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THE

Australian agriculturist

GUIDE FOR LAND OCCUPATION

Plain Experikxces in Station, Farm, Orchard and Garden Work,

Dairying, Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Ensilage Making, Poultry

Farming, Fruit Preserving, Pests of the Agriculturist

AND HOW to Check Them, Home Helps, Directions

FOR Treating Wounds, Snake-bite, Drowning,

&c., &c., with

directions for Beld and Sarden Work, from January to December

By ANGUS MACKAY, F.C.S.

INSTRUCTOR IN AGRICULTUHK, TECIIMCAL COLLEGE, SYDNEY

Author of '"nic Sugar Cane in Australia," "Elements of Australian Agriculture,"
" Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists." ic, Sic.

NEW ISSUE

OKORGE K01iERT.su N & COMPANY
Melboukne, Sydney. Adki.aide and Brisbane

1897

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

This work is simply an arrangement of every-day Colonial Experiences
in Bush Life, Stock Raising, Farming, Gardening, Dairying, Fruit Pre-
serving, and kindred subjects. Throughout, the leading effort is to connect
the systems of Agriculture, including Stock Farming and Gardening, as
followed in the Old Land, with what is gradually proving to be the best
practice in Australia. In arranging the work the author had no beaten
track to follow There were no similar works to help him. The track of
the settler in new country, whichever branch of life he may choose, is
rugged at best, and the assistance that can be given by thoso who have
travelled in advance and earned experience on the journey, cannot fail to
be serviceable.

Although the bulk of the contents of this volume were written with a
view to their ultimate publication in book form, there is no desire to sup-
plant any of the valuable works at the disposal of the agricultural reader.
The author could wish that such guides as those of Lindley, Loudon, Stephens,
Johnston, Burn, Morton, Youatt, Gamgee, Oliver, Wright, Mechi, and the
several excellent journals that devote space to agricultural subjects, were
more extensively studied by his fellow-workers. The object in view is to
furnish a connecting link between the practice of the Mother Country and
America, as laid down in the standard works, with the practice found
most suitable here. In treating of grain crops, for instance, the desire is
merely to connect the seasons and the necessary alterations in detail with
the practice followed in older countries. The same system is followed in
the articles upon Stock Farming and Fruit Growing. Each chapter, at the
same time, being, as a rule, sufficiently full to form a comprehensive guide
in itself.

The articles upon Budding, Grafting, and other means of propagation,
will, it is trusted, tend in no inconsiderable degree to the cultivation of
Fruit throughout the country. With the aid of the illustrations given,
and directions as to proper time and condition for operating, with ordinary
skill and care, there need be comparatively little difficulty in budding or
grafting the better sorts of fruits upon the suitable stocks available.

Machinery, implements, and the various mechanical appliances that
do much to simplify labour and reduce the expenses of colonists, have
received considerable attention. In the use of machinery, horse, and
steam power, the author feels assured, comes the surest way out of the
labour difficulties that beset colonists in every pursuit they enter upon.

Throughout there has been an eff'ort to avoid semi-scientific terms,
and to make the work acceptable and useful to those engaged in all the
departments of agriculture, and to residents in the country districts gene-
rally. To what extent he has succeeded, the reception of the work will
prove ; and with this understanding the author places " The Semi-Tropical
Agriculturalist and Colonists' Guide "at the disposal of the public.

Enoggera, Queensland, March, 1875.

ll(ir>285

iy. PREFACE.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

On returning from a Commission to the United States and the West
Indies, the author was asked to prepare a second edition early in 1880 ;
but he had not opportunity for doing so till now. Since the time men-
tioned the work has been practically out of print, and has become scarce
and dear. It is now re-arranged, so as to be suitable for teaching pur-
poses, while still continuing to be the guide for practical work, as designed
in the first instance.

Several new chapters are added, bringing us up to what is going on at
the present time in Dairying, Ensilage-making, Poultry Farming, &c. , and
special chapters concerning our Soils, Native Grasses, &c. , of which much
less was known when the first edition was published.

The thanks of the anchor are tendered very heartily to the officers of
the Education Department, and to their chief (the Hon. J. H. Carruthers,
M.P.) for recommending the work as suitable for students in the advanced
classes for agricultural instruction in the National Schools. As now
arranged, it really contains a series of lessons for an entire course of teaching
upon the lines followed with so much success in the Sydney Technical
College. The practical part of the work, and those divisions which have
so long been followed as affording seasonable useful information concerning
the working of Soils and Crops, have been carefully revised and added to
with the hope that they may prove even more useful than formerly.

Balmain, N. S. Wales, February, 1890.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

The second edition having gone out of print, I have been called on for
a third, and have tried to bring the experiences up to date. Chapters are
added upon the Mechanics of Agriculture, Attractions of Plant Life,
Rotations for Cropping, and Irrigation. The chapters on Land Selection,
Dairying, Pigs, Poultry Farming, the Home Garden for Vegetables, Fruits,
and Flowers, Dairying, Insect Pests and how to check them, and Home
Helps have been re-written, extended, and brought up to the experience of
the present time. I have again to thank the chief of the Public Instruc-
tion Department, the Honourable Jacob Garrard, and his officers, for
including the work amongst those considered useful for teaching purposes
in Public Schools. It is in very general use in advanced schools through-
out Australia for object lessons on Australian agricultural subjects, and is
the class-book for Elementary Agriculture in the Technical College and
country clsases. I can but trust that this third edition may prove as
acceptable and useful to agriculturists generally as its predecessors.

The publishers, Messrs. Batson & Co. , Ltd. , deserve all credit for the
expense and trouble they have devoted towards illustrating the work.

Balmain, N. S. Wales, January, 1895.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE to First edition ; to Second ; to Third - - - - 4-5

CHAP. I. — Introductort : The Land — Agricultural Soil ; The Best is
the Cheapest ; But what is Eichness of Soil ? Process of Soil Forma-
tion ; What Growing Vegetation Tells of the Soil ; The Seasons,
Climatic Influences, Rainfall, Semi-Tropical Seasons - - - 9 18

CHAP. II. — Selecting and Classifying Land : Chemical Contents of
Soils ; What Chemistry Tells Us ; Some Representative Australian
Soils 18-28

CHAP. Ill— Clearing Land, Fencing, Building, Etc. : Seasons for
Clearing ; Timber and Materials Used 28-41

CHAP. IV. — Agricultural Draining : What It Means ; Distances
Apart and Cost of Drains ; Tools and Materials for Draining ; Open
Ditches and Covered Drains ; Cropping Healthy and Unhealthy Soil

41-47

CHAP. V. — Mechanics of Agriculture, — The Principles brought into
Use; Scienc-' in the Plough; Hand and Horse Tools for Different Kinds
of Work; Good Tools the Cheapest Labor 47-56

CHAP. VI. — Cultivation of Crops: The Objects in View; The Means
Employed ; Hand Tools ; Hors- Implements ; Methods of Cultivation ;
Surface Stirring ; Subsoil Ploughing ; Harrowing. Rolling ; Commenc-
ing with Horse Labor- - - - 56-70

CHAP. VII.— Grain Crops : Quantities of Seed per Acre ; Maize,
Wheat, Barley, Oats, Eye, &c. 70 83

CHAP. VIII. — Root Crops. Potatoes : To Make Sure of a Crop ;
Sweet Potatoes, Yams, Beets, Mangolds, etc. ... 83-88

CHAP. IX. — S«mi-Tropical Crops: Sugar Cane, Tobacco, Arrowroot,
Millet, Sorghum, Planter's Friend, &c. 88-101

CHAP. X.— Products We Might Grow : Silk, Cotton, Tea, Coffee,
Ginger, Chicory, Rice, Hops, Cocoa, Chocolate . - . 101-116

▼i CONTENTS.

CHAP. XI.— EoTATiON OE Chanqb of Crops : Results and Advantages
of Rotation ; Oil and JHbre Yielders ; The Olive, Peanuts, Flax or
Linseed, Broom Corn, Castor Oil ; Getting Out the Oils ^ Banana
Fibres 116-127

CHAP. XII. — Making and Using Manures.— How Crops are Made ;
What Plants Take Out of the Soil ; Vegetables, Field Crops. Fruit ;
The Australian Compost Heap ; Materials Available ; Artificial
Manures; The Time for Manuring ; "Waste of Manures- - 127-135

CHAP. XIII. — Ibrioation and Watbb Storage : Relation of Plants
to Water ; Crops by Artificial Watering ; M» thods ; Scarcity of Water ;
Sources of Supply ; Irrigating Hill Sides, For Grass, Crops, Orchards,
Vegetables ; When Water is Scarce ; Water Storage ; Pumping ;
Temperature of Water 1.35 149

CHAP. XIV. — LivK Stock in Australia : Grazing Farming ; The
Stock Available ; Physiology of Life ; Shorthorns, Herefords, Devons,
PoUeys, Crosses ; Live and Dead Weight ; Connection between Live
Stock and the Soil 149 157

CHAP. XV.— Sheep and Wool : Small and Large Flocks ; The Merino ;
Country for Fine Wool ; Mutton Sheep ; Leicesters. Lincolns South
Downs, Romney Marsh, Crosses ; Classifying Wool ; Weight of Fleeces

157-166

CHAP. XVI. — The Horse in Australia. — Buying a Horse; Judging
Age; Good Mothers Good Stock ; Breeding Horses, Training 166-175

CHAP. XVII. — The Dairying Interests : Materials Available for
Profitable Dairying; A Businesslike Cow; Breeds for the Dairy;
Points of a Real Milk Maker ; Milking ; Testing the Qualities ; How
Much Feed ? Treatment of Milk ; Butter Making ; The Factory
System ; Creameries ; Cheese Making - - . - - 175 20I

CHAP. XVIII.— The Pig : The Kind that Pays ; Breeds ; What Pig
Points Mean : Pen and Paddock Pig Keeping ; Killing and Curing ;
Lard versus Meat 201 213

CHAP. XIX. — Poultry : Requirements for Success ; Fences, Buildings,
Roosts ; Feeding ; Water ; Peculiarities of Breeds ; The Egg Layers ;
Table Breeds ; Crosses ; Breedin r ; Incubation ; Incubators ; Testintj
Eggs; Ducks. Geese, Turkeys ; Diseases of Fowls • • 213-236

CHAP. XX. — Crops for Feed. Siloing, Hay, Etc. : Requirements
forFeedinsr; The Crops Available ; The Silo, and Ensilage Making;
Feeding with Ensilage ; Chemistry of the Operations ; Haymaking

236-244

CHAP. XXI. — Garden and Orchard : Vegetables, Fruits, Flowers ;
The Home Garden ; Arranging the Land ; Starting with Vegetables ;
Warm and Cold Weather Crops ; Sowing Seeds ; Bush House Experi-
ences; How to make Big Crops; Market Gardening on a Big Scale;
Orchard Work: Selecting Trees ; Sorts Available ; Planting; Bud-
ding; Grafting; Propagating; Pruning; Cultivating; Marketing.
Grapes and Wines: Working a Vineyard. Flowers and Shrubs:
Plants Available ; Annuals; Boses, Climbers ; Bulbs, &c., &c. 244-280

CHAP. XXII.— Fruit and Vegetable Preserving: Eequirements
for Success ; Factory Processes ; Bottling ; Canning ; Drying ;
Candying, &c. 280-295

CHAP.XXIII. — Attractions of Plant Life : Eudimentary Botany

296-305

CHAP. XXIV. — Fungus and Insect Pests : Their Methods of Life ;
How to Check and Destroy Them 305-315

CHAP.— XXV.— Home Helps: Good Bread and How to Make It;
Maize as Food ; Puddings, Cakes, etc. ; Soap and Candle Making ;
Hough Paint for Rough Work. Treatment of Accidents : Burns,
Scalds; Drowning; Lost in the Bush . . - . . 315-333

CHAP. XXVI.— Seasonable Field and Garden Work for the Whole
Year — Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter- - - - 335-351

Works on Australian and Other Aorioulturb - • 352

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

I.— INTRODUCTORY.

THE LAND— AGRICULTURAL SOIL.

M / " The best is the cheapest." In

x(^' ' /^ no walk of life does this truth carry

i\. "APt {Ue/^^ more force than in that pertaining to

land — to the operations of the agi'i-
culturist. Comparatively, it matters
little which department we enter
into : whether that of the farmer
pure and simple, the grazier or
S([uatter, the gardener, or a combina-
tion of two or more of those
somewhat divided pursuits, we find
that the prospects favor the men who
have the best land. This matter,
consequently, of close examination of
the nature and quality of the soil,
is most important. And as we come
more closely to examine the matter,
it is found that good agricultural
land is good for whatever branch we
Posabiiiues from Kiel, Soil, "lay take it up, always providing
the mechanical and chemical con-
ditions of the soil, its formation, situation, surroundingp,
and extent are suitable for the object in view.

" But, What Is Richne.sH of .Soil ? " — There is an agricul-
tural answer to this (piery, when we come to look into

lO AUSTRALIAN AORICDLTUBB. ^

" Selecting and Classifying Land," Chapter II. But, as an
introduction to the nature and qualities of soils, it may be
desii*able to make — before proceedint^ to soil selection — a
commencement here. The time is not so far past, and
there may be the idea still, that soil is just a mass of dead,
inert, minei^al matter, in which, by some means or other,
plants grow somehow, and when they are good enough,
animals can live by eating the plants, and crops can be got
from such soil by merely turning it over. As an advance in
knowledge concerning the real practical nature of soils, we
may see that decayed and dead vegetation, insects, and
animals, with the mineral matter, all go to aid the formation
of rich soils. The vegetable contents make up the loamy or
humus matter of the agriculturist, the organic matter of
scientific agriculture. We may next, and in perfect safety,
go another step forward, and treat soil as a mass of
living material, having more or less life and richness in
proportion to its contents of mineral substances and
healthy humus, or vegetable, or organic matter.

It is at this stage that first acquaintance may be made
with the wonders and the extreme usefulness of that
microscopic life which connects the dead past with the
living present. 'I'he purpose of those minute organisms —
80 small that myriads of them in a body would scarcely be
visible to the human eye — is to break down what has been
in growth — both vegetable and animal — into the elements,
the plant foo<:l, which we use again for building up flowei's,
fruit, vegetables, grains, grasses, for nourishing-animal life !
This is one of the visible purposes of the micro-organisms,
the microbes, the bacterial life upon which the very
existence of all other progressive life is dependent.

Next we may find that these minute things have
another purpose ; that they are the means by which that
most valuable aid to agriculture, nitrogen, which we may
know more intimately as ammonia, is absorbed from the air,
becomes part of the soil, an essential part of the nourishing
food of both plants and animals. Such, in brief, is an
outline of the process by which soils have been formed ;
their richness being dependent upon the proportions of
mineral and organic matter in such state that plants can

AGRICULTURAL SOIL. 11

use this food, and live upon it, develop into healthful
flowers, fruit, and yield crops for the benefit and
sustenance of man and animal life generally.

The Process of Soil Formation, — The changes, the
growth, the evolution in soil, from the first breaking down
of rocks, upon the dust of which woody lichens may grow,
until it becomes rich enough to produce the heaviest
vegetation, say 100 bushels of maize, or 60 tons of sugar
cane per acre, offer a wonderful lesson — the forethought
and industry of the great Creator — a lesson, valuable,
curious, and interesting. The process is visible all through
the stages of development in our new country. The rocks,
broken down, as we see, by the agency of the weather —
" weathering down " is a very suitable term applied to the
process — and the fine dust thus produced is the first stage of
soil formation. Coarse, woody plants manage to live upon
it. They decay, helped by bacterial action, and go to the
formation of richer soil, upon which richer plants live.
Then animal life comes in, living upon the vegetation,
and decaying in due course, help to make still richer soil ;
and so the process goes on until the land is rich enough to
support the wants of man — and the more exacting require-
ments of woman, upon whom man himself is dependent !

The combined contents of various rocks give us the
minerals lime, magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, iron, silica.
From air and water come nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and
hydrogen. All of these must be in agricultural soil and
the air around it. They all enter into plant life and
animal life; and the work of the agriculturist is to use,
maintain, and increase this plant food, and by supplying
what becomes necessjxry, and by the admission of air and
rain into the soil — by "cultivation," in short — secure the
conditions necessary for making crops.

Sources of Soil. — The rocks are the sources of all soils,
but, as explained in the chapter on soil selecting, where
analyses are given representing sevei-al of tiie leading
formations of New South Wales, they differ very much
in the proportions of material they hold for the use of
plants. In Australia the disintegration, or breaking up of
the rocks, is going on very rapidly, the agents being rain

12 AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTUUE.

air, &c. The very excellent geological works published by
Mr. Wilkinson (geological surveyor), Professor Liversidge,
and Messrs. Cox and Ratte, afford much and very
interesting information on that subject. The soils referred
to have been analysed mechanically, in the farming sense,
and chemically, in order to get at the proportions of plant
food available and stored up, awaiting the skill and
labour of the agriculturist.

Then, Vegetation Speaks of the Soil. — The native
grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees offer a capital index to the
quality of the soils in which they grow. It is simply
impossible to find a heavy growth of rich herbs and grass
upon poor land. The timbers also form a guide. As a
rule, the softer woods are on richer soil, the harder on
poorer soil. Taking, then, the land in its native state,
there is less difference in the best soils suited for the
purposes of the grazier, the farmer, or the gardener,
than might at first appear. They all require land rich
in the elements that produce rich grass, and with the
exception of the scrub, brush, and other lands, so heavily
timbered that there is no grass whatever, the best
naturally-grassed lands are the best, as a rule. In taking
up land that has been in use, the plants or crops growing
upon it aid very much in coming to a decision regarding
its present state, and the kind of treatment it has received.
When the country is open, and used for gi-azing only, the
grass and herbs offer as good an indication of its capa-
bilities as the animals feeding upon the land. The dense
thick gi'owth of annual grasses, or herbage, closely matted
together and fresh looking, tells an unmistakable tale of
the natural wealth of the soil. The symptoms of decay are
undue preponderance of long, coaree grasses, which during
the winter months become dry, brittle, and of a dark
brown colour. There is but little nourishment in them.
Weeds, coai-se thistles of various kinds, sorrel, shrubby
and weedy plants generally, tell their own tale of poor
cultivation, overstocking, and of poverty that nothing
short of skill in treatment, heavy manuring, or long and
absolute rest can bring back into fertility. In the sections
of country longest settled, but too much land in this state

AGKICDLTURAL SOIL. 13

can be seen. It is neither profitable to the farmer, grazier,
nor gardener. Worn-out land is a millstone round the
neck of the man who owns it ; and neglected land is but a
stage better. We can only bring it into fertility by clean
cultivation and manuring.

Under the most favorable circumstances, land
improvement is costly, and still favoure him who has
the best to operate on. This we find to be true all over
the country, in the grain-growing as well as the sugar-
producing districts. Drainage is amongst the valuable of
land improvements; but it is costly, and we would give
the preference to the land that requires least artificial
drainage. As a rule, soil that is liberally mixed with sand,
is less costly in working than more stiff or clayey soils.
We would also give the preference to land that will allow
most hoi'se labor, and has no more fall than is necessary to
carry off water readily. The less it is cut up with gullies
or water-courses, the more profitably it can be worked.

To Make Agriculture Pay. — So to get to the first
requirements for comfort and success, we see that agricul-
ture, look at what branch of the occupation we may, to
make it pay, must be followed as a business ; that skill,
capital, and perseverance are all necessary. It is one of
the serious mistakes in connection with colonial life that
men enter upon grazing and farming without any special
training or knowledge of what tliey undertake. Agricul-
ture is the only business into which men enter largely
upon such terms, and it is no matter of surprise, therefore,
that many fail, and that others complain about the want of
success. When a man has plenty of money he may be able
to buy experience, but it is very expensive. In other cases
men commence without either capital or skill, but with
strength, courage, and perseverance, and above all with
tact to take advantage of every circumstiince in their favor
that presents itself. They gradually make headwaj*. The
colonies are dotted with successful men who have com-
menced in that way. They are certainly more numerous
than the successful men who have purchased their experi-
ence. But at a glance it will be seen that the tjilents thus
brought to bear would have gone far to carry a man

14 AUSTRALIAN AGBICDLTDEE.

succe&sfully through any pursuit. And such is the fact :
There are few occupations that call for more skilful
perseverance than agriculture. On the other hand, with
these requisites, there are few that offer safer prospects
of making an independent livelihood.

The Seasons — The Climate.

Australia, to those who know little or nothing of the
country, is a land of perpetual summer, subject to terrific
floods and excessive droughts — the latter, as a whole,
prevailing. This belief is not confined to persons in other
countries, whose knowledge of Australia has been acquired
from books of the kind which state that flowei-s have no
odore in Australia, that birds do not sing here, and other
absurd things. Colonists, old colonists among them, have
opinions of the country and the climate that differ but
slightly from the foregoing. One reason for this belief is
the extraordinaiy similarity of the climate of the seaboard
towns, considering the distance they are apart. Take
Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, the whole year
round, and the climate is wonderfully alike ; nor does it
change to anything like the degree the geogi'aphical
situation of these places might warrant us believmg. As
we travel northwards to J^ewcastle, Grafton, Brisbane,
MackuA', Townsville, or southwards to Melbourne, Adelaide,
Perth, the change is ju.st a little more decided. There is a
little more winter in the southern sections ; a little more
summer in the northern. The cultivation of sugar-cane
has shown, to an extent unthought of before, that in
Australia the frosts of the winter season are felt for
hundreds of miles within the tropics.

But leavinw the coast and travelling inland, the
common notion that perpetual summer prevails is soon
upset, and very often in a manner that is telling. A
hundred mil&s inland from the coast, unless in low-lying
situations sheltered by mountain ranges from the west, the
winter season is very decided. Frosts prevail in these
inland districts all over the country, even to the centre of
Australia. In the south, and as far north as the Queens-
land l)order, snow is common during the months of July

THE SEASONS — THE CLIMATE.

16

and August. Even in the north, the climate inland more than
100 miles from the sea can only be considered semi-tropical
in so far as the summer months are concerned. The cold
of winter is very decided, and the summer vegetation dies
off. It is well to understand this fact. It is the key to
the serious misunderstandings that exist regarding the
nature of the country, and the but too prevalent impression
that the climate is very dry and uniformly hot.

Seasons ; the Rainfall. — For practical purposes, the
seasons may be divided as follows : — Spring : August,
Septembei*, October. Summer : November, December,
January; in wet seasons, February is added to the summer,
and in the northern sections of the country is often the
most decidedly hot month of the whole. Marcli and April
are autumn months, in so far as the bulk of the indigenous
grasses ripen and go to seed during that time. May, June,
and July are the winter months. The seasons vary to
some extent according to latitude, but climatic influences
are due in a still greater degree to local causes, to the
existence of ranges of mountains running pai'allel with
the sea, to the direction of the prevailing winds, and the
quarter from which tlie rains come, that modify the force
of high winds. It is no mere figure of speech to say that
within six houra' ride by rail from any of the large cities,
we reach places tliat differ as much from the semi-tropical
.summer of the coast as the Highlands of Scotland differ
from the Midland Counties of England, as Denmark does
from Spain, or Western New York from South Carolina.
Travel where we will, much the same peculiarities are
found. The seasons, the I'ainfall, and the local productions
are modified by the formation of the country to a much
greater degree than is ol)servable in other climates.

Dry and Wet Seasons. — Droughts have been ex-
perienced in thi.s country. 1828, 1838, 1849, 18(32, 1878,
1895, were seasons of that kind. The average rainfall of the
coast country may Ite taken as between 40 and 50 inches;
and here again t\\v fall is found to be due more to local
surroundings than othfrwise. Inland the raiiiFall i.s less,
but the same rule holds good with sufficient certainty to
justify great care on the part of any one who desires to

16 AUSTBALIAN AORICULTURB.

choose a location for any particular description of agricul-
ture. Thus, for instance, sections of the hill districts, on
the slopes of the Dividing Ranges, are found suitable for all
kinds of European fruits and grain. The average rainfall
there is about 30 inches ; while other places, at nearly the
same distance from the sea, have scarcely one half the
rainfall. And so it is all over the country. Local know-
ledge is of great value ; for places are found at no great
distance apart where the seasons, the cold, heat, and rain-
fall are essentially different. Still, these peculiarities are
merged in the leading seasons of the country which mark
the time of spring, summer, autumn, and winter with a
degree of accuracy which does not seem to be generally
understood. In so far as the grass vegetation is concerned,
the seasons are unmistakable, and in neglecting what they
teach we are but shutting our eyes to facts, and com-
plaining against conditions of climate over which we have
no control, but concerning the effects of which we can do
much. The great bulk of the grasses die off during the
winter months. In sheltered places this is scarcely noticed.
Here the grass merely goes to seed, stands like so much hay,
and makes tolerable food for stock — it keeps life in them
at least. So the case stands during the winter. In such
places the soil heat seldom goes lower than 50 deg., and as
soon as rain falls in the spring months, young grass
displaces the old, and so the seasons run into each other.
But where frosts occur, the case is different. Its first effect
is to reduce the indigenous grasses to dust, or dry woody
particles; its next is to lower the point at which indigenous
vegetation grows vigorously. When the rain falls at this
stage — while the soil is cold — the evil is aggravated. The
soil takes longer to rise in heat when wet, and the land
continues bare of grass until the temperature is sufficiently
high to cause a spring, so that the growing season is
shorter. It is in noting this peculiarity that we see the
adaptabilit}' of the climate for cultivating European
grasses and forage plants. During the cooler, damp season
of the winter, that destroys the indigenous grasses, wheat,
oats, barley, rye, potatoes, tuniips, and the annual grasses of
Europe generally, thrive freely in good soil, and form a

THE SEASONS THE CLIMATE. 17

sufficient basis for feeding purposes. During a moist
spring, the growth of the cultivated grasses is very strong,
while the same weather that makes them grow keeps down
the heat that is necessary for the vigorous growth of the
indigenous grasses ; but by combining the two, that is,
by having cultivated pasture with the indigenous, the
seasons are verj" rare indeed in which continuous growth
cannot be maintained all the year round.

Semi-Tropical Seasons. — In the true semi-tropical
sections of the country, including the seaboard northwards
from Sydney, the whole of the settled portions of Queens-
land, and the Northern Territory of South Australia, the
seasons may be still further divided. In these warmer
sections there are in reality two growing seasons in the
year. One commences as the temperature moderates in
March, and continues through the winter months. It is
during this time that European grains and vegetables are
grown, and in sheltered situations where the soil is rich,
they come to extraordinary perfection during this short
season. In sheltered places, the time of growth for grains
and vegetables is extended through September and October.
In other places in the north, rain falls in April and May,
and semi-tropical vegetation, such as cotton, corn, &c., does
very well when planted at that time. The true tropical
spring of the country commences in September and October,
and summer continues until March. In very warm, moist
localities, such as the Tweed in New South Wales, and
Mackay, Mooroochie, and other places on the northern coast
of Queensland, the season of growth runs right through the
year ; the best time for sowing and harvest being selected
in accordance with the usual rainfall of the locality.

There is but one planting season for fruit culture —
April-May to August — according to locality. Fruits come
into leaf in the true spring of the country, and mature
dunng the summer.

Grasses indicate the Seasons. — As the peculiarity of
our grasses as indicators of the soil, the seasons, and
the climate are better un(lerst(X)d, there arc fewer complaints
regarding the unsuitability of portions of the country for
cultivation purposes. Large numbers of the grasses apeak

18

ADSTRALIAK AGEICULTUBE.

SO plainly in this respect, that they offer conclusive proof
that without irrioration to develop the vetjetation of spring
at the time of seed sowing, it were folly to attempt growing
crops where perennial grasses only are found. But though
thus indicative of irregularity of seasons, and of a capacity
to grow and mature during whole seasons without a shower
of rain, those very grasses, and the climate in which they
grow, have proven unexceptionally favourable for sheep
and the production of the very best quality of wool ; and
with skill, wheat with sheep comes in as a desirable branch
of Australian agriculture, as explained in the chaptere
which deal with sheep, cattle, horses, as part of the live
stock of Australian agriculture.

II.— SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND.

In the introductorj'
chaptei- and those
upon cultivation,
native vegetation, and
what it indicates, we
may see how useful
and valuable is the
knowledge offered by
the indigenous and
other plants. Mean-
time, we have avail-
able the means which
science with practice
places at our disposal
for judging the quali-
ties of soils. Chemical
analysis is an immense help in this direction, but it must
be something more than a mere laboratory analysis.
In.spection of the mechanical condition is necessary, and the
geological fonnation. When a knowledge of the peculian-

They Usually Camp near Water, and on
Gool Land

SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 19

ties of the iudif^enous vegetation is also brought to bear,
there is a closer approach to certainty in our work. By
analysis of soil, we get at its various parts by separating
them, in the mechanical or practical, and the chemical sense,
and can come to very definite conclusions regarding the
suitability of any soil for grazing or cultivation purposes.
Plants live like other things, and the soil must supply the
basis of the means of life — that is, the plant food — other-
wise there must be poor grass or short crops, or no crops at
all, and the attendant risks of disease and bitter disappoint-
ment.

Ekrth Substances for Making Grass and Crops. — For
grazing and for cultivation one of the most important
substances — indeed, the most important part of the soil — is
the vegetable or organic matter. This contains the
available nitrogen, which plays such an important part in
building up plant life. When with this the mineral
substances are sufficiently abundant, the best grasses and
the most plentiful crops can be got. In this climate
the vegetable matter contains most of the plant food in
such condition that the roots of plants can take it up at
once, and enables them further to reach all the mineral
food they can find in the soil and the subsoil. But this
matter is not very abundant, and the agriculturist acts
wisely who saves all he can. By cultivation, by rotation
of crops, by manuring, and by resting or fallowing the
land, the process of making plant food is quickened. The
soils having the most vegetable matter take in rain-water
most readily, and hold it longest for the use of crops or
grass. This, in dealing with Australian soils, the anah'ses
going on prove, is a rule almost without an exception, and
it proves conclusively how destructive is the custom of
burning grass, or stubl)le, or indeed any vegetable matter
on the land. We have none to spare for the purpose.

Judging Soils by Analysis. — The soils here described
have Ijeen separated, or analysed mechanically (in the
farming sense) and chemically to prove their contents ;
also tested for their capacity to absorb and hold water,
in the manner suitable for vegetable life. The figures
represent each soil divided into 100- parts of the whole,

20

AU8TRAL[AN AGRICOLTUBE.

which affords an easily understood basis for calculation
and comparison : —

^

i **

n

tt

Contents of Soils.*

3-3?
^a«

20-40

Rich " Cli
(Gunned;

Sandy Lc
" (Hawkesb

o

Organic (vegetable) matter ...

12-96

2-00

Nitrogen ■= ammonia ...

•10

■07

•01

Traces

Clay matter (alumina) and iron

19-60

18 95

100

400

Lime

1-40

1-22

Traces

-02

Magnesia

Traces

-18

Traces

—

Sulphuric acid

•01

•04

Traces

•0!

Potash

•90

•09

•05

Traces

Sodium chloride (salt)

•20

•07

•06

•02

Phosphoric acid

•08

•03

Traces

Traces

Sandy matter and loss

56-50

66 05

9 HO

9375

99-19

99-66

98-92

99-80

Capacity for absorbing water.,.

5

4

4

4

Capacity for retaining water . .

5

3

2

0

lot

7

6

4

The Clay and Iron. — Clay in soil, though not a plant
food, is useful to a certain degree, as giving closer texture
and capacity for retaining moisture. Iron may be healthy
for plant growth, or it may be injurious. Tests to get at
the state of the iron are very useful.

Lime is pre.sent in all useful .soils. It exerts marked
effects in preparing the food of plants. When it is almost
absent, or the proportion is low, say less than is represented
in the analysis as "2, that soil is very slow in yielding
crops, and the indigenous vegetation is poor. The applica-

• Soil analyses, and the analyses of water, plants, milk, and sub-
stances generally of use in agricultural practices, including manures,
are dealt with fully in the author's work on " Helpful Chemistry for
Agriculturists," 48., Batson and Co., Clarence-street, Sydney, and all
booksellers.

fThe standard 10 is a perfect soil for absorbing and retaining
moisture.

SELECTING AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 21

tion of lime, in some of its many forms, in sufficient
quantity for grass and crops, is one of the least costly of
soil improvements, and one of the most effective. Lime is
abundant in Australia.

Magnesia is an alkaline earth in much the same sense
as lime. It is not a scarce ingredient in New South Wales
soils.

Phosphorus as Phosphates, in combination with other
substances, is fairly plentiful in our soils, but, as a rule,
additions of this mineral are desirable in the form of bone
material. In conjunction with lime, &c., the phosphates form
bone, and not a few of the defects in grazing and dairying
country can be traced to scarcity of these materials. Wheat
is very heavy on phosphates, an ordinary crop of 30 bushels
absorbing some 251b., a demand which but few soils in a
state of nature can supply for many successive crops. But,
like lime, the phosphates can be easily made good by
manuring.

Sulphur, or Sulphuric Acid, is an essential to plant
life. It is fairly plentiful, though additions are advan-
tageous for some crops, such as peas, onions, &c.

Carbon, as carbonic acid, is gathered by plants from
the air.

Potash is not plentiful in our soils. It is a most essen-
tial part of plant life. Where it is scarce the indigenous
vegetation, both grass and timljer, is poor and coarse.
Fruit trees, as a rule, search greedily after potash ; the
success of potato crops, tobacco, and grape vines is depen-
dent upon it. Wool also absorbs much potash, and a
deficiency in sheep feed is quickly seen in less and less
yolk in the wool. Potash, as a mineral, may be present in
the subsoil more plentifully than in the surface soil.

Soda has, to some extent, the same characteristics as
potash in plant life ; but, unlike potash, soda is not
unifonnly present in the ash of healthy crops. Potash also
jicts as a substitute for soda in manurial operations, but
HOtla is not found to act for potjish in ordinary crops.

Chloride of Sodiiun (common salt) is abundant in our
soils as a rule, and supplies the soda that is necessary.

22 ADSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

Sandy Matter (silica). — It is a plant food to some
extent. The greiiter or lesser proportion of silica in a soil
indicates whether it can be worked easily.

What Chemistry Tells Us. — The foregoing, with water
sufficient to maintain the food in a fluid state, are,
practically, all the materials with which the agriculturist
need make himself acquainted, as plant foods that he
must have present in the desired proportions or he cannot
get the quality of grass, crops, or fruit trees he aims at.
Plants absorb them in varying proportions, but all require
some of each. When in the accompanying analysis the
presence of ammonia, potash, phosphates, sulphuric acid
are indicated by " Traces," there is, for the time, likely to
be a sufficiency of these substances for grasses and fruits,
but not for grain or root crops, and they should be supplied
with other manures. Mere " Traces " of lime are not
sufficient for grass or any other purpose. It can be supplied
direct in the form of newly slacked lime or as bone
manure. The latter is the better form for sandy or thin
soils.

Some Representative Soils of New South Wales. —
A few of the analyses made for the little work,
"Grazing, Farm and Garden Soils of New South Wales,"
which can be had for Is. from Batson and Co., Ltd.,
Sydney, are here appended. The first soil dealt with
was taken from the excellently worked garden of Mr.
H. Heard, some three miles from the pretty town of
Ryde, on the Parramatta River. It is typical of a very
large area of the metropolitan shale series of the Ryde,
Lane Cove, Seven Hills, and Parramatta districts. The red
colour is due to iron. It is a good sound loam, and seems
more clayey in composition than analysis shows the state
to be in reality. The native timbers in the district include
the eucalyptus generally, the gum and box trees being of
great size. Oak, cherry, hickory, and black butt are still
seen. Until cleared of the native timl>er, whicli costs from
£7 to £10 per acre, there is very little pasture land, but the
leading grasses present indicate the character of the soil
very clearly, and that draining and liming are the firat
requirements.

SELECTINa AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 23

Organic matter... ... .. ... ... ... ... 13o60

Clay or alumina, and iron ... ... ... ... ... 5 "305

Lime 0023

Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0012

Potash 0-672

Soda 0-020

Salt (chloride sodium) ... ... ... ... ... 0-047

Phosphoric acid ... ... ... ... ... ... 0-042

Sulphuric oxide ... ... ... ... ... ... 0024

Moisture 1160

Sandy matter and loss... ... ... ... ... ... 78-647

Nitrogen (in the organic matter), 0-163.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 7.

Goulburn Soil. — From a paddock of Mr. Grunsell, and
adjoining his fine garden. The soil is alluvial, and is of
excellent quality for both cultivation and grass, being a
mixture of silurian with trap-rock soil, granite and lime-
stone, brought down by the Mulwarrie River. Analysis
shows : —

Organic matter ... ... ... ... ... ... 6.00

Alumina and iron 5.00

Lime 0.90

Mngnesia .. Traces

Potash 0.05

Chloride sodium 0.06

Phosphates 0.06

Silica and Loss 87 00

Nitrogen = ammonia, -16.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 8.

This land, for fruit-growing purposes, has sufficient
alkalies, and should be excellent for grass. Nitrogenous
manure of any kind would be advantageous, and for
potatoes, potash would l)e helpful.

Lucerne Soils of the Hunter Valley. — From undisturbed
alluvial deposits below the line of cultivation, and near the
bridge, We.st Maitland : —

Organic matter ... ... .. .. ... 15.60

Alumina and iron ... ... ... 16.00

Carbonic acid ... ... .. ... ... 0 02

Lime l.Il

Magnesia ... .. ... ... 0 20

Potash ... 065

Chloride sodium .. ... ... ... ... 0..50

24 AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTURE.

Phosphoric acid ... .. ... 0 OS

Sulphuric acid 0.02

Silica and loss ... ... 65.00

Nitrogen = ammonia, 0.4-t.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 10.

This soil, taken as a whole, is very rich, and being
naturally well drained, with its heavy vegetable and lime
supplies, it has all the advantages of very fii*st-class soil for
bearing extra heavy crops. The fertility can be easily
maintained, and at no great outlay for fertilizers or labor.
Should the proportion of organic matter be allowed to wear
down, the soil will become heavier to work and less
productive.

New England Soil. — From near Exhibition Paddock,
Armidale. Fair for fruit ; grasses very excellent for
dairying, for butter especially : —

Organic matter and moisture ... .. 10.00

Alumina and iron .. ... ... 12 80

Lime 0.05

Potash .. Trace

Chloride sodium 002

Sulphuric acid ... .. Trace

Phosphates Trace

Magnesia ... 0.08

Silica and loss ' 77.00

Nitrogen = ammonia, 1.5.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 9.

Suitable for Irrigation. — From cultivation land of Mr.
Fuss, some two miles from Xarrabri. Soil alluvial, and of
great depth. Quality apparently uniform to river level,
about 30 feet below soil surface. A very quick soil during
rainy weather, or under irrigation. The Namoi is a muddy
river, bringing down debris of claystone, shale, and slate,
rotten basalt, &c., which deposits rich material by floods or
irrigation. The capillary attraction of the soil near the river
banks is equal to raising water in the wells from five to
seven feet above level of the river. There can be no layers
of clay in the soil under such circumstance. It is an
exceptionally capable soil for imgation, for gardening, or
for grass, provided there is ample water available for dry
spells. In the mechanical sense this soil is perfect : —

SELECTINO AND CLASSIFYING LAND. 25

Organic matter 5.510

Alumina and iron 4.000

Lime 0.630

Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.012

Potash 0.020

Chloride sodium 0.063

Phosphoric acid 0.014

Sulphuric acid 0.031

Moisture 1.870

Silica and loss 87.730

Nitrogen = ammonia, 0.112.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 9.

A Soil Capable of Immense Improvement. — From
portion of the Government lands at Rookwood, some 10
miles from Sydney, the formation is of the Wianamatta
shales series. Until cleared, there was very little grass
upon the land :

Organic matter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14.70

Alumina and iron ... ... ... .. .. ... 9.10

Lime 0.01

Magnesia Faint traces

Phosphates Traces

Potash ... Traces

Chloride sodium 0.02

Sulphuric acid None

Silica and loss 76.00

Nitrogen =: ammonia, 0.15.
Capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture, 5.

The subsoil is stiff clay, the first six inches red, and
bearing oxidisecl iron ; under that, white clay in a bad
state, from the presence of unoxidised iron ; but analysis
shows considerable traces of ulkalios, magnesian earth, &c.
Draining should improve this soil very much ; without
drainage, but little can be expected from it. As an
experiment, a portion of the land under grass, is drained to
a depth of 3 feet, with 2-inch and 1^-inch pipes.

Peculiarities of Our Soils. — There is now opportunity
for seeing what is the real character of some hundreds of
our soils — fairly representative soils from all parts of the
country. Main features of our soil are wonderfully alike
in many respects, soils taken from locations hundreds of
miles apart. There is also, and it is said with decided
regret, marked uniformity in a deficiency of necessary

26 AUSTBA.LIAN AQBICnLTURK.

materials characteristic of even rich grazing and cultiva-
tion soils. The ingredients are not numerous, fortunately ;
but as the absence of even one is quickly felt, poverty of
grass and crops must result, unless the deficiency is made
good. The marked deficiencies are in the alkalies,
alkaline earths, and nitrates, all of which can be made
good in such quantity as warrants their use for profitable
agriculture. Their absence, in not a few cases, accounts, in
unmistakable manner, for the falliug-ofF in both grass and
crops — and not them only, but for deterioration of live
stock on the land, which suffer very soon from absence of
bone-fonuing material. The dairying districts also suffer
from this cause.

Poverty of Soil v. " Blights." — From several of the
soils of which analyses were made, heavy crops of corn,
wheat, barley, tobacco, roots, &c., were got in years gone
by. Thirty to forty bushels of wheat, eight tons potatoes,
eighty bushels of corn, and up to 1500 lbs. tobacco were
got per acre while the land was in full vigour. This went
on from three to ten years, then the crops began to be
lighter and lighter ; and then — and this is heard in many
of the older settlements — " The blight fell upon the land ;
and since that happened, it is no use cropping. We may
get a bit of com, and the gi*ass, but nothing else."
" Blights " are attributed to numbers of causes — to long-
continued dry weather ; to gi*asshoppers and caterpillars ;
to insects, westerly winds, and various other causes, all of
which are annoyances, and the cause of loss here as
they are in all other agricultural countries. But soil
impoverishment accounts for no small portion of such
pests, and there is ground for confidence that, as more
attention is given to the state of the soil, and the conditions
of fungus and insect life, we will be the better able to
ward off the enemies always on the watch to ravage
suffering vegetation.

What Skill Has Done. — There are exceptions to the
long list of complaints, and men amongst us who have
l>een sufficiently successful all along to give confidence that
as the better system becomes more general, agriculture must
make the advance so very earnestly desired all over the

SELECTINO AND CLASSIFYINQ LAND.

27

country. These men have treated their land, usually from
the outset, with consideration and judgment. The effects
of skill are very clearly defined in many quarters. There
is grazing land to-day which is as good, possibly better,
than it was fifty years ago ; and farms, orchards, and
vineyards which have improved in quality and condition
of soil by the system of treatment and cropping followed.
We can hope that the better system is to extend from this
time forward.

The entire agriculture experience of the country goes
to prove that very much the same processes of soil treat-
ment, selection of seeds and plants, and their feeding and
cultivation, according to the best methods, yield results
here on much the same terms as in other countries.

Fire \ and Water Tests for Soils.* — Two diagram
sketches are given illustrative of how soils can be tested.

In the first, a weighed
portion of dry soil, usually
1000 grains, is being tested
by fire. The operation is
best performed in a calcin-
ing dish (cost Is. 6d.), which
withstands the heat of a
Bunsen burner, or a spirit
lamp, until all the vegetable
matter is incinerated or
burnt out. Or the operation
can l>e carried out on a strip
of iron, as shown. When
complete, the soil is reweighed. Tlie difierence shows the
(luantity of organic matter, with moistui'e (even from
air-dried soil) which wjis in it. Anything over eight parts
of the 100, expelled by heat, shows such proportion of
vegetable matter as indicates a soil of good (luality in that
respect. By reference to the various analyses and the
accompanying notes, the value of this test will be still
more apparent.

* Prom *' Helpful Chemistry for Aurioaltiiriita," 48., from the publisherH of thiH
work, and all booksallera. Method* of teatinir aoiU, manures, watar, milk, &c., kc.
are ^ven in detail iu " Helpful CUeaiaJbry."

I'ire Test For Soil, «cc.

28

AUSTBAUAN AOBICDLTUBE.

Testing for Water Capacity. — Glass vessels answer
best for this test, so that we may see what is going on ;
but other vessels of the same form
may be made to do duty. 10 ounces
of air-dried soil answer very well.
A glass funnel, or filler, with an
ordinary papei* filter, is placed in the
cylinder, as shown. Then the soil to
be tested is put in the funnel, the
paper preventing it from passing
through. For the test, gently pour
water upon the soil. A fairly good
loam, with say 10 per cent, of vege-
table matt 'r, will be found to absorb
the water freely, and may take up and
hold, by capillary attracfion, over
one-half its own weight, or, say the
10 oz. of soil may take in and hold in
suspension 6 ozs. of water. A rich,
loamy soil, having over 18 per cent,
of vegetable matter in its composition,
may absorb 8 ozs. of water. In practice it is found that
the soils which take in water most readily by this test
give it off most slowly by evaporation. Hence their value
in a climate where so much of the success of agriculture of
all kinds is dependent upon the capacity of the soil to
absorb rain and to resist dry spells.

Tesling Soil for Water
Capacity.

III.— CLEARING LAND, BUILDING, FENCING.

Clearing oft' Timber, &c. — The help of an experienced
hand, or the advice of a neighour is of great value in
falling heavy trees, scrub or any dense growth of timber
that has of necessity to be burnt oft. The winter season —
June, July and August — is the time for this work. The
blacks in the less populous parts of the country are expert
at it. 'i'hey cut down vines and light timber first, then
tumble the heavy stuft" on top, lopping off the branches to

CLEAEING LAND, BDILDING, FKNCING. 29

get the whole mass packed as close as possible. Bushmen
follow the same plan. The stuff is allowed to lie until it is
perfectly dry. This brings us into November, at which time
the weather is usually dry ; when in that state, the mass is
fired, and when the packing has been sufficiently close the
fire clears off" all except the trunks of the big trees. 'I'hese
are then rolled together and burnt, and garden stuff, for
home use, corn, potatoes, or sugar-cane, or other crops
can be planted at once, right in the ashes. As much
as 110 bushels of com per acre have been got in this way.

Ringing, or Ring- barking rees. — Trees are killed

without falling them, by cutting a deep ring through the

bark into the solid wood all round.

The operation has proved beneficial in

cases. If grass is the only object in

view, and the land is at all liable to

visitations of frost, then some of the

timber, say from twenty to thirty trees

to the acre, should be left alive for

'^tsmS^^BK^ll- '^^^^^ ^^^ shelter to stock. All the

KH^fWlBS^^^ undergrowth, including ferns and

^^^^^^^ young saplings, should be grubbed out,

EiDgbarked. jp^^, tlicy do more to prevent grass

from growing than the larger and deeper rooting trees.

One of the annoyance of ringing is the danger from and the

getting rid of bark, V)ranches, and timber as they fall.

On moderately timbered land that has been ring-barked,

eight, ten, or more years elapse ere all this dead stuff is got

rid of, and in every case it is desirable to calculate whether

it would not be cheaper to cut down and bum the timber

at once, rather than ringbark.

Falling Timber. — The autumn is the best time to fell
timber for building, or for posts, rails, vine stakes or other
pui-poses. At that season the wood is at maturity, and
there is less free sap and soft matter in it than there is
at any other season of the year. In timber fallen and
split up in autumn, the seasoning process is much more
gradual and perfect, because the weather is cooler, and the

frain of the timber contracts more equally and uniformly,
encing stuff' made from almost any of the hardwood

30 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTUBB.

trees, felled and split in autumn, outlasts stuff from the
same timber cut at otlier times.

Fencing. — It is of importance to the agriculturist,
whether he be squatter, farmer or gardener, to have such
fences as enable him to protect growing crops, and to get
the benefit of all his grass ; to have grass eaten down even
and clean ; to enrich any desired piece of land ; and to
work his place at the lowest cost. The kind of fence
best for each locality depends upon the nature of the
timber, or other material, and the labor available.

Wire and Netting Fences. — A thoroughly colonial
garden fence is made of wire netting, fixed to split posts.
The posts are set in the ground 8 feet apart, and two feet
deep ; then three barbed wires are stretched and fixed to the
posts by staples, and wire-netting is fastened to the wire
and the posts. To prevent rabbits, &c., getting under the
netting, it is set in a trench 3 inches or so under the
surface. This fence then presents 5^ feet of wire-netting.
The cost is from 7s. 6d. to 10s. per rod.

Wire Fences. — Six wires of No. 6, with the posts
a rod apart, make a good farm, cattle or sheep fence, spaced
thus : — Lower wire 10 inches from the ground ; firat space
4i inches; second, 4^ inches; third, 5^ inches; fourth, 10
inches; and the top space 12 inches. Two wire ties, at
equal distances should connect all the wires in each panel,
by being passed round each, and then staked to the
ground. The above distance is better than having posts set
closer together. Fasten the wire to the posts with staples.
A good " bush " strainer is a round piece of wood, three or

four inches in diameter
and three feet long. This
is turned by a pin, worked
in a hole, near each end.
The wire is thus made to
coil round the centre, and
the power is quite suffi-
cient. The posts ought
to be two feet in the
ground, and the straining-
posts four feet, a foot in diameter and twenty rods apart

CLBA.RINO LAND, BDILDINO, FENCING. 31

A man can sink twenty-five holes a day in ordinary soils.
The straining post may be secured by a stay resting in a
notch, and on a block sunk in the ground ; the stay can be
moved forward as the work proceeds, two being used
alternately. The wire should be so tough as to coil closely
round itself without giving way. Such a fence, under
ordinary circumstances, costs from £80 a mile. Neither
the ground auger for making post-holes nor the driving of
posts by hand has been found to work particularly well.

Wire is sold by the hundredweight and ton. Prices
vary according to the guages. Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 are
favourite sizes for sheep fences, and answer very well, with
a top rail or two barbed wires, for cattle and horses.

Stretching and Tying Wire. — Wire strainers of various
forms are sold by the ironmongers for a few pence each.
The strainer shown consists of a mowing machine finger
bolted to a stout stick ; a stick curved as shown in the

engraving is preferable to
a straight one, as it does
not turn in the hand.
When using it, the wire is
held firmly in the slot of
the finger, and may be
A Home-made Strainer. easily stretchcd by apply-

ing the stick as a lever.
Post and Rail Fences. — Ironbark, bloodwood, V)lue and
red gum, or other hardwood are in favour for fences They
are very durable. Three-rail fences cost from 3s. 6d. to 7s.
per rod, according to location. Two-rail fences are about
Is. per rod less.

Paling Fences. — An effective close-paling fence is made
by sinking posts nine feet apart, one top rail on top with
an open trench alx)ut six inches deep between the posts. Set
the bottom ends of the palings in the trench, letting the
tops rest against the rail. In stitt' soil, well rammed
against the palings, this fence an.swers well, and costs from
lOs. to 16s. per chain.

Double I'ost and lliiil, with Saplings. — This style «if
fence is more frequently used for sheep yards than for
paddocks. It is formed by sinking two posts in the ground

32 AUSTBALIAM AQBICULTURE.

about six inclies apart, at intervals of from twelve to fifteen
feet. Saplings of any diameter not exceeding eight inches
are then dropped between the posts, and when built up to
the height of about four feet the posts are secured together
at the top by wire, hoop, green hide or, in some instances,
stringy bark.

Virginian Snake or Zigzag Fence. — When constructed
of heavy timber this is a substantial fence. It is made by
embedding the butt end of one tree in a notch cut for the
purpose in the top end of another, laying them aloDg the
ground in zigzag form, so tliat each log intersects the line
at an angle of forty-five degrees. When the logs have
been piled up to the desired height, cross-legs and a heavy
top-rail are then put on so as to bind the whole.

" Basket Fence " is found serviceable for those residing
in scrubby or brigalow country. It is made by driving
five feet six inch stakes in the ground with mauls to a
depth of nine to twelve inclies, and four feet six inches
apart ; saplings from about two inches in diameter are then
closely entwined with the stakes to the height of four feet
six inches. It can be strengthened by staying firmly at
intervals with strong forks, or, if erected in scrub, stumps
of saplings can be made available where practicable
instead of driven stakes. This fence can be run up rapidly
at a cost of about £20 per mile.

" Brush Fence " is that most commonly erected on
sheep runs. Two descriptions are in use ; the first being
formed by cutting down trees along the line of fence, laying
down the butts, as well as any dead timber that may be
lying about, as a foundation, and making it up to the height
of four or five feet with the branches obtained from the trees,
just cut down. This is the .same as the ordinary brush
fence used in the construction of sheep yards, and may be
erected at as low a rate as £7 in thickly timbered country
and £15 in ordinary bush land. The other description of
bush fence is formed by cutting down a tree, drawing it
by means of a strong team of bullocks on to the line, and
chopping off only such branches as come to a height of over
seven feet. The next tree is then drawn on and placed so
that its branches commence to form part of the fence

SETTLING ON THB LAND.

33

immediately where the branches of the first tree left off, and
so on throughout. This fence costs from £15 to £20 per
mile. Division boundary fences are frequently erected of
this description of material in Victoria, and can be made
perfectly cattle proof. But, like all timber fences, there are
the risks from fire.

Contracts for Fencing. — A written agreement between
the parties concerned is in all cases desirable. In
timbered country the contract should specify by whom the
line is to be cleared and the width of the clearing ; dead
timber should never be allowed to remain within five feet
of a fence. Also the height of the posts out of the ground ;
their depth in the ground (usually two feet) ; the size of the
rails ; whether posts are to be barked (always desirable) ;
arrange for slip rails and gates ; whether any of the stuff
is to be hauled upon the line by the owner ; and, if possible,
the timber to be used should be specified. Towards the
erection of boundary fences it is usual for all parties
concerned to pay equal shares. The law provides that this
shall be done, but a written understanding between the
parties is more satisfactory. Where fences have Govern-
ment land for boundary the occupier has to erect fences at
his own cost.

Settling on the Land.

Having selected the land suitable for his purpose, the
handy resourceful man finds ways and means for making
wife, family and himself comfortable, which others may
fail to see. And the wife and little ones help all along the
line. There is not much prospect of a home unless help is
given by all interested. A temporary shelter of bark may

be set up by stripping
black butt, turpentine,
stringy bark, or other
trees. The sheets may
be six feet long, and as
wide as can be got.
Lay them out to flatten
with logs or other
bark upon a .sapling

t?». .,»--«*wVv*»?»'^«*t'

A Primitire Humpy— B*rk held hj SapliBga.

weights on top ; then set the

34

AUSTRALIAN AQBICULTURE.

framework (as shown). There has been and is much

happiness in such shelters. A great deal can be done, by

selecting the location in a suitable spot, for shelter from

prevailing winds and the afternoon sun. Convenience for

water is another consideration ; and it may be possible to

set upon a spot where a bit of a garden, if only for

pumpkins, melons, beans, potatoes, &c., can be commenced

at once. Always avoid land subject to floods. Where

corrugated iron can be availed of, a humpy of this kind

can be set up in an hour or two. When erected in a

shady place — for iron takes

fierce heat from the sun — a very

tolerable shelter can be made.

Trees showing straight bark in

the grain from which sheets can

be got two feet wide or wider are

the best. With a small axe or

tomahawk cut into the bark, saw

tooth fashion, as shown in the

illustration, along the top and

bottom. Then make an upward

cut to join the two, and gently

prize off the bark from the tree,

and spread it out for use.

Tents. — When well set up, and

of strong material, a comfortable

temporary home can be made in

a tent. The erection shown in

the illustration is of a good type. The " fly " — an extra

sheet stretched over the
tent proper, having
about a foot of air space
between them — is an
advantage. It shades
the tent from the sun
heat, and throws ofl
rain. A coil of
handy things in bush

Takiufc off Bark iu Strips.

good
life.

Well-arranged Tent with Fly.

stout rope is amongst the

All the parts of the tent require to be thoroughly

fastened, either to stout forked stakes or to pegs driven

SETTLING ON THE LAND.

35

.^^iii^lgi,,

Badly Arranged — Without Fly.

Framework of Saplingrs.

into the ground firmly,
A tent loosely set up and
without a fly suffers
badly in stormy weather.
A More Permanent
Erection. — Split stuff" is
the more solid and
durable for permanent
buildings. But saplings
answer. They should
be as straight as possible, not less than three inches through

when the bark
is knocked off",
or as much
thicker as can
be managed.
The whole
framework of
the building
may be set up

with window and door openings arranged before the
covering of bark, iron, shingles, or other material is put on.
Saplings of ironbark or red gum are durable, and are not
so likely to shrink or warp as other timbers.
Cutting Down and
Falling Trees — The
illustration shows how
this is done. Close
examination should be
always made to make
sure of the direction in
which the tree leans,
for in that direction it
can 1)6 made to fall.
Cut the side first upon
which it is to fall, then
the other.
cuttiui?DownaTroo. Comcr Posts and
Window Sills. — It is well to S(juare
the timber for the corners (a) and

'-N»>.^

Comer Tost.

36

AUSTRALIAN AGRICDLTUBB.

notch in the sills (b) if possible, as ^hown in the illustration.
The corners are all the better for being of heavy timber,
and set well in the gi'ound, say two feet deep, and well
rammed. Each corner of the building, whatever size it
may be, should be stayed firmly by cross pieces, and every
care exercised to have the posts straight ; otherwise there
will be trouble when the covering is put on.

The Finished Building. — The covering of that shown
in the illustration is of bark. The accommodation is five
rooms — one
large general
room and two
bedrooms in
front, and
two rooms in
the lean - to
behind. The

floor is of Cottage of Saplings and Bark.

earth raised six inches above the level of the ground, and
rammed solid. But boards are better for flooring.

Splitting Timber. — A tree in
which the grain of the timber
runs straight can be split into
thin shingles, palings, posts,
rails, or other materials. The
illustration shows how this is
done by first bursting the log
into two or more " flitches " or
slabs, and then selecting the
parts for the purposes to which
they are best suited.

Section of Log for Splitting.

Bursting the Log. — This
is the first operation after
barking the fallen tree, and
sawing it into the lengths
required. Wedges (a and hj
are driven into the log
along the lines we require. Buntinic » Log.

SETTLING ON THE LAND.

37

Shingles, Palinsrs, Bails, &c.

Slabs, Shingles, Palings, Rails.
— The illustration shows how the
different parts of the log from the
outside to the inside are brought
into use by splitting for the dif-
ferent purposes required for fenc-
ing, building, and the many
requirements of a j^home for a
bush home.

Getting out Shingles. —
The stump of the fallen
tree [a) may make an excel-
lent block for splitting
shingles. A heavy forked
stick (6) is arranged to lie
across the stump, and into
this fork the shingle block
fcj is wedged.

The Knife.

Arranged for Shingle Splitting.

Shingle Knife. — This is a heavy
wedge-shaped blade of steel faj set
into a handle of wood {hj. The piece
cut out for shingles is laid upon the
block, as shown in ])receding illustra-
tion, between a forked piece of heavy
timber. 'I'lie block being thus in
po.sition the edge of the knife is laid
where required upon the block and a
HJiinirle is severed with one blow.

'J"he Maul. — The
splitting is helped by
making a maul oi" wood,
generally heavy solid
hardwood, formed so
that it can be worked
with comfort and effect.

l^-^M^.--^

Maul for Bi.litth.jf.

38

AUSTRALIAN AORICULTDRB.

Laying Shingles. —
This operation re-
quires skill and atten-
tion to what will
result from the manner
in which the work is
commenced. Battens
are nailed down firmly
Shingling a Roof. upou the rafters, and

to the battens the shingles are nailed. A row of
short shingles, say 10 in number, is laid down and
upon them a second row (1) usually three inches longer, is
laid, so that the joints between the fii-st row are covered
right up to the edges. Then a second, third, fourth, and
other rows are laid until Wie ridge or top of the roof is
reached. Each row being so laid as to cross the joints of
the row under them.

Sleeping Places. — There
is neither comfort, happi-
ness, nor inclination for
work in the bush or any-
where else unless there is
comfortable sleeping ac-
commodation. Much
sound, healthful sleep has
been got with the makeshift arrangement shown. It is
simply a couple of floui- or other stout bags through which
saplings are inserted. The ends of the sapling supports
rest on logs, and the sleeper is thus off the ground, 'i'he
short sapling fa) may answer for a pillow.

A More Elevated
Bed. — The couch
shown is raised upon
forked stakes, which
are all the stronger
when strips are nailed
across at the head and
foot to prevent the
bed buckling under a

Bed of Bags and Saplings.

Bags ou Forked Stakes.

SETTLING ON THB LAND.

39

Home-made Box Chair.

heavy sleeper, and shutting him up like an oyster. Where
it can be managed by any available contrivance, sleeping
upon the bare ground should be avoided. Strong men may
think it all right for a time ; but rheumatics and other
complaints are contracted in that way.

A Box Chair. — This de-
sign in furniture explains
itself. It is a style brought
to scientific development in
mining camps. It is said
that no end of gold has been
planted under such chairs,
and that in addition to being
comfortable as seats, they
offer more difficulty to
thievishly inclined visitors
than the ordinary burglar-
proof safes.
Verandah Chair. — This is a
really comfortable rest for a
tired housewife, or the man
after his day's work is done, and
rest is helpful in preparing for
another day. The timbers may
be 1^ by 2i inches, which is
strong enough for an}- tired
mortal under 14 stone. The
box seat, a stump, log, or the
floor might be safer under
heavier weights. Or the design
shown, by making the tiinbeis
2 X S, would be strong enough
for \ of a ton. Strong canvas,
well sewn, is necessjiry for
these chairs. A man with
sailor experience is the one to manipulate such canvas.

Tables can be made of l)Oxes, or from slabs, and bark
has lieen made to do duty where nothing more suitable
could be got.

t^.v^afr*^

Home-made Verandali Cbair.

40

AUSTBAUAN AGBICULTURB.

Safes for Provisions. — We must have
something to keep ants, flies, and other
bush visitors from investigating our
provisions. Until some more per-
manent conveniences can be arranged,
the makeshift shown in the illustration
answers the purpose. At (a) and (b)
are rings of wire, the upper ring being
strengthened by two cross pieces, in the
centre of which a hook is attached, for
hanging the " safe." Mosquito netting
or calico answers for covering. Fine
wire netting is best of all. The
opening below is so arranged that it can be closed by a piece
of netting. The arrangement answers for hanging meat.

The next "safe" is more
substantial, and when covered
with wire netting, is good
and effective for a long time.
The framework is stiff wire.
The entrance (a) of mosquito
netting, to be drawn or tied
when closed.

Ueat Safe.

Tc Keep Acts from the Sagrar.

The Home in Prospective. —Verandah and Fixings to follow.

And all the time, while we are making such materials
as can be got, canvas, saplings, bark, iron, answer what is

AQEICDLTURAL DRAINING.

41

necessary to make temporary shelter, we are looking
forward to the house in prospective, which can be made a
home in the best sense of the term.

Barren until Drained.

IV.— AGRICULTURAL DRAINING.

To see that the drainage of his land is right is
amongst the most important matters the agriculturist
has to deal with. It is all important in warm, semi-
tropical countries, subject to
excessive falls of rain, and to
spells of parching drought. In
a sentence it might be said that
soil to be of its true value to
the cultivator should be porous
to the depth of from two to
four ieet, to admit water to
filter through it, and with free
egress for any surplus rain, so
that no water can rest or
accumulate in the surface soil,
or the subsoil reached by the roots of cultivated crops.
When water saturates a soil, its first effect is to expel the
air which it contains and the gases which may have been
generated in it. But as the water moves
along in the soil, as from D to c to A, and
into the drain, it is followed by fresh
atmospheric air, the oxygen in which at
once stimulates into activity important
chemical changes, furnishing a fresh
supply of food for plants. There are
some subsoils naturally porous, and which
admit the water to p?iss downwards and
drain off; but the majority of subsoils are
tenacious ; and in land which abounds in iron, hard cement-
like layers are formed. These layera prevent water and
the roots of plants from penetrating, although there may
l)e rich material below. When rain falls, the shallow
surface is soon saturated, and is either washed into ruts or

How Soil is Deepened.

42 AUSTRALIAN AaRICOLT-UBB.

it I'emains wet until evapoi-ation has dried it up, and it
becomes hard like brick earth. The effect is destructive to
vegetation. Evaporation from the surface is unhealthy for
vegetable and animal life. It produces cold, and the land
is chilled below the vegetating point. Putrefaction in such
a soil takes the place of that more perfect oxidation which
brings about the healthy change so needful for healthy
cultivation.

The case shown in the first illustration in this chapter
is that of a section of what is now a prosperous plantation
in the Richmond River district, which was barren until
drained. There was a good coating of loam (a), but under
it was a layer of clay (h), through which rain water could
not pass. Consequently the land suffered badly from frost
and during wet and dry spells. Several crops of cane
were lost. The surface soil was in a state of mud during
wet weather, it baked hard as soon as the water on the
surface was evaporated. But the trouble was cured by
putting in drains of slabs (e) in 4ft. lengths. They are
34ft. below the surface. The cost was 6s. 4d. per chain,
and the draining converted what was a deceptive,
dangerous flat into rich loamy soil.

Draining has developed an immense variety of tools of
the spade, or wedge and lever type, to every one of which
the features apply of quality and weight and material
dealt with in the treatment of spades and digging tools
generally. Draining itself has opened out other develop-
ments in the science of agriculture. Prior to 1750 it seems
to have been scarcely known that water in the soil is only
beneficial to agriculture while it is in a state of move-
ment. Stagnant water is known to be injurious to
vegetation, to crops, to grasses, and the animals upon or
near where the water stagnates. When this fact became
evident to the advanced British agriculturist of 100 years
ago — and there were some adv^anced men in those times —
open ditches were made to carry off the stagnating water,
and during some twenty yeai*s open drains and ditches were
supposed to iinswer all the purpose. Then another
advance was made by laying stones, wood, &c., in the
lower part of the drains, filling in the soil, and cultivating

AGKICULTUBAL DRAINING. 43

the surface, 'I'lie effect was surprising. The land about
the drains was found to be easier to work, it became
wanner in winter, and cooler in summer, and gave much
better returns, 1836 saw the first tile drains laid. Pipe
drains followed soon after. Now it is known that not
only does draining carry off stagnating and undesirable
water, but important cliemical changes follow, the soil is
deepened, and the drained land withstands drought, while
undrained land becomes parched and bakes hard as bricks..

Cost of Drains, — In places where considerable quanti-
ties of this work are done, drains three feet deep and
formed of a single slab covering the lowest six inches
(made narrower on purpose) have been put down at a total
cost of OS. per chain ; that is 66 feet of drain. The price,
then, varies according to the material used and the nature
of the land, from 5s. to 1 2s. per chain. In a big job of
2-inch pipe draining, the cost (men working at 5.s. per day
and rations) proved to be 9s, 8d per chain. One and 2-
inch pipe drains, laid 3ft. deep in stiff, shaley soil at
R(X)kwood, cost 10s. per chain.

Distances and Depth. — As it is in other countries, so it
i.s hei'e, various distances and depths are in favor. Perhaps
the most general depth for field crops is three feet. Drains
at this depth, an<l 20 feet apart, make an improvement upon
land that becomes more ami more marked j'ear aftei* year.
But distance and depth in this matter must be regulated by
the nature of the soil. Fifteen feet apart is found quite
fai- enough in draining stiff clay soil, while 40 feet apart is
Found effective in sjvndy loams. To facilitjite the getting
together of material for draining, the following calcula-
tions may be useful. The pipes referred to are ejich
om; foot in length. In slab draining the slabs are com-
ni'mlv four feet long, so that one slab would repr<}sent four

piprs.

saunz I or o ivit-pipfh ukquirro v hi acif.

10 fe^t 12 t-.'t : 15 feet I?!"— ' 18 f- er L'O 'eet

apirr, M p:\rf. apart. H|)irt. Hp;irt. .\p»^lt,

«-.(> ' 3033 ' -'1H)1. 2.-)62 -MO 2i:S

44

AUSTRALIAN AQRICDLTURE.

The cost and weight of pipes vary so much that it
would not be safe to quote them. But at present 1 i-inch pipes
cost from 30s. to 40s. per 1000 ; pipes of that size weigh
about 21bs. per foot, other sizes of pipes, ordinarily made, are
2-inch, 3-inch, 5 and 6-inch, the cost of which is in proportion
to the size. Pipes from 3 inches and larger are used for
taking the drainage from the smaller or feeding drains.

Levels for Draining. — Steep hillsides may be as much
in need of effective drainage as more level land ; even more
so, as soil is most likely to be washed from the steeper land.
Where possible, levels of the whole place should be taken ;
but the ordinary spirit level and a length of straight-edged
batten may do duty for ordinary draining, and so well is
the work done that capable drainers can open a pipe track
6ft. deep, 4in. at bottom, and 22in. at top, and lay in the
pipes without a speck of loose earth about them, until the
work is ready for filling in. Drainage can be done at any
time of the year, but as a rule the quickest effects are
noticed in summer.

Materials for Draining. — Porous drain pipes, stones, slabs
of hardwood, or saplings, and various
other materials are used for draining. It
is a good plan to look about before com-
mencing such work, and see what can be
used for the purpose. Stone, or nibble,
drains are very effective and durable, and
in some places land could be improved
immensely by gathering stones, which
are a nuisance on the surface, and make them do valuable
work as draining material. Slabs of hardwood make
excellent drains, and tee-tree saplings, laid so that a passage
under them is secured, are effective. Short
lengths of tee-tree, so laid that the butt of
each may rest on the end of the piece
above, answer very well for " weeping
drains." In our stiff, clay soils, when once
a drain is opened, the opening seldom closes
up. Drain pipes require less soil moving
than other material, and may be the least
costly of all. The leading principle of all drains is alike.

Drain Pipes.

Agricaltural Drains
PUled In.

AGRICULTURAL DRAINING.

45

that is, they should
be so arranged, and
the material into and
from which the
water is to pass
^ ^ should be so laid that

Branch or " Weepinff Drain " of Tee-tre^. water Can enter frOUi

below and from both sides freely. The depth at which
drains can act most effectively depends upon the nature of
the soil and the character of the culti-
vation. Two and a-half feet is the
most shallow limit for field crops ;
three and a-half for orchards.

Draining Tools. — If but a small area
is to be di-ained, suitable tools make
the work less expensive. For big jobs
the best kind of tools soon pay for
themselves. They are not costly. The
requirements are a steel spade and
mattock, deepening and clearing spades
,r^~i ijWJ f n ^^' ^' ^•^' * scoop, and a hook for layin
I ¥ f f)f I (I P'P*^^ when they are used.
* ' • •* ''I " Where much work has to be done,
a draining plough may be an advan-
tage. The i-evolving coultera cut the
e<lges, 5 or more inches deep, the
soil l)eing raised by the mould board
and deposited at the side, thus making
Draininir tools are then used for getting

Deepening Spades for
Draioiof;.

the first opening.

to the required depth. Not an inch more .soil need be moved

Dniininic or Ditching Plough.

than is aKsolutely neces.sary at either top or bottom, and
in filling up, the poorer soil should be nearest the drain
inatei'ial, and tramj)ed firmly on top, so as to make the

46

AUSTRALIAN AGKICULTORB.

effects of drainaoje as deep as possible, by the water
entenng from under.

Draining Hill and Valley Laad.

The case illustrated shows how leader drains (a) (c)

(d) (ej ifj are laid down in the lowest parts, to get an
outlet at (hj, into a gully or natural water course.
Between {h) and (d) the pipes are 3 inch inside measure-
ment, and from tliis leader drain from {e) to (d), (e) to ( /),

(e) to (a), 2-inch pipes. The feeder pipes are J | inch bore.
As soon as the pipes are down, commencing at the lower
side through all the work, the soil is filled in, the
dra,iners treading the soil over the pipes as they fill in, and
are careful that no soil gets into the last pipe laid.

Open Ditches and Covered-in Drains. — The effects of cut-
ting even a ditch through a piece of such land as described
are very great. Reeds and coai-se grasses give place to
finer qualities, and what may have been a source of
danger from sickness, or a useless swamp in wet weather
becomes healthy, valuable cultivation land in all weathers,
and especially valuable in dry spells. When underground
draining is adopted, the improvement is very marked. On

AQRICOLTDBAL DRAINING. 47

cultivated land and grass land also in warm climates we
see satisfactory results follow this kind of improvement.
It not only tends to make the soil workable and capable of
bearing crops and sweet grass during wet seasons, but in
dry seasons the drained land holds out better than
undrained land of the same character, a change due to the
powers of drained land to absorb moisture from the damper
subsoil below, by the force of capillary attraction. Expe-
rience has proved that soils gorged with water cannot
perfect crops ; that excess of water is a hindrance to the
due mechanical action of the soil ; that it diminishes or
checks the po>ver of all kinds of manures; that it lowers
the temperature of the mass of the soil ; that it precludes
the free entrance and exchange of air, without which
plants cannot live or their life processes go on ; that it
prevents the free descent of rain through the soil. These
amongst other truisms concerning drainage are even more
effective in warm than in colder climates.

Cropping Unhealthy Soil. — When gardening is attempted
in soil which is not sufficiently open to allow the roots to
penetrate freely, the orchard dies off; no pruning or dressing
can keep the trees alive. The systematic analyses carried
out in the Technical College, Sydney, show plainly how
the unoxidised iron in the soil has done very serious injury.
In hot and dry seasons the water evaporates from the
.surface, baking yet harder the subsoil and chilling the
land. O.xidation is but imperfectly carried out, and,
<lespite the application of manure, vegetation languishes.
Draining suddenly changes all this, and brings the soil
into a condition to render a grateful return for the care of
the agriculturist. The reason for the change brought about
by draining becomes very evident in a warm climate, and
especially where iron is abundant in the soil. During
motlerately moist sejusons trees and crops may do fairly
well. Both develop in the soil, gathering what may be
available for them in it, to a depth of three feet, po.ssibly
deeper under favoui*able conditions. 'Ihen a wet spell
follows. 'I he roots beconje surrounded by stagnating water,
are gorged by the unhealthy material about them. They
sicken and die, the fii'st direct indication t.o the owner

48 AtTSTRALIAN AGBICULTUBE.

being the unhealthy look of his trees or crops. This state
of things occui-s on hill sides as surely as on more level
lands. Indeed the case of hill sides is the worst. For, in
addition to the drowning of roots and development of
unheal hy stuff in the subsoil, the best of the surface
matter may be washed away and lost.

CHAPTER v.— MECHANICS OF AGRICULTURE.

Before entering upon the work of crop making, it may
be well for us to look still more closely into the nature
of the mechanical appliances available for our operations.
Agriculture has advanced in two very distinct lines during
the hundred and fifty years since the science emerged
from the long dark period during which the cultivator of
the soil was the drudge of the time, whose main efforts
were dependent upon his own manual strength. Those
two lines are chemistry and mechanics. The former has

The Plough— Wed(?e, .Screw, and Lever.

done much for agriculture, tending as it has, directly and
in the most effectively practical manner, to make clear and
plain what, prior to the days of agricultural chemistry,
were dark, doubtful, or mysterious. This branch of
chemistiy, fortunately for agriculture, has been fostered
and encouraged by public as well as by the individual
efforts of the many grand and noble men who employed
their talents in that direction during late years. And in
the various schools opened for agricultural instruction,
chemistry has been recognised as a leading principle, and
tlue attention has been paid to it.

But mechanics, as applied to agriculture, have not
fared so well. With the exception of the American

MECHANICS OP AGRICULTURE. 49

agricultural schools, and notably those of New York,
California and Illinois, comparatively little has been done
for educating the farmer in agricultural mechanics. And
the impression has gone abroad that while mechanics
and engineering have done so much for the industries
generally, agriculture is far behind in that respect. The
supposition is not correct. As we shall see while investi-
gating and illustrating this department of agriculture, the
aid afforded by mechanical engineering is nothing short
of wonderful. And it will be seen further that the
skilled agriculturist of the present day has to be, of
necessity, an eflBcient mechanic. The tendency of all
agriculture is in that direction very decidedly, and towards
further advancement. And there is still ample scope for
improvement.

So far, the developments of agricultural mechanics
are due very largely to private effort, and to the pushing
business tact of the many individuals and firms who have
made specialties of the agricultural tools and machines
manufactured and brought into notice by them. Progress
of that kind is not without its advantages ; hence, every
credit is due to those who have been the direct means of
many of the immense advances made in the form and
• [uality of farming tools and machines generally. But the
process has its disadvantages. It has led to the palming
off upon the classes who cultivate the soil of immense
numl)ei's of machines and contrivances which actual work
prove to be absolutely unsuitable for the purposes for
which they were recommended and pushed into notice.
Worry, loss of time and money, and disappointment follow
the purchase of bad and unsuitable tools and machines.
But, in spite of all drawbacks, the agriculturist has now
the choice of tools and machines equal to the best seen
in other countries. The author's object then in drawing
attention to the foregoing facts is twofold : Fii-st, in order
to show the effective services already extended to agricul-
ture by mechanical developments in the form and quality
of the tools and machines in use. Secondly, to show
further that mechanical skill is absolutely neces.sary to
the agriculturist of every degree, that he may l^e able.

OO AUSTRALIAN AQRICnLTUBK.

from his own knowledge, to decide whether an implement
offered him is suitable in a practical way for the work to
be done ; that he may be able to use his implements to
the best advantage, and to make such repairs, altei'ations,
or improvements upon them as may become necessary.
It has been a boon to agriculture that implement makers
and others have done so much ; it is still better when the
agriculturist himself is a skilled mechanic — the two
divisions are combined in the one man with great
advantage.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England and the
Highland Society of Scotland have done much for the
<levelopment of agricultural mechanics and engineering.
Those societies offered prizes not only for such machines
as were coming into use, but gave special prizes for doing
special work, and by this means many very desirable
improvements have been introduced. Other societies, in
Australia as well as in other places, have followed in the
wake of the great institutions of the mother land ; but the
latter have always been prominent, a circumstance due
largely to the exceptional ability of the men the Royal
and Highland Societies were able to secure as experts and
judges. The most notable case of this kind in Australia, as
yet, was the veiy handsome offer of the Goveniment of
South Australia for the invention of a harvesting machine
that would reap the grain, thresh, winnow, and bag it, all
in the field. The author had the privilege of seeing that
trial, and, although none of the machines submitted came
up to the requirements of the case, he was much taken
with the very great skill and enterprise made manifest by
the competition. South Australia is peculiarly adapted for
wheat farming on an immense scale, and upon a system in
which mechanical engineering is all important. The only
parallel to South Australia is seen in parts of California
and in Colorado. The South Australian wheat soils, with
but rare exceptions, are veiy light. The soil is loose in
nature, and very rich in lime. It overlies immense beds of
limestone. By the aid of gang ploughs — a series of two or
more light plough bodies in a frame — the soil is turned
over four or five inches deep, each fun-ovv being from Sin.

MICCHANICS OF AGRICULTURE. 51

to lOin. wide, a team, with two men and four to six horses,
going over from four to ten or more acres daily. Seed is
at once sown by centrifugal seed sowing machines — the
first of which were brought to Australia by the author —
doing from 50 to 100 acres daily, and in very excellent
style. The crops grown are light in quantity, from six to
ten bushels per acre being about the average. The har-
vesting is done by stripping machines, reaping 200 to 400
bushels daily. The grain is threshed winnowed, and
bagged in the field by different machines. Altogether the
system is peculiar, and would not be rated as high-class
farming in either Europe or America. But it is adapted to
the light, open treeless lands of South Australia and sec-
tions of Victoria and New South Wales, and the skilled
agriculturist is careful in securing the tools best adapted
for the work he has to do. The results per man, that is,
the number of bushels produced per man and horee
engaged, are not low by any means. The whole process
offers excellent illustration of what mechanical aids are
doing for wheat fanning. It is very safe to say that,
without their peculiar ploughs, their seed sowera, and their
harvesting appliances, it could not pay, possibly, to reap 1 0
bushels of wheat per acre. But by the South Australian
system six bushels pay. The author has not a doubt that,
with furthei- mechanic^il aids for ploughing deeper, and
as manuring or pasturing enters into their S5\stem, much
larger returns will be got for the same outlay.

The principles of agricultural mechanics are identical
with the science of mechanics. The lever, wedge and screw
have all their outlets in agricultural engineering, in the
same manner precisely as in the othei" branches of
mechanics. In the plough, in seed-sowing machines, in
mowers, reapers, hay-cuttei-s, baling presses, and the
other machines used in agriculture, the knowledge, the
practice, and theory of mechanics is as useful in agiiculture
as in shipbuilding, railroad engineering, or other branches
of the art. In the spade, mattock, pick, trenching, drain-
ing, and other tools of that type we have the very first
principles of the lever and the wedge. To bo efi^cctive, to
move soil with the least exertion to the worker, and t<>

52

AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTUBE.

enable him to get the best results, the tools should not
weigh an ounce more than is necessary for the strain put
upon them. Quality of material, steel, iron, and wood,
and substance where required only, i-ather than weight
and bulk, should guide in the choice of tools of that kind,
even more than in those used for horee, steam, or other
mechanical power.

Science in the Plough. — The history of improvement
in ploughs and ploughing is amongst the curious in agricul-
tural advancement. The implement, as we have it
nowadays, is the direct outcome of scientific skill in the
mechanics of agriculture. The implement is a lever of the
first order. It also acts as a wedge, and when well and
proportionately made, is a jnost effective and scientifically
arranged implement. At a the draught of hoi*se or bullocks
is brought to bear ; b b are the handles for the hold of the
driver ; c the points of the share and the coulter. When
leverage is required at c or higher up on the mould board,
power applied at b is very effective. In good ploughing
the implement should run perfectly true in the furrow
from the draught at a without extra application of force
from the ploughman at b.

The share (a) acting as a
wedge raises the soil or fur-
row slice. When b is reached
the slice of soil is still fur-
ther raised, and the top is
tilted gradually outwards
from the surface. When at

As Wedge aud Section of Screw.

c, the soil is turned over.

Here we see
how the soil is
turned over, and
the principle upon
which the share
and mouldboard

of the- plough do their work. At a the soil has reached
the mouldboard, and as the implement moves forwaid the
furrow slice is raised and turned gi-adually, until finally

1^

How the Soil is Turned Over.

MECHANICS OP AGRICULTURE.

53

laid against the preceding furrow from the end of
mould-board at h.

the

b represents the surface, and
the course of movement of the
soil until it is turned over is
seen in the following sections
of the diagram. Next we have
the furrows laid up in regular
order tor the reception of seed
or for harrowing down for other
When grain is sown it falls into the angles between
furrows and is

Moving tbe Soil.

crops
the

covered by passing har-
rows over the land,
which smooth down the
tops of the furrows. The
movement of hoi*ses and
men over the surface
tend also to break down
spaces under them. The

d>^:

^'/^^-^^^KX

Section of R«gularly Laid Furrow.

the furrows and close up the
covered surface growth is thus
converted into manure for nourishing the young roots of
the crop. The process shows further how green manuring
(the growth of green crops for manure) enriches the land.

By ploughing, we make the soil ready for seed and for
plants, and by after ploughing, shallow or deep as may be
required, the surface of the soil is kept loose and clean, and
in the best state for the growth of crops. The cultivator,
scarifier, grubber, and other implements drawn by animals
or by steam, are used for cultivating the land by pul-
verising it, killing weeds, &c.

The plough, then, is a combination of the wedge,
screw, and lever, and just in proportion to the skill of the
maker in developing tho.se principles in mechanics in the
plough, each in the right proportion, and of the right
material in the right pbice for the work to be done, those
features go to make the most suitable plough. But different
soils require differently arranged implements, whether the
work be breaking up new land, ploughing whore stumps and
roots cannot be got rid of for a time — then the stump-
jumping plough <»t' South Australia is a Imxmi — ploughing

54 ACSTRALFAN AORICOLTUKIi:.

for ordinary crops, subsoilin^, draining, ditching, tank-
making, and otlier operations, for each class of work special
iuiaption of the implement is necessary. And in these
days, it is better and cheaper to provide suitable tools than
to worry men and hoi*ses, and waste time and money trying
to get on with tools that are not suitable.

In stump-e.Ktracting and tree-falling machines, some-
times termed " forest devils," we have most excellent results
from the application of lever power. By a combination of
levers and chains, or by the use of the screw, trees and
stumps are taken down, or raised out of the ground by one
or two men^ — or horees may be used — these contrivances
are able to tear out of the ground stumps, roots, stones, etc.,
that could not be moved by a 10-hoi"se power engine with-
out the aid of the lever or screw, or hydraulic force.

Seed sowei-s combine the screw, lever, and centrifugal
force in such a manner as to sow, with mathematical regu-
larity, from 50 to 100 acres of wheat dail}*, one man and a
liorae doing the work.

Mowing, reaping, binding, stripping, threshing, winnow-
ing, and other machines of that type, are all Imilt upon the
recognised mechanical principles followed in other classes
of engineering. The rules for quality and suitability of
the materials in the machine apply in these with even
greater force than in ploughs. Every pound of unnecessary
weight, ev«ry unnecessary combination or increase of parts
all tell against complicated machines of this kind. Steel
and iron, now-a-days capable of endless applications in
mechanics, are decidedly better than wood in all machines
in which jolting, dust, and risks of wear from friction of
the parts are combined with very rapid speed. Mivchines
of this kind have been improved immensel}- since their first
introduction in Australia, nineteen years a^o, and improve-
ments still go on steadily. The results already' are that the
white man, with their aid, is aV)le, even in these depressed
times for grain, to hold his own in the market in competi-
tion with grain from Ruasia, India, and other cheap lalx)ur
countries. Draining has develop h1 an immense variety of
tools of the spade, or wedge and lever type, to every one of
which the features apply of quality and weight of material

MECHANICS OF AGRICLLTURE. 00

dealt with in the treatment of spades and digging tools
generally. Irrigation is not possible without effective
drainage, allowing the water to soak into the soil.

The sugar business is much indebted to engineering.
The improvement made, both in the speed of doing the
work and the cost of production, is nothing short of wonder-
ful. The quality of the product is also vastly improved.
Yet there are many, openings for farther advances. The
author will mention one only on this occasion — the want of
a machine to cut down cane in the field. There is a fortune
for the man who perfects a contrivance of that kind. The
difficulties in the way are all of the mechanical kind, and
they are to be overcome by the man who studies the subject
carefully, but it must be in the field, and while the crop is
being harvested.

Good Tools theC heapest Labour. — What mechanical
skill, worked out upon scientific lines, is doing for agricul-
ture is ver}- clearly demonstrated in the value of agricul-
tural labour in various parts of the world. Taken as a
whole, the American agricultui'ist and the labour he
employs, produces and makes most out of his produce.
Passibly, Australia comes next, and the condition is assisted
materially bj^ the fact that Australian agriculturists use
American machines and implements more generally than is
usual in Europe, which comes next in the earnings from
agriculture. India, which is amongst the oldest agricul-
tural nations, otters telling illustration tliat cheap labour is
not able to compete with the skilful use of modern
machinery. The average labour wages of India is barely
2id. per day. In America and Australia the average is
between 8s. and 6s. per day. The Indian farmer uses the
implements of his ancestors, and the pi'oduct of his labour
is worth about (id. per day, or Ad. per hour, for his working
days are long. The American farnun-'s lalx)ur l»rings in an
average of i')U\. per hour. He produces enough wheat to
supply the re(|uirements of three hundred people. The actual
estimate is that four men, working with modern appliances
in the fielil and the mill, produce eiu^ugh Hour for 1000
people! European farming is away behiml in the average
per hand produceil. In Britain it is but little more than

56

AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTnBE.

one half of the American average per man, and France is
far behind Britain, while Germany, Italy, Scandinavia,
Spain, Russia, Egypt, Bulgaria, and Turkey, drop lower
and lower in the products won per man from the earth.
Turkey and Egypt come almost as low as India. All these
nations compete in the great markets of the world, and
America and Australia come out on top for the amount of
products per man engaged, and the wages paid for agricul-
tural labour. That is, in grain and wool production. But,
in dairying, Denmark and Sweden have made rapid steps to
the front of late years, and our best efforts are called out in
this other special branch of agriculture.

VI.— CULTIVATION OF CROPS.

The Objects in View. — Whatever branch of agricul-
ture we follow, the soil has to be so treated that it may

yield the best results
from the crops sown
or planted. These
results are got by
maintaining the food
materials necessary
for building the crop
in view ; by keeping
the soil loose and
clean, in the mechani-
cal sense, so that air
and rain may do their
work in the chemical sense. That means cultivation.
\'^ The Means Employed. — Tools and implements
suitable for the work to be done are necessary. Suitable
and effective tools, of good quality, give us the most
efficient and the cheapest kind of labour. No one can do
the best without effective tools, and the very best are
available for Australian agriculturists.

Hand Tools, Horse Implements. — Hand tools are
necessary in all branches ; spades, forks, hoes, mattocks,
rakes, shovels, barrows, &c. But horse labour is so easily

Fmits of ColtiTation.

CULTIVATION OP CROPS. 57

obtained and is so effective, that, so far as practicable, it
should be brought into use as speedily and as generally
as possible. The chapter on Mechanics of Agriculture,
treat this subject more fully.

'I'o Keep up Fertility. — This is dealt with in the
chapters on manunng, and the " Reminders " for work in
season in the garden, farm and orchard, at all periods
of the year. For crops must be fed.

Ploughs and Ploughing. — Many implements have been
tried, and many efforts made to do the work of the plough
by other means. The times were when the spade was
considered a formidable rival, and in the description of
work for which the plough was considered best suited.
Enthusiastic admirers wrote essays upon " spade culture,"
and the vast improvement it would confer on mankind.
But that time has gone, and for ever, from all but the
inner recesses of barbarism, where men are considered of
no more value than to compete with horses in turning over
the soil. Not that we would speak slightingly of the spade.
It is a good implement in good hands ; but in many kinds
of work the same hands might do much more with a well-
made plough, and do it as well — better, as market
gardeners near the great city of Europe and America
believe. And they have alx)ut the best opportunities for
judging. In the colonies, the plough is the main
implement of culture, and, to the credit of the colonists be
it adde<l, not only are the best imported implements of this
class popular, but a degree of skill has l»een brought to
bear upon tlie plough by colonial makeis that is higlily
to their credit. Their efibrts have been mainl}' directed to
making ploughs suitable for the nature of the work to
he done. We see the result in the lieavy colonial
plough. This breaking up n)achine is made foi" new land, in
which it has to cut through roots, Szc, to a depth of eight
or tt'ii inches. This it does in a way that calls out the
admiratiim of those even wlio at firat look upon the
implement as ponderous and unwieldly. The form
adopted is similar to that of the ordinary Scotcli swing
plough. Tlie brcjist is higher, and runs out in a more
cutting edge than ordinary. The coulter is very heavy

58

AUSTRALIAN AGBICOLTURK.

and sharp, and there is a strong draught bar. The
dimensions of the plough as made by M'Lean, Brisbane,
are — length of beam from di'aught-bar, four feet ; handles,
from end of mould board, seven feet; body, two feet;
total length, thirteen feet; from point of share to end
of mould board, five feet ; the coulter is made of four by
one inch iron. Altogether it is a most suitable implement
for breaking purposes. Ten bullocks or six horses are used
for breaking up land. Four acres per week is fair work.
'J'he disc coulter is an improvement for cutting through
grass land. In each of the ploughs mentioned, and indeed
in cultivating tools generally, modifications are made and
introduced for special kinds of work and different con-
ditions of soil. Thus friction wheels (see pp. 61 and 62)
are found to lessen the draught in free loamy soil. The
double mould -board is used for ridging up potatoes, opening
furrows for sugarcane, corn fodder, &c., and is a decided
labour-saving implement. Hudson Brothei-s, of Clyde ;
Ritchie, of Auburn, and others are notable makei*s of
ploughs, and at the warehouses of Lassetter & Co., James
Martin, Martin & Martin, Friend, Wm. Fleming, M'Lean
Bros. & Bigg, Gandon, and many others, implements of the
best kind can be got for all sorts of soils and the different
crops.

Double-furrow, three, four, and six-furrow ploughs are
coming into favour, and deservedly so, in the grain-growing
districts. With a team of three horses for a double-furrow
plough, nine or ten acres weekly can be got through com-
fortably, and the work is nearly as well done as by the
single plough. There is less tramping of horses an<l a
decided saving of labour.

Stump-jumping Ploughs are made for getting through
land where there are mallie and other roots, and grass is
not an active enemy amongst the cultivation.

The steam plough is found suitable for both old land
and for breaking up, and promises to become a powerful
aid to semi-tropical farming where large areas are under
crop.

CULTIVATION OP CROPS.

59

Various Styles of Ploughing. — First-class ploughing is
seen at times; but, as a rule, the roughest kind of work, passes
muster. The regularly laid up furrow, laid on edge, (p. 53)
seen in our illustration as prepared for grain sowing, is the

style of work most
in favour with
trained plough-
men. It is the
system adopted
for their prize
matches by the
Royal and High-
land Agricultural
Societies, and by
colonial societies
generally. The
test of merit is —
"That the plough
cut the sole of the
furrow perfectly
flat, leave the land
side clear and true, lay the furrow slices with uniformity,
with perpendicular cut on land side, and leave a roomy
horse walk." A usual width of furrow is nine inches in
width by six in depth. The slice is laid up at an angle
of about 45deg. ; this exposes a large surface to the action
of the air, and is found suitable in old cultivated land, and
for soils of uniform richness to the depth stated. On the
whole, it is the system best adapted for grain crops where
the seed is broadcasted.

The crested or peaked furrow is much in use in
Scotland, and also in the grain-growing sections of the
colonies where stiff soils, or those with more tlian the
average proportion of strong vegetable matter pi-e vails,
'i'he peak of the furrow exposes still more soil to the action
of the air, and by dipping the share downwards at the
land side a depth of seven or eight inches is niade at that
point.

The inverted furrow is a favorite colonial style of
ploughing, and answers very well where the land is not too

Inverted Furrow, Australian Ploughing.

60 AUSTRALIAN AQBICDLTURK.

dirty. On thin open soils the extra wide furrow is,
perliaps, the best for general purposes. The rich mould is
retained on the surface, and depth can be obtained by
running a subsoil plough or grubber in the furrow
immediately after the plough. Enormous crops of potatoes
are grown in rich sod-land by adopting; this plan. The
furrows may be drawn 10 x 3, 11 x 4, or 14 x 6 inches.
The mould-board must be wide and short for this work,
and the ground is gone over very rapidly; one and a-half
acre per day being nothing unusual for a good man with
team. The furrow is turned completely bottom up, and
the thick growth of weeds common on rich semi-tropical
soils, are buried and soon rot. Nothing short of invei*sion
will serve them, as their vitality is strong, and they will
live again if anything like a chance is allowed them.

A Day's Work Ploughing. — While cutting a furrow
9in. wide the ploughman walks about 11 miles while he is
turning over an acre — a fair day's work. That is, without
reckoning the journey from the stable to the field and
back again. It is one of the advantages of long furrows
that the time occupied in turning at the ends is so much
less than on shorter stretches. This is worth keeping in
view when laying out land for cultivation. In ploughing
an acre 352yd. long, cutting a 9in. furrow, the plough goes
27 1 times round, and tunas on the headland 55 times. If
we allow 1 min. for turning, the time thus occupied is equal
to 55 min, or say an hour's work — the hardest of the day,
too. This would be in a paddock or field of average
length, some 16 chains long. The plough pace, to do good
steady work varies from 1 ^ to 2 miles per hour. Applying
these figures to the 11 miles walked in ploughing an acre
at the rate of li miles an hour, takes 7^ hours. With a
lOin. furrow there is one mile less of walking, which may
be reckoned as half an hour to three quartei's, according to
the estimate of travelling pace. With a lOin. furrow on
light land, where the furrows are 352yd. long, from six to
seven hours are occupied per acre, at the ordinary pace of
two miles per hour. Thus, in making short furrows, with
plough, cultivator, or other implement, a gi'eat amount of
extra work becomes necessary, and time is lost in turning.

CULTIVATION OP CEOPS. 61

So an acre may require eight or nine hours. Ploughs
cutting a double furrow, or three, four, or more furrows at
the same time may be estimated on the same lines.

Points in Ploughing. — Ploughs with one or two wheels
are the easiest for the inexperienced, and practice, with the
advantages of a good steady team, and an implement
suitable for the soil, with the further advantages of being
acquainted with the principles upon which the ' machine
does its work, are all effective in training for this kind of

labor. The plough
body and beam
should be uprigiit in
the furrow while at
work. Tiie wheels

Wheel Plough-British Style. 'f''^ ^'o^' . fegulating

the width and
depth, and for turning the plough round at each end of the
furrow. The small, or land wheel, runs on the surface of
the ground, and the higher it is drawn up, tiie deeper the
plough will work. 'J'he large or furrow wheel runs in
the preceding furrow, level with the bottom of the plough,
and regulates the width of the furrow slice.
The plough should come out of each furrow easily at the
end, by a little pressure on the handles whilst the
horses are moving forwards. The plough should not be
lifted or carried round at the end of the woik, luit
must follow the horses or draught power, and should be
turned on the large, not on the small wheel. A little
practice soon enables this to l)e done easily. 'Jhe draught
chain at the head should be set so that tiie plough will run
straight forward in work, and tiie best point will soon be
found Ijy trying it in the diti'erent positions from tiie centre
eitlier to the rigiit or left. It can also be raised or lowered
for iiard or soft land. Two hoi-ses or six bullocks are found
sufficient for ordinary work. Yol<e tiiem in pairs. In dry
soil the animals siiould !«' furtiier from tlie plougli tlian in
loose or soft soil. Steel breasts or mould-lKiards are better
tlian iron for stitt'soil. 'I'iie share siiould iiave more or less
inclination downwards at tiie jx)int in proportion to tiie
iiardness of softness of the soil. Stiti" .soils requii-e sharp

02 AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTUBV.

keen shares; half-worn shares may be kept for softer

soil. Strong sharp

coulters are necessary

to cut through the

strong, matted grasses

of warm climates. In

heavy grass land the

coulter should have a

decided slope forwards American style of Plough.

at the point ; in clean land it may be almost straight down
from the beam. The point of the coulter should just clear
the share, and always cut in a straight line with the sole.

American Ploughs. — They are shorter than those
described, and do good work. The coulter is not common
in America. A gain of draught by dispensing with the
coulter of 156 per cent., American makers say, is got by
ploughs designed with sharp cutting edge on the body.

Chilled Shares. — On stony and sandy soils the share
of the plough wears away very quickly, and time is lost in
taking it off for relaying, sharpening,
&c. The chilled share is an advantage
in modem implements. The share
Ijeing chilled,ormadeharderonthe under
side than it is on the upper, the metal
Chilled Share. weal's sharp until the share is wom out.

Subsoil Ploughing. — The value of subsoiling by means
of the plough — of giving as great a depth as possible to
land under cultivation without bringing the poorer, raw
soil to the surface — cannot be overrated in a warm climate.
The work is effectively done with the subsoil plough, many
forms of which are made, for one, two, three, and four
horses. We prefer the single horse implement. It is light,
handy, and breaks the soil
from 4 to 7 inches deep.

(a) is the sole of the sub- ^

soiler, (b) the standard for ^^P^^^^^^^^^

cutting; (d) is a nut for
holding the standard. When
run in the furrow after a

11, . , ,. Subsoil Fi

plough turamg out a slice

CULTIVATION OP CROPS.

68

12 3 If 5 6 7 8 7

SabsoUer at Work.

6 inches deep (see p. 59), a total depth of from 10 to 12 inches
is obtained at the lowest cost of labor. Subsoiling may
follow draining. Water allowed to lodge under in a

shallow furrow converts the
subsoil into a sour mud that
is destructive to every root
that comes into contact with
it. With combined drain-
age and subsoiling, we have
the means of growing crops
at all seasons, whether they
be very dry or very wet, or the happy medium betw^een
the two.

Implements for Surface Cultivation. — The plough may
do wonders in the hands of a man who knows how to use
it. There are those among us who do all the labour of
cultivation with the plough and harrow, and do it well.
But these are exceptional cases, and even in them it is
questionable whether there would not be saving of time
and labour, and money as a consequence, by the use of

other implements. It is in
this direction that the colo-
nial farmer has to look for a
solution of the labour diffi-
culty that cramps his ener-
gies. In dry weather, while
it is desirable to keep all the
moisture possible in the soil,
the grubber is of peculiar
value. With it the soil can
be loosened to the required
depth, and prepared for seed
without turning it over, and
consequent exposure to the
air. This is liecoming com-
mon practice in preparing
land for wheat in the Rive-
rina district, and in other
parts where the soil is sandy and inclined to be dry.

Ploagli Cultivator.

64

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

Surface-stirring. — This is n most important branch
of the cultivator's art — especially important in hot

countries. In warm,
moist weather grasses
and weeds spring into
shape, and flourish
with a degree of
vigour that surprises
European farmers, and
they are no novices in

KxpandiuK Cultivator. the Warfare with

weeds. This growth has to be checked promptly for two
reasons: First, weeds cannot exist without injuring the
crop ; second unless they are destroyed at once they
become too powerful for ordinary treatment, and often
cost more than the crop is worth. It is exhausting work
for liand labor, this necessary destruction of weeds. We
are free to confess to a feeling of pain whenever we see a
man trying to cultivate with a hoe or a hand-tool where a
hoi"se implement would answer as well ; it is neither
healthful nor profitable in this climate. The man who
attempts to farm by such means works with heavy odds
against his health and his success. It is very up-hill work
to attempt anything in the way of cultivation more
extensive than home gardening without theaid of horse labor.
Cultivators are made for one or two horses, and are
in high favour for stirring the surface soil between cane,
corn and other crops in rows, and for garden and orchard
cultivation.

Harrows and Harrowing. — Of late years, and in warm
climates especially, much attention has been bestowed

upon the harrow as an
effective and a labor-saving
implement. The work of
the harrow is almost iden-
tical with that expected
from the gardener's rake :
it breaks or smooths down
the rough places, prepares
soil for seed, and rakes in

Make-shift Harrow.

CULTIVATION OP CBOPS,

65

Home-made Harrow.

and covers the seed. For fining the surface of the soil, the
harrow is one of the
very best implements
we have, and with
the large number of
different kinds for
choice, we can select an
implement adapted to
almost any kind of
soil. Amongst the more
generally used are the
zig-zag, disc, and pul-
veriser. The back-tooth harrow is a good implement. In
it the teeth have a slope backwards, and do not clog with
grass, &c.

Bury the Weeds, or Rot Them in the Manure Heap. —
Numberless analyses of Australian soils, made with the
special object of tracing the changes going on, afford
evidence of the need of saving all the vegetable matter we
can. In all the analyses made not a single soil has been
found which has, or ever appears to have had, any vegetable
matter in it that could be burned with advantage to the soil.
(irass-burning in pastoral districts has been a fearful cause
of destruction on the grazing lands ; and stubble-burning
has been only the less destructive on farming land by
reiison of the smaller quantity burned. If exception could
be made to these terribly suggestive facts it might be
found in the extraordinarily rich grazing soil from

near CooptTiiook, Man-
ning River, heavy soil
fiom near Gunnedah,
Namoi Rivei", and rich
volcanic and limestone
loam from Tunnit Plains.
?]ach of these is rich in
vegetable matter ; upon
tiiat the feitility of the
soil is dependent; and
after testing them closely
rain-water, and to hold

The Ac-nil^ i uivriHer.

for their aipacity to absorb

66

AUSTRALIAN AORICULTCBE.

moisture in suspension during dry weather — for each of
which qualities they stand in the very first rank — it is
seen that even they have no vegetable matter that could be
spared for burning without injury to the fertility of the
soil. The conclusion, then, is inevitable, that where
burning can be avoided it should be by every possible
means.

Skill in Harrowing. — When going over land for the
first time, we may harrow the same way as the land was

ploughed, after which it
does good work to pro-
ceed as follows : Start
at comer No. 1 and go
straight to comer No. 2
diagonally across the
field, going back to No.
3, from 3 to 4, 4 to 5,
and 5 to 6. Keep right
on, and when the field is
done it will be harrowed
over twice, and every
mark will be diagonal
A skiUui H»rrowinif. 5 2 across the field, which

is just as it should be, whether we mark for corn, use the
check-row planter, or drill in seed. We will thus finish
at (a) (a). A stiff piece of sod cannot be harrowed
properly without going diagonally across the furrows, and
we have only to turn
half round at the
corners. The team need
hardly be stopped at all.
In a field of fifteen acres
possibly one-third more
can be done in a day
than by taking one-half
of the field, harrowing
it diagonally, and then
the other half. The
work is made easier for the horses also. They first travel
on ground that has been gone over once ; after a short

^,<a>//^'

Disc Caltirating Harrow.

CULTIVATION OF CROPS.

67

Perfect Caltivation.

time they will be on where it has been harrowed twice,
which makes it easier.

The Essence of Cultivation. — It is to keep the soil
clean and loose, that the roots, whether grass, field, or
garden crops, may grow amongst it and feed in all

directions. With prac-
tice and skill the best
results are got with
the least labor, and the
soil is maintained in
perfect cultivation. To
get this result, the soil
must be prepared in
thoroughly fine con-
dition before sowing
or planting. Then to
keep the soil in good, loose tilth until the crop is past all
danger from weeds, which are much more easily destroyed
when young than when they get a start to grow. The soil
prepared before planting the seed is in a majority of cases
in that condition that the harrow is found the cheapest
and best implement for doing the necessary work.

For Rolling Land. — The roller is an effective culti-
vating help. It may be of iron, hollow, and filled with

water, where weight is
necessary. But a well-
rounded log of hard
wood, cut in two or
more sections, with a
spindle passing through,
The Boiler for Cuitivfttion makcs IX good roller.

Mechanical Condition of the Soil. — In all the operations
of cultivation, we must see to the mechanical state of the
soil — whether it is stiff, or what is called clayey : or loose,
or sandy, or gravely or stony ; wlietiier it is rich in vege-
table or organic matter ; or whether there is but a small
proportion of this substance in it. All these conditions, jus
we have seen, are infiuenced by the mechanical state, not
of the surface only, but of the suKsoil as well, to as great

68 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

depth as roots penetrate, or even to still greater rleptli. A
leading object of soil cultivation is to maintain it in such
condition that rain and air can penetrate freely ; that as
small quantity as possible of rain water may run over the
surface. It is, in reality, as necessary to have the soil in a
workable mechanical state as to have sufficient and the
right sort of plant food for the crops we ai"e endeavouring to
make. To understand these conditions, and to help in
bringing the soil into the state that roots can develop and
feed most effectively, is amongst the most valuable experi-
ences of agricultural knowledge. For instance, we may
have a soil containing such a proportion of clay matter or
clayey substances that during wet weather it becomes plastic
or sticky like clay, and which, in dry weather, may become
hard, like brick material, and quite unfit for working. Or,
going to the other extreme, we may have such a heavy
proportion of sand in a soil that, during dry weather, it
becomes a loose heap of sand grains which will throw off
rain, and yet absorbs the sun heat so freely that the roots
of plants, and even the plants above ground ai'e scorched
and burned. Both these conditions are mechanicjxl, and the
skill of agriculture comes into action in making the best
use of the conditions which have to be dealt with. The
stiff soil, though the most likely, by far, to be rich in plant
food, is the more difficult for treatment in this climate.
Where heavy frost would swell and break up the clayey
mass,we would plough up such soil rough in autumn, possibly
while the land was soggy wet, and allow the frost of winter
to " cure and sweeten " it. But where there is no frost, the
treatment is different. Heavy liming would, unless it were
already fully supplied (not a likely condition in Australia)
come into the first course of treatment. Then surface,
rooting crops, like maize, sorghum, etc., or such fruit as
apples or peare would be suitable. Our object being in all
the methods of treatment followed, to keep the soil open-
that air and i-ain may penetrate, and that the roots of crops
may spread and find what they require. Unless this latter
condition exists, neither rich grass, nor trees, nor field
crops, nor vegetables can prosper, and the good qualities of
manure are lost. With sandy soil, after breaking it loose

CDLTIVATION OF CROPS. 69

by plough, fork, hoe, or other implements to the depth re-
quired, our object is to retain as mucli moisture as possible
in it. This is done in the most effective manner, as the
case is in all soils, by seeing that the drainage is effective
to the depth required. That being right, we keep the im-
mediate surface loose, but the soil below in a more compact
state than the others. And to prevent overheating of the
surface, well rotted vegetable matter, bush scrapings, leaf
mould, etc., make very helpful manure dressings. All soils
are influenced by the conditions stated, and are aided further,
both in the mechanical and chemical sense, by using
manures in comparatively fresh state in the stiffer soils,
and well rotted in the more sandy. In the latter, lime is
best supplied as bone dust, over one half of which is lime.
Capillary action, sending up moisture from the subsoils —
which seldom dry up entirely under well cultivated land —
is quickened by the foregoing conditions of soil and culti-
vation.

Commencing with Horse Labour. — Numbers of horses
are spoiled by being put to harder work than they are fit for
at first. Putting horses to stift" ploughing as a commence-
ment for what is expected from them is a common cause
of trouble. Rather let them do lighter work for the first
few days. See that the collars fit well, that they do not
gall. Loose collars are frequent cause of sore shoulders.
Sponge the shoulders night and morning with a strong tea
made from wattle or iron bark until they got hardened.
It repays the trouble in added comfort to plough horses to
change the team or rest them at midday, in the shade if
possible. It is like taking ofi'your hat when you come in
tired and heate<l by work. When a gall does arise, bathe
it at least tlirce times a day with cold water, and then
kerosene. If possible let the animal rest until tlu^ spot is
healed, but by all means try to relieve the sore place by
winding cloth aroun<l the collar to ease ofi* the pressure.
Do not hurry too much. Let tlie lioises tjike their own
natural pace as nearly as good work will allow, and they
will not nee<l to rest so often, and will leave the field
fresher than if hurried along. For many kinds of work it
is better to use two light than one heavy lior.se. In

70 AUSTRALIAN AGEICULTURK.

marking out ground for corn or potatoes, one horse is not
so easy to drive in a straight line as two. But when a
single horse is used he goes straighter and better when
going slowly. A horse that is jerked and yelled at becomes
nervous and does not know what is required. Give a horse
a loose rein when he is at work. He cannot use his full
strength if his head is drawn up with a tight rein.

VIL— GRAIN CROPS.

Seed Per Acre. — Calculated for average good land in
a fair state for the reception of seed. But prepare land and
sow early. A sown crop is safest. Rain stops sowing, but
makes crops grow. Poor land requires most seed. Thin
sowing gives best crops to good farming.

Bushels.
Corn for grain ... ... ... ... 1

Corn for fodder or ensilage
Wheat, broadcast ...
Wheat, in drills
Harley, broadcast . .
Barley, in drills

Oats

Buckirheat

Sorghums and Millets, broadcast

Grass, lawn ..

Grass, orchard

Rye, broadcast

Rye grass

A'etclies

Beets and Mangel Wurzel

Cabbage (to be transplanted)

Carrot

Cucumber, in hills .

Clover, red, broadcast

Clover, white, broadcast

Lucerne, broadcast ..

Lucerne, drilled

Onion, in drills

Parsnip, in drills ...

Rape, in drills

Radish, in drills

Turnip and Ruta Baga, broadcast

Turnip and Ruta Baga, in drills

Tobacco

2

to

3

n

i to

2

i to

1

2

to

3

If to

2

2

to

3

1

to'

U

4 to

5

2

to

3

2

to

3

H

to

2
2

>>

to

3

Pounds.

4

to

6

1

to

\i

2

to

3

1

to

2

15

to

20

12

to

16

14

to 20

8

to

12

4

to

5

4

to

5

5

to

8

5

to

8

3

to

o

2

to
Ozg.

3

1

to

3

GRAIN CROPS. 71

Quarts.

Beans, pole, in hills, 3^ x 4 8 to 12

Broom, corn, in hills ... ... ... 6to8

Sorghum, or Chinese sugar cane . . ... ... 2 to 3

Cwt
Potatoes, in drills or hills, cut tubers ... . 4 to 6

Potatoes, cut in single eyes ... ... ... 2 to 4

The Grain Crops Available. — All the finer grains —
wheat, maize, oats, and barley — are grown extensively,
and over a large area of country ; and in their production
the conditions of good farming that rule in other parts of
the world tell equally here. The coareer grains — rye,
bere, buckwheat, millet, &c. — are also grown , but more as
articles of curiosity associated with recollections of other
lands, than for food. Rice is a grain differing essentially
in the requirements of climate and rainfall from those
mentioned. It is a beautiful grain and grows freely in
the semi-tropical sections of the coastal country. In
cultivating the richer grains, as wheat, maize, and oats,
heavy soil, with a proportion of clay, answers best. Deep,
clean farming also tells its own unmistakable tale upon
each crop ; for, although vagaries do occur, it is seldom
indeed that slovenly or thoughtless farming secures
heavier crops than the sound system and practice which
European agriculturists find necessary to secure uniform,
good results.

Maize, or Indian Corn. — The leading position is given
to corn, or maize, as the most vahiable grain in semi-
tropical countries — the safest a.s a yielder, and the most
certain of grain crops. It is an American product.
Columbus found tlie "Indians" growing maize tlu'.re ; but
the quality wsis much inferior to the "corn" of these
times. Unless something very unusual happens during
the season, the farmer who sets iiis mind and his energies
to the production of a big crop of maize seldom fails in
his object. But there are various ways of making the
crop. We must have suitaljle seed and .suitable land ;
plant at the right time ; cultivate as clean and with as
little hand lalx)r as possible ; protect the grain from
vermin out of dooi's and in ; ami use or sell it to
the best advantage. (See chapter on bread -making, for

72

AU8TEALIAN AGEICULTURE.

how to use maize as human food.) The extent of land in
Australia suitable for growing maize is very
great. Victoria has considerable tracts
where good returns arc gathered, and the
wliole of the seaboard country of New
South Wales, Queensland, and the Northern
Territory, in so far as climate is concerned,
is a vast corn area, sufficient to produce
grain for millions. The season for plant-
ing extends from August to January.
In warm, sheltered localities in the
Northern districts, corn is planted all the
year round, and three distinct crops are
gathered, but not from the same land, of
course. The usual practice is to sow in
August, September, or October, some of the
large varieties for a summer crop, which
is gatheied in January or February ; and
some of the smaller sorts in December or
January for a winter crop, gathered in
April. In the cooler districts, but one crop
is grown between October and February.
Maize changes in character and appearance
in different localities ; and favorite kinds
are found in each distinct. In reality there
or five varieties of maize ; and botanists
to two. We will mention five distinct
as tlie farmer is concerned, and then

proceed to see how they are grown to the best advantage.

1. The large, yellow, or whitish com, with stalks from
9 to 14 feet ; cobs from 10 to 15 inches in length. There
are many sub-varieties in this famil}', all of which require
from four to live months of tropical weather, with sun heat
from OOdeg. to 120deg. and rich soil to come to maturity.
Under such conditions the yield is from 60 to 120 bushels
of shelled corn per acre. (Two bushels in the cob, as a
rule make one bushel shelled.)

2. Small yellow or flint com — very hard grain. Stalks
from 5 to 7 feet high ; cobs from 6 to 9 inches long. Comes

Maize.

are but four
reduce these again
sorts, in so far

6RAIN CROPS. 73

to maturity, in four months and in cooler locations than the
former. Yield about one-third less than No. 1.

3. White corn (Tuscarora). iStalks about 6 feet high ;
cobs from 5 to 8 inches in length ; matures in three months
in moderately rich soil. Yield from 30 to 40 bushels per
acre.

4. White glazed com. In habit and size of cob like No.
3. Grain hard, tough, and shrivelled ; matures in from
100 to 120 days in temperature ranging between 90deg.
and 120deg.

5. Variegated com — received here with great promise
from South America — has not done well.

It can be said with safety that land cannot be too
rich nor too " active " for maize. We see the truth of this
in the enormous crops grown upon newly cleared scrub
land in which, from the density of timber and under-
growth burnt upon the land, the quantity of potash and
other active salts is excessive. In such places, by merely
sci"atching in the seed with a hoe — often among half-burnt
logs and several inches deep of ashes — crops of from 80 to
120 bushels per acre are gathered. That is cultivation on
new land, however, and for but a season or two, while the
corn has no weeds to contend with, and is but the first
approach to farming. Next to new land, closely cropped
sod, freshly turned in, gives the heaviest crops of com.
Then comes regular farming in conjunction with manuring
and other crops for rotation, and the yields come in
accordance with the richness of the soil and the skilj
employed.

Preparing Land for Com. — As much vegetable matter
as possible should be retained near the surface ; and to
effect this, shallow ploughing from three to five inches
deep answers very well, and particularly so when a subsoil
plough, plough body, or grubber, is run four or five inches
deeper in the furrow, immediately .after the plough, that
merely loosening the under or subsoil.

The Seed. — Much care should be exercised in the
selection and care of maize seed. A pnictice highly
recommended is to plant each year a few acres of the most
productive land with the most choice seed, and from this

74

AUSTRALIAN AGBICDLTDRE.

select seed for the following year. Selections should be
made \nth reference to both stalk and ear. Good stalks

should be from

\ I x—7 8ft. to 10ft. in

^ ^ height, with

sliort joints and
;il»undant foli-
w^Q, bearing the
cars at a height
')f about 4 feet.
Good ears should
be from Sin. to
^ - ^^%*51 lOin. in length,

Marker fur Corn, Pututues.fto. aud liaVC aU

uniform diameter to near the tip of about 2^in. ; they
should be well filled to both ends with from 16 to
20 rows, little space between the rows, and with shanks
large enough to support their weight. The kernels
should be thick rather than thin, somewhat wedge-shaped,
and in length equal to or greater than one-half the diameter
of the internal core.

Planting. — There are two established systems of
planting corn — in hills, made by taking out a lift of soil
with the hoe from 3 to 4.^ feet apart each way; in each
hole thus made half-a-dozen or more seeds are dropped ;
from three to six of the plants that come up are allowed to
grow, and all the stronger when the hills are well manured.
In cultivating by this system the soil is drawn up towards
the com as it advances in growth, thus forming the hills.
The plan is the best where the land is new, and encum-
bered with burnt logs, roots, &c. Hill planting is also
managed by running out furrows with the marker or plough
from four to five feet apart, then crossing them with fur-
rows about three feet apart. In the checks or comers thus
made, where the furrows cross, the corn is planted, and
answei*s very well when a little rich manure meets the
roots. The other system is to drill in the seed by machine
or hand, and where horse-lalx)r is available, this is the
system that enables men to do the most work. Where the
land is thoroughly ploughed and smoothed down with the

GRAIN CHOPS. 75

harrow, six acres per day, in tows from 4 to 5^ feet apart
can be put in by a man with a one-horse machine, without
exposing the soil to a dry atmosphere. In other cases drills
are marked and opened with plough or hoe, seed scattered
in by hand, and covered with the harrow or hoe, and the
crop worked to maturity as in he preceding plan.

Cultivation. — To allow the crop a fair start, it is
customary in good farming to harrow just before sowing,
" that com and weeds may have an equal chance," as the
sajring is." Some farmers go a step further than this, and
harrow again after the com is up above gro.und. It seems
to be rough practice with the ordinary vertical-toothed
harrow, as a glance at the form of the teeth will explain;
the crop is torn of necessity before the weeds could be
got out ; but still it is considered better practice than
allowing the two to struggle for mastery, and hand-hoeing
for corn is out of the question — the crop would not stand
the expense. In America the same difficulty was
experienced, and to overcome it the smoothing or weeding
harrow, with teeth sloping backwards, came into use. As
the crop advances the plants are thinned or pulled until they
stand 6 to 12 inches apart, according to the strength of the
soil, and the cultivation is then carried on to maturity with
the harrow, single-horae ploughs, cultivators, or hoes.

Harvesting. — Farmers in the damp, tropical sections
where heavy crops are grown, know that it is more difficult
to preserve than to grow the grain during the summer
season. Whether one, two, or three crops are gathered it
the course of the year, the main yield is ripe during the hot
months, in January or February, when the weevil, the pest
of pests to the grain farmer in warm countries, is very
active. But before investigating the proclivities of the
weevil, it will be well to follow the cobs from the pulling in
the field to the barn. They are shot upon the floor, the
grain Iseing thoroughly protected by the wrappers around
the cobs. These wrappei*s are stripped or husked by hand.
Any one who has the use of both liands can husk com,
which is merely tearing the wrappers from the cobs ; but
some operators get wonderfully expert at it. An average
day's work of a good hand (and amongst the best hands are

76

AD8TKALTAV AGRICULTUEE.

active young women) may be taken at about thirty bushels
of ears, although over one liundred bushels have been got
through at husking matches. The fingers and finger-nsila
suffer severely while husking; and it is usually dene in
spells, in the evenings, during the heat of the day, &c. To
aid in the work, a glove is made with small hooks at the
points of the fingers and at the palm of the hand. This
glove helps the worker very^ much.

Shelling Com — Maize Fevers. — Very excellent shellers
are made in the colonies. Hand, horse,
and steam power are employed for
operating ; and power is very helpful,
for the work is hard when done by
the hand. The corn should be win-
nowed or cleaned as effectively as
possible, in order to look well when
sent to market. While shelling, the
fine dust (fungus dust amongst it)
from the sheaths of the cobs, is apt
to get into the throats of the
operators. It is disagreeable, and
has caused fevers, by irritation. The most effective pre-
ventive is to arrange the work and the shellei*s so as to blow
the dust away from the operator.

Wheat. — The land available for wheat farming in
Australia is enormous. Where
the rainfall ranges between 20
and 30 inches, the location is
likely to be suitable. South
Austi-alia exports this grain
largely ; Victoria is also a heavy
producer ; New South Wales
grows nearly enough for her own
use : and Queensland grows a
considerable area. It is a winter
crop, the seed being sown during
the months of March, April,
May ; the harvest is in Septem-
ber, October, November. Loca-
wheut, Oate, Barley. tion and the state of the we^-

Sbellingr C>>rn.

GRAIN CROPS, 77

ther — whether it be dry and unfavorable for ploughing, or
dropping and suitable — have much more to do with the get-
ting in of this crop than in Europe. But each district has
its favorite time for sowing — say the first or second half of
April, or a little earlier or later, as the case may be. There
are also favorite varieties in each district, prominent
amongst which, for suitability to the climate, are the
Tuscans (for quickness and heavy crops in favorable
seasons) ; Talavera and purple straw (favorite with the
millers) ; Lammas (heavy plump grain, but disposed to
make too much straw) ; Fenton (velvet or woolly ear) ;
Bearded wheats from India and Egypt, are also in favor.
The Egyptian is specially hardy, and, perhaps, the safest
wheat for home use on new land. Much depends upon the
climate as to which variety is most suitable, and the safest
way to avoid mistakes is to sow the favorite of the neigh-
bourhood until a better is found. Regarding hardiness and
freedom from rust {see chapter on fungus enemies), the red
and bearded varieties are most in favor ; but the millers
prefer the plumper and whiter grains. All wheats give the
heaviest crops from rich, heavy land, and the rule found
best with corn — to keep the vegetable matter as near the
surface as possible — applies equally well with wheat. It is
becoming a customary practice to skim or mei*ely surface
plough land that hjis been under this crop previously, or
under grass, at such time as will allow the surface coating
to rot before sowing the seed ; to harrow roughly twice or
thrice, and then sow broadcast at the rate of 1 ^ to 2 bushels
per acre. Thin seeding is much in favor where the land is
rich and quick. The smoothing harrow covera this grain
especially well. Wheat does not demand a moist seed-bed ;
but it must be well packed in with the harrow or roller.
Drilling has been tried, and with marked success, and, as
the land is brought into better tilth, and skilled labor can
be easily obtained, drilling promises to take the lead of all
other metho<ls of sowing.

Steeping the Seed. — To prevent fungi, it is usual to dress
or steep the seed in licjuids made up of bluestone, salt and
water, lime and salt, manure-water, hot water to 155
degrees, F., &c. The object of all steeps is to desti-oy the

78

AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTDBE.

seed of rust, smut, or other fungus that may be clinging to
the grain. All the
steeps mentioned are
useful, and without
entering into their re-
spective merits, it may
be added that some of
them should be used.
The grain can either be
set into the steep in
baskets, or the liquid
can be sprinkled over
the seed, which is all the

better of a dusting with H'^" ' ^ ■ '^ '^er for Grain, Oraw, fto.

lime or ashes before sowing. A fair steep is made by
dissolving in hot water ^Ib. bluestone per bag of seed,
which takes up about two gallons of water.

Sheep and Wheat — To bring land into heart that has

become too poor for this
grain, the Australian
farmer has two power-
ful aids in his sheep and
cattle. Grass land eaten
down closely (as it
generally is in small
paddocks about the be-
ginning of the year),
when well worked, offers
a fine seed-bed, and by feeding lucerne to the stock the
land soon regains the strength it has lost. When the yield
falls below 10 bushels per acre the land is too poor for
wheat.

Science in Wheat Farming. — In a recent lecture to the
Liverpool Plains Agricultural Association, the author gave
the following particulars of how wheat is built up in the
field : — The nature of wheat — of its component parts — had
received very close attention at the Technical College, and
searching analyses had been made of the different
.substances it obtains from the soil, and what from the
atmosphere. An impression existed that if we had rain

Broadcast Seed-Sower.

GRAIN CROPS. 79

there would sure to be good crops of wheat. Such an idea was
erroneous. But of course the supply of rain affects the
crop in a great measure. Wheat contained water, as
hydrogen and oxygen, 45.86 parts ia each 100. These are
two of the gases that form water, it might be rain or
irrigation water. Thus wheat is made up of some 46 parts
of moisture. It was necessary to have at least five inches of
water, and seven inches would be better, before crops of
wheat, of about 35 bushels to the acre, could be raised.
Then, from the air, the grain absorbed carbon to the extent
of 4443 parts in each 100. So that altogether from the
atmosphere and rain, wheat obtained some 90 parts of its
whole bulk. Thus, it was seen how bountiful was nature. Of
lime, soda, chlorine, sulphuric acid, magnesia, iron and silica
(or sand), other ingredients e&sential to the growing of wheat,
4 per cent, were absorbed, and there was an abundance of
tiiem in the soils of this country. But the other six parts
had, after a crop or two was reaped, to be supplied by man
unless in very exceptional cases, for the crop exhausted the
substances that composed these six parts more quickly
than nature provides, as a rule. Nitrogen, or ammonia, must
be supplied. Wheat required it in the proportion of 2*6 in
the 100. The Gas Company of Sydney were sending
away immense quantities of this substance in the form of
sulphate of ammonia, which could be purchased in the
colony che/iper than in Britain, where thousands of pounds
worth were purchased yearly. Wheat got some nitrogen
from the atmosphere, but not sufficient to make a paying
crop. Then the wheat required of phosphoric acid r28
parts, of potash 13, of lime '79. If it were to rain 100 inches
each year, not one part of these ingredients would be sup-
plied. And yet, without phosphonc acid and lime, it was an
impossibility to get wheat. But bone manures supplied
them. He had noticed that some new land of the Namoi
Pjvstoral Company had given a yieUl of 45 bushels to the
acre, and the old land had only yielded 22 bushels. The
cause of this was that there were phosphoric acid and lime
in the new land, whereas it was reduced considerably in the
old. Unless the wheat found these substances in the soil,
a large crop was not possible, and the constitution of the

80 AUSTEAJJAN AaRICULTUKB.

gi-ain deterioi-afced. Deficiencies of plant food in the soil
might not be the cause of rust, but there was no doubt
that by wejikening the plant it became more susceptible to
the attacks of the insidious parasite. Wheat was the main
food for the white man, because it contained a large amount
of bone and muscle making substances ; phosphoric acid
and lime help materially to make bone. The recom-
mendations made were to use every care in the selection
and treatment of seed, and earlier sowing and quicker
maturing of the crop, in order to avoid the dangeroas
time for rust — October and November.

Barley. — In Australia, this is both a summer and a
winter crop. In the wheat districts it is sown a month or
80 after that graiu — say in June or July. In other places,
August is a favorite month for sowing. Man}- varieties of
barley Imve been tried. 'I'he sorts in general cultivation
are Ekrly English or common ; long-eared or Nottingham ;
Cape, German, or Pomeranian ; Chevalier, the best for
malting ; Bere, or four-rowed barley. Any good com land
will answer for barley ; and soil too poor for the former
can, with careful treatment, be made to yield fair crops of
barley. It is a deeper rooter, seldom liable to attacks of
fungus, and will stand direct manuring ; while, for wheat,
manure is best applied to a preceding crop or by grazing.
Barley will not do with wet at the roots, and is a slow
grower and shy bearer upon clay. For malting barley,
magnesia is a requirement in the soil, and a heavier rainfall
than for wheiit is necessary. The land should be drained.
Plough as deep as possible, and harrow clean before sowing.
Barley, as a crop, follows well after lucerne ; it has also
done well when sown after sugar-cane, and is a useful
rotation crop for either cutting green or for gi-ain where
horse feed is grown. It is also a quick, useful catch crop
for wild, porous land, intended for ensilage, cane or other
summer crops.

Bere. — A variety of bai'ley, and the same treatment
answer's. It can l^e sown from April to July. It is
an almost certain crop on moderately good, well-drained
!and.

QEA.IN CB0P8. 81

• Oats. — One of our most useful crops. Any soil answers,
and rough treatment; oats require more rain tlian wheat
or barley, the yield being in proportion to the richness of
the soil and rainfall. When grown for grain, it is a winter
crop, sown in April or May, according to location ; for hay
or green feed, it can be sown as a catch crop from March to
August. The varieties in favor are Tartarian, Grey or
Angus, Potato, and Indian — the two former for cool
districts, the latter for the coast and warmer localities.
For hay, as much as four bushels per acre are sown. From
a quarter to a half bushel of tares or vetches per acre
make an excellent mixture ; to the presence of vetches the
extra superiority of oaten hay from certain localities is
traceable. It has been said that the oat does well with
rough treatment. This is owing to the extraordinary
strength and searching powers of the roots ; but good
farming, draining, and manuring, all tell when the crop is
harvested. There is a great deal in sowing also, and in
acquaintance with the rainfall of the locality. The danger
of sowing too thick, and the attendant risk of the crop
falling or lo<lging in wet ground, are especially to be
guarded against.

Rye. — This gi*ain is a favorite with the German
•colonists. Otherwise, rye as a crop is neglected. It makes
capital bread, of dark colour; it is also used for poultry
and cattle. In the green stiite it is amongst the best food
for sheep, and is worthy of attention where sheep are kept
on the farm. Rye is grown under several names — Broad
leaf. Midsummer, and Tyrolese ; but the varieties run into
each other so much that one description will answer.
Wheat land answera for rye ; as a rule, the cultivation for
wheat is suitable. The efiects of drilling and after treat-
ment with the iuirrow are very marked upon this crop, and
where it is sown late, say after June, and comes into
contact with tiie summer gnisses. after-harrowing should
not be neglectttd. Rye is a good hay crop in wet seasons,
when it may be sown as thickly as may be desired (say
five bushels per acre). The stiffness of the straw prevente
it from lodging, and when half a bushel of tjires or vetches
are sown with th(! rye, the mixture is excellent for stock

82 AUSTRALIAN AQBICDLTURE.

feed, or making ensilage. For gmin the same quantity of
seed used for oats answers for rye. Drilled in, one and
a-half bushel per acre is sufficient. Ergot, a kind of rust
to which rye is subject in Europe, has not been noticed
liere.

Buckwheat. — This, like rye, is one of the neglected
crops. Properly speaking, it is not a wheat, but a soft
heroacious plant of the botanical order polygonacece, of
which sorrel is a representative. But buckwheat is a
heavy seed-bearer (from 30 to 60 bushels per acre with fair
culture), and the meal of the seed is of good color, fine, and
very wholesome. In various parts of Germany, and in
America, it is in high favor for making bread and cakes,
which, like rye bread, has the reputation of being easier of
digestion than bread made of wheat flour. It contains
but little sugar, and is in high repute for the food
of sufferers from diabetes disease. Buckwheat is one
of the quickest of grain crops, and one of the easiest
cultivated, but the soil, to give quick full crops, must be
rich in nitrogen and potash. In our climate it is sown,
grown, and reaped in ninety days. It can be sown any
time from June to December ; in warm localities the cooler
season is best ; in colder locations it may be either grown as
a spring crop, sown in July or August, or as an autumn
crop, sown at the end of February. The treatment of the
soil is similar to that for oats, buckwheat being even better
than that crop for fining down rough land. The seed is
sown in drills from 14 to 18 inches apart. The author
has grown buckwheat on new and not over-rich forest
land only once ploughed, and while the grass was green
between the furrow laps. One bushel of seed was sown
per acre ; the returns were nearly thirty bushels of seed
and seven loads of straw. In harvesting, the grain is very
apt to shell out, and it is well, therefore, to get it into
the bam before the seed cases are quite dry. It ripens
freely after being cut. This crop is used extensively
for green manuring, and is amongst the best for that
purpose. It grows on avei-age soils except those that are
wet. It is also shy of great sun heat, and perishes from
frost.

ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS.

VIIL— ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS.

8S

The Basis of Agriculture. — Potatoes, turnips, man-
golds, beets, and other root croops, in European apiculture,
are estimated as the very foundation of perfect farming. We
cannot get crops of this kind from either poor land or
slovenly work — that is crops that pay. They must be fed,
and they must be kept clean ; hence the high repute of
root crops in skilful agiiculture.

PoUtoes— Trestingr the Seed to Make a Bi^ Crop.

Potatoes. — In this family we recognise the potjito proper
— the " English potato," as it is misnamed ; the Americans
call it the " Irish potato," and have much Ixjtter reason for
their choice, although tlie potato proper is an American
product. Then there are sweet potatoes and the large
family of yams. The common potato holds the first place
in the colonies, as it does in the mother country and
America. In the cooler districts of Tasmania and Victoria,
and in New South Wales, very fair crops of potatoes are
grown, which seem to have found a proper location near
sucli places as Port Fairy and Warmambool. Crops of from

84

AUSTKAUAN AQRICULTUBB.

12 to 15 tons per acre are not uncommon in favourite
localities. The quality is very superior. The varieties grown
are pink eyes, Brown's River, fluke kidneys, Warrnambools,
regents, cups, ash-leaf kidneys, Circular Heads, &c., &c.
Many other sorts are described, possibly too many. Care
is necessary in experimenting with them. In the warmer
districts, the potato is also a favourite, but it is a much
more uncertain crop ; the weight per acre seldom exceeds
six tons, and it is found necessary to change the seed every
other season, in some places every season, drawing the
supplies of seed from Tasmania and the other southern
colonies. Several new varieties — Early Rose, Brownell's
Beauty, Snowflake, Ash-leaf, Manhattan, Webster's best,
Smith's early, Somner's hundredfold, and othera have been
tried; but with the exception of Brownell's Beauty and
Early Rose, growei-s have had to fall back upon seed from
the cooler latitudes.

Planting Seasons. — There are two decided planting
seasons for the potato in Australia ; in the cooler districts.
June and July are chosen for the first crop, August and
September for the latter crop. In the warmer districts,
February and March are chosen for a winter crop, July,
August, and September for a summer crop. In close, moist
situations, a crop is grown during summer, by planting at
Christmas time. In other places wet weather is chosen
for planting at any season. In other respects, the culti-
vation suitable to the potato in other countries answers
here.

Preparing the Seed. — Either whole potatoes, uncut, or
cut, may be used for seed. Tlie illustration (B) shows how
three cuts, or more, may be made from a well-matured
potato of medium size. Large tubers are not so reliable for
seed. After being cut, the seed can be started into growth
by placing them in layers in a box (A), surrounded by dry
wood ashes. Two or more layera may be arranged in this
way in each box, while the land is being prepared and
manured. The seed takes from ten to twenty days before
growth starts. They can then be set out in rows from
twenty-four to thirty inches apart, and the seed from eight
to twelve inches apart in the rows. The advantages of

EOOT CHOPS, CLEAN CROPS. 85

thus preparing the seed are that only those that show signs
of growth need be planted, and misses are fewer — an
important point in sections or country where potato culture
is less certain.

Chemical Soaking of Potato Seed. — A method of
soaking seed potatoes in a solution of nitrate of potash and
sulphate of ammonia — i^lb. of each in two gallons of water
— for 12 to 18 hours, is followed by some growers. The
seed, after soaking, is dried with wood ashes and planted.
Extra returns are said to follow this treatment ; but it is
risky.

To Make Sure of a Potato Crop. — The requirements
are, loose soil, sufficient rain or irrigation, and the
necessary cultivation. The soil must be rich in vegetable
matter and potash material. Exhaustion of the latter is
the most common cause of the crop falling off, and possibly
of disease, but it can be supplied now, from potash
manures. Then to help the crop, all the vegetable matter
obtainable, all the leaf mould, all the wood ashes, sea-
weed, &c., should be added to the manure heap prepared
specially for potatoes. They well deserve such attention.
The case of Ireland may be instanced, where, as well
as in other parts of the old land, the potato had
become such a victim to fungus disease in yeara gone past
that it was said over and over again that the crop
was done. But science and skill came to the aid of
the potato growers ; and now, heavier and better crops
of potatoes than ever are produced — crops up to 15 and
20 tons per acre. We certainly can learn much from the
grand old land, and from the splendid men who devote
such care and skill to agriculture over there. When
studying the careful plodding, with which such magnifi-
cent work as the Woburn experiments were carried on, to
test the quality of crops for feeding and the manures got
by stock under varying conditions, it miglit well kill the
conceit that we have nothing to learn from the old land.

The Sweet Potato. — This is the root crop of the
semi-tropical farmer. With care, and certainly at lefs
expense for seed, it yields from 10 to 20 tons of roots per
acre, and fully as much green feed. Everj' part of this

80 AUSTRALIAN AaEUCtTLTUBB.

crop is available for use ; the vines or tops being very
valuable feed for dairy stock, for working cattle, pigs,
sheep, and horses. Four named varieties are grown — the
white, a long almost cylindrical root that grows in bunches
from the main plant only (this sort is mealy and rich, and
not very sweet) ; the large red, a globular-shaped sort, with
long trailing vines, a rather watery potato ; the small red,
which forms bunches of small potatoes wherever the vines
touch a spot of unoccupied ground (an excellent variety
for stock -feeding purposes ; it is an enormous bearer) ;
and the " Maltese," with a serated leaf, the vines
springing in bunches instead of singly from the
main root, as in other varieties (the roots of this
sort are mealy, firm, and very rich). All the varieties are
planted and cultivated alike. Two methods are followed
for raising plants : the first is by planting potatoes in rich,
loamy soil over a hotbed, and is peculiarly suitable for
colder locations and where it is necessary to carry the seed
long distances. Put in the seed potatoes as soon as the
cold weather is over — say in August. The vines come up
in bunches, which, when about six inches long, can with ease
be drawn out from the parent potato and set out. The
other method of obtaining plants, and the best for warm
districts, for it gives by far the hardiest vines, is to leave a
few rows of the old potatoes, vines and all, in and on the
ground. These, when covered up from cold and risk of
injury, commence to shoot as soon as the weather gets
warm. A sprinkle of weak, liquid manure helps them on.
As the vines run out and show white points, or "root pens"
at the joints, they are cut off in eight or ten inch lengths,
and planted out at once. Plants of this kind very seldom
fail ; but if they or the drawn plants are to be sent to a
distance, they ought to be packed in small bundles, wrapped
up snugly in paper. The soil for sweet potatoes need not
be very rich, but it should be worked as deep and fine as
possible, and then laid up in ridges about three feet
apart. Flatten off the tops of the ridges, and insert the
cuttings or sets about a foot apart. Make holes about
tliree inches deep with the hand, a piece of wood, or garden
trowel Lay in the sets nearly flat, leaving about one-third

ROOT CROPS, CLEAN CROPS. 87

of each out of the ground. If the soil is dry, pour in
about a pint of water to each ; then cover with soil, but do
not press hard. When the soil is clean and well worked,
the plants are not liable to fail. They catch at once, or fail
altogether. When right, they commence to throw out side
shoots from the ti'ailing vine or hulm. The soil should
then be ridged up around them, the ridges being similar to
those for common potatoes, but in this case broader and
higher. Keep working the soil loose and clean as long as
the vines will permit of it, to help the roots travelling in
search of food and the tubers to swell. On very light
soil there is a danger of the potatoes forming too far
down, and being long and thin. To prevent this, pass a
scuffle-hoe, or the broad share of a plough under the ridges
before finishing the cultivation, the object being to cut
the deep roots and force them into forming thick, chunky
potatoes. As this crop advances it covers ridge and furrow
with a mass of vines from six inches to a foot in thickness.
As the crop ripens, the potatoes crack and burst the ridges,
and the crowns are often seen in bunches coming up to the
surface. At this stage the big ones can be fossicked out
with a stick for immediate use, without injuring the growth
of their fellows, and the vines can be thinned out or cut
off close to the crowns of the potatoes, and used for green
feed.

Harvesting Sweet Potatoes. — The crop is dug, forked
or ploughed out in the same way as common potatoes. The
roots must be handled carefully ; they are easily injured.
In dry soil they are often left in the ground during winter,
and dug as required. They keep well in barrels packed
amongst sand or ashes, but they must be kept dry. With-
out exception this is one of tlie most valuable crops at the
disposal of the semi-tropical fanner, and one that offers a
good field for enterprise in preserving this very valuable
and always acceptable variety of potato.

Yam.s. — Various sorts of this tuber are grown ; the
best are those obtained from the South Sea Islands and
from China. They are rough-coated, potato-like tubers,
that in favourable soil reach the weight of five to twelve
pounds. They are propai^ated from the crowns of tlie

88 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

tubers, and also from seed, not unlike small rough potatoes
that grow freely on the vines above ground. All the
varieties are climbers ; some have beautifully coloured and
spiral vines. Plant as soon as the soil heat I'eaches 60deg.
in September or October, in rows about three feet apart
each way. Cover the plants with soil, and place a stake
from four to six feet high with each. The plants are
hardy, shoots appear above ground in 12 to 30 days, and
immediately twist around the stakes. The crop is ripe
when the vines die back. Yams generally grow deep in
the soil. To dig them out two-pronged forks are used.
To facilitate the digging attempts have been made to grow
yams upon ridges, but the heavy yields are got from flat
planting.

Other Root Crops. — Beets and mangolds, or mangel-
wurzel, of various sorts, answer well for cropping in the
colder districts. They must have the very richest soil, or
manure'equal to 30 loads or more per acre. Sow in September,
4 to 6 lbs. of seed per acre. Turnips and field carrots also
do well, swedes especially ; great crops of them are grown
as rotation in the Hunter River district. Sow in September.
Februaiy, March about 31b. of seed per acre. Other
turnips are grown as garden crops. Beets, for sugar,
answer in the colder districts. Cultivation much the same
as mangolds and swedes.

IX.— SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS.

Maize. — Indian corn is the leading of all semi-tropical
products ; but in Australia this crop is so general over the
the country, that here the making of maize crops is ranked
with grains.

Sugar Cane. — In the warmer coastal districts the
extent of country suitable for sugar cane, in so far as the
climate is concerned, is enormous. It extends from Sydney
northwards, along the coast of Queensland, Gulf of
Carpentaria, the Northern Territory of South Australia,
and probably the north-western coast will also be found

SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS.

89

to have many places adapted for cane cultivation. The
range to which it succeeds inland is not great — seldom
further than 30 miles from the sea ; the
nearer the sea, as a rule, the better the
crop, providing always that the land is
suitable. Experience has shown that
cane likes a moderately, but not too rich,
soil ; both stiff land and sandy loams
answer ; it requires perfect drainage, a
humid atmosphere, and rainfall of 50
inches or more. Many varieties of cane
are grown, and they differ much in hardi-
ness ; a few withstand a moderate attack
of frost, say a visit of temperature
ranging between 30° and 35° during the
night for a week or so. The author
has grown cane for years in the Sydney
district — the hardy Creole variety, brought
by him from Louisiana, U.S.A. But even
canes do best as sugar-yielders when the
keeps above 40° during the winter season,
of communication by water and land is
essential towards working cane successfully. It is a
heavy crop (ranging between 25 and 60 tons to the acre),
and carriage is a serious item.

The Land for Cane. — Soil with over 10 per cent, of
vegetable matter is necessary. The land should not be flat,
nor very broken. Around the former frosts gather, water
lodges about the roots, and artificial drainage is difficult.
In the latter, the cost of working is increased in proportion
to the difficulty of employing horse-labor, and the soil is
washed into ruts by heavy rains. The mode of preparing
land for corn is suitable for cane. The ploughing should
be deep, 10 inches at least ; to reach which heavy colonial
ploughs of iron are used, with teams of 10 or 12 Vmllocks,
or 6 horses. Bullocks are best for new land, wliere z'oots
have to be encountered in the tirat deep ploughing. After
harrowing, rolling, cross-ploughing, &c., until the soil is
made fine (alwolutely nece.s.sary for cane), furrows are run
(jut with ridging or double plough.s. The furrows should

Sagar Caoe.

the hardiest
thermometer
Convenience

90 AUSTRALIAN AGEICULTDBE.

be wide — 12 inches if possible — and deepened by passing a
subsoiler or a grubber through after the plough. These
cane furrows are from 5h to 7 ft. apart, according to the
strength of the soil (the stronger, the greater distance
necessary), and the description of cane to be planted. In
new rooty land that cannot be ploughed conveniently, holes
are made with pronged hoes, the spade, crowbar, &c. The
distance apart of the holes depends upon the strength of
the land and the cane to be planted, in the same way as in
furrow-planting.

Varieties of Cane, — Some scores of named sorts of
cane are known in Australia, but in their nature and
qualities they may be reduced to four, viz., those that are
.stripped, or ribbon canes ; Bourbon and yellow canes
generally ; purple and black canes, which include the
Creole ; and Scott's cane or Ot^iheite. The ribbons are the
strongest growei*s, require the richest soil, and come to
maturity in from 16 to 20 months from time of planting.
They require space varying from 2|ft. by 6ft. to 4ft. by
7ft. for each stole of plants. Yellow and green canes come
to maturity earlier than the ribbons, or l3etween 12 and 15
months. They are planted from 1ft. by 5^ft. to lift, by
6ft., according to the soil. The black canes are still earlier
than the green varieties, and are planted at about the same
distance apart.

Planting. — Cane planting commences with the true hot
weather in September, October. Plants are usually made
from the top parts of the canes, consisting of four or six
of the top joints, the buds or eyes of which are fully
developed or perfect. But any part of the cane (with
four to six perfect buds) answei*s for plants. It is all
important that the buds are perfect, and that fermentation
has not destroyed the sap. To secure both, the cuttings
have to be handled carefully, and planted as soon as
possible ; although they can be carried long distances by
excluding the air. In planting the sets, the furrows should
be laid carefully from four to six inches below the surface,
and covered with from two to four inches of soil. The
shoots come up in from 12 to 20 days. If longer, the
plants should be examined an<l replaced, if sour or withered.

SEMI-TEOPICAL CROPS. 91

The after cultivation is to keep the surface soil loose and
clean until the crop shades the land, in say from three to
five months. As they arrive at maturity the lower
leaves droop and die, and the canes become hard and very
sweet.

Harvesting. — When arrived at a fit stage, " trashing,"
or stripping off the dead leaves, is proceeded with. The
plants are then as thick in the rows as they well can be.
The top leaves of the tall-growing varieties meet overhead,
and at the sides the canes form a wall through which an
opening can scarcely be found. Between the rows a man
can barely force a passage, while the trash which has
collected during the season is piled up in the centre of the
rows, and forms a soft mass from 12 to 20 inches deep.
Ripe canes should have, at least, four feet (after cutting off
the green sappy top) fit for the mill.

Weight of Crop. — Thirty tons of ripe cane to the acre
is considered a fair average. With the best machinery, 80
per cent, of juice is obtained from the canes in their best
condition ; but 70 per cent, is a high return. At that,
25 tons of cane, the juice of wliich may mark 10° upon
Baume's saccharometer, gives, with the superior manufac-
ture of the present day, nearly 2^ tons of dry sugar from
an acre of land.

Tobacco. — This is an old Australian pi-oduct. Its
cultivation is well under.stood and followed extensively in
a few localities. Tobacco, to yield a creditable crop, must
have rich soil, close attention, and steady, clean farming.
Varieties grown are Havanah, Yarra, Virginia, Florida,
Connecticut, Maryland, German or Cabbage Leaf, Turkish,
Bird's-eye, &c. A fair average yield is 12cvvt. per acre.
Sowing is done from early in August until the end of the
year, and planting out during September and October for
summer crops, and again in January and February for later
crops, in accordance with the seasons found to answer best
in various loctilities. The varieties are liable to mix when
grown together, by bees and insects hybridising the
flowei*s. Care has, therefore, to be used when a clioice
and suitable sort is being grown that it is kept well apart
from other sorts.

92 AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTURE.

Sowing. — Seed, at the rate of an ounce to the acre, is
sown in beds, a good size for which is 3^ feet wide and any-
desired length. Three and a half feet by twelve feet gives
sufficient plants for an acre. For a seed-bed, select a piece
of the richest soil, level it and dig it a good spade deep.
Then spread over it a layer about six inches thick of dry
sticks or brushwood, and bum the mass well down to ashes.
By doing this we destroy seeds of weeds and eggs of
insects, as well as eggs of ground grubs that destroy young
plants. Frames with bush or calico covering are useful as

Erotection against frosts at night or during cold winds or
eavy rains. The bed is raked very fine ; then an ounce
of seed mixed well with some two quarts of fine sand or
ashes, is sown evenly over the surface. After sowing, with
the back of a rake smooth the bed lightly, packing in the
seed with the teeth of the rake, then sprinkle short stable
or cow pen manure or ashes over it — just sufficient to
cover the seed. Water as may be required to keep the soil
moist and the plants growing. Thin out to harden them,
and when about five inches high and the under leaves
begin to turn yellow and the top ones a dark blue, they
are ready for transplanting. The dangers to young seed
plants are fungus growth and grubs. Hence the need of
care in preparing the seed bed.

Planting Out. — Let the ground be well worked and
harrowed fine. In planting out Virginia, YaiTa, Havanah,
Cuba and Turkish, the plants are allowed five feet by two on
rich soil and closer on poorer soil ; Kentucky, German, and
Connecticut .sorts require four feet by three. Choose cloudy
weather or the afternoon for planting out. Before raising
the plants, soak the seed bed. Be careful to prevent
breakage of the roots, which are very large ; take up as
much earth with them as possible. In planting, make the
holes roomy and deep, and spread the roots as much as
possible, pressing the soil gently with the point of a dibble
or the fingers against the roots. Should the sun be very
hot, the plants may need shelter from a shingle, pieces of
bark, &c.

Cultivation. — When the plants are established com-
mence to use the hoe, cutting out weeds and loosening the

SEMI-TKOPICAL CROPS. 98

soil. When about a foot high pull off the under leaves to
about six inches from the ground, which strengthens the
main leaves and gives room to draw the earth up to the
stem in a round, flat-topped hill ; this serves to keep the
roots moist. As soon as blossom buds appear pinch out
the tops, so as to leave not more than nine or ten leaves
on each plant ; pinch out all shoots that spring from the
base of the leaves, and all that may be starting from the
roots ; this is done with a view to throw the whole strength
of the plant into about a dozen leaves on each plant.

Signs of Fitness. — When ripe, brown or yellow spots
appear, and the leaf gets a brown or yellow tint ; it again
changes to a dark blue, the leaf becomes thicker, rougher,
and more elastic than at any other time, and on handling
we find it to be quite sticky. It is then charged with the
true tobacco gum, and cannot be too quickly cut. The gum
rises best in close sultry weather, but if, when it is just
coming on, the weather changes to wet, the gum may go
down again, but it returns with fine weather.

Harvesting. — ^Wlien the plant is fit to harvest, take a
sharp-pointed knife, and split the stem down the middle
from about one-third from the top to within about two inches
of the bottom ; then cut it off" below the split. Lay the
plants on the ground in rows, and unless the weather is
very dry let them have the sun on one side for an hour or
two, then turn them over, and give them the sun on the
other side. If the nights are dewy, so much the better, as
the sun and dew together help to mature the leaf. In very
dry weather the crop is cut and brought under cover at once.
If rain should fall, pile the tobacco in heaps under cover
of some sort, but the heaps must be spread out should signs
of heating or mildew arise.

Sheds and Appliances for Drying. — These are absolutely
necessary. The shed may be a mere cover for drying
in the field, but a building, in addition, is necessary for
curing, enclosed all round and with windows or loopholes to
admit air when required. Beams are placed across at
about three feet apart — say one, two or three tiers —
according to the room recjuired, only so far alxjve each that
the tobacco hung upon one will not touch the next.

94 AUSTRALIAN AQBICULTTIBB.

Prepare drying sticks long enough to rest upon two beams,
inin them through the slits in the stalks and hang each plant
up to dry, the thick end upwards. They must be placed on
the sticks so as not to touch each other. Before hanging
the tobacco, take each stalk by the butt end and shake it
well to shake the leaves well asunder. In wet weather the
windows are closed, and smouldering wood fires are made
on the floor of the shed. The object is to prevent the
tobacco turning mouldy, and at the same time giving it a
good colour, and also the peculiar flavour prized by the
manufacturers. In dry weather no fires are wanted, and
the windows may be kept open to admit a free current of
air. In very dry weather the curing is helped by sprinkling
the floors. Tobacco requires hanging in this manner for
three or four weeks. The way to tell when it is dried
enough is to " trj' " one of the stalks, and if it breaks off
short it is suflSciently done. Wait for a damp day to take
the crop down, when the leaves will be limp and will not
break in handling ; or damp for this purpose also may be
got in well enclosed sheds by sprinkling the floors.

Curing or Sweating the Leaf. — When properly dried,
the leaf is put up in bundles or " hands," containing ten or
more each, weighing about half a pound. These are then
arranged for " sweating " — the size of the heap according to
the quantity of tobacco ; the larger the bulk the better it
sweats. Pack it closely and straight, the butts or tied ends
of the " hands " on the outsides, and, if necessary to deve-
lope heat in the mass, keep it pressed as close as possible
by means of slabs of wood, bags, &c. Watch the bulk
well by removing some of the stufl" on the top, and feeling
into the centre, and when it is so hot that we can scarcely
bear the hand in it the time is come for shifting ; put the
tobacco from the top of the heap by itself, and that from
the centre by itself (that being the most sweated), then
take the sides and bottoms and place them together. It is
then stacked again, putting that which was before in the
centre at the bottom and sides, and that from the bottom
and sides in the middle : the stalks that are greenest should
be kept in the middle. It should be done quickly, so as
not to let the mass get cold, or it may not sweat so well the

SEMI-TROPICAL CKOPS. 95

second time. Cover over as before. If done well the
tobacco acquires the well-known flavour, and becomes a
beautiful brown colour, and is fit for the next operation.

Stripping and Sorting. — In arranging the quality of
the leaf, it is classified as near as possible as follows : — The
first three leaves from the bottom of the stalk are No. 1, or
best quality ; the next three No. 2 ; and the rest No. 3. The
sorts are selected because they vary in quality and appear-
ance. Ten or twelve leaves are made a bunch or " hand," by
twisting a leaf round the thick end, commencing with the
thin end of the leaf and tucking the stalk end between
the leaves of the " hand " to keep it fast. The tobacco is
then fit for the manufacturer, and the sooner it goes to him
the better ; but if kept on hand for a time it must be in a
dry place, at least three feet above the ground, and not
bulked thickly, lest it become partially heated and turn
mouldy.

Late Crops. — A second crop is sometimes gathered.
For this, break off all the shoots that spring from the stool
but the strongest one, and this shoot is treated precisely
as the first crop, with the exception that the leaves are
considered all of one quality, and are rnted as of less value
than the first. After the second crop is cut the roots are
collected and burnt, thus manuring the ground with the
ashes. There is another mode of obtaining a late crop
which is useful when the season proves too dry for trans-
planting. Sow the seed in drills, or put in a pinch of seed
where each plant is wanted to stand, and thin them out to
the proper distance as soon as large enough. This plan
may come to he extensively adopted in the case of the late
crops, on account of the difficulty of transplanting during
the heat of summer.

Curing in Damp Weather. — One who knows the diffi-
culties attendant upon curing tobacco in damp weather,
and who feels for those who are so situated, says : I advise
all who can to have something like a stove and flue in their
tolmcco-curing places. There will be less danger of
scorching than when fires are used, the leaf will be free
from the smell of .smoke, &c., and the colour more uniform.
But thase who cannot have this should make their barns

96 AUSTRALIAN AQBICOLTURE.

tight from the ground up for nine or ten feet, and then
have frequent openings all around to allow the air to pass
freely through while the process of curing is going on,
and thus prevent " house burn," or curling up with sudden
heat. The number of plants on a stick and distance
between the sticks may vary according to the size of the
leaf, say, upon sticks four and a half feet long ten plants of
small or eight of large size, and about seven inches
between the sticks for the small and ten for the large.
As the leaf becomes cured, the sticks containing the plants
may be crowded closer together to make room for the later
cuttings. Then make small fires of chips or bark, with as
little blaze as possible. There should be a sufficient amount
of heat to bring the tobacco into a wilted state, and when
the tails become a little dry and curl up, the heat may be
gradually increased until the leaf is sufficiently cured to be
out of danger of moulding or souring. The leaf of tobacco
should be dried slowly, and the fires kept going regularly
day and night. The length of time for drying or curing
will vary, according as the weather, from 4 to 20 days.
Much labour and risk may be saved by spreading the leaf
on scaffiDlding out in the sun in fair weather, but care must
be exercised that it is not caught in i-ain.

Enemies. — Tobacco, whilst growing, has several
enemies — a brown grub commonly known as " the cabbage
or ground grub," which attacks the plants when quite
young. Its liabits are as follows : — During the day it is
not seen on the plants, but by scraping or stirring the soil
for six or eight inches around the stem it may be found
within half an inch of the surface. At night it pursues its
mischievous depredations by climbing the stalks and eating
holes in the leaves and occasionally the stems. This grub

fenerally disappears when the plant is about a foot high,
'he best way to prevent it is, when the land is prepared
for planting, to spread about a ton of quicklime to the acre.
Another enemy is a green caterpillar, which generally
makes its appeai-ance with the hot weather. There is
sometimes also a small white grub that eats its way from
the root and ascends through the centre of the stalk. Its
presence is shown by the bulging or swelling of the stalk.

SEMI-TROPICAL CROPS. 97

in which a sort of knot is formed. On seeing this, open
the part with a knife, and pick out the grub ; when this
is removed the plant thrives again. Grasshoppers are,
perhaps, the greatest pests of any, for though cleared off
one day, a fresh lot may come on the next. Paris green
and copper sulphate sprays are the remedies for the insects
that eat. Magpies or seagulls are useful, and turkeys,
ducks and fowls generally prevent insects from increasing.
Young fowls or turkeys do the best services when let in
just before roosting time, and turned out again as soon as
they fill up with the grubs they love.

Arrowroot. — This is amongst the safest of semi-
tropical crops, and one which, with the machinery that the
white man brings to his aid, enables him to compete
successfully with Malays, Indians, negroes, and othei-s, who
until late yeai-s had the monopoly of arrowroot culture.
The article of commerce so extensively used in preparing
food for the sick, and for the finer kinds of cookery, is
a pure white flour or starch. This flour is obtained from
two bulbous plants, the Maranta arundinacae and Cana
edulis. To gi'owers they are known as white and purple
arrowroot respectively. In habit there is but little differ-
ence in the plants, and the flour obtained from them is
almost identical ; but there is a vast difference in the
yield, which is fully one-half heavier in the purple sort,
which is grown over an area of country stretching from
Sydney northwards. P'or this crop, the preparation of land
recommended for corn and sugar cane is about right. It
does best in rich soil, but not where freshly manured. It
comes in as a very good rotation after a heavy crop
of com, and being light upon the soil (although yielding
from 10 to 15 tons of bulbs per acre), it can be gix)wn
several seasons in succession. The bulbs vary in size from
six inches to twelve inches in circumference, and may, for
all practical purposes, be likened to large potatoes in
appearance.

Cultivation. — The smaller bulbs are used for plants.
Wide furrows, alx)ut six inches deep, are run outalK)ut four
feet apart ; into tlie furrows the seed bulbs are dropped,
and covered by the plough or hoe. The soil must

98 AUSTRALIAN AQR[CULTU£E.

be warm (say, from 65deg. to 70(leg.), which brings
the planting into September and October in the cooler
sections of the country. In about 14 days, strong spiral
shoots appear above ground, and the soil has to be kept
clean as for corn. The plants grow i*apidly. The eaves
are broad at the tops, and borne upon stalks not unlike
those of maize. In three months the tops spread over the
whole of the field, and are from three to five feet in height.
1'he bulbs at the same time are growing in a cluster around
the base of the stems to which they are firmly attached.
As the cultivation proceeds, the soil is worked up around
the stems. From six to eight months bring the cixjp to
maturity, some of the bulbs peeping above ground ; a
touch of frost aids ripening by shrivelling up the tops
and concentrating the sap in the bulbs. In other cases
when the tops wilt and dry up, the crop is ripe. Forks
and pronged hoes are used for digging, the work being
similar in many respects to potato digging, but with the
arrowroot the tops and tubers come out in a mass. The
latter are trimmed in the field, the tops, and as much of the
adhering soil as possible being trimmed ofi" with heavj^
knives.

Manufacture. — The bulbs are washed until they are
absolutely clean, and then grated into pulp in a very simple
sort of mill, to make which a sheet of galvanised iron, into
which holes have been punched, is nailed upon a round
piece or frame of wood, with the rough or grating surface
outwards. This grater is fixed under a hopper )3ox, and
is turned with a handle. The bulbs must be pressed against
the grater, and there must also be a steady stream of water
flowing in upon the bulbs. They are thus quickly reduced
to a dark brown mass of fibry-looking pulp, which is
ran into long troughs, boxes, or tubs, in which it
is stirred and beaten about briskly in the clean water, the
object being to free the starch that is held in the cells and
fibres. The starch, being the heavier substance, falls to the
bottom, and the fibre and other lighter substances are
gathered or drifted ofi" from the surface. The water has
to be changed several times, or better still when the settling
of starch is in long troughs, a current of water flows over

SEMI-TEOPICAL CROPS. 99

it, until the pure white starch only remains in a mass at
the bottom. This starch while wet is liable to ferment, and
the libry matter separated from it is still more liable to
fermentation. Cool weather (not hotter than 70deg. in the
shade during the day) is desirable at the time of manufac-
turing. Weather of the requisite description is usual
during May, June, and July, during which season the
arrowroot is at its best stage for manufacturing. After
being stirred until perfectly clean — a simple process, owing
to the weight of the starch always bringing it quickly to
the bottom of the vessel — the starch is spread out in the
sun or in dry rooms upon cloth, and freed from the last
trace of moisture as rapidly as possible. When perfectly
dry, it keeps in bags, boxes, &c., for years, and is esteemed
as a valuable food material for the sick and healthy.

The Australian Process. — Machinery of very ingenious
construction has been brought to bear upon the manufac-
ture of this article, the cost of production being reduced in
proportion, while the quality is improved, as it is scarcely
handled from the time of leaving the field. The Messrs.
Grimes (Queensland) are famous for this article, their
arrowroot being extensively used in the colonies, in
England, and other countries. Instead of the laborious
and doubtful process of hand washing and grinding, which
is still the ordinary way of manufacturing this article in
the Indies, Cape, and other places, Australian arrowroot is
barely handled from fii-st to last. The roots are shovelled
into long troughs, through which run continuous streams
of water. There is a screw in each trough with flanges,
which turn, roll and push the roots about, and keeps
gradually working them towards the upper end all the
time. They are perfectly clean by the time they arrive
there, and are pitched (by the flanges on the screws) in
ones, twos, and threes upon an endless chain which lifts
them some fourteen or fifteen feet and discharges them
into the hopper of a grinding machine. Here they are
reduced to pulp, which pulp by means of a stream of water
is discharged into perforated revolving drums, where it is
knocked about, l)eaten, and washed, all to separate the
starch from the coarser particles. The starch, as driven

100 AUSTRALIAN AQRICOLTUBK.

through fine perforations on the outside of the drums, is
then carried in suspension by the water to a long series of
troughs, where it is gradually deposited in a solid mass,
and the water flows off*. The arrowroot, now a creamy-
coloured starch, is then washed in vats, and becomes
almost white. It is then put into centrifugal machines
and freed from the water. To complete the drying pro-
cess, the arrowroot (now beautifully white and sparkling)
is laid out in trays in the sun. When perfectly dry it is
put up in the bags and packets familiar all over the
country, and is ready for use — a delightful, light, nourish-
ing warmth giving food for the invalid and healthy. The
yield of bulbs of the purple varieties varies between ten
and fifteen tons per acre. A ton of bulbs gives rather more
than one cwt of manufactured arrowroot. The white
variety is grown and manufactured in the same way as
the purple, but the yield is much less.

Millets. — Broom Corn, Sorghum, &c. — Under the name
of millet, sorghum, farmer's friend, &c., a great variety of
grain-bearing plants are cultivated, but mostly for cutting
green for feed. They all require hot weather, and are
annual summer crops, sown in the cooler districts in August
to October, and in the hot districts from April to January.
As grain, none of the millets are used to the extent they
deserve. In Italy, parts of Germany, in India, China,
and many other countries, millet seed, ground into meal,
is an important portion of the food of the people. It is
inferior to oats or wheat for that purpose, but being an
easily produced crop on ordinarily good soil, it is
worth growing, first as green feed (it stands cutting
four or five times during the season) and secondly
as grain for poultry and pig-feeding, &c. Some of
the varieties also yield sugar (crushed out of the
cane and manufactured in the same way as cane-sugar),
but it is an inferior article for that purpose, and will not
stand competition with the cane. The soil may be either
strong or medium for the millets. Plough as for a
grain crop; when wanted for cutting green, drill in the
seed in rows of 29 inches apart, and cultivate between the
rows until the ground is shaded by the plants. For seed,

PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 101

or cane for sugar, make drills 3 to 4 feet apart ; scatter in
the seed so that plants may be obtained about three inches
apart when thinned out. When well cultivated, this crop
grows very rapidly, and in the course of four months from
planting, assumes the form of canes from one to two inches
in diameter, and from 6 to 12 feet in height. The canes
become brownish as they ripen, and a heavy mass of seed
is borne on the top of each. If seed is the object, it is
allowed to become dry and hard on the plant. If for
sugar, the sap is at its best (from 7° to 9° in density)
while the seed is forming.

Broom com is a variety of this family, grown much
the same as the others, and cut while the seed is young,
and before the branching head that supports it becomes
brown. This head makes capital brooms, whisks, &c. The
crop is dealt with in Chapter XI., with fibre yielders.

X.— PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW.

Silk — Cotton — Tea — Coffee — Ginger — Chicory — Rice.

Oil and Fibre Yielders. — They might come within
the list of crops for which the climate and soil are suitable.
And, as explained in the chapter on rotations, they have
the additional merit of taking but little from the soil.

Silk. — During many years the production of silk has
been an attraction in the colonies one after another.
Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia,
have each made efforts to include silk in their products
upon a large scale. New South Wales is making efforts in
that direction by private and public effort, and Queensland
has been exporting cocoons in quantity sufficient to test
their real value in the great silk markets of the world. In
the production of silk the first consideration sliould be the
cultivation of proper food for the insect from which it is
obtained. Next, that there is sufficient and suitable help
available. The silk-worm is a caterpillar which grows

102

AUSTRALIAN AORICULTURB.

from the size of about one-eighth of an inch — that at
which it emerges from the egg — to from two and a-half to
nearly three inches long. All the best silk-producing

Silkworm, Moths, au4 Cocoon.

varieties feed upon the leaves of the mulberry; and the
primary step to take is to ascertain the best kinds for
feeding, regard being made to the rapid growth of the
worm, and the quantity and kind of silk to be got from it.
That being arranged, the next thing is to cultivate the
trees in the best form. In Italy and in China pruned
hedge or dwarf growth is preferred, the trees being trained
as shrubs. In others, larger growth is encouraged, and the
trees are planted at distances of 10 to 20 feet from each
other. The difference may account for different methods
in feeding, which in one place is by the summary process
of throwing branches of trees, with the leaves on, to be
stripped by the worms ; and in another by leaves picked

PEODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 103

from the trees, and given, either whole or chopped, to the
worms on trays prepared for the purpose. In this climate
the wholesale lopping off of branches, even from a shrub
tree, would soon result in its destruction ; while small-
leaved trees would call for an amount of labor in picking
the leaves that would increase the cost of production to a
perhaps almost prohibitory extent ; so that a modified
process seems most likely to succeed.

Varieties of Mulberiy for Silk. — Of the great numbers
of mulberry trees imported into Australia, five or six seem
most suitable. The first is that known as the morus
multicaulis or large-leaved, or, as some call it, the Chinese
mulberry. Its first value is that the worm seems to prefer
the young leaves to those of any other kind ; its second is
economy in picking, since from the great size of the leaves
a few will feed more than a considerable quantity of the
other sorts. This, however, only holds good of the first
crop — the second growth is harder and poorer feed ; but
by that time other varieties, the morus alba and morus
nigra, come into use, and the silk produced by feeding upon
their leaves is said to be Al. These two kinds again
present each two varieties — the rose-leaved and the oak-
leaved — tlie fruit-bearing morus alba and morus nigra
being oak-leaved mulberries. In rich, loose soils, leaves of
considerable size and great richness of texture are
produced. Generally, the multicaulis begins to break into
leaf early in August, the alba and nigra a fortnight to
a month later. We may add to these trees the ordinary
Cape mulberry, originally a Chinese sort, for the later
stages of the worm ; and the Indian mulberry for all stages,
so far as experience has yet gone. The English mulberry
seems well adapted for food as the insect matures,
but it has not yet been sufficiently tested. Beyond
this, experience tends to prove that it is not nece-ssaiy
or profitjible to go. The other varieties here are rather
objects of curiosity than usefulness.

Soil for Mulberry Trees. — Good orchard land i.s
necessary, with sufticient depth of soil, ami drainage, such
as orchard trees recjuire. l^istances apart may be 10 x 10

104 AUSTRAUAN AQBICULTUBE.

feet to 20 X 20 feet, according to variety and method of
working.

Treatment of Silk Worms. — All the varieties,
Japanese, Italian, Bivoltines, and others are produced from
eggs laid by the moth the previous season. The conven-
tional or trade method of dealing with the eggs is to treat
a card or cloth of the surface of 80 square inches as
containing an ounce of what is technically called " grain,"
and an ounce should produce from 30,000 to 32,000 worms,
or about lOOlbs. cocoons. In Australia, the eggs commence
to hatch out in August, just as the mulberry begins to
break into leaf. The wonns generally commence emerging
early in the morning, and continue until afternoon. About
2 o'clock it is advisable to take a smooth, soft feather or
camel-hair brush, and gently but rapidly sweep the
worms from the card or cloth into a tray. This done,
some finely cut leaves should be scattered, to which the
worms will instantly crawl, and the first operation is so
far complete, care being taken to mark the date on each
tray. Trays of convenient size are made 18 by 14 inches,
and are simply frames of 1| inch x | inch timber, the
bottom being calico or Victoria lawn. Eight such trays
will be required for the product of an ounce of " grain."
The worms should be fed three or four times a day with
finely cut leaves, until they have reached their first stage,
which will be from four to five days after hatching. The
quantity of leaves for an ounce will be at first from 2^ lbs.
to 3 lbs. per day to 20-30 lbs. as they grow to maturity.
Thirty pounds leaves make about one pound cocoons.

From Worm to Silk. — The time at which the spinning
stage is reached is subject to much difference, arising from
feeding, from the weather, and from the kind of worm
itself. We have known worms to mature in thirty-four
days ; others were sixty before they began to spin. The
average of a good Japanese, however, may be taken, in an
ordinary season, at from forty to fifty-five days. The
" bivoltines " grow more rapidly than the annual sorts.
When the worms show a desire to crawl to the sides of the
trays, and assume a transparent tinge, the time for their
removal has come. A good method of dealing with them

PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GEOW. 105

then is to have a table on a strong frame, the top being
formed of strong mosquito net. Cardboard cells have to be
prepared, each cell about one inch square, and an inch and
a-half deep are made of stout paper. Lay a few of these
cell-cases on the mosquito-net table, and as you gather the
spinning worms from the trays, drop one in each cell.
When the worms are all got in, cover the upper side with
a piece of mosquito-net ffistened down by weights at the
sides, or by placing another cell-set on top, and then leave
the worms to spin their cocoons. In about four days we
may take the cocoons out ; in two, if necessary, we may
remove the cell-set and hang it up. The object of using
cells is to keep the worms separate, and avoid double
cocoons. After the fourth day, they are ready for the
winder.

The Gocoons. — In the cocoon is the embryo of another
moth, which in twelve to fourteen days will eat its way
out, and in tliat interval there is time to determine on one
of three processes ; to wind the silk off at once ; to dry the
cocoons (killing the ginibs) for exportation ; to allow the
moths to come out, tiius reducing the value of the cocoons
for silk production, but to secure eggs for sale as " grain."
As to the tirat, there is no demand for raw silk. As to the
second, the method of drying cocoons here is by adaptation
of the common iron oven, heated by gas or fire, taking care
that there is thorough ventilation by a hole or grating at
the bottom of the tloor, and another at the top. In such
an oven, and with three-inch intervals, there may be racks
or small bars strong enough to hold trays of cocoons. The
cocoons are placed not more than two deep, on cardboard
or chip on the racks, covering the topmost layer with paper.
When the oven is hot enougli just to tinge white paper to
a light straw colour, it will do. Twenty minutes kills and
dries the gnibs. When the cocoons are taken out, thej'
should be spread in the sun to evaporate any moisture left
in them. Wlien thoroughly dry — and that can l)c told by
cutting one open, when the gi-ub should fall to powder —
they can be pressed and packed in bales of lOOlbs. each, for
exportation, The price, in Europe, for good clean cocoons
is variously (quoted at from 38. Gd. up to 6s. per lb.

106 AnSTRALIA.N AQBICdLTURB.

Silkworms' Eggs. — The production of " grain," as it is
called, has led to more disappointment than can well be
imagined. The grain market in Italy is very variable. A
great deal depends, experience shows, not upon the actual
quality of what is sent, but upon its accredited reputation ;
and again, the time when sent is an essential element in
succes-s. To sell grain profitably, it should leave here to
reach Italy by December, so that it may have the benefit
of the cold. Arriving later, it will run a chance of being
crowded out. In past seasons, good Japanese grain, coming
late into the market, could not be sold at more than
eighteen-pence an ounce, and hardly at that. From a variety
of sources of information concerning the silk market, it
would seem that really good grain may be expected to
fetch, as a permanent price, from 14s. to 15s. per ounce.
As to the reports of 24s., £2 (and we have even read of £6),
they are very doubtful. Exceptional seasons will, of
course, yield exceptional prices, and 20s. per ounce has been
paid for Queensland grain as a sample; but it would be
folly to reckon on a higher general rate than that quoted
above.

Cotton. — Large tracts of country have been found
suitable for this crop in Australia, and when the prices are
such as pay, enormous quantities can be produced. The
land available is still more extensive than that for sugar,
for cotton answers in cooler locations. Good corn land suits
it. Cotton is grown from seed, and the usual planting time
is August. The crop matures in from six to nine months,
and is either re-sown, or in districts where frost does not
prevail the plants are pruned close to the ground, and are
thus made to yield two, three, or more crops in succession.
Two leading varieties are grown, viz., uplands or woolly-
seed, and sea island. The latter seed is almost free from
wool, is of a dark brown colour, and runs into but few
varieties ; the longest and silkiest fibre is obtained from it,
but the variety is delicate. The woolly-seed has many
varieties ; it runs into sorts of greater or less strength,
length, and beauty of fibre wherever grown, and is capable
of indefinite improvement by selections from the best plants
iu the field. The average yield of cotton gives twice the

PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 107

weight of seed to the weight of fibre. Seed, therefore, soon
becomes plentiful.

Beets for Sugar, Feed, &c. — Beet culture has been
carried on in the cooler parts of the country at various
times, and with such results as proved that beets might be
made profitable. They are summer croppers. Seed, from
10 to 151bs. per acre, is drilled in in August or September.
Plants come up quickly, and are thinned out from six to
twelve inches apart, according to soil, season and sort.
For sugar making, small beets are best, from 1| to 3^ lbs.
Cultivation much the same as swedes and mangels. Sugar
beets should harvest from twelve to eighteen tons per acre
at a total cost of £5 to £7.

Hops. — Hops of colonial growth are earning a high
reputation, and their cultivation is extending in New
Zealand, Tasmania, Victoria, and South Australia. The
soils most favourable are strong, deep loams, with an open
or well drained subsoil — good grain land, broken up by the
common plough, followed by the subsoil plough. The
" breaking up " in the first instance may be accompanied by
a dressing of lime or manure. The hop is a greedy plant to
excess, and requires good and generous treatment from the
very start.

Sowing and Planting. — Hops are grown from seed to
get plants or sets, which are put out in the open ground.
Planting six feet by six feet, triangular method, is handy
and sufficient between the sets. It is advisable to have
wide twelve-feet openings through the plantation, for a
better supply of air during the stronger growth of the
plants.

Cultivation. — The hop grows much faster in the
colonies than in England, and frequently produces a light
crop from the " set " the first season. Surface cultivation
to secure loose, clean ground, is necessary. Early cropping
is considered more a disadvantage than otherwise, as it
exhausts the young plants too much. In England
a common practice is to simply twist the firet year's
growth into a bundle and place a clod upon it, so
as to encourage growth in the roots as much as
possible ; but occasionally a short pole of six or seven

108 ADSTKALIAN AGRICULTURE.

feet is made use of where the growth is rank. The
reason for planting in triangle position is because the
poles are " pitched " or sloped at an angle of about
ten degrees from the vertical ; and if the " sets "
are allowed to come with their crowns towards each other
the bines would soon meet, grow twined together,
and so, from the first " tying up," be an endless source
of trouble and breakage, in separating them. When
the plants are poled, which ought to be as soon as the
shoots or "bines" appear in the yearling plants, the space at
lerel with the tops of the poles ought to be equally divided.
Each plant, if growing strongly, will have a spread of two
feet all the way up, and require as much sun and air as
can possibly be provided for it.

Harvesting. — Hops begin to flower, or " bell," in the
colonies alx>ut Christmas. In a week or two the seeds may
be felt between finger and thumb, and in a month after, when
the weather is favourable, the clusters of flowers will at
first become a pale yellowish or straw colour, and then a
lightish brown. At this stage they can easily be broken
up in the palm of the hand, emit the familiar fragrance of
the mercantile hop, and the sooner they are harvested and
dried the better. Gathering hops, or " picking " as it is
called, is usually done by women and children by contract ;
for this reason it is advisable to form plantations in locali-
ties where such labour is obtainable, for delay in this
operation is ruinous. A grower must have everything in
readiness for his harvest ; his cribs must be made, and an
" oast " or kiln prepared.

Drying. — Kilns are used for this purpose. Hops ought
to be dried, if possible, within twelve hours after being
picked. This is an important point, as the aroma of the
flower is very volatile, and in it lies the " strength " and
flavour of the hop. They must not be put in large heaps
prior to drying, for although of a brownish colour and
apparently ripe, they are full of sap, and will "heat " readily
if thus placed, and materially decrease in value. The
drying must be carried on day and night until all are
finished. The fires (of charcoal) must not be very fierce at
fii-st, but the "floorings" will need constant stirrings. A

PBODUCTS WE MIGHT GEOW, 109

great deal depends upon the weather. When dried suffi-
ciently, they are allowed to lie for a day or two in order to
acquire a certain de<^ree of toughness, when they can be
pressed, " or pocketed," witliout going into dust.

Chemistry, Manuring, &c. — Hops contain and require a
large amount of potash. It is calculated that seventeen
pounds are taken off an acre of ground in the season's
growth. Besides the potash, which is principally found in
the bine and leaf, the plant also requires ammonia,
phosphates, sulphates, lime, magnesia, &c.

Irrigation is helpful, though not actually essential, to
hops. When the land is well and deeply broken up, the
roots soon find safe quarters from the danger of our
summer heat ; and when the poles are well covered with
bines, they are self-protecting ; the evaporation in a hop
ground is not nearly so great as in a vineyard.

Tea. — Althougli the tea plant — the shrub or bush
which yields tea in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, the South
Sea Islands, and other places— has been well known in
Australia for many years it has never come into general
cultivation. It is another instance, and a striking one, of
the manner in which we go on 3'ear after year, buj'ing
what we can grow. The tea shrub is quite hardy from
the Clarence River northwards. It may be seen growing
in gardens in all sorts of soils ; but with the exception of a
few " old folks," nobody tries to make their own tea, from
a most erroneous idea that there is something very
mysterious about it.

Cultivation. — The tea bush is handsome in form, with
dark green leaves like those of the rose; the flowers are
pinkish white, and have a pleasant odor. When full
grown, tlie bush is al)Out three feet high, nicely rounded in
form, and altogether pretty. A pound or two of leaves
can l)e picked from a three-year old plant, and the yield
goes on increasing for thirty or more years. Seed may be
sown or 3'oung plants set out in tlie open ground during
August or Septeml)er. All seeds of this kind require rich
soil.

Harvesting. — No doubt tea manufacturers have a
certain way of manufactui'ing, l)ut a very good and whole-

110 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTUBE.

some tea is made by putting the young green leaves into a
shallow preserving pan over a slow wood fire. When they
begin to curl, throw them upon a table and rub them with
the hand into the form of ordinary tea. Let them stand
in a current of air for a few hours, or swing them about
in a basket ; then put the leaves in the pan again, heat,
and roll them as before. Do this four or five times, and
the result is a greenish black tea, of a far better quality
than the average post-and-rail compound.

Coffee, — This plant has been more extensively grown
in Australia than tea. It has proved delicate in exposed
situations ; but in rich soils, on the sides of hills protected
from westerly gales, and on well sheltered flats, it is a
hardy, handsome tree, and bears great quantities of cherry-
like fruit which, in its preserved state, we call coffee.

Cultivation. — The plants are raised from seed sown in
August, in rows about a foot apart. If they are to be
removed, the seeds are sown in pots or boxes. By the
following April the plants are about ten inches in height,
and can be set out from eight to twelve feet apart.
Choosing wet, sultiy, still weather. Coffee does not bear
transplanting well. To overcome this difficulty, the seed
may be planted three or four at each place where a tree is
wanted. In moist weather, during August, September,
and October, they come above ground in twelve to four-
teen days. By this plan, growing without transplanting,
stronger trees are obtained. Unless the soil is very rich
and porous — as in the case of what is known as mountain
scrub — the soil for coflfee should be trenched by hand or
plough.

Harvesting, — The trees come into bearing in the third
or fourth year, by which time they are five or six feet
in height, and pretty, nicely-balanced bushes, with very
handsome foliage. To force them into fruit, the tops
of the leading branches are pinched or pruned offl This is
also done to keep the trees at a convenient height for
picking off the fruit. The first crop of berries is usually
straggling. The fruit is in the form of dark purple berries
along the limbs. These berries are ripe when the two
beans in the interior of each move about freely on being

PRODUCTS WE MIGHT GROW. Ill

pressed with the fingers. Between the outside covering of
the fruit and the berries is a gummy-like sweetish
substance. To get rid of this, the fruit is allowed to lie in
masses until a slight fermentation sets in. The mass is
then washed to get rid of the gum, and the fruit spread
out in the sun or shade, as occasion may require. Around
each is a dry, parchment-like wrapper, and when this is
dry the fruit is passed between rollers that separate the
beans from the skins. In di'y weather the berries dry up
when exposed freely to the air, and the tough outside
covering can then be removed by rubbing the berries. The
flavour of Australian coffee (roasted in the usual way)
thus prepared is very fine.

Cocoa — Cacao or Chocolate. — Cocoa, from which the
chocolate of commerce is made, is obtained, in the form of
seed-pods, from a handsome tree. In its nature this plant is
even more tropical than coffee, but it fruits in the northern
sections of Australia. The seeds are sown as soon as
possible after they are gathered, as they soon spoil for
germinating upon becoming dry ; as do the seeds of most
pines and some other plants. The growth of seedlings and
transplanting is much the same as cofl'ee. Cocoa trees in
the plantation should stand apart ten to fifteen feet,
according to the richness of the soil, twelve feet being a
good average distance. In the fourth year a fair crop may
be expected. The fruit must be quite ripe before it is
gathered. When ripe it has a pale yellowish colour.
After being picked, it is allowed to lie in heaps for about
twenty-four hours. Then the pods are cut open, and
the pulp}' mass of seeds taken out and put into baskets
to drain. As soon as this drainage of what becomes an
acid pulp has ceased, the mass is emptied into boxes,
in which " terrage " (a property of sweating) continues
for thirty-six or forty-eight houi-s. After removal
from the sweating places, the seeds are freed from
any adhering matter, and spread out loosely to dry in
the sun, l>eing turned over very frequently. This process
of drying occupies aV)out three weeks and when complete
the seeds should be of a fine dark red colour. The
produce of a tree, when prepared, ranges from five to eight

112 ADSTBALIAN AORICULTDEB.

pounds. The crop has the advantage of being easily
cultivated, and prepared for export by a few hands.

Manufacture. — The manufacture of chocolate from the
seed is an extensive business in England, France, and
Germany. The seeds are firet roasted similar to those of
coffee, and with the same object — to draw out the rich
aromatic flavour. The mass is then crushed by a single
roller of stone or iron working in a bed of similar
material ; the bed is heated slightly as the process goes
on. The paste thus obtained is mixed with honey, sugar,
and other sweet substances in England. In France, Italy,
and Germany, pimento, vanilla, cinnamon, &c., are added,
in accordance with the taste of consumera. It is then
made up into little packets familiar to those who use cocoa,
and which furnish an invigorating and healthy beverage ;
and into tablets, and other forms of chocolate confec-
tionery. In cheap preparations, arrowroot, sago, and
similar ingredients are added.

Rice. — Tiiis grain is gi'own somewhat extensively in
the northern river districts. It changes considembly
according to the soil, location, &c., and the treatment given.
The rice of commerce is usually grown in swampy land.
Another variety, named Mountain Rice, does tolerably well
on dry land ; but it does better when watei- is applied, and
still better when the surface of the soil is flooded for a few
days. The grains also become similar as they are subjected
to similar treatment ; so that if they are difl*erent varieties,
the difference is but very slight. Both the common and
mountain varieties are annual grain plants, something like
wheat.

Cultivation. — The seed of rice, or "paddy," is the
undressed grain. It is sown in drills about fifteen inches
apart, and comes through the soil like so much grass, and
at first it is not easy to say which is the rice and which
weeds ; but in wet weather the crop shoots ahead. When
five or six inches high, it is an advantage to be able to
flood the drills with water, and keep the water on for three
or four days. The water kills weeds, and helps the rice
wonderfully. It also affords opportunities for filling up
blanks, by lifting knots of plants (with soil attached) from

PEODDCTS WE MIGHT GROW. 113

"where they come up too thick, and filling up blanks and
thin spaces. After being thinned out to an average
distance of about an inch apart, two or three hoeings bring
the crop to maturity. By dry cultivation, rice is found to
ripen sooner than when it is flooded, but the latter is
unmistakably the heavy crop, and experts say the grain is
iiner. In America the rice-fields are flooded at planting
time, and to a depth of four or five inches around the
plants as soon as they are high enough to stand it, and this
is repeated at intervals until the crop comes into ear. In
favourable seasons and on strong land the roots, in
Australia, are found capable of bearing two crops. The
first ripens in February and March. When ripe, the grain
and straw become yellowish, like wheat, and the tokens of
ripeness in that grain apply to rice. The heads of the first
€rop are then cut off" — the wheat-stripper should answer
for this work, as the grain stands well up. The second
•crop (at this stage looking like half-grown wheat) then
springs up, and ripeus in from five to eight weeks. In
ordinary farming, the rice is cut down with reaping-hook,
scythe, or machine, bound up in sheaves, stacked, and
thrashed out. The husks stick very closely to the grain,
and are removed by millstones, set at such distance apart as
to split oft' the chart" without injuring the grain. In
America, " huUers " are used for this purpose ; they cost
from £15 to £40. The rice is then dressed or polished in
machinery less or more expensive. The grain is best
preserved in the husk or " paddy " state, and is usually
sold in that form by the growers. The crop ranges from
twenty to forty bushels per acre. It is one of the
bestrpaying and least-exhausting grain crops grown, and in
Australia would be harvested at a time when there is little
<loing on the cane plantations.

Chicouy. — This plant Iwis been cultivated here, as a
forage crop principally, for many years. Our German and
French fellow-colonists are especially partial to it, and in a
few cases have extended chicory culture to over an acre.
As a rule, however, a few perclies only are grown, mostly
used for feeding cattle. Ten tons of r(x>ts per acre is a
fair avei*age crop of chicory in Victoria, where it is grown

114 AUSTRALIAN AGRICOLTURE.

somewhat extensively, and sold to wholesale coffee dealers
at from £3 to £5 per ton.

Cultivation. — The seed may be sown in either
February or March for a winter crop, or in September for
a summer crop. It vegetates slowly, and the soil should
be perfectly clean to prevent weeds from choking the
young plants. lib. of seed gives plants for about a
quarter of an acre. When fit to handle they are set out
in rows two feet by about eighteen inches ; or the seed can
be drilled into rows two feet apart, and thinned out, like
turnips or beets, with the cultivation of which chicory
corresponds, when grown for roots. When for forage, the
seed can be sown broadcast at the rate of 61bs. to the acre,
and the tops can be either picked off or bladed, or cattle
may be turned in to gi'aze them down.

As a Feed Crop. — Chicory is of more value to mow,
and consume in a stable or byre, than to graze. It might
also be used for ensilage. A small extent of chicory
ground fattens a large number of sheep. The best way is
to let the plant reach its full growth, the full succulence
being retained until the flower-buds appear, in which state
(not being permitted to flower) it has attained its greatest
perfection ; it may be then cut off near the ground, and
is eaten by all kinds of stock.

The Chicory for Coffee. — To prepare the chicorj'-root,
it is sliced, and dried in driers much the same as fruit. For
use, the dried chicory is heated in iron cylinders, which are
kept revolving as in the roasting of coffee. In England,
about two pounds of lard are added per cwt. of chicory
during the roasting process ; in France butter is used ; by
this a lustre resembling that of coffee is imparted tq it.
When roasted, the chicory is ground to powder and mixed
with coffee. The analysis of chicory gives 25 parts
watery extractive, and three parts resin, besides sugar,
salammoniac, and woody fibre.

Ginger. — This is another of the roots found admirably
adapted to the warmer sections of Australia. Three
varieties are grown.

Cultivation, — The white and yellow are much alike in
habits ; the roots of both grow in clumps close to the

PB0DUCT8 WE MIGQT GROW. 115

surface of the soil, and in dry seasons become tough and
fibry, and therefore are not so well adapted for making
preserves as the third, which roots deeper, and is more
fleshy and tender. AD the varieties are propagated from
knobs or pieces from the roots. They require very rich,
free soil, moist but not wet. Plant from August to
November, putting the sets about one foot apart each way ;
if a quantity is grown, the white varieties answer in rows
about twenty inches apart ; the plants being put in about
eight inches apart in rows. The yellow variety requires a
little more space. Merely cover the sets with soil — old
cow manure answers well for the purpose. The leaves
or shoots come above ground in twelve or fourteen days ;
they are at first pointed and reed-like, but soon spread out
into long thickish leaves, not unlike those of arrowroot.
The cultivation necessary is to keep the surface soil loose
and clean, and this should be done with a pointed stick or
the hand, and not more than an inch of soil should be
stirred. During the process the plants are all the better of
a few shovelfuls of rich old compost added to the surface ;
the yield is in proportion to the richness of the soil.

Harvesting. — The roots are ripe in about seven
months from the time of planting. Any difference that
exists in ginger is due more to its quality than to any
peculiarity in habit or growth. The white sorts • are
richest in flavour ; the smaller or narrow-leaved is that
used for the dry ginger of commerce ; for this purpose the
roots are allowed to lie in the ground until the leaf-stalks
have withered ; they are then dug up and washed ; the
outside skin is brushed or scraped off and the roots are
dried in the sun.

Preserved Ginger. — To make preserves, the roots are
dug as soon as they are fully grown, while the root is soft,
and before the leaves begin to wither ; they are then
wa.shed, scraped if neceasary, cut into slices or " chunks " of
any desired shape, and put into jars with salt and water for
a few houre, or just sufficiently long to take away any
earthy flavor ; then rinse the slices in clean water, and put
them l)ack in the jar with a first syrup made from white
sugar ; change the syinip in three or four days, or as soc«i

1)6

AUSTRALIAN AORICULTUBB.

as it shows signs of fermenting ; re-boil it, for a seconil
synip, adding more sugar, and pour it upon the ginger
again. This strengthening of syinips has to be done three
or four times, until the ginger has lost all wild flavor, and
is perfectly sweet and aromatic. It can then be put up
for use, as one of the richest and most pleasant preserves
known. To make it in the highest perfection, and with
the delicious flavour peculiar to Jamaica preserved ginger,
the roots are allowed to remain in the soil through the
winter ; they start into fresh growth next season, and in
November or December following, the young offshoots
from the old roots are dug and preserved as described.

XL— ROTATION OR CHANGE OF CROPS.

The Oil and Fikue Yieldehs.

The results and advantages of rotation or change of
crops are many. They include such treatment of the soil
as secures the heaviest returns from the crop in the land
at the time ; and to give the soil renewed strengtli for the
g crops to follow. Some

system to secure rota-
tion has been followed
from the earliest times.
The rule now is that
no two crops of the
same order of plants
should follow in suc-
cession. The soil con-
tents— the plant food
in the soil — are thus

Wadge Prew for ExtracUng Oils from Seed.. distributed and induCCd

to do duty in the most effective manner, by supplying to
one crop what had not been used up by the preceding
product. In the process of nature, richer plants take the
place of poorer, as the latter decay and furnish the

ROTATION, OR CHANGE OF CROPS. 117

necessary material. The process is the very basis of
evolution. In advanced farming practice, by rotation, the
land is cleaned from weeds, and many enemies of one crop
are starved out of the soil, not finding what they require in
the next put in as a succession, belonging as it does to a
different family. The process also allows of such heavy
manuring as is necessary for potatoes, corn, &c., and which
are all the better of such treatment, to be followed by
others which do not require manure supplied to them
direct. Labor and outlay are saved in this way, and
heavier and healthy crops secured. But comparatively
little has been done in the warmer sections of the country
in the way of rotation. In the wheat districts the aim of
the farmer may be to have a fifth of his cultivation land
under wheat ; another fifth under maize, potatoes, beans,
&c., or under lucerne, prairie, or rye grasses, which
do exceedingly well, the remainder in indigenous pasture.
Yet knowledge of the different crops which may succeed
each other profitably on the same land is of as great
importance to the skilled colonial as the European farmer,
who always works on some system of rotation. All aim at
a judicious change, so as to obtain the most valuable
produce from any given soil in as quick succession as
possible. Thus wheat, potatoes, grass, and maize, might be
alternating crops in suitable districts. In other parts, maize
might take the place of wheat; and again, wheat, sheep, and
grass form a rotation. A usual course is to plough one of
the cultivated grass sections for wheat, and the wheat-
ground is either allowed to go to grass, under sheep for one
or two sejvsons, or it is ploughed up as soon as the crop
is off, and worked for the next crop of beans, potatoes, &c.
Lucerne is seldom profitable after seven or eight years ; it
may then be broken up and the piece sown with wheat. It
would not be advisable to re-sow the same paddock witli
lucerne during a full course of rotation, say seven years. It
is found advisable to dress the lucerne land with quick-lime
before ploughing for wheat ; the same with the prairie grass.
Beans (kidney or haricot) are great bearers, and do well
planted with maize in alternate hills. Tiiey can be put in
with the corn-planter, are convenient for cultivation and

118

AUSTRALIAN AOBICDLTDBE.

harvesting with com, and makes good feed for horses, pigs,
&c. Crops with fibrous roots that throw up seed stems
with few leaves thrive best after crops with fleshy roots
and soft, broad leaves, on a branching stem. Thus wheat
thrives after beans, vetches, clover, or grass; barley and
oats after turnips, carrots, or potatoes.

Why Oil and Fibre Yielders are Good for Rotation.

They Take so Little from the Soil. — They are built up
from carbon mostly, and plants get that from the air.
Where suitable, they may be brought in as very desirable
rotation crops with wheat, or any of the other grains, as
neither oil nor fibre impoverish the soil to any extent, the
bulk of their contents being carbon.

Percentage of Oil from Seeds. — The following gives a
fair average of oils obtained from seeds, fruits, &c., and may
be found useful : —

Castor-oilseeds

Poppy seeds

Rape, colwort, and Swedish tamip

Colza seed

Wild mustard, gourd, lemon

Hemp-seed ..

Linseed, Sax, or lintseed ...

Sunflower seeds

Grape stones ...

Cotton seed ...

Olive-oil, about 2 gals, per tree.

about 62 per cent.
56 to 63 „
33 „
36 to 40 „
30 „

14 to 25 „
11 to 22 „

15 to .30 „
14 to 22 „
18 to 33*,,

Fibre Crops. — Australia is peculiarly rich in fibre-
yielding plants. The aboriginal natives make very strong
lines, nets, &c., from the curriejohng, fig, and many other
plants that grow in or on the boarders of creeks and scrubs.
Bananas, pine-apples, sida retusa, and others are fibre-
yielders. As they are of the order of plants that take very
little from the soil, fibre-yielders are excellent for rotation
with wheat, &c. New Zealand flax (phormium tenax)
grows freely all over the colonies, and produces a fibre of
acknowledged value. It does best in rich and rather
sandy soil, in this respect being similar to fibre-yielders

• The heavy percentage of husks in cotton-seed accounts for the
apparently low percentage of oiL

ROTATION, OB CHANGE OP CROPS. 119

generally. Seed of New Zealand flax vegetates at any-
time of the year, and as it seeds freely, even in the warmer
latitudes of Queensland, its cultivation could be extended
rapidly.

Flax, Lintseed or Linseed. — There are many reasons
why linseed might be a general Australian product. I
mean as a seed crop. It does well where it has a fair test,
and that is somewhat extensively in the southern parts of
New South Wales, and to a limited* extent in the north
and in Queensland. The yield is from 20 bushels upwards.
Marketable seed should be as heavy as wheat, or say 601bs.
per bushel. When ground into meal and scalded, it
makes excellent feed material for calves and stock, and is
decidedly beneticial in dairying. But the main requirement
is to make linseed oil, the basis of good paint. The value
of the seed in Victoria and in New Zealand, in both of
which are oil mills, is from 6s. to 8s. per bushel. And as
the crop is much less exhausting on land than either
wheat or corn, the value to the farmer becomes evident.

Cultivation. — There is no special requirement in the
farming of linseed. It is a summer crop, sown as for
wheat, and cultivated much the same. Good com land
answers. Linseed, for daiiy feed, is extending in the
southern districts, but is just as suitable for the central
and northern districts, or in other parts where the
rainfall is sufficient to bring on fair crops of maize.

Broom Coiix. — The fibre from which " American
brooms" are made is got from a variety of millet, or
sorghum. It lias been grown in various parts of Australia,
and does as well as the millets usually do here, and that is
as well as in any part of the world. But, hitherto, as a
crop, this variety has not made headway. The prospects
ought to be better now, because several l)room factories are
at work in the colonics, and no doubt they would purchase
from Australian growcra, could they get the material as
good as tiiat brought from America.

Cultivation. — Fairly good maize land does for the
cultivation of broom com. The season for sowing is the
same as for maize. It does all the better in rich land, and
takes kindly to manuring as a means of increasing the

120 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

yield. The seed is much the same as sorghum seed, and
where a quantity has to be planted a seed-dropper does the
work rapidly and well. From 15 to 20 lbs. of seed per
acre are sown, in drills, 3i to 4 feet apart. The plants are
thinned in the rows to from 3 to 6 inches apart, and ordinary
good corn cultivation is followed, in order to get the plants
to grow up straight and clean. The " broom " fibre is at
the top of the plant, and the object is to have it straight
and tough. It would be well for those who may try this
crop to examine the fibres of a good " American broom," to
see what is required.

Harvesting. — In order to toughen the fibre and hasten
maturity, the heads of the " corn " are bent over just as
the blossoms appear. The bend is made about a foot
below the seed head or " brush." The plants of two rows
may be bent over and made to hold each other in that
position. The blossoms come out while the " corn " is in
this bent position, and when they begin to fall the crop is
fit for cutting. At this stage a good deal of the seed has
formed, and it has all to be got out, a common hackle
being used for the purpose. The heads are laid on the
ground as cut, when the soil is dry and clean. The fibre
would be injured by dirt of any sort. The drying or
curing is done in barns or sheds. All the moisture has to
be dried out, which takes from a month to six weeks.
The heads are then sorted into bundles of uniform length
and color, and are ready for sale. From 500 to 600 lbs. is
the yield in Indiana, where broom corn is a general crop.
The value ranges according to the length and color, at
from 308. to £2 per 100 lbs.

SiDA Retu-sa, or Queensland Hemp. — This, the
" paddy's lucerne " of colonial farming populations,
is one of the best known fibre-yielders. In the
coast districts of New South Wales it grows like a
weed, and becomes a serious nuisance where neglected.
It is an enormous seed-bearer, and being perfectly
hardy, when it gets possession of a piece of good
land its eradication is a difficult matter. Nothing
appears to injure the plants; on good land, they
grow up a dense mass of straight, supple twigs, about

ROTATION, OR CHANGE OP CROPS. 121

half an inch in diameter at the base, and tapering away to
a point as the tops reach three or four feet in height.
When grown singly, sida retusa is a stocky, branching
plant; when in masses, it is straight, handsome, single
stem, and a literal mass of fibre. Quantities of this fibre
have been manufactured in much the same manner as flax
fibre in Ireland, and the yield estimated to be fully up to
one-and-a-half ton per acre. The fibre is valued in
England at from £30 to £40 per ton. When young and
tender, sida has qualities for feed purposes, but it is tough
on the teeth.

Banana Fibres. — Manilla is got from banana musa
textilis. This variety grows freely on the seaboard and
on the banks of the rivers and creeks in the coast country.
On an average a full-grown plant is found to produce 5 lbs.
of clean fibre, and in their own country the best exertions
of an experienced workman f Indian or Chinese) produce
about 1 2 lbs. of fibre per day. Their wages are necessarily
veiy low — less than would keep a white man in beef and
flour. We fear, therefore, that until machinery is brought
to their aid, Australians will have to leave Manilla fibre
culture to those who work for 5d. per day and think it
good wages. It is not agreeable to give up the matter in
this way ; but business is business ; if it won't pay, our
people can have nothing to do with it.

Pink-apple Fibre. — Fibre is obtained from the leaves
of the pine-apple, and is amongst the finest ; and pine-apple
cultivation being capable of extension to any extent, the
production of the fil)re is a question that depends upon the
introduction of machiiieiy.

Ramie, Chinese-Cloth Plant. — Better things are
expected from this, as the fibre has a value with
compartitive little lal>or on the part of the grower. The
plant has l)een grown for yeara in public and private
gardens. It is healthy, grows freely from cuttings planted
(luring the spring season, in rows two feet apart.

Extracting Fibres. — Various methods of separating the
fibres of flax, hernp, Ike, from the glutinous matter with
which they ai*e surrounded, have l)een a<lopte(l in various
countries. In Ireland, Belgium, Holland, and in Fi-ance

122 AUSl'KALIAN AORICDLTURE.

the plants, after beingf pulled, are dried in the sun, being
set up on the root-end in two thin rows, the top interlacing
in the form of the letter yV inverted. Then sun and air
soon thoroughly dry the stems, and they are bulked and
made into sheaves, and the seed afterwards threshed off'.
The stems are steeped subsequently. Another mode in
general use in Ireland and in part of Flanders, is to steep
the green stems immediately after they are pulled. In
Flanders the seed is invariably separated from the stems
before the latter are immersed in water. In Ireland,
although this has been practised to some extent, yet the
great bulk of the flax-crop is put in the water at once,
with the seed capsules attached. In Belgium and
Germany, dew-retting is practised. That is, in place of
immersing the stems in water, they are spread thinly
on short grass, and the action of the dews and rains
in time effect what immersion in a running stream or
pool accomplishes in a much shorter time, namely, the
decomposition of the gum which binds the fibres to the
stem and to each other. But fibre obtained by this
method is considered of inferior quality and color. If the
fibre of flax be separated from the stem without the
decomposition of this matter, it is found to be loaded
with impurities, which are got rid of afterwards in the
wet-spinning, the boiling of the yarn, the subjection of the
woven fragment to the action of alkaline lye and the
action of the atmosphere, of rains, and of alternate
dippings in water, treated with sulphuric acid and a
solution of chloride of lime, to perfect the bleaching. The
great object is to obtain the fibre as nearly free from
foreign substances as possible. At various periods
attempts have been made to prepare flax fibre without
steeping or retting. Weak acids, solutions of caustic

Eotash, and soda, soap, lye, and lime, have all been tried,
ut have all been found objectionable.

Cotton. — What a rotation cotton would make with
grain or root crops, were it a paying crop ! Three sorts
are grown in Queensland : woolly seed, Egyptian, and
sea island. All belong to the natural order Malvacse, and
Are heavy oil as well as fibre-yielders ; there is a large

ROTATION, OE CHANGE OP CROPS. 123

amount of that order of plants in these colonies,
fibre-bearing; they do not impoverish the soil to any
great extent. For a rotation on light lands, maize or
barley may be sown the first year, cotton the second,
grass the third and fourth years. The two-year old
grass ploughed up and sown with maize or other corn
crop, or planted with potatoes or other roots, would be a
rotation.

Oil Crop 5 — The Pea and Ground Nut. — This valuable
edible and oil-yielder grows luxuriantly in Northern
Australia. It is a lowly soft plant, not unlike well-grown
clover. The fruit is found just under the surface of the
soil all round the stem. The pea-nut likes a free, rich
sandy loam, without stones, and from its nature it is
absolutely necessary that the soil be kept quite free from
weeds. The fruit is in thin-shelled vessels, each containing
two seeds, of greyish white color, about the size of
almonds, and of rich nutty flavor. This seed is planted
eithgr singly or in paii-s as dug, and as soon as the soil
is sufficiently warm for semi-tropical vegetation, say in
September or October in the cooler, and two months
earlier in warmer localities. Prepare the land as for
com ; harrow very fine ; run out shallow furrows from
three to four feet apart. Drop in the seed about ten
inches apart, and cover. Harrow or rake the surface soil
three or four days after planting ; in eight or ten days the
plants commence to break through. They come in strong
shoots not unlike common potatoes, and rapidly develope
clover-like leaves which shade the ground. Cultivate as
clean as possible. Flowers come out at the ends of the
shoots, and as they fall the shoots bend down and send out
stout feelers, or roots, that enter the ground. The fruit is
borne in bunches on these feelers, and all round the stem.
As the nuts ripen the leaves decay. In all, the crop
occupies the ground from eight to ten months. The nuts
must be gathered during dry weather, otherwise the color
is injured — not a matter of much moment when it is
grown for oil, or for feeding stock ; but this is a crop that
ought to find favor for tlomestic use, and to that end
should be gathered as clean as possible.

124 AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTUBB.

Sunflowers. — All the order are heavy bearers of seed
that yields a good oil. Sunflowers grow in summer in much
the same way as maize ; the seed being borne upon large
circular heads — some of them twelve inches in diameter.
The seed is easily rasped off" and is treated for oil in the
same way as other seeds.

The Olive. — Coming to oil-yieldei's in the tree form,
we find the olive a favourite. There are several varieties,
some suitable for strong and others for lighter land.
Cuttings or truncheons are used for plants ; from eight to
twelve inches in length is considered a good size ; and they
may be either from the branches or roots. The olive is also
grown from seed by planting in September. Plants thus
obtained are fit for setting out in the following September.
The tree in all its stages suffers from frost ; it is well,
therefore, to select warm and sheltered places for it. The
olive grafts freely ; the sorts found to answer best can be
increased in this way upon the less desirable varieties.
The trees are planted from sixteen to twenty feet apart,
according to variety and strength of the soil. They
require ordinary good cultivation, and manure where the
soil is not strong enough. Pruning is reconnnended as a
means of inducing fruitfulness. The trees commence to
bear in their fifth or sixth year, and are long lived when
justice is done them. The fruit is of the plum kind, and
usually egg-shaped ; when ripe, it is of a reddish color,
and is borne in enormous quantities upon the full -bearing
trees. It is gathered by hand and by shaking the trees ;
the product in view being a valuable oil, it is obvious that
the cleaner and less bruised the fruit is the better. The
test of ripeness is to press the finiit ; when oil comes away
freely, it is fit for the press.

Olive Oil. — To get the oil, the fruit is ground into
pulp ; the pulp is put into bags of horsehair or other strong
stuff; these bags are put under a screw press, and the
oil forced out. The oil is allowed to run into vessels
containing water, and is skimmed off as soon as the
impurities pressed out with it have separated. A second
pressing, perhaps a third, is obtained by heating the pulp,
and sprinkling it with warm water. Oil of first quality is

ROTATION, OR CHANGE OP CROPS. 125

of greenish color and of nutty flavor. The coarser sorts
are darker in color. To purify it, olive oil is allowed to
stand for three or four months in jars or tanks, that all
impurities may be deposited. The oil is then put up in
bottles for use. The yield of oil varies very much. One
to two gallons per tree is considered a fair average, but as
high as one cwt. of oil is mentioned as the product of
famous trees. The pressed pulp, etc., is used as feed stuflf.

Home made Olive Oil. — To those who have a few olive
trees the following for getting the oil may be of use. Those
who have once tasted the pure article will not be willing to
use any other. Crush the olives in a common corn-crusher ;
put the pulp thus obtained into bags, and press with lever
or screw into a vessel containing water. The pure oil
swims on the top of what is thus expressed, and is after
skimming, clarified by filtering through blotting paper,
which answers the purpose ; the oil, after thus being
filtered, is ready for use or market. A lever for crushing
may be made from a stout piece of timber, about 20 feet
long, fixed at one end by a bolt to a stump or post, with a
heavy weight at the other. The bags containing the
crushed olives are put under the lever a few feet from the
fixed end and the oil pressed out.

Pickled Olives. — For thi.s purpose the fruit is gathered
before quite ripe, and soaked for half a day in lye made from
one part quicklime to six parts wood ashes, with sufficient
water to extract the alkali. The object of this alkaline
steep is to extract a portion of the bitter principle peculiar
to the fruit. After steeping, the olives are washed in fresh
water and then put up in lx)ttles, with a brine of salt and
water, in which aromatic herbs may also be phiced. Ripe
olives are ahso used for preserving.

Castor-Oil. — The plant from whicli the castor-oil of
commerce is made has long claimed a home for itself in the
coast country of Northern Au.stralia. On the banks of
rivers tlie trees grow in dense mjxsses, and as a dozen trees
throw ofi* about a bushel of seed annually, and esujli seed
may make a plant that beai"8 within a year, the rate of
extension wlnle tliey meet suitjxble soil is prodigious. To
succeed as an oil-yielding crop, the plants require good rich

126 AUSTRALIAN AOSICULTURK.

corn-land, prepared as for a crop of maize. Plant the seed
about live feet apart, in rows ; the rows, for the convenience
of cultivation, may be from 10 to 12 feet apart. The seed
is hardy, and the young plants appear above gi-ound in
from 10 to 14 days. No other crop can be grown between
the rows, as the castor oil is a decided surface rooter and
rapid grower. The smoothing or back-toothed harrow, the
horse hoe, or a shallow cultivator is run between the rows to
keep down grass, weeds, &c. With moderately fair treat-
ment, in six months after planting we have trees from 8 to
12 feet in height. The fruit is borae in clumps of small
rough seed-vessels. As the seed ripens, the covering cases
commence to split open. Then is the time to gather. Some
varieties " pop," or Hy open, and the seed is scattered out
on the ground. Othera have to be forced open. It is the
task of each grower to select such seed as will give him a
crop that will neither '• pop " too soon, nor be too stiff to
separate from the seed-vessels. The crop is gathered by
hand, and also by stretching a cloth around the tree, and
" yanking," or jerking off the seed with a stick. As
gathered, the seed is placed in a heap either under shelter
in the field, on a verandah, or in a bam. In any case it
must be surrounded with boards one foot or more in height,
that the seeds may not pop over. To make the stiffer ones
fly open, they may be beaten with anything soft. There is
great difference in the yield of different beans ; those that
are solid, and from which the oil oozes freely on being
pressed with the fingera, are the best. They also vary in
size and colour ; some are. beautifully striped and mottled ;
but colour is no guide to quality in the castor bean. When
very large, they are frequently hollow in the centre.
Those about the size of common coffee beans are usually
the best.

Getting the Oil. — The oil is obtained by bruising or
grinding the seed (we have seen an ordinary large-sized
coffee mill used for the purpose). The pulp is then put
into horsehair or other bags, and the oil extracted by
pressure as olive oil. This is the cold-drawn article of com-
merce. It is also extracted by simmering in vessels heated
by steam or fire, as described in article on vegetable oils.

MAKING AND USING MANURES. 127

Caution. — The residue of castor oil seeds, after the oil
is pressed out, is poisonous. The seeds also are injurious
except as medicine. The oil is used largely for lubricating
purposes.

XII.— MAKING AND USING MANURES.*

This is amongst the most important subjects the
Australian farmer has to consider; and it is encouraging
to note the growing attention given to it. Let the natural

richness of his land be

what it may, the man

,4i__ ^^_ acts wisely who pre-

^T^^^^^^^^^SBuMS^^^ pares to feed his crops

^■--ll^^'Jfv^^l^^lWl^^B^^^^ on manure from the

start. For rich land,
the quantity required
to keep up the soil in
its best condition is
but small — when the
„ „ ^ ^. - right material is sup-

Mannre Makes the Crop. i • i mi . i

plied. Ihe poorer the
land the more feed has to be supplied in the form of
manure, and skill is called out more and more to get what
the soil stands most in need of. Skilful manuring, with
good cultivation, is the safe road to success, and the only
one that enables the agriculturist to prosper in dry as well
as in wet seasons. There are many sources of manure
available. The best and most effective of all, additional to
the compost heap, is to combine grazing with farming, and
either to feed stock on land intended for cultivation, or to
lay the land down in grass and graze and top dress it
until the piece luvs received a thorough coating. This
process is followed with absolute success as a portion of a
course of robition. In the grain districts where sheep are
kept this system of manuring is very effective, especially

* Artificial mannro raakiniTi (uperphonphnte making, and the Rcieuco aapect of
manure making and maniiriog generally, are dealt with in the author's work,
"Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists," i»., Batson Ac Co., Ltd , Sydney, and book.
Bellera generally.

128

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

SO where, in addition to the natural grasses, the stock get
additions of cultivated feed.

Making Manure. — The dryness of the atmosphere,
and the occurrence of very heavy rains, are against the
making of manure in open j'ards or in pits, as followed in
Europe. But when cattle are put under the sheds at
night, this plan becomes successful here. While working
upon this system, and to overcome excessive evaporation,
the liberal application of dry, loamy soil to the surface where
stock camp is decidedly beneficial. This dry soil absorbs the
ammonia and other gases that are otherwise blown away,
and after lying for four or five months becomes as rich as
the very best portions of the heap upon which the soil is
scattered. The free application of dry earth in covered
stockyards and upon manure heaps has this additional
advantage : the manure can be hauled out on the field
with less loss from evaporation than when the compost has
been made in the ordinary way. Where cane megass
and refuse, com stalks, coarse grass, &c., are available,
enormous quantities of manure can be made in this way in
the pig pen, or with the aid of a small lot of working
cattle that are yarded at night.

The Australian Compost Heap. — Of dry soil we have
already spoken. It is one of the valuable aids in favor
of manure-making in Australia, as will be more clearly
understood after study of this chapter, and especially of
page 133 referring to waste in ordinary farm-yard stuff. Few
things will be found to pay better than a shed under
which a di-ay can travel, and in which soil can be stored

in dry weather, so

'^' ^""^^""^ISk. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^y be kept

F ' ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^® when-

^ «^ ever required.

t>._ ^B Loamy soil is the

^ J|| l)est for the pur-

-S— — ^^ — - iba_- pose. The richer

i ■ J^amBmamHomm ■nmm ^ it is in vegetable

matter, the better

The Anstralian Compost Heap. and mOrC effective

it is. With this agent, nothing need be lost ; it absorbs

MAKING AND USING MANURES. 129

matter of all sorts, A load or two of it packed around the
carcass of a dead beast prevents all smell, and affords
a compost equal to the richest for many purposes. It is also
the best agent for absorbing night-soil and making it avail-
able for use, and many other purposes that will reacUy
suggest themselves. The compost heap should be under
cover, if at all practicable, and to prepare for it
as much loamy earth — dried stuff from swamps does
splendidly, being rich in vegetable matter — should be
carted up in readiness. As a foundation for the compost,
put down a thick layer of earth (a) ; and on top of that (b)
any weeds, grass, &c., that can be got together, in order to
rot them down, and destroy seeds of weeds, &c. Then,
any night-soil or refuse stuff can be added, as at (c).
Then more earth (d), and so on, adding layer upon layer,
cow-pen, stable, or other stuff, and making a heap as large
as may be required. If ammonia, in the form of sulphate
of ammonia, now made by the gas companies, is required,
or potash, or bone manure, or any other rich fertilizing
material, it can be mixed up in the compost heap, care
being taken all through the process to keep a covering of
earth {h h h) all round, to prevent loss. Such a heap as
this does not heat ; the earth prevents that, and it can be
hauled out as required for the immediate use of the crops.
What Crops Take Out of the Soil. — As has been seen
in the chapters dealing with soils, what makes soils rich
and what causes poverty, the main ingredients taken away
by crops are ammonia, potash, phosphates, lime, sulphates,
&c. With the exception of the three first named, ammonia,
potash, and phosphates, the other substances that build up
plant and animal life are sufficiently plentiful in Australian
soils, and it is mainly to supply the scarce substances that
manuring or feeding of crops has to be attended to by
agriculturists in all branches. The accompanying tables
show that field and garden crops require the Sixme
substances, but in very different proportions, some requiring
more ammonia, some more potash, others more phosphates,
lime, sulphur, and so on. But all require some, and the
skill of the agriculturist tells upon his crops when he
supplies their requirements in the right proportions and at
the right time.

ISO

ATJSTRAUAN AOBICTLTUBE.

HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP.— What they take

AWAY PER ACRE.

.2

9S

1

■s

3

Crop.

Yield.

n

1

?

•

8.

1

i"

fi

S

^

&

lbs.

IbB.

IbR

.b8.

IbR-

lbs.

Whkat

30 bushels (with straw)..

46

28

22

11

4

5

Maize

50 bushels

48

12

11

6

3

1

Barlxy

28 bushels

45

20

16

19

12

4

Oats

33 bushels

.W

43

29

15

11

7

Rtk

26i bushels

So

30

13

16

5

4

LUCKBXB

20 tons green or 4 tons hay

115

87

53

105

16

30

Clover

12 tons green or 2^ tons hay

85

16

40

72

21

13

Native Gbasses

10 tons green or 2 tons hay

31

27

19

26

6

11

Tobacco

15wt. cured leaf

54

69

14

23

5

4

Potatoes

5 tons

70

100

12

7

3

8

Sweet Do.

10 tons and 5 tons tops...

55

40

10

5

3

9

Tuknips

6 tons

78

52

14

9

5

16

Buckwheat

24 bushels (1,2001b.) ..

42

89

18

12

4

13

Similar substances are absorbed by fruits, and the
accompanying table is arranged to show, comparatively,
what the proportions are, so that manures may be com-
posted to suit the crop we are making : —

FRUIT AND vegetables ABSORB PER ACRE.

■

Cropr

it

5

<•

1

1

Ib^.

I

Iba

1

Tb^.

1

lbs-

p.

3
QQ

"ibT

8

OQ

lbs.

lbs.

Apples

18

10

4

9

2

4

Peabs

19

10

5

7

2

4

Peaches

14

27

3

12

3

3

Apricots

14

22

3

11

3

3

Plums

10

18

2

9

2

2

Oranges

66

24

11

21

4

4

3

2

Lemons

40

20

9

17

4

4

3

2

Grapes

25

96

14

29

7

8

2

3

Cabbage

118

15

21

40

11

16

6

2

Cauliflowers

134

17

,28

45

13

18

6

3

Lettuce

80

14

13

27

8

6

4

1

Onions

45

18

14

28

13

20

7

4

Peas

10

22

1 50

41

17

32

6

5

HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP. 131

Natural manures of the organic kind that have been in
the growth of vegetable or animal life, such as rich soil
from swamps, &c., leaf mould, bush scrapings, stable,
stockyard, pig pen, and poultry yard stuff, offal,
sawdust, &c., &c., supply some of the ingredients
that plants live on, but in still more varying quantities
than crops take them. Hence the use of composting, so as
to supply in the heap such other materials as may be
necessary, and in such form as may mix thoroughly with
the others in less or greater quantity in the proportions
required. It is a further advantage in using natural
manures that as they are broken up and decay in the soil
they make room for the development or spread of root
growth, and add enormously to the good results got from
purchased manures.

The sources of manures available for Australian
agricultural purposes include : —

Bone in Various Forms. — By breaking and grinding,
bones are made more readily soluable for the use of plants.
Bones supply phosphates and lime, and small quantities of
the other foofl materials of ft-ops. Raw bone is most
valuable, next cooked bone. Bone ash and burnt bone are
least valuable as manure.

Boiling Down Stuff. — This is the refuse material from
boiling-down works, and contains all the substance of
sheep, cattle, &c., except the tallow, which is of no value
for manure.

Offal from Slaughter-houses. — When this contains
blood material, it is rich in ammonia in addition to the
other substances of animal life. It is valuable in propor-
tion to the less quantity of moisture in it.

Stable, Cow-pen, Piggeiy Stuff. — The value is
proportionate to the feed of the animals, and whether it
lias been wasted by exposure to he weather.

Fowl Yard Stuff. — This is very valuable, rich in
ammonia and phosphates, and other substances in propor-
tion.

Ashes. — Wood ashes contain potash, lime, and various
other substances of plant Hfe, the value l)eing dependent
on the quantity of potash.

182 AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTUBB.

Sea Weeds and Ferns. — Potash, soda, lime, and
sulphates are got in sea weeds ; also in ferns, both of
which make desirable additions to the compost heap.

Sawdust. — Does best when mixed with a small pro-
portion of lime, say a bucketful to a load of sawdust.

Mineral Manures. — These include superphosphate, or
bone reduced by sulphuric acid, sulphate of ammonia, a
product of gas-making. Potash is imported in the form
of sulphate of potash and kanit, or salt of potash, the
value of efich being dependent upon the potash contents.
Manures of the mineral kind give best results when
composted with the more bulky natural manures.

Lime. — Very plentiful in Australia, and of excellent
quality. It should be applied to the land separately from
other manures, and freshly slacked with water, that is, in
the form of quick lime, as a rule, where the land contains
much clay, or more than 10 per cent, of vegetable matter.
On thinner soils, air-slacked lime or bone dust answer
better. It is best to apply lime frequently and in smaH
quantities, to keep it near the surface and always active.
From one to three tons ^ lime to the acre may be
considered an average application. More may be applied
on very strong soil, and less on light land. Excellent
results often follow a first application of lime, but future
dressings may seem to fail to have the same effects. In
these cases, green crops might be ploughed in, and other
manures used, when, after a season, lime may again be
applied with profit, and to bring the fresh material into
active service by breaking them up for the use of crops.

Green manuring — the ploughing into the soil of
growing crops — is one of the most certain, as it is one of
the always available means of enriching any moderately
good land. Amongst the plants specially available for this
purpose are peas, corn, buckwheat, oats, cotton, sorghum,
and the summer grasses. The effect of this treatment is to
supply vegetable matter in heavy quantity and in a form
most acceptable to the soil and the crop. It has the effect
of keeping the surface soil cool during our hot summers,
when crops rooting near the surface suffer badly from the
heated surface earth, and especially in sandy soils. The

HOW CROPS ARE BUILT UP.

183

following is a fair estimate of the quantity of vegetable
matter from various crops ploughed in. Their nitrogen-
ammonia contents are gathered mostly from the air : —

PUut

Tons

Nitrogen

Value of

Other

per acre

lbs. per acre

Nitrogen

substances

8. d.

8. d.

Cow Pea

9.7

151.0

87 7

50 6

Maize

25.5

72.0

41 9

47 6

Snnflower

18.0

100.0

60 11

40 0

Sorghum ...

15.8

54.1

31 5

36 6

OaU

4.8

54.4

31 7

28 2

Mustard

55

39.9

23 2

5 0

Turnips

2.4

.34.0 j

19 9

28 8

Artificial Manures. — Very excellent compounded
manures are supplied by Australian manufacturers.
Their value is mostly in the ammonia, potash, and phos-
phate contents, all of which are obtainable now
by Australian agriculturists, at rates which put us on
an equality for feeding crops with any part of the world.
Sulphate of ammonia, got from what was formerly a
waste product of gas works, is excellent in quality and low
in price. Sulphate of potash and kainit, or salt of potash,
supply this essential of plant life. Bones supply phos-
phates in their very best form. The tables of what crops
take from the soil supply the needful information of the
proportions required for various crops. When mixed in
the compost heap with one or more of the coarser manures
described, we get the best result from artificial manures.

Waste in Ordinary Farm Manure. — It has long been a
matter of concern in countries where farm-yard manures
fonn the foundation of the general manuring, that there is
such a loss of labor in bringing it into use. Thus, an
ordinary average ton (2240 lbs.) of farm-yard manure, as
made after the careful manner followed in Scottish
farming, is compased as follows : solid matter, say, G40 lbs.,
which contains about 50 lbs of soluble matter; some
1600 lbs. of water make up the ton. The water is of very
little value to the fanner in that country, and he has not
the dry soil that is available here for our manure-making.

184 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUEK.

The 50 lbs. mentioned are made up of ammonia,
phosphates, potash, lime, soda, salt, sulphuric acid, &c.,
and the value of the whole ton of stuff is dependent upon
the proportions in which the first three — ammonia,
phosphates, and potash — are in it. We thus see how the
value of the manures are reduced to very small quantities
when the right materials are present.

The Time for Manuring. — When we have a choice,
in order to apply manure with the best effect for nourish-
ing what is planted, whether orchard trees or field or
garden crops, then just before they start into active growth
is the time which gives the most effective results. New
feeding roots are being formed then, and the sap for
building up the plant for the season is coming forward, and
necessary material is being stowed away for the growth of
the following season, or for maturing the buds, grain or seed.
Next to the time for applying manure, is the selection of
the right kind chemically, and its nature in the mechanical
sense. The effect of manure substances on soils is very
various. Long manure made from the straw and litter of
stables is not so suitable for sandy soils, unless it can be
used on the surface as a mulch. When dug or ploughed
into thin soils, it tends to make the land still more dry,
and hence should only be applied to this kind of soil after
being thoroughly rotted, or better as part of a compost.
What sandy soils require, as a rule, is vegetable matter
compost, or thoroughly rotted manure in right condition to
supply food to the crop without heating the soil. Leaf
mould, bush scrapings, etc., help this compost greatly.
Crops on sandy soils, when the right manure is there for
them, use it up very fast, and hence the apparent dis-
appearance of manure in such soils is accounted for. It
goes quickly into the crop, if in a soluble state, and the best
results are got when the crop can take it up at once. But
loamy soils and clays, on the contrary, store up and digest
manure, and are able to hold it until it is given up to the
roots. The reason why manure is more quickly eaten out
from sandy soils is that they contain less food material for
the roots. They are more porous and eat more than the
clayey soils. Root action is more rapid in them. That

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE.

135

is, provided the sandy soil is sufficiently moist. So when
soils are stiff, or clayey, long, undigested manure may be
useful. It tends to render such soils more open, light
and porous. But for sandy soils, we must aim to render
them as compact as possible, while the naturally firm
clay soils require breaking up and working to make them
most productive.

XIIL— IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE.

Admitting Water from River or Creek.

Relation of Plants to Water. — All plants are composed
largely of water. Grasses contain 40 per cent., many of
the herbage plants, and some of the most valuable, much
more. Fruits, vegetables and flowers are made up of water
to the extent of two-thirds of tlieir weight. Some of them
over 90 per cent. This water has been absorbed through
the roots mostly, and is but a portion only of the total
moisture absorbed. For water is the medium through
>vhich the earthy substances of plant life are carried up

136 AUSTRAUAN AGSICOLTUBE.

So that all plants must have water in some proportion ;
most of them in large proportion. They perish unless it is
supplied.

" Irrigation ?" — In the agricultural sense, this term
applies to watering by artificial means. It has, ever since
the time of white settlement, been a subject of interest in
Austi*alia, and irrigation has been carried out sufficiently
for pastoral, general farming, and gardening purposes, to
supply sufficient data to work on. Then Southern Europe,
California, Utah, Colorado, Mexico, India, Syria, Egypt,
even the South Sea Islands afford further details of use
to the progressive agriculturist. From the time of the
Romans onwards, works have been constructed for water
storage for irrigation purposes — a very different arrange-
ment from water storage for cities, both as to cost, and the
quality of the water.

Methods of Irrigation, — They are very various.
From the earliest times, water has been applied to plants
when the rainfall was not sufficient for the purposes of the
agriculturist. The defined methods of applying water
are by sprinkling all over the plants ; by saturating or
soaking the soil without sprinkling, and by a combination
of both processes. The basin system is suitable for sandy
and gravelly soils, and is followed extensively in California.

Advantages and Disadvantages. — Sprinkling seems
the more natural method. It is most like rain. The
disadvantages of sprinkling are that sediment and mineral
substances in the water dry upon or crystalize on growing
plants, and may destroy them by closing the breathing
pores. When water is used on the soil only, this risk is
avoided, and water may be used in that way with excellent
effect, which would be destructive if used the other way.
There is also an immense difference in the cost of the
methods of applying water.

Irrigation and Drainage. — The chapters no drain-
ing and cultivation explain how necessary and beneficial it
is to have rain water sink into the soil to the full depth
to which the roots penetrate. The same rule applies in
irrigation. The water, put it on in which way we may,
must sink into the soil, and do its work through the

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 137

agency of drainage, natural or artificial, or irrigation is
worse than wasted labor. The most effective irrigation is
where the soil is saturated from the surface to the subsoil,
and is on the move all through. Any layers of dry earth
under the wetted surfaces would be ruinous to the crop,
whether it were grass, corn, potatoes, fniit, or flowers.
We must soak the soil right through.

Quantity of Water for Grass, Crops, Fruits, &c. —
The nature of the soil and the crops will regulate the quantity
of water necessary. Grass may be effectively irrigated by
the application of 5 inches of water during a dry season
in which no rain falls. Sugar cane, to make a full crop of
40 to 60 tons per acre, requires 30 inches ; maize, 14
inches; potatoes, 12 inches.; orchards, 10 inches. The
Chinese use about 10 inches, and they water all the
year round. Heavy yields of wheat are got from 7 inches
of irrigation water. Wlien rain falls during the irrigation
time, half an inch of rain has wonderfully brightening
effects upon the irrigated crops, and does more good than
double the quantity of water by irrigation.

" But, an Inch of Water ?" — For ordinary purposes,
25,000 gallons is reckoned as an inch, and is estimated
to cover an acre, 1 inch deep. Whether we get the
water by pumping, or by other means, we have to
allow for 10 lbs. per gallon as being the weight, and the
calculation is u.seful in working out systems of pumping,
or caiTying water over tressels, &c. An incli of water
saturates soil from 3 to 6 inches, according to its condition.

Sources of Supply. — There are districts in Australia
where snow water supplies may be made available during
dry spells. But the rainfall has to be depended on in most
cases. Hence, water storage by damming rivera, creeks,
and water courses has to lie seen to. Artesian supplies are
available wliere the geological formation is suitable, and
very valuable e.xperiences are being gained through
the wells sunk in the western districts. Wells may
supply vast quantities where springs exi.st. Tank.s are
used in other places. Rivers, creeks, and lagoon.s, jus
storage placeS: supply the best irrigation watt'r. Wells
may contain douljtful mineral sulxstances

138

AUSTRALIAN AOEICCLTUEB.

All Water should be Analysed. — This is an absolutely
necessary precaution before laying out land for irrigation,
or applying water to land for agriculture, and is especially
necessary before using well or sewerage water.

Irrij'ation from Wells — At a huge strawberry
farm in Santa Clara, California, the author saw the effects
of irrigation from artesian wells, and the necessity that
exists for exposing water to the air before using it on crops.
In the case under notice an immense tank of concrete had
been raised some 10 feet above the level of the cultivated
land, which is level plain of great extent. In this tank
the well water was aerated, and mineral substances were got
rid of before the water was used. The elevation was suffi-
cient to give water pressure all over the cultivation land.

Irrigation by Soakage. — This process is followed
usually where capital and skill are brought to bear, and is in
general favor. Very efficient work of that kind is in opera-
tion at the sewerage farm, at Botany, connected with the
Sydney water supply. The land is laid out in levelled
paddocks, fields, or beds. Crops, such as lucerne, are sown

Irrigating (or Vegetables by Gravitation and Soakage

either upon this levelled land or the land is laid up in
ridges by the plough, and the crops are planted or sown
upon the ridges. The water is brought upon the land at a

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE.

139

suflSciently high level — 7 feet or higher — to be run upon
the cultivation by gravitation. The soil is very porous,
originally it was barren sand, and the water sinks into it
rapidly, feeding the roots in its passage when the water
is suitable. At Mildura, and other settlements on the
Darling, soakage is the system followed.

Irrigation for Grass. — Where water can be brought
upon pasture land at a suflBcient elevation, it may be
allowed to trickle over the surface and sink into the land.
Comparatively steep land may be treated in this way.

Crop Irrigation. — Where water is run upon cul-
tivated land, whether under field crops, orchard, or
vegetables, we have to be careful that the soil is not
washed away. In laying out the land, the channels
through which the water is to pass, opened by plough or
hoe, as A B in illustration, should not be steeper than 1 foot

DITCH

^

Furrows for Irrifrating Field or Orchard.

in 10 ; 1 in 100 is better. Water runs effectively with a
fall of 6 feet per mile ; in all steeper gradients there are
risks of washing away the soil.

Irrigation Land with Gradual Fall. — In the plan shown,

at upper end is the ditch ,
flume, pipe, or other
source of water supply.
The arrow shows tht>
courae of the water-flow.
Near the butt of the ar-
row, in the water course,
by a gate or other means,
the water is stopped and
tlu' flow din-ctod into the
feeder, from which it is
led upon the ground in
furrows (a a a). At the
lower I'nd of these fur-
rows it may be turned
(b h m) into tiie chainiels

i
I

4:

^a:

:aj

A Model Irrigation Paddock.

140

AUSTRALIAN AQBICDLTDBE.

Ijetween, or allowed to flow into the lower channel (shown by
arrow), and so returned to the ditch again. The most effective
irrigation is where all the water allowed to pass into the
fcodfM- i" -i-r^vi"*"! o.-e,>.a:<.-i it>+o the soil, without allowing a

Irrigatiog by " Stepping " Process.

run of water at any point. Hilly, broken ground is not so
suitable fcr irrigation. The cost and labor of working
places of that kind increase rapidly as soon as we get a
greater fall than 1 foot in 25. The illustration shows how
a very awkward place has been treated. The water is

Irrigating Hilly, Broken Oronnd.

brought in at i, which must be the highest part of the
land. B B are feeders from the main supply, and the water
is then carried along in still smaller channels (c c), follow-

IBBIGATION AND WATER STORAGE.

141

ing the formation of the land, so as to allow it to soak in
without running, which would be more dangerous than in the
fii"st instance cited. In cases where the water must be let
down to lower levels, in order to do what is necessary —
that is, saturate the soil — catchments or shallow wells
(h h) are made, and the overflow water from them used
in the still lower parts of the ground. At (c D E f g),
while the water is flowing, it is stopped and directed in
small streams as required upon the field.

Irrigating Hill Sides — In order to irrigate land thor-
oughly, channels or furrows with very little
J ^^^^111 fall for the flow of water have to be laid out
-- g^^^ by levelling instruments, and by this means

^- a!a - j ridges and inequalities are saturated by
^ ' "■ carrying the water round their sides, by

~ ' - " :Mm contouring. Water gates and sluices, for
admitting water from a ditch or other
channel upon the land to be irrigated,
are of various forms. In the gate shown, the flow is
regulated by lifting one or more of the pieces of wood
which slide between grooves in the side posts, and so

Water Gate.

allow the water to flow in, or be stopped, as may be
required.

Where Water is Scarce. — Where but small quantities of
water are available, for soakage, the always abundant
supply of old fruit and jam tins may be brought into use
for home garden irrigation pretty much upon the plan by
which Mexicans and Egj'ptiaus supply water to plants

142 AUSTRALIAN AGRICOLTUKE.

by means of chatties. The arrangement answers best
when tlie crop is grown to some extent, and is then in
danger from dry weather. The tins, each having two or
three small holes punched in the bottom, are set out

Helpful When Water is Scarce.

amongst the growing vegetables. At nightfall, and again
during the day, the tins are tilled, and the water enters the
eai*th slowly. The rate of distribution can be regulated by
settling the tins deep or shallow into the soil. But, simple
and crude though the arrangement may look, it has been
the means of keeping up supplies of vegetables where,
without this help, there could have been none. Self-help
is the lever of success in agriculture.

Sub-Irrigation. — Some acres of drain pipes have been
laid down on the Government ground at Rookwood, for
combined drainage and sub-irrigation. For the latter
purpose the pipes can be filled from the highest level, so
that by closing up the outlet, the water may rise to
the roots of grass, field, garden, or orchard crops.
There is also another plan available for making the most
of waste water, or where small quantities only are
available. A box is fitted in a convenient place, and
from the box pipes are put down so that garden stuff"
can be grown over them, the roots being supplied in this
way.

What Experience Says. — Irrigation for crops can be
successful only where the soil is thoroughly drained, either
naturally, by having an open sub-soil, or artificially by
means of drains. California, Colorado, Utah, and other

IBKIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 143

States of the Union, with climate very much like that
of Australia, have advanced rapidly with irrigation.
Victoria, our neighbour, is also moving ahead, as are a
few enterprising men both in New South Wales and
Queensland, Irrigation is applied successfully for grain
crops, grass, orcharding, &c. The mechanical engineering
principles involved are not difficult to work out. The
papers and reports from officers in the Water Department
are helpful in that direction. From lake, river, or dam,
water is led in open ditches with a batter of about 45
degrees, where the fall does not exceed 6 feet per mile.
Where the fall is greater, or gullies, &c., have to be crossed,
flumes made V shape, and of timber, or close pipes of
wrought iron or steel (made up to 40 inches diameter) are
used. Ploughs and scoops are employed with good effect
in opening out the ditches. When tlie water is got to the
place where it is to be used, it is brought upon the land
with as little run or fall as possible, otherwise it would
quickly cut the land into gullies, wash away the soil, and be
worse than a dry spell. What is termed stepping is used
where steep land has to be crossed. The steps are made
by putting logs or boards across the ditch so as to raise
the water a foot or so. The water from each terrace Hows
out from a bevelled notch in the centre of the log, which is
really a dam. Efficient levelling, when the water can be
run upon land, may be regulated by the water itself,
always being careful not to allow it to run too ftist, nor cut
away the soil. In practice, it is found the best course to
saturate the soil say two, three, or more times during a
season, rather than to wet the surface oftener. For wheat
and other grains, two saturations are found ample to
secure crops ; once after the seed is in, and again
when the crop is in flower. But much depends upon tlie
soil and the season. There is no hard and fast rule for
guidance.

Water Storage — In Australia, river and creek beds
offer inducements for storing water. Where the full of the
land is 1 foot in 50, or less, immense bodies of water may
be impounded by laying logs ivcross, or by " stepping."
Heavier works are formed by earth, having an inside wall

144

AUSTRALIAN AQUICULTDRE.

of clay — a "puddle wall." Stone, concrete, and timber

are all in use t'or the same purpose.

Wells. — In the sedimentary and other geological

formations which hold
water so that it can
be got by sinking
or boring wells, heavy
supplies are got. Then
boring augei-s, diamond
drills, and other con-
trivances are used for
reaching the water-
water Bjrins Gear. bearing strata or vein.

Tubes of metal are in places set in as lining to

the wells, and pumping is employed, unless the flow

reaches the surface, as the case is in the western districts,

in Gippsland and other parts. The cost varies from 15s.

per foot to £3.

Tube and Pumping Wells. —

Tube wells have been driven with

success in various parts, where the

formation is suitable, and are found

to answer admirably where a

limited supply of water is sufficient.

When sunk and in contact with a

water giving stratum or spring,

pumping has to be resorted to. The

pointed tube goes with comparative

ease through sand, loam, gravel or

clay ; but when rock is met the

tube may be withdrawn — it will

bend if forced too much. A likely

place for water being selected, the

tubes — lengths of ordinary iron-
piping — are arranged for driving.

Into one of the lengths is screwed

a piece of solid iron, pointed,

about eight inches long, and the

shoulder next the pipe is made of a

greater diameter than the pipe.

Tube or DriTen Well.

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 145

This is for driving into the ground, and this pointed part
being greater than the pipe, it clears the way. Just above
wliere this solid point is screwed, holes are drilled in the
pipe along sixteen or eighteen inches of its length. The
number of these holes must of course be in proportion to
the size of the pump, so as to admit as much water as the
pump is capable of taking up. A No. 6 Douglas pump is
as large as can be reasonably worked by manual labour.
In order to protect the top of the pipe as well as the
driving block from injury by the blows in driving, a cap
which screws on to the ends of any of the pipes is fitted, and
upon it the forcing power is applied, care being exercised
in seeing that the blows are struck fair by a maul or
driving monkey, and that the pipe is not bent.

When Water is Reached. — When the tube well pipe is
driven to a depth where water may be expected, it is useful
to let down a plummet to try for water. When the
plummet comes up wet, it may l)e well to screw on the
pump and try whether merely soakage water is reached, or
whether it coines from a spring. In a well put down in this
way, at a depth of 20 feet, 8 feet of water was got. The pipe
was then driven to 26 feet, and the water rose 20 feet in the
tube. At first it came up but slowly, mixed with sand, and
there was great pressure on the handle. It required several
hours' work before the water became clear and came with
a free flow. But the success of the pump may be judged
from the fact that two tanks, containing each 400 gallons,
weic filled in an hour and a quarter, the pump throwing
out the water as fully at the end as in the beginning,
showing that the water found w>is fully equal to a pipe of
2 inch l>ore. There is not much difticulty in lifting these
pipes, when that is necessary. Get a sapling or piece of
timbiM- for a lever, say 15 feet long; put a bullock-chain
round the pipe, with the hook to nui on the chain ; roll the
other end round the lever. When the end of the lever is
lifted, the chain tightens on the tube so thoroughly that it
does not slip, and the tube can be drawn with a strong lilt of
the lever. When the end of the lever is lowered after the fii-st
lift of the pipe, the chain round the pipe slips down, and
when the lever is again lifted it tightens round the pipe, so

146

AUSTRALIAN AQRICDLTURK.

that it takes tlie pipe up gradually, without any readjust-
ing or re-fixing of the chain.

Helpful in Driving Pipes or Stakes. —

The usual method of driving pipes,

stakes, &c., is to strike them on the

upper end with a maul or other heavy

hammer. When driving long poles or

the pipes of a tube-well this mode is

impracticable. But the driving, if in

sandy or soft ground, may be done

quickly, and without a high step or

platform, by using the device shown in

the illustration. This consists of a

block of tough wood 1 foot in length,

4 or 5 inches square at the top, made

tapering as shown, with the part next

the pipe slightly hollowed out. Take a

common trace-chain, wind closely about

the pipe or pole, and hook it in

position. With maul, axe or sledge,

strike upon the block. Each blow serves

only to tighten the grip of the chain. To keep the chain from

falling to the ground when unfastened from the pole it should

pass through a hole bored through the block, as shown at B,

one end of the chain being fixed on staple, E.

Pumping. — Centrifugal and various others pumps are

used for raising water ; the quantity, height for delivery,

sijses of pipes, flumes, &c., being mattei-s of calculation and

engineering skill, which are dealt with fully in many works

on that subject.

Water as a Pumping
Power. — In places where there
is plenty of water, or where
from 8 to 12 parts of what
passes through a water raising:
machine can be used that one
part might be raised, then
hydraulic, turbine and other
machines may be used with
good effect. The water in

Hjdnalio Water KaiMr.

IRRIGATION AND WAIER STORAGE.

147

these contrivances is the force used for lifting. In the case
of the ram or lifter illustrated, the water is admitted at
h, and enters an air chamber a through valve e until there
is pressure enough to lift the valve d, when the flow escapes
until the valve again drops. Meanwhile the water confined
under great air pressure in a is forced into the pipe c, where
it finds outlet into tanks or other storage places.

Windmills. — In many parts of the
country these wind engines do excellent
work. The requirements to make them
effective are a well fixed mill of sufficient
size, set on a well braced tower, an effective
lift and force pump, and tank space to
hold a body of water sufficient for irriga-
tion purposes. Much experience has been
gained in this country concerning the
capacity of wind engines of different sizes,
for raising water to any exent, where the
supply is available, and also concerning the
sizes of pipes that are suitable.

Self-acting Syphons. — By so arranging
a syphon, set in a tank, that when full
the water will overHow, the syphon thus
started will flow until the supply is
exhausted. Thus windmill and tanks can be made self
acting, and supply irrigation water with very little labor
and outlay.

Watering Plants in a Dry Spell. — Each plant has its
requirements. Some do with very little ; others want all
they can get. But none can live without water, not even
the rock lily or flannel flower, which seem to exist upon
dry, barren stones or gravel ; yet, even the greatest absorbers
of water, as sugar cane, maize, potatoes, water cress, or soft
annu£^s may get too much. Much disappointment arises from
mistaken idea.s concerning the watering and the way in
which water is applied. F'ot plants suffer seriously from
too much watering, as do plants in the bush-house and
conservatory. The general principle with which we have
to deal in using water by artificial means applies to field
crops equally with pot plants. In the early days of

148 AUSTRALIAN AQEICULTORB.

irrigation, in California, large areas of young wheat were
destroyed by over-watering, and for a time it was thought
that irrigation for wheat would not answer there ; watering,
it was said, brought on rust, but skill overcame that
mistake — the watering had been overdone. The capacity
of all plants to take up water is dependent very largely
upon the extent of their roots ; so that, in watering, say a
bush-house, we may be starving some and drowning others,
while we continue to serve all alike, by using the sprinkling
pot or hose upon them. Thus, a young begonia may be
gorged with water, while its full grown sister alongside is
starving ; or it may be that a plant has not been shifted
and that its ball has been over-crowded with roots, and
after being repotted, all the water may pass through the
new soil while the interior of the hardened ball is dry, and
in that state it is so much slower in absorbing water. In
this way, shade-tree plants newly set out, may be starved
for want of water. As a rule, the larger the leaf surface
of plants or the quicker they grow, the more water is
required. Plants with narrow leaves, or that grow slowly,
do not require water to the same extent. The quantity
of water required also depends to a great extent
on the situation in which thej- are growing ; thus, in the
moist atmosphere of a conservatory, evaporation from the
leaves is much less than in an airy bush-house. So with
wheat in comparison with maize, less water requires to be
pumped up by the wheat from the soil, and it is, therefore,
not necessary to give water so often. Among active water
absorbera are the ferns that naturally belong to moist,
mossy situations ; most of the orchids, when in baskets or
pots, require to have their roots kept constantly moist while
in a state of growth, though they endure almost complete
dryness when dormant. Various of our indigenous plants,
as rock lilies, stagliorns, &c., although able to resist an
almost absolute condition of drought, yet to bring them to
perfection a regular supply of water must be given when
they are in a state of growth ; for, though they do not lose
much moisture by evaporation or breathing, a large
supply is needed to fill the tissues of the growing shoots or
leaves.

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 149

When Plants are at Rest. — Mistakes in the watering
may be made during the resting as well as the growing
period. Nearly all tropical and most of our Australian
native plants rest during seasons of drought, and start into
growth with the advent of rain ; the contrary being the
case with plants of temperate and cold regions, where the
soil contains the greatest amount of moisture during the
winter or resting season, and they are thus well provided
for on the advent of spring, which is the time when
irrigation would be most useful in Australia.

Temperature of Water. — The temperature of water is
very important. It is best when the same as the air for the
time being, and may frequently be higher with advantage,
but water that is much colder than the air temperature is
injurious to plants.

XIV.— LIVE STOCK IN AUSTRALIA.

Guazing-Farming. — Agriculture as practised, and as be-
lieved to be best for the warmer sections of Australia, differs
considerable from that followed in other parts of the world
similarly situated with regard to climate. In many
parts of the country it would be considered folly to attempt
cultivation without sheep ; and cattle help in much the
same way. It is only the larger grazier oi S(juatter who
depends upon the native grasses for his herds or flocks ; and
cultivation is receiving more attention from graziers every
year, for no branch of agricultuie is at the mercy of tlie sea-
sons to an equal degree with that of the S(iuattei- who depends
solely upon indigenous vegetation. The agriculturist
who combines cattle c»r sheep with his tillage ope-
rations is not only secured in the l)enefits incidental
to live stock, but the manure made by them
lessens the efi'ects of bad seasons by increasing the fertility
of his fields and the capacity of his land to withstand a
dry spell.

150 AUSTRALIAN AORICnLTDRS.

The Better Prospect. — It is a source of much hopeful-
ness regarding the future of the warmer sections of
Australia that farming is already carried on with more full
knowledge of the relations between highly-cultivated fields
and success. Draining, subsoiling, and manuring are
receiving more attention. Consequently hoi'ses, cattle, and
sheep are in much favour among the farming classes. The
practice most in favour is to use the native grasses largely
during summer, to cultivate for winter feed, and to have the
common run of cattle or sheep as the basis of the lierd or
flock, resorting to thoroughbred male animals for improving
or keeping up the quality. When feeding is attended to
from the start, and shelter is provided against the chang.'^s
of climate felt in warm as well as in colder climates, the
groundwork of success is secured. The making of manure
is a primary object with the grazing-farmer, and he sells
when his stock brings a fair profit. Those who follow this
system may get no hundreds for a single animal, nor do
the animals sold " cost more than they come to." There
are, and will, we trust always be numbers of gentlemen who
have the time, the means, and the taste for breeding fine
stock, cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, &c., and to warrant them
in maintaining the herds and studs needed for the supply
of the active demand always existing ; and in case it should
cost some of them a few thousands for the gratification of
a worthy desire in this direction, nobody is much hurt.
But with the ordinary grazier or farmer who practises
mixed husbandry as a business rather than specialities, the
condition is different. The experimenting has been done
for him ; on a large scale it is always risky.

The Stock Available. — In this branch of agriculture
Australia has followed very close upon the lines of the
mother land. The noble cattle of England and Scotland,
the massive stately, handsome breeds are all here — the
Shorthorns, the Herefords, the Devons, the red-polled cattle
of Norfolk and Suffolk, Longhorns from the early impor-
tations, South Devons, " South Hammers," an offshoot of
the Devons, North Devons, " cobs," plump, lively, enduring,
active and decidedly pretty. Then we have the larger
Welsh breeds, the polled breeds of Scotland and the

IRRIGATION AND WATER STORAGE. 151

handsome, shaggy rugged West Highlanders, so suggestive
of mountains and forests and heather-clad moors. The
notable dairy breeds of Europe — dealt with in the chapters
on dairying — the Ay rshi res, Jerseys, Kerry s, Holsteins,have
all found favour. The breeders here are not stinted in
the material they liave to operate on.

Points in Breeding. — That from the male parent is
mainly derived the physical strength and structure and
outward characteristics, and the locomotive system. From
the female parent, the internal structure, the vital organs,
and in a much greater proportion than from the male, the
constitution, temper, and habit, in which endurance and
" bottom " are included. 'J'hat the purer the race of the
parent the more certainty there is of its transmitting its
qualities to the offspring. Say, two animals are mated, and
where one is of purer descent than the other, then, he or she
will exercise the most influence in stamping the character of
the progeny, particularly when the greater purity is on the
side of the male. That apart from disturbing influences or
causes, the male, if of pure race and descended from a stock
of uniform colour, stamps the colour of the offspring. That
the influence of the first male is not unfrequently protracted
beyond the birth of the offspring of which he is parent, and
his mark is left upon subsequent progeny. That the
transmission of disea.se of the vital organs is most likely if
on the side of the female, and diseases of tl\e joints if on
the side of the male parent.

The physiology of life in relation to domesticated
animals and birds, the question of the distinctive influences
of the sexes, is of e.ssential importance to the stock-breeder
in all branches, from horses to poultry and pigeons. That
each sex has an allotted part in stamping tlie offspring
with hereditary properties becomes obvious in every stage,
but how and to what extent the distinctive attributes are
made dominant is not so clear. Expei-iinents in breeding
for the purpose of elucidating this my8t<'ry must be
conducted with due regard to the relative qualities of the
sexes. When one of a long-fixed type is mated with
another of mixed breeding, it follows ahnost for a certainty
that the influence of the former will overbalance that of

152 AUSTRALIAN AOBICnLTDBB.

the latter. So that in experimentalising it is requisite to
select those only which may be said to start equal, when a
fixed result is aimed at.

A strikin<^ instance in support of this observation was
presented in the poultry yard, where very close tests of
this nature can be made. The case was with a well-bred
brown Leghorn male, mated with two good light Brahma
hens. Twenty-six chickens resulted, fourteen of them
cockerels, twelve pullets. The hen chicks were small-boned
brown birds, as much alike as possible, with little or no
feathers on their legs, everyone without exception a
presentable reproduction of their grandmother, the pure
brown Leghorn hen. The fourteen cockerels developed
into fine birds, very similar in appearance to each other,
big-boned, stalking, muff-legged, of decided Brahma type,
and excepting for a few dark feathers on the backs and
spotted beaks of a few of them, they might be taken for
the lineal descendants of their maternal grandfather, the
light Brahma, none showing more than a trace of Leghorn
blood. They all follow almost closely the lines found
correct in so many cases as to the reproductive influences
of the sexes. The study of the science of reproduction
is at once important and interesting. Perhaps the fore-
going may induce younger breeders when selecting
their stock to make careful enquiries as to the properties
of the parents, as upon these in a great measure will
the qualities of their stock depend.

Shorthorns. — " The Durhams, as they were originally
termed, and by which name they are still generally known
in the bush districts of Australia, were originally confined
to the counties of Durham and York, in England, They
were large, loose, short-horned cattle, in the early times
celebrated as milkera. Although the .shorthorns of the
present day bear very little resemblance to the original
Durhams, there can he no question but that they are the
same breed of cattle. The breeders on the banks of the
river Tees, favored by their rich .soil, by practising careful
selection, soon moulded them into a different and almost
distinct type, and they then became celebrated throughout
Great Britain as the Teeswater cattle. It is claimed for

LIVE STOCK IN AD8TBAUA. 158

the shorthorns that they mature earlier, fatten more
kindly, and produce a greater amount of superior meat,
with less proportionate amount of bone and offal than any
other variety of cattle. As milkera they stand unrivalled
by all except the Ayrshire and Jersey or Alderney. The
prevailing colours are red, red and white, white and roan.
The light roan body and dark roan neck, with red or
brown-tipped ears, is the favorite colour with Australian
cattle owners. The latter is perhaps the prevailing colour
of the Booths, whilst the dark red, characteristic of the
Duchess family, is preferred by many in the Bates' strain.

Herefords. — Next to the shorthorns, the Herefords, or
" white faces," are considered the most valuable of modern
beef cattle. They are proving amongst the best for export
shipping. Unlike the shorthorns, however, which have at
times been denominated an " artificial " breed, the Herefords
may be considered an aboriginal race, having been bred up
to their present state of perfection quite within their own
blood. Originally, the Herefords were brown or red-
brown, witliout any white, but for nearly a century the
white face has been a characteristic of the breed. The
improved Herefords, until late years, were of a light,
almost 3'ellowish, red ; but the fashionable colour of the
present time is a dark red, white face and crops, and
in most instances white dewlaps. The Hereford of the
present day is a magnificent animal for the butcher, pos-
sessing in a marked degree the propensity to lay on fiesh,
particularly on the hind quarters. So much is this the case
that to the symmetrical eye they appear groas, and Itxck the
beautiful appearance so much a characteristic of the
shorthorns. They are poor and inferior milkers, and it has
been observed that their calves do not witlistand rough
usage so well as the Durhanis. But it is claimed for the
Herefords that they are better adapted for our coast lands
than the shorthorns ; and that they mature earlier on our
natural pasturage, l>eing as a rule fit for the butcher at
four years. It is also claimed for them by their admirera
that they travel l)etter to market than the shorthorns ; but
this is stoutly denied by the shorthorn men. It cannot,
however, be denied, that if we take the market prices as a

154 AtJSTBALIAN AOBICDLTORB.

guide, they are held in even greater esteem by the butchers
in these colonies than the shorthorns ; although this is not
the case at Smithfield. For purposes of improving other
breeds, the Herefords are in no respect equal to the
shorthorns.

Devons. — Like the Herefords, the Devons, " The Reds,"
have been preserved pure from the aboriginal cattle inhabi-
ting North and South Devon. They are also proving hardy
for shipping purposes. The breed were formerly known
as the " Middle Horns." They are considerably smaller
than either of the previously described breeds, and were,
until recently, comparatively little known in Australia.
They are now, however, fast rising into notice. It has
been said that the grand secret of breeding is to suit the
breed to the soil and climate, and where the fattening of
cattle is limited solely to natural herbage, the Devons
would appear eminently suited to thrive where larger and
less hardy breeds cannot hold their own so well. The Devons
are better milkers than the Herefords, and next to the Sussex
they make the best and most effective workers. In color
the Devons are dark-red, without a spot of white. Their
skin is somewhat thin, but not delicately so, and they feel
and handle like a glove. They are more what a breeder
would call " pretty " with fine bone ; but without the
squareness of outline so justly appreciated in the
shorthorns and Herefords.

Hornless or Polley Cattle. — The development of the cattle
export trade is attracting more attention to the polleys.
They have long been in favour in New Zealand, and to a
lesser extent in Australia. They are gentle and thrive well
under the conditions that develop high-class shorthorns.
So far dehorning — the cutting off of horns, or the dissolving
of young horn material by acids — has not been practised
here to any extent as yet. The true polleys are the
favourites for hornless cattle.

As Beef Yielders. — The relative merits of the beef stock
may be gathered from the following details of a recent
Smithfield Show : — 'I'he top weights were — Shorthorns,
23cwt. Iqr. 71b.; Hereford, 23cwt. 201bs.: Sussex, 23cwt.
Sqrs. 121b8.; Highland, 21cwt. 3qrs. 161bs.; polled, 21cwt.

LIVE STOCK IN AU8TEALIA. 156

Sqrs. 161bs.; Devon, 18cwt. 2qr8. 271bs.; cross (shorthorn
and polled), 27cwt. It will thus be seen that this short-
horn polley cross topped the shorthorns and Herefords by
nearly 4c wt. and the Devons by nearly 8^cwt.

Crosses. — By this term is not meant the indiscriminate
use of two or more varieties of cattle in the same herd,
with the hope of ultimately establishing a fixed breed
midway between the two. Any attempt in that direction
will result, as it has always done, in disappointment.
Between certain breeds, however, a first cross produces a
better animal for the butcher than even the very best pure
varieties, but it does not follow that a cross between two of
the largest varieties will result in the production of the
]best and heaviest ox. On the contrary, experience has
shown that a cross between the shorthorn and Hereford,
although these are individually the two most valued
breeds, does not equal the cross between the shorthorn and
Devon, and is far inferior as a butcher's ox to a first-class
cross with the shorthorn and Highland cattle. But
unquestionably the most valuable cross, both for the butcher
and breeder, is that between a shorthorn bull and the
Aberdeen black-polled cow. A reference to the reports of
the Smithfield Club experiences show that this cross has
reigned supreme for many years, not only as regards weight
and the small proportion of bone and oftal ; but the flesh
which is beautifully marbled, is superior to any other
known class of cattle, and they are therefore held in the
highest esteem in the London market.

To Succeed with Cattle. — They all require rich feed
and plenty of it. This means good country, helped by
cultivation, which in turn means (juiet cattle which can be
handled without wasting.

Live and Dead Weights. — An average of dead to live
weight of cattle is 57 per cent, in an ordinary fat beast. This
percentage is frequently largely exceeded in stall-fed cattle
some having given as much im 71 per cent, of dead to live
weight ; Vmt for ordinary bush fattened Australian cattle,
57 per cent, is fair. In very fat cattle, an odd one of
which may be found in most mobs, the percentage may
reach 60; occasionally, 61-62.

t56 -itSTRALIAN AGRrCTTLTtlRB.

Connection Between Live Stock and Soil. — That
a knowledge of geology ia desirable in laying out land for
stock-rearing, we have only to note some of the effects
evidently produced by soils. Whether speaking of horses,
cattle, or sheep, in either species we find a great many
really different varieties designated by the common
term of breeds. These have originated partly through
selection and cultivation, but chiefly by the influence of
soil and climate. Breeds owe their origin to these two
conditions to no inconsiderable extent. Sheep of the same
breed placed on different soils in Australia, in a few years,
become so much altered in appearance and in condition as to
be almost unrecognisable as belonging to the same family.
Much the same effects become apparent in cattle and horses.
All modem breeds correspond in size and weight with the
nature of the soil and the climatic conditions where
they were developed. All the established breeds tell the
tale of climate and feed. They may alter somewhat in
color, according to the tastes of the breedei-s ; but the
animals are in reality what the soil and the feed grown on
that soil has made them. No amount of artificial feeding
or breeding has the same result. Nature has certain laws,
and none more strict than in the matter of breeding live
stock. Were it not for that limit which soil and climate
put upon races of animals, new breeds might be "evolved
indefinitely. Animal life essentially owes its originality to
the geological and chemical contents of the surroundings in
which " they live, and move, and have their being." No
breeder of live stock should overlook this great fact when
settling in a new locality, with the intention of breeding.
In cases where climate and soil are similar, stock can be
removed with safety and success from one district to
another, not othervNnse, or failure is sure to follow.

Soil, Health, Diseases. — And while soil influences are
proverbial in regulating the formation of breeds, they have
important influences upon the health. It has been
ascertained, for example, that in carboniferous country
certain diseases are prevalent, which are markedly absent
in other parts. This is in cases attributed to the presence of
lime, iron, &c., or their absence in other cases, which give

SHEEP AND WOOL. 167

different results. Again, the sandstone and other formations
which are notably deficient in lime, are subject to many
diseases peculiar to them. When pleuro-pneumonia was
rife in America some years ago, it was then stated that on
farms where the cattle had access to water coming from
the limestone formation, there was the least infection of
animals from the disease, and the fewest deaths. Nearly
every district has its own individual experience witii
diseases, which are affected largely, there is every reason
to believe, by the prevailing geographical surroundings.
Chemical analysis has revealed that the framework of
animal life is composed largely of minerals found in the
soil. Enough has been ascertained on these points to
encourage further investigation ; and it is hoped that
science may yet be able to map the area and region of
diseases as accurately as the different characters of the
surface soils.

XV.— SHEEP AND WOOL.— Small and Large Flocks.

There has been enough done to prove that sheep can
be made to pay in flocks of hundreds as well as thoustvnds,
and that the idea of the country being suitable only for
squatting, and dependence on the native grasses only is
amongst the notions of the past. Victoria and our own
southern districts offer striking examples of successful
changes from the old style of squatting to a system of
grazing-farming. The bulk of the cattle and sheep raised
there are on sections of less than 2,000 aci'es. Some of the
most successful men cjirry on operations on less than 500
acres ; though for yeai-s we were Jissurod that in the hands of
farmers the staple product of export — wool — was to
disappear or become so wortldess as not to pay for Ciirriage
to the European market ! Beyond this, the wirc^use was
thorouglily to deteriorate. Of couree, no one with any
exercised sense l^elieved such extreme views, and none

158 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTURE.

without an overpowering or interested motive ever sought
to make converts to them. Time has gone on, and we read
in a report of one of the largest wool sales catalogued
in Australia that "the wool interest has changed its
character. A new set of producers has come into the
field." The catalogue consists of 1444 lots, representing
12,274 bales, nearly the whole of it the produce of farms in
Riverina, Pentland Hills, Bacchus Marsh, the Werribee,
Kyneton, &c.

Sheep for Wool — The Merino. This celebrated
family, fi'oin the time that they firat attracted attention

under their present family name,
may be considered as indigeilous
to Spain. The Spanish merinos
were divided into two grand
families — the Transhumantes, or
migratory sheep, which were
driven from the southern pro-
. vinces in April or May to the
mountains in the north, some
400 miles, and driven back again
in the autumn ; and the Estantes,
escurials, or stationary sheep, which remained on the
estates.

Introduction into Australia. — This national event was
in 1797, and afforded an illustration of the hackneyed
saying, " It's an ill wind that blows no one good ;" for to
the circumstance of a Colonel Gordon at the Cape of Good
Hope having shot himself, Australia was indebted for her
first shipment of merino sheep. They had been presented
by the King of Spain to the Dutch Government, had
passed into the possession of Colonel Gordon at the Cape,
and at his death were sold by his widow, and shipped in
the war ships "Reliance" and "Supply" for Sydney.
They were of the escurial breed, and were considered very
superior. On their arrival. Captain Macarthur purchased
three rams and five ewes, and these formed the basis of his
celberated Camden flock. In 1805, Captain Macarthur,
when in England, purchased some of the Kew flock,
which had been presented to George III. by the Spanish

SHEEP AND WOOL. 159

Grovemment. Although inferior to Colonel Gordon's, these
were added to the Camden flock, and from these two lots
Australia has gradually risen to the first rank of the great
wool trade of the world. Mr. Cox, of Mulgoa, also
purchased some of Colonel Gordon's sheep, but he does not
seem to have been so successful with them as Captain
Macarthur. At a subsequent period, however, having
purchased the flock of Mr. Riley, of Raby, he added some
Rambouillet ewes from the French flocks, and removed
them to Mudgee, and from this dates the origin of the now
celebrated Mudgee flocks.

The Australian Merino. — The flocks have been spread-
ing over the land ever since the Macarthur days. The
merinos being now, as then, the sheep for wool.
The experience of years has proven that merinos,
when well cared for, are as suitable for small
flocks as large. With the cessation of impor-
tations, the European names Saxon, Negritti, Rambouillet,
&c., have almost dropped, and the great family name of
Australian merino adopted.

Country for Wool. — The wool of the Australian merino
varies in quality with the influence of climate and
pasturage, but it may be divided into two classes, combing
and clothing. Clothing wool is the class principally grown,
but of late yeara it has been found that a large portion of
the country lying on the western slopes of the main
dividing ranges favours the gi-owth of a staple considerably
longer than that recognised by the manufacturer as clothing,
hence many h)reedei*s so situated have adopted, and with
great success, the growth of the longer combing wools. In
the far inland and saltbush districts, a medium combing
has Iwen found profitable. The coast lands have been
found unsuital)lo for the merino, and are being gradually
brought under cattle. But here, as in other lands, quality
of soil has its decided ett'ect on wool.

Sheep for Mutton. — These arc the coarser wool
producers, with heavier frames, and giving a carcase more
suitable than the merinos for European consumers. The
development of chilling and freezing and export of livestock
have given an impetus to the breeding of mutton sheep
which was quite unforeseen a few years since.

160 AUSTBALIAN AGBICULIUBE.

Leicesters. — Of all the long-woolled, or — ^as the
Americans term them, the mutton-producing varieties — the
Leicester ranks first. As the Booth tribe of shorthorn
cattle have always been famous for the great improvement
their blood makes in a herd, so there are few varieties of
long-wools of the present day that have not been indebted
to the blood of the Dishley Leicesters for improvement in
shape and aptitude to fatten ; in fact, as has been quaintly
remarked, they have almost completely eaten up every other
long-wooUed breed. To such extreme perfection has the
frame of this animal being carried, that one is lost in
admiration at the skill and good fortune of those who
worked out such an alteration. It would seem as if they
had chalked out upon a wall a form perfect in itself, and
then had given it existence. For a number of years
Leicesters have at various times been imported into
Australia and have been successfully bred in New South
Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand ; but it was
not until 1868 that the breed was finally established, and
their value in crossing with the merino thoroughly
demonstrated.

Lincolns. — Next to the Leicester, the Lincoln is the
most valuable of the long- wools. Although at one time a
distinct variety, the Lincolns have of late years been so
modified and intennixed with the Leicesters that they may
now be dominated a sub-variety of the latter. The
Lincoln of the present day is a larger sheep than the
improved Leicester, with a heavier fleece of very lustrous
wool ; so much so that in some instances samples of
Lincoln wool have been mistaken for those of fine Angora
mohair. The Lincoln, however, has not the fine bone and
head, nor the .same extreme white and beautiful silkiness
of hair on the face and legs as the Leicester. For purposes
of crossing, however, it is considered superior to the
Leicester, inasmuch as whilst giving an equally large
carcase, the fleece of the Lincoln-cwm-merinos are heavier
and much more lustrous, They are, therefore, held in
great esteem by the breeders on rich volcanic and
limestone country.

The Cotswolds rank next to the Lincolns; but

SHMP AND WOOL. 161

although the largest of any known variety of sheep,
ihey are not on that account considered the most suitable for
these colonies. It may interest some to know that the
name of this family originated from the circumstance of
their having been housed in cots or sheds in winter, and
from being grazed over wolds or hilly grounds in summer.
The Cotswolds can be traced back as a pure and distinct
"variety to an earlier date than any other breed of British
:sheep ; but within the last quarter of a century they have
greatly modified, and lost many of their original character-
istics by repeated infusions of the Leicester blood. The
wool is coarse and open, and it has been found, in the
southern colonies, that they do not amalgamate well with
the merino. It is a peculiarity of the three last described
varieties that, when fattened, the ewes are heavier
than the wethers, by amounts varying from 101b. to
401b.

South Downs. — They are also handsome sheep, with
cloBe fleece of comparatively fine wool, speckled face and
legs dark, in some instances almost black. To one whose
eye has long been accustomed to the merinos, the
South Down would probably be more fancied at first
than any other of the longwool breeds. Unlike thase
previously described, South Downs have been handed
down pure, any attempt at crossing with larger varieties
having resulted in failure. It was thought that the
South Downs would be well suited to the higher lands
in Australia, and consequently were at one time extensively
used in New England and Monaro ; but they were
.supei'seded by the merino.

Kentish or Romney Marsh. — 'i'his breed possesses
additional interest to us from the fact that it has been
found that they have the power to resist fluke and foot rot
better than other sheep, and on this jvccount are considered
the best class for the coast lands of Australia, wiiich may
be said to Ije suV>ject to these diseases all along tlie south
and eastern seaboard. The Romney Marsh is a large
sheep, carrying a heavy fleece of long staple, but it lacks
the deep round chest of the Leicester, and cannot compare
either with the latter or with the Lincoln for symmetry.

162 AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTURE.

The Cheviot. — The fact of this race of sheep inhabiting
and thriving well on the precarious and mountain pasturage
of Scotland must stamp them as a very hardy race. The
Cheviot of the present day is a handsome animal weighing
from 1301b. to 1501b., capable of enduring great privations,
thriving equally well under the same conditions with
the hardy black-faced mountain sheep. On this account,
those who have had practical experience in their manage-
ment in Scotland, are of opinion that they would be
eminently suited to our broken, hilly country and coast
lands. . The wool of the Cheviot is coarser than that of the
South Down, but when crossed with the merino the
progeny has been found little inferior to that of the
Lieicester, except that the fleece presents an appearance of
wanting yolk when on poor country or the feed is not
sufficient for their best development.

Crosses. — It is found that a first cross between the
merino and a long-woolled variety produces an excellent
crossbred wool and a valuable sheep for the butcher or for
export, a sheep that matures much earlier than the merino.
The Leicester crosses are superior in carcase to those of
the Lincoln, while the latter excel the former in length
€uid lustre of wool. Both crosses are fit for the butcher at
from 16 to 18 months. When these crosses were confined
to a few breeders, very little demand existed for cross-
wools ; since, however, large numbers have embarked in
its production in the different Australian colonies,
sound crossbred wool has been adapted by the manu-
facturers to special purposes. It should, however, be
clearly understood that only the first cross are safe
while the sire and dam on both sides are pure of their
respective families. Beyond this, results will be disap-
pointing. If ewes of a first or subsequent grade are bred
rrom, it should be to pure males, so as to breed back to the
pure stock on either side; and if to Leicester or Lincoln
rams, the fourth or fifth generation will be tolerably pure
for general purposes. It has been said that " an attempt
to unite the fleece of the merino and the carcase of a
Leicester, for instance, is an unqualified absurdity." No-
crossbred males should, therefore, be used for stud
purposes.

8HBKP AND WOOL. 163

Classifying Wool. — The illustration shows the
different parts or sections of a fleece. Sections 1 and 2
have the finest, longest, and strongest wools; sections 3
and 12 short but close ; 4, somewhat longer, but a shade
lower than 3 ; 5 and 6, good ; 8, lower still, and called the
britch or breech ; 7, good length, but rather lower in
quality than 1 and 2 ; 9, shorter, and loses vitality as
compared with better parts; 10, short, and generally
frowsey ; 11, shorter than 12 ; 13, the cap, dry and harsh ;
14. fribby and of little value; 9, 10, 11, 13. and 14
constitute the skirt.

Combing and Other Wools. — The difference between
combing, clotliing. and other wools is comparatively in the
length of staple. A combing wool is seldom less than li
inch. A desirable arrangement or classification may be
made as follows : — 1st. Super-combing from fleeces that
have a soft, silky appearance, strong and dense in the
staple, a considerable length and very bright. 2nd. Firat
combing from fleeces not so silky and dense in the staple,
but strong and bright. 3rd. Second combing, coarse long
wool, handling rather harshly. 4th. First clothing 5th.
Second clothing. 6th. Dingy : that is, sandy, stained and
cotty fleeces.

164 AUSTKALIAN AGRICULTURE.

Shearing and Sorting. — It is necessary that the wool
be cut as nearly as possible to the same length all over.
When the shearer makes a cut which is not quite so near the
skin as the others, he should not be allowed to take it off
with a second cut, for that piece of wool is of no use in the
fleece, and if found there reduces its value ; but if left on
the sheep could be shorn off the following year to better
advantage. After the fleece is shorn, it should be spread
fleshside down, on a table made of battens placed an inch
apart, that all the small pieces of wool may fall below, and
leave the fleece perfectly free from locks. It then should
be carefully skirted, the stained parts taken off and put
by themselves ; then the hind legs and britoh, which also
should be kept separate, and called second pieces ; next the
fore legs and neck, and any other wool which is not of the
same quality as the fleece. These should also be kept by
themselves and classed as firat pieces. The pieces may be
divided into five classes, viz.: First pieces ; second pieces ;
third, stained pieces ; fourth, belly pieces ; fifth, locka
After the fleece has been properly skirted, it should be
rolled up, taking care to have the shoulder part on the
outside, as the best wool is on that part.

Sheep in Small Flocks. — The merino continues, and
is likely to continue the leading breed in Australian sheep
farming. It is as suitable for small flocks as for flocks of
tens of thousands. But crossbreeds for farmers and export
purposes have many recommendations where the feed is
good enough, to bring on early lambs and carcases fit for
exporting. Such sheep first of all fill the requirements for
butcher meat in the owner's family. They clean up stubble
and land that will become foul from weeds developed
during cultivation, as no other stock do. And they enrich
the land for further cropping for grain, potatoes, grass,
&c. Of the many heavier framed sheep available for
crossing with the merinos, the improved Leicester is held
in high esteem by men in the wheat and dairy districts
inland, who farm heavy land. The Merino- Lincoln cross
gives very good returns. The wool of these crossbreds is
dense, of good fair average quality, and the sheep mature
rapidly on rich soil. The crossbred wethers at two years

SHEEP AND WOOL. 165

old weigh from 601b. to 801b., and yield from 61b. to 101b.
oi wool.

Butcher Lambs. — They sell well when ready for the
batcher by August or September. Tiiat is, where they
have the feed, for lambs will not fatten on poor stuff.

The South Down Merino is very useful where lambs
only are required. They take on flesh rapidly, are well
shaped, deep and full in flesh. Possibly, the very best
sheep to breed butcher's lambs from is the first cross from
the Lincoln-Merino, again crossed by the South Down.
The progeny arrive at a good size, and weigh well very
quickly. But then, wool with the South Down cross in it
sells badly ; being shorter and hareher, and when once in
a flock, it will take a lifetime to breed it out. After the
first cross, we have to decide whether to breed for mutton
or wool. If for mutton, we must use coarse-woolled sires ;
if for wool, merino sires. But in either case pure bred
sires must be used.

Buying Sheep. — We may work on store sheep all the
time, and never breed any. To one who does this, sheep
which fatten quickly are of first importance, for any wild
wethers accustomed to wide grazing, and which travel
long distances do not settle down comfortably in small
paddocks. Quiet sheep fit the case in preference to wild
station sheep. Small sheep are not desirable, not only for
their size — for which the usual difierence in price partly
compensates — l)ut because they seldom fatten well ; their
conaition l>eing weak, most likely they may have disease.

Risks from Poor Feed. — Sometimes the beginner gets
a lot that puzzles him from their never getting " tip top."
On killing one of the poorest, we probably find the
stomach filled with felted lialls of irregular size, caused by
taking indigestible feed, especially old fibry grass or leaves,
dunng long journeys in dry scjisons. If the sheep are
young and thesetuson early with plenty of sound feed, they
may partially recover, but if old or the gi'ass is drying up,
there is no cure except the butcher's knife.

Points of Sheep. — The most profitable sheep is the
most perfect the country will ])ro<luco. This can only l)e
obtained V>y close attention and culling ; and to do this it

166 AOSTEAUAN AQBICULTDEE.

is necessary to know the " points " of a sheep thoroughly.
The points of a carcase — and they apply equally to merinos,
Leicesters, Lincolns, and others — are depth, girth, a round-
ness of barrel, with ribs well sprung, thickness behind the
shoulders, breadth of forehead, and width between the eyes,
shortness of neck and legs, and general squareness of frame.
The sheep to avoid, are thin-necked, leggy, flat-sided narrow
made, small-footed, ill-shaped animals, with prominent,
staring eyes, and narrow, hard faces. The carcase of a
first-class Lincoln should be covered with a long, bright,
lustrous lleece, in length from eight to ten inches, free from
fuzziness, which denotes a bad merino cross ; so does
anything like wool on the face, which should be covered
with a soft, white hair. Horns also denote a cross of some
sort. Want of attention may quite spoil a flock by breeding
from mongrels. Possibly we cannot do better than buy as
many ewes as required full-mouthed (as few men will sell
their best maiden ewes), from some well-known station
breeder. But do not let us have any broken-mouthed or
sheep with defective teeth. The rams should be put in five
months before the lambs are wanted.

Weight of Australian Fleeces. — Awards for fleeces
were made as follows at a recent exhibition at Wagga : —
First, total weight 3 ewes' fleeces in grease, 351b. 7oz. ;
scoured, 211b. 14oz. Second, weight in grease, 301b. lloz. ;
scoured, 201b. 3|oz. Third, in grease, 361b. 4oz. ; scoured,
201b. llioz. Fourth, in grease, 331b. 9oz. ; scoured, 201b,
15|oz. Fifth, in grease, 321b. 13oz. ; scoured, 211b, 13ioz,

XVI.— THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA.

He lives much more in the open air than in Europe or
America. The climate allows of his being put upon grass
at all periods of the year. Consequently he is a much
sounder animal than where he is continuously stable fed.
The horses of Australia are noted for sound limbs and

THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA.

167

tough ungroomed appearance, both due to the freedom
of life of the animals, and the excellent native pasturage.

Heads Show Character and Temper,

Buying a Horse. — It may be said without egotism
that Australians know a good, serviceable horse when
they see him, as well as any people upon earth. And
notwithstanding all that is said about the deterioration of

horses, in comparison with 20 years
ago, there are a few places where a
good serviceable horse can be
picked up more easily than in Aus-
tralia. Good horses, both in look
and action, abound in the country —
compact, hardy animals, which,
if light, are light all over; and
if heavy, then heavy all over.
The head, body, and limbs look as though they belonged
to one animal — and in forming an estimate of the
appearance of any horse, we should pay attention to
this relative position of his body and limbs. The body
should give a distinct impression of being placed on
the limbs, not suspended hetvceen them. Where the body ia
placed on the limbs, the horse will have the power of

1^8 AUSTRALIAN AOEICULTURE.

doing his work within himself, as it is termed, and will
not be easily fatigued ; while the horse whose body is
swinging, as it were between his limbs, will have a
very slack, uncomfortable gait, and will be very easily
fatigued. He may have a showy action, which might
lead the casual observer to imagine that he was going
at a tremendous pace ; but a few miles of heavy work
makes him drag his legs heavily, and, in a long journey,
he gives up with downright exhaustion.

Horses are as different as men. In buying, look first
to his head and eyes, for signs of intelligence, temper,
courage and honesty. The eye should be well developed ;
hazel is a good colour. Unless a horse has brains, you
can't teach him more than a half-witted child. See that
tall bay there, a fine-looking animal too, fifteen hands
high. You can't teach that horse anything. Why ?
Well, 1*11 show you, but have a care of his heels. Look at
the brute's head, that rounding nose, that tapering fore-
head, that broad full face below the eyes. You can't
trust him. " That's an awful good mare !" may be said
of another. True as the sun. You can see breadth and
fulness between her eyes. You couldn't hire that mare
to act mean or hurt anybody. I like a small, thin ear, and
want a horse to hold his ears well foward. Look out for
the brute that seems to listen to all the conversation going
on behind him. The horse that turns back his ears till
they almost meet at the points is sure to be up to tricks.
A horse with a dishing face is cowardly, and a sulking
brute is always vicious. I like a square muzzle, with
large nostrils, to let in plenty of air to the lungs. So
much for the head. Next the build of the animal. Never
buy a long-legged stilty horse. A. short, straight back
and a straight rump, are indications of a reliable type.
The withers high and the shoulders well set back and
broad. The foreleg short. A pretty straight, hind leg,
with the hock low down, short pastern joints and a
rounded foot. There are all kinds of horses, but the
animal that has these points is pretty sure to be
sightly, graceful, and, most likely is good-natured and
serviceable for the work that nature intended him for.

THE HORSE IN AUSTRALIA. 109

The Head Shows Character. — Aye! very much as a
man's does. Vice is shown in the eye and mouth ;
intelh'gence in the eye and in the breadth between the ears
a-id between the eyes ; spirit in the eye and in the nose, in
the mobile nostril and active ear. The size of the eye, the
thinness of the skin, making the face bony ; the large^
open, thin-edged nostril ; the fine ear, and the thin, fine
mane and foietop are indications of high breedinir, and the
development cf a high-strung nervous organisation, which,,
with good limbs and muscular power, ensures a considerable
degree of speed in the animal. The first of the two
shown in page 107 is high-strung and mettlesome, with arr
untrustworthy eye and a vicious mouth — a powerful animal of
great endurance, but, being wilful, is hard to control. The
other is equally high-bred, with great breadtli of forehead,
a large, full, friendly eye, not lacking in spirit. The-
bony face indicates blood, the ear and thin-edged nostril'
show spirit, while the whole expression of the face abounds-
in docility, kindliness, and honesty. We candidly confess-
we should greatly hesitate in buying a horse with a bad
doubtful-looking rrountenance, though many worthy men
and many well-disposed horses are unfortunate in this
particular. We may not value a friend the less for it; but
it would certainly not induce us to form an acquaintance
with the man so arranged without cogent reasons for so
doing. Books tell us what a perfect horse is, but they
do not quite tell us where to find him. So we have to look
out. Get a bridle on the horse and test him in his stall first.
Give the strap a sudden sharp jerk. When the horse throws
his head up, holds his neck stiff and ears rigid, and his eye
assumes a glassy look straight out from either side, he is
the stamp likely to put liis feet throngh the dashboard, or
his fore feet over the other horse's neck, the first time you
hitch him up. When yon harness up a horse, and he turns
his head round flat towards the side, and looks at you with
a meek, lamb-like expression as you take your place in t)ie
seat, if you have not a temper that is "child-like and bland,"
you will probably put a head on that horse that will make
him look differently before you get far on your journey.
Balking or jibbing horses are of two kinds — those which

170 AUSTBALIAN AGRICULTURE.

want to go too much and tlioso wliich don't want to go at
all. Tho first is the nervous, jibbing horse ; the secoud
the sulky, balky horse. A good way to manage the first is
to unhitch him at the first manifestation of the evil spirit,
and without any blustering or whipping, get on his back
and run him about three miles at the top of his speed. Nine
times in ten a horse will, after this treatment, when put in
harness again, pull as stcadih'^ as the most sober-minded
old horse in the world. A ver}^ usual way to manage the
second kind, those experienced in horse dealing say, is to
trade him off to some one in want of a good, steady,
reliable, old family horse. A favorite, but not generally
successful plan, pursued with horses of either of these
types, is to pound them over the head with the butt of the
whip or with a sapling. This is useless, but natural.
There is nothing in animated natuie that can develop bad
bile in a man to such an extent as (an an animal of this
kind. There is a legend of a man who hired a horse and
went out for a drive. The horse balked ; the man lighted
a cigar, took out a newspaper, settled himself back in the
cushions, and rea_i two hours and forty-five minutes by his
watch. Then that horse got- ready to go, and the man
must have been pretty well piepared for a better world.
This process would be tiresome, but quite likely more effective
than rubbiT:g dirt in the mouth of the sulky one or kindling a
fire under him. The latter sort of inducement to " go," has,
it is said, proved effective with confirmed jibbers.

Judging Age. — What experiences thero are in judging
the age of horses by the teeth ! While all the little black
caps or hollows are still in the teeth of the horse's lower
jaw, the animal is not over six years ; when those in the
corner teeth only are left, the horse is under nine. When the
cups are all gone in the under jaw, but are still left in the
teeth of the upper, the horse is probably not older than
ten, but this is not a certain i ule. 'J he shape of the teeth
tells much to the experienced observer. In youth the
cutting surface of the tooth is long from side to side ; in
old age long from front to rear. When the cutting surface
of the teeth in the upper and lower 3:iws are worn smooth,
and so long from front to rear as to resemble in shape the

THE HOKSE IN AUSTEALIA.

:17a

nails ou your little finger, the horse is. probably not less
than 15, and perhaps 20 years of age.

Good Mothers, Good Stock. — "Good horses, like great
men have good mothers." Reliable animals get their

goodness that way.
Speaking of that
most reliable of all,
the Clydesdales,
Topsman, Dandey,
Prince of Wales, and
Old Times, all of
them had excellent
mothers, snd of the
fuur only Prince of
Wales had a sire of
more than ordinary
merit. The early
improvers of cattle
fully recognised the
force of the above truism, aud the pedigrees of cattle in
herd books are tabulated according to the dam's side.

Judging the Horse from the Foal. — The future height
to which a newly-born foal will attain, when a full-grown
horse, may be approximately ascertained by doubling the
length of his fore limb, measured from the fetlock to the
elbow. From the knee to the ground the limb is near.y
the full length of the adult animal, but it is decidedly
shorter from the knee to the elbow than at maturity.

To Choose a Heavy Draught. — The characteristics of
a good heavy draught horse are large deep chest, straight
shoulders, a little inclined to flesh, thick body, not too much
belly, straight loins, the hindquarters a little depressed, thick
through the thighs, and sound, sizeable feet. The horse
that has sound, well-formed legs, feet, and che.st, and
thick short muscles in the thigh, is strong and likely to be
steady in a heavy pull. The speed is not so material ;
there are draught iiorses that are quick, and those that are
slow. The steady, light horses are good for farm work
when the ground is light and even ; the heavy, slow horses,
with firm tread are excellent for new heavy ground, or on

172 AUSTRALIAN AORICDLTDEE.

bad, uneven roads. A horse for drawing loads, to be well
formed ought to be high in front, having high and projecting
withers, large chest, front legs strong and set well apart,
back and loins straight, hindquarters a little depressed,
muscular, short in the flank, large sinews. With such a
shape a horse is solid and able to resist knocks upon uneven
roads and the weight which presses when going down hill.
To be fiery is a fault in a plough horse, or for drawing heavy
loads on uneven roads. A strong, slower horse is better ;
he resists fatigue longer, and does more service.

Clydesdales and SufEolks. — The Clydesdale is well
esteemed in Australia for heavy work, and for giving
strength to lighter animals. But in the eyes of not a few
good judges the Suffolk Punch is looked upon as the most
uniform of cart horses in shape, style, action and colour.
There is a theory that the generally-prevailing colour was
obtained long ago from a cross with horses imported from
Norway brought over by the " Hardy Norsemen." There
is not much similarity now existing between the Norfolk
trotter and the Suffolk Punch, but it seems to be recog-
nised as a fact that sufl&cient family likeness still exists
to stamp them as being of a common origin. According
to Arthur Young, who wrote a century ago, there were
then but two pure-bred varieties of cart horses in England,
and these were the large black or old English, and the
sorrel Suffolk Punch. The farmers of a portion of East
Anglia have for generations stuck to this breed, and have
good reasons for doing so.

Breeding Horses. — The draught horse and the
roadster offer the best prospects. There are two classes
of draughts, the light and heavy. The lighter and more
active draught are more properly omnibus or light cart
horses. Given a 12001b. mare, whether we get a light
draught or heavy depends on two things, the selection of
a sire, and the feed. The light draught or spring cart
horse should weigh from 1350 to 14301b., have good action
and definite colour. He should not be a dun, a light sorrel
or light grey, or have a white face or a glassy eye, and
must have good clean limbs and fair style. He may be
over four years old and well broken to harness. Even :i

THE HOESE IN AUSTRALIA. 173

heavy draught horse may be the progeny of a grade draught
mare yreighing 14001b. and a pure bi*ed-horse weighing
from 1800 to 20001b. He should not weigh less than 15001b.
in fair condition. The hack or roadster is also a paying
horse, when the breeder keeps a level head on himself and
breeds level-headed horses. He may not attempt to raise
fast horses. But he is good for road horses that travel as
fast as any Christian ought to want to go, and to do first-
rate farm work, just as much, in fact, and a little more,
than the draught horse, and sell at five years old for a
fair price, provided that the breeder is skilled in training
and driving such horses, and has a taste for it. To
produce roadsters, it is not good to start with a draught nor
a plug, nor with anything small. The draught may give
size but no speed ; the small mare may give action. Both
qualities are desirable in good hacks. If we want mares
well bred, with style and action, then breed to the large
standard-bred trotter, and we are not likely to miss the
roadster. The highest priced of all is the coach horse. Great
speed is not required, but size, gOod high-steppiug action,
colour, motion, style, disposition, and, in addition, training.
These are rare qualities, and like rare things, are costly.
The coach horse, whether Australian, French, English, or
American, is a cross between the thoroughbred or
standard bred to trot, and some cross of the draught horse,
possibly Clydesdale, with stylish farm mares. We have
glanced over the field and indicated the various classes of
horses that seem likely to pay. There is plenty of room
for variety of tastes and skill. But let no one imagine
that he can succeed without good judgment, skill and
feed.

Mental Training for the Horse. — Whether we are
interested in the midget Shetlanders or Timours, or the
farm horse, hackney or the blood horse, it is now felt that
animals reared without the advantages of early handling,
through which they learn to look upon man as a friend
rather than as an enemy, require to bo put through the
process called " breaking." This, as usually practised,
can hardly come under the head of mental training. To
get willing service from a horse, is to so manage him that

lT4t AUSTRALIAN AGBICDLTOBE.

he will become attached to his master. The dullest hor e
knows the meaning of a kick or a bite, when he deals either
of these out to the person nearest him, and he is less likely
to kick his friend than his enemy. One of the Arab
maxims is permit your colt to live with you, having acce-s
to your tent from his tender age. When grown he will be
faithful, and will take pleasure in doing your bidding,
through hardship, fatigue^ and privation. Without educa-
tion the horse is crude in the manner of giving his work
to his master, yet, after the manner of a mere brute, he
may be to a degree faithful. When properly educated, he is
much mere than this, he is automatic, self-propelling, self-
sustaining, while yet studiously holding all his powers in
reserve for the word of command. As the mind of the horse
gets in fuller sympathy with the mind of the man, as it should
and will, provided he be properly edu. ated, although his
powers are limited, he will cheerfully go beyond this
limit uncomplainingly. If he has native spirit — native
as inherited from ancestry — no education properly directed
will take this from him, but will rather add to it.
Education, adroitly applied, shows the limit of intelligent
manifestations in the average horse to be far ahead of the
general belief in such matters, still there are horse owners
who act as though the young horse should " rough it,"
both mentally and physically, until he is old enough to be
put to work, without any preparation to meet those sights
and sounds that cause runaways, as a rule, and from which
most of the serious accidents arise. Now, it is entirely
possible to educate the colt in such a manner as to take
nim out of fear of fright from drums, fire-arms, locomo-
tives, paper, or other objects driven towards him by the
wind while in the harness. A horse may prove to be
physically fit for bodily exertion, while, from his
education having been neglected, he is not fit to be
trusted in any position were he is liable to be frightened.
The safeguard, in his case, is to be harnessed with
a mate able to hold him to his proper place. It
is no uncommon sight to see country horses when
jJut to work in cities fill this description fully. They
may be startled by trifles, fear men in general, and

DAIRYING INTERESTS. 175

riiu away on the slightest pretext, unless guarded as
described.

Training Hoi'ses. — After young horses have once
become sufficiently bridle wise — and an excellent system of
circular machine training is now in use for that purpose —
it is a good practice to teach them the meaning of words.
This is not a difficult matter, provided too many words are
not used at any time. The first step is to adopt some
word, at the sound of which the horse is to understand that
he must stop. Words that are easy to speak, and which
can be made emphatic, should be chosen, such as " Ho !"
" Whoa !" &c., and every time ^he word is used the horse
to which ic is spoken should be made to obey it fully.
Carelessness in regard to this matter will do more to undo
what has been taught than anything else. Wheti a horse
fully understands the meaning of tiie word used when we
wish him to stop and stand still, the greater part of the
work is accomplished. To make the work more effective,
it is a good plan to get into the vehicle to which the horse
is hitched, and having stopped after a short drive, one
should get out and leave him for a short distance. Should
the horse then start, the one in the vehicle can draw the
lines suddenly, and thus prevent his getting away. There
will be no great trouble in teaching a horse with an ordinary
amount of common horse-sense to stand without being
hitched, when a little judgment and patience are used in
training him.

XVII.— DAI11YIN( ; INTERESTS.

Daiuyin'G as an export business has been of slow
growth in Australia. During the long series of years since
milking cattle were intnxluceil, they were the few only, and
generally classed jus dreamers, who bad an idea that dairy
products — butter, cheese, preservid milk, bacon, hams, and
lard — would become (exports from this eountrv ; yet in the
very early days. Alexan<ler Berry, locateil in the Illawarra
district, haul such an idcju He was no dreamer, but a

17«

ADSTEALIAN AGBICDLTDRE.

stem, mattei'-of-l"act man, and he put his idea to the test
by expoi-tin<; butter to California in the early fifties. And
<lairying has had lodgment in the Illawarra country ever
fiince, and is extending there more rapidly than ever ;
while the business has spread north, west, and south, into
Victoria, South Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
Even Queensland and Western Australia have hopes of

..-.i'^jrttbX^- -'-^tk^-'^: ■.'■,"v»s'-«5j. -v-i^rn-t .^>!^■•v^

A Bosiuess-like Cow.

sharing in what is growing into one of the greatest
industries of the country. The growth of export dairying
has been of immense magnitude since 1S82, when Mr. D.
L. Dymock, of Kiama, introduced the cream separator.
The exports have already rtached two millions sterling
for the produce of a year. The business, with tact, skill,
and judgment, may be worked up to ten millions !

Materials Available for Profitable Dairying. — In
Austi"alia, climate, soil, and indigenous giass, unequalled,
taken as a whole, compare favourably with any other part
of the world. Possibly, the conditions are too favourable,
and have led dairying into comparatively slovenly methods,
from which first-class results are not likely to be obtained.
Taking the climate, for instance, its very mildness has been
against the business, for it has led to a want of attention

DAIRYING INTERESTS. 177

to the needs of dairy stock, the results of which are seen
•every winter. Shelter for stock — such shelter as prevents
their being pestered with insects or exhausted by heat in
summer, or perished with cold during wet and raw cold
weather — is as necessary here as in other lands where the
temperature range from heat to cold is even less than the
range in Australia. Cold tells upon the condition of stock
in Australia with terrible effect. When scarcity of feed
is added, the effect is destractive ; and that is the case with
too much of our dairying during the long winter months
from May to September. Shelter and regular feeding
from cultivated grasses and crops are necessities for the
advancement of dairying.

Dairy Cattle. — The breeds are well represented.
They include :

Tiie Illawarra Strain. — Placed fii-st by right of
qualities for milk driving, hai'diness, and general capacity,
when they are really well bred. They are the offspring of
the Shorthorns, Ayrshires, and Holsteins, sometimes named
" Shipleys," first brought into the country, and good types
oi which have been introduced ever since. Tiiere have
been careful breedere in the business all the time, and the
.sti*ain has formed gradually, though with no definite bfisis.
Shorthorn and Ayi*shire blood is prominent in the best of
the type ; others are a good deal mixed. Tiie reliable
cows show the following points: — Long, narrow face, large
eyes, small horns, large muzzle, long, fine neck and
shouMers, large body, wide hips, long fine tail ; teats larger
than the Ayi-shires, as a rule ; legs rather long, but not out
of proportion to the size of the animal ; general colors, reds
and roans. The requirements to keep up such a race are
got in the gran<l constitution an<l milking qualities of the
milking strain of the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires.
Mixtures of Jei-sey and other Ciiannel Island cattle have
been tried, but ten«l to n)ake the stock lighter and delicate.
The Illawarra is essentially a business dair}' cow ; l)eef
making is not in her line, nor. indeed, in any really higii-
class milking strain. Ayi*shire bulls, with South Coast
cattle, pioduce grades of beautiful animals that are a
feature in so many of our dairy herd.s.

17S ADSTKALIAN AGKlCUL'i UUK.

Shorthorns. — Really excellent milkers are got at times
from the Shorthorns or Durhams; but their progeny are
not reliable as milk-givers. Properly speaking, Jerseys,
Ayrshires, as well as Durhams, are really Shorthorns, but
the milking strain of the Durham or old Teeswater cattle
are generally called " Shorthorns." Good milking qualities
have a near connection with the feed, provided the cows
are of a milking strain — if not the more and better fed the
greater quantity of flesh they put on. This is the case
with the white-faced Herefords, which should be avoided
for dairy purposes. There are only few herds of the
original milking strain of Shorthorns even in England.

Ayi-shires. — This strain is a masterpiece of science-in-
practice in cattle-breeding. The Ayrshire is the dairy
cow of to-day as she was fifty years since recognised in the
old world and the new. She is the proJuct of skilful
Scottish farming ; improved in the face of immense
difficulties which meet dairying in poor country with very
changeable climate. But to continue to be the milker she is,
the Ayi-shire must be well kept. She is a giant to milk
when the food is given her. She is not the cow for star-
vation and neglect ; of this, those who are desirous of seeing
the Ayrshire take the place in Australia to which she
is entitled, may rest assured. In olden times, the native
country of this breed was a poor place for dairying. Burns,
in his quaint way, tells us of the hardships of those
Ayrahire farmers. The climate cold and raw; the soil wet,,
stiff, and unproductive. The dry granite or volcanic
hillsides were the only exceptions to the general bleakness
of the country. There the .spring grasses were early and
comparatively rich, and as cattle, half-starved during
winter, began to make a little flesh, the natives saw that,
if the feed could be maintained, profitable dairying waa
within their reach. They were an observant people, those
early Ayrshire dairyists, and some of them located on the
hilly pa.stures Ciime to see that by getting their cows on
the best grass, and when the grass failed, providing for
them barley, turnips, and the few other things they could
grow, the cows gave milk of richer quality and greater
quantity ; and that it was better, more business-like, and

DAIRYING INTERESTS. 179

more profitable, to feed, shelter, and milk the cows, than to
let them run down during the cold, raw winter. So the
best cows were gradually selected for the better treatment.
The process occupied some fifty years, while the country
was being drained, limed, and manured. Somewhere
about the time Waterloo was fought, the Ayrshire cow had
earned a leading dairy reputation. As a first-class milker,
she holds it still, and she is as able to hold it in Australia
as in the dairies of London, New York, or elsewhere. If
she has a fault for Australian dairying, it is the size of the
teats, which may be too small for men milkers.

Jersey's and Alderneys are the true Channel Island
breed of dairy stock. They came originall}- from
Normanby, are gentle, and thrive excellently in this
country. For richness of milk and as butter-yielders, they
are very superior ; but like the Ayishires, and, indeed, all
good milkers, they must have the feed or they cannot give
the milk. During late years, and both in Great Britain
and America many breeders have tried to improve these
cattle. So far, however, they come back to the old
stock, so well defined in the native Normanbys and their
descendants in the Channel Islands. The colors range
from light fawn to dark l^rown and decided black, and
the same distinctive marks are common to us in Australia,
ever since the late Mr. Edward Wilson made his selection
of Alderneys and sent them to Victoria. The Guernseys,
for their gj-eater weight, yield more milk and butter
than tlie others, and carry more flesh. The Alderneys

f)roper have or had much more black, some being nearly all
)lack with just a steel grey patcli or a few yellow haii-a
running tln-ough. But, as between tlu use the whole breed
make of the feed they eat and the rich quality of their
milk, the differences are not marked to any extent.

Devons. — " The pretty reds " come nearest the
Channel Islanders for richness of milk ; l>ut unlike the
famous breeds named they are unreliable dairy st(K'k.
Very desirable crosses, however, are got, having the
Devon and also the Shorthorn strains. But all through tiie
breeds, feed comes in as the first re(|uirement for successful
dairying, and not for milk only, or for butter or chee.se.

180 AUSTRALIAN AQRICDLTDEE.

Points of the Dairy Cow. — Of the indications of a
good milker, of any of the breeds, the following is
expressive: —

She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn.
She'll quickly make milk with grass or with corn ;
She's full in her jaws and full in her chine.
She's heavy in flank and wide in her loin.

She's broad in her ribs and long in her rump;
A straight and flat back, with no signs of a hump
She's wide in her hips and calm in her eyes,
She's fine in her shoulders and thin in her thighs.

She's light in her neck and thin in her tail.
She's wide in her breast and good at the pail.
She's fine in her bone and silky of skin.
She's a beauty without, a milk maker within.

Milk Yielding Largely in the Breed. — The foregoing
are the well-established breeds. There are risks in going to
othei-s for " improvements in breeding." Long horns on a
heavy head, coarae hair, large bones, and small teats, are to
be avoided in choosing cows for dairying. A long udder
lengthwise of the body is best ; and it should be quite elastic
to the touch ; that qualit}'^ means capacity to make milk.
A soft skin, mossy, silky hair are safe recommendations.
They are evidences of healthfulness and thrift. A cow
should have broad loins with long rump ; a rather long,
lean neck, with clean-cut face and prominent eyes These

f)oint8 indicate enduring power to stand the strain of a
ong milking season. But, even then, uncomfortable
conditions of keeping, as to feed and shelter, will
neutralise and ultimately destroy even these equipments.
Milk-giving cows are very feminine, and the sex, as a rule,
require care and attention all the time.

Milk-giving Indications. — Different breeds exhibit
different characteristic shapes of both udders and teats.
This is natural ; uddera vary in form as much as the
cows themselves. A cow's udder, when the animal is
sound, has four perfect teats, and in cases she may
also have one to three rudimentary or very small teats.
The four should give milk. Each communicates with a gland
in which the milk is secreted out of the blood. This gland, in

DAIRYING INTEKESTS.

18J

Milk-Giving lud. cations.

the upper portions, is solid, almost like liver, but it becomes
more open in its stinicture below, as tubes and channels for

conveying away the milk bi"anch
from it. Just above each teat
the principal conduits form an
irregular cavity, but of small size.
The udder is the laboratory in
which milk is made, so shape and
size are important. Judged by
anatomy, the larger the gland,
the more milk should be secreted
(which is not saying that the
largest udders always give most
milk). The teats should be of
even size, and large enough to be
conveniently grasped by the
hand. When they are evenly
and squarely placed, the form is about right. The
texture of the skin of both teats and udder should be soft
and mossy, covered with fine, silky hair. Tiiese general
features are, as to form, indicated in the accompanying
sketch. The milk comes in through arteries, which are so
deeply seated as not to be observable, but the veins, which
carry it towards the udder, are nearer the surface, and may
be clearly seen. It is in accordance with universal
observation, that the size, length, and numerous corruga-
tions of these milk veins bear tolerably definite relation
to the amount of milk which the udder is capable of
secreting. But, of course, to give quality and quantity, the
animal must have sufficient food to make that (juality and
quantity, and sufficient clean water to supply the material
of which milk is made. And through the whole process it

{)ays to keep her comforbible, warm, and quiet, without
laving to travel too far for her food and drink.

'J'o Milk a Cow Clean. — This has always l)een the
ambition of the careful milker, and when that end is
attained, he may l>e generally satisfied. But to milk a cow
in a cleanly way, although of equal imjiortance, does not,
in a large percentage of cases, come witiiin the scope of
consideration. GixkI <lairy cows are often quite spoiled Viy

\'$i. AUSTRALIAN AGEIODLTDEK.

bad and careless milking. It is astonishing how few
milkers give attention to the delicate organism of the cow's
udder, or milk system. A word or two on this point may
not be out of place. The udder of the cow is divided into
two chambers by an impervious membrane. This dividing
substance runs in the direction of the backbone, and is so
placed that the milk from one chamber cannot pass into
the other. For this reason, it is advisable that we should
operate, say, on a front and hind teat next the milker,
and having emptied one chamber should then proceed with
the other. This is not, however, the general practice. It
is customary rather to operate on the teats of different
chambers, takiug one fore and one hind teat, instead of
the two teats on one side. The idea being to preserve the
natural state of the udder, and this method of milking,
according to this practice, is mainly responsible for much
of the malformation in the udders of so many co s.
This of course is a great evil, and ifc detracts from the
appearance of the animals, and lowers their money value
when offered for sale. Milking with wet hands is a main
source of sore and cracked teats, and is also a source of
contagion. Again, too rapid and violent milking is to
be avoided, as also conversation between milkers while
milking is in progress, as both of these causes tend to
make the cows uneasy, and to retain their milk.

Every Cow Should Be Tested. — This is becoming
more and more a necessity in modern dairying. Efficient
dairyists soon become experts at testing. Under what
may be termed average conditions, an animal is of little or
no value to the owner unless he is able to derive a profit
by keeping it. In the dairy a good animal is the one that
will profitably convert the most feed into the most and
richest milk, butter, or cheese. In this, quantity is not the
only consideration, neither is quality. Roth are necessary.
The cost of the product is more important than all else.
There must be a liberal quantity, and the quality must be
good. At the same time both must be secured at a cost
that will leave a fair per cent, of profit when rightly
managed. And there is more certainty of doing this with
the dairying breeds than with others. There may be

DAIRYING INTERESTS. 183

individual animals in all breeds that excel in some
essentials, as there are others that fail almost as regularly.
Yet, generally, there are breeds that as a class can be
depended upon to convert their excess of food, the amount
over and above what is necessary to sustain animal life,
into milk and cream, and this characteristic is in the breed
to an extent that it can be depended upon to transmit this
quality from parent to offspring.

Proportions of Butter in Milk. — From the tests made,
the following afford some guidance. A cow which gave
441bs. 9oz. of milk yielded lib. lOioz. batter; another
gave 311bs. 14oz. of milk, and lib. 5|oz. of butter; a
third 46lbs. 15oz. milk, and lib. 8.Voz. butter. These
were heavy cattle, mostly of the Shorthorn type. For
cows under lOOOlbs. live weight, a Jersey gave 291b. 7oz.
milk, which yielded 21bs. 4|oz. butter ; the second, 40Ibs.
12oz. milk, and 21bs. S^oz. butter; the third, 38lbs. lloz.
milk, and 21b. 3oz. butter — the third yielding the largest
quantity of butter in proportion to her live weight. The
weight of this good little cow was 8341bs., or about 7.^cwt.

How Much Feed. — The experience is that a real
dairy cow can make good use of from two to two and a
half per cent, of her own weight as food, or say, twenty to
thirty-five pounds of solid feed daily, and all the clean water
she can drink, for an animal weighing a thousand pounds.
While this may be approximately correct, we should
remember that the richer and more concentrated the feed,
the fewer pounds will bo required, always provided there is
coarser feed with it to ensure digestion. Thus, five pounds
of pollard, or maize meal, or wheat bran may be equal to
twenty pounds of bush hay; but where both are given, the
value of each is increased. And while lOlbs. of oaten hay
may be a full feed or ration for a small animal, it does not
follow that 201bs,. of poorer hay — that would show by
analysis to bo half as rich — would, in practice, be of ecpial
milk making value to that same cow. There is a limit to
the ability of the animal to chew and digest both bulky and
concentrated stuff ; very concentrated feed may be too
rich for tho digestion of tlio cow. Portions of each —
mixed feeds — are best. This is tho case, frequently, with

184

AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTURB.

pollard, bran, and maize meal. So, when we have poor,
bulky stuff, it is safer to mix with it something richer
rather than to feed ic alone in excessive quantity.

Conveniences for Milking. — The quantity of milk that
a cow gives depends to a great extent upon how it is got,
the mode, time, and regularity of milking. Cows do best
that have one regular milker, and the time of milking
should be carefully attended to, and not be subject to

Comfort for Milker aud Cow.

variations from day to day. The udder should be rubbed
clean with a dry cloth, when that is necessary. Wetting
the hands or teats with milk before milking is bad
practice, both for the comfort of the animal and the
cleanliness of the milk. The milker should have short
finger nails, for long finger nails will be sure to hurt the
teats and cause inflammation.

Stalls and Bails. — Conveniences for holding the cattle
in position while milking are necessary in Australian
dairying, where the milking is in yards where flies and
other annoyances disturb the cows. Bails designed to
work easily are very helpful, to open and shut without
the need of much movement, for the insertion or removal
of pins, &c. When young cattle are being broken in

DAIRYING INTEEESTS.

185

2 FT.
▲ Handy Milking Stall

at FT.

— the process in careful hands is really a system
of teaching — for dairy
purposes^ it is very con-
venient to be able to
fasten or unloosen the
bail without going into
the stall. The bail illus-
trated is convenient to
work, and removable when
necessary. The stan-
chions are 2 x 4in. hardwood put together with wooden pins
or bolts. The bed piece is two two-by-four inch scantling,

and so is the
top piece. In
the illustra-
tion, one is
removed to
show how
they are fas-
tened; aa are
the stationary
parts, cc the
111 o V a b 1 e
slides that

hold the cattle in ; ee are automatic fasteners which hold
the stanchions shut. In stall a the slide c is shown open.
When the animal puts her head in place, a push on c closes
the stanchion, e drops automatically and holds it shut, as
shown in stall b. The movable part (c) has no pin in the
lower end to hold it in place, but one on each side of it.
A pin at the top keeps it down when it is shut. In stall c
is shown how the movable part is moved from its place
when taking the stanchions apart. Stall d shows a simple
contrivance by which the cattle can be shut in as they
enter their places, and let out, also, without going
between them. A strong string (*) is tied to the
staple {n) and passes through to any convenient
place. Pulling on this will close them, and the one
attached at w and e will open them and let the cattle
oat.

Bails,

186

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

FastearisiDg Pull.

Preserving Milk by Heating. — The object of
" Pasteurising " milk is to destroy " the bacterial germs "
of fermentation or decay. But by " scalding " up to
milk is injured seriously. As it
becomes known that the germs can
be destroyed much more effectively
while the milk is at a temperature
far below the boiling point, the
safer and better process is followed.
Germs in milk, both vegetable and
animal are destroyed, and the milk
effectively " Pasteurised " at a tem-
perature of 155 degrees. The
apparatus shown in our illustrations
is quite effective for the purpose.
The can or pail (a) is fitted up as
seen in the second illustration. The
bottles (b) (b) (b), as many as may
be required, or the pail can hold,
are filled with milk, or other fluid
subs^tauce to be sterilised. The
bottles stand upon a perforated
grating (d), and are surrounded
by water as shown. Into each
bottle is inserted a plug (c)(c)(c)
of cotton wool or other porous
substance. Heat is then applied
gradually to the vessel, and
brought to about 155 degrees.
Thirty minutes of that tempera-
ture is ample, as a rule, for sterilis-
ing the contents of the bottles, and
milk thus treated will remain sweet
during several days. The object E-
of the porous stoppers is to allow

the escape of vapours from the contents of the bottles,,
while preventing the admission of any other vapours. To
finish the process up to the point of actual sterilising,
the water is brought up to nearly the boiling point, or
200 deerrees, for three minutes or so, and the bottles

DAIRYING INTBBBSTS. 187

are then taken out, cooled, and sealed or corked tightly, in
which state, and in a temperature of 55 degrees or lower,
it remains good for an indefinite time.

Butter Making. — Setting the milk for cream, and
converting the cream into butter by hand labor, is still
followed as a process ; and for making home supplies
the process answers very well. But for business purposes,
and where the product has to be sold in competition with
factory made and creamery butter, the hand made process
suffers badly. To carry it out in a satisfactory manner,
a real dairy room is necessary, with entrance and windows
so arranged that flies and other winged abominations
cannot enter. They are fearfully mischievous when they
reach milk which is set in shallow pans. Coolness and
semi-darkness aid in the rising of the cream, which is
then skimmed off, and, if sufficient in quantity, may be
converted into butter at once, with the aid of some one of
the many churns available for this branch of work. Or
the cream may be held back for one, two, or more days, to
" ripen," or until there is enough for a churning.

Ripening the Cream. — To get the rich flavor which is
in request to a lesser or greater extent in all butters, except
the really sweet, unsalted, made direct from new milk,
three agencies or generators of fermentation are brought
into action. They are : Buttermilk from a previous churning,
cream already ripened, or a special ferment as a starter.
Before butter factories were thought of, the first two agencies
were in use in extensive, well conducted dairies. And butter
often went wrong then, as it does still. There is much room
for improvement in order to start and complete the bacterial
action or souring, possibly more so than at any previous time
in all the experiences of dairying. Skill comes in at every
point of the operations of fermentation, skill in selecting,
regulating and working the flavor as required. In this,
the effect of lower temperature is very marked; 50 degrees
Fahrenheit seems the point of safety at whicli ferment
material should be stored, whether it be butter-milk, cream,
or special preparation, and then churning at something like
the same temperature, after ripening, which may require from
6 to 24 hours, according to the skill and method of the

188 AUSTRALIAN" AGRICULTURE.

operator. The time in which cream ripens in ordinary
practice is influenced by the weather, and the cleanliness
of the milker and appliances. The temperature at which
the cream is set for ripening, and the amount of fat present,
also influence the process and extent of this first fermenta-
tion. Hot or warm muggy weather has a tendency to
hasten the change ; while a clear, bright atmosphere, as

Factory Cream Separator.

well as cold, is slower for the growth of the bacteria, which
develop the changes. It is the milk sugar and casein that
are broken up when cream sours. Thus thin cream, with
10 to 15 per cent, fat, contains more milk-sugar; and acid,
or tartness, is generated faster than in cream which con-
tains more fat, and less milk-sugar and casein.

Factory System for Butter- Making. — It is to the credit
of our dairymen that they were amongst the first outside
of Denmark and Sweden to entertain the feasibility of the
factory system. For this change New South Wales is
largely indebted to the efforts of Mr. D. L. Dymock, of
Kiama. The system is both co-operative and proprietary.
The milk is taken over from the dairymen as quickly as
possible after it is got from the cows, and is paid for,
according to the contents of butter fat and the ruling price
of butter ; an ordinary fair calculation to all parties being
that 251b. of milk, or 2^ gallons, should yield 1 lb. of
butter. This is very close to a correct estimate, as worked
out by careful analysis of milk and also by the churn tests
from fairly well-fed cows.

Cream Separating Machines. — They are of different
patterns, but all get at the result of separating the cream

DAIRYING INTERESTS.

189

from the milk ia much the same way. The cream or butter
particles of new milk are the lightest part of the fluid, and
rise to the surface of their own gravity when milk is set
in pans. And this separation of cream
particles is completed, almost instantly,
by the machine, the revolving sepa-
rator of which is moving at the rate of
from 3000 to 5000 revolutions per minute,
and separating 25 to 250 gallons per
hour by hand, steam, or other power.
This coutrivance is a really scientific
couception, long in use in laboratory
practice, and founded on an ac-
quaintance with the fat globules
in ;niIk,andaknowledgeof their
different specific gravity from
ihe liquid in which they float,
and a further knowledge of

Hand Cream Separator. what mUSt be the bahavioUT

of a mixture of such globules and such liquid when
subjected to centrifugal force. In operation, the mill?
runs in a steady stream into the top of the separator,
and the heavier portion — in reality the skimmed milk —
is thrown to the outside of the machine, and is discharged
in a steady stream. The cream meanwhile is gathering
in an inner layer, and is discharged from another outlet.
Amongst the advantages of the system, it is more
cleanly, everything heavier than cream is extracted
promptly, and very curious substances are thus seen to
be present in milk, whether coming from the poor con-
dition of the animals, from poverty of feed, from dirty
milking, bad water, exposure to excessive cold or rain, or
other causes, need not be followed at this stage. The
evils of contact from flies, dust, &c., that can scarcely be
avoided when milk is set out to get the cream to rise in
pans, are also overcome.

From Cream to Butter. — The whole of the operations,
from the time of milking to the production of cream, are
accomplished in the factories, as a rule, during the cool of
the morning — a change, indeed, from the time when the

196 AU8TBALIAN AGBICULTURE.

whole daj, and often the ni^ht, had to be occupied in
milking^ creaming, churning, &c., by the dairyman and his
family. The process allows ns to see that the fatty matter
in milk is not uniform. A part of the milk from cows on
good grass consists of the essential oils of the grasses,
and which give the nutty flavor to butter and cheese.
But the milk of poorly fed cows is deficient in both the
butter fat, and the flavoring oils of grasses. Thus, cows
fed on artificial feed may be oily and rich enough in
butter fat, but poor in the true butter flavor. Hence
when butter is gathered from a number of dairies, it is
liable to be defective in that uniformity of quality and
appearance which have such marked effect upon tliis
product when offered for sale.

The Creamery System. — It is to overcome the
defects of butter making in small lots that the creamery
system has found favor. With that end in view, the
cream is cooled as much as possible, and sent off to the
creamery or central factory for butter making. It is there
cooled down still lower and made into butter in a tempera-
ture of from 55 to 60 degrees, and water as low as 40
degrees is used for washing and the other operations of
first-class butter making. Butter made at this colder
temperature can be separated more effectually from the
water and casein of milk, which forms from 24 to 40 per
cent, of the cream, than is possible in a higher tempera-
tare, a most important feature in butter for keeping or
export.

The Water of Butter. — There must be some water in
it, or the composition would not be butter. The healthy
proportion is about 12 per cent., or 121bs. of water in
lOOlbs. of butter. The test for the quantity of water is
simple enough, and it is seldom we find less than 11 per
cent. There is very often much more, over 22 per cent,
sometimes, and then the water is an active agent of
destruction. Possibly more butter, put up to keep, is lost
from excess of water and bad salt than all other causes
combined. It is the water which carries the salt, which
averages between 1'20 and 2*50 per cent. No amount
of working can take out all the water gathered in with

MiRfi^(} interests;

191

Charning.

ife6 bnltSr from ihe cHrifri, bitt ^kill catl wdfk the quantity
down to the point of safety, s^y 12 per cent.

Butter-Making Machinery.^— From the earliest times
churns of some sort were in use for separating the true

buttei" fat from the yrater of the
milk or cream. In Scotland, the
United States, and in other coun-
tries as well; butter is made
direct from the milk without
creaming. But this process is
suitable only for cold climates,
and where the butter can be
marketed at once, and the butter-
milk has a value. The forms of
churns are as various almost as
the countries where they are used,
all sort of appliances being in
favor, from shaking the milk in a bottleJ till the butter
comes, to the revolving of a disc driven by machinery. But
there are safe general rules for churning, amongst them : 1.
That the cream should be churned at a temperature of
55 to 60 degrees if at all practicable ; though, in the
colonies, butter is often made in a temperature above 70
degrees. Daring very hot weather it is considered better to
lessen the speed of the churn when the butter begins to
fbjrm. 2. When during the churning the temperature
itjci'feasfes, the butter can be helped by adding in the
churn very cold skimmed milk or water. 3. As soon as
the butter "comes," that is, forms in a granulated state,
and there is actual separation of the butter from the
buttermilk, the churning must be stopped at once. 4,
When cream has been churned at say 58 degrees, or the
mass of butter has not a higher temperature than 62
degfees, it may be put into the butter-worker without any
washing ; this is the Danish system. 5. Should it
be preferred to wash the butter, then the butter-milk
should be allowed to run out by the tap or plug
placed on the lower part of the churn. Fill the churn
with cold water and let it run from the tap in the same
inanner.

1'92 AUSTRALIAN AaRICULTUEE.

Butter Workers. — In the factories, butter is notliandled
nt any stage. It is worked over, and salt is applied, by
various contrivances wliich press the mass so as to squeeze

out the butter-milk and water,
and such particles of casein as
may be free, and can be floated
out. Centrifugal machines are
being introduced for this purpose
also.

The Salt. — Salting is a most
important -part of butter making.
Very serious damage is likely to
result to butter in which lime,
magnesia, sulphur, and other uat-
^^^^ ural compounds of salt may be
A Small B^r'^rklr. presout. Their detection should
be part of the butter maker's art.
It is not difficult. The salt left in A I butter varies between
1 and 2 per cent.

Coloring. — Annette, a vegetable coloring, is used for
those who like something deeper than the natural straw
color of butter. The caramel of sugar gives a rich whole-
some color. The juice of carrot is also used.

Further Ripening and Making Up. — lib. and ^Ib.
packets, put up iu nicely prepared printed paper, give a
further attraction to butter. Or it may be put up in
enamelled boxes or kegs for transfer or export. Further
"ripening" in the mass is also in order in some of the
factories, much the same rules as guide the ripening of
cream being followed.

Bad Flavors in Butter. — They are acquired simply
enough. Should either cream or milk or butter be put
along with a substance that has any other flavor, most
likely the butter will absorb it. Flavors of leather, kero-
sene, onions, cheese, bacon, soap, turpentine, and other
substances have been got in that way. Bad flavors may
also be got from feed. Lucerne, sorrel, turnips, bitter
weeds, and other substances affect the flavor of both milk
and butter. Lucerne hay is better j turnips may be fed
after milking. Scalding to 155 degrees and then suddenly

DAIBTING INTERESTS. 193

cooling removes some odors, but does not drive out the
flavor of others got from bad feed stuffs, or bad water.

Cheese Making. — The modern cheese maker works
■closely upon chemical lines. All the operations from the
time of cooling or heating the milk to a fixed degree of
temperature ; the use of coagulating materials, or rennet,
all bring about chemical changes. The thermometer, use
of litmus for acid and other tests, the qualities of the
milk for butter fat, and the solids that form cheese, all
come into the operations of cheese making.

Australian Cheese. — Cheddar, the product of the
whole milk, butter included, is the favourite product
for home use and for export. To make such cheese,
of sufficient quality, there must be the milk from
well fed cows. The product of even one cow in bad
condition, or that has fed on rank stuff from swamps, upon
the leaves of trees, or drank of unclean water, has spoiled
many makings of cheese. But all being well, including
saitable appliances for cooling, heating, curdling,
extraction of the whey, salting, preserving, and curing,
the product should be up to the standard of sound
Cheddar cheese, and the product equal to lib of cheese
for each gallon of milk used.

Composition of Cheddar. — The lb. of cheese thus
made is composed, iu the practical sense, of one-third true
cheese matter, amongst the best material known for
building up muscle, sinew, and flesh; one-third butter fat
and warmth-making material ; the remainder being salt,
flavouring u;atter, and the water of composition.

The Process of Making. — Here the intention is to be
introductory only. The many excellent works available —
Oliver, Millard, Wright, Dovvliug, Long, Sheldon, and
others — give details in fulness which is beyond the scope
of an elementary work. The practice may well follow the
close study of the chemistry and practice of cheese
making, though the details given here may be helpful.

Cheese for Home Use. — All of us, who either make
butter or send milk to the factories, have at times a few
gallons of milk which can be worked up into cheese.
With, say, 10 gallons of milk, or a little over lOOlbs., we can

m

AUSTItALIAN AGRICnLTDRE.

mitke to to 11 lbs of sound cheese, always acceptable upon
the farm table. We do not use all the cheese we might
with advantage to the food supply of the family. And if
W6 don't want it, then a 101b. cheese soon finds a customer
in a neighbour, or storekeeper. The appliances necessary
for making small cheese for home use are — a deep pail or
milk can, a tub big enough to set the pail in surrounded
by water, a hoop or hoops big enough for from 7 to 141 bs.
of cheese. Suppose we take the evening and morning
milk for our purpose. The former can be put to cool
during the night ; the morning milk can be cooled in the
pail, set in cold water. Mix the two, stirring thoroughly ;.
and, by pouring hot water round the pail, we can raise the
heat of the whole mass of milk from 80 to 90 degrees; 84
degrees is a safe temperature for milk made ready for
cheese. To thicken the milk into curd, use the fluid
rennet, directions for which are given on the bottles ; or
that sold in lozenges will do. One lozenge, of the
strength purchasable for a shilling a box, is reckoned as
enough fcr 10 gallons of milk. Dissolve the lozenge in
water, and stir it into the warmed milk, then cover with
blanketing. The milk thickens in 12 to 15 minutes from
the time of adding rennet, and should be ready to cut in
from 30 to 40 minutes from the time of thickening. It is
found to be workable in practice to allow double and
one-half the time taken to thicken to secure curd ripe for
cutting. The curd should then be tough enough to be
readily lifted with the finger, and fit to be cut by a long
blad- d knife into squares of an inch. This liberates the
whey or watery part of the milk. The whey is run off
with a syphon, or dipped off by means of a shallow dish,,
put inio a vessel, and heated to 100 degrees, and poured
over the curd, which is again covered to keep in the heat.
After half an hour the curd will be tough enough to lift
with the hands, and can be heaped upon a table to permit
the remainder of the whey to drain off. The curd is then
broken as small as beans, by rubbing with the hands, the
whey being so carefully pressed out, that no cream may
escape with it. The broken up curd is then covered on the
table, and thus left until decided acid action sets in, wheix

CAlRrtNG INTBftBSTS. f^

salt Js Tubbed in at tlie rate of 2 to 4 ozs. of finely-ground
salt to say 12 pounds of curd, which is then placed in a hoop
OT mould, lined with a clean cloth dipped in the whey.
The curd is pressed into the ftiould firmly but slowly. It is
then further pressed, during a night generally, then taken
out and set on a board, an 1 turned once a day until
perfectly firm. Cheese is all the better in flavour, an#
more wholesome, by being " cured,*' which means keeping
it in a cool, dry place for a month, six weeks or longer.
This " curing," is caused by bacterial ferment which ripen
the curdled milk into flavored cheese. It is a desirable
process, and gives us a really welcome addition to the
dairyist's table.

Rennet in the Chemical Sense. — It is of the nature of
pepsin, spirit of salt, &c. These substances are in the
digestive system of the calf. The purpose of it in nature
is to coagulate the milk and so render it easy of digestion.
In the human economy, the gastric juice is akin to rennet.
The stomach of a ruminant or animal which chews the cud
is arranged with four divisions, adjoining each other and
leading directly from one to the other. Each of theisfe
parts of the stomach has a special function to perform.
The first, when the animal is old enough to eat grass, is
mainly employed to hold the food ur.til it has time to chew
and so bring it into a fine state of division ; the second is
employed as a compressor to force the food to tke mouth
to be there chewed ; the third is used as a filter, to
effectually divide the chewed food allowing only the
snfiiciently fine portions to pass onward into the fourth
stomach, where it is acted Upon by the gastric juitJes.
This stomach is known as the rennet stomach, because
from it the digestive substance is prepared, whether it be
in a concentrated form or not. This stomach may bo used
fresh or preserved in a solution of salt, or rubbed with salt
and dried. In either case, when soaked in warm water, it
yields up its essence, a substance possessing the power of
curdling milk — that is of coagulating the cheese matter
and the butter. The amount of acid in rennet is seldom
more than two-tenths of one per cent. The quantity of
pepsin varies considerably. The risks of making I'ennet

196 AUSTRALIAN AQBICULTUBE.

from the stomach are that should there be any decom-
position of the membranes there will pass into solution
substances generally of a disagreeable odour, and the
further risk of unpleasant taint to the cheese. Pepsin is
a peculiar ferment j it causes other substances to undergo-
changes without undergoing any material change itself
ao far as known. Experience and observation, however,
encourage the belief that rennet continues its digestive
properties when absorbed as food with the other contents of
cheese.

Cheese Factory System. — Jacketed vats are used,
wherein heat can be regulated by steam supply from a
boiler. The milk — having been cooled the night previous
and the cream prevented from rising by frequent stirring
— is usually about 65deg. in the morning. Into this is run,
af^er cooling, the morning's milk, and the temperature of
the whole is raised to about 84deg. in hot weather, and up
to 90deg. in cooler weather, making a mean temperature
of about 85deg. for setting in mild weather. When colour
is used, the colouring liquid is mixed with the milk, and
then suflBcient rennet added. Coagulation begins in about
ten minutes. Prepared chemical rennet as fluid, powder,
or in lozenge form, is now in general use in preference to
the rennet made from the stomach of the calf. When
colouring matter is used it is in a liquid state and prepared
from the best annatto. Hansen's prepared colouring is in
favour, and also the form known as aunattoine. It is easy
to reduce to a liquid state, and is put up in packages
accompanied by a recipe for its preparation and use in
cheesemaking. One tablespoonful (ioz.) is generally used
for 20 gallons of milk. A slight agitation is kept up
until the milk begins to roll thick and heavy, for the
purpose of preventing the cream from separating, but care
must be taken not to stir too long, or a smooth compact
mass of curd will be impossible, a broken, spongy mass
may appear in its place, from which many of the fine
particles of butter will be washed off in the whey. As
soon as the curd breaks smoothly across the finger, leaving
the finger clean and the clear whey settles in the broken
place — say in 35 minutes from time of adding the rennet —

DAIRYING INTERESTS. 197

the curd is fit to cut, which is done as quickly but as
gently as possible, first with a horizontal knife lengthwise
of the vat, then with a perpendicular knife until the pieces
of curd are about the size of beans. If the milk is very
sweet, the pieces may be left coarser; if it shows more
ripeness and is souring rapidly, the curd is cut finer still,
so as to secure even action of the heat in a shorter space
of time, and before the acid gets too much developed.
Move the curd about gently, only enough to prevent
packing, while raising the temperature of the whole mass
gradually and steadily, but more or less rapidly,
according to the state of the milk, to 96, 98, or
lOOdeg. as experience shall have determined to be the
proper point for the district. Hold the curd
steadily at the desired point of temperature until the
action of the heat is nearly or quite complete, and acid,
just a taste of sourness, is got. The use of litmus test
paper is desirable at this stage, as it shows the first trace
of acid and the extent of acid development. When a
curd-mill is in use, draw off all the whey early, as soon as
there are any signs of acid. To aid the flow, raise one
end of the vat, draw the curd away from the lower end and
pile it up along each side of the vat ; leave it to drain, and
when the course is desirable let the curd take on a little
more acid or " ripeness," occasionally cutting it lengthwise
and across into convenient pieces to handle, and turning it
so as to air the bottom and inner portions, and to give the
outer portions that have cooled somewhat the advantajre
of more warmth. When tiio whey that drains from it
is unmistakably acid, or when an iron heated to a black
heat applied to the curd will draw it out into fine threads
a quarter or half an inch long, commence to break or
grind the curd as soon as possible, and apply from 2 to
6oz. fine table salt to the curd per ten gallons of milk.
The curd may then be filled into moulds at once, and sent
to press, or allowed to stand and drain for an hour or so,
according to temperature, and what experience may prove
to be the best course.

Another system, and it answers well, is not to grind
the curd, but allow the whey to drain off pretty well in the

1$^ AUSTRALIAN 40RIGOLTUBE.

vat, while thoroughly stirring and separating the ourd,
then throw the mass out on a table, and rub it down with
the hands to the size of peas or wheat grains, and then
apply, as evenly as possible, from 2 to 6 oz. of fine salt per
ten gallons of milk, then cover it up, if necessary,
according to the state of the acid and the amount of whey
left, to carry away the free salt. Air the curd well and
put it to press, having regard both to the acidity of the
curd and the temperature of the atmosphere : 74 deg. is a
favourite temperature. If put to press too warm in hot
weather, the curd may ferment in the centre of the cheese
and cause it to swell and lose flavor. In cool weather the curd
temperature must be worked high enough to make a
smooth face to the cheese.

Pressing and Curing. — As pressing, in some form, is
always resorted to for ordinary cheese, it is a matter of
importance to get the best and most convenient appliances.
The gang-press, with improved iron vats or hoops, is in
fjtvor in the factories. It is compact, economical, and
does its work satisfactorily. Great variety of other presses
are also in use, the principle of which is the lever,
weighted lightly at first, and heavier as the pressing goes
on. A very good press is made by fixing a notch of wood
to the wall of the room in which the pressing is done ; the
butt of a sapling is then fixed to rest upon the cap of the
cheese-vat, the end being weighed as may be desired.

Temperature, Acid, &c. — One of the most difficult
points in cheese making is to determine exactly where the
heat and acid development should be arrested, and the
salt applied to the curd. Experience and judgment tell
at this point; some acquire the skill in a few months,
others scarcely ever reach it. No fixed rule can be laid
down, as the milk of different cows, and of different
localities, as well as of different years and different seasons
of the year, work differently. Averages can only be given
here. Eskjh cheese maker must determine for himself or
herself the degree of heat and acid required for the time
and place. The importance of having curing rooms, in
which the temperature can be controlled and kept between
70 and 80 degrees, is beginning to be more and more

DAIBYINa INTEEESTS, IQ^.

recognised, and more pains to secure this end are taken in
putting up buildings for dairy purposes.

Points in Cheese-making.— When the salt is added
and thoroughly intermixed, a clean cloth wrung out of
warm water is placed inside the cheese vat to prevent the
curd adhering and the almost powdered curd is pressed in
hj hand firmly, putting a rounded top of curd on, bringing
the ends of the cloth over all, and fastening them into the
edges of the vat with a block. Experience, and the size
of the hoop, show how much curd is required, to make
a desired weight of cheese, after it is pressed. In some
dairies, before the cheese is removed from the press, it is
put under pressure with a cloth wrung out of nearly
boiling water, to give toughness to the skin. It is then
removed to the clieese-room, and turned daily for a
fortnight or three weeks, and afterwards at longer
intervals.

Digestive Cheese. — There are several means of
securing a soft and rapidly-curing cheese, all of which
combine not only to make a cheese soon ripe, and
believed to be more digestive ; but then it does not keep.
These conditions are less heat, less acid, less salt, and more
rennet. The secrets of cheese making are in the proper use and
degree of these several agents. And also to produce a firm,
flaky, but not crumbly, sweet flavoured article, that will
improve at least for a year, and melt in the mouth like
butter, leaving a clean sweet taste on the palate. Such a
cheese is not likely to be fit for use in much less than
sixty days. A good deal of judgment may also be
exercised in the size of cheese made. For instance, a
Cheddar, or whole milk cheese for family use, weighing
about 61b., is coming into great favour in the Sydney
market.

Special Cheese. — Where small quantities of specially
rich cheese are made, extra cream is added to the milk
before warming; coagulating is followed as in other systems
of working. A favourite plan is to set the new cheese
before the fire, and, by frequently turning, it sots with no
other pressure than the weight of the curd. Early next
morning it receives a dry cloth. At this time, should the

200 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTUBE.

weather be cool, the hoop containing the cheese is again
warmed before the fire. Changing again takes place at
ten o'clock, and also at two, and if everything has gone on
well (the conviition is indicated by a uniform yellow colour
and an elastic feel to the touch), it should be ready to take
from the hoop that afternoon. Some makers find that
twelve or even twenty-four hours tend to mature this rich
cheese better; and, perhaps, for larger sizes this latter
course may bo advisable.

Cheese by Evaporation. — This process is in favour in
Canada. The water is evaporated down to the cheese
standard, without adding rennet. The sugar is thus
incorporated with the casein and butter. Salting, pressing,
and curing are followed as for other cheese.

Cream and Skim-Milk Cheese. — For soft cream cheese
mix two pints of milk and one pint of cream ; raise the
temperature to 86 degrees, mix three to six drops of
Hansen's rennet to each pint. Stir all the time in one
direction, and put the mass in a draining bag for twelve
hours (or eighteen, as the case may be) ; after six hours,
shift the outer curd inside and the inner curd outside; then
hang up again for the remainder of the time, to let the whey
drain off. Then put this luscious cheese into little shapes
lined with paper.

For Skimmed-Milk Cheese. — A large vat is heated by
steam. The milk is raised to 94 degrees. Add the
colouring matter (Hansen's annatto). The colouring is
dissolved in water for cheese, and in oil for butter ; stir
well, and then let the mass coagulate ; next cut it in
cube-shaped pieces with a curd knife, up and down and
across ; then drain off the whey, and put the curd in the
mill and grind into small pieces like grain ; then put it into a
cheese hoop (lined with muslin) and press. This cheese
ripens best in a temperature of 60 degrees. Fit to eat in
about two months.

Floating Curd in Cheese-making. — This is troublesome
at times, and especially when cows take to eating bush
trees, rank weeds in swauips, and other rubbish. It is a
result of unhealthy ferment, and to deal with it the curd is
broken as finely as possible, gradually adding salt while the

THE FIG: TO RAISE AND USE HIM.

201

breaking proceeds. Raise the temperature very slowly to
104 degrees Pahr. Cook as firm as possible, draw off the
whey, and wash the curd in cold water until cooled to 70
degrees Fahr., when it is piled and allowed to mellow in
the usual way, and vatted at 60 Fahr. To remove the
whey, cut the curd in narrow lengths, say three inches
wide and nine to twelve inches long. Then pile on edge
length and crosswise. Soda has good effect, at times, in
checking fermentation, dissolved in the rennet — ^oz. to 100
gallons of milk is sufficient. We have found in this climate
that doubtful ferments and acidity are most likely to be
present in milk from cows that are on poor feed or bad
water, or when the milk is retained beyond the right time
for cheese-making.

XVIII.— THE PIG.— To Raise and Use Him.

The pig is a popular institution on the station and the
farm, in towns where municpal laws are not enforced, and

Tbe I'lK TiiBt Pay8.

in the country. Yet A-ustralia does not export pork to
any extent, ami well-fed and cured ham and bacon are by
no means so general as might be. This is the more

202 AUSTRALIAN AaRICULTDRE.

singular because maize — the great pork producer of
America — grows to the fullest perfection of quality and
weight of crop over a large extent of country, and other
foods — sugar cane, sweet and common potatoes, wheat,
barley, milk, pumpkins, &c., are plentiful. Perhaps the
feeling that it is of no use making more pig meat than we
can consume is due to the cheapness and abundance of
beef and mutton ; and that when higher prices rule for the
latter, pigs may be more looked after. Be that as it may, there
are few more useful or more satisfactory things about a
place than a good pig in the stye, when put up in a proper
manner for fattening. The animal agrees well with the
climate. He enjoys robust health and a lively appetite.
He puts on flesh as rapidly as in any other part of the
world. The smaller sizes, those ranging from 801b. to
1501b., dead weight, are the animals most in demand by
butchers, and the most suitable for home use. Larger sizes
may do for curing in wholesale, always providing that the
food given keeps pace in quality and quantity with the
improvement. No breed has been invented yet that
thrives without feed, though the better sorts make the
best out of what they eat. The poor lots make bone,
muscle, and trouble amongst neighbors. When stinted
of their food, the best sorts become tyrants, and others
become miserable spectacles. It is a good rule in pig
keeping that keeps up the breed by keeping the troughs
well supplied.

The Pig That Pays. — Most people have their ideas as
to best breeds of pigs. Colour has much to do with
the choice. While numbers, possibly the majority, prefer
the Berkshire, black with white points, others give
preference to whites, to the Cheshires and medium
Yorkshires, and some people actually detest black pigs.
And yet the Berkshire cures Al for sides and hams, and the
Essex and Tamworths are not far behind for quality. But
white pigs have their points, and are not objected to any more
than the well-bred black sorts. It is astonishing how
quickly even coarse pigs " breed up " when due selection,
care in mating, paddocking, and feeding are attended to.
To breed up, or improve, a male animal of the chosen

THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 208

type is the main requirement. In a really good pig, we
find neat neck and shoulders, round ribs, thick loins, stout
thighs, small head and snout, short legs, long and silky hair.
This type of animal should be aimed at, whether black or
white, thorough-bred, half-bred, or common bred pigs are
kept. And now that there are prospects of exporting, it is
well to know that the general run of bacon and hams for
London or other English market are got from animals
weighing about 1501b. to 2001b, dead weight. The curing
trade regard all pigs over the top weight as inferior.

What Pig Points Mean. — Neat in the head means
a nose neither too long nor too short, a nice, shapely keen-
looking face, with bright mild eyes, broad forehead, a
good-tempered appearance. Ears, soft and pliable ; when
they fall a little to the front without actually being lopped,
the point is good. Light neck and shoulders ; for the
coarser parts of a side of bacon, and those which fetch the
lowest price are the neck and shoulders, and the lighter
those parts the better the side, and the higher price it will
make. Deep in the ribs. Looking at this from a bacon
curer's point of view, a pig that is deep and round in the
ribs will of necessity produce a larger proportion of first
class bacon. Thick in the loin. A pig with heavy loin
hag capacity for food, together with good digestion and
strong constitution generally. The loin is high-priced,
and the weight of that should be kept up. Stout in the
thighs. The hams are most important, and in the case of
pigs killed for the ham and middle (flitch) trade, the most
valuable of all. Long silky hair indicates strength of
constitution as well as lean meat. Such are conditions
which indicate a happy union between thriftiness and lean
meat, a union which suits both the curer and the producer.

Judging the Age. — As a general thing, we are
content to take the pig by general appearances, with
respect to age. But the teeth, like those of other animals,
help to tell the tale. The animal is born with eight teeth,
four corner incisors and four tusks. On the eighth or
tenth day second or third temporary molars appear. At
four weeks old four nippers appear, two in the upper and
two in the lower jaw. At the fifth or sixth week the

204 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTDRE.

foremost temporary molars are in the upper and lower
jaws. At the age of three months, intermediary incisors
appear above the gums. At the sixth month, the " wolf
teeth" appear, and at the same age the third permanent
molars. At the ninth month, their permanent corner
incisors should be visible, permanent tusks, and second
permanent molars. At the twelfth mouth the permanent
nippers should be in view. With the twelfth and
thirteenth month the three temporary molars shed, and
their permanent substitutes, which at fifteen months of
age will have fully appeared, are cutting through the
gams. With the eighteenth month the permanent
intermediary incisors and the hindmost permanent molars
should make their appearance, and with the twenty-first
month should be fully developed. Then we have a full
mouthed pig.

Pen and Paddock Feeding. — Pen feeding until the
fattening time is reached is not profitable with pigs in
Australian practice. The animals require much attention
when penned ; they fret and suffer in flesh when they are
not attended to. They do better in paddocks, on a piece
of good soil, with a stretch of swamp in it, Irom the time
of weaning until they are penned for fattening. They
may be fed in paddocks, but not at regular times. A
whistle or horn should call them, and they should get
nothing without calling ; then they do not "loaf" around
waiting for the slop-pail, but occupy their time rooting
and grazing as well-ordered pigs ought to do. When
there are shelters in the paddock for warmth, and in case
of storm, pigs are profitable stock and do not exact so mucli
attendance.

Points in Feeding. — Pigs allowed to ream at will over
good grass, lucerne or other green feed, and which got all
the milk and grain they would eat, made the most rapid
growth, and made the best use of what they ate. Those
fed on grass, with milk and maize, on a small patch made
more rapid growth than those fed on grain alone, and
apparently made a slightly better use of the food eaten.
Green grass appears to be of the greatest value as an
appetiser. Pigs kept on grass alone made but slow growth

THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM.

205

— so slow that it would require two seasous for maturity —
making the profits very doubtful. Pigs kept in a movable
pen on lucerne ate within seven pounds as much grain as
did those in a paddock covered with grass, but did not
make as good use of it. Exercise is necessary to increase
eating capacity, and probably digestion, that growth may
be both rapid and economical.

A Natty Pen Arrangement. — That some people have
an idea that pigs do all the better when they have
comfortable camping places, is made evident in the

accompanying series
of illustrations. The
pen was built to
accommodate two
families — a mother
and her young, and
a group of fatteuers.
The size is 20 feet
long by 1 o feet front-
age. The position of
ornamental grounds, the
surroundings.

The Peu Piuished.

the pen being in somewhat
building is arranged in keeping with tlie
The first sketch
shows the pen com-
plete. It is of hard-
wood timber framing,
covered with weather-
boards ; corrugated
iron roof, nicely
ornamented. The
second sketch shows
the framework, 'i'he
floor, and two feet up
the sides, is hard-
wood, 6 X 1 stuff.

A main feature of the pen is the feeding arrangement
shown in the third sketch. There is a trough shown
by the dotted lines a h, over which is a heavy swing
partition. The operation of this swinging arrangement is
t-een in the first ilhistration where, on the lefthand side it is

Framework of tlio Pou.

206

AUSTRALIAN AOEICULTUBE.

Feed Trough Arrai. gemeat.

shown pushed inwards, so that feed may be put

into the trough (b). As
the pigs get their heads
into the trough they
push the swing out-
wards, where it is
stopped, so that they
cannot get out. Modi-
fications of these devices
will suggest themselves
to the many who like to
have even their pig-
geries convenient and
comfortable ; the latter
feature is all important.
As a Farm Helper. — There are opportunities for his
capabilities in this country. He harvests corn in Al style,
and in a manner that as a rule pays as well as shelling it
and sending it to the grain markets. For fertilising the
land and exterminating weeds, then pigs come very near
perfection. They utilise the grass and coarse feed quite as
well as sheep, and perform a work in stirring the soil that
sheep cannot do. The nose of the pig is made for rooting,
and we follow nature's hint by giving him a job on the
soil. A moveable yard, large enough to keep two or three
p^s, can be made of strong hurdles or of stout inch
boards, say 14 feet long and 6 inches wide Split stuff
will do, though it is heavier to move. A barded wire at
the bottom prevents pigs from shifting a fence. For the
comers use heavy posts. Nail the boards or palings to the
posts about 6 inches apart, making four lengths or panels
4 feet high. Fasten the corners with stout hooks and
staples, and we have a pen or yard 14 feet square, which is
easily moved by two men. When we place two 50-pound
pigs into this yard they use up all the weeds and other
vegetation in it in three or four days, and thoroughly
disturb the soil several inches in depth. The great
agricultural enemy, sorrel, soon disappears before them ;
so does nut-grass, that terrible pest of the coast farmers.
Corn and other feed can be given when necessary. When

THE PIG : TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 207

they have done their work satisfactorily, the pen can be
moved onward and onward, as required. The advantages
of this method are that it fertilises the land for grass or
crops, destroys weeds and insects, and mixes and fertilises
the surface of the soil about as well as it can be done.
Even ferns and small brush are effectively destroyed.
Worms and caterpillars are available food for the pig, and
it is not the least of the benefits t at small stones, if they
are in the soil, are brought to the surface, where they
can be seen and removed. The keeping of pigs gives
opportunity for disposal of produce in times of nlputy,
when it does not pay to send maize or wheat to market.
It is advantageous at such times to turn the grain into
pork or bacon. Many of the farm products which otherwise
might not pay may be utilized by having the pig among
the live-stock as part of the system of the Australian
agriculturist.

The Pig a Factory. — Provide him with a good feed and
he makes good bacon ; but if stinted, no matter how
perfect his breed, his form, and fattening qualities, he
cannot make flesh. A badly-fed sow cannot have vigorous
healthy pigs of good size, with a tendency to grow rapidly
and mature early. Thrifty pigs should weigh at four
months 701b. to 801b. During two months of that time
the pigs get most of their living from the sow, and during
the next month they eat far less food than older pigs. On
most farms a suitable patch can be laid out where sorghum,
pumpkins, sugar beets, chicory, carrots, or mangold-
wurzel will grow. These, with a little corn, make splendid
bacon-yielding material.

Pigs on Grain Stubble. — Possibly we do not in all cases
utilise the pigs as much as we might do by turning them into
the stubble to pick up the shelled grain, though, of course, it
is not always expedient to let them roam over stubbles. In
some cases want of suitable fences to restrain the pigs and
other reasons may prevent this practice being followed out,
but it could certainly be more generally pursued to good
advantage. Especially is this the case during a dry
season. In a wet time, when the stubl)le is lightly
ploughed soon after harvesting, the shelled grain would

208 AUSTRALIAN AGBICnLTURB.

start growing, and there would be a certain amount of

green crop for feed or to turn under, and in this way there

would be some return iu the shape of manure, but in u dry

season the grain would not start till too late in the year.

When pigs are allowed to run in the stubble, there will not

be much of the shelled grain wasted, nor much chance of

weeds and other bad growths springing up. They hunt

over the ground and root out all they can find. Even nut

grass roots disappear before pigs.

Wheat and Maize as Feed. — When wheat is cheaper

than maize, weight for weight, and when mixed with maize

it gives a better result than maize alone. Thus —

Flesh formers Heat givers. Fat.

Wheat 10 ... 65 ... If

Maize 9^ ... 70 ... 5

Maize and Wheat mixed . 10 ... 67i ... 3J

Maize is a rapid fattener of the pig, but the meat is
neither so firm nor so good in flavour as where the maize
i3 mixed with wheat, or when milk helps the maize.
For fattening, therefore, it is advantageous to use one-
hird wheat to two-thirds maize, while for growing pigs
and stores one-third maize may be added to two-thirds
wheat.

Australian Points in Pig liaising. — Gum leaves and
bush scrapings generally, make excellent bedding for the
farrowing sow — altogether much better than straw. The
little suckers are great ou burrowing, and when covered
up in straw are in danger of being overlain by the
mother and smothered. 'i hen the bush stuff is
dryer, warmer, and altogether more cleanly. The expe-
rience is that pigs that farrow amongst gum leaves very
seldom if ever worry their young. But, perhaps, that may
be because of a habit of rubbing the little ones soon as
possible with a sponge and a little eucalytus oil It is an
unfailing precaution against a very common mishap, espe-
cially during warm weather. The first litter here as a rule
is smaller than in England. Six, seven, aud eight are the
numbers with us, and more often six than eight. In the
old land^ ten is common with both the white aud black
breeds. But the after litters are up to the full numbei*,

THE pig: to raise and use him. 209.

and oar pigs breed longer than in England, where the
long, cold winters tell upon the mothers.

To Select Breeding Stock. — In selecting for breeding
purposes, whether male or female, it is important to choose
from among large litters that have been well suckled.
Some breeds are noted for prolificness, others could
probably be made equally prolific if closer attention were
paid to this well estubli-lied law of nature. The milking
qualities of the sow (wliich, by the way, are just as
hereditary as in the dairy breeds of cattle), should not be
overlooked ; for no matter liow large a litter a sow may
produce, they are a drawback unless she can suckle them
well. The question of whether the youngster is to be a
profit or a loss is largely decided during the few weeks
that he draws his mother sustenance. Mauv dairy cows
of strong milking inheritance, and that have been brought
up to the milking period, are spoiled by bungling milkers.
There is no such danger for the brood sow. The
youngster when hale and hearty, before he is an hour old
has mastered the science of milking, and has acquired
greater proficiency than the most skilful dairyist. That
organised appetite, wliich we call the young pig, is thorough
master of all the instruction evrr given on the subject of
milking. He milks quietly, thoroughly, and yet gently,
except when his rights are disputed.

Killing and Curing. — To do up a pig promptly, a
sharp knife is requiste, with a blade about eight inches
long, not more than an inch wide, with a rounded point.
Have it very sharp. If his pigship is about l^Olbs. — a
good handy size, by the way, for home use — one used to
the work would bale him into a corner of the stye, grip
him by a leg and an ear, tumble him with his head
towards the righthand side, and with his feet lowards
the operator, who then places his left leg across the
pig, and quickly inserts the knife at the centre of the
neck and as low as the fore-leg. Or, by whipping a
line round a hind leg, the pig can be raised by a sapling
laid over a rail, upon a triangle (as shown in engraving),
or other convenient arrai gement. There is no noihe from
a pig laised in this way. And wlien the knife does its

210 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

work, the animal is in the very best position for bleeding
effectively. Touch the heart with the knife (easily known

by a film coming over the
eyes of the pig). Th&
animal feels no pain after
that. He bleeds freely,
and dies in peace. The
sticking is a main feature,
for unless well done the
animal does not bleed
freely ; and unless well
bled, the meat does not
keep well. The mistake
in this matter often arises
from inserting the knife
„ „ too hififh up in the neck

For Hanging-up or Sonsi.. a Pig. ij^gt^^d ^f the breast, whcre

the heart is. As soon as the animal is dead, souce him with
hot {not scalding) water. 'Jhe usual practice is to put him
into a tub or trough, deep enough to cover the whole body ;
but the job can be done as well by putting him in before
applying the water. Tuck the head and feet under the
body, then pour in the hot water, and commence scraping
ofE the hair at once. The hair comes in flakes from a
young, good-conditioced pig, but sharp knives and an
approach to shaving have to he employed to get the back
bristles from old and coarse stagers. By the time it is off,
the feet, ears, and snout will be soaked, and the hair can
be scooped off with the hands or the knife. Take off the
hoofs, clean the head at once, and keep actively at the
other parts, pouring on water where the hair sticks, until
it is all off. Then lift him on a board, douse him with
cold water, and shave off any bristles that remain.

Scalding and Cleaning. — A safe temperature of water
for scalding pigs is 160 deg. If the heat is much greater,
it sets the hair fast, and may break the skin ; when much
lower, the hair will not loosen at all. As low as 140 deg.
may do for a fine-haired pig, provided 75 or 100 gallons
of water are used ; but, where a tub is employed, the heat
must be at least 150 deg. In the open air, and in cold

THE PIG: TO RAISE AND USE HIM. 211

weather^ this may not be high enough. 160 deg. is the
point for pigs over 751b8.

Cutting up the Pig. — The body should be allowed to
cool thoroughly. When pork is tainted, after salting

it is almost invariably for

want of thorough cooling
before cutting up the car-
cass. A good way to cut
up a pig, is to saw or chop
down the back, and make
two sides. The shoulder ^ ^.

. 1 1. te i. 1 Ai, Cutting-up a Pig.

IS then cut on as at 1, the

ham nicely rounded as at 2, leaving the small rump-piece
with the tail. The belly (3) is cut off, and the loin (4 and
5) is cut into two more or pieces, as may be desired. The
rib-bones should all be taken out and used fresh. The
shoulder should be freed from the ribs, and, with the
hams and the belly pieces, cured and smoked by them-
selves. The belly is often cut up into long, narrow pieces,
weighing 51b. to 61b., and, after being carefully cured and
smoked, is readily saleable as breakfast bacon.

Curing Hams and Bacon. — Cut out the ribs, using a
sharp heavy knife for the purpose, and passing it close to
the bone, the rule beirg to cut out the bones, and nothing
more. In warm localities, where the meat is wanted for
home use, it is safest to cut out the bones of the hams
also ; follow them out closely as in the former case,
leaving only the small bones at the points of the hams and
shoulders. In cooler localities the bones may be left in,
in which case a sharp saw shouM be used to trim those
on the surface quite flat. Leave neither holes nor
protuberances, fill them with bran soaked in lard when
necessary, and the appearance will be improved very much.
Use purified saltpetre — about one ounce to 501b. of meat.
Pound it fine ; run a steel or skewer close alongside the
bones, pushing down the salt-petre with it, giving
particular attention to the places were joints occur. Then
rub in salt as much as covers the meat, say 101b. for lOOlb.
meat; but double the quantity of salt should be handy.
Surround the meat with salt, pack it on a table or board

212 AdSTRALTAN AORICULTUEK.

to drip; rub it again 10 or 12 hours afterwards. Rub it
well, and again the next evening, and the next, changing
the pieces from top to bottom of the heap each time,
placing boards between the pieces, when it is desired to
flatten them out nicely. It may then stand for 12 or 14
days being rubbed occasionally.

Smoking. — After about 14 days, wash the meat quite
free from salt and hang it up until just dry, no more ; then
smoke it with tea-tree, wattle, stringy bark or other hard-
wood. Those first-named are the best. Do not allow
flame, the heat of the smouldering fire, or draughts of
drying air to reach the meat. To darken the colour, a
little sweet oil may be rubbed on ; smoking for 10 or 12
hours, either at once or during different times during a
week is suflScient for ordinary tastes. The smoking is all
the better done in a cool, close place To get rid of salt on
the surface, and also to improve the colour, of the hams
or sides, they are dipped in water of 180deg., having ^Ib.
soda in, say, ten gallons of water. Let the meat drip, then
hang up till dry, and smoke.

Pickling — A popular American Method. — Rub the
hams and shoulders with salt, and let them lie 36 hourp.
Then cover with brine for from three to six weeks. When
taken from the brine, insert a strong string in the large
«nd, and hang the pieces in the smoke-house, hock-end down-
ward. By this means tenderness and flavour are given to
a portion of the ham often treated badly. When they are
suflBciently smoked and dried, wrap each in brown paper,
and put in a loose bag of strong calico. Tie up the
mouth of the bag carefully, leaving out the string by
which it was hung up, and return to the hook in the
smoke-house, or any other safe convenient place. Hams
thus treated keep for years.

Curing with Sugar. — The sides of hams are neatly
rounded and trimmed, well sprinkled with salt, and
allowed to lie twenty-four hours to let all blood escape.
Then use for curing: l^lb. coarse sugar, l^lb. fine salt,
3oz. saltpetre pounded fine, lib. salt. This is enough for
^cwt. of meat. Lay one of the flitches on a table or
bench, where the brine can run off, and rub a quarter of

THE POULTRY YARD. 213

the mixture well into it ; lay the second flitch on the top,
and proceed in the same way ; lastly the hams, taking care
in every case to have the flesh side up, with plenty of the
mixture sprinkled over. It should lie thus for a month,
turning it every other day, putting the top flitch to the
bottom, and adding a little pickle if much brine h&s run
off. Then wash off the salt, hang the meat in the smoke
for ten days, not too near the fire.

Lard versus Meat. — Lard is a very good thing for
making pastry and for some other purposes, but, in a
warm climate, people do not appreciate lard. The pig of
the future will not be a dumpy " bladder of lard," but a
succession of streaks of fat and " lean pig." The sooner
we realise the fact, the sooner will pig-raising become
profitable. Fat pork is altogether to ) greasy for this
climate, though it is nice and vei-y nourishing when
rounding Cape Horn, and during the bleak European
winter.

XIX.— THE POULTRY YARD.

Making a Commencement. — The management for eggs
and for table birds is the concern of this department.
Poultry fancing, that is, the breeding and development of
birds or breeds for special points or for show purposes, is
a much more exacting occupation. To be successful with
fancy poultry, calls out the very best qualities of the stock
breeder. The chapter on the Physiology ol Breeding is
worth attention in that connection. Some who commence
the stndy of poultry life in the more modest manner of this
department, may follow into that of the poultry fancier.
The training should be helpful in that direction, but,
meanwhile our attention will be directed to poultry for
their e^g laying or their table qualities, for home use or
as a business. We will soon see that there are very
marked differences in the breeds of fowls for the purposes
aimed at, and that requirements in the form of necessary
accommodation, both indoor and out, care in feeding and

214 AUSTRALIAN AQBICnLTaBB.

general attention, and to the qualities of the feed for
building up young stock, for egg laying, and for making
high-class table birds, all come into the pursuit of poultry
farming.

The Kind to Keep, and Where to Keep Them. — The
latter is the more important matter of the two. Fowls, to
do well, must have room ; must have suitable house, roosting,
and yard accommodatiou, the right kinds of food and clean
water, the run of grass and weeds, with their belongings
of insects. These living things mean that fairly good eoil
answers the best for a poultry run. They must also have
gravel and lime in the form of a carbonate, such as bone,
shells, limestone, etc., dry places to shake themselves in,
and moist places to scrape in.

Fences. — The place being available, it becomes neces-
sary to fence it in an effective manner ; for unless the
whole property is to be given up to fowls, indoors and out,
they must be fenced in, or dissatisfaction, annoyance, and
trouble follow on their trail. Seven feet is not too high
for the fence of the place in which layers are to be confined,
though lower fences do for the heavier breeds. Palings or
wire-netting should surround the enclosure, as well as
gates. To make a hen satisfied that she must stay within
an enclosure, leave no room for any doubt upon her mind
as to whether she can get out of it ; she must not succeed,
or there will be trouble in that neighbourhood. Fowls are
persevering in proportion to their early successes. Con-
tentment on their part is the result of feeling that they
cannot do the other thing. Then they become satisfied
with their lot, lay many eggs, or grow big, as the owner
may desire. In their fenced-in enclosure should be the
roosting and laying places. This is necessary, for poultry
in this country have many enemies, including dogs, guanos,
hawks, &c., and mean thieves of the man kind.

Wire-Netting Fences. — They answer well for poultry,
are easily erected, and cost little. Hardwood posts of the
desired height, say 6 feet above ground and 2 feet in the
ground, are set and rammed in firmly. About 10 feet apart
answers. Then stretch a wire firmly on the top, another
at bottom, and where two widths of wire-netting are used.

THE POULTRY YARD.

215

a wire where they join is desirable. Unroll the netting
flat on the ground along the posts. Then carefully raise it
to position on the posts, and fasten all along the top tight,
exactly the height of the wire above the bottom line ; go the
full length of the roll fastening the top, and let the bottom
hang. One man can draw it tight, while another fastens
it ; draw it just tight enough so that it doesn't sag between
posts. After the top is fastened, draw the bottom down
in place, and fasten, being careful not to draw the wire
down any wider than it was made — that is, 6ft. netting
should be exactly 6ft. from top to bottom, other widths the
same way. If the wire is properly woven, it will remain
straight and even when put up as above, and not have that
unsightly warp which some fences have.

Moveable Pens. — This Is amongst the handy contrivances
made possible with wire-netting. Four posts are sunk in
the ground. Strips of batten connect the four on the

Portable Feuces of Wire-Netting.

ground line ; then the wire is set up, and we have a run
that keeps the birds in place, and is not unsightly in any
part of the grounds. A roll of wire netting is amongst
the materials of great use in working poultry. When sick-
ness occurs, a temporary pen can be set up for the patients
away from the others, and in a quiet, shady, well grassed
spot, is of the greatest use for restoring birds to vigorous
health again.

216

AUSTRAUAN AaRICOLTUEE.

Buildings. — There is immense scope for the display of
taste in poultry buildings. Our concern will carry us amongst

For a Small Place, as for Breeding Pens,

erections put up for use mainly ; leaving decoration to the
taste of the owner. The absolute requirements are tight
roofs, through which water cannot
enter, close walls, and floor of dry
earth, raised sufficiently to prevent
the inroads of dampness, even in wet
weather. Ventilation is best pro-
vided for by windows or shutter
J TF^^^^Sr^ openings. Wood, iron, slabs, bark,

^1^ ^^KBK*^ ajj(j other materials are available

roraomaiiLot. ^o^ buildings. Wheu shade or

shelter can be secured from trees or
vines, the advantages are very decided.

Roosts, Nests, Water, &c. — Much of their comfort and
health is dependent on how fowls .roost. The roosting
and laying places of hens should be sufficiently tight to
protect the inmates from rain, wind, and enemies. There
should be no roosting on trees and fences. Place roosting
sticks, at least 3 inches thick, across the building about 20
inches apart ; no roost should be higher than 3 feet. A.
good plan is to have the roosting sticks set upon a levelled
frame ; in any case they should be so arranged that at any
time they can be removed, cleaned, and replaced with the
least trouble. Nest-boxes (barrels and kerosene cases
answer well) are placed in the quiet, shady, out-of-the-way
places, where birds are not likely to roost on thera.
They should always be supplied with dry sand or
soil, gnm leaves, &c,, and each contain a nest-

THE POULTRY YARD.

217

egg. Drinking vessels being provided in the yard,
and supplied with clean water, we are ready for
the inmates. The reason for recommending low roosts is
that laying-hens are often ruined by jumping or falling
from high places.

Let the Hens Roost Low Down. — A laying-hen, of
genuine egg-laying breed, is a wonder — a nervous,
irritable, egg-laying machine. The natural state is
vigorous activity ; and all the time such a hen is a delicate
concern. She has immense capabilities for egg making
and laying, but the organs are complicated in the extreme.

Thousands of hens are
ruined every year by
rupture or other injury
to the egg-producing
organs from falls, being
chased, and other dis-
turbances. Then this
danger is aggravated
when hens roost high
up. The jump, flight,
or fall from a high perch is always dangerous. So let us get
the hens to roost low down. Three feet is quite high
enough for roost sticks. Our sketch shows a very good way
for arranging them, as at (a), (b) (b) are boards sloping
under the roost sticks for the droppings to fall into a box (c),
or there may be no box, when there is a deep layer of dry
earth for a floor, which can be raked over daily.

Food, Drink and Digestion. — Fowls need good sharp
grit or gravel. They have no teeth ; their food must be
ground up in the digestive system. Good grit keeps the
birds in a healthy condition. And fowls need a constant
supply of clean water. A fowl does not drink much at a
time, but comes often. Water makes up the largest part
of the body and the egg. Fowls need green food summer
and winter. Cabbages hung up in the hen house answer
excellently. Keep the place clean, be careful what you
feed, and success follows. But don't forget to feed early
in the morning. It does not pay to keep more hens-
than wo have time to attend to.

Let The Fowls Koost Low Down.

218

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURB.

Poultry Fonntaln.

Clean Water. — This is the precaution against disease.
The water fountain shown in illustration has a colonial look
about it. It is made from a four-gallon kerosene tin. A
hole is cut as at (a), and a piece of tin, bent half-circle
fashion, (b), is soldered to the bottom of the tin, so as to

surround the hole. We
then have a true water seal,
and a continuous supply of
say half an inch of water,
as loug as the contents of
the four gallon tin hold out.
The requirements are that
the tin be perfectly air-tight.
The outlet hole may be
about half an inch high, by one inch or two inches wide.
An efficient "fountain" on the same principle can be made
with preserved meat, jam, and other tins. When set upon a
raised board or 1: ox, in a shady place, a supply of cool, clean
water is ensured to the yard.

Feeding. — This is a leading consideration. Fowls
must be fed often and every day, early and late. They
require careful feeding ; but a tempts to provide special
food leads to no end of tribulation, and little else. They
will eat any good food when healthy, and are scarcely
worth troubling with when unhealthy. Wheat, oats,
barley, pollard, and bran are all good. Maize, whole or
cracked, is too fattening, if given without other grain,
bread, rice, meat, anything and everything that man uses,
is readily eaten by fowls ; but while the former can
educate himself into using all sorts of mes^jes and
mixtures, into suffering from dyspepsia, indigestion,
gout, medicine swallowing, and many other forms
of stomach ruination, fowls suffer from all such
attempts at " civilising " them, and wherever any-
thing of the kind is persevered in, they become
discontented, diseased, and die. A reliable system
of feeding is to give soft crumbly food in the morning,
which in winter should be blood warm ; and grain with
meat, broken bone, oyster shells, and other bone, flesh,
fat, and egg-forming materials at other times. Laying

THE POULTRY YARD.

219

fowls require all the good and suitable feed they cau
eat. More care has to be used with the breeding hens,
than the fleshy table breeds. Comfortable quarters on
good grass land, and liberal feeding with meat, are safe
foundations for poultry farming for eggs.

Poultry in Confinement. — Some curious and much
needed tests have been made with a view of observing
»^ the temperaments of

JtJ^L^i^ ^^ «.l^ different breeds of

fowls and their
adaptability for con-
finement. With this
end in view, a series
of sheds were erected
each eighteen feet by
five, and in these,
breeding flocks of five
to nine birds, Brown
Leghorns, Minorcas,
Redcaps, Andalu-
sians, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Houdans, Ham-
burgs. Langshaus, Dorkings, and Cochins, were put
up. The floors were originally covered with straw, but
this was soon changed for dry earth, and the condition of
the birds at once improved. The first bi-eed to develop
any vice were the Minorcas, which laid well for two
months, and then commenced feather eating. The next
to develop this habit were the Andalusiaus, which were
succeeded by the Hamburgs, Wyandottes, and Redcaps.
Then it was decided to change the treatment, with a view
to curing them of the propensity they had acquired. The
birds were allowed their freedom on grass, and they at once
abandoned the habit of feather pulling, but which they
recommenced when again confined iu the pens. This is
a nice point for considering with poultry, and shows how
desirable it is to have a run for even a small flock. The
Leghorns — one cockerel and seven laying hens — did by
far the best, as they laid well all through the experiment,
sometimes providing six egg^ a day, and developed no
vice or symptoms of ill-health whatsoever.

220 AUSTRALIAN AGRICOLTURE.

Peculiarities of Breeds. — They are so well defined now^
that we reckon their merits and drawbacks with some-
thing like certainty. Taking the
laying breeds first, they are
smaller, more wiry, are more
timid, and more able to fly fences
and roost upon trees than the
heavier, flesh-forming, table birds.
The egg-layers are not disposed
to sit, or to become broody, to the
same degree as the flesh formers.
Their eggs are larger, from l^oz.
Egg-laying Type. ^o 2ioz., are white as a rule, and

do better in small confined places,
than the heavier breeds. Leghorns. — Brown, white,
cuckoo ; combs, large, upright ; all are hardy. Have laid
up to 170 eggs during second year, and 700 during life;
weigh np to 71b.; capital foragers. Hamhurgs. — The
"red-caps," black pencilled, spangled; solid, red combs;
second year up to 180 eggs ; during life, 660, but smaller
eggs than Leghorns ; weigh up to 6|lb. Minorcas. — Black ;
large upright combs ; eggs large, not so numerous as
foregoing ; weigh up to 81b,; fair foragers. Houdans. —
Black with white ; have top knot and fifth toe ; second
year, 150; total, 650 (light coloured eggs) ; weigh up to
81b. Polish. — Black, with white top knot; much the
same eg^ capacity as Houdans, but smaller birds ; weigh
up to 6|lb. Andalusians. — Slatey blue ; look like game ;
egg capacity and weight much the same as Houdans.
Wyandottes. — Beautiful laced feathering ; supposed to be
from a cross of Brahma with laced Asiatic ; fine, firm flesh ;
laying capacity 390 ; best year, 140 ; good mothers and
fair foragers; weigh up to 81b. Spanish. — Black, with
white face and ears; second year, have laid up to 170
eggs ; total, 650 (eggs extra large) ; breed reputed
delicate ; weigh up to 7ilb.

Pullets of the foregoing commence to lay when six
to seven months old. They lay best in their second year.

Table Breeds. — Colour of eggs mostly brown; smaller
in size than the egg layers; weigh from 1^ to I§ozs.

THB POULTRY YARD.

221

For £zport.

Game, — British, Australian, Indian and others — Heavy,

rich flesh and full breasts ;
capacity for egg laying,
470; best year, 100; good
mothers ; weigh up to 91bs.
Dorkings. — Silver grey,
white legs and five toes;
eggs white ; capacity, 500 ;
best year, 120 ; weigh up
to lOlbs. Rocks. — Ash grey,
towards black ; supposed to
be cuckoo with Asiatic ,
hardy and domestic; egg
capacity, 400 ; best year,
110; weigh up to 9 lb. and
are excellent foragers and
good mothers. Dominiques.
— Lighter than Rocks ; flesh
finer ; not so hardy ; egg
capacity about same. Lang-
shans. — Termed "black cochins," and have feathered legs ;
good winter layers; capacity, 380 ; best year up to 100; flesh
firm and fair; weigh up to lO-^lbs. ; are poor foragers.
Orpingtons. — Black, bronzed, supposed cross of minorca
with langshans ; clean legs; egg capacity about the same
as langshans ; hardy ; excellent flesh and good mothers ;
weigh up to lOlbs. There are, also, buff and white
Orpingtons ; all are fair foragers. Brahmas. — Light and
dark; flesh, coarser; egg capacity, 350; best year, 100;
weigh up to 11 lbs. ; poor foragers and delicate. Cochins.
— Buff, white, dark ; feathery legs ; flesh poor ; egg
capacity, 300; best year, 60; weigh up to 121bs. ; poor
foragers, great eaters, and lazy. La Fleche. — A noted
French breed, of the Spanish type, have proved delicate
and inferior in Australia.

Crosses for Table Birds. — Game give weijifht and quality
of flesh. Game with dorkings are hardy, have light-
coloured legs and weigh up to Qibs. Houdan-dorkings are
suitable, and make good cross for eggs and table birds.
Houdan-orpingtons are suitable, also Houdan-game. The

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

houdans are, also, in favour for crosses with orpingtoiis,
Plymouth rocks, brahmas and cochins. Heavy-breasted,
firm-fleshed birds, with white legs, and weighing up to
91b8., are desirable.

For Export. — A bird with yellow skin, clean white or
yellow legs, small in bone and plump when dressed.

Breeding. — Hens, Turkeys, or Incubators ? — Much
experience is available concerning the merits of hens,

turkey hens, and incubators for
hatching. So far as the time is
concerned there is no difference ;
but as to the results, very
marked differences occur.
Briefly it may be said that it is
best to gain experience with
hens, or turkeys, before ventur-
ing upon an incubator. A good
deal will be learned during a
season or two with hens, which
will simplify matters when the
incubator is taken in hand.

Self-regnlating Incubator.

Hatching Time. — Which ever process we follow, the
cooler months — from July to September — answer best for
bringing out chickens ; but, with the precautious
mentioned regarding nesting, hen mothers, vermin, &c.,
other seasons will do, though there is always the serious
risks of vermin during hot weather. With the aid of
incubators, chickens can be raised at any time. Hen-eggs,
of all breeds, take 21 days to hatch out ; ducks, 28 days,
with the exception of the Muscovy, which often takes 35
days ; goose, 30 to 35 days ; Guinea and pea fowls, from
28 to 30 days ; turkeys, 28 days.

The Breeding Stock. — Select the fowls from which the
next year's stock of chickens are to be bred and place them
apart from others. Even if not pure bred, a careful
selection of half-a-dozen hens which are in good health and
good layers, and a vigorous male of the breed considered
best for the purpose in view, will give eggs more sure of
hatching and more hardy and vigorous chickens than can
be got from twice as many eggs taken from a larger stock

THE POULTEY YARD,

223

without selection. In selecting fowls to breed from, it is
better that the sexes should be in no way related, the hens
should be over a year old, rather than youngfer, and the
male bird is better at two or three years than at one.
Never use males of one year old if older ones can be had.
If there exists any imperfection which should cause a bird
to be rejected as a breeder, it will usually be seen
distinctly in the second year, while in the bird of less than
a year it miwht not be noticed. But for ordinary purposes,
good physique in both the male bird and the hens are the
main requirements. For stud purposes, five hens and a
male bird make a nice pen. For the smaller breeds, 6 to
8 hens may be allowed Where practicable, the male bird
should be smaller than the hens.

PJiiiu iircodiU); Pens.

Eggs and Places for Setting. — The eggs must be
quite fresh. When over eight days old, in the summer
season, the progeny will be weak to a certainty. To
carry eggs a long distance, pack them in bran or sawdust.
They carry better by road or on horseback than by
steamer. The shaking of a vessel at sea generally
proves destructive to the reproductive properties of the

224 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTUEE.

eggs. Id setting hens, nests on the ground made of dry
sandy or loamy soil answer well, with a sprinkling of

broken down gum
leaves. The nests are
healthy, and are easily
kept clean and free
from vermin ; or the
nests may be in boxes
or barrels. They
should be where the
Coop for a Sitting Hen. sitters cauuot be mo-

lested. The hen
should be roused from the nest every day after the
second day of sitting, and induced to drink and
feed freely and dust herself. These are the best
precautions against vermin. A sitting hen requires
steady nourishment, to keep up her courage and
natural heat. When the weather is very dry, it is a good
plan to sprinkle both eggs and nest with warm water
every day when the hen leaves it. On the 19th or 20th
day, unless the hen comes off of her own accord, lift her off
and look over her eggs. But be careful not to drag the
mother bird while moving her, for eggs may be broken
unless great care is used. Place one hand under each
wing and then quietly lift her up, taking care that she
carries no eggs in her feathers. Some, if not all, of the
eggs may be cracked and chipped where the young ones
are struggling to get through. Take away any shells of
chicks that have hatched out. On the 2Jst day take the
sitter off her place again. By this time all the chickens
should be hatched out, and if the mother has not pushed
all the empty shells out of the nest, it is advisable to clear
up all litter and put mother and brood on clean dry earth
in a coop or otherwise.

Incubators. — Self-regulating machines are best, and
possibly the best results are got from those in which the
eggs are placed in sand. The temperature must be very
steady, ranging between 101 and 105 degrees. An
occasional cooling for half an hour or so does no harm, and
by some experienced operators is believed to be necessary.

THE POULTEY YARD.

225

Eggs While Hatching. — Turn them every day after
the second day. Prompted by nature, hens turn their
eggs from the outside to the warmer inside of the nest.
From the 7th to the 10th day use an egg-tester, and
examine each ogg before a bright light. If all is well, red
streaks or veins will be visible in the fertile eggs
on the 7th day. Others show a dark mass in the
centre ; they have to be rejected. Such eggs are
useful when boiled, for feeding chickens. On the
19th or 20th day, some of the eggs may be cracked, but
may seem no further advanced than the day before. In
this case, it may be necessary to remove a small portion of
the shell around that part where the beak of the confined
chicken has made an opening. This requires the utmost
care, and should never be done except as a last resort.
Warm water, of blood heat, or, say, lOOdeg., is useful for
freeing the chicks sometimes. It may enable a weak chick
to free itself out of its shell, when it has not strength to do
so by itself. Only too strong help might be given and the
life destroyed.

An Effective Egg-tester. — The light (a) of a lamp or a
candle answers very well. A cylinder (b) of paper is set
around the light, into which a round hole is cut. This

gives a streak of clear
concentrated light, and
by holding an egg-
testei shield {c) into
which the egg (d) is
placed in the ray of
light, remarkably clear
observations can be
made. With a little
1'/^ ~^~ IIII^'^^V \ ^ practice the condition

iiiilllillllillllllllli.illillllllilllilllli^^ of the contents of_ the

egg become visible.
After the seventh day of
incubation, fertile eggs will be observed to have a dark
patch in the centre and a number of red streaks radiating
from it, giving it the appearance of a long-legged spider.
An unfertile egg, sure to go bad, is distinguished by a dark

Tenting ExKB.

226 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

spot adhering to the shell, and by a cloudy and ill-defined
appearance, but no red streaks.

Moisture in Egg-Hatching. — I am afraid that mistakes
are being made, and other mistakes are likely to be made,
by stifling both hens and incubators for want of sufficient
moisture. Serious disappointments have occurred from
this cause, and from an idea which has somehow got
abroad that moisture is a bad thing in incubation. No
doubt too much water would be bad — it is bad in evei'y
sense, whether we have to deal with it in plant life, or in
animal life. Water simply drowns life action when thei-e
is too much of it, and if incubators are allowed to sweat
moisture about the eggs, they will go bad to a certainty.
But the anatomy of the egg, and the process of hatching
from first to last, all show that moisture — that is, healthy
life moisture — is a necessity for life all through. Both
hens and incubators require such a degree of moisture, or
chicks cannot come forth in a strong, robust, healthy state.
When eggs are hatched in leaves, as in the case of the
Australian scrub turkey, in manure substances, or in the
nest-like arrangements of Egyptians, Indiana, or Chinese,
their climate, habitations, and surroundings supply the
required warmth and moisture. Our experiences are just
the same. Thousands of chicks are lost during every
hatching season when dry winds prevail. Life heat, from
102 to 105 degrees, just moist, is the state of things for
generating life in the egg, and developing healthy chickens.
Hen Mothers. — The hen n. other I refer to is a box, say
12 X 24 X 9, the 9 inches being the height in front. The
top of the box slopes downwards towards the back, so that
it is about 4 inches high at that side. The inside of the
top and also the back is lined with woollen rag, or short
wool sheepskin will do. This hen mother may either have
a wooden floor, or it will do without the floor, if it is
arranged on dry earth. The chicks can be taken from the
hen or incubator when 24 hours old. They may then be
put in families of 20 or 25 in a grassy pen, but quite dry,
fenced with boards, from 2 to 10 feet square, and about 2 feet
high, and so close or tight at the bottom that the smallest
cannot squeeze through. Young ducks will do well treated

THE POULTRY YARD.

227

this way ; but they will try to get through any opening, no
matter how small. The pen should be movable, and be

Portable Hen Mother and Yard.

frequently changed, or it will soon become foul. When
they have a " hen mother," both chicks and ducks do
better without a hen than with one. Young ducks are
very restless ; they are ever on the move, and heus become
nervous at the noise and continuous motion of ducklings,
and often lose their heads and trample the little restless
things to death.

Hen Mother and Hen Chickens. — A first brood of
chickens put into a hen mother may be a week old. They

Hen Mother, with Ran for Chicks or Yoniifc Duck*.

228 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

can then pick and forage, and younger chicks put with
them are warmer, and soon acquire the arts of chicken life.
But, when for the first six weeks chickens remain with
their mother, it may be found most convenient to confine
tlie hen in a roomy coop, and allow the chicken to run out-
side. It is best to place the chicken's food and water where
they alone can get at it, while corn and other feed is put
inside for the hen. The coop and yard should be por*;able,
and must be kept scrupulously clean, and be frequently
shifted from place to place. Adult birds may thrive in a
tainted atmosphere and on impure soil, but for young
chickens these conditions mean certain death. Where
there is grass, the chickens should not be allowed out too
early in the morning, while the dew is heavy on the
ground, or cramps may be their fate.

Young Chickens and Young Ducks. — About the close of
the sixth week, the hen is likely to abandon her charges.
Suddenly all her former tenderness and devotion are then
turned to harshness. She will drive the chickens from
her, and if any of the wee things creep to her for warmth
and shelter, she will often peck at them unmercifully.
She knows that they will then thrive better by themselves
and hence she refuses them care any longer. So after all
she is " cruel only to be kind." Here again the advan-
tages of the hen mother all favour the chickens. For a
week or two the youngsters, when suddenly abandoned,
need extra care and attention. They must be fed well and
warmly housed. If a spell of cold weather comes on, a
sprinkling of pepper may be added to their morning meal.
Their best camp will be a warm box with dry leaves or
leaf mould, where they can cuddle together, or warmth can
be supplied by a lamp, hot water, a hot stone on top, or
other means. Early roosting is not good for fleshy,
well-nourished chicks. Should they roost on sharp,
narrow sticks, they are likely to be deformed.

Ducks. — The established varieties are well represented
in this country, and they all do well. In addition, we have
Australian ducks, native to the soil or water. They
are small, but make up for it in quality, being more of the
type of game birds than any of the imported breeds. The

THE POULTRY YARD.

229

Bonen Dncks.

weights (standard) of domestic ducks are: Pekin drake,

eighu pounds ; Aylesbury drake, nine pounds; Rouen drake,

^B^ \ "cxva^ pounds ; Cayuga

'^^^^^A \\i0llk drake, eight pounds ;

^Bn 1^^^^ \ Muscovy drake, ten

^S ^^^^^ \n{ U I A P°^^^^^' '^^^ duck of each

breed averages about lib.
less in weight than the
drake. Pekins and Ayles-
bury breeds are white,
Cayugas black, and
Rouens of varied colour.
The Muscovy does not
really belong to the duck
family. The eggs require
"^^ the same period for hatch-

iug as those of the goose,
while the produce of a mating of the Muscovy with
other breeds causes a sterile hybrid.

Breeding, Rearing and Marketing. — They do better
on good grass without water than when they have water
without the grass. Board floors are best for the camping
places of grown ducks, with bush scrapings or litter on the
floor. When in confined yards it costs about 3d. per lb.
to produce dncks. They eat twice as much as chicks, but
they make up by growing twice as fast. Feed ducklings
on soft stuffs, and have shallow pans of drinking water
near, as a duckling may choke to death if deprived of water
while eating. Very cold water for drinking causes cramps
in ducklings. So, also, does water on their backs. The
Pekin and xVIuscovy are considered the most rapidly-
growing breeds. When crowded in yards, ducklings often
die suddenly, due to eating the filth in the yards.
Dampness is fatal to ducks, both adults and ducklings,
hence they must have dry sleeping places.

Gbesk. — All the varieties are common — the handsome
white, the Toulouse, the China, and improved Irish. They
are healthy, and a desirable addition to the poultry-yard
wherever there is plenty of good, rich grass, or soft, green
feed and a liberal supply of water. They are really grazing

280 AUSTRALIAN AOBICOLTUBE.

birds. Those who breed generally assign one gander to
four or five females. In mild seasons the goose lays early ;
she sits with exemplary patience, but ought, during
incubation, to be well supplieJ with food and water placed
in a convenient and undisturbed situation, to which she
may have free access. The gander is very attentive to his
favourite, sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her
defence. The goslings, or gulls as they are termed in some
parts, require the same treatment as ducklings ; it is
advisable to pen the mother for a few days upon a dry
grass plot or green sward, supplying her with water and
grain, of which the young will partake ; green food, as
chopped cabbage or beet-leaves, crushed maize, and the
like, may be given. One thing is imperative : let not the
young be starved upon poor grass, for poor pasturage
occasions disease and mortality; a few handsful of corn,
given morning and afternoon, are turned to good account
in the goose economy.

The Toekey. — The young are more difficult to raise
than fowls or ducks, but are quite healthy in after-life.
Full-grown and well-bred birds bring splendid prices, and
are much in demand. The mothers are excellent sitters.
The young sufEer from exposure, and attacks of hen-lice or
other vermin are fatal to them. Dry, sandy situations, on
limestone or volcanic country, answer best for turkeys, and
when extra care is taken with them at the early stages they
do very well. It is desirable to keep only young male
birds, say those between two and three years old, and they
should be apart from other fowls.

Guinea Fowls and Pigeons. — All the varieties are
healthy, and do well with the care found to fit them best in
other countries.

Diseases of Fowls. — They are not numerous in this
country. The exciting causes are damp, developing cramp
from exposure, want of proper shelter, exposure to
draughts, indigestion from feeble life action, defective
feeding and accidents, mostly from roosting too high.
Young birds and laying hens suffer most from these
causes. The most serious disease amongst older birds
is roup, due to much the same causes as those from which

THE POULTRY YARD.

231

A Portable Hospital Coop.

young birds suffer — cold, damp, and exposure. Nearly all
digestive ailments
are aggravated by
want of grinding
material in the crop.
Pounded gravel,lime-
atone, crockery, or
glass should always
be within the reach
of fowls. Cold
draughts of air blow-
ing across them
while roosting or
down on them, will cause swelled heads and eyes, and,
very likely, lead to roup. It is often the case that rupture,
weak legs, and other complaints are caused by high roosts,
the birds being injured by jumping or falling therefrom
to the ground. The roosts should be low.

The Safeguards. — When poultry have plenty of space
to roam in, if only for a few hours each day, and they are
not molested with dogs or by quarrelling with neighbours'
fowls, they have more certain prospects of continuing in
health. They require very little doctoring. Wheu much
of that sort of thing becomes necessary it is evident there
is something wrong in the breed, in the feeding or the
location. By far the greater proportion of diseases arise
either from exposure or overcrowding, or neglect in
preserving cleanliness — often all combined. The first
requirement in case of sickness is to put the patient in a
separate pen.

Symptoms of Disease. — The first symptoms of nearly
all fowl diseases are moping and diarrhoea At this stage
much evil may be warded off. When a fowl hangs its
wings and looks drooping it should be caught and put in
the hospital pen. See at once whether it appears purged,
and, if so, give immediately in a tableapoonful of warm
water, a tablespoouful of the purgative mixture, and when
purging ceases, give a few drops of spirit of camphor.
Repeat this next morning, and, in most cases, the disease
will be checked, care being taken, of course, to give the
invalid warmth and shelter. Oil, as a medicine, is not

232 AUSTRALIAN AQBICnLTOBE.

80 certain in this climate ; salts made by dissolving an oz.
in half a pint of water is more effective.

lioup. — This is the most serious of fowl diseases here
as in Europe, The early symptoms are loss of appetite
and drooping, then weak eyes and appearances of cold,
gatherings of matter about the nostrils and eyes. The
disease is highly contagious, being communicated through
disease germs issuing from the sickly beak contaminating
the drinking water ; therefore let all fowb affected by it
be at once put by themselves. Keep them warm, squeeze
out the matter from the nostrils, wash the beak with
Condy's fluid, add peppers or other spice to the feed, with
green stuff unlimited, and put in the water a little sulphate
of iron. Roup runs its course rapidly, and in a week the
bird will be either almost well or so nearly dead that it
had better be killed.

" Fowl Cholera " comes on like a feverish cold, and,
like roup, quickly develops disease germs. Other symptoms
are thirst, debility, anxious nervous movements and
greenish droppings. The treatment is to isolate the patient
at once, giving a purgative dose, and adding spirit of
camphor to the food or drinking water. Should the patient
become worse, a few drops of camphor mixture, from 3 to
10, may be given twice daily with warm food.

Cramp, Sore Eyes, Sore Heads. — These are symptoms
mostly of the more serious diseases described. Isolate the
birds in warm pens, and try to bring up their vitality by
warmth, tonic drinks, and stimulating feed. Sores on th6
head may develop from attacks by vermin. Washing with
Condy's fluid in warm water, carbolic or eucalyptus soap,
or the soda-resin-petroleum mixture — the latter for
extreme cases only — seldom fail as remedies.

Crop Bound. — A. serious, but easily detected ailment
of fowls. It is caused by some stoppage in the digestive
process carried on in the crop. The passage between
that part of the digestive apparatus and the gizzard, or
grinding stomach, is small, atid may be choked by
something the bird may have swallowed, an onion skin, a bit
of rag, or other material. A mqre common cause is
feeding with wet cold, soggy, semi-cooked bran or pollard,

THE POULTRY YARD. 233

or other stuff, during cold mornings. The birds being
hungry bolt a lot of this, and are unable to warm it up
sufficiently for digestive purposes. The crop is swelled
up, the bird droops, and may perish, as numbers do every
winter — starved to death while the crop is full to gorging.
As soon as a case is seen, catch the bird, and pour water,
as warm as can be borne, down the throat, till the crop is
full ; then work it to loosen the food, and dissolve it in
the water; some may be got out of the mouth.
Try and relieve the mass by dissolving it; then give
a purgative dose ; and put the patient in a quiet,
warm pen. In more serious cases, the crop may
have to be cut open, the contents removed, the
crop washed and stitched by two or three loops or surgical
stitches.

Apoplexy. — Very prevalent at times, and as it carries
off its victims suddenly, and, generally during the night,
it causes great alarm amongst poultry owners. Apoplexy
is most prevalent in alluvial districts, where grit or gravel
is scarce. Old and young fall victims; no particular
breed are exempted. The first stages are staggering gait
in the birds affected for one or more days before death ;
or the head is slightly twisted back on the neck, or to one
side. The patient is soon afterwards found in a sitting
posture, or half turned on its back. If disturbed, its gait
is staggering, and it seems involuntarily compelled to go
to one side ; attacks of convulsions occur at intervals, in
one of which the poor bird expires. Cause : The appear-
ances after death are effusion of blood on the brain, or
otherwise a turgid and congested state of its blood-vessels.
Here, it is usually supposed that this disease is the effect
of high and unsuitable feeding, especially with maize.
The birds in best condition, and those of the flesh-forming
type, usually suffer first. Various remedies have been
suggested, such as bleeding by cutting the comb, giving
purgatives, drenching with cold water, reducing the
supply of food, &c. In practice, it is best to always see
that the birds have plenty of grit material. Reduce the
feed, and change the whole stock when this complaint
becomes serious.

284 AD8TBALIAN AOHICDLTURK.

Gapes. — Choking and suffocating symptoms indicate
this disease. The cause is found in numbers of small
worms which infest the windpipe and throat, causing the
patient to gasp for breath. When taken early, it may be
sufficient to give, for two or three days, a morsel of
camphor the size of a grain of wheat, and to put camphor
in the drinking water, or a little turpentine or sulphuric
acid may be given daily in meal, taking care, of course,
that deficiencies in diet and shelter be improved. In
fully-developed cases, the worms n:ust be removed by
introducing a feather or a loop of horsehair, saturated
with kerosene, into the throat, and turning it round during
withdrawal, the operation to be repeated several times, till
the worms are extracted.

Loss of Feathers and Feather-Eating. — This trouble
is supposed to be caused by want of green food or having
no dust bath, but it is often a symptom of depraved,
morbid apetite, not easily cured. Additions of meat to
the feed, sulphate of iron in the drinking water, and a run
on fresh grass, aid in curing.

Vermin. — They used to be, and may be still, in neglected
cases, the most serious drawback to poultry-keeping in
warm climates. During dry summer weather the little
pests, peculiar to fowls, attack human beings, or horses,
and may become fearful scourges. To keep them in check,
sitting and broody hens should be put apart from others,
then rubbed on the head and under the wings with sulphur
ointment, and dusted with flour of sulphur and lime daily.
The fowls should also have shady, damp places in which
to roll and clean themselves. The vermin, be it well
understood, cannot travel or live in damp places, nor do
they like dry dust. Soda-resiu-petroleum spray mixture
and hot lime-water are most effectual for clearing them off.

Scaly Legs. — Caused by small parasites. Usually a
dressing with kerosene is effective ; rub it in freely, and
after an hour or so, wash off with Condy's fluid or carbolic
soap. In very bad cases use soda-resin-petroleum mixture,
washing afterwards,

Soft-Shell Eggs. — Lime material, or crushed bone,
oyster shells, lime-stone (not lime) wanted in feed.

THE POULTRY YARD. 235

Egg Bound, — This may be caused by want of vitality in
the hen. See to the feeding ; give purgative, oil applied
with a feather, or a syringe, or more mechanical means
may be necessary to give relief. Be careful not to break
the egg while operating.

Rupture, Abortion. — Passing of discolored matter indi-
cates rupture, often caused to laying hens by their falling
from high roosts. Isolate the patient, and use remedies
same as for egg bound.

Oil is destructive to insect life generally, and in the form
of kerosene, or some of the vegetable or animal oils, is
effective against them.

The Moulting Time. — A time of trial and risk to fowls.
It extends through March to July, and has much to do
with winter laying. When a hen begins to moult in March,
she is not likely to be in full plumage again until May or
June, and she cannot lay again till the moulting has been
completed. When the weather is mild, however, during
April, and the winter does not set in before May or June,
she has a longer rest, and may begin laying, and then
continue through the winter. Hence, this rule must not
be overlooked, that if the hens begin to lay before cold
weather they are likely to lay during the winter ; but
if cold days overtake them before they begin to moult, they
will probably not begin again before spring.

Broody Hens. — When not wanted for hatching, they
are looked on and treated as nuisances sometimes. Yet
it is a natural condition of hen life, and may be indulged to

give the birds a rest,
by setting them on
two or three dummy
eggs. Kindly skill
and attention are
requisite to do the
right thing by them.
Cruelty is stupid, and
has the desired efifect
less frequently than
, . iniury or death to

coop for Curiu.Cluckers. ^^J^ clucker. The

236 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

coop shown effects the object more readily and easily.
The clucker or cluckers are put in, and then the coop is
tilted up as shown. Biddy becomes very much disgusted
when she has to occupy an angular floor like this, and is
80 glad to escape after a day or two of discomfort, that
she forgets to cluck, eats heartily, and gets to laying
again.

XX.— CROPS FOR FEED, SILOING, &c.

That cultivation must be increased to provide feed for
such times as the early months of 1895, which racked the

energies of the most skil-
ful in the dairying busi-
ness, was made painfully
apparent. Never before
were such quantities of
feed stuff purchased.
Hay, maize meal, pollard,
bran, and molasses, were
amongst the feed stuffs
Dniry Silo! ill demand. But the best

of them are poor and
unsatisfactory in comparison with the maize, sorghum, oats,
rye, barley, and the grasses we can store up in ordinary
seasons for feed in times of scarcity. That green feed, as
well as grain, and other substances could be preserved in
pits, or silos, is no new discovery. In Biblical times they
were used for storing grain. There are several silos
for grain storao^e near Sydney, built in early colonial days.

The Silo. — As brought into use in recent times for
storing soft feed for stock in Europe and America, the silo is
an excavation or pit in the ground, built of brick, as a
rule, laid in cement ; stone has also been used. In New
South Wales, silos of this elaborate sort have also been put
down ; but, since it became evident how suitable is the
climate for preserving feed, with as much moisture as
possible in it, silos have been simplified very much. For
instance, excavations are made in granitic and other porous

i

CROPS FOE PKED, SILOING, ETC. 237

soils, and in these places (without artificial walls) feed has
been stored upon the siloini^ principle, with results as good
as the best. In other places, silos have been made partly in
the ground, and partly above the surface. The part above
ground is lined with timber, and that below is sometimes
lined; in other cases, the soil forms the sides. Barns,

sheds, and other erec-
tions have been used ;
and stacks above
ground, of much the
same form as hay-
stacks, are in favour.
The object in view, in
all cases, is to compress
tlie stuff sufficiently
close to allow mild
fermentation to set in,
Eiwiiaste suck Above (,r:. 1^^^ ^^ prevent over-

heating, and the active fermentation and the destruction sure
to follow overheating.

Requirements for Siloing. — The success of the operation
depends very much upon the conditions of thorough
drainage of the sides and bottom of the silo, expulsion of
air from the mass of forage ensiled, and upon keeping air
out with its ever-active germs of fermentation after the
ensilage is covered in. Whatever may be put into a silo
should be thoroughly well trodden in, and rammed down at
the sides into a compact mass. The same rule applies to
ensilage above ground. This packing of ensilage is greatly
facilitated by passing the material through a chaff-cutter,
as the long stalks of uncut stuff occupy greater space and
offer more opportunity for stagnating air anil unhealtliy
fermentations. To secure the exclusion of air, it has been
found useful to cover the mass with close-fitting boards, or
shutters, in one or more divisions. Where a silo can l)e all
filled at one time, and where there is no intention of
re-opening it to put in more stuff, dead weights to press
down the mass appear to be the most economical. But
where the coverings have to be removed to add more to
make up for siuinkage, the value of mechanical appliances

288

AUSTRALIAN AGRICDLTDRE.

of the clutch or screw kind, becomes evident. To avoid the
necessity of refilling, a super-silo, or over silo, removable at
will, has been usefully employed. By filling to the top of
this addition, sufficient material is provided so that the silo
itself may be full to the top after shrinkage, which should
not amount to more than one-third of the bulk, when the
material is cut and well trodden when first put in.

The Crops Available. — Com, giving as it does so very
much more feed than any other crop, is ranked first ; then

come oats, wheat, rye, sorghum, rye
or barley with vetches, lucerne,
rape, chicory, native grasses, coni-
stalks, variegated thistles, &c. ; in
fact, anything that aflfords food for
stock can be preserved in this way.
Oats, because of their qualities in
milk-giving material, fonn the
richest feed of all. When corn
stuii' was put in green, the ensilage
was so juicy as to soak and soften
the more woody parts, so that the
stuff came out more evenly.

Taking Out the Feed.— When
put in whole, the ensilage has to be
cut out with a hay-knife or broad
axe in strips a foot wide, when it
is easily pitched out and put into
feed troughs. But the better
course is to cut the stuff before it is put into the silo or
stack, from which it can then be taken and fed like chaff.

Form and Capacity of Silos. — Experience in ensilage
making favours round silos, next square, so as to have the
least possible outside space. It is there where air or damp
are most in contact, and where ensilage becomes colored or
goes bad. Depth is a recommendation. Twelve feet is a
good depth, 20 feet better, the pressure being more effective
at the greater depth. Where the arrangement is such that
great depth is secured, and yet the stuff can be taken out
as near to the level where it is fed to stock, the less labour
is necessary. The weight of ensilage varies according to

Enjoying a Look at his Eusilage
Crop.

CROPS FOR FKED, SILOING, KTC.

239

the crop, whether it has been cut short, and the depth of
the silo. Thus ensilage may weigh from 20 to 251b. per
cubic foot near the surface ; at 12 feet deep may weigh
between 40 and 501b. So the greater the depth the greater
the capacity per foot. To store 50 tons, say 12 feet in depth
and 1 2 feet diameter is necessary. The further calculation
is that silos of 20 feet diameter hold 109 tons, 122 tons, 135
tons, 149 tons, 163 tons, 179 tons, and 194 tons, when 17,
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 feet deep respectively. A
silo 30 feet deep and 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
or 24 feet in diaraetei-, will hold, approximately, 105, 119,
134, 157, 168, 187, 205, 225, 246, or 268 tons of ensilage
when well made and pressed.

Ensilage from Native Herbage. — During spring and
summer, grass and herbage grow more rapidly after rain
than stock can consume it, and in many cases the greater
quantity is lost or becomes food for bush fires. The making
of bush hay is expensive, is attended with risks, and only
in special cases is the dried bush hay of any great value.
On Liverpool Plains some 1500 tons of bush grass were
converted into excellent ensilage. In appearance the stufi"
when opened up seemed rather wet, but it did not
smell unpleasantly, and stock took to it quickly, 'i'he
work of getting and stacking it employed 26 men,
three mowing machines and an acme hay-raker during
two weeks.

Cost of Ensilage. —
In the case stated, the
cost of making the en-
silage was 4s. per ton,
but with theappliancos
now available, and the
experience gained, pos-
sibly 2s. ('(]. may cover
the cost. Maize en-
silage costs about 68.

CnttiDg Down for Ensilftge. P^-'l" toU.

Ensilage as Feed. — Although [disappointments have
occurred, becau.se of the extravagant claims made

240

AUSTRALIAN AGEICDLTURE.

regarding: the superiority
of ensilage in com-
parison with other kinds
of feed, the material still
advances in the estimation
of those who have made it
carefully. The advantages
of the system are beyond
a doubt, for any available
fodder stuff can be stored
away in any weather, and
at the least cost for making
feed; and that coarse, woody

To See the Silo Opened.

matter is made more
digestible is reason-
able. The quantities
of com and sorghum
ensilage given to cows
in milk may range
between 30 and 601b.
daily. When given
with 4 to 71b. of
scalded maize meal,
pollard, or bran, or
better still, a mixture
of all, milking cows have done extra well upon such feed.

For Moving Ensilage Stuff, Hay, &c. — The
accompanying sketches, represent a simple contrivance
for moving green com, &c. It consists of a pole ten or
twelve feet long, tapering to a point at one end. Near
the large end is a |-inch hole, to w^hich a clevis is attached.
A stout rope, 15 to 18 feet long, is fastened by one end
to a whiffletree, and at the other end is a ring four inches
in diameter. When in use, the pole is thnist through the
shock or cock to be removed, or the load may be built
upon the pole, the rope is run through the clevis,
and over the top of the pile of stuff, the ring being slipped
over the small end of the pole. Then a horse is attached to
the whiffletree and started The draught tightens the rope,

Haudj" Feed Ariaugeiueut.

CROPS FOB FEED, SILOING, ETC.

241

and binds all compactly together while it is moving.
When the clevis is provided with a small pulley wheel or

loose sleeve of iron, it

=r=^^^^^^«^^^^^^- ■::" — ^ --'

For HoTing Ensilage Stuff, Hay, &c.

Loaded up for the Silo.

saves friction and wear
and tear of the rope.

Chemistry of the
Operations — Any changes
made in the silo are of a
chemical character, due
to fermentation, and
require close attention.
Fermentation can be
regulated in two ways —
by drying or wilting out
less or more of the natural
sap of the cut stuff before
it is put in the silo or
stack ; or by shutting out
the air by means of
pressure, got either by
tramping in the stuff, loading it above, or by rope
pressure, as in the Johnson stack apparatus. The
more natural moisture there is in the stuff when put
up the less it heats, and the temperature can be
regulated between 120 and 140 degrees — the limits of
safety in green fennents. A very effective apparatus is
being introduced to aid in regulating the temperature. It
is an auger, with a handle so long that it can be sent six
feet into a mass of stuff. The handle is hollow right down
to the boring point, and into the handle a thermometer can
be inserted as required, and the temperature tested. "With
this aid, good stuff to operate on, and the knowledge that
fermentation cannot go on without air, the chemistiy of
ensilage-making becomes simple enough. There is one
other point worthy of attention : Milking stock like a
little sourness in their feed ; it promotes tlie secretions of
milk. The stuff full of sap when put in is the most likely
to sour. To make the sweeter ensilage, it may be the better
l)ractice to let the stuff lie a little after it is cut, in order to
^et rid of some of the sap. That the fermentation of

242 AnSTBALTAN AGBICULTUBE.

ensilage between 120 and 140 degi-ees makes dry stuff
more digestible is a main feature of the change. Then, in
a dry season, it is a great advantage to have the sap in the
feed. Experiments and experiences are confirmatory that
while filling in the stuff", or immediately thereafter, a heat
equal to about 130 degrees can be induced which shall
pervade the mass in the silo, and when, after that stage,
the silo or stack is tightly closed, fermentation ceases, the
ensilage remains sweet until re-opened. These results are
attained by not too rapid filling, the temperature being
watched; and as soon as that of one layer or portion reaches,
say 130 degrees, another layer of three or four feet in thick-
ness may be added, levelled off, packed closely around the
sides, and left for a day or two to heat in turn. Pits filled in
this way turned out beautifully, and the cattle, especially
milch cows, have had healthful excellent feed. Chemical
change and heating of plant material is developed by cutting,
by which the juices are exposed to the action of ferments, the
germs of which are almost universally distributed. The
very fine cutting which used to be recommended is
probably unnecessary, but lengths of from four to six
inches answer well. Neither com nor grass, when packed
whole, come so certainly into a unifoiTn heat, and there is
the greater risk of over-heating, mould, &c. This applies
equally to ensilage stacked above ground as to that stored
in pits.

Other Feeds Available, Cob Meal included. — Pollard
and bran make excellent feed ; but, to get all the benefit to

enable the stomach of
the cow to digest it,
the feed does best
when cooked, or
scalded, otherw is e
there is loss. Maize-
meal with the same
treatment enriches
and increases the flow

KevolviDg Hay Rake. of milk. About 6 Ibs,

of either, with ensilage or other feed, as much as the animal
can eat, make ample feed for a cow giving milk equal to 1

CROPS FOE FEED, SILOING, ETC.

243

Warmth in Winter and Shade in Summer.

lb. of butter daily. Then meal made by grinding the com,
cob and all, has long been in use, and is known to be
economical feed. This has been proved by those who have
used both, and now we have the results of recent experi-
ments at the Kansas Agricultural College, where ten beasts
have been fed, five on corn-meal and five on cob-meal, under
exact conditions, each tied in a stall four feet wide.

Warmth, Shelter and Feeding. — This is a most
important point, and to dairymen in particular. The first

call upon food is
to maintain the
animal heat, and
even in our
favoured climate
cows exposed to
the cold of winter
fall off in their
milk, in its quality and quantity, to a far greater extent than
dry weather accounts for. The loss may be even one-third of
the milk supply. To prevent such loss, sheds, stables, or
such shelter as saves the stock from suffering cold and wet
are the most certain safeguards.

Haymaking. — The value of hay, as feed, need not be
underrated, in order to see the advantages of ensilage.
Haymaking requires skill,
and machinery specially
suitable. Then it suffers
from the risks of wet as
well as excessively dry
weather, neither of which
affect so much the cutting
and storing of ensilage, in
either pits or stacks.
Webster defines hay as dry
grass, cured for future use as food for animals. But it is
as well to know, that to preserve the valuaVtle qualities of
herbs or grasses, they must first be wilted in the sun, and
then dried in the shade, and in the operation there is loss
of flavour and of valuable juices. " Make hay when the
sun shines " does not mean too much sun, aa we have it at

Kake for Mar, Ensilage Stuif, kc.

244 AUSTRALIAN AQEICULTUEE.

times ; it means that the grass should be stirred and wilted
as evenly as possible after being cut. It does not mean
that it should be left bleaching in the sun and dews two or
three days after cutting, until it has lost nearly all that is
attractive for food, and has become much as flax should be
for the brake. The revolving rake seen in the illustration,
does good work in gathering up stuff either for hay or
ensilage.

Measuring Hay in the Stack. — For calculation purposes
it is usual to estimate a cwt. of hay to the cubic yard.
For instance, in an oblong stack : Suppose it to measure 20
feet X 10 feet X 15 feet, the cubic contents are 20 X 10 X
15 = 3000 cubic feet. This divided by 27, the number of
cubic feet in a yard, will give the weight in cwts., say 111
1-9 cwts., or 5 tons 11 cwts.

This feed cover is useful where open-air feeding is

followed. It is made
of weatherboards
held in position by
wire stapled to the
boards. The arrange-
ment makes an excel-
lent cover, from
which the cows can

A Handy Feed-Cover. ^^^ ^^ ^J^^ ^^^ ^^^^

•calves at the sides with the least risk of waste..

XXI.— GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

Vegetables — Fruits — Flowers.

The Home Garden. — Supplies for home use are a
first requirement, whichever branch of agriculture we
•enter. Fresh vegetables are at once the most healthful
and nourishing of food supplies, and nowhere can we
get them so sound and fresh as from the home garden,
which at once reduces the expenses of housekeeping, and
supplies the table with just what the agriculturist

CROPS FOR PEED, SILOING, ETC.

245

deserves to have, the very best vegetables, and fruits ; and
flowers to make a real home.

Extent of the Home Garden, —
For a family of eight persons, and
to have supplies for the poultry
yard and the pig, and an occasional
sweet mouthful for the cow, from
half to an acre is ample.

What an Acre Holds. — 43,560

plants, 1 foot apart; 10,890 at

2 teet ; 4,840 at 3 feet ; 537 at

9 feet ; 193 at 15 feet; 134 at 18

feet ; 108 at 20 feet.

But an Acre ? — 43,560 square feet; or 10 square

chains ; or one chain wide by 10 chains long ; 66 feet is 1

chain ; 60 feet by 726 feet make an acre ; or 220 feet by

198 feet ; 640 acres make one square mile.

Plants per Acre, — The following shows the number of
plants required per acre.

Arranging the Work,

Feet apart

No. of Plants.

' Feet apart.

No. of Plants.

Feet apart.

20
21
25
30
35

No. of Plants.

2
3
4
5

8

10,890

4,840

2,722

1,742

680

1 9
10
12
15
18

537
435
302
193
134

lOS
98
69
48
35

Rule. — Multiply the distances into each other, and with tlie product
divide 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre), and the quotient is
the number of plants.

Starting with Vegetables. — Where there is choice of
soil, then a decidedly sandy loam i.s the best for a kitchen
garden. It is easiest to work, and we cannot get vegetables
without manure. The seed-sowing time for the cabbage,
turnip, pea, and onion tribes extends tlirough February,
March, April, and May, and can be carried on still longer
where the soil has been made very rich, and an occasional
soaking with water can be aflministered. In preparing
land for vegetables, two things are essential : that it be rich
in plant food and closely fenced. The reason for the former
will be obvious — the climate we have to deal with is

246 AUUTBALIAN AOHICULTUBB.

changeable and occasionally dry. Vegetables to be first-
class — and we trust the operator aims at nothing short of
the best — must go on growing continuously. A check to
their growth from poverty, drought or disease, invariably
affects the quality. And fencing is necessary to keep off
the domestic and the wild pests that never fail to harass
an exposed garden.

Cold Weather Crops. — Cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower,
brocoli, sprouts, peas, carrots, turnips, onions, leeks, parsley,
herbs, &c., are sown from February to August, when possible
in sheltered seed beds or after rain. Richness of soil, fair
cultivation, and the use of water enable the grower to
extend the cultivation of these crops, it may be over the
entire year.

The Warm Weather Crops. — Beans, sugar, corn,
cucumbers, melons, marrows, tomatoes, capsicums, &c., are
sown from July right through the warm weather, their
success, as in the case of the other classes, depending upon
the richness of the soil.

Radishes, beets, shalots, mustard and cress, rhubarb,
celery, asparagus, are more general crops, that are worked
at any time of the year the weather and convenience will
allow.

Experience Helps. — In no department of agriculture
does the experience of the old world come more to our aid
than in the kitchen garden. The same system of shallow
covering in clean, well-raked ground applies admirably
here ; as does transplanting into rich, clean ground, frequent
hoeing, care in staking and tying up climbei*s, &c. Some
of our very best vegetable gardeners are men who were
trained in the old land. Depth of soil and drainage are
easential requisites. In this fast-growing climate plants
root deep when they have the opportunity. The quick
growers are also heavy feeders, and will stand as much
manure as can be conveniently given them.

Mulching. — Mulch covering is a decided aid to our
kitchen garden. Almost anything that is not too solid,
that is light and of a vegetable nature, answers for this
purpose. Straw, old hay, dried cow manure, leaf mould,
leaves, small branches, burat and scrub soil ; all these

CROPS FOR PEED, SILOING, ETC. 247

things and many others aid us in having fine vegetables
during the summer season and do no harm in winter.
Scatter the mulch an inch or two in depth around the
crops. It keeps in the moisture, keeps the surface from
packing, and keeps the land clean and cool. Water-
sprinkling without mulching is like labour in vain ; but the
effects of water upon mulch are decidedly beneficial.

Sowing Garden Seeds. — Whether for vegetables or
flowers, the old nile, to cover the seed with its own
thickness of soil, is still about the best
guide to an3^one in doubt as to the
depth of covering material for seeds.
Loose vegetable stuff" makes the best
covering. Onions for instance do best
if sown on the surface, or on a shallow
ridge slightly higher than the ground
level, and then to sow on the ridge, by
making a slight mark if in drills, or if in
Making the Bows Firm bcds bv sowiug ou the sui'facc, raking

for oowiuir •/ ^ ' ry

gently and regularly in and covering
with short manure stuff. Most seeds do better when
the ground is made firm by rolling or treading before
sowing. Generally sowing in drills is the most satisfac-
tory and economical, being much easier kept free from
weeds and stirred between the rows. The usual plan is to
mark out with a drill marker sevei'al at a time ; or, on a
small scale by cutting a notch in middle of the end of the
rake and stretching a line, and then pressing the rake handle
along the line. Turnips and onions only require slight
pressure, cjxrrots and parsnips a little heavier. Very neat
work can be done in this manner. Larger seeds, as peas
and beans, &c., can be sown in drills opened by a spado or
hoe. On Siindy soil, treading the seed in finnly is
trenerally l»eneficial. The distiince the drills should Vkj
apart, is a matter to be decided by the condition of the soil
as to richnesH and the height the crop will grow to, about
the same distance apart as the height of the plant is usually
rin-ht. We can have the drills well apart and the plants
closer in the row where space is valuable ; but if plenty of
room is available, it is best to err on the side of abundance

248

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTDRE.

of space both for the rows and between the plants^ that is
in all sorts of vegetables that ripen their seed, or those used
in the pod or fruit. Beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, all
that class may be sown pretty thickly together, so as to send
them to the kitchen in a young state, byjust thinning out as
required, and leaving enough in the rows for a full crop.
Whilst still very small, beets, carrots, &c., are much more
succulent and tender, and are well worth the extra trouble
in preparing for the table. Cabbage and cauliflower and
lettuce are sown in seed beds for transplanting, and may
be used from the home garden before they are too big.
French beans and peas should be pulled whilst quite
brittle and tender.

The Shade or Bush Frame. — These are the handiest and
certainly amongst most effective contrivances in Australian

a^.aJ^J>^

Bush House, with FropaKating Beds for Seeds, Sec,

practice. What we require is protection from drying
winds and heavy rains, and this we get by making up a
seed-bed in the ordinary way, such as that recommended
for tobacco, for instance. Then to furnish shade and
shelter, stakes are fitted at the comers, and a cover of
bushes, old bamboo shade stuff, calico, or sacking, is made to
fit over the bed in such a manner as allows of its being
fitted close to the soil, or say six inches above it, or it can be
fixed two or three feet above. This gives shade, and

GARDEN AND OECHABD.

249

admits unlimited air. It is a real climate improver. With
its aid we can raise vegetables, flowers, or other seedlings,
as required, and an occasional spring of lettuce, mustard
and cress, or other salad, during hot, dry weather. And
thus from four to six weeks can be gained in growing
early vegetables. Lettuce, radishes, early cabbage,
tomatoes, celery, egg-plants, mustard, &c., may be sown in
the frame by the first of Februarj^ and amply repay the
little extra trouble it will be to care for them.

The Bush House. — This is becoming and deservely so,
a special feature of the Australian garden. It may be a
very simple affair, or it can be as elaborate and fanciful as
taste and outlay allow of. The principle is the same, and
that is to get sha de, and shelter, without shutting out the
air. To effect this, any framework can be set up, of any
desired form or size. The roof should be high, to make it
convenient, say eight feet at least. Then the sides and
roof are covered with bush material, laid as evenly and
neatly as possible. The brushwood of young tee-tree
answers admirably ; laths and 2x1 hardwood are also
used ; also bamboo blind stuff, and close mesh wire netting.

All that is required
is to divert the direct
rays of the sun, and
to break the force of
heavy rain. In very
exposed places, it is
desirable to make
the si<les from which
drying winds come

Securing Bottom Heat. !IH cloSC US Conven-

ient. In a house, or shelter arranged in this way, the
growth is immense. Where water can be spared, the
place becomes delightful. It is evergreen, literally, and in
addition to the plants, ferns, &c., that <lo so well when
thus protected, seeds, can Ix- raised for the Wowor ganlen,
and where there is space, for the vegetable ganlen a.s well.
Nurserymen and gardeners are talking more a<lvant;ige of
the opportunities the bush house oifens for raiwing seed-
lings of all kinds. Some have over an acre of bush house

250

AD8TRAL1AN AGRICDLTUEE.

accommodation. It may well become a feature of eveiy
garden, whether for private or business purposes ; for,
with a little taste, and no great outlay, the bush house
may be ornamental as well as useful, and many things can
be brought to perfection which would be impossible in the
open air.

Where we have the help of a little
aitificial heat, a propagating pot and a
bell glass (asy in the illustration), plants
are raised in this way with certainty.
Prepare the propagating pot by putting
bits of charcoal to a depth of two or
three inches, as in a h. 'Jhen fine loamy
earth (c), and finally the cuttings (d).
The younger shoots, from the extre-
mities of branches, make roots most
readily. The needful bottom heat is
got by packing in a less or greatei-
quantity of fresh stable stuff. As it
decays, moist warmth is given off to
the surrounding soil.

For Baiaing Little ThingrB-

Difging Two Spades Deep-

A Propagrating Pot.

Warmth.— Temperature
between 70 and 80 degrees—
and moisture are of immense
help in carrying on propagating
work of all kinds.

Dig Deep and Plant in
Long Rows.— Let us have
the use and benefit of at
least 2ft. of soil. So much
for preparing, and let us
sow in long rows ; they
make a bi^ difference in
gardening. The cost of
working is lessened so
much that once adopted
no one is likely to again
drop the system. It has
advantages in both old

GAKDEN AND ORCHARD.

2 1

and new places. The soil of the former is sure to be

full of the seeds ^^

of weeds These C^^S^S^^iHi:) G^^^^^^^m

are kept in check
more easily and
with less labour
in long rather
than short rows.
Then on new
places, manure is
generally scarce,
so we can use it
in the rows, either
under or over the
seed, or between
the rows of plants
as the case may be

Lon; Rows ia tliu Vegetable Qarden.

Transplanting. — Fig. 1 siiows a plant nicely set out,
the roots are spread all round ; No. 2 has been puslied into

Tranaplating Cabbage, Tomatoes, Tobacco, Sec.

the ground, the roots being left up too high in.stead of
spreading downwards, us in No. 1 ; No. 8 is pluntetl too
shallow, and No. 4 is too deep. The planting trowel
shown near No. 1 is better for this work than the dibble
shown at No. 4.

Thinning Out. — Our active growing seasons force
vegetables into becoming half-starved weeds unlfps

252

AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTURB.

thinning out is attended to very closely. Take carrots,
for instance, which are grown in rows and also sown
broadcast. When thinning is neg-
lected they will be the sort of
things seen in the first sketch sent
(a), mere twisted fibrous roots. But
when thinned, so as to have two or
■^ more inciies space either in the
A rows or sown broadcast, we get
f good sized, well-grown vegetables.
As a whole, and when they are for
home use mostly, I now prefer to
grow carrots sown broadcast. When
the beds are kept clean, thinned
out, and watered during dry weather,
very heavy yields are got, and the
to carrots
Radish and

Carrots Crowded.

quality is equal
grown in rows,
parsnips may be worked in the
same way, and can be sown
together and at the same time.
The radish are so much quicker
than the parsnips, that with care
to prevent absolute over-crowding,
they can be off the ground before
the spade is required for the
parsnips. The quality of both, as
grown in this country, can be very
fine.

Little Gardeners. — And the children naturally take
great pleasure and interest in plant growth. Parents
should encourage them in this taste, and ever be ready to
give them a few hints upon the subject of plants and
flowers. A little seasonable advice, and a few pence
to purchase seeds, and by helping in the work occa-
sionally the young lives are filled with happiness.
There is not only considerable healthy interest mani-
fested, but they could not possibly be better or

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

253

Admiringr Her own Work.

more innocently employed.
A portion of the home gar-
den might be given up to
each child, and some very-
creditable results ensue.
These little gardeners take
quite a pride in pointing
out the results of their skill
to friends and relatives.
They are so fond of any-
thing grown by themselves
and watch so anxiously a
flower on the point of
blooming.

Give the Boys a Bit of Land — To work as they think
fit and to dispose of the produce on the same terms. Both
boys and girls are all the more healthy, independent, and
industrious when they earn something, and feel that they
have a perfect right to their earnings.

Market Gardening on a Big Scale. — Chinamen do
not control the market garden business in other lands.
Their skill is not of the kind which surpasses that of the
European systems of vegetable gardening. Their efforts
with fruit are very defective. The occupation of market
gardening offei-s decided inducements in Australia for skill
and capital. To keep up the immense supplies required by
London and the great cities of Britain generally, and also
Paris, New York, and elsewhere, as well as our own profit-
able market gardens, they are the work of skilful white
men, who succeed by the unstinted use of manure.s. Large
capital is employed. A case may bo cited of a garden of
85 acres. The soil is sandy. Everything on the place is
conducted in a strictly business manner ; accurate accounts
are kept, so that the exact cost of rent, labor, interest on
capitJil, manures, seeds, labor and marketing and returns
for each crop may be ascertixined. Only such kinds »is prove
most marketable are grown. Tiie yield of a year waa 5426

254

AUSTRAIIAN AQRICULTUEK.

barrels early cabbage, 3150 bushels early potatx)es, 3000 bus-
hels onions, 4650 bushels late potatoes, 12,000 bushels carrots,
3000 bushels onions grown for seed, 20 bushels white
beans, 175 barrels squash, 3 tons Hungarian hay, 100
bushels onion sets, 150 bushels Brussels sprouts, 401b.
CArrot seed, 1501b. beet seed, 1500 bushels sweet corn, and
275,000 cabbage plants to carry over. The horses and
other live stock, poultry, &e., get a large proportion of their
living from the farm. The land is allowed no rest, a
rotation of cropping is kept up ; the land is cropped twice
a year ; for some crops three times.

Land for Fruit Culture. — If it is for home use

The Tree We Aim at Making,

only, then the nearer the garden is to the house the better ;
when suiTounding the house it is all the better. But if we

GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 255

require a larger area, and there is a choice, then the best
soil for the majority of fruits is a good stifFer loam,
such as would yield good consecutive crops of grain. A
lighter soil, while working more freely, does not give such
stamina to the trees as to ensure long life, nor is the fruit
so long keeping. These remarks are especially true of
the apple tribe, and apply to fruits generally. Under-
drainage is an absolute necessity ; where it does not exist
naturally (which is rarely the case) it must be provided by
tiie careful, forecasting orchardist, as described in the
chapter on draining. The exposure of land intended for
fruit is worthy of consideration, experience pointing to the
eastern and noith-eastern slopes as being especially
favorable. Accessibility to market speaks for itself, and
needs no comment. The cultivator who resolves to either
wholly or in part prosecute fruit-growing as a business will
spare no trouble in order to obtain a suitable piece of land
for his orchard ; fertile soil, not too steep, good exposure,
sufficient under-drainage, and an accessible market, are
absolutely necessary in order to ensure success. Skilful
manuring tells etfectively in the orchard.

Fruits Available. — The experimenting stage has long
been worked out in Au.stralia. In the elevated districts,
immediately west of the great Dividing Ranges, the apple,
pear, plum, peach, nectarine, cherry, apricot, grape vines,
itc, the fruits of the temperate zone are thoroughly at home.
In the coastal districts, the oi-ange, lemon, lime, date plum,
loquat, mango, olive, banana, &c., find a congenial climate,
and flourish abundantly; while in both sections of the
country the grape thrives well, but does best where the
rainfall is between twenty and thirty inches. Some of the
plums, Japan plums, apphjs, pears, &c., thrive also on the
coastal lands, as do pejiches of the Chinese races; and the
orange succeeds in favourable situations further inland, as
well almost as in the coast country.

Experiences With Varieties of Fruits. — Every district
in the country has its experiences of varieties that do well,
and of others, found excellent in .some parts, which prove
unsuitable in othei-s. Suggestions from neighboui-s, from
the catalogues of nur.serymen, and from the experiences of

256 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTDEE.

those who have knowledge of the country generally, are of
much usefulness. The foregoing applies to fruit trees
especially, and the merits and defects of each family of
which, for marketing in the fresh state or for preserving,
are generally wdll known.

Seedling Trees. — ."^eeds sown in boxes are more easily
seen to, and can b.^ watered and shaded more effectively,
and then when a suitable day can be chosen for transplanting,
few losses need occur. Seeds of trees that make a tap root
that is not wanted are very often best sown in seed boxes,
and then transplanted in nursery rows when fit. The
question of leaving the tap root on trees depends a good
deal on the soil and how they are worked. Trees the roots of
which feed near the surface, such as oranges, may be better
without the tap, but trees of the citrus family on deep,
well-drained soil, with the tap root are longer lived and make
more upright growth. Where unhealthy and wet subsoil
underlies the ground where trees are growing, the taproot
may get down into such soil, and when wet spells occur,
suffer badly, and the trees look unhealthy and die off but
too frequently. Where the under-drainage is good and the
subsoil porous and healthy, a taproot should be an
advantage to a tree, especially in the dry seasons. Oranges,
and lemons, last longer and give better results, provided
the drainage is right, when the seed is planted where the
tree is to be grown. Indeed, in suitable soil, deep and well
drained, experience says that many trees would do much
better if sown where they are to remain, either to bear fruit
or to be grafted or budded. They would take longer to bear,
but live longer ; still, we must be guided by circumstances to
make the best use of the soil and the position we work in.

Measuring Off for Trees. — The implements required
for laying out land for orchard trees area surveyor chain —
or a length of fencing wire about 7| chains long with an
iron ring at each end does very well ; half a dozen hard-
wood stakes well pointed ; a batten of the length the trees
are to be apart, with a notch for the side distances when
used for triangle planting ; and a few hundred pegs about
six inches long. We will presume that the land is not fenced
all round, and that it will be necessary to mark and peg

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

257

out correct top and side lines. To commence opera-
tions, drive one of the stakes firmly into the ground at one
of the projected corners. Now place one of the rings of the
wire over the stake and stretch it along the line of the
proposed boundary, and drive in short stakes till the line is
marked off straight. Another corner is then marked
The next line is to be at right angles. To find a right
angle, mark off exactly 60 feet along the first line, and put
in a temporary peg, and from tlie corner stake stretch a
line as nearly at a right angle as you can guess, and put
in another temporary peg, at 80 feet. When the two pegs
are proved to be 1 00 feet apart the angle is a right angle.
When there is any difference the second line and peg must
In; shifted inwards or outward until the required 100ft. is
attained. Having found the right angle, stretch the chain
down the proved line to the end, and put in a stake, this being
tlie third corner. Now find the other right angle, proceeding
c'Kactly the same as before, and a stake will stand in each
of the four comers, with the sides and ends for guidance.
We can then measure off the top and side lines for triangular
or square planting, as may be desired. Putting in a peg

where each tree is to
stand.

Selecting the 'i'rees. —
Maiden plants, that is
plants that have made
one year's growth from
the buds oi" graft, are
best for planting in this
country. Older and
larger ti'ees carry more
risks. They do not
transplant so well, and
may lead to gumming
and other annoyances
of the orchardist. The
roots should be kept
moi.st. A dip in liijuid
soak, made up with cow
manure is helpful foi* tliat pui*po8e.

258

AD8TBALIAN AQBICDLTUEE.

Putting in the Trees. — They are to be put in exactly
where the pegs are placed, the accompanying sketch shows
an ingenious contrivance for ensuring this. The "planting
board" (a) is a piece of deal about 6 feet long, with a
liole near each end ; a notch is cut in the middle.
To use this planter, place the middle notch against the first
peg, and then place a peg into each of the end holes as
in (a). The centre peg may then be lifted, and the
board moved round on one of the end pegs as seen
at (6). The hole is then dug between the pair of
pegs, and large enough to spread out the roots nicely.
When planting the tree, the board is again fitted
on to the two pegs, the tree is rested in the notch in the
board and it is then where the planting peg"] was placed.
When necessary, stakes are driven in after the holes are dug,
but, as a rule, trees are more hardy and vigorous when they
grow without the aid of stakes.

Watering Newly-Planted Trees. — In very dry
weather, it may be necessary, where possible, to damp the
soil in order to get it to lie close to the roots, but care has
to be used here also, for until the roots start into growth,
water may do more harm than good, by inducing fungus
growths to fix themselves upon the newly planted wood.

Tree Planting. — This work calls for all the care and
skill we can devote to' it. Distance apart, method in
planting, and preparation of the land all
have their effect. Two well-defined
methods of arranging trees for orchard-
ing are followed — planting in squares or
in triangle. The triangle system offiers
many advantages, as set off against the
somewhat greater diflSculty of laying out
land for this kind of planting. Amongst
the advantages are the greater number
of trees per acre, and the increased
facilities for working the land with hoi*se
labour, the land between the rows of
trees being workable in three or four directions. The
system also allows of planting on irregularly-shaped pieces
of laud, such as that shown in the third illustration. In

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

259

arranging land for triangular planting, say the trees arc to
be 20ft. apart, the spaces in the first row (A to F), the 3rd,
5th, 7th, and so on, will be 20ft. apart. The 2nd (B to C),
4th, and other rows, where the trees come between two
trees in the 1st and 3rd, will, by measurement on the side
lines, be 17ft. 4in, The triangular slope (as between A and
B) makes up tiie difference, so that when the trees are
planted they will be 20ft. apart from each other, in which-

ever way they may be measured. The side-line measure-
nients, for various distances apart, from 10 to 20ft. are :

Top lim
20ft.
l«ft.
lOft.
14ft.
12ft.
10ft.

Side line.
17ft. 4in.
15ft. Tin.
13ft. lOiin.
12ft. lin.
10ft. 4Jin.
8ft. 8in.

260

AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTUBB.

To plant in squares, the land is measured off in equal
distances, top, bottom, and sides, pegs inserted, and trees
planted as in the square method.

4' i

! <

1 i

i i
1 ^

f t ^ ^

{> i

1 1

I 4

t ^ i

> i

> 4

-, i\

i> i

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4

, i

' 4

. \ .

t 11

4- i

i i

^ i

k ^

' ^

' t 1

n

i< 4

f \

' i

L_J' ^

o

i^ 4

'< 1

i

^ 1

I i

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I ii

a i

f ^

i <i

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'■> i

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i^ ^

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f *

i 1

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► «- i

^ ^^

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1

^-

1

Plantad in Squares.

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

261

The number of trees

at

different distances in

and triangular planting are :-

—

In squares.

In triangle.

20ft., 108 per acre

—

125 per acre.

18ft., 134

—

154

16ft., 170

—

195

14ft., 222

—

255

12ft., 302

—

347

10ft., 435

—

500

square

Pruning the Newly -plan ted Trees. — Ihe end bud where
the cut is made may be about 30 inches from the ground,
which answers for most orchard trees in order to secure
strong, healthy side growth from the buds along the trunk.

Large or Smaller Orchard Trees? — This is a very
important question at the season when we are arranging

either to plant
new trees, or to
regulate those we
have, by pruning.
The old idea was
to have trees as
large as possible ;
the tendency now
is to keep down
the size. Both
m e t li o d s are
within control by
closer plantingand
regulating the
pruning, until we
work on to a
system in which
trees that can
be pruned from the ground without laddera, and the
fruit gathered under similar conditions. The type of
trees we aim at making is shown at tlif lM>ginning of this
chapter. It does not pay to climlj high hid<h?!rs to prune,
regulate, or gather fruit in orchard work.

Doesn't P»7 to Work Trees Like Thin.

262

AUSTRALIAN AOKICULTQt.E.

Cultivation and Manurin<ij in Fruit Growing. — Tlie
requirements for quality of soil, drainint^ to make sure oT
depth, and manuring are dealt with in preceding chapters.
Cultivation, that is the maintenance of a loose, clejin
surface, is as necessary here as in the held or vegctal)h;
garden. The selection and application of manure re (iuir( s
very close attention in order to supply what the difiercnt
fruits require in the form of vegetable matter, ammonia,
potash, phosphates, lime, and the other ingredients.

Pruning Reminders. — Taking oranges and lemons first
— they may be thinned out at any time and the points of
too vigorous growth pinched, but the stems and lower

branches must not be exposed
to the sun. When one branch
commences to run away or
grow faster than the others, it
has acquired rank or sucker
habits, and should be pinched
or cut to check such growths.
If any branch or shoot starts to
crowd to grow under another,
rub it out. Apple and pear
trees require shortening and
bending of the branches to de-

when

The out in Fig. 1 is too far from the vclope frUlt SpUrS, but
bud. No. 2 is too close to the bud. No. 3 ii i • ■ i

they begm to bear require
Cherries

is the right distance from the bud

very little pruning,
much the same. One-third to one-half of the latest growth
should be pruned off peach and nectarine trees, and they
are the better for it. When the growth is thin and weakly,
cut back the top growth of plums, but do not prune off short
spurs on plums or apricots. It is on them we get the
fruit. Riispberries, blackberries, currants, and gooseberries
need a great deal of prunning out and thinning. The canes
of raspberries which bore last season should be cut out and
fresh canes bent over for bearing. Grape vines should be
pruned according to age and variety ; but generally three
buds may be left on the young bearing wood or spurs of
old trellised vines. Weak shoots and those on the lower
sides of bearing wood should be rubbe<l out. The number of

GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 263

branches to a bush or stake vine may be three to five
and each of these, as the vine grows older, may support two
spurs, of one season's growth, with two or three buds eacli,
from which the fruit is obtained.

Pruning for Foran. — There is every inducement for
the exercise of skill at this work. Pruning commences
with the planting. All branches should spring from buds
that form at the same time as the roots that grow after

Prnning for Form.

planting out. This means close cutting back. Then we
train the trees to l)e broad at the liase or at the top. The
former is preferable for orchard purposes. The general
tendency is to keep fruit trees under J 2 feet in height.

Pruning for Fruit — Leaf and Fruit Bu<ls. — Young
fruitgrowers are often at a loss to distinguish l>ctwoen these
two kinds of buds. A young tree, for instance, to which
it is desired t<i impart more vigour is checked by cutting
away leaf-slioots and leaving fruit spura. Fruit buds of
apples, pears, cherries, &c., are generally distinguished by
their rounded and obtuse form ; while leaf buds are
more slender and sharper. Many fruit spui-s are leally
stunted shoots, originally produced from leaf buds, but
which, making Vmt little growth, become fruit-bearers.
In the pear, and some other trees, they are never less
than two years old, and they often continue to l)ear f<ir many

264

AUSTRALIAN AOBICnLTUBE.

years. Whatever tends to a free circulation of the
sap, and consequently to a rapid growth,
causes the formation of leaf buds
nither than fruit buds. And what-
ever tends to retard the motion and in-
crease the accumulation of sap in any part
(roots or branches) induces the produc-
tion of fruit buds. The vigorous one-
year shoot of the cherry is mostly sup-
plied with leaf buds ; but the short spurs
on the second year's wood, which are but
shortened branches, may be covered with
fruit buds, with usually a leaf bud in
the centre. 'J'his also explains the chief
reason wliy young and vigorous trees of
the apple kind, the wood and bark of
which are comparatively soft and
yielding, and through the large and
unobstructed vessels of which the sap
flows without restraint, do not bear so
freely as the older and more rigid wood,
in which the circulation is slower. A
young tree growing in very vigorous
condition may not produce fruit buds
for many years ; while, if checked by
skilful pruning, it bears at the right age. The varieties of
fruit available for planting are very numerous — perhaps
too numerous.

Budding and Grafting. — Both operations are followed
with the same object in view
— to secure desirable sorts of
fruits, flower or foliage plants,
upon roots suitable for their
most vigorous growth. Graft-
ing is done in the early spring
season, from July onwards,
according to the variety of
plant and the location. Bud-
ding, or grating with a single
bud, is an autumn operation,

Pruning for Fruit.

How the Bud la Taken Off.

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

265

by which a single bud is worked upon a desirable stock,
usually a seedling.

Peaches and roses are amongst the first plants
amongst us ready for budding. The operation as worked
out here is much the same as budding in other countries,
with, of course, the difference of the seasons, and that here

less care is supposed to be
necessary in preparing the buds
and in attention to the details
of tying upon the stock and
after treatment. All the same,
it will be found that the more
carefully the work is done, the
moi*e success follows the opera-
tions of budding. The buds
used should be taken from the
bearing wood of fertile trees —
that is, trees that have flowered
and fruited. Trees younger
than three years are not suffi-
ciently matured for propagating
purposes. The young bearing wood, the growth of one
season, contains the buds suitable for propagating. The
wood should be fully ripe and well matured ; the buds
plump and firm. The illustrations accompanying this
article show how the work is done. With care in selecting
the right materials for working and practice, the rest
comes easy for effective budding. Practice and attention
to details are the chief points.

The Stocks. — Healthy plants grown from seed are best
for fruit trees, and rooted cuttings in the case of roses.
About half an inch in thickness is a good size for a stock
to bud on.

Cutting Off, Inserting and Tying the Bud. — The
illustrations show clearly how this work is done. The bud
is cut off from the chosen wood, about half an inch of bark
being left above and below the bud. When taken off, a
small portion of wood may bo found attached to the bud.
It is best to remove this. To make the opening on the stock,
make a cut across, then another downwards — the first

Cutting a Bad. for Insertion,

266 AUSTRALIAN AOKICULTUBB.

being about an inch across the downwards cut about three

The Cross Cat.

Cnt Downwards.

Opei)iD^ Cuts for Bud.

inches in length. Then open the cuts thus made by folding
them over slightly, as shown in the engraving. This work
has to be done quickly, to avoid the sap of the bud, or the
sap of the stock, or both, from drying. The bud (which is
usually in the lips of the operator while he is making the
cuts) is then inserted. In order to make an effective
junction between the sap flow in the stock
and the sap of the bud, which we desire to
unite, the upper part of the bark is cut
across, and the bud is then pressed up-
wards, so as to join the parts. The parts
are then tied, thin strips of calico being in
general use for the purpose. Worsted
thread is also used, and answers well for
small plants, also " raffia," a fibrous material.
Yeneer budding and ring budding, the
latter for soft bark plants as a rule, are
also practised ; and some operators prefer
to insert the bud from below the X cut, in
But in all cases, the leaf growth on the

-ted.

GARDEN AND OBCHABD.

267

stock above where the bud is inserted is left on until the
bud starts into active growth, so that it may be
supplied with sap material. Orange and peach
buds, and some roses, may start growing at
once, and the growth on the stock above them
may then be cut off before the season closes ;
others are slower, as apples and pears, and
may remain dormant till spring.

Budding is found most suitable for fruit
trees generally, and for roses, in this country,
and is gradually taking the place of grafting
for orchard purposes. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^

The Principles of
Budding and Grafting.
— Grafting, like bud-
ding, is that operation
in gardening which
unites a plant — or a
portion of a plant
taken from a tested
variety, fixing it upon
a plant of same order
which has roots, and
which will support and
furnish the graft with
a part of the nutri-
ment necessary for
growth. The grnft
then supplies that por-
tion of plant food got
from the air. As the
poet says : —

"Which does mend nature,
or change it rather ;
Tongue or Splice Qrafta. But the art itself is nature."

The plant that receives the graft then is usually furnished
with roots. It has to draw its nutriment from the soil and
transmit it to the part grafted. It is called the stock. In
some cases, as grape vines, apples, and a few others, the

268

AUSTRALIAN AQRICDLTURE.

stock is a simple cutting — or bit of root ; but it is planted
in such a manner as to be soon furnished with roots.
That portion of the other plant which is to be grafted on
to the stock should have at least one eye or bud,
it is, however, better to have two or three buds
if possible. It is called the graft, or scion, and it is
analagons to a cutting put to root in soil. The scion
continues its growth through the stock ; but notwith-
standing the intimate union of the stock and the graft,
they really preserve their individual characters and
constitutions distinctively, their layers of bark and wood
continue to be developed without the wood vessels or
fibres converging with each other ; it is, as it were, a
federative union which leaves to both their own character-
istics. The objects of grafting are to change the

character of a plant by modify-
ing the wood, the foliage, or the
fruit which it is required to
produce ; to excite the develop-
ment of branches, flowers, or
fruit on the parts of a plant
where they are deficient ; and
to restore a defective or exhaus-
ted tree by transfusion of the
fresh sap of a vigorous kind.
Thus a variety naturally delicate
Boot Graft-Apple. bocomes robust when " worked"

on a more robust stock, and the consequence is a
more abundant production of flowers and fruit.
Thus it is that fine and delicate kinds of grapes
that do not thrive on their own roots are
made to produce large and fine bunches when
grafted on some vigorous stock such as the
Isabella, Syrian, or Gross Colman. The
peculiar qualities of some plants can only be
preserved by "working." This is especially
the case with variegated or striped roses.
These retain their gay markings when budded
or grafted ; but become plain when grown on
their own roots. So in grafting a great insertion.

GARDEN AND OBCHABD. 269

deal of the success depends on the skill of the
operator. The other essential conditions are affinity
between the species. We cannot be too careful in seeing
that the two portions are of such character to be
thoroughly suitable for the union we desire to perfect.
Vigour of the stock and graft, the condition of their
sap, their intimate union, the season, and the temperature
are other essential conditions for success in this
operation.

Grafting Clay and Wax. — Clay for grafting is
prepared by mixing one-third cow droppings, free from
straw, and two-thirds clay or clayey-loam, where possible
adding a little hair, like that used in plaster, to prevent its
cracking. Beat and temper it for two or three days until it
is thoroughly incorporated. When used, the clay should be
of such consistency as to be easily put on and shaped as may
be desired. Grafting wax of excellent quality is made by
melting together three parts of beeswax, three parts of
rosin, and two parts tallow. While yet warm, it may be
worked with the aid of a little water like shoemaker's
wax, by the hand. Wax to be laid on with a brush in a
fluid state is made of half a pound of pitch, half a pound of
beeswax, and a portion of cow droppings, boiled together.
Another mixture, which is spread while warm on strips of
coarse cotton or strong paper, and wrapped directly about
the graft, answering at once to tie and protect it, is
composed of equal parts of beeswax, turpentine, and
rosin. And another grafting wax and suitable for laying
on strips of calico or paper is made of tallow, beeswax
and rosin in equal parts, or as many prefer, with a little
more tallow to render it pliable. Grafting wax is a much
neater and perfect protection than grafting clay, but the
trifling cost of the latter, where a great deal of work is
to be done, accounts for its greater use by nurserytnen and
gardeners generally. The purpose of both is similar. It
is to prevent drying of the parts we have joined, and to
aid in keeping them in position, and the more carefully
these points are attended to, the more are we likely to be
successful in perfecting the work we are at.

270

AUSTRALIAN AQRICULTDEE.

A Handy Fruit Gratherer. — This is a useful
contrivance for bringing down oranges and other
fruits from trees where they are difficult
to reach by means of a ladder. It is
made of iron wire bent as shown, and
fastened to a bent piece, which in turn
is fastened to a pole of any desired
length. A clip piece of wire or wood
projects from the top, and with it the
fruit is disengaged from its stem, and
drops into the gatherer.

Cutting V. Pulling Fruit. — Where
possible, fruit should be cut from the
tree. It keeps better. Very handy
cutters for the purpose are being
introduced, and do excellent work.
Neatness in Marketing. — It pays to size or grade
fruits, to wrap lemons, apples, &c., paper, and to use the

Put up Prnit Nicely.

neatest cases and packages available. A half-case of
strawberries, cherries or other fruits, put up in packets,
made of thin wood chip is very attractive to buyers of these
fine fruits. The illustrations show cases arranged for
carrying plums, apricots, peaches, &c., neatly edged in
with blue or other colored paper, or for apples, pears, or
other marketable commodity.

Grapes and Wine. — This is a special branch of
Australian agriculture. The grape in some of its varieties

GARDEN AND OECHABD. 271

grows in all parts of Australia, even in the colder districts
where frost holds the land in its firm embrace during
several months of each year ; and in the drier interior,
where the rainfall is uncertain, and too limited for the
production of other fruit, if we except the fig and
the almond, which both delight in dry country, when they
get an occasional soaking. The grape, some of its many
varieties at any rate, does better than other fruits in dry
country, without the soaking. It is a deep-rooting plant in
every case, and is at its best when the roots have oppor-
tunity to get away down into the fissures of rocks or
amongst boulders where they gather in the mineral food
of plants — from which the richest flavoring of the grape is
evolved. That is the character and the habits of the grape-
vine in other lands, and the family show much the same
charac teristics here. All of them require five months of
real hot weather to develop their fruit to its rich maturity,
and three or four months of milder spring or autumn.
Where freezing frosts occur, vines require winter shelter.
It is under such conditions that the great vine at Hampton
Court grows so vigorously.

Soil for Grapes. — Possibly the greatest mistakes have
arisen from planting in soil that is too poor in plant food.
Volcanic and carboniferous country answers best. Not
one of the family like rich, rank, or flat land ; but all
require lime, potash, and the material for making
flavourings.

Varieties. — Next to soil and climate, come the sorts of
grapes suitable for differeut locations. Immense expe-
rience has been gained on this point. In almost every part
of the country sorts have been proven, which answer better
than any others, so far as known. Thus, in the districts
where the rainfall averages between 15 and 25 inches, the
finer flavoured grapes, the muscatels and muscats, do
excellently well. In coastal and warmer country the
more robust growers find what they require. In the
tropical parts, American sorts of the Isabella type, come
to absolute maturity. In some locations the acid secretions,
so prominent in this family of grapes in less favourable
quarters, are checked at the sugar stage, and the fruit

272

AUSTRALIAN AQEICULTDEE.

ripens sweet and extraordinarily rich in spirit matter. That
is, wlien they have room and are cultivated. All grapes
starve when crowded ; 6 x 6 is close enough for the more
feeble sorts, 8 x 8 is a standard distance for wine grapes,
and some ai*e grown 20 or more feet apart, and yield heavier
crops than if three were grown in that space. They are
grand rooters, and find their own way downwards where
there is the material of life, and the natural drainage is
good enough ; so that deep preparation of soil is not so
necessary for this fruit. Cuttings of matured wood are
used for plants ; they are put in where they are to grow,
the soil being opened by plough, spade, bar, or fork.

Grafting Grape Vines. — A good deal of this kind of
work, in order to secure blight proof roots, and also for

renewing old stocks, and
displacing sorts that are not
so good for wine making, is
going on. The scion, for
insertion, is cut wedge shape,
as is the stock when a blight
proof cutting is used for
rooting purposes. AVhen old
vines are worked over, the
stock is cut off about three
inches under the ground, as
shown, and then opened by
the grafting tool, or a knife or chisel answer the purpose.
The scions — two generally in
each stock — are inserted in the
cut, and tied in position. The
soil is then heaped firmly round
the graft. With these condi-
tions failures seldom occur.

Spring Treatment of Vines. — The sketch below illus-
trates a first step in the way of regulating growth, as the

Splice Graft.

Qrafbing Old Vines.

Oraftiog Tool for Vinea.

GABDKN AND ORCHARD.

273

vines break into leaf for the season. The plant shown has
been pruned effectively. The new wood on each arm from
b, and the short spurs on the upper side all along both
arms, being the wood of last season's growth, from which
the coming crop is expected. To aid the development of
«trong buds on the upper side, those that break on the
iower side (a, a) of the bearing wood have to be rubbed
out as they appear. This rubbing out of buds does not
check the vigour of the vines, but it directs the sap to the
tipper buds, where it is required to give them strength for
bearing.

Flowers and Shrubs. — There is no limit to the
beauties available for adorning the Australian home, and

making home life attrac-
tive. In all seasons of
the year we can have
flowers, from some of
the myriads of annuals,
shrubs, or flowering
trees that grow so well.
Roses, bulbs, climbers,
creepers, and the many
varieties of ferns avail-
able, all come into the
possibilities oi flower
gardening in Australia
for adding to the home
attractions and for decoration, (See calendar of seasonable
work for directions).

The Soil Necessary. — The directions given for soil
selection and treatment for farming and gardening apply
equally here, as does cultivation. The same means for
improving a bad or poor bit of land may be employed for
deepening the flower patch, draining, manuring, &c.

Flowers in a Business Sense. — The skilful application
of opportunity amongst flowers may be as effective here as
in other lands. Plants in pots, cut flowers, new or
improved specimens got by selection, hybridising, and
other processes of gardening, are as enticing here as in
Europe and America. The Isle of Wight is famous for

274 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTaBE.

seedling raising. The numbers of ladies engaged there in
raising plants, flowers, bulbs, and fruits, are immense ; and
Loildon and other seedsmen pay good prices to known-
people for good things. New and improved bulbs, cosmos,
and many other novelties are got from them. The chrysan-^
themum has been treated ever since it was introduced into
this country as a hardy herbacious perennial, bat it may
be raised from seed yearly and be treated as an annual
with the greatest facility and success ; and, doubtless,,
lovers of this autumnal favourite may be induced to give
attention to the raising of seedlings, inasmuch as this
practice, apart from the prospect of obtaining something
new and distinct, is accompanied by immense interest and
pleasure from the time the seed is sown to the production
of the flowers. In raising seedlings, it is good practice, as
soon as the young plants have grown sufficiently, to take
off cuttings and root them. It affords better and quicker
opportunity for testing the merits of any seedlings of
promise.

Seed Sowing and Propagating. — The rules and
practices laid down in the chapters on vegetable gardening,
tobacco culture, and other branches, are suitable for flower
growing.

Bush and Glass Houses. — The former is helpful in
every branch of gardening in Australia — for seed raising,
propagating, and shelter for plants that suffer in the open
ground.

Summer-flowering Plants. — Annuals, of the many
varieties available, may be sown in spring to be ready for
planting out as required for flowering. Plant out cuttings
of penstemons, phloxes, fuchsias, &c., that may have been
struck earlier in the season. Cuttings of chrysanthemums
may be put in to make strong plants for flowering next
season. Amongst other shrubs and plants available are :
— Acacias, yellow, from 2ft. to 30ft. high ; ageratura, blue,
1ft. ; agonis (billotia) marginata, white, 5ft. ; aloes, orange,
red, &c., 2ft. to 6ft. ; alyssum, various, rock plants f
amaranthus (late, annuals) ; antirrhinums, all colours, 18
inches ; armeria formosa (sea-pink or thrift), 18 inches >
banksias ; bouvardias, several colours; brugmansias;

GARDEN AND ORCHAED. 275

bndleas, varieties; calendula, marigolds, yellow, white,
double, &c. ; callas (so-called pitcher lily) ; canarina cam-
panula, orange, 3ft. ; cassia, yellow, 5ft. ; chrysanthemums ;
clematis ; coreopsis (annual), yellow, 2ft. ; daphne odora,
red, white, 3ft. ; dianthus, various, 1ft. ; euphorbias, red,
scarlet, 1ft. to 3ft. ; fuchsias, 1ft. to 6ft. ; gaillardias.
reddish, yellow, 2ft. ; grevilles, brown, greenish-yellow,
6ft. to 40ft. ; pampas grass ; hibiscus ; heliotrope, blue,
18 inches ; ipomoeas, climbers, blue, red and white ;
jasmines, white, yellow ; lasiandria, purple, 7ft. ; honey-
suckles, scarlet, JOft. ; mesembryanthemums, red, yellow,
orange, &c., 1ft. ; oleander, pink, red, yellow, white, 10ft. ;
passion flowers; pelargoniums, various; penstetnons, various;
petunias ; phlox drummondii, colours, 18 inches ; plumbago
capensis, blue, 2ft. ; roses ; salvias, scarlet, red, blue, 2ft.
to 3ft.; tecomas, yellow, 6ft. to 10ft; tritonia, yellow,
orange, 1ft,; veronicas, blue, red; violets; pansies; and
hosts of others, described in the nurserymen's catalogues.

Bulbs. — Some of the many varieties can be in flower
all the year, as described in the chapter on seasonable
work. The requirements for bulbs are loose, rather sandy
soil, made rich where the roots are to form.

Specialities in Roses. — The nuraberof kinds catalogued
is unlimited. The great desideratum is, of course, to secure
those which are of vigorous growth, good, healthy, and
pleasing foliage, good-shaped flowers, and free-blooming
disposition. Those qualities are found largely among the
tea-scented and Noisette kinds, the following amongst them :
Marechal Neil, golden yellow ; Reine Marie Henriette,
deep pink ; Madame Mathilde Lenaerts, deep rose ;
Francisca Kruger, coppery yellow ; Madame Lambard,
salmon pink ; Niphetos, pure white ; Rubens, rosy white ;
Safrano, buff ; Souvenir d'un Ami, rosy pink ; The Bride,
pure white ; Jean Ducher, salmon yellow ; Homer, rosy
pink, very free ; Catherine Mertnet, rose; Alphouso Karr,
Dright crimson ; Dovoniensis, pale yellow ; Lore Tarquin,
rosy pink ; Madame de Watteville, rosy white ; The Queen,
white ; the Meteor, dark crimson ; Madame C. Kuster,
pale yellow. For climbing or pillar roses : William Allen
Richardson, orange yellow ; Lamarque, sulphur yellow.

276

AUSTRALIAN AGRICDLTURE.

A Simple Prettj Trellis.

These and many others are reliable for garden decoration
and for cut flowers.

Climbers. — They will, as a rule, require deep,
moderately good soil, and sufficient trellis, frame, wall,
stake, or other support. That shown in the illustration

may be brought into use
for many purposes. It is
simply a row of posts, say
10 feet apart, the end
posts being stayed firmly.
Over the top a stout wire
is fastened, and two other
stout wires are stretched
along the ground from
two to three feet from the
posts as shown. Strings
or wires are then ar-
ranged between the ground and the wire on top, and to
these latter the plants are trained. Concerning varieties,
the seedsmen catalogues offer much information.

Saving Seed. — To secure strong, full-grown vigorous
seeds too many should not be allowed to mature on any
plant, and then every flower can be saved for seed bearing.
To leave a few pods along the bottom of the stem for maturing
seed after picking off the best flowers is bad practice.
When several pods are left to ripen, the strength of the
plant is absorbed by them, and the growth is consequently
checked. This is as correct of flower seeds as vegetables,
beans, peas, &c.

Plants from Cuttings, — One of the most satisfactory
methods of propagation. We can depend upon plants
from cuttings being identical with the parent plants from
which they were taken, whether they are for foliage, flower,
or fruit bearing. A cutting from young wood is the most
likely to grow. It should have from four to six buds.
Sandy soils answer best for this kind of propagating, and
shade and shelter from drying winds with moderate
watering help them to root. Roots are also got by
suspending the cuttings in water in bottles. It is an old-
fashioned method, but as effective as ever. The process

GARDEN AND ORCHARD.

277

of root forming

own

-'-2

^1

in the second illustration.
The sap travelling down-
wards, as it does, gathers
at the bottom, where a
"callus" forms. From this
the first root germs are sent
out, and when they get into
open free soil, with suflB-
cient nourishment, roots are
formed as shown in the
third illustration. Some
plants make second and
third tiers of roots, which
spring from the buds
higher up and it may be

The Catting. How Roots Form. UCCeSSary to Cut them off.

Propagating by Layers. — Many kinds of trees and
shrubs can be increased by layers in a temperature
equivalent to that of which they
are natives. Springtime — July
to September — is a good time of
the year for this kind of propa-
gation. A layer is a branch
bent into the earth, and three
parts of the layered wood are
cut through at the bend by a
long sloping cut ; it is, in fact,
a cutting only partially separ-
ated from its parent. The layer will emit roots into the
soil at the cut or tongue. The sap forms cellular tissue on
the tongue at the cut part, which ultimately throws out
roots. When rooted, the new plant may be severed from
the parent and set out where required. Should the cut
show a tendency to close, it may be kept open by inserting
a grain of wheat or maize, a piece of gravel or charcoal ;
when the soil is heavy or stiff, the cut part should be
covered with light sandy soil. Oranges, lemons, figs and
other fruits can be successfully propagated by layers.

Plants from the Leaf. — Gloxinias, foliage begonias,
some of the gesneras, and other plants can be propagated

"^

878

AUSTRALIAN AGEICDLTDBE.

from their leaves. The gloxinia leaf makes buds freely,
which develop flowers next season. It is from the ribs of

Leaf Throwing oat Boots.

the leaf taken from the plant when in the full vigor of
growth that roots develop. If several plants are required
from one leaf, the mid rib on the under surface of the
leaf should be notched in several places. This under
surface is then placed on the soil, the mid-rib slightly
pressed in and pegged down to keep it firm without any
soil over it. At each fracture of the rib a little callus
develops and quickly throws out roots.

Leaves and Buds. — Leaves of the rose, camelia, the
orange family, and others strike when treated as for leaf
growth in moisture and warmth, but although they make
roots under such favourable conditions they do not seem to
have the power to form buds. Few plants can form another
of its species without first organising a bud — the necessary
step in the process of multiplication. Buds spring exclu-
sively from the soft pulpy or cellular matter that constitutes
the flesh of plants, and not from their solid woody parts.
This cellular matter is formed by nature out of organisable
fluids largely formed in the leaves, hence it follows that
leaves are really the great agencies of propogation in any
case, whether cuttings, layers, or other methods of
multiplication are followed.

GARDEN AND OECHAED.

279

How We Improved the Place. — It was rather nice
when we got it ; that is, there were nice trees and shrubs
about it, but not so healthy as could be, and the arrange-
ment in planting was too formal — looked too stiff j not

enough homelike.

O 1» @ \ I i _

0066 0 — 6"?' ' r-TO ' i

o e o e

:^.o

^.-^-©-"-#--©-©•-^-#-4

The Arrangement as We Got It.

So we went to
work upon it, and
with such will
that there was all
the enjoyment ex-
perienced which
can be got out of
work which im-
proves and adorns
the home. The
first improvement
was made by
draining the land. There are about two acres in all, and
upon this three tons of quicklime wore spread. It was
thought by some who were observing the operations that
the lime would kill every plant it touched. But not it !
What a change that liming and draining has made on the
place ! Truly enough, lime is food for plants. During
May, June, July,

we commenced
changing the po-
sition of the trees
and shrubs, and
adding others.
We commenced
early, you will
see, which is a
good plan where
you can, before

the season is ThePlaceNow.

over, and prune back closely. All of which we did ; aud
how the plants have flourished ! After an absence of a
year, I scarcely knew the place — it is a veritable Australian
home I

Packing Cut Flowers. — In the first place, gather the

280 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

flowers either very early in the morning, or the last thing
at night. Then put them away in water till wanted, in
order that they may absorb all the moisture to keep them
fresh through their travels. Wooden boxes are more
suitable than those of cardboard for packing flowers. They
may cost a trifle more, but the extra outlay will be well
worth the better condition in which the flowers are
preserved. When possible place at the bottom of the box a
sheet of dry, not damp, cotton wool, and over this lay a
sheet of soft tissue paper, on which to arrange the flowers in
rows, taking care that the head of each rests immediately
over the stem of the preceding one. Avoid the mistake of
overcrowding. The box ought to be about ten inches iu
depth, and should not contain more than one layer of
flowers, or the results may be disappointing. When
sending ferns, put them at the bottom of the box, placing
soft paper between them and the flowers. Maidenhair
should be kept very moist when packed. A " refresher "
in common use for keeping up the freshness of cut flowers
is nitrate of potash, or sweet nitre ; ^oz. per pint of water
is about right. The same " refresher" is good for growing
plants as well, but it is then applied to the soil of course.

XXII.— FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING.

Thb Prospect. — This branch of agriculture offers
many inducements for the most careful application of
skill that can be brought to bear upon it. The demand
for fruits preserved by bottling, canning, drying, candying
or crystallising ; and as jams, jellies, and other preserves,
is unlimited. The right materials are here to supply the
demand. With the facilities available for carriage, the
market for Australian fruit preserves is Unlimited.

Requirements for Success. — Properly matured first
class fruits of the kinds in demand ; pure, white Australian
cane sugar; the necessary appliances for preserving;
attractive methods of marketing are all necessary for the
full development of this trade.

PBUIT AWD VEGETABLE PBBSBRVING. 281

The Fruits. — Nearly all the varieties held in favour
in Europe and America are already grown in Australia,
and several others that offer sufficient attractions. New
varieties — possibly too many — are coming continuously
into notice, and amongst them, occasionally, are sorts
which prove more suitable than what had been grown pre-
viously. Cane sugar of the very best quality is also available.

Contents of Fruits and Vegetables. — When ripe,
water has the lead in all varieties, the proportions ranging
from 60 to 901b. of water in 1001b. of fruit; carbon and
sugar come next in most fruits, then minerals, acids, and
the various flavourings peculiar to each. The latter are all
important, and it is the aim of the fruit preserver to secure
all of the flavouring, and lose as little as possible of the
sugar. The water is the substance he deals with most
decisively. It is the part of fruit which carries with it the
greatest risks. By controlling the water contents, fruits
can be preserved for lengthy periods. But before the
stage of ripeness is reached, fruits undergo various
chemical changes, in which the mineral contents got from
the soil, and starches in various forms, play important
parts. The result in the processes of maturing being the
peculiar flavour of each fruit.

Stages of Fruit Growth. — -There are three well defined
stages in fruit growth. At first the fruit embryo is much like
the leaf in its tree life, taking up carbon from the air, and
giving out oxygen ; but the fruit is all the time helped
by the leaves. In the ripening stage, the fruit reverses its
action ; takes up oxygen and gives off carbonic acid, after
storing its quantity of carbon. The fruit flavourings are
developed during the ripening ; also the sugar, acids, and
alkaloids. The full sugar change occurs mostly after growth
ceases. In some fruit considerable change arises at the
time the size is increasing. In grapes the acid becomes
alkaloid, and decreases in proportion to the development
of sugar. Some fruits ripen to perfection on the plant, as
grapes, bananas, &c.; others mature better after picking.
Raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, and pears gain m
this. way. The grape does not ripen alter being taken
from the vine, but evaporation may remove a considerable

282

AUSTRALIAN AORICDLTURE.

portion of the water and thus improve the flavour. Most
apples follow a middle course — partly ripening in the fruit
house — as do oranges and lemons generally. After fruit
is matured, we may wish to keep it for use, either fresh,
dried, or preserved. But the natural fruit ferments
become active in ripening, and continue their work
afterward. Then there are minute fungus growths, always
ready to operate upon ripe fruit, and especially while all
the natural moisture is present.

Fallen and Bruised Fruits. — When fruits drop from
the tree they quickly begin to decay. Fungus and other
growths attack and destroy thenv When bruised, the
decay is still more rapid, and no process of preserving
can rectify the damage or improve the quality. Damaged
fruits that have been preserved decay rapidly when opened.
The question of when to gather fruits, and how to preserve
them, are closely related. The success of the latter
depends on the former.

Preservative Agencies. — The aids available are heat
to destroy fungus growths, or by evaporating such portion
of the water as may be necessary ; cold to check
bacterial or ferment action ; or drying to reduce moisture
and consequent risks in that direction. Further, there
is the process of excluding the air, and its spore contents
by bottling or tinning, and so shut out the cause of decay.

Supplies for Home Use First. — In
warm climates we should have fruit, fresh
or preserved, on the table with every
meal. It is more wholesome than
meat, and we can use it more often.
Fruits and vegetables contain all the
requirements of healthy life, in their best
forms. To eat fruit half-a-dozen times a
day is not too often, during hot spells.
Nature suggests at such times to eat little
but often, and in fruit we have both meat and
drink. Stewing is the foundation process
for the home table. Use plenty of siigar,
and then see how old and young revel in
the wholesome seasonable change. Fruit

FEUIT AND VEGETABLE PEE8BRVING. 283

on the tables of the growers is a most effective way
of convincing other people of how good fruit diet is.

Bottling may be our first step in preserving. Apricots,
peaches, plums, pears, quinces, cumquats, cherries,
marmalade, jams, &c., are possible, and without stint for
use when fruit is scarce. There is no unapproachable
secret and but small expense in bottling. The process
is simple, and depends on the fruit being sound to start
with ; then sorted properly, and, either in the bottles or
in the preserving pan, heated to the boiling point' until
cooked, according to the nature of the fruit. All germs
which cause decay are thus destroyed. The bottle is sealed
while hot and the contents may then keep for years.
Apricots should be split in halves, peaches stripped of their
skins by dipping them in a boiling bath of water, with 2 to
6 ozs. caustic soda per gallon of water; or a sufficient quantity
of stronger or weaker soda to make an effective skin
stripping bath. Then dip the fruit in cold water, and the
skins slip off, leaving the fruit beautifully smooth.

Time for Cooking. — Judgment and practice soon give
the necessary experience. The following will be found
helpful, the variation depending on ripeness, appliances,
&c. Apricots, take from three to ten minutes ; peaches,
six to twelve minutes ; cumquats and pears, from ten to
fifteen minutes ; quinces, twenty minutes ; plums, from
ten to twenty minutes ; cherries, from five to twelve
minutes. The covers or tops are put on while the contents
are boiling hot, in order to secure a vacuum, by the
condensing of the steam. In bottles closed up when in
this condition there will be no mould or other sign of
decay nfter long keeping. Soft tough parchment paper
or paper dipped in spirits, quickly applied, and tightly
bound on while hot, and a coat of some waxy material put
on afterwards, answers well ; but bottles with spring or
screw tops are handy, reliable, and not costly.

Sugar or Syrup. — So far as acting as a preservative,
sugar or syrup has but little effect. The quantity used is
matter of taste. From 6 to 20 oz. sugar per pound of
fruit is used, but the flavour is injured and the sugar as
well by cooking fruit and sugar together. This part of

284

AUSTRALIAN AOBlCCLTtTBE.

the subject will be dealt with separately in syrup making
for preserving, candying, &c.

Without Syrup. — Quince, pear, clingstone peach,
currants, gooseberries, and other fruits that have
distinctive flavourings and sufficient body, may be bottled
or canned without syrup, the space being filled with
boiling water, and the contents closed to secure a vacuum,
as in other cases.

Heating Bottles. — This is usually done by placing
them in cold water, which is brought gradually to the
boil; but, with practice, bottles can be heated while held in
the baud, ready for receiving cooked, boiling hot fruit,
by gradually heating them with warm and then with hot
water.

Heated Air Process. — Fruits are cooked by heated air
and then bottled or canned.

Canning. — Bottling was the predecessor of canning.
Cans of tin were first used by fish curers in the north of
Scotland ; by them brought into use in Nova Scotia, and
other of the British- American settlements. The process
has been improved and extended enormously in America.
In Australia it is used largely for meat preserving, and is
equally adapted for fruits, vegetables, white sugar com,
peas, and other products.

Grading and Stoning Fruit. — In the factones, fruit is
graded, or sorted, into sizes, and for appearance. It is then

pitted, pared, or
skinned, as may be
required, dipped in
clean, cold water,
drained, and packed
neatly into the cans by
women mostly. The
cans are then filled to
the very top with
syrup of stre n gth
according to the grade
or quality of the fruit.
The top is soldered on,
a veiy small hole in the centre of the cover being left

Grading Fruit into Sizes.

l-RUrr AND VBGBTABLB PEBSERVINQ.

285

Stoning or Pitting Fruit.

open. The cans are then lowered into a cooking bath,

which may be water

only, or some substance

as lime or salt, to give

more heat, when tough

fruits are being

handled. As in bot-
tling, the time allowed

for cooking varies from

five to twenty minutes.

The cans are then

raised, steam issuing

from the top. The hole

is then soldered close,

and the cans are dipped

in cold water, to secure

a vacuum. They are

then put in a hot test-
ing room, and should no change occur they are scoured,

labelled, and painted, and sent out the handsome tinned

goods in such general use. Machines are used for stoning

and pitting fruit in the factories.

Fruit Drying. — This process is peculiarly adapted for

Australian fruits. The requirements are not expensive.

From £5 to £10 covers the
cost of such a dryer as shown
in the illustration. It is made
of iron or timber. It may be
of any dcsiiod size, say from
tilt, high by 4ft. in front, and
4-ft. deep, or any lai'ger size
required. The open door shows
.irrangenient of trays on which
the fruit is spread. Below is
a stove, or fire, which may be
arranged on the ground, the
smoke passing away in a
chimney behind. The fruit is

either pared (as apples), cut (as apricots, pears, &c.), or dried

whole. Many other forms of . di'yers are in use. In

A Simple Fruit Drjer.

286

AUSTRALIAN AGBIOULTURB.

California, where fruit drying is an enormous business,
scores of designs are seen. In Victofia and South Australia,
drying houses of sun-dried clay, stone, brick, iron, and
timber are in use.

American Dryer. — Mr. Frank Coffee, of the Universal
Nursery, Wahroonga, has introduced a rapid working and
eiFective dryer of the
American type. The fruit "
is inserted at the front
(A) and can be returned
from the back (E D). G
are the frames used. They
are made of wood, as a
rule, iron being likely to
color the fruit. Sizes to
fit openings of 4 feet are
found to be handy and

workable. American Dryer.

The Shelton Dryer. — Professor Shelton, of Queensland,
has arranged a dryer in which the fruit trays are placed
upon racks on endless chains, so that any desired degree of
temperature can be regulated. The trays are moved by
the lever, .seen in the front view of the machine. Their

Shelton Dryer— The Front*

Shelton Dryer— Imtide.

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PEE8BEVING.

287

position is shown in the second illustration. The ground
plan shows ths furnace, or fire box,
and arrangements for heating and
passing off the smoke.

Home Dryers. — Machines have
been arranged for drying with the
aid of the heat of a kitchen stove or
fire place. But they proved too slow
in operation for profitable use.
Sufficient size is required in all cases
to secure a rapid current of heated

**^' Shelton Dryer-Ground Plan.

A Portable Dryer. — The size is 7ft. long, and the same
in height to the eaves, and 4ft. wide. The frame is made

in three sections of
2in. by 4in. scant-
ling, one for each
end, and one for the
centre. The whole of
the further end and
the back of the dryer
are enclosed with
tongued and grooved
stuff', allowing the
centre board to
extend a foot above
the peak to help to
form the upper
ventilation. T h e
otiier end is covered
in the same manner
to within 2Ut. from
the ground, which is
clo.sed with sheet iron. On each side at the lx)ttom a 4in.
space is left to admit air. If the draught is nt any time
tfx) strong, a piece of iron or lM)ar(l am be set against the
opening on the windward side. The front side has an 8in.
strip along the eaves to allow the roof boards to extend
over without interfering with the trays, or the door (E) ;

Simplicity Frait and Vegetable Dryer.

288

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

tliis latter being hinged at the lower edge ; the upper edge
being held in place when closed by buttons on the eave
strip. Into this open space, the fruit trays are slipped on
pieces nailed to the sides, care being taken to fill up the
spaces behind the slats, so that the hot air cannot pass
without going through the fruit.

Drying Trays. — They are made of timber ; or strong
wire netting for the bottoms. Three feet eight inches square

is a good workable
size, leaving a space
for the heat to pass
around the ends and a
4in. space in front; the
second tray is kept for-
ward so as to leave the
same space at the back,
and is on the top.
This arrangement
gives a strong current
of hot air between the
trays. For the stove
or heater, two cast-
iron heads, loin, di-
ameter, form the ends,
having flanges for
sheet iron; one head, as
in illustration, (page
287), has a door for
wood, and below a draught hole. The sheet iron
cylinder for the fire i.s made with a stove-pipe hole on
each side near the back end. This machine dries 5001bs. in
apples or peaches a day. Where an 18in. or 26in. cylinder
is used, spaces for three sets of trays are placed, thus
allowing of longer return pipes, saving more of the heat,
and allowing more work to be done.

The Drying Medium. — It is the same, heated air, in all
cases. Sun drying is risky and uncertain. Currents of
heated dry air are arranged to pass under, through, and over
the fruit in the dryers, extracting the moisture, until just
sufficient is left to have the fruit flexible. The more water

Circular Dryer.

PEDIT AND VEGETABLE PBESERVING.

289

that can be left in with safety, the better the quality of
the fruit. But that point of safety may mean that from
two-thirds to nine-tenths of the whole weight has to be
extracted. Thus from
7 to 101b. of apples,
make lib. dried; from
2^ to 51b. plums make
lib. dried prunes, and
others proportionately.
Ripe well grown fruit
giving the highest re-
turns.

Time and Heat In
Drying. — From four to
ten hours, according to
the fi-uit contents of
water, and the capacity
of the machine to send
through heated air,
from 120deg. to 220deg.
The gi-eatest heat is
applied to the fresh
fruit, until signs of
wilting are seen, in
say, fifteen to thirty
minutes.

Advantages of Dry-
ing. — Loss cost for
appliances ; suitability

for small as well as lai'ge quantities ; convenience
and lower cost of carriage. As a rule the weight is
reduced 75 per cent.; or 10011). is converted into 251b.,
which retain nearly all the properties of the fruit, except
the water. The water is restored for use as required by
soaking the dined fruit over niglit.

Drying in the Sun. — There an^ always risks from
change of weather, flies, &c., and sun drying may occu]^}' fi-om
five to twenty days, involving much lalx)ur. In some
cases a combination of sun and dryer is carried out. And
rough drying is done in big bush chimneys in cases.

(ircnlar Dryer— InsideArraugement.

290

AUBTBALIAN AQRICnLTUBE.

Open Air Drying. — This is possible in very dry
parts. The process of drying illustrated shows how trays

the Open Air.

of fruit are so arranged, on mown lucerne en* grass, that
dust is warded off, and covers can be dropped over a
number of cases, from a central point, by connecting the
covers with wire or rope. But open air drying is always
risky, as even a shower or heavy dew discolours the
fruit.

Drying Potatoes, Tomatoes, Herbs. — Potatoes dry
nicely, and are in active demand on stations, at the
goldfields, and other places. The potatoes are washed, and
peeled by means of a machine similar to an apple parer.
They are then boiled, then broken up, not too fine, spread
evenly on trays, and placed in a dryer. The drying
process takes about ten hours, at temperature of about 140
deg. When the contents of the trays are thoroughly dry,
they are exposed to the air in a cooling chamber, then
ground to about the consistency of bonemeal, and packed
in tins for export. The great advantage in boiling the
potatoes previous to evaporating, is that they are much
more easily prepared for table afterwards, and very much
less water is required, the latter being a very important
consideration in places where water is scarce. The potato
meal does not require soaking before l^eing used. Four
cupfuls of water are a<lded to one cupful of potato, boil for
ten minutes, and the product is read}' for use. It cannot
then be distinguished from potatoes cooked in the ordinary
way.

PEUIT AND VEGETABLE PRESERVING.

291

Tomatoes are dried at a lower temperature, as are
vegetables, herbs, &c. The process here for tomatoes is to
cut the fruit into sections, which are placed, cut side up, on
the ordinary drying trays, and put out in the sun, then
finished in the dryer. In Italy, where large quantities of
tomatoes are dried, they are put into coaree cloth bags
through which the pulp is squeezed, leaving the skins and
seeds in the bag. The pulp is spread on boards and dried
in the sun. When dried, it is packed in boxes for export.
It is largely used in soups.

Prunes, Raisins, Figs, &c. — The plum (the prune
d'agen is considered the best) when ripe, is shaken off the

trees (p. 292). The prunes are
then dipped in a hot lye made of
potash ^Ib. to gallon. The illus-
tration shows a contrivance
for dipping on a large scale.
The tank (a) contains the lye ;
by means of tackling the
dipper (b) is lowered into the
tank, and, when sufficiently
treated, is raised as at (c), and
discharged upon tables. The
fruit is then sorted and dried.
Prunes are among the very
nicest of dessert relishes and
f(X)d. To prepare the fruit for the table, it is soaked in
cold water over niglit. It swells to the size of the original
plums, and is tlien stewed. Raisins are dried partly in the
sun ; tlien finished in the dryer. In the French method of
curing prunes, each grower, as a rule, dries his produce in
an oven sufficiently to keep for about two weeks. The
piunes are then sold to factories, where they are fully
cured. After V)eing graded by use of wire screens they
are packed in long hollow metal tubes ; after ])eing tilled,
a cap is screwed on to make them airtight. The tubes are
put in an air drum, low temperature steam is turned on, and
the prunes are thus "cooked" for a longer oi- shoiter time,
according to the sizeof the fruit, at a temperature of alxmt 210
deg. When cold, they are ready to pack for market.

Dipping Prunes-

292

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

The Californian sun-dried prune is delicious when
stewed, while the French being already cooked in the

Harvesting Prunes for Drying.

process of curing, tastes well before stewing, but becomes
rather bitter afterwards. But French operators can be
profitably followed in their method of grading.

Sulphuring. — When fruit is cut it loses colour. This
is the effect of oxidation or contact with the air upon the
exposed parts. To check this action, sulphur fumes are
brought to bear us in a bleaching process. The effect is
ver}' decided upon cut fruits that have to be dried. In
operation, the fruit trays are put in such numbei's as may
be required in a close box. Sulphur fumes are got either
by burning sulphur in the box or in an outside burner,
the fumes or smoke being brouglit into tlie box through a
tube. The colder the fumes are the better. Half a pound
of sulphur is enough for 501b. of fruit, and 10 to 30 minutes
completes the operation. The fruit is then dried as desired.
During the drying, the sulphur disappears.

Candying or Crystalising. — This process is amongst
the most attractive and elegant for fruits, lemon, orange,
and other peels, ginger, &c. Only thoroughly matured and

rBUIT AND VEGETABLE PRBSERVINQ. 293

undamaged fruits are suitable. The fruits are, in the
cooking stages, treated as for botthng or canning. Then
saturated in cold syinip and dried to crystalisation stage, as
with peels. Peels, gingers, &c., that contain oils, earthy,
or other flavourings that have to be got rid of, are firet
soaked in salt and water from 10 to 30 hours to get rid of
the undesirable flavour. The fruit is then washed to clear
off'as much as possible of the salt. Then "cooked" in fresh
water, Strained, and dried. It may be necesssary to change
the water in cooking several times to extract all the salt.
Then drain the fruit and put it into a tirat syrup. The
action of this syrup is to displace the water in the fruit
The time for first saturation depends upon the nature of the
fruit, from two hours to six days. But in any case the syrup
has to be changed as soon as signs of fermentation appear.
A second syrup is then substituted for the first, and after
another saturation, a third syrup displaces the second, and
a fourth or fifth when neceessary, by which time the fruit,
peel, cumquats, ginger, or other material should be saturated
with sugar. The finishing syrup, No. 5, is boiling hot when
the fruit is put into it, the time for amalgamating the two
depending again upon the nature of the fruit. When
saturated, the fruit is taken out and dried, rapidly or slowly
according to whether it is to be glazed or crystallised. For
the latter purpose sugar may be sifted upon the fruit as
nmch as will stick. For peels, cumc[uats, figs, ginger, &c.,
the finishing synip is allowed to crystalise.

Syrup. — A key to success for most of the canned and
crystalised fruits, indeed for fruit preserving generally, and
jam-making as well, is got in the treatment of the sugar or
syrup. Only the whitest cane sugar is suitable. Beet sugar
is risky. No. 1 syrup is made by dissolving in boiling
water 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of water — 31b. of sugar
in 1 gallon of water is a standard syrup for canned fruits.
No. 2, 1 to 2 ; No. 3, 1 to 1 ; No. 4, 2 of sugar to 1 of
water; No. 5, the strongest .syrup made, is 3 of sugar to 1
of water. The sugar is heatt'd before amalgamating, where
practicable. The nearer it is to the tempeiaturt' of boiling
water the Ijetter. As soon as the sugar is abs<jrbed, the
syrup is ready. It is then quite clear, there is no loss of

294 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

flavour or colour by carmalising or burning. Syrups of
any required strength are added to the fruit in the various
stages of cooking and preserving as described.

Temperature in Syrup Making. — The theraiometer is
useful in manipulating sugar. When reduced to syrup in
the boiling state there is a marked increase of heat. At
215 to 218 degrees fruit with sugar is in the most effective
jellying stage ; it is smooth, slippery, and does not candy or
granulate. This is the " small thread " stage in sugar
making. At 220 to 228 degrees granulation sets in —
the " large thread " stfige. At 231 degrees we have
crystalisation — " small pearl "; at 232-8 " large pearl " —
candying.

Pop Com. — Great fun and a wholesome edible is got
by roasting or " popping " the kernels of the pretty little
pop corn which grows well wherever other corn grows.
Put the dry kernels in a deep fry pan ; a "popper," or a
covered pan is better. A slow heat is best at firet, then increase
it, and the kernels buret out into great balls of flour like
substance. They are nice that way, and better when
dropped into No. 5 syrup lx)iling hot. As coated, they are
taken out and allowed to candy. Dry sugar may be shaken
over them to make crystalised pop corn.

Marmalade. — Seville oranges, lemons, and citrons are
used. Wipe the fruit, slice thinly, picking out the seeds,
Use all the juice, and one third or more of the skin. Water
is then added, the quantity being dependent upon
the fniit and season, the proportions varying from 30ozs.
(l^-pint) water to 3flbs. water to each lb. fniit, which is
allowed to soak in the water for 12 houra, or longer in cold
weather. Then boil ; by steam heat in jacketed pans is best.
When the fruit is nearly cooked, add sugar, heated, as in
syrup making, say 1^ to 3ilbs. for each lb. of fruit.
Then boil until the mannalade sets as a jelly when
cooled, a trial portion being dropped on a plate for test
purposes.

Shaddocks make extra fine, clear marmalade, but
the pith has to be removed with the seeds. Quince,
and tart apple are also used, the skins being cooked
with the fruit.

PRUIT AND VEGETABLE PKESEEVING.

295

Jams and Jellies. — Use ripe sound fruit only. For

jelly use drip or jelly bags
saturated first in hot
water. Cook in jacketed
pans, without which there
is not sufficient control of
the temperature. Cook at
first in the juice, or by
adding water where neces-
sary, as quinces. Add the
sugar from f to ] ^Ib. for
each lb. of the fruit, with-
out checking the boiling,
and cook till the jam or
jelly sets when tested.
The thermometer, as in
marmalade making, is
useful in boiling.
Flavorings and Colorings. — Much can be done by
skilful blending of fruit juices ; as a flavoring of lemon,
grape, &c., in apple jelly ; or the stones of peach, apricot,
plum, Ac, for flavoring those fruits. Brown and reddish
colorings are got from caramel and cochineal ; golden from
annetto, saffron, and tumeric ; blue, green, and other colors
are also got, but not from safe materials, and none of them
are natural. Different colore are also got by inserting glazed
paper in the centre of tlie jars, filling each side with the
jelly, and withdrawing the paper, soon as the contents are
set sufficiently.

" Curing " Fruits. — Lemons, pears, etc., are improved
by l)eing stored in dry, airy places, where a portion of
their natural moisture is evapoi'ated.

straining for Jelly.

2 96

AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

Commencing Eiirly,

XXIII.— ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE.

Rudimentary Botany. — All mankind, or nearly all, and
all womankind at some stage of existence, have taken such
interest in plant life as might have induced them to master

the rudiments of
botany. And many
follow up the pursuit
sufficiently to make it
a source of life-long
enjoyment. As a step
towards the desire to
know more of plant
growth, a book or
books on botany may
have been purchased
— most works of that
kind are valuable; but
notone can give all the
information required
by reading only — not for a first, second, or even a third read-
ing. That is got by close study of the principles laid down,
and by cultivating acquaintance with the subjects — the
orders of plants described. When investigation is added to
reading, the knowledge is got as we proceed, and plant life
opens out into paths even as attractive as animal life.

Botanical Classification. — To the specialist, minute
classification upon tlie lines followed by Iwtanists in all
lands is necessary. Many of the terms and names employed
— difficult though they may seem — are really more closely
descriptive of the plants in view than even the " plain
English " common names and terms which it will be our
effort to use at this stage. Botanical science terms may
follow after. Thus annual plants, or annuals, are those that
grow from seed and flower, and mature seed again in one
season, or during one year. We may at once recognise
many plants of that nature, such as poppies, cosmos, corn,
and scores of others. Bi-annuals are plants that live over
one year, but not over two ; and perennials include the
great mass of shrubs climbers, and trees which live longer

ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE.

297

tliau two years. This arrangement seems so simple that
the question is quite natural, " Then why use Latin terms
in any form when common terms are so effective !* Why not
call corn, just corn, and be done witli it r And that may
answer by-and-bye, when all the world speaks the same
languaf>;e, and all are equally agreed as to the common
name, and wdiich plant is described when we say "corn." But
the corn of Australia may be so very different from the corn of
other lands. And the Australian ash ti'ee is different from
the ash of Great Britain ; ours is a gum, and our apple tree is
closely allied to the eucalyptus, and wholly distinct in every
way fi'om the apple tree that bears apples, the only apple
tree known to m^-riads of people. Numberless other
instances tell us that if every country were to name its
plants in " plain language " in the way that seemed best to
them, hopeless confusion would ensue, and botanical
identification would be impossible.

Classification by Methods of Growth. — Another easil}''
understood arrangement is that which separates plants
which increa.se in size from the inside (l)otanically termed
endoijens). This includes the great families of grasses,
grain yielders, an<l others. Then another great family,
the exoge}iii, grow fi'om the
outside, and inchide shrubs,
trees, and plants with bark
generall}'. The third great
family are acfogens, which
include ferns, the fungus tribe,
liciiens, and others that do not
Mower, and many of which live
on other plants.

Life Development of
I'lants.— 'I'he illustration (explains
the process of plant life gene-
rally. Li the first stage of
development from the perfect
seed (a), warmth, moisture, and
ail- are all neces.sary for the
changes that follow (h cj. Then
the seed leaf (the pluiuiUc of Fimt stages of Pi. ut ufe.

298

AUSTEIALIAN AQBICULIUBB.

botanists) comes up out of the soil. At the same time
rootlets, the radicles (d) are developing underground. All
new plants spring from seed, and the seed must be sufficiently
sound and matured to nourish the young plant to the stage
described, whether it be the seed of a tiny daisy or the
beginning of a huge gum tree.

Leaf Growth, — When the seed is right and its sur-
roundings healthy for plant life,
leaf growth follows the appear-
ance of the plurtiule (a) above
ground. Leaves fb d) are of many
kinds, some long, some short,
some oval, some round, some with
saw-like edges, some are quite
smooth and plain, and each form
has its name in botany, and can
be identified anywhere. But
all leaves have the same work to
do — there is work for all u.seful
life. The leaves are the lungs of
plants. It may seem strange, but the bulk of the solid

Do'^elopment of Leaf Growth.

Breathing Pores of Leaf. Leaf Breathiug.

matter of plants, the stems, timber, and bark, from wheat
to oak trees, is supplied through the leaves. For the air
supplies most of the solid food material of plants. What a
great garden ground is thus opened up for the inquirer !

Flowers Tell Something. — What hosts of flowering
plants we can see ! Annuals, bulbs, climbers, roses, fruit
trees, grasses. Those that flower are by far the most
numerous. And the colours tell a good deal concerning
odours and scents. The pinks, red and white, smell most

ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE.

299

sweetly, the darker colours less so. And there are great
families of plants that do not flower; the acrogens, which in-
clude with others the ferns, mushrooms, lichens, mosses, and
many more, are a most interesting host.

Flower Development. — Flowers mean much to the
botanist the gardener, the florist, the bee keeper, the
farmer, and all who take a real inter-
est in plant growth. That is, who
look upon them as things of life in-
terest as well as things of beauty or
of profit. The colour of flowers that
open at night is generally white, that
night flying moths see and come for the
sweets in them. Pale red flowers are
liked by bees, and flies and beetles
In Flower. also search them for sweet sap ; brown

flowers are attractive to wasps ; and pink, red, yellow and
white flowerS; by pollen storing and pollen eating insects.
Bees gather the floury substance actively, and carry it home
as food material for their young. And while doing this,
they also fertilize the plants they are collecting from, and
so aid in giving us flowers and fruit. The pollen is the
active fertilizing material of plant life, but it must come
in contact with the pistil, the central organ seen in the
accompanying illustration, and bees and otiier insects, the
winds and other agencies, help in the process. Tiuis the

"fruit" of botanists, that is the
seed, is formed below the pis-
til. But some plants — notably
some varieties of strawberries
— have not got both of these
organs. Some have the pol-
len, others have none. The
former are termed staminate,
(with stamens), or pollen bear-
ers. Those without pollen,
While referring to the strawberry,
and the nile applies to other plants as well, it becomes
useful in the practiciil sense to know that V)oth kinds of
flowers are necessaiy in order to get crops of fruit ; and

Development of Seed

are termed pistillate.

300 . AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTURE.

that very serious losses and disappointment have occurred
tlirough weeding out the pistillate, the seemingly more
delicate plants. Careful Mother Nature ! How well she
knows the importance of each part of the most marvellously
complicated of plant life. Thus the pollen of grasses grow-
ing in or near water is arranged to resist the dissolving
effects of water, which, as a rule, melts pollen generally.
Then the many means which flowers possess, for the
protection of this so valuable pollen from rain and
dew, are never ending sources of delight and wonderment
to the keen observer. The closing of fioweis at night,
the drooping oi' nodding of flowers, the possession of
sheathing sheltering apparatus for the arching of portions
of the flower leaf over the stamens, are all instances
of nature's care for plant life. In some poppies, the
flowers roll up at night over the pollen which has been
shed upon them during the day. In others there are parts
that act like a brush, sweeping the pollen out of its case
towards the pistil, so that the winds may carry it to its
destination. In the camphor laurel, the pollen cases close
in wet weather, and so shield the grains from injurj'.
Flowers fertilized by the agency of the wind are generally
thin and narrow in form and leaf, and quiet in color.
Some are borne on trees which flower before the formation
of the leaves, others are on lowly plants with long narrow
leaves, so that there may be few obstacles to the pollen
laden breezes. The feitilization of corn and fiuit trees is
mostly managed by bees, which also fertilize clover and
lucerne; arums by flies and bees, and hibiscus by ants and
flies. 'I his latter family include the apparently distant
relatives, the jam yielding rosella, and the somewhat under-
rated Kida rttusa, or " Paddy's lucerne," of which several
varieties are of Australian origin.

Hybridisation. — That intensely inteiesting and practi-
cal branch of botanical usefulness,
by which such wonderful results
are got in flowers and fruits,
is dependent upon the transfer of

pollen grains by artificial means

strawborry Howers from plant to plant. The process

(.t«min«t« «ni pUtmau.) ^ff^j^ ^^^^1 attractions !

ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFJC.

301

Orchid Life. — This curious family of plants (for which
Australia is specially notable) offers most interesting

botanical study. Tliere are two
distinctive branches of orchids,
one of whicli grows from the
ground like other plants, and has
lily, or iris-like leaves, as a rule.
The others are epiphytes, which
means those plants that lodge
upon or grow upon others by a
system of hair-like grippers,
having bulb-like terminations.
The pollen and pistil late arrange-
ments of the family, as a rule,
are such as make insect action
for their development a neces-
sity. Without this insect help,
orchids would have passed out of existence, as many other
families of plants have done, and we would have none of
the butterfly, bee, beetle, spider, boot, slipper, or other
curious forms taken by those wonderfully attractive
flowers.

The Pea Family. — The ' legumes " of botanists are
classified by bearing the .seeds in pods. It is a family of
immense extent, forming a thirtieth part of the known
plant life of the world. The welcome pea of our gardens,
the lucerne and the mighty Moreton Baj- chestnut, the
wattles and m^'als of the Australian bush come into this
order.

Australian Gums. — The eucalyptus — another great
family — are classified in a general way by tlieir bark. Tlie
gums usually are the smooth-bark trees. The leaves and
timbei*s aid in the classification and are peculiar. The oily
sacs of the leaves, which contain the essential odors of the
family, are visible when held to a bright light. Some of
the leaves are richly scented, and all are healthful.

Figs. — This is another curious family, especially in
the formation of the seeds and fruit. Australian plants of
this order have been termed vegetable snakes or
pythons, by reason of the enormous strength of

AUSTRALIAN AQBICDLTUBE.

some of the family, which crush and
absorb the largest gum trees within their
snake-like limbs. The origin of these trees
may arise from the deposit of a single seed,
small as that of a mustard seed, in the fork
of a gigantic gum, far up. The fig seed
germinates there, sends out thread like
feelers or root fibres, which thicken and grow
strong from what they gather in from the
host plant and the air. In a brief time the
tiny fibre becomes a strong rope-like sub-
stance, which reaches the earth, roots there,
and swells and grows strong until, with the
aid of other limbs, formed in the same
manner, the great gum tree is surrounded,
and is absorbed by the fig.

Why Should Plants Live on Animal
Matter ? — In some cases the reason is very evi-
dent : There is not enough vegetable food in the soil where
they are to support them. This is the case with a very
curious family common enough in Australia, the Drosera of
botanists, the sundews of gardeners. What a tale they
tell the observing — that the soil is too poor, for some
reason or other, to support vegetable life sufficiently for
useful purposes. The definition, that " plants are
organisms that remain stationary in and live upon
the soil," is disturbed by microscopic and everyday
observations. [See itliistration Page 303.]

Seeds Travel. — In Autumn,
the air is thick at times with
seeds, some borne on their own
feathery wings, often from very
distant places. And other seeds
are sent in such masses along
the ground by winds that they
make immense banks along fences
in the pastoral districts, and it is
said that railway cuttings have
been so filled with these masses,
that the trains had to stop till they

Jumping S«ed of Grata.

ATTRACTIONS OP PLANT LIPB.

308

were cleared out. Many liguminous plants, and balsams,
castor oil, and others, send their seeds to long distances,
as the seed vessels come to maturity and spring
open. The seed in the illustration is a type of
several of our Western grasses, which spring from
place to place, until a nice moist, rich spot is reached,
and there the seed locates and grows. But, all the time,

xglTTBICT

Animal Absorbing Plants.— [See Page 302].

it is telling a wonderful tale of the climate and rainfall of
the location it belongs to. Some seeds are so coated with
hard glass-like material that they may lie for months on
the surface of the ground exposed to fierce sun heat and
drying winds, and then, wlien rain comes, they spring
from place to place, till the required spot is reached for
their development into nouri.shing feed for stock.

304 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

How New Sorts of Plants Are Got. — Seed is the source.
While heredity is a well-marked principle in vegetable life,
there is a constant tendency to depart from the higher
forms got by skilful treatment, sometimes for the better,
oftener for the worse. The reversion may be in the form
of a wildspart, or a distinct reproduction from a late or
remote ancestor. The cabbage grower of to-day might
scarcely recognise in the coarse wild collard of the sea-
shores of northern Europe the parent of our improved
varieties ; nor the celery lover see his favourite in the
bitter weed, as found in its native habitat ; nor the epicure
in water melons, the bitter indigenous fibry things found
covering whole districts in Africa. The present develop-
ment in plants is the result, of selecting specimens. The
wild carrot of the tield was experimented with not long
since, and after seven years of selection, high culture and
skilful treatment, it developed into a root quite soft, juicy
and palatable. Good sized and fairly edible tubei's, after
five yeai*s of cultivation, have been produced from the wild
potato of Mexico. The originals of garden vegetables and
garden flowers were caught, tamed and improved through
cultivation and selection, covering longer or shorter periods
of time. The same work of selection and improvement
of good qualities in vegetables is yet going on, and mo 'e
earnestly than ever before. We may, possibly, be going
too fast, introducing many new things of little merit, rather
than attending to the selection and perpetuation of reliable
varieties that have proved suitable for this country. Seed
growers know that the purest crops will sometimes develop
very queer " sports." For instance, cabbage of apparently
absolute purity may produce some plants like the wild
collards of Denmark, which is a result of reversion alone.
The grower is powerless to prevent this natural physio-
logical freak.

Changing the Nature of Plants. — The fruiting nicason
of plants has been changed by systematically picking off"
the flowers which appeared before or after the time required.
Annual plants may be made perennial by persistenth'
destroying the flower buds as they appear. This has been
done with the cotton plant in Australia. Few plants

ATTRACTIONS OF PLANT LIFE. 305

except those which are distinctly woody, have perennial
parts ; in tubers, rhizomes, and bulbs, the older portions die
after new portions have been formed. The power to
produce offshoots or stolons is the real difference between
annual and perennial herbaceous plants. Even in the case
of those annuals which throw up only a single flower stalk,
if the flower buds are removed before they expand, and the
flower-stem cut up into sections, plants may be raised which
will live for many years if annuallv treated in the same
way.

Pleasures of Thought and Work. — And yet even the few
changes of plant life, thus briefly outlined, may seem
difficult at flrst. But let us consider the great difference,
visible all through nature and the world we live in, even
between one man and another — that one is poor and
another rich, that one is strong and another weak,
that one is sick and another well, that one knows a
great many things and another very few ; that one
thinks much and another very little, if any. In all our
plans for what we hope to do another day, in all our
reading, all our learning, in our amusements, let us try
and thi7ik aljout what we are doing. Get into the way
of asking tiie meaning of what we see or do. All have
not the saim- power of thought, but all can think, and
can cultivate that amount of" thought wiiicli is natural to
••ach for study and woi-k. It is true of every one of
us, that to do anytliing for good, or what is more
important, for the good of fellow men, we must use the
min<l and not tlie hands only, i" what we are doing. The
study of plant life then comes, with many other pleasures,
into the enjoyments of existence.

XXIV.— ENEMIIvS OF THK A(JRICULTURI8T.

The more serious sources of annoyance and loss to the
cultivator arise from fungi and insects. In the dairy,
and in wine making, we have to gain the acquaintance of
bacterial visitora and their effects upon both vegetable and

806

AUSTRALIAN AaRICULTUEK.

animal substances ; but so many of them have beneficial ten-
dencies, when they are developed
aright, that agriculturists, as a
body, are coming to look upon
such changes as they make
with kindly eyes. There is no
such feeling towards the larger
6Vf# Ml fungus growths, a few only of

which have a direct value
for man, necessary though
they are in the plan of nature.
And insects are only so much
less objectionable because the

bad ones are more easily reached, and there are many

Sectionti of Sugar Caue.

H«althy Sap Vessels of Potato, Sngar Cane, &c<

friends of the agriculturist amongst them, in the form of
ladybirds, ichneumons and others. A, shows sap cells of a
plant in which the starchy matter is secreted in the case of
the potato, and saccharine, or sugar matter, in the sugar
cane. It is here that fungus growths make serious
attacks. B, illustrates cells near the skin or rind, where
gummy matter is formed. C, ordinary fonn of inter-
mediate cells between the two. The A and G cells are
influenced very much by wet and dry weather — the G cells
especially." At one time they may be almost dry, while
when growth is active, and after rain, they may become
gorged with sap. And that is the most dangerous time for

BNEMIE8 OF THE AGRICULTURIST.

307

the spreading of fungus attacks, as a rule. The enemy,
at such times, increases enormously by absorbing the sap
and destroying the cells and tissues of the host plant.

Fungoid Enemies are true parasites — things that live
upon other things. Some of them attack animal life in
their operations ; and to such an extent is this visible
through the microscope that it has become questionable
whether animals feed more upon vegetables than vegetable
life upon animals. Our concern, at the present stage,
is with vegetable parasites. Domestic animals in this
country, so far, have been wondrously exempt from
ailments of epidemic kind — a fact due, in great measure, to
the very excellent system of stock inspection common to
all the colonies, and the departments of which work well
to each other, and to the benefit of the whole community.

Fan^'i, Orowing from Section of Leaf of a Host Plant-

A, upper side of leaf ; B, lower side ; C, developing seed heads of
funffrus; D, spore or seed cups; .£, seed cup apringinj^ from breathing
pore of plant ; F, develoj)€d seed head ; G, sjjores or seeds of fungi
located in breathing pore.

Fungus growths may be divided into two easily
observed divisions : They are those which appear generally

308 AU8TKALIAN AOKICULTDHB.

as blackish, smut-like dust upon the leaves of lemons,
oranges, and various flowerini( shrubs, as mildew on grapes,
<fec. ; and the much more numerous and destructive fungi
growths penetrate the leaf, twigs, or fruit of the host plant,
destroying leaves, twigs, fruit, and the whole plant as they
increase. The former are termed epiphytes, or things that
live outside. The more dangerous fungi are endophytes,
that live inside the host. The epiphytes may indicate other
diseases in the plant, as do all fungus growths, and the
drainage and manuring should be seen to, while the
fungus is destroyed by spraying — Bordeaux mixture
being effective for the purpose. When endophyte fungi
are present the leaves may appear spotted with whitish,
yellowish, or brownish blotches which spread more or less
rapidly. The leaves and leaf stalks become affected, and
the disease then saps the strength of the crop. Such, foi*
illustration, are the visible symptoms of strawberry fungus
or " brand," passion fruit and melon " scald," potato
blight, <&c. Occasionally — all at once as it may seem — the
leaves perish, it may be in masses, and the whole plant
wilts as though it were sciilded. The term " .scald " has
long been applied to attacks of this kind, and the
idea is still prevalent, even amongst skilled men,
that the check to growth has been caused by such a
change of weather that the leaves, or it may be the whole
lange of plants, are scorched by the sun, by sun-heated air,
or by hosts of minute insects too small to be visible.
Foliage plants are often attacked in this way. But in reality,
the disease may have been present and spreading long
before it was observed. That terrible enemy of wheat, the
rust, is of this very dangerous kind. Jt may be upon the
crop for weeks, even months, in spots, visible under a good
glass ; then should moist weather occur while the wheat is
ripening, the rust becomes epidemic.

Specific Names. — The names given to these fungi
growths arc numberless — they are bewildering in some
cases. But they are useful for scientific classification, while
the foregoing classification may be ample for the ordinary
purposes of those whose main objects are to identify the
enemy promptly, in order to check or destroy the invader
as soon as possible, and before serious mischief is done.

ENEMIES OP THE AORICOLTUEIST.

309

Means of Checking Fungus Growths. — -Sulphur, in its
many forms, is found effective against fungus growths in
the early stages, and in the form of copper sulphate (blue-
stone), iron sulphate, sulphuric acid, flour of sulphur, kc,
is a necessary part of the equipment of the agriculturist.

Insect 'Enemies and Friends. — Fortunately the
agriculturist is helped by the latter, or the insect enemies,
which are everywhere, in all lands, would be too many for
all his efforts to check or destroy. For identiflcation pur-
poses, names are given to the myriads of these things, but
as a classification for everyday use it may be sufficient, as a
first step, to identify them as insects living by sucking the
juices of plants; others that eat plants; and those that live
upon the vegetable destroyers. Foremost as plant enemies

are the aj^hides, or plant lice.
The name means exhaust. They
are fearfully numerous and
destructive during dry sunnner
seasons. They are everywhere
— on the roots, limbs, branches,
and leaves of plants, and con-
tinuous wai" sliould be waged
against the whole tribe, for they
are destructive in the field, in
the veget{il>le garden, and in the
orchard. I'hey are terribly
;innoying in the flower garden
and summer house. The peach
(ip/iis, rose <(p/iis, and cabbage
((phis aftbrd easily ob.served
specimens of the family gene-
lally, their mode of life and
method of destruction. They
a|)pear for the season in nundjers
during August, and unless checked contiiuie to increase
and destroy all through the spring, summer and autumn, in
proportion to t\ui means taken to keep them in check from
the time of their first appearance. The ants, as seen in the
illustration, follow aphis on fiiiit trees, that they may
gather a sweet sap ejected by the smaller insects. The rose

A]>hi8 :iii-.i AiitK.

310

AUSTRALIAN AaRICULTUEE.

aphis, in the form of a light green fly or insect, congregate
in sleepy-looking masses, near the points of the younger
shoots and the buds, and upon other parts of the plants as
well. The grape vine aphis, termed phylloxera, live on the
roots and also on the leaves at times, as do similar insects
on other plants. When examined under a powerful glass,
they seem to be crawling about listlessly, as it appears, or
are fastened by their snouts or proboscis to the plant, the
juices of which they are sucking. Cabbage aphis are
found in similar masses under the younger leaves of the
plants. Almost every tree and other plant in the garden
has visitors of the aphis kind, and their mode of life is
much the same.

" American Blight." — The woolly apple tree louse (mis-
named " American blight") has long been known in Europe,

and is proving very des-
tructive in parts of Aus-
tralia. The insect is a
plant louse of the aphis
kind, is quite small, and
fastens itself in crevices
of the bark, where it
deposits masses of minute
eggs, so small that a very
powerful observing glass
is necessary to see them.
The effect upon trees is
to literally exhaust the
part the}'^ settle on of all
sap. The wood seems
honeycombed, swells
into knobs, and soon
becomes prey to disease.
Many remedies have
been tried to cure trees
infested with this
scourge, amongst the
most effective being clay-
lime-sulphur paint for
winter dressing, and

W00II7 Aphis — " Amerioan Bli^rht."

ENEMIES OP THE AGE1CULTUEI8T.

811

soda-resin-petroleum paint or spray for other times.
When taken early, they may be eradicated ; but when the
disease has got into the roots and limbs, the better course
is to cut down and burn the tree root and branch, and plant
sorts of apples which resist the attacks of the louse.

Scale or Cocus Insects. — Scale insects are at times,
when they are allowed to increase, very destructive upon

Scale Insects.

pear, apricot, peach, orange and other trees. They ar*^
covered by a horny scale or shell when grown, but are
more easily kept in check than woolly aphis, unless thej
have been allowed to become too numerous. They cling
to the bark singly and in masses, sucking the juices,
portions of which they eject, until black, sticky patches are
seen on the wood. The females are stationary, and they
cover their eggs with their horny shell until the young
hatch out, when the mother insect shrinks and dries up.
The eggs and the young scales are carried about on the
feet of birds and insects from plant to plant, and also by
the wind at times. The males have wings during the
autumn sejison, and arc mucii smaller than the females.
Rather appropriate " common " names are given to scale
insects — thus 1 in the illustration is the oyster scale, that
mite which damages oranges and lemons ; 3, muscle scale ;

812

AU8THAUAN AOHICDLTURE.

4 and 5, scale larvae, much magnitied ; (i, black scale; 2,
insect In the winged state. Their methods of life make
scale insects more difficult of eradication than the ordinary
aphides. But \>y the use of clay paint and alkaline oil
mixtures they also can be kept in check.

Codlin Moth Grub. — Tliis, the cai^wciqjsa pomonello ,
" the fruit devourer " of science, is one of the worst of
fruit eaters. 'J'he mother insect, A in iHustration, appears
as a moth during August and September, and lays eggs

Codiin MotliH on Apple Blos.-juius.

in the flower cups of apples (B), pears, and other fiuits at
times. The eggs (C) hatch in from 10 to 20 days, and the
grubs eat into the young apples.

Risks from Introducing Plants and Animals. — That
many of the worst panisites from which both plants and
animals suffer have been introduced is only too true. The
greatest care is necessary in introducing new things, for
parasites, both fungoid and insect, exist in other countries
much more destructive than any we have yet had to
encounter.

The " Buffalo gnat " of Ameiica is a fearful pest, and
would be a bad visitor here. It propagates in water, the

ENEMIES OP THE AQRICULTDRIST.

313

Mississippi watershed being specially subject to ravages
of this mosquito-like pest, the attacks of which are so
awful that cattle become terrified at the sounds made
by these gnats, and to flee from the pests are often
drowned.

To Check Fungi
and Insects. — In the
application of means
for checking destruc-
tive insect pe.sts, it is
well to note that they
all obtain their food
by sucking or biting ;
sucking insects are
provided with tube-
like sucking mouths,
by which they pene-
trate the tissues and
pump out the juicy
contents. Biting in-
sects have jaws, with
which they bite and destroy the entire substance. It is
evident then that an insect subsisting upon the liquids

inside of a fruit, leaf,
.ST. .-yraiwi-MSrr.v.i^!! or twig is not likely
to be killed by a
poison applied to the
outside of a leaf which
might kill an insect
eating the leaf; but
there is another way
of reaching them.
Insects do not breathe
as we do. They have,
instead of noses and
lungs, rows of veiy
small breatiiing open-
ing.s along the sides of tlieir l3odies, with air tul)es which
branch and spread out through all the tissues of the body,
carrying air to them. It is a fortunate circumstance that

Hand Sprayer at Work-

Spniyiutf in the Orchard.

314 AUSTRALIAN AGRICDLTCRE.

a very little of any oily substance will close these small
openings, and smother the insect as effectually as
clasping the wind-pipe will smother a man. But oil is
injurious to plants. Hence oily substances, dissolved
with alkalis to prevent the oil injuring the plants,
are used for checking and killing insects. Fumigation,
from sulphur and carbon compounds mostly, has long
been in use, and is still effective where plants can be
covered.

Friendly Insects. — Were it not for the natural enemies
which plant lice, scales, &c., have, like all animals, they
would soon become destructive beyond the powers of man
to keep them in check. The best known destroyers of plant
lice are ladybirds (Goccinella) and their grub-like larvae.
Well-known ladybirds are about the size and form of
split peas. The perfect insect is of dull orange colour, and
usually has nine small black dots on the wing shells.
These insects lay their tiny eggs near the plant lice, and as
soon as the grub hatches out it proceeds to devour its
natural food. They may be often seen upon potato plants,
upon melon vines, and on other plants. The grubs vary in
colour on different coloured plants. They do not look nice,
but it is safe to conclude that when they are about more
disagreeable visitors are disappearing. The young of
various flies are also destructive to plant lice, upon which
the mother flies deposit their eggs. The young maggots
devour great numbers of aphides.

Knowledge of Fungus and Insect Life. — That some
acquaintance with the methods of insect life, even the very
rudiments of entomology, are useful to the agriculturist is
evident. It is during the early stages of insect attacks, the
same as those of fungus attacks, that the most effective
efforts to check or destroy them are made. An hour spent
then may prevent heavy losses more certainly than weeks
of toil, expenditure, and lamentation after the pests have
got a start. The skill is in being able to identify and check
the enemy at the beginning, and is a sort of skill which
young folks acquire rapidly and eagerly. They are soon
able to identify the enemy and their works, and the
presence of friendly beetle.s, ichneumons, and others, which

HOME HELPS. 315

may be clearing off the pests by eating them or their eggs,
or depositing eggs on the bodies of their enemies, which
are from that staofe doomed to destruction.

XXV.— HOME HELPS.

Good Bread and How to Make It. — Good bread is the
rule in Australia, bad bread the exception. This is the
case in the bush as well as the towns, and is attributable in
the first place, to the excellent quality of the wheat and
flour ; and in the next to the skill in bread-making that
pervades the community. It is an accomplishment of which
Australian women may well feel proud. Good bread means
good digestion, contentment, health ; for all of which the
country is somewhat famous. The first requisite for good
bread is good flour — not necessarily the whitest or finest
flour, but sweet, dry, wholesome flour, made from sound
grain, without mixture of any kind. Whatever the price,
this is the cheapest, the most healthful flour. Even in
public establishments it has been proved by actual testSj
extending over months and years, that the best flour is the
cheapest in the end. Flour can be tested for its " strength "
or bread-making qualities, in the manner described in the
author's "Helpful Chemistry for Agriculturists."

Yeast. — This is another important ingredient in bread-
making. A simple and thoroughly good way of making it
is to put loz. of hops into 2 quarts of water ; boil until the
water is reduced by one-third ; strain this, and add to the
water two tablespoonsful of sugar ; when the mixture is
cool add two tablespoonsful of flour, and bottle the mixture.
This should make about 3 pints, and what is wanted first
for use should be put into a bottle that contained yeast
before. If no such bottle is handy, a few drops of vinegar
or a bit of dough will cause it to ferment. It is ready for
use as soon as fermentation sets in, or in moderately warm
weather about twenty-four hours after the fresh yeast is
made. It keeps for weeks when corked tight and put away

816 AU8TILA.LIAN AQRICULTURE.

in a cool place. One pint of this yeast is sufficient for
121bs. of bread.

Making the Bread. — To make, say ISlbs. of bread, use
water slightly warm, say of 80 degrees in cool weather, and
colder water in warm weather. Put 2 quarts water, or
skimmed milk if it can be got from a butter factory, and
1 pint yeast and sufficient salt into a dish. Add flour
sufficient to make a thin batter ; beat it up until thoroughly
mixed ; do not spare the beating at this stage. This is the
" sponge," and when it is tough and elastic, and fine with
beating and working, tuck it in nicely with flour from the
sides of the dish, and cover it over with a cloth and place
it in a warm or cool place (according to the weather). A
good " sponge " will spring or rise three or four inches dur-
ing the night ; in cool weather it takes longer. When ripe,
turn the sponge out upon a table, into the flour necessary
to make bread — say 81bs. flour if we are making 151bs. of
bread. It may be home-made flour, or pollard, or bran, or
coarser flour, or maize meal may be added at this stage.
Mix it until the dough is just stifl" enough not to stick ; work
it well ; don't spare elbow-exercise — that is one of the
secrets of bread-making. Form the well worked dough
into any desired shape or size for loaves — pans are the best
for baking — and let them stand until it rises an inch or
so ; then put into the oven and bake.

Camp Bread. — A bit of dough the size of the fist, put
away in a cool place, in flour, will keep for three or four
days, and make good bread. To use it, mix up the dough
in about 3 pints warm water ; mix them thoroughly ; then
add a tablespoonful of sugar, with salt and flour, and mix
up the sponge as in the former case, and make it into bread
in the same way. This can be repeated in warm weather
until the bread begins to have a sourish taste ; and this
again can be corrected by adding a little baking-soda, until
compelled again to make yeast.

The Oven. — In the bush, this is an important part of
successful home life. '' Is marriage a failure ?" has a serious
look in the face of a bad oven. The so-called " camp-oven "
is simply a flat-bottomed iron pot, with a lid less or more
hollowed to hold fire or ashes. The dough, when ready for

HOME HELPS. 317

baking, is put into this pot, which is set into a mass of hot
ashes, covered over, or a fire is kindled around it, bottom,
sides and top. It is a hasty process, entaihng close watch-
fulness, and risks of burnt fingers and clothes, and swear-
words at times, when the man is called on to come and help
over a difficulty. It is altogether a barbarous arrangement,
and should be beneath the notice of a man who can use
brains and hands. An oven is easily made. An iron nail or
oil-can makes a good one. Set it lengthways upon stones
or bricks, sufficiently high to save the wife from stooping
any more than is necessary to get fire under it. Then cover
the oven body round with a sheet of iron or anything that
will stand fire, leaving about an inch of clear space between
the iron drum or oven and the cover. Over the latter put
a layer of clay, working it well to make it stick and prevent
cracking ; the thicker the clay the longer it will hold heat ;
the more it is worked the less it cracks. Leave an outlet
for smoke at the top or back of the oven. Fit a lid of wood
or iron to the mouth of it. Put in a shelf to form a sole.
Use iron-bark or dry gum-bark for the fire, and there you
have an oven, not much to look at, perhaps, but it is all
there for baking — anything from a biscuit to a roast — fit
for a man that is able and willing to work for the best food
in the land. He deserves it. But he vvho allows his wife
to destroy temper and fingers over an iron pot deserves the
burnt offerings that are often found in such barbarisms.
Colonial ovens, on the above correct principle, that is, with
a confined space for fire or hot air round the sides and top,
are made of iron and sold in the towns. Ovens are also
made of brick and stone, or by scooping out a white-ant
nest, and are heate<l by kindling afire inside until sufficient
heat is gained ; then put in the article to be baked, and close
up the front tight to keep in the heat until the cooking is
completed. On a pinch, bread can be baked in red-hot
ashes ; ashes from V)ai-k are the best ; or by heating stones,
as is done in tlie Soutli 8ea Islands, putting the bread or
meat amongst them, and covering up tlie whole mitil the
baking is completed.

Baking Powder. — A good article is made by mixing
>i oz. tartaric acid, 5 oz. bi-carbonate of soda, and ill), of

SI 8 AUSTRALIAN AOBICULTURB.

arrowroot. These proportions can be carried out to any
extent. Dry each of the articles separately in the sun or
oven, and when perfectly dry mix them thoroughly, and
put the mixture in a bottle, corked tight to keep off the air.
Two teaspoonsful of the powder makes 21b. of bread, or
nearly as much biscuit. Mix the powder with the flour and
salt, then add cold water or milk to make dough. Do the
mixing and kneading quickly, and bake in a quick oven.

Self-Raising Flour. — There are several processes for
making " self-raising flour," among which the following are
faiply good : — lOOlbs. well-dried flour, lOJoz, tartaric acid,
12oz. bi-carbonate of soda, 8oz. white sugar, l^lbs. salt.
The ingredients must be perfectly dry, and reduced to fine
powder before mixing.

" Machine Milk " for Bread-Making. — 'I'hose who are
near enough to a cream-separating machine might try the
effect of using the skimmed or " machine milk " instead of
water, or as part of the water, for bread-making. It is
extra excellent.

Maize as Food. — In maize we have an every- day
instance of the peculiarities which regulate what we eat and
drink. In speaking to a dozen persons upon the healthful-
ness of maize as food, eleven would readily admit that,
in one form or other, it is pleasant, easily digested, and
strengthening, but it is doubtful whether one of the twelve
uses the article — not because of its scarcity, for maize is
amongst tlie things seen everywliere, but from little
difficulties in the way of preparing it for food. Difficulties
also arise from not finding freshly-prepared maize-meal or
flour in the stores, and thus it does not find its way to the
table to anything like the extent merit and real value
should secure for it.

Green Corn. — When the grain of maize is just full
upon the cob, and when, upon pressui'e with the thumb, the
sweet juice can be squeezed from it, pull off the ear.s, strip
the wrappers from them, and boil the cobs with meat, or
in water, or roast them. VV^hen cooked, the grain comes
off freely. Cooked cobs can be sent to table in various
neat ways that will readily suggest themselves. The
grain tastes like green peas, and may be either

SOME HELPS. 319

eaten from the cob without further preparation, or after
being pared off with a knife, can be served up as peas.
There is a peculiar flavour in this green corn, not unlike
cooked oysters, to enjoy which is an acquired taste; but it is
very easily acquired, and few things are more nourishing.
In America vast quantities of the grain are put up in cans
in the same way as preserved meat and fruit, and it comes
into use while the corn is out of season. In Australia we
have had fresh green corn on the table during seven months
of the year. The white varieties are most in favour for
cooking : but all are good.

Maize-Meal. — To make the best meal or flour, the grain
must be dried in an oven until quite crisp, then, if there is
no grinding-mill handy, a hand-mill (sold by the iron-
mongers at from £2 to £4) answers very well. These
hand-mills make excellent meal ; they grind a bushel in an
hour, and last for years. Grind the corn coarsely at first —
the work is too hard when the meal is ground fine at one
operation ; then screw up the mill as fine as may be desired,
and grind what will be necessary for not longer than a
week. It should always be fresh.

Porridge. — There are few things better than maize-
meal porridge for persons of weak digestion. It is also
good food for strong men. Boil the water, and pour in the
meal gradually thritugh the fingers of one hand while
stirring with the other. It requires at least half-an-hour's
boiling, and is all the better of being boiled still longer.
Eat with milk, molasses, or butter. When cold, it forms
into a stiff mass that is excellent when fried.

Puddings. — They require four or five hours' cooking.
The meal makes up well with suet, eggs, milk, molasses,
currants, spices, or otlier pudding fixings. Stir the
ingredients into as much meal as may l)e desired, making
the whole into a stiff batter. L't it stand a bit, and
prepare a pudding-cloth by first dipping in boiling water;
then dredge ilour over it and put in tlu- pudding, tying it
so that water will not get in and make the pu(l<liiig licav}'.
Leave plenty of room for swelling — mai/,e-meal swells more
then flour, l*ut the bjig into boiling water, and do not let
it go off the boil until cooked.

820 AUSTRALIAN AGKICULTDRE.

Baked PuddingB. — A quart of meal, half-pint of milk,
lib. molasses, and eggs and other fixings to fit, make
excellent puddings. Scald ihe milk and mix it with the
molasses and meal, stirring the whole thoroughly together.
Add eggs and any desired spice, with salt, &c. Pour the
whole into a well-buttered pudding-dish. Bake it well, and
use while hot. It is good. Various other puddings, boiled
and baked, and known by various names, are made by
modifying the foregoing, and using more or less molasses,
eggs, essence, or juice of lemon — one of the best seasonings
for maize-meal puddings, &c. They must all be well
cooked, and special care taken that water does not get inside
the cloth while boiling. To turn them out nicely, dip the cloth
in cold water as soon as taken out of the pot.

Bread. — To make bread from maize-meal, it must be
worked up in the first place with boiling water, and then
the meal and water must be allowed to incorporate and
"leaven." Put the meal into a dish, add the salt, then stir
in the water boiling hot, until there is a stiff, well-mixed
batter. Let this stand covered with a cloth until it is
blood-warm, then mix yeast with the dough (a little more
than is allowed for wheat-bread) ; knead the whole
thoroughly ; don't spare the elbows. If the dough should
get sour, mix a little soda in warm water and stir it into
the dough ; mould the loaves as desired, and bake. Maize
requires longer baking than wheaten bread ; and to prevent
a hard crust forming, each loaf should be wrapped up in a
damp towel until required for use. The foregoing is a
most wholesome bread. A finer bread is made by mixing
one-half or less wheat-floui with the meal, and using warm
instead of hot water in making the dough. The other
process described answers for the remainder of the work.

Home-made Soap and Candles. — Tiie cold weather
season is the time for using up the spare tallow and fat, and
making supplies of soap and candles. To make good,
hard, white soap, we must have clean tallow or fat, lime,
and soda. If a yellowish tinge is considered desirable,
resin is used. The following proportions may be doubled
to any extent for making larger quantities ; though the
experience of makers differs a good deal about the relative

HOME HELPS. 321

proportious of fcallow, lime, soda, and water used ; but this
will be found to depend a good deal upon the heat of the
fire, hai-dness or softness of the water, all of which differ in
nearly every case, and can only be settled by experience : —

1. — 71bs. soda and 71bs. lime, to be boiled in five gallons
of water for half an hour ; when cold, pour off the clean
water or lye ; add Gibs, fat and ^Ib. resin, and boil about
4 hours ; test the soap by pouring a little upon an earthen-
ware vessel ; as soon as it acquires the right feel of soap,
pour the whole mass into a tight box of a good shape for
cutting the mass into bars when it cools. Cut it with a
thin wire, or string will do.

2.— A new branch of the soda trade now supplies caustic
aoda, which for years has been used in soap-making.
Melt your fat in plenty of water, find keep putting in small
■quantities of caustic soda, until saponification takes place.
It is well to test all your soap just as jam is tested. When
you think it looks soapy enough take out a spoonful and
put it in a mould, and if it becomes solid be satisfied.
Next apply it practically to your arms and neck, and if you
feel no smarting or irritation then your soap is right ;
but, if in washing, the skin smarts, then there is too much
caustic soda in it, and the boiling must be continued, while
fat or tallow is added in sufficient quantity to absorb the
caustic property of the soap. Lately there has been
introduced a special lye for soap-making, and by following
the directions upon the tin, a good household soap can be
made. In making soap, boil it well, and towards the end
" give it a galop," as soap-makers say, and remember that
soap, like candles, improves by keeping.

Soft-Soap. — The difference between hard and soft soap
is that soda is the alkali used for the former, and potash
for making soft-soap. It is safest to purchase the potash,
as it is not plentiful in our native timbers, but fresh ashes
from mangrove and oak may do ; swamp oak is amongst
the best for the purpose. Any sort of tallow or fat will
do if reasonably clean. When the potash is to bo got from
wood-ashes, make a hole at the bottom of a tub or barrel ;
plug up the hole, and nearly fill the barrel with wood-
ashes ; pour in as much water as the ashes will hold, and

822 AUSTBAXIAN AOEICULTUBB.

let it stand for tbree days ; run off the liquor, now called
lye, and pour in more water, until three degrees of lye are
taken from the ashes. Put the first lye into a pot with as
much tallow as it can saponify or make soapy, and boil
about three hours ; then add the second lye, and boil about
two hours more; draw off the water as it separates from
the soap, and add the third lye and boil for an hour or so,
making three boilings of about six hours in all. Allow the
mass to settle, and as it cools, draw off all water that remains
under the soap, which is then ready for use. In first
experimenting in soap-making, as in cookery and fruit-
preserving, disappointment may be a first result. It may
happen that the saponification is faulty, and if so, add a
little lye, and boil the whole over again, stirring it well in
the meantime. Many a boiling of soap is spoiled for want
of a log of wood. In making starch the laundress knows
by the appearance when the proper quantity of boiling
water has been poured in, and in the same way practice
will soon enable anyone to tell by sight when saponification
takes place. As soon as soap appears in the centre of the
boiling mass withdraw the fire, and leave the boiling
mass covered up till it partially cools before pouring it into
the moulds.

Candles. — They can be made from any tallow, but the
cleaner and firmer it is the better the candles. Equal
portions of beef and mutton tallow answer very well.
When beeswax is added, in the proportion of about 3 oz.
to a pound of tallow, we have an improved candle. Should
the fat be old, discoloured, or offensive, it can be purified
by the following simple process : Put a bucket of water
into a copper, and the fat with it. When well boiled
withdraw the fire, and sprinkle in a handful of powdered
alum, and repeat the sprinkling now and then as the tallow
cools, when it will be sweet, clean and white ; and if a
piece of rough string has been laid in the bottom of the
boiler, the alum will be found crystallized on the string,
and can be pounded up and used again. Moulds to
make half-a-dozen at a time are sold by the tiumeii. They
are rounded to a point at ono end ; through this end
twisted candle wick is passed, and fastened in the centre

HOME HELPS. 323

of the other end to a pin or skewer. The wicks should first
be dipped in alum or lime water, and dried before they are
put into the moulds, to prevent their burning too
rapidly. When the wicks are all placed, pour in the melted
tallow.

If the tallow when run into the mould be too hot it
will stick to the tin, and then the application of hot water
is necessary, which spoils the look of the candles. To
obviate this, let the tallow cool until a scum forms on the
surface. This scum begins at the edge, and moves to-
wards the centre, and it is just when the last clear spot
vanishes, that the temperature is perfect for moulding
purposes. It is better that the temperature be under than
over this degree, but if it be too cool the candles will have
a honey-combed appearance. When the candles have
thoroughly cooled, press them downwards with the thumb,
when they will give way with a click, and can be easily
drawn out with an awl.

Paint for Outside Places. — Few things please better
than a coat of paint, and the winter season is the time to
do it. Be the object a slab wall, or any rough outside
place, it is not only preserved, but the surroundings are
much improved. Amongst other compositions found
useful for this purpose, the following are favorites : —

1. — Unslacked lime 20 lbs., slake it with water,
covering during the process to keep out carbonic acid ;
strain the liquid through a fine sieve or bag, and add to it
51bs. or more salt, previously dissolved in water ; rice,
Slbs., boiled to a thin paste and stirred in boiling hot;
Spanish whitening, ^Ib. ; clean glue, lib., previously dis-
solved. Add hot water to the mixture, enough to make a
nice thick paint, stir it well, and let it stand a few days
covered from dust ; then put it on hot, if possible. This
will last on wood, stone, or brick for years, and is suitable
for coating iron roofs.

2. — "Machine," or skimmed milk, 2 quarts; fresh
slacked lime, 8 oks.; linseed oil, 4ozs.; common whitening,
3 lbs. Put the lime in a stoneware ves.sel ; put upon it
suflBcient milk to make it like thick cream ; add the oil a
little at a time; mix thoroughly ; add remainder of milk,

S24 AUSTRALIAN AORICULTURE.

then the whiteniug made fine ; strain the paint, and keep the
whole well stirred while using.

Sheep Skens for Home Use. — Make strong soapsuds
with warm water ; when cold, wash the skins in it, carefully
squeezing them between the hands to get the dirt out of
the wool ; then wash the soap out with clean cold water.
Dissolve alum and salt, each half-a-pound, in hot water,
which put in a tub of cold water sufficient to cover the
skins, and let them soak in it over night, or say for twelve
hours ; then hang over a pail to drain. When they are
well drained, spread or stretch carefully over a board to dry.
While they are still a little damp, have 1 oz. each of saltpetre
and alum pulverised, and sprinkle the flesh side of each
skin, rubbing in well ; then place two flesh sides together
and hang in the shade for two or three days, turning the
under skin uppermost every day until perfectly dry. Then
scrape the flesh side with a blunt knife to remove any
remaining scraps of flesh ; trim off projecting points, and
rub with pumice stone and with the hands ; they should be
very white and beautiful.

Kangaroo, Wallaby, 'Possum, and Smaller Skins. —
These are cured singly. Tack each skiu — using galvanised
tacks — to a board, wall or fence, spreading them fully, flesh
side out. Dissolve alum — about two ounces for a large
wallaby skin — in a pint of warm water, and with a sponge
or flannel rag dipped in this solution moisten the surface
all over ; repeat this every now and then for three or four
days. When the skin is quite dry take out the tacks, and
rolling it up loosely the long way, flesh side out, draw it
quickly backwards and forwards through a large smooth
ring, or anything of a similar kind, until it is quite soft ;
then roll it the contrary way of the skin and repeat the
operation. A very good and simple process in use in the
bush is to sprinkle the flesh side, after scraping it well,
with equal parts of pulverised salt and alum ; then fold the
flesh sides together and roll the skin compactly, in which
state it should remain ten or twelve days. Then it is
opened, and sprinkled with bran or sawdust to absorb the
moisture, and rolled up again for twenty-four hours ; the
process is completed by thorough rubbing and manipula-

HOME HELPS. 325

tion, as above, on which the pliability depends. Skins,
when taken off, should be freed from grease or flesh by
thorough scraping, when they may be dried, and left to
wait the leisure of the owner.

Indian Soft Skins. — Trappers wash animal skins with
soap and soda to free them from grease, then rinse them in
clean water to cleanse them from the suds, then rub as dry
as possible ; after which the skins are put into a mixture of
two ounces of salt to a quart of water containing one ounce
of sulphuric acid added to three quarts of milk or bran-
water, and stirred briskly for forty or fifty minutes ; from
this the skins are put into a solution of soda, and stirred till
they will no longer foam ; then they are hung up to dry.

Medical Help in Emergencies. — To the timid mind
there is something dreadful in the idea of meeting an
accident, or being taken sick in places beyond the
reach of medical aid, and the feeling is natural. Visitations
of the kind are amongst*the distressing features of life in
the bush, when those concerned have not the skill or the
courage necessary to help themselves, or to help another in
a case of emergency. But, fortunately, colonists are seldom
80 placed. The amount of downright medical skill afloat
in the bush might seem surprising. It is seldom that one
comes to a station, a plantation, a large work in progress,
or other place where bodies of men are collected, without
hearing of one or more who can treat an accident or
ordinary ailment in case of emergency. It is an admirable
peculiarity of bush life, and one that will be still more
extensively cultivated as the medical school becomes a more
general colonial institution.

The following notes — always keeping in mind the
remedies likely to be available in the bush — have been put
together with the view of aiding those in a pinch while
beyond medical aid. It is in every case the desirable and
safest course to call in a medical man, if one can be
reached; but in the meantime it is simply the duty of
those around the sufferer to help — to do whatever can
be done.

Flesh Wounds.— These are of various kinds-
punctured, a tear, a bruise, a shot, &c. The first, in a

826 AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTUBB.

warm climate, is dangerous. It may lead to lock-jav7 and
other serious consequences. The first care is to extract
any substance that is left in the wound, and if this can be
done without exhausting the patient it should never be
omitted, although the pain may be severe. If this cannot
be acccomplished, wash the wound and apply poultices to
encourage the injured part to suppurate or throw out the
foreign substance. In other cases the parts of the wound
should be brought together as naturally as possible, and
either held in place by means of a stitch or two brought
through the skin with an ordinary needle and thread, or
by strips of adhesive plaster or bandages. Nature is very
kind in such cases, and if the patient is kept clean and
quiet, and the bowels are kept regular, the cure may prove
rapid. Where the wound is on the face, or other part
where a mark tends to disfigure, the bandages should be
covered with oiled silk, or cotton, or rubber, to exclude
the air. At times a poultice of gum-leaves (boiled if
possible) is tied around the wound. To relieve pain, an
effective plan is to burn sugar in a pan, and hold the
wounded part in the smoke that arises.

The Head — Broken Bones. — The colonial "buster,"
or fall from horseback, very often results in a damaged
head, or in dislocation of an arm or leg, or both. Falling
timber gives very bad wounds, and the sufferer has to be
treated with every consideration and care. In such cases
no time should be lost in securing the best medical aid
available. But at once lay out the patient where he will
be easy and quiet ; cut the hair from the wounded part ;
wash it clean, and bring the parts together with a plaster
or with bandages. Stitches are not desirable in wounds of
the head, as anything irritating is liable to bring on
erysipelas. When the scalp has been injured by severe
bruises, warm-water dressings will in general be found the
best application, unless there be considerable heat and
inflammation, when, if procurable, a lotion of sugar of
lead, in the proportion of 2 drachms of the sugar of lead to
a pint of water and 2 ounces of vinegar, is to be applied
slightly warmed, on pieces of lint or linen. Owing to the
number of pieces of bone composing the skull, a simple

HOME HELPS. 327

fracture seldom extends far, as it is usually confined to one
bone ; in such cases the fracture may be a mere crack, as
in a pane of glass, and perfect quietude with the necessary
precautionary measures in keeping down inflammation,
and keeping off flies, may be sufficient.

General Treatment. — The object is not to cure broken
bones, but to get the broken ends into their proper places,
and keep them there. A door, a flour-sack cut open, a
sheet of bark, or a blanket fastened at the four corners to
two saplings, makes a hammock, on which an injured
person can be placed. In case of injury to the arm or hand,
a splint is helpful, but whatever is used let it be long
enough to reach from the elbow to a little beyond the ends
of the fingers. Cover this with anything soft, then not
only the arm but the hand will rest comfortably. The
hand must not hang lower than the elbow. In cases where
the patient is insensible, lay him gently in a dry, quiet
place, and in the most natural position possible. Keep the
mouth and nose clean, keep ofl" flies or insects, and keep up
the heat of the body with warm clothes, tins of hot water,
stones, or anything handy. Stimulants should be used
with the greatest caution, as tending to excite and bring
on inflammation.

Burns and Scalds. — Keep the air from the injured
parts. Cover the injured parts ; cloth, cotton, if possible
(but anything in an emergency), white of an egg, flour, oil,
or starch, are useful agents for that purpose. When a
person is discovered on fire, he or she should be brought to
the ground as speedily as possible, with the double object
of smothering the fire and covering the injured parts. A
coat, a blanket, a sack, anything that will keep away the
air and smother the fire should be wrapped around the
sufferer. Do not attempt to tear off the clothes ; smother
out the fire ; that is the best thing that can be done. Do
not take off anything that adheres to the flesh. Cover all
sores with flour, white of egg, molasses, or soap, or
starch, or oil, and put poultices of bread or bran over any
burnt pieces of cloth that may cling to the wound. They
will come off freely in five or six days, when a new skin
has formed. Do not puncture or peel off any of the skin ;

AUSTRALIAN AQEICDLTURE.

it is the best possible covering. In cases of prostration or
great shock to the system, stimulants may be given, such
as brandy, and warm-water bottles, bricks, stones, or any-
thing that will keep up the natural body heat should be
applied to the feet, under the arms, &c.

Gum Leaves and Banana Leaves for Wounds, Sore
Eyes, &c. — The leaves of the gums generally, and of the
plantain or banana, form useful applications, thus . — As a
dressing for blistered surfaces, for which purpose they are
admirably adapted in hot climates. After the removal of
a blister, gum leaves, or a piece of plantain leaf smeared or
coated with oil, should be applied to the denuded surface,
and kept in its place by means of a bandage. The first
sensation it occasions is peculiarly cooling and soothing, and
the blistered surface generally heals satisfactorily. For
the first two days the upper smooth surface is placed next
to the skin, and Subsequently the under side, until the
healing process is complete. It should be changed twice
daily, or oftener if required. As a substitute for india-
rubber or guttapercha coverings in the water dressing of
wounds and ulcers, banana leaf is decidedly good ; the
younger the leaf the better it is suited for this purpose.
Two points require attention — (1) the piece used should be
sufficiently large to cover or envelope the whole part; and
(2) it should be carefully kept in its place by bandages, &c.
If properly applied, evaporation of the natural fluids is
effectually prevented. As a shade for the eyes, in
ophthalmia and other diseases of the eye, no manufactured
shade is superior to banana leaf. The older and greener
leaves answer best for this purpose.

AcciDBNTAL PoiSGNiNQ. — Some one has said that there
is poison in everything, and, in fact, we do find ourselves
surrounded with, and daily using, articles that in unskilful,
careless, or thoughtless hands are dangerous to human life.

Poisonous Plants. — No better general rule can be laid
down for the detection of poisonous plants than that nature
has made them nauseous to the palate of both man and
beast. There are exceptions to this rule, as for instance,
the '' poison plant" of Northern Queensland, the lantana
seeds, the " native currant," and a few others that are rather

HOME HELPS. 829

pleasant than otherwise to the palate ; but the poisonous
qualities of these things* operate by preventing digestion,
and they are removed with comparative ease from the
human stomach by the aid of warm water, mustard, salt
and water, or other emetic. The real poison plants have
generally a milky, bitter juice, disagreeable to both taste
and smell, and without exception it is very painful should
a drop get into a sore or the eye. Treat them as acids.

Prompt action is everything in cases of accidental
poisoning. Seconds, not hours, are at our disposal to
apply a remedy, and in places where medical aid is not at
once obtainable, and where no other guide is handy, the
following may prove useful in case of emergency : —

Arsenic — Paris green, green colourings, ague drops,
rat and dog poison, &c. — Symptoms : Pain and burning
heat of stomach, dryness of throat, cramps, purging, and
vomiting. Treatment : Give large quantities of milk and
raw eggs, lime-water, or flour and water; then castor -oil.

Strychnine — Dog and rat poison, &c., nux vomica. —
Symptoms : Twitching of the muscles, convulsions, lock-
jaw, or the body is bent backwards. Treatment : Try to
empty the stomach by an emetic, then give linseed-tea or
barley-water, and to an adult thirty drops of laudanum
occasionally to relieve the spasms. Hurry for a medical
man.

Acids — Oxalic, sulphuric (vitriol), nitric (aqua fortis),
muriatic (spiut of salt), carbolic. — Symptoms: Horrible
burning sour pain from the mouth downwards. The skin
of the lips, mouth and throat may be dissolved. Treat-
ment : Water or milk in quantity, carbonate of soda,
magnesia, whiting, chalk, or lime-water ; or knock a piece
of plaster off the wall, pound it small, and give it in milk
or water. While one person attends to this, let another cut
some common soap into small bits, and give a teaspoonful
with water, or a tablespoonful of soft soap.

Laudanum. — Opium, paregoric, soothing syrup, syrup
of poppies, &c. — Symptoms : Giddiness, stupour, the pupil
of the eye very small, lips blue, skin cold, heavy, slow
breathing. Treatmeut : Empty the stomach as quickly as
possible by vomiting ; hot water, mustard and water, salt,

AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTUBE.

or soap, or tickle the throat with anything that is handiest.
Then for an adnit, if it can be got, give fifteen grains of
sulphate of zinc in a little water ; to a young person half
the quantity; to an infant a teaspoonful of ipecacuanha
wine. After vomiting, give plenty of very strong coffee,
put a mustard plaster round the calf of each leg, and if
cold and sinking give spirits and water. Get medical help.
Keep the patient roused till the effect has passed off by
beating the soles of the feet, walking, or dashing cold
water on the face. Remember that if the patient goes to
sleep at this stage it is the sleep of death.

Slnstroke. — When the temperature rises over 100
degrees, and the weather is moist, care is necessary to
prevent the exhausting effects of so great a heat. Temper-
ance in living is of the first importance in this respect — not
temperance in eating and drinking only, but in the clothing
worn, in government of the temper, &c. As means of
prevention, it is advisable to wear head-coverings that,
while light, give shade and air to the head and neck. For
these purposes the colonial shell-hat, and calico or other
pugaree attachments, are good. Loose clothing should be
worn, and of the lightest possible colour. The symptoms
of an attack are sharp pains in the head and giddiness, and
unless the patient is of very strong nerve, and can get
under shade at once, he falls to the ground insensible — the
victim of over-heated blood. To cool the temperature of
the body, by applying water all over, and by exposing as
much of the body to the coolest possible currents of air, are
means of the first consideration. Bleeding is often effective,
and the application of mustard poultice to the back of the
neck, rubbing the spine with spirits, ammonia, or turpen-
tine, are all aids towards recovering the patient. Some-
times a man exposed to the direct rays of the sun is struck
down without any warning ; and sometimes the high
temperature of the atmosphere under cover, or at night,
especially if the air be fouled by defective ventilation, may
induce symptoms of sunstroke. Whatever checks per-
spiration, whatever induces nerve-weariness, or emtarrasses
the normal working of the organic system, powerfully
predisposes to heat fever, or apoplexy.

HOME HELPS. 331

Snake Bites. — Australian snakes, with few exceptions,
are timid, and get out of the way. But at the season of
the year when snakes are pairing (during January and
February) they are less timid and more dangerous than
usual. In the event of being bitten, the following may be
of value : — In former times everything in the shape of a
snake was considered poisonous ; but of late years colonists
know that many of the more common snakes, notably the
carpet species, are not poisonous. The death adder is the
really dangerous reptile of the snake tribe, because it is
sluggish, at all times, and retains its position until touched,,
when it bites instantly. None of the snakes are known to
attack ; they bite only wheu disturbed in logs or elsewhere^
or when trodden upon by men or animals. They are easily
disabled, and seldom escape when attacked with a whip,
stick, or other weapon. Most snakes move about at night,,
and lie in a semi-dormant state during the winter months,
in logs, hollow trees, amongst stones, heaps of bark, &c»
It is in all cases advisable to have a stick handy, and to
look cautiously about when working near places that give
cover to snakes. In the event of a bite, the flesh around
the wound, to the size of a sixpence, should be cut away to
the depth of about an eighth of an inch, or scarified at once
to cause a free flow of blood, and warm water applied to
induce bleeding. The late Dr. Bancroft, of Brisbane,
recommended the immediate application of leeches to the
wound to be effective, and leeches are plentiful enough in
scrubs, swamps, &c. A bandage or piece of cord should,
if practicable, be tied tightly between the wound and the
heart, and the blood and poison sucked out with vigour.
If the patient cannot do this himself, there is no great risk
to another person doing so, as snake poison is dangerous
only when it comes in contact with a wound. Drowsiness
is the first symptom of snake poison ; and as soon as it
appears every effort should be employed to keep the patient
awake by moving him about, rubbing, &c. ; medical aid
should bo called in as rapidly as possible. Stimulants are
valuable in such cases. If bleeding the wound has been
neglected, then much depends on giving large doses of
stimulants, whisky, brandy, rum, weak ammonia, &c.

832 AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.

Apparent Death from Drowning — The following
instructions for restoring persons apparently drowned are
issued by the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Send
immediately for medical aid, blankets and dry clothing, but
proceed to treat the patient instantly, on the spot, in the
open air, with the face downward whether on shore or
afloat ; exposing the face, neck, and chest to the air,
except in severe weather, and removing all tight clothing
from the neck and chest, especially the braces. The points
to be aimed at are — first and immediately, the restorauion
of breathing ; and secondly, after breathing is restored,
the promotion of warmth and circulation. The efforts to
restore breathing must be commenced immediately and
energetically, and persevered in for one or two hours, or
until a medical man lias pronounced that life is extinct.
Efforts to promote warmth and -circulation, beyond remov-
ing the wet clothes and drying the skin must not be made
until the first appearance of natural breathing. For if
circulation of the blood is induced before breathing has
recommenced, the restoration of life will be endangered.

To Imitate the Movement of Breathing. — Standing at
the patient's head, grasp the arms just above the elbows,
and draw the arms gently and steadily upwards above the
head and keep them stretched upwards for two seconds.
(By this means air is drawn into the lungs.) Then turn
down the patient's arms and press them gently and firmly
against the sides of the chest. (By this means air is
pressed out of the lungs.) Repeat the movements alter-
nately and perseveringly about fifteen times in a minute,
nntil a spontaneous effort to breathe is perceived, imme-
diately upon which cease to imitate the movements of
breathing and proceed to induce circulation and warmth.

Treatment After Natural Breathing has been Restored.
— Rub the limbs upwards, with firm, grasping pressure
and energy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c. (by this
measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the
heart). Promote the warmth of the body by the applica
tion of hot flannels, bottles of hot water, heated stones,
bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between
the thighs, and the soles of the feet. If the patient has

HOME HELPS. 333

been carried to a house after respiration has been restored,
be careful to let the air play freely within the room. On
the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should
be given ; and then, if the power of swallowing has
returned, sma 1 quantities of wine, braudy-and -water, or
coffee, should be administered. The patient should be
kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged.

Exposure and Starvation. — The time during which a
human being can exist without food depends upon his
mode of life, his temperament, and his bodily condition.
Well authenticated cases have come to notice of persons
being in the bush without food for ten or twelve days, and
still alive. In these cases the mind has been affected before
the person had disappeared, and the body did not crave
that regular solid nutriment demanded by a healthy
organization. In such cases it is almost certain also that
the sufferers had obtained water, with the aid of which
human nature holds out much longer. In ordinary cases
the bodily powers are exhausted in four days ; delirium
sets in and completes the destruction. With water, a cool,
collected man has held out for seven days and nights, and
still retained his faculties. Children have been known to
live five days without food. It is curious that children
discover food material in the native plants and grasses
much more readily than adults. The chapter on
"Attractions of Plant Life" is well worthy of study. in
this connection. Even a slight acquaintance with ♦■-he
indigenous vegetation discloses many sources for the
support of life. On reaching a person exhausted
by hunger, great caution is necessary. Milk is the
best of all nourishment in such cases ; next to it is
bread and water, reduced to the consistency of milk.
Whatever is given must be in small qu intities — the eager-
ness of the starving person to h;ive nourishment must be
restrained. Stimulants are worse than dangerous, and
should on no account be given to a person exhausted by
hunger. Put warm clotl ing around the sufferer, lay hina
in bed, if possible, but not so near a fire as to get direct
heat, and so gently nurse the nearly exhausted spark of life
into fresh vigour.

884 AUSTRALIAN AGBICOLTURK.

XXV f.— REMINDERS FOR SEASONABLE WORK.

As explained in the opening chapter (page 14) the seasons in Australia
may be classed as Sprimj, commencing in August ; Summer, in November ;
Autumn, in February; and Winter, in May. With such modifications as
may arise from the location in which we may he operating, this classifica-
tion answers very well in order to form a fair idea of the usual weather of
the season in view, and the crops and crop treatment most suitable

For detailed information concerning the seasons, the rainfall, prevail-
ing winds. &c. , perusal and study of Chapter I., and the records and
reports of the Meteorological Observer, are recommended.

FIELD WORK FOR I'HE SPRING SEASON.
August, September, October.

Usual Weather. — The temperature of both air and soil, and the sun
heat rises sensibly during August. The native grasses, shrubs and trees,
and many spring herbs, show evidences of warmer weather. As do stone
fruits in the earlier sections of the country. Wheat, oats, barley, and
other cold season field crops, make active growth. Rain usually comes in
light showers. Heavy dews have a stimulating efifect upon vegetation.
Dry weather is indicated by westerly winds, and shelter from them is a
decided advantage.

Planting. — Where early ploughing has been followed, we can, with but
a light fall of rain, get in corn, sorghum, millet, chicory, artichokes, and
summer crops generally. For all these crops well prepared manure is
advantageous. It is at this stage where real skill comes into Australian
farming. (Read up the chapters on " Cultivation, Manuring, and Irriga-
tion " carefully. ) Add mineral fertilisers, such as sulphate of ammonia,
potash, and phosphates, to the manure heap, where one or more are
necessary for the crop in hand, composting them with coarser stuff in
accordance with the wants of the crop.

Maize. — May be planted from August onwards. Where a start has
been got, and the crop is showing up, the safe prospect for bringing maize
on to maturity is in keeping the surface soil loose. This prevents rapid
evaporation of the moisture in the soil, of which growing corn takes the
full benefit, and the land is in the best condition for absorbing any showers
that may fall.

Wheat. — Usually sown during May, earlier or later, according to
location. The crop is well grown by August. The risky time for rust
comes towards the end of October and November. Harvesting appliances
may be got in order, so that should the enemy appear during muggy warm
weather, the rusted pieces can be cut out at once. Stuff thus cut may be
teeful for hay. If rusted patches are allowed to stand the disease spreads
quickly, and may ruin the whole crop.

. Selecting Wheat for Seed. — As wheat approaches ripeness, real good
work can be done by selecting wheat ears that ripen early and clean. Dry
seasons may develop very superior varieties of wheat. It is by such means
that the very finest sorts have been got.

SBASONAULE BEHINDER8. 335

Potatoes, Swedes aud Mangolds. — Usually planted earlier in the
season, but with rain in the late districts these root crops may be got in
still. In the wanner districts they should be so well forward that hilling
up and thinning comes into the seasonable work.

Beets. — For either sugar or feed, beet seed may be sown now. From
ten to fifteen pounds of seed per acre.

Onions. — Thinning is especially necessary during dry spells. For this
crop, the soil must be kept clean and open, and the plants so thinned out
that heavy, solid bulbs are got. Where sowing has still to be done, the
seed should be drilled into the rows so that transplanting will be unneces-
sary.

Pumpkins and Melons. — Every available spare piece of land may be
got to yield these crops during summer ; plant now. They keep weeds in
check, and mellow down new rough land for future cropping.

Buckwheat. — Where wheat, oats, barley, or other cold weather crops
have missed, this is an excellent catch crop, and is well worth being tried
on land that is not required for other purposes.

Rye. — Tliis is a rapid-growing crop, and does well during spring
weather. When vetches are put in with rye the combination makes excel-
lent feed for cutting green or for ensilage.

Grass Land. — When dry spells occur during spring, there is opportu-
nity for freeing the land from sorrel, docks, thistles, and other weeds.
They all suffer witli the spring grasses. The latter grow quickest when
rain falls on soil that is warm, and weeds can be still further checked by
pulling them out as they appear. Top-dressing with manure, and harrow-
ing the dry soil, helps the grasses to get ahead of their weed enemies,
amongst which " tussock grass" is becoming very serious.

VEGETABLE GARDEN.

Crops Available. — The variety for spring cropping is enormous, and a
good deal can be done to help them on during dry spells with but a little
water. Beans, both dwarf and climbers, tomatoes, peas, cucumbers,
marrows, and melons being in the list of crops for sowing and planting at
this time. C/'abbage, lettuce, and salads, also beets, for home use can be
kept going all through the season.

The Cabbage Tril)e. — Good sorts for planting for spring and summer
growth are Colonial King and St. John's Day. Tiiey stand hot weather
better than the earlier kinds.

Mulching. — As warm weather advances, and especially during dry
times we find the benefit of having plenty of short stuff for mulching.
Witli its aid seedlings can be kept going, and great growth can begot with
very little water.

Beans. — Dwarf beans are always in favour. Canmlian Wonder and
Negro Eye still hold leading place, and many other sorts also deserve
attention. They all reijuire fairly rich soil, and planting in rows from
two feet to thirty inclies apart. The seed is dr()])ped into the furrows
about three inches apart, and thinned out to about six.

Climber Beans. — 'I'lie Lima and others are held in high esteem for
quality. They do best on poles about six feet higli, or on such trellis as
are illustrated in the chapter on " Home (iardening. " The rows may be
four feet apart, and the plants from eighteen inches to three feet apart.

AUSTRALIAN AORICDLTURE.

Depth for Plan ting Beans. — Not deeper than two inches. There are
disappointments every season from planting too deep.

White Com. — This delicious vegetable, which might be an item in
every garden, may be planted now. It is an agreeable, healthy product,
and as suitable for small as larger places. Plant in rows from three and
a-half to four feet apart. The plants to stand about one foot apart.

Water Cress. — Set out sods of roots, or single plants. Running water
is an advantage, but not absolutely necessary. An occasional soaking, just
to keep the soil moist, is sufficient.

Salads being in great demand as hot weather advances, frequent
sowings of lettuce, cress, &c. , may be made. The best summer sorts of
lettuce are those of the drumhead class, which comprises many good
varieties. The chief properties of good lettuce are crispness and sweet-
ness. To develop these qualities, rapid growth and very rich soil are neces-
sary. For lettuce, indeed, as for celery, the soil cannot be too rich.

Celery — Plant out, and earth up earlier lots to secure tender, crispstems.

Radish and Parsnips. — They may be sown together, and fair crops of
radish may be got by thinning before the parsnips require the land.

Asparagus. — Where water can be given, cutting may go on till
Christmas ; ahhough, November very generally sees the end of this
delicious vegetable.

Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Melons. — They may be planted. Creeping and
climbing plants all require watering. Where plants are not making strong
growth, fewer shoots should be allowed and fewer fruits produced. Water
melons should not have as many shoots as rouk melons. A water-melon
plant with eight shoots, each carrying one fruit in the first instance, is
about a useful arrangement. Where cucumbers can be trained upon banks
of loose stuflF they fruit their very best.

FRUIT GARDEN

Summer Pruning. — Careful thinning of fruit trees is labour well
bestowed. We can get quite as much weight of crop in smaller numbers
of larger size, and much finer quality than when trees are crowded with
small, woody specimens. We can also save the trees from a heavy strain
of seed bearing, and much heavy pruning in winter by thinning out badly-
placed and over-bearing shoots at this time.

Grafting. — In the late districts, orange grafting is in season. Both
buds and grafts that have taken require attention, by loosening the
bandages and making grafts secure against heavy winds.

How Much Fruit on a Tree ? — There is an ordinary calculation by
fruit-growers who aim at making produce of the highest quality. It is to
thin out until about six inches of space is allowed to each fruit on the tree.
This rule applies with good effect to apples, apricots, peaches and oranges.
Of course, observation, experience, and practice are all required to be able
to work out the system effectively.

Spraying. — Aphis may become bad as warm weather is felt on the
early peaches and plums. They must be checked at once, or there will be
serious trouble. Soda, resin, petroleum, kerosene, soft soap, and other
sprays, are effective preventatives against the increase of these destructive
pests.

SKASONABLK KBMINDKRS. 337

Grape Vines. — ^They are shooting out new growth freely now. Thin
out all undergrowth and such shoots as may not be required, tying up
the growing limbs snugly. Use the sprayers with soluble sulphur com-
pounds freely to keep fungus in check.

Grubs and Caterpillars. — Moths — codlin moth amongst them — and
butterflies may l)e around, and the eggs they lay hatch out into the grubs
and caterpillars which eat off leaves and plants as the warm weather
advances. Bordeaux mixture, with a little Paris green in it, settles them.

Strawberries. — They should be fruiting freely, but require stimulating
by liquid manure and cultivation to keep up the growth with eflfect.
Roots intended to produce plants for setting out should not be allowed to
fruit. To check leaf blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Gooseberries, Raspberries, &c. — Keep the young growth well oflf the
ground by pinching oft l)atlly-placed shoots, and so secure fine fruit and
prevent mildew. During dry weather, weak liquid manure helps the crops
on very much.

Stocks for Fruit Trees. — Sow now the seeds of peach, almond, plum,
orange, lemon, loquat, and other fruit trees saved when the fruit was
ripe. It is from seedlings got in this way that the best stocks for buddirg
and grafting are got.

SHRUBS AND FLOWERS.

Native Plants. — They are amongst the attractive things in the garden
during springtime, especially the heaths. They resist the dry weather so
well. And on their merits of beauty many native plants deserve attention
and a place in both outdoor and indoor gardening.

Sowing. — The seeds that can be put in to secure plants and flowers
for the warm weather season include amaranthus, candytuft, dianthus,
gaillardia, larkspurs, lobelia, pansy, petunia, stocks, and hosts of others.

Annuals. — Planting out may be carried on as actively as may be neces-
sary to fill in all the space available. The selection of seeds for annuals is
enormous.

The Daffodil Family. — Jonquils, polyanthus, in addition to the always
favourite daffodils, should be plentiful, where the directions given for
planting and for the cultivation of bulbs have been followed.

Other Bulbs. — We can now get in the first of the double-flowering
dahlias, making the soil r<.ch and loose for their rooting in full strength.

Roses. — They require extra care at this time, now that the growth of
the season is fairly commenced. Look out for aphis. Pinch out all badly-
placed buds ; keep mildew in check, and encourage firm, healthy growtli,
which is the really natural state of the Teas, Hybrids, and Noisettes in
this country. Neglect is fatal to the whole rose family.

Climbers. — They re(juire close attention where the buds are breaking
into flower and leaf. Tie them up snugly and to such supports as will pre-
vent their being knocke<l about by heavy winds.

Hollyhocks and Carnations. — lk)th of these families are the l)etter of
applications of bone manure where it can \>e applied without making the
•urf8u:e unsightly, or liquid manure in other situations.

Thinning — Summer Pruning.— There should l)e heavy growths of buds

8S8 AUSTRALIAN AGBICDLTURB.

now, and tbiuniug out is highly beneficial to prevent overcrowding, and
to give us vigorous, healthy, fine flowers.

Violets and Pansies. — They are just coming to perfection. The flower-
ing is helped by the process recommended for hollyhocks, &c.

Grass. — Now is the time to make a firm foundation for grass, whether
edgings, plots, or the larger pieces for lawns or playgrounds. See that
every weed is got out, mow closely, and add to the surface a light or a
heavier coating as may be required of rich soil. Roll firmly where the soil
is dry, and the results include firm soles of rich grass that delight the eye
all through the summer.

BUSH-HOUSE AND CONSERVATORY.

More Bush-house Shelter. — Look up the chapter on flower gardening.
The bush house is in reality the very backbone of flower successes during
spring as well as summer weather.

Ferns. — They hold out better than most things during dry spells.
Cut off all decayed fronds to give strength to others. Most ferns do best
with shade, but there are exceptions. Cheilanthes, Woodsias, Pellseas,
NorthocI%nas, Ac, are better without it, and thrive in the full light and
with abundance of air. Gold and silver ferns, too, in a modified degree, do
admirably under very similar treatment. The Filmy ferns, Todeas, Tri-
chomanes, &c. , which in nature are found growing under dense shade or
overhanging rocks, and in many cases under a constant drip of water,
must have special shelter.

Fuchsias. — They start ofiF into summer growth, but suflFer badly with-
out water. Liquid manure helps to keep up the vitality, as it does all
Boft-Mooded plants breaking into flower and leaf.

Propagating. — By division of the roots, and by cuttings, many soft-
wooded plants just starting into growth can be increased at this time.
For making cuttings root freely, sandy soil is best.

The Newly Potted. — If at all possible, let the roots have the moisture
they require direct, by setting the pots in water. Water that haa come
through pipes, carrying, as most of it does, iron in a bad form, should be
avoided. Rain water is best, and, where possible, a tank should be re-
served for sprinkling.

Renewing. — Pots that have to be used again, and woodwork that
shows signs of decay, will be all the better of renewing now to prevent
spread of fungus growths, which are always active at this time.

SEMI-TROPICAL CULTIVATION.

In the Paddock and Field. — The true spring of Australia is felt with
full force in the warmer sections of country. Grass begms to make active
growth. Sugar-cane can be planted ; also maize, sorglium, sweet potatoes,
yams, arrowroot, tobacco, and crops for feed. Look up the chapter on
Semi-Tropioal Cultivation.

In the Garden. — Bananas, pineapples, mangoes, and tropical fruits
generally of the evergreen type, can be set out.

Shrubs and Flowers. — Our dependence during the next six months will
be for floral beauties upon the thousand and one shrubs that can be grown
in the open air. Annuals are not so satisfactory for summer flowering.

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 339

The bush-house is our mainstay for ferns, fuchsias, gloxinias, primulas,
mimulas, azaleas, rhododendrons, and other beauties, which require arti-
ficial warmth in the colder south. Water and shade, with shelter from
winds, are our requirements to have a steady blaze of flowers and foliage
all through the summer season.

SUMMER FIELD A.ND GARDEN OPBR ACTIONS.

November, December, January.

Summer Weather. — We can be certain of having heat enough during
this and the two months following. Rain is more uncertain. Heavy
thunderstorms have been common in November in former years ; so have
dry spells.

Summer Farming. — Our most certain course of action now, seeing
that we are fairly in for summer heat, is to get all the work we can done
by the cultivators ; to have the surface loose and open, so as to keep the
crops growing by taking in all the rain tliat falls, and so resist the etfects
of dry spells.

Feed for Winter. —Now is the time to get in winter feed for making
ensilage or hay. In no part of the world are more suitable or heavier
yielding crops available. (See chapter xvii. — Dairying.)

Wheat. — Harvesting commences in the early districts northwards
in November, and reapers and binders require to be got into thorough
working order for the crop.

Select Seed Wheat — Harvest is the time to do it. By marking off the
pieces that are most thrifty and suitable for the district. Such wheat,
when allowed to ripen thorouglily, and then threshed out by hand, gives
the best promise we know of for seed wheat.

Maize. — Go on planting, giving the crop all the manure that can
be spared. Maize will take any quantity of it, and any sort available,
though manures rich in ammonia and phosphates are the best. Manure
means big cobs and plenty of them.

Harvesting for Hay. — Oats, barley, rye, and vetches are all ripening
for the harvest, whether for hay or ensilage.

Catch Crops. — Cape barley is very quick, so is buckwheat, and either
or both of them may be sown at this time where there is land available
that is not wanted for other crops

Potatoes.— Care is required now. Where they have l)een hilled up,
And all weeds killed, very little need be done until they are fit for digging,
but when ripe, dig at once, or they may start growing again. Stirring of
the soil is as likely to injure as bcaefit potatoes in growth during the
warm season. In the warmer sections potatoes are planted in January
and February.

Tobacco. — This crop recjuires constant attention from sec<ling to
harvesting. It should now be showing for the full crop of leaf, and in
addition to such cultivation as kecits tiic land clean and open, (lowering
buds have to be pinched off, ancl the leaf thinned until eight, ten, or
twelve leaves are left upon a stem, according to its strength. This
treatment tends to mature an<l ripen tlie crop for harvesting.

840 AUSTKALIAN AGKICCJLTIJRB.

Chicory. — Seed may be sown for chicory as a fodder crop and for
ensilage. Febnxary sowing answers better for the roots used with coffee.

Oil and Fibre Crops. — Linseed, hemp, castor oil, and oil and fibre
seeds generally may be sown.

Harvesting Seeds. — Lucerne and clover seed may ^be left as long as
possible — that is, until they commence to shell out naturally — before
reaping. The more matured the seed the better it is.

VEGETABLE GARDENIN(J.

For Christmas. — It is looking forward certainly, but it is worth while
sowing what lettuce, mustard, and cress, and such other salad comforts as
may be all the more welcome at Christmas. Sow now in rows, and thus
avoid transplanting.

Beans. — They are the basis of our summer supplies. Dwarfs and
climbing beans do well all over the country, and may be planted to any
extent required for home use or marketing.

Saving Seed. — The better course is to allow all the fruit on a few
rows of peas and beans to go to seed. When some are picked and others
allowed to ripen on the same plant the seed is weak, and fails to give
satisfactory results.

Asparagus and Rhubarb. — Both should be coming on to ripeness for
summer supplies. They reouire about the same treatment — nice, clean,
open cultivation, with liquid manure, where vigour is necessary to keep
a strong growth going.

Onions. — The early plantings should be coming on nicely, nd are all the
better of the treatment recommended for asparagus. Later sorts may
still be sown, but in the rows where they are to grow when thinned out.

Cucumbers and Melons. — For fruiting, let the vines, if at all possible,
raise themselves off the ground. They fruit better when there is plenty of
air about them, and are more free from attacks of grubs.

Tomatoes. — They also are all the better of being raised off the ground,
and both are the better of liquid manure, which shows immediate effects
when applied to the soil direct during dry weather.

For Winter Crops. — We have to commence now for winter cropping.
Lettuce for summer and autumn may be sown at any time, and, provided
the seed is good, always yield to some extent. Sow tlie seed now in the
rows, so that there need be no transplanting. Towards the end of
November, and during December and January, seed-beds of cabbage and
cauliflower may be started to supply early plants.

FRUIT GARDEN.

To Bring On Heavy Crops. — Active work is necessary, whether the
season be dropping and vigorous for growth, or dry and backward.
During the former, surface culture keeps rampant growtli in check ; in
backward weather it stimulates the crops.

Thinning. — Unless this is attended to, poor fruits are sure to follow.
Peaches, apricots, plums, and grapes all suffer from this cause. In a few
hours spent now in careful thinning, rubbing or breaking out buds and
shoots, more effective work can be done than during houri spent in winter
pruning.

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 341

Spraying. — A necessary part of orchard work here as elsewhere.
Fungus growths and insects multiply immensely unless checked. With
the use of sprays good service is done at the right time.

Cultivation. — Keep the surface soil loose. That is the key to success
during the summer season. It may be done by coating the surface soil
with a few inches of bush scrapings, leaves, &c., where such eflfective helps
to orcharding can be obtained.

Citrus Fruits. — Lemon or orange trees suffer badly when dead or
decaying wood is allowed to increase on the branches. The presence of
even a few dried-up shoots is indication that there is more on the tree than
it can support. Use the pruners freely, and clear out all such drawbacks
to orangft and lemon culture. Mulching and the use of bush scrapings, as
recommended in the preceding paragraph, is more suitable than surface
cultivation for this family.

Stocks for Citrus Fruits. — As the season of growth proceeds, observat-
ion is helpful in guidance as to whether seedling oranges, or lemon or orange
stocks, are best for budding or grafting. The belief that the lemon is the
stock for lemons and the orange for orange is coming more generally into
favour.

Olives. — The time is suitable for planting cuttings or truncheons of
suitable sorts to make trees. From the older plants, and, indeed, from all
orchard trees, all suckers, and bad and rampant-growing shoots, should
be removed as soon as they appear.

Trees Fruiting. — Figs, guavas, loquats, mulberries, cherries, plums,
peaches, and others now developing fruit, are aided during dry spells
by even moderate soakings of water. See chapter on "Irrigation"
for methods of application.

Budding. — As the buds for next season's growth mature, after the fruit
is oflF, budding commences. (See page 265).

Strawl)errie8. — Where strong plants were set out on richly-manured
land, and the enemy of the strawberry (the leaf fungus) has been kept in
check, this fruit should be showing up well. Strawberries are helped in
fruiting by mulching and watering.

Tomatoes. — Give licjuid manure, and keep the vines well off the ground
on trellis or other supports, in order to get heavy, clean crops.

Grape Vines. — They should l)e in full growth now. Use sulphur freely;
thin out l)adly-placed shoots, and tie up the stragglers.

FLOWERS AND SHRUBS.

Roses — The "queen of flowers" has the lead at this time, and when
carefully attended to the response is very handsome. Seldom have there
been finer flowers than during October, but as soon as tiiey have passed
their prime, pinch them off, m order to give the swelling buds the sap
they require. All approach towards seed-forming is fatal to flowering.
The very early roses may be budded.

Propagating. — Roses that were shy of making roots from cuttings
earlier in the season may he induced to root now. Shade and shelter
from winds help rooting. Petunias respond to the same treatment.
Herbaceous plants generally may also be induced to root from cuttings at
this time

842 AOSTKALIAN AGRICDLT'JKB.

Layering. — Choice roses and flowering shrubs may be layered, and a
little mulch, and an occasional watering will prompt them ta
make roots the sooner.

Bulbs. — Set out gladioli, dahlias, tube-roses, and trigardias for suc-
cessional blooming. The earlier dahlias and gladioli require staking, and
liquid manure is helpful where the growth is not vigorous enough.

Ferns. — Cut out all the rusty fronds ; give shade, part of the day at
least, and water freely where there is vigorous growth.

Annuals. — They are getting out of season, although developed seedlings
may be set out. Balsams, zinnias, portulacas, amaranths, and sunflowers
are safe and hardy enough. To raise others, they must be sown in pots
either in the bush-house or in some shady, sheltered corner.

Edgings of alternanthera may be planted in moist weather. Hedges
may be clipped and kept trim as required.

BUSH-HOUSE.

How Helpful It Is ! — When dry spells occur at this season, the bush
house is an efifective help and a safe attraction in tlie garden. With shade
and protection from winds, and just a little water, so much can be lone.

Shade. — But we must avoid overdoing the shade, and particularly
avoid any living shade over the growing plants. It is death to all flowering
and ornamental favourites except ferns.

Things Coming On. — Cinerarias, fuchsias, primulas, gloxinias,
achimenes, and tydeas may require regular looking to, or they will be
quickly overrun and destroyed by vermin.

Water Treatment. — As orchids cease blooming, they need less water.
All flowering plants may be the better of weak liquid manure applied to
them at intervals of three or four days. Choice ferns may still be trans-
planted and put into suitable places, always seeing that the soil is light,
open, and well drained where they are to grow. Stag horn, bird's nest,
and elk horn ferns should be freely supplied with water to keep them
luxuriant.

Coleuses should be amongst the attractions, and need attention to keep
the bush-house gay. They can be either raised from seed or propagated
from cuttings all through the season. Well trained balsams in pots,
pelargoniums, &c., will help to make this retreat attractive ; also good
cockscombs.

Propagating from Leaf. — Foliage begonias strike readily from leaves
during this time. Lay them flat on a damp, loose surface, just pressing
them into the soil ; then shade, and the leaves may send down roots in a
few days. It is late enough to pot ferns, but if this has not already been
done do it at once.

Enemies. — Fumigation with sulphur or tobacco smoke is efifective if
they can be shut in with it closely under a frame ; but not without. Some
spray or wash is the next best treatment.

IN THE WARM SECTIONS.
Field Work. — Cane harvesting and sugar making are in full blast now,
and while the work is on they act wisely who each season root out all
diseased or feeble stools of cane, and plant strong, vigorous sets of reliable
sorts, using body cane where possible.

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 343

Maize — Sow to any extent. Arrowroot. — Plant medium-sized bulbs.
Potatoes. — Dig as soon as ripe. Should they show for a second growth,
the crop will be spoiled. Sweet Potatoes and Yams. — They are
starting into growth now, and tilling and clean cultivation help to make
crops. Cotton. — Thin out the plants to prevent overcrowding. Misses
may be made up by planting seed in well-manured hills. Tobacco. — Pre-
pare for harvesting. Pinch out all flower stems, and take off all leaves
that are defective. Close, well-roofed barns are necessary for curing.
Peanut and Oil Seed Crops. — Plant out as may be desired, and keep
the earlier plantings clean and the crops growing.

Garden Operations. — The work in this department, for both fruits and
vegetables, is much the same as in the south. The exceptions are such as
coffee, tea, bananas, pine-apples, rosellas, and a few other purely semi-
tropical products, which can be transplanted at this time. In the flower
garden, annuals do not answer so well, but substitutes are got to any
extent desired in the great choice of shrubs available for flowers and foliage.

AUTUMN FIELD AND GARDEN OPERATIONS.
February, March, April.

Autumn Weather. — The change from summer heat to the cooler autumn
time is gradual as a rule. In the colder districts, the night temperature
ia noticeable first, and is usually felt early in February ; but in the warmer
districts of the coastal country, February is, at times, the hottest month
of the year, and semi-tropical crops, sugar cane, oorn, sorghum, sweet
potatoes, ginger, &c., make enormous growth at such times, as do the
summer grasses and indigenous pa,stures generally.

Rainfall. — Heavy and general rains are common in February. March
and April are drier as a rule, though heavy floods have occurred during
these months.

Maize. — This is still the leading crop, and it is helped on to maturity by
surface cultivation, which is advantageous in building up big cobs, as long
as there is any growth in the crop. Harvesting of maize becomes general
as cold weather is experienced.

Maize for Winter Feed and Green Mainiring. — In the warmer sections,
excellent results are got by sowing maize broadcast at this time, either for
feed purposes or for green manuring.

Winter Feed Generally. — Oats, barley, rye, vetches, rape, and other
seed crops may be sown in order to come in for use as the indigenous pas-
tures dry off for the season.

Wheat. — Sowing commences in March and goes on in the different
districts till May. Early ploughing is an advantage for making a wheat
crop. When the land is made ready, as described in page 76, the seed can
be sown in dry soil should the season be dry, and an excellent spring may
be got by rolling the land firmly.

Root Crops. — The stubble of land that was under wheat last season
makes an excellent foundation for potatoes, which may be planted now ;
also swedes, and field carrots. See chapter viii.

844 AUSTRALIAN AGBICULTURE.

Cultivated Grasses. — This is a good time for growing pasture grasses,
which may either be put in with or without a grain crop. Rye grasses
hold a leading place in cultivated pastures, but cocksfoot, the clovers,
prairie, and other strong growers all deserve a place. Fair results are got
at times by chipping the surface soil only, and sowing as the chipping goes
on, but the true cultivation is the preferable process to get strong growth
of pasture.

VEGETABLE SUPPLIES FOR WINTER AED SPRING.

The Home Garden. — This may be made a profitable and attractive
feature of the homestead in all the departments of agriculture, and in all
parts of the country (see pages 244 to 280). The choice is immense.

Some Good Things Available. — We are just entering upon the season to
have vegetables in abundance. Where the summer series are backward,
including melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, &c., they should be pushed on to
maturity as rapidly as possible. We cannot make them grow much after
February, so that manuring, either liquid or solid, is not helpful in that
direction. But, by using the hoe as freely as circumstances may allow, we
can help them along towards ripeness. When the weather is dry, and all
the better for our purpose, we stir the surface soil somewhat deeper, to
check the surface root action, and so force on as perfect maturity as we
are likely to get after this month. Celery claims attention. Advantage
should be taken of the first dry days to earth it up ; the soil should not
be so moist as to adhere together when earthing, but should be in nice
friable condition. Sow peas in any quantity required. Turnip and radish
may be sown at intervals, and parsnips sown with the radish, when
required ; monthly sowings may be made of spinach and carrots. Small
Bowings of onions may be made. A few growers also make a sowing about
the middle of March for transplanting and growing into full-si^ed bulbs
for early spring, when dry bulbs begin to get scarce and dear. Sow for
parsley. Slips of marjoram, winter-savoury, tansy, tarragon, and thyme
may be planted. Shallots, garlic, potatoe and tree-onions may be planted,
ana fresh sowings made of cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce : while trans-
planting is being carried on until the full crops are in the ground.

Vegetables for Autumn Cropping — Artichoke, green globe ; aspa-
ngus, giant Dut<;h, Connover's colossal; broad beans, broad Windsor,
green Windsor, green gem, long pod ; beet, blood-red, silver and
spinach for the green tops, which are an excellent substitute for spinach ;
borr-cole, dwarf green ; brocoli, early white, white mammoth — very
hardy, grows to greater perfection in cold localities than the cauliflower ;
Brussels sprouts, hardy ; cabbage (early), St. John's Day, early York,
sogarloaf , ox heart ; medium early, marble head, east Ham, London
market, Enfield market, king, Winningstadt ; late, large, drumhead, flat
Dutch, Schweinfurt, red drumhead (for pickling). Savoy, large drum-
head, green curled ; carrot, sh rthorn, intermediate ; cauliflower, early
London, large Asiatic, Stadtholder ; celery, white solid, turnip-rooted,
or celeriac ; chervil, curled ; shallots, garlic : kohl rabi or turnip-rooted
oabbage ; leek, London flag ; lettuce, drumhead. Neapolitan — in cold
districts, white cos ; mustard, white ; onion, brown Spanish, brown
globe, silverskin ; parsley, triple-curled ; parsnip, hollow crown ; peas,
Yorkshire hero, Veitch's perfection, McLean's little gem — in cold
districts, rising sun, Bedman's imperial, blue Peter, Laxton's supreme

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 345

radish, long scarlet, red and white turnip, French breakfast, black
Spanish; salsify; scorzonera; sea kale; spinach, prickly. New Zealand,
crach ; turnip, white stone, white nepaul, snowball, red American stone,
orange jelly, Laing's garden Swede ; potatoes, Brownell's, early rose,
white rough, snowflake, Ac, are deiirable sorts; rhubarb, Myatt's
Victoria. Also, herbs, sage, thyme. Tomato plants are to be found in
most gardens at this time, and, where good sorts only are grown, these
self-sown plants can be set out, but will require shelter during the cold
weather.

THE FRUIT GARDEN.

Seasonable work. — Budding is still in order. [See page 265]. The stone
fruits operated on may have the bandages loosened and regulated, to
prevent them cutting into the wood. Go on budding the yellow mundy
and other late sorts ; as the fruit ripens and the buds swell, they ar*" ready
for operating. Grape harvesting for wine is in season.

Fungus and Insect Enemies. — They include codlin grub, " blight," and
other pests. [See Chap, xxiv.] The time is on for making war against
them, and it should not be neglected. Use lime sulphur clay paint freely
upon the trees after the leaves fall, and so clear out hosts of enemies.

Transplanting. — Towards the end of February, in the cooler districts,
transplanting of the orange tribe, loquats, guavas, cherimoyers, &c. , may
be carried on, so as to allow the trees to settle and make some new r()ot8
ere the cold weather sets in.

Draining. — This work can be carried out during cooler weather, and
wherever trees have been suffering, or have shown signs of root weakness
or disease, it is worth while examining into the state of the drainage.

FLOWERS AND SHRUBS.

Beauties in Season. — Where the attention necessary to ensure success
has been given them, dahlias, amaranthus, cockscombs, &c., should offer
sights worth all the labour given previously. The dahlias still require
attention ; pinch or cut back, where necessary, and give liquid fertilizer
liberally ; the response will prove how good is the treatment. Thin'out
the weakly growths, and keep the shoots securely tied to stakes.

Enemies. — Set 3-inch pots, with a little soft hay, in an inverted position
on the stakes, as traps for snails and ear- wigs ; they are troublesome at this
season, and do great damage to flowers. The same treatment applies to
autumn-flowering chrysanthemums ; caterpillars are the troublesome
pests to contend against with this class of plants. The surest remedy is
handpicking. As the stems of gladioli die down, lift and store the bulbs
in a cool place ; see that they are properly named.

The Bulb Season. —For the approaching bulb season, prepare beds
with well-rotted manure and leaf mould, and plant the following, not too
deep : Anemones, Ranunculus, Narcissi, Hcillas, and a few hyacinths for
winter flowering ; all these are more effective at the flowering season wh^n
planted in groups in separate be<ls. See that the sites are well
drained, for if heavy rains should set in, and the soil l)ecomes toiidened
with water, then bulbs and tu))era rot off.

Propagating. — Finish putting in soft -wooded cuttings as the weather
gets cooler ; when rooted early, the plants are better able to stand through
the winter without extra protection. Carnations, pelargoniums, zonale

346 AUSTEALIAN AQRICULTUKE.

geraniums, penstemons, iresines, ageratums, verbenas, cineraria maritima,
good varieties of snapdragons, lobelias, &c., are amongst the desirable
things. Fine types of lobelia can usually be got by striking cuttings from
seedlings ; for they are very variable. Take up the layers of flowering
shrubs propagated last spring and establish them in pots ; they are
transplanted to their permanent quarters more readily that way. Look
over the shrubberies and any plants that are overcrowding their
neighbours, mark for transplanting, which operation can be done m soon
as the ground has had a thorough soaking. Early autumn is the best for
setting out, as the plants get established before the succeeding summer.

Seasonable Seeds. — Sow seeds of pansies, candytuft, campanula,
Virginian stocks, helichrysum, calendulas, silene, alyssum, nemophyla,
German stocks, ageratum, Phlox drummondii, gillias, double flowering
pyrethrums, dianthus, wallflowers, kc.

BUSH-HOUSE AND GREENHOUSE.

An Active Time. — Rampant growth is the rule in the bush-house dur-
ing early autumn ; a chief trouble is to keep plants from rooting into the
soil ; as a preventive, place under each a saucer or a piece of slate. Pot-
grown pelargoniums should now be breaking finely ; it will be necessary
to shake them out, and after pruning back the roots, re-pot in good, fresh
soil. Fuchsias may be in their second flowering, and have some liquid
manure given them. In the frames, cinerarias, primulas, and calcolaria
should be ready for first potting. Cuttings may be made and treated in
the manner recommended for garden. Caladiums, very early started, may
show signs of rust, which should be cut out at once. Preparations for ensur-
ing a stock of coleus of the best descriptions by the cutting process should
not be delayed.

In the greenhouse, orchids may be liable to scale insects at this time,
which must be attended to, as they will causa disease and death if allowed to
remain. (See Chap, xxiii. ) Ferns and climbing plants should be carefully
attended to, aa mealy bug may be prevalent. Gloxinias may go to rest as
they progress towards that period ; but some may be coming into flower,
and, therefore, should have stimulating treatment. On favourable oppor-
tunities, whitewash walls with quicklime, keep stages clean, and have the
temperature so regulated, as far as practicable, according to the weather,
a little warmer or cooler, that visits may be a pleasure.

SEMI-TROPICAL OPERATIONS.

Field Work. — Cane has to be kept clean, and trashed in the early
districts, preparatory to crushing. Plant potatoes ; early rose, Brownell's
beauty, ruby, snowflake, and hundredfold are good sorts. Harvest com
as soon as it is fit, and house it in dry bams. Sweet potatoes require a
final hoeing up. Some may be ready for lifting. (See Chap. ix. ) Sow for
lucerne, clover, prairie, rye, and cultivated grasses generally ; the practice
recommended for the cooler districts being suitable here also. This is
a good time for setting out buffieilo grass, which is propagated from clumps
of the roots. Sow for wheat, the recommendations for the cooler districts
being suitable. Sorghum may be sown, and maize and millet to cut green
for feed. Sow for mangels. Tobacco should be ripening, and prepara-
tions are necessary for housing and curing the crop. Sow oats, barley,
tares, vetches, &c.

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 347

Garden Work. — Th« sun heat is likely to be sufficiently powerful to
make the setting out of cabbage, cauliflower, &c,, a ticklish operation, but
it should be done at every opportunity, giving sufficient water to the young
plants to start them strong ; fresh sowing of seeds are necessary to keep
up the supply of plants. Onions, beet, parsnips, and carrots are safe
crops, and can be got in at once. Sow for turnips, lettuce, Brussels
sprouts, savoys, <fec., and make the land as rich as possible for setting out
plants. Beans can be planted still ; also peas. Earth up the celery, and
prepare land for mustard, cress, and other salads, which may he grown in
abundance all through the winter, if water can be spared for them.

Fruit Garden. — Attention has to be paid to the peach and other trees
budded during January. Where the stocks are sluggish in sap flow, let
the roots have some fertilizer with water to stimulate them. Where
bananns and pines are backward, liquid manure is absolutely necessary to
bring on the fruit before winter comes, with frost, perhaps.

Pruning — Planting. — It is considered good practice to prune peaches
and stone fruits generally, as soon as the fruit is off, by cutting out freely
such limbs and branches as are not necessary. The time will soon be on
for transplanting, and the variety of fruits available for the warm districts
is really endless. Trench and drain the land thoroughly, in order to be
ready for them.

Fruits Available. — The peaches include flat China, which come amongst
the first of the early sorts ; then the large family of peaches, apricots, and
nectarines, oranges, lemon, limes, citrons, guavas, of which there are now
several very excellent sorts, the purple and yellow being suited especially
for the northern districts, loquats, date plums, Brazil cherries, mangoes,
&c. Plant out strawberries as soon as the shoots are rooted sufficiently
for removal.

Flower Garden. — The bulb-planting season is now on. Sow for
annuals. Prune roses. Carnations, pinks, geraniums, kc , can be set out.
In other respects, the reminders for southern districts are suitable.

Flower Seeds Available. — Abronia, ageratum, sweet alyssum, antir-
rhinum (snapdragon), aquilegia (columbine), bartonia, double daisy, cal-
liopsis, Canterbury bells, candytuft, carnation, chrysanthemums, clarkia,
coUinsia, cowslip, cornflower, dahlia, dianthus, digitalis (foxglove), exhs-
choltzia, forget-me-not, fuchsias, gaillardia, geranium, hollyhock, larkspur,
lavender, lobelias, lupins, marigold, mignonette, nemophila, pansy, pelar-
gonium, pentstemon, phlox, pinks, picotee, polyanthus, poppy, pyrethrum
(golden feather), scabiosa, stocks, sweet William, verbena, sweet violet,
wallflower, zinnia, &c., &c.

For Greenhouse and Bush-house Culture. — Auricula, begonia, calceo-
laria, cineraria, cyclamen, gloxinia, mimulus, primula. Sow in well-
drained pots or boxes, and transplant during showery or cloudy weather.

WINTER FIELD AND GARDEN OPERATIONS.
May, June, July.

Usual Weather. — Warm days, cold nights, and stoppage in growth of
all crops of the warm season are in order. When rains fall at this time.

348 AUSTBAIilAN AGBICULTUBB.

they are heavy as a rule, and precautions are necessary to ward ofiF visita-
tions of the flood kind. It is the season for cold weather crops.

Wheat. — May is a favorite month for sowing, and where early
ploughing is attended to, the seed can be got in, even during dry weather.
Many new sorts of wheat are being tested, and quite a good number give
promise of being valuable ; but wheat growers have to experiment care-
fully, and possibly, the better course for growers to follow for the main
crop is to take the advice of the miller or agents who are buyers in their
districts as to which would be the best sorts to sow — sorts already grown in
the district. The steeping of seeds cannot be neglected without risk.
Bluestone makes the most effective steep. Four gallons of water, containing
half a pound of bluestone, into which the grain is put for five minutes or
so, is about right.

Other Grain Crops. — Barley, for grain, malting, and green feed can be
sown at any suitable time during these months. Rye can be sown, and if
for feed, vetches, with the rye do well, and are excellent either for cutting
green or for the silo.

Peas, Roots, kc. — Peas may be sown as a field crop, where there is no
risk of frost ; in colder districts, it will be as well to wait until the end of
the season. Bone dust or superphosphate is the manure for peas and beans,
and a capital machine is being introduced for sowing the seed and manure
in one operation. Sow onions for a field crop, or plant out where sets are
available, they do capitally on rich, well-farmed ground. Swede turnips,
field carrots, beets, and cabbage can be got in. Potatoes planted in
February-March should be coming on promisingly. They do not require
much hilling up at this time of year, but the rows have to be gone over in
order to destroy weeds, and secure a loose bed for the crop. The summer-
grown potatoes should be dug as soon as the tops wither. Harvest
mangolds, pumpkins and swedes as they ripen. It is the better course to
market them as soon as they are fit ; or where required for winter feed, to
pit them, as soon as possible, covering the pits sufficiently to throw off rain.

Grass for Pasture. — Look up the notes for the autumn season as to the
sowing of grass seeds. The work can be carried on during M ay, except in
the colder districts, where frost may injure the young growth. In such
places, better wait till August.

VEGETABLE SUPPLIES.

The Work in Season. — To keep the cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce
tribes going is a first requirement. Sow more seed ; when for home use
only, those whicjj turn into hearts quickest are safest. Carrots : Sow
and thin out those already making roots. The narrow-bed system is
most easily managed to keep the crops growing and free from weeds.
This includes carrots, parsnips, salsify, and similar root crops. Onions :
Continue to sow in good, rich land, and if the soil be sandy make it as
firm as possible, both before and after the seed is sown. The modern
giant varieties are worth giving a trial, and, providing they have good
soil and are well thinned out, the results are usually satisfactory.
Turnips may be sown at any time ; thin out if the crops are too thick ;
the tops of young turnips may be utilised for cooking purposes. The
narrow-bed system will be found advantageous for this crop also, as the
ground about the plants remains more open from the absence of feet-

SBASONABLE RSMINDEBS. 349

treading. Asparagus should be in growing condition, and therefore
must be left alone until the stalks become yellow. Where our practice
has been followed respecting planting tomatoes, well trellised and
facing the sun, a supply of this wholesome fruit should be abundant.
To save seed of tomatoes, select the best shaped fruit, and if any
peculiar feature is seen in samples save them for seed. Peas may still
be planted, and the ground well forked up amongst crops that are
growing. Sow broad beans as required in moderately rich land. Beds
of spinach of both the round and prickly-leaved can be got in every
month to keep up a regular supply. Globe artichokes may be harvested,
divided, and transplanted. Continue to earth up celery ; with growing
crops, liquid manure will be of great service. To raise herbs from seed,
sow now; the seed germinates quickly, and gives good plants for
putting out during the winter months. Take up old stocks of herbs,
divide, and after well heading back, replant. Rhubarb can be trans-
planted; good, well-trenched land, low-lying if possible, is suitable.
The ordinary tuber artichoke should be ready for digging ; a good plan
is to take up each day what is sufficient. Sow for radishes ; the olive-
shaped are perhaps the prettiest for the table, and equal to the best in
flavour and crispness. Mustard and cress can be easily made a feature
in the garden for salading purposes, and plots should be allowed for
the very excellent lind cress, perennial cress, and the New Zealand
spinach, all of which are health-giving for salads, &c. Clear away dead
leaves of all kinds of vegetables from growing crops, and manure as
freely as circumstances allow.

WINTER IN THE FRUIT GARDEN.

Planting. — Where fruit culture is attempted on shallow, thin, or
wet, badly-drained soil, the risks of disappointment are largely
increased. But where the land is right, planting out of oranges and
lemons may be carried on now, so as to get some root growth before
really cold weather sets in. In arranging for apple trees for planting,
see that they have been worked on blight proof stocks. As a guide for
planting deciduous trees, the leaf-shedding may be considered a fair
criterion that the tree is at rest, and therefore ready for the change.
Plant cherimoyers, giiavas, leeches, Chinese raisins, and one or more of
Japanese plums in fair, rich land, in order to test them.

Pruning. — (See Chap xxi.) Where pears and apples are shy
bearers, it is a good plan, at the pruning season, to shorten the root
growth, and cut or pinch back the young, rampant shoots, to develop
fruit buds. The apricot, at times, also seems a shy bearer, and root
pruning and spring pinching are generally effective in bringing the
tree into bearing form. Grape vine pruning is on ; in all cases where
fungus is observable on the vines, it is the safe plan to biirn the
prunings and leaves, which may be raked up for the purpose. As rasp-
berries nave now made their shoots for next season's fruiting, they may
he pruned without delay, leaving to each stool a few stout canes, and
then remove all others.

General Work. — Continue to transplant strawberries ; keep runners
away from those planted ; well loosen up the ground. The eradication
of weeds has to be attended to, as when allowed to grow they form
shelter places for snails, slugs, and other pests.

8&0 AUSTRALIAN AQRICnLTURE.

FLOWERS AND SHRUBS.

Seasonable OperatiooB. — Dahlias, where cut and manured in the autumn
treatment, seldom fail to give vigorous growth. But the elegance of cosmos
and chrysanthemums are pressing those beauties closely to occupy the
place held so long by the dahlias. The chrysanthemum tribe, of late years,
has been brought to great perfection by hybridisation. The colours are ex-

3ui8ite, as are the forms of flowers classed as incurved, anemone-flowered,
apanese and pomponea. The lists of varieties oflfered by nurserymen are
ample for those who love either form or colour, or blendings of both.

Things Worth Looking Up. — Amongst other beautiful things flowering
at this time may be dahlia imperialis, which has a majestic appearance ; its
single pinkish hued flowers hanging in graceful clusters ; it requires liberal
treatment, and a good sheltered position. Dombeya Natalensis loaded with
beautiful white flowers.* Cuttings of this plant may be struck, any fairly
good garden soil suits. The composite Veronia Arborea has clusters of pale
lavender flowers, very striking. Cyclobothra fusca is a remarkable flower-
ing bulbous plant from Mexico, flowering at this time ; it requires a rich,
sandy loam.

Propagating. — May is a busy month for transplanting shrubs and
making fresh flower beds. Next month we may commence pruning, manur-
ing and digging shrubberies and flower borders, and as the work is proceed-
ing divide herbaceous plants, taking care to leave the youngest portions of
the plants in the ground ; also plant out spring flowering seedlings, of which
there ought to be plenty. When planting pansies and violets, give them
sufficient well-rotted manure, or disappointment in the shape of small
flowers will ensue.

Sowing and Saving Seeds. — Sow for Virginian stocks, alyssum fo''
rockeries or rough places, pansies, German stocks, and double French an<^
German carnation-striped poppies in small pots, are very attractive. Pop"
pies make a grand display in October and November. Save seeds of amar"
ranthus, cockscomb, balsam, gaillardia, zinnia, and the French and African
marigolds. Put decaying plants into the compost heap ; the decaying
vegetable matter makes excellent manure for pot plants.

Roses. — Put in cuttings (but do not prune the plants back yet); select
well-ripened wood and cut with a sharp knife into lengths with seven eyes
attached ; cut out the four lower eyes, to prevent the plant from suckering.
Insert this portion in the ground, the three eyes above ground to form the
future branches. Take up and pot or plant in their permanent quarters any
layers that have made roots of choice varieties of roses.

Bulbs. — As anemones, ranunculuses, and hyacinths get above ground*
give them a good top dressing of well-rotted manure.

Grass. — Lawns that are poor induce a great many weeds to root
apon the surface, now is a good time to get them out ; in the spring a
light top dressing of good, rich sifted soil can be applied to help on the
grass vigorously.

BUSH AND GLASS HOUSES.

Seasonable. — The tubers of caladiums, gloxinias, tydoeas, and achimanes,
after the foliage has died down, should be carefully stowed away. An
excellent way to preserve bulbs from decay in winter is to place them in
powdered charcoal in a rather warm and dry position. Encourage the

SEASONABLE REMINDERS. 351

growth of primula and calceolaria ; give them occasional waterings of weak
saltpetre water or manure liquid. Put into single pots the fuchsias that have
rooted, attend to watering and giving air where the glass house structure
is not artificially heated, close early in the afternoon to save the sun heat.
Artificial heat must be used with discretion, as it is a very undesirable plan
to keep plants growing too fast in winter when they ought to be at rest'
thereby lessening the chances of healthy growth and flowers during th
ensuing season.

Bush House. — Epiphyllums showing flowers should be transferred to the
glass house, also the earliest batch of cinerarias, which may now be show-
ing their flowers. Pelargoniums have to be kept well nipped back, and as
soon as possible attended to in the way of repotting. This treatment is
suitable also for fuchsia cultivation ; both must be kept as hardy as possible.
Cyclamens may require liquid manure, and caladiums and tuber-rooted
begonias put into their resting place for the winter. With clerodendrons
and other favourite plants, they have to go through a partial season of rest.
In warm seasons, ferns may require shading and water while growing, and
as mealy bug may be prevalent, a syringing with insecticide will be
very beneficial. The same treatment applies to exotic palms, marantas,
dracsenas, and crotons, which must be kept fre» from all kinds of insects.
Gloxinias showing signs of new growth may be brought forward and
pushed on into activity. Where camellias are grown in the bushhouse,
it is well to give them manure water. Seedlings of mimulas and other
fancy plants should be potted off as soon as they are strong enough.
Plenty of air must be given to both description of houses in fine
weather, so as to secure satisfactory growth.

And Through all the Seasons. — Good soil, manure,
care, attention, and cultivation are necessary in all
departments, to ensure success.

Works on Australian Agriculture,

BT

ANGUS MACKA.Y.

PUBLISHER'S NOTICE.— Tbe Agricultural Works of Mr. Mackay are in more
general use in Eastern Australia than all others combined.

INTRODUCTION TO AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.- Ciass-book
of the Education Department of N. S. Wales. Science combined
with Australian practice. Is.

ELEMENTS OF AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE.— Steps leading to
further acquaintance with tbe theory and practice of agriculture.
Contains a thoroughly practical treatise upon Bee-keeping in
Australia. 3i. 6d.

HELPFUL CHEMISTRY FOR AGRICULTURISTS.— Gives working
details for testing and analysing soils ; making and using manures;
testing milk, water, flour, tobacco, kc, &c. Arranged for the use
of agriculturists who desire to test for themselres. " A work of
most satisfying character for progressive agriculturists." — Examiner.
48.; by Post, 48. 2d.

THE AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURIST.— "One of the most useful
and practical works ever issued." — Leader. The contents include
Australian farming and gardening in all branches, cattle, sheep,
horse, pig, and poultry keeping ; dairying, ensilage- making, seed-
farming, (be., &c. Special chapters on the " Indigenous* Grasses
and Fodder Plants," and for "Medical Help in cases of Emergency,"
how to treat wounds, snake-bite, drowning cases, &c., <*bc. A calen-
dar of field and garden work for the whole year completes a most
useful work for suburban and country residents. Third edition.
10*. 6d.

THE SUGAR-CANE IN AUSTRALIA.— The standard work upon cane-
growing and sugar-making. The contents include details for field-
work of all kinds, the cultivation of sorghum, Planter's Friend, beets,
he, ioT sugar-making, &c. Second edition, lOs. 6d.

GRAZING, FARM, & GARDEN SOILS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.—
" The moit complete and exhaustive series of scientific investigations
yet made into the soils of Australia." — Northern Star. The practical
chemical analysis made of a large number of Australian soils explain
what is necessary to secure crops and maintain the fertility. Is. 6d.

THE HONEY-BEE IN AUSTRALIA.— Contains brief accounts of the
native Australian Bee, the black or English Bee, Ligurian or Italian
Bees; modern bee-keeping and honey-making, how to make and use
bar-frame hives, &o. "Just the work for Bee-keepers." — Capricornian.
2s.

BATSON * CO., Ltd., 146 CLARENCE STREET, S7DNET, N.S. WALES.
AND ALL BOOKSELLERS.

laad Wdttd dud Mood ^dttttre

MEAN

GOOD CROPS AND GOOD BANK BALANCES.

If your Land does not produce Good Payable Crops, bring up its
value by MANURING, and use the very Best Fertilizer you
can get, for
The BEST Is THE CHEAPEST in the LONQ RUN.

©(DiMpllete ^ IF(£riln!ln^©ir§

. . . AND . . .

These Manures, made by the Sydney Meat Preserving Company, are the
moBt valuable, because they are made from the blood and bones of the
animals which formed their bodies out of our rich pastures. The

Special Addition of SULPHATE OF POTASH makes these
Manures complete.

Send for a New and Original Treatise On Manures and their Economi-
cal use, with numerous valuable illustrations ; also Price List. Free
OK Application to

THE SYDNEY MEAT PRESERVING CO, Rookwood,

OR TO

THORPE & CO., Macquarie Street, Parramatta,

Brokers to the Company.

Feed Your Doos on THORPE'S PATENT DOG BISCUITS—

ALL LEADING STOREKEEPERS SELL THEM.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Los An^es

This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

Form L9-75m-7.'61 (0143784)444

A 001 127 080 8

S

^7

/8^ICL9
1897

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