HaUTBOIS STRAWBERKIEb,

Vakie-

'I'lES.

Belle de Bordelais.c

41(1

Conical

410

Double-bearing

410

Musk llautboi)^

410

lloyal Hautois

411

Chilian Strawberriks, \ .

\RlETIvES.

French

411

lied Chilian

411

White Chilian

112

Wilmot's Superb ...

...

411

Velloiv ('hili'in

412

Stf/phelia viridi^ora ... o

Succade Gourd ... ••• 22

Sugar Grape ... ... 92

„ Tree 116

Summer Grape 91

Sunburn (Citru.-) ... ... I'-'l

Swamp Blueben V i ( )9

Hickory KM

Sweet Ball ^'11

„ Lemon ... ... 209

„ Melon ... ... 129

., Orange .•• ... 194

Table Grapes for Exporting 89

Tahiti Apple .. ... ^\'S

Gooseberry... ... 413

„ Hog Plum "... ... 106

Tamarind ... ... ... 414

Tamarindus itidica ... 4 14

, . occideutalis ... 4 ! 1

Tasmanian Raspberry ... o60

Telenchiis arenarins ... 2l}0

Teltairia ... 416

jjtdata 416

Ten Corner U 7

XXIX

TJiimbleberry

:?59 1

Vitis Bluvitana

93

Thoniery System of i'niuiiig

1

californica

91

(Grape)

40

„ candicai's

91

Tokay Wine Gnipe.s

90

., cinerea-

91

Tonii Tonii

111

;, cordifoll"

91

Tonielw fiwjraita .■■

136

., elongata

9.S

Torres 8tniits Plum

lU

., hypoglauca ••■

9:i

Trapa bicornis

433

,. imperialis

93

„ bispiiiosx

433

.. indica

T>a -

„ nutans

433

,, labruscji

92

Trebizonde Date ...

423

Icn'igata

93

Tree Tomato

42:J

inatabilis

93

Triphasia a un mtiola

425

opaco

93

,, trifoHatd

425

(juadranipiJaris

93

Trochillvm exlilosimi

229

,, riparia

92 ■

Tufted Leaf Blight (Grape)

02

,, rot'indifolia ■••

92

Tijioderma frayaria

391

rubra

92

U7'acanfhns cri/ytophagus . .

181

,, rapestris

92

Uredo rubram

3r,2

,, Schimperiana

93

Uromyces amygdali

232

thyrsijlora

93

UtallPlum

320

,, viitifera

23

Vaccinium canadense

108

., vulpiua

92

, , cwspitosuni

109

Voandzeia iiiibterrave<i

253

,, corymbosam

109

Washi}igtoina filifera

214

,1 lencMnthnm

109

„ robusta

214

,, nif/nilloides

109

Walnut

425

,, occidental e

109

Wanipee

4.".:;

,, ova folium

109

Water Bitter Nut

104

ovatiu/i...

109

„ Chestnut ...

4.{:;

., jjcnnsy/vavici'm

109

,, Lemon

217

Vangueria ...

425

,, Melon

i;;;;

Vaiigiitria ediilis ...

425

Wax Myrtle

142

,, infaust((

425

Weevil Raspberry ...

307

Vegetable Marrow...

90

Strawl.'errv . .

393

Velvet Tamarind

416

Welsh Medlar '

98

Vi Apple

413

West Indian Hog Plums ...

100

Vine

23

White Gooseberries

14

„ Caterpillars ...

53

,, Guava

95

,, Mildew

59

„ Heart liickoiy

105

,, Moths

53

„ Mulberry ...

139

Virginian Strawberry

380

„ Rot (Grape)

62

Vitis acetom

93

^ „ Scale

155

,, aestivalis

91

J . J. ' ... ...

264

,, aihtartica

93

,, Stemnitd Raspberry

359

., arizonica

91

Whitethorn

98

., aiiriculata

93

117 Apple ...

1 1:;

austral a sica ...

93

Wild Apricot

121

., Jiaudiiiiana ...

9:;

,, Banana

13:»

,, litrlandiera ...

91

,, Date...

l:;.".

XXX.

Wild Lemoij

209

Yellow Guava

Oo

.. Olive

-42:3

Yellows (Peach) ...

•rx\

,. Plum

106

Yucca bucoUK

l:;.-)

,, Service

376

Zapote

371

Wiiieberry ...

4:34

Zizijyhus cenoplto ...

1 1 1

Wine Grapes

89

,, Joanzeiro .-.

u \

Milking

68

r J^{/^f^"

11:;

,, Palms

213

Lotus

114

Winter Grape

92

microjjnyUa

318

,, Strawberry

412

,, mktol

114

Wood Strawberry . .

:379

,, itiucrciKita

114

Woolly Scale

187

,, Farryii ...

1 1 1

Ximenia ...

4:35

, , rugosa

114

Ximenia (imericanf

4:^5

, , Sinensis ...

111

Yellow Gooseberries

16

,, vulgaris ...

113

AflN-FRVA P.ltlNTINd WoKKS.

Anwkiisox S'PREpyi'.
IMkT;V.oitrnf. Wkst.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE
RECALL

LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

Book Slip-35w,-7,'62(D296s4)458

^^u^

n^-p^^t.'-};^'^ <' 3 /^

Call Number:

.r

2611^^9

38359

Circhton, D.A.

Australasian fruit

C75

C'irchton ^B35-<3

264559