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REARS. tReet EAE PRAT ese Beech ee June 11, 1945 Part 2, pases /3-160, plates wigan Po ee ee June 20, 1947 Part 9, paces: JG 1-260 plates ixiyexxvic (aero ee eee ee eae 11, 1948 Part. 4, paces: 281-372; plates xxvicgln er et ea ee a Reet July 31, 1951 Printed and Published for the Society by The Sydney and Melbourne Publishing Co. Pty. Ltd., Sydney (Parts 1-2). Australasian Medical Publishing Co. Ltd., Glebe, N.S.W. (Part 3). Excelsis Press, 545 George Street, Sydney (Part 4). INDEX TO VOLUME XI. INDEx TO SuBJECTs. Aquarium Fish from North Queensland, A New, by G. P. Whitley ... ... _.... 279 Bees ee: eR PEDRO OM MECR AMO aeTS NEPEAN | fadhen) 0 Bitahy FI, tay) 1). saab 76, 238 & 285 Sueremroreseia hy 8, dred he eee ake kak tc 318 Meer ethe sheen Hees by, 1... Mayment).! as) ge dc a) ees ces 285 Peeey a Taxonomy of the Solitary Bee, Parasphecodes fulviventris (Friese), by eee TEECY ett) Mee ee Time Pets I Ate) Pe sue hc lytah hy o> ecce 76 Birds of Paradise and Bower-Birds, A Check-List of the, by T. Iredale ... __..... ay ae? 61 Bower-Bird, Observations on the Tooth-billed (Scenopoeetes dentirostris), by M. F. Leask 158 Bower-Birds, A Check-List of the Birds of Paradise and, by T. Iredale... 3, se. 61 Meer by) h.. rcdtien em IW za Butterflies of Western Queensland, Notes on, by E. O. Edwards 2... 0 eee eee 225 as ere See ar ein hey | ha er MP me 337 Cerithiopsidae, Revision of the New South Wales, by C. F. Laseron .. 9 0. cece Eel I I eC Ol nots crt a NT ME Cr et Ty 333 Check-List of the Birds of Paradise and Bower-Birds, by T. Iredale ... kn. 161 Deep-Sea Shells from New South Wales, by A. R. Mayblom .... 00.0 ees 281 Dryopoidea (Coleoptera), Two New Species of, by E. H. Zeck 0.000 ce ee eee 277 EDERAL KiT Gimeat LO Arie, hei kN ou ea 160 Cae cee a ie om he 368 nr mmm ae: me Gk Ih ee ak med yi Ga 316 eS agree Sita al Aytte 8 en ed EN Se aE NY oo Vf ch a 335 ene embie vby bolredale hg ee ac nt 314 Insects of the Mount Kosciusko Area, Field Notes on Some, by K. C. McKeown ..... 333 et cence) aces Scieby i cit as se) Ba pe ee a aie EEE. ELSE 5 eo.ct 2) 1 ERRNO ren yu ete L501 333 Meee ioises of Norfolk Island, The, by T. Iredale) 2.0 © nee nme 46 Leichhardt’s Sawfish, by G. P. Whitley... Ay POLES aM 9 i Oni a bee el en 43 Lepidoptera Collected at Darwin during November, 1945, Some Notes on, by Sg ed ESPELEELEU INSP T Uy Sle MMT 2 eMail Oa a le co Se aN Une on eve Rt 159 ee POE eure eye brctale | dd | ic. | te yeaah i ke fsa O18 fate, > tea 204 Mantispid (Mantispa vittata Guerin), The Biology of an Australian, by K. C. McKeown rm banter ree) Wee RAO Bs IO ek A a BT 207 eee ne UE re SO hy eek ne ies pe ee 341 Mesoplodon in Western Australian Seas, The Genus, by L. Glauert 2... 0... 73 Ne) ee) gate 294 & 306 Reererraeeeamecry ine, by i. Iredale 0 2 bw ae kee 522, Shas Sea e 8S chi SSMS Stl fey ot Ne rei AE coves A ae an 280 New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia, by G. P. Whitley (Part 2) 0... 1 ? » ”? ” ”? ”? ”? ”? ” (Part 3) rr 129 ”? 2? ”? > 2? ”? ? ”? ”? (Part 2) Sorat Bee) 2 | Uesckss: 259 Memanetstnid. fand Molthisea of, by V. Iredale 20200) cock a a el 46 oi Eide olnrer Te a Geratye) cre] | SI ag a ina glen a re 371 LEED FP EERSED ah He CUE Met eg Pr Rea Peer er a 0 232 EEE nirolacueny he Iredale. i) eat ec shay Nake ea Te 347 Reviews: esererae orien amc a Str Me shyt eee iy ie Ne 371 “Biology: An Introduction to Medical and Other Studies” 0 0, ae ass 369 “Catalogue of the Cerambycidae CColeoptera) of Australia? 99. ceeee 128 bree rc a erORIAy Opt ean ea ed ee hem a he aL ooh 370 Beacemnimals of. New )Aetland fo ak a Re ak OO a 206 iiecuranchia (from: the Clarence River leads i. nee ee es , eran 114 Esilent, Wines: A Memorial to the Passenger Pigeon”, 2... 0 | ete sete 232 OT ge PEERS Caer Pe Vina SG I cot eves es eT UL eR 370 pVestern" Austratian. Bird Books’ | 22 cee oo Nae le aN a 321 Shark Repellant, Testing a, by G. P. Whitley and G. H. Payne 0 oo, ats 15] Sprat (Stolephorus gracilis) in Australia, The, by G. P. Whitley 0.0009 0.00. seu Stephanidae and Megalyridae (Hymenoptera), Some Observations on the Biology of, Lis AE Baa arc Vee SIE re eel tha a Bc ON age at a 341 Beemees Lrcdcrick, a Biography, by EH. M. Whittell 3) a ose sets sees 96 Mang Observations On, by be laymient ce ee et andes knees hee 255 Trigonalid Wasp, Notes on the Biology of an Australian, by N. W. Rodd ...... __...... 338 Se eicae tei me ree eA cL enti ait Patines tides tes) | heae O)thaes eS OT amgarg ces Temes minnie wl hvetd 2 Fe ie eae 0) ah fal Wasps aud Bees, Notes on Remarkable, by I: Rayment: 2.0.00 20k tee te 238 Bear hrmaonalias Wie Sana) ade CEE REGU ot (ENOTES 2a Re a EM erg ae Re Re 338 Mier iacualianiinird baoks, by Uo Iredale) s2.0 0085 ac he 321 Zoo-geographical Problem of Port Jackson, The, by C. F. Laseron (Part 1)... —..... BIS ? ? 2? ?? ? ? ? ? InpEx To AUTHORS. Campbell, J. O Some Noe on Lepidoptera Collected at Darwin during November, 1945 ..... —...... 159 Edwards, E. O.: 1 Notes on Butterflies of Western Queensland © ....)¢90{22) «1 Re 225 Glauert, L.: The Genus Mesoplodon in Western Australian Seas’... 0 se sete 3 Iredale, T.: AgamiGould 003. 6 Salou) Wee ou tae 07 lies oil aa ga 316 Aadubon “in Australias: ) esi SRR to ee ee i loot aa 318 Ballock’s Museum. © < ves 0 luee we e ee Baa Check-List of the Birds of Paradise and Bower-Birds, Aww, ee ttes ae 161 Hiaaming: Bird, ‘The © i...) esses es ee ee eee el eee 314 Jules. Verreaux ~92..)9 BL 8d YO RRR BONE REE Ree 71 Land Mollusca of Norfolk Island; ‘The... <0 > 2eaei5cete) hee oe 46 “Love's Meinie’ .... "282. S250) See ek” i esa ee a 204 Naturalist’s. Library; ‘The ©)! 820 Whoo (UG), eae ee 322 Recent. Palaeontology «= ..2 9" 2-0 EE er 347 Western, Australian Bird Books: ....)--.22.) > ese Ge ee ee oes S21 Laseron, C. F.: Revision of the New South Wales Cerithiopsidae ... 9 ee 35] The Zoo-geographical Problem of Port Jackson (Part 1) .... 2: ) ee 5 x ca aie - (Part 2): ale. |” eka 190 Leask, "M. E.: Observations on the Tooth-billed Bower-Bird (Scenopoeetes dentirostris) 0.0 aan 158 McKeown, K. C.: Field Notes on Some Insects of the Mount Kosciusko Area 0. 00. ee se 333 McKeown, K. C., and Mincham, V. H.: The Biology of an Australian Mantispid (Maniispa vittaia Guenn) 22. | 4 ee 207 Mayblom, A. RB.: Deep-Sea Shells from New South Wales = 2.00 asa EG) 281 Mincham, V. H.: (See oe K. ‘G.;-and- Minchams V.cH;) Payne, G. (See Whitley, G. P., and Payne, G. H.) Rayment, T.: Biology of the Reed-Bees 0.0) ase) ann te SE 285 Biology and Taxonomy of the Solitary Bee, Parasphecodes fulviventris (Friese) _...... 76 Notes on Remarkable: Wasps"and ‘Bees’ 2.0 (22 USte) Woe TSO ee 238 Observations on’ Pris oi YB) ae 255 Rodd, N. W.: Notes on the Biology of an Australian Trigonalid Wasp ©) 42.) ))0.))) 9a 338 Some Observations on the Biology of Stephanidae and Megalyridae (Hymenoptera ) ..... 341 Whitley, G. P.: A’ New Aquarium Fish from North Queensland ..5 i...) 2.59) 33 279 Iceichhardt’s Sawfhish 2 Re 43 New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia (Part 2) 2 12. = ee 1 a x * - - - 5 (Part 3): iiteh aie ei 129 ue i - e fi . ut CPart’4)\c263) san.) a 259 Sprat CSiolephorus gracilis) im ‘Australia 4... 4... 332 Whitley, G. P., and Payne, G. H.: Testing a ’ Shark Repellant - nn. 20% a SC SS ieee ce ee lisylh Whittell, H. M.: Frederick Strange. A Biography © | san. 0%.) 96 Zeck, BE. H.: Two New Species of Australian Dryopoidea (Coleoptera) 0.0 kee tt 277 Sets Se SEG Be eae & WI WEA ' TENTACLE 75 STRALIAN ZOOLOGI ae Sine aL, er ee ety of New South Wales. issued by the yal Zoolog 1 Soci ica = . Edited by | A, F. BASSET HULL, M.B.E., F.B.Z.8.° and TOM TREDALE, F.R.Z.S. pe A et £5 - yt. er, a euerriah © Pratt REY tog, ALee: g 2 ¢ Sage i je — La x. -% reeek 5 ” * € rey as = * | Fee << * | Fn } oe Sydney, June 11, 1945. 7/6). All esmmunications to be ‘addressed to the Hon. Secretary, (Price, I Pty., Ltd., , art y ourne Publishing Co., 9 4 Box 2399 M.M., General ‘Post Office, sydney. Sydne NW... r ) +) Y i} * UI eT ee AW ES 4 Ube) ene | _ Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd., 721 North Circuler Road a: + J _ The Sydney and Me i trapsmission py post asa periodical. dney, for ey Sy 1 | re) istered at the G ; Lee a f yu? i Pp oy 4 iy Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. i Established 1879. REGISTERED UNDER THE COMPANIES ACT, 1899 (1917). Patrons. His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, The Lord Wakehurst, K.C.M.G. Sir Philip Woolcott Game, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.S.O. COUNCIL, 1943-44. President: Albert Sherbourne Le Souef, C.M.Z.S. Vice-Presidents: Garnet Halloran, B. Sc., M.D., F.R.A.CS., F.R.CS. (Ed. J4 Edward John Lees Hallstrom, Noel THe Roberts, and Emil Herman Zeck. Members: Ernest John Bryce, F.R.GS. Neville William Cayley, F.R.ZS. Aubrey Halloran, B.A., LL.B. Charles Francis Laseron. BSc., F.R.Z.S. Ellis Le Geyt Troughton, F.R.Z. Ss Gilbert Percy Whitley, F.R.Z.S. Officers: Honorary Secretary: A. F. Basset Hull, M.B.E. Assistant Honorary Secretary: Miss Betty French. Honorary Treasurer: Phillip Shipway. ? Honorary Editors: A. F. Basset Hull and Tom Iredale, F’s.R.ZS. Honorary Librarian: Keith A. Hindwood, CF.A.O.U. Honorary Auditor: Robert John Stiffe, F.C.A. (Aust.). OFFICERS OF SECTIONS (1943-44). Avicultural Section. Chairman: A. H. Brain. Hon. Secretary: John E. Simons (Acting). Budgerigar Section. Chairman: H. Yardley. Hon. Secretary: T. J. McSwiggan (Acting). Marine Zoological Section. Chairman: Mrs. L. H. Woolacott. Hon. Secretary: Miss E. Butters. Ornithological Section. Chairman: J. E. Roberts. Mon. Secretary: A. R. McGill. Vas,’ eri Theodore Cleveland Roughley, | Ps = 4 t See PORE ROTC E ASE sok RT EE Peete: eo ramets seas SS saan Pe eee ve a; es an Sst a ae ee Whee arm ee es PSN catset os 5 > Behe ER THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST WO 2s. NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PART 2. By GILBERT P. WHITLEY, F.R.Z:S. (Plate i. and text-figs. 1 to 15.) Since my paper on “New Sharks and Fishes from Western Australia” was published in the “Australian Zoologist” in May, 1944, and some fishes were illustrated in the “Proceedings” in August, I have spent a further period working in the field in Western Australia and have been fortunate enough to obtain specimens of several species of sharks hitherto known only from incomplete specimens or from photographs. I am now able to describe and figure these species in fuller detail and give some data on their food and breeding. Some new or little known fishes are also described or figured for the first time, often from living or fresh examples. Two new families, one Berycoid and the other proposed for an interesting blind gudgeon, and more than 20 new genera, species, etc., are named. Mr. L. Glauert, Director of the Western Australian Museum, Kindly afforded me facilities for working on the fish collections in Perth, enabling the preparation of a manuscript list of the fishes of the State, including ' many new records. Miss M. Johnston and Miss B. Carter, of the State Fisheries Department, Perth, typed the paper for publication. Family GALEIDAE. GALEOLAMNA GREYI, Owen. (Fig. 1.) The typical species of the genus Galeolamna are whaler sharks with the head 4 to 4.8 in total length, nostrils nearer mouth than end of snout, teeth notched and serrated, preoral length notably less than width of mouth, and lacking an interdorsal ridge; the middle of the vent is usually in the posterior half of the shark. The Western Australian forms of this group may be subdivided as follows into geographical subspecies: A. Fifteen or sixteen teeth on either side of the symphysial tooth in each jaw. .. .. .. .. G. greyi greyi, Owen (South Australia to Bunbury). AA. ‘Twelve to fourteen teeth on either side of the symphysial one in each jaw. B. Snout bluntly rounded. Anal origin and end of its base behind levels of those of second dorsal. Pectoral angle under first dorsal fin. Dermal denticles 2 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. with three Keels. .. .. G. greyi mckaili, subsp. nov.* (Swan River district) . BB. Snout more acutely rounded. Anal origin and end of its base before levels of those of second dorsal. Pectoral angle well in advance of level of first dorsal. Denticles with five keels. .. .. .. .. G. greyi cauta, subsp. nov. (Shark’s Bay to Point Cloates) . Figured herewith (Fig. 1) is a typical G. greyi greyi from mae a female, 1,301 mm. long and weighing 27 lb. ~ ): ye 1. Whaler Shark, Galeolamna greyi greyi, Owen. A female from Esper- ance. Also teeth and dermal denticles. GALEOLAMNA GREYI CAUTA, SUbsp. nov. (Fig. 2.) A female whaler shark, 918 mm. long, netted in Herald Bight, Shark’s Bay, Western Australia, on 5th August, 1943, agrees fairly well with my description (Fish Austr., i., 1940, p. 273, fig. 303) of a male Swan River whaler, 806 mm. long, but presents some noteworthy variations. The female has head 4.4 in total length, snout rather more acute, predorsal gibbosity less marked, the shallow convex interorbital compara- tively narrower, and preoral length (59 mm.) much less than width of mouth (78). Dental formula:— 14.1.13 28 —— = ~—. Teeth of both jaws serrated, that on each side of Ze aS 26. symphysial tooth smaller than its outer neighbours (the teeth are fewer than in the holotype of G. greyi in which there are 15 or 16 on each side * Holotype of this new subspecies was described and figured in my. “Fishes of Australia,” i., 1940, p. 273, fig. 303 (not fig. 88, No. 5). It is now named in honour of the late Henry Lancelot Martin McKail, who was keenly interested in its identity and who informed me that it was known as the Bluenose on the Swan River because of a dark blue mark on the snout. WHITLEY. | 3 of each jaw. Those of upper jaw are slenderer than those of Owen’s type. In Galeolamna eblis the dental formula is usually 14.1.14 in each jaw, but that species has an incomplete interdorsal ridge). 1OOMM GPW. 2. Nervous Shark, Galeolamna greyi cauta, Whitley. Holotype of sub- species from Herald Bight, Shark’s Bay. Also teeth and dermal denticles. The third gill-slit is longest; last two gill-slits over pectoral. Dermal denticles with five keels reaching the edge, which is slightly scalloped. Nostrils acutely lobed, lobes nearly 8 mm. long. Anal origin and end of its base in advance of level of those of second dorsal instead of behind as in Swan River male. Pectoral fin shorter and its angle well in advance of level of first dorsal. Ventral base mostly in anterior half of shark. No interdorsal ridge. Lateral line inconspicuous. Caudal pit above and below. Measurements in millimetres.* ea 169 evi 135 2 206 2 88 3 1c) 3 43.5 4 97 -4 209 5 209 5 53 6 440 6 44 i (aes) 7 38 8 12 8 76 9 98 9 59 10 a 10 47 11 15 11 35 12 51 194 12 * For explanation of symbols, see Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1xviii., 1943, p. 114. 4 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 1 59 13. > vide descr. 14 718 14°. 4% 155 15 4 15 52 16 notch 16 257 yy 26 1 64 18 17 18 51 B.1 680 19 37 2, 470 20 124 3 293 21 238 4 135 22, 117 5 118 6 34 rf 32 Eye to first gill-opening .. 88 Snout: irom nostrils... 3: 42 INOStEN) tO mouth: eee 34 Colour: Dark grey above, white below. A few white round spots on right side behind pectoral. A dark bar along sides. Anterior margins of dorsals and caudal dusky. Caudal margin and tip of lower lobe blackish. Pectoral and ventral dusky superiorly; anal dusky anteriorly. Eye pale olivaceous and greyish, with pale grey ring. Dorsal and other fin axils white. Vertebrae 160. No. 25 below first dorsal origin, 66 below second dorsal origin, 90 to the upward tilt of caudal axis and 70 more along the caudal fin to No. 160. Liver weight 2 lb. Mesovarium and shell glands small, uteri thin and undeveloped, thus quite immature. The stomach contained some very digested fish remains, probably whiting (Sillago). — Described from an immature female specimen, af aah more than three feet long and 11 lb. in weight. Many specimens were swimming about at the time, but though my companions and I tried to wade near them, we were unable to get close and only managed to net one of the school. This is the “Nervous Shark” of my “Fishes of Australia” (i., 1940, p. 105), but it has serrated teeth quite unlike the entire teeth shown in my fig. 103, which is referable to another species, Mystidens innominatus Whitley, 1944. I noted more than 40 further specimens of G. greyi cauta from Shark’s © Bay in August and September, 1944. This shark breeds at less than four feet in length, embryos being about a foot long, each weighing about 4 ounces, compared with the 12 lb. approximate weight of mother. In G. greyi greyi, breeding does not take place until a greater length, a female specimen 1,301 mm. long and 27 lb. in weight from Esperance, W.A., being immature. The food of G. greyi cauta in Shark’s Bay consists of various kinds of fishes, Saurida, Sillago, and Dasson, and a crab (Lupa) having been identified in the stomachs; they also took baits of Tailor (Pomatomus). GALEOLAMNA DORSALIS, Whitley. (Fig. 3.) Galeolamna dorsalis Whitley, Austr. Zool., x., 3, May 10, 1944, p. 256, fig. 3, Carnarvon, W.A. WHITLEY. 5 This species, hitherto known only from photographs and notes, was encountered in Shark’s Bay, in August and September, 1944. Altogether 28 specimens, 5 ft. 5 in. to 6 ft. 7 in. long were caught. Some of the females were gravid, the embryos being in separate compartments, others had evidently bred. From five to ten embryos constitute a brood, each between 153 and 174 in. (388 to 438 mm.) long. I saw one female caught off Bunbury, the southernmost limit. A female specimen, 1,890 mm. long and weighing 100 lb., from Dirk Hartog Island, is here figured. Its ovaries extended most of the length of the coelome, no ova were visible and the uteri were flaccid, so it had perhaps bred some time previously. General colour pale grey above and parchment white below; iris pale bronze. The presence of an interdorsal ridge which becomes obsolete before reaching either dorsal fin (as in G. eblis Whitley, to which this species is 3. Sand Shark, Galeolamna dorsalis, Whitley. ie from Dirk Hartog Island. Dorsal, lateral and ventral views; teeth and dermal denticles. most closely allied) is notéworthy, but dorsalis is always separable from eblis by its higher dorsal fin. In dorsalis the distance from the origin of the first dorsal fin to its tip goes about 5 to 54 times in total length, but in eblis it goes 8 to 9 times in the same. The head of dorsalis is generally about 41 to 54 in total length, rarely 4 or less, as in eblis. In dorsalis the pectoral fins are very long, the second dorsal fin is larger and pectoral angle further back than in eblis. It seems likely that eblis breeds at a much larger size and has much larger embryos, but I have incomplete data on 6 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. this score. Females 7 to 9 ft. long at Bunbury (January, 1945) were im- mature. : Galeolamna dorsalis feeds on various fishes and crustacea, but digestion is so rapid that identification of stomach contents is usually impossible and many specimens are empty. Apart from prawns, crabs, octopus and pipe- fish remains, I found the following fishes in this shark: Cybium queens- landicum, Amphacanthus nebulosus, Parapercis, Amphitherapon, Sillago, a Clupeid, probably Sardinops, and a small elasmobranch. Fish-baits taken were Himantura, Mugil, Chrysophrys and Pomatomus. LONGMANIA CALAMARIA, Whitley. (Fig. 4.) Longmania calamaria Whitley, Austr. Zool., x., 3, May 10, 1944, p. 257, fig. 4 Busselton, W.A. This species, hitherto Known only from the incomplete type specimen, was encountered in Shark’s Bay in August, 1944, when two males and five 4. Inkytail, Longmania calamaria, Whitley. Female from Dirk Hartog Island. Also ventral surface of head, upper and lower tooth, and dermal denticle. females, 1,000 to 1,255 mm. long, and all immature, were examined. It is now possible to illustrate the whole shark, the accompanying figure showing an immature female, 1,120 mm. (3 ft. 9 in.) long and weighing 6 lb. 2 oz., from Dirk Hartog Island. The long snout, black-tipped fins, small second dorsal fin, and more than fifteen teeth on each side of each jaw are characteristic. The teeth are serrated in upper, entire in lower jaw. 16.2.16 Dental formula ————. The pectoral angle in some extends to below the 16.15.? very anterior part of first dorsal fin. Stomachs contained a variety of fishes such as whiting (Sillago), pil- chards (Sardinops), herring (Escualosa), marbled flathead, small stingray, tailor (bait), etc. This species occurred at Bunbury in November, 1943, and January, 1945. WHITLEY. 7 Genus MAPOLAMIA Whitley, 1934. MAPOLAMIA SPALLANZANI (Le Sueur). Black Tip Shark. (Figs. 5 and 5a.) Squalus spallanzani Le Sueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., ii., November, 1822, p. 351. Terre de Witt, New Holland. The Black Tip Shark is not likely to be confused with more than one or two other species of Western Australian sharks. The brownish colour, black tips to most fins, blunt snout, lack of interdorsal ridge, rather large second dorsal fin, and the thirty or less serrated and notched teeth across each jaw are characteristic. In the Inkytail Shark (Longmania calamaria) , 5. Black Tip Shark, Mapolamia spallanzani (Le Sueur). Male from near Yardie Creek, North-west Cape. the snout is longer and more pointed, the second dorsal fin is small and low “and there are more than thirty teeth across each jaw, these being either minutely or not at all serrated. Some of the Whaler Sharks (Galeolamna spp.) occasionally have dark or dusky tips to their fins, but can be distin- guished by a combination of other characters such as the presence or absence of an interdorsal ridge, sharpness or roundness of snout, number and form of teeth, relative positions of second dorsal and anal fins, extent to which pectoral angle reaches below first dorsal fin, etc. Compare these features in the accompanying figures. Description of Male. Predorsal profile not gibbous. Eyes large, ovate with nictitating mem- brane; pupil lenticular. Interorbital broad, weakly convex. Pupil of eye on 8 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. level with anterior part of mouth. Snout bluntly rounded. Head 4.3 in total length. Preoral length much less than width of mouth. No spiracle. Teeth of upper jaw with their points deflected outwards, their inner margins oblique and scarcely notched, their outer margins deeply notched. They are serrated on shoulders and fangs, the serrae being largest on the outer shoulders. Teeth of lower jaw notched on both sides, with more erect fangs, minutely serrate. Bases of teeth usually wider than the teeth are hrgh. ; 102+ 22. 12 24? Dental formula... 3 oS ae HAF Ig 22 25 Last two gill-slits over pectoral fin. Nostrils nearer mouth tnan end of snout, their lobes rounded, 5 mm. long. Labial folds short. Endolymphatic openings inconspicuous. 5a. Black Tip Shark, Mapolamia spallanzani (Le Sueur). Female from Winderabanda, North-west Cape, showing disposition of vertebrae. Body rather deep, widest anteriorly. Lateral line inconspicuous. No interdorsal ridge. No keel on the caudal peduncle, which is rather broad. A lunate caudal pit above and below. Hide thick and tough. Shagreen with denticles imbricate, each with its free margin barely reached by its five transverse carinae. Claspers well developed. Measurements: Following the symbols devised in my scheme of bio- metric measurements, published in Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, ixviii., 1943, pp. 114-115, the dimensions in millimetres are as follows:— Hea? 229 Bet 980 dSineeal 41 2 290 2 c.650 8 98 3 102 3 400 9 67 4 129 4 200 10 67 5 290 J c.150 11 42 6 628 6 — 49 12 101 7 25 7 46 13. (ade ne) 8 14 8 100 14 220 9 134 9 124 15 1 @ 10 (no spiracle) F.1 168 et EMG 355 11 18 2 119 17 719 WHITLEY. 9 12 72 3 59 18 89 13 69 4 310 19 35 14 114 5 G2 20 198 15 4.5 6 58 21 290 16 2.5 22 150 17 43 18 39 Additional measurements are:— Total length: 1,265 mm. or about 4 ft. 3 in. Distances between gill-openings: 23, 15, 13.and 13 mm. Deepest (third) gill-opening: 57. Eye to first gill-opening: c. 124. Snout. to level of angles of mouth: 129. Ramal length: 85. roan Tip of snout to outer angle of nostril: 56. Inner angle of nostril to mouth: 42. . Origin of first dorsal to that of pectoral, 206; to that of ventral: 288. Depth above -ventral origin: 145. Depth above ventral end: 104. Fins: First dorsal with anterior margin not very strongly curved. Second dorsal rather large for a Galeid shark. Anal larger than second dorsal, its origin in advance of level of that of second dorsal, but their bases end level. Pectorals long and well curved, the last ray (= pectoral angle) below anterior part of first dorsal fin. Ventrals rather large, at middle of shark. Subcaudal notch high and small. Anterior margins of all fins trenchant, not flattened. Lower caudal lobe pointed. Upper caudal lobe equals head in length. Colour: In life brownish with bronze to olivaceous tones, greyer along back and on a band extending downwards and backwards along sides from below first dorsal fin to above ventrals. The junction of the dark upper colours with the lighter dull yellowish of the flanks is mostly below level of eye, though interrupted below the eye itself. Eye grey to brownish; pupil black with a white outer ring. Dorsal axils grey. Conspicuous black tips to first dorsal, pectoral, ventral and anal fins and to lower caudal lobe. Anterior edges of dorsal and caudal fins dark brown. A lighter tone below the black tip to first dorsal. Upper surfaces of ventrals and pectorals greyish. Second dorsal fin'and upper caudal lobe infuscated. Ventral sur- faces and claspers white. Vertebrae 193, the backbone being straight as far as tail, without lateral curvature, or any notably enlarged thoracic vertebrae. Vertebra number 30 was below origin of first dorsal fin, No. 57 over ventral origin, 86 over anal origin, 87 under second dorsal origin, 95: between ends of bases of second dorsal and anal fins, 113 to base of caudal. Last vertebrae very small. Liver dark and in good condition. ‘Testes length of coelome, the right one swollen anteriorly; vesiculae seminales stored with sperm. Stomach contained few minute fragments of some indeterminable fish. Described and figured from a mature male specimen, 1,265 mm. or about 4 ft. 3 in. long, which I speared in shallow water in the sea near Yardie Creek, North-west Cape, Western Australia, on 8th October, 1944. 10 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Description of Female. In all general respects, similar to male, but with the following note- worthy features: Head 4.7 in total length. Widest part of head near first gill-opening. Tongue smooth and rounded, not notched. 1S A Me 26 Dental formula: —————- = — Lk 23. Tooth on each side of symphysial one in lower jaw much smaller, in upper rather smaller than the outer neighbouring teeth. Abdominal pores large. Pit-organs conspicuous. Pectoral fin com- paratively shorter (154% of total length in female, 17 in male). Origin of first dorsal fin to that of pectoral, 160 mm.; to ventral, 240. Pectoral axil to origin of ventral, 265; distance between pectoral origins, 128. Distance between gill-openings: 15, 11, 11, and 11. Longest (third) gill- opening, 44. Eye to first gill-opening, 102. Snout to level of corner of mouth, 107. Ramal length, 69. Snout to nostril, 45; nostril to mouth, 36. Biometric measurements of female:— | " Hea — leg Flt = Or42 2S DRY 2...=.... 98 Se teeta e310) 30 i= oe 4 = 106 4 = 268 SS PR 5 = Oe 6. = 520 6 = 41 {el OAL 1h) = eek Shes 8. =) +400 9 = 109 9 = ° 60 1 = = 10. = 7436 Le a5 11 = £31 (tip damaged?) oe ONT 12)? GG is = * 62 lg, == (as in male) 14 = 90 4 == 170 1 = 6 9s eee 5 15) io — 2 16 = 310 i — reo LT == "99'65 ee 18 = —§°58 Beat 2 —eeaco 19 = 35 ° 2. =" 500 20 = 150 3° = 2330 21 = 270 A 4, 22) — yee 5a 120 Gia 0 140 hs = 3539 Colour as in male described above, but with the dark overtone level just below the eye whose pupil is darker grey; tips of ventrals and all the posterior margin of caudal fin black; second dorsal with dark-edged (not black) tip; nictitating membrane bluish-white. Liver weight 12 oz., about 5% of total weight. Mesovarium pale, almost as long as coelome; uteri mere shreds, shellglands very small. No embryos or ova evident. Stomach contained a bitten cuttlefish, or squid head. WHITLEY. 11 Vertebrae 195. No. 30 below first dorsal origin, 58 over ventral origin, 84 over anal origin, 86 under second dorsal origin, 95 between ends of second dorsal and anal bases, 114 at base of caudal, and 172 over upper caudal notch (see fig. 5a). Described from an immature female, 1,090 mm. or 3 ft. 74 in. long; weight 144 lb., caught by handline (mullet bait). Locality Windeéerabanda Beach, eleven miles north of Point Cloates, Western Australia; 12th October, 1944. Family EMISSOLIDAE. EMISSOLA GANEARUM, Sp. NOV. (Fig. 6.) The giant size of Western Australian gummy sharks at once strikes an observer accustomed to the gummies of the eastern States. Thus, in New 6. Gummy, Emissola ganearum, Whitley. Ventral surface of head of holotype, off Bald Head, Albany. G.P.W. del. South Wales, hundreds’ of specimens caught in various months by the trawlers, did not exceed 900 mm. in total length for males and 1,250 for females. Males usually measured between 750 and 800 mm., and females between 850 and 900. In New South Wales, the males out-numbered females by about 73 per cent. 12 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. In Western Australia, between June, 1943, and February, 1944, I saw numerous specimens caught around Esperance, Albany and Bunbury by set- lines. In these, the largest male was about 1,270 mm. long, and the largest female 1,570. Males usually measure less than 1,150 mm., and females between 1,250 and 1,350. In Western Australia, adult females outnumber males by about 13 per cent. in the commercial catches. In litters of embryos, however, males sometimes outnumber females (cf. Haacke, Zool. Garten, xxvi., 8, August, 1885, p. 247, on this ratio). When tagging sharks in southern Tasmania, however, I found 87.5% of this genus were males. These striking numerical discrepancies suggest at least a racial differen- tiation for the W.A. stocks, but there are other differences as well, the most important being the absence of partitions separating the embryos in the uterus, so that a new specific name is necessary. The size, colour, and numbers of embryos vary, too. In the gummies of New Scuth Wales, 3 to 7 embryos are the uSual brood. In the Western Australian sharks, there may be almost any number from 4 to 22, but there are rarely fewer than twelve; both the developing ova and the embryos are larger in the Western sharks, being full-term at from about 9 to 13 inches in length. The embryos vary in size at the same time of year in different mothers and are sometimes accompanied by a few infertile eggs. The embryos are usually plain greyish, without the transverse dark bars characteristic of Eastern Australian specimens. | About 75 to 80 teeth across each jaw, all blunt, those of lower jaw with some ridgé-like crowns. Upper labial fold the longer. Third gill-slit longest. Spiracles fairly large in young, small and slit-like in adults. Pectoral fin further forward than in E. maugeana Whitley, from Bass Strait, its angle below anterior portion of first dorsal fin. Lower caudal lobe rounded. Upper caudal lobe less than head in length. General colour greyish with white spots on back and along lateral line. Young examples sometimes with dark edge to dorsal. Iris bronze to greyish. Feeds on various crustacea (spider, sand, hermit and swimming crabs, shrimps, king prawn, raninoid), sea mouse, sipunculid worms, octopus, squid, sharks’ and sKates’ eggs, and fishes (Phyllopteryx, Parapercis, cat- fish, parrot fish, yelloweye mullet, etc.). The liver weight varies from 4 to 10% of the whole weight. Localities—Holotype from off Bald Head, Albany, W.A.; 5 October, 1943. Female, 1,400 mm. in total length (head figured here). Weight over 40 lb. Had 22 embryos, mostly (15) female, 300 to 362 mm. long; umbilical scar present, no yolk-sac. Doubtful Island Bay, east of Albany, W.A.; 30/11/11, F.1.V. “Endeavour” (Austr. Mus., No. £.2316). Female 283 mm., with umbilical scar healed. Albany, W.A. (Austr. Mus., No. IA.672). Female, 335 mm. long, with umbilical scar healed. Many specimens seen from off Bunbury, Albany, and Esperance, Western Australia, and in the Perth fish markets. Cynias lenticularis (Phillipps), the white-spotted Gummy of New Zealand, differs from those of Western Australia in having larger spots and more acute snout; the nostril flaps have the posterior margin longer than the lateral instead of being semicircular as in the Western Australian form, and the spiracles are smaller than in ganearum of comparable size. WHITLEY. 13 Family ECHELIDAE. MURAENICHTHYS BREVICEPS, Gunther. Depth (15) 3.2 in head (49) which is 11.4 in total length (560) and 3.4 in space between gill-opening and vent (169). Eye (6) 1.6 in snout (10) and 8.1 in head, less than interorbital (6.5). Cleft of mouth (17) 2.8 in head. Gill-openings (3) 2 in eye, and 15 mm. apart ventrally. No fringes on lips. Teeth biserial along vomer and in narrow strips about 2 rows wide along jaws. Cannot see jujostegalia through integument. Snout to vent (215) 1.6 in tail (345). Predorsal length (98) much less than distance from dorsal origin to end of tail (462). Origin of dorsal to level of vent (117) much more than head. Anal fin commencing just behind vent, confluent with caudal and dorsal, the latter extending well in advance of level of vent. Dark greyish brown above, whitish below. The junction rather strongly marked below middle of sides, along lower level of gill-slits and lower level of eye. Some yellow on cheeks, throat and chin. Most of mouth white, tips of jaws dark greyish brown. Eye dull bluish. Dorsal fin dirty greyish with a yellowish tinge anteriorly, but this gives way posteriorly to a brighter yellow. Anal duli whitish with some yellow posteriorly. Caudal brown. Described from a specimen 560 mm. or 22 inches long. Locality —Albany, Western Australia. March, 1944.- W.A. Mus., Regd. No. P.2604. This species of Worm Eel, originally described from Tasmania, is known also from Victoria and South Australia. This is the first time it has been recognised from Western Australia. It can be readily distinguished from Scolechenchelys by having the dorsal fin originating well in advance of the vent, cleft of mouth about one- third of head, teeth in more than one series along jaws and vomer, predorsal length much less than rest of fish, and distance from origin of dorsal fin to level of vent much more than length of head. The species is well illustrated in Waite’s “Fishes of South Australia,” #925./). 13. Family BELONIDAE. Genus DsuLoncius Whitley, 1935. DJULONGIUS GAVIALOIDES (Castelnau). (Fig. 7.) Belone gavialoides Castelnau, Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Vict., ii., May 10, 18783, p. 142. Fremantle, W.A. : Belone groeneri Klunzinger, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien., lxxx., 1, 1879, p. 414. Port Darwin, Northern Territory. (New Synonym.) Pea et 20. Ai 20: P.1..13; V..i.,.5;-C.13 branched. Head, from end of lower jaw, 273 mm.; from upper, 265. Eye, 25; inter- orbital, 46. Dorsal base, 162; its lobe, 71. Anal base, 156; its lobe, 86. Last dorsal ray, 11; last anal ray, 13. Predorsal length, 714. Snout to origin of ventral, 542. Pectoral, 85; its base, 28. Pectoral origin to ventral origin, 265. Ventral fin, 63. Ventral origin to anal origin, 163. Middle caudal 14 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. rays, .43. Depth of body anteriorly, 62; at ventrals, 55. Depth of caudal peduncle, 22; width of same, 18. Upper jaw included. Teeth juxtaposed, about vertical, or sloping slightly backwards. Palate toothless. Tongue rough. Maxillary mostly concealed under preorbital. Middle of interorbital concavely excavated. No gill-rakers. Scales in numerous rows on cheeks, none on operculum. Body not greatly compressed. No keel on caudal peduncle, which is deeper than broad. Anal origin in advance of that of dorsal. The anal lobe is higher than that of the dorsal, but its posterior rays are rather lower than the dorsal ones; second anal ray longest; second pectoral ray longest. Colours (in life): Light sea-green above (three faint blue lines along top of back), gradating to silvery white below. A dark bluish-green band 7. Long Tom, Djulongius gavialoides (Castelnau). Female from Dirk Hartog Island. Also transverse section through caudal peduncle and dorsal view of head. extends back from upper portion of operculum and pectoral base along middle of side to between dorsal and anal origins. Mouth white, with silver, blue and pink tinges; teeth white. Tips of jaws fleshy or pinkish. Pupil black; iris very pale yellowish with green above. Cheeks and chin Silver. Fins very pale green or almost white. Slight dark grey margins to dorsal and caudal lobes. Pectoral watery yellowish, with dark smoky grey upper margin and distal third. A smoky blotch at upper part of inner pectoral axil. Described and figured from a female specimen, 1,000 mm. long and weighing 33 lb. The stomach was very large, empty. Ovaries well-developed with discrete ova and blood vessels; gonad weight, 1 oz. Swim-bladder carrot-shaped with scalloped edges. The described specimen was the largest of several, 960 to 1,000 mm. long; weight, 3 lb. to 3 lb. 13 oz. Locality.—East coast of Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia. Seined, 17th August, 1944. Coll. G. P. Whitley. A small example was secured at Point Cloates on 30th September, 1944. Total length, 590 mm.; caudal peduncle with a slight keel on each side; D.i, 20; A.i. 20. Regd: No. P. 2798. Family MUuGILIDAE. MOOLGARDA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Moolgarda pura, sp. nov. Mullets with the adipose eyelids obsolescent, not nearly covering one- third of eye posteriorly. Snout longer than eye. Interorbital convex. WHITLEY. 15 Mandibulary angle very obtuse. Upper jaw terminal. Upper lip moderately thick with microscopic cilia or entire, not papillose. Jaws toothless. Free space along chin between opercles almost closed. Preorbital margin ser- rated. Slope of opercular margin steep. Gill-rakers numerous. Rostro- dorsal profile not remarkably convex. Depth about 4 to 44 in standard length. Scales in about 30 to 35 transverse series between head and hypural joint. About 21 predorsal scales. First dorsal origin nearer snout than caudal base. Second dorsal and anal origins about opposite or anal slightly anterior. Anal fin with nine soft rays. Pectorals not elongated, their base at or over middle of body. Axillary scales present. Depth of caudal peduncle less than or subequal to half head. The above combination of characters distinguishes this genus from all others in the family. It seems, however, closest to the group known as Liza. The name Liza, Jordan and Swain (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vii., 1884, p. 261) was proposed for Old World mullets in which the adipose eyelids were obsolete. The genotype was the European Grey Mullet, Mugil capito Cuvier, which, according to Gunther (Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iii., 1861, p. 439), differs from the Australian fish here diagnosed in having the mandibulary angle much less obtuse, the space between opercles on chin obtusely rounded anteriorly and more open, the maxillary exposed, and in having many more scales (45 or 46) along body and (28 or 30) predorsally; there are other differences in proportions of head and body, so that the best course to pursue is to provide a new name for the Australian fish. Besides the genotype, the two mainly eastern Australian species, “Mugil’” argenteus Quoy and Gaimard, and M. compressus Gunther, may tentatively be included in the new genus, Moolgarda, though at the time of writing, I have no specimens of these at hand. Gunther (loc. cit.) describes them as having L. tr. 10, flatter interorbitals, no axillary pectoral scales and with very different proportions, etc. Moolgarda compressa has the maxillary exposed, but M. argentea has the maxilla hidden. MOOLGARDA PURA, SP. NOUV. Brown-back Mullet. (Fig. 8.) D_iv./i., 8; A.iii., 9; P.ii:, 16; C.14 branched. Sc. 36 to hypural joint and 5 on caudal base. Tr. 14. Predorsal 21. Ten scales down side of caudal peduncle and 63 between dorsal fins. Head (100 mm.) 3.9, depth (92) 4.2 in standard length (390). Snout (24) 4.16, eye (17) nearly 5.9, interorbital (48) 2 in head. Internarial, 32; width of head, 69; pectoral, 86; postorbital, 55; depth of caudal peduncle, 39; length to caudal fork, 440; total length, 490 mm. Snout broadly rounded, not excavated. Three rows of cheek scales; a couple of notched scales near preopercular angle. Four notches across vertex and along grooves over opercles. A groove before vomer. Cleft of mouth broader than deep. No teeth on jaws or palate. Jaws protusible. Upper lip deep; lower slender with double symphysial knob. Lips without papillae or visible cilia, with cultrate edges and no transverse groove. Maxilla sheathed under preorbital when mouth is closed, reaching to below the posterior nostril on each side, Nostrils nearer one another than to eye. Preorbital serrations obsolescent. 16 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Eye situated rather low. Adipose eyelids not nearly reaching pupil. Interorbital broadly convex, scaly. Opercles close together along median line; posterior margin of operculum subvertical. Gill-rakers slender, about 68 on lower part of first branchial arch. Body rather slender, its maximum depth at origin of first dorsal fin, its width greatest where it joins head, the dorsal profile weakly convex. Scales large, cycloid, with clear entire distal margins and about five basal radii. Large axillary scales to ‘paired fins. Small scales extend over OEE 8. Brown-back Mullet, Moolgarda pura, Whitley. Holotype from Point Cloates. Also anterior and ventral aspects of head. pectoral and caudal fins proximally. Soft dorsal and anal fin only scaly anteriorly. Each scale of body with central streak; most of head scales without these. Origins of dorsal fins over 14th and 26th body scales. First dorsal origin midway between tip of snout and hypural joint, First dorsal spine reaching more than half its distance from second dorsal fin. Anal origin behind level of that of second dorsal. Pectoral shorter than head, not reaching level of first dorsal spine, extending to 11th body scale. Caudal forked. Colour in life, brownish on top of head and anterior part of back. Generally greyish elsewhere to silvery or white below. Some faint stripes of darker grey along junctions of scale rows. Eye whitish with black pupil and a yellow crescent over upper part of iris. Fins mostly greyish; ventrals white; pectorals light olivaceous-yellow with conspicuous blue axillary blotch; caudal with brilliant blue iridescence. Described and figured from a female specimen 490 mm. (about 193 inches) long. Gonads at stage IV or late III of G. Kesteven’s classification (C.S.I.R. Bull. 157, 1942, p.48). Locality—Point Cloates, Western Australia; in schools in shallow water over sand, 6th October, 1944. Native name: Moolgarda. Variation.—A series of co-types, up to 665 mm. in total length, from Shark’s Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Onslow and Broome, Western Australia, exhibits WHITLEY. i little variation. The maxilla may be exposed in some examples and the anal origin a little in advance of level of second dorsal origin. Larger specimens have these fins scaly all over. The transverse rows of scales vary from 29 to 35 between head and hypural and are not always bilaterally equal in number. Axillary scales were absent from the pectoral in one specimen. The 1.tr. varies from 11 in small to 15 in large specimens. The species grows to at least 26 inches long and is said to be common in shallow water all the year round. It is the Yellowfin Mullet of Shark’s Bay (because of the yellowish pectoral fins) but I think Brown-back Mullet would be a preferable vernacular name because the brown backs are very characteristic as these fishes are seen swimming near the surface in shallow water. Subgenus PLANILIZA, nov. Orthotype, Moolgarda (Planiliza) ordensis, sp. nov. A mullet in general similar to the new genus Moolgarda described above, but distinguished by having (1) the interorbital broad, flat and depressed; (2) the free space along chin between interopercles broadly open; (3) only about sixteen predorsal scales, and (4) with anal origin in advance of level of second dorsal origin. There are many minor differences as well, e.g., large axillary scales are not developed at the pectoral fins, the body scales are larger and fewer, and small scales extend over most of the fins. MOOLGARDA (PLANILIZA) ORDENSIS, Sp. 70V. Ord River Mullet. (Fig. 9.) Meme eo wali, 9; Pi, 16; C.12 branched. Sc. 31 to hypural + 2 large and several small on caudal. L.tr., 11. Predorsal 16. Seven or eight scales down side of caudal peduncle and between dorsal fins. Head (84 mm.) 3.8, depth at first dorsal origin (75) 4.3 in standard length (325). Snout (26) 3.4, eye (13) 6.8, interorbital (40) 2.2, and depth of caudal peduncle (35) 2.5 in head. Depth of cleft of mouth (6.5) 4.3 in its width (28). Distance between anterior nostrils, 23; width of head, 61; length of pectoral, 55; trunk, 140; distance between origins of dorsal fins, 86; head without snout, 67; first dorsal spine, 36; postorbital, 52; length to caudal fork, 370; total length, 390 mm. Head elongate, very depressed, its depth about half its length, its profile acute-angled; snout broadly rounded. Four rows of cheek-scales. Two weakly notched scales near preopercular angle, others along sides of top of head. Eyes large. Adipose eyelids obsolescent, not nearly covering one-third of eye posteriorly. Snout longer than eye. Nostrils closer together than to eye. Interorbital broad and flat. Jaws protrusible. Mandibulary angle very obtuse. Maxillary exposed and reaching beyond posterior slit- like nostrils. Upper jaw terminal. Upper lip not notably thick, toothless but with microscopic cilia, not papillose. A series of tooth-like bumps behind lower lip, which has a round symphysial knob. No transverse groove on lips. A groove before vomer, Tongue notched anteriorly. Free space along chin between opercles broadly open. Preorbital obscurely serrated. Opercular margin curving obliquely. Gill-rakers numerous. Body rather deep, compressed, especially towards tail. 18 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Rostro-dorsal profile rising acutely, rather humped before first dorsal fin. Scales large, with minutely ciliated margins carrying on the sculpture of their surfaces, without clear edges; about six to eight basal radii. About 31 transverse series between head and hypural joint. Those on flanks present a hexagonal exposed surface. Most body scales have a thin central streak. Axillary scales at first dorsal and ventral fins but not developed at pectorals. Scales extend well over fins (except first dorsal and ventrals). Origins of dorsal fins over about 10th and 20th body scales. First dorsal origin nearer snout than caudal base; spines thick and strong, the first 9. Ord River Mullet, Moolgarda (Planiliza) ordensis, Whitley. Holotype from Ord River. Also ventral aspect of head. longest, reaching less than half its distance from the second dorsal fin, which is slightly higher than anal. Anal origin in advance of level of second dorsal origin, the fin with nine soft rays, last two with bases very close together. Pectoral much shorter than head, not reaching level of first dorsal spine, extending to eighth body scale, and with its base about middle of body. Caudal bi-lobed, weakly forked. Colour (in formalin) grey above, lighter below. Scales on flanks with dark margins. Pectorals light in tone. Fins without marginal tones. Specimen stained green from copper in its container. Described from a specimen 390 mm. (nearly 153 inches) in total length. W.A. Mus. Regd. No. P.2758. Locality —Carlton Reach, Ivanhoe Station, Ord River, North-western Australia. Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins. Differs from Mugil compressus Gunther (Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iii., 1861, pp. 416 and 451) in having depth one-fifth of total length, depth of caudal peduncle less than half head, interorbital much broader, in shape of inter- space on chin, etc., and from other species in the kKey-characters given by Gunther and later authors, and incorporated in the above description. WHITLEY. 19 ALDRICHETTA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Mugil forsteri Cuvier and Valenciennes (Hist. Nat. Poiss., xi., 1836, p. 141. New Zealand. Ex Mugil albula Forster, Ms., not of Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1., 1766, p. 520, from America). = Aldrichetta forsteri. Eyes yellow, not covered by adipose lids. Snout longer than eye in adults. Interorbital convex. Mandibulary angle obtuse or rounded; upper jaw terminal, overhanging lower. Upper lip not thick, papillose, or ciliated. Minute teeth on jaws, vomer, palatines and tongue, the latter having no keel. Free space along chin between opercles open, elongate-ovoid. Pre- orbital margin serrated. Opercular margin not as steep as in other genera. Gill-rakers long, slender and numerous. Rostro-dorsal profile very gently convex, the back straight. Depth about 32 to 42 in. standard length. Scales in about 45 or more transverse series between head and hypural joint. Nearly 30 predorsal scales. Anal origin before level of origin of second dorsal. Anal fin with 12 soft rays, second dorsal with 10. Pectorals pointed, shorter than head. Axillary ‘scales not developed. Depth of caudal peduncle less than half head. This is the yellow-eyed mullet of Australia and New Zealand (‘“pilchard”’ of Western Australia) which is usually placed in the genus Agonostomus Bennett (Proc. Zool. Soc., London, xiv., March, 1832, p. 166), but the type of that genus is A. telfaivii Bennett, from Mauritius, which has eight dorsal and nine anal rays, and many other differences (see Gunther’s Catalogue, lil., 1861, p. 462). I name the Australasian genus in honour of Mr. Fred. C. Aldrich, who served for.many years as a Fisheries Inspector in New South Wales and became Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game in Perth, Western Australia, from 1911 to 1937, an able and enthusiastic fisheries investigator. A young Western Australian specimen is described and figured here- under. ALDRICHETTA FORSTERI (Cuv. & Val.). (His 103) Pie) 1V-/1., 9: Ai. 12: Sc. 40 plus. Tr. 14 or 5. Head (12 mm.) 3.7, depth (9.5) 4.7 in standard length (45). Eye (3) 4, snout (2) 6; interorbital (nearly 4) and depth of caudal peduncle (4.3) about one-third head. Length to caudal fork, 52 mm. Mouth terminal. Upper lip not very thick and not papillate. Pre- maxillary processes shorter than eye. Maxilla reaching to below anterior part of eye. Minute villiform teeth in jaws. Mandible truncately rounded anteriorly. No adipose eyelids. Snout short. Preorbital serrated. Cheeks and opercles with large scales, in 2 to 3 rows on cheeks. Nostrils large. Gill openings wide, membranes united across narrow isthmus. Gill-rakers slender, spaced, some longer than gill-fringes, about 20 on lower half of first branchial arch. Pseudobranchiae present. Body compressed, deep anteriorly. Rostro-dorsal profile slightly convex over head, straighter along back. Body covered with deciduous cycloid scales, without differentiated margins (at least, at this stage) and four basal striae. More than forty transverse series of scales. About twenty predorsal scales (some missing in specimen). Ventral profile convex. 20 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Origins of dorsal fins corresponding to about 14th and 26th body scales. First dorsal spine (6 mm.) reaching more than half its distance from first dorsal ray. First dorsal origin nearer snout than root of tail. Scales extend on to soft dorsal and anal fins. Anterior half of anal before level of soft dorsal. Nine dorsal and twelve anal rays. Pectoral base not entirely above 10. Yellow-eye Mullet, Aldrichetta forsteri (Cuv. & Val.). Young specimen from Bunbury. middle of body, its tip not reaching to below first dorsal. Anal origin nearer first dorsal and ventral origins than to hypural joint. Axillary scale to ventral fin and an overhanging scale (which may develop into an axillary scale?) over pectoral base. Pectoral (8 mm.) much shorter than head. Caudal forked, lower lobe the longer. General colour olivaceous, from brownish-grey on back to yellowish on sides, with the viscera bluish. Head, body, and fins densely infuscated with brownish chromatophores with black nuclei. Chin and lips speckled. Lower parts of gills plain. Eye bluish. No dark mark at pectoral base; pectorals whitish with infuscated tips. Described from a specimen 45 mm, in standard length or about 55 mm., or 2-1/5th inches, in total length. W.A. Museum Reg. No. P.2690, the largest of three, 37 to 45 mm. in standard length (P.2691-2). Locality—Bunbury estuary, Western Australia; 7th December, 1943; collected by Dr. D. L. Serventy. Family LuTJANIDAE. CAESIOSCORPIS, gen. nov. Orthotype, Caesioscorpis theagenes, sp. nov. A new squamipinnate genus with the following distinguishing com- bination of characters:— Head acutely pointed, compressed, tapering ventrally, scaly except for tip of snout and chin. Eyes large, lateral. Interorbital convex, scaly. Pre- WHITLEY. 21 orbital entire. Maxillary thin, truncate. Lower jaw terminal, mandibular rami elevated and extensive. Small teeth in jaws, apparently none on palate. Nostrils rounded. No barbels. Operculum with two small flat spines. Preoperculum thin, venulose, crenulated at edge. Gill-membranes united by small membrane across narrow isthmus. Body lenticular, compressed. Scales of moderate size, ciliated, im- bricate, adherent, thin. Lateral line complete, tubes straight. Vent little before anal fin, no papilla. Dorsal with eleven heteracanth spines, anal with three. Spines and rays compactly united by membranes. Soft dorsal and anal fins with plus or minus twenty rays, covered by scales. Fins not falcate or with produced lobes. Pectorals shorter than head with lower rays branched. Ventrals behind level of pectoral base. Caudal forked. Coloration plain, mostly light green above and silvery below. Probably nearest Caesio but without the elevated anterior dorsal spines of that genus. CAESIOSCORPIS THEAGENES, SP. N20U. (Fig. 11.) peewee at: Ati.) 1S; Pi, 14; V.1., 5; C.16. L. lat. 49 to hypural + 5 on tail. L. tr. about 9/1/19 (but some scales missing in type-specimen) to 43/1/5 on caudal peduncle. Head (30 mm.) 3.7, depth at middle of body (38) 3 in standard length (113). Eye (8.5) 3.5, snout (8) 3.7, interorbital (10) 3, pectoral (24) 1.2, and depth of caudal peduncle (11) 2.7 in head. Length to caudal fork, 126 mm. General characters as defined for genus. Maxillary mostly sheathed by preorbital, reaching below eye. Scales evenly cover cleithrum, nape, and whole of body and extend over the fins. Middle spines of dorsal fin longest and longer than the rays. sf < Co — oe se aa)5) SIS POS 4 se S505 ee Sd Boe Le — GPW. \ 11. Green Fusilier, Caesioscorpis theagenes, Whitley. Holotype from Blow- holes, north of Carnarvon. 22 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Colour in life pale greenish above and silvery below. After preservation, generally yellowish brown, brighter yellow on tail. Eye bluish. Snout dark brown. Fins with some grey infuscations. Pectoral axil grey. Described and figured from the unique holotype, a specimen about 140 mm. (53 inches) in total length. W.A. Mus. Regd. No. P.2795. Locality—In an oyster-surrounded rockpool near the blowholes, coast- line about 30 miles north of Carnarvon, Western Australia. Coll. G. P. Whitley, 16th September, 1944, by firing .303 bullet into rockpool. Family SOROSICHTHYIDAE, 70U. A new family of the Order Berycomorphi. Allied to Trachichthyidae, but with the spinous dorsal fin separate from the soft and consisting of ten spines instead of four (in Trachichthys) or up to seven in other genera. Only five soft rays in ventral fins; only two anal spines. No enlarged pre- opercular spine. No barbels. Scales large, ctenoid, less than thirty in lateral lines. Vent near bases of ventral fins. One monotypic genus, from South-western Australia. SOROSICHTHYS, gen. nov. Orthotype, Sorosichthys ananassa, sp. nov. This small berycomorph fish from South-western Australia has five ventral rays, ten dorsal spines (the fourth longest), and less than thirty scales in lateral line. These characters alone clearly separate this fish generically from any other berycoid. For further details, see specific description. In facies and in form of dorsal fins, this fish rather recalls also the Holocenthridae, but the latter have more anal spines. It is perhaps Closest to Paratrachichthys Waite, 1899, but is immediately separable by its fin and scale-counts, the scales being large as in Holocenthridae. Gephyroberyx Boulenger, 1902, has a discrete spinous dorsal fin of eight spines, but has enlarged preopercular spine, vent near anal fin, smaller scales, and different formulae. SOROSICHTHYS ANANASSA, SP. NOV. (Fig. 12.) Br. 7. Dex. 8; A.ii, 8; P. 13; V.1., 5; C.16.0r 17. L. lat fete ore eee AB 27 Wal Head (19 mm.) 2.7, depth (21) 2.4 in standard length (52). Eye (7) 2.7, snout (4) 4.7, least depth of caudal peduncle (5.4) 3.5 in head. Interorbital, 8; maxillary, 12; pectoral fin, 8; longest (fourth) dorsal spine, 6 mm. Head large, bluntly rounded, exceedingly rugose on most of its surfaces and with numerous pores. Jaws subequal, a notch at either symphysis; no barbel; end of maxillary truncate. Mouth oblique, chin not very prominent. Bands of rough, villiform teeth in jaws. Apparently none on vomer. Nostrils large, without spines inside them. Eyes large, separated by a broad convex interorbital. A few scales on maxillary and cheeks. Suborbital shallow anteriorly. Preoperculum serrated, without very enlarged spine. Operculum with some rather irregular spines above and below and crossed WHITLEY. 23 by several serrated subvertical ridges. Gill openings united across narrow isthmus. Gill-rakers slender, not numerous. Body ovate, rather compressed; back rounded; belly flat with raised median ridge. Body covered with large, imbricate, very rugose, ctenoid scales. Abdominal scales not strongly keeled. Lateral line evenly curved, with simple tubes. Other scales on the body have similar tubes or a median 12. Little Pineapple Fish, Sorosichthys anandassa, Whitley. Holotype from off Bald Island. Lower left: breast and vent. Lower right: anterior aspect of head. Keel giving the appearance of several lateral lines. About 15 preventral scales and 12 abdominal scutes. About eight predorsal scales. Vent between bases of ventral fins. Raised scaly bases to soft dorsal and anal fins. Dorsal originating over posterior portion of head, its spines united to one another and to soft fin by membranes. Base of spinous fin (18.3 mm.) much longer than that of soft fin (7). Rays longer than spines. Anal below and similar to soft dorsal, its base 8 mm., its spines small. Spines and rays denticulated. Pectorals and ventrals small and rounded. Caudal bilobed. General colour, after long preservation, brownish, lighter on the raised portions of the scales, ridges on head, fin-spines, etc. Eyes bluish. Roof of mouth, gill-openings, and patches at ventral bases blackish. No striking colour-markings. Described from the unique holotype, a specimen, 52 mm. in standard length or 24 inches overall. W.A. Museum Regd. No. P.734. Locality —Trawled from between Bald Island and Haul Off Rock, about fifty miles east of Albany, South-western Australia; 28 to 32 fathoms; Government trawler “Penguin,” 1920. Suggested vernacular name: Little Fineapple Fish. 24 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Family EPINEPHELIDAE. EPINEPHELUS RANKINI, Sp. N0V. Br. ‘f... D.xl:, 16; Aw. 6: Pils:, sbadat; sepals toshypuraljoints sh: tesabent 20/1/60, below first dorsal spines, to about 14/1/18 on caudal peduncle. Head (102 mm.) 2.6, depth (93) 2.7 in standard length (265). Eye (15) 6.8, snout (25) 4.0 in head. Interorbital, 22.5 mm.; snout to end of maxilla, 50; depth of maxilla, 14; length of pectoral fin, 51. No rugosities, bony ridges or mucous cavities on head. Head large, deep, mostly scaly behind about level of eye, though the anterior and cheek scales are minute and vestigial. Eyes remarkably small, interorbital broadly convex. Preopercular margin serrated, with several slightly enlarged serrae around its angle. Other serrae below suboperculum and at interoperculum. Opercular flap rounded, its upper border feebly curved. Three opercular spines, the uppermost most anterior, and further from the middle (most posterior) one than the latter is from the lowest spine. Lower jaw project- ing strongly. Maxillary roundly truncate, its depth subequal to diameter of eye, naked, with small supplemental bone, only visible through dissection. Tongue spatulate, blunt anteriorly, smooth. Small cardiform teeth on jaws, vomer, and palate. Outer ones and a couple near front of upper jaw a little enlarged, and not depressible, but no canines; teeth are in about three rows along sides of mandibles. Nostrils circular, the anterior with skinny rim, but no flap or tentacle. Gill-rakers slender, flattened, internally spinulose, the longest (12 mm.) longer than gill-fringes but shorter than eye; there are 9/15 on first branchial arch. Body robust, deepest at level of gill-flaps. Very small ctenoid scales cover the body and extend on to most of the fins and cover the back, breast and cleithrum where, however, they tend to become smaller or vestigial and merge into a leathery integument. The slightly ascending scale-rows cross the course of the lateral line which is normal in position, though along the caudal peduncle it is slightly nearer the dorsal than the ventral profile. Base of spinous dorsal slightly longer than that of soft. Membranes of Spinous fins with small pencils. First dorsal originating well forward, over opercular fiap. The fourth spine is longest (38 mm.), longer than last spine (29) and subequal to longest dorsal ray. Third anal ray longest, more than half longest anal ray. Pectorals rounded, eighth ray longest. Ventrals behind pectoral base, the fin rounded, second ray longest, slightly shorter than pectoral, not nearly reaching vent. Caudal truncate. General colour, in formalin, dark greyish-brown to chocolate on head, body and fins, becoming light in tone along chin and breast. Large, irregular cream spots occur asymmetrically over most of fish. No transverse bars on body or saddle-shaped blotch on tail. On the sides, the spots are mostly oval with the long axis vertical and nearly as long as eye; they are smaller on the breast and the isthmus is plain dirty greyish or cream. The spots are much smaller on the fins and are indistinct on the first dorsal and ventral fins. Unpaired soft fins with an extremely narrow cream border; inframarginally these fins also the ventrals are almost black. A grey smudge, but not a definite moustache-mark above maxilla. Eye bluish with dull pale yellow iris. Described from the holotype of the species, a specimen 330 mm. or 13 inches overall. WHITLEY. 25 Locality—Netted off Onslow, Western Australia; Mr. F. J. Rankin, late 1944. W.A. Museum Regd. No. P.2847. In comparison with all the numerous species of Epinephelus, it may be stressed that the small eyes, conspicuous spots, truncate caudal fin, ventral fins not reaching vent, and sixteen dorsal rays are diagnostic characters for those to whom a new species, however expertly described, is a nomen nudum unless compared with its congeners. Named after Mr. F. J. Rankin, postmaster at Onslow, Western Australia, . in appreciation of his valued specimens and notes of fishes from his district. EPINEPHELUS SPIRAMEN, SP. Ov. Dee 7; Alli, 8; P.17. L. lat. circa 68 to hypural joint (overlying about 48 tubes), plus some small scales on caudal base. L. tr. 9/1/36 at origin of first dorsal, to 8/1/10 on caudal peduncle. Head (4 mm.) 3.1, depth (72) 3.6, pectoral (52) 5.0 in total length (263). Eye (18); 4.6, interorbital (12) 7 in head. Snout (16) less than eye. Only vestigial scales on top of head; none on maxilla, which reaches below posterior half of eye and is truncately rounded. Opercular flap blunt. Three opercular spines, the topmost anterior and the middle one largest and most posterior, and equidistant from the top and bottom ones. Pre- operculum serrate, serrae slightly enlarged at angle. Nostrils oval, the anterior ones lipped. Supplemental bone united to maxillary by a low ridge; width of maxilla more than half eye-diameter. Cardiform teeth on jaws, vomer, and palatines, some enlarged near symphyses and along sides. No very large canines. Tongue long and spatulate, toothless. Gill-rakers 5 + 1+ 8 + 4 rudiments on first branchial arch, the middle raker enlarged, 6.5 mm. long. All of body, back included, scaly. Lateral line normal. All fin margins rounded. The third to fifth dorsal spines are longer than the others. Second anal spine (26 mm.) longer and stronger than third, but shorter than anal rays. Life-colour mostly a rusty to brick red, the edge of each scale darker; ground-colour of head olive-greenish. A white band across each side of lips; a white bar from behind maxilla to interopercle, continued on anterior part of breast but not meeting its fellow on the other side; two more oblique white bars before base of pectoral. Body crossed by six broad brick-red cross-bars descending slightly obliquely forwards. Two dark cross-bars on top of head. A large dark brown blotch behind eye. Eye olivaceous above and dull reddish-brown iris. Nostrils red. Inside of mouth white. First dorsal fin mostly pale dirty-brownish with inframarginal brick- red stripe having an olivaceous blotch on membranes between each spine; distal pencils white. Other fins rusty-red with yellowish tinge distally and margined narrowly with milky white. Minute milky spots on membranes of ventral and anal fin, in pectoral axil, and where dorsal fins join the back. Described from a female specimen, 263 mm. or 10% inches in total length. W.A. Museum Regd. No. P.2796. 26 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Locality—Rocks near the blowholes, on coastline about 30 miles north of Carnarvon, Western Australia; handline, on kangaroo steak bait. Similar in facies to the Serranus stoliczkae of Day’s “Fishes of India,” 1875, but that species has more numerous gill-rakers, maxilla reaching posterior border of eye, deeper body, different scale-counts, spots on head and shoulders, etc. From other species my novelty is separable by the key characters given by Boulenger (Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus.) . Family TERAPONTIDAE. Genus MESopRISTES Bleeker, 1845. MESOPRISTES JENKINSI, Sp. nov. D.xili., 12; A.iil., 8; P..16. L: lat. 52°to hypural. “LL: tr.s/ 1/17.” Cheek scales in about 8 or 9 rows. Head (42 mm.) 2.7, depth (45) 2.5 in standard length (116). Eye (9) 4.7 in head, shorter than snout (13) and interorbital (12). Fifth dorsal spine (15) subequal to fifth dorsal ray (15.5). Second anal ray, 19 mm. General characters as in Ogilby and McCulloch’s description of argenteus (Mem. Qld. Mus., v., 1916, p. 115). Preorbital not serrate, notched to received tumid lip. Maxillary not entirely covered by lip. Interorbital and cranial ridges obsolete externally. Lower opercular spine not greatly enlarged. Nostrils well separated. Supra-cleithrum exposed, denticulate. Longest dorsal spine (5th) longer than most of the rays. Second anal spine very strong, longer than 3rd, sub- equal to rays. Caudal emarginate. Colour fairly uniform dark slate grey. No conspicuous markings and no dark spot on bases of scales. Total length, 6 inches. Described from the holotype in the W. Australian Museum. (No. P.2763.) Locality—Ivanhoe Station, Ord River, North-western Australia; collected by Mr. C. F. H. Jenkins, Government Entomologist of Western Australia. Differs from Mesopristes argenteus (Cuv. & Val.) in dorsal fin formula and smaller dorsal spines, more pectoral rays, and in proportions. From other species in the key characters given by Ogilby and McCulloch (Mem. Qld. Mus., v., 1916, p. 101) and Fowler (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100, xi., 1931, p. 326). A doubtful Western Australian record of “Sparus argenteus” may refer to this species. Family SCIAENIDAE. SCIAENA ANTARCTICA REX, SUDSD. NOV. Similar to S. antarctica Castelnau, 1872, as described and figured by Ogilby (Mem. Qid. Mus., vi., 1918, p. 70, pl. xxi.), but with a smaller eye in relation to the head (of which it is about one-seventh) and with D.ix., i., 24 instead of 27 to 28 as in eastern Australia. The mouth extends behind eye: A.il,° 7; Pin, 17; -C: 15.) ead: 238 mm! depth, abouts 20a; weves ol, preorbital, 27; interorbital, 47; snout, 58; maxilla, 95; depth of caudal WHITLEY. Zt peduncle, 63 mm. L. lat., 57 + 5. L. tr., 9/1/15. Total length, 990 mm. Weight, cleaned, 19 lb. Preoperculum as described by Castelnau. Tail with three or four rows of transverse spots; pectoral axil yellowish. A second specimen, 900 mm. long, was 163 lb. whole weight, a developing female, ova not visible Gjill-rakers 4/8 to 9 as in antarctica. Locality.—Onslow, Western Australia; November, 1944. Corvina jubata Bleeker, 1855, from Borneo has 24 dorsal rays but differs largely in proportions. Family HISTIOPTERIDAE. Genus PARISTIOPTERUS, Bleeker, 1876. PARISTIOPTERUS GALLIPAVO, Whitley. Paristiopterus gallipavo Whitley, Proc. Roy. Zool. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1943-44, August 31, 1944, p. 28, fig. 4. meee Adil. 9° P.il., 15: V.1, 5; C. 15 branched rays. L. lat. 82. Head (169 mm.) and depth of body (165) about 3.5 in length to end of middle caudal rays (590). Eye (26) 6.5, orbit (35) 4.8, interorbital (42) 4.0, upper jaw (62) 2.7 in head. Snout, measured from orbit to anterior part of preorbital, 71 mm. Pectoral, 121; ventral spine, 98; second anal spine, 59; lower caudal lobe, 120; dorsal spines, 7, 11, 216, 232, 193, 190 and 168 mm. from bases to tips; first (longest) dorsal ray, 88. Depth of caudal peduncle, 38. Upper profile’ concave before eyes, bulging over occiput; general form rather deep and compressed and slightly tapering posteriorly. Lips thick and rugose, the upper terminal. Maxilla not reaching level of nostrils and mostly sheathed below preorbital posteriorly. A bunch of large moveable canines at middle of each jaw followed by broad bands of large, round, blunt molars in up to 5 rows in upper and 2 (rarely 3) in lower jaw. No vomerine or palatine teeth. Angle of mouth nearer to vertical from eye than to end of snout. Nostrils large, oval, the posterior largest. Head scaleless, except for some beneath skin on cheeks. Interorbital rising to median crest, on each side of which are several short bony ridges and some rugosities. Other rugosities around eye, across preorbital, and some fine ridges on opercles. Eyes large, not filling orbit but surrounded by wide lids, situated in posterior half of head. Chin coriaceous; sides of head smooth. Preoperculum with rounded angle, almost straight posterior border and coarsely serrate edges. Operculum with round membraneous flap. No spines. Cleithrum and supracleithrum exposed, with many fine ridges, pectoral axil naked and smooth. Body covered with rather large, round, thin cycloid scales, not arranged in regular rows. Lateral line with simple tubes. On the right side (but not the left) there are three tubes running along the side in advance of the median line from the caudal peduncle and below the ascending curve of the lateral line between the ends of the dorsal and anal fins, thus making a Y-shaped junction there, but this feature is doubtless abnormal. Dorsal and anal fins with scaly sheaths. No enlarged axillary scales. Spinous dorsal fin preceded by a procumbent spine. The first and second dorsal spines are short but the remaining five are elongate, com- pressed and wavy, forming a crest, their lengths are given in the dimensions above. The base of the spinous dorsal fin (116 mm.) is shorter than that 28 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. of the soft portion (160). Anal fin with three spines, the first very small, the second very long, compressed and strong, the third smaller than the . second; first two anal rays considerably longer than the others. Pectorals long and rather pointed. Ventrals similar in shape to pectorals but longer (125 mm.) and with a large, strongly compressed spine. Caudal forked, the upper lobe the longer; median rays, 50 mm. long. Genera! colour when fresun, pearly-greyish, becoming darker or suffused with pinkish on head and along back where there are numerous conspicuous round brownish spots up to about 4 mm. in diameter. Eyes and fins greyish. Described from the unique holotype of the species, a specimen 630 mm. or just over two feet in total length. It has, unfortunately, been gutted, so details as to gill-rakers, viscera, sex, etc., cannot be given. Locality Found fioating dead off Rockingham, Western Australia, on February 23, 1944. W. Aust. Museum Regd. No. P.2589. Distinguished from all other boarfishes by the following combination of characters: (1) Base of spinous dorsal fin shorter than that of soft; (2) posterior dorsal spines e‘’ongated, and longer than the rays; (3) anal spines three. The last two characters especially distinguish this fish so markedly from the type of Paristiopterus (labiosus) that the new Western Australian species deserves Ssubgeneric separation as Glauwertichthys, subg. nov. Family CORIDAE. Genus CHOEROJULIS Gill, 1862. CHOEROJULIS BROWNFIELDI, Sp. NOUV. (Fig. 13.) Dix. 14> Ail. 145 (Pon. Tl; (Cl 12. ie dat. 28. Ee tr. 27 17 10 so 4 ae eee caudal peduncle. 13. Wrasse, Choerojulis brownfieldi, Whitley. Holotype from Garden Island. Head (34 mm.) 3.7, depth (33) 3.8 in standard length (125). Eye (6) 5.6, snout (10) 3.4, interorbital (8) 4.2 in head. Head naked. Preoperculum entire. Lips fleshy, mouth not reaching as far as eye. Several separate, forwardly directed conic teeth in each jaw, WHITLEY. 29 anterior ones largest, there being two canines in front of each jaw. Posterior canine present in upper jaw. Lateral teeth not coalesced; no cutting edges or flared-out teeth. Form slender, very compressed. Scales cycloid with 26 basal radii and about forty apical striae. Thoracic scales smaller than those of body. Lateral line continuous, bent abruptly behind, each scale with a tube which usually breaks into three or four branches. Two rows of scales between lateral line and back. Dorsal and anal fins without scaly sheaths. Dorsal spines increasing in height backwards, the anterior two not divergent or differentiated. Caudal fin not covered by scales. General colour, after long preservation, brownish, with traces of three or four darker bars along body. A dark bar crosses snout and the post- orbital and suborbital regions are dusky. There is a dark blotch behind eye, another on first two dorsal membranes and along pectoral base. The unpaired fins are olive-brownish to greyish and ornamented with pearly- green spots as in figure; the anal has a light margin. No ocellus at caudal base. Described and figured from the holotype, 125 mm. in standard length, or nearly six inches overall. W.A. Museum Regd. No. P.110. © Locality. Garden Island, off Fremantle, Western Australia. A smaller incomplete specimen from Mandurah, about 55 mm. in Standard length, has a blackish ocellus on posterior part of soft dorsal fin. Differs from other species in coloration and in the combination of characters given above, especially as regards fin-formulae and dentition. Named aiter Mr. Edward John Brownfield, Acting Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game, Perth. At first, I thought this species might have been Pseudojulis lineata Castelnau, 1873, which has not been recognised since first described, but I now consider Castelnau’s species to be a synonym of Ophthalmolepis lineolatus cyanogramma Richardson, 1850, a fairly common South-western Australian fish with which Castelnau’s description agrees better in squamation, formulae, and dental characters. Family BoDIANIDAE. Genus CHOERODON Bleeker, 1845. CHOERODON PAYNEI, Sp. NOV. (Fig. 14.) Pao it (on 1. 105 Pos 14:)V.i.,.5; C: 11 branched rays. L. lat. 29. Heaee.-3/1/79) “Predorsal sc., 5; preventral, 8. Head (104 mm.) 2.6, depth (114) 2.39 in standard length (273). Hye (16) 6.5, interorbital (24) 4.3 in head. Head largely naked; about six rows of spaced, small, circular cheek- scales; other non-imbricate scales on operculum. Mouth reaching to below space between nostrils. Canines peg-like, not flared out or very curved; the middle two in upper jaw much larger than the outer two. In the lower jaw the outer two are larger than the inner and slope outwards. Behind the canines is a row of coalesced teeth along each side of each jaw. No 30 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. posterior canine. Lips normal. Tongue very small, rounded, plicate. Pre- operculum entire. Gill-rakers short, tufted; 7 plus 9 on first branchial arch. General habit of body and fins as uSual in the genus and as illustrated here. No raised scaly bases to fins. Lateral line continuous, its tubes arborescent. Thoracic and precaudal scales normal. Ventral fins not reaching anal. Caudal margin convex. General colour of the living fish pale apple-green. A broad pale rusty bronze bar along each side of posterior part of body. Iris peacock-blue with slight bronze spot at top and on each Side (viz., at 12, 3 and 9 o’clock). A pale peach tinge below face. Several pale bluish bars in various directions near premaxillae, vanishing after death. Most of lips and teeth pale blue. A coppery bar along lower edge of lower lip. Inside of mouth white. Dorsal fins greyish, with a bright blue border and inframarginal band of coppery brown. Anal green proximally to greyish distally and crossed by recticu- lations of duli coppery. Caudal similar, but with greyish-blue margin and bright blue upper and lower tips. Pectorals green, peacock-blue towards tip and with coppery base. Ventrals mostly pale green, but the spine is blue, first ray coppery, and third bluish-green. Described and figured from the holotype of the species, a specimen 273 mm. in standard length or nearly 13 inches overall. Locality —Off east coast of Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia; hand- line, 25th August, 1944; coll. G. P. Whitley. Smaller examples show some colour-variation. The rusty bronze bar along the posterior part of body may be broken up into several bands of - the same colour. A light grey area may appear across the shoulders after death, but there are no light oval patches, black areas, or saddle-shaped blotches as in some other species of the genus. 14. Tuskfish, Choerodon paynei, Whitley. Holotype from Dirk Hartog Island. G.P.W. del. WHITLEY. 31 This novelty is distinguished from its congeners mainly by its coloration, but also by its shape and proportions, as figured herewith. It is named in honour of Flight-Lieutenant George Herbert Payne, with whom I was associated in some experiments on sharks in Western Australia in 1944. Family LIMNICHTHYIDAE. LIMNICHTHYS FASCIATUS MAJOR, subsp. nov. Limnichthys fasciatus Waite, Rec. Austr. Mus., v., 1904, p. 178, pl. xxiii., fig. 4. Lord Howe Island. This small rocK-pool fish is known from Lord Howe Island, north of New Zealand, and New South Wales, where it grows to a length of less than two inches. In a collection of fishes made by Mr. W. B. Alexander at Garden Island, Western Australia, I was surprised to notice a specimen of this Species 2-1/3rd inches long (W.A. Mus. Regd. No. P.121). This specimen greatly extends the Known range of the genus and differs sufficiently from Waite’s description to be regarded as the type of a new subspecies, for which I propose the name major. Dei: A. 24. L. lat. 41. Head (12 mm.) 4.1, depth (6) 8.3 in standard length (50). Eye (2) 6 in head. Length of caudal subequal to depth of body. Eyes less than half a diameter apart. Otherwise as in typical L. fasciatus. Family BLENNIIDAE. Genus Dasson Jordan and Hubbs, 1925. Dasson Jordan & Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus., x., 1925, p. 318. Orthotype, Aspidontus trossulus Jordan & Snyder, 1902. Jd., Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11), x., 1943, p. 806. Ostreoblennius Whitley, Mem. Qld. Mus., x., 1930, p. 20. Orthotype, _Petroscirtes (O.) steadi Whitley, 1930. DASSON DUPERREYI, Sp. NOUV. Pamieent 20 — 31> A... 20; P. 145° V. 25 °C. 11. Head (24 mm.) 3.7, depth (18.5) 4.8 in standard length (89) measured to hypural joint. Eye (6) 4, and interorbital (7) 3.4 in head. Snout, 7.25; gill-opening, 3.25; pectoral, 14; depth of caudal peduncle, 9; and length to end of middle caudal rays, 110 mm. Snout blunt, anterior margin of lower jaw almost straight; upper profile of head convex. Mouth reaching to below eyes. Lips without folds, the upper overlapping the lower laterally. A slightly curved row of moveable incisor teeth anteriorly, flanked by enlarged canines, one on each side, much larger in lower than in upper jaw. Eyes large, their diameter less than the width of the almost flat interorbital. No crest or flap on top of head. A small mental cirrhus on each side and a small tentacle over the hinder part of each eye; a minute cirrhus at nostril and a tiny flap at origin of lateral line. Gill-openings reduced to small orifices above level of pectorals. Pores around eye and preoperculum. 32 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Head and trunk subequal to rest of body without caudal fin. Body smooth, compressed. Lateral line reduced to a few simple tubes ascending from over gill-opening to below dorsal rays and dipping slightly to end over level of vent. A minute papilla behind vent at origin of anal fin. Fins not enveloped by skin. Dorsal and anal fins attached by mem- brane to caudal peduncle immediately in advance of roots of caudal rays. Dorsal originating over preopercle, the first three spines rather long, soft, and curved and with more extensive membranes than those following, but not separated as a distinct fin and none of them produced. The following eight spines are little shorter than the twenty rays posteriorly. Anal with two short soft spines and twenty rays. Pectorals short, rounded. Ventral spine obsolete, two functional rays, with trace of third fused to second. Caudal emarginate, with the longest rays a trifle produced. General colour (in alcohol) dull brownish, becoming lighter or yellowish on lower part of head and body. Most of fins yellowish. Upper half of head and body with a broad dark brown transverse band from snout to root of tail; this is broken up on the body by V- or W-shaped light areas. descending from the back in about eight or nine places. A dark blotch on caudal base. Throat and belly without markings. Five or six dark spots or oblique marks between angle of mouth and pectoral base. A dusky bar along lower lip and a small dusky crescent below each angle of mouth. Teeth, gill-opening, paired and caudal fins yellowish. Dorsal and anal fins with numerous irregular brown blotches on rays and membranes, particularly dusky and tending to form a continuation of the dark body- bars on the proximal half of the dorsal fin. A blackish tip to first dorsal spine. ‘Eye dull blue. . Described from the holotype of the new species, a specimen, 89 mm. in standard length or 4.45 inches overall. W.A. Museum Regd. No. P.2152. Locality —Shark’s Bay, Western Australia. Coll. John Gregory in 1940. Paratypes: Several specimens in the W.A. Museum, Perth. One, 50 mm. long, has numerous round whitish spots on the sides, ten of these being enlarged and forming a row just below median line of body. D. 31; A. 22; Vl 3, ReediNo. Bria: Other paratypes in the Australian Museum, Sydney (Regd. No. IB.323-5 and 347), collected by me from dredgings in Useless Inlet, Shark’s Bay, 28th June and 6th July, 1939. The species is named after ensign Louis Isidore Duperrey, one of the naturalists of the “Uranie” expedition, which visited Shark’s Bay in 1818. This novelty is distinguished from its congeners by its fin-counts, proportions, and coloration. The cephalic tentacles are also probably characteristic, though these are not always stressed in descriptions of aliied species. From Dasson variabilis and viperidens, it is distinguished by having more than 30 dorsal spines and rays and by its colour-markings. The genotype, D. trossulus, has a light band along lower part of head and fewer anal rays. Dasson duperreyi is near D. icelii (Ogilby, 1894) from Lord Howe Island and D. steadi (Whitley, 1930) from eastern Australia, but lacks the produced dorsal spines and more slender bodies of those species. Working in Perth, I am unable to consult descriptions of some of the other species mentioned by Norman. WHITLEY. 33 Genus GRAVICEPS Fowler, 1903. Graviceps Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., lv., 1903, p. 170. Orthotype, Petroscirtes elegans Steindachner, 1876, from Japan. GRAVICEPS ALEXANDERI, Sp. 70U. meee os — 33; Ail. 25, P. 13; V..2; C. 11 ét lat brev. Head (8.5 mm.) 3.6, depth (6) 5.1 in standard length (31). Anterior profile bluff. Eyes large, their diameter (2.3 mm.) exceeding interorbital width, and snout. Nostrils with raised flaps. No crests or tentacles on head. Maxillary reaching below middle of eye. Upper lip with a fold posteriorly, lower lip with overhanging lateral flap. Anterior margin of lower jaw transversely rounded. Less than twenty, slightly move- able incisors in each jaw, flanked by a lateral canine larger and more interior in lower jaw. Pores around eye and preopercle. Gill-opening small, extending very little before pectoral base; gill-membranes broadly united with isthmus. Body compressed, naked. Lateral line reduced to a few simple tubes anteriorly. A small papilla before first anal spine. Depth of caudal peduncle, 2.5 mm. Dorsal fin not notched, the spines not differentiated. No produced spines or rays, or branched,rays. Dorsal and anal fins united to caudal peduncle by membrane. Caudal free, rounded. General colour (in alcohol) light yellowish-brown, conspicuously ornamented with darker, reddish to purplish-brown markings. On the body, these take the form of nine crossbands, most of which have, at the middle of the sides, an anterior and posterior dark bluish spot, separated by two myomeres; the middle of each crossband is lighter in tone than the rest and some of the bands continue on to the dorsal fin. There are not several rows of spots on the body posteriorly. Chin and throat crossed, or almost crossed, by four or five irregular purplish-brown bars which extend up to cheeks. Eye bluish, with a crescent-shaped blue spot a little behind it; a lighter and more diffuse blue mark. behind gill-opening. Belly plain yellowish. Anterior part of pectoral base brown. The paired fins and the caudal are mostly yellowish, with slight infuscation. The dorsal and anal are irregularly blotched with rusty brown and the fin-ray tips are cream. Described from the holotype of the species, a specimen nearly 13 inches long, the smaller of two in the W.A. Museum, Perth (Regd. No. P.671). Locality—Fremantle, Western Australia; living in holes in the wharf piles, October, 1919; coll. by W. B. Alexander. A larger paratype (No. P.398), caught on 10th November, 1913, at Sandy Island, Houtman’s Abrolhos, is 2-3/10th inches long and has D.xiv., 21; A.ii., 25; a dusky blotch on middle of second dorsal fin. Three specimens (perhaps the male of the species), from the Percy Sladen Expedition to the Abrolhos (W.A. Mus., P.395; collector’s No. 7) are 42 to 49 mm. in standard length and show some colour-variation. The largest of them has general characters as in the typical G. alexanderi, described above, except for the following differences. na Avia. (232) P13) V2; -C: 11 et-lat:; . brev: 34 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Head (10 mm.) 4.9, depth (8) 6.1 in standard length (49). Eye (3) slightly less than snout, but more than interorbital width (less than 2). Depth of caudal peduncle, 3.7 mm. Maxillary just reaching below posterior half of eye. Gill-openings entirely above level of pectoral base. Some of the caudal rays produced. Length of posterior dorsal fin-rays about equal to depth of body beneath them. General colour (in alcohol) almost uniform dull olive brownish, without conspicuous spots or bands. Eye and belly blue. Fins mostly yellowish. Posterior portions of caudal dark brownish. (In the paratypes the dorsal has either a dark brownish blotch on posterior rays, or the distal halves of dorsal and anal fins are dusky.) Five other specimens (P.396; Coll. No. 8) from flats on Wallaby Island, Abrolhos; Percy Sladen Expedition, show both types of colour-pattern. The lJargest is 3.3 inches long and its anterior few dorsal spines are very short. Range.—Western Australia, from Fremantle to Abrolhos. This beautiful little fish is named in honour of Mr. Wilfred Backhouse Alexander, M.A., now residing at Oxford, who is well-Known for his work on Western Australian biology. The Abrolhos examples comprise the un- identified blennies mentioned in his report on the vertebrates of that region (Alexander, Journ. Linn. Soc. (London), Zool., xxxiv., 1922, p. 483). The genotype of Graviceps Fowler, 1903, is the Japanese Petroscirtes elegans Steindachner, 1876, which has been described and figured by Jordan and Snyder (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv., 1902, p. 453, fig. 6). That species and also several of De Vis’ species of “Salarias’” from Queensland differ from Graviceps alexanderi in fin-counts, coloration, and, to a less extent, in ‘proportions. Family CLINIDAE. In one of his first scientific papers, McCulloch (Rec. Austr. Mus., vii., 1908, p. 36, pls. x.-xi.) gave an admirable review, beautifully illustrated, of such species as were available to him of the genera Clinus, Petraites, and Cristiceps. His paper has remained a sure basis for all later work on those blennies. A few slight modifications may now be made as the result of study of certain literature and specimens which were out of McCulloch’s reach: Several type-specimens seen by me in 1937 in the British Museum (Natural History) were labelled Cristiceps robustus Gunther, 1867, from Melbourne. These I determined as Clinus perspicillatus Cuv. & Val., 1836. I have also published elsewhere (Austr. Zool., 1941) that Petraites fasciatus (Macleay, 1881) = P. nasutus (Gunther, 1861). Some other British Museum specimens labelled Cristiceps argentatus were not that species in Risso’s sense and had been named Cristiceps antinectes by Gunther in 1861. These were Western Australian represen- tatives of the Victorian Petraites phillipi (Lucas, 1891), which may thus have to be reduced to the synonymy of Petraites antinectes (Gunther). I select the largest Freycinet’s Harbour specimen as lectotype of antinectes (No. 58, 12-27, 67). It was very like McCulloch’s figure of “phillipi” but had rather more ocellated coloration; D. 3/29/4; A. 25; and depth 5 in standard length. On looking through the series in the Western Australian Museum, Perth, I find Mr. Glauert has identified Cristiceps aurantiacus Castelnau, Eo ee ee ee EE WHITLEY. 35 trom the North Mole, Fremantle (Regd. No. P.801), and Point Peron (P.1309 and 1706). New record for Western Australia. McCulloch, in 1908, was apparently not aware that Richardson had described a species from King George’s Sound: Cristiceps axillaris (Discov. in Austr. (Stokes), i., 1846, append., p. 486, pl. i., fig. 1). This is identical with C. pallidus Macleay, 1881, from the same locality, which McCulloch regarded as a synonym of C. australis Cuv. & Val., 1836. Thus, we have the following synonymy for the Australian species, the last names being the correct ones, according to my determinations (for references, see Austr. Mus. Mem., v., 1929, pp. 348 et seq.) :— Cristiceps robustus, Gunther .. .. .. = Clinus perspicillatus (add S. Austr. to range). i marmoratus. AA johnstoni. Petraites heptaeolus. PMetaies Phillipi (Lucas)... .. ..... = antinectes. i roseus. i. Ssellularius Whitley, 1931 (N.S.W. & Lord Howe Island). Petraites fasciatus (Macleay) .... .. = we nasutus (add Sth. ’ Qld. to range). Cristiceps axillaris, Richardson .. .. = Cristiceps australis. 3 aurantiacus (add W. Austr. to range). ie argyropleura. 2 tristis (add Victoria to range). 3 multifenestratus. is amaenus. Petraites incertus, McCulloch .. .. .. = cs forsteri. Neoblennius fasciatus. The status of some of the last-named species is open to question. Family MILYERINGIDAE, 70U. A new family of the Order Gobioidea to accommodate a new genus of blind cryptozoic gudgeons from fresh water in Western Australia. Separable from the Eleotridae by having no eyes, the ventral and first dorsal fins reduced in size. The naked head is criss-crossed by rows of sensory papillae; Similar rows transverse the body anteriorly. Body covered with large, thin, adherent, cycloid scales, difficult to see and count; the breast is apparently naked anteriorly. Dorsal and anal fins free from caudal. Pectoral base not remarkably muscular. Other characters as described below. Perhaps evolved from some gudgeon similar to Carassiops, which is not known from Western Australia. However, the interesting implications of this new form must await fuller elaboration later when I can refer to more literature than is available to me here in Western. Australia. 36 ‘NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. MILYERINGA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Milyeringa veritas, sp. nov. Head large, broad, and depressed; naked. Eyes obsolete. Body scaly. Rows of sensory papillae on head and trunk. Skin not notably loose or flabby. Mouth large, horseshoe-shaped. Bands of cardiform teeth in jaws, enlarged at sides of lower jaw. No barbels. No preopercular spine. Typhleotris Petit, 1933, has six dorsal spines and eighteen anal rays, more numerous scales, and different head-characters. MILYERINGA VERITAS, Sp. N0V. (Fig. 15.) General characters as defined for family and genus, and facies as figured. D.iv./9; AW929P- 13°: 42 © 17 et tat: brev. Se. ¢:.26.. Tr. 10-> Aboutata predorsal scales. Head (17 mm.) 2.3, depth (8) 5 in standard length (40.5); depth of caudal peduncle (4) 4.2 in head. Upper profile of head concave over snout, bulging over preoperculum and rising to a humped shoulder. A flat yy a9) ee yy TS) \)). pes SS eeu. cde 15. Blind Gudgeon, Milyeringa veritas, Whitley. Holotype from Milyering, North-west Cape, and attitudes of same when alive. opercular spine. Lower jaw the longer, chin protruding. Tongue rounded, not notched. Anterior nostril tubular, over upper lip; posterior oval, larger. Sensory pores (tactile organs) around mouth, on top of snout and in rows crossing cheek, descending behind preoperculum, and on sides of trunk, but they are difficult to distinguish. Gill-openings wide, separated by the isthmus to which they are joined. Branchiostegal rays and membranes much exposed; there appear to be seven rays, but the lower ones are shrouded in folds of skin. Body as wide as deep behind pectorals, but more compressed posteriorly. Vent and anal papilla conspicuous. A sulcus along middle of sides posteriorly. Rows of tactile sensory organs not bilaterally symmetrical. WHITLEY. aot Two dorsal fins, the first very reduced, with weak spines, the first two approximated. Anal small. Pectorals without free silk-like rays, though one or two upper rays are produced. Ventrals slender, separate. Caudal broadly rounded, with middle rays produced. Fin-rays simple, some articulated. Colours in life—Generally pale grey. A purplish stain on operculum over the gills. Top of head pale yellow with some purplish-pink on vertex. Posterior nostrils pink, looking like tiny red eyes in the albino head. A dark grey triangular mark, apex pointing forward, over brain. Fins flesh- coloured. Described and figured from the holotype, 40.5 mm. in standard length or 50 mm. (2 inches) over all. Locality.—Milyering, Yardie, 20 miles south-west of Vlamingh Head, North-west Cape, Western Australia, on Mr. Eric Payne’s station, October 18, 1944. About a dozen specimens in freshwater well, bored through coral and limestone under a windmill. They sank to bottom when disturbed, but Mr. Payne caught the one described above. He says that there are some- times three times as many in this well, but fish are not Known to occur in any of the many other wells scattered over the peninsula. Fishes have been there at least sixteen years, to Mr. Payne’s knowledge, but the well was sunk in the early 1920’s, so they may have been there earlier; perhaps a subterranean river seeps through the limestone into the well. The fish are never pumped by the windmill into the adjacent tank. Their move- ments are slow and rather tadpole-like, the pectorals being stretched out sideways or pointing a little forwards and the ventrals held slightly forward like fingers. Perhaps they feed on the insects and other small animals which may drop into the water (ants, lizards and woodlice live under the boards covering the top of the well and keeping it dark). Family GOBIIDAE. DROMBUS HALEI LEPIDOTHORAX, subsp. nov. Drombus halei Whitley, Rec. S. Austr. Mus., v., 1935, p. 353, figs. 4-5. Flinders Island, North Queensland. Holotype in S. Austr. Mus., Adelaide. Seven specimens collected by Mr. John Gregory in October, 1938, from the beach near Denham, Western Australia, are referable to this species, which has not hitherto been recorded from Western Australia. They agree with the type-description but differ sufficiently to be named as subspecies, the discrepancies being :— Type of Drombus halei in Types of new subspecies in S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide. Eye one-third of head. Scales 28. Breast and lower pectoral base naked. Head plain and dark; body with- out conspicuous white spots. Total length, 13 inches. Queensland. W.A. Mus., Perth. Nos. P.2667 to 2673. Eye one-quarter of head. Scales more than 30. Breast and lower pectoral base scaly. Head conspicuously white-spotted; other white spots on lower half of body. Total length about 2 inches. Western Australia. 38 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Family PLATYCEPHALIDAE. PLANiPRORA MELSOMI, sp. nOv. A Western Australian Sand Flathead which I at first considered might be P. mulleri Klunzinger, 1879, but it differs in Hews more fin- shia and longer lower preopercular spine, etc. D.ix./i., 13; A. 14. L. lat. 86 to hypural + 6 on “tail. Head (125 mm.) 3.2, depth (45) 9 in standard length (407). Eye (19.5) 6.4, interorbital (17) 7.3 in head. Snout to anterior margin of eye, 38 mm. Head with smooth ridges above, but no spines, except a small one at each eye, supero-laterally. Lower preopercular spine slightly ionger and thicker than upper. A broad flap of skin below preopercular spines on each side of head. Teeth viilliform, none caniniform, but some slightly enlarged. near symphysis and middle of upper jaw on jaws and palate. Tongue truncate. Gill-rakers 10 + 3 rudiments on lower half of anterior branchial arch. A spine at origin of lateral line. Eleven scales between origin of Spinous dorsal and lateral line. Body and fins as in the family. General colour in life, sandy-grey above, uniform white below. Upper surface of head with rusty brown spots, largest along sides; similar scattered. small rusty brown spots and also some white spots on upper parts of body. Eye dark blue. Bronze to yellow iris with golden ring; upper parts of eye Similar in colour to dorsal surface. Fin membranes hyaline. Spines and rays with alternating cream and brownish-grey markings, the latter tending to form round spots. Anal cream, or tinged pinkish. Caudal similar to paired fins, but with three or four round black spots along lower half of posterior margin, each spot surrounded by cream; a giraffe-like pattern of paler spots on rest of tail. Vent red. Described from the holotype of the species, a developing female (stage 1), 470 mm. or 184 inches in total length; head preserved in The Australian Museum, Sydney. Locality.—Beach at Geraldton, Western Australia; 28th October, 1943. Ranges from Geraldton to Esperance. Named in honour of Mr. Alf. K. Melsom, of the State Fisheries Depart- ment, Perth, in appreciation of his enthusiastic co-operation in fisheries work. Family ALEUTERIDAE. PERVAGOR MELANOCEPHALUS (BleeKer). Monacanthus melanocephalus Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind., v., 1853, p. 95. Solor, East Indies. Id., Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., xxv., 1905 (1906), p. 365, fig. 69. Pervagor melanocephalus Fraser-Brunner, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (II), viii., 1941, p. 183. First dorsal spine originating over anterior portion of eye; its anterior | surface very rugose with upwardly directed spines superiorly and with a row of large lateral spines along its sides. A depression in the back to receive dorsal spine. A large, prickly, movable pelvic spine. Scales with a large central backwardly directed spine, sometimes two spines or smaller spine at side. Lateral line discernible. Origin of anal behind level of that of soft dorsal. WHITLEY. 39 Colour in spirit: dark brown, gill-opening in a blackish bar, pelvic flap blackish; a chequered band at end of caudal fin. One specimen, 96 mm. long, from the Abrolhos Islands; second Percy Sladen Trust Expedition, obtained by Professor W. J. Dakin, in 1915, con- stitutes a new record for Western Australia. The species has been recorded from New South Wales, Queensland, New Guinea, Samoa, and the East Indies. Family OSTRACIIDAE. Genus RHYNCHOSTRACION Fraser-Brunner, 1935. RHYNCHOSTRACION NASUS (Bloch). (Plate i.) Ostracion nasus Bloch, Nat. ausl. Fische, i., 1785, p. 118, pl. exxxviii. ‘Nile.’ D9;,A. 9: P. 10; C. 8 branched rays. Eye (17 mm.) 1.6 in snout (28.5) or 1.8 in interorbital (32). Opening of carapace around mouth (19) 2.2, gill-slit (12) 3.5, pectoral (27) 1.5 in head (43), which is 3.1 in length of carapace measured from tip of snout to middle of lateral concavity before tail (137). Depth (60) 3.6 in total length (217), more than width of back (45). Anal or dorsal base (10) 4.3, length of caudal peduncle (39) 1.1, height of dorsal (29) 1.4 in head. Tips of snout a small conic protruberance. Upper profile sloping up to the concave interorbital and overhanging supraorbitals. No spines over eyes or on body ridges. Gill-opening behind level of eye. Carapace five- angled. A median ridge along back, from behind head to before dorsal fin, is tubercular posteriorly. Dorso-lateral ridges extend from eye, swell and become tubercular over sides, converge on each side of dorsal fin and form an arrowhead-shaped closure behind that fin, the posterior point being tubercular. The ventro-lateral ridges extend from the mouth backwards like the dorso-lateral ones and the carapace is similarly closed behind anal fin. Opening of carapace surrounding mouth pyriform, extending forward below snout. Brown, peg-like teeth in jaws. Nostrils in oblique groove before eye. About ten scutes between gill-opening and tail, about five between eye and snout, six along dorsal ridge, six down sides of body between ridges and about sixteen along belly. Scutes mostly granular. Caudal peduncle compressed, longer than snout, subequal to length of caudal fin. Dorsal higher than anal, both their angles rounded. Anterior pectoral rays much longer than posterior. Caudal subtruncate; a simple ray above and below the branched ones. Colour of dry specimens yellowish-brown, the fins lighter. Most of the fish (except upper part of flanks, dorsal, pectoral, and anal fins, and belly) with large dark brown spots, some about half eye-diameter. Described and figured from a dried specimen in the Western Australian Museum, Perth (Regd. No. P.1852), 217 mm. or 83 inches long. As it has been gutted, the number of belly-scutes was computed from two smaller specimens, of which one has a carapace of 46 mm. or is 70 mm. in total length, and the larger is incomplete, with a carapace of 172 mm.; the latter specimen would probably have measured at least 10 inches overall, but the tail is broken off. 40 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Localities —Shark’s Bay, Wallal, and Broome, Wester) Australia. Other specimens from Cape Cleveland, Queensland, in the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, and the Australian Museum, Sydney. New record for Australia. NEW RECORDS OF WESTRALIAN FISHES. In addition to the new species and records mentioned above and in my 1944 papers, the species listed below may now be added to the Western Australian fauna which, at the time of writing (December, 1944), including novelties, has 680 different species of fishes, excluding introduced ones. Doubtless many more new records and even new Bpecte will be discovered in the near future. Most of these new records are based on specimens discovered by Mr. L. Glauert, Curator of the Western Australian Museum, and exhibited by him before the Royal Society of Western Australia. However, no notice of these novelties has hitherto been printed, and I am indebted to Mr. Glauert for so generously making his specimens and manuscripts available to me for the present purpose. Other fishes new to the fauna of Western Australia have been collected in the field or from the markets by myself during investi- gations for the C.S.I.R. Division of Fisheries, or identified for the first time from the collections of the Western Australian Museum. The registered numbers of W.A. Museum specimens are preceded by the letter ‘“P” in this list; those of the Australian Museum, Sydney, by the letters “IB.” To save space the names of classifactory groups (orders, families, subfamilies, etc.) have been omitted. These may be found in Whitley’s “Fishes of Australia,” Volume I., or in McCulloch’s Check-list of the Fishes recorded from Aus- tralian waters (Austr. Mus. Mem., v., 1929-1930), the scheme of classification in those works being followed here. References to genera are mostly avail- able from Neaves’ “Nomenclator Zoologicus” and to species from McCulloch’s work cited above, or from recent volumes of the “Zoological Record.” Orectolobus ornatus halei, Whitley. Augusta and Pelsart Id. (self). Eucrossorhinus ogilbyi (Regan). Balla Balla (W.A. Mus. No. P.1234). Carcharhinus mackiei (Phillipps). South and South-west Australia. Isuropsis mako (Whitley). South-west Australia to Carnarvon. Carcharodon albimors, Whitley. Fremantle to Carnarvon. Carcharias arenarius, Ogilby. Bunbury to Jurien Bay. Rhynchobatus djeddensis australiae, Whitley. Fremantle (P.1520 and 1719) and Shark’s Bay (self). Pristis zijsron, Bleeker. Carnarvon and Shark’s Bay. Pristis clavata, Garman. Billabong, near Derby (P.1300). Urogymnus asperrimus (Bloch & Schneider). Broome (11,276, W.A. Mus.). Bathytoshia brevicaudata (Hutton). Augusta, Fremantle, Geraldton. Bathytoshia thetidis (Waite). Esperance and Bunbury. Rhenoptera, sp. Carnarvon. Chirocentrus vorax (Castelnau). Broome (P.558). Nematalosa, sp. Noonkanbah. Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson). Broome (P.549). Muraenichthys breviceps, Gunther. Albany. WHITLEY. 41 Verdithorax prasinus (Richardson). South-west Australia (W.A. Mus. 41,317) . Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt). North-west Australia. “Athlennes caeruleofasciatus (Stead). Carnac Island. Scomberesox forsteri, Cuv. & Val. Rottnest Is!and and Albany (P.757, 1905). Arrhamphus sclerolepis, Gunther. North-west Australia. Farhians commersonii (Cuvier). Whitford’s Beach (P.257 2-3). Lotella callarias, Gunther. Busselton. Paratrachichthys traillii, Hutton. South-west Australia. Holocenthrus diadema (Lacepede). Mandurah. Lampris regius (Bonnaterre). Western Australia. Iso rhothophilus (Ogilby). Albany. Oedalechilus kesteveni, Whitley. Shark’s Bay (P.325). Polynemus plebeius, Broussonet. Shark’s Bay and Exmouth Gulf (P.2780). Plectropomus maculatus (Bloch). King Sound (P.629) and Shark’s Bay (self). Epinephelus merra, Bloch. Carnarvon and Cape Cuvier. Epinephelus (Homalogrystes) tauvina (Bonnaterre). Peron Peninsula and Point Cloates (self). Promicrops lanceolatus (Bloch). North-west Australia to Rottnest Island (P.2743). Variola louti (Bonnaterre). “Perth Fish Markets, October, 1940” (P.2325). Callanthias allporti, Gunther. Off southern coastline. Pristiapogon victoriae (Gunther). Shark’s Bay and Cape Cuvier. Scomberoides lysan (Bonnaterre). Shark’s Bay, Exmouth Gulf, Onslow. Caranz ignobilis (Bonnaterre). Port Hedland and Shark’s Bay. Caranx ferdau paraspistes, Richardson. Off Fremantle. Selar malam (Bleeker). Exmouth Gulf (P.2499). Trachinotus ovatus (Linne). Peron Peninsula and Exmouth Gulf. Diacope sebae (Cuvier). North-west Australia. Parequula melbournensis (Castelnau). South and south-west coasts up to Bunbury. Lethrinus perselectus, Whitley. Abrolhos. Argyrops spinifer (Bonnaterre). Shark’s Bay (P.659). Monodactylus argenteus (Linne). Bay of Rest and Port Hedland. Desmoprenes tetracanthus (Lacepede). North-west Australia. Paristiopterus labiosus (Gunther). Southern coasts. Goniistius vizonarius (Saville-Kent). Albany (W.A. Mus. 12905). Neothunnus macropterus (Temminck & Schlegel). Geraldton (D. L. Serventy, MS.). Germo germon steadi, Whitley. Quindalup. Sarda orientalis serventyi, subsp. nov. Albany (P.3512, holotype) and Busselton (P.2568, paratype). Differs from Pelamys orientalis Temminck & Schlegel, Faun. Japon., pl. lii., in having about seven stripes instead of nine, lower spinous dorsal, maxillary reaching further back, larger size, narrower preopercular arc, and the finlets are not grey. Xiphias gladius, Linne. Geraldton (P.1298). Lepturacanthus savala (Cuvier). Derby. 42 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Amphacanthus nebulosus (Quoy & Gaimard). Woodman’s Point (P.1383), Geraldton, and Onslow. Naso, sp. Point Cloates. Pseudorhombus jenynsii var. anomalus, Ogilby. Shark’s Bay (P.2169). Ammotretis elongatus, McCulloch. Garden Island (P.124). Synaptura nigra (Macleay). Onslow (P.2828). Chromis scotochilopterus, Fowler. Southern Abrolhos and Dirk Hartog Island (P.2789, 2816, 2817). Cheilinus (Thalliurus) chlorurus (Bloch). Blowholes, north of Carnarvon (P.2797). Verreo oxycephalus (Bleeker). Abrolhos. (P.389). Parapercis haackei (Steindachner). Albany, Dongarra. Crapatalus arenarius, McCulloch. North Beach and Garden Island (P.236). Ichthyscopus sannio, Whitley. South-west Australia. Foetorepus pavilio (Gunther). Cottesloe (P.888 and 1050). Repomucenus, sp. nov. Shark’s Bay (Austr. Mus. Nos. IB.326, 358). Salarias spaldingi, Macleay. Port Hedland (P.198, 578). Istiblennius lineatus (Cuv. & Val.). Point Cloates (self, P.2810-12). Pictiblennius tasmanianus (Richardson). Fremantle to Shark’s Bay. Pauloscirtes obliquus (Garman). Denham (P.2657-66). Cristiceps durantiacus, Castelnau. Fremantle (P.801) and Point Peron (P1309, 1706) : Genypterus blacodes (Bloch & Schneider). Busselton (P.1974). Butis amboinensis (Bleeker). Port Hedland (5803, W.A. Mus.) . Glossogobius giuris (Ham. Buch.). Noonkanbah. Paratrigla papilio (Cuv. & Val.). Off Bald Island (P.730). Dactyloptena orientalis (Cuv. & Val.). Geraldton (P.1417). Gnathanacanthus goetzeei, Bleeker. Torbay (P.2355). Neopataecus waterhousii (Castelnau). North Beach and Fremantle (P.805 and P.1302). Thysanophrys cirronasus (Richardson). City Beach. Suggrundus parilis (McCulloch). Shark’s Bay and Onslow. Rhycherus filamentosus (Castelnau). Cottesloe (P.810 and 2315). Pervagor melanocephalus (Bleeker). Abrolhos (P.388). Eubdlichthys mosaicus (Ramsay & Ogilby). Albany and Rottnest Island (P.689). “ Acanthaluteres guntheri (Macleay). Albany (P.2455). Aracana ornata (Gray). Esperance. Spheroides pleurogramma (Regan). Esperance to Denham. Ovoides immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider). Onslow and King Sound CP617)% Mola ramsayi (Giglioli). Fremantle, Rottnest Island and Rockingham. EE a ee ee 43 LEICHHARDT’S SAWFISH. By G. P. WHITLEY. “Brown .. . told me that he had seen a very large and most curious fish dead, and at the water’s edge. Messrs. Gilbert and Calvert went to fetch it, and I was greatly surprised to find it a sawfish (Pristis), which I thought lived exclusively in salt water. It was between three and four feet in length, and only recently, perhaps a few days, dead. It had very probably come up the river during a flood, for the water hole in which the creature had been detained, had no connection with the tiny stream, which hardly resisted the absorbing power of the sands. Another question was, what could have been the cause of its death? as the water seemed well tenanted with small fish. We supposed that it had pursued its prey into shallow water, and had leaped on the dry land, in its efforts to regain the deep water.” So wrote the explorer, Dr. Ludwig Leichhardt, in his “Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia, from Moreton Bay to Port Essington” (1847, p. 288), on June 10th, 1845, when he was at the Lynd River, in what is now Queensland. His great interest in the dead animal was explicable; he was seeking a route to Port Essington, and any clue to a large river flowing westward to the sea might well be an indication in the right direction. Through the courtesy of Mr. A. H. Chisholm, F.R.Z.S., I have been favoured with a contemporary extract from the manuscript diary of Leich- hardt’s companion, John Gilbert, bearing on the same discovery. On June 10th, 1845, at “Swordfish Camp,” on the Lynd River, Gilbert noted:— “We camped in the bed of the river beside a large and deep pool of water. Here we were tempted to try our lines, and, although not successful enough in catching fish for an edible purpose, yet we were enabled to enrich our collection with the addition of 5 and perhaps 6 species not before observed. But by far the most interesting circumstance of the day was the appearance of a Swordfish Shark, an ocean fish. We were, I believe, as much astonished at the sight of this creature as is related of Robinson Crusoe when he saw the impression of a man’s foot in the sand, but perhaps our surprise was of a more agreeable nature, for it is the first positive indication of our approaching the coast. The fish was stranded and had apparently been dead only two or three days; but how it could have got up thus far in fresh water is a singular circumstance. That is to say, if the Dr.’s observations are correct we are at least 100 miles from the nearest coast, and the presence of this fish so far would go a great way to prove to us that the fall of the land from this must either be very slight or very gradual for the whole distance. At all events it puts us all on the qui vive. The Doctor for some time past has been in one of his usual gloomy fits and is very sparing in his ideas or information on general subjects. What he concludes from this incident he therefore keeps to himself. It is certainly very much to be regretted that we have such a leader, who never of late appears at all disposed to be cheerful or even agreeably civil to his companions.” Chisholm (“Strange New World,” 1941, p. 251) quotes portion of this entry and adds:— “Every “Crusoe’ in the party crowded round to examine the fish when Gilbert and Calvert brought it to the camp. Leichhardt (as noted in his book) was greatly Surprised by the presence of the specimen, and he wondered how it came to be so far upstream and what had caused its death. But whatever deductions he made were not confided to his companions, for at this stage he was in a very morose mood and, as Gilbert complained, was ‘keeping his conclusions to himself.’ “Gilbert himself was frankly puzzled. According to Leichhardt’s estimates the party was at least one hundred miles from the nearest coast; the flow of water in the river was merely slight, and yet here was this large oceanic fish (it was three to four feet in length) which had been dead only two or three days. Possibly it had 44 LEICHHARDT’S SAWFISH. found a way upstream in flood waters and, becoming stranded in a pool, had lived there for a considerable time. “*At all events,’ Gilbert adds, ‘the discovery puts us all on the qui vive.’ “It was in truth a remarkable circumstance to find an oceanic fish at such a point, for, as the party was to learn within a week, the spot was rather more than fifty miles from the mouth of the Lynd, and that mouth was merely a junction with another river.” A century ago, it was not oa as it is now, that there are some exclusively freshwater species of sawfishes in the rivers of tropical Australia, the East Indies, Burma, and other places, so that Leichhardt cannot be blamed for any faulty deduction. Indeed, I marvel at his extensive know- ledge of ichthyology which enabled him to classify so accurately the Burra- mundi of the Dawson River and the Sawfish of the Lynd. When I wrote the first volume of my “Fishes of Australia” I was aware that there were sawfishes in the freshwater rivers of Queensland, Northern and Western AuStralia, because of the records of Leichhardt, Macdonell (Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, June 29, 1887, p. vii.), and Dahl (“In Savage Australia,” 1926, p. 137), but I had no specimens, so could not identify the species. Recently, I noticed in the Western Australian Museum, Perth, a sawfish from a billabong near Derby, W.A., which I determined as Pristis clavata ‘Garman. Then, this year, Sergeant Bruce Shipway, who had been surveying in little-known parts of Queensland and Western Australia with the Australian Imperial Forces, gave me a photograph of a sawfish which he had obtained from the Lynd River in October, 1944, where specimens had been speared in freshwater billabongs. The species attained a length of five feet and had been seen in the Walsh, Mitchell and Palmer Rivers. He observed that the position of the first dorsal fin was different from those illustrated in my “Fishes of Australia.” I am much obliged to Sergeant Shipway for his interest as, from his re-discovery of “Leichhardt’s Sawfish,” just a century after Leichhardt’s announcement, it is possible to classify the species, which is obviously a permanent resident of the rivers and not a fortuitous visitor. The rivers flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria and those of the southern shores of New Guinea support similar faunas, already named the Leichhardtian Fluvifaunula (see Iredale and Whitley, “South Australian Naturalist,” xviii., 1938, No. 4, p. 64), and it is possible that fresh- water sawfishes may yet be discovered in Papua. In further tribute to the explorer-naturalist, I propose for the Lynd River species the new name Pristiopsis leichhardti, the bibliography and definition of which are as follows :— Family PRISTIDAE. Genus PRISTIoPsis, Fowler, 1905. Pristiopsis Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., lvii.. August 14, 1905, p. 459. © Orthotype, Pristis perrotteti Muller & Henle, 1841. Generic name pre- occupies Pristiopsis Schmidt, Entom. Zeitung. Stettin., lxvi. heft 2, November, 1905, p. 332, a genus of Insects. Freshwater sawfishes which differ from Pristis Linck, 1790, or Latham, 1794 (type, Squalus pristis Linné, 1758, from Europe) in having fewer rostral teeth, a distinct lower caudal lobe, and with the first dorsal fin originating well in advance of the ventrals. PRISTIOPSIS LEICHHARDTI, SP. NOUV. (Fig. 1.) Pristis Leichhardt, “Australian” (Sydney), March 26, 1846, supplement, and “Herald,” same day; reprinted in Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., London, Xvi., WHITLEY. 45 1846, p. 223, and Tas. Journ. Nat. Sci., iil., 1849, pp. 31 or 81 and 105. 7d. Leichhardt, Journ. Overland Exped., 1847, p. 288 (Lynd River). ? Pristis Macdonell, Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, June 29, 1867, p. Vil.; Proc: (2), i1.,, August, 1887, p. 412 (W. Austr.—fresh- water). Jd. Dahl, “In Savage Australia,” 1926, p. 137 (Uniya Mission, N.W. Australia). “Swordfish Shark,” Chisholm, Strange New World, 1941, pp. 201.252. “Hx Jsonn, Gilbert’s MS. diary, June 10, 1845, Lynd River. The first mention of this species was Leichhardt’s brief note on his return to Sydney, here quoted from the Mitchell Library copy of “The Australian Journal of Commerce, Agriculture, and Politics” (ns.), iii, March 26, 1846, supplement :— “In a large water-hole of the Lynd we found a dead sawfish (pristis); in those of the Mitchell, alligators were seen by my black-fellows.” Sergeant Shipway’s photograph shows a sawfish (speared through the head) with apparently eighteen teeth on each side of the rostrum, those nearest the head being rather long; the first dorsal fin originates well in advance of level of ventrals and is smaller than the second, whose lobe reaches the » caudal which has an_ excavate ~ posterior margin and distinct lower iobe; the pectoral angles are not Bie. rounded. The maximum length was given as five feet. This combination of characters separates Leich- hardt’s Sawfish from all other fossil and recent species of Pristidae. Described and figured from the type-locality, Lynd River, North Queens- land; found in freshwater billabongs, and seen also in the Walsh, Mitchell and Palmer Rivers by Sergeant Shipway. Key to the recent species of Australian Sawfishes. A. First dorsal fin originating well in advance of level of ventral origins; about Sigs! teeth on each side of saw. .. . Sigh ee ARCA NEM Ete ae W245 istiopsis leichhardti, Whitley. AA. First dorsal fin Puisinanie Petia eve) of ventral origins. B. meee ay or more teeth on each side of saw. ; ; PME TIStS zijsron, Bleeker. BB. Eighteen to eer one Pei on a side of saw. Bc On pe die Te 8 Bo A . Pristis clavata, Garman. 46 THE LAND MOLLUSCA OF NORFOLK ISLAND. By Tom IREDALE. (Plates ii.-v.) This article concludes the series of essays providing an introduction to the Land Mollusca of Australia and dependencies. The previous accounts, a Basic List of the Land Mollusca of Australia, a Basic List of the Land Mollusca of Papua, and the Land Mollusca of Lord Howe Island have all appeared in this Journal. A note of warning regarding the use of “Papua”’ in the above-mentioned article must be here mentioned. At the time of writing “Papua” was the official name of the south-eastern part of New Guinea, previously known as British New Guinea. At present it has been discarded, and Australian New Guinea is in use for “Papua” and the Mandated Territory. Norfolk Island is an appanage of Australia, situated 930 miles north- east from Sydney, 400 miles north-west from New Zealand, 980 miles south- west from Suva, in Fiji, and 450 miles south-east from Noumea in New Caledonia. It is a compact island, some five miles long by three miles broad, surrounded by imposing cliffs from 200-400 feet high, save for a small low-lying patch on the south side, where the settlement is situated. The interior consists of a comparatively level plateau, averaging 400 feet high, intersected by narrow stream valleys. This rises to a height of just over 1,000 feet, the highest point, Mt. Pitt, being 1,044 feet. To the south lie two small islands—one, Nepean Island, a few acres in extent, half a mile south of the settlement; the other, Phillip Island, lying three to four miles further south, about a mile and a half long and three-quarters of a mile broad, elevated, rising to 900 feet. The latter is now uninhabited and almost barren, pigs and rabbits having entirely destroyed the abundant vegetation recorded one hundred odd years ago. Land shells were collected there abundantly, but even these now appear to be extinct. The main island now shows wide areas of well-grassed lands, iong avenues and small patches of the stately Norfolk Island pine, brokKen hills and fertile valleys; only the slopes of Mt. Pitt, that are still unoccupied, giving an indication of early conditions. The climate is exceptionally mild, the thermometer ranging from between 56° and 82° Fahrenheit, with a mean of 68°, and an annual rainfall of 43 inches. The total acreage is 8,528 acres. The above epitome of the physical characters of the island would not suggest an abnormal snail fauna, yet the quantity and diversity of species seem to be unparalleled on any similarly sized island. At the time the island was discovered by Europeans (1774) there were no human inhabitants, and when Australia was colonised in 1788 it was used as a penal settlement, and buildings were built, and part of the island cultivated. The settlement was abandoned ‘in 1808, and seventeen years later it was again used as a prison for the worst kind of prisoner. This usage lasted for thirty years, when the convicts were withdrawn, and the islanders of Pitcairn Island were settled there, and it has continued a free settlement ever since. The island was surveyed by the H.M:S. “Herald,” on board of which was the great naturalist, John Macgillivray, who, of course, collected land shells. THE LAND MOLLUSCA OF NORFOLK ISLAND. 47 Previously, twenty odd years before, Allan Cunningham, the famous botanist, had visited the island, and three species of snails were collected by him, providing the first known records of snails from the island. Curiously, these were all discovered on Phillip Island, and their mainland represen- tatives seem to differ appreciably. The great Australian shell collector, Brazier, had visited the island in 1854 while a boy, but in 1865 on board the “Curacoa,” under Wiseman, he made a good collection. An account of the voyage of the ‘Curacoa’” was written by Julius Brenchley, who was a visitor on the trip, and some of his collections were donated to the British Museum. A German collector, Graeffe, called at the island, and some species may have been described from his collections. The first account of the land shells as a whole was drawn up by Sykes, in 1900, from the British Museum material, mostly collected by Macgillivray. Then Roy Bell, of the Kermadec Islands, went to Norfolk Island, on account of G. M. Mathews, and his results became startling. The description and record of his material were placed in the hands of Mr. H. B. Preston, who issued a preliminary account of many new species in 1913. War intervened, and his work was never concluded. A number of illustrations had been prepared under my supervision, as the whole of the material passed through my hands, and I retained-an almost complete series of specimens and material. Preston’s types went into the British Museum, but named para- types and much material have been available for this revision. Class GASTROPODA. Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA. Order PECTINIBRANCHIA. Family REALIIDAE (OMPHALOTROPIDAE, Olim.) In my account of the Land Mollusca of Lord Howe Island I drew atten- tion to the great distinction between the molluscs of that island and of this one. I there introduced two generic names for the two very different types represented on this island, but the problem now is the number of species and their nomination. One of the features of the fauna is the extreme localisation of forms from no apparent cause, and the occurrence in a sub- fossil state of many species, the subfossils showing variation from recent Shells. Thus in this group, while the extremes Show very distinctly, many apparent intermediates seem difficult to determine. The earliest named, cerea, has not been recognised, and may be an erroneous locality citation. Sykes allowed it without comment, although it had not been figured, and the type should have been available. It was described as “laevigata,’ and Sykes described as new the only smooth species, the differences being in size and whorl convexity. He also described Omphalotropis brenchleyi of the navigatorum series, sculpture less marked, allowed albocarinata Mousson, “the sculpture has become obsolete,” and navigatorum from the Navigator Islands, a broader, slightly larger, and more highly coloured variety. Many thousands have been examined, and at first sight the three, brenchleyi, albocarinata and “navigatorum,’ might be allowed intergradation, but separate colonies seem to show distinction. For the very large boldly sculp- tured “navigatorum” the name fortilirata may be used. 48 IREDALE. Genus Duritropis, Iredale. Duritropis Iredale, Austr. Zool., Vol. 10, p. 301, May 10, 1944. Orthotype, Omphalotropis brenchleyi, Sykes. The definition reads: “Shell small, conical, apical whorl smooth, turbinate, later whorls sculptured with longitudinal wavy ribs, suture impressed, whorls convex, strong peripheral keel with pronounced umbilical keel, umbilical area large, umbilicus narrow, operculum paucispiral, horny.” DURITROPIS BRENCHLEYI, Sykes. Omphalotropis brenchleyi Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. iv., p. 145, pl. 13, fig. 18, October, 1900. Norfolk Island (Coll. Brenchley). Sykes’ description gives no particulars as to number of longitudinal ribs, save that the sculpture is less marked than that of “navigatorum.” A large number from Ball’s Bay shows a broad shell with about twenty lirae showing on face, between forty and fifty on last whorl, the largest shell measuring 7 mm. by 4.25 mm.; the coarsest of this series shows about thirty odd ribs on last whorl. : DURITROPIS ALBOCARINATA, Mousson. Omphalotropis albocarinata Mousson, Journ. de Conch. Vol. xxi., p. 115, pl. vii., fig. 3, April 1, 1873. Norfolk Island. A smaller shell, comparatively broader, with the ribbing almost obsolete, about forty fine ribs may be counted. Associated with preceding but easily picked out. If it be proved that these are all variants, then this will be the specific name. The figure here given was drawn from a specimen regarded by Preston as a distinct species. DURITROPIS FORTILIRATA, Sp. NOUV. Omphalotropis navigatorum Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. iv., p. 145, October, 1900. Norfolk Island. As Sykes differentiated this as a variety of navigatorum Pfeiffer, from the “Navigator Islands,” it is here named. The shell is similar to brenchleyi, but has outstanding lirae, twenty to twenty-five on last whorl, and is found of much larger size than the type of brenchleyi. Genus TELMOSENA, Iredale. Telmosena Iredale, Austr. Zool., Vol. 10, p. 301, May 10, 1944. Orthotype, Omphalotropis suteri Sykes. Defined thus: “Shell small, acutely conical (awl-shaped), apical whorls smooth, dome-shaped, later whorls smooth, suture lightly impressed, whorls little convex, no peripheral keel, umbilical keel strong, umbilical area very small, perforation obsolete, operculum normal.” TELMOSENA SUTERI, Sykes. Omphalotropis suteri Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. iv., p. 146, pl. xiii., fig. 15, October, 1900. Norfolk Island. This is a long narrow shell, measuring 6 mm. by 2.8 mm., smooth, with flattened whorls, and therefore cannot be Hydrocena cerea Pfeiffer, Proc. IREDALE. 49 Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1857, pp. 112-3, August 15/September 28, described from “Norfolk Island,” as “ovatoconica, spira convexa, laevigata,’ measuring 44 mm, by 2-2/3 mm. The latter has not been recognised in the large collec- tions studied and may be exotic. Family HELICINIDAE. Two species of Helicina (H. pictella and H. norfolkensis) have been described by Pfeiffer (Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1856, pp. 391-2), as from Norfolk Island, but no such shells have been found at Norfolk Island, and undoubtedly the locality is erroneous in both cases. Family DIPLOMMATINIDAE. Genus PALMATINA, Iredale. Palmatina Iredale, Austr. Zool., Vol. 10, p. 304, May 10, 1944. Orthotype, Paldaina coxi H. Adams. This genus was defined: “Shell small, up to 3.5 mm., elongate, apex a little elevated, sinistral, sculpture of erect sharp longitudinal lamellae, last whorl completely rounded, aperture circular, almost free, mouth duplicate, operculum circular, large, filling mouth.” Preston described two additional species, and indicated two more in MS., and there appears to be at least these five species. PALMATINA COXI, H. Adams. Palaina coxi H. Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1868, p. 16, pl. iv., fig. 14, May 28. Norfolk Island (ex J. C. Cox, coll. Brazier). Diplommatina wisemani Brazier, Journ. de Conch., Vol. xviii., p. 84, January 1, 1870, cited as synonym, as of MS., 1865, when collected; also Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1869, p. 560, April 7, 1870 (wisemanni) . Palaina norfolkensis Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. 12, p. 537, December 1, 1913. Stockyard Creek, Norfolk Island (R. Bell). Comparison of the descriptions alone prove the identity of these, and shells sent to the Australian Museum under the name “cozi,” differ from the true cozi and are here: described. Preston’s measurements of his norfolkensis are incorrect, having been transposed with those of P. belli. The correct measurements are: Altitude, 3.5; major diameter, 1.75 (nearly) mm., and a figure of the type of P. norfolkensis Freston, is here offered. . PALMATINA BELLI, Preston. Palaina belli. Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. xii., p. 538, December 1, 1913. Mount Pitt, Norfolk Island (R. Bell). The description is excellent, save the measurements, which should read: Alt., 2.5; diam. maj., 1.25 mm., the type being illustrated herewith. The ribbing is regular throughout, the first whorl and a half conical, smooth, the next more swollen, about fifteen ribs countable on face, interstices Striate, the succeeding whorl showing eighteen on a deeper, more swollen whorl, the last whorl being still deeper, but less swollen, and with about a dozen ribs showing. PALMATINA QUINTALI, Sp. 70V. Shell small, sinistral, elongate, white, mouth circular, projecting, almost 50 THE LAND MOLLUSCA OF NORFOLK ISLAND. free. The first whorl is dome-shaped, smooth, the second ribbed finely, a little larger; the third greatly increased, with a dozen ribs countable, inter- stices striate, the next still increasing, little deeper, with only twelve ribs notable, while the last whorl is deeper, but not increasing, and there are only ten ribs on face. The type measures 3 mm. in height, and 1.5 mm. in breadth, and was collected by H. C. Quintal in the Harper Road Valley, north-east coast. This was picked out of debris, leaf, etc., sent by Mr. Quintal, and with it was another specimen of the same size, but with quite different ribbing, the first adult whorl having twelve ribs, as the preceding, but in the next the ribs are more widely spaced and only nine are evident, and on the next two there are still only eight or nine showing. As this is obviously a different species it may be named P. addenda, sp. nov., and many more species may Still be discovered. FERMEPALAINA, Subgen. nov. Type, Palaina nancena, sp. nov. The species Preston determined as cozi has proved to be very different, and moreover belongs to a different group, to be associated with the true Palaina from Lord Howe Island. The shells differ from those of the preced- ing genus, Palmatina, in being more closely coiled, the whorls less convex, the mouth not projecting, the lips less expanded, and appressed to the body whorl, and with the operculum very small or missing. In Palmatina the majority of the specimens retain the notable operculum, but in this group, although many specimens have been examined, no operculum has been seen. Although similar to Palaina the shells lack the depression on the face of the last whorl, characteristic of that genus, EE! the subgeneric name here proposed for the Norfolk Island species. PALAINA NANCENA, Sp. NOU. Shell small, white, elongate, whorls rounded, but less convex than the preceding, sutures much less deep, though well marked, mouth rounded, circular, lips a little reflected, appressed to the base of the last whorl and not projecting notably, no operculum seen. Apical whorls two, conical, smooth, succeeding four fairly regularly ribbed with twelve to fifteen ridges seen on face of whorl, interstices between ribs concentrically striate. While the whorls normally increase until the last the shell is more regular in form. The shell is 2.5 mm. high, and 1.25 mm. broad, and the type locality is Ball’s Bay. A series from Duncombe Bay, north-west coast, is similar, but the shells are smaller, measuring 2 mm. in height by 1 mm. in breadth. The ribbing is a little finer, numbering fifteen to eighteen ribs on the face, more ribs on earlier than later whorls, and this may be named P..nancena bera, subsp. nov., although it may later prove to be a distinct species. PALAINA PITTENSIS, Sp. NOV. Shell small, white, whorls rounded, flattened peripherally, sutures deep, mouth circular, small, lips expanded, but mouth not pzojecting, appressed to the base. Apical whorls one and a half smooth, first adult whorl with about fourteen ribs on face, second with ribs more distant, only about ten being counted, while the last shows about twelve ribs; between the ribs fine concentric striae can be seen on all the whorls. Height, 2.5 mm.; breadth, 1.1mm. Collected on Mount Pitt by H. C. Quintal. IREDALE. 51 Subclass PULMONATA. Order STYLOMMATPHORA. Family ELASMATINIDAE. Preston described two species and two subspecies under the generic name Tornatellina, and added two others in MS. At a later date Pilsbry monographed the group and divided it into many genera, and later still Odhner, by means of anatomical research, proved that the original Torna- tellina had nothing to do with the well-known traditional Tornatellinids, and so Elasmatinidae comes into use. By means of columellar toothing and usage of juveniles, shells, which look very much alike, can be separated, and thus we find that two genera are represented in this fauna. Genus TORNATELLINOPS, Pilsbry. Tornatellinops Pilsbry, Man. Conch. (Tryon), Ser. ii., Vol. xxiii. (pt. 91), p. 169, December 1. Orthotype, Tornatellina novoseelandica, Pfeiffer. In this genus the columella bears no lamella, either in the adult or in the juvenile state, the columella being merely twisted, the species being generally long and slender; the shells of the succeeding genus were commonly broader. TORNATELLINOPS NORFOLKENSIS, Preston. Tornatellina norfolkensis Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. xii., p. 536, December 1, 1913. Ball’s Bay, Norfolk Island (R. Bell). A series from the type locality includes many juveniles, and these have no lamella upon the columella. Measurements: Alt. 3.5, diam. maj. 1.25 mm. Genus TORNELASMIAS, Iredale. Tornelasmids Iredale, Austr. Zool., Vol. 10, p. 308, May 10, 1944. Orthotype, ‘Tornelasmias capricorni, Iredale. This name was introduced for the Lord Howe Island shells which show only a twisted columella in the adult, but which show in the juveniles columellar teeth. Most of the Norfolk Island forms belong to this group. TORNELASMIAS MOOHUENSE, Preston. Tornatellina norfolkensis moohuensis Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. 12, p. 537, December 1, 1913. Moohu Stone, a small islet off the coast of Norfolk Island. This appears to be the mainland form also, many examples from Duncombe Bay showing juveniles with the toothed columella. Alt. 3.5, diam. maj. 1.5 mm. The juvenile was named as distinct in MS. by Preston, even as in the succeeding species. TORNELASMIAS NEPEANENSE, Preston. Tornatellina norfolkensis nepeanensis Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. 12, p. 537, December 1, 1913. Nepean Island (R. Bell). Tornatellina duplicilamellata Preston. ib., id. 52: THE LAND MOLLUSCA OF NORFOLK ISLAND. This species is separated from the preceding by the development of the parietal lamella. At the time Preston wrote it was not suspected that a Shell bearing columellar lamella would lose it with age, so that the young one was described as novel, the measurements, 2.25 x 1.5 mm. as against the adult, 3.5 x 1.5 mm. Family NESOPUPIDAE. Genus NESOPUPARLA, Pilsbry. Nesopuparia Pilsbry, Man. Conch. (Tryon), Ser. 2, Vol. 27, p. 226, March, 1926. Orthotype, Vertigo norfolkensis, Sykes. Defined as “Large Nesopupae of conic shape with a long umbilical suture; aperture about as in Nesopupa proper.” On pl. 29, fig. 16, he showed the aperture with eight teeth, but one is abnormal, seven being a Sykes gave a crude recognisable figure showing the seven teeth. NESOPUPARIA NORFOLKENSIS, Sykes. Vertigo norfolkensis Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. 4, p. 145, pl. 13, fig. 13, October, 1900. Norfolk Island, in the crevices of the bark of a Dracena. Living shells are rich brown, not isabella nor ‘“flavida,”’ and dull, not gleaming nor “subnitens,’ the white mouth showing up vividly against the brown edges of the lips. The almost fully grown shell is toothless, and then five teeth appear simultaneously, the angular, parietal, columellar and the two lower palatals. These develop strongly and the mouth thickens as the basal and upper palatals are produced, while a minute infra-parietal lamella also appears. I have not seen an abnormal duplicate fold as shown by Pilsbry, but in one senile shell tubercles are developed between the basal and palatal, and between the two lower palatals, the medium palatal being strongly curved. The shell is minutely perforate, until it is three-quarters grown, when the reflected columella completely closes the perforation. Family PUPISOMIDAE. Genus IMPUTEGLA, Iredale. Imputegla Iredale, Austr. Zool., Vol. viii., p. 305, March 12, 1937. Orthotype, | Pupisoma circumlitum, Hedley. As an Appendix in the Lord Howe report, I added a species belonging to this genus, and apparently this is widely spread, but on account of its habits is commonly overlooked. It has been found on the leaves of orange trees, and also buried in the debris underneath, and it may be repeated that Elasmias was almost overlooked at the Kermadec Islands through similar habits. During rain it was observed crawling on pepper plant leaves, but in dry weather it had vanished, apparently going to earth. Among debris sent by H. C. Quintal from Mount Pitt specimens of an Imputegla were sorted out, and it had escaped observation on the trees where it may live. IMPUTEGLA PERRITA, SP. NOU. Shell small, turbinate, thin, translucent, imperforate, dull brown. IREDALE. 53 Whorls three, convex, sutures impressed, whorls increasing rapidly, last whorl being bulk of shell. First whor:i very small, smooth, other whorls very finely striate, with few distant flattened lamellae, more distinct on base. Outer lip thin, mouth large, circular, columella a little curved, reflected. Breadth, 1.25 mm.; height, 1 mm. Mount Pitt (H. C. Quintal). This is smaller than the Lord Howe species, and shows distant lamellae which were not seen on that shell. Family SUCCINELDAE. Sykes named one species of Succinea (norfolkensis) , placing it under the subgenus, Tapada, “found in great plenty in the valley.” Preston added two species from Nepean Island, found in a subfossil state only. Comparatively recently (Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. xxiii., p. 299, July 15, 1939), Quick has given some particulars of the shell, jaw and radula of the shells named norfolkensis. The shell is finely characteristically sculptured, but the jaw and radula are distinctive, so that a generic name is necessary. Genus SPIRANCINEA, 70U. Type, Succinea norfolkensis, Sykes. Shell succineiform, with fine clathrate sculpture, jaw large, striated, and radula with formula,13 + 4+ 10+1+ 10+ 4+ 13, the central being very large, the four outer marginals being intermediate in character hbe- tween the marginals and laterals. Perhaps more nearly related to Papu- succinea than to Austrosuccinea. | SPIRANCINEA NORFOLKENSIS, Sykes. Succinea (Tapada) norfolkensis Sykes, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. 4, p. 144, pl. xiii., fig. 12, October, 1900. Norfcelk Island. Measurements: Alt., 12; diam. max., 7.2 mm. SPIRANCINEA NEPEANENSIS, Preston. Succinea nepeanensis Preston, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. xii., p. 536, December 1, 1913. Nepean Island, subfossil (R. Bell). Succinea humerosa, id., io. Not S. humerosa Gould, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. ii., p. 183, 1848. Subfossils show great variation so as the earlier name is preoccupied, the one name can be used for all the Nepean Island shells, the type of nepeanensis being here figured. Family PARALAOMIDAE. Preston introduced three species in the genus Pardlaoma, proposed a couple of months previously for a Kermadec series. Three more species were later added in MS., and most seem normal species of the genus. 54 THE LAND MOLLUSCA OF NORFOLK ISLAND. Genus PARALAOMA, Iredale. Paralaoma Iredale, Proc. Mal. Soc. (Lond.), Vol. x., p. 380, September, 1913. Haplotype, Paralaoma raoulensis, Iredale. These minute depressedly turbinate shells live in dry places. PARALAOMA ORESTIAS, Preston. Paraldoma orestias Pres.on, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. xii., p. 534, December 1, 1913. M«unt Pitt, Norfolk Island (R. Bell). P .»ALAOMA PERMINUTA, Preston. Paralaoma perminuta P:. Box 2399, General Post Office, Sydney. : hy : t " Sydney: . ‘ e Sydney and Melbourne Publishing Co. Pty., Ltd., 29 Alberta Street, Sydney. a“ ‘Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical. —_ Royal Zoological pat of New South Wee Established 1879. _ eee ee REGISTERED UNDER THE COMPANIES ACT, 1899 (1917). Le : Patrons. The Right Honourable Sir John Greig Latham, G.C.M.G. Sir Philip Woolcott Game, G.B.E., K.CB.,D.S.0. _ COUNCIL, 1946-47. President: Frank Marshall, C.M.G., D.D.S. Vice-Presidents: Garnet Halloran, BSc. MD., FRACS, FRCS. (Ed), Edward John Lees. = Hallstrom, FRZ S., Albert: Sherbourne Le Souef, C.M.ZS8., and = Emil Herman Zeck. ‘ Members: . : ek ee Neville W. Cayley, F.R.ZS. Keith Collingwood McKeown, = = = _ Norman Chaffer. Lars F.R.ZS. ert ah - Roy Cooper. Noel Lee Roberts. Aubrey Halloran, B.A., LLB. Theodore Cleveland POUR: pee Keith A. Hindwood, FRZS.. OBS, ERZS. CF.A.O.U, . Ellis Le as Troughton, Charles Francis Laseron. FRZE., C.M.ZS. - Officers: S Honore Secretary: Theo Athol Everitt. Honorary. Treasurer: Phillip Shipway. Honorary Editor: Gilbert Percy Whitley, F.R.ZS. : Honorary Librarian: Percival Edgar Lockie. Se eh a ae Assistant Honorary Secretary: Mrs. B. Irving. | Pe Honorary Auditor: Robert John Stiffe, F.C.A. (Aust.). | ae OFFICERS OF SECTIONS (1946-47). Avicultural Section. - Marine Zoological Section. ee Chairman: A. H. Brain. . ~~ Chairman: Mrs. L. H. Woolacott. | Hon. Secretary: R. W. Stewart. Hon. Secretary: Miss Winifred ~ | _ Crofts. Budgerigar Section. - Ornithological Section, ae Chairman: H. Yardley. - Chairman: Roy Cooper. 8 = > ses : Hon. Secretary: E. H. Hernfield. | Hon. Secretary: A, R. McGill. THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST Vol. Xi. Part 2. THE GENUS MESOPLODON IN WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SEAS. By L. GLAUERT. (By permission of the Trustees of the Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of W.A.) (Plate vi.) Every year Cetaceans are washed up on Western Australian beaches. Many of these belong to species whose presence in these waters has long been known, but now and again individuals are found which represent additions to the State’s faunal list. Two of these are the subject of this contribution. The strandings were reported to Head Office by the district Fisheries Inspectors, and the heads duly forwarded to the Museum through the good offices of the Chief Inspector, Mr. A. J. Fraser. The assistance given by the Chief Inspector on so many occasions and the interest shown by the members of his staff have been invaluable and are duly acknowledged. MESOPLODON GRAYI V. Haast, 1876. Southern Beaked Whale. (Plate vi., figs. 1 and 3.) In June, 1940, Fisheries Inspector M. Goodlad, of Bunbury, reported that a small whale had been washed ashore. It had evidently been dead for some time as most of the black skin had peeled off the back. From his examination he concluded that it was a Beaked Whale. The Chief Inspector at once got in touch with the Museum and, as it was impossible owing to war conditions to preserve the skeleton, arranged with Inspector Goodlad to have the head forwarded to the Museum. The following information was supplied by Inspector Goodlad: “Sex, male; length, 14 ft.; mouth from tip of jaw, 15 inches; mouth to eye, 12 Inches. Blow-hole directly above the eye. Flipper about 4 ft. from the tip of the snout, and 18 inches long, measured along the forward edge. Tail 50 inches across the flukes. Tooth protruding half an inch and 3 inches along the jaw.” After the skull had been cleaned it was found that the animal was a Mesoplodon grayi v. Haast. The whale was evidently an old male, the rostrum being fully ossified and the teeth worn down almost to the gums. No traces of vestigial teeth were found. The principal skull measurements are as follows: Length, 828 mm.; breadth at squamosals, 309; breadth at orbits, 277; height, 260; length of rostrum, 547; length of mandible, 687; length of symphysis, 225; length of tooth, 70 mm. Forbes having shown that the species is very variable, the dimensions FEB 16 1040 714 MESOPLODON. and proportions varying with sex and age, this specimen, M.2439, may be regarded as a typical example of the species. See also O. Abel, in Kultur der gegenwart, Part III., Section IV., Vol. 4, p. 381 (1914). MESOPLODON BOWDOINI Andrews. Andrews’ Beaked Whale. (Plate vi., figs. 2 and 4.) In April, 1944, Fisheries Inspector J. Goodlad, who had taken his brother’s place at Bunbury, reported the presence of another Beaked Whale and at my request secured the head for the Museum. This proved to be of exceptional interest, as it is the first record of the presence of the rare New Zealand Mesoplodon bowdoini Andrews in Australian waters. The detailed measurements show how closely it agrees with the two known specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, and the Dominion Museum, Wellington, respectively, with which it is evidently conspecific. Registered No. M.2617. DESCRIPTION. An almost complete skull and mandible with one of the slender zygomatic processes of the malar missing. An adult animal, with the rostrum almost completely ossified, except at the extreme tip; teeth partly worn; many of the sutures closed and condyles smooth, not pitted. Basirostral groove absent; rostrum much expanded laterally at the base owing to the development of the maxillae; premaxillary foramina behind the maxillary foramina; antorbital notches divided, and premaxillae completely overhanging the nares. Edges of the maxillae overlying the orbital processes of the frontals much thickened, forming two prominent ridges, which curve inwards to the maxillary tuberosities. Proximal ends of the premaxillae strongly everted and overhanging the nares; both directed obliquely backwards, the right 123 mm., the left 81 mm. long. Right nasal bone forming the vertex; the left lower and smaller; the former with a deep sinus running across it transversely and ending in a vertical foramen between it and the maxilla; sinus on the left smaller and less distinct. A small projection of the flattened and expanded anterior end of the malar just visible in the bottom of the outer (real) antorbital notch. Zygomatic processes of the squamosals extend far forward and are over- lapped by the postorbital processes of the frontals. Temporal fossa pyri- form, slightly above the level of the occipital condyles. Rostrum ossified almost to the tip; its general outline as figured by Andrews and Oliver. A strong median ridge on the proximal third below flanked by a groove about 50 mm. long. Palatines completely surrounding the pterygoids anteriorly, separating them from the mazxillaries. The external strip varies from 25 mm. to 30 mm. in width; the inner tapers from 15 mm. anteriorly to an obtuse point at the junction of the pterygoids in the middle line. The pterygoids and maxillaries are in contact in both the New York and the Wellington specimens, thus showing a difference which is, however, of little taxonomic importance, as Forbes found when dealing with a long series of M. grayi that the palatines may be outside the pterygoids, not reaching their tips, or may completely surround the tips of the pterygoids, so preventing their coming in contact with the maxillaries. GLAUERT. 75 The mandible agrees fairly closely with Andrews’ description and figures (p. 207 and figs. 2 and 3), but the teeth being smaller the jaw is less massive at the alveoli. The teeth are slightly worn; the tip of the right still present; anteriorly, probably slightly concave when unworn; posteriorly very convex; laterally compressed. MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES. Skull. length breadth breadth height rostrum height at at at squamosal orbits pterygoids W.A.M. 728 342 328 311 425 86 N.Y. 715 339 325 311 428 = N.Z 720 330 318 302 435 82 occipital foramen temporal condyles magnum fossae W.AM 70 x 40 48 x 37 T2013 INTY — — 120 x 80 N.Z 70 x 42 50 x 40 95 x 65 Mandible. length length of depth distance length symphysis posterior behind from of depth tooth alveolus tooth to condyle W.AM 621 113 128 66 & 68 405 64 & 67 NY. 628 146 127 65 395 iS N.Z 630 150 125 70 — 110 References: ay ANDREWS, E. C.—“Description of a new species of Mesoplodon from Canter- bury Province, New Zealand.” Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, Vol. XXIV., 1908, p. 203, plate xiii., and t.f. . FORBES, H. O.—‘‘Observations on the Development of the Rostrum in the Cetacean genus Mesoplodon with remarks on some of the species.” Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1893, p. 216, pls. xii.-xv. ang 2 tL. Haast, J. von.—‘On a New Ziphioid Whale.” Society of London, 1876, p. 7. HARMER, S. F.—‘“‘On Mesoplodon and other Beaked Whales.” Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1924. Remarks on p. 544. OLIVER, W. R. B.—‘“‘A Review of the Cetacea of New Zealand, Part I.” Pro- ceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1922, p. 557, pls. i.-iv. Proceedings of the Zoological EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. (Figures, from uppermost downwards.) Skull of Southern Beaked Whale. Skull of Andrews’ Beaked Whale. Lower jaw of Southern Beaked Whale. Lower jaw of Andrews’ Beaked Whale. eee ko 76 BIOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF THE SOLITARY BEE, PARASPHECODES FULVIVENTRIS (FRIESE). By TARLTON RAYMENT, F.R.ZS. (Plates vii.-x., text-figs. 1-5.) INTRODUCTION. It has been evident to the author for many years that the generations of certain species are linked in some remarkable way with the cycles of the seasons. This concept was born after a study of the spectacular migrations of a number of animals, for it is certain that the presence of extraordinarily large numbers. of animals connotes a superabundance of food and, since a number of herbivorous species are involved, plant-life must be the determining factor. Since plants are the products of their ecology, it follows naturally that a superabundance of a species connotes favourable conditions for their development. Plant-life is so dependent on moisture that prolific growth is inevitably associated with ample rainfall. The critical study of the biology of a species over a long period would assuredly also provide a key to the cycle of the seasons in a given locality. The species observed by the author are in several Orders, the emu (Dromaius); cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus sp.); capeweed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum); cypress-pine (Callitris sp.); gum-trees (Eucalyptus sp.) ; Wattles (Acacia sp.); camel weed (Teucrium sp.); and many of the indigenous bees, all of ‘which experience a period of superabundanee followed by a recurrence of scarcity. Certain wild-bees are exceedingly numerous in “good” years—that is, when an ample rainfall has produced a prolific growth of flowers. Since the eggs which developed the vastly increased numbers of bees were deposited 12 months previously, then some factor must have been operating at that period to bring about such a result. This is all the more remark- able when one remembers that not a single mother bee survives from one season to the next. The student finds it easy to postulate that the solitary mothers have some prescience of the nature of the ensuing season. The indigenous bees are pre-eminently suitable for this research be- cause they have been evolved together with the native flora and, therefore, are perfectly adapted to their ecology. Conversely, the introduced honey- bee, Apis, is almost valueless in this study, not only because of its un- natural concentration by man in large commercial apiaries, but also be- cause of the fact that it is foreign to the flora, and, therefore, not adjusted to the ecology in which it now finds itself as the result of man’s inter- ference. This maladjustment was observed in 1942, in New South Wales, when the author demonstrated conclusively that the many thousands of colonies of bees which were lost in the large commercial apiaries had died from a “deficiency” disease (malnutrition), brought about by. one of the periodic failures of the white-box, Eucalyptus albens, to mature its male cells or pollen-granules, thus leaving the honey-bees without a supply of protein, RAYMENT. 17 although there was an abundance of hydrocarbons (honey) —Rayment— in the press. As part of the endeavour to find the “key” to the cycle of the seasons, the author investigated the biology of an exceedingly large “colony” of a solitary bee, Parasphecodes fulviventris (Friese), and as the life-history of any species in this genus was hitherto unknown, the author trusts that that will justify the publication of this paper. The taxonomic details have been forced upon the author by the circumstances. The author is indebted to H. Womersley, F.R.E.S., of the Adelaide Museum, for his identification of the Collembolan specimens. The research was assisted by a small grant by the Trustees of the Commonwealth Science and Industry Endowment Fund, but the exigencies of war delayed the publication for several years. TAXONOMIC POSITION. Division ANDRENIFORMES. Family ANDRENIDAE. Subfamily HALIcTINAE. Genus PARASPHECODES Smith. (Catalogue Hym., B.M. i., p. 39, 1853.) Species Halictus fulviventris Friese. Allgemeine Betrachtungen tuber die Bienenfauna Australiens, pp. 1-9, 1917. Parasphecodes fulviventris Cockerell. American Museum Novitates, No. 343, p. 16, March, 1929. GROSS MORPHOLOGY. Although Smith observed that these bees have a superficial resemblance to the European red-bodied Sphecodes, a parasitic genus, the author’s investigations prove that Parasphecodes are industrious bees closely related to Halictus. The females have a rima or furrow on the apex of the abdomen, and most, if not all, of the males have a yellow mark on the clypeus; both characters being typical of Halictus. The glossa is short but acute in both sexes; there are four segments in the labial, and six in the maxillary palpi, as in Halictus. The inclosed area of the metathorax exhibits even stronger rugae than Halictus, which sometimes has this sculpture quite weak, as in the dH. bicingulatus group. As Professor Cockerell, 1932, has observed, although the great majority of the species has a red abdomen, yet there is a series entirely black, and which are extremely difficult to separate generically from Halictus. How- ever, Cockerell, 1930, proposed the subgenus Aphalictus for two species, P. bribiensis CKll., and P. bribiensiformis Ckll., the females of which have bosses on the first two tergites. The wing neuration was studied in an exceedingly large series, and it exhibits the variations found in so many other bees. This generic character of Smith, therefore, may be disregarded. The genus was revised by Rein- hold Meyer, 1920, but he had too few specimens to be adequate for the purpose. The author has a comprehensive collection, and he agrees with Cockerell, that Parasphecodes is extremely close to Halictus, but since he has found some divergence in the biology, it is better to retain the genus. Almost confined to the eastern States of Australia, the genus is com- prised of bees rarely more than 10 mm. in length. The males are smaller, 78 SOLITARY BEE. with longer antennae, and the labrum of the female has the triangular appendage characteristic of Halictus. The scopa of the female tibia is denser than that of Halictus and, generally, there is a larger number of hamuli on the posterior wing. The calcar of the female’s hind tibia lacks the coarse teeth of Halictus, and the strigil of the anterior tibia exhibits no distinctive character, being almost identical in form with that of Halictus. There are five species bearing a tubercle on the second sternite, and it is difficult to separate them by the descriptions, and, even when the specimens are before the student, the task is not easy, for the group demands critical study for accurate determination. The task was com- plicated by the presence of two species in the one great aggregation of “nests,” P. fulviventris (Friese) and P. arciferus CkIl. The following Synopsis will help students, and the specific descriptions of two allotypes are appended. All the males have, of course, a yellow clypeal mark. It is possible that P. leptospermi is the female of P. hybodinus. Fig. 1—Clypeal marks and puncturation of the scutellum of males. 1. P. fulviventris (Fr.). 2. P. anhybodinus Ckll. 3. P. arciferus Ckll. 4. P. hybodinus Ckll. There is a subspecies of P. fulviventris, with a bi-gibbose dull scutellum, and a minute tubercle; tergite one having no black basaily; and tegulae polished black; hair of vertex and thoracic disc mixed black and white; second cubital cell higher than wide; nervures dark-amber, and ptero- stigma amber with a darker margin. This might be known as P. fulvi- RAYMENT. 79 ventris proximus, subsp. nov. Collected by the author at Sandringham, Victoria, October, 1942. Parasphecodes fulviventris (Friese). Allotype, male: Length, 8 mm. approximately. Black and red. Head long, with white hair on face; frons rugoso-punctate; clypeus shining, convex, an oval yellow mark with a small upward point; supra- clypeal area shining, coarsely punctured like the clypeus; vertex with blackish hair; compound eyes reniform, converging strongly below; genae rough, with a few long white hairs; labrum black; mandibulae black, red- dish apically; antennae obscurely reddish beneath. Prothorax not visible from above; tubercles heavily fringed with white hair; mesothorax bright, closely and coarsely punctured, but shining be- tween, with blackish hair; scutellum similar; postscutellum rough, with white hair; metathorax with coarse radiating rugae, abdominal dorsal seg- ments 1 and 2 with a fulvous band; 3 suffused with reddish; 1 and 2 closely punctured: ventral segments coarsely punctured, more or less banded fulvous and black. Legs brown, with white hair; tarsi similar; claws reddish; hind calcar amber; tegulac brown, closely punctured; wings slightly dusky-yellow; nervures sepia; second cubital cell almost square; pterostigma sepia; hamuli ten. ; Locality: Sandringham, Victoria, September 18, 1932 (Rayment). Allotype in the collection of the author. Allies: Taken in copula. The male is the smallest of the group. Parasphecodes anhybodinus Ckll. Allotype, female: Length, 10 mm. approximately. Black and red. Head broad, with scanty white hair; frons rugoso-punctate, but shin- ing; clypeus polished; scattered large punctures, a depressed median line; Supraclypeal area elevated, with close puncturing; vertex with some black hair; compound eyes reniform, converging below; genae with long white plumose hair; labrum and mandibulae black; antennae black. Prothorax with short moss-like white hair; tubercles polished, heavily fringed with white hair; mesothorax rugoso-punctate; coarse; with blackish hair on disc; pleura coarsely rugose; scutellum coarsely punctured, with black hair, like the mesothorax, bi-gibbous; postscutellum with black and white hair; metathorax with coarse radiating wrinkled rugae; abdominal dorsal segments 1-2-3 very deep-red; 1 more closely punctured; 3 deeply Suifused; others shining black; ventral segments with reddish-suffusion on 1-2-3; with large blackish tubercle on sternite. Legs blackish-brown, with white hair showing a dusky line; tarsi brownish, white hair; claws reddish; hind calcar pale-amber; tegulae black, polished, coarsely punctured; wings dusky apically; nervures brownish; second cubital cell very long; pterostigma brownish; hamuli thirteen, strongly developed. Locality: Sandringham, Victoria, October 10, 1941 (Rayment). Allotype in the collection of the author. Taken in copula. 80 SOLITARY BEE. SYNOPSIS OF CHARACTERS OF THE FEMALES. P. fulviventris (Friese). Length, 10-11 mm. approximately.. Clypeus with a median sulcus; scutellum with punctures smaller than those of the mesothorax; area oi metathorax with strong rugae; little if any black on basal tergite; legs with white scopa; wings dark; pterostigma dark-brown; second inter- cubitus meets first recurrent nervure; large tubercle on sternite. Melbourne; Sandringham, Victoria (Rayment). P. arciferus Ckll. Length, 9 mm. approximately. Clypeus with a median depression; scutellum with scattered large and small punctures, shining; area of meta- thorax with strong oblique rugae; a black patch on basal tergite; legs with brown scopa; wings paler; stigma dark-amber; second intercubitus just beyond the first recurrent nervure. Small tubercle on sternite. Mordialloc; Sandringham, Victoria (Rayment). P. anhybodinus CkIl. Length, 10 mm. approximately. Clypeus with a depressed median line; scutellum with large punctures closely spaced, shining; area of metathorax with well-marked oblique rugae; black area on basal tergite; legs with smoky scopa; wings dark apically; stigma amber with dark margin; inter- cubitus just beyond the first recurrent nervure; second cubital cell large; small tubercle on sternite. Cheltenham; Sandringham, Victoria (Rayment). P. hybodinus Ckll. Length, 10 mm. approximately. Clypeus depressed; scutellum with coarse punctures, shining; area of metathorax with large oblique rugae; black area on basal tergite; legs with whitish hair; wings dark apically; pterostigma dark-amber; second intercubitus meeting first recurrent. Large tubercle on sternite. Windsor, Cranbourne, Sandringham, Victoria (Rayment). P. leptospermi Ckll. Length, 10 mm. approximately. Clypeus with scattered punctures, shin- ing; scutellum bi-gibbous, shining, sparse punctures; area of metathorax with weak irregular rugae; tergites 1 and 2 red; legs with smoky hair; wings dusky apically; pterostigma dark-sepia; second cubital cell large; first recurrent almost meeting second intercubitus; tubercle on sternite large. Brisbane, Queensland (Rayment). LOCALITY. An immense colony of P. fulviventris was discovered in the eastern bank, some 25 ft. in height, along the railway from Hampton to Sandring- ham, 102 miles from Melbourne. Since the line runs approximately north and south at this particular section, the eastern bank receives the full brunt of the afternoon sun, and is, therefore, a sheltered and warm situation, whilst its height ensures adequate drainage. RAYMENT. 81 SITE OF THE NEST. It is the second largest colony of bees reported in the literature of the APOIDEA, and is exceeded in area only by one, reported by Rica Erickson, 1941, of Bolgart, Western Australia. This observer described a wheat- field, a great many acres in extent, and which was perforated closely with the shafts and the shallow galleries of a small black bee. The author re- ceived specimens from this correspondent, and determined them as Para- colletes pusillus Ckll. The area occupied by Parasphecodes fulviventris measured 600 ft. approximately in length. Owing to the steep angle of the bank, and the frequent passage of fast electric trains, it is impracticable to study critically the entire “face,’ which contains an enormous number of shafts. Since the geological strata vary with the height, there are fewer shafts on the “face” than on a narrow line, some 10 or so feet in width, along the flattish top, where the sandy loam is consistent throughout its entire length. It was found, by actual count, that along the top the shafts averaged 30 to the square yard. Of this number 12 had tumuli of new damp sand during the month of February. The remaining 18 usually had the friable sand beaten down level, either by the wind, or the rain, so that the entrances to the shafts were just mere holes at ground level. In a “lean” year there was an average of only 12 shafts to the square yard. GEOLOGY OF DISTRICT. This is the well Known “old red sand” formation (Tertiary) of the eastern shore of Port Phillip. At sea level is the reddish-brown rock, on which rests from 20 to 30 ft. of creamy-coloured decomposing sandstone known locally as “marl,” and on top of all is the greyish sandy loam so characteristic of this area. In places, the yellow sand extends down for several feet, probably deposited as dunes, but generally it is from two to three feet in depth. The bees appear to favour the even consistency of the sandy loam, where excavation presents no great difficulty. This choice, therefore, is in Sharp contrast to that of Euryglossa fasciatella Ckll., which confines itself exclusively to excavating in the hard dry marl exposed along the sea-cliffs (Rayment, 1927, 1935). Although the shafts of P. fulviventris are close, yet they are sufficiently distant from each other not to intersect, and there is no torturous plan _ wherein the galleries are mixed in inextricable confusion, as in Halictus emeradldensis (Rayment, 1937), which digs in tough red volcanic loam. The nests are in ground Similar in every respect to that favoured by Paracolietes facialis Ckll., and P. tuberculatus Ckll., and colonies of both these bees were found in flat situations a hundred yards or so distant from the bank (Rayment, 1931). ECOLOGY. The great difficulty experienced—the search extended over 20 years— in locating the shafts was due to the effective masking of the site by a dense growth of vegetation. Only when railway fettlers cleared the area, for a fire-break, was it possible to discern the shafts. The plants are characteristic of the Sandringham flora, the tallest being the tea-trees (Leptospermum laevigatum and L. myrsinoides); Nodding blue-bell 82 SOLITARY BEE. (Dianella revoluta); Heathy parrot-pea (Dillwynia ericifolia); Guinea flower (Hibbertia stricta); Club-rush (Scirpus nodosus); Pigface (Mesem- brianthemum sp.); Small grass-tree (Xanthorrhoea minor); several small lilies; the introduced Flatweed (Hypochaeris radicata), and Capeweed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum) are growing closely together. ARCHITECTURE. The tumuli seldom exceed three inches in height, with a basal diameter of three inches, but they differ a trifle from those of Halictus, which have a central crater, like a miniature volcano. P. fulviventris constructs a cowl very Similar to that of a Cerceris wasp (Rayment, 1947). The entrance is Seldom if ever in the centre of the mound, but is placed more or less to one side, and, since the shaft invariably goes down at an angle, the mound- let becomes a kind of hood, as with Cerceris. The opening is usually to the north, but a few are a few points off to the east or to the west. The material brought up from below is invariably fine greyish sand, slightly damp at first, but it soon dries, and is quickly dispersed in a few hours if windy. Most of the digging is done at night, and early morning; up to about 10 o’clock is the best time to observe the moundlets. The worker does not show herself whilst disposing of the spoil, for she just thrusts it up from below without opening or destroying the tumulus. Very rarely there is a conical moundlet with two entrances only 14 inches apart, and the reason for this unusual structure is not clear, since the rule is one female to each shaft. In this they diverge widely from Halictus emeraldensis, and Nomia, where several females (sisters) use the same entrance (Rayment, 1943). The shafts, with a diameter of 5-6 mm., go down at first at an angle of 45 deg., or thereabouts, for approximately five inches, the angled portion being 10 inches in the longest, and the shortest one only about 24 inches. The shafts then wind down more or less vertically for about 2 ft. From the main shafts are a number of short radiating galleries which end in Single ovoid cells, and never in twin structures, as in Cerceris. The shafts take on a larger irregular diameter as they go deeper, as though they were extensions of original cells. The great majority of the cells were discovered at about 2 ft. 6 in. from the surface. Generally, the upper 20 inches of sand are dry, and doubtless the bees go deeper to ensure the requisite humidity during the summer months, when the sand dries out rapidly. The shaft does not appear to receive any lining. Short enlargements of the shaft occur here and there, but it would seem that these are more or less accidental, and concomitant on ex- cavating in such friable material. The usual number of cells appears to be about eight, each of which measures 8 mm. at the long axis and 5 mm. at the short; a few larger ones measured 13 mm. and 7 mm. respectively. The wall of the cell is covered with an extremely thin colloidal skin, which is licked on by the glossa, and when in the earth is of a dark umber- brown colour, but when exposed to the air it dries quickly, and becomes pale grey. Although the covering is so tenuous, yet it is thoroughly water- proof. The author has not yet found a solvent for this colloidal membrane. When quite dry, the skin is exceedingly brittle, and tiny portions of it may be removed from the earthen wall, but it is impossible to secure a RAYMENT. 83 Brion Pn ated Peers coo lace ose Sart oe TW At ogy ot. = . . ae . € . Pius . . e “Mate em ce sw ep t once Sian ’ _. TARLTON - RAYAPIENT * Fa Figs. 2. 2a—Shafts of P. fulviventris. 2. Graphic diagram of tumuli on the surface; one showing two entrances under a cowl of sand. 2a. Graphic section of shafts and cells. (1) Partly formed cake of pollen. (2) Completed cake. (3) Cake with bee’s egg. (4) Fully- grown larvae. (5) Pupa. (6) Adult female in shaft. 84 SOLITARY BEE. large piece. The lining is much more evident than the extremely thin skin of Halictus, where it is difficult to perceive any lining at all. The author was not successful in finding a complete plug of mud or earth for closing the cell, as in Halictus, consequently, he would say that after the colloidal lining is drawn over to close to the cell, the short gallery is just filled in with loose sand, although the main shaft is left open. The entrance of which is, of course, easily closed by rain or wind. In making very careful excavations, it was observed that cocoons of mutillid parasites appeared to be firmly surrounded by solid sand, for not the slightest trace of any connecting gallery could be found. Although the sandy loam is easy to excavate, yet its soft friable character makes extremely difficult the task of following down any one particular shaft with perfect SUCCESS. On October 15, 1941, Owen Dawson, R.A.A.F., of Clyde, Victoria, was building a house at Dandenong, some 22 miles east of Melbourne. On a clear hot day he observed a darting flight of insects about six inches above small shafts in the ground. They were probably females, although this observer did not catch any for determination. = e . oO = e » <2 ‘ . . 5 : d oe ha . TARPLTON HAYMENT —S- Qo Le ee O' c & ‘ o O id s . x ' eo tae : ; INCHES e.: iL : 7 ’ - 7 oe 4 .6 @ Sis % . - * - O = o 5 ae = - Fig. 3—Graphic diagram of cluster of cells of Parasphecodes subfultont Ckll. The arrangement approaches that of the bee, Nomia australica, and the wasp, Cerceris. RAYMENT. 85 However, he made a closer examination of the site, which had a mere sprinkling of gravel over a rather loose black loam. There were no mound- lets of freshly excavated soil about the shafts, so the bees were probably beginning on the new chambers to receive the eggs. 2 3 as AO 6 A Fig. 4—Granules from pollen-pudding of P. fulviventris. Pollen-grain; probably from Tea-tree, Leptospermum laevigatum. Large spherical grains not identified. Hibbertia sticta. Purple coral pea, Hardenbergia monophylla. Eucalyptus; species uncertain. Pollinium from Coast-wattle, Acacia sophorae. Granule not identified and view of end. Large fat-cells in fat-body of hibernating female, and a fat-cell breaking down; it is later absorbed. 9. (A) Not identified. (B) Parrot pea. 10. Spherical spiny grain, probably Flatweed; Compositae. —Tarlton Rayment, del. eI SOO RWN Dawson excavated a number of the shafts, and found the cells at a depth of only six inches, with short galleries opening off the main shaft in a more or less radial pattern. Each of the galleries terminated in an ovoid chamber, measuring 15 mm. at the long axis, and about 8 mm. at the short. He described the new cell-lining as being of medium-grey colour, with 36 SOLITARY BEE. darker mottling; the old cells were just the colour of the earth, and he thought the cell wall would be less than 1 mm. in thickness. In a few of the new cells were traces of orange-yellow pollen, as though the bees had just commenced to store fresh provisions. Later, the author was able to verify these details. A number of:specimens was collected by this observer, and the author was able to determine them as Parasphecodes subfultoni Ckil., which was described from “Victoria” (F. E. Wilson, 1923). This species is considerably smaller than P. fulviventris, being about the size of P. arciferus Ckll. Plants visited by P. fulviventris at Sandringham :— Mexican Orange Flower .. .. . = Choisya ternata (intro.). IS y(t el 6 UST na Mut a ae Pra nn Hae ‘Hypochaeris radicata (intro.), Compositae. Capeweed: 2. eee . Cruptostemma calendulaceum (intro.), Compositae. Marluck Tree ee ee Eucalyptus lenmanii, Myrtaceae. Yellow Gum or White Ironbark . : Eucalyptus leucoxyion var. macrocarpa, EM ke WMA Men omiede aL Hag Bice ANN ai tear zh Myrtaceae. Swamp Mahogany 2.4 fo 257 ae _ Eucalyptus votryoides, Myrtaceae. Scarlet Gum -. 2.02. sobs ee oe ee ta ee oo HUCALY DEUS fierjolia, Myrtaceae Red Gui Go. ee eee _ Eucalyptus calophylla, Myrtaceae. SUG axe Gaui oo oe ee .. .. Eucalyptus cladocalyx, Myrtaceae. Purple Coral Pea AIS atc N Tae foe ' Hardenbergia monophylla, Leguminosae. Gillie MOWER is esie Vaan enna eel nae ieee Hibbertia stricta, Dilleniaceae. Parrot hea... Seek eee ae ee Dillwynia ericifolia, Leguminosae. Cedar Wattle .. .. 2.00... 2. ..7.. 4. .. .. Acacia terminalis, Lesuminesae: Coast Wattle .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Acacia sophorae, Leguminosae. ES ROOW I Res maa eases us eam EMR eae Oe Genista sp., Leguminosae. |S 10(0) OPEEN Ue ROME aie ee APR er ne Mobis eliag «SOAs Ry) yan “Myoporum insulare, Myoporaceae. Christmas Bush . RSReN Wr mne Uae prey Roa Bursaria spinosa, Pittosporaceae. el Ure Maas Us (2) =e aa NEE URS RRP. acd Pe eet i atl oe Leptospermum laevigatum, Myrtaceae. Tea TYee nc ee PEGG, oe sik nl coe mettle LR ROIL UP STILOTO, CS. lV ay ilaa erates COMPOSITION OF FEBRUARY PUDDINGS. No. Eucalypts. Acacia. Flatweed. Heath. Undetermined 1 80% 10% 1% 9% 2 94% 1% 1% 4% 3 94% 1% 27% 45% 4, 10% 30% 5 96% 57% 33% 6 90% 3% 5% THE EGG. Of all the bees’ eggs studied by the author, only that of Puresnneogeee has both ends inserted in the pollen-pudding; consequently, it is the most bowed of Australian bees’ eggs, and resembles the handle of a minute basket. All of the new cells examined in this research contained eggs of this form, with the caudal end buried in the pudding. The egg is crystal white, gleaming in the light, and measures approxi- mately 3 mm. in length, with a diameter of 1 mm., when first laid—a large egg for such a small bee. The chorion is extremely smooth, making it difficult to detect the exceedingly delicate hexagonal sculpturing, which is, of course, the imprint of the secreting cells lining the ovarian tubules, and only in critical side- RAYMENT. 87 lighting under the microscope can it be detected with certainty. There is, however, a delicate striated pattern, and this is much more easily detected. It must be concluded that this striated sculpture is due to the condition of the larva within. The egg increases in size before hatching; the caudal end is partially withdrawn from the batter, and the cephalic end rises a trifle from the pudding. Opaque white patches appear, and these, together with indica- tions of segmentation, may be observed through the chorion. The head of the young larva does not reach to the end of the egg, leaving a space which remains pellucid as the body becomes more and more opaque. The caudal end of the egg is tipped with a hyaline agglutinative secreted by a gland at the apex of the female abdomen. The exact time required for hatching could not be ascertained, but it appears to be about four days, when the egg splits open at the cephalic pole, and the chorion falls away, leaving the young larva occupying the original position of the egg. When first hatched, the larva exhibits a peculiarity in the spiracles, which are raised above the body, and with the tracheae resemble microscopic corrugated shafts or funnels. The young larva lies quiescent on the pudding for a few hours, appar- ently sustained by the yolk of the egg, which it had ingested prior to hatching. The head is lifted up about 1 mm. from the surface of the pudding, and it rests in this position for several hours. LARVAL FOOD. The pollen-granules are carried on scopae of branched or forked hairs of several kinds; those on the coxae being five-branched; on the trochanters and femora they are long, slender, forked and curled; on the outer surface of the tibiae the hairs have one, two or three forks, but on the basitarsi they have five forks, and are shorter and stiffer. The bulk of the pollen, therefore, is carried on the legs, although there is a moderate amount transported on the scopa of the gaster, and, fortuitously, a few on the thoracic hairs. The russet-coloured pollen-pudding is not truly spherical, dry and firm, like that of Halictus, but is much softer, since it contains more honey, and the base is widest, as though a soft sphere had gradually settled down on to a flat base. It is about 6-7 mm. in diameter. Pollen gathered from the anthers is invariably lighter in colour than pollen taken from the body of the bee. It was observed that the harvester frequently moistens the anterior pair of legs with the glossa, and probably the pollen-rakes on the tarsi; this moistening no doubt assists dry pollen to cohere better. Once again the author would stress the fact that, even in such primitive genera, the store is not a simple mixture of honey and pollen, but contains also a modicum of some biological secretion. This is probably secreted by the head glands, and added from the mouth during harvesting, and perhaps during the flight home, and later when the pudding is being formed. This substance, although small in quantity, is a vital] factor in the development of the normal insect—a hormone not yet thoroughly investigated. At present, research work on the food of bees is largely neglected, and until much more is done the phenomena of the various “castes,” in the Social bees, present a problem no less interesting than the genetical mech- anism in such parthenogenetic genera as Halictus and Nomia. 88 SOLITARY BEE. The larva, when eating, does not sweep regularly across the pudding, taking off a slice as it goes, which is the manner of Halictus emeraldensis. The larval jaws are exceedingly sharp and needle-like, but the larval in- gestion is like a toothless human “mouthing,” a spoonful of porridge, and the baby eats whatever portion is within reach. About 8-9 days are required for the complete ingestion of the pudding, when the larva shows a dark lead-coloured streak along the dorsal surface, and a similar dark patch marks the accumulation of the residues in the sac before the complete junction of the mesenteron and the proctodeum is effected. About five days later, when the alimentary canal is complete, thirty or so dark-brown stercoral pellets are expelled in a more or less moniliform chain. Thereafter, the larvae are crystal white, of virgin purity. The pellets were examined under the microscope, and a number exhibited minute bosses of clear, smooth amber. The excreta were carefully washed away, and several slender horn-like capsules were recovered. On breaking these on a micro-slide, a very large number of oil-globules escaped. It would appear that the larvae of Para- sphecodes cannot use all the natural oils in the pollen-granules, and the ereat excess is voided in these curious capsules. The author has not observed these formations in the stercoral pellets of any other genus, although there is often a percentage of oily matter present. The author did not determine whether they were peculiar to one sex only or not. Snodgrass, 1925, says “the fats are apparently but little used by the bees. Though pollen is rich in oil, much fatty material accumulates with other refuse in the intestine, as shown by Petersen.” The blood of the hibernating adult bees contains many oily globules which appear to be liberated from the fat-cells, and Straus, 1911, says the larva of the honey- bee stores more glycogen than any other free-living animal. The fat-cells of the “hibernating” females contain large oil-globules, and the cells themselves disintegrate, and so liberate the globules into the blood. Whether or not this apparently natural dissolution of the fat-cells is necessary for nourishing the body during the semi-hibernation is not known, but there is no doubt that the fat-cells disintegrate as a natural process as maintained by Snodgrass for the honey-bee. The larva exhibits a number of nodes, and in the pupal stage these quickly develop into a series of long “studs” or tubercles, the most pro- minent being on the scutellum, and postscutellum, but the hind margins of the tergites are also tuberculate, each having up to ten. These nodes are characteristic of Halictine pupae, and it must be concluded that Para- sphecodes is exceedingly close to Halictus, although the nodes are not so prominent. The ventral node, a specific character, soon appears. Antennae, legs, and tergites 1, 2 and 3 are still drab when the head and thorax are quite black, as are tergites 4, 5 and 6. The postscutellar nodes persist in the adults in the genus Nodocolletes Raym., 1931, as large concave bifid processes, but they disappear altogether in all other Australian bees studied by the author. The spines of the coxaé are, with few exceptions, retained by adults in the leaf-cutters, Mega- Chilinae; but disappear entirely in Apis, the hive-bee. The anterior tibial spine is retained by all bees, and ultimately becomes the strigil, or antenna Cleaner. The spur of the median tibia develops into a calcar in all bees. RAYMENT. 89 Larvae which ejected the stercoral debris on February 18 shed a larval pellicle on the 22nd, probably the third ecdysis, but, at that date, there were not any signs of colour in the body. A creamy opaque tint appeared on March 5, and the ocelli and the compound eyes turned the palest purple. Five days later, fine blackish margins appeared on the abdominal seg- ments, the head exhibited a pale slaty colour, and then the thorax dark- ened. On March 18 another pellicle was shed, and the pupa changed slowly to dark lead-colour, except the red parts of the abdomen, which were still pale-cream in tint, the red parts coming last of all. The wings re- mained milky. The blackish suffusion strengthened quickly, and, two days later, March 20, the final pellicle was shed, and the insects were ready for flight. All these proved to be males, and the period of development was 56 days. A generation of males and females, maturing in the field, about March 20-22, appeared on the trees at about the same date as the laboratory specimens emerged, so that development in the laboratory must have been normal, since it corresponded with what took place in the field. BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIVIDUAL. The pupa twists and wriggles until the final skin is cast off, and it rests in the cell for a day or two, during which time the wings lose their milky tint and become suffused with blackish. The insect then begins to tunnel out along the short gallery, which is filed with loose sand. Stubborn grains are wrenched out with the mandibles, and the more friable material is thrust behind with the legs. The exit presents no great difficulty owing to the complete absence of stones. The main shaft is ascended just as easily. Emerging to the light at the surface, the bee rests in the sun for a minute or two before taking wing. Almost immediately a rather chalky- looking liquid is voided, and which, on testing with a litmus strip, gives a strong acid reaction. This is very marked in the genus Hylaeoides (Ray- ment, 1940), which voids a very large quantity. The males take off for the blossoms to refresh themselves, and make little attempt at orientation, nor is there much need to do so, since the site of the colony is so extensive, and the soil varies not at all over the whole area; few ever return. Among the flowers the sexes meet, and copulation frequently takes place amid the actual stamens of the gum-blossoms. Other species of Pardsphecodes were observed copulating on the much smaller flowers of Boobialla (Myoporum insulare). Refreshed with the nectar, the female returns to the colony site, and immediately seeks a satisfactory place to commence digging. After a few grains have been removed with the mandibles, the mother frequently abandons her first choice, and recommences a few inches away, although there are no differences apparent to the observer in the two places. The excavating is effected with the mandibles and the legs, and the damp pellet—approximately a match-head in size—is hauled to the surface, and pushed out, without exposing the worker. The tumulus grows from beneath as the spoil is added to the base. During cold weather, the females remain in the cells, perhaps for three or four days. The female rarely sits at the portal of the shaft, as is the habit of 90 SOLITARY BEE. many Halictine bees, and the only time she appears to do so is when some- thing moves in the vicinity as she is about to depart. She will then close the aperture with her head, but any untoward movement will send her down the shaft instantly. The males have not been observed in the vicinity of the shafts after their initial departure, but, at evening, the males of the colony assemble and form a rather compact, but unsymmetrical cluster on a twig of a shrub for mutual warmth. These aggregations are no doubt an elemental stage of the clustering instinct of the honey-bee, Apis, and similar congregations of males have been observed by the author in several other genera, for the instinct is very strong in the Apidae. In another Halictine genus, Nomia, the males of three species were observed to cluster together at evening. One such aggregation contained the large N. ruficauda, N. gracillus and the smaller N. flavoviridis; all these are more or less metallic in colour. Large “swarms” of N. australica have been observed, and Doctor Lieftinck, Buitzenzorg, Java, N.E.L, sent a photo- graph to the author showing a cluster of Nomiine males. The clustering instinct is very strongly developed in Paracolletes, and large “swarms” of P. plumosus Sm., and Heterocolletes capillatus Raym., 1935, have been observed by the author. The clustering of the males is a Halictine habit, and this formation may be continued throughout the day in adverse weather, but generally it is broken very early in the morning, when the bees depart for the flowers. Owen Dawson reported to the author that when stationed at Rocklands, Victoria, with the R.A.A.F., he passed under a low branch of a gum-tree, and immediately a swarm of small red bees tooK wing. However, they soon reformed the cluster, after he had passed. He repeated this several times, and collected a dozen or more of the bees, all of which were males that agreed very well with the description of P. sextus Ckll. The female experiences little difficulty in returning to her own shaft, although there are so many close at hand. The natural conditions are such that plants of some kind grow close to the aperture, and no doubt these serve as landmarks to guide the homing bee. Even the total clearing of the site did not create any great difficulty, and the bees alighted within two or three inches of the aperture, which they soon located, probably by scent, as they often come up against the wind. The nectar, of course, is carried in the honey-sac, and is “licked” up from the nectary of the flowers by the pointed glossa. Just how this is effected is not quite clear, but the hairy tip of the “tongue” lies flat on the surface of the ovary of the flower and is moved backwards and forwards very rapidly, without being turned over. The large paraglossae and the maxillae appear to assist in the ingestion of the nectar, but it is extremely difficult to determine the actual functioning of the complicated mouth- parts. The author has observed both Parasphecodes and Halictus ripening the newly-gathered nectar by sitting in the warm sun and extending the mouth-parts. The bee exudes a large drop of nectar and, since the sub- mentum is “hinged” at the base, a rapid extension and contraction of the liquid takes place, and it may be seen to thicken during the process. Park, RAYMENT. 91 1932, claims that manipulation by the mouth-parts plays an important part in the ripening of nectar by the honey-bee. Although many Australian wild-bees are endemic, confining themselves to one botanical species, this is not true of Parasphecodes, for it visits a Wide range of plants, as the botanical list indicates. Like the hive-and most wild-bees, the insect confines itself to one species whilst harvesting, for the author finds no admixture of pollen-granules on the body—except, of course, an accidental one, probably adhering from a previous journey. No matter whether the pollen be bright-orange (Flatweed), or cream-colour (Eucalypts), the puddings in the cells, during February, are invariably olive-green in colour. There is not any after-feeding, and the original pollen-pudding is the total amount of food provided for each larva. ORDER OF THE GENERATIONS. The research demonstrated that three generations are present in this Species during the season: A spring one of males and females; the second, a summer brood of males and females; the third one, of males and females, appears late in autumn. The individuals of the three generations are necessarily early and late in emerging, as the case may be, and it is unwise to fix specific dates for their appearance. The bees emerge to flight in spring from, say, September 15 to October 1, the second half of which is spent in working at digging and provisioning cells, and depositing eggs; the flying bees then disappear. During November and December, the larvae are developing in the cells in the earth. In the early days of January, a new generation of males and females is a-wing, and the latter portion of January is spent in labour. During February and early March, another generation is developing in the earth. These males and females emerge, and are a-wing during the latter half of March, and there are many matings during the early part of April. The males then disappear—succumbing to the cold during early May. The larvae develop in the earthen cells to hibernate over the winter, and emerge during the ensuing spring. The phenomenon of parthenogenesis is not present in this species. SEMI-HIBERNATION. Numbers of “nests” were excavated by the author during June and July. The bees appeared to be perfectly developed in every way, and when uncovered to the light of day immediately began to dig into the loose soil about them. At first they are lethargic, but their movements soon quicken. At no time are they so active as summer females surprised in their cells. It is quite clear that these wintered females are the progeny of the mothers of the previous April, and which were in the company of many males on the flowers of Eucalyptus leucorylon var. macrocarpa, and E. cadlophylla var. rosea. Many copulations of the sexes on the blossoms were recorded on March 21, 1942, and the mated mothers were digging ener- getically down below, for moundlets of new yellow spoil were observed up to the 1st of April. The breeding experiments demonstrated that up to 56 days are re- quired for the development of the February-March females; consequently, eggs deposited early in April would produce the last brood for the season, and the latest would mature before July. They then pass through the winter in their cells in a state of semi-hibernation. 92 SOLITARY BEE. TARLTON Rayment Fig. 5.Inquilines and parasites of P. fulviventris (Fr.). Lateral view of Collembolan, Onychiurus fimetarius L. Dorsal view. Acarid mite, Caloglyphus berlesii (Michael). Stylets of the mite. Remarkable insect taken from the gena of Parasphecodes subfultoni Ckll. This is probably a Coleopteran, but it was not studied. Sle SE oe Microscopical examination of the abdominal organs disclosed that the honey-sac had never contained any food, nor had the stomach (ventri- culus), which was quite empty. A remarkable feature was found in the Malpighian tubules; these are lined with a bright-yellowish substance, discharged almost immediately after the insect first takes. wing. There- after, the tubules are practically colourless. The ejected substance re- presents the body-waste accumulated during pupal development. PARASITES AND INQUILINES. It was observed in the laboratory that numbers of the bees’ cells were visited by minute white insects, resembling Collembola, but minus the abdominal spring of that genus. These insects averaged about 1,000 microns in length and were submitted to H. Womersley, of the South Australian Museum, who determined them as Onychiurus fimetarius L., which has a world-wide distribution in the humus of soil. The author has no doubt whatever that in the earthen chambers the moisture would soon bring about an insanitary condition only for the activities of these insects and certain Acarid mites. It was observed in the field that none of the cells contained any stercoral or other refuse; indeed, even the cast skins of the several ecdyses soon disappear. There is a symbiotic relationship that is distinctly beneficial, if not RAYMENT. 93 essential, to the welfare of the larval bees. There is not the horde of acarid mites present in Halictus emeraldensis (Raym., 1937), but the same work is accomplished by these insects and mites, for the cells are always immaculate and entirely free from moulds. The parasites’ visits to the cells are fairly regular, but, as the insects exhibit a strong aversion to light, it was possible to observe them only by surprise; a very unsatisfactory method at any time. However, the author did not succeed entirely in defeating the tropism; consequently, the obser- vations are not as complete as he would like them to be. No Acarid mite was observed in the numerous cells examined, but many were discovered in the field at Rocklands (December, 1942), on the larval bees of P. sextus, but one was taken from the earth nearby. This mite measured 750 microns in length, and was determined by Womersley as Caloglyphus berlesei (Michael), which is often found in termitaria and decaying organic materials. © A very remarkable minute ovoid insect, some 380 microns in length, was removed from the gena of one specimen of P. subfultoni, collected by Owen Dawson, at Dandenong, Victoria, but the author has no other information on the specimen, and for the time being defers a discussion on its taxo- nomic position. . A MUTILLID WASP. During the excavation of the site of the nests, large numbers of small drab cocoons, some 3 mm. in length, were collected at various levels. These appeared to be encased in solid earth, since no signs of cells could be detected. They were removed to the laboratory, and critical examination revealed them to be the thin skin-like cocoons of a small Mutillid wasp. The large numbers of these indicate that Parasphecodes is heavily attacked by Mutillids. The behaviour of these parasites has been closely observed by the author, and the procedure does not vary, whether it be on Halictus or Para- sphecodes, the Mutillid searches the surface of the site, and, discovering a shaft, does its utmost to scent the presence of the bee. Should the rightful occupant be absent, the Mutillid runs down the shaft, and, quickly depositing her egg on the body of the larval bee, hastily returns to the surface. Should the shaft contain a bee, the parasite im- mediately beats a hasty retreat to try her luck elsewhere. Sometimes the usurper is chased out by the irate mother. The ovipositor of the Mutillidae is very short, but the parasite is close to its host’s body. A number of larger reddish cocoons were obtained, but these were all empty, making it impossible to determine which insect made them, but as they were numerous, it appears that another parasite is present at some period, and the author would suggest that it is an Ichneumonid wasp, perhaps a Cryptine, in the genus Labia, as an undetermined species was observed at no great distance from the site. The biology of the earth- digging bees in the subfamily Halictinae is an extremely difficult study; a fact often stressed by the late Professor W. M. Wheeler. - AN INTERNAL PARASITE. (A Nematode Worm.) Whilst dissecting some of the hibernating females in isotonic salt solu- 94 SOLITARY BEE. tion, nematode worms were observed swimming among the organs with an eel-like motion. The parasites were very small, measuring 650 microns in length, with a diameter at the thickest part of 25 microns. Although the host had been killed with ether, the parasites continued to be exceedingly active in the isotonic solution until killed instantly by a drop of acetic acid. Although the locomotion is eel-like, the worms frequently whip them- selves into a circle, or even a figure eight conformation, when they remain still; after a second or two, the quick undulating motion is resumed. It was observed that nematodes were not enclosed in any part of the alimentary canal, but were swimming freely among the organs. Indeed, so far as could be ascertained, the canal had not been punctured, but it was noted that the whole interior of the abdomen was markedly deficient in blood. This peculiar dryness was detected in other hosts of the parasite. Large numbers of larvae and also active summer female bees were dis- sected, but nematodes were not observed in any. It would seem, then, that the parasites somehow gain admittance to the abdomen during the long period of semi-hibernation over the winter months, but just how they enter the body of the bee was not determined. The organs did not appear to have suffered any structural injury, but the loss of so much blood and fat must undoubtedly affect the vitality of the bee, and perhaps preclude its emergence in the spring. A percentage of such infected females may perish in their natal cells, but no dead bodies were discovered in any of the nests excavated by the author. Externally, there is nothing whatever about the body of the bee to indicate the presence of the parasites within the abdomen. References: COCKERELL, T. D. A., 1930.—Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, Vol. x., Part I., pp. 37-50. Bees of Australia, Australian Zoologist, Vol. vii., September, 1932. American Museum Novitates, No. 343, 1929. ERICKSON, Rica, and RAYMENT, Tarlton.—Walkabout Magazine, December, p. 45, 1941. MEYER, Reinhold.—Archiv. f. Naturgeschichte, December, 1920. ParRK, O. W., 1932.—Studies on the Changes in Nectar concentration pro- duced by the Honey-bee, Apis mellifera, Research Bulletin, No. 151, Iowa State College of Agriculture, p. 242. RAYMENT, Tarlton, 1927.—Victorian Naturalist, xliv., p. 76. 1931.—Victorian Naturalist, xlvii., p. 184. 1931—Jour. Roy. Soc. W.A., xvii., p. 187. 1933.—Victorian Naturalist, xlix., p 250. 1935—-A Cluster of Bees, pp. 184, 207, 678. 1936-1937—-Arbeiten tber physiologische und ange- wandte aus Berlin-Dahlem., December, 1936, pp. 289-294; March, 1937, pp. 30-60. 1940—wWild Life, June, p. 30. 1943—-Walkabout Magazine, May, p. 42. 1947—Victorian Naturalist, lxiii., pp. 256-260. SNoperass, R. E., 1925.—Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey-bee, pp. 216- 222. Straus, J., 1911.—Die chemische Zusammensetzung der Arbeitsbienen und Drohnen wahrend ihere verschiedenen Entwicklungstadien. Zeit. Biologie, 56, 347. EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES AND FIGURES. Plate vii. Anatomy of P. fulviventris (Fr.). 1. Adult female P. fulviventris (Fr.). le a SS Se eS ee RAYMENT. 95 Rugose sculpture of metathorax. Bidentate mandible. Nodulose second sternite of female. 6, 7. Fourth, fifth and sixth sternites. Fifth tergite of female showing the apical rima of the Halictine family. Sixth tergite showing plate under rima—all abdominal plates as pressed flat by the cover-glass. . Labrum of female has the angular appendage of the Halictine family. Fifth tarsal segment with anguiculi and empodium. Sculpture of clypeus showing the median depression. Hairs on wing-surface. Slender curled hairs of femora and trochanters, a.b.c. simple, bi-forked, and tri-forked hairs from outer side of tibiae. d. five-forked hair on outer side of basitarsi. e. compound hairs of coxae. Rugoso-punctate sculpture of frons. Eleven hamuli of hindwing. The small brush, distally on basitarsus, is another Halictine character. Plate viii. Larval development of P. fulviventris (Fr.). Caudal end of the bowed egg is inserted in the soft pudding. The hexagonal pattern on the egg is almost invisible; the striated pattern is more evident. On larvae three days out of the egg— The tracheae appear to be above the Spiracles. The larva after the pellets have been ejected. Stercoral pellets showing tips of the oil capsules (a). Nodes on scutellum and postscutellum of pupa before pigmentation. Hind margins of tergites are tuberculate, as in Hdlictus. Pupa before pigmentation. The developing mouth-parts. Invagination of apical segments of male abdomen during pigmen- tation. Plate ix. Anatomy of P. fulviventris (FY.). 2, 3. Motions of Nematode worm parasite. Lateral view of open proventricular valve. Arrows indicate direction of flow of honey through proventriculus to true stomach (ventriculus) . Oblique view of valve when closed. Apex of open valve. Ciliated margin of “leaf” of valve. Submentum and glossa, paraglossae, and labial palpi of female; viewed by transmitted light. Maxilla, galea and maxillary palpus of male. 11, 12, 13. Dorsal, ventral, lateral and oblique views of genitalia of male. Strigil of female. Calcar of female. Plate x. Portion of the railway bank occupied by the huge colony of Para- sphecodes fulviventris (Fr.). Photograph by the author. 96 FREDERICK STRANGE. A Biography by Masor H. M. WHITTELL, O.B.E., Bridgetown, Western Australia. (Plate x.) John Gould, John Gilbert, John Macgillivray, and Frederick Strange were naturalists to whom we owe a large amount of our knowledge of the animal and bird life of the eastern districts of Australia during the early days of the colonisation of New South Wales and Queensland. The account which follows is intended as a contribution towards our knowledge of the work of Strange, who was undoubtedly one of Australia’s great pioneer naturalists. Frederick Strange died a tragic death in 1854 whilst still a young man, leaving a wife and young family in Sydney, many miles from his home country. In 1854 it was still a long, long journey to Australia, where Scientific institutions were few and far between and, as most of his collec- tions in natural history had gone to England, his attainments as a naturalist were better known there than in the country of his adoption. To those reasons may be due the fact that no account worthy of the extent and results of his pioneer work in natural history in Australia and New Zealand has so far been published. Mammalogy, ornithology, entomology, conchology, and botany are all in his debt for the work he did in first bringing to knowledge many items in those sections of natural history. Possibly, too, it is due to the wide- ness of his activities that no specialist in any one of those sections has honoured his memory by writing an adequate account of his labours. True, some attempt to do justice to Strange’s efforts occurred when a pamphlet entitled “Literary Notices of the late Frederick Strange, Naturalist,” was published. The author (1) and date. of publication are unknown, but from information contained in it the pamphlet must have been printed after November, 1865, as there is an article by Gerhard Krefit on the Yellow-footed Wallaby, Petrogale xanthopus, which mentions speci- mens collected in the Flinders Range by George Masters, who collected there in November, 1865. In this pamphlet, of which there appears to be only one known copy, is reprinted, from the Sydney Morning Herald, an editorial article of 1852 intimating that the naturalist was about to visit England, together with an account of him, which appeared in the British press on his arrival in London. “Notes on the Brush Birds of Australia,” by Strange, are reprinted from the Moreton Bay Courier, and an account he wrote in the Sydney (1) Frederick Strange married Rosa Prince. In 1856 (see post) her address was c/o Mr. Charles Prince, Herald Office, Hunter Street, Sydney. In the Sydney Directory of 1855, Charles Prince is recorded as residing at Princes Street, occupation, compositor. We may, therefore, assume that the pamphlet was set up as a private effort by Charles Prince, who was probably father or brother to Mrs. Strange. WHITTELL. 97 Morning Herald of a trip inland he made in New Zealand. Details of the tragic ending of the naturalist are reprinted from various Australian news- papers and, as already mentioned, there is an account by Krefft of the Yellow-footed Wallaby. Except for this pamphlet, the only biographical notes published have been those in the short account by J. H. Maiden in his article, “Records of Australian Botanists,” which appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1908. Maiden’s information appears to have been limited to that contained in the pamphlet, and any casual references to Strange that have since appeared have been confined to the contents of Maiden’s article (2). Maiden wrote of Strange as a botanical collector. Iredale and Hedley have made mention of him as a conchologist. Strange was the first to make several Australian mammals known to Science, and still more Australian and New Zealand birds, yet it is a curious fact that, although many items in conchology and botany have been scientifically named after him, his memory has never been honoured in the name of a mammal or of a bird. q Even that famous keeper of the bird collection in the British Museum, Robert Bowdler Sharpe, who joined that institution in 1872 and was acquainted with John Gould, was unable, when writing the history of the collection of birds, to record information about Frederick Strange. Many of the bird skins collected by Strange reached the British Museum in the Gould collection, but all that Bowdler Sharpe could place on record about the collector was: ‘Collected in New Zealand and Australia, and made beautiful skins. I have not been able to find out any records of his career, but I can remember that Mr. Gould always spoke of him with high appreciation as a collector.” For the purpose of this biography much more material than was avail- able to Maiden has been used, since Frederick Strange’s grandson, Mr. C. R. Strange, of Sydney, has submitted some of his grandfather’s correspond- ence and has also supplied a note-book, entitled, “Catalogue of Mammalia and Birds of Australia,” belonging to Frederick Strange, in which the naturalist entered field-notes on birds he collected in the neighbourhood of Moreton Bay and elsewhere. In the account which follows this note- book will be referred to as the “Catalogue.” (3). Extensive research in contemporary manuscripts and printed literature has furnished much additional information. BIRTH-PLACE AND DATE OF BIRTH. When Frederick Strange arrived in London from Sydney in 1852, with a consignment of natural history specimens, the newspaper London Morn- ing Advertiser gave an account regarding him in its issue of June 24 of that year. In that article Strange was described as a native of Aylsham in (2) Maiden published a photograph reproduced on plate x. (3) From internal evidence it is apparent that this Catalogue was com- piled before March 1, 1848. 98 FREDERICK STRANGE. Norfolk. Aylsham is about 11 miles north of Norwich (4), and about nine miles from the coast. When in New Zealand, in 1849, Strange named a mountain, Mount Stanley, after the Bishop of Norwich, Dr. Edward Stanley (1779-1849, father of the explorer, Capt. Owen Stanley, R.N.) ; and when he arrived in England in 1852, Strange proceeded to Norfolk, as is witnessed by an agreement drawn up in Norwich on September 17, 1852 (see post). The Norwich Mercury of June 26, 1852, printed the notice appearing in the London Morning Advertiser of two days previously, and in the documents in possession of Mr. C. R. Strange are letters to Strange from J. H. Gurney, the Norwich ornithologist, and from Trivet Allcock, also of Norwich. It should also be noted that Strange called his house in Sydney “Norfolk Cottage.” The writer has gone to some pains in an endeavour to ascertain the date of birth of Strange. The parish registers of Aylsham, which date from 1653, have been searched, but there is no Strange entry between the years 1810-1818. A search among the large accumulated records and indexes of the Society of Genealogists of London has been equally unavailing in a search covering the county of Norfolk generally. Strange is a very ancient Norfolk name—appearing as Le Strange, etc.—but it seems to be very rare indeed in Norfolk records from the 18th and 19th centuries onwards. The secretary to the Society has kindly gone to considerable trouble in an effort to trace the year of Strange’s birth, but without success. Maiden, in his Records of Australian Botanists, gave the date as ‘1826,’ but this, as will later appear obvious, is certainly incorrect. EMIGRATION TO SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The notice in the London Morning Advertiser states that “previous to tne final adoption of his home in the new world,” Strange “embarked in the third vessel which left the shores of England, in order to the for- mation of a new Settlement in South Australia, where he remained 12 months prosecuting his labours in natural history, botany, and in acquiring information relating to the resources of the colony. (5) The Cygnet was the third vessel to leave England for South Australia, and it was a Coloni- sation Commissioner’s ship, containing portion of the survey staff. Kingston, the Deputy Surveyor-General, was on this ship which left England on March 20, 1836, and arrived in South Australia on September 11 with 384 passengers. H. A. D. Opie, in his South Australian Records prior to 1841, gives a list of the passengers by the Cygnet, but there is no record of Strange, nor does the name occur in any of the available lists of passengers on ships coming to Adelaide at this period. In view of the fact that Strange was engaged in fishing enterprise early in his South Australian career, if he did travel on the Cygnet, it is possible that he served as a member of the crew. He certainly had sea-faring knowledge, as later, when he went farther east to New South Wales, he was mate of a vessel, the.Tamar. The (4) In June, 1920, Mr. Tom Iredale saw in the Norwich Museum, Norfolk, Psephotus pulcherrimus from Moreton Bay, presented by Thos. Strange.— Ed. (5) This is incorrect. Strange was in South Australia for about four years. WHITTELL. 99 statement that Strange came to South Australia in the third vessel to arrive in that colony—the Cygnet—should be noted in conjunction with the fact that later he accompanied Charles Sturt and other surveyors in some Surveys. It is possible that Strange became acquainted with officers of the Survey Department during the voyage of the Cygnet. While time may furnish more information as to the beginnings of Strange’s Australian career, we have a very definite record of him on July 14, 1838. In the documents in possession of Mr. C. R. Strange there is one under the signature of J. Hindmarsh, Governor of South Australia, written at Adelaide on that date:— “I certify that I have Known Frederick Strange for the last six months, during which period his sobriety, honesty, and good conduct have been uniformly good and steady.” Strange, therefore, must have come under the notice of Governor Hind- marsh as early as January, 1838, or about 15 months after his (Strange’s) first arrival in the colony, if he did reach the colony in the Cygnet. We get certain information about Strange’s movements in South Aus- tralia from the operations of some large investors or speculators. Also from a land transaction, which was to involve the then Colonial Secretary, George Milner Stephen, in a somewhat notorious and unsavoury case, and to lead to the resignation of his office and withdrawal from the colony. This refers to the episode of the “Milner Estate,” in the first transactions re- garding which Strange was involved. Captain Charles Sturt spent September 26 to 30, 1838, in examining the country at the mouth of the Gawler River on behalf of the South Australian company and was accompanied by Frederick Strange. Miss Gwenneth Williams, in South Australian Exploration to 1856 (Public Library, Adelaide, 1919), states (page 37): “Early in the following year [1839] Mr. [T. Bowes] Strangways made another trip in this vicinity, when with Messrs. G. M. Stephen and [W.] Nation he left Adelaide in search of rich country. Crossing the Lower Para they reached the Gawler River just below its junction with the Upper Para; then as they followed the Stream fertile alluvial plains were discovered covering in extent hundreds of acres. The party now came upon a Salt water creek, which was named after Strange, their attendant, who had discovered it two years previously when engaged as a fisherman. So promising was the neighbouring district that Mr. Stephens obtained a Special Survey.” Writing in the South Australian Gazette and Colonial Register of March 2, 1839 (6) , Stephens said: “ . . . we came upon a salt water creek, flowing into the Gulf (St. Vincent’s) and which His Excellency Colonel Gawler has permitted me to name “Strange’s Creek” after my attendant who led us to it, and discovered it about two years ago in a boat when a fisherman. I should mention that at about three miles from the outlet of the Gawler, Strange recognised the spot as the place to which he had accompanied Capt. Sturt last year (1838) , and which the latter had described to the South Australian company and strongly recommended for a special survey; but (6) Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania), New South Wales (of which Victoria was a part) and South Australia. 100 FREDERICK STRANGE. which the Manager did not inspect, or it would not have been my good fortune to possess it. “We were tired, and therefore did not proceed far up the salt water inlet, being satisfied that large boats could discharge cargo upon the alluvial flat itself, but at all events upon dry land, and trusting to Strange’s description of its entrance and short course from the Gulf. That descrip- tion is abundantly confirmed by the written report of Captain Sturt to the company. Strange informed us that the creek so abounds with fish that, to use his own graphic description, ‘the boat actually laid upon their backs,’ and his last haul in it before he became a landsman amounted to 99 dozen, which he sold to other fishermen at Port Adelaide for £13 odd. Upon my return to town I took a Special Survey (February 20, 1839) in this spot from the mouth of the inlet up the bank of the Gawler as far as the water extends.” (7). Here we have the information that Strange, early in his South Aus- tralian career, was engaged in fishing enterprise in St. Vincent’s Gulf, and before or about March, 1837, had gone as far north as the mouth of the Gawler River. Next we learn that Strange had accompanied Sturt when the latter surveyed the land at the mouth of the river, between September 26 and 30, 1838, and that he again went to that locality with Strangways early in 1839. A portion of a mutilated letter among the “Strange” papers would suggest that Strange did more than just accompany Stephen when the latter went to inspect the land with a view to applying for a Special Survey. It is possible that it was Strange who first brought the suggestion forward to Stephen that the latter should acquire the land. The mutilated letter unfortunately bears no date, and the signature has gone, but it was un- doubtedly written by Stephen, as it is endorsed ‘Colonial Secretary,” and was probably written shortly after February 20, 1839, the date on which the Special Survey was claimed. It will be noticed that the letter was addressed to Strange, care of John MacLaren, who was a Government surveyor, and that Stephen (8) says he would request a week’s leave for Strange. This would indicate that Strange was, when the letter was written, in the em- ployment of the Survey Department. (Addressed) Frederick Strange, care of Jno. MacLaren, Esq. (Franked) Colonial Secretary. “You will see by the newspapers, Strange, that I have taken a Special Survey of the fine place we have just seen. The Creek the Governor has allowed me to call after you ‘Strange’s Creek.’ Being anxious to reward your services during my late excursion in a manner which I believe will be gratifying to you, I have only to say that on the other side of this sheet I have sent you an I.0.U. for £50, which you can have at any time or in any sums from time to time as you please. I have also in readiness for you an excellent Second-hand Double-barrelled Gun .................... instru- (7) In his Catalogue Strange recorded that he shot the Masked Wood- Swallow, Arftamus personatus, in “1839, and then I shot it on the Gawler River in South Australia.” (8) Stephen’s diary, November, 1838, to February, 1839, is in the Mitchell Library, Sydney, but I am informed by Miss Leeson it contains no mention of Strange. WHITTELL. 101 mentability. I now send an express Messenger for you to come up to Emu to-night, if possible, in order to accompany Mrs. Lindsay and Mrs. Stevenson in a boat to-morrow afternoon to the Creek; for which purpose I shall request for you a week’s leave of absence. But I shall be glad to have you entirely as my property with Mrs. Lindsay until we go home together, two or three months’ time; and I will in the meantime give you the same ...... ete 22 Eas oes Wad ae ve frst few days) Ol your arrival ;. 2.0... 0... PaeserbinOSay . 2... 3 ts VOUL! WHE De! sai fee ret 8 to pilot them about. fete tO PIACE: YOU. UPON vo... . i i ee ee Farm there by and bye MNES ates a i ee wa x wae established a town. You can therefore SIRMer FESION |... 6. 5s on soe os situation or ask for the leave of a2.............. wo please: but of course you Will . 2.2... 60. eke ee eee. I am your friend, (Signature gone).” Regarding Malurus melanotus, Gould wrote in his Handbook (Vol. I, 322): “The belts of the Murray in South Australia were the only places in which I observed this species. . . . The period of my visit was in winter; specimens I collected were all out of colour, or, more properly speaking, divested of the rich blue and black plumage, in which state a single speci- men was aiterwards forwarded to me by one of the party that accompanied His Excellency Colonel Gawler and Captain Sturt, when those gentlemen visited the Murray in 1839.” Strange accompanied Gawler on the occasion referred to by Gould, and in his Catalogue, Strange entered “Belts of M.(urray) F. Strange” in the column “S.A.” against Malurus melanotus. It is possible that Strange was with Gould when the original specimen was taken, and that he had a commission to obtain for Gould further specimens at the first opportunity which was to come when he accompanied Sturt on the disastrous visit in the following November-December. It was, however, probably before that trip that Strange visited the country between the Coorong and Lake Albert. That he did visit that portion of South Aus- tralia is apparent from records of mammals collected by him. In August, 1839, one Malcolm applied for a Special Survey of a tract of country lying on the eastern shores of Lakes Alexandrina and Albert, and it is possible that Strange was engaged as one of the party carrying out the survey and collected then the animals he sent to Gould. (See S.A. Nat., 23, 1946, 11-13.) On his return from this survey duty Strange proceeded on the expedition which is referred to as follows in the London Morning Advertiser :— “« . . . In the latter end of this year, 1839, he was engaged upon an expedition with Captain Sturt and Commander Pullen . . . to explore the country north of the north-west angle of the Murray, during which the entire party nearly perished, being compelled to bleed their horses to quench their thirst on account of the entire absence of water.” The catastrophe, while bad enough, was not so bad as pictured by the London paper. This was the expedition undertaken by Governor Gawler, with Captain Sturt and Lieut. W. J. S. Pullen, when it was proposed to cross Lake Alexandrina from Currency Creek (near the present town of Coolwa), proceed up the Murray to the Great Bend (later known as the North-west Bend), where 102 FREDERICK STRANGE. the town of Morgan is now Situated, and thence return overland to Ade- laide. It was to result in the death of Bryan, one of the party. (9). Governor Gawler records that he sent out several parties of those who had remained at the camp to search for Bryan, and Strange was one of these. In her diary (10), Julia Gawler, under date December 15, at North- west Bend, wrote: “ ... at 6, Arthur (11), Mr. Pullen and Bob (12) went down the river on horseback, and a boat went down with six sailors to look for him, but returned without him. Arthur, Strange, and Bob set off up the country at 6 o’clock in the evening. December 16: Arthur returned without Mr. B. at 8 o'clock . . . at 8 o'clock pm... -: Strange, Craig and Richardson set off by land.” Captain Sturt in his report, published in the South Australian Register, (13), said: “ . . . Richardson, Strange and Craig walked along the main fOAG. 2 ae On December 21 camp was broken and the party reached Adelaide on December 28. SETTLEMENT IN NEW SOUTH WALES. When or why Strange left South Australia is not Known, but his Catalogue contains a note that he collected a specimen of Pedionomus torquatus in New South Wales in 1840. In the Introduction to the Birds of Australia, 1848, Gould wrote: “Independently of the plains of South Aus- tralia, formerly given as the restricted habitat of this species, I have lately received a letter from Mr. Strange, of Sydney, in which he states a female had been procured in the neighbourhood of Botany Bay. I am also in possession of an egg of this bird. . . .” Gould is more explicit in his Handbook, 1865, regarding the egg, when he wrote: “Strange sent me a fully developed egg of this bird which he took from the ovarium of a female... .” (See Whittell, Emu, 45, 1946, 328-329.) Mr. C. R. Strange has a copy of The English Version of the Polyglott Bible, on the frontispiece of which is endorsed “From Frederick Strange to Rosa Prince, 1840.” When or where the marriage took place is not known, but the baptisms of their children are entered within the front cover.’ These domestic occurrences will be referred to again later in their chronological order, but at the moment it should be mentioned that the first entry re- cords the baptism of a son, George William, on December 10, 1841. Among the “Strange” papers is a burial certificate of this child showing that he was born at Gosford, New South Wales, on November 23, 1841, and buried at Gosford on October 20, 1842. In the burial register Strange is recorded as “mate of the Tamar steamer,” so it would appear that he had left South Australia to take up a (9) The full text of Colonel Gawler’s despatch to the Colonisation Com- missioners for South Australia on this journey was given by V. M. Newland as a supplement to his Presidential Address before the South Australian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia on October 29, 1937. See Proceedings for the Session, 1936-37. (10) MSS. in Archives Department, Public Library, Adelaide. (11) Arthur D. Gell, Private Secretary to Governor Gawler. (12) An Encounter Bay native employed as an interpreter. (13) January 4, 1840, page 4. WHITTELL. 103 seafaring life. By May 27, 1843, he had, however, moved to Sydney, as a son, Thomas Frederick (later to be the well-Known New South Wales oars- man and sculler), was baptised there on that date. Strange commenced business as a collector of natural history specimens; the Sydney Morning Herald for 1844 contains several notices of his activities in collecting. The issue of April 20 records that: “Mr. Strange, of Princes Street, who is not unknown as a successful collector of specimens of natural history, returned this week from a week’s collecting excursion up the Hunter. One of the chief curiosities he has brought with him is an enormous diamond snake, 11 ft. one inch in length. Mr. Strange walked close to this snake within five minutes of his landing on Musquito Island. . . . On opening it, Mr. Strange found in its stomach a paddy melon, a species on wallaby, fully two feet long. . . . Both snake and paddy melon are about to undergo the process of stuffing for exportation to England. In four days (the re- mainder of the week was too wet to go out), Mr. Strange has collected more than three dozen of various species of wallaby, besides a number of paddy melons; also a beautiful variety of birds and insects.” The Herald of August 23 gives a list of passengers arrived by the Maitland steamer from Port Macquarie. The list includes the name of ‘Mr. Strange,” while the issue of September 7 shows, in the list of cargo by the bargue Haidee, for London, one box of specimens, natural history, F. Strange. MEETING WITH JOHN GILBERT AND JOHN MACGILLIVRAY. When John Gilbert, on his second visit to Australia, reached Sydney at the end of January, 1844, there occurred a very interesting gathering of naturalist-collectors. Strange was then in Sydney, John Macgillivray was with H.M:S. Fly, and Dr. George Bennett was still there. Mr. A. H. Chisholm, in Strange New World, has given the movements of John Gilbert in New South Wales, in 1844, and has published what he described as the last known letter written by him. The letter, published by Chisholm, was addressed by Gilbert to Dr. Bennett, and was dated from Darling Downs on September 10, 1844. But among the correspondence furnished by Mr. C. R. Strange is a still later letter addressed by Gilbert to Frederick Strange from Darling Downs on September 16. The letter is as follows :— Darling Downs, Dear Sir,— Sept. 16, 1844. I have packed up a small collection for Mr. Gould, and you would oblige me very much by sending them off by the first, and post the enclosed letter by the same vessel, the reason of my sending so small a collection is that I have determined on joining Dr. Leichhardt’s overland expedition; would you not like to go? I am sure you will agree with me that such an opportunity of collecting the treasures of the interior should not be lost Sight of. I only received your letter of the 17th July (14) a few days ago, and of —${—— (14) This was doubtless the letter referred to by Gilbert in his letter trom Darling Downs of September 10, 1844, to Dr. George Bennett. Gilbert wrote: “I received a letter from Mr. Strange a few days ago, in which he states there are no letters from Mr. Gould.” See Emu, 38, 1938, 147. 104 FREDERICK STRANGE. course have not yet received my boxes you have been kind enough to send, and the letter you sent from Mr. Lefroy I cannot hear anything of, although repeated inquiries have been made for me at the Post Office. I am glad to hear so good an opinion of Macgillivray, as I told you at first I could not think he would act otherwise; if we succeed in getting across I shall most likely surprise him at Port Essington, should a ship be leaving for that port; drop him a line to say Iam on the way. You can unpack the box and look at the specimens, and if not giving you too much trouble, perhaps you will get a tin top soldered on to make it more secure; the only thing new in the collection is the parrot I mentioned to you in a former letter, and the smaller Quadrupeds, which I think are nearly all new. I am sorry I have not been able to get you a few beetles, but the weather has been so cold and cheerless that scarcely any insects are to be found. If we succeed in reaching our destination I shall get on to Sydney as soon as possible, so that I think you may expect me in about 12 months. Believe me, ever yours truly, JOHN GILBERT. P.S.—Best respects to Mrs. S. P.S.—There is a small package of seeds enclosed in the box for Mrs. Bennett. Will you be good enough to deliver it J.G. The letter was addressed to “Mr. F. Strange, two doors from the Wesleyan Chapel, Princes Street, Sydney,” and bears stamp “General Post Office, Sydney, October 24, 1844.” Among Australiana recovered by A. H. Chisholm in England in 1936 there is a draft of a letter from Gould to Gilbert, dated August 24, 1844, in which Gould wrote: “I have written to Strange, Drummond (15) and Mr. Bennett, all of whom I hope will collect. ‘You will, therefore, give Strange a full list of desiderata when you leave.” But Gilbert did not receive this letter, as he had left on his fatal journey with Leichhardt before it reached Sydney. Strange himself must also have left Sydney for the north shortly after Gilbert’s departure with Leichhardt, since the Sydney Morning Herald of November 30, 1844, gave a list of passengers who arrived the day before by the William the Fourth from the Clarence River, and the list includes “Mr. Strange.” A daughter, Rosa Ann, was baptised at Sydney on June 18, 1845. Although among the letters belonging to his grandfather supplied by Mr. C. R. Strange there is none from John Gould; still there is in Gould’s Letter Book, 1840-1846 (16), a draft of a letter to Dr. George Bennett, which goes to show that Strange was eager to take up collecting on a grand scale for Gould. The letter reads: “A report has just reached London that Leichardt (sic), Gilbert and party have arrived at Port Essington. I fear this is too good to be true, but I do not despair of their safety, and this it is that has prevented me from acceding to Strange’s solicitations to appoint him Gilbert’s successor, which, of course, I could not think of doing while there is a chance of so admirable and zealous an assistant being in exist- ence.” (15) Johnston Drummond, of Swan River Colony. (16) In Mitchell Library, Sydney. See Emu, 38, 1938, 211. Footnote. WHITTELL. 105 The letter is dated from London, June 1, 1846, and it was not until March 25, 1847, that Leichhardt returned to Sydney and it became known to the world that he had actually succeeded in reaching Port Essington, but with the loss of Gilbert. From a letter from Leichhardt to Dr. Bennett (17) it would appear that, after Gilbert’s death became known to Gould, some arrangement be- tween Gould and Strange regarding collecting was reached. To this period may, perhaps, be allotted an undated letter written by Leichhardt to R. Graham, Sydney. This letter, the existence of which appears to have hitherto been unknown, is among the documents lent to me by Mr. C. R. Strange. The letter is as follows:— My dear Friend,— Mr. Strange told me that “Charley” the black fellow who went with me wanted some clothing. He is staying at present at the Clarence, collecting birds for Mr. Strange, and takes, to all appearance, great care of himself. You Know best what arrangements are made to meet their wants, and will be Kind enough to tell Mr. Strange. May I remind you of Mr. Gilbert’s tombstone? Believe me ever to be my dear friend most sincerely. Yours, LUDWIG LEICHHARDT. R. Graham, Esquire, Sydney. This Graham was possibly the man after whom Leichhardt had named Mount Graham. The letter tends to confirm Mr. Chisholm’s assessment of Leichhardt’s character—was the explorer trying to pass on to some one else the responsibility of doing something for Charley? The same may be sug- gested about the tombstone to Gilbert. Why the letter should nowadays be among relics of Frederick Strange is obscure. Visit TO NEW ZEALAND IN H.M.5S. ACHERON. H.M.S. Acheron, under the command of Captain Lort Stokes, was en- gaged on a survey of the coasts of New Zealand from 1847 to 1851, and Strange was in the vessel during a portion of the period, leaving Sydney in the vessel as a passenger on October 30, 1848. Before actually going to New Zealand, Strange appears to have had some contact with that country. At the meeting of the Zoological Society of London, held on April 13, 1847, John Gould (18) read a letter from Strange containing “Notes on some rare birds of New Zealand and Australia.” In the letter Strange gave some notes on Strigops habroptilus and Apteryx australis, as well as on the Australian bird Scythrops novaehollandiae. From the remarks of Strange regarding the two New Zealand birds, it would appear that he had obtained his information from sealers who had put in to Sydney. The information that a second, larger, species of Kiwi (17) In Mitchell Library MS., No. C.161. See also Emu, as above, p. 151. (18) Proceedings, Part XV., 1847, 50-51; reprinted in an article on the Birds of New Zealand in the New Zealand Journal of May 18, 1850, 118-119. 106 FREDERICK STRANGE. occurred on South Island was correct, but it was not confirmed until 1871, when Potts described Apteryx haasti from two specimens received at the Canterbury Museum from Westland. Meanwhile, Strange, himself, had obtained a new species, Apteryx oweni Gould—probably from a sealer—and a note recording the fact has been entered by him in his Catalogue. An entry, covering a page, gives a description of the species, together with a note “Mem. sent to England by me in the ship Hamlet in the latter part of 1847._F. Strange.” The bird was described by Gould before the Zoological Society of London on June 8 (19), “On a New Species of Apteryz.” “The bird I am now about to describe has just arrived from New Zealand by way of Sydney, but unaccompanied by any information as to the locality in which it was procured, or any particulars of its habits and economy.” In the Birds of Australia Gould wrote that Apteryz owenii “formed part of a small collection of New Zealand birds, but from which of the islands they had been procured was uncertain; I have some reason to believe that they were from the South Island.” In his Handbook, however, he acknow- ledged his debt to Strange when he wrote: ‘The specimen from which my description was taken was sent to me by Mr. F. Strange, of Sydney, in 1850.”(20). From Strange’s letter to the Rev. Richard Taylor, it is oP that the specimen came from the South Island. (21). No connected account of the survey of the coasts of New Zealand by the Acheron has been published, and the writer has encountered difficulty in tracing the itinerary of the voyage. The ship, apparently, went first from Sydney to Auckland, and from there to Akaroa in February, 1849, where the nautical survey of Banks Peninsula was begun. _ Between March 4 and 10 Strange made a trip up the Waimakariri River, and on his return to Sydney he published an account of the trip in the Supplement to the Sydney Morning Herald of January 26, 1850. (22). The article is entitled “Port Cooper. Narrative of a trip 64 miles to the west of Port Cooper.” Quitting the ship on 10 days’ leave of absence on March 4, 1849, Strange, with a small party, the personnel of which he does not state, but which, from the fact that they interested themselves in trapping rats, were prob- ably Maories, reached the station of the Deans Brothers. Strange records having collected a Grebe (Podiceps) here. The next day he continued his march, during which he saw a hawk (Circus), quail (Coturnizx), and a gull (Larus). On the 6th the party con- tinued up the river bank, and Strange records seeing a species of Heliz, “but they were dead from the recent fires,” and a flock of Black Duck, Anas superciliosa. He shot a pair of Paradise Ducks, Casarca variegata, “the putangitangi of the natives.” The next day he went on and camped (19) Proceedings, Part XV., 1847, 93-94. (20) Appendix to Vol. 2, 573. Here is another example of Gould’s well known carelessness regarding dates. (21) See post. Strange uses the then current name of “Middle” Island for South Island. (22) This account was reprinted in the New Zealand Journal of 1850, and it also appears in the pamphlet, “Literary Notices, Etc.” WHITTELL. 107 at night “about three miles from the foot of the Snowy Mountains.” His men made rat-traps and caught many Norway rats (Mus rattus). “This species appears to have over-run all parts of New Zealand, and as it des- troys the kiore, or native rat, that species will soon be extinct. I learned trom a native at Port Cooper that a few years ago the natives used to have their regular kiore hunting grounds, where they used to kill them by thou- sands. The only one I obtained during my stay at New Zealand was given me by the Rev. Mr. Butts, at Nelson.” ‘In crossing over the plains to-day, in a place where there was an extensive dip of the country for many miles, I saw numbers of the bones of the dinornis, but mostly broken.” He re- cords getting “two new species of helix, and some fine insects” at this camp, seeing for the first time the Orange-wattled Crow, Callaeas cinerea, and finding the Parson Bird (Tui) Prosthemadera novade-seelandiae plentiful. At night he heard the plaintive call of the Woodhen, “Ocydromus australis,” or “weka” of the natives. This Woodhen was probably the form Gallirallus hectori, Buff Woodhen. According to Oliver (New Zealand Birds, 1930, 335) , Strange obtained a specimen, or specimens, on the shores of Lyttelton Harbour “about 1850.” On the 8th, after a stiff climb, Strange reached the summit of a high snow peak and got a view of wild and broken country. Without stating what they were he says he was disappointed in not getting the specimens he was in search of, so descended to his previous camp, the only “new” things obtained during the day being two species of Lepidoptera, three species of Heliz, and a fern. On the 9th, continuing his return journey, his track passed through a gorge between two high mountains which he named Mount Acheron and Mount Stanley, “after the late Bishop of Norwich.” Do these names persist to-day? He records finding a nest and five eggs of the Quail. The next day he again reached the Deans Station. In the Hocken Library there is a collection of letters written by members of the Deans family. In one there is mention that “the exploring party have now re- turned.” On getting back to the Deans Station, Strange was annoyed to learn that Captain Stokes was leaving the ship for a 16-day trip to Mount Grey. He considered that he himself “could have reached the west side of the island in three days from the point from which I returned, and have ample time to spend a week on the west coast,” had he not been on limited leave of absence, apparently due to the intended sailing of the vessel. He little knew the difficulties he would have encountered had he gone on. Strange, however, joined Stokes on the 16-day trip to Mount Grey, catching up with the party at Riccarton. (23). In the newspaper article he mentions meeting with the flag, Typha augustifolia, or “raupo,” and the native flax, Phormium tenax. He records seeing in most of the streams of the Middle Island five species of ducks, and notes that the Paradise Duck, Casarca variegata, was to be found chiefly on the plains and shingle beds of the larger rivers, while the “Red Bill,” Porphyrio melanotus, or “pukeko”’ was to be found in all the swamps of the plains. He also mentions the wild pig, “mostly black, with a long tail and large tuft at the end,” being plenti- ful and delicious eating. After charting the east coast of Otago the Acheron went north and (23) W. G. McClymont, The Exploration of New Zealand, 1940. 108 FREDERICK STRANGE. charted the coasts of Cook Strait during May, 1849. At Tasman Bay, Strange collected a specimen of the Brown Creeper, Finschia novae- seelandiae, and gave it to Captain Stokes, who sent it on to the British Museum. (24). From Cook Strait the Acheron went to Sydney to refit, arriving on November 1st, and Strange left the vessel.(25). In the Mitchell Library, Sydney, there is an autograph letter from Strange dated from Sydney, February 24, 1850. The addressee, “R. Tailor, Esq.,” is almost certainly the well-known New Zealand naturalist, the Rev. Richard Taylor, M.A., F.G.S., of Wanganui, he who discovered the bones and skull of the extinct Aptornis, which Professor Richard Owen named Aptornis defossor, and the author of Te ika a Maui or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, 1855 The letter is as follows:— My Dear Sir,— On my return to Sydney from my trip to the north of Moreton Bay I found your note of August 27, 1849, and where you kindly offer to get me some of the kiwi Apterix australis and asking me in what state I want them. And now, dear, sir, this is the state I want the species in from your neighbourhood is thus, say six, in skins to consist of two females, two males and two young ones, and two adults, in brine, male and female, and some eggs if they can be got. I have now some Apterix from the Middle Island, one species of which I sent home to England some three years ago. It is called after Professor Owen, Apterix Owenii. I am also anxious to get any species of land shells Helix or fresh water Unio from Wanganui. As I made a large collection in the Acheron, say about 100 species, and I give New Zealand about 360 altogether. But the finest species will be found down at the North Cape and, though I had no opportunity to go, and anything you can get send it on to Mr. Lyon, agent at Wellington, and he will forward it on to Sydney. And, believe me, dear sir, Yours faithfully, F. STRANGE, Naturalist. To R. Tailor, Esq.,— If you are fond of shells I will make up a collection of the New Zealand L.F. land shells and forward you down, or our Australian shell land or marine, if you write me that you would like to get them—F'S. The foregoing letter discloses that, prior to writing it, Strange had just returned from a trip to the north of Moreton Bay, so he must have set off for those regions very shortly after his return to Sydney from New Zealand. Entries in the Catalogue disclose that Strange was also in the Moreton Bay area between May 24, 1850, and July 28, 1851. (24) W.R. B. Oliver, New Zealand Birds, 1930, 477. (25) The Sydney Morning Herald of November 2, 1849, gives infor- mation of the arrival of the vessel, and states that she “had two living kiwis on board.” WHITTELL. 109 A daughter, Martha Louisa, was baptised in Sydney on December 1, 1850. VISIT TO ENGLAND. In 1852, Strange returned to England, accompanied by his family. They left Sydney in March, and the Sydney Morning Herald of March 9 gave his departure some publicity by publishing the following:— ‘“‘“NATURAL HISTORY. “To the lovers of natural history in this colony, it will be by no means Surprising to see the name of Mr. Strange, formerly of Hunter Street, associated with new discoveries in the pursuit to which he has devoted himself. Mr. Strange has taken his passage on board the Viemera, for England, carrying with him a most interesting collection of specimens, collected by him during the last eighteen months in the northern districts of the colony. The district over which Mr. Strange’s researches extend ranges from Mount Warning on the south to Briebie’s Island on the north. The information which will be afforded by the collection of specimens will be highly useful to the cause of science, and at the same time will, no doubt, be peculiarly acceptable to the English public, as developing, by analogy, the various capabilities of this colony. Mr. Strange has a very elegant collection of ferns, amounting to sixty or seventy in number, many of which have been pronounced new. A splendid collection of crustaceous animals, including a large number of novel and interesting specimens. His entomological collection, too, presents much of beauty and interest, particularly exhibiting those species known to the naturalist in Africa and Asia, which inhabit the northern parts of this continent. Mr. Strange, we believe, intends to make arrangements to return to prosecute his researches in this colony, and we heartily wish success to so industrious a collector.” (26). On Strange’s arrival in England, the London Morning Advertiser also gave him some publicity by publishing an account of him in the issue of June 24, 1852:— “Mr. Frederick Strange, the naturalist, who is a native of Aylsham, in Norfolk, and who left this country several years ago for Australia, has just alrived in England from Sydney, New South Wales, per the Viemera, in ninety-four days, with a most valuable collection of specimens of natural history. Many of the botanical and entomological specimens are entirely new to the scientific world; and although the collection is so extensive, it has by no means been acquired without an immense amount of fatigue, danger, and perseverance, combined with ability and talent, in the selec- tion, many of them hitherto unknown. “They are the accumulation of the last three years’ research; the tract of country explored has ranged in one direction from Mount Warn- ing, on the south to Briebie’s Island on the north of the colony, likewise Over a considerable portion of New Zealand. Mr. Strange has been a resident in Sydney, South Australia, Moreton Bay, etc., for a number of years, but previous to the final adoption of his home in the New World, he -(26) Reprinted in “Literary Notices of the late Frederick Strange, Naturalist.” 110 FREDERICK STRANGE. embarked in the third vessel which left the shores of England, in order to the formation of a new settlement in South Australia, where he remained twelve months prosecuting his labours in natural history, botany and in acquiring information relating to the resources of the colony. “At this time he became acquainted with Mr. J. Gould, the celebrated ornithologist, who was engaged collecting materials for his admirable work on the ‘Birds of Australia.’ In the latter part of this year, 1839, he was engaged upon an expedition with Captain Sturt and Commander Pullen (who is now, or was recently, engaged for the search for Sir John Franklin) to explore the country north of the north-east angle of the Murray, during which the entire party nearly perished, being compelled to bleed their horses to quench their thirst, on account of the entire want of water. A very advantageous location being offered him in New South Wales, he left South Australia in 1841, and examined all the country from Cape Howe to Wide Bay, about 700 miles of the coast, and upon his return he took a nine (27) months’ cruise in Her Majesty’s ship Acheron, during which he visited Wellington, Auckland and the Canterbury Settlement. It may be remarked that he was the first white man who made the attempt to cross the Middle Island to the western coast of New Zealand. In his collection he has brought with him the only living specimen in Europe of the Gigantic Water Lily (Nymphae gigantea) (28), so elegantly described in the May number of Sir Wm. JackKson Hooker’s botanical work.’ (29). Amongst Frederick Strange’s correspondence, made available by Mr. Cc. R. Strange, is an agreement drawn up at Norwich on September 17, 1852, by which “ . . . Frederick Strange, of Australia, in consideration of the sum of one hundred pounds to be paid to him by John Thorold doth agree with the said John Thorold to divide equally with him all the profits for one year from the commencement of their operations; in whatever they may undertake on their arrival in Australia—fifty pounds of the said sum to be paid on or before the twenty-first of October next, and the re- maining fifty pounds to be paid from the said John Thorold’s share of profits, at the expiration of six months from the commencement of their operations.” The agreement was signed by John S. Thorold (30) and F. Strange, and witnessed by Trivet Allcock. Just before Strange left England, the following note, communicated by Mr. S. Stevens, appeared in the Zoologist, Vol. 10, 1852:— (27) Actually exactly twelve months. (28) Bot. Mag., t. 4647. “Several cultivators” in England had seed early in 1852 (Maiden, Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1908). (29) The Kilmarnock Journal of the same date, and the Norwich Mer- cury of June 26, published what are virtually eopies of the London article. Publication by the Norwich Mercury is understandable, as Strange was a Norfolk man, but the reason why the Scottish paper printed the account is obscure. (30) John Thorold accompanied Strange back to Australia. There was, in 1855, a Richard Thorold, of Weelsby House, Lincolnshire, who had some ~ connection with Australia, as his nephew, A. Grant, sent him two live emus from Australia. See Naturalist, 1855; 161-162. H. Thorold, Esq., was a subscriber to Gould’s Birds of Australia. WHITTELL. 111 “Mr. F. Strange,—This well-known Australian naturalist, who has been in England for some months, leaves in a few days for his old haunts, to further investigate the natural history of that great continent. Judg- ing from what he has already done, and from his great zeal and activity, We may fully expect to receive many more novelties from him, which I will duly report, as they arrive, in the pages of the Zoologist.” Strange left London on October 27, 1852 (Plymouth, November 9, and Cape of Good Hope, February 7), on the Resolute. According to an entry in the family Bible, a son (31) was born on board whilst the ship was off the Cape on January 23, 1853. The arrival of the ship at Sydney on March 21, after a passage lasting 133 days, is recorded in the Sydney Morning Herald, and Mr. and Mrs. Strange and four children are listed as among the passengers. Immediately on his return to Australia, no doubt, Strange busied him- self in collecting and in supplying the wants of those naturalists with whom he had come into contact during his stay in England. One of these was the well-Known Norwich banker and ornithologist, J. H. Gurney, as among Strange’s correspondence-~is the following letter:— London, February 13, 1854. Dear Sir,— I duly received your acceptable letter, newspapers, and a box of skins, together with invoice for the same, amounting to £20/9/6, for which amount I have the pleasure of enclosing a letter of credit in your favour on Messrs. Smith, Croft & Co., of Sydney—duplicate of which I intend also sending out a short time hence in case this should not come to hand in due course—I shall be very happy to receive the additional collection which you expect to send—including the nest and eggs of the Origma— I conclude by your having some expectation of being able to send a Notornis, that you think of visiting New Zealand, in which case I trust you may obtain not only the Notornis but also many other of the little Known birds of that country—your last skins arrived in excellent order and without injury—I am especially engaged just now in examining the different species and plumages of the birds of prey both diurnal and noct(urnal) and would therefore especially call your attention to sending me birds of that order—I also shall be glad of shore birds and water birds as well as inland birds—but especially “birds of prey.” The letter was addressed to Mr. Frederick Strange, Naturalist, Norfolk Cottage, North Shore, Sydney, and bears a readdress to “Storekeeper,” Sussex Street, Sydney. There is, at present, little information regarding Strange’s move- ments subsequent to his return to Australia. It is known, however, that he engaged in organising a trading and collecting expedition to the islands to the north-east, and a vessel, the ketch Vision, was chartered or pur- chased. Strange, at Sydney, on August 31, 1854, entered into an agreement with Joseph C. Rossiter and . . . Gordon Korff, whereby the three obtained interests, to the extent of 40, 8, and 16 sixty-fourths respectively, in a voyage to collect tortoise shell, oil, or any other produce, and to trade and (31) Baptised, Frederick Resolute, at the Old St. Thomas’ Church, in North Sydney. Later to be Mayor of Mosman. 112 FREDERICK STRANGE. barter and to share equally in the proposition. As Strange was to proceed himself in the vessel and superintend the trading he was ‘to receive a bonus of ten per cent. of the realised amount of trade and collections. The agreement, which is among the papers lent by Mr. C. R. Strange, was witnessed by John Korff. The following letter appears to show that Strange had written to England in an effort to get purchasers for any natural history specimens that might be collected on the expedition. Hugh Cuming was, of course, the well-known conchologist and London natural history dealer. The letter addressed, ‘Mr. Frederick Strange, Naturalist, 8 Bridge Street, Sydney,’ was endorsed “Favoured by Frederic Cuming.” In an account of the son, Frederick Resolute Strange, in the local press, written when he became Mayor of Mosman, ‘8 Bridge Street,” was described as a “quaint cottage, which stands high up on a rock on the corner of Princes Street and Crescent Street.” My Dear Sir,— As I am about writing to my nephew Frederic Cuming, who will be in Sydney by the time this arrives, I thought I would write you again in answer to yours of July 14, 1854. Mr... . .? has applied to me to become a subscriber to your expedition, and I have put my name down of [for] one share of £50 for shells only, and I presume you have not started on it yet, as I hear from Mr. Stevens that you was at Moreton Bay. I hope you will get a few good things there, for it appears to me to be a fertile place and I think that if anyone can get anything good you are the man to do it and [K]now how to take care of them when you have got them. I got a few good things from Mr. Macgillivray from New Ireland, but Mr. Stevens received a quantity of the same kind of things from Sydney which lowared the value of them a good bit and I find there is a good many of the same things in other hands. Those were very pretty Bulimi and Heliz and the straw coloured Bulimi has been described by Dr. Fieffer as B. Strangei and the Helix as Eddystonensis Reeve. You see, I do not forget you. I received the money from Mr. Stevens for the bulbs sold Sir J.[torn]h Paxton. I have mislaid his letter wherein he gave it a name; everyone that purchased the bulbs have not succeeded in flowering of it, or even making it give out its foliage, except Mr. Van Houtte, of Ghent, who bought at Stevens auction one of the smallest bulbs and he has caused it to flower from the very smallest bulb of the lot. I was at Ghent, in August last, when it was in flower; it was of a beautiful light sky blue and about 34 in. diameter, and by the account of Dr. Lindley, in the Botanical Register, it was about 12 inches over, and the accounts sent home by Mr. Bidwell. Luckily for you and me I have never been troubled with any more complaints from those gentlemen, who purchased them in England, as I hear from parties that they have all died, but I have been afraid to ask the parties themselves fearing they might make a claim. I fear you will not get any plants from Standish Noble, for he and I are not freinds (sic) now, for he has threatened to bring an action against me for selling him things that would not grow, but he has been wise enough not to do it. In the strictest confidence I write to ask you what Mr. Macgillivray is about in Sydney when there, for he has not sent home only one quarterly bill of £62/10/- since he has been away now nearly three years, and I have been supporting his wife by allowing her £6 a month besides other WHITTELL. 113 incidental expenses. I fitted him out and with what I paid for him be- sides he now owes me-£192, deducting the bill of £62/10/-, and what I have sold on his account, say £80 odd, what I have sold of his things he has sent me therefore by the time the letter which I am going to write him reaches him he will owe me more than £200, and if he does not send me money immediately he comes back to Sydney again I shall not advance his wife anything more and she and the children must go to the workhouse. You can show him this letter, but on no account let anyone know it besides himself. All what I have done has been for the sake of his wife and children. Their pitable state makes my heart grieve for them. I have not seen Mr. Macgillivray but thrice before I got him out of all his troubles and I have not had one-tenth part of the intercourse with him as I have had with you and I shall feel much obliged by letting me know the result of your communication with him. (32). Cannot you get some seeds from the Island of Pines of that sort you had in your case when you came home .. . which I sold for 1/6 each; there were two or three growing in the case which I sold for £2 each; if Mr. Macgillivray had sent home a lot of these it would have paid all he owes me and more besides, but he did not send one when at the Isle of Pines. They must be packed in small boxes. One foot square and two feet long, one half seeds and the other half pure fresh water sand where a drop of salt water never reaches it. I hope you will see Frederic during the vessel’s stay in Sydney. With my kindest regards to your wife and great success in your under- taking. I remain, My dear sir, Yours most sincerely, H. CuMING. (33). Strange was dead before that letter even left England and, doubtless, Frederic Cuming delivered it to the widow. The Vision sailed from Sydney on September 4, 1854, and from Moreton Bay on the 29th, with the following on board: Strange as owner, with Richard Spinks as his assistant, George Elphinstone Vernon Maitland (master), William Spurling (mate), Geoffrey Geary and William Vann (seamen), and Henry Gittings (cook and steward). On board also was Walter Hill, who was described as a botanist, and who later became Colonial Botanist at Brisbane. It is not clear who started from Sydney and who joined the vessel at Moreton Bay, but a native named Deliapy was picked up at Moreton Island. The Vision, after calling at a small island off Cape Capricorn, anchored off the Second Percy Island on October 14. Strange, Hill, Spinks, and the black went ashore the same day, but after remaining on the island for one (32) This reference to John Macgillivray should be read in conjunc- tion with notes regarding him made by T. Iredale at the corclusion of the latter’s paper, “The last letters of John Macgillivray,’ in the Australian Zoologist, 9, 1937, p. 40. (33) (1791-1865), F.R.S., F.L.S. The letter is dated February 1, 1855. 114 FREDERICK STRANGE. hour returned to the ship. The next morning Strange, Hill, Spurling, Spinks, Gittings, and black went ashore again, unarmed, except that Strange had a double-barrelled gun. The gun proved an insufficient protection and Strange, Spurling, Spinks, and Gittings were killed by blacks. Accounts of the murders appeared in the Moreton Bay Free Press, November 21, 1854, Sydney Morning Herald, November 21, and December 2, 1854, and Empire, November 21 and 23, 1854. It is proposed to publish later the field-notes on birds entered by Strange in his Catalogue, but it may here be placed on record that he was the collector of the type-specimens of Strix tenebricosa Gould, 1845, Sooty Owl; Podargus plumiferus Gould, 1846, Plumed Frogmouth; Menura alberti Bonaparte, 1850, Albert Lyrebird; Eopsaltria capito Gould, 1854, Pale- yellow Robin; Colluricincla rufogaster Gould, 1845, Rufous Shrike-Thrush; Ptilotis fasciogularis Gould, 1854, Mangrove Honey-eater. It is also proposed to publish an account of the mammals collected by him in Australia. In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to. Mr. J. D. Somerville, of Adelaide, who has assisted me greatly in tracing the history of Strange in South Australia, and to Mr. C. R. Strange for kindly entrusting to me for perusal his grandfather’s personal papers. REVIEW. Miss Joyce Allan, who has contributed to this journal (vii., 87 and viii., 261) two notable papers on the Nudibranchs—those beautifully coloured Sea-slugs of our coastlines—has recently produced, in the Records of the Australian Museum (xxi., 433), a further paper, ‘“Nudibranchia from the Clarence River Heads, North Coast, New South Wales,” which will interest our marine zoologists. More than 30 species are discussed, some of them new to Australia. Many of them have a relationship with New Caledonia and other tropical places and occasionally stray down to Sydney Harbour. There are three plates of detailed illustrations and one new species, Archidoris cameroni, is named. 115 THE ZOO-GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEM OF PORT JACKSON. INTRODUCTION.—GENERAL PRINCIPLES. PART I.—PHYSIOGRAPHY. By CHARLES F. LASERON. (Text figs. 1-2.) INTRODUCTION. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Before a detailed study of the marine ecology of any locality can be commenced, certain broad principles must be considered. Any or all of these may be the determining factors in the ultimate result; yet their influence may not at first sight be apparent. These main factors may be considered under the following headings:— (1) Physiography—both recent and past. (2) Temperature. (3) Salinity. (4) Light and pressure. (5) Nature of bottom. (6) Continuity of conditions. Physiography: While the present geography of a region has a great bearing on the nature and distribution of its flora and fauna, changes which have taken place in the past must not be overlooked. The crust of the earth is anything but stable, and earth movements are continually tak- ing place. Elevation and subsidence not only affect the depth of water, but open or close avenues of migration from one locality to another. Drainage from the land is diverted, rivers disappear, new ones appear, considerably affecting the salinity of the sea water in the vicinity of their outlets. Denudation of the land is increased or decreased, and the volume and nature of water-borne sediment is altered. With all physiographical changes, corresponding changes take place in the distribution of life, but there will be some survival of original biological elements, as well as the introduction of new. It is in the study of the past, therefore, as well as the present, that the solution of any given zoological problem will be found. Temperature: Generally speaking, the temperature of the sea is much more uniform than air or surface temperatures on the land. The chief factors controlling it are:— A. Latitude. B. Depth. C. Ocean currents. D. Winds. It is a general principle that the temperature of the sea decreases according to distance from the equator and depth from the surface. But 116 PORT JACKSON. this is greatly modified by ocean currents and convection currents caused by prevailing winds and storms. At even shallow depths there is little diurnal or even seasonal variation and, moreover, the temperature will be nearly constant over considerable distances. Temperature is. an important factor in delimiting the main zoo- geographical provinces, but is not so important in determining ecological communities within them. Salinity: Marine animals are extremely susceptible to any change in the salinity of sea-water. In the open ocean the salinity is remarkably uniform throughout the world. It is only in certain areas adjacent to the land that it is subject to much change. Here, therefore, the nature of the rivers flowing into the sea is very important. It may be laid down that a larger river with a uniform flow will have less effect than a smaller river subject to sudden and violent flooding. Conditions in or near the estuary of a river may be otherwise ideal for a large marine biological community, but a periodical large flood is so destructive that. such a community is never established. Light and Pressure: The depth to which light penetrates into sea- water and the increase of pressure with depth are important factors in the distribution of life in the ocean. Light is necessary for the existence of plant life, which in turn is the basis of animal life. The penetration of light into water varies according to the strength of sunlight and the clear- ness of the water. The vertical sun of the tropics will penetrate deeper than the oblique sun of high latitudes, but even in the tropics the great mass of the ocean lies within the zone of perpetual darkness. Pressure, too, is a factor in distribution, but it is remarkable what extreme limits of pressure many animals can withstand, particularly if transition from one pressure to another is gradual. It is not possible to lay down a hard and fast sub-division of the sea into depth zones, as deep water life merges gradually with that of shallower water, but for convenience zones can be defined within broad limits as follows :— The foreshore—that is, the area of land between extreme high and low spring tides. Low water to 5 fathoms. Subject to wave action. 5 to 20 fathoms. Sunlight penetrates freely. 20 to 50 fathoms. Twilight only. 50 to 300 fathoms. Light very dim. Below 300 fathoms. Perpetual darkness. AAOOQR Pp Nature of Bottom: The nature of the sea bottom can and does vary very rapidly within even a limited area, and has a tremendous effect on the distribution of life. The volume and variety of living forms will depend mainly on two factors :— A. Food. B. Shelter. Food: The basis of all animal life is vegetation, whether on land or sea. In the sea, in addition to fixed algae, which are confined to comparatively shallow water, adjacent to the land, microscopic plants, chiefly diatoms, abound in all surface waters of the globe. Diatoms are the basic food of LASERON. 117 most marine animals, directly with some, indirectly with others. Near the land, food supply is augmented by the decay of terrestrial vegetation washed into the sea. Where vegetable life is abundant, there animal life will also be profuse. Many animals feed directly upon sea-weed; others by means of siphons or cilia extract nutriment from organic matter in the sea itself. Following these come the carnivora which prey on the vegetarians or on other carnivores. Practically no part of the sea is absolutely deficient in food; even in the abysmal depths there is a continual rain of dead matter from the surface; consequently some animal life is nearly always present. But certain types of sea bottom provide food in abundance, and these are prolific, both in variety and number of individuals. Shelter: Most species need shelter of some kind, either as protection from enemies or from adverse physical conditions. On land, shelter is needed from the heat of the sun, from the cold of night or winter, from flood or drought. In the sea adverse conditions might rise from waves or currents, or from drifting sand or mud. Shelter from predatory enemies may be by concealment or by the development of thick shells or spines. Concealment may be within rock cracks or crevices; it may be had by burrowing, or it may be by protective colouring or other camouflage, or by the emission of clouding fluids into the water itself. The nature of the sea bottom has a varying effect on all these characters. A convenient classification of types of sea bottom, each with certain biological characteristics, is as follows:— A. Rock. B. Coral. C. Sand. D. Sandy mud. E. Mud. F. Weed. Continuity of Conditions: When conditions are maintained over a con- siderable period a certain stability results, and a stage is reached when there is little change in the life of an area. Normally, when a species fails to conform to its environment, or when the environment changes too rapidly it becomes extinct, either entirely or in that particular area. It may not be prolific enough to keep pace with the depredations of its enemies; it may not be able to withstand such physical changes as occur; it may not be able to compete with other forms requiring the same food; it may be overcome by disease. If it survives for any great period it will be only by maintaining a balance with neighbouring organisms. Mutual dependence is, in fact, the keynote of survival. Even too great a success may bring disastrous results. A predatory animal, by hunting too success- fully may destroy all its game, until it too cannot find enough food to survive. The prey also may protect itself too efficiently and by multiplying too fast destroy all the vegetation on which it depends for existence. When, however, a proper balance is attained, and when conditions re- main uniform, a stage is reached in which each species, botanical and zoological, unwittingly plays a communal part, and not only depends upon, but contributes its share to the common weal. Such an assembly is an ecological colony, and the study of the mutual relationships within it con- stitutes the Science of Ecology. 118 PORT JACKSON. PART I. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND ORIGIN OF PORT JACKSON. The Coastal Subsidence. It has long been accepted that many of the harbours on the coast of New South Wales, including Broken Bay and the estuary of the Hawkesbury River, Port Jackson, George’s River and Port Hacking are drowned river valleys. This has never been challenged, though there has been a consider- able divergence of views as to the sequence of events which led to their inundation by the sea. The earlier geologists generally agreed that there were two major tectonic movements, one the uplift of the coastal plateau in late Tertiary times, and subsequently a subsidence with faulting on the eastern edge of the plateau. There is evidence of both these movements, though the possibility is that, instead of being separate, they were simul- taneous and were part of a general crumpling of the eastern edge of the continent, accompanied, not only by faulting, but by the production of north and south troughs which greatly changed the nature and direction of the coastal drainage. In recent years another factor has been admitted into the scheme of things. Research by many writers into the Pleistocene Glacial and Inter- Glacial Periods has shown that these phenomena were not confined to limited areas in the Northern Hemisphere, but were world-wide in their effects. Not the least of these effects were the changes in relative sea level caused by the melting of continental ice sheets in the warm intervals be- tween intense refrigeration. In a recent presidential address to the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Dr. W. R. Browne has given a masterly summary of such research to date, particularly as it applies to the continent of Australia, and has reviewed the evidence in a way that greatly facilitates the detailed study of its application to a local problem. So much so that the need is obviated to traverse again the extensive literature, and it is proposed to follow his chronology and other conclusions as a working hypothesis in tracing the origin of Port Jackson and its marine fauna. For the purpose of this paper, therefore, we may accept certain deductions as a basis on which to build. These are as follows:— (1) That in late Tertiary times, much of New South Wales consisted of a peneplain, subject to a cold moist climate. (2) That tectonic movements took place leading to the elevation of the tableland and subsidence of the coast. These movements were gradual and continued well into the Pleistocene Period. (3) Throughout the Pleistocene Period there were several glacial and inter-glacial periods. Following the last glacial epoch, the climate became warmer, not only in Australia, but throughout the world, and there was a general melting of all glacial ice sheets. (4) That with the melting of the ice the level of the ocean was increased between 200 and 300 ft. (5) That this terminated the Pleistocene Period and ushered in the recent period, approximately from 5,000-15,000 years ago. (6) That within recent times there have been minor changes and the LASERON. 119 coast has either risen from 15 to 20 ft. or the sea level has fallen due to a colder climate and reglaciation. Other changes have been a process of dessication in Australia, with the extinction of many species of giant marsupials. The Peneplain: The peneplain stage marks the birth of Port Jackson and other harbours, which might be said to have taken place when the original streams first started cutting channels through the surrounding rocks on their passage to the sea. The peneplain was not at this stage right at base level. Probably there had been some elevation, the incipient stage of the great orogenic movement of the Kosciusko uplift. Consequently there was some rejuvenation of the streams and erosion took place. The height of the country thus drained can be judged by the depths of the valleys, and may be taken as from approximately 600 to 900 ft. The depth of Port Jackson from the summits of the surrounding hills to bed rock is from 500-550 ft; that of the Hawkesbury considerably more—over 900 ft. Either the land was somewhat higher or the Hawkesbury, being a larger river, cut its bed more rapidly. It is doubtful if Port Jackson ever contained a considerable stream. The Hawkesbury to the north and the Shoalhaven to the south drained the greater part of the hinterland, and Port Jackson was but one of many minor streams between. This peneplain stage was one of quiescence, during which the coastal streams cut their valleys to or nearly to base level. The Blue Mountains: Following the peneplain stage came the building of the Blue Mountains and the general coastal subsidence. It is possible that even in the previous stage altitudes were somewhat higher back from the coast, but there seems little doubt that considerable elevation now took place simultaneously with the coastal subsidence. In seeking a guide to comparative changes in land level in the vicinity of Port Jackson, a good clue is the Hawkesbury sandstone, for not only does it cover a large part of the area, but at the time of its deposition it must have been practically horizontal. It probably also lay undisturbed for a very long period at or near sea level, and changes of level which have taken place are of comparatively recent date and associated closely with existing topography. No definite horizon in the sandstone can be taken, as the formation is in places over 1,000 ft. in thickness, and is remarkably uniform through- out. A horizon available for comparison in some localities is the base of the sandstone, at its junction with the Narrabeen Beds. More apparent and easily observed is the top of the sandstone, though this may be mis- leading when lowered by erosion. Where the Wiannamatta Shales overlie the sandstone this horizon is defined, but again allowance must be made for the fact that much of the Wiannamatta Shale lies in hollows in, rather than completely above the sandstone. Using the base of the sandstone, we can take this at sea level at Narra- been, six miles north of Sydney Heads, at 890 ft. below sea level, in the No. 1 Cremorne bore, at 994 feet below sea level at the Balmain Colliery, at about 2,800 ft. above sea level at Mt. Victoria, 60 miles west of Sydney, and at about 1,500 ft. above sea level the same distance to the south. On the coastal plain between Sydney and the Blue Mountains the sandstones are overlain by the Wiannamatta Shales, so that their full thickness is below 120 PORT JACKSON. them, but in the Penrith bore the Narrabeen Beds were reached at 825 ft. below sea level. These comparative levels indicate that the depression in which Port Jackson lies is not so much a half basin open to the east as a true basin. In this a north-south section shows a nearly perfect syncline, while a west- east section shows an asymmetrical syncline, with a steep and high western margin, while the eastern margin rises from about the vicinity of Parramatta gradually towards the coast. This conforms generally with north and south trough folding on other parts of the coast of New South Wales.* One of its effects has been the formation of a coastal ridge in many places, with lower land behind, and the beheading of many coastal streams, the drainage being diverted into rivers flowing parallel to the coast, such as the Hawkesbury and the Shoal- haven. ; This subsidence has generally been accepted as that which plunged the river valleys beneath the sea, but in view of the fact that the eastern margin of the basin remained at a higher level than the centre of the trough, the subsidence here would not be very great, and the probability is that the valley floors still remained slightly above sea level. One striking effect of the backward tilting would be to practically level the valley floors, and eliminate their previous easterly fall, or even reverse the fall to the west, so that they became deeper in their western recesses. (See Fig. 1.) Elevation about 2500’ ry) oe 2 s BLUE MTs. Present Shove Line ie Subsidence i a Present Valley of Hawkesbury Port Jackson, 2 Alluuium & Wiannamatta , ' Former Shore Line ‘ i} ' U ‘ 1 Scere eae SON ee Eee a. band Surface | Sia oe a mee peel ; SNE River Lew See ! SECO mosaaasG Present Sea Level Former Sea Level Fig. 1—Diagrammatic Section, Blue Mountains to Sydney, showing how folding produced elevation in the west, with sub- sidence in the east and a central trough. At a later stage, the rising sea level inundated the river valley. Substance is given to the hypothesis that the folding was all part of one movement by the much greater depth of the Blue Mountain gorges than the drowned river valleys on the coast. The latter are at the most some hundreds of feet in depth, while the gorges on the mountains are in many cases over 2,000 ft. This suggests that the eastern part of the original plateau was never elevated to the same height as the western, and has thus not been subjected to the same intense erosion. An elevation of the Blue Mountain tableland at the same time as the coastal subsidence would produce intense rejuvenation of the river systems, with rapid dis- section of the tableland and the production of deep gorges as at present exist. The Final Submergence: Following the folding a period of quiescence *C. Hedley. “Presidential Address,” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1911. LASERON. 121 followed, during which there was but little erosion on the coastal ridge, but continual deepening of the gorges of the Blue Mountains. The main drainage from the mountains still found an outlet through the Hawkesbury Valley, which had always been deeper than Port Jackson, and which now captured the head waters of streams far to the south. Port Jackson at this stage was practically a dead valley, nearly level, at, or slightly above sea level, and was probably covered with swamps. In the last stage of the folding it might even have been subjected again to a slight elevation, with some rejuvenation of drainage and a small renewal of erosion. There is some evidence of small secondary valleys within Port Jackson and George’s River which could have been thus excavated. There is no means of measuring the duration of this period of quies- cence, but it lasted throughout the closing stages of the Pleistocene Period, during which there was a world-wide warming of climates and a partial if not total melting of alpine and polar ice. Evidence has been accumulating of the gradual rise of sea level during this period, a rise estimated in Europe at between 200 and 300 ft. and given by Browne for Australia at approxi- mately 260 ft. 2 It was this rise that finally inundated the coastal valleys of New South Wales and portions of the coast. Botany Bay: Just south of Port Jackson lies the extensive sheet of shallow water known as Botany Bay. In a north-south section of the main subsidence basin the lowest point may be taken as in the vicinity of the western shore of the bay. As in Port Jackson, there is a rise to the east from this point, leaving the land on the margin of the basin somewhat higher and forming a ridge on the seaward side. It is probable that the initial subsidence allowed a partial inundation of this area with a subse- quent slight elevation above sea level again. There is abundant evidence in bores within the area of shallow water marine deposits overlaid with - peat beds and tree stumps in situ. The marginal ridge now forms the eastern shore of Botany Bay, and a gap through it is the present entrance to the bay. Another gap evidently existed in the vicinity of Cronulla on the south side, but became closed in the same way as the southern entrance into Port Jackson at Bondi. This will be referred to later. The final submergence of Botany Bay came like that of Port Jackson with the general rising of the sea itself but, unlike Port Jackson, Botany Bay is a submerged tract of land and not a drowned river valley, though George’s River which enters it in its south-western corner has the same river valley characteristics as Port Jackson, and Port Hacking a little further to the south. THE ORIGIN OF PorRT JACKSON. Prior to the final rising of sea level, the coast line probably lay some miles to the east of its present position, and the sea had probably pene- trated some distance into the mouths of the coastal streams. Given a rise in sea level of 250 ft., and the average depth of the harbour at final sub- mergence as 150 ft., the original strand line would be some 100 ft. below the level of the harbour bottom. Smith and Iredale* have advanced evidence of an original strand line at a devth of 400 ft. right-along the southern *Jour. Royal Soc. N.S.W., 1924. 122 PORT JACKSON. portion of the coast of New South Wales, but this evidence is open to considerable doubt. It consists of sandstone blocks of recent origin brought -in by trawlers from this depth, the sandstone containing sub-fossil shells, which the authors claim as littoral and similar to those found close to the beaches at the present time. No account has been taken, however, of the extensive sedimentation which must have occurred in the interval since submergence, amounting to upwards of 90 ft. within the harbours, and probably as much, or more, on the continental shelf. Moreover, the shells listed are by no means typically littoral, the most characteristic beach forms such as Donaz, Mactra and Cantharidus being conspicuous by their absence. Such shallow water forms as are included are those which have an extensive range in depth: for instance, Pecten meridionalis, or at least its New South Wales relation, P. medius, occurs alive to at least 30-35 fathoms off the coast. Others listed are, in fact, typical continental shelf shells and are abundant to depths of over 80 fathoms, and are rarely, if ever, found on the beaches. Amongst these are Cardium pulchellum, Marginella kemblensis, M. mayii, Friginatica beddomei, Estea bicolor, and others. For these reasons this definite location of the former strand line cannot be taken as proved, and its position can only be deduced from the general evidence. Once the valleys passed below sea level there would be a rapid inflow of sea water, producing long, winding inlets, with a fairly uniform depth, or even occasionally deeper at their western extremities. The flooding ceased when the harbour bottoms were from 150 ft to 200 ft. below the level of the sea. Slow sedimentation has subsequently reduced this depth in Port Jackson to an average of about 60 ft., so that the accumulated sediments average about 90 ft. in thickness. This sedimentation must have been extremely slow. If the hypotheses previously outlined are correct, the period of deposition would approximate to that of the deepening by river action of the gorges of the Blue Mountains, possibly by upwards of 1,000 ft. Slow sedimentation might be expected in Port Jackson. No streams of any size empty into it; indeed, it is doubtful if it ever contained a large river, or One draining any great area of country. Prior to settlement, also, most of the drainage from the surrounding hills would be effectively sifted by the dense vegetation, and very little silt would be washed into the harbour. It is difficult to give any direct evidence of the time so involved. Obser- vations by the Maritime Services Board, based on resedimentation of dredged channels, for a while led to an estimate of one inch per year, but it is now recognised that this was due more to the temporary redistribution of existing sediments by tidal currents, than to new sedimentation. Certainly in the period of the white man’s occupancy there has been no discernible shallowing of the water. Unfortunately there has been no con- trolled record to check the depth in any fixed spot, and the only evidence is by comparison of the first charts with those of the present time. This is not altogether satisfactory, as not only is it impossible to pin point any one locality, but there is no proof that both are measured from the same datum jine. With this in mind, the following comparative table is not to be taken as in any way conclusive. The figures given are for the greatest depths in limited areas, and are taken from Capt. Freycinet’s Atlas of 1812, and the latest charts available, thus giving a period of a little over 100 years. LASERON. 123 1812. Present Charts. Depth in Feet. Middle Harbour, above Spit .. .. 96 Over 100 North Harbour, due west of Quarantine Point, eentre Of ‘Chantiel 22 Oe 2 54 50-60 To side of Channel .. .. Ry ee a 42-48 40-50 Main Harbour, off Bradley’s Head A eae ae 60 Over 60 North of Pinchgut .. . a RTE ER OLY 60 Over 60 W.N.W. Bottle and Glass Rocks Pe ee Ga ARMA the 102 Over 100 RE GEGILTES hes Ei a srr re 138 150 These figures suggest that in the time involved the harbour has actually deepened slightly rather than silted up, but it is not asserted that the figures are accurate enough to warrant this conclusion. But I think they do warrant the assumption that sedimentation is so slow that in 100 years it has made no perceptible difference in depth. If glacial chronology be accepted, and the final submergence be taken as at the close of the Pleistocene Period, from 5,000-10,000 years would be an approximate estimate. ~ Two separate valleys: So far, Port Jackson has been considered as a whole; actually there seem to have been two separate river valleys with separate outlets to the sea. » Former Passage NORTH HEAD Sow & Pigs Reef- ¥ SOUTH HEAD } VAUC\LUSE HEIGHTS JACKSON | ROSE. BAY fe. Bore BONDI ° 1 2 3 + mices Fig. 2—Port Jackson, showing relative positions of Sow and Pigs Reef, and original outlet of main harbour between Rose Bay and Bondi. 124 PORT JACKSON. Looking at the map (Fig. 2), one of these valleys is now occupied by Middle Harbour, and it entered the sea between the present heads. The other valley, now the main harbour, was separated from this by a low col, now Sow and Pigs Reef, joining higher land from George’s Heights, in the west to Vaucluse Heights in the east. The outlet of this stream was through the gap between Bellevue Hill to the south, and Vaucluse Heights to the north. This low lying land, connecting Rose Bay with Bondi Beach, is now a golf links and residential area, but was previously covered with Sand dunes and small swamps. In seeKing evidence to decide this question, a great deal depends on the comparative depths of bed rock at Sow and Pigs Reef on the one hand and between Rose Bay and Bondi on the other. In comparing these two former land levels, the backward tilting of the land must not be overlooked, but the effect of this is not likely to be great, for the two localities are only about two miles apart, and both lie on the strike of the folding, which would keep their relative levels the same during subsidence. Sows and Pigs Reef: This is a prominent feature of the harbour and the keynote of much of the investigation. It lies right athwart the channel, rising in rocky outcrops to sea level in the centre, but consisting: for the most part of a bank of sandy mud, exceedingly rich in marine life. In the early days of settlement, there was only a depth of about 20 feet of water on the bank, but now both east and west channels have been dredged to 45 teet. Actual dredging has scooped holes somewhat deeper than this with- out reaching rock, but there is some evidence that bed rock lies not very far below the lowest point reached. Dredging by the harbour dredge “Triton” in the east channel passed through solid firm sand, with a great variety of interesting and at times exotic tropical shells, but, more significant, quantities of coral of a reef building type. This must have grown on rock, and, of course, may have been washed from the rocky sides of the channel, but its condition suggested that it was very nearly in situ, and bed rock was at no great depth below, say, 70, or at the most 80 feet from the surface. Recent dredging in the west channel at depths of 40 to 50 feet show the sediments to be very coarse, with much broken rock. This material again may have been washed from the channel sides, but is also suggestive of rock at no great depth. In fact, unless a river channel lies in a very narrow gorge, the whole configuration of the reef suggests that it forms a continuous ridge connecting the high land on either side, and at a maximum depth of between 60 and 80 feet below present sea level. Rose Bay: The ultimate depth of sediment in the gap between Rose Bay and Bondi is not yet Known. A few bores have been sunk in search for water, the deepest until recently in the Rose Bay Golf Links; one of which reached 91 feet without bottom. This would give an effective depth of over 80 feet below low tide level. Now, owing to the courtesy of Mr. Royal, boring contractor, my attention has been called to a bore on the reclaimed land at Lyne Park, Rose Bay, and a visit was made to the site while boring was in operation, and marine specimens obtained from a depth of from 75 to 95 feet. This bore has since been bottomed on sandstone at 148 feet, or 143 feet below high tide level. The following is a summary of the section supplied by Mr. Royal:— LASERON. 125 ft. PUline@) SANG GUCs ich. ta. keri si @ehrin 14 Grey sand and shells..:. "o. diosaa alylectio 46 LENCO NI ds AE 7 0 Lae a eae gama 15 SS PSH UG CGI oe a a ea CR A 4) Sa EOF SEE Co (aa a RE TR" ee a 16 See ee emt Ot UE NEAT fa Purl il VUNG STIG ete pt ce Spee aes ast, whan 4 Black clay .. .. ASR Ah peal a x (a) Black mud and shells A Ae ate Ae a ee 20 Grey Sand and Shells .- 2.0.2... 2 Greyisand andiclayies ai) .cke.) Seo 13 Mid jane sshelisvrs) me. varicose test Jeou. 10 MsoLiwnalep 2825 Edt eyeee erie. 2. oO Coarse crey sander: ei) sco. a) eel. og 20 STG ISLC) CS a oO ee See oe 2 ARO Wo Nk ee eee ene. ies OO) s Samples of consolidated black mud from the horizon at (a) were washed and sifted, and a number of recognisable fragments and some whole shells were obtained, from which the following species have been identified :— Arca trapezia, Deshayes; Brachyodontes hirsutus, Lamarck; Chlamys sp., fragments only; Cuspidaria sp., fragments only, showing hinge; probably new like C. brazieri, but with coarser sculpture; Antigona striatissima, Sowerby; Solen correctus, Iredale; Spisula trigonella, Lamarck, very abundant; Liotia micans, Adams; Obtortio lutosus, Hedley; Pyrazus australis Quoy & Gaimard; Ringicula sp., a new species, identical with R. doliaris, except for a strong tooth within the outer lip, 4 good specimens; Nassarius tasmanicus Ten. Woods, common; identical with, but somewhat smaller than the species at present inhabiting the harbour; Aclis (?): an unidentified species, distinct from any form recorded from New South Wales. Mr. Iredale suggests that it may be related to Eulima, and recalls some forms from Antarctica, but further research is necessary to establish relationship. Four specimens, somewhat worn. » From such a small amount of material this is a considerable variety, enough to show that it is part of a large fauna. The species are for the most part identical with those now living in the adjacent waters of Port Jackson. The one or two exceptions are interesting, and possibly significant, particularly as the existing molluscan fauna from this type of habitat has been well studied. Data are at present insufficient to generalise, but lines for further research are indicated to discover: (1) What species have be- come extinct since the harbour was submerged? (2) Did these extinct species belong to Antarctic forms which disappeared as the climate became warmer during the melting of the Polar ice sheets? The alternation of sand and mud in the bore is also interesting. The fine black mud is similar to the sediments at present forming in the more sheltered part of the harbour. It is probable that the two thick layers of mud were formed during temporary pauses in the eustatic movement which filled the harbour, during which bars formed at the entrance. Behind the bar were quieter waters in which finer sediments were deposited and a mud fauna existed. 126 PORT JACKSON. Though the depth of 148 feet to rock bottom, or 143 feet below sea level, is slightly less than in the vicinity of the harbour bridge, it is appreciably greater than the:.probable depth of rock bottom at Sow and Pigs Reef. If so, the original line of drainage was in this direction. The exact position of the original channel is unknown, but both this bore and the 91 feet bore lie to the north of the centre of the gap, and others a little farther to the north have bottomed at from 30 to 40 feet. This suggests that the main channel is somewhat to the south, probably from 100 to 200 yards, and that it is still deeper, in the vicinity of 200 feet. It must then have carried the drainage to the sea through what is now Bondi Beach. It is possible,.of course, that the streams of Middle Harbour and Port Jackson even then united before they entered the sea, but in this case the junction would have been somewhere to the east of the present South Head, and not within the present limits of the harbour. Reconstruction of Events: Trying to form a picture of conditions as they were when the subsidence took place, we see a general plateau with a height of from 700 to 1,000 feet, extending over much of the eastern portion of New South Wales. Moisture from the prevailing sea winds was more widely dispersed in the interior and there was a moister and possibly warmer climate. This has been accepted by most geologists. In the vicinity of Port Jackson two streams cut fairly deep valleys east- wards to the sea. Large earth movements began, resulting in a fold, with subsidence in the east, elevation in the west, and the formation of a central trough, tilting the land. backwards until the bottoms of the valleys were nearly level. Following the subsidence, eustatic movements raised the sea level, and it entered both valleys simultaneously and filled them to their farthest limits. North Head became an island. For a short space there were two harbours; then, as the waters still rose, they flowed across the col at Sow and Pigs Reef, and there was one harbour with two main open- ings, Vaucluse Heights lying as an island in the centre. Even more marked in its influence than it is at present, the Notonectian current played a large part in the distribution of marine life in the vicinity, and also had an effect on further physiographical changes. This current is the persistent tropical current which still flows down and impinges on our coast from the north. Pressing into the harbour through the gaps at Manly, and between the present heads, it would flow across Sow and Pigs Reef, and out through the gap at Bondi. This current would carry with it the larval forms of many tropical marine animals, molluscs and corals among others. Many of these came to rest in the shallow waters of Sow and Pigs Reef. Conditions here would be favourable for coral growth; not only the warmer climate, gener- ally, but clear, warm water, continually replaced by the inflowing tropical current. It was at this stage that the corals in the east channel flourished, as did the many tropical shells found in the “Triton” dredgings. The current. pouring through the southern gap would meet the Antarctic current coming from the south, as well as incoming tides and heavy seas at times from south-easterly gales. At first a bar would form, to be gradually raised to sea level. The final small elevation would assist in turning the bar into dry land, and wind-blown sand formed the dunes at Bondi, as they existed a few years ago. LASERON. io The gap at Manly filled in a similar manner, leaving the harbour with only one entrance, as it is at present. Conditions would now deteriorate for the growth of coral. The reduc- tion in volume of fresh sea water flowing continuously across the reef would restrict growth,.as would the gradual cooling of the climate, and the deposition of ‘fine mud and sand_-in the stiller water would finally kill it off. Not entirely so, for there is still living in Watson’s Bay, just below low tide level, a mass of reef building coral, many feet in diameter. Some of the tropical shells also still persist; for instance, Strombus luhuanus, and others which may still be found at Bottle and Glass Rocks in the near vicinity. 7 The final stage was the slow sedimentation of the harbour. In the upper reaches of both the main and middle harbour, the sediment consisted mainly of very fine silt, which sank to the bottom as soft mud. With the exception of a few patches of sand this covers most of the bottom above the Spit in Middle Harbour, and above Bradley’s Head in the main harbour. Near the Heads, wave action has produced sand from the erosion of sand- stone, and here much of the bottom is pure sand with its characteristic fauna. On banks such as the Sow and Pigs, a mixture of sand and mud produced a bottom extremely favourable to marine life, and here is the most prolific fauna, both numerically and in variety of species. A few higher ridges still remain as islands, but except on their .fringes, and adjacent to the shores, there are practically no rocky reefs. The last change of any importance, apart from slow sedimentation, has been the raising of the shore line to the extent of from 15 to 20 feet. This may have been due to an actual elevation, or by a recession of the sea, caused by a chilling of the climate and a certain amount of reglaciation. An argument against the latter hypothesis is that in Antarctica, particu- larly, there is evidence that the ice sheet has shrunk slightly in recent times rather than grown, pointing to increasing rather than decreasing temperatures. It can be taken that in Australia at the close of the Pleis- tocene Period the climate was definitely moister than at present, and this alone would be sufficient to account for the greater area of rain forests and for the existence of the giant marsupial fauna. Evidence of the slight rising of the shore line exists in the form of numerous raised beaches along the coast. It also played its part in the closing of channels into the harbours, such as at Manly and Rose Bay, into Port Jackson, and at Cronulla into Botany Bay. In other places the plane of marine denudation was elevated above sea level, and the shore line set backwards as much as a mile from its original position. In many places, such as Narrabeen and Lake Illawarra, sand banks have accumulated and have isolated former parts of the sea into shallow land-locked lagoons. Former rocky islands have also become merged with the coast as at Narrabeen and Newport, and channel or channels into Pittwater have become closed. These changes have, all within their limits, affected the habitat of many marine animals, the reefs and sandy bottom of the open sea being replaced by mud or by the specialised conditions of the mangrove swamp. 128 PORT JACKSON. DISTANT PHYSIOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. These must not be overlooked in their effect on the distribution of life in the more limited area under review, particularly in the changes wrought on the direction of ocean currents, warm or cold, and in the opening or elosing of channels of migration. The most apparent has been the severance of Tasmania from Australia and the production of Bass Strait, which was apparently finally contem- poraneous with the final flooding of Port Jackson. This has been dealt with by Hedley, and its effects on the New South Wales marine fauna extensively reviewed. Not so apparent, and as yet largely unexplained, is some connection of the N.S.W. fauna with that of New Caledonia. The presence of the Britannia Ridge, some 60 miles east of Southport, southern Queensland, which rises from the abyss of the Tasman Sea to within 220 fathoms of the surface is a possible factor in some of these problems, as is the growth of the Great Barrier Reef, and its possible effect on the Notonectian current. There is a strong tropical element in the New South Wales fauna as far south as Shellharbour, 60 miles south of Sydney, and there is some evidence that this element has waxed and waned over a period of time, a fact no doubt connected with Pan SHOE ae changes on the coast of Queensland itself. On these matters a great deal of further research is necessary, and it it is hoped to deal with them to some: extent in Part II of this paper at a later date. REVIEW. Catalogue of the Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) of Australia, by Keith C. McKeown, F.R.Z.S. Australian Museum Memoir, x., May 2, 1947, pp. 1-190. The family Cerambycidae, or Longicorn Beetles, is a large one and of considerable economic importance to those in whose hands lies the care and welfare of our forests, as many of the species attack trees, tunnelling ex- tensively in the timber. To all workers on Coleoptera—or beetles—this Catalogue, embodying as it does the results of many years of specialised work, should prove invaluable, listing the Australian species known up to the date of publication, with full references to the extensive literature in which each is described and discussed. The present Catalogue is the first, with the exception of one by F. P. Pascoe, published in 1866-67, to deal solely with the Australian species of the family. When George Masters included them in 1885-87, in his Catalogue of the Described Coleoptera of Australia, they numbered only 547 species; to-day 1,060 species are listed. In addition of listing all references, the present work includes a number of features not usually included in such a Catalogue; references are given to the recorded host-plants and parasites, and to the location of the types, where it has been possible to ascertain these with any degree of certainty. The food plants of less than 100 species of these beetles have been recorded, which provides striking evidence of the lack of field research carried out in the past on this important group of insects. 129 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. ParRT 3. By G. P. WHITLEY. (Plate xi. and text-figs. 1-3.) In continuation of this series, the following nuncupative and descriptive notes were prepared during my field work in Western Australia for the Division of Fisheries, C.S.I.R., in 1945. There aboard the ketch Isobel I travelled from Fremantle to Derby and back to Geraldton, visiting various islands en route, and collected fishes, shells, etc. The present paper is purely incidental to the main purpose of that voyage which was to identify surface fishes (especially Clupeidae and Scombroids) to which we were usually directed by aeroplane and two-way radio. By trolling with bone jigs, feather lures, rags, etc., 16 different species of fishes were caught during the Jsobel cruise in July-December, 1945. Some were new to the Western Australian fish catalogue. In order of first cap- ture they were:— 1.—Southern Bluefin Tuna ........ Thunnus maccoyii Castelnau, 1872. 2.—Striped Tuna .. .. tae ' Katsuwonus pelamis (Linné, 1758). 3.—Yellowfin Tuna, Neothunnus macropterus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844). 4—Samson Fish .. .. LAS fue Seriola hippos Gunther, 1876. 5.—Northern Bluefin Tuna Baths goons _ Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker, 1851). 6.—Large-scaled. Tunny .............. .. Grammatorycnus bicarinatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825). 7—Spotted Spanish Mackerel .. .. Cybium queenslandicum (Munro, 1943). 8—Mackerel Tuna .. .. .. .. Euthynnus alletteratus (Rafinesque, 1810). 9.—-Yellow-tail Skipjack .. .. . .. .. Ferdauia claeszooni sp. nov. 10.—Skipjack .. .. ue pate Caranx papuensis Alleyne & Macleay, 1877. 11.—Narrow-barred Spanish Mackerel, Cybium commerson (Lacépeéde, 1800). 12.—Pike .. .. dee oe Sphyraena akerstromi sp. nov. 13.— Sergeant Fish natin " Rachycentron pondicerianum (Cuv. & Val., 1632). 14._Broad-barred Spanish Mackerel .. .. .. Indocybium semifasciatum (Macleay, 1883). 15.—Whitefish .. .. ; Chorinemus lysan (Bonnaterre, 1788). 16.—St. Peter’s Whitefish . _ Scomberoides sanctipetri (Cuv. & Val., 1832). Hundreds of other fishes were obtained by means of hand-lining, dredging, netting, firearms, explosives, traps, in plankton, stomach-contents of larger fishes, etc., but most of them are outside the scope of this paper. Family GALEIDAE. Genus GALEOLAMNA Owen, 1853. GALEOLAMNA (GALEOLAMNOIDES) ISOBEL, Sp. 70U. (Fig. 1.) Diagnosis: A Western Australian Whaler Shark with only about 24 or 25 serrated teeth across either jaw, black tips to some fins, interdorsal ridge developed anteriorly, and details as described and figured below. Head: As usual in the genus. Predorsal profile not gibbous. Eyes rather large, circular, with nictitating membrane; pupil a vertical slit. 130 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Interorbital convex. Snout gothic arched, blunter than in Longmania calamaria (to which it bears a superficial resemblance except that it has less than thirty teeth across jaws). Head 4.55 in total length. Preoral length more than width of mouth. No spiracle. Teeth of both jaws serrated — on cusps and shoulders. Dental formula:— 4 Et a2 25 —_—_§—— = —. Teeth deflected outwards in each jaw, notched, and 12 12 24. serrated almost to tips, those on either side of symphysis smaller than lateral ones. Inner edge of each tooth in upper jaw slightly convex; outer edge deeply notched with coarse serrae on basal shoulder. Fig. 1. Whaler Shark, Galeolamna isobel Whitley. Type. Nostrils nearer mouth than to end of snout. Nasal cirrhus small. Labial folds very short. Endolymphatic openings inconspicuous. Body: Spindle-formed. Lateral line obsolescent. An interdorsal ridge present anteriorly, becoming indistinct before the second dorsal fin. No keel on caudal peduncle which has a lunate pit above and below. Pit organs small and numerous. No umbilical scar. Shagreen of small, close- set, imbricate denticles, each crossed by three (or sometimes four or five) carinae. Measurements: Following the symbols listed in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ixviii., 1943, pp. 114-115, the dimensions in mm. are as follows:— 12 ip 158 HT (no spiracle) 2 200 11 13 3 76 ip 48 4 83 13 67 5 188 14 62 6 412 15 if 7 18 16 2 8 175 17 Me 9 80 18 aby Bat 650 F.8 65 2 450 9 46 3 280 10 37 4 118 1 32 WHITLEY. 131 +) 90 12 62 6 30 13 — is 30 14 130 15 50 ee | 102 16 250 2 a 1 | 38 3 30 18 37 4 209 19 26 5) 20 20 a, 6 22 21 270 7 36 22 96 Additional measurements are: Total length, 910 mm., or about 3 feet overall. Second to fourth gill-slits subequal, 20 mm. Eye to first gill- opening, circa 78. Tip of snout to outer angle of nostril, 40. Inner angle of nostril to mouth, about 37. Middle of vent to end of tail, 478, and thus in posterior half of shark. Fins as usual in the genus. First dorsal origin nearer pectorals than ventrals. Anal larger than second dorsal, its origin before that of the latter and its end behind that of second dorsal. Pectoral angle reaching below first dorsal origin. Upper caudal lobe longer than head, the lower rounded. Colour: Grey, with iridescence, above and white below. Iris pale bronze. Second dorsal, lower caudal lobe, and pectoral fins tipped with black. Described and figured from the holotype, an immature female shark, 910 mm. long and 8 lb. in weight. Austr. Mus., Regd. No. I.B.1493. The liver weighed 3 oz. Stomach contained a piece of fish (Euthynnus) used as bait on the hand-line Vertebrae with Maltese Cross calcification. Locality: Long Island, between Cape Preston and the Mary Anne Group, Western Australia; 31/10/45. Apparently most closely allied to Galeolamna fowleri Whitley (Austr. Zool., x., 1944, p. 255, Ex mouth Gulf Area), but differs in having larger eye, smaller gill-slits and different teeth (as described above), serrated in both jaws; the black tips to some of the fins are also characteristic. Family SPHYRAENIDAE. Genus SPHYRAENA Bloch & Schneider, 1801. SPHYRAENA AKERSTROMI, sp. 70U. (Plate sa... fig. 1:) Mere ones Gee i ia? Wea 5s C15. Liat. 76 to hypural +. 5.to small ° scales on middle of tail. L.tr. 9/1/15 at first dorsal, to 10/1/9 between second dorsal and anal, and 54/1/5 on caudal peduncle. About 20 pre- dorsal scales. Head (353 mm.) 3.7, greatest depth of body (222) nearly 6 in length to end of shortest middle caudal rays (1320). Eye (45). 3.8 in snout (174). Head wedge-shaped. Eye moderate. Nostrils slit-like. Anterior ends of intermaxillary fissures (Schnauzenfurche of Klunzinger) separated. Upper jaw mainly bordered by intermaxillary. A supplemental bone over the maxillary which reaches below middle of eye, its posterior border rounded. Upper jaw with a single series of conical teeth, nearly all subvertical and with four enlarged compressed canines anteriorly. Lower jaw with a single 12 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. series of vertical teeth larger than outer ones of upper jaw. A large sym- physial canine. Palatines with about four distant canines in a row anteriorly and a further series behind them. Preopercular margin rounded, entire. Operculum with two flat flexible, weakly serrate spines. . Cheek- scales in about thirteen to fifteen rows. A few small scales on the top of head posterior to eye and on the flat interorbital, which has a few ridges at its sides. No gill-rakers. Pseudobranchiae present. Body with back and belly rather flattened, sides compressed, shoulders and lower sides rounded, giving a very solid appearance. Cycloid scales cover the body and there are many auxiliary scales along the back, but scales do not extend over the fins. They are finely granulated, oval, deeper than long. Lateral line with simple tubes, descending to below first dorsal, thence straight to middle of tail. Seventeen interdorsal scales. Vent small, slightly in advance of anal fin. First dorsal originating before level of pectoral tip and behind level of origin of ventrals, its first two spines subequal (110 mm.), one-third head, or Shorter than postorbital. Interdorsal space (245 mm.) more than twice length of base of second dorsal (111). Second dorsal and anal fins with excavate margins. Anal origin and end behind levels of origin and end of second dorsal. Pectoral subequal to postorbital, its origin midway between dorsal and ventral profiles. Ventrals truncate, much shorter than pec- torals, and situated below the middle of the adpressed pectorals. Caudal biconcave, with V-shaped median notch. Colours in life: Grey to bluish-silver above, with eighteen dark grey oblique cross-bars above the lateral line, becoming indistinct fore and aft. Iris pale bronze to brownish. Fins olivaceous-greyish, the ventrals lightest in tone, the pectorals with most olivaceous tinge. Opercular flap and pectoral axil dark grey. The specimen had a slightly disagreeable odour even when alive. Dimensions :— Snout to end of shortest caudal rays, 1,320 mm. Standard length to hypural joint, 1,210. Lower jaw projects beyond upper, 20. Interorbital, 105. Preorbital, 22. Postorbital (horizontal from eye), 146. Maxillary, 196. Width of head, 134. Depth of head, 165. Width of body, 147. Depth between 2nd dorsal and anal origins, 209. Depth of caudal peduncle, 94. Predorsal length, 509. First dorsal fin: height, 110; base, 125; last spine, —. Second dorsal fin: height, 135; base, 111; last ray, 65. First dorsal origin to second dorsal origin, 370. End of second dorsal to upper caudal ray, 216. End of second dorsal to end of anal, 145. Anal fin: height, 135; base, 97; last ray, 61. End of anal to lowest caudal ray, 225. Pectoral: length, 144; base, 41. (eZ WHITLEY. ao Snout to ventral origin, 472. Ventral: length, 92. Ventral origin to that of anal, 437; to pectoral (obliquely), 130; to origin of first dorsal, 214. Distance between tail-tips, 250; upper caudal ray about 224. Liver smooth, with three or four lobes. Pyloric caeca numerous. The stomach contained the bones and fin-rays of a couple of large fish. Swim bladder subcylindrical, with two rounded lobes anteriorly. Immature female, left ovary (365 x 40 mm.) larger than right (330 x 50), pale pink, no ova visible. Described and figured from an immature female, 1,445 mm., or 4 ft. 10 in. in total length. Locality: Off Lowendal Island, between Barrow Island and the Monte Bello Group, Western Australia. Caught on trolling line with strip of white fish skin (Chorinemus) as lure, September 17, 1945, when the writer was aboard the ketch Isobel, under charter to the C.S.I.R. Division of Fisheries. Affinities: Comes down to the West Indian Barracuda (Sphyraena picuda) in’ Weber and de Beaufort’s key (Fish. Indo-Austr. Archip., iv., 1922, p. 218, et seq.), but differs very much in the size of the eye and its ratios to other parts of the head; also the maxillary is more than half the length of the head, the ventrals are much shorter than the pectorals, and the outline of the caudal fin is different. Compare, however, the variation in further specimens mentioned below. Variation: A second specimen of this Pike was trolled off False Cape Bossut, Western Australia, on September 29, 1945. It agrees in general with the Lowendal Island one, but has the following noteworthy characters :— D.V./i., 8; L.Lat. 115 to hypural + 5 (extraordinary variation!). Tr. 11/1/22 at first dorsal to 12/1/13 between second dorsal and anal, and 7/1/7 on caudal peduncle. More than 20 predorsal scales. Head (335 mm.) 3.9, depth (210) 6.3 in length to end of shortest middle caudal rays (1,334). Eye (37) 4.0 in snout (149). Maxillary reaching below anterior margin of eye. Only two slightly enlarged canines in upper jaw, anteriorly, and one, barely enlarged in lower jaw anteriorly; six to seven large teeth along each palatine. A few spiny rudimentary gill-rakers. Twenty-six interdorsal scales. First dorsal originating behind level of pectoral tip, and behind level of origin of ventrals, its first two spines (97 mm.) less than one-third head and shorter than postorbital (143). Inter- dorsal space, 281 mm. Base of second dorsal, 111. Pectoral length, 142. Ventrals inserted slightly behind the level of the middle of the adpressed pectorals, 88 mm. long. Standard length, 1,270. Interorbital, 90. Pre- orbital, 26. Maxillary, 152. Depth between second dorsal and anal origins, 178; of caudal peduncle, 83; predorsal length, 508. First dorsal origin to second dorsal origin, 383 mm. Total length, 4 ft. 11 in.; weight, 38 lb. A third and smaller example was trolled about six miles west of Emeriau Point, Western Australia, on October 16, 1945. It was similar to the others, but had a dark grey blotch just below lateral line between second dorsal 134 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. and anal fins; also two more such blotches on caudal peduncle, but not quite bilaterally symmetrical. D.v./i., 9; A.i, 8; P.i, 14. L-.lat. 83 to hypural + 6/on tail. Ltr, 12/1714 to 10/1/9 to 53/1/5. About 23 predorsal scales. Head (233 mm.) 3.9, greatest depth of body (136) 6.6 in length to end of shortest middle caudal rays (910). Eye (28) nearly 4 in snout (110). Maxillary (115 mm.) reaches below anterior half of eye, its posterior edge concave. Teeth as in specimens described above, but six or seven along palatines. Opercular spines hidden. No scales on interorbital. Some scales extend between bases of caudal rays. About 19 interdorsal scales. Second dorsal spine (68 mm.), the longest less than one-third head. Standard length, 835 mm. Lower jaw projects, 14. Interorbital, 65. Preorbital, 16. Postorpital, 94. Maxillary, 115. Width of head, 79. Depth of head, 100. Width of body, 83. Depth between second dorsal and anal origins, 119. Depth of caudal peduncle, 58. Predorsal length, 340. Interdorsal space, 177. First dorsal fin: height, 70; base, 82; last spine, 32. Second dorsal fin: height, 90; base, 74; last ray, 43. First dorsal origin to second dorsal origin, 255. End of second dorsal to upper caudal ray, 151. End of second dorsal to end of anal, 86. Anal fin: height, 87; base, 72; last ray, 45. End of anal to lowest caudal ray, 140. Pectoral: length, 94; base, 28. Snout to ventral origin, 308. Ventral length, 64. Ventral origin to that of anal, 312; to pectoral (obliquely), 89; to origin of first dorsal, 132. Distance between tail-tips, 195; upper caudal ray about 139; lower, 135. Stomach contained bitten and digested Rock Cod (Epinephelus) swallowed tail first. Testes, 240 x 35 mm. Described from a male specimen, 835 mm. in standard length, or L.C.F. 910, or total length, 38 inches; weight, 11 lb. Caught on a white feather jig. A fourth small Pike was caught in the fish-trap on Onslow Beach, Western Australia, on November 3, 1945. It agrees in general facies with the above described specimens, but shows variations in scale-counts and colours and the caudal fin is evenly forked, not biconcave. It had the tollowing characters, noted the day after it was caught:— D.v./i,, 7; A.13 8; (Pi, 13. L.lat. 120° to hypural~- \5 to base OF miidaic caudal rays. L.tr. 13/1/19 at first dorsal to 15/1/13 between second dorsal and anal, and 7/1/8 on caudal peduncle. About 29 predorsal scales. WHITLEY. 135 Head, 159 mm. (i.e., 3.7 in length to caudal fork). Greatest depth, 74 (7.9 in L.C.F.). L.C.F., 590. Bye, 21. Snout, circa 74. Total length, 26 inches. Weight, 2 lb. 2 oz. Standard length, 546. Lower jaw projects, 10. Interorbital, 29. Preorbital (Smashed), 13??. Postorbital (horizontal from eye), 63. Maxillary, 73. Width of head, 44. Depth of head, 55. Width of body, 47. Depth between second dorsal and anal origins, 74. Depth of caudal peduncle, 35. Predorsal length, 218. First dorsal fin: height, 50. First dorsal fin: base, 58. First dorsal fin: last spine, 18. Second dorsal: height, 57. Second dorsal: base, 51. Second dorsal: last ray, 26. First dorsal origin to second dorsal origin, 170. End of second dorsal to upper caudal ray, 109. End of second dorsal to end of anal, 54. Anal fin: height, 55. Anal fin, base, 44. Anal fin: jast ray, 28. End of anal to lowest caudal ray, 98. Pectoral: length, 59. Pectoral: base, 16. Snout to ventral origin, 210. Ventral length, 45. Ventral origin to that of anal, 187. Ventral origin to pectoral (obliquely), 58. Ventral origin to origin of first dorsal, 64. Distance between tail-tips, circa 80. Upper caudal lobe, 92. Lower caudal lobe, 80. Interdorsal space, 108. General characters as in previous three specimens, but maxillary barely reaches below anterior margin of eye, and is less than half the length of the head. There are about 30 interdorsal scales, the ventrals originate behind the level of the middle of the adpressed pectorals; caudal evenly forked, the upper lobe longer; the body is more slender than in the other, older, specimens. Stomach contained yellow scum or liquid. Immature male. Testes, 170 x 5. mm. Head, etc., preserved. 136 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Colour: General colour, the day after death, dull olivaceous above, white below. Nine well-marked dark lateral blotches between pectorals and level of Second dorsal and anal fins and about five more indistinct ones posteriorly. Pupil bluish-black; iris silvery white with a golden to olivaceous upper lid. Tips of jaws dusky. Fins yellow, more or less tinged with olivaceous, except the ventrals, which are white. This species is named after Mr. Eric Akerstrom, of Geraldton, Western Australia, skipper of the Ketch Jsobel, in appreciation of his successful com- pletion of the cruise and with whose name I would join those of the wireless operator and crew, with due acknowledgments for their services during our five months’ trip: Sergeant R. J. Berry, R.A.A.F.; Messrs. Arthur Douglas, Thomas Taylor, Leslie Fletcher, Alfred Pulleine, and Alfred Reichard. AUSTRALUZZA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Sphyraena novaehollandiae Gunther, 1860. Differs from true Sphyraena in having origin of ventrals much nearer lower jaw than base of caudal, instead of about midway between the two. From the West Indian barracuda (subgenus Agrioposphyraena), the new Australian genus differs in having the first dorsal fin, as well as the ventrals, inserted well behind the level of the tip of the adpressed pectoral. The l.lat. scales are more numerous than in most species of Sphyraena, the maxillary ceases well before the eye, and the fish is very slender. The Snook should now be called Australuzza novaehollandiae. Family CARANGIDAE. Genus FERDAUIA Jordan, Evermann & Tanaka, 1927. Ferdauia Jordan, Evermann and Tanaka, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. (4), Xvi.,. 19271 D. 662: Ex Jordan, Evermann and Wakiya, MS. Orthotype, Carangoides jordani Nichols, 1922, from the Hawaiian Islands. FERDAUIA CLAESZOONI, sp. nov. (1). (Plate xi., fic. 2:) D.vil./i., 28; A.ii./i., 24; Pil, 19; C.16. Stutes 138. Gill-rakers! 7/13)> Mead (150 mm.) 3.6, depth (160) 3.4 in length to caudal fork (545). Eye, 26 mm.; snout, 60; for other dimensions see tables below. Head compressed. Lower jaw shorter than upper. Lips rounded. Teeth all villiform, in patches on jaws, vomer and palatines; no outer enlarged teeth. Maxillary not nearly reaching level of eye. Upper profile more convex than lower. Body compressed, covered with small scales. Breast naked, except for a C-shaped patch of scales extending forwards between pectorals and ventrals almost to gill-opening. Scales also extend on part of pectoral fin and over anterior halves of soft dorsal and anal lobes as thick pads, in addition to the usual basal sheaths. Curved portion of lateral line typically longer than straight portion, their junction below the 14th dorsal ray and over the 7th or 8th anal ray. Scutes commence above posterior end of anal (1) Named in honour of Skipper Haevik Claeszoon van Hillegom (of the Dutch vessel Zeewolf which approached North-western Australia in 1618), who observed seaweeds and birds along the coastline from about 21 deg. to 28 deg. S.lat. WHITLEY. 137 fin, and are deepest on the caudal peduncle. Fins as usual in Carangidae, without any produced spines or rays. Colours in life, dull green above and on fins, silvery below. Yellow to pale olive caudal fin. Some irregular spots of bronze to grey on flanks and Specimen Specimen Specimen Specimen No. 9. No. 4. No. 10. No. 18. Holotype. oA 545 mm. 750 670 514 Reema ll. ah es oz Ib. 10 10 4 moral Leneth ..... 243 in. 33 -30 i5 )) ( 150 mm. 195 185 146 Bemis... a. 160 195 168 158 Eye .. How tra 26 at 24 25 Interorbital . .. .. 41 55 61 Pastorbital.. .. .. 60 89 80 Preorbital .. .. .. 48 40 28 to 50 S30) 60 ~80 70 Maxillary Pert certs 60 74 70 Predorsal Length ; 197 Gil-rakers .... . 7/13. 6/16 6/20 6/16 Scales on curved part of llat. . .. c.67 Scutes .. . 13 16 18 13 Length of straight portion of llat. . jy ar 255 230 Length of curved portion of l.lat. . 213 255 240 Depth of Scutes .. 9 14 13 Depth between first . Dorsal and Ven- trals origins .. .. 154 195 168 Base of Second <2 ee 200 275 240 li Vii/t.' 28 vii./i., 28 vii./i., 30 Vii./i., 29 at). eee ii./i., 24 li./i., 24 Wi 27 il./i., 23 Begamal-.. ...... na Goudal .... .. 16 Length of Pectoral. 193 mm. 237 215 Length of soit Dorsal Lobe .. .’. 87 95 69 Length of Anal Kove... . TE 95 75 Length to middle of Caudal Peduncle. 482 675 600 Depth of Caudal Peduncle .. .... 18 18 Locality .. .. .. ... S.W.of Cape Off Whaling 16m. N. Whaling Baskerville, Station, of Cape Station, W.A. near Point Preston = Point Cloates. Cloates. variety prestonensis, nov. 138 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. a couple of large dark blotches on straight part of lateral line. Pupil blue, iris bronze. Described and figured from the holotype of the species, a male 545 mm. in length to middle caudal rays, or 243 inches overall and 53 lb. in weight. Type locality: South-west of Cape Baskerville, Western Australia. Dimensions and formulae of the holotype and three other specimens are as in the foregoing table. Their stomachs contained various small fishes, often too digested for determination, apart from a mackerel (Rastrelliger) and a Leatherjacket, also a scallop and crustaceans; amongst the latter Mr. Keith Sheard noted “Pagurid Glaucothoe and Squillid larvae Alima.” Variation: Nine specimens (Nos. 1 to 8 and 18), 45 to 82 cm. long, trolled from the Point Cloates to North-west Cape area, showed no important variation from the holotype, but an elongate variety of this species was encountered 16 miles north of Cape Preston, Western Australia, which had the characters tabulated above, depth 3.9 in L.C.F., and coloration as follows. Colours: In life, very pale greyish-blue to faint greenish above, becom- ing white on the sides and below. Sides of body with a few scattered round grey spots, smaller than pupil; no large blotches. Pupil black, iris bronze to pale grey. Fins pale olive-grey, not yellow; the anal and caudal with very narrow milky-white margins. Inner pectoral axil dark grey. A dark grey blotch on second dorsal and anal lobes became more pronounced after death. Flesh dark red. This may be known as var. prestonensis, nov. Comparison with allied species: The new species and variety can be immediately distinguished from congeners by the size and position of the eye, depth of preorbital, numbers of fin-rays, small number of scutes not extending far forward, convex profile, form and proportions as described above. The genus Ferdauia accommodates several species of Trevallies which have mostly been grouped by authors into a species known as Caranz or Carangoides Jerdau (Forskal). Actually, Forskal’s work (Descr. Ani- malium, 1775, p. 55) is not binomial, his “Scomber ferdau” from Djedda, Red Sea, having first been latinized by Bonnaterre (Tabl. Encycl. Meth. Ichth., 1788, p. 141). The Red Sea type differs from mine in having trans- verse bars on the body. The Trevallies which appear to be referable to Ferdauia are bajad (Ruppell, 1831); evermanni (Nichols, 1921); ferdau (Bonnaterre, 1788); fulvoguttatus (Ruppell, 1831); hemigymnostethus (Bleeker, 1851); jordani (Nichols, 1922); laticaudis (Alleyne & Macleay, 1877) ; and venator (Playfair, 1868), from the Red Sea, Hawaiian Islands, East Indies, New Guinea and Seychelles, besides my new Western Australian forms. The following may be allied but not congeneric: Carangoides aureo- guttatus Bleeker, 1853; Caranz gilberti Jordan & Seale, 1906; and Caranz novaeguineae Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1833. Genus CARANX Lacepede, 1802. CARANX PAPUENSIS Alleyne & Macleay, 1877. (Plate xi., fig. 3.) Caranz papuensis Alleyne & Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, i., 1877, p. 325, pl. x., fig. 3. Hall Sound, New Guinea. Jd., McCulloch, Mem. Qld. Mus., viii., 1924, pp. 67 and 69, pl. xiii. WHITLEY. 139 Isobel specimens of this species, which is new to the fish-fauna of Western Australia, had the following characters:— Lips rounded, coriaceous; jaws subequal or lower jaw ‘the longer. A row of strong canines, enlarged anteriorly, and outside a band of cardiform teeth in each jaw. Patches of villiform teeth on the vomer and palatines. Maxillary reaches to below middle or nearly to posterior margin of eye. Upper profile much more convex than lower. Gill-rakers spinulose superiorly; about three to five rudiments, plus 2 or 3/10 to 14 on first branchial arch. Body and fins as usual in Carangidae. A naked patch between bases of ventrals and isthmus; body-scales encroaching well in advance of a line Joining pectoral and ventral bases. A patch of vestigial median scales before ventrals in specimen 1; naked in others. Straight portion of lateral line longer than curved, the junction of the two below 7th to 9th dorsal and over ist to 3rd anal ray. Depth of scutes greatest at or just before caudal peduncle. Scutes very strong and sharp, those of one fish cutting right through one of my toe-nails as the fish flapped about on deck. Scutes extend all along straight part of llat. No produced spines or rays. mova. to vill/1., 19 to 21; A..71., 15 to 17. Dimensions (in mm. unless otherwise stated) and other numerical characters. SSS a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 L.C.F.in mm. .... 660 777 613 450 760 1725 620 715 3850 710 1710 Wereht in Ib... .. £4 lS 510, 42). 19 9 16. El IG) 24,155 145 foca length in.in. 30 33. 273 32 Mead injmm. ..... 190 206 167 203 222 Mepis... .. .. 212 245 204 245 235 Bye... Ne Sates (umes | eM | 26 8638 Interorbital . Wate (OO s Ne2)sO0 61.5 Postorbital .. .. .. 104 111 92 102 Preorpital .. 2... - 4l 246. 39 51 Bee ots a.) GO 9 65. 53 66 Maxillary .. .. 88 96 80 96 Scales on curved part ‘he of lateral line .. Ban 55 55 Scutes .. AT RAS a B20 PeOvei ao whee L.lat. straight ‘art : ‘foc 260 290 239 292 L.lat. curved part . 218 246 193 240 Depth of scutes .. 30 28 22 29 Depth between first dorsal and ventral GLISING, ..: 2.2 214 237 200 230 Base of second dor- | SS 0 ae 230 262 200 255 Length of pectoral . 209 246 208 236 Dorsal lobe’: .. .. TET ~123 115 132 Anal lobe .. . 110 124 108 118 Length to middle of caudal peduncle .. 590 660 540 610 Depth of caudal peduncle .. 22 26 a ee eee mem sts iM. I me. Pe Ee ES ie E. 140 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Life colours: Dull pale greenish above and on fins, though these are smoky grey distally and the caudal is slate-grey. Pupil dark blue; iris dark brown. Pectoral axil dark grey. Lower parts silvery. (Specimens 1 to 7, etc.) In specimen 8, the sides of the body had numerous dark grey flecks of different sizes, but all much smaller than pupil, smallest and densest about curved portion of lateral line and changing their number and shape. Other- wise ground-coloration normal. In specimen 9, the posterior margins and tips of second dorsal and upper caudal lobes were mustard yellow. Stomach contents were usually too digested for identification but were mostly fishes up to about 7 inches long, but one had fed on crabs. Specimens were immature at 620 mm. and even the largest ones were not fully deve- loped. Eleven examples were caught by trolling at these localities: (1) off Frazer Island, Point Cloates, September 8, 1945; (2 to 5) off North-west Cape, September 10 to 11; (6 and 7) Monte Bello Islands, September 18; (8) off Cape Bertholet, October 8; (9) about 23 miles south-west of Broome, October 21; and (10 and 11) 16 miles north of Cape Preston, October 31. These ranged from 45 to 85 cm. in L.C.F. and weighed from 43 to 24 lb. Mr. F. J. Rankin gave me another example from Onslow. Mr. M. MacBolt sent me a drawing of another, 514 inches in total length and weighing 62 lb., gutted, which he caught at Ningaloo, Point Cloates, on November 19, 1944. Three days earlier he had obtained one there 29 inches long with weight 15 lb. The gut of the larger one contained an octopus, the longest téntacle of which was 18 inches. Genus SCOMBEROIDES Lacépéde, 1802. SCOMBEROIDES SANCTIPETRI (Cuv. & Val., 1832). On October 16, 1945, in Hadley Passage, King Sound, W.A., a Whitefish new to the Western Australian fauna, was caught, although I had earlier seen photographs and specimens from other parts of the coastline. The King Sound specimen was 865 mm. long (L.C.F.) or 29 inches overall and weighed 53 1b. Maxillary (61 mm.) reaching below posterior part of eye. D.vi./i., 20; A.ii./i., 18. Head, 121 mm.; eye, 18; depth, 150. Gill-rakers, 7/16. Scales lanceolate. Life colours: Grey above, silvery on sides, white below; five U to V-shaped grey marks (traditionally the finger-prints of St. Peter) below the lateral line anteriorly; four diffuse dusky blotches above the lateral line correspond to the posterior four “finger-prints”; a butter-yellow tinge along abdomen. Pupil black, surrounded by a smoky-coloured area; rest of iris whitish. A large black blotch covers distal half of second dorsal lobe. Pectorals greyish to dull yellow, with greenish-grey axil. Ventrals bright yellow with slight grey median marks and broad white margins. Anal white with slight blackish blotch on centre of lobe and some yellow anteriorly. Dorsal finlets grey; anal finlets white. Caudal pearly grey, median rays dirty whitish. The fish was fat and in good condition; female with roes bright yellow, 260 by 45 mm., separated by the forwardly situated anal interhaemals to either side of which the coelome extended posteriorly so that the gonads reached back to over the seventh anal ray. WHITLEY. 141 Family SCIAENIDAE. Genus ScraEna Linné, 1758. SCIAENA ANTARCTICA REX Whitley, 1945. (Fig. 2.) Sciaena antarctica rex Whitley, Austr. Zool., xi., June 11, 1945, p. 26. Onslow, Western Australia. This subspecies has not hitherto been figured, so I give here a descrip- tion and illustration of a 33 foot female which I caught at North Turtle Island, off Port Hedland, W.A., in September, 1945. eer 2d A, TP i. 17; V.i., 53. C.14. L.lat. 48 to hypural + 6 along tail. Tr. 9/1/20. Head (265 mm.) 3.5, depth (242) 3.4 in standard length (930). Eye (38) 7 in head. Preorbital, 28 mm.; interorbital, 60; maxilla, 99, its end 38 deep; snout, 60; postorbital, 169; predorsal length, 308; first dorsal base, about 200; second dorsal base, 344; longest (fourth) dorsal spine, 144; anal base, 88; second anal spine, 75; pectoral length, 148 (fifth ray longest); pectoral base, 36; length of ventral fin, 137; middle caudal ray, 119; depth of caudal peduncle, 75 mm. ————————_ GPW. 100 MM, Fig. 2. Mulloway, Sciaena antarctica rex Whitley. A specimen from Turtle Island, off Port Hedland, Western Australia. Maxillary extending to below posterior margin of eye, partly sheathed by preorbital. Lips coriaceous. An outer uniserial row of short canines, largest anteriorly, in upper jaw, behind these a strip of villiform teeth; one to three rows of small canines along lower jaw. Vomer and palatines tooth- less. Gill-rakers, 4-6. Preopercular margin with some spaced points. No noteworthy pores on head. General facies as in Sciaena antarctica and as figured here. Second anal spine slender, not strong. Articulations of the fin-rays small and numerous. General colour bronze, with some yellow below head and coppery on ‘operculum. Unpaired fins dark reddish brown with a few indistinct dark spots on middle of tail. Pectorals dark yellowish. Ventrals dark yellowish 142 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 4 anteriorly but becoming. light grey posteriorly. Eye bronze. Inside of mouth yellow. The-dark coloration suggests a muddy habitat. Vertebrae 14, to over anal origin, plus 9 = 23. Stomach was empty. Each roe was about 250 by 28 mm. and there appeared to be two small auxiliary roes besides the main ones. Some tapeworms in the flesh. Described and figured from a female specimen, 1,075 mm. or almost 34 feet long and 273 lb. in weight. Locality: Three miles offshore, North Turtle Island, off Port Hedland, Western Australia; hooked on mullet (Moolgarda pura) bait, September 27, 1945. A second specimen, one of eight caught off the jetty at Onslow on November 4, 1945, was a male, 3 ft. 1 in. (940 mm.) in total length; weight 17 lb. whole. Standard length, 820 mm. Head, 233; depth, 215; eye, 32; maxillary, 91, reaching below posterior half of eye; pectoral length, 130. Anal margin truncate. Br.7; D-X,,.d4,,. 23; \A.i.,. 7; P.ii., 17; L.lat.. 50 to. hypural +. 5 to basemes middle caudal rays. Small median scales to end of tail. L.tr. 13/1/18. Gill-rakers, 6-7. Stomach empty. General characters as in Turtle Island example. Family ScOLOPSIDAE. SCAEVIUS, gen. nov. Orthotype, Scaevius nicanor, sp. nov. This new genus differs. from most of the many genera or subgenera which have been variously grouped around Nemipterus or Synagris, Penta- podus, Dentex, etc., by authors, notably in having no canine teeth, the dentition consisting of bands of fine teeth on jaws and none on palate. There is no strong suborbital spine as in Scolopsis and its subgenera. Other striking features are the rather numerous cheek-scales; naked pre- opercular flange, suborbital and interorbital; ovate body-form, dorsal margin not deeply notched, and moderate sized eyes. Other characters as Gescribed for the species. SCAEVIUS NICANOR, Sp. nNOv. Upper profile gently convex, the lower much less convex. Lips fleshy, maxillary not reaching below eye, partly sheathed by preorbital, but with- out a toothed ridge as in Gnathodentex. Mouth not very protractile, though premaxillary pedicels are longer than eye. No symphysial knob. Bands of fine, small teeth on jaws. Apparently none on vomer or palatine ridges. No canines, incisors or molars. Velum maxillare present. Tongue acutely rounded. Preorbital broad and deep, naked, entire anteriorly but denticulated posteriorly and ending in three small spines below eye, none of them distinct as in Scolopsis. Preoperculum entire, evenly rounded, Spineless, its flange naked. Chin and the weakly convex interorbital scale- less. Nostrils small, approximate, the anterior with raised rims. About six rows of cheek-scales. Opercula scaly, entire. A small opercular spine almost covered by scales. Vertex scaly. Eyes moderate with free, entire margin, and a subocular shelf. Five branchiostegals. No barbels or note- worthy pores on chin. Gill-membranes united before isthmus. About 6 or 7 stumpy gill-rakers on lower part of first branchial arch. WHITLEY. 143 Head (59 mm.) 2.8, depth (56.5) 2.9 in standard length (165). Eye (13.5) 4.3, interorbital (17) 3.4, snout (20) 2.9 in head. Preorbital, 13 mm. Predorsal length, 63. Depth of caudal peduncle, 20.5. Longest (third) dorsal spine, 24.5. Pectoral length, 39. Ventrals, 39. Third anal spine, 15.5. Upper caudal lobe, 43. Total length, 8 inches. Body elongate-ovate, rather robust anteriorly, and somewhat com- pressed posteriorly, covered with fairly large, imbricate, ciliated and pitted scales, fairly uniform in size, and which do not form sheaths for the fins, although some encroach upon the pectoral and caudal fins and there is a small pointed axillary scale to each ventral fin. Cleithrum not exposed. Lateral line continuous, running parallel to and near the dorsal profile. Each central lateral line-scale tube divides into two which pierce the scale-border to form two notches. L.lat. 42. L.tr. 33/1/16 between origins of dorsal and anal, to 3/1/4 across caudal peduncle. Between the lateral line and the dorsal fin are 24 to 34 scales. Vent slightly in advance of anal fin. . Dorsal fins connected, not notched, and with membranes not deeply incised, the first dorsal fin composed of slender, homocanth, rather weak spines, none produced or notably lengthened, the second dorsal fin con- sists of branched rays with few articulations, the last not lengthened. meer. Ai, 15° P16; V.i., 5; €.15 branched rays. Three anal spines, increasing in length backwards, continuous with the soft fin. Pectoral rays longest above, mostly branched; no simple finger-like rays. Ventrals pointed, reaching anal origin. Caudal slightly forked, upper lobe longer, neither lobe produced into filaments. Colours in life: Dark olive on top of head, paler along back. Eye orange with blue and milky bars through it. Bright blue bar across inter- orbital, two broader blue bars across top of snout, two narrower blue bars obliquely forward on preorbital, other paler blue marks on the brown ground colour of the upper lip. A blue fleck over margin of inter- operculum and orange to blue tinges along lower limb of preoperculum. Three radiating blue bars backwards from eye (1) across postorbital, (2) Over operculum and continued to tail, and (3) to base of pectoral. A paler blue stripe over eye and along back to below soft dorsal. Spaces between blue bars brownish, scales with dark grey edges. Belly white. Lateral line greyish. A conspicuous black ocellus, encircled by blue, on upper scales before caudal root. Dorsal yellow to pale pink with submedian row of milky marks and some similar inframarginal smaller milky marks posteriorly. Anal yellow proximally and pink distally with a few oblique rows of milky spots. Pec- toral yellow to pink, with grey base. Ventrals and caudal pale pink, the median membrane of the caudal blue. Described from the holotype, eight inches in total length. Austr. Mus. Regd. No. IB.1496. Locality: Gregory, Cape Peron, Shark’s Bay, Western Australia; August 30, 1945. Coll. G. Whitley. Two paratypes, about 53 inches long, were received by the Australian Museum from Darwin from Messrs. Christie and Godfrey in 1903 (Regd. Nos. 1.6056 and 6057). The late W. E. J. Paradice collected two more, 64 to 6% inches long at the Sir Edward Pellew Islands, Gulf of Carpentaria, 144 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. in 1923. (Regd. Nos. IA.1471 and 1650): “Caught on sand flat by net.” This new species therefore ranges from Western Australia to the Northern Territory. Suggested vernacular name, Jurgen. LUNICAUDA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Mesoprion?? emeryii Richardson (Icones Piscium, 1843, p. 7, pl. iii., fig. 2, from Barrow Island, North-west Australia) = Lunicauda emeryii. New synonym: Heterognathodon nemurus Bleeker, 1852. . The species upon which this new genus is based was originally described by Richardson from a drawing made by Lieut. James B. Emery, of H.M.S. Beagle, in either January, 1838, or 1840. (2) No specimen of emeryii was known to exist in any Museum. Over a century after Emery, I was with the Ketch Isobel off Thevenard Island, North-western Australia, when one of the air-crew, Corporal L. G. Matthews, caught by hand- line on garfish bait a fine specimen of this long neglected and beautiful fish. Later we obtained a couple more in the Monte Bello Islands. Richardson placed this species in the genus Mesoprion with two ques- tion marks. Mesoprion Cuvier & Valenciennes (Hist. Nat. Poiss., ii., 1828, p. 441) was proposed for a group of fishes with an indentation in the form ' of a saw on the middle of the side of the head, with teeth on vomer and palatines, long and pointed pectorals, etc. The logotype is M. lutjanus (Bloch) and Mesoprion is a synonym of Lutjanus. Mesoprion?? emeryii can now be demonstrated to have the pre- operculum entire, not notched, no palatine dentition, pectorals short, etc., and actually should be removed from the Lutjanidae and transferred to the Scolopsidae. Generic description: Habit fusiform. Head conic. Mouth barely reaching eye, moderately protractile. Maxillary smooth, sheathed by pre- orbital. No symphysial knob. No barbels. Broad bands of movable villiform teeth in jaws; no incisors or molars. Two small suberect canines on each side of the coriaceous symphysis of the upper jaw and one forwardly-directed exterior canine on each side of lower jaw. Vomer and palatines without teeth. Velum maxillare present. A rudimentary tongue, tar back. Preorbital not deep, naked, entire, ending in an acute point below eye, not a definite spine as in Scolopsis; its border is entire and its surface has minute spaced pores. Preoperculum with small serrae along upper edge, but entire around its angle, and with its flange scaly. Chin and snout naked. The broadly convex interorbital and rest of head scaly. Nostrils small, approximate, the anterior with well-raised rims. Five or Six rows of cheek-scales (excluding preopercular flange). A small oper- cular spine. Eyes rather large, with free entire margin and a subocular shelf. Six branchiostegals. Gill-membranes united before isthmus. About five stumpy gill-rakers on lower part of first branchial arch. Body covered with moderate-sized, imbricate, adherent ctenoid scales (2) More likely in 1838, as J. J. Fletcher (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1920 (1921), pp. 614-615) remarks that Emery was adding to his collection of coloured drawings of Australian fishes in September, 1839, and Richardson (Icones Piscium) had only twelve paintings, in the complete portfolio. WHITLEY. 145 which do not form sheaths for the fins and only encroaching on the caudal. Small axillary scale at ventral fin. Cleithrum not exposed. Lateral line continuous, near and parallel to dorsal profile. Lateral line scales with simple tubes or pores. L.lat. 55. L.tr. about 3/1/20 to 23/1/54 across caudal peduncle. Vent slightly ahead of anal fin. Dorsal fins connected, not notched and with membranes not deeply incised. Ten to eleven rather weak spines and nine branched rays, none produced. Anal with three short spines, increasing in length backwards, and eight rays. Pectorals short, with upper rays longest. Ventrals pointed, not reaching vent. Caudal emarginate, its upper and lower lobes remarkably produced into tape-like filaments. The life-colours were: Golden yellow on sides above and milky to whitish below; top of back vivid blue, bounded below by a yellow band entirely above the lateral line. Another yellow band from eye to upper part of caudal peduncle is bordered above and below by a tan band. A milky-white band along lower part of side. Eye bright yellow. Dorsal fins yellow with pale blue spots. Anal hyaline yellow. Pectorals and ventrals hyaline to milky. Caudal vivid purpHsh-blue, produced above and below into a filament of the same colour. No dark bar across pectoral base. I had aboard the Isobel a water colour copy of Richardson’s plate in hopes of rediscovering this species and the live fish agreed very well indeed with this. Length to caudal fork about 9 inches. Total length, including fila- ments, 133 or 14 inches. Generic diagnosis based on the neotype (Austr. Mus. Regd. No. IB.1549) from off Thevenard Island (in the Onslow region) and two other examples (IB.1550 and 1557) from off Hermite Island, Monte Bellos, Western Aus- tralia; September 17, 1945. Jsobel Expedition. I find that Heterognathodon nemurus Bleeker, 1852, is a synonym of Lunicauda emeryii, two Philippine specimens having been examined. Affinities: Nothing quite like this fish appears to have been generically named in ichthyological literature. Its affinities are evidently with Pentapodus. The external forwardly-directed lower canines, 1].lat. more than 50, prolonged caudal lobes, lack of dark bar on pectoral and coloration gener- ally, separate my new genus from the genotypes of Pentapodus (vitta) and Heterognathodon (bifasciatus = caninus). The synonymy is as follows: — LUNICAUDA EMERYII (Richardson). Mesoprion emeryii Richardson, Icones Piscium, 1843, p. 7, pl. ili., fig. 2. Barrow Island, North-western Australia. Jd. Richardson, Rept. 12th mee, BAAS. 1842- (1643), p. 17. Jd. Whitley, Rec. Austr. Mus., xix, 1954, p. 157. Heterognathodon nemurus Bleeker, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind., iii. 754. Celebes. Pentapus nemurus Bleeker, Atlas Ichth., viii., 1872, pl. 294, fig. 3; vii., 1876, p. 102, and of authors generally. Lutjanus emeryii McCulloch, Austr. Mus. Mem., v., 1929, p. 208. 1852," p. b 146 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Family SARDIDAE. Genus Sarpa Cuvier, 1829. SARDA ORIENTALIS SERVENTYI Whitley. (Plate xi., fig. 4.) Pelamys orientalis Temminck & Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Poissons, 1844, p. 99, pl. lii. Nagasaki, Japan. Sarda orientalis serventyi Whitley, Austr. Zool., xi., 1945, p. 41. Albany, Western Australia. The holotype of the subspecies (W.A. Mus., No. P.3512), 265 mm. long to end of middle caudal rays, is now figured. Family NEOODACIDAE. HALETTA, gen. nov. Orthotype, Odax semifasciatus Cuvier & Valenciennes (Hist. Nat. Poiss., xiv., “1839” = January, 1840, p. 299, pl. 407) = Haletta semifasciata. Differs from other members of the family in having more than 50 (usually about 55 to 63) transverse rows of scales, instead of from about 30 to 45, as in Neoodax spp. The preoperculum is entire, the caudal fin rounded, and the general appearance of the monotypic species is as figured by Cuvier & Valenciennes, Richardson, Roughley, and others. Named after Mr. H. M. Hale, Director of the Museum, Adelaide. Genus NEoopax Castelnau, 1875. SHEARDICHTHYS, subgen. nov. Orthotype, Malacanthus radiatus Quoy & Gaimard (Voy. Astrolabe, Zool., lii., 1835, p. 717, pl. xix., fig. 2) = Neoodax (Sheardichthys) radiatus. Distinguished from typical Neoodax by its acutely pointed middle caudal rays, the rest of the fin rhombic rather than rounded, whilst the preoperculum has an entire edge. About 40 to 45 transverse rows of scales. Named in honour of Mr. Keith Sheard. Family ELEOTRIDAE. Genus CARASSIOPS Ogilby, 1897. CARASSIOPS COMPRESSUS (Krefit, 1864). Two specimens, from a well 63 feet deep, east of Carnarvon, W.A., obtained in January, 1946, by Mr. H. J. Murray, agree with McCulloch’s account of this species (Rec. Austr. Mus., xii., 1919, p. 285) and are refer- able to the geographic form named freticulatus by Klunzinger from Port Darwin. Not only do these fish constitute a new record for Western Australia, but they indicate the probable line of descent of the interesting Western Australian blind gudgeon, Milyeringa, of which I wrote (Austr. Zool., Xi., 1945, p. 35), “perhaps evolved from some gudgeon similar to Carassiops, which is not Known from Western Australia.” Family ALEUTERIDAE. TANTALISOR, gen. nov. Orthotype, T. pauciradiatus, sp. nov. A Leatherjacket with concave profile, with the dorsal spine originating WHITLEY. 147 over posterior half of eye; pelvis spine rigid, not movable; less than thirty dorsal or anal rays; dermal denticles granulated, rather toadstool-shaped with a peaked apex; and no caudal bristles or spines. This combination of characters separates it from all other genera. TANTALISOR PAUCIRADIATUS, Sp. NOV. D.11./28; A.28; P.11; C.12 (10 branched rays). Profile of snout concave, making angle of about 145 deg. with the horizontal interdorsal space. Greatest depth (53 mm.) nearly 1.9, dorsal- anal origins (41) 2.4, head (31) 3.2 in length without caudal (101). Eye (11.5) 2.1 in snout (25). Distance from base of dorsal spine to nearest point on orbit (7 mm.) 1.6 in eye. Gill-opening below eye. Distance be- tween orbit and upper end of gill-opening (6) less than depth of latter (7). First dorsal spine strong (25), situated over posterior half of eye, not compressed, with four rows of barbs, the anterior pair having small adpressed barbs with the points barely free; the posterior two rows have a dozen downward and backwardly directed spines, largest above middle of spine and connected by membranes. Second dorsal spine slender, 6 mm. Interdorsal space less than head. No groove along back. Soft dorsal fin slightly elevated at its anterior quarter, with 28 rays, its base (32 mm.) subequal to head. Anal fin oblong, with 28 rays, its base, 30 mm. Eleven simple pectoral rays. Pelvic spine large, tuberculate, rigid, reaching not far from vent. Belly not greatly distensible. Ventral flap spongy, not exceeding spine. Scales with a rather toadstool-shaped granular spinule with peaked apex rising on a pedicle from a radially striated scale-base with polygonal outline. On sides of back the spinules or denticles form groups of 3 to 7. Lateral line indiscernible. No dermal filaments and no bristles or antrorse spines on the caudal peduncle which is longer (14 mm.) than deep (11). Caudal rounded, middle ray (25 mm.) shorter than head. No produced fin-rays. Life colours: In general, dull green with many small dark-green spots on Sides of back; a darker-toned blotch behind gill-slit. Some dark green oblique lines on sides of head reaching to below pectoral fin. Pupil blue, iris yellow. Three dusky bars cross chin. Vivid blue to milky spots along belly. Pectoral green. Second dorsal and anal fins orange. Tail olivaceous with a blackish ocellus above and below near posterior ends of rays. After eight months’ preservation, the colours have altered to mostly dull olive of various tones. Several rows of black dots along upper sides. First dorsal membrane edged dark smoky. Caudal dull olive with dark grey, round spot above and below. Other fins dull yellowish. Eye blue. Teeth greenish yellow with brown tips. Described from the unique holotype, a specimen 126 mm. or 5 inches long. Austr. Mus. Regd. No. IB.1641. Locality: Cape Peron, Shark’s Bay, Western Australia; 31/8/45. Coll. G. P. Whitley and presented by C.S.I.R. Division of Fisheries. Family LAGOCEPHALIDAE. CONTUSUS, gen. nov. Orthotype, Tetrodon richei Fréminville, Nouv. Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom., iii., April, 1813, p. 250, pl. iv., fig. 2 = Contusus richei. 148 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. This common southern Australian toadfish, originally described from “Nuytsland,” i.e., South Australia, I have collected in South-western Aus- tralia. It is also Known from Victoria, Tasmania, southern N.S.W. and N.Z., but records of it from the Northern Territory, East Indies and Japan are either referable to other species or caused through uncertainty as to the type locality Bleeker (Verh. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, ii., 1855, p. 24, figs. 3, 3a) figured a Hobart example and included the species in his Atlas Ichthylogique des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises (1865). From Fraser-Brunner’s review (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11), x., 1943, p. 11) it is evident that Fréminville’s species is near, or in, the genus Ambly- rhynchotus Troschel (Arch. Naturg., xxii., 2, 1856, p. 88, ex Bibron MS. in Dumeril, Rev. Mag. Zool. (2) vii., 1855, p. 274) but that name is pre- occupied by Amblyrhynchotus Tilesius, 1818, a genus of Crustacea. I therefore propose the name Contusus, with richei as type, and to replace Amblyrhynchotus for the other species, if all be congeneric; the dis- tinguishing characters are given in Fraser-Brunner’s Key. NEw REcORDS OF FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Since the appearance of my last list in part two of this paper (this volume, p. 40), I have identified the following species new to the Westralian list. Some of the following were dredged years ago by Mr. A. A. Living- stone, the Onslow ones came from Mr. F. J. Rankin, Messrs. Jenkins and Buller obtained data from the Ord River, and others were collected by myself or identified from specimens in museums. Nebrodes concolor ogilbyi Whitley. Lacepede Islands and Onslow. Atelomycterus macleayi Whitley. Egg-case from Turtle Island. Protozygaena longmani (Ogilby). Derby. Flakeus megalops (Macleay). Bunbury. Pastinachus sephen ater (Macleay). Port Hedland, Dolphin Island, and Monkeymia, Shark’s Bay. Taeniura lymnia halgani (Lesson). Airlie Island and Monte Bellos. Escualosa melanura (Cuv. & Val.). Onslow and Port Hedland. Plotosus flavolineatus Whitley. Broome. Thaerodontis favagineus (Bloch & Schneider). Gantheaume Point. Macroramphosus elevatus Waite. South-western Australia to west of False Entrance, Shark’s Bay. Hippichthys gazella, sp. nov., Broome. Rings 16 + 38, snout half head, dorsal origin slightly behind level of vent, on 6 tail-rings, otherwise near H. poecilolaemus (Peters, 1869). Choeroichthys brachysoma serialis (Gunther). North-western Australia. Hippohystriz spinosissimus (Weber). Broome and Cape Bossut. Ardeapiscis welsbyi (Ogilby). Port Hedland and Fremantle. Cytius meeullochi, sp: nov. D.ix,-35; AliL/ST?-P 1 AG, Vi Oe ee eee 100. Pectorals and ventrals shorter than eye. Anterior profile evenly convex. Depth of body much less than length without caudal peduncle. Ventral profile moderately convex. Length, 103 inches. Great Australian Bight, 190-320 fathoms. Formulae and shape (cf. fig. 3) diagnostic. Pseudorhombus dupliciocellatus Regan. Between Cape Jaubert and Wallal. Aesopia heterorhinos (Bleeker). Western Australia. Achlyopa nigra (Macleay). Onslow. Polyprionum (Hectoria) oxygeneios (Bloch & Schneider). Great Australian Bight, 100 to 120 fathoms, March, 1912. WHITLEY. 149 Fig. 3—McCulloch’s Dory, Cyttus mccullochi Whitley. Type. Epinephelus megachir alatus Alleyne & Macleay, 1877. Port Hedland. Pristiapogon brevicaudatus (Weber). Dredged between Broome and Cape Bossut. —Hemiramphus quoyi Cuv. & Val. Dampier Archipelago and Exmouth Gulf. Chromileptes altivelis (Cuv. & Val.). Gantheaume Point. Leptochromis tapeinosoma wilsoni Whitley. Cape Leveque. Fowleria aurita (Cuv. & Val.). Cape Leveque. Scomberoides sanctipetri (Cuv. & Val.). King Sound. Selaroides leptolepis (Cuv. & Val.). Onslow. Acanthoperca gulliveri (Cast.). Ord River. Loxolutjanus erythropterus annularis (Cuv. & Val.). Onslow. Pomadasys maculatum (Bloch). Onslow. Caprupeneus jeffi (Ogilby). Onslow. Zabidius novemaculeatus (McCulloch). Onslow and Truscott. “Katsuwonus pelamis (Linne). Between Abrolhos and Geraldton, off Leander Reef and False Entrance and Point Cloates. Parapomacentrus sp. nov. Cape Leveque. Pseudopomacentrus fasciatus (Macleay). Cape Leveque. Scarus fasciatus Cuv. & Val. Rat Island, Abrolhos and Shark’s Bay. Meiacanthus grammistes (Cuv. & Val.). Cape Leveque. Clinus perspicillatus Cuv. & Val. North Beach. Remilegia australis (Bennett). Bicton, near Fremantle. Abcichthys praepositus (Ogilby). Near Broome. Apistops caloundra (De Vis). Onslow. Monacanthus (Sarothrura) hajam Bleeker. Between Cape Jaubert and Wallal. 150 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Anoplocapros amygdaloides Fraser-Brunner. Cottesloe. Paracanthostracion sp. Pelsart Island. Liosaccus aerobaticus Whitley. Broome. NEw GENERIC NAMES. The following fishes, not all of them Westralian, require new generic names. For references, see Austr. Mus. Mem., v., 1929, and Neave’s Nomen- clator Zoologicus. ACHLYOPA, nov. (Synapturidae). Orthotype, Synaptura nigra Macleay, 1880 = Achlyopa nigra. The Black Sole is not a Synaptura but is much nearer Euryglossa Kaup, 1858, but that is preoccupied by Smith, 1853, in Insecta. AIDABLENNIvus, nov. (Blenniidae). Orthotype, Blennius sphynx Cuv. & Val. (Hist. Nat. Poiss., xi., 1836, p. 226) = Aidablennius sphynx. Equivalent to the “Sphynx” group of the subgenus Salaria Forskal (non-binomial) of the genus Blennius in Norman’s Synopsis (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) x., 1943, p. 801) and sufficiently distinguished there from typical Blennius. (ocellaris) to deserve a new name. ALTISERRANUS, gen. nov. (Epinephelidae). Orthotype, Serranus jayakari Boulenger, Western Australian specimens. Distinguished from “Epine- phelus” spp. by its long third dorsal spine, scaly maxillary, concave or truncate caudal fin, high body and plain coloration. BATHYPYGIDIUM, nov. (Pygidiidae). Orthotype, Pygidium totae Miles, 1942 = Bathypygidium totae. New name for Bathophilus Miles (Caldasia, v., 1942, p. 57), preoccupied by Giglioli, 1882, for another fish genus. EOPEYERIA, nov. (Tachysuridae). Orthotype, Ariopsis aegyptiacus Peyer, 1928 = Eopeyeria aegyptiacus. Replaces Peyeria Whitley (Austr. Nat., x., 1940, p. 242), preoccupied by Weiler, 1935, for a fossil sawfish. IDIOTROPISCIS, nov. (Syngnathidae). Orthotype, Acentronura australe Waite & Hale, 1921 = Idiotropiscis australis. Quite distinct from the Japanese Hippocampus gracilissimus, type of Acentronura, having the dorsal edges not continuous with those of tail, in body rings, etc. OPTIvuS, nov. (Trachichthyidae). Orthotype, Trachichthys elongatus Gunther, 1859 = Optivus elongatus. Allied to Hoplostethus Cuv. & Val., 1829, but differing in having the form more elongate, and only four dorsal spines instead of six. ORBONYMUS, nov. (Callionymidae). Orthotype, Callionymus (Calliuri- chthys) rameus McCulloch, 1926 = Orbonymus rameus. From Callionymus, differs in its serrated. preopercular spine and branched dorsal rays and from other Australian dragonets by the key characters given by McCulloch. PENICIPELTA, nov. (Aleuteridae). Orthotype, Monacanthus guntheri Macleay, 1881 = Penicipelta guntheri. Distinguished from other LeatherjacKets ' by the development of the remarkable brush of setae on each side of the body posteriorly. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. Sea Pike, Sphyraena akerstromi Whitley. Type. Skipjack, Ferdauia claeszooni Whitley. Type. Trevally, Caranx papuensis Alleyne & Macleay. Oriental Bonito, Sarda orientalis serventyi Whitley. Type. ab 151 TESTING A SHARK REPELLANT. By GILBERT P. WHITLEY and GEORGE H. PAYNE. (Plates xii.-xiii., and text-fig. 1.) “You may rest assured that the British Government is entirely opposed to sharks.” —Mr. Winston Churchill, in the House of Commons, February 20, 1945, referring to supplies of “Shark-Chaser” from the United States. Sharks are probably the subject of more popular misconceptions than any other fish, due in part at least to the fact that scientifically and for that matter, commercially, they have been all but neglected until recent years. One fact, however, is only too well established—the shark is, at times, a man-eater, but unfortunately the conditions most favourable to shark attack, or the species most to be feared, are not known with any degree of certainty. More or less authenticated stories of shark attacks on men have been reported from most tropical and sub-tropical waters, and in this respect Pacific-and particularly Australian waters have an unsavoury reputation. Though sharks have for many years been known to be man- eating in habit under certain circumstances, very little had been done until the outbreak of the recent war towards the development of any shark repellant material.(1) This can be readily understood, as in peacetime possibilities of a man being forced into infested waters are remote, whereas under modern war conditions, not only sailors and airmen, but soldiers, as well, often find themselves in such a predicament, with conditions in many cases worsened by the presence in the water of blood from wounds. The earliest reference to a possible repellant we have been able to trace dates back more than half a century to when an English parson, Jonathan Couch (1877, p. 29), noted, concerning the Blue Shark, Carcharhinus glaucus (Linné) :— “It appears that this fish pursues its prey by sight rather than by scent, although its nerve of smelling is of large size; but it is known to be sensible to a nauseous smell or taste, for fishermen assert that it may be driven away by pouring bilge-water into the sea, where it (1) Repellant or repellent? We find ourselves spelling it both ways, but here we must be consistent, and so we use repellant. The Oxford English _ Dictionary does not state which it favours, but quotes “repellant” used as a substantive as far back as 1689; “repellent” as a noun is now considered rare, although common as an adjective, and is the only spelling given in some dictionaries. The learned “Walrus,” in one of his delightful articles in the “West Australian” (6/1/1945), side-steps the issue thus: “If the proof- reader does volunteer an explanation, I shouldn’t be surprised if he tells me that he got the idea of the spelling from a doctor’s prescription. And in that mystic document it might have looked repellant even though it wasn’t intended to be. Anyhow, I hope when he next encounters the repulsive word, he won’t mark the proof rep. mist.” 152 SHARK REPELLANT. is: a piece of information that may be of use in reference to the still more destructive White Shark.” These remarks are valuable because they refer to a Galeid Shark, allied to the dangerous Whaler Sharks; the bilge-water of those days would pre- sumably be free of products from motor engines. Couch’s observations would have been made about the 1820’s. The 1862 first edition of his work is not available to us. Work on the development of a suitable shark repellant appears to have been initiated in the United States of America early in 1942. The original investigators worked mainly on the principle that a shark is virtually a swimming nose, and that it is attracted to food solely by the sense of smell. The physiology of the shark certainly supports this view, and consequently early efforts were concentrated largely on the discovery of a chemical which would act as an intense nasal irritant and so interfere with the animal’s sense of smell. Very many different substances were tried, but best results were obtained by following the clue of fishermen’s reports that sharks would not go near other sharks which had been left dead in the sea after capture on lines. First successes were achieved when a chemical was discovered that dis- couraged dogfish Kept in large tanks from feeding, and the results so obtained were later verified by field tests carried out in the Gulf of Guaya- quil, Ecuador, and subsequently in waters off Havana and Florida. Later experiments carried out both in U.S.A. and New Zealand indicated that a mixture of this chemical (normal copper acetate) and a black or dark blue dyestuff provided still more efficient protection against shark attack than the original chemical alone, and it is this combination which is now used as the basis of Service Shark Repellant Units. | Though the constituents of the repellant unit as developed in America had been shown to give a high degree of protection against sharks common in American waters, it was considered desirable by the R.A.A.F. to confirm their action when used in the presence of the more dangerous Australian, South-west Pacific and East Indian varieties. In addition, the repellant had to be modified to meet local conditions as regards the supplies of raw materials and manufacturing facilities. In 1944, a joint Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force Committee in Melbourne required tests of substances which had been evolved by American, New Zealand and Australian chemists to ascertain whether or not they would repel sharks. Flight-Lieutenant G. H. Payne, R.A.A.F., Melbourne, did the chemical work; Mr. G. P. Whitley, Research Officer, C.S.I.R., Division of Fisheries, organised the expedition and identified the sharks; Mr. James Goodlad, Fisheries Inspector of the W.A. State Fisheries Department, was in charge of fishing and boat operations. The R.A. Navy arranged for gear to be provided and the R.A.A.F. arranged for ° transport and air travel; Mr. S. Fowler, of the C.S.I.R., Division of Fisheries, performed helpful aerial reconnaissance in a R.A.A.F. aeroplane. An Army “observer, Major C. S. Murray, accompanied us on some of our cruises. After a series of preliminary chemical tests had been conducted at the University of Sydney, experimental batches of repellant tablets were manu- factured in Melbourne and practical tests carried out in the appropriately named Shark’s Bay, Western Australia. This area was chosen as being most suitable for the conducting of controlled experiments and because the WHITLEY AND PAYNE. US ys" sharks frequenting those waters were representative of those species met with in the waters of Pacific operational areas. The tests were carried out from a 70 ft. lighter, and were conducted during seven cruises of from two to six days’ duration each, between July and September, 1944. A line up to half a mile in length was anchored at each end across the direction of the prevailing current, and fitted with buoys in such a way that for most of its length it was a few feet below the surface. Large jew- fish hooks, baited with fresh fish, were usually set 60 ft. apart at depths of four to six feet below the surface, each alternate bait having suspended just above it a meshed bag of repellant tablets which immediately on im- mersion dyed the water in the vicinity. (The “Shark-Chaser” Unit deve- loped by the U.S. Army was of different design but similar principle.) Various rigs of floating set-lines were used, the idea being for each bait to simulate an airman floating in the water, with charges of repellants (of one or more kinds) and “control” baits with no repellant at all. Sharks were encouraged into the vicinity of the test-lines by the blood of captured sharks, turtles, and dugong, all of which were used as bait, in addition to snapper, mullet and other fishes. The big majority of the catches was made at night, and removing two or three resentful 10 ft. Sharks from somewhere along half a mile of line on a cold and windy mid- night was not without excitement. During the 500 hours for which the lines were down, for one hundred experiments, a total of 50 sharks was caught. Of these, 80 per cent. were caught by night (between 1700 and 0700 hours) and 20 per cent. by day (0700 to 1700 hours) catches being nearly three times as frequent during hours of darkness as during the daylight hours. The tides did not make any apparent difference to sharks feeding, only a few more than half of the sharks being taken on the ebb tide. The sharks caught ranged from 34 to 124 feet in length, mostly around the 6 ft. mark, and belonged to three genera, all suspected as potential man-eaters, and likely to be encountered in operational areas northwards of Australia or in the Western’ Pacific. In order of abundance, our results were :— Species. Percentages of Strikes. Pei momacks. CrClCOCETAO CUVIET . 6). hii i's ales as oss 34. malic oMarks, Galeolamnd GOTsQlis 2.) i.) ees ws 34. Paevcalus, LOWGmanid CAIQMOATIC . 20... eee ek. 12: Whalers, Galeolamna greyi cauta .. .. Naat Bs 4. Sharks escaped, or baits with shark- bite marks eae 16. Some of these species were new to science at the time, but have re- cently been described and figured in the “Australian Zoologist.” The repellant materials were in the form of small tablets and consisted of two types, made up essentially of a black dyestuff (2) (type A or “black (2) The dye used in our Western Australian experiments is known in the trade as “Methic Leather Black D.G.,” a mixture of several basic dyes whose formulae are not revealed by the makers. The main merit of repell- ing sharks is, however, credited to the copper acetate, and not to the dye, though the deep staining of the water by the latter would doubtless have a comforting psychological effect on a stricken swimmer. SHARK REPELLANT. 154 ‘Tep “AsizTUM ‘d “O— ‘gT7B0S 01 JOU ‘oTVeUIUIBASVIG ‘S}Se} JUBT[edel YeYS UI pasn sUTT Jos ay} JO sta [eoIdAY WV ‘T ‘BLA | | M5 VWWisG AIVIUNS ASLW\ Moi1sad £334 4 Lnosyv d3GN3dSns INW1739d3e * WOLLOG W4S =. 2° YMOOH 5 Oe Pere) Res bata icataee en eenee nes a ee ff ye c3Liva as > pas WSLYM OLNI Olea sia ak SLatayy LNVTIad ay ey 40 DYG “HSS Z : \), = : \ wi _} : ‘ ae : ‘ay rant ¢ \. LIVg LNYITSd3y = ne “6 Lud ‘ . 2-3 bho os ‘La. O9 LIVE OwLNODZ=9 2S 7 ee SMOOH & Ned IS = es me Ce CO 24 2o 1a fe) o | ae ee t cee ey 1 ] 2 ° De Cee eee: a al wy ve . 1AQOLL i es : Bo ee ee poe G S S aLWm WHITLEY AND PAYNE. 155 magic’) and copper acetate (3) (type B) respectively. A repellant charge consisted of either 3 oz. of type A alone or a combination: 3 oz. of type A plus 4 oz. of type B. The life of a repellant charge was found to vary according to strength of current and roughness of water and size of tablets. Generally the 3 oz. charge of dye tablets would last at least 12 hours while the life of the copper acetate charge was between three and four hours. We, therefore, had to overhaul all our hooks and lines at 3-hourly intervals, day and night, wet or fine, to replace dissolved charges and record results. This was arduous, and even the interim routine work of washing bags, and weighing or counting out the tablets, whose pungency was irri- tating, were tests of our patience. Then the struggles of man-eaters, hauled into our little dinghy and clubbed on the nose, often tangled the lines so much that they had to be dumped aboard the lighter, the numbered hooks carefully sorted, and results analysed before the next set, this work some- times having to be done by lamp-light. The sharks were each dissected afterwards and information on their feeding and breeding obtained. The effectiveness of a repellant was calculated according to the follow- ing formula, devised by Stewart Springer, of Florida:— Number of sharks on control minus number on repellant ——— xX 100 = % effectiveness. Number on control. An observed strike by a shark was counted, even though the shark may not have been hooked and landed. Thus, using A type alone, we found on repellant baits 9 sharks, on control baits 19, giving effectiveness of 52.6 per cent.; using A + B, on repellant baits 1, on controls 21, giving an effective- ness of 95.2 per cent. The possible effects of the chemical repellant on a man in water were tested by swimming submerged and with open eyes through water impreg- nated with repellant. No ill-effects were suffered. A further point of interest is that, whereas sharks would not take @ bait in the vicinity of the repellant, no trouble was experienced in hooking Snapper and other table fish on ordinary hand-lines to which a shark repellant had been tied just above the bait. Neither did repellant placed in shallow water thickly populated with tiny school fishes harm them in any way, and no complaints were made by fishermen that their livelihood was affected by our experiments. The work was at times greatly facilitated by aerial spotting. Obviously sharks as well as schools of fish are more readily located from the air than from water level, and with a plane from the nearest R.A.A.F. stations periodically flying over the area to locate concentrations of sharks, we were able to conduct our tests with a minimum of time lost in blind searching. As a result of these tests, it has been conclusively shown that the materials tested possess properties repellant to the varieties of sharks most common in Western Australian waters. Tests by other workers having shown that similar materials are effective against sharks frequenting the waters around Ecuador and Florida, and in New Zealand and elsewhere, it seems reasonable therefore to conclude that a universal shark repellant (3) Normal copper acetate, Cu (CoH; O2)2.H2O. 156 SHARK REPELLANT. material has been discovered and its issue to the R.A.A.F. as a result indicated that airmen forced to bale out over shark-infested waters had at least one less hazard to face in their struggle to regain safety. Since the end of the war, shark repellants have been adopted at some surf carnivals and swimming races off Australian beaches. A tribute to the value of shark repellant in saving fishermen’s gear, whilst not affecting fish, comes from the Canddian Fisherman, November, 1945. We thank Mr. S. Fowler, who had originally pointed out to us from the air the occurrences of sharks during our Shark’s Bay experiments, for calling our attention to this reference. Sharks that had been attacking netfuls of mackerel off the Massa- chusetts coast and causing damage to gear and much loss of fish were successfully repelled by fishermen using the chemical “Shark Chaser” issued to American Servicemen during the war. Two blocks of the deterrent were sunk to a depth of 20 to 30 feet and towed around the net. “The sharks headed for the net, but as soon as they hit the black slick formed by the ‘Shark Chaser’ they were noted turning and swimming away from the net.” The boat whose crew had been thus enterprising received no damage to its nets and caught about 58,000 lb. of mackerel. Other boats without protection averaged only 5,000 to 25,000 lb. of fish and suffered severe damage to their nets. It looks as if Shark Repellants have come to stay. It may be of interest to append here an incantation used in the Solomon Islands when protecting a man in a canoe from sharks. As given by Dr. Walter G. Ivens (1927, p. 237), it is:— “That I may win praise this day I shall rescue the dear one this day: This is thy charm, Lord Awao This is thy charm, Awao-throwing-gall-on-sharks. .. .” The ‘gall’ was not actually used as a repellant by the Islanders, but only a magical formula or ritual. However, it is interesting to note that the idea of some kind of shark repellant occurred to the primitive Melanesians. References: Anon (1944) —Shark Repellant Developed. Fisheries Newsletter (Cronulla) , iii, November 6, 1944, p. 3. (‘“Develop” corrected to “Test” ibid., iv., Dio) Anon (1945). —Our Sharks Become Good War-Workers. Life Digest (Mel- botrne), March, 1945, p. 56, condensed from Sait. Arctic, Desert and Tropic Information Centre (A.D.T.C., 1944) —-Sharks. Information Bull., iv. (New York, 1944), pp. 1-4, map. BICKLEy, C. (1946) —By-producits of War Aid Surfers. Sydney Morning Herald (Magazine Section), 15/1/46, p. 3. BURDEN, W. Douglas (1945) —Development of a Shark Deterrent. Air Surgeon’s Bull. (U.S.A.), ii. (10), October, 1945, pp. 344-347, figs. CANADIAN FISHERMAN.—November, 1945. CoucH, Jonathan (1877) —History of the Fishes of the British Islands, Vol. EM OPAL Daity Mirror (Sydney) —10/10/42 and 4/2/46. DaILy News (Sydney) —23/2/44. DAILY TELEGRAPH PICTORIAL (Sydney), 7/6/29.—Electrocution of Sharks. WHITLEY AND PAYNE. 157 FIELD, Henry (1943) —Report of Preliminary Test of Shark Repellant at Card Sound, Florida Keys (Typescript, MS.). HepcEs, F. A. Mitchell (1923) —Battles with Giant Fish, pp. 172, 236. IvENS, W. G. (1927) —Melanesians of the South-east Solomon Islands, pp. 236-237, 344. ManHony, Tom (1945) —B.B.C. New Zealand Newsletter, quoted in Geraldton Guardian and Express (W.A.), 22/8/45. OSBORNE, Ernest (1934) .—Sharks, Sydney Morning Herald, 10/2/34, p. 11. PAYNE, G. (in the press) —Article in Walkabout. PrIcE, Willard (1944) —Japan’s Islands of Mystery, p. 242. Quoy & GAIMARD (1824) —Voyage autour du Monde (Freycinet), Zoologie, p. 196. RADCLIFFE, J. D. (1943) —Sharks: Research Produces Chemical Protection for Fliers and Seamen. Collier’s Weekly, August 7, 1943. SHARK MENACE ADVISORY COMMITTEE (Sydney) —Report, 1935. SPRINGER, Stewart (1943) —Sharks and Their Behaviour. October 20, 1943. (Washington, D.C.), pp. 1-31, charts i.-ii.. and maps i.-ii. (Also manu- script reports.) Sun NEwspaPerR (Sydney) —30/5/35. Screen of Bubbles. Sunpay Sun (Sydney) —16/5/43 and 5/1/47. SUNDAY TELEGRAPH (Sydney) —4/6/44 and 26/2/45. (‘“To-day” Supplement.) SUNDAY TIMES (Perth) —17/12/44 and 17/6/45. SYDNEY MORNING HERALD.—10/2/34, 8/5/43, 28/6/43, 12/5/45, 11/9/45, 21/11/45, 9/1/46 and 4/2/46. WEST AUSTRALIAN (Perth) —16/12/44, 21/2/45, 22/2/45. WHITLEY, G. P. (1940) —Fishes of Australia, i., pp. 22-26. Youne, W. E. (1933). —Shark! Shark! (New York). And several confidential reports and files. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate xii. Map of Shark’s Bay, Western Australia, showing route taken and cruises (numbered) during shark repellant tests. Plate Xiii. 1. The lighter from which tests of repellants were carried out in Shark’s Bay. A large Tiger Shark caught near Dirk Hartog Island. A 10 ft. Tiger Shark from Shark’s Bay. Left to right: Payne, Whitley and Goodlad returning from overhauling the set lines. 5. Two sharks which took baits unguarded by repellants. —Photos by G. H. Payne, C. S. Murray, and G. P. Whitley. ee 158 OBSERVATIONS ON THE TOOTH-BILLED BOWER-BIRD (SCENOPOEETES DENTIROSTRIS). By MaovricE F. LEAsK, Memb. F.N.C.V. These notes are prepared with Cayley’s “What Bird Is That?” on hand, and are intended as an elucidation of the description therein. On November 14, 1943, at 2 p.m., we were following a disused jungle path, about a mile east of Lake Eacham, on the Atherton Tablelands of North Queensland. Continued bird calls attracted our attention. They came from a spot 30 yards off the track, and resembled parrot’s cries, varied and tending to warbling. The bird was located close to the ground, and identified as the Tooth-billed Bower-bird. Compared with the book-plate, the bird was more distinctly speckled underneath and more strongly, sheeny brown on the upper side. At the spot where the bird was first located was a cleared patch of earth, with no green leaves thereon, and situated beside a mass of lawyer cane, forming loops two feet high. It is probable that the bird perched on these loops at intervals; the absence of green leaves indicates that this bird was just beginning its mating activities. Half a mile to the east, near the top of a slope in the middle of dense scrub, a second bird was heard emitting similar notes. It, too, was close to the ground. On flushing, it flew a short distance only, and was seen to be identical with the former. At the spot from which it rose was a cleared patch of earth about 3 ft. by 4 ft., and on this were a dozen fresh leaves, all apparently similar. This cleared spot was made between six tiny growing saplings, two feet high, with stems 4 inch in thickness. On November 23, 1943, we paid a second visit to the same locality at 7 p.m. in the last hour of daylight for the express purpose of guilding Capt. A. J. Marshall to the playgrounds. At the first spot the bird was repeatedly twittering, rather like the imitation of a parrakeet. When Capt. Marshall made a sucking sound, a pair of birds responded by flying excitedly nearer and making a call similar to his. The cleared space had over a dozen leaves on it, placed underside uppermost, i.e., whitish side up. They are said to be similar to the leaves used in the Cape York area, namely, Litsea leaves. Litsea is a Brown Bollywood of the family Lauraceae, occurring at intervals in the fringing jungle from Eungella to Cairns, and possibly further north. (Swain.) One of the leaves under examination was very fresh, being much whiter; all gave the impression of being pressed to earth, as though by the bird’s feet. The second playground was re-visited; it was indicated by the bird calling in a twitter as abovementioned. The cleared space had over a dozen fresh leaves arranged on it. Scratchings on the circus-ring were made, probably by bandicoots. A pair of birds responded in the same way as at Site I. to Capt. Marshall's sucking sound. In conclusion, it will be noted that no description of the display can yet be given. There appears to be an extended range of the Tooth-billed Bower-bird. A discrepancy appears to occur in the species of leaves or in Swain’s range of the Litsea. It is expected that further more scientific records of this bird will be given by Capt. Marshall in due course. 159 SOME NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA COLLECTED AT DARWIN DURING NOVEMBER, 1945. By J. O. CAMPBELL. While serving on H.M.A.S. Warrego, I called into Darwin several times and captured over two hundred specimens of twenty different species and recorded three others on the wing during the month of November. We first arrived there on November 2 and up till then no rain had fallen for many weeks. Very few specimens were flying about with the majority of these badly damaged. All told I caught eight specimens worth mounting and recorded six different species during the day. A week later I managed to land on the afternoons of November 7 and 8 to find that collecting had improved slightly for heavy rain had fallen while I was absent. . I caught a number of specimens around the coastal area of Darwin, chiefly near the Sportsground, and on a hillside above the Naval Boom Depot. On November 9, I left with a recreation party for 24 hours’ leave to be spent at Knight’s Cliff, six or seven miles east of Darwin and on the coast. In a small patch of scrub near our camp, I managed to catch a number of specimens of sixteen different species, the commonest being Papilio fuscus canopus, of which I took eighteen perfect specimens. Half a mile from the camp was a river and mangrove swamp along the edge of which I caught three fine Amblypodia centaurus asopus. The collecting area at Knight’s Cliff was mostly open scrub with small trees and patches of flowering lantana which attracted a number of specimens. Wallabies were quite common in this area. My next opportunity for collecting was on November 28 and 29, when the wet was well under way. Lush grass had sprung up everywhere and fresh growth had started on most of the trees. A common feeding-plant about the town was a daisy-like flower, very plentiful around the bombed post office. A pink flowering vine growing in the gullies and on the fences was also visited frequently. Many of the trees were in flower and several at the back of the Administrator’s residence provided some good collecting, but a long-handled net was necessary. Around these trees, in the grass beneath, and along the roadside were many larvae and pupae of Melanitis leda bankia and several Skippers. The butterflies themselves were plentiful also. The Administrator’s garden and the Darwin Botanical Gardens provided me with many specimens during January and February of 1942. During the following years these places had been neglected and large masses of barbed wire made collecting almost impossible. On my previous visit I failed to keep a diary on the prolific collecting of the autumn months and consequently have no notes to fall back on for reference. While in Darwin I saw a fine specimen of Eriboea pyrrhus sempronius in a naval man’s collection, but failed to take it myself, 160 LEPIDOPTERA AT DARWIN. A list of specimens seen and collected: — Papilio fuscus canopus Westwood, 1842. Papilio eruypylus nyctimus Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914. (A fine pair taken while copulating.) Eurycus cressida cassandra Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914. Terias smilax Donovan, 1805. Terias hecabe sulphurata Butler, 1875. Terias laeta lineata Miskin, 1889. Appias paulina ega Boisduval, 1836. Ellodina perdita walkeri Miskin, 1889. Catopsilia pomona pomona Fabricius, 1775. Anaphdaeis java teutonia Fabricius, 1775. Dandida chrysippus petilia Stoll, 1790. Danaida affinis affinis Fabricius, 1775. Danaida melissa hamata Macleay, 1827. Euploea corinna corinna Macleay, 1827. Euploea tulliolus darchia Macleay, 1827. Euploea sylvester pelor Doubleday and Hewitson, 1847. Acrea andromacha Fabricius, 1775. Hypolimnas bolina nerina Fabricius, 1775. Cethosia penthesilia paksha Fruhstorfer, 1905. Precis villida calybe Godart, 1819. Precis orithya albicincta Butler, 1875. Melanitis leda bankia Fabricius, 1775. Hypocysta adiante antirius Butler, 1868. Mycalesis sirius sirius Fabricius, 1775. Amblypodia centaurus asopus Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914. Boaris impar lavinia Waterhouse, 1932. Ocybachstes tanus nihana Fruhstorfer, 1911. Also two unidentified Skippers, making twenty-nine species all told. AN EARLY EVOLUTIONIST. Though the main Theory of Evolution is rightly credited to Charles Darwin, whose “Origin of Species” was published in 1859, there were thinkers whose ideas ran very close to the lines of Darwin’s theory long before the latter was propounded. One of these was that erratic but illustrious genius, C. S. Rafinesque (1783-1840) , who, as far back as 1832, remarked: — “The truth is that Species, and perhaps Genera also, are forming in organised beings by gradual deviations of shapes, forms and organs, taking place in the lapse of time. There is a tendency to deviations and mutations through plants and animals by gradual steps at remote irregular periods. This is a part of the great universal law of perpetual mutability in every thing.” (Quotation from the American Naturalist, lxxix., 1945, 84.) THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. Xi. PLATE VI. Beaked Whales. Stanley Fowler, photo. THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. PLATE VII. 8 \s oe pea aie \ Ys a UY / / CAD ‘ \ WINE: fe NK K yy!) iyi ; TARLTON RAYMENT Parasphecodes fulviventris (Fr.). THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. PLATE VIII. Tartton Rayment Parasphecodes fulviventris (Fr.). =, wa 40 errr ee er | | THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. PLATE IX. Pe SPOT? Horney SIC = 2 ) x Slomach ans , \ < if ~~ x *~ } ~ ~ . a ~ ~ = 8 . . . *. ~ . 3 . > ae ~ <8 8 ‘ < ‘TARLTON RAYMENT Parasphecodes fulviventris (Fr.). . » zi ’ hi % r * a ¥ ae i a THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. Xi. PLATE X. Frederick Strange—after Maiden. Railway cutting occupied by the huge colony of Parasphecodes fulviventris (Fr.). Tarlton Rayment, photo. is - xe ts ¥ u 2 or THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. Wes Rae Western Australian Fishes. G. P. Whitley, del. THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. PLATE XII. ~ GE he $6. Babbage 5.4 CARNARVON ‘\ se OHARK Bay \ ae WA. ; pA WS i \ , ® ¢ td Odes IS. \ ler ‘\ \ ‘ : N \ ‘ \ SHWARK : \ BAY. \ ‘\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 6.Peren x Pert a iz ; rh Aes : coe ‘Mere /a \ aves an) . Bight \ oon \ - dU \ ee \ : fi \ Cora! An? x CLesevsr - ay \ “AN \ Vv. Ficron \ =. ParintuLa \ 7 Y, ae : EN heoreme! 2s ioe ee F405 Tone weer SA —_ 7 —— iy Denna poe sae \ ef \ aa N \ \ \ Lhar!den @ ne Sgr fagic & x & N : \ Aame/in eee fee! i : \ a > = =~ ~ a ~ ~ ~ ~ N NX N 4 a a S @ MAMEL). x 7 XX s ' go ot = ._- 1 ! { Te \ G@etupTon t ; Cruises (numbered) undertaken during Shark Repellant Tests. & y A. if % é ‘ THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, Vol. xi. PLATE XIII, Shark Repellant Tests. Caste meallety lew ars Royal yo Society of New South Wales. ae" MEMBERSHIP. ee bes (The Society’s year commences’on 1st July.) ees oe Class. Amount of Subscription: cre WASBOCIRLGTIMOMOEr 5 OS ee ei ee one pb 5 O per annum. Bikes, Ordinary Member .. .. Bt aoe £1 0 O x aa: [Members joining after 1st January in ‘any Fear Bae pay one-half subscription.] ag . Life Associate Member .. 2... 0. 06 5c ee ee oe £2 10 0 in one sum. 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Blood, patrolling the highlands about Mount Hagen, north- eastern New Guinea, became interested in the number and variety of Birds of _ Paradise in the country. He collected a series on behalf of the Australian Museum _ and the variety was really astonishing, as no fewer than nineteen species were represented, and some were found to be difficult to determine. It may be noted _ that this was the country of that wonderful species, the Ribbon Tail, which really first attracted him, although the Blue Bird was almost as interesting. The difficulty of identifying these birds was also due to the lack of any work giving * good coloured illustrations, as none had appeared for fifty years. “Much collecting ' had been done in the meanwhile, so the task of bringing the available knowledge e. into perspective was undertaken. Coloured figures of all the named species have » been made and the account will be published this year. The most important _ matter otherwise was the preparation of a Check List, as the last one was fifty 4 _—__ years old. In 1898 three listings were issued, one by Sharpe at the conclusion of ex his Monograph, another by Meyer when he exhibited a series of the birds before ,” _ the Ornithological Congress, and Rothschild described the species briefly without Be figures in Das Thierreich. Since then Rothschild maintained his interest in this group and many papers were issued by him, sometimes in conjunction with ‘Hartert, on the subject. The British Ornithologists’ Expedition’s finds were reported upon by Ogilvie-Grant in 1915, and recently the Archbold Expeditions See have contributed to our knowledge of distribution. Blood’s contribution is even more amazing as to distribution. The Birds of Paradise and Bower-Bir ds are ail included in Mathews’ Systema Avium Australasianarum, wherein he apparently followed Sharpe’s classification, and a good synonymy for the time was given. Mayr has recently issued a List of New Guinea Birds in which, of course, all the New Guinea forms are included, NS bat no fewer than twenty species are written off as “Hybrid Birds of Paradise’. - apparently without many facts to support*the suggestion. The present list allows the species as proposed, until facts negative their status, hypothetical and _ sometimes fantastic parentage being ignored. r “SOAS _ The following new species and subspecies are introduced here, but full ex, descriptions and coloured figures will appear in the account now in the press, the references to plates and figures given after each bird’s name being to that work. we oe: _ PARADISEA BLOODI, new species. This is one of the most beautiful forms yet _ discovered and was collected at Minyip, Mt. Hagen, by Captain Blood. Top of head dark orange brown, frontal band small, black with a blue tinge, throat patch ‘large, small scale-like feathers with iridescent sheen, deep violet, throat band -large, wide, red-brown with purplish tinge, a breast cushion of deep brown with io . a purple tinge, rest of under -surface brown with a blue wash, back feathers 4s i bluish brown, wings similar, coverts with a bronze tinge; tail feathers blue, Bee. -p _ streamers narrow webbed both sides, black with dull blue tip. The side plumes are long, loose, stiffish, lower ones basally crimson, ends brownish blue, upper series fawn, with a greenish tinge. Bill, 32 mm.; wing, 178 mm.; tail, 130 mm.; tarsus, 40 mm. The bill is shining dark grey, the eye brown, legs dark slate. In detail this bird has the bill long, deep, interramal space very small, wing with Pe first primary narrow, tip slightly attenuate, as is the second, the fifth and sixth. “" —s WAR2 2 1946 AEB KS att z x Rae ss Be, ; % a - AY ay ot Ape eer ee ee ¥ ie ihe wae “a a Se i : x me : Pare ah ae ya z 162 CHECK. LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. | eee ee ea hn te fe gta a longest, secondaries long but not as ae as “the TES the ‘tail rounded, — ah ia feathers square, central pair very long, a web about 1 mm. broad on each side, a the outer slightly the larger, the tip a little broader and rounded. $y As this bird is not a typical Paradisea, a subgenus, Visendavis, is here proposed for it until more is known about it, the structures described above being diagnostic. ait % ASTRARCHIA BARNESI, new species. This beautiful bird is named after Mr. William Barnes, of the Australian Museum, as it is almost entirely due to his enthusiasm that Captain Blood made the collection here noticed. It has the general form and colouring of A. stephaniae but has a shorter bill with a different tail structure. The tail feathers are pointed, narrow and comparatively short, the longest feather, except the middle pair, being 130 mm. with 18 mm. width, whereas stephaniae shows 180 mm. with 28 mm. width. The two long feathers are longer than in stephaniae, 750 mm. and over, the very longest stephaniae not reaching 700 mm., but are differently formed. In this bird the base is very narrow, 12 mm.,; with a very broad white shaft, broadening out to 40 mm., while stephaniae has a small narrow white shaft, though it measures 40 mm. at base and over 70 mm. at widest part. These central feathers are boldly marked with white, which stephaniae never shows. Mt. Hagen district. LOPHORINA SUPERBA ADDENDA, new subspecies. The forms of superba so far separated have depended mostly on the colour of the female and the frilling of the nape ornament, but no mention has been made of the structure of that, which in the type is erected as a large ™ shaped fan; in minor from the soueh: east the fan is a squarish oblong, but in the present form it is a very large crescent with very long fringes, the breadth being 290 mm. The breast shield is also very large, with an extent of 190 mm. The frontal tufts are like those of minor. The feathers of the breast shield in the middle bear black central streaks as reported ~ for minor, but Arfak birds also show this feature, which must be dismissed as diagnostic. Bill from nostril, 18 mm.; wing, 125 mm.; tail, 92 mm.; tarsus, 34 mm. Mt. Hagen district. PAROTIA LAWESI EXHIBITA, new subspecies. The male agrees in detail with that of P. lawesi, with practically the same measurements, while the female is not unlike that of Jawesi on the upper surface, a little darker, more uniform, but the 3 under surface shows easy distinction, as it is rufous, strongly closely barred from chin to undertail coverts with narrow blackish brown bands: in lawesi the bars are fairly close on breast but become weaker on sides of breast and obsolete on abdomen and undertail coverts. Bill from nasal groove, male 15, female 15 mm.; wing, male 160, female 152 mm.; tail, male 80, female 110 mm.; tarsus, male 48, female 45 mm. The birds are from Hoiyevia, 5,500 feet, Mount Hagen district. CNEMOPHILUS MACGREGORII SANGUINEUS, new _ subspecies. This form has replaced the golden yellow of the type with scarlet vermilion, the cinnamon brown | of the wings and tail being very much darker and more reddish. The female has a crest as long as that of the male, duller coloured, and her coloration above curiously lacks the reddish brown tinge of the type, being olive green, while underneath the throat is pale, the breast darker green and the abdomen pale yellow. The measurements of both sexes are ‘similar. The type male was. procured at Kumdi, another male at Moyani, 8,000 feet, and two females at Lake Iviva, 7,850 feet, all in the Mount Hagen district. ° QUESIPARENS, new genus. Introduced for Paradisea mirabilis Reichenow, from which genus (Paradisea) it differs in bill and tail characters, which Reichenow compared as to the former with that of Seleucidis, and the latter with Paradisea, — but without the two streamers; the two central feathers normal but lpn hened a little. : role IREDALE. 163 ave dee 4 2 4 4 -—_—s Logopritoris, new genus. Proposed for Loborhamphus ptilorhis Sharpe, which a a differs from Loborhampus, as stated by Sharpe, in its larger size, the frontal tuft, oe lack of chin tuft, absence of nuchal frill, and different breast shield. Bice 3 i> Class AVES. BIRDS. Het de Order PASSERIFORMES. PASSERINE BIRDS. ee Family PARADISEIDAE. BIRDS OF PARADISE (so-called). ae . eats Subfamily PAROTIINAE. RIFLE BIRDS AND THEIR ALLIES. ~ tal gah Genus PTriLoriIs Swainson. TRUE RIFLE Birps. 1825. Ptiloris Swainson, Zool. Journ., vol. i, pt. iv, p. 479, Jan. Haplotype Ptiloris ; paradiseus Swainson. ME fa - Name also spelt Ptilorhis Agassiz, 1846 (Index Univ., 12mo. ed., p. 913); oo Ptilorhys Bonaparte, 1854 (Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. xxxviii, p. 260); pe Ptilornis Gray, 1870 (Handl. Gen. Sp. Birds, vol. i, p. 104); and Ptilorrhis Newton, 1894 (Dict. Birds, pt. iii, p. 790). _ PYILORIS VICTORIAE Gould. Plate i, figs. 1, 2. QUEEN VicToRIA RIFLE Birp. 1850. Ptiloris victoriae Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1849, p. 111, Aves, pl. 12 (between Jan. and June, 1850); Barnard’s Isles, North Queensland ~ (J. ; : Macegillivray ). sas (1915. Ptiloris paradisea dyotti Mathews, Austral. Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 133, Jan. 3) ee 28. Cairns, North Queensland. Figured by Gould, Birds Austr., Suppl., pt. 1 (pl. 50), Mch. 15, 1851; Elliot, Mon. Parad., pl. 26, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Parad., vol. i, pl. 2 (pt. iii), 1894; Mathews, pnt Ne Birds Austr., vol. xii, p. 372, pl. 591; 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 24, j 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. il, p. 867, 1930. PTILORIS PARADISEUS Swainson. Plate i, figs. 3 and 4. RIFLE BIrD. 1825. Ptiloris paradiseus Swainson, Zool. Journ., vol. i, pt. iv, p. 481, Jan.; Lake Macquarie, New South Wales. Pies 1825. Epimachus regius Lesson, Ann. Sci. Nat. (Paris), vol. vi, no. 23, p. 263, Bere > November; Port Macquarie, New South -Wales; id., Lesson and Garnot, age She's ; _ Voy. Coquille, Zool., Atlas, pl. 28 (livr. 1), Nov. 1, 1826; p. 667 (livr. 15), Apl. 3, 1830. 1827. Epimachus Obrisbanii Wilson, Illustr. Zool., pt. iii, pl. xi (end); Port Macquarie, New South Wales. 1923. Ptiloris paradisea queenslandica Mathews, Austral. Avian Rec., vol. v, p. 42, is Feb. 21; Blackall Ranges, South Queensland. ae oe Figured by Gould, Birds Austr., pt. xxvii (vol. iv, pl. 100), June 1, 1847; Beis = _ Eliot, Mon. Parad., pl. 25, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Parad., vol. i, pl. i (pt. ii), 1893; Tae Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, p. 366, pl. 590, 1926; described, Rothschild, ee * : Paradis., p. 24, 1898; listed Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, pl. 867, 1930. Genus CRASPEDOPHORA Gray. NEw GUINEA RIFLE BIRD. i i. 1840. Craspedophora Gray, List Gen. Birds, 1st ed., add. p. 1, April. Orthotype pan Falcinellus magnificus Vieillot. (Not Craspedophorus Hope, Coleopt. 1 Man., vol. ii, pp. 91, 165, 1838.) 1922. Mathewsiella Iredale, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xliii, p. 39, Nov. 29. Ortho- ef type Craspedophora magnifica claudia Mathews. ' 1931. Pherocraspedon Mathews, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. lii, p. 25. To replace _ Mathewsiella Iredale, 1922, not Matthewsiella Hetsckko, 1913. a eae ~. / 1821. Hpimach(us) filamentosus Schinz, Das Thierreich (Cuvier), vol. i, D. 627, as 164 <2 CHECK List ‘OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND. BOWER-BIRDS. Ati ; CRASPEDOPHORA MAGNIFICA Vieillot. Plate li, figs. A, 2. : MAGNIFICENT. ‘Rirce BIRD. 1819. Falcinellus magnificus Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., nouvy. ed, “vol. XXVili, p- 167, .pl. G.39;f. 3.. May; New Guinea. . 1812? Paradisea furcata Bullock, Companion to the London Museu: 15th ed., D. 46, 1813 (pref. Mch. 28), based on Black Bird of Paradise, plate, dated — Apl. 1, 1812. (But not Paradisea furcata Latham, 1790.) New Guinea. ; - i ee: Pra AR aASe, + i = i ig « — ¥ td ane < , "¢ ’ wer based on “Ejpimaque promefil Cuv.”. Neuguinea ? s 1826: Epimachus splendidus Stephens, Gen. a (Shaw), vol. xiv, p. 77. Based on — any 2 Cuv. Reg. Anim., vol. i, p. 408. No locality. i ae 1861. Paradisea magnifica major Schlegel, Journ. fiir Ornith., 1861, p. 386, Sept. 20 Cie be (ex Miller). Triton Bays western New.Guinea. (Not Paes aa ys. |S ca 4 ) Shaw, 1809.) . ae 1869. Ptiloris alberti Wallace, Malay Archipelago, vol. ii, pp. 256/8, nomen alae ee Ba, 1870. Ptilornis alberti Gray, Handl. Gen. Sp. Birds B.M., VOL. 4; Doc1O5 “(Reb wae F a in synonymy. a pec ca 1871. Ptiloris alberti Elliot, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Liond.), 1871, p. 583, Oct. I>) Capes ee York, North Australia. z Nia 1876. Ptiloris wilsonii, Ogden, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., £875, p. 451, ple aes a i Jan. 11, 1876. New Guinea (based on an artefact). 1876. Ptiloris superbus Beccari, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. vii, p. 713. Penslip only. pein 1882. Ptilorhis intercedens Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Lond.), Zool., vol. xvi, « p. 444, July 31. Hast Cape and Milne Bay, New Guinea (A. Goldie). : 1917..Craspedophora magnifica claudia Mathews, Austral. Avian Rec., vol. iii, p. gale 72, July 21. Claudie River, North Queensland. / A aa 1922. Craspedophora magnifica yorki Mathews, Austral. Avian Rec., vol. v, Di ds . July 17. Cape York, North Queensland. Figured by Gould, Birds Austr., Suppl., pl. 51 (pt. i), Mch. 15, 1851; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 23 (magnificus), pl. 24 (alberti), 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 138 (pt. ix), Mch. 1, 1879;, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 3 (pt. i), 1891; pli 4 (pt. vii) (alberti), 1897; pl. 5 (pt. ii) (intercedens), 1893; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, p. 378, pl. 592, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 24/25, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 867, 1930; Mayr, = List New Guinea Birds, p. 174, 1941. 5) , ee Genus LopHorina Vieillot. SUPERB BIRDS. 1816. Lophorina Vieillot, Anal. nouv. Ornith, p. 35, Apl. 14. Haplotype “Le Superte . Buit” = Paradisea superba Forster. Name also spelt Lophorhina Wagler, ores 1827 (Syst. Av., pt. i, Paradisea (pp. 99, 102) ). LOPHORINA SUPERBA Forster. Plate iii. SUPERB BrRD-or-PARADISE. 1781. Paradisea superba Forster, Indische Zool. (Pennant), p. 40 (2nd ed., ee aes vern. only), based on Planch. Enlum., 632. = New Guinea (Arfak Mts.). 1783. Paradisea atra Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum., p. 38, Dec., based on Planch. Enlum., 632, Buff, v, p. 231. = New Guinea iCaneak Mts. ). | aes 1790. Paradisea furcata Latham, Index Ornith., vol. i, Dp. 196... No locality. ‘Mus. ree Leverianum. eet 1885. Lophorina superba minor Ramsay, Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales): a p. v, May 27; Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W:,; vol. x, p. Hg July pe Astrolabe | ayes Mountains, S.E. New Guinea. ‘ 1907. Lophorina minor latipennis Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xix, D. 92, June 29. Rawlinson Mts., German New Guinea. pi a fr Yet! Ue ' IREDALE. | 165 1915. Lopheniatn Spero feminina Ogilvie-Grant, Ibis, 1915, Jubilee Suppl. 2, i p. 27, December. Utakwa River, Nassau Range, South-West New Guinea. ag . Lophorina superba niedda Mayr, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 38, p. 179, Nov. 6. Dae eee Wondiwoi, Wandammen district, W. New Guinea (Mayr). : ? ym ~~. 1930. Lophorina superba connectens Mayr, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 38, p. 180, Nov. 6. ae ' Dawong, Herzog Mts., N.E. New Guinea (Mayr). -—-—s«:1932. Lophorina superba sphine Neumann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 40, p. 121, July 9. peas 3.01, : Locality unknown. Female or young male described. aie 1982. Lophorina superba lehunti Rothschild, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, vol. 10, a es p. 126. Mekeo, South-East New Guinea. — —~-—s«1934. Lophorina superba pseudoparotia Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 42, p. 144, Me rs: Le Sept. 20. Hunsteinspitze. Middle Sepik, N. New Guinea (Burgers). ~ ———s«- 1948. Lophorina superba addenda ante. | oa oes Figured by Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. ii, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, aA > = «pk 18 (pt. vi), Feb., 1878; Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. f. ges. Ornith., 1885, Be? pl. 17. (minor); Gould-Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 19 (pt. xxiv), 1888 a, eo minor); Sharpe, Mon. Parad., vol. ii, pl. 15 (pt. iv), 1895; id., vol.. ii, pl. 16 “ - (pt. v), 1895 (minor); described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 19, p. 20 (minor), 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 884, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea 1? @ Genus PAROTIA Vieillot. SIx-PLUMED. BIRDS. “ i, 1816. Parotia Vieillot, Anal. nouv. Ornith., p. 35, Apl. 14. Haplotype ‘“Sifelet, eS Buff.” = Paradisea sefilata Forster. Name also spelt Parotica Wagler, an ke 1827 (Syst. Av., pt. 1, Paradisea, p. 99, note, error only). “ig 1841. Otostylis Gloger, Gemein. MHand.-u.-Hilfsb. Naturg., pt. i, heft 5, p. 344 : Mere ts (Nov. ?). New name for Parotia only. Name also spelt Otostylus Gray, Handl. Gen. Sp. Birds, pt. ii, p. 16, 1870. _ PAROTIA SEFILATA Forster. Plate iv, figs. 3, 4. SIx-PLUMED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. . 1781. Paradisea sefilata Forster, Indische Zool. (Pennant), p. 40 (2nd ed., 1791, ay Me . -vernac. only), based on Planch. Enlum., 633. New Guinea, Arfak Mts. ea 1783. Paradisea sexpennis Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum., p. 39, December, based | et eres on Planch. Enlum, 633, Buff., v, p. 253. New Guinea. . 1786. Paradisaea penicillata Scopoli, Del Faun. et Flor. Insub., pt. ii, p. 88, based af : on Sonnerat, Nov. Guin., p. 158, tab. 97. New Guinea. 1788. Paradisea aurea Gmelin, Syst. Nat., pt. i, p. 402, July 25, based on Sifelet. é Buff., v, p. 253, pl. 633. New Guinea. ei 1790. Paradisea sexsetacea Latham, Index Ornith., vol. i, p. 196, on exactly same basis’ as preceding. Also spelt setacea, eee * ~~ Figured by Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 10, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, Pr pl. 25 (pt. i), 1875; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 12 (pt. v), 1895; described, eos » - dothschild, Paradis.,: pt. 7, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., Re ii, p. 883, Pane 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 172, 1941. me PAROTIA LAWESI Ramsay. Plate iv, figs. 1, 2. LAWES’ BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1885. Parotia lawesi Ramsay, Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., p. 5, May 27; Proce: Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. x, p. 243, July 31. Astrolabe Mts. S.E. New Guinea. 1897. Parotia helenae De Vis, Ibis, 1897, p. 390, July. .Neneba, 4,000 feet, north dpe slope of Mt. Scratchley, British New Guinea. 1934. Parotia lawesi fuscior Greenway, Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club, vol; *14, pa2° Mt. Misim, Morobe district, north-east coast of New Guinea. 1948. Parotia lawesi exhibita ante. 166 _ CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. Figured by Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. f. ges. Ornith., 1885, ie 16; ‘Goully Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 26 (pt. xxiii), 1887; Sharpe, ‘Mon. Paradis., 4 vol. ii, pl. 13, pt. ii, 1891; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 18, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 883, 1930; ier List New Guinea Birds, a ‘p: LTS; 1941: PAROTIA WAHNESI Rothschild. Plate v, figs. 1, 2. WAHNES’S BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1906. Parotia wahnesi Rothschild, Two New Birds of Paradise, p. 2, Oct. 1. Rawlinson Mts., Huon Peninsula, N.E. New Guinea (C. Wahnes). Figured by Rothschild, Ibis, 1911, pl. 6; listed by Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 884, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 173, 1941. PAROTIA DUIVENBODEI Rothschild. Plate v, fig. 3. DUIVENBODE’s BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1900. Parotia duivenbodei Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. x, p. 100, May 31. Dutch New Guinea. Figured by Rothschild, Ibis, 1911, pl. 5; listed by Mathews, Syst. AY; Australas., pt. ii, p. 884, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds ,p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Parotia sefilata and Lophorina superba). PAROTIA CAROLAE Meyer. PI. v, fig. 4; pl. xiii, fig. 4. CAROL BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1894. Parotia carolae Meyer, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. vi, Nov. 30. “A mberno ; River’, supposed to be from Weyland Mts., Dutch New Guinea. 1897. Parotia berlepschi Kleinschmidt, Orn. Monatsb., vol. v, p. 46, Mch.; Journ. fiir Orn. 45 Jr., heft 2, p. 174, figs. in text, Apl., 1897. Locality unknown. 1910. Parotia carolae meeki Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxvii, p. 35, Dec. 31. Letekwa (sic) River, 2,000-2,500 feet, S.W. New Guinea (A. S. Meek). 1934. Parotia carolae chalcothorax Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 42, p. 145, Sept. 20. Doormanpad-bivak, Upper Mamberano, Dutch New Guinea (van Heurn). 1934. Parotia carolae chrysenia Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 42, p. 147, Sept. 20. Lordberg, Sepik Mts., North New Guinea (Burgers). Figured by Meyer, Abh. ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden, vol. v, no. 5, p. 8, pl. 2, 1895; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 14, pt. vii), 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 18, p. 19 (berlepschi), 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 884, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 172, 1941. Genus SELEvCIDIS Lesson. TWELVEWIRED BIRD. 1834: Seleucidis Lesson, Hist. Nat. Paradis., pt. ii, Synops., p. 28, Sept. (fide Sherborn). Haplotype Seleucidis acanthilis = Paradisea melanoleuca Daudin. Name also spelt Seleucides Lesson, Hist. Nat. Paradis., p. 227, hoo: 1840. Nematophora Gray, List Genera Birds, ist ed., p. 12, April. Orthotype Paradisea alba Blumenbach = P. melanoleuca Daudin. SELEUCIDIS MELANOLEUCUS Daudin. Plate ii, figs. 3 and 4. TWELVEWIRED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1800. Paradisea melanoleuca Daudin, Traite d’Ornith,, pt. ii, p. 278, Mch. 4, based solely on Pennant, Ind. Zool. Wayghihu; may be error for Arfak Pen’a. 1809. Paradisea nigricans Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. vii, pt. 2, p. 489, pls. 60, 61. New Guinea. 1811. Paradisea violacea Bechstein, Kurze Uebers. Vogel (Latham), p. 133, pl. 25, based on Vieillot, Suppl. hist. nat. Ois. Parad., p. 37, pl. 13. No locality. nl r at he] Nae ee s ; T ‘ - ies j te ; FS, ° Sa be . J EP ete, ‘ w ~~ 4e. pe , PaaS ba 7 - - pa — . ed ae rr a 3S, pe Cee, eee oe Ns ak 5 4 eS > > we ice i Be & Be. 2 i j eS eee m a ee ~ 4 x ¥ er ee Te ta 4 ‘% ¥ Oe om ye tne IREDALE. ~ 167 asi, Falcinellus resplendescens Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., vol. 28, p. 165, May. No locality, cites Ois. Dorés, pl. 13, Ois. par. Also spelt resplendens Lesson. ‘1834. Seleucidis acanthilis Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Parad., pt. ii, Syn. p. 29 (pl. 35), Sept. New name only. . _ 1853. Seleucides alba Reichenbach and later authors. 1870. Epimachus candida Gray, Handl. Gen. Sp. Birds, pt. i, p. 105, as of Forster, in synonymy. 1876. Seleucides ignota Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Nat. Genova, vol. ix, p. 191 . (dated Dec.), as of “Forster, Zool. Ind., p. 31 et p. 35, var. secunda, 1781”. 1911. Seleucides ignotus auripennis Schliiter, Falco, vol. vii, p. 2. Dallmanshafen (= Wewak), north coast New Guinea. _ Figured by Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 22, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. ii, pls. 14, 15 (pt. xii), 1881; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pls. 9, 10 (pt. vii), 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 28, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 869, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 175, 1941. y Genus HETEROPTILORHIS Sharpe. 1898. Heteroptilorhis Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., pt. viii (Introd., p. x), Oct. Orthotype Craspedophora mantoui Oustalet. . HETEROPTILORHIS MANTOUI Oustalet. Plate vi, fig. 4. MANTOoOU’s RIFLE Brirp. 1891. Craspedophora mantoui Oustalet, Le Naturaliste, vol. xiii, p. 260, November. North-West New Guinea. 1895. Craspedophora bruyni Buttikofer, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. xvi, p. 161, Mech. 15. Arfak Mts., North-West New Guinea (J. Bensbach). Figured by Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Paris, ser. 3, vol. iv, p. 218, pl. 5, 1892; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 6 (pt: vi), 1896; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 25, 1898; listed by Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 868, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid eiece BAe SP Glene are magnifica and Seleucides ignotus). Genus PARYPHEPHORUS Meyer. 1890. Paryphephorus Meyer, Ibis, 1890, p. 420, footnote, Oct. Haplotype _ Craspedophora duivenbodei Meyer. _ PARYPHEPHORUS DUIVENBODEI Meyer. Plate vi, fig. 3. DUIVENBODE’S RIFLE BIRD. 1890. Craspedophora duivenbodei Meyer, Ibis, 1890, p. 49, pl. 12, October. Mountains of North-West New Guinea. Figured by Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 7 (pt. viii), 1898; described by Rothschild, Paradis., p. 22, 1898; listed by Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 868, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between | Craspedophora magnifica and Lophorina superba). Genus JANTHOTHORAX Biittikofer. 1895. Janthothorax Biuttikofer, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. xvi, p. 163, Mch. 15. Haplotype Janthothorax bensbachi Bittikofer. JANTHOTHORAX BENSBACHI Biittikofer. Plate vi, fig. 2. BENSBACH’S RIFLE BIRD. 1895. Janthothorax bensbachi Biittikofer, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. xvi, p. 163,- Mch. 15. Arfak Mts., North-West New Guinea. Figured by Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 8 (pt. vi), 1896; described, ‘Rothschild, Paradis., p. 22, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, See : A str =F e Sim att ie OE te “4 ag x: ag Me wie s ry Ry ae pa ie erart ¥ ag / hm ae - x ee ed ary ee ; os im he ; » To ee fen : as al ae 168 ing OBECKSLISE OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND owen, 7 ee eS p. 869, 1930: Mayr, List of New ee Biss: Dp. 182, 1941 hybrid qreeceee Craspedophora magnifica and EOE Ee (minor) ). oy ‘ Genus QUESOPARENS. ~ Re QUESPPARENS MIRABILIS Reichenow. Plate vi, fig. 1. REICHENOW’S RIFLE Birp. . 1901 “aradisea mirabilis Reichenow, Orn. Monatsb., vol. ix, p. 185, a aS ee Kaiser Wilhelmshafen (= Madang), North New Guinea. figured by Reichenow, Journ. fiir Orn., 1902, pl. 1; listed by ‘Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 869, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182; 1941 (as hybrid between Seleucides ignotus and Paradisaea (minor) ). Genus LAMPROTHORAX Meyer. - 1894. Lamprothorax Meyer, Abh. ber. K. Zool. Mus. Dresden, vol. v, no. 2, p. 8 Haplotype Lamprothorax wilhelminae Meyer. LAMPROTHORAX WILHELMINAE Meyer. Plate xi, fig. 4. WILHELMINA’s RIFLE Birp. -1894. Lamprothoraz wilhelminae Meyer, Abh. ber. K. Zool. Mus. Dresden, vol. v, no. 2, p. 3, plate. Arfak Mts., North-West New Guinea. . Figured Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 30 (pt. vi), 1896; ieee Rothschild, Paradis., p. 21, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, -p. 875, 1930; Mayr, List of New Guinea Birds; p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between | Diphyllodes magnificus and Lophorina superba). ‘ Genus PARADIGALLA Lesson: WATTLED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. ; 1835. Paradigalla Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois- Paradis., p. 242.. Haplotype Paradigalia carunculata Lesson. — 1852. Lobopsis Reichenbach, Av. Syst. t. 72. Sketch of bill, tip of wing and legs only. Cited by Gray, Cat. Gen. Subgen. Birds, p. 65, 1855, as synonym © of Paradigalla. . sorts PARADIGALLA CARUNCULATA Lesson. Plate vil, figs. 1, 2. WATSTLED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1835. Paradigalla carunculata Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Paradis., p. 242. No locality. ts 1840. Paradigalla carunculata Lesson, Revue Zool. soc. Cuv., 1840, p. 1, Jan., no. Coll. Dr. Abeille at Bordeaux. \ 1841. Astrapia caronculata Eydoux and Souleyet, Voy. Bonité, Zool., vol. i, Pp. Be New Guinea. ; Figured by Eydoux and Souleyet, Voy. Bonité, Atlas, Zool. Ois., pl. 4, 1841; _ Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 17, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 16 (pt. vii), 1878; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 10 (pt. ii), 1893; pares Rothschild, Paradis., p. 16, 1898; listed, Mathews. Syst. Av. Australas., ais ps 881, 1930s Mayr, List of New Guinea Birds, p. 170, 1941. \ eit PARADIGALLA BREVICAUDA Rothschild and Hartert. Plate vii, fig. 4. ~ SHORT-TAILED WATTLED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1911. Paradigalla brevicauda Rothschild and Hartert, Novit. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 159, - Sept. 25. Mt. Goliath, Central Dutch New Guinea, 5,000 feet (A. S. Meek). 1913. Paradigalla intermedia Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxxi, D. 105, July 10. Utakwa River, South-West New Guinea. Figured by Rothschild, Ibis, 1912, pl. 2; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 882, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, pF 78, 1941. =) i ge ¥ ieee rs ~ o. IREDALE. 169 eres ae “Ai , . _ Genus MAcorecort & De Vis. ne - 1897. ‘Macgregoria De Vis, “This, 1897, p. 251, April. Haplotype Macgregoria pulchra ee. aah De Visi. a - 1897. Maria “Sclater” as below, not Maria Bigot, 1859. xe » YWitcnmdonrd PULCHRA De Vis. Plate vii, fig. 3.. MACGREGOR’S BIRD-OF-PARADISE. ir ta 1897. Macgregoria pulchra De Vis, Ibis, 1897, p. 251, pl. vii, April. Mt. Scratchley, a ee - South-East New Guinea, 12,000 feet. i 1897. Maria macgregoria “Sclater”’, Ibis, 1897, p. 252, April (ex Giglioli, Bull. Soe. ox geogr. Ital., ser. 3, vol. x, fasc. 1, p. 26, 1897, ex Guilianetti MS: nom. “iS ae nud.) in synonymy. Bek 1939. Macgregoria pulchra carolinae Junge, Nova Guinea, DAS VOM CATs nBea See weet ‘Oranje Mts. 3,800 M (over 12,500 feet), Dutch New Guinea. : . Figured Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. xi (pt. vii), 1897; described, oe Rothschild, Paradis., p. 16, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, ty, ~ p. 883, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 169, 1941. ns | Subfamily ASTRAPIINAE. LONG-TAILED BIRDS-OF-PARADISE. Soran Genus ASTRAPIA Vieillot. > TRUE LONG-TAILS. . 1816. Astrapia Vieillot, Anal. nouv. Ornith., p. 36, Apl. 14. Haplotype Paradisea nigra Gmelin. | BK Ne ASTRAPIA NIGRA Gmelin. Plate viii, figs. 3, 4. LonG-TAIL. _- 1788. Paradisea nigra Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. i, p. 401, July 25, based on Lath. syn. i, 2, p. 478. “In. oc. Ind” = New Guinea, Arfak. Mountains. 1790. Paradisea pularis ‘Latham, Index Ornith., vol. i, p. 196. On exactly same basis. . ; Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 9, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, IG Pe Ree pt, viii), 1878; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 17 (pt. ii), 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 32, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, D. 871, 1930; Mayr, List ne Guinea Birds, p. 171, 1941. 4 ASTRAPIA ROTHSCHILDI Foerster. Plate viii, figs. 1, 2. ROTHSCHILD’S LONG-TAILED BIRD. 1906. Astrapia rothschildi Foerster, Two New Birds of Paradise, p. 2, Oct. 1. } Rawlinson Mts., Huon Peninsula, North-East New Guinea (C. Wahnes). 1918. Astrapia alboundata Reichenow, Journ. fir Ornith., vol. 66, p. 244. “Probably the eastern part of Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land” = = Huon Peninsula, N.H. New ies - Guinea. a Fc _ Figured by Rothschild, Nov. Zool.; vol. xviii, pl. viii, 1912; listed by Mathews, _» - $yst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 872, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 172, 1941. Genus CALASTRAPIA SHarpe. “1898. Guiasirania Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., Introd., p. xiii (pt. viii), Oct. Orthotype Astrapia splendidissima Rothschild. CALASTRAPIA SPLENDIDISSIMA Rothschild. Plate x, figs. 3, 4. ‘ : THE Most SPLENDID LONG-TAIL. ej ct 1895. Astrapia splendidissima Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. ii, p. 59, pl. 5, July 3. ee alae _. “Charles Louis Mountains” = Weyland Mts., Dutch New Guinea. | 1936. Astrapia splendidissima helios Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 869, p. 3, July. 2. Mt. Goliath, Deas Range, Central New Guinea (A. S. Meek). 170 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND ‘BOWER-BIRDS. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 18 (pt. viii), 1898; described, jor Rothschild, Paradis., p. 32, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, . p. 872, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 171, 1941. a” Genus ASTRARCHIA Finsch and Meyer. 1885. Astrarchia Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. 2, p. 378, ex Meyer MS. Haplotype Astrarchia stephaniae Finsch and Meyer. ay ee ASTRARCHIA STEPHANIAE Finsch and Meyer. Plate ix, figs. 1, 2. _ STEPHANIE’S BIRD OF PARADISE. fe. 1885. Astrarchia stephaniae Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. 2, p. 378, ’ pl. 18, ex Finsch MS. Astrolabe Mts., S.E. New Guinea. 4 1922. Astrarchia stephaniae feminina Neumann, Verh. Orn. ges. Bayern, vol. 15, _ om p. 236. Schraderberg, Sepik R., N. New Guinea. 1931. Astrapia stephaniae ducalis Mayr, Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 17, p. 711, December. Dawong, Herzog Mts., North-East New Guinea (Mayr). . Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, ple 19 (pt. iii), 1894; described, e Rothschild, Paradis., p. 33, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, — ? ‘ p. 872, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 172, 1941. q ASTRARCHIA BARNESI. Plate x, fig. 1. BARNES’ LONG-TAILED BIRD.” 4 ; Genus TAENIAPARADISEA Kinghorn. 3 1939. Taeniaparadisea Kinghorn, Austr. Zool., vol. ix, p. 295, December 12. 3 Haplotype T. macnicolli Kinghorn = Astrapia mayeri Stonor. 4 fe . Am TAENIAPARADISEA MAYERI Stonor. Plate ix, figs. 3, 4; Plate xiii, figs. 2, 3. Be RIBBON-T AIL. 1939. Astrapia mayeri Stonor, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 59, p. 57, Beene baséd | {yea on tail feathers only. Central New Guinea. ; 4 1939. Taeniaparadisea macnicolli Kinghorn, Aust. Zool., vol. ix, p. 295, pl. xxv, i Dec. 12. Hagen-Sepik district, 8,000—-10,000 ft., Central New Guinea. aa Listed, Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 172, 1941, in error under feminina 5 i aot a Genus ASTRAPIMACHUS Mayr. 1941. Astrapimachus Mayr, list New Guinea Birds, p. 181, post Feb. Haplotype Epimachus ellioti Elliot. ASTRAPIMACHUS ELLIOTI Elliot. Plate xi, fig. 2. ELLior’s BIRD OF PARADISE. 1873. Epimachus ellioti Elliot, Mon. Parad., pl. 20, ex Ward MS. New Guinea. 1874. Epimachus ellioti Ward, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1873, D. 742, April, 1874. New Guinea via Singapore. Figured, Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 8 (pt. xi), 1880; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 16 (pt. vi), 1896; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 29, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 871, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 181, 1941 (as hybrid between Astrapia nigra and Epimachus fastosus). ASTRAPIMACHUS ASTRAPIOIDES Rothschild. Plate x, fig. 2. GREEN-BREASTED SICKLE BILL. 1897. Epimachus astrapioides Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, Vokiwil, Dp) saa Dec. 29. Dutch New Guinea. Figured, Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, pl. vii, 1912; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 30, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. -Australas., pt. ii, p. 371, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 181, 1941 (as hybrid between. Astrapia nigra and Epimachus fastosus). IREDALE. 171 pee a ee ; Genus LosorHAMPHUS Rothschild. 7 AS 1901. Loborhamphus Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xii, p. 34, Dec. 30. . Haplotype Loborhamphus nobilis Rothschild. LOBORHAMPHUS NOBILIS Rothschild. Plate xi, fig. 3. Nospie LOoBE-BILL. ta 1901. Loborhamphus nobilis Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xii, p. 34, Dec. 30. Dutch New Guinea. . Figured, Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. x, pl. 1, 1903; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 875, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Lophorina superba and Paradigalla carunculatda). Genus LOBOPTILORIS. LOBOPTILORIS PTILORHIS Sharpe. Plate xiv, fig. 4. SHARPE'S LOBE-BILL. . 1908. Loborhamphus ptilorhis Sharpe, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxi, p. 67, Mch. 30. Dutch New Guinea. Listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 876, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 181, 1941 (as hybrid between Poaradigalla carunculata and Parotia sefilata). Genus PSEUDASTRAPIA Rothschild. 1907. Pseudastrapia Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxi, p. 25, Nov. 29. Haplotype Pseudastrapia lobata Rothschild. PSEUDASTRAPIA LOBATA Rothschild. Pl. xiv, fig. 1. FAasEe-Lopep Lone TAt. 1907. Pseudastrapia lobata Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxi, p. 25, Nov. 29. Dutch New Guinea. Listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 871, 1930 (in synonymy) ; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 181, 1941 (as hybrid between Hpimachus fastosus and Paradigalla carunculata). ; Subfamily EPIMACHINAE. SICKLE BILLS. Genus EPIMACHUS Cuvier. 1816. Epimachus Cuvier, Régne Animal, vol. i, p. 407, “1817” = Dec. 4, 1816. . Logotype; Gray, 1840, p. 12, Upupa magna Gmelin = Promerops fastuosus Hermann. 1816. Falcinellus Vieillot, Anal. nouv. Orn., p. 47, Apl. 14. Haplotype “Promerops, Buff.” = Promerops fastuosus Hermann. (Not Falcinellus Illiger, 1811.) 1834. Cinnamolegus Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Paradis., pt. ii, p. 31, September. Haplotype Cinnamolegus papuanus Lesson = Promerops fastuosus Hermann. EPIMACHUS FASTUOSUS Hermann. PI. ST We ees PEL KT y tse ae GREATER SICKLE BILL. 1783. Promerops fastuosus. Hermann, Tabl. Affin. Anim., p. 194, ante Dec., based on Buff. iv, p. 472 (Planch. Enlum., 638, 639). New Guinea = Arfak Mts. 1783. Upupa striata Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum., p. 39, December, based on Pl(anch.) Enlum, 638, Buff., xii, p. 159. New Guinea. 1783. Upupa speccosa Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum., p. 39, December, based on : Pl(anch.) Enlum, 639, Buff., xii, p. 161. New Guinea. 1786. Merops bruneus Scopoli, Del Faun. et Flor. Insubr., pt. ii, p. 90, based on Sonnerat, Nov. Guin., p. 164 (tab. 100). New Guinea. 1786. Merops maximus Scopoli, Del Faun. et Flor. Insubr., pt. ii, p. 90, based on Sonnerat, Nov. Guinea, p. 166 (tab. 101). New Guinea. , CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADIS: AND BOWER-BIRDS. | . 172 1788. Upupa fusca Gmelin, Syst. Nat., pt. i, p. 468, July 25, based on Planch.) oN Enlum., 638 (i), Sonnerat, p. 164, ‘ 100. New Guinea. ee “7 1788. Upupa magna Gmelin, Syst. Nat., pt. i, p. 468, July 25, based on Pl(anch. pas o Enlum., 639 (i), Sonnerat, p. 166, t. toe New Guinea. Be 1790. Upupa papuensis Latham, Index Ornith., vol. i, p. 279 (ante Dec. 9), bacedy oa 4 on same data as Upupa fusca Gmelin. ; a 1790. Upupa superba Latham, Index Ornith., vol. i, p. 279 (ante Dec. 9), based on — ans same data as Upupa magna eae ) i 1819. Falcinellus fuscus Vieillot, Nouy. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., vol. xxviii, 4 p. 165, May, on Upupa papuensis Latham, Ois. Dores., pl. 7, Promerops. Labillardiére at Waygiou. “4 1834. Cinnamolegus papuanus Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Paradis., pt. ii, p. 31, Sept., a, p. 233, pls. 39-40, 1835. Nouvelle Guinée. Ile de Waigiou (La Billardiére). Be Misspelt papuensis Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av., vol. i, p. 411, Feb., 1851, y ; . error only. 1911. Falcinellus striatus atratus Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. ZOOl., vol. 18, p. 160, Sept. 25. Mt. Goliath, 5,000 ft., Central Dutch New Guinea (A. S. | Meek). : ie 1930. Epimachus fastosus stresemanni Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. 36, p. 34, Nov. 15. a Schraderberg, Sepik Mts., North New Guinea (Burgers). x Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 19, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, - pl 9, pt. vii, 1878; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis.; voli, pl. 14 (pt. 11); 1694, desexiped, Z Rothschild, Paradis., p. 30, 1898; listed by Mathews, Syst. Av. oe pt, Aue p. 870, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 170, 1941. EPIMACHUS MEYERI Finsch and-Meyer.: Pl. xii, figs. 1, 2. MEYER’S SICKLE BILL. 1885. 1887. 1915. Epimachus meyeri Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. ges. Ornith., vol. ii, p. 380, ex Finsch MS. Astrolabe Mts., South-East New Guinea (C. Hunstein). 3 Epimachus macleayanae Ramsay, Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, i: for May 25,9. ‘iv3. Proc. “Linn= Soc. N:S-W.5. “vole xi, -p.> 2a0, Ae oe ae Astrolabe Mts., New Guinea (Goldie). Also spelt H. macleayae Meyer, % Journ. fiir Orn., 1889, p. 324, July no. Correction only. | ie Falcinellus meyeri albicans Oort, Zool. Mededeel. Mus. ‘Nat. Hist. Leiden, a vol. i, p. 228, Dec. 22. Treub Mts., 7,000 ft., Dutch New Guinea (G. a Verstega). a Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, p. 15, pt. i, 1891; described, Rothschild, 4 Paradis., p. 31, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 871, 1930; a Mayr, 1873. 1874. . Drepanornis Sclater, Nature, vol. viii, p. 305, Aug. 14; Proc. Zool. Soce.. . Drepanornis Sclater, Nature, vol. viii, p. 192, July 3, nomen nudum; new # ~— . Drepanephorus Sclater, Nature, vol. viii, p. 151, June, nomen nudum. Not — Ly List New Guinea Birds, p. 171, 1941. Genus DREPANORNIS Sclater. Vee (Lond.), 1873, pp. 558/560, Nov. Haplotype Drepanornis albertisi Sclater. name for SD ah ea ae BR nasi a te PU nel re Bs sea ee Drepanephorus Egerton, 1872. ‘ e DREPANORNIS ALBERTISI Sclater. Plate xv, figs. 1, 2. -Rep SICKLE BILL. Drepanornis albertisi Sclater, Nature, vol. viii, p. 305, fig. on p. 306, Aug. 14; : id., ib., Proc. Zool. Soc. (London), 1873, p. 560, pl. 47, November. Atam, iy Arfak Mts, 3,000 feet, North-West New Guinea (Albertis). ; Epimachus wilhelminae Meyer, Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie, ser. 7, vol. 3, p. 415, after Dec., 1873; Journ. fiir Orn., 1873, p. 405, Nov. no. (publd. Mch., 1874). ates Mts., 3,000—6,000 feet, North-West New Guinea. i ee ba ee (ised. 1893. Didimaciatg “veithii Sclater, Ibis, 1874, p. 187, Apl., ex Rosenberg MS., as a synonym of Drepanornis albértisi. if 1874. Epimachus vethi Rosenberg, Reist. Geelvink., p. 116, pl. xviii (pref. July 15). North-West New Guinea = Hattam (footnote, p. 117 = D. albertisii). Drepanornis albertisi cervinicauda Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1883, -p. 578, Apl. 1884. Port Moresby, South-East New Guinea (Goldie). Drepanornis geisleri Meyer, Abh. Ber. K. Zool. Mus. Dresden, bd. iv, 1892-3, ; no. 3, p. 15. Mt. Sattelberg, North-East New Guinea, 900 M. (Geisler). sh 1936. Drepanornis albertisi inversa War tert, Paludan, Rothschild and Stresemann, of a Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. xxi, p. 188, Sept. 1. Kunupi, 1,200-1,300 M., Ew 3 ’ Weyland Mts., W. New Guinea. ag a + Figured, Hlliot, Mon. Parad., pl. 21, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, +3 ad} pl. il (pt. 1), 1875; Albertis, New Guinea, pl., 1880; Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. = ges. Orn., 1885, pl. 19; Gould-Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 10 (pt. xxx) a F -(cervinicauda), 1885; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis:, vol. i, pl. 12 (pts. iv and v), 1895; = described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 27, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., a aa SSW ork poo pe oe ent BEA tee ee lt eee ee t. Ag Pe wee Bes F 1816. —. - a BA eX: Reg 26 ne Ay BTS. agen Bt ey p. 869, 1930; Mayr, ee 1894. Drepananax Sharpe, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. 15; Dec. 29. Bek os PABA theca x BRUYNI Oustalet. 1880. _Drepanornis bruyni Oustalet, Ann. Figured, Gould-Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, Oustalet, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Pee Oh t, DLCs. (pt. _ Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pap: sh £0, 1941. CICINNURUS REGIUS Linné. Paradisaea regia Linné, Syst. SAH 1786, 238 : 1834. Be a =<. 1396. 19165. 1922. 1922. List New Guinea Birds, p. 170, 1941. Genus DREPANANAX Sharpe. Orthotype Drepanornis bruyni Oustalet. Plate xv, figs. 3, 4. WHITEBILLED SICKLE BIRD. S¢i. Nat. Paris, 'ser.. 6," vol. .S),aptaeos North coast of New Guinea, 136° 30’-137° (A. A. Bruijn). pl..12 (pt. xxi), 1386; Paris, ser.-3, vol. 5, pl. 6, 18983; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., iv), 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 28, 1898; listed, pt. ii, p. 870, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 28 (170). Subfamily CICINNURINAE. Kine BIRDS. Genus CIcINNURUS Vieillot. Cicinnurus Vieillot, Anal. nouv. Ornith., p. 35, Apl. 14. Haplotype ““Manucode Buff.” = Paradisaea regia Linné. Also spelt Cinnurus Drapiez, 1828 (Dict. Class d’Hist. Nat., vol. xxx, p. 46); Cincinnurus Cuvier, 1829 (Regne Animal, 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 426); Circinurus Gloger, 1841 (Gemein. Hand.-— u.-Hilfsb. Naturg., pt. i, p. 344); Cicinnura Bonaparte, 1851 (Consp. Gen. Av., vol. i, p. 413). Plate xiv, figs. 3, 4, 5. Kine BIRD-oF-PARADISE. Nat., 10th ed., p. 110, Jan., based on Mus. Av. Fr., i, p.. 15, and many others. In India orientali = Aru Islands. Paradisaea rex Scopoli, Del Faun. et Flor. Insubr., pt. ii, p. 88, based on Sonnerat, Nov. Guin., p. 156, tab. 95. New Guinea. Cicinnurus spinturnix Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Cee ee pt. i; Syn; p14, July. A substitute name only. Cicinnurus regius coccineifrons Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. Zool., cae. lili, p. 10, ex Rothschild MS., Mch. 14. Jobi I. = Japen. Cicinnurus regius claudii Ogilvie-Grant, Ibis, 1915, Jubilee Suppl. 2, p. 16, text-figs. 1, 2, December. Mimika River, South-West New Guinea. Cicinnurus regius gymnorhynchus Stresemann, Journ. ftir Orn., vol. ~p. 405. Near Finschhafen, North-Eastern New Guinea. Cicinnurus regius similis, id., ib. Stephansort, Astrolabe Bay, North-Eastern ~ New Guinea. 70, 174 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. - 1922. Cicinnurus regius cryptorhynchus, id., ib., Tana, lower Mamberano River, Northern New Guinea. 1922. Cicinnurus regius similis Neumann, Werk, Orn. ges. Bayern, vol. ee De 236. Stephansort, North-Eastern New Guinea. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 16, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. (24.. (pt. iit), 1876; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis:;; :vol:% ph-- 3). (ptu-+iD).? 18a8: described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 35, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 876, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 176, 1941. CICINNURUS LyoGyRUS Currie. Plate xiv, fig. 3. LONELY LITTLE KING. 1900. Cicinnurus lyogyrus Currie, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxii, p. 497, pl., July 7. New Guinea. 1907. Cicinnurus goodfellowi Ogilvie-Grant, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xix, p. 39, Jan. 26. Cyclops Mts., 3,000 ft., North Dutch New Guinea (W. Goodfellow). Listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 877, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Cicinnurus regius and Diphyllodes mMagnificus ). Genus DIPHYLLODES Lesson. 1834. Diphyllodes Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Parad., pt. i, Syn., p. 16, July. Haplotype ~ Paradisea magnifica Forster. ~ 1842. Cricocercus Gloger, Gemelin. Hand.-u.-Hilfsb. Naturg., pt. i, p. 345 (Nov. ?).- Haplotype Paradisea magnifica Forster. Also spelt Ovriocercus Giebel, Oricocercus Gray, 1870 (Handl. Gen. Sp. Birds, pt. ii, p. 16). DIPHYLLODES MAGNIFICA Forster. Plate xiv, figs. 1 and 2. MAGNIFICENT BIRD OF PARADISE. 1781. Paradisea magnifica Forster, Zool. Indische (Pennant), p. 40, based on Planch. Enlum., 631. New Guinea, Arfak Mts. 1783. Paradisea speccosa Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum, p. 38, December, based on Pl(anch.) Enlum., 631. New Guinea. 1834. Diphyllodes seleucides Lesson, Hist. Nat. Ois. Parad., pt. i, p. 16, July; - ~ Gd., p. 191, pl. 19, 20, 1835: new name only. Dae 1873. Diphyllodes speciosa var. chrysoptera Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 13, ex Gould MS. (Gould’s specimen described). Locality unknown = Jobi I. (Japen),. New Guinea. 1882. Diphyllodes chrysogaster Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Lond.), Zool., vol. xvi, ° p. 443, July 31 (from Taburi, East Cape), but lapsus only for preceding. 1885. Diphyllodes jobiensis Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. ftir ges. Ornith., vol. 2, - p. 388 (ex Meyer MS.). Jobi I. = Japen I., North-West New Guinea. 1885. Diphyllodes hunsteini Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. ges. Ornith., vol. 2, p. 389, pl. 21 (ex Meyer MS.).. Hufeisengebirge, South-East New Guinea (C. Hunstein ). 1892. Diphyllodes chrysoptera septentrionalis Meyer, Journ. ftir Orn., vol. 40, p. 260, July no. Bubui R., Huon Gulf, North-East New Guinea. 1896. Diphyilodes xanthoptera Salvadori, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. xxii Feb. 29. No locality; Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, ser. 2, vol. 16, p. 110 (dated Mch. 10), Moroka, South-East New Guinea. = 1915. Diphyllodes rothschildi Ogilvie-Grant, Ibis, 1915, Jubilee Suppl., 2, p. 24, December. I. of Salawati, Western New Guinea. 1930. Diphyllodes magnificus intermedius Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. 36, p. 36, November 15. Snow Mountains, 2,500 feet, Dutch New Guinea (A. S. Meek). GR Mag. 4s" e's Poh _ IREDALE. 175 we Ra hare, Elliot, Mon. Parad., pl..12, pl. 13 (var. chrysoptera) 1873; Gould, _—~Birds of New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 22 (speciosa), pl. 23 (chrysoptera) (pt. ii), 1876; & ‘Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 33 (magnifica), pt. vi, 1896; pl. 34 (seleucides), pt. ae ‘ vi, 1896; pl. 35 (chrysoptera), pt. iv, 1895; pl. 36 (hunsteini), pt. v, 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 36, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, _ p. 877, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 175, 1941. Genus RHIPIDORNIS Salvadori. ae 1876. Rhipidornis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. ix, p. 192, footnote (dated Dec. 3). Orthotype Diphyllodes gulielmi III Meyer. _ RurpriporNIs GuLIeELMI III Meyer. Plate xix, fig. 5. “Exquisire LirrLe KIN«. - 1875. Diphyllodes gulielmi III Meyer, Zool. Gart., 1875, p. 29, Jan., ex Musschen- brock MS.; Nature, vol. xi, p. 208, Jan. 14, 1875; Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1875, p. 31, June 1. Eastern Waigiou. - Figured, Meyer, Mitth. Zool. Mus. Dresden, vol. i, pl. i, 1875; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 21 (pt. ii), 1876; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis, vol. i, pl. 32 (pt. Pary, 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis, p. 36, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. -Australas., pt. ii, p. 877, 1930; Mayr, List. New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Cicinnurus regius and Diphyllodes magnificus). Genus SCHLEGELIA Bernstein. 1864. Schlegelia Bernstein, Nat. Tijdschr. Nederl. Indie, vol. xxvii, p. 79 (includes Sept. meeting); Nederl. Tijdschr. Dierk, 1864, p. 320. Haplotype Schlegelia calva Bernstein. SCHLEGELIA WILSONII Cassin. Plate xvii, figs. 3, 4. BARrE-HEADED LiTrLe KING. 1850. Paradisea wilsonii Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1850, p. 67 (read Aug.27). New Guinea? [1850. Lophorina respublica Bonaparte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. xxx, p. 131, Feb. 11/18; descr. indeterminable; Diphyllodes respublica, id., ib., p. 291, Mch. 11/18, and Consp. Gen. Av., vol. i, p. 4138, Feb., 1851, descr. still indeterminable. ] 1864. Schlegelia calva Bernstein, Nat. Tijdschr. Nederl. Indie, vol. xxvii, p. 79, after Sept. Waigiou. Figured, Cassin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1852, pl. 15; Bernstein, Nederl. Tijdschr. Dierk, 1865, Vogeld, pl. 7; Elliot, Mon. Parad., pl. 14, 1873; Gould, Birds _ New Guinea, vol. i, p. 20, pt. iii, 1876; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, p. 37 (pt. iii), 1894; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 33, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 878, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 176, 1941. Subfamily PARADISEIN AE. re TRUE BIRDS OF PARADISE. ; Genus PARADISEA Linné. ‘1758. Paradisea Linné, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p. 838, Jan. 1. Tautotype Paradisaea apoda Linné. Also spelt Paradisaea Linné, ib., p. 110, error only, corrected in later editions. 1760. Manucodiata Brisson, Ornith., vol. i, p. 30; vol. ii, p. 130. Tautotype =, Paradisaea apoda Linné. , - - 1829. Samalia Cuvier, Régne Animal, 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 426, footnote (as of . Vieillot). Haplotype Paradisaea apoda Linné. 3 _ PARADISEA APODA Linné. Plate xvii, figs. 1, 2. GREATER BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1758. Paradisaea apoda Linné, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p. 110, Jan., based on It. Wgoth., 139, Mus. Av. Fr., i, p. 15, etc. ‘In India” = Aru Islands. 7” 176 | CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. 1809. Paradisea major Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. vii, pt. ii, 0: 480, pl. Gas Sept =i 1808). New Guinea = Aru Is. 7 1826. Paradisea smaragdina Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat. (Levrault), vol. xxxvii, p. 501, May 31. New name only for apoda. 1835. Paradisea magia Partington, Brit. Cycl. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 487, error only for major. ' 1847. Paradisea domicellarum Gistel and Bromme, Handb. Naturg., p. se pl. 9, fig. 9; new name only. New Guinea. 1858. Paradisea apoda var. waliaciana Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1858, p. 181, July 13. Aru Islands (Wallace). Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 2, 1873; Gould, Birds New Quinea, vol. i, pl. 30 (pt.-ix), 1879; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 20 (pt. i), 1891; described, . Rothschild, Paradis., p. 39, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pixie p: 873, 1930; Mayr, List. New Guinea Birds, p. 177, 1941.. PARADISEA NOVAEGUINEAE D’Albertis and Salvadori. Plate xvi, fig. 3. THE FLY RIveR BIRD OF PARADISE. 1879. Paradisea apoda var. novaeguineae D’Albertis and Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. xiv, p. 96. Fly River, South New Guinea. Described, Rothschild, Paradis, p. 39, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 873, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 177, 1941. PARADISEA AUGUSTAEVICTORIAE Cabanis. Plate xviii, fig. 3. THE AUGUSTA VICTORIA. 1888. Paradisea augustaevictoriae Cabanis, Journ. fiir Orn., 1888, p. 119, Jan. no. Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, North-East New Guinea. 1894. Paradisea intermedia De Vis, Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1893—4, App. EE, p. 105, Nov. Kumusi River, North-Hast New Guinea. 1906. Paradisea granti North, Vict. NetnEen St VOL. xxi, op: = plate, Jan. 11. German New Guinea? 1913. Paradisea raggiana sororia Menegaux, Rev. Franc. wOth. VOlS AL Cpagets Apl. 7. New Guinea (ex Mantou). 1921. Paradisea mixta Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 41, p. 127, May 26. Habitat unknown. 1921. Paradisea apoda subintermedia Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Onh: Club, vol, 41, p. 138, July 5. Inland from Huon Gulf, North-East New Guinea. Figured, Cabanis, Journ. fur Orn., vol. 37, pl. 2, 1889; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 22, pt. iii, 1894 (augustaevictoriae); id., pl: 23. (pt. viii), 1898 (inter-_ media); described, Rothschild, Paradis, p. 41, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 873, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 177, 1941; mixta, p. 183 (as hybrid between Paradisaea minor finschi and Paradisaea apoda augustaevictoriae) . PARADISEA RAGGIANA Sclater. Plate xviii, figs. 2, 4. RED-PLUMED BIRD-OF- PARADISE. _ i 1873. Paradisea raggiana Sclater, Nature, vol. viii, p. 306, Aug. 14. Orangeri Bay, New Guinea; Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1873, p. 559, footnote, November. 1923. Paradisea apoda luptoni Lowe, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 43, p. 110, Mch. 5. No exact locality (perhaps shipped from Merauke, South New Guinea). 1935. Paradisea apoda salvadorii Mayr and Rand, Amer. Mus..Novit., no. 814, p. il, August 1. Vanumai, Central Division, Papua (H. Hamlin). Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 13, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 32 (pt. iv), 1877; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 21 (pt. vi), 1896; described, Rothschild, Paradis, p. 41, 1896; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. li, p. 8738, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 177, 1941 Ace. Paradisaea apoda salvadorii). ‘3 +e ; a IREDALE. 17 ~l] PARADISEA DECORA Salvin and Godman. Plate xx, figs. 1, 2. GOLDIE’S BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1883. Paradisea decora Salvin and Godman, Ibis, 1883, p. 131, Jan.; id., p. 202, pl. 8, Apl. Fergusson Island, D’Entrecasteaux Islands. 1883. Paradisea susannae Ramsay, Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, iitmwae, Po ik, Proc. Linn. Soc.,N.S.W., vol. 8, p>. 21;.June,19..,.. D’Entre- casteaux Islands, east of New Guinea (Rolles). Figured, Gould-Sharpe, Birds of New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 27 (pt. xx), 1885; Sharpe, Mon. Parad., vol. i, pl. 24 (pt. viii), 1898; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 42, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 874, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 178, 1941. PARADISEA MINOR Shaw. Plate xix, figs. 1, 2, 3. LESSER BirD-or-PARADISE. 1809. Paradisea minor Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. vii, pt. 2, p. 486, pl. (dated Sept., 1808). New Guinea = Dorey, North-West New Guinea. 1811. Paradisea papuana Bechstein, Kurze Uebers. Vogel (Latham), p. 131, pl. 22, based on Audebart, l.c., p. 15, pl. i. I. Papua and Misoal. Also spelt papuensis Lesson, Manuel Orn., vol. i, p. 392, 1828. 1835. Paradisea micra Partington, Brit. Cycl. Nat. Hist., vol. i, p. 488, error only for minor. 5 1860. Paradisea bartletti Goodwin, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1860, p. 244, Nov. New Guinea. 1883. Paradisea minor var. albescens Musschenbroek, Dagboek van Bernstein, p. Tie or. Meyer, Ibis, 1890, p. 421. 1885. Paradisea finschi Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. 2, p. 383 (ex Meyer MS.). Karan, N.W. New Guinea (Finsch). 1897. Paradisea minor jobiensis Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. vi, p. xlvi,~ May 29. Jobi I. = Japen (Dr. Guillemard, etc.). 1939. Paradisaea minor pulchra Mayr and de Schauensee, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 91, p. 151, Nov. 2. Tip, Misol, west of New Guinea. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 4, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, meas. ZO (pe. x), (879; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis, vol. i, pls. 25, 26 (pt.. vii), 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 40, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 874, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 178, 1941. PARADISEA MARIA Reichenow. Plate xi, fig. 1. Mrs. REICHENOW’S BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1894. Paradisea maria Reichenow, Orn. Monatsb., vol. ii, p. 22, Feb. Finisterre Mts., Huon Peninsula, 1,500 feet, North-Eastern New Guinea. [1913. Paradisea duivenbodei Menegaux, Rev. Franc. d’Orn., vol. iii, p. 49, Apl. 7. “Pres d’Yaour, dans la baie Geelvink (M. Seng)’, per M. R. de Duivenbode. Listed by Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Paradisaea minor finschi and Paradisaea gulielmi, therefore type locality questioned to agree with supposition). ] Figured, Reichenow, Journ. fiir Orn., vol. 45, pl. 5, 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 42, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst.’ Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 874, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Paradisaea apoda augustaevictoriae and Paradisaea gulielimi). PARADISEA BLOODI. Plate xix, fig. 4. BLoop’s BIRD-OF-PARADISE. Genus NEOPARADISEA van Oort. 1906. Neoparadisea van Oort, Notes Leyden Museum, vol. xxviii, p. 129, July. Haplotype Neoparadisea ruysi van Oort. 178 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. NEOPARADISEA RUYSI van Oort. Plate xiv, fig. 2. RUys’ BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1906. Neoparadisea ruysi van Oort, Notes Leyden Museum, vol. xxviii, p. 129, July. Near Warsembo, West Coast of Geelvink Bay, Dutch New Guinea. Listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 878, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 182, 1941 (as hybrid between Diphyllodes magnificus and Paradisaea minor). Genus URANORNIS Salvadori. 1876. Uranornis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. ix, p. 191, footnote (dated Dec. 3). Haplotype Paradisea rubra Daudin. URANORNIS RUBER Daudin. Plate xxi, figs. 1, 2. RED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1800. Paradisea rubra Daudin, Traite d’Orn., vol. ii, p. 271, ex Lacepede MS. New Guinea (Cab Hollande in Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris) = Waigiou. 1809. Paradisea sanguinea Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. vii, p. 487, pl. (dated Sept. 1, 1808). New Guinea = Waigiou. 1858. Paradisea coccinea Horsfield and Moore, Cat. Birds Mus. East Ind. Co., vol. ii, p. 548, ex F.(B.) Hamilton MS., in synonymy. 5 Figured, Lesson, Voy. Coquille, pl. 2, 9 (livr. 6), 1828; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 4, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 31 (pt. iv), 1877; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 28 (pt. iv), 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 43, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 875, 19380; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 178, 1941. Genus TRICHOPARADISEA Meyer. 1893. Trichoparadisea Meyer, Abh. Ber. K. Zool. Mus. Dresden, bd. iv, no. 3, p. 20¢. Haplotype Paradisea guilielmi Cabanis. TRICHOPARADISEA GUILIELMI Cabanis. Plate xxi, figs. 3, 4. WHITE-PLUMED BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1888. Paradisea guilielmi-~ Cabanis,. Journ. fur -Orn:, vol. 36, p. 119: “Janae: Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, North-East New Guinea. 1889. Paradisea guilielmi II Cabanis, id., vol. 37, p. 62, pl. i, Jan. no. Figure and correction. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 27 (pt. v), 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 42, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 874, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 178, 1941. Genus PARADISORNIS Finsch and Meyer. 1885. Paradisornis Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. ii, p. 385 (ex Meyer MS.). Haplotype Paradisornis rudolphi Finsch and Meyer. PARADISORNIS RUDOLPHI Finsch and Meyer. Plate xx, figs. 3, 4. BLUE BIRD-OF-PARADISE. 1885. Paradisornis rudolphi Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. ii, p. 385, pl. 20 (ex Finsch MS.). Astrolabe Mts., South-Eastern New Guinea (C. Hunstein ). 1907. Paradisornis rudolphi hunti Le Souef, Emu, vol. vi, p. 119, Jan. 1. British New Guinea (Atlee Hunt). 1934. Paradisea rudolphi ampla Greenway, Proc. New Engl. Zool. Club, vol. 14, p. 1. Mt. Misim, Morobe; North-East New Guinea. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 29 (pt. ii), 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 43, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pe oii, p. 875, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 178, 1941. IREDALE. 179 Subfamily MANUCODIINAE. MANUCODES AND PARADISE-CROWS. Genus Lycocorax Bonaparte. PARADISE-CROWS. 1853. Lycocorax Bonaparte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. xxxvii, p. 829, note, Dec. 5/12. Haplotype Corvus pyrrhopterus Bonaparte. LYCOCORAX PYRRHOPTERUS Bonaparte. Plate xiv, fig. 5. PARADISE-CROw. 1851. Corvus pyrrhopterus Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av., vol. i, pt. 2, p. 384, Feb. (ex Temminck MS.). Gilolo = Halmahera. 1863. Lycocorax morotensis Schlegel, Ibis, 1863, p. 119, Jan. I. Mortai. Also spelt mortiensis Gray, Handl. Gen. Sp.. Birds, pt. ii, p. 17, 1870. 1864. Lycocorax obiensis Bernstein, Journ. ftir Orn., 1864, p. 410, Nov. no. Obi I. Figured, Schlegel, Bijdr. Dierk, pt. 8, pl. 1, 1858; Gould-Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 86 (pt. xxiv), 1888; Sharpe, Mon, Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 7 (pt. i), PeeoaG Ol... 8. cmororensis). (pt. v), 1895; ids pl: 9 (obtensis).. (pt. 11),. 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., pp. 47148, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Hustraias., pt. ii, p. 882, 1930. Genus MaAnucopria Boddaert. TRUE MANUCODES. 1783. Manucodia Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Hnlum., p. 39, December. Haplotype Manucodia chalybea Boddaert = Paradisea chalybata Forster. 1829. Chalybaeus Cuvier, Réegne Animal, 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 354, Apl. i1. Haplotype Chalybaeus paradisaeus Cuvier = Manucodia chalybea Boddaert. Aliso spelt Caiybeus and Chalybeus by Lesson, and Chalyboea and Chalibacus by Schlegel. MANUCODIA CHALYBATA Forster. Plate xxii, figs. 2, 4. GREEN MANUCODE. 1781. Paradisea chalybata Forster, Zool. Indische (Pennant), p. 40, based on New Guinea, Arfak Mts. 1783. Manucodia chalybea Boddaert, Tabl. Planch. Enlum., p. 39, December, based on Pl(anch.) Enlum, 634, Buff., v. p. 236. New Guinea. 1786. Paradisaea viridis Scopoli, Del Flor. et Faun. Insubr., pt. ii, p. 88, based on Sonnerat, Nov. Guin., p. 164, tab. 99. New Guinea. 1829. Chalybaeus paradisaeus Cuvier, Régne Animal, 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 354, Apl. 11. New name for Paradisea viridis Gmel., Enl., 634. 1875. Manucodia jobiensis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. vii, p. 969, dated Dec. Jobi Island = Japen. 1885. Manucodia rubiensis Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. ii, p. 374 (ex Meyer MS.). Rubi, Geelvink Bay, Dutch New Guinea. 1896. Manucodia orientalis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, ser. 2, vol. xvi, p. 103 (dated Mch. 10). Genekarumu, South-East New Guinea (L. Loria). Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 6, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 34 (pt. v), 1877; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 4 (pt. ii), 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 45, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, pp. 880/1, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 168, 1941. MANvcopIA ATRA Lesson and Garnot. Plate xxii, fig. 1. GLOSSY-MANTLED MANUCODE. 1830. Phonygama ater Lesson and Garnot, Voy. Coquille, Zool., vol. i, p. 638 (livr. 14), Jan. 9. Dorey Harbour, North-West New Guinea. 1903. Manucodia ater altera Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. x, p. 84, Apl. 20. Sudest Island, Louisiade Archipelago. 1929. Manucodia atra subalter Rothschild and Hartert, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 49, p. 110, July 10. Dobbo, Aru Islands. 180 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 7, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 5 (pt. viii), 1898; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 44, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 881, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 164, 1941. Genus Eucorax Sharpe. 1894. Hucorax Sharpe, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. xv, Dec. 29. Orthotype Manucodia comriv Sclater. EUCORAX COMRII Sclater. Plate xxii, fig. 3. CURLCRESTED MANUCODE. 1876. Manucodia comrii Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1876, p. 459, pl. 42, Oct. 1. “Huon Gulf, Northeast New Guinea” = ? D’Entrecasteaux Islands. 1936. Manucodia comrii trobriandi Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 869, p. 3, July 2. Kaileuna, Trobriand Islands. Figured, Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, p. 33 (pt. v), 1877; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 6 (pt. iii), 1894; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 45, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 882, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, pm. Los, 194i. Genus PHONYGAMMUS Lesson and Garnot. HARED MANUCODES. 1826. Phonygammus Lesson and Garnot, Bull. Sci. Nat. (Ferussae), vol. viii, p. 110, March. Haplotype Barita keraudrenw Lesson and Garnot. Also spelt Phonygama Lesson, Phonigama Cabanis, Phoneogama Agassiz, Phony- gamia Schlegel, and even Phoniachema Van d’Hoeven, for the sake of purism. PHONYGAMMUS KERAUDRENII Lesson and Garnot. Plate xxiii, figs. 3, 4. TRUMPET-BIRD. 1826. Barita keraudrenii Lesson and Garnot, Bull. Sci. Nat. (Ferussac), vol. viii, p. 110, March. Dorey Harbour, North-West New Guinea. 1829. Chalybaeus cornutus Cuvier, Regne Animal, 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 354, Apl. 11. New name for preceding, based on Coquille plate. 1837. Phonygama lessonia Swainson, Classif. Birds, vol. ii, p. 264, July 1. New name for Lesson, Voy., pl. 13. 1859. Manucodia gouldii Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1859, p. 158, note, Oct. 1. Cape York, North Australia, for bird figured by Gould, Birds Austr. 1877. Phonygama jamestui Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., vol, iii, p. 181, June. (6). Aleya, near Yule I., South-East New Guinea. 1882. Phonygama hunsteini Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soe. (Lond.), Zool., vol. xvi, p. 442, July 31. Hast Cape = Normanby I., D’Entrecasteaux Islands. 1885. Phonygama purpureoviolacea Finsch and Meyer, Zeitsch. ges. Orn., vol. ii, p. 375, pl. 15 (ex Meyer MS.). Astrolabe Mts., South-East New Guinea (C. Hunstein). ‘1889. Manucodia thomsoni Tristram, Ibis, 1889, p. 554, Oct. D’Entrecasteaux Islands. 1918. Phonygammus neumanni Reichenow, Journ. fur Orn., 1918, p. 438. Lordberg, Sepik district, Northern New Guinea. 1924. Phonygammus yorki Mathews, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xlv, p. 17, Oct. 29. Gin Creek, Cape York, North Queensland. 1942. Phonygammus keraudreni mayri Greenway, Proc. New Engl. Zool. Club, vol. xix, p. 51. Morobe district, North-East New Guinea. Figured, Lesson, Voy. Coquille, livr. 1, pl. 13, 1826; Gould, Suppl. Birds Austr., pl. 9 (pt. ii), 1855; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 8, 1873; Gould-Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 35 (pt. xxiii), 1857; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. i (pt. iv) .(keraudreni), 1895; id., vol. ii, pl. 2 (pt. iii) (purpureoviolacea), 1894; id., pl. ili (pt. viii) (hunsteini), 1898; Mathews, “Birds Austr.) vol.) xii,’ pl..593, 1926; IREDALE. . 181 described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 46, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 579, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 169, 1941. Families ? FALSE BIRDS OF PARADISE. Genus PTERIDOPHORA Meyer. 1894. Pteridophora Meyer, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. 11, Dec. 29. Haplotype Pteridophora alberti Meyer. PTERIDOPHORA ALBERTI Meyer. Plate xxiv, figs. 1, 2. THE ENAMELLED BIrp. 1894. Pteridophora alberti Meyer, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. iv, p. 11, Dec. 29; id., Abn. ber. K. Mus. Dresden, vol. 5, no. 5, pl. 1, 1895. Mounts at River Amberno, New Guinea. 1931. Pteridophora alberti burgersi Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. 36, p. 253, Apl. 22. Schraderberg, Sepik district, North New Guinea. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 38 (pt. vii), 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 20, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 879, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 179, 1941. Genus Loria Salvadori. 1894. Loria Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. xxxiv, p. 151 (dated May). Haplotype Loria loriae Salvadori. LORIA LORIAE Salvadori. Plate xxiv, figs. 4, 5. LoriA’s BIrp. 1894. Loria loriae Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. xxxiv (ser. 2, vol. 14), p. 151, dated May. Moroka, South-East New Guinea. 1894. Cnemophilus mariae De Vis, Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1893-94, App. EH, p. 104, November. Mount Maneao, 5,650 feet, N.E. New Guinea (Armit and Guise). 1934. Loria loria amethystina Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 42,-p. 144, Sept. 16. Schraderberg, mid-Sepik district, North New Guinea (Burgers). 1939. Loria loriae inexpectata Junge, Nova Guinea (n.s.), vol. iii, p. 77. Bijenkorf, Oranje Mountains, Dutch New Guinea. Figured, Sclater, Ibis, 1895, pl. 8; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 18 (pt. vi), 1896; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 15, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 885, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 179, 1941. Genus LOBOPARADISEA Rothschild. 1896. Loboparadisea Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. vi, pv. xv, Dec. 30. Orthotype Loboparadisea sericea Rothschild. LOBOPARADISEA SERICEA Rothschild. Plate xxiv, fig. 3. SHIELD-BILL. 1896. Loboparadisea sericea Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. vi, p. xvi, Dec. 30. Bought at Koeroedoe, Dutch New Guinea. 1930. Loboparadisea sericea aurora Mayr, Orn. Monatsb., vol. 38, p. 417, Sept. Dawong, Herzog Mts., North-East New Guinea (E. Mayr). Figured, Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. iv, pl. 2, fig. 2, 1897; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis, vol. ii, pl. 17 (pt. vii), 1897; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 14, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 885, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p.-279; 1942. Genus SEMIOPTERA Gray. PARADISE FRIAR-BIRDS. 1859. Semioptera Gray, Ibis, 1859, p. 210, Apl.; Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1859, p. 130° (Sune); Ibis, 1859, °p. 322, July; Tbis,-1859; p. 454, Oct.:1;. Proce. 182 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1859, p. 130, October 1. Haplotype Paradisea wallacii Gray. SEMIOPTERA WALLACIL Gray. Pilate xxiii, figs. 1, 2. STANDARD-WING. 1859. Paradisea wallacit Gray, Ibis, 1859, p. 210, Apl.; Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1859, p. 1380, June; Ibis, 1859, p.:322, July; Ibis, 1859, p. 454, Oct.; Proce: Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1859, p. 130, Oct. Based on sketch sent by Wallace, Oct. 29, 1858, from Batchian. 1881. Semioptera wallacei var. halmaherae Salvadori, Ornit. Papu. e. Mol., vol. 2, p. 573, preface May. Halmahera. 1891. Semioptera gouldi Boucard, Humming Birds, vol. i, p. 48. Moluccas. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr. Suppl., pl. 52 (pt. iii), Sept. 1, 1859; Elliot, Mon. Paradis, pl. 18, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 39 (pt. v), 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 37, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., Di. a, p.,.879, 1930: Family PTILONORHYNCHIDAE. BOWER-BIRDS. (as a. whole). Subfamily SERICULINAER. ANOMALOUS BOWER-BIRDS. Genus SERICULUS Swainson. 1825. Sericulus Swainson, Zool. Journ., vol. i, pt. iv, p. 476, Jan. Haplotype Meliphaga chrysocephala Lewin. Also spelt Sericula Voigt, Das Thierr. (Cuvier), vol. i, p. 505, 1831. SERICULUS CHRYSOCEPHALUS Lewin. Plate xxv, figs. 3, 4. REGENT BIrp. 1808. Meliphaga chrysocephala Lewin, Birds New Holland, pl. vi, Sept. (Sydney) New South Wales. 1824. Oriolus regens Quoy and Gaimard,:Voy. ‘Uranie’ et ‘Physicienne’, Zool., p. 105, Sept. 18. (Sydney) New South Wales. 1825. Paradisea imperialis Sieber, Isis (Oken), 1825, Beylage no. 1. Apparently only new name for Oriolus regens Q. & G. 1826. Mel(iphaga) auricapilla Stephens, Gen. Zool. (Shaw), vol. xiv, pt. i, p. 262 (end of year). New name for Lewin’s Golden-crowned Honey Sucker. 1831. Meliphaga regia Voigt, Das Thierr. (Cuvier), vol. i, p. 505 (pref. Easter), as synonym of regens (as ex Lewin). 1838. Sericulus magnirostris Gould, Synops. Birds Austr., pt. iv, app. p. 2, Apl. 1. “Tasmania” error = New South Wales. 1846. Sericuius melinus Strickland, Gray, Gould and many authorities. Not Turdus melinus Latham, Index Orn., Suppl., p. xliv, 1801. 1912. Sericulus chrysocephalus rothschildi Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 441, Jan. 31. Blackall Ranges, South Queensland. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., vol. 4, pl. 12 (pt. xxvi), 1847; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 27, 1873; Sharpe. Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 7 (pt. v), 1895; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 588, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 13, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 889, 1930. Genus XANTHOMELUS Bonaparte. GOLDEN BIRDS. 1854. Xanthomelus Bonaparte, Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, vol. xxxviii, pp. 260/262, Feb. 6. Orthotype Coracias aurea Linné. XANTHOMELUS AUREUS Linné. Plate xxvi, figs. 1, 2. GoLDEN BIrp. 1758. Coracias aurea Linné, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p. 108, Jan. 1. Based on Mus Av. Fr., 1, p. 15, and Edw., Av., 112, t. 112. “In Asia’ = New Guinea. 1766. Oriolus aureus Linné, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., vol. i, p. 163. On same basis as preceding. New generic location only. IREDALE. 183 1809. Paradisea aurantia Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. vii, pt. ii, p. 499, pl. (dated Sept. 1, 1808). New name for Coracias aurea L. 1823. Oriolus paradiseus Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat. (Levrault), vol. 27, p. 215, July 26. New name only (incorrectly written aurantiacus by Salvadori, Sharpe, Rothschild). 1830/1. Sericulus aurantiacus Lesson, Traité d’Orn., livr. 5, p. 339 (between Sept., 1830, and Feb., 1831). Merely emendation of aurantia Shaw. 1871. Sericuius xranthogaster Schlegel, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., vol. iv, p. 50. Arfak Mts., N.W. New Guinea. Based on juvenile according to Salvadori. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 15 (aureus), pl. 33 (Chlamydodera xantho- gastra), 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 48 (pt. vi), 1878; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. 11,’ pl. 25. (pt. 1), 1891; ‘deseribed, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 11, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 888, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 184, 1941. XANTHOMELUS ARDENS D’Albertis and Salvadori. Plate xxvi, figs. 3, 4. YELLOW-THROATED GOLDEN-BIRD. 1879. Xanthomelus ardens D’Albertis and Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. xiv, p. 113. Fly River, South New Guinea. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 26 (pt. vi) (incorrect), 1896; van Oort, Nova Guinea, vol. ix, Zool., pl. 3, 1909; Ogilvie-Grant, Ibis, 1915, Jubilee Suppl. 2, pl. i., Dec., 1915; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 11, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 888, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p: £84, 1941, XANTHOMELUS BAKERI Chapin. Plate xxvii, figs. 3, 4. MApANG GOLDEN-BIrRD. 1929. Xanthomelus bakeri Chapin, Amer. Mus. Nov., no. 367, p. 1, Aug. 9. Madang, North Coast New Guinea (R. Beck). Figured, Natural History, vol. xxix, frontispiece, Nov.-Dec. no., 1929; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 888, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 184, 1941. Genus CNEMOPHILUS De Vis. CRESTED GOLDEN-BIRDS. 1890. Cnemophiius De Vis, Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1888-89, p. 61, Feb. 22. Haplotype Cnemophilus macgregorti De Vis. Also spelt Nemophilus Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, no. xli, 1897, and Ibis, 1897, p. 259. CNEMOPHILUS MACGREGORIT De Vis. Plate xxviii, figs. 2, 3. CRESTED GOLDEN-BIRD. 1890. Cnemophilus macgregorii De Vis, Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1888-89, p. 61, Feb. 22. Mt. Knutsford, 11,000 feet, South-East New Guinea. 1890. Xanthomelus macgregori Goodwin, Ibis, 1890, p. 153, Apl. 1. Based on the same specimen. Mt. Owen Stanley, British New Guinea. Rreured, tbis, 1891, pl 10; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. 1i, pl. 23 (pt. iv), 1895; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 15, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 887, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 183, 1941. CNEMOPHILUS MACGREGORII SANGUINEUS. Plate xxvii, fig. 2; Plate xxviii, fig. 1. Subfamily AMBLYORNITHINAE. GARDENER BOWER-BIRDS. Genus AMBLYORNIS Elliot. 1872. Amblyornis Elliot, Ibis, 1872, p. 113, Apl. Haplotype Ptilorhynchus inornatus Schlegel. Also spelt Ambliornis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, vol. viii, p. 780, 1875/6. 184 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. 1894. Xanthochlamys Sharpe, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 4, p. xv, Dec. 29. Orthotype Amblyornis subalaris Sharpe. AMBLYORNIS INORNATUS Schlegel. Plate xxx, fig. 4. GARDENER BOWER-BIRD. 1871. Ptilorhynchus inornatus Schlegel, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., vol. iv, p. 51. Arfak Mountains, North-West New Guinea. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 37, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 46 (pt. ix), 1879; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 21 (pt. iii), 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 12, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 886, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 183, 1941. AMBLYORNIS MACGREGORIAE De Vis. Plate xxix, figs. 3, 4. CRESTED GARDENER-BIRD. 1890. Amblyornis macgregoriae De Vis, Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1888-89, App., p. 61, Feb. 22. Musgrave Range, 7,000—9,000 feet, South-East New Guinea. 1890. Amblyornis musgravii Goodwin, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1889, p. 451, Apl. 1. Mount Musgrave, Brit. New Guinea, 10,000 feet. 1890. Amblyornis musgravianus Goodwin, Ibis, 1890, p. 153, Apl. 1. Same bird. 1910. Amblyornis inornatus germanus Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xxvii, p. 138, Nov. 4. Rawlinson Mts., North-Hastern New Guinea. 1930. Amblyornis inornatus mayri Hartert, Novit. Zool., vol. 36, p. 30, Nov. 15. Probably Karon, northern Vogelkop = ? Weyland Mts., New Guinea. 1931. Amblyornis inornatus aedificans Mayr, Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 17, p. 648, Dec. Dawong, Herzog Mts., North-Hast New Guinea (Mayr). 1931. Amblyornis inornatus longicristatus Mayr, Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 17, p. 649, Dec. Mt. Goliath, Dutch New Guinea (A. S. Meek). Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 20 (pt. viii), 1898; Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. 3, pl. 1, 1896; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 12 (inornata), 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 886, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 183, 1941. AMBLYORNIS SUBALARIS Sharpe. Plate xxix, figs. 1, 2. ORANGE-CRESTED GARDENER-BIRD. 1884. Amblyornis subalaris Sharpe, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Lond.), Zool., vol. xvii, p. 408, Sept. 18. Astrolabe Mts., South-East New Guinea (Goldie). Figured, Finsch and Meyer, Zeitschr. ges. Orn., vol. ii, pl. xxii, 1885; Gould- Sharpe, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 47 (pt. xxii), 1886; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 22 (pt. iii), 1894; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 12, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 887, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 184, 1941. AMBLYORNIS FLAVIFRONS Rothschild. Plate xxx, fig. 3. YELLOW-FRONTED GARDENER-BIRD. 1895. Amblyornis flavifrons Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. ii, p. 480, December 30. Dutch New Guinea. Figured, Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. 3, pl. 1, figs. 3, 4, 1896; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 20 (pt. viii), 1898; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 12, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 887, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 184, 1941. Genus PRIONODURA De Vis. 1883. Prionodura De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. vii, p. 561, Apl.; ex Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, for Nov. 29, 1882, p. 1. Nomen nudum. Haplotype Prionodura newtoniana De Vis. IREDALE. 185 1889. Corymbicola Meston, Rep. Sci. Exped. Bellenden Ker Range, North Queens- land, 8vo ed., p. 120; not in 4to ed., p. 32 later; ex Queensland Courier, Oct. 4, De Vis. Haplotype Corymbicola mestoni De Vis = Meston. PRIONODURA NEWTONIANA De Vis. Plate xxv, figs. 1, 2. NEWTON’s BOWER-BIRD. 1883. Prionodura newtoniana De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. 7, p. 562, Apl.; ex Abstr. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., for Nov. 29, 1882. Nomen nudum. Tully River Scrubs, North Queensland. 1889. Corymbicola mestoni Meston, Rep. Sci. Exped. Bellenden Ker Range, North Queensland, p. 120; ex Queensland Courier, Oct. 4, 1889, De Vis. Bellenden Ker Range, 5,000 feet, North Queensland. 1915. Prionodura newtoniana fairfaxi Mathews, Austral. Avian Record, vol. ii, p. 133, Jan. 28. Bartlefrere, 3,800 feet, North Queensland. Figured, Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 24 (pt. i), 1891; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 589, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 13, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 888, 1930. Genus ARCHBOLDIA Rand. 1940. Archboldia Rand, Amer. Mus. Novit.; no. 1072, p. 9, June 26. Orthotype Archboldia papuensis Rand. ARCHBOLDIA PAPUENSIS Rand. Plate xxvii, fig. 1. ARCHBOLD’S BOWER-BIRD. 1940. Archboldia papuensis Rand, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1072, p. 9, June 26. Bele River (2,200 M.), near Lake Habbema, Snow Mts., Dutch New Guinea. Listed, Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 183, 1941. Subfamily AILUROEDINAE. CAtT-BIRDS. Genus AILUROEDUS Cabanis. 1851. Ailuroedus Cabanis, Mus. Heine., vol. i, p. 213, note (after Oct. 23). Haplo- type Ptilonorhynchus smithii V. & H. = Lanius crassirostris Paykull. Also spelt Alluroedus Bonaparte, and Aeluroedus Sclater (Ibis, 1868, p. 501), and others. 1855. Chlorokitta Gray, List Gen. Subgen. Birds, p. 148, as of ““Kaup” in synonymy. 1926. Buccokitta Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, p. 313, Oct. 28. Orthotype Kitta buccoides Temminck and Laugier. AILUROEDUS CRASSIROSTRIS Paykull. Plate xxxi, fig. 4. GREEN CAT-BIRD. 1815. Lanius crassirostris Paykull, Nov. Act. Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsal., vol. vii, p. 2838. Sydney, New South Wales. 1817. Coracina viridis Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., vol. viii, p. 9, Mch. 15. Sydney, New South Wales. 1826. Kitta virescens Temminck and Laugier, Planch. Color. d’Ois., livr. 67, pl. 396 (vol. iv), July 12. Sydney, New South Wales. 1826. P(tilonorhynchus) viridis Stephens, Gen. Zool. (Shaw), vol. xiv, pt. i, p. 72 (end of year). “South Sea Islands” = Sydney, New South Wales. 1827. Ptilonorhynchus smithii Vigors and Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xv, p. 264, Feb. 17. Sydney, New South Wales. 1900. Ailuroedus viridis auctorum, but not Gracula viridis Latham, 1801, which is an Oriole. 1912. Ailuroedus crassirostris blaauwi Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 439, Jan. 31. Richmond River, Northern New South Wales. 186 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., vol. iv, pl. 4 (pt. xxi), 1845; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 34, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Parad., vol. ii, pl. 36 (pt. iii), 1894; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 583, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 5, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 892, 1930. AILUROEDUS MELANOTIS Gray. Plate xxxi, figs. 1, 2, 3. BLACK-EARED CAT-BIRD. 1858. Ptilonorhynchus meianotis Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1858, p. 181, July 13. Aru Islands (A. R. Wallace). 1874. Ailuroedus arfakianus Meyer, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien., vol. 69, p. 82 (Feb. 26 mtg.). Arfak Mts., 3,500 feet, North-West New Guinea. 1875. Aeluroedus maculosus Ramsay, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1874, p. 601, Apl. 1, 1875. Cardwell, North Queensland. 1883. Aeluroedus melanocephalus Ramsay, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. viii, p. 25, June 19. Astrolabe Mts., South-Hastern New Guinea. 1895. Aeluroedus jobiensis Rothschild, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. 4, p. xxvi, March 30. “Jobi I.”’ = may be error and = mainland opposite eastern end of Japen. 1915. Ailuroedus melanotus fairfaxi Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 132, Jan. 28. Bellenden Ker Range, North Queensland. 1922. Ailuroedus melanotis guttaticollis Stresemann, Orn. Monatsb., vol. xxx, p. 35, Mch. 1. Hunsteinspitze, Sepik district, North New Guinea (Burgers). 1931. Ailuroedus melanotis astigmaticus Mayr, Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 17, p. 47, Dec. Ogeramnang, Saruwaged Mts., North-East New Guinea. 1936. Ailuroedus crassirostris facialis Mayr, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 869, p. 4, July 2. Utakwa River, Snow Mts., Dutch New Guinea. 1939. Ailuroedus crassirostris misoliensis Mayr and De Schauensee, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. 91, p. 152, Nov. 2. Tip, Misol I., W. New Guinea. 1942. Ailwroedus melanotis joanae Mathews, Emu, vol. 40, p. 384, Apl. 1. Cape York, North Queensland. Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 35, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl: 39° (metanotis)) pt. 1, 1875; id.; 1b. pl: 40 “Cerjoekienwsy (pe. 1), 185s, 10 tes pl. 38 (maculosus) (pt. i), 1875; Gould-Sharpe, ib., pl. 42 (pt. xxiv) (melano- cephalus), 1888: Sharpe, Mon.” Paradis., “vol? 11," pl’ 32 (metanotis), “plese (arfakianus) . (pt. Iv), 1895;° pl. 3b (neculosus) (pt. v), 18953" pL ss (Helene cephalus) (pt. vii), 1897; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 588, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., pp. 5/7, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 892, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 185, 1941. AILUROEDUS BUCCOIDES Temminck and Laugier. Plate xxx, fig. 1. WHITE-EARED CAT-BIRD. 1835. Kitta buccoides Temminck and Laugier, Planch. Color. d’Ois., 97° livr. (vol. ii, pl. 575). Lobo Bay, South-West New Guinea. 1876. Aeluroedus stonii Sharpe, Nature, Vol. xiv, p. 339, Aug. 17. Laroki River, South-Hast New Guinea (O. C. Stone, Petterd and Broadbent). 1891. Aeluroedus geislerorum Meyer, Abh. Ber. K. Zool. Mus. Dresden, 1890-91, vol. iv, p. 12. Astrolabe Bay, North-East New Guinea. 1897. Aeluroedus subcaudalis De Vis, Ibis, 1897, p. 390, July; Ann. Rep. Brit. New Guinea, 1896-7, App. AA, p. 89, Apl. 1898. Mt. Scratchley (?), Brit. New Guinea. 1913. Ailuroedus buccoides oorti Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. xx, p. 526, Oct. 1. Waigiu (John Waterstradt). 1929. Ailuroedus buccoides molestus Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. xxxv, p. 59, Jan. 25. Haidana, Collingwood Bay, North-East New Guinea. IREDALE. 187 Figured, Elliot, Mon. Paradis, pl. 36, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 41 (pt. i), 1875; id., ib., pl. 37 (stonii) (pt. xii), 1881; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., Vol: 'ai, pl. ST \(ouccoides) (pt. tiv); 1895; pl. 38 (geislerorum) (pt. v), 1895; pl. 39 (stonii) (pt. ii), 1893; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 6, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 898, 1980; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 186, 1941. Genus SCENOPOEETES Coues. 1891. Scenopoeetes Coues, Auk, vol. viii, p. 115, January. New name for 1876. Scenopoeus Ramsay, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1875, p. 591, Apl. 1, 1876. Haplotype Scenopoeus dentirostris Ramsay. Not Scenopoeus Agassiz, Index Univers., 12mo ed., p. 963, 1848. 1891. Tectonornis Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., pt. i, text to plate 40 (end of year). New name for Scenopoeus Ramsay. SCENOPOEETES DENTIROSTRIS Ramsay. Plate xxx, fig. 2. TOOTH-BILLED CAT-BIRD. 1876. Scenopoeus dentirostris Ramsay, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1875, p. 591, Apl. 1, 1876. Bellenden Ker Range, 3,000—4,000 feet, North Queensland. 1915. Scenopoeetes dentirostris minor Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 132, Jan. 28. Johnstone River, North Queensland. Figured, Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 43 (pt. x), 1879; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 40 (pt. i), 1891; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 582, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 8, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas, pit. 11; p. 889, 1930. Subfamily PTILONORHYNCHINAE. Genus PTILONORHYNCHUS Kuhl. 1820. Ptilonorhynchus Kuhl, Beitr. Vergl. Anat., p. 150 (pref. Apl. 9). Haplotype Pyrrhocorax violaceus Vieillot. Also spelt Ptilorhynchus Cabanis, Ptelenorhynchus Temminck, and Ptinolorhynchus Lesson. 1826. Kitta Temminck and Laugier, Planch. Color. d’Ois., 67° livr. (vol. iv, pl. 395), July 12. Orthotype Pyrrhocorax violaceus Vieillot. Also spelt Citta Wagler, 1827. PTILONORHYNCHUS VIOLACEUS Vieillot. Plate xxxii, figs. 3, 4. SatTrn Bower-Birp. 1816. Pyrrhocorax violaceus Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat., nouv. ed., vol. vi, p. 569, Dec. 14. (Sydney) New South Wales. 1820. Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus Kuhl, Beitr. Vergl. Anat., p. 150 (pref. Apl. 9) (ex Robert Brown MS.). Port Hacking, New South Wales. 1820. Corvus squamulosus Kuhl, ib., in synonymy based on female or young male. 1826. Pt(ilonorhynchus) vioiaceus Stephens, Gen. Zool. (Shaw), vol. xiv, pt. i, p. 72 (end of year). “South Sea Islands” = New South Wales. 1826. Pt(ilonorhynchus) niger, id., ib., based on Satin Grakle, Latham. New Holland. 1827. Ptilonorhynchus macleayi Vigors and Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xv, p. 263, Feb. 17, based on same bird as Kuhl’s name. _ Port Hacking, New South Wales. 1827. Ptilonorhynchus squamulosus Wagler, Syst. Avium, Ptilono. sp. 2, Oct. 4, ex Illiger MS. New Holland, based on female or young male. 1912. Ptilonorhynchus violaceus dulciae Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 438, Jan. 31. “Queensland.” 1912. Ptilonorhynchus minor A. J. Campbell, Emu, vol. xii, p. 19, July 1 (ex Bull. Roy. Austr. Orn. Union, no. 3, May 21, 1912, privately distributed). Herberton, North Queensland. 188 CHECK LIST OF BIRDS OF PARADISE AND BOWER-BIRDS. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., vol. 4, pl. 10 (pt. iv), 1841; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 28, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 19 (pt. vi), 1896; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pl. 581, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 4, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 886, 1930. PTILONORHYNCHUS RAWNSLEYI Diggles. Plate xxx, fig. 5. RAWNSLEY’S SATIN-BIRD. 1868. Ptilonorhynchus rawnsleyi Diggles, Orn. Austr., pt. xv. Near Brisbane, South Queensland. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., Suppl., pl. 34 (pt. v), 1869; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 29, 1873; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 886, footnote, 1930, as “based on an aberration or hybrid”’. Subfamily CHLAMYDERINAE. Genus CHLAMYDERA Gould. 1837. Chlamydera Gould, Birds Austr. and Adj. Islands, pt. i, pl. 3, note, August. Also spelt Chlamydodera Agassiz, and many succeeding writers. Haplo- type Calodera maculata Gould. New name for 1837. Calodera Gould, Synops. Birds Austr., pt, i, pl. 6, Jan. Logotype (Sharpe, 1881) Calodera maculata Gould. Also spelt Callidera Agassiz. Not Calodera Mannerheim, 18381. 1912. Rogersornis Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. i, p. 117, Dec. 24. Orthotype Ptilonorhynchus nuchalis Jardine and Selby. 1914. Alphachlamydera Mathews, Austral Avian Reec., vol. ii, p. 112, Sept. 24. Orthotype Chlamydera cerviniventris Gould. 1926. Pseudochlamydera Mathews, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xlvi, p. 60, Jan. 30. Orthotype Chlamydodera lauterbachi Reichenow. CHLAMYDERA MACULATA Gould. Plate xxxiii, figs. 1, 4. SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD. 1837. Calodera maculata Gould, Synops. Birds Austr., pt. i, pl. 6, Jan. (Sydney) New South Wales. 1862. Chlamydera guttata Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1862, p. 162, Oct. 1. North-Western Australia (F. J. Gregory) = Gascoyne River. 1875. Chlamydodera occipitalis Gould, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xvi, p. 429, Dec. 1. “Port Albany, North Queensland”, error = New South Wales. 1912. Chlamydera maculata cielandi Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 439, Jan. 31. South Australia. 1912. Chlamydera maculata subguttata Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 440, Jan. 31. East Murchison, mid-West Australia. 1913. Chlamydera maculata macdonaldi Mathews, Austral.. Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 78, Dec. 29. “McDonald” = Macdonnell Ranges, Central Australia. 1913. Chlamydera maculata sedani Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 78, Dec. 29. “Gloncurry” = Cloncurry River, Queensland. 1920. Chlamydera maculata nova Mathews, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vol. xl, p. 76, Jan. 30. North-West Cape, mid-West Australia. 1920. Chlamydera maculata carteri Carter and Mathews, Ibis, 1920, p. 499, pl. 14, Apl. 1 (ex Mathews MS.). New name for nova, not Alphachlamydera cerviniventris nova Mathews, 1915. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., vol. 4, pl. 8 (pt. iv); 1841; Gould, Birds Austr., Suppl., pl. 35 (pt. iv), 1867; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 30, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 45 (pt. x) (occipitalis), 1879; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. ii, pl. 28, fig. 1 (pt. viii), 1898; id., ib., pl. 29 (occipitalis), pt. iii, 1894; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pls. 584-5, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., pp. 9/10, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 890, 1930. IREDALE. 189 CHLAMYDERA LAUTERBACHI Reichenow. Plates xxvii, f. 4, xxviii, f. 4. LAUTERBACH’S BOWER-BIRD. 1897. Chlamydera lauterbachi Reichenow, Orn. Monatsb., vol. v, p. 24, Feb.; Journ. fiir Orn., 1897, p. 215, pl. 6, July no. Jagei River, Northern New Guinea. 1931. Chlamydera lauterbachi uniformis Rothschild, Nov. Zool., vol. 36, p. 250, Apl. 22. Siriwo River, south of Geelvink Bay, Dutch New Guinea (Shaw Mayer). Described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 9, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av Australas., pt. ii, p. 891, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 185, 1941. CHLAMYDERA NUCHALIS Jardine and Selby. Plate xxxii, figs. 1, 2. GREAT BOWER-BIRD. 1830. Ptilonorhynchus nuchalis Jardine and Selby, Illustr. Ornith., vol. ii, pl. ciii, Dec. = North Queensland. 1879. Chilamydera orientalis Gould, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 5, p. 74, July 1. North Queensland. 1912. Chlamydera nuchalis oweni Mathews, Nov. Zool., vol. xviii, p. 440, Jan. 31. Point Torment, North-West Australia. 1912. Chlamydera nuchalis melviliensis Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. i, p. 52, Apl. 2. Melville Island, Northern Territory. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., vol. 4, pl. 9 (pt. iv), 1841; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 31, 1873; Gould, Birds New Guinea, vol. i, pl. 44 (pt. xi), 1880; Sharpe, Mon. Parag .Vol. 11, pl. 29 (nuchalts), (pt. vill), 1898; pl. 30-(ortentahs) (pt..1), 1891; Mathews, Birds Austr., vol. xii, pls. 586/587, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., -p. 10, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 891, 1930. CHLAMYDERA CERVINIVENTRIS Gould. Plate xxxiii, figs. 2, 3. FAWN-BREASTED BOWER-BIRD. 1850. Chlamydera cerviniventris Gould, Contr. Ornith. (Jardine), p. 160 = 106. Cape York, North Queensland. Also misspelt cerviniceps Hartlaub, Arch. fur Nat. (xvii pt, 2) p..b8, 285L. (1895. Chlamydodera recondita Meyer, Abh. Ber. zool. Mus. Dresden, vol. 5, no. 10, p. 2, based on egg from Constantinhafen, Astrolabe Bay, North-East New Guinea. ) 1915. Alphachlamydera cerviniventris nova Mathews, Austral Avian Rec., vol. ii, p. 132, Jan. 28. New Guinea = Port Moresby area. Figured, Gould, Birds Austr., Suppl., pl. 36 (pt. iii), 1859; Elliot, Mon. Paradis., pl. 32, 1873; Sharpe, Mon. Paradis., vol. i, pl. 30 (pt. viii), 1898; Mathews, Birds Austr., pl. xii, pl. 586, 1926; described, Rothschild, Paradis., p. 9, 1898; listed, Mathews, Syst. Av. Australas., pt. ii, p. 891, 1930; Mayr, List New Guinea Birds, p. 185, 1941. 190 THE ZOO-GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEM OF PORT JACKSON. PART 2.—CLASSIFICATION OF HABITATS. By CHARLES F. LASERON. (Text-figs. 1-2.) In the first part of this paper, general principles were outlined, and a number of factors listed likely to influence the distribution of marine life in any given area. The first of these factors was then dealt with in some detail, that of the physiography of Port Jackson and the adjacent coast, both as it is now and as it was in the geological past. The other factors are now to be considered, particularly the effect they are likely to have in restricting the distribution of species to certain locations and thus producing defined ecological communities. For the foreshore, that is the area between extreme high and low tide, this work has been particularly well done by the late Charles Hedley (1915). This has been supplemented by Miss Elizabeth Pope (1943) with a paper on “The Ecology of Long Reef’. It is not proposed to deal further with this zone, but the main conclusion resulting from this study of the littoral has some bearing on the possible classification of deeper water habitats. This is the division of the littoral area into well-marked vertical zones, each with its distinctive fauna and flora, ranging from extreme high tide to that area only exposed at the lowest spring tides. Does this zoning continue below low tide and to what extent, or do factors other than depth come into play? The possible factors have already been outlined as: (1) Temperature, (2) Light, (3) Pressure, (4) Salinity, (5) Food, (6) Protection, (7) Ocean and Tidal Currents, (8) Nature of the Sea Bottom. These are now considered in more detail. TEMPERATURE. In the main body of the ocean, seasonal changes of temperature only take effect to a comparatively small depth, and there is a general gradual decrease to nearly freezing point and then a small rise to 4°F., which is the maximum density of seawater. This is the prevailing temperature of the lower layers of water in the abysmal depth of the ocean. Port Jackson is, however, comparatively shallow, the average depth about 60 feet, the maximum, in a few deep holes, not more than 120 feet. This depth is too small to allow any appreciable decrease in temperature from depth alone, and sun and air temperatures as well as ocean currents are the determining factors. Some figures are available, but unfortunately they are far from complete. For most of these I am indebted to the Maritime Services Board of New South Wales, and for others to The Taronga Zoological Park Trust. From Fort Macquarie, which may be taken as a typical central harbour location, a series of temperatures from one foot below the surface, covering the period 31st May, 1943, to 27th May, 1944, ranges between a minimum of 54°F. toa maximum of 74:5°F. From Athol Bight, the intake pipe for the aquarium at the Zoological Gardens is at a fixed point 10 feet below low-tide mark, and temperatures are ecntinually taken to regulate the water for the aquarium itself. The Secretary, Mr. Brown, informs me that the maximum temperature of 76°F. was registered in January, 1946, and a minimum of 53°F. in August, 1945. No sudden changes cue to causes other than seasonal have ever been noticed. LASERON. 191 The following tables, also from the Maritime Services Board, only cover part of the year, but they are the only ones available for the deeper parts of the harbour. The readings were taken by Mr. D. D. Moore. Temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit. Bantry Bay, Middle Harbour. 31.3.42. 2.4.42. 13.4.42. 20.4.42. 4.5.42, 115.42. Depth. 9-10 a.m. 2 p.m. 9-10 a.m, 9-10 a.m. 9-10 a.m. PAA ono 0:1 ft. 67-7 SES 69-4 68-5 69-0 66-0 rae sige 67-7 70°5 SONS, 68°3 70:0 1050; 68-2 69°5 69-4 67-9 68°5 66-0 P50 5, 68-0 69-1 20:0 ,, 68-6 69-0 69:3 67-7 68-0 66-3 50:0) :,, 68-3 69-2 68-3 68-0 66-0 40:0 ,, 69°3 69-4 638-4 68:0 66-0 60:0 ,, 69-5 ideo." A We, 3/4, Low, High, 3/4, 3/4, 1/28 falling falling falling | rising falling rising Walsh Bay. ALA DE 15.4.42. 22.442. 30.4.42. 5.5.42. oeoea ae Depth. 2 p.m. 4 p.m. 2 p.m. & sms 3 p.m 3 p.m Q-L ft Liye 3) 67-7 68-5 68:9 69°5 65-0 1 30's; ee ae 70-0 ZO). Me sd 68-0 67°8 68-5 69-0 | 65-0 Mideue2', Me £3 Low, Low, 3/4, 1/4, 12 Ts rising rising falling | rising falling rising | From these readings, though far from comprehensive, certain conclusions can be made. Thus the extreme temperatures of the surface waters of Port Jackson can be taken as between approximately 50° and 76°F. In the deeper water the results are rather surprising. It was expected that though seasonal changes took place, they would be much less than on the surface, and that in the summer months at least, the water would remain appreciably colder. No figures are available for mid-summer, that is from December to February, and possibly at this time the deeper water is a few degrees colder than the surtace, but by March the lag has been overtaken ana the whole body of water has become warmed nearly uniformly throughout. On the 2nd April, there is only a difference of 2° between the surface and 60 feet, while on the 11th May, while the whole has fallen 5° to 66°, the temperature is uniform from the surface to 40 feet. From this it can be deduced that the bottom temperature is never appreciably lower than the surface, except perhaps in some of the deeper holes where the water is still. In the winter, the chilling of the surface water might even for very short periods make it actually colder than at the bottom, but convection currents would make adjustment even more rapid, and uniformity would be soon restored. In other words the temperature curves of both surface and bottom waters practically conform, with a minimum of about 50° in winter, and with the surface perhaps 2° or 3° warmer in mid-summer. This would not apply to the very shallow water at the head of bays and inlets, where locally, . and for short periods, extremes both of heat and cold, might be considerably exceeded. 192 PORT JACKSON. From the faunal point of view, it is generally recognized that the range of species is more limited by minimum than by maximum temperatures, and adopting this as a datum, the marine isotherm passing through Port Jackson would be in the vicinity of 50° or a degree or so higher. Within the harbour itself, as organisms in both deep and shallow waters live within almost exactly the same range of temperature, this condition is no bar to their migration from one to the other. Thus from this factor alone no zoning of the fauna in depth can be expected, though some change can be expected where very shallow water in the heads of inlets makes for greater extremes. LIGHT AND PRESSURE. There are very little data available for either of these two factors. The effects of light may be deduced to a certain extent by the distribution of the algae. It can be said that the whole of the waters of Port Jackson are within the zone of the brown weeds. These grow freely from just below low tide to the floor of the harbour, showing that sufficient light penetrates to propagate their growth. In fact, if brown algae be used as a faunal zone guide, depths far beyond anything in the harbour are indicated. Off Bateman’s Bay, on the South Coast, brown kelp is abundant at a depth of 25 fathoms, and supports a molluscan fauna identical with that of the rock pools just below low tide. Incidentally no analogy can be made of these with the giant kelp of the sub-Antarctic, which, while attached to the bottom at depths as great as 60 tathoms, grows upwards to use the light close to the surface. Further information is wanted as to the distribution of red algae in Port Jackson. Generally considered as occupying a lower depth zone than the brown weeds, they nevertheless do occur in Port Jackson and are found even in the rock pools right up to low-water mark. As far as I am aware, no special study has ever been made of the ecological associations of the red weeds, and -here is a large and interesting field for specialized research. Of pressure there is even less information available about its effect on marine organisms. With free-swimming organisms it must have some effect, though we know certain mammals, such as the whale and some fish, can experience great and rapid changes by passing from one depth to another without ill results. The bottom life is, however, either static or of much slower movement, and any passage from shallow to deep water, or vice versa, would be gradual and allow adjustment of internal to external pressure. It is possible, however, that many organisms do not possess this adjustability, and are thus limited to definite depths from this factor alone. This again is a subject capable of long and painstaking research, particularly of an anatomical character. From the foregoing the following conciusions are tentatively drawn. From light alone no ecological depth zones may be expected within the limits of Port Jackson. Pressure is largely an unknown factor, but except in the case of some individual organisms, is not likely to have a great effect within the small limits of from 0 to 10 fathoms. SALINITY. The salinity of the sea throughout the world is, within very narrow limits, extremely uniform. Even adjacent to the land, except in certain limited areas, it remains unchanged throughout the year and is unaffected by the flow of fresh water from the land to the sea. The excepted areas are in the estuaries or at the mouths of large rivers, or even small rivers which are liable to heavy flooding, or in polar waters, where the summer melting of the winter floes is apt. to make the surface waters much fresher. LASERON. 193 It is noticeable that in Port Jackson no streams of any size flow into the harbour, and the whole of the drainage basin is vomparatively a very small one. The bulk of the drainage of the coastal plain actually flows west to the Hawkesbury River, which finds its outlet in Broken Bay, while a little to the south the George’s River empties into Port Hacking. Actual figures of salinity, again provided by the Maritime Services Board, and taken from one foot below the surface at Port Macquarie, show that in the year from the 3lst May, 1943, to 27th May, 1944, the salinity varied from 29:3 to 35°83 grammes per kilo. The lower figure was reached after a period of exceptionally heavy rainfall, and may be taken as extreme, though probably near the outlet of some of the creeks or storm-water channels it would be even lower. No figures are available for deeper water, but it can be taken that as fresh-water is much lighter than salt-water, surface waters are much more quickly affected, and as diffusion is not very rapid, changes in the deeper water are within much smaller limits. Another factor is that the growth of a large city greatly facilitates the run-off after heavy rain. Bare streets, the roofs of houses, and numerous graded storm-water channels ensure that practically all rain falling within the city area reaches the harbour very rapidly, spreads over the surface and reduces salinity. Previously, the forests covering the slopes filtered the rainfall and slowed down the flow of surface water, of which much was absorbed by the porous sandy soil and the sandstone itself. It can be taken that what changes of salinity occur at the present time are partly artificial, induced by city growth, that even now they are largely confined to a foot or two of surface water, and that in the past they were much less. Most marine organisms are extremely susceptible to any reduction in the salinity of sea-water, and rapidly succumb if it is carried beyond a certain point. It is interesting to compare the extreme richness of the Port Jackson fauna, for instance, with that of the estuary of the Clarence River on the North Coast. Here conditions are ideal for a rich fauna for perhaps 99 per cent of the year, but the Clarence is liable to periodical very heavy flooding and marine life can never get established. Miles of sand and mud flats bordered by mangroves are practically devoid of marine life, save a few hardy molluscs, crabs and worms, whereas comparable flats in Middle Harbour, Port Jackson, or Gunnamatta Bay, Port Hacking, literally teem with marine life of a multitude of species. The richness of the Port Jackson fauna is further accentuated by the stability of this condition through a very long period. In fact there is no evidence of any change since the actual flooding of the harbour at the close of the last Glacial Period some 10,000 years ago. FoopD AND PROTECTION. Food supplies are an essential factor in the distribution of all life. Plants are, of course, the basic substance of all animal life, either directly for vegetable feeders or indirectly for carnivora, scavengers or parasites. In the sea, plant life as food may be considered under two heads—the static, consisting mainly of the larger algae, and the transient, which includes floating algae, mostly micro- scopic but sometimes large, and diatoms, which are minute. Diatoms exist in infinite numbers in all parts of the world and form an essential constituent of plankton, of which they are the basic food. Plankton itself, consisting of a whole host of organisms, including larvae of crustacea and other groups, forms the food of larger organisms and governs their distribution. Plankton also forms the food of many static creatures inhabiting the sea bottom, and its abundance or scarcity determines their existence. Apart from the plant life of plankton, however, the larger fixed algae commence a life cycle of their own. Many creatures, large and small, feed Cc 194 PORT JACKSON. directly upon them, and their distribution is limited to the same areas. Only in some cases, where a free-swimming larval stage occurs, will these creatures depend during part of their life on the floating plant life. Drifting away on ocean currents, when this period of their life cycle is completed, they must find another environment similar to the static one of their parents, or perish. For the great majority of creatures migration must be either by crawling or by swimming very short distances and must of course be much slower. For this reason their geographic distribution is likely to be much more limited, a fact which is well seen in the ecology of oceanic as distinct from continental islands. Thus while plankton is the predominating tactor in the distribution of life in the great masses of the ocean, static algae become of increasing importance adjacent to the coast, in the sheltered waters of bays, and may even become the predominant or only factor. An additional source of food will also be found in these locations by the decomposition of the algae themselves or from the decom- position of organic matter, plant and animal, washed into the sea from the neighbouring land. : In narrow, rather shallow waters, like Port Jackson, there is no. evidence of the relative abundance of plankton in depth. Sessile creatures, which live by the absorption of sea-water and the extraction of any organic matter it may contain, are equally abundant in both shallow and deeper water, which would suggest that this organic matter, plankton or otherwise, is fairly equally distributed throughout. In other words, depth zones based on the factor of food are not likely to be defined. With the static algae, also, looked on purely as a source of food, it has already been pointed out that their distribution is not limited to any depth within the harbour, and thus is not likely to contribute to the formation of faunal depth zones. On this point one vast field of research does remain untouched. This is the question as to whether marine vegetable feeders are selective of their food and to what extent. On the land we know animals are highly selective, but land plants include a great number of natural orders and have a much more diverse chemical composition than have the plants of the sea. Nevertheless, it is of the utmost interest to ascertain if each species of algae supports its own species of herbivorous animals, so that these with other associated species may thus form distinctive ecological colonies. There remains the factor of protection. All animals and plants develop protection—protection against their physical environment and from their enemies. They do this or perish. This has already been outlined in the introduction to Part 1 of this paper, nor will these problems differ greatly in Port Jackson from similar problems in other marine locations. Protection in animals is, however, a vast and complicated subject, and in any individual species could form the basis of a lifetime’s or many lifetimes’ research. It covers not only the more obvious things, such as protective colouring, defensive or offensive weapons and speed of movement, but many things less apparent—resistance to disease, fecundity, adaptation to change and other factors more subtle but no less potent. Protection also implies shelter, and here the nature of the environment is all important. This will be dealt with in more detail in the next section—that dealing with the nature of the sea bottom, which it is claimed is the chief factor in Cpleh eRe the limits of ecological communities within the sea. OcEAN AND TIDAL CURRENTS. Ocean currents affect the distribution of sea life in several ways. They have a distinct influence on the temperature of sea-water; they transport the larval forms of many species; and they carry food in the form of plankton to the stationary animals. Tidal currents are more local in their consequences; they LASERON,. 195 have little effect on temperatures. As a means of transport they aid in a limited distribution of various species, but they are very important in carrying planktonic food to many creatures. Ocean currents have more effect on the outer coast than in enclosed harbours with only one entrance, the waters of which are but little influenced by their passage. Thus in studying the effect of the two main currents on the New South Wales coast, their influence within the enclosed waters of Port Jackson will be slight, except in areas adjacent to the Heads. The first of these two currents is the Notonectian Current, which flows rapidly from outside the Barrier Reef on the Queensland coast southwards as far as Shellharbour, about 60 miles south of Sydney. It is a warm surface current, and has a distinct effect on the temperature, not only of the sea, but of the coastal areas of the land. It flows throughout the year, but its rate varies at times, and may be at its maximum near the shore or at some distance from the land. It brings with it an endless stream of flotsam from the tropics, including the eggs and larval forms of many tropical marine animals. These are continually settling and growing on the coast, their proportion naturally increasing as we go north. Often, however, they find the new environment unsuitable, or the competition of established species too strong, and they soon die out. Some get a precarious footing, which they barely maintain; only a comparative few become adapte& and fit in with new ecological associations. Only rarely do such animals become so firmly established that they oust and replace the original fauna. They remain, at the most, chance visitors, which add to the variety but do not modify the local balance of life. The limit of distribution of these tropical animals is about 60 miles south of Sydney, and a number, including many molluscs, has been found jist within Port Jackson, notably in the vicinity of Watson Bay and Bottle and Glass Rocks. A few molluscs, such as Strombus spp. and Cypraea spp., are more or less established, but they never form a conspicuous or important element in the fauna. A cold current from the Antarctic, in contrast to the warm Notonectian current, is also present on the coast. It flows from the south along the eastern shore of Tasmania, across the Bass Strait, up the New South Wales coast, but loses its influence in the vicinity of Sydney. Where the two currents meet, as cold water is heavier than warm, the cold current tends to pass beneath the other and to be diverted into deeper water away from the coast. When speaking of the effect of temperature on marine life, it was pointed out that the minimum extreme is more important in limiting distribution than the maximum. Hence northerly migrating species of animals would be better fitted to withstand sudden changes in temperature caused by the warring of the two currents than would tropical species moving southwards. They would thus much more easily become firmly established. This is evidently the case, for not only do many typical Tasmanian species appear on the New South Wales coast, but they exist in large numbers and have come to form an integral part of the fauna. NATURE OF THE SEA BOTTOM. Reviewing the several factors already discussed, the view is advanced that while they are of the utmost importance in controlling the general distribution of sea life, their effect is regional rather than local. In other words, in a body of water of the limited size and depth of Port Jackson, they are practically constant throughout and have little effect on ecological segregation. There remains one factor to be considered—the changing nature of the sea bottom—and it is claimed that this is the most important in any attempted classification of habitats. In the introduction to the first part of this paper it was suggested that a useful classification of the sea bottom was as follows; 196 PORT JACKSON. (4) Rock, (B) Coral, (C) Sand, (D) Sandy Mud, (#) Mud, (f) Weed. This classification is capable of further subdivision according to species of coral, different kinds of rock, sand, mud or weed, and in the great depths of the ocean the various types of ooze, diatomaceous, radiolarian, foraminiferal, or magnetic dust. In Port Jackson, however, there is geological uniformity, the rock is sandstone with a very little shale, the sand consists of water-worn grains of quartz derived from the sandstone, the mud is argillaceous and there are no coral reefs. Apart from coral, therefore, all types of habitat exist, they are uniform throughout, and within their limits they are inhabited by distinctive biological communities which differ considerably from each other. This does not mean that the various species are distributed equally throughout each type of habitat. There will be much localization. Different ecological associations will exist in different places, even though conditions are similar. The chance intro- duction of one species to a new location may lead to its adaptation to and absorption into new associations, or it may attract to itself its former associations and form a similar community to the one from which it was derived. But most of the communities within the one type of habitat will have something in common, something which adapts them to that particular habitat and makes them unsuitable for a different one. Bock.—Except in the uppermost reaches of the Parramatta River, Port Jackson is everywhere flanked by cliffs or bluffs of Hawkesbury sandstone, relieved by occasional beaches. The term river, by the way, is misapplied to what is really but an arm of the harbour. The shores are precipitous and for the most part slope steeply to the nearly level bottom of the harbour. Owing to sedimentation, the rocky fringe is a narrow zone adjacent to the shore, and only in a few places does a rocky platform of moderate area form the sea bottom. There are few reefs away from the shore, the most noteworthy being Sow and Pigs Reef, which divides the harbour not far from the entrance. The shores of the few small islands are similar to those of the mainland. (Fig. 1.) Sandstone) Bp pile Diagrammatic section of shore, Port Jackson, showing typical narrow rock zone. The average depth of this rock zone is about 30 feet, that is from low water to where it is replaced by the sediment that forms the main floor of the harbour. For the most part the water is quiet and only in that area immediately opposite the heads is it exposed to violent wave action. Even here the numerous fallen blocks of sandstone afford abundant shelter for innumerable organisms. Generally the rock is covered by a dense growth of algae, large species of brown kelp predominating. This algal zone will be later considered as forming a distinct LASERON. 197 habitat, but apart from its own faunal characteristics, it forms a cover and additional shelter for life typical of the medium on which it grows. The life of the rock zone is exceedingly rich, both in species and individuals, though difficulty of access makes its specialized study very difficult. Basically there are the static algae as a food constituent, supplemented by a mass of planktonic life carried on the tidal currents. Clear water, ample shelter and food and uniformity of conditions all contribute to the wealth of life. Without attempting to list the many organisms found here, some general features may be pointed out as characteristic of reef life. There is a high proportion of sessile animals, sponges, actinozoa, serpulae, polyzoa, ascidians, brachiopods, many bivalves and even some gasteropods. All these creatures remain attached throughout the greater part of their existence, and many have distinctive ecological associations. Animals able to adhere to the rock by suction are common. Among these are the star limpet (Patella perplexa), other gasteropods such as Haliotis, chitons, and many star fish. Large strong- shelled gasteropods are common and some of these are strongly operculate, such as Turbo. Rugose and spinose forms abound. Such gasteropods as Murex are typical, as are the pelecypods Spondylus, Chama and Chlamys, while the echinoids are nearly all thick-spined species. Colours are generally dark, deep reds and browns predominating. It is among the sessile animals, or those capable only of slow motion, that the most characteristic reef forms are to be found. Active, rapidly moving animals are largely carnivorous, and though some of them are peculiar to the reef, others are found in many different environments. Carnivora, unless highly specialized to the pursuit of one type of victim, follow their prey into many places. For instance, the boring whelk, Xymene hanleyi, is ubiquitous through- out the harbour from between tide marks to the greatest depth, on rock, weed or sand, and even to depths of 60 fathoms on the continental shelf. Linked with the rock zone within Port Jackson is a much more extensive area of reef fringing the outer coast. Particularly to the north of Sydney and extending right up the coast is a wide platform of rock forming the bottom many miles seawards, from a depth of a few fathoms to 20 or more. As a bridge linking the Queensland and New South Wales coast, these reefs have no doubt allowed the migration of slow-moving tropical forms as far as Sydney and even farther south. These species have a different significance from those which are free swimming, or have a free-swimming larval stage, whose southern migration, borne on the warm Notonectian current, is comparatively rapid. Unfortunately this outer reef zone is, zoologically speaking, practically unexplored. Too rough for dredging, it is also avoided by trawlers, and all we know of it is from a few creatures thrown on the shore after heavy storms, or from occasional dredging in the sandy patches between the reefs. Such a dredging in 14 fathoms off Long Reef by my son John and myself some years ago, was extremely tantalizing in the mere glimpse it gave of the extreme richness of this area. Its study is a vast field for the future and will need much expensive equipment and elaborate organization before its zoological mysteries are revealed. Sand.—In striking contrast to rock as an environment is that of sand. By sand is meant a practically pure accumulation of water-worn quartz grains with no admixture of argillaceous or muddy matter. It varies somewhat. in coarse- ness but can be remarkably constant over a considerable distance. Sandy bottoms in Port Jackson are derived mainly by sea erosion of the cliffs forming the shore, and are largely confined to those areas in which wave action is strong and violent. During easterly and south-easterly gales, heavy seas sweep in 198 PORT JACKSON. between the heads, and a heavy surf penetrates into Middle Harbour as far as Balmoral, and some distance into the west channel adjoining Sow and Pigs Reef. Erosion of the sandstone is comparatively rapid and has produced a sand bottom in the whole of this area. (See map.) As a rule the surface of the sand is fairly firm, but there is some movement and redistribution of the grains, mostly from the action of tidal currents. This instability, though slight, precludes the growth of fixed algae, removing both shelter and one source of food for animal life. This alone causes a striking dissimilarity between the life of the sand with that of the reef and all other environments. The first thing noticed is the absence of sessile creatures. The few found are small and attached to occasional dead shells. Such is the bivalve Myochama, almost invariably attached to another bivalve Glycymeris. The gasteropod Calyptraea, though free moving, is also found living on larger dead shells. In the absence of-shelter above the surface, many of the animals find refuge below. There is thus a preponderance of burrowers with organs specialized for this purpose. For instance, many of the bivalves have the foot enlarged and strengthened into a burrowing implement, and can often dig or move through the sand with surprising rapidity. Bodies may be greatly elongated, as with worms, or streamlined, as with molluscs. Spines and rough surfaces are a hindrance to rapid passage through the sand, therefore smooth and polished surfaces are an asset. Even the echinoids have soft, short spines, which lie backwards instead of protruding vertically. Typical smooth gasteropods of the sand are Marginella, Natica, Ancilla, Turritella, Olivella, and Volutes, while the bivalves include Glycymeris, Diplodonta, Donazx, Macrocallista, Mactra, Tellina and many others. Bottom-living fish are also highly specialized, generally greatly flattened, either vertically as with the flathead, or laterally as with the soles and flounders. . Colours also are characteristic. There is a predominance of white, but many species develop brilliant red or brown stripes, often zigzagging against a white ground. Such colouring is a good example of disruptive camouflage and is even more effective for concealment than the pure white. Sand life depends for its food primarily on plankton, and to a lesser eiterit on dead animal matter sinking to the bottom from the swimming medium above. Life is not so prolific as in most environments, yet compared with, say, the less fertile portions of the earth’s surface, it is abundant and varied. Collectively it may be summed up as extremely mobile and active, with a profusion of species as well as individuals scattered fairly uniformly throughout the zone. It forms a wide field for future collecting and research. Mud and Sand.—Even a small percentage of mud mixed with the sand produces a striking change in environment. Firstly the colour changes and the dazzling white of the sand is replaced by greys, deepening to almost black, according to the amount of mud present. The bottom becomes firmer and more stable, there is little redistribution of sediment, and many of the larger algae can find a secure anchorage. The mud itself, derived in part from the clayey cement of the eroded sandstone, also contains a varying amount of decomposed vegetable matter from the land. This supplies an additional source of -food; in fact many animals, including a number of worms, live directly upon _ it, swallowing it and absorbing the contained organic material. In Port Jackson, once the turbulent water near the entrance is passed, mud and sand is the prevailing bottom. Biologically it is an intermediate medium, with few characteristics of its own, but sharing more with the reef on one side, with sand on the other, as well as with the pure mud bottom, which will be LASERON. 199 dealt with separately. It is, as it were, the meeting place of all faunas, and is the most prolific, both for mass and variety of life. There is abundance of food, uniformity of conditions, and shelter is provided not only beneath the growth of algae, but by burrowing as well. Sessile creatures are abundant, though not as abundant as on the reef, and these are supplemented by others, which, while not actually attached, are embedded and remain practically stationary throughout life. These animals, including many bivalves, are largely siphonate, the siphons may be greatly elongated, enabling the animal to remain buried at a considerable depth and yet retain communication with the surface. The razor shell, Solen, is an example of these. This mollusc has a powerful digging foot, by which it is able to rise or bury itself deeper as required. There is no general characterization of form, as rugose and spiny forms abound in close association with the smooth. Colour is also diverse, but perhaps monochromatic neutral tints; greys, grey-browns and yellow-browns may be considered as typical. Amongst minute life the foraminifera are often exceedingly abundant. This has been noticed within Port Jackson, but even more so in fine muddy sand from the continental shelf. Here at times they are so abundant as to constitute a very important element of the whole fauna. Much work, however, remains to be done before even the numerous species are determined, to say nothing of their ecological associations. So far, the sand and mud bottom has been considered as a whole, but this environment, more than the others, is capable of considerable horizontal subdivision. In the absence of sufficient data such a subdivision is not attempted here, but it may be said that it depends primarily on certain local conditions. There is, for instance, considerable difference between the faunas of the Sow and Pigs Reef, which is for the most part a sand and mud bank in close proximity to the open ocean, and the quiet still reaches of Middle Harbour above The Spit. Some indications of the conditions at specific localities are given in the map (Fig. 2), such localities being numbered and brief notes appended. Mud.—The difference between a pure muddy bottom and one of mud and sand depends largely on its physical consistency. Where the mud is well packed the surface is firm and there is not a great deal of difference. There is the same abundant growth of algae, much the same proportion -of sessile, burrowing and crawling creatures, with the same general characteristics. Where the mud, however, retains a high content of water and remains soft and incoherent, quite a different environment is created. Areas of pure mud occur naturally in many of the upper parts of Port Jackson, in Middle Harbour, in the Lane Cove River and in Parramatta River. In the main part of the harbour, immediately west of Bradley’s Head, the bottom is composed of a very soft mud, which fills Athol Bight, Mosman Bay and other inlets. It is quite probable, however, that much of this mud is of very recent origin, derived from drainage from the adjacent built-on areas. Such deposits, consisting of city dust, dust worn from metalled or concrete roads, can be very deleterious to local marine life, particularly if it is mixed with oily matter. It has been noticed that in dredgings in Athol Bight and Mosman Bay, though many dead shells are procured, there is a very small proportion of living molluses and other organisms. Oil on the foreshores has also destroyed much of what was formerly a rich marine fauna. In the quieter reaches of Middle Harbour, where the shores are still covered with virgin forest, areas of mud are still in their original natural condition, with their fauna intact. These mud bottoms often adjoin mangrove swamps, with which they have some affinity, but in Port Jackson, Pittwater, Port Hacking 200 PORT JACKSON. I wy) > Miles +| Rock Saud & Mud + + fee] avd Std SN lal apie) ( (ape en ni tHHA a Wey Qe “ar He I i id He > ott ee al it Paes + eee ier Ota: La ee reser: Wei? spat Teas pela me PP alee C =e Si a CRO SCN OR ee ofc @ Fe eee er we wm te ee oe Ce CC ee Ce eC, i re a i, a } eo eee e stro rr st teen * eee eer teen . Salle F oA HAAIA sn 9: le (Etter: Galt tae \ l fy ramen it nie | in Aa lat .|- hae ti Pet AR tila “i sie lisa Ren | se Lis BA ne Map of lower portion of Port Jackson, showing approximate location and Fig. 2. i extent of the varying types of sea bottom. Notes on numbered locations appear below LASERON. 201 and other localities where salinity is not affected by rivers, the fauna is not estuarine in character, but essentially marine. As a habitat, mud has some essential differences from others. The soft nature of the mud makes it practically a swimming medium, in which only specialized forms can exist. Sessile animals are practically absent and crawling animals have broad ventral surfaces. There is a penalty on weight, as animals have to support themselves on the soft surface or by practically swimming 1. Quarantine Bay, depth 30-40 feet. Bottom mud and sand with heavy growth of algae. Marine life exceedingly rich, an interesting feature being the appearance of many molluses typical of deeper water on the continental shelf. Among these are Cardiwm pulchellum (very abundant), Modiolus arborescens and some of the Turridae. The otherwise rare bivalve Cuspidaria brazieri is here very common. 2. North Harbour, depth 20 feet. Bottom mud and sand with a fairly high proportion of mud. Life abundant, the bivalve Corbula being conspicuous. 3. North Harbour, depth 30 feet. Bottom mud and sand, growth of algae heavy. Life rich. In shallower water nearer the western shore the bottom is sandier and typical sand forms appear, notably the molluses Natica sagittata and Ancilla. 4. Depth 60 feet, bottom coarse sand, much disturbed by tidal currents. Life rather sparse, but typical sand bivalves occur, such as Glycymeris, with gasteropods such as Turritella and Marginella, and many short-spined echinoids. 5. Depth 60-70 feet, bottom sand, but finer than at 4. The usual typical sand fauna occurs. This type of bottom extends right into Middle Harbour, but becomes shallower. There is a patch of mud and sand off the southern end of Balmoral Beach. 6. West Channel, Sow and Pigs Reef, originally shallow, but now dredged to over 40 feet. Bottom fine sand, extending well into the channel. The extreme richness of the fauna here has been revealed by recent dredging by the harbour dredge ‘‘Triton”’. Though most of the material is dead, consisting largely of the shells of molluscs, a great variety of typical sand-living forms have been noted, including such continental shelf species as Marginella kemblensis, Olivella exquisita, Terebra spp. and many others. 7. Depth 40-50 feet. The area of mud and sand, forming the bank of Sow and Pigs, here extends right round South Head. It is generally a rich dredging area, with many deep-water species appearing. 8. Sow and Pigs Reef. For the most part a bank of mud and sand, with rocky reefS appearing in several places at or near the surface. The water is shallow, averaging about 20 feet. There is a heavy growth of algae over most of the bank and life is exceedingly rich. It is a famous collecting locality. _ 9. Hast Channel, Sow and Pigs Reef, originally shallow, but deepened to over 40 feet by dredging. About 20 years ago, when the “Triton” was dredging in this locality, much of the material was used for reclaiming land at Dundas on the Parramatta River. It was thus available for examination and yielded amongst the more familiar species many curious and large tropical shells of types which seem to be now extinct in Port Jackson. Such genera as Distortio, several species of Strombus and others were amongst those found. (Iredale, 1929.) 10. Depth 120-130 feet. Bottom pure sand, with typical sand fauna, the proportion of continental shelf species increasing as the waters of the harbour give place to those of the open ocean. 11. Off Bradley’s Head, depth 30-40 feet. This is one of the few localiites where a rocky shelf persists some distance from the shore. There is a heavy growth of algae, and probably a very rich marine life, but the bottom is too rough, and attempts to dredge met with failure. 12. Athol Bight, depth 50-60 feet. Bottom very soft mud, probably of late origin, with comparatively little life at the present time. 13. Bottle and Glass Rocks. A rich shore-collecting locality. Immediately offshore there is a rough rocky bottom, which can be seen clearly through a depth of up to 20 feet. Life must there be very rich, and enormous numbers of large-spined echinoids are visible. A chance dredging in a patch between rocks contained many species, including two live Ovula. D 202 PORT JACKSON. through the mud. Molluscs have generally thin and fragile shells. Such bivalves as Anatina and some of the Tellinids are characteristic, though, curiously enough, Nucula, a smooth but rather heavy shell, is typical of a real mud bottom. At first sight, though the mud fauna seems rather limited, it is really a fairly comprehensive one and has not had the attention it deserves. It provides an extensive field for further research. Weed.—Though the algae growing on rock or on sand and mud partially share the fauna of these mediums, they have a distinctive life and thus may be defined as a definite habitat. Here research is still in its initial stages. One question already raised is whether each species of algae has its own distinct faunal associations as have so many terrestrial plants. This question as yet cannot be answered, but is well worthy of detailed investigation. Basically the fauna of the algae is small, often minute. A few larger animals— that is, larger comparatively—live on the larger species of kelp, but generally, even with the support of the surrounding medium of sea-water, size and weight are characters unsuitable to the environment. Many minute organisms live directly upon the ‘hairs’ of the algae, and these in turn have a host of enemies which prey upon them. The few sessile animals are also small, and of these, serpulid worms and polyzoa are the commonest. These live on microscopic organisms in the water itself, and not on the algae, which they use merely as a base. Among the direct vegetable feeders are many minute gasteropods, notably among the Rissoidae, Liotiidae, Trochidae and other families. One whole group of gasteropods, not unlike some land shells in appearance, are probably the smallest in the world, many of them below 0-5 mm. across, and they are as yet entirely undescribed. It is interesting to note that two rather larger, typical weed-living gasteropods, Phasianella perdiz and Cantharidus eximinus, are equally abundant in rock pools at low tide and in depths of over 25 fathoms off Bateman’s Bay. Equally abundant with the molluscs are innumerable small crustaceans, amongst which are many arthropods, copepods and isopods; also many small stars and brittle stars, worms and other animals are to be found. Form is exceedingly variable, but colours are generally a uniform dark brown, making many of the creatures practically invisible against their background. A casual examination of the algae, even with a lens, reveals practically nothing of the wealth of life. If a quantity, however, be placed in a bucket of fresh-water, the animals are killed and become detached, and a study of the resulting debris reveals them in all their wealth of numbers and species. So great is this that almost any such washing is bound to bring to light new and undescribed species, and here is a field of vast extent for future research. ORIGIN OF THE PorRT JACKSON F'AUNA. It is with some temerity that the question of the origin of the Port Jackson fauna is introduced. Actually little more can be done than state it as a problem for future research. The problem is a world-wide one, the first stage in its investigation being the division of the world’s surface into Zoo-geographical Regions, and the further sub-division of these into Provinces. The all-important question to be answered is: “‘Does this division extend backwards into the past and, if so, how far back do the present geographical boundaries persist?” There is unfortunately little information on this question, and such that exists is fragmentary and scattered. Comparison between existing faunas and fossil faunas from the same or adjacent areas is obviously the first line of approach. For certain areas this is LASERON. 203 to some extent possible, but even then a complete picture of the life of any period can never be made. Only the hard parts of organisms, and of these only the merest fraction, have been preserved. All traces of soft-bodied creatures have entirely disappeared. The sequence of formation has been frequently interrupted and the details of contemporary topography are generally obscure. In Australia, the Tertiary marine beds of South Australia, Victoria and northern Tasmania afford some comparison with the existing fauna. But these beds are limited in extent, their correlation in time is far from complete, and any generalization at this stage would be premature. In New Zealand, also, some work has been done and an attempt made to trace the genetics of the Volutes from present times back to the Tertiary. But what of the tropical fauna? Is it older or newer than that of the adjoining temperate and cold water faunas, or have they developed uniformly side by side? On the whole of the eastern coast of Australia no marine fossiliferous strata exist newer than Palaeozoic, while in central and northern Australia Cretaceous marine rocks are the most recent. Perhaps New Guinea holds the key? The geological exploration of New Guinea may reveal Tertiary or Post-Tertiary beds of marine origin and, if so, examination of their fossil contents will be of the utmost scientific value.. Comparative anatomy and a study of embryology offer, for the time being, the only other line of approach. Before leaving the subject one or two points may be mentioned which, while not throwing any particular light on the problem, are suggestive. It is possible that the marine fauna of south-eastern Australia, like that of the land, is very old. Tvrigonia, a common and typical bivalve, was first known as a Mesozoic fossil in EKurope, where many species are to be found. As more and more new molluses come to light from the continental shelf, many are seen to have closer relationship with Australian Tertiary forms than those of adjoining provinces. This relationship probably extends further afield. Without detailing species, a brief glance through the plates illustrating the fossils of the Tertiary basin beneath Paris reveals a general facies which greatly resembles that of the New South Wales fauna. A more detailed comparison might well be worth’ while. The whole problem is a difficult one and shows how little we really do know of the marine life of this world of ours. CONCLUSION. I am afraid that this paper has done little more than set out a problem and lay down a tentative plan for future research. An attempt has been made to find solutions for a few of the questions raised, but much information is required before even a partial answer can be made. It is nevertheless felt that some plan, however imperfect, is necessary, if only to give a direction to and co-ordinate much scattered work that is now being done. No doubt details of the plan will be modified, even its main structure altered, as additional facts come to hand. Of conclusions here reached, the main one is that faunal zoning in depth in Port Jackson does not continue below extreme low tide. Faunal depth zones are of considerably greater vertical magnitude than comes within the whole range of depth in the harbour. The zoning of the harbour bed is therefore horizontal rather than vertical, and the varying nature of the sea bottom is the main factor governing the distribution of life and the segregation of ecological communities. REFERENCES. Hepuby, C. (1915).—Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, 49, 15-77. TREDALE, T. (1929).—Austr. Zool., 5, 337-352. Pope, E. (1943).—Proc, Linn. Soc. N. S.. Wales, 68, 221-254. 204 “LOVE’S MEINIE.” By Tom IREDALE. “T see this book was begun eight years ago; ... then intended to contain only four Oxford lectures: but the said lectures also ‘intended’ to contain the cream of forty volumes of scientific ornithology.” Such a statement could only have been written by a supreme egotist, a professional critic unaware of his stupendous ignorance, emphasized a couple of pages later with “Thoughtless readers, who imagine that my own style (such as it is, the one thing which the British public concedes to me as a real power) has been formed without pains, may smile at the confidence with which I speak of altering accepted, and even long-established nomenclature’. It is somewhat difficult to visualize the self- importance of such an individual, especially in view of the complete (and more complete it could not have been) failure of this particular project. The “lectures”, only three in number, form Volume I, dated 1881, of ‘“‘Love’s Meinie. Lectures on Greek and English Birds’’, and total the beginning and end of the ill-fated attempt at “altering accepted, and even long-established nomenclature”. The lectures are written “in a manner suited for oral delivery, and imagine myself speaking to my pupils’. The first lecture is entitled ““The Robin” and is worth reading as the perfect example of how not to write the natural history of birds “but by a scholar and a gentleman’. The pretentiousness is almost stifling and sickening, though analysing the essay as wished, it is possible to get information out of it, though not all of it trustworthy, and the best part is that wherein the subject is left forlorn and meanderings erstwhile occupy the writer. Thus, “Lord Derby is the first to propose that wood birds should have no more nests. We must cut down all our trees, he says, that we may effectively use the steam-plough; and the effect of the steam-plough, I find by a recent article in the ‘Cornhill Magazine’, is that an English labourer must not any more have a nest, nor bantlings [babies] neither; but may only expect to get on prosperously in life, if he be perfectly skilful, sober, and honest, and dispenses, at least until he is forty-five, with the luxury of marriage.” Then came the Swallow. “I have said that I never get into scrapes by blaming people wrongly; but I often do by praising them wrongly. I never praised, without qualification, but one scientific book in my life (that I remember) ... this of Dr. Pettigrew’s on the wing.” So he shows that he was incorrect in his praise and develops an essay on flight which is worth the opening of the book. With this essay the Swallow is not much concerned save as a peg. The third lecture is the Dabchicks, but facing it is a page (84) with names of the birds noticed in the following lecture. I. Merula Fontium. Torrent Ouzel .. .. Text Page 94, Appendix Page 180 II. Allegretta Nymphaea. Lily Ouzel .. .. - 99, # 180 IIA. Allegretta Maculata. Spotted Allegret .. wt 102 we 182 IIs. Allegretta Stellaris. Starry Allegret .. & 103 = 183 IIc. Allegretta Minuta. Tiny Allegret .. .. 3 104 “y 184 III. Trepida Stagnarum. Little Grebe .. .. b 107 43 185 WV Pitania Arcvcd, "Avec Wamu ee eee ff 19: i 186 IVs. Titania Inconstans. Changeful Fairy .. w 124 ‘ 188 V. -KRallus Aquaticus. Water. Rail... 22025 a 128 EB 188 VI. Pulla Aquatica. Water Hen A eRe eet vi 133 é 190 IREDALE. 205 Then in the Appendix, added after the third lecture, some more names are given: Page 171. Rutila familiaris for Motacilla rubecula L. 172. Hirundo domestica for Hirundo rustica L. 172. Hirundo monastica for Hirundo urbica L. 175. Hirundo sagitta for Hirundo apus L. 177. Hirundo alpina for Hirundo melba L. 178. Noctua europaea for Caprimulgus europeus L. None of these names has been cited in synonymy of birds, but it appears they are lawfully introduced whatever the grotesque reasons for their proposition. Fortunately, none is valid for usage in any connection, as might be gathered from the absurd associations suggested. Now, who wrote these absurdities? It will certainly surprise most ornitho- logical students, as it did the present writer when Mr. G. P. Whitley brought the book to his notice: JOHN RUSKIN, great critic of the Victorian age, was responsible. After consideration, reference was made to an Encyclopaedia, which stated that Ruskin had written it when he was sixty-two and planned more, but it was found that he lived nearly twenty years longer and that “His judgments on subjects other than art were frequently hasty and prejudiced. He suffered during his later years from mental strain and occasional fits of insanity”’. Perhaps these efforts were the early signs of instability, as, while there are lots of interesting data (all taken from books), there are also lots of useless, inconsequent interpellations. Ruskin mentioned, “I have called... ‘the scurviest louts that ever fouled God’s earth with their carcasses’. The language appears to be violent. It is simply brief and accurate.” The essays might be mentioned in language which might be called violent, but which would be brief and accurate, but it will be unnecessary to write it. The complete ignoring and forgetting every word in the book is sufficient condemnation. But as the book has been forgotten it is possibly scarce, and so a few remarks upon the names may be given as a warning to non-ornithological critics to stick to their lasts and leave alone matters they don’t understand—save that a critic would respond that there is nothing he doesn’t understand. “Tove’s Meinie” is a curious attempt to suggest names for birds without any bird knowledge, as obviously he knew very little, and nearly the whole of the comments are based upon pictures which he despised for their artistic insufficiencies. But enough, just look at his Dabchicks. First, the Torrent Ouzel (now known as the Dipper), then the Little Crakes, which he calls Allegrets, followed by the Little Grebe, then the Phalaropes, which he calls Fairies, concluding with the Water Rail and Water Hen, then switching on to a peroration occupying fifteen pages dealing with modern painters, “scurvy louts’, carthorses, etc. It sounds like the ramblings of a madman, and probably that is why the book has been ignored, not a valid reason, as quite a few scientists whose work is admired and utilized were also found to be more or less insane. It would be difficult to pick out the valuable parts of the book, and probably these have all been taken from someone else, so that the book may be derided but it can never be forgotten by anyone who looks at it. The only comment noted (by Mullens) reads: “As for the ornithological knowledge displayed therein the less said the better, always supposing his remarks are serious.” But it is well known that Ruskin was always serious and it was this lack of humour that caused his mental instability in his later years. It had better be stated what Ruskin’s new names refer to, as they are bibliographically determined by reference to authorities, thus: 206 LOVE’S MEINIE. Allegretta nymphaea = Spotted Crakes. Allegretta maculata = Rallus porzana UL. Allegretta stellaris = Crex baillonii Yarrell. Allegretta minuta = Porzana minuta Gould. Trepida stagnarum = Colymbus minor lL. Titania arctica = Tringa fulicaria L. = Lobipes hyperboreus Gould. Titania inconstans = Tringa lobata L. = Phalaropus fulicarius Gould. Pulla aquatica = Gallinula chloropus Gould. “Note there is no proper feminine of ‘pullus’, and I use the adjective ‘pulla’ to express the dark colour.” He admits to having fifteen volumes of ornithology, an ample number, referring first to one and then to the other, commonly ridiculing the information provided. The curious title, ““Love’s Meinie’, refers to birds themselves. ‘“ ‘Meinie’ is the old English word for ‘many’, in the sense of ‘a many’ persons attending one, as bridesmaids, when in sixes or tens or dozens.” REVIEW. NATIVE ANIMALS OF NEW ZEALAND. By A. W. B. Powell, Auckland Museum Handbook of Zoology, published 19th August, 1947, pp. 1-96, figs. 1-411. Price: 6s. (postage 3d.). The Auckland Museum is to be congratulated on bringing out this attractively produced, modern guide to the animals of New Zealand, covering as it does not only the lowest forms like sponges, worms, molluscs and other invertebrates, but fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The clear, bold drawings, made by the author, enable easy identification of the species, each of which is dealt with in a popular manner. A list of works for reference affords a key for the student who wishes to delve more deeply into any animal group. New Zealand, we are told, has been separated from other lands for more than sixty million years. Thus, apart from bats, there are no native land mammals, and some of the birds were able to forage on the ground, leading to heavier build and reduced wings (kiwis and extinct moas). The Tuatara, amongst reptiles, is the sole survivor of a group which became extinct elsewhere many millions of years ago. A century of cultivation and acclimatization has upset the balance of primeval nature, causing immense changes in the native New Zealand land fauna, some species having been extinguished and others sadly reduced. This destruction has extended to some marine animals, seals in particular having suffered depredation. Mr. Powell’s handbook can be highly recommended to all naturalists —Hp. 207 THE BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID (MANTISPA VITTATA GUERIN). By KeitH C. McKerown, F.R.Z.S., Australian Museum, Sydney. and V. Hans MINCHAM, Hammond, South Australia. (Plates xiv—xv, text-figs. 1-13.) Up till the present, entomologists and arachnologists have paid little attention to the life history, habits and behaviour of the Mantispidae, that remarkable group of Neuropterous spider parasites. Published accounts from Europe, America and Japan are in every instance fragmentary and often contradictory in their details. The classical investigations of Brauer (1869) were for long the only source of information, and all the standard entomological text-books gave Brauer’s account as typical for the group. Subsequent work has added little to our knowledge. In no instance was anything known concerning the life of any Australian species. This paper, the result of friendly collaboration between two widely separated workers, McKeown, of Sydney, and Mincham, of Hammond, South Australia (then stationed at Willalo, in the same State) should go far towards presenting a complete account of the life history and habits of these strange insects and filling many gaps in our knowledge. MANTISPA VITTATA Guérin, 1837. (Plates xiv—xv, figs. 1-4, 8-10; text-figs. 1-6.) Mantispa vittata, one of the largest and most widely distributed of the Australian species, was originally described by Guérin-Meneville, 1837, but is better known from his account published in 1838 (Voyage Autour du Monde sur ... La Coquille . . . 1822-1825, Zool., ii, 2, Div. 1, Chap. xiii, Insectes, p. 196). The species was redescribed in 1852 by J. O. Westwood. The general appearance of the insect is as shown in text-figure 1. It is five-sixths of an inch long, with an expanse of an inch and a half, and is of a general reddish-brown colour. Specimens of Mantispa vittata have been seen from New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. A GEOGRAPHICAL NOTE. Before passing on to details of the observations on the biology of Mantispa vittata it will be well to give some description of Willalo and its surroundings. Willalo is a district 120 miles north of Adelaide and lies a few miles west of Hallett, the nearest railway station, comprising farm and station properties situated in a long trough-like valley extending in a more or less north-south direction. This ridge and valley formation is a widespread physiographical feature of the central highlands of South Australia. The crests of the ranges that enclose the valley on each side are about six miles apart. Peaks along the ridges reach, or even slightly exceed, 2,000 feet above sea level. Average rainfall is 17-18 inches per year. The valley floor is filled with a rich, red-brown, clayey loam. Lucerne flourishes in this loam and large areas are under this crop. This means that much of the land lies unploughed and stable for fairly long periods, a factor that apparently favours the development of a large local population of 208 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. Fig. 1.—Mantispa vittata Guérin. (Enlarged.) N. B. Adams del. Lycosid spiders. The clayey loam is easily excavated by the spiders following the autumn, winter or spring rains, and its consistency gives a degree of permanency to the spiders’ burrows that must be of advantage to them. There is no real sand in the district at all; this probably accounts for the fact that no Neuroptera with pit-forming larvae occur in the area. Antlions (Myrmeliontidae) abound in the sandy country of the arid interior. One enters the margin of this vast region some twenty or thirty miles north of Willalo. MANTISPID DISTRIBUTION WITHIN THE DISTRICT. An interesting point is the fact that the Mantispids are practically always found near the various isolated clumps of trees in the district. There are more than a dozen eucalypts in the school-yard, some of them nearly 70 feet high. Immediately north of the school a road runs in an east-west direction, while a road from the south intersects this at the school. Consequently roads run east, west, and south from the school, and telephone lines extend along all three. In the autumn of 1946 the telephone poles near the school were well covered with Mantispid eggs. Many eggs, too, were laid on the iron and woodwork of the school building. There are three clumps of eucalypts along the east road, situated at distances of 28, 35, and 70 chains from the school. Poles near all of these were well coated with eggs, but hardly a pole more than three chains from the gums had any eggs at all. The same state of affairs was noted along the other roads, where, at various intervals, clumps of gums occur. One farmer has in his paddock a plantation of gums consisting of about 150 trees. Near by stand two or three dying pine trees, in which the dead branches attracted the laying females. In nearly every instance where large egg masses were found, they were near, or no further than a few chains away from, clumps of trees. It seems probable that the insects upon emerging from the cocoon fly to the trees to feed and mate in the foliage. Later, they apparently quit the trees to Ooviposit. OTHER NEUROPTERA IN THE DISTRICT. Apart from the numerous individuals of Mantispa vittata, the Order Neuroptera is poorly represented. A species of Chrysopa is rather common in nF ls A ee ris aie! arte Bed oa i ie alt ia bul —— ee oe * ee ee ee ee ee, | ee eee ‘ MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 209 summer, while the small brown Hemerobiid, Micromus tasmaniae Walk., is some- times found in grass and was plentiful in the spring of 1946. With one exception, no Myrmeliontidae have been found. The sole exception was the widely dis- tributed Acantiaclisis fundata Walk., one specimen being taken. One specimen of a species of Acmonotus (Ascalaphidae) has been captured and another observed in flight. If other species of the order occur, they must be extremely rare. > SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF MANTISPIDS. Autumn is the season when Mantispids are chiefly in evidence, though an occasional individual may be seen during most months of the year. They are most abundant in April. Amazing numbers have been noted at times in the district, particularly on several occasions during April, 1946, when as many as fifty females were observed ovipositing on one telegraph pole at the one time. Some detail on the autumn occurrence of Mantispids during 1947—after Mr. Mincham’s transfer to Hammond—have been received from an observer at Willalo. The season was of much briefer duration than the corresponding one of 1946. The Mantispids were, however, for about a fortnight, more numerous than.at any time in the 1946 season, which had seemed exceptional from the numerical point of view. The Mantispids were first seen in the first week of March, four on the 21st, sixteen on the 24th, and forty on the 25th. On 26th March, the incredible number of 254 were counted ovipositing on two telegraph poles. These amazing numbers continued until the second week in April and then rapidly declined. No insects were seen at all after April. The insects were mostly ovipositing on poles standing near clumps of Sugar Gums (Hucalyptus cladocalyz). A second Mantispid season occurs in late spring. Mantispids were noted in late October and in November in 1945. In 1946, the first was seen on 25th October. By the end of that month five had been seen. They were found fairly frequently throughout most of November, on the 7th of which the first occurrence of Ovipositing was noted. They were never found in the spring season to occur in numbers greater than two or three, and were rare throughout December. The last insect seen in this season was a solitary male found on lst January, 1947. None was then seen until the following March when, apparently, the new generation began to emerge. These were the forerunners of the autumn season. Throughout April they abounded. They were found in decreasing numbers on occasions in May and were rare in June. The final insect of this long season was seen on 20th June. OVIPOSITION. The eggs are usually deposited on the bark of dead pine trees and on telegraph poles. In one instance only has evidence of oviposition upon the green wood of eucalypts been noted; this was on 6th September, -1946, when a green branch was found, ten or eleven feet from the ground, which had obviously been well attended by laying females during the previous autumn. All the eggs had, of course, long since hatched. They had been deposited in an extensive mass to which at least twenty females must have contributed. It is possible that egg-laying may take place high on the tree-trunks, although seldom observed. It is considered that the presence of ants on the tree-trunks may be a disturbing factor in such situations, and tend to discourage oviposition. A remarkable fact concerning the insects is their pronounced disposition to oviposit on telegraph poles, practically all of which are of iron in the Willalo district. More eggs have been deposited on these than on any other. objects, although the iron supporting towers of some windmills have also received a 210 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. large deposit of eggs. Some of the insects oviposit upon sheds, where they lay upon the galvanized iron as often as upon the woodwork. That this habit is not purely a local one, induced by the scarcity of trees, is borne out by the observations of Brauer (1869), Laboulbéne (1893), and Poujade (1898); in one instance the eggs were attached to a stone signpost, in another to the bark of an old oak tree, whilst in captivity they were laid on the side of the box er upon plants. Captives, in our experience, always lay on the box in which they are imprisoned. An even more remarkable fact is the widespread habit of community Oviposition, so repeatedly observed at Willalo. Such a habit does not appear to have been recorded elsewhere. R. C. Smith (1934) records that a female of M. savi Banks deposited a total of 2,200 eggs in six batches, extending over a period of approximately one month. Hoffmann (1936) states that a single female of Climaciella brunnea var. occidentalis Banks deposited a total of 1,028 eges in a single cluster in one day. R. C. Smith says that C. brunnea Say, when in confinement, deposits about 250 eggs to each female. The ovipositing groups of the Australian Mantispa vittata have been seen laying in positions on telephone poles varying from near ground level to almost at the top. The largest groups noted comprised the amazing number of 254 upon two poles—already mentioned—in 1947; 50, scattered over a number of groups, in 1946. The maximum in one group comprised 15 individuals, and some of these were so densely crowded that a few females deposited a number of eggs upon the wings and backs of others. As a rule such groups comprise four to eight individuals. The groups tend to form around a batch of eggs laid earlier by an individual. An individual female of Mantispa vittata deposits her eggs in a cluster or patch, depositing from several hundred to more than three thousand at a time. The eges are laid steadily at the rate of one egg every four to seven seconds. The general rate of egg-laying may be best expressed at a dozen, or upwards of a dozen, per minute. : Some females deposit their eggs over a patch previously laid, adding greatly to the density, but little to the area of the egg mass. Such females lay much more slowly because they have to work their abdominal tips down through eggs already deposited. The eggs are deposited in rows. In some patches the rows are more or less clearly defined, but often their arrangement is obscured by the density of the ege mass. The eggs are deposited transversely by swinging the abdominal tip alternately from side to side. Hach row is begun just in front of the end of the previous one. The tip of the abdomen is brought down onto the surface upon which the eggs are being deposited, and is then raised. By this means the gummy substance of which the egeg-stalks are formed is drawn out in a fine thread. This speedily hardens in the air and supports the egg, which remains firmly attached’ to its extremity. So far as observed, Mantispa vittata deposits all her eggs at one time and may spend some hours in the operation. When laying, the Mantispids seem to be largely indifferent to their surroundings. A dwarf may occasionally be seen among her large sisters, adding her eggs to the rapidly — growing “super-batch”’. In one instance only has a Mantispid been observed to feed while oviposition was in progress. The insect seized a fly and ate it without pausing in -her egg-laying. : Oviposition occurs chiefly in autumn, most eggs being deposited in April. In 1946 one female laid as early as 13th March. Several were observed laying as late as 27th May. Variations in temperature may slow up or even cause a temporary cessation of oviposition. In 1946, Mantispids were seen laying up to \ . Re AE Dies oe. MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 211 Rig ‘2 whe 8, j eT id es f ~ e e ae the 10th May. Cold weather followed the 10th for a few days. No insects were re seen until a week later, and none was observed to lay again until the 23rd May. “oes Several were observed ovipositing on 24th and 25th May, two on the 26th, and i one on the 27th. , é' Considerable time was spent observing the insects ovipositing on the 25th and 26th May. One female took over four hours to complete laying, another a period of over five hours. These two insects were seen to alight on a telegraph pole about midday. They settled some inches from a large egg patch. After remaining still for upwards of a quarter of an hour, they approached the eggs. Once upon the egg-mass they brought their antennae energetically to bear. After tapping the eggs for a while—in a manner reminiscent of that employed by certain Ichneumons on the bark of trees under which longicorn larvae are concealed— the Mantispids began to lay. It would seem that the Mantispids are drawn together, not by the attraction of the insects already present, but by that of the eges previously deposited. They pay no attention to each other, but are definitely attracted to the eggs. Small flies (Musca sp.) were very numerous at the time ‘and several were seen to settle near the females and within easy reach. To these the Mantispids paid not the slightest heed. The egg-masses formed by communal effort are sometimes of great size and, considering the minute size of the individual egg, must contain vast numbers of eggs (PI. xiv, fig. 5). The largest found was on a telegraph pole and was almost twenty inches in length. Scores of insects must have contributed to its formation. The eggs (text-fig. 7) are elongate, cylindrical with rounded ends, and borne upon a short stalk. The egg is about ‘+5 mm., or about 1/50th of an inch, in. length. The egg-stalk averages about 13 to 24 times the length of the egg itself. There is, however, great variation; some eggs have been noted with stalks fully four times the egg length. It would appear from observation that the stalks are longest on eggs deposited upon smooth tin or glass; such surfaces :would absorb none of the gummy fluid that is drawn out to form the stalks during Oviposition. When freshly laid, the eggs are pale salmon-pink or light cream in colour, darkening to a considerable degree as hatching approaches. The shell of the egg is transparent and, as the time of hatching approaches, certain details of the enclosed embryo become discernible. Under the microscope, the eyes of the larva are clearly visible and the pattern of brown patches on { the dorsal surface of the segments is strongly apparent. The incubation period is variable, fluctuating with the prevailing climatic conditions. Eggs deposited in autumn hatched in from 28 to 40 days; in the warmer weather of November it was found that the eggs hatched within 16 to 18 ; days. Sixteen days was the minimum and forty the maximum period of incubation ° Mes noted. Four batches of eggs, deposited on 25th May, 1946, were kept under close observation, two in the open on telegraph poles and two within the house. Although larvae developed in all these eggs, none emerged, and they were found to be dead. The weather during the period subsequent to the deposjtion of these eggs was extremely cold. On very few days did the maximum shade temperature reach 60°F., while the maximum for the majority did not attain 60°. Several days showed a registration of less than 50°F. Frosts occurred on most nights. The chances of survival of Mantispid eggs laid in late autumn or early winter would appear to be remote unless mild conditions were experienced. THE LARVA, DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOUR. The larvae on hatching are extremely slender, campodeiform, with a marked pattern of somewhat laterally placed brownish patches on the dorsal surface. As Gee Ne RE Aer Rem re Rye eane HAN he ee ¥, ba yy on ‘ 212 ; BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. These newly emerged larvae measure slightly more than a millimetre, or about 1/20th of an inch, in length. This measurement is at least 22 times the length of the egg; consequently the insect is extremely doubled-up within the egg shell prior to emergence. This can be clearly seen in a microscopical examination of the egg before hatching. The appearance of the newly hatched larva is well shown in text-fig. 8. The earliest of the newly hatched larvae in autumn show little tendency te disperse; those hatched later in the season, none. They simply hibernate. Experiments conducted to breed autumn larvae through to maturity failed in the autumn. Such breeding experiments, however, were successful in late spring with autumn larvae that had hibernated all the winter. The first of the autumn larvae observed in 1946 hatched on 10th April. These did not readily feed, but a small number was induced to. Of these, only one reached the spinning stage. This one, after a prolonged feeding stage compared with that shown in spring development, made a very incomplete cocoon, but died over winter. In captivity, | in the security of glass jars and other receptacles, larvae hatching in May and early June cluster together in great masses or may not even leave the egg mass, the stalks and empty shells affording some cover. On the telephone poles it was noticed that many larvae cling in masses to the egg masses for a day or two, but eventually disperse, wind and rain probably contributing largely to their dispersal. Few, it would seem, could long survive in the rain-swept fields in winter, and their survival here probably depends on finding and entering the shaft of some ground-dwelling ~spider—preferably that of a Lycosa. In both seasons. only a very small percentage of the larvae can possibly survive, but the death rate among those of the earlier season must be very much higher. The question as to whether hibernation occurred in the open by massed larvae, so familiar in confinement, was answered when thousands of larvae hibernating in a natural state were found on 20th July, 1946. A few days previously a boy had brought in a piece of a dead limb of a pine tree covered with thousands of hatched eggs; dozens of females had obviously deposited the familiar “super-batch” upon it. When examined in detail, thousands of larvae were found hibernating under the dry bark which adhered to the bough. The bark afforded a snug and secure shelter. They were as densely crowded together ~ as space would permit, but were necessarily spread over a wide area under the bark. This pronounced gregariousness of the larvae is highly remarkable. It is apparent only during hibernation, and this occurs only in cold weather. There must be some survival value in the crowding together of the small larvae in dense masses. These masses of hibernating larvae soon break up and disperse when warmed by the lamp or fire, or when exposed to the warmth of the sun in a sheltered place on a clear day. ; After the pine-limb discovery dead branches of sugar gums were searched as thoroughly as possible for similar larval hiding places. One dead limb covered with thousands of hatched eggs was found at a height of about 15 or 16 feet. The bough had very little bark left on it, but what remained was very firmly attached. Practically all the eggs were attached to this bark. No larvae were found on this limb, the bark not being loose enough to permit them to get beneath. Cracks in the wood were also examined as potential shelters for larvae, but none was located. It may well be that the normal shelter of the larvae is the dry bark of trees. In the last week of August many of the hibernating masses of larvae were showing signs of activity. By the first week of September practically every larva was on the move. The masses broke up and moved away, if free to, or ran about the jars if imprisoned. September opened with delightful spring sunshine, the kind of warmth that feels greater than the. thermometer indicates. MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 213 Maximum temperatures reached about 65° to 68° or 69°F., although some days felt considerably warmer than this. Having become active, it was noticed that the larvae remained active even when the weather coooled, as it did for a day or so. A small percentage of the larvae did not hibernate, but moved about more or less actively until they died a few weeks after hatching. The large majority, however, hibernated as usual in dense masses, larvae from several batches of eggs mixing and amalgamating readily together. Many thousands of the larvae did not move a quarter of an inch after hatching four months previously. A few larvae actually survived a hibernation period of five to six months following their hatching (the maximum period, 27 weeks 5 days), but the majority lived about four to four and a half months. By the middle of October practically all of the larvae were dead, except, of course, the minute proportion that had been introduced into spider eggs and had started feeding. The newly hatched larvae will travel for some considerable distance in a search for suitable cover under which to hibernate. This was proved experi- mentally by placing a batch of eggs in the centre of a large sheet of drawing paper and surrounding it at varying distances with varied objects—paper, card- board, wood, and similar objects—suitable as potential cover. The larvae hatched on a warm day in May and soon dispersed in all directions. A day or two later every bit of material had a number of larvae sheltering beneath it. Three months later many were still concealed in the positions taken up. The speed of the walking larvae varied a good deal; the fastest covered six inches in 55 seconds, but most took upwards of two minutes. The average rate may be expressed as about a foot in three to four minutes; that of the fastest, more than a yard in six minutes if walking were continued unbrokenly. Most young larvae would probably do this and, walking for considerable periods, cover relatively enormous distances. With the cessation of hibernation and the scattering of the awakened larvae, they must seek out the egg-sacs of spiders in order to feed and continue their development. How this is achieved under natural conditions is not known, but it would seem that it is by the efforts of the minute larva alone. An attempt to discover whether the larvae are carried upon the body of the spider proved negative. A large number of larvae were imprisoned in-a jar occupied by a large female Lycosa, and a similar test. made with a large Jsopeda. Both jars were of clear glass, and it was possible, with the aid of a hand lens to follow the movements of the larvae. These were observed over a period of several days, but in neither jar did any of, the larvae reveal any disposition to attach thmselves to the spider. Several were seen to make contact with the legs of the spiders, but; with one exception, all turned away. One did for a while become attached to the hairs of the leg of the Jsopeda, but this appeared to be more or less accidental. It soon disengaged itself. The weather at the time was fine and warm, and the larvae were constantly on the move. A further experiment was made to see whether the spider’s egg-sac possessed any special attraction for the Mantispid larvae, and whether they could penetrate the silken walls of the intact sac. A Lycosa egg-sac was placed in the middle of a sheet of cartridge paper. A few dozen larvae were liberated in a wide are two or three inches distant from the sac. As far as could be observed, the saé appeared to have no definite attraction for them, but the experiment did prove the larval penetration of the sac wall. About a week later, when the sac was opened, it was found that it contained two live larvae, while a third was found to have penetrated the sac wall, crawled half-way through and then died. A further and more flimsily constructed sac of an unidentified spider was placed Bh BE er a te Sat I oe at a Ae i Ae Ae ae ae” Ra Pa RS ede te eh a Se pe es Se eae i" - , aD a Sr oe es S. ane, ” a3 Ee ees 1 ae ee ; Spe aay é : SE er Na Es Re 214 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. nr \ twice as far distant from the liberated larvae. This was later found to contain : one larva which had definitely started to feed. As soon as the larva has penetrated the sac it commences to feed. In feeding the second and third instar larva drives its short, sharp, sucking mandibles into the egg (or spiderling) and apparently sucks until there is no more moisture to be obtained. An egg is a completely shrivelled, empty shell when discarded. Young larvae shift from one egg to another without at one time completely. exhausting its contents. The insect maintains a secure hold while feeding. If a feeding larva is gently raised, the egg is not dropped, but is lifted on the mandibles. It is probable that the young larvae begin feeding on the eggs but transfer their attentions naturally to the spiderlings as they hatch. One Mantispid larva was fed successfully on spiderlings—of an undetermined species—from the first. Towards the end of the feeding period the spiderlings were very active and capable of escaping from the observation cell when the glass was removed. The Mantispid larva was, however, able to impale them readily. It was noted that this larva was more active and less bloated in appearance than those fed entirely upon eggs. A larva which had been feeding on eggs for five or six weeks fed readily and well upon the small spiderlings. Where spiderlings, incapable of walking but not quiescent, were added to the eggs under observation, the larva fed as readily on the spiderlings as on the eggs. It simply took; apparently, whichever was before it. Larvae would feed upon Latrodectus eggs, but it was not found possible to breed them right through to maturity on these; they will, however, mature on the eges of Celaenia excavata, Ireuticus robustus, and can be transferred from Latrodectus or Lycosa eggs to those of Celaenia and still mature successfully. Developing larvae, although fundamentally creamy-white in colour, become tinged with the colour of the eggs upon which they feed. Latrodectus-fed larvae are sickly white; Celaenia-fed are tinged with yellow; there is a touch of pale salmon-pink in Lycosa-fed larvae. The greatest number of Mantispids known to mature in one egg-sac—that of a Lycosa—is seven. It was an exceptionally large sac. In it were found three or four surviving spiderlings together with an eighth Mantispid, an apparently half-developed larva that soon died. It seems certain that under the most favourable conditions—that is, within the largest sacs—not more than seven or eight could develop to maturity. Average sacs would nourish far fewer. In small sacs one Mantispid pupa alone was found, and no surviving eggs or spiderlings. In these, apparently, there is sufficient food to nourish one only. . Up to four adults of Mantispa vittata have been bred from each egg-sac of an unidentified ground-dwelling spider collected by Mr. N. Rodd at Lane Cove, near Sydney, New South Wales. Kishida (1929) records finding “three or five, sometimes eight,’ larvae of the Japanese Humantispa harmandi Nav. in the egg-sacs of a Clubionid spider, Chiracanthium rubicundulum, and a Ctenizid which he names Kishinouyeus typicus. The latter is said to place its egg-sacs in the curled tips of grasses. Brauer states that only one larva flourishes in each egg-sac in Mantispa styriaca Poda. On the basis of one egg-sac for four larvae (on an average), 500 egg-sacs would be required to feed a-batch of 2,000 Mantispid larvae. The actual figure would be greater, since sacs large enough to feed three or four larvae appear to be rare. A count of Lycosid holes found within a radius of two chains of a telephone pole bearing about a dozen Mantispid egg masses revealed that there were Age eee ‘ : 7M - : redieriee eT ire aa pel bal tee a aeiee, : ik « Bian Reheaty? Pores eds ‘ Uae = a ee Oe oie Ne op ay _ ai MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 215 ie about fifty. Something like 24,000 larvae would probably leave that pole and disperse over the surrounding ground, probably largely spread by the action of the wind. Many poles bear a vastly greater number of eggs than that in question. The percentage of larvae which succeed in establishing themselves in egg-sacs must be very small indeed and the mortality exceedingly high. As several larvae may develop in one egg-sac—if large enough—the question arises: Do the larvae ever feed on one another? Actually one instance was noted, in the spring of 1947, of one larva killing another. Both were small and had not undergone the first moult; one was wrapped round the other when first noticed late one night. The pair was removed to another cell, where the struggle, unaffected by the transfer, was continued. Next morning there was only one survivor. The lifeless larva was limp and shrunken. Larvae as a general rule appear to ignore each other. Larval cannibalism would tend to occur in situations were insufficient eggs are available, as when too many penetrate one egg-sac. A caudal sucker is present in the first instar larvae of Mantispa vittata, such as is mentioned by Hoffman (1936) in Climacella brunnea var. occidentalis Banks. This sucker is not readily apparent while the larvae are walking, unless forced suddenly to recoil. In walking, the legs are moved very energetically; there is no wriggling of the body, though the head is continually swung rhythmically from side to side. When, however, sudden recoil is necessary, the abdominal tip is quickly turned down, the sucker takes hold, and by a quick contraction of the body the larva is jerked back. Feeding larvae wrap their elongate bodies around the egg, so that their entire undersurface makes contact with the egg, the caudal sucker helping to maintain a grip on its smooth surface. When a larva moves from one egg to another a marked pull is exerted by the sucker, producing an unmistakable movement of the egg. Shortly after commencing feeding on the spider eggs, the larva loses its campodeiform appearance and becomes swollen and magegot-like, with small thoracic legs. It is often difficult to determine exactly when feeding has actually commenced. The larvae moult twice only during the period of feeding before spinning the cocoon. The first moult occurs about twenty-four days after the commence- ment of feeding. In the following instar the rate of growth is extremely rapid, and the second moult occurs some five days later. Moulting is apparently a critical period for the larva, for in captivity a number died while casting their skins. The last instar (text-figs. 9, 9a) larva is eruciform, creamy-white, and with the minute thoracic legs almost, if not quite, functionless. It measures slightly under half an inch in length. Its general appearance closely resembles that of the larva of the Hive Bee (Apis mellifera L.). There is no evidence that the larva of Mantispa vittata moults immediately after hatching, as has been stated in the case of M. styriaca. Two moults occur during the feeding period in M. vittata as against the single moult reported in M. styriaca. A day or two prior to the first moult the larvae appear to cease feeding. The first moult is probably more critical than the second, because with this the active campodeiform larvae transform into the much less active eruciform or maggot-like form. During the first instar the feeding larva grows considerably but, of course, retains the original chitinized head and legs. The latter, compared with the rapidly expanding body, appear very small, but serve well for walking until reduced to fleshy, peg-like rudiments by the first moult. With this moult the hard head capsule is lost also. In moulting the larva wriggles forwards from the skin, which splits anteriorly. The cast skin, particularly that of the 216 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. second moult, does not cea y collapse, and retains more or less the forvi of the stout larva. The brown coloured areas forming a pattern upon the upper surface of the’ body segments gradually disappear from the abdomen as the first instar larva grows. Those on the thoracic segments remain clearly visible as six small spots until they disappear with the first moult. In the second and third instars the skin is very transparent and fat bodies can be seen as white patches. The long dorsal vessel, functioning as a heart, can be readily seen pulsating. PUPATION AND THE PUPA. About seven days after the second ‘moult the larva commences to spin its cocoon within the egg-sac of the spider host. Three larvae under observation made normal cocoons, and each took about three days to complete spinning. The bloated larva assumes various positions while spinning, and steadily moves the posterior extremity of the body in arcs to form the cocoon. The silk issuing from the anus may be clearly seen during the early stages of spinning. The pointed posterior extremity of the body is apparently highly sensitive to touch. A fourth larva, which otherwise developed normally, for some inexplicable reason made no cocoon at all. It produced no silk, but simply pupated in the bottom of an observation cell. It proved to be a male; the other three were females. Two larvae in particular were remarkably uniform in their development. Both were introduced to Latrodectus eggs on 7th October. Three weeks later they were transferred to Celaenia eggs. Both moulted for the first time on 31st October, which was twenty-four days after they had been first introduced to food. The second moult in each case occurred five days after the first. Both started to spin seven days later (12th November). One emerged from the cocoon on the 10th December, the other on the 11th. : The cocoon, which is rounded or very slightly oval, is made of loosely woven silken threads of a somewhat greenish-yellow colour. Pupation takes place within the last larval skin (text-fig. 10). There is no sudden and complete casting of this larval skin, but a pre-pupal period of eleven or twelve—or probably more—days ensues. Then the skin covering the forepart of the body is cast and the wing-pads, legs, and head and appendages of the pupa become apparent. The larval skin covering the abdomen is retained, to be shed only with the complete casting of the pupal skin on the emergence of the adult. This skin shows no signs of drying and hardening, but remains soft and flaccid throughout. The pupa (text-fig. 11) after ihe moulting of the fore-portion of the larval skin is a translucent creamy colour. It remains motionless for about a week. Following this partial moult the creamy colour gives way to a translucent salmon and the prominent eyes appear black. The thorax of the pupa, after casting the larval skin, is short, gradually lengthening over the ensuing days; it does not, however, attain its full length until the final expansion of the adult after emergence. After about eight or ten days the pupa (text-fig. 12) bites its way out of its own cocoon and then through the outer wall of the enclosing spider’s egg-sac. Once outside it moves about actively for several hours before casting the pupal skin and emerging as an adult. The casting of the pupal skin appears difficult. The pupa-anchors itself firmly to the abandoned egg-sac or some other convenient object by the feet; the skin splits down the median dorsal line of the prothorax; the head, prothorax and fore- and middle legs are withdrawn, and then, with considerable straining, the hind legs and abdomen are withdrawn. The insect then expands and dries itself. ‘oy ee Bae oe i. a § ea ie wi & ; > Ps ae ¢ Soh a D MT) CHAM. Pt Le a aces yy ube +). ee ; ’ »; ae sat ah 3 : cee ag, te 1 So ‘ Pte cee. eR aby Fee ee 218 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. Details of the emergence of the Mantispid pupa from the cocoon are as follows: When a cocoon was examined at 6.50 a.m. on 11th December, 1946, movement could be detected within. The insect was obviously beginning to bite its way out. The mandibles soon appeared, and the biting and chewing was continued with occasional pauses until a hole large enough for its exit had been made. The insect finally crawled clear of its cocoon at 7.40 a.m., fifty minutes after its activity had first been noted. The actual emergence of this insect was not observed. The emergence takes about twelve to fifteen minutes. About half an hour later the insect is ready to fly. Within the egg-sac the Mantispa leads a sheltered existence. It might be expected that its emergence from the sac is fraught with a certain element of danger. Whether any ever fall a prey to the spider, it is impossible to say. Only one instance of a Mantispid pupa emerging from the spider’s egg-sac has been observed under natural conditions, and if all the pupae emerge similarly, there is slight chance of any being seized by the spider. It had long been considered that the pupae probably made their exit from the sac while it was being sunned by the spider; consequently the children at Willalo school had been asked to watch for such a possibility. Two boys actually saw this occur on 8th May, 1946. At the time they were watching a spider sunning her sac in the usual manner at the entrance to her hole. The day was bright and warm. As they watched, they saw a small hole grow in the top of the egg-sac and the head of © a Mantispid pupa appear. The insect slowly crawled out of the sac and moved off from the hole over the ground. The spider, tacing down its shaft, remained oblivious. of all that was happening. The lads seized the insect too enthusiastically and killed it. SPIDERS VICTIMIZED BY MANTISPA VITTATA. The Willalo Mantispids undoubtedly breed almost entirely in the egg-sacs of a large ground-dwelling spider, Lycosa perinfiata Pulleine, which is very abundant in the district. This strikingly marked brown and white Lycosid was described by Dr. Pulleine from Whyte-Yarcowie, South Australia (Trans. Roy. soc. South: Aust., xlvi, 22° Dec.,;, 1922, p:. 84) pl wv; fig. 2): The spider us robust and measures 73 mm. in length. Only one instance of the Mantispid breeding naturally in the egg-sac of any other species of spider has been observed; this exception was found in the sac of an unidentified [sopeda. When opened, the sac disclosed the cocoon of one Mantispa. Isopeda is rare in the district, possibly due to the scarcity of trees. After the last week of February, 1946, every. Lycosa sac obtainable was carefully examined. Some were removed from the spiders while being sunned at the burrow entrance; others were obtained by excavation. It soon became obvious that the search should have been undertaken earlier in the year. Few larvae were found. Most of the sacs contained pupae and several of these were bred out. bol ae Occasionally a spider was found in possession of a sac in which every egg had been sucked dry, and from which the Mantispids had emerged. Three or four such sacs were found which had been rejected by the spiders. These were found near the entrances of Lycosid burrows. On one occasion a Lycosa was found crossing the school yard with her ege-sac. She showed all the maternal care characteristic of these spiders, but Figs. 2-13.—No. 2. Fore-limb of Mantispa vittata. 3-5. Various attitudes assumed while hunting prey. 6. Insect from above. 7. Eggs. 8. First instar larva. 9, 9a. Second _ instar larva, and head. 10. Pre-pupa. 11. Pupa after casting larval skin. 12: Pupa after emergence from egg-sac of spider. 13. Diagram (plan and section) of hlock used in rearing larvae. All figures enlarged except 13, which is reduced. N. B. Adams del. MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 219 eindate examination Pavented that it was expended vainly upon three Mantispid _ Jarvae within the sac. Such unconscious exploitation of the spider’s maternal instinct would possibly tend to enhance the chances of survival of Mantispid larvae and pupae within the egg-sac. VARIATION IN SIZE OF ADULT MANTISPIDS. Taken throughout, the size of adults of Mantispa vittata found at Willalo is fairly uniform. Occasionally, however, one finds a remarkably small individual. These dwarfed examples represent possibly two per cent. of the local Mantispid population. These are not, as might at first be concluded, necessarily males; actually most of them have been found to be females. These small insects are almost certainly the result of a shortage of food, a condition which would tend | to oceur when a number of larvae develop in one egg-sac. Normal insects measure from 38 to 44 mm. across the outspr ead forewings; that of the dwarfed examples is usually from 23 to 27 mm. The larger insects measure from 19 to 22 mm. in length; the small about 13 to 14 mm. These measurements of body length are made from freshly killed material; there is : considerable shrinkage of the abdomen in dry specimens. These dwarfed Mantispids appear relatively smaller when seen than the above measurements suggest, and they are slender in build. A fly that would be consumed by a large insect in a quarter of an hour would occupy a “dwarf” for two or three times that period. Pe FEEDING HABITS. The Mantispids eat a variety of insects and can seize ad overpower relatively large prey. The most formidable prey overpowered and devoured was a Hive Bee (Apis mellifera). The Mantispid was a large female and was definitely hungry. The bee made it a hard struggle, but failed to escape. In captivity the insects eat blowflies (Calliphora and Lucilia spp.), house flies (Musca domestica), small moths and small Hymenopterous insects. A large blowfly provides an ideal meal for a hungry Mantispid, which may take half an hour or more to consume it. If not hungry, the insect may eat but little of the fly and release it to crawl round in an injured condition. In nature the adult Mantispids lurk among leaves on the alert to eapture insects. Numbers have been observed in the thick, fresh, regenerated foliage of sugar gums that had been “lopped” low. Muscid flies (possibly Musca vetustissima) are very abundant in the district and probably provide the major part of the diet of the adult Mantispids. A Mantispid can see a fly from a distance of three or four inches. The action of seizing an insect is extraordinarily rapid. In captivity, even when enclosed in a large two-quart “Mason” jar, an insect when introduced is usually secured - within a few seconds. Although hundreds of ovipositing females have been watched, one instance only has been noted of prey being seized while an insect was laying. The insect in question seized and ate a small fly while uninterruptedly continuing her egg-laying. In one of the breeding cages a female Mantispid was observed to secure and eat a fly while in copula. That cannibalism occurs under natural conditions seems practically certain, but it is uncommon. Even in captivity it is infrequent. Although many scores were kept under observation in the breeding cages—up to as many as forty in one cage—fewer than half a dozen instances were noted. Cannibalism apparently occurs where structural defects or weakness render an insect incapable of defending itself. One bred insect with defective forelimbs was soon seized by a sister insect and devoured. Adult Mantispids have frequently been seen to grapple momentarily with each other, but most of such contests end harmlessly. No Mantispid will continue 220 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. the struggle for a meal indefinitely, and all observed have heen disposed to “call the whole thing off” after a few futile ‘rounds”’. The prothorax and raptorial forelegs are amazingly mobile; from whatever position the insect is attacked it seems able to turn and grapple successfully with its attacker. In one instance an insect was simultaneously seized by two others. Held at each end of the body, it had no chance of defending itself and was soon eaten. No instance of cannibalism was observed in nature, where, of course, it is much less likely to occur than under the artificial conditions imposed by the observation cage. Where a number of insects, enclosed in a relatively small box, were sent by mail some cannibalism occurred. Where hundreds of insects have been observed ovipositing in groups of various numbers, quite often large, not one instance of cannibalism has been seen among the insects so congregated. The average life of the adult in captivity is about a month; a few have survived for six weeks. FLYING AND WALKING. Insects of the Order Neuroptera are not, in general, characterized by strong | flight. In comparison with other Neuroptera, Mantispids fly rather well. Their flight is steady and direct. They appear to fly only in warm sunshine, but do not take wing readily and are easily captured. ¥ In walking the two hind pairs of legs alone are employed; the raptorial fore- legs are held aloft, or forwards on the same plane as the body. The Mantispids are very sure-footed. Being small, they cannot straddle far enough to secure a grip of the leaf-edges on plants with leaves of medium or large size; consequently they are adapted to retain a footing upon smooth surfaces. They can readily walk up smooth glass surfaces and capture insects in any position. A Mantispid was observed to capture a blowfly as it was walking upside-down below the glass roof of an observation cage. Not only did it seize the fly, but ate it while in this apparently precarious position. : MATING. Mating under natural conditions was not observed, but insects were seen in copula on several occasions in the observation cages. Preliminaries to mating were not observed, each pair being united when observed; any. preliminaries must be very brief. Insects would be watched and no signs of pairing noticed; a few minutes later they would be found united. A reared male which emerged on 25th November, 1946, provided some indication of the possible course of mating preliminaries. Following emergence, this male displayed a strong disposition to mate. Unfortunately no female was available at the time and it was possible only to observe his approaches to another male. His mating instinct expressed itself by making direct approaches to the other and quickly seizing its forelimbs with its own. He then twisted round in an attempt to bring his abdominal tip in contact with that of the other. It was not until nearly a fortnight later that a female became available to place with him. By that time, however, his sexual impulse had completely failed, and no attempt to mate was made—as far, at least, — as was observed. This behaviour agrees very closely with that described by F. J. Killington for other Neuroptera (A Monograph of the British Neuroptera, i, 1936, pp. 162-165, Ray Soc. London). When united the insects take up a linear pose, facing in opposite directions. They show little tendency to move about, but preen themselves—the forelimbs particularly—a great deal. : MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 221 Pairing may. occupy from half an hour to three hours, and after the separation of the insects the spermatophore is visible as a small-globule of whitish, gum-like _ matter attached to the female genitalia. This soon hardens, and one female was _ observed in the act of biting it away from the extremity of her abdomen. One female in copula was observed to seize a passing fly and eat it. In one instance a female which was observed in copula on 20th March, 1946, oviposited exactly one week later. Her batch of eggs, which was smaller than usual, hatched in due time. Another female was imprisoned in an observation cage on the table at Willalo school. One day in November, 1946, a Mantispid flew through the window—a male. This was promptly caged with the female. Other duties occupied attention for a minute or two, and when again observed the insects were in copula. They remained united for nearly an hour. This female oviposited five days later. This was an unusual case, as the female deposited a further series of eggs a few days after the first. The entry of the male into the room where the female was imprisoned is interesting, and suggests the possibility that the female, when ready for pairing, may attract males from some distance. Following pairing, the females displayed a keen appetite for food. It is possible that a very intensive feeding period follows mating. Two mated females under observation definitely did not devour their mates. Another, however, did turn cannibal and ate her mate, which had defective forelimbs (as previously noted). Females greatly predominate numerically. MANTISPID AND MANTID: A BRIEF COMPARISON. (Text-figs. 2—5.) The general similarity in form between the Neuropterous Mantispids and the Orthopterous Mantids presents a remarkable example of convergent evolution. It is neither necessary nor desirable to attempt here a detailed account of their morphological similarities and differences. One or two features of interest may be briefly noted. The Mantispid’s raptorial forelimbs, relatively more massive than those of the Mantid, are held in a more forward. position than is the case with the Orthopterous insect. Mantispids always appear to be resting on their huge “elbows” because the coxae are never drawn up snugly against the elongated prothorax. A Mantid can retract its forelimbs so that they are, to all appearances, lost in fusion with the prothorax. With the legs in this position it can readily strike out at any suitable prey presenting itself. The coxae of the Mantispid are usually held forward when the insect is about to strike. Often the “elbows” are well in front of the head, with the femora doubled back against, or rather past, the coxae. The femora and coxae do not meet in “pocket-knife” fashion, as in the Mantids, but the femora actually pass the coxae on the outside and come _to rest behind them. From this position they are flicked forward with incredible speed. Just before seizing its prey the Mantispid quickly throws back the antennae, which normally project forward. The raptorial foreleg of the Mantispid is armed with fewer spines than is that of the Mantid. The tibiae of the former bear no spines, but are lined with fine stiff hairs which help the tibiae to hold the prey against the spikes of the femora. The femoral spines of the Mantispid, unlike those of the Mantid, are confined to a single row. The large basal spine, however, is situated well inwards so that the tibiae close between the row of outer spines and the large inner one. There are certain important differences in the prothorax of members of the two groups. In the Mantid it is usually somewhat dorsally depressed and laterally flanged; that of the Mantispid is in the form of a rounded column and is slightly wrinkled transversely. ye 222 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. — ROL Compared with the Mantid, the Mantispid is much more particular regarding its toilet, and responds much more readily to the presence of foreign matter upon its body. A comparison of the toilet behaviour of the two insects may be made here. As noted above, the Mantispid tibiae are equipped with fine, stiff hairs instead of spines. Now these hairs form an effective brush with which the insect cleans its eyes and head. On completing a meal the Mantispid deftly nibbles between each spine along the femur to remove any small fragments of its victim that may remain. The nibbling with the mandibles is carried along the inner tibia as well. Each forelimb is, of course, done separately, -and in both Mantid and Mantispid this toilet activity is similar. Next, the Mantispid draws the tibiae across the head and eyes to brush those parts clean. Both limbs are generally used together, though they may be employed singly. After every brushing action or two the hairs of the tibia are quickly cleaned with the mouth parts. Having done this, the insect may not continue with its toilet any further, but it often completes the “clean-up” by proceeding with the following activities. The antennae are cleaned separately, each being drawn down and worked upon by the mouth parts. Next, the feet of the four walking legs are separately nibbled. Finally, the abdomen is brought forward between the legs and nibbled about the tip, but this is done rarely. It is rather a comical sight to see the insect engaged in this last toilet act, for, in order to bring the head and abdominal tip together, the long, mobile prothorax has also to be bent down and backwards considerably, so that the insect is almost rolled into a ball. Actually the extent to which these toilet details are performed varies a great deal. Any of them may be done at a time, should it be necessary to clean some particular part. For example, the feet often pick up matter that is promptly removed by the mouth parts. Moreover, meals vary a lot as regards “messiness”. With a large blowfly the Mantispid may almost bury its head in its thorax while eating. A small insect victim may necessitate little toilet activity. Some Mantispids seem more fastidious than others, and are nearly always engaged in some cleaning activity. Since it was obvious that the spine-fringed tibiae of a Mantid could not be effectively employed for cleaning its eyes and head, an experiment was carried out that had been previously used with a Mantispid. The eyes were obscured with the lead of a red copying pencil that had been dipped in water; this produced an effective paint-like cover. The Mantispid so treated had readily cleaned its eyes with its very effective tibial brushes. Following similar treatment, the big green Mantid, Tenodera, remained unresponsive for some twenty minutes. Then it set about cleaning its eyes, and in doing this revealed an obscure anatomical feature which had not previously been noted in these insects. The Mantid began to rub its eye with its femur, using the inner part near its joint with the tibia. It rubbed the eye with its femur and then nibbled the limb, continuing these actions alternately until the eye was free from the obscuring paint. A superficial glance revealed nothing but a hard, smooth limb; a lens showed that the Mantid possessed an actual eye-brush—a small patch of fine, short, pale hairs. As a cleaning instrument it is inferior to that of the Mantispid. The Mantid, apparently, always uses its brushes singly. After about an hour it could see quite well. UNSOLVED QUESTIONS. While the investigations detailed above have provided a far more complete picture of the life history and behaviour of Mantispa vittata than any or all the recorded observations on other species in other parts of the world, there are many important details concerning it that remain unsolved. How far can the minute larva travel in search of spider egg-sacs unaided by the wind, which in CR Lis PORE ye MCKEOWN AND MINCHAM. 223 Ny - ~‘many instances must aid considerably in its dispersal? Is it purely by chance that the wandering larvae locate the egg-sacs? Observations suggest that this is ‘the case, but it is possible that there may be obscure factors favouring the larva in its search. Do additional generations occur in a long season, as in the autumn of 1946, or does the wide range of time in the appearance of the adults simply reflect the varying periods taken by the larvae, hatched from the eggs of the previous season, in locating egg-sacs? Newly hatched larvae appear to be very reluctant to feed, but larvae that have hibernated commence feeding quite readily. Do the larvae develop a keen appetite for spider’s eggs only after a long fast or at the conclusion of prolonged wandering? Two generations could not occur within the brief season of late spring, but this might be possible in autumn when conditions favour a prolonged season, as in 1946, when egg-laying extended from 13th March to i7th June. Eggs deposited about the middle of March would hatch no later than the middle of April, or possibly about a week earlier if laid in a sunny situation, and the larvae, if they soon tound food and took no longer than the insects of the spring breeding experiments (about two months), could possibly emerge as mature insects in June. It is, however, possible that the Mantispids of late May and June are produced from eggs deposited in the late spring season, but this would depend upon whether any of the late spring larvae ean survive as long as do the autumn-hatched larvae, which live as long as four and a half months. From experience with one batch of larvae of the early summer of 1945, it would appear that in the warm weather they could not survive _long. These eggs hatched in extremely hot weather, in temperatures of 100°F. for days, and the larvae were exceedingly active. But, after little more than a week all were dead. Larvae must be able to survive for a considerable period in summer to account for the abundance of Mantispids in March and April, which must be produced from the eggs deposited in November and December. Survival probably. depends upon the small larva getting into some deep, dark crevice or hole in the ground. The fact that attempts to rear autumn larvae in the autumn were unsuccessful, but that no difficulty was found in bringing them to maturity in the spring, after they had hibernated, suggests that there is no second brood within the autumn season. Such individuals that were induced to feed in the autumn developed poorly and slowly in comparison with those in spring. REARING TECHNIQUE. It was apparent early in the investigation. that little could be learned of the development of larvae while enclosed in the egg-sac of the spider, and by opening the sac one risked injury to or destruction of the contents. Cavity micro-slides were then tried as offering opportunities for microscopic examination of the larva during development. This method also failed, as the cavity was not deep enough to hold more than one layer of eggs; more would have been crushed by the glass coverslip. Larvae placed with eggs in the cavity did not attempt to feed. rv N Conditions in small glass tubes were a little more natural, and larvae enclosed in them, in a few instances, showed signs that they had begun to feed. It was, however, necessary to disturb the eggs periodically to bring to light the concealed larvae, all of which eventually died. Ultimately a satisfactory means of observing the feeding and developing larvae was devised. This was accomplished by cutting deep, round, concave pits in blocks of “Caneite” and covering the whole with glass held in place by a rubber band to prevent the escape of the larvae (text-fig. 13). The concavities were slightly greater in volume than those oi the larger Lycosa egg-sacs. — This method was used successfully throughout, and permitted the addition of AI further eggs if considered necessary, as well as readily allowing examination of oS the developing larva from time to time. 224 BIOLOGY OF AN AUSTRALIAN MANTISPID. — o ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, ; he The authors desire to express their sincere thanks to Miss N. B. Adams for her drawings, and to Mr. P. Crosbie Morrison, Editor of Wild Life, for permission to reproduce a selection of his photographs. These add considerably to the value of their paper. ; A FOOTNOTE. (By K.C.McK.) In conclusion, I desire to pay a tribute to the keen powers of observation and the patience of Mr. Hans Mincham, without which this paper would not have been possible. To him has falien the “spade work’; the field work and the greater part of the detail of the life history of these strange spider-parasites are his. That this is a “joint paper” tends to obscure such facts. It is due to Hans Mincham’s kindness in sending me living material from time to time that I was able to follow the life of the Mantispid, to confirm many of his observations, and in a few instances carry them a stage further than was possible for him, busy as he is with other and exacting duties. I am sure that there can seldom have been a happier collaboration, during which notes were gathered, and a really voluminous correspondence exchanged. I for my part have found it very stimulating and worth while. BIBLIOGRAPHY. BRAUER, F.. (1855).—Verh. zgool. bot. Ges. Wien., v, pp. 479-484. (1869).—Verh. zgool. bot. Ges. Wien., xix, pp. 831-840. BRISTOWB, W. S. (1932).—Hnt. Mo. Mag., \xviii, Oct., 1932, pp. 222-224. CLAUSEN, C. P. (1940).—Entomophagous Insects, pp. 604-606. GUERIN-MENBEVILLE, F. EK. (1837).— Dict. pittoresque Hist. Nat., v, p. 29. (1838).—Voyage autour du Monde sur... La Cequille . . . 1822-25, Zool., ii, 2, Div. 1, Chap. xiii, Insectes, p. 196. HoFFMAN, C. H. (1936).—Brooklyn Ent. Soc. Bull., xxxi, pp. 202-203 (fide Clausen). KASTON. B. J. (1938).—Journ. N. York Hnt. Soe., xlvi, June, 1938, pp. 147-152, pl. xii. KILLINGTON, F. J. (1936-7).—Monograph of the British Neuroptera, i-ii (Ray Society, London). ; KiIsHipa, K. (1929).—Lansania (Tokyo), i, p. 73 (fide Bristowe). F LABOULBENE, A. (1893).—Bull. Soc. Ent. France, p. xiii. Main, H. (1931).— Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1931, March 4. Pousapn, G. A. (1886).—Bull. Soc. Ent. France, 1886, p. exxxiii. (1898).—Bull. Soe. Hunt. France, 1898, p. 347. PULLEINE, R. H. (1922).—Trans. Roy. Soc. S.,Ausir., xlvi, p. 84; pl. v. SmiTH, R. C. (1934).—Journ. Kong. Ent. Soc., vii, pp. 120-145 (fide Clausen). — Westwoop, J. O. (1852).—Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (n.s.), i, 8, p. 257, pl.. xvii. EXPLANATION OF PLATHSS. Plate xiv. Figs. 1-4.—Attitudes assumed by Mantispa vittata when performing its toilet after a meal. Fig. 5.—Egg mass on a branch. Figs. 6-7.—Venation of fore- and hind-wing. Photos.—1-4, P. Crosbie Morrison (from life); 5-7, from V. H. Mincham. Plate xv. Fig. 8—Mantispa vittata making a meal of a house fly. Figs. 9-10.—Mantispa vittata (8-9, from life; 10, dead). é Photos.—P. Crosbie Morrison. 225 NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. By E. O. EDWARDS, Menangle Park, New South Wales. The following consists of an abbreviated record from notes taken by me as far back as 1928, while resident near Mitchell in Western Queensland, 372 miles west of Brisbane. At that time much of the country was almost in its virgin state, although clearing of the land was rapidly in progress. It should be noted that in most cases the absence or presence of butterflies in this area is essentially dependent on two factors: (1) weather conditions, (2) the type of food plant of the larva and its ability to resist dry conditions. Under normal conditions the spring months are dry and there is little general activity until stormy conditions start about Christmas time. My main objective is to breed butterflies rather than catch them, but the fact that in some cases I found larvae of butterflies would not feed on some recorded food plants is not an indication that I am contradicting already authentic records, but rather that it indicates how some types have been compelled to transfer to introduced plants or other food plants as their natural plants become seareer through civilization. Family PAPILIONIDAE. PAPILIO AEGEUS AEGEUS Donovan, 1805 (Orchard Butterfly). At no time common. The only food plant of the larva recorded was the well-known Wilga (Geijera parviflora). Larvae would eat cultivated citrus as a second preference, but I have no record of their feeding on the wild lime, which was common in the vicinity and is the natural food plant of P. anactus. Average time from laying of the egg until emerging of butterfly during summer, 37 days. Imagos from eggs laid in March did not, however, emerge from the pupae until the following October. PAPILIO STHENELUS Macleay, 1827 (Chequered Swallowtail). Common only during very good seasons. This butterfly set me a problem as the larvae will not feed on cultivated citrus or the native wild citrus. They die rather than eat it. In my garden I had the only citrus within 20 miles, and the ‘butterflies showed no interest whatever in it. The butterflies’ habit of skimming over the grass, which is quite different from other members of the genus, finally led me to concentrate on the billabongs and vicinity of creeks and rivers, where it is most frequently seen. Eventually, while riding along a billabong on the Womallila Creek I discovered a female laying on what appeared to be grass but was found to be a delicate herb which droops immediately it is picked, commonly known as Emu Grass or Native Lucerne (Psoralea tenax). Later I collected larvae on another and more hardy variety found on the Maranoa River (Psoralea patens). Naturally the habits of the larvae are different from other Papilio, due to the necessity of having to wander in search of food, as one larva would eat several entire plants before reaching maturity. This also accounts for a wide variation in the size of the butterfly, underfed larvae producing stunted specimens. Although there is no odour from the leaves of their food plant, as is the case with citrus and wilga, the same pungent smell is emitted from the nuchal tentacle when the larva is disturbed. Larvae that pupated in captivity in March did not emerge until the following spring (September). F 226 BUTTERFLIES OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND. It would seem that the more rapid flight of this Papilio is directly connected with its life history, as much greater areas would require to be covered to assure continuation of the existence of the species. PAPILIO ANACTUS Macleay, 1827 (Dingy Swallowtail). Quite common. Natural food plant of larvae is wild citrus, but the cultivated types are readily eaten. Family PIERIDAE. DELIAS AGANIPPE Donovan, 1805 (Wood White). Female caught on November 12, 1933. No other record. DELIAS ARGENTHONA Fabricius, 1793 (Northern Jezabel). Not common. Both the winter type (seminigra) and summer types were recorded. Eggs laid _in May hatched in six days and the larvae pupated in August, commencing to emerge in September as the winter form. Larvae feed on various types of Mistletoe, including Loranthus pendulus and Miquelii. They readily change from one to another. CATOPSILIA PYRANTHE PYTHIAS Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914 (Common Migrant). Common during summer; entirely absent during winter and spring. The paler form with the pinkish antennae (lacteola) also prevalent. Larvae feed on a wild Cassia (C. sophera var. shinifolia). This plant will not stand frost and dies back each winter, shooting again in spring as conditions are favourable. Larvae and pupae on their food plant are also killed with the frost. All attempts to keep both larvae and pupae in captivity during winter failed. The larvae died and the pupae emerged no matter how cold it was. How, then, is the race kept going till next season? I am of the opinion that they continue breeding along the coastal areas of Queensland during winter, migrating inland to the western areas when weather conditions become suitable next summer. During the summer, the period from the laying of the egg to the emerging of the butterfly is about 28 days, but eggs laid in April emerge as butterflies in June. It is noteworthy that the larvae were confined to C. shinifolia and would not eat introduced plants of C. fistula or the western C. australis. CATOPSILIA POMONA POMONA Fabricius, 1775 (Lemon Migrant). Common during late summer, including both forms crocale and catilla. These different forms will mate with one another. Of three eggs known to be laid by a typical crocale only one of the resultant butterflies had the characteristics of crocale, and that was a male; the other two were a male and female of the ordinary type. It took me three years to find the food plant of the larvae of this butterfly, which is Cassia australis, growing in widely separated patches. Larvae would not feed on other wild species of Cassia growing in the district, but a plant of C. fistula grown from seed, sent me by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, was eaten by the larvae in captivity, although, strangely, the butterflies in their wild state did not show interest in the plant or lay eggs on it. Although C. australis is hardy and will resist the heavy winter frosts, the pupae would not remain over winter and, like the previous species, emerged during the winter, dying the first frosty night. Larvae were also killed by the cold. In summer the period from the laying of the egg to the emerging of the butterfly is about 21 days. First records of the butterflies after winter were in December, bearing out my opinion that they migrate from coastal areas. ~] EDWARDS. 22 APPIAS PAULINA EGA Boisduval, 1836 (Common Albatross). Damaged female, collected 10th December, 1933. Only record. ANAPHAEIS JAVA TEUTONIA Fabricius, 1775 (Caper White). Very common. No variation to previous records. TERIAS HECABE SULPHURATA Butler, 1875 (Common Grass Yellow). The comonest of the genus in that district. Food plant of the larvae (Sesbania aculeata), a small plant with yellow pea flowers growing along the creeks and river banks. It fades immediately it is picked. The only way I was able to feed the larvae on it in captivity was to transplant the whole plant into a tin, roots and all, and keep it well watered. In that district the larvae would not feed on any of the native Cassia. In the butterflies the markings on the under wing and size of the marginal black bands on the upper wing were very variable. TERIAS SMILAX Donovan, 1805 (Small Grass Yellow). Never very common. The food plant of the larvae was the Buttercup Bush (Cassia eremophilia) and a small creeping prostrate perennial, growing along the river and creek banks, Neptunia gracilis, actually a Mimosa, hence closely related to wattle, but very different in growth except for the flower. Also feeds on Cassia fistula, butterflies laying eggs on the plant in my garden. Period from the laying of the egg to the emerging of the butterfly, 36-37 days. Although I frequently mistook Terias zoraide for JT. smilax, I have no authentic record of zoraide. It requires very careful examination to be able to distinguish the two. TJ. zoraide has no sex brand. Male smilax has a gray patch of scales on the under side of the forewing and salmon scales on the upper side of the hindwing. Brown markings were very variable on smilax. TERIAS HERLA Macleay, 1827 (Macleay’s Grass Yellow). Rare. Unable to discover the life history, but suspect Neptunia gracilis (see T. smilax) as food plant of larvae. ELODINA PADUSA Hewitson, 1853 (Narrow-Winged Pearl White). Rare. Food plant of larvae is species of Capperis. These are so heavily attacked by Anaphaeis java teutonia that there is often not much left for other species to eat. Ovum when first laid is white and elongated, rapidly becoming pink. It is laid on either the stem or leaf of the food plant. Period of hatching: is six days, which is longer than normal in this district. Larva when first hatched pale green, finely haired with pinkish-brown markings on central segments and tail. When full grown, very variable. Pale green; head reddish-brown and finely haired; two reddish-brown small projections on 2nd segment, four on the 3rd and 5Dth, and one on each side of the 6th; four again on the 8th segment, forming a rectangular mark over the back; two more smaller projections on the 11th segment. Tail bifid. The segment projections become less conspicuous with growth. mm. approx. Black and yellow. Head almost circular from the front; face entirely lemon-yellow, the lateral marks reaching almost to the vertex as long finger-like extensions; frons completely masked by the huge bicoloured spherical scapes; clypeus evenly punctured, but not closely, a few white hairs; supraclypeal area yellow, with a high-domed pattern; vertex black, rugoso-punctate; there are two deep black depressions to accommodate the extraordinary scapes; compound eyes with anterior orbital margins almost parallel; genae lineolate with some puncturing and white hair; labrum yellow (the labial and maxillary palpi of these bees are black); mandibulae black, with a subapical reddish mark and a yellow dot; flagellum black above, ferruginous beneath, the enormously dilated scapes ruggedly punctured, and divided obliquely, one half being black, the other half yellow, the black forming a V from the front. “ Prothorax with an interrupted yellow line; tubercles yellow; mesothorax shining, evenly punctured with far more numerous microscopic punctures which could be overlooked; scutellum’ similar, punctures not so close; postscuteilum rugoso-punctate; metathorax covered with dense coarse anastomosing rugae, perhaps vermiform; abdominal dorsal segments black, bright, closely punctured on a minute rugose sculpture, laterally there are a few white hairs on the margins; ventral segments black, shining, with scattered coarse punctures. Legs black, femora and tibiae somewhat dilated, a little obscure red and a touch of yellow on the anterior tibiae; tarsi black; claws and pulvillus blackish- red; hind calcar blackish, finely serrated; tegulae piceous; wings dusky; nervures blackish-brown, the two recurrents at equal distances inside the intercubiti; the second cubital. contracted at its apex; pterostigma blackish-brown; hamuli six or so very weak. Locality: Narrow Neck, Blue Mountains, New South Wales; 15th December, 1944; Norman W. Rodd. Type in the collection of the author. Allies: These very remarkable bees are not close to any others and are easily recognized by the excessively large bicoloured scapes. These records add the genus to the fauna of the State. The genotype, S. globuliferus Ckll., was described from Western Australia. These males were iets the large red flower-heads of the “Waratah”, Telopea. Sphaerhylaeus gibbonsi (Ckll.). Hylaeus gibbonsi Cockerell, Records of the Australian Museum, vol. xvill, 1929, p. 223 (Sydney, N.S.W.). ) Allotype, male. Length, 8 mm. approx. Black and yellow. * Yi , <<). oy ~ I ot b ote faa 1 te wr, ee, “ ~~ o hus i” vk , ; tae. . 3 ARS < SES a : i fae Se i ~ F 4 ‘ i RAYMENT. 251 ; Head subcordate from the front; face-marks butter-yellow, wide lateral ones reaching to the scapes, and. the orbital margins level with the clypeus; frons hidden by the enormous globose scapes; clypeus yellow, aciculate, a black mark laterally, a narrow carina that reaches to the apex of the long yellow supraclypeal area; vertex with contiguous punctures of even size; compound eyes markedly ae i: converging below, and the anterior margins with a line of deep pits, from each Pe of which emerges a stiff peg-hair; genae rugoso-punctate, with a few pale hairs; BP n labrum black, small; mandibulae black, acute, deeply furrowed; flagellum black above, ferruginous beneath, segments 1 and 2 and the scapes black, the latter excessively dilated, with a pear-shaped yellow mark laterally, a few long pale hairs. Prothorax large, butter-yellow; tubercles large, butter-yellow, with a fringe of white hair; mesothorax entirely black, oily-bright, closely and evenly punctured on a minutely tessellate sculpture; pleura with large punctures; scutellum similar and slightly bi-gibbous; postscutellum with close punctures; metathorax with an area like a Moorish arch, the very fine rugae merging into the coarse tessellate sculpture, some few black and white hairs laterally; abdominal dorsal segments black, dull sheen, microscopically lineate, with scattered punctures of medium size; ventral segments more coarsely punctured, the apical segments invaginated in a peculiar manner that is difficult to describe in words. Legs black, with all the femora dilated, and tibiae slightly so, some white hair, the anterior legs are obscurely red anteriorly; tarsi black; claws and pulvillus black; hind calcar black, finely serrated; tegulae black, dull, finely punctured; wings dusky; nervures blackish-brown, strong; cells: the long second cubital receiving both recurrent nervures; pterostigma blackish; hamuli about seven very weak. é Locality: Male, Cowan, New South Wales; 7th April, 1947; Norman W. Rodd. Allotype in the collection of the author. Allies: A most remarkable bee, not close to any others. Differs from the genotype, S. globuliferus Ckll. by the structure of the abdomen; from S. procurvus Raym. by the head and eyes; from S. bicoloratus Raym. by the scapes. We must regard Sphaerhylaeus as a genus, although published as a subgenus of Gnathoprosopis by Cockerell. a | The males were visiting Pultenaea sp., but females also were taken within a - short distance, at Cowan, New South Wales, on 30th August, 1947. . , The sexes as associated by the collector are no doubt correct, and the ; female conforms perfectly to Professor T. D. A. Cockerell’s adequate description, except that the tegulae on the Cowan females are jet black—dark-brown on the type. : : -The females show a little difference in structure from the typical Hylaeid G ai form; for the face is very long, with the peculiar sculpture of Meroglossa, and ta the broad mandibles are sub-dentate, so that they are almost spoonlike; the hind: >. ealear is finely serrated, and the strigil of the anterior leg is not typical of “4 _ Hylaeus, but approaches that of Gnathoprosopis, as do the mandibles. It is = regretted that no specimens were available for dissection and microscopical study _of the anatomy. Paracolletes viridicinctus Ckll. b Paracolletes viridicinctus Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), xvi, 1905, p. 482 (Tasmania). Head transverse, shining; face with long loose hair; frons rugoso-punctate; elypeus convex, shining, long loose pale hair, a few black ones laterally, numerous shallow punctures on a wrinkled sculpture; supraclypeal area shining, a few Allotype, male. Length, 7 mm. approx. Black, slightly metallic abdomen. - pis) eal REMARKABLE WASPS AND BEES. rey) | punctures, rising to a fine carina that encircles the median ocellus; vertex with black hair; compound eyes converging below; genae wrinkled, with long loose white hair; labrum black; mandibulae black, reddish apically; antennae black, flagellum obscurely brownish beneath. Prothorax black; pleura with much long white hair; tubercles black, meso- thorax shining, with sparse punctures on a scale-like sculpture, a few black hairs; scutellum similar, with a median depressed line; postscutellum rougher; meta- thorax with an enclosed area of coarse scale-like sculpture; a large amount of white hair laterally; abdominal dorsal segments shining, with the slight metallic — sheen somewhat brassy, hind margins depressed, a microscopic tessellation; ventral segments polished. Ns Legs black, with white hair; tarsi obscurely reddish-black; claws reddish; hind calcar pale; tegulae blackish, polished; wings subhyaline; nervures brownish, strong; second cubital contracted at apex, receiving first recurrent at about its ~ middle; pterostigma blackish; hamuli about seven. Locality: Black Rock, Victoria; 26th September, 1947; T. Rayment. Allotype in the collection of the author. Allies: P. providus Sm. The females have the brassy lustre over the whole abdomen—only on margins in type from Tasmania—and a scale-like sculpture. Females laden with yellowish pollen from Casuarina distyla. The introduced honey-bee has learned to gather the entire gravid-anthers of this plant (Rayment in MS.). Halictus patongensis, sp. nov. Type, male. Length, 8 mm. approx. Black and red. Head transverse, black, with loose white plumose hair, shining; frons densely and coarsely punctured; clypeus shining, anterior half amber colour, with a pointed median extension; supraclypeal area closely punctured; vertex closely rugoso-punctate, with the three rather large ocelli prominently elevated; compound eyes converging below; anterior margins sinuate, almost emarginate; genae with long white hair; labrum and mandibulae amber; antennae very long, black above, ferruginous beneath, the segments of the flagellum obliquely crenulate, scapes black. Prothorax with a narrow band of white mossy hair; tubercles amber, suffused with black, a heavy fringe of white hair; mesothorax shining, finely rugoso- punctate, a few pale stiff hairs on the disc, a little mossy white hair near the seutella suture; scutellum bigibbous, elevations shining, almost impunctate, other- wise it is distinctly and closely punctured; postscutellum rugose, with long white loose hairs; metathorax very long, shining bright, with a few large coarse rugae on the coarse tessellate integument, some long loose white hair laterally; pleura shining, coarsely rugose; abdominal dorsal segments long-clavate, black, with a silky lustre, 2 and 3 with a wide basal band of amber, a few scattered white hairs; ventral segments similar, with more long white hair. Legs slender, amber, with large areas black, white hairs; tarsi amber, basitarsus slender and very long; claws reddish; hind calcar amber; tegulae amber; wings hyaline; nervures dark amber, first recurrent entering the second cubital at its distal corner; cells: the second cubital almost square, a trifle higher than long; pterostigma darker amber, and conspicuous; hamuli weak, Six or seven. Locality: Patonga, New South Wales; 26th Jan., 1947; Norman W. Rodd. Type in the collection of the author. 253 Allies: Plainly in the bicingulatus group, and exceedingly near to the larger (10 mm.) H. ziegleri Raym., which it closely resembles. These two bees resemble wasps in the genus Tryporylon, for they have a ~ slender, clavate abdomen. The males were taken on flowers of Leptospermum sp. Exoneura rufitarsis, sp. nov. Type, female. Length, 6-5 mm. approx. Black, shining. Head circular from the front; frons excavated round the bases of the antennae; clypeus flat, with a narrow sub-obsolete ivory line, a few lank white hairs; supraclypeal area rising to a fine carina that does not reach the median ocellus; vertex microscopically lineate; compound eyes converging below; genae microscopically lineate; labrum amber-coloured, coarsely punctured; mandibulae black; antennae black, scapes with a reddish dot basally, flagellum obscurely reddish beneath. Prothorax not visible from above; tubercles ivory; mesothorax almost polished, with a delicate tessellation, a few white hairs; scutellum similar, postscutellum : rougher; metathorax with a coarse scale-like sculpture in a more or less concentric n . pattern; abdominal dorsal segments black, hind margins depressed, a microscopic lineation, a few pale-straw coloured hairs; ventral segments polished, with a few pale hairs. Legs black, a few white hairs; tarsi red; claws red; hind calcar reddish; tegulae piceous; wings dusky; nervures blackish-brown; cells: second cubital very wide, but contracted at apex; pterostigma blackish-brown; hamuli weak. Locality: Cranbourne, Victoria; September, 1947; Owen Dawson. . Type in the collection of the author. Allies: E£. atterrima Ckll., which has entirely black face; E. melaena CkI11., also with a black face; and £. nitida Ckll., which has tergites narrowly reddened, and a broad clypeal band. This female was taken in a dry stalk of “Wild Parsnip’, in the pith of which she had excavated a three-inch chamber 3 mm. in diameter, and which contained three eggs attached horizontally to the lumen of the tube at intervals of about 5 mm. There was no trace of cell divisions, nor was there any pollen stored. The biology thus far follows the typical pattern. * : Exoneura parvula perparvula, subsp. nov. s A large series of very small females from New South Wales are very close to Ezoneura parvula Raym., but are distinct. They can be readily separated by the absence of the black bands on the abdomen, which is of a darker red colour, with a black macula laterally on tergite 2. The legs have more black, and there _is very little red, even in the hair. : The head is larger than that of E. parvula, with a greater development of the genae. The antennae are short and stout, and there are no pale marks on % the face, scutella or tubercles. These characters are very constant in the series. It is extremely difficult to separate many of the adults in Ezoneura, but the larvae show quite distinct characters, and until the communal nest is discovered and the larval appendages studied critically, I propose the subspecies £. parvula perparvula for these Bundeena females, which were taken at the same time and place as the species. Locality: Bundeena, National Park, New South Wales; October, 1947; Alex. Holmes. Type in the collection of the author. Taken on flowers of Eucalyptus sp. 254 REMARKABLE WASPS AND BEES. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI. 1. Front of head-capsule of male bee Sphaerhylaeus bicoloratus, sp. nov. Note the huge globose bicoloured scapes. 2. Front of head-capsule of bee Sphaerhyaelus gibbonsi (CkIll.). 3.: Front of head-capsule of bee Palaeorhiza hierogliphica Raym. 4. Aciculate sculpture of clypeus. ° 5. The large convex “face” of Huryglossimorpha ruficauda, sp. nov., has the plates © 6. Punctate sculpture of mesothoracic disc. 7. Dorsal view of the short wide glossa. 8. Apical segments of flagellum of H. nigra Smith. 9. Dentate hind calear of female EH. ruficauda. 10. Bee, Huryglossa rejecta Ckll. opening the labellum of orchid Caladenia filamentosa subsp. tentaculata. 11.:The genitalia of the male is not typical of the genus. 12. Group of olfactory ? pores at base of posterior wing. 13. Seventh tergite ef the male. 14. Strigil of male. 15. Sensory hairs on anterior orbital margin of Sphaerhylaeus gibbonsi (CkIl.). 16. Microscopical sculpture of scapes of Sphaerhylaeus bicoloratus. REFERENCES. BUGNION, E. (1890).—Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges., xii. : CLAUSEN, C. P. (1931).—Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, p. 72. Imus, A. D. (1942).—General Text-book of Entomology. RAYMENT, T. (1935).—A Cluster of Bees. (1936).—Arbeiten tiber physiologische und angewandte Entomologie aus Berlin- Dahlem, Dec., 1936. (1937).—Arbeiten, ete., March, 1937. ——— (1946).—Victerian Naturalist, April, 1946. ——— (1946).—Victorian Naturalist, July, 1946. ScHULTz, W. A. (1907).—Trigonalidae. Genera Insectorum, fasc. 61. SMITH, F. (1851).—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (2) vii, p. 28. —— (1879).—Descr. New Species Hymenoptera Brit. Mus. POSTSCRIPT ON THE TRIGONALID PROBOSCIS, BY TARLTON RAYMENT, 12 JANUARY, 1948. After the specific description had been set up by the printer, the author received from Norman Rodd a mounted preparation of the palpi of a female, and he was able to study these parts of the proboscis more critically. The basal segment of the maxillary palpus is excessively short, two and three quite as stout but much longer, four, five and six conspicuously slender. The following measurements, in microns, are approximate: Ist seg., 185; 2nd, 400; 3rd, 425; 4th, 500; 5th, 425: 6th, 500. The labial palpus has only three conspicuous segments, but there appears to be an excessively short basal palpiger. The author is unable to work out the homologues from this mount of the mouth- parts, but the stipes appear to be short and stout, the galea exceedingly short; the pharyngeal rod spread at a wide angle; the pharyngeal plate short and strong. 255 OBSERVATIONS ON THRIPS. WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES. By TARLTON RAYMENT, F.R.Z.S. (Plates xxii—xxiii.) In 1935, in my monograph, A Cluster of Bees, p. 488, I drew attention to the fact that I had found Thrips sheltering through the winter and feeding on the pollen-stores in the nests of certain wild-bees. During the last week of July, 1946, I received yet another “nest” of a solitary wild-bee, a very small black one with pale yellow markings, Hylaeus nubilosus mediostictus Ckll. It contained larvae and pupae in transparent oval skin cells, of extremely delicate structure, and each of which measured some 11 mm. in length, with a diameter of 4-5 mm. Seven cells were built in a tube excavated in a twig of Wattle, and were collected at Lane Cove, near Sydney, New South Wales, by Norman W. Rodd, who has sent many other interesting specimens. The nest is a typical one for the Hylaeidae, and in one gallery was the deserted skin cell of a bee, and which contained the remnants of the original pollen-pudding provided by the industrious honey-gatherer. In this cell were several large thrips feeding on the remnants of pollen, but all were at the wingless (apterous) stage. The specimens are of a distinctive form, and somewhat anomalous, since the six tarsi are each armed with a pair of claws. Moreover, the abddomen at this stage is white, with numerous reddish-brown maculae dotted over the surface. In the gall-making genera, Cladothrips and Phloeothrips, the anterior feet are armed with strong claws. Froggatt, investigating one species of these, counted over 1,000 immature thrips, together with the mother, in a single gall. The Lane Cove specimen should, perhaps, be regarded as the type specimen of a new species, and in this paper I shall refer it to Cladothrips and append the specific description. More than 70 species of thrips are known in Australia, and the study of them is very important for the economic entomologist, since the insects constitute a serious menace to the economy of man, for vast hordes attack his crops and gardens and inflict heavy losses. Any contribution to our knowledge of the thrips is, therefore, to be warmly welcomed. The habits of certain species are such that it is almost impossible to suggest any remedial measures which would be effective in controlling their numbers. It is obvious that no poison spray could possibly reach galleries excavated in dry trees and occupied by wild-bees. Ensconced in such protected havens, the thrips can rest and feast in peace on the pollen-stores of the bees. I have discovered pest thrips sheltering from the heat of summer in the tightly-fitting sheaths of green grass stalks, and even there the insects would be effectively protected from poison sprays, since they suck the sweet juice out of the unexposed stems. Frankly, I do not believe that measures such as spraying will ever control thrips, for they cannot be effective in the field. The untold miles of Cape Weed, Cryptostemma calendulaceum, flourishing throughout Australia, constitute a vast feeding ground carrying unlimited amounts of pollen. It would appear that we can, therefore, abandon all thoughts of control by poison sprays and concentrate on. discovering a fungus, a mould, a bacterium, or some other microscopic form of life that could be used as a biological control by infecting 4 number of thrips and then releasing them to infect others with which 256 OBSERVATIONS ON THRIPS. they come in contact. That method, of course, connotes a much better knowledge of the biology of the thrips ‘than .*we possess ‘at the present day, and the phenomenon of parthenogenesis further complicates the problem. The time given by authors for the development from egg to adults varies in a striking manner— from a few days to several weeks. Certain females have a serrated ovipositor to cut narrow channels in living vegetable tissue, and the minute, somewhat oval, eggs are inserted in the wounds, whence, later, the nymphs will emerge and immediately seek a hiding place in buds, leaf-sheaths, or any other close shelter that offers. The young thrips of the remarkable Kaieidothrips inquilinus Kelly and Mayne* which I reared from the hollow stems of dock plants (a weed species of Rumex, in the family PoLYGONACEAE) were coral-pink in colour, and at the apterous stage, but the young of some other species are colourless. The adults are winged. The native thrips.are frequently collected on the indigenous wattles, for Bagnell often mentions this association, and no doubt the abundant rich pollen of the Acaciae is. a strong attraction. Strangely, the pest thrips are the species introduced from overseas. ; The metamorphosis of thrips is incomplete, for the young ones bear a close resemblance to the imagines, although’ the wings do not appear until after the fourth and final moult. Not all’ species, however, have winged forms. Hinds states that the life of a thrips does not exceed twelve months, but other authors assert that there are several broods each year, and it is well demonstrated that many generations are produced by parthenogenesis, that is, the females have the prerogative of reproducing the species without a copulation with the male, and this probably accounts ae the fact that far more females than males are taken by collectors. Thrips are in the order THYSANOPTERA,{ With two sub-orders, TEREBRANTIA and TUBULIFERA, and the new species is included in the latter sub-order, since the apex of the abdomen terminates in a short tube, as will be seen from the . illustrations. The species in the first sub-order all lack the tube-like segments, and the females have a _ curved ovipositor. There is but one _ family, PHLOEOTHRIPIDAE, in the TUBULIFERA. The four narrow wings are closely fringed with long hair; the head is long and narrow, with two small compound eyes; two ocelli appear in the winged forms. Many of the species are only a millimetre or so in length, but Jdolothrips spectrum Hal. is the largest, being nearly half an inch in length. The new species, too, is a large one, and easily identified by the maculated white young ones; the long third segment of the antennae; the pair of huge claws on the anterior legs; and the great femora of the male. Later, in November of the same year, Norman Rodd sent a_ beautifully complete series of this thrips containing numerous eggs, eee ee larvae at various stages, and adult males and females. The insects were inhabiting twigs of a species of Acacia that apparently had been chambered by some other species. The sticks averaged 5 mm. in diameter, and the “bore” measured 3 mm. in diameter, the longest being 5 cm. Since the *In Kelly and Mayne’s “Catalogue of Australian Thrips’’, 1934, my signature has been erased from the original plate of this species, and the initials “F.M.” have been substituted for it—a piece of deliberate plagiarism rarely encountered in scientific work.—T.R. + The bladder-like process of the normal foot is responsible for the alternative name, PHYSAPODA. vA 4 RAYMENT. 257 base of the lumen was closed with a thick wad of teased-out wood fibre, and the upper end with an iris of finer, more closely compacted material, the galleries probably had been excavated originally by one of the reed-dwelling bees in the genus Exoneura. The numerous cylindrical white eggs are disposed in close but irregular order, and lack the beautiful hexagonal sculpturing of bees’ eggs. They are just scattered masses on the walls of the lumen of the tube that had been reduced to a thin shell, a mere millimetre or two in thickness. The total number of eggs could not be ascertained, owing to the twigs being broken, but it must have been very large, since numerous females, were present. The eggs measured 875 microns at the long axis and 300 microns at the short. The incubating period is unknown, but the eggs turn blackish just before the larvae emerge. The very pale young ones have somewhat the appearance of Acarid mites, but as they develop become whiter and conspicuously maculated with madder- brown colour, as I have already described. The adults, however, are jet black and shining, and the winged ones have the four sub-equal heavily-fringed wings of the genus. The most prominent feature of the apterous male forms are the huge anterior legs with the truly gigantic burrowing-claws of the gall-making Cladothrips. All the median and hind tarsi have the bladder-like organs of typical thrips. These are shown in Plate xxiii, fig. 14. Norman Rodd has made many fine contributions to natural history by extending our knowledge of Australian thrips, while his valued collections of the “nests” and larvae of Hxoneurdae have clearly established the relationships of these fascinating Australian bees with the no less interesting Allodape of South Africa. Without his zealous assistance my taxonomic studies of these bees would have lacked the conclusive evidence afforded by the remarkable larvae. It is a matter for regret that my attempts to rear the new species of thrips to the winged stage were not successful, but further efforts to do so will be made during the approaching summer. A synthetic pollen, which I compounded for the honey-bees of the commercial apiaries, is proving successful in rearing other pollen-eating insects. Order THYSANOPTERA. Suborder TUBULIFERA. Family PHLOEOTHRIPIDAE. Cladothrips punctatus, sp. nov. (Plates xxii—xxiii.) Female larva. Length, 3 mm. approx. Head, prothorax, legs and tube blackish-brown, the abdomen white, with numerous reddish-brown maculae on each segment, from each of which issues a long strong seta; the head long and narrow. The third segment of the antenna is the largest, as in Kellyia and Tetraceratothrips Bagn., the minute seventh apical segment is distinct from the sixth. Apical tube short, as in Phaulothrips, and fringed with long setae alternating with short curved ones, as in Kaleidothrips inquilinus Kelly. All tarsi bear a pair of apical claws and a long seta, but the slender anterior tarsi and femora are unarmed, as in Adiaphorothrips. The measurements in microns are approximate: width of abdomen, 750; length of head, 425; width, 189; total length of antennae; 1,000; segment one, 75; two, 140; three, 348; four, 189; five, 130; six, 70; seven, 48; length of two apical segments of abdomen, 600; length of tarsal seta, 70. z 258 OBSERVATIONS ON THRIPS. Type, adult female. Length, 55 mm.; width of abdomen, 1 mm. Black. Head, 1 mm. in length, is somewhat longer than the tube. Thorax 1 mm. long, the two sub-equal wings heavily fringed in the winged forms. Antennae as described for the maculated stage. Abdomen elongate, each segment having two setae laterally. The tube is minutely and densely punctured; the apex having short curved setae alternating with much longer ones. The rest of the body is shining and impunctate. Anterior tarsi with small claws in the female, but in the male the huge femora and claws are very distinctive. Locality: Lane Cove, Sydney, New South Wales; July and November, 1946. Collector: Norman W. Rodd, in “nests” of wild-bees built in dry twigs of Acacia. ‘ Type specimens and co-types, mounted in ‘Euparel’, in the collection of the author. - } EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII. 1. Dorsal view of larval Cladothrips pwnctatus Rayment. Note the maculated abdomen. 2. Apical segments of the abdomen showing the microscopic organs at “‘A”. 3. Organ at “A” more highly magnified. 4. The third segment of the antennae is the longest. 5. The arrangement of the setae on the margin of the tube. ; 6. Each of the apical segments of the tarsi has a pair of hooks, and what appears to be an empodium and a seta, instead of the typical bladder-like organ. 7. The silvery skin cells of a Hylaeid bee, and in which the thrips were feeding. 8. Portion of the integument showing macula and seta. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII. 9. A twig of Acacia showing eggs on the lumen of the tube. 10. The large egg lacks sculpture on the chorion. 11. The young larval thrips has a pale abdomen. 12. The huge anterior legs and claws of the male. 13. Adult female thrips with heavily fringed wings. 14. Compare the huge claws of the male with the small ones of the female. 15. The tube of the female is finely and closely punctured; the rest of the body is impunctate and shining. : 259 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PART 4. By GImLcBert P. WHITLEY, F.R.Z.S. (Contribution from The Australian Museum.) (Plates xxiv-xxv and text-figs. 1-7.) Family TRIAKIDAE. FUR VENTRALIS Whitley, 1943. (Figs. 1-2.) Fur ventralis, Whitley, Rec. S. Austr. Mus., vii, 1943, p. 397, and Austr. Zool., x, 1944, p. 259, fig. 5.. Bunbury, W.A. The Whiskery Shark was one of several new species of sharks encountered in Western Australia during investigations for the Division of Fisheries, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. I measured and opened more than fifty freshly-caught specimens of which males and females were about equally represented. In 1943 and 1944 I saw about one hundred examples of Fur ventralis in the Perth Markets, where they comprised between 4% and 5% of the total sharks offered for sale. The departmental returns of the Fisheries Inspectors at Bunbury for the Bunbury and Busselton area specified Whiskery Sharks from 1943 onwards and show that a few examples are caught throughout the summer months, increasing if anything in October and November. Fur ventralis comprised 50% of the 1943 Bunbury Sharks caught (92 caught) whilst 187 (9%) © were mentioned in the 1944 returns. Fig. 1.—Whiskery Shark, Fur ventralis Whitley. Head and skull of a 19-lb. female from Two People Bay, Western Australia. No. 1, ventral surface. No. 2, dorsal surface with skull in situ. No. 3, ventral view of anterior portion of skull. No. 4, lateral view of skull.. G. P. Whitley del. 260 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Fur ventralis occurs from Abrolhos to Esperance, Western Australia, and probably across the Great Australian Bight to South Australia, whence Waite has figured it as Mustelus, omitting the “whiskers” (nasal cirrhi) and anal fin. The Whiskery Shark is caught on rough rock and weedy bottoms on setlines with baits of squid (Sepiotewthis) or fish; it also feeds on octopus and an occasional crayfish. The dental formula varies from 11.1.12 to 15.1.16 over 36 to at least 42. The head of a Whiskery Shark caught at Two People Bay in September, 1943, is figured here (fig. 1). to show the long nasal barbels and form of labial folds. Its dental formula was 11.1.12 over 36. The dorsal surface of the head, whose slight asymmetry is natural, is shown with the skull in situ. The ventral view of the anterior portion of the skull shows prolongations of the cartilages to support the nasal cirrhi, but generally the cranium resembles the Galeoid sharks. In filleted specimens in the markets the myocommas show more prominently - as darker grey chevrons than those of the Gummy Shark (Hmissola). Both Fur and Notogaleus generally have a swerve in the lateral line behind the dorsal and anal fins. For its size, the Whiskery is a heavy shark, females being generally heavier than males, as shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. Weight in Lb. Total Length Length of in mm. Claspers in ; mm. Males. Females. 905 — — 6 1,063 — —_ 9 1,080 — — 10 to 114 1,092 55 104 — 1,100 — — 13 1,130 35 9} = 1,150 64 12 to 14 — 1,180 to 1,200 — 12 134 to 17 1,230 to 1,240 — — 16 to 20 1,250 to 1,270 70 to 80 18 16 to 19 1,280 to 1,290 — 162 to 18 18 to 20 1,300 to 1,310 80 to 90 18 to 2134 19 to 22 1,320 91 to 97 22 — ‘i 1,330 85 to 90 23 to- 27. — - 1,340 to 1,350 83 19 to. 22 25 1,400 — 24 — ae The proportions, with growth, are fairly constant in both males and females, as shown by a few measurements (Table 2). . TABLE 2. Total Length Interdorsal Upper Caudal in mm. Head. Space. Lobe. 905 170 210 175 1,063 195 265 200 1,080 to 1,100 200 to 207 270 to 280 190 to 205 : 200 290 215 | 1,193 225 300 . « 210 3. 1,230 to 1,250 232 to 235 280 to 330 220 to 230 1,260 to 1,290 234 to 238 323 to 333 ' 225 to 236 1,300 to 1,330 245 to 253 300 to 355 222 to 250 eee WHITLEY. 261 wn ~ The liver weighs from 2:7% to 4:-5% of the total weight in most specimens, -——sébut as females mature it increases to 6-5 to 7-8, and in one mature male (1,250 mm. eet long) was 10-6%. Maturity in males (judged from length of claspers, differen- tiation of testes from mesorchium, and presence of sperm in the vesiculae -. geminales) occurs at about 1,300 mm. total length (claspers 80 or 90 mm.), though one of 1,350 mm. (cl. 80) was immature. Females in the Albany district were maturing in September-October, 1943. The 1,240 mm. female, 19 lbs. in weight (fig. 1) from Two People Bay, 28 miles from Albany, September 26, 1943, had 6 large eggs up to 37 mm. in diameter in the ovaries, but the uteri were not developed. On January 15, 1944, in the Recherche Archipelago, a 1,180 mm. female, 17 lbs., had large ovarian eggs and 5 eggs, 80 x 30 mm. diameter, in each uterus. Others, 1,195 to 1,340 mm., at the same time were immature. From January 26 to February 3, 1944, in the Recherche Group, we caught: : (a) Female, 1,315 mm., 22 lbs., with 10 eggs, 70 x 30 mm., in each uterus. (ob) Female, 1,302 mm., 19 lbs., 6 to 8 eggs in each uterus, as in (@). (c) Female, 1,305 mm., 22 lbs. Ovaries with small eggs, uteri undeveloped. (d) Female, 1,200 mm., 16 lbs. Immature. Off Bunbury on January 17, 1945, a 1,240 mm. female of 17 lbs. had 12 eggs, ; 40 mm. in diameter, but no embryos. . Fig. 2.—Whiskery Shark, Fur ventralis Whitley. One of eleven embryos from a . 15-lb. female, Bunbury, Western Australia. Membranous envelope 10 inches long. 1 Semi-diagrammatic. G. P. Whitley del. Xx = The first pregnant specimen discovered was a 1,198 mm. (15 lbs.) female ? eaught off Bunbury, March 1, 1945, so that the species evidently first breeds at ze, about 1,200 mm. This had 11 embryos, 30 to 45 mm. long, with external gills and yolksacs 76 to 95 mm. by 33 to 40 mm. (fig. 2). Hach embryo with its yolk occupied a separate, thin-walled compartment, as in Galeolamna dorsalis, G. greyi and its subspecies, and probably Emissola antarctica, but the walls are thin and easily torn or overlooked. In the White-spotted Gummy, HE. ganedarum, the embryos are not separated by compartments within the uterus. On March 21, 1945, a 1,295 mm. female Fur had ova up to 60 mm. in diameter in the ovary, and 9 uterine ova and 9 embryos, 17 to 30 mm. long; uterine yolksacs 85 x 35 mm. diameter. Unfortunately I had to leave the district before studies on embryonic growth could be made, and the size of full-term embryos is unknown. STAGES OF A SHARK. For field purposes the following stages in the development of a Shark (or Ray) may be useful when tabulating data towards life-histories: 262 | NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. A. Hes. ; B. Embryo. —IV. Primitive streak or undifferentiated to naked eye. —III. Recognizable as a shark, external gill-filaments present. — II. Recognizable as to genus, absorbing yolksac; gills absorbed. —I. Full-term embryo, yolksac absorbed or nearly so. C. Born. 1. Newly born “pup”. 2. Juvenile, umbilical scar still present. Different ones may be born at different sizes and some grow quicker than others. 3. Growing immature stage. Gonads small or strip-like, ova and testes not differentiated. 4, Adolescent or virgin. Gonads differentiating from mesovarium or mesorchium; ova small, uterus a mere thin tube. 5. Adult. Sperm can be expressed from vesiculae of male. Uteri enlarged in females, bearing embryos in season and/or ovaries with large eggs. The time elapsing from one stage to the next varies considerably in different species of sharks, and many more observations will be necessary before outlines of the life-histories of even the commonest species can be sketched. Readers are asked to record lengths and sexes of all sharks seen, with numbers, sexes and lengths of embryos, with localities and dates, being particularly careful regarding the identification of the species, for which purpose at least the head of the shark should be sent to a museum. Family SPHYRNIDAE. SPHYRNA LEWINI (Griffith, 1834). (Plate xxiv and text-figs. 3-4.) } In my ‘Fishes of Australia” (1940, p. 120) I mentioned that there seemed — to be only one species of Hammerhead Shark in Australasia, but that further study of more specimens was desirable. Though I am still unable to recognize more than one species, the field notes and figures given below, made during investigations for the C.S.1.R., Division of Fisheries, from freshly-caught Queensland and Western Australian specimens, may be of interest to students and can be compared with recent studies on American Hammerheads by Springer (Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., iii, 1938, pp. 30 and 38, figs. 15-1, et ibid., v, 1940, p. 46, figs. 1-6; Stanford, Ichth. Bull., i, 1940, p. 161, figs. 1-7) and with the account of the skull by Lloyd and Sheppard (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1922, iv (1923), p. 971, figs. 1-7). Specimen 1 (Pl. xxiv, fig. 3). Young, immature female, 507 mm. long. Wt. 2% lbs. Connor’s Creek, Fitzroy River estuary, Queensland; March 22, 1943. Head four-lobed in front. Anal origin slightly before that of second dorsal. Lower caudal pit obsolescent. Second and third gill-slits deepest. Small quantity of mud and grit in stomach. ; Life-colours: Upper surface pale grey with metallic iridescence, pinkish- bronze. Margins of hammer and ventral surface white. Second dorsal and upper and lower caudal lobes tipped with smoky grey. Lower caudal lobe black-tipped. Eye dirty greyish with pale green tinge. (Biometrics, see Table 4 below.) Side of head at end of hammer, 49:5 mm. Specimen 2 (Pl. xxiv, fig; 1, and text-fig. 4). Immature female, 1,152 mm. Wt. 13 lbs. Off Bald Head, Albany, Western Australia; September 11, 1943. Austr. Mus. regd. no. I1B.1647. Dental formula 14.1.14 over 13.1.13. Teeth each side of symphysis of lower jaw erect, others sloping, not denticulate, notched deeply on outer slopes. Second to fourth gill-slits subequal, 39 mm. Eye to end of hammer, 58. WHITLEY. 263 mr Thin lateral line visible. No interdorsal ridge. A deep upper and a rudimentary lower caudal pit. Lobes of second dorsal and anal not nearly reaching x3 caudal pits as in Fish. Austr., i, 1940, fig. 128. Origin of first dorsal behind level of inner angle of pectoral, above posterior lobe of latter. Lower caudal lobe acutely rounded. Anal larger than second dorsal and more advanced. Three digested pilchards (Cluwpeidae) in stomach. Ovaries quiescent; uteri slim and undeveloped. Liver, 4 lb. wt. Life-colour: Light slate-grey above, white below. Eye bluish-grey. Nictitating membrane milky-white, not brown. Trenchant anterior edges of all fins dusky greyish. Posterior caudal and anal fin margins dusky grey. Creamy yellow margin to front and sides of head. (Biometrics, see Table 4.) Specimen 3 (text-figs. 3 and 4). Very immature male, 1,506 mm. Wt. 36 Ibs. West of Station Island, Recherche Archipelago, Western Australia; January 15, 1944. Claspers, 33 mm. Side of head, 102 mm. Third gill-opening longest. Second dorsal with long posterior lobe. Slate-grey above. Parchment white below. Fins dusky above. Anal and caudal with blackish tip and edges respectively. Eye dark blue with brownish-grey iris. Stomach contained a very digested squid. (Biometrics, see Table 4.) x. Specimen 4. Immature male, 770 mm. Wt. 6 lbs. Off Second Beach Point, Esperance, W.A.; January 29, 1944. Claspers, 14 mm. Umbilicus healed. Stomach contained pilchard. Specimen 5 (Pl. xxiv, figs. 2, 2a-b). Very young female, 600 mm. Same loc. and date. Umbilicus open. W.A. Mus. no. P.2592. Specimen 6. Very young male, 612 mm. Wt. 1 lb. 13 ozs. ‘Same data. Specimens 7 to 15. Nine very young specimens, 4 males with 10 mm. claspers, and five females, from between Charley Island and Burton Rock, Esperance, W.A.; February 10, 1944. Umbilical scar in all. (See Table 3.) TABLE 3. Width of Length. Head. Weight. Sex. os mm. mm. Ib. oz. 560 158 gh Ss 3 600 162 g Bea) 3 602 160 1 154 3 604 161 Ace | Q 608 160 1 14 Q 620 168 De Q 630 171 Dye ey <2 642 178 De i3 3 675 178 2 8 2 Liver weight about 3% total weight. Specimen 16. Immature male, 630 mm. Wt. 2 lbs. Bunbury, Western Australia; January 17, 1945. Width of hammer, 170; claspers, 14; interdorsal space; 154 mm. Specimen 17. Young male, 712 mm. Wt. 34 lbs. Bunbury, W.A.; March 2, 1945. Hammer, 195; head and body, 510; upper caudal lobe, 202; interdorsal, 187; clasper, 15 mm. Specimen 18. Young female, 615 mm. Wt. 24 lbs. Bunbury, W.A.; March 2, 1945. Hammer, 178; head + body, 480; upper caudal lobe, 195; interdorsal, 183 mm. Fig. ‘3. Hammerhead Shark, Soherne lewini (Grimith). Head of See from ‘Statio . ia)" ‘Width (Of. hammer eh eo! Sa ‘Whitley del. x Ce ae ae wecesee en See, Ve + Hig. ae eat mer icad Sharks, Sphyrna lewini (Griffith ). ‘portions of second dorsal, anal and caudal fins in specimens no. be (dottea ine). and es (solid tine) ; about one-third natural size. ee re eae Psae wis G. 1a “Whitley del. ¢ >’ Bpebimen 19. Male, about 9 ft. long. Wt. ete 43 cwt. \ Fremantle, WA; - November 26, 1929. Hammer, about 23 Dy. inches. W.A. Mus. no. P.998. f 3 mh Messrs. Joyce and Watkins, of Fremantle, W.A., kindly made available ‘their. returns from the Shark Fishery of June, 1935, to March, (1936, operating from _ Fremantle: to Rock inshan: Seventeen hammerheads were camer 3B to 1a a2 5 =A + Stans Sve | soem Sclaned, 17 to 18 lbs., a . 4ft. 10 in. specimen weighed 30 Ibs. ae put. the others were not recorded. Judging from specimens seen, the reports of é oe _ Fisheries inspectors and fishermen, and the commercial returns, the Hammerhead Shark is caught off south-western Australia in winter and summer, but mostly in Bee from. October to March. Growth after birth is evidently rapid, since specimens nos. 7 to 15 all had umbilical scars, yet no. 4, 770 mm. long, obviously a first-year ‘g vn shark, had the scar healed. The tables below indicate rapid growth in several ayy directions. Data are, however, too scattered and incomplete for any deduction or — pet _ adumbration of the life-history of this extraordinary Australian shark. ar ! Biometric data for the first three specimens, following my scheme propounded oy ate Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Ixviii, 1943, p. 114, are as shown in Table 4. i pee. TABLE 4. ee cic ¥ 8 mn Specimen. Bee ee NS elles 1 2 3 Cate — = Albany, Recherche, a ae Q. W.A. W.A. / ee » iy es ' _ - - 4) ~ ae ‘aa 90 1380 240 Ad ray 17 122 247 358 PS 3 76:5 154 214 es 4 136 289 373 gi tog 5 118 238 313 cee i 6 228 510 694 ' a 7 13 22'-5 26 hae 8 1225 18 21 Re a 9 137 300 407 oP Saeed mate 10 — ais ee : TOES ae ee 11 32 24+ 104 ue acta A * 2 67 227 164 es : 3 a ae 78 bie ee 14 é az 99 + we 15 2 Deep notch e. 1 . Ne 16 (CARIES es ob be 17 15 25 38 266 NEW. SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Family CLUPEIDAE. Genus Macrura van Hasselt, 1823. MACRURA BLACKBURNI, SD. NOV. D2) 165 As, 21 P2162) Vi,'8s “Ce 18s Se.c.36, ire i2)) -Predoursal, \cohiay oCwters 18 + 10. Head (29 mm.) 3-6, depth (37) nearly 2-9 in standard length (107). Bye (10) 2-9, interorbital (7) 4:1, maxilla (14) 2, and depth of caudal peduncle (13:5) 2-1 in head. Maxilla reaching below front of eye (or middle in smallest paratype), and denticulated. Upper jaw with slight notch at symphysis. A row of teeth in each jaw, six or more on each mandible; none on palate. Opercles venulose, without grooves. Eyelids broad. Occiput and scapula venulose. About 40 gill-rakers on lower limb of first gill-arch. Body deep, abdominal profile very convex. Scales with ragged edges and completely crossed by about six grooves. Origin of dorsal much nearer snout than root of tail. Last two anal rays not enlarged. Pectorals less than head. Ventral origin betowy, middle of dorsal base. Caudal lobes slightly longer than head. General colour in formalin yellowish, lighter on fins. Three to five dark brown stripes, which may be broken into rows of small marks, along top of sides. Eye bluish. A yellow flange below anterior gill-filaments. Snout, dorsal and caudal fins described as bright yellow in life. Dorsal and caudal lobes conspicuously black-tipped; other fins plain. Described from the holotype, 107 mm. in standard length, or 54 inches overall (Austr. Mus. no. IB.2010), the largest of seven specimens. Locality—Port Hedland, Western Australia; collected by A. EH. Clark in January, 1943 (holotype and 5 paratypes), and by L. G. Smith, 24 October, 1941 (paratype). Nos. IB.2009 to 2115. Mr. Smith also obtained four other specimens which were dissected by Mr. M. Blackburn, who found 41 vertebrae, counting the urostyle. Variation: D., 18-19; A., 19-21; P., 15-16; Scutes, 17-18 + 10-12. Gill-rakerg, 12-18 + 38-40. Rather like Clupalosa lippa (Whitley, 1931) but deeper in body and with strongly marked pattern, different seutes, etc. Differs from Macrura koningsbergeri (Weber & Beaufort, 1912) in having more predorsal scales and fewer body scales, also in coloration; similarly from M. maccullochi (Whitley, 1931) and notable for its toothless palate. The conspicuous black tips to the caudal fin are characteristic of blackburni. Similar to hypselosoma (Bleeker, 1855) but with larger scales. Named in honour of Mr. Maurice Blackburn of the C.S.I.R. Division of Fisheries in recognition of his work on the bionomics of Australian Clupeoids. Mr. Blackburn — discovered that this species was new but generously placed his specimens and notes at my disposal so that the species could be described for inclusion in my Mar “Rishes of Australia’’. - Family ENGRAULIDAE. | SCUTENGRAULIS HAMILTONII (Gray, 1830). A specimen of this anchovy, nearly 4% inches long, was obtained at Port Hedland in January, 1943, by Mr. A. E. Clark. It has D.i, 14; A., 40; Se., 44; and Scutes, 17 + 10. New record for Western Australia. _ WHITLEY. 267 iw Family CLUPANODONTIDAE. FLUVIALOSA PARACOME, Sp. NOV. Ped) Ace ater as old OW i bent Le.” Cy Oa to. hypural,.j-Tr4 13... Predorsal x _ se., 13. Scutes 16 + Le 2T. Head (30 mm.) 3-2, depth (42) 2°3 in standard length (97). Hye (9) 3:3, Estas snout (5) 6, interorbital (8-5) 3-5 in head. Dorsal filament, 26 mm. Cleft of mouth obtuse, reaching below front of eye. A symphysial notch. Dentary laterally reflected. No teeth apparent in jaws. Suborbital, upper opercles and humeral region venulose. Interorbital broadly convex. General facies as in the genus. Body ovate, compressed, covered with cycloid scales with 8 basal striae. Dorsal origin slightly in advance of level of ventral origin. Distance from ventral to anal origins less than head. Anal rays rather long, not forming pronounced anterior lobe. General colour in alcohol, silvery-yellowish with the back brown. Eye surrounded with dark blue ring. A smoky-bluish, indistinct bar arises from eye and runs to nape, where it joins its fellow from the other side. Rows of thin lines along junctions of scale rows. No humeral blotch or only faint duskiness. Lobes of dorsal and caudal infuscated. Described from the holotype, 97 mm. in standard length, L.C.F. 110 mm., or 5 inches in total length. W.A. Mus. regd. no. P.2619. Locality.—Noonkanbah, Fitzroy River, Western Australia; Mr. W. W. Henwood, 1944. Distinguished from other species by having no humeral blotch, dorsal filament shorter, fewer predorsal and lateral scales, and notable for the depth of the body, height of anal fin, and the head longer than distance between ventral and anal origins. FLUVIALOSA BULLERI, Sp. nov. De £4 VAL, 93: P., c13: Vi, 7: C.,. 18. Se.,,39 to. hypural. Tr., 16. ~Predorsal Sen loie scutes: 17 +: 12°= 29: Head (29 mm.) 4:1, depth (52) 2-3 in standard length (120). Eye (8) 3°6, snout (6) nearly 5, interorbital (8-5) 3:4 in head. Dorsal filament, 34 mm. Cleft of mouth barely reaching below front of eye, which is not much covered by adipose lids. General characters as in Fluvidlosa spp. Body very deep and compressed. Scales without basal radii. Dorsal origin slightly in advance of level of ventral origin. Head notably less than distance from ventral and anal origins. Anal rays forming anterior lobe. Colour in formalin brownish yellow, darker over back and viscera. Eye dark blue. Vertex dusky but no smoky bar over eye. ‘tan “ak “4 a ee hoe OT ? » te? t SUAS Gupte Se Ses See a ae RL RM ef gg Lae air . it: a . 2 his 7m a « > — i Ve é WHITLEY. 271 Colour in formalin, pale straw. Eye blue. A reddish-brown spot below base of each pectoral and dorsal ray. Trace of a brown streak near back on right side of P.1231 at joints of 4th, Sth and 14th body rings. The absence of an opercular keel is noteworthy, and the low number of subdorsal and tail-rings. Otherwise close to Y. bicoarctata (Bleeker), as described by Weber and Beaufort, 1922. In view of the likelihood of the tail being damaged and regenerated in these pipefishes, I consider that brevicauda Castelnau is the first valid name for the Western Australian subspecies. IJchthyocampus maculatus Alleyne and Macleay is evidently a synonym of bicoarctata. HISTIOGAMPHELUS MERACULUS, Sp. NOV. Dy 25; 7A. .3; PB. 18;-C., 10. Rings 21,4 36. ‘Subdorsal rings 4’+ 4.. No broodrings, thus female. Head (26 mm.) 3-7 in length of trunk (97) or 8-6 in total length (225). Eye (4) 3-7 in snout (15), which is 1:7 in head and much \ longer than postorbital (8). Depth of snout nearly 4mm. Trunk 1:3 in tail (128). Caudal length (6) 2°5 in snout. Pectoral length, 4 mm. Depth below dorsal fin, 5-5 mm., more than width (4:9). Rostral ridge almost horizontal behind lips and with a slight dip over its anterior half and extending backwards to the reticulated interorbital. Supra- orbital ridges practically merged with sides of rostral ridge. A prenuchal and two nuchal scutes, not joined to rostral crest. No median dorsal ridge. A short, obsolescent opercular keel anteriorly and nearly 40 radiating striae. The ridge defining the upper margin of the snout below the rostral crest slopes gently down towards level of middle of eye. The suparorbital ridges break the profile. Dorso-lateral body-ridges ending on each side of dorsal base, on third tail-ring, not continuous with dorso-lateral tail-ridges which extend to upper part of last body ring, over but separate from the free end of the median body-ridge. Ventro- lateral ridges of body continuous with inferior tail-ridges. Ventral carina along trunk. Thus corresponds with no. 9 of Duncker’s scheme. _ Dorsal base elevated anteriorly, less so posteriorly. Rays 25. Anal very small. Caudal probably lanceolate originally but median rays may be damaged so that it is now truncate. Colour light brown, darkest in tone on back and body; no large dark blotches. Some nondescript light and dark markings on head and body and series of small light ocelli on lower parts of sides, one to each ring anteriorly, several to each ring along tail. Ridges yellowish with rows of small dark marks. Eye bluish above, silvery greenish below. Dorsal base dusky, its fin-rays reddish. Pectoral brown. Caudal dark grey to blackish centrally with whitish ends to upper and lower rays. Described from the holotype, a dried specimen, 225 mm. or 8% inches long, kindly lent for the purpose by Mr. L. Glauert, Curator of the Western Australian Museum, Perth, where the specimen is registered no. P.1215. Locality.—City Beach, near Perth, Western Australia; Mr. John Kirk. ’ Distinguished from its congeners by the form and proportions of the snout ‘ and adjacent parts, the extent of the rostral crest, absence of mid-dorsal ridge, ete. It is nearest H. briggsii McCulloch, 1914, the genotype, but has longer and slenderer snout, head less than 4 in trunk, and different head proportions. Family MUGILIDAE. OxYMUGIL, gen. nov. Orthotype, Mugil acutus Cuv. and Val., as identified below. Snout acutely pointed from lateral view. Interorbital flat. Nostrils not close together. Adipose eyelids well developed. No fleshy lobes at sides of mandible. Zi2 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. — No papillae on lips. Upper lip of moderate thickness, very slightly exceeded by the terminal, thin-edged lower lip, which is not folded downwards. No teeth or cilia on jaws. A symphysial knob in lower jaw. Scales ciliated on head, cycloid — on body. } Marine, tropical. Similar to Mugil Linnaeus, 1758, but snout more acute and has preorbital edge arched and denticulate, its posterior edge greater than space between nostrils and reaching past front of eye; 9 or 10 anal rays, predorsal profile straight. Distinguished from. other mullet genera by the combination of the characters mentioned above. OxYMUGIL ACUTUS (CUV. and Val., 1836). (Fig. 7.) Mugil acutus Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., xi, July, 1836, p. 140 “New Holland” (Péron). Fig. 7.—Sharp-nosed Mullet, Oxymugil acutuws (Cuv. and Val.). A specimen -from Broome. G. P. Whitley del. Here illustrated from a Broome specimen (W.A. Mus. regd. no. P.2400) which has the following characters in addition to those defined for the genus: D.iv/i, 7 (8); A.ili; 10; P., 13; V.1,.5;-C., 12. .Se¢., 29 to:hypural. Predorsal scales ¢. Ly Tr., 13 on body to 7 on caudal peduncle. . Ten preventral scales. Maxillary hidden when the mouth is closed. No pectoral axillary scale. Body scales extending over fins (except pectorals and parts of ventrals). Colour, in formalin, straw-brownish with about a dozen longitudinal dark streaks along centres of scale-rows. Total length, 8 inches. Family HPINEPHELIDAE. EPINEPHELUS CHLOROSTIGMA (Cuv. and Val., 1828). Serranus chlorostigma Cuv. and Val., Hist. Nat. Poiss., ii, 1828, p. 352. Seychelles. One specimen, 102 inches long, from Port Hedland, was received from the Western Australian Fisheries Dept. in 1913. Austr. Mus. regd. no. 1.12952. New record for Australia. WHITLEY. 273 EPINEPHELUS RANKINI Whitley, 1945. (Plate xxv, fig. 2.) Epinephelus rankini Whitley, Austr. Zool., xi, 1945, p. 24. Onslow. Here figured from the holotype. EPINEPHELUS HOMOSINENSIS Whitley, 1944. (Plate xxv, fig. 3.) Epinephelus homosinensis Whitley, Austr. Zool., x, 1944, p. 267. Geraldton. Here figured from the holotype. EPINEPHELUS TAUVINA (Bonnaterre, 1788). (Plate xxv, fig. 4.) Perca tauvina Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. Meth. Ichth., 1788, p. 131, ex Forskal, 1775, non-binomial. Djedda, Red Sea. The ‘“Slimy Cod’, as this is called in Western Australia, alters considerably in shape and colour as it grows. A specimen 2,000 mm. (6 ft. 8 ins.) long was caught on a shark line at Red Bluff, Western Australia, on September 7, 1945; it had the following characters. eat Pst fo Ait Or, do. 6. Tat. 6.16 to hypural joint: L.tr., about 16/1/50 to 10/1/14 on caudal peduncle. Head (655 mm.) equal to depth and 32 in standard length (1,690). Eye, 46 mm.; interorbital, 182; snout, 150; maxilla, 320; length of pectoral, 342; preorbital, 50; depth of c. ped., 211; length of ventral fin, 256. Head mostly scaly behind level of eyes. Preopercular margin serrate, with large coarse serrae at angle. Upper two opercular spines well advanced from third. Maxillary round, reaching beyond eye, naked, with supplemental bone. Teeth cardiform, in broad bands on jaws, vomer and palate; outer ones not enlarged, no canines. Nostrils large, circular, the anterior ones with raised posterior rim. Gill- rakers, 6/1/16 spiny knobs. Cleithrum scaly. Body covered with large ciliated scales. Back scaly. Base of first dorsal (580 mm.) much longer than that of soft (335); sixth dorsal spine longest (110), shorter than rays. Ventrals not nearly reaching vent, less than half-way. Fin-membranes not pencilled. First dorsal origin behind head. Third anal spine longest. Pectoral and caudal fins broadly rounded, the latter with 15 rays. The stomach contained a goat’s leg. Weight 350 lbs. Pupil dark blue; iris bronze, becoming greenish outside. General colour of head and body dark greenish-grey, little lighter ventrally and browner posteriorly. Soft fins with many dark bluish- grey spots, less than pupil, also a few on lower parts of head and body. No dark moustache-mark. Teeth whitish. Vent brown. Family LUTJANIDAE. CAESIO LUNARIS Cuv. and Val., 1830. Caesio lunaris Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., vi, September, 1830, p. 441, ex Ehrenberg MS. Red Sea and New Ireland. Jd., Fowler, Bull, U.S. Nat... Mus:, 100,,.xi, £931, p. 205. One from the Monte Bello Islands, September 18, 1945. Austr. Mus. regd. no. I1B.1566. New record for Australia as well as Western Australia. J 274 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. LUTJANUS VAIGIENSIS (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824). Diacope vdigiensis Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Uranie Physic., Zool., December, 1824, p. 307. Waigiou. Lutjanus vaigiensis Fowler, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100, xi, 1931, p. 115. A specimen, 93 inches long, was collected amongst the Monte Bello Islands, September 17, 1945. Austr. Mus. regd. no. IB.1558. New record for Western Australia. Family TRICHIURIDAE. TRICHIURUS COxII Ogilby, 1887. Trichiurus coxti Ogilby, Town and Country Journal, Oct. 15, 1887, p. 808, and fig. Id., Ramsay and Ogilby, Proc.. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, (2) ii, 1887, p. 562. Broken Bay, N.S. Wales. TId., Whitley, Austr. Mus. Mag., iv, 1930, p. 97, fig. of head; and of authors. Messrs. A. J. Fraser and L. Glauert (in litt.) have informed me that Mr. Nicholas Soulos obtained a haul of 300 lbs. of Hairtail at Bunbury on December 1, 1947, and details supplied indicate this species. New record for Western Australia. Family POMACENTRIDAE. DISCHISTODUS PERSPICILLATUS (Cuv. and Val., 1830). Pomacentrus perspicillatus Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., v, July, 1830, p. 417. Loc. unknown. I/d., Kner, Reise Novara (Fische), 1865, p. 241. Id., Fowler, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 100, vii, 1928, p. 101 (refs. and synon.). Pomacentrus trimaculatus Cuv. and Val., loc. cit., p. 427. Batavia. Preoce. by P. trimaculatus Ruppell, Atlas Reise (Senckenb. Nat. Ges.), Fische, 1829, p. 39. Dischistodus trimaculatus Bleeker, Nat. Verhand. Holl. Maatsch. Wetensch. (3) ii, 187.7,.Ds.195 Atlas; Ichthyix, 1877, pl. 404, ne 75: Pomacentrus marginatus Bleeker, loc. cit., p. 80, in synonymy. Hx Kuhl and Van Hasselt M.S. Preoce. by P. marginatus Ruppell, loc. cit., 1829, p. 38. Pomacentrus trimaculatus Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vii, 1882, p. 363. Iid., Jordan and ‘Seale, Ball. “US. Kish. Bur: xxv; 1905 (1906), p. 280). vee Montalban, Phil. Bur. Sci. Monogr, xxiv, 1928, p. 64, ple xi 2. 2. Pomacentrus frenatus De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix. 1885, p. 874. Cardwell, Queensland. Pomacentrus dorsomaculatus Kendall and Goldsborough, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxvi, 1911, p. 298. New name for P. trimaculatus Cuv. and Val., preoce. Dischistodus frenatus Whitley, Mem. Qld. Mus., ix, 1929, pp. 222, 228 and 236, Ae. 4 (not-3)'. One specimen, 74 inches overall, collected amongst the Monte Bello Islands on September 18, 1945, constitutes a new record for Western Australia. It is dark chocolate in colour, with a large black spot at vent and black pectoral axil, but the dark blotches along the back are indistinct. P. frenatus De Vis appears to be a new synonym of this species, which was otherwise not listed from Australia. GLYPHISODON PALMERI Cockerell, 1913. Glyphisodon palmeri Cockerell, Mem. Qld. Mus., ii, 19138, p. 57; Ogilby, ibid., p. 87, pl. xxii, fig. 2. Moreton Bay, Queensland. One from the North-West Division, Western Australia. Austr. Mus. regd. no. IB.1574. New record for Western Australia. WHITLEY. 275 POMACENTRUS OBREPTUS, SD. NOV. DxiiF) V7 3 Adi 14)" P.iF, 18. Le Tat.,'20 tubes. Sc.; 25 to: hyp. -Tr., 4/1/11. Head (34 mm.), 3:2, depth (57), 1:9 in standard length (110). Eye (8) less than snout (10) and interorbital (12). Maxillary, 7 mm.; length of ventral fin, 30; second anal spine (16) less than length of pectoral (18 mm.). Head scaly above to before nostrils, only naked on anterior parts of preorbital and chin, where there are pores, and on mouth. Maxillary not quite reaching below eye. Teeth compressed, with truncate tips, uniserial; rami very slightly raised. Suborbital and both preopercular limbs serrate, not notched, other opercles entire. Suborbital and preopercular limbs scaly. Cheek-scales in about five rows. Upper opercular spine flat, not covered by scale. Interorbital broadly convex. Body deep, covered with ctenoid scales with about seven basal radii and opaque field with obscured circuli. Some of the scales of the shoulder region accompanied by a basal auxilary scale; scales extend over most of fins. Base of spinous dorsal fin longer than that of soft. Membrane incised and pencilled. Fins rather pointed, except lobes of anal and caudal, which are rounded. Ventrals reach vent. Colour in alcohol, fairly uniform dark brown to blackish, edges of body scales lighter brown. No striking colour-markings though, from memory, I think the anterior ventral ray was violet in life. No dark blotch at vent. Pectoral axils dark but without definite dark blotch. Described from the holotype, a specimen 110 mm. in standard length or 54 inches overall. Loc.—Monte Bello Islands, Western Australia; September 18, 1945, coll. G. P. Whitley aboard ketch Isobel under C.S.I.R. charter. Holotype: Austr. Mus. regd. no. IB.1571. A smaller specimen (paratype) taken at the same time is no. IB.1572. Superficially similar to Pomacentrus jenkinsi Jordan and Evermann, 1903, from Honolulu, with two Hawaiian specimens of which I have compared my examples. Western Australian fishes are larger, have comparatively smaller eyes end less rounded anterior profiles than the Hawaiian and also differ in having the scales dark brown with lighter edges (instead of the contrary); four rows of scales above 1]. lat. anteriorly, and no dark spot at pectoral origin. From all other species the novelty is distinguished by the combination of characters embodied in the description. Family CoripAk. CorRIS CYANEA Macleay, 1883. Coris cyanea Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vii, 1883, p. 588. New Guinea. Id., Whitley,-Austr. -Zool;, vill, 1937, p. 227, pl. xiii, fig. 3. Abrolhos Islands, August, 1947. New record for Western Australia. iat, 52. 12 to hypural. Tr, 9/1/23. Sent to the Fisheries Dept., Perth, as a “Black Snapper”. Family CALLIONYMIDAE. REPOMUCENUS CALCARATUS (Macleay, 1881). Callionymus calcaratus Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, v, 1881, p. 628. Port Jackson, N.S. Wales. Jd., McCulloch, Rec. Austr. Mus., xiv, 1923, p. 10, pl. iii, fig. 2, and Biol. Res. Endeav., v, 1926, p. 204. Repomucenus sp. Whitley, Austr. Zool., xi, 1945, p. 42. 276 NEW SHARKS AND FISHES FROM WESTERN AUSTRALIA. The Australian Museum has examples of this species from Fremantle, the Houtmans Abrolhos, Shark’s Bay, between Cape Jaubert and Wallal, and even as far as the Northern Territory (Lat. 12° 12’ S. x Long. 130° 36’ E.). I had thought that the Shark’s Bay ones, which I collected in 1939, and the Northern Territory example, from Mr. M. Ward, might represent a new species, having D.iv 8, A. 7; no light ocelli on back, few rugae on occiput, and with slightly different proportions from the Port Jackson type. But Houtmans Abrolhos examples are inseparable from calcaratus; they have 9 dorsal and anal rays and a dusky wash along lower caudal membranes, and smooth occiput. The other specimens have up to 10 dorsal rays, lower caudal membranes spotted, three to four preopercular hooks, and black marks on first dorsal variable. Thus only one species appears to be represented, with perhaps mutants at Shark’s Bay and in the Northern Territory. The species has not hitherto been recorded from the latter State. Family TETRAODONTIDAE. ~OVOIDES IMPLUTUS (Jenyns, 1842). Tetrodon implutus Jenyns, Zool. Voy. Beagle, Fish. 1842, p. 152. Keeling Is. One from the Monte Bello Islands, collected by me, September 18, 1945. Austr. Mus. regd. no. IB.1565. New record for Western Australia. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate xxiv. Heads of Hammerhead Sharks, Sphyrna lewini (Griffith), drawn to seale. Fig. 1.—Female with hammer 1 foot across. from off Bald Head, Western Australia (Specimen no, 2 in text). Fig. 2.—Female, hammer 6:4 ins. across, from Second Beach, Esperance, W.A. Dorsal surface (stippled) on left of diagram (Specimen 5 in text). Fig. 2a.—Ventral surface shown to right of stippled area. Fig. 2b.—Skull of same in situ, from dorsal surface, showing minute rostral foramen. Fig. 3—Female, hammer 5-6 ins. across, from Connor’s Creek, Queensland (Specimen 1 in text). G. P. Whitley del. Plate xxv. Fig. 1.—Freshwater Cobbler, Tandanus bostocki Whitley. Type from Serpentine. Fig. 2.—Rankin’s Rock Cod, Hpinephelus rankini Whitley. Type from Onslow. Fig. 3.—Chinaman Cod, Epinephelus homosinensis Whitley. Type from Geraldton. Fig. 4.—Slimy Cod, Epinephelus tauvina (Bonnaterre). A large example, 6 ft. 8 ins. long, from Red Bluff. G. P. Whitley del. 277 TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN DRYOPOIDEA (COLEOPTERA). By E. H. ZEcK. (Text-figures 1-4.) Since the last paper on ‘“‘Four New ‘Species of Australian Dryopidae”, by Carter and Zeck, which was published in the AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, vol. ix, pt. ii, 1938, various changes have taken place in the classification of this group of beetles.” The family Dryopidae, as then understood, was included in the superfamily DIVERSICORNIA by Imms, and in the superfamily ELATEROIDEA by Tillyard. The Elminae, then a subfamily of the Dryopidae, have now the status of family rank and are included in the superfamily DRYOPOIDEA. The two new species, now described, belong to the family Elmidae. Genus AUSTROLIMNIUS Carter and Zeck, 1929. _ AUSTROLIMNIUS ISDELLENSIS, sp. Nov. (Figs. 1 and 2.) Widely obovate, subnitid above, head and prothorax black, the latter with apex reddish; elytra black with about basal fourth dark ochreous, underside black. Antennae, tibiae and tarsi reddish. 5 Prothorax rounded, and only slightly produced at apex, front angles obtuse, widest behind middle, sides rounded, base wider than apex, lateral carinae slightly bisinuate, converging somewhat towards apex, median impression (sulcus) shallow, widest at base and narrowing at about basal fourth and again at apex; surface minutely and shallowly punctate, covered with scattered, fine, recumbent hairs. Elytra widest behind middle, carinae distinctly raised, inner pairs serrulate, margin strongly serrate. Seriate punctures shallow. Intervals minutely punctate. Surface covered with short recumbent hairs. Prosternal process bisinuate at sides, sub-acute at apex. Dimensions: 0:9 x 0-5 mm. Habitat: North-western Australia; limestone tributary of left bank of the Isdell River (10 miles from mouth of river in Walcott Inlet). September 1, 1943. Dr. Consett Davis. One specimen only on roots of water plant. Seen from above, this species, in outline, comes near to Austrolimnius suffusus C. and Z., and A. victoriensis C. and Z., but its form is much wider and its legs are unusually stout. It is the smallest Australian species of the genus. Holotype in Coll. Zeck. Genus KINGOLUS Carter and Zeck, 1929.“ KINGOLUS DAVISI, Sp. NOV. (Figs. 3 and 4.) Rather elongate, narrowly obovate, subnitid violet-bronze above; antennae and tarsi brownish, femora and tibiae darker. Each elytron bears six dark-ochreous markings, three narrow lateral, one in third interval at about apical third, one apical and a large basal one adjoining suture. Head black, with metallic bronze sheen, finely punctate, with fine white hairs. K 278 TWO NEW SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN DRYOPOIDEA. Prothorax sub-bilobed, anterior part not entirely divided from the posterior by shallow transverse depressions, meeting shallowly at the middle, apex sub- truncate, widest behind middle, sides lightly and evenly rounded, narrower anteriorly than posteriorly, lateral border very narrow, finely granulate with scattered, fine whitish hairs and with small, widely spaced punctures, margins entire. Scutellum sub-triangular, with rounded sides and apex. Elytra wider than prothorax at base, widest at about apical third, striate- punctate, elytral striae shallow and punctures small, fine scattered punctures in intervals, the whole bearing distinct recumbent whitish hairs. AVE ite \ v3 ae O':25mm. O+25mm. ZECK Figs. 1-4.—1. Auwustrolimnius isdellensis Zeck. Type. 2. Austrolimnius isdellensis Zeck. Sternal process. 38. Kingoluws davisi Zeck. Type. 4. Kingolus davisi Zeck. Sternal process. Underside black, minutely punctate, and covered with scattered whitish hairs; prosternal process densely so, prosternum smooth laterally, minutely tomentose. Prosternal process sub-triangular, sinuate at sides, narrowing to a sub-acute apex. Dimensions: 1:4 x 0-6 mm. Habitat: North Queensland, Wild River, Ravenshoe. April, 1943. Consett Davis. Three examples and a fragment are before me. Seen from above, this species, in outline, comes closest to Kingolus metallicus King and K. tyrrhenus C. and Z. This species is named in honour of its discoverer, the late Dr. Consett Davis. It is the smallest species of the genus and is readily distinguished from other members by the six ochraceous markings on each elytron. Holotype in Coll. Zeck. ZECK, 279 References. © HINTON, H. E. (1939).—‘‘An enquiry into the natural classification of the Dryopoidea, based partly on a study of the internal anatomy”, Trans. R. ent. Soc., 89, pp. 33-184. @ CARTER, H. J., and ZeEcK, E. H. (1929).—‘‘A Monograph of the Australian Dryopidae (Order Coleoptera)’’, Aust. Zool., vi, pt. 1, p. 61. @ CARTER, H. J., and ZEcK, E. H.—L.c., p. 53. A NEW AQUARIUM FISH FROM NORTH QUEENSLAND. By (GoeP. WHEPLEYS F-R-Z:S: (Contribution from The Australian Museum, Sydney.) In November, 1947, an attractive aquarium fish was introduced to the notice of Sydney fish-fanciers from the Coen district, North Queensland. The novelty reminded them somewhat of the Cichlids, being prettily patterned and similarly shaped, actively moving all the time and chasing one another as if to make a grab as the Cichlids do. But the Cichlidae are mostly native to South America and Africa and do not occur in Australian rivers, and it was soon evident that ours was a Terapontid fish. ’ Thanks to Mr. W. C. Roberts, of Austral Aquariums, and Mr. J. C. Woore (whose cousin had originally collected the fishes in Queensland), I saw the living fishes and received a specimen for the Australian Museum. On investigation this species proved to be a new one and is named below. Family TERAPONTIDAE. Genus LEIOPOTHERAPON Fowler, 1931. Leiopotherapon suavis, sp. nov. Bro sx, 04> Aging, 1h: P., 16s Vii, 5; C., tb branched rays. L. lat., 538. Sce., G50, otra 10/1/20. Head (22 mm.) 2°8, depth (25) 2:4 in standard length (62). Eye equal to maxillary (7), greater than interorbital which equals snout (5), the latter 2 in postorbital (10). Head rather pointed, profile obliquely sloping, not concave before eyes. Preopercle serrated, other opercles and the preorbital entire. Lower opercular spine barely reaching opercular lobe. Top, bottom and front of head before eyes naked, rest scaly. Cheek-scales in seven rows below eyes. Posterior nostril large and circular, well separated from the inconspicuous anterior nostril. Some ‘pores around preorbital and mucous canals each side of the broadly convex interorbital. Lips normal; jaws subequal. Premaxillary pedicels more than half eye. Gape oblique. Angle of maxillary not covered by lip and not reaching eye. A single row of conic teeth around each jaw with interior bands of villiform ones crossing symphyses. Vomer and palatines toothless.. Gill-openings wide, gill-membranes united across narrow isthmus. Body deep, compressed, covered with sculptured ctenoid scales. Supracleithrum covered by scales, ending with few denticles. Lateral line complete with simple tubes. Dorsal and to a less extent anal with basal scaly sheaths. Dorsal spines heteracanth, last ray divided to base. Sixth to eighth dorsal spines longest but shorter than the rays, penultimate spine longer than last. Soft dorsal and anal convex. Second anal spine longest; last anal ray divided to base. Upper pectoral rays longest. Ventrals pointed, reaching vent. Caudal truncate. 280 A NEW AQUARIUM FISH FROM NORTH QUEENSLAND. Colours of live aquarium specimens: Ground colour of head and body yellowish-cream densely criss-crossed by a pattern of brownish-grey. On the head the dark marks form oblique bars on the cheeks and reticulation elsewhere. On the body there are about five to eight irregular cross-bars and about seven to ten longitudinal bands, but these are broken up in places by splashes. of the lighter ground-colour. Most of the caudal peduncle is dark, with two to four patches of light ground-colour. Top of head plain, pale olivaceous with pinkish tinge. A dark spot between gills and pectoral axil. Pupil of eye dark blue, iris coppery. Fins plain, pale or infuscated but without definite markings. Ventrals dark. Sometimes a pinkish or greenish tinge apparent and the general hues change slightly in the living fish. (The pectorals, caudal, soft dorsal and anal are mainly used in swimming. Sometimes they shelter under water weed leaves.) Colour in aleohol: Ground-colour creamy, densely overlaid by irregular subhorizontal and subvertical dark grey bars and bands giving roughly a draughtsboard-like pattern. The cream ground is most evident on lower flanks and just before root of tail. Top of head olivaceous. Breast very light grey, unmarked. First dorsal olivaceous to greyish with no large dark blotch; other fins grey to yellowish, plain. Cheeks and opercles crossed by bars of dark grey or brown and creamy. Most fin-membranes dark. Described from the holotype, a specimen 62 mm. in standard length or 3 inches overall. Austr. Mus. regd. no. IB.1982. Loc.—Coen district, North Queensland. This new species is quite distinct from its congeners, ale distinguished by the form and formulae of the fins, the coloration and other characters as described above. Probably nearest Terapon habbemai Weber, 1910, from southern rivers of Dutch New Guinea, but with lower first and higher second dorsal fins, cross-bars well marked, more rays, larger eye, etc. TJ. adamsoni Trewavas, 1940, from Lake Kutubu, New Guinea, is plain-coloured. “NATURE SPEAKS” OVER 2GB. A new kind of “Brains Trust’ session, of interest to nature-lovers and zoologists alike, has been inaugurated by the Macquarie Broadcasting Network under the sponsorship of Mr. EK. J. L. Hallstrom, F.R.Z.S. Station 2GB, Sydney, now broadcasts “Nature Speaks” on Saturday evenings at 7.45 o’clock, E.S. time. A panel of experts, all of whom are members of the Royal Zoological Society, answers (and welcomes) listeners’ questions about any form of animal life, in fact, “anything that walks, burrows, crawls, flies or swims’. The idea of the new Nature Quiz is not to “stump” the experts so much as to elicit accurate and attractively presented information on all faunal and zoological matters, particularly with regard to the protection of our native animals, whose conservation will be at all times favoured. Under the genial direction of Mr. John Dease, ‘‘Nature Speaks” assures listeners of an entertaining and instructive half-hour. Members of the panel are Messrs. H. Brown, J. R. Kinghorn, R. Patten, E: a aoe and G. P. Whitley. THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, VOL. XI. PLATE XIV. im ae Me oe An Australian Mantispid. Photos.—Crosbie Morrison and V. Hans Mincham. THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, VOL. xt. PLATE xv. ~~ ag? nity : . : ee ° = 3 ae Brrgerie Ce phane ie » hee ee ae p beg i Ae eo pans ak, Mae ee ell prety Cotte BIG EES bad Tae deer ym it bh ; eye ‘ ‘ tome idee 9 + rere a: ee tow ey he TSip~ oe ee eet ‘i me eh ee ss An Australian Mantispid. Photos.—Crosbie Morrison, = THE AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST, VOL. XI. PLATE XVI. William Bullock. After Rowley. 4 ‘ ity, Sots oop Weta wy Ri tel ee ie) 4 he ° , 7 4 : ay wtf ar Se / x ‘ \ ' / = k ’ c 1 F i ; x \ ne \ \ os a ' ” iy" UES Ww ' , j Re ea ae rg os at Notes on Butterflies of Western Queensland, by E. O. Edwards: Ape Be ne ee Bullock’s Museum, by T. Iredale Se Lee ai Cael Ee eae ue aah: + een n | Notes on Remarkable Wasps and Bees, by. Wy “Rayment _ hae i ras pe Mest a Observations on Thrips, by T. Rayment eis o Sh Ae oe gun " Two New Species of Australian Dryopoidea (Coleoptera), by E. BH Zeck Reviews?) 0. Gas Cee he oa a a es cc “Nature Speaks” written. Authors “ngaid state whether ae ‘and. Secale are eas submitting MS. Fifty reprints of any article appearing under a separa will be supplied gratis. If more are ees terms ple be ascerta n Wholly set ae and printed in Australia by ictendaeten Medical | i and a oe eer, oie. New Sout THE a Issued by the i ROYAL ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Edited by GILBERT WHITLEY, F.R.Z.S. \ Vol. 11 — Part 4 Sydney, July 31, 1951 (Price, 15/-) All communications to be addressed to the Hon. Secretary, Royal Zoological “Society of New South Wales, 28 Martin Place, Sydney. SYDNEY: Excelsis Press, 545 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical. Established 1879 REGISTERED UNDER THE COMPANIES ACT 1899 (1917) ~ Patrons: Sir Philip Woolcott Game, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., G.B.E., D.S.O. The Right Honourable Sir John Greig Latham, G.C.M.G. COUNCIL, 1950-51 President : James Roy Kinghorn, F.R.Z.S., C.M.Z.S. Vice-Presidents : Edward John Lees Hallstrom, F.R.Z.S. Garnet Halloran, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.S. CEdin.), F.R.A.C.S. - Frank Marshall, C.M.G., D.D.S. Emil Herman Zeck, F.R.Z.S. Members : . Henry Burgh | Keith Collingwood McKeown, F.R.Z.S. Norman Chaffer Anthony Irwin Ormsby, LL.B. Aubrey Halloran, B.A., LL.B. ee enon Roughley, B.Sc., Percy Fincham Harvey Charles Francis Laseron, F.R.Z.S. Ellis Le Geyt Troughton, F.R.Z.S., c 7 C.M.Z.S. . Officers : Honorary Secretary: Mrs. L. Harford. Honorary Treasurer: W. R. Moore, B.Ec. Honorary Editor: Gilbert Percy Whitley, F.R.Z.S. Honorary Librarian: Mrs. M. D. Scott-Sim Assistant Honorary Secretary : Mrs. F. E. Lane Assistant Honorary Treasurer: J. Waterhouse OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1950-51 Avicultural Section: Marine Zoological Section : Chairman: A. H. Brain ’ Chairman: E. F. Holland Hon. Secretary: R. W. Stewart Hon. Secretary: Mrs. L. Harford Budgerigar Section: Ornithological Section : Chairman: H. Yardley Chairman: J. D. Waterhouse Hon. Secretary; J. L. Bright Hon. Secretary: A. BR. McGill |. General Section: . Chairman: J. R. Kinghorn. Hon. Secretary: A. I. Ormsby. Mak AUSTRALIAN ZOOLOGIST Vol. XI. Part 4. DEEP-SEA SHELLS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. By Atztan R. Maysiom. (Plate xxvi.) During recent years I have done considerable collecting from the trawlers operating on the Continental Shelf on the New South Wales coast, with the result that many puzzling variations have been seen in some species obtained. In many cases this seems due to varying depth from which specimens are obtained. However, up to date it has been almost impossible to ascertain with any certainty the exact depth from which any individual specimen may come. This is due to the fact that the usual practice in trawling is to lower the net in, say, 70-80 fathoms, and to bring it up in 50-60 fathoms. The results of this are that all the shells living between these depths are brought in together with no possible check on the exact depth from which any one shell may have come. The majority of shells come from between these depths. However, sometimes the trawl is lowered to 110 fathoms and at times it only reaches 40 fathoms. It is during these latter trawls that the material obtained may help to give us an overall picture of the causes of changes in the shape, size and colour of many species. It seems certain that scientific trawling in exact depths with the aid of specially constructed dredges is the only satisfactory way in which to classify shells according to their variation. Illustrated here are three possible examples of these changes. ‘The first is in regard to the change in colour which is evident in the well-known Livonia mamilla Sowerby, 1844. ‘This shell ranges in depth from 50-80 fathoms and deeper. However, from 70 fathoms they tend towards paleness in the aperture coloration. Then around 70-80 fathoms the occasional shell characterised by the pure porcelain white aperture is obtained. ‘The latter is so well defined that I have given it the name of leucostoma. However, I am still rather doubtful as to whether this change is caused by depth, as the leucostoma does live together with the ordinary mamilla and also the change in colour is not gradual, but there is a sharp contrast between the two. On the other hand, the rarer Cymbiolena magnifica Shaw and Nodder, 1808 (plate xxvi., fig. 2), occurs in comparatively shallow water, around 20 fathoms. Here the shell is quite ovate, broad, and the spire very short. However, an occa- sional shell is found in anything down to 60 fathoms, where it is larger, narrower and with a much longer spire. To this latter form I have given the subspecific name of altispira. The now common, once rare, Umbilia hesitata Iredale, 1916, formerly umbilicata, was first found washed up on beaches in Bass Straits (coming from shallowish water). These shells were rather small, slid and well coloured. Years later it was found to be commonly occurring in intermediate depths, where it was larger, and on the whole, paler and thinner, while its form was very similar to the smaller shallow water tye. As the depth increases, the shells still tend to become larger and paler until around 80-100 fathoms the pure white howelli Iredale, 1931, is sometimes found. Another shell which appears to be greatly affected by depth is the common Xenogalea stadialis Hedley, 1914, which is found on_ the continental shelf of S.E. Australia in 40-100 fathoms. In shallow water the shell is small, usually averaging 65mm. However, the size increases revidly with depth unti! in 80 fathoms shells up to 95mm. are commonly trawleca. With Xenogalea thomsoni Brazier, 1875, similariy sized specimens are also found. However, in this case the change is more markec w2couse the smaller shells are more solid, the shouldering heavier and ino~> pr :ounced, while the —— 282 DEEP-SEA SHELLS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. nodules are very much in evidence. The larger shells are thinner, while at times the nodules are almost lost, especially on the lower whorl. Berylsma waitei Hedley, 1903, is perhaps the best example of the change which takes place as the depth increases. Berylsma waitei is found in 60-80 fathoms, and it is charactertised by a long spire and a very long canal, which give it a slender appearance. In about 25 fathoms the rare shorter spired relation of waitei is found. Here it is known as Berylsma levifida Iredale, 1924, while just below low water mark Berylsma grandis Gray, 1839, is found, having the general appearance of waitei, except the spire is shorter, shell fairly broad and the canal very short. Thus these three forms represent the change taking place in a shell in different depths. Propefusus compositis is related to the shallow water form of pyrulatus Reeve, 1847. It is only very rarely found, due to its rather small size and probable rocky environment. Following on the lines of Berylsma waitei, it is thin and elongate and the very long and thin canal is quite characteristic. A form of the well-known South Australian shell Ericusa papillosa Swainson, 1822, is found in southern New South Wales and Victorian waters, where it is known as kenyoniana Brazier, 1898. ‘The latter form is quite variable in size, is more elongate than ypapillosa, and the exterior of the shell is marked with longitudinal ribs, which are especially prominent on smaller shells. While at first kenyoniana and papillosa were thought to be distinct, I have received from the trawlers many smooth specimens, some of which are not separate from the typical South Australian payillosa type. This suggests that kenyoniana is merely the deeper water form of ypapillosa, and this agrees with Verco’s experience in the deep water of the Great Australian Bight. There he secured a small ribbed shell very like kenyoniana. A small narrow, smooth form of ypapillosa has been secured in the northern sea of New South Wales, and has been named Ericusa sericata Thornley, 1951. One of the most interesting finds is quite a new record for Australia. Some time ago a shell looking like half Tonna and half Cassis was brought in. It was something quite new, and while it was being considered and checked, I received a Japanese shell from America which was inseparable from the shell obtained here. The name of the shell received was Eudolium pyriforme Sowerby. Since then I have received a number from the trawlers, and the only possible difference between them and the Japanese type is the size, our shells apparently growing much bigger. This shell affords an excellent illustration as to the similarity between some of our shells and those found in Japanese and Chinese waters. ‘This is a remarkable fact, because in tropical waters separating these two geographical areas there occurs a completely different form of shell life, for the most part quite unlike anything found here or in Japan. Another classic example is the well-known Tolema sertata Hedley, 1903, which was at first recorded as lischkeana Dunker, 1852. Family VoLuTipae. Cymbiolena magnifica altispira, subsp. nov. (Plate xxvi., fig. 1) Shell large ovate and rather opaque; spire one-fourth overall length of shell and consisting of three whorls; apex comparatively small and rounded; nucleus containing three regularly round whorls; aperture large, narrowly ovate; columella marked with four large distinct orange coloured pleats. The external colour is a brownish interlaced with white background overlaid with three bands of irregular chestnut and black markings. The aperture is a pale peach colour, and in live shells there is brownish band round the inner edge of the outer lip. MAYBLOM. 283 This shell differs only in shape, the outstanding point being the height of the spire, which is often twice as long in a specimen of altispira as in a similar sized specimen of the species. The shell is narrower, with the spire more conical and the aperture quite slender in comparison. A true magnifica is similar in appearance to a Melo, the aperture being extremely large and outer lip rounded, while the spire is short and very ventricose. In the case of V. magnifica the posterior canal ends quite close to the suture, while in altispira the canal ends two or three times further away from the suture. Hab.: Usually occurs in deep water. “They have been trapped alive as deep as 60 fathoms, and as a general rule the deeper they are the longer and more slender the shell. Loc.: Port Stephens to Botany Bay. ComMPARISON OF MEASUREMENTS. . altispira magnifica Tol lent, 9 0." ot, ees 93” Oo” eneth of aperture’ 0 74” 73” encth of spixe (i) ) ake, 21” 14” Width ot aperture: "2.077 7 * 34/’ 33” Width of shell _..... ‘ap! (annie 51” 54/7 Width or shoulder. 22. | c. 43" 43/7 Livonia mamilla leucostoma, subsp. nov. (Plate xxvi., fig. 3) Length: 200 — 250 mm. Breadth: 130 mm. Shell ovate, spire one-fifth of length, nucleus consists of one large mamilliform whorl with the apex very eccentric and lower down on one side; surface is wrinkled and of white to dirty white in colour. There are two and one-half post nuclear whorls; suture distinct and irregularly undulated. Lip thin and strongly recurved, extended slightly outwards and advancing upwards three-quarters of the height of the penultimate whorl. Anterior canal short, broad and open. Columella shallow, showing three distinct plaits, the upper one less pronounced. Colour, tan, with a darker brown band below the suture; to a dirty white in some shells. Shell longitudinally irregularly marked with a broken design of brownish triangular streaks. Aperture is of a pure white porcelain colour. Base of last whorl is darker, showing distinctly a sinuation. In shape and structure this shell agrees with the species, the colour of the aperture, which is brown in the species, and nucleus being the only distinction. It is believed that this shell does not grow quite as large as the species and is generally thinner, the largest shell known to the author being 114 inches against 13 inches in the species. Distribution: Generally below 80 fathoms around Gabo Is. in southern New South Wales seas. Specimens have been reported as being very thin and almost pure white and coming from greater depths, but none have yet been brought to land. Family Fusrnipaz. Propefusus compositis, sp. nov. (Plate xxvi., fig. 4) Length: 70 — 100 mm. Shell fusiform; spire long, pointed, almost half length of shell, rounded with rather a deep suture and consisting of seven whorls; nucleus white and containing 284 DEEP-SEA SHELLS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. two whorls which end in a sharp point; aperture ovate; canal long, narrow slightly curved and open. The penultimate whorl has six prominent encircling ridges with a smaller one suturally and an evanesent one anteriorly; the interstices rather wide and longitudinally ridged with about 15 elevated ribs which may become less marked and up to twenty on the last whorl. In some the longitudinal ridges are even more prominent and fewer in number. Inside the aperture the encircling ridges leave corresponding hollows through the rather thin outer wall, giving it a corrugated appearance. The shell is coloured dirty white and covered with a tough thin brown epidermis. ‘The longitudinal ridges are marked with a rusty line which shows clearly through the epidermis and giving it a brindled appearance. Hab.: These shells would be more inclined to live in a rocky rather than a sandy environment, as they are only very occasionally caught. They are believed to live in 50-80 fathoms. Loc.: Gabo Is. of southern New South Wales and extending into Victorian waters. EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxvi. Fig. 1: Cymbiolena magnifica altispira Mayblom. Fig. 2: Cymbiolena magnifica magnifica Shaw & Nodder. Fig. 3. Livonia mamilla leucostoma Mayblom. Fig. 4: Propefusus compositis Mayblom. 2 ac 7 - Photo.—G. McGrath. 285 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. Wirn Descriptions or THree New Species AND Two ALLOTYPES OF EXxoNEURA. By Tartton Rayment, F.R.Z.S. (Plate xxvii.-xxxii., text-figures 1-2) INTRODUCTION. The author is now able to draw a detailed picture of the biology of these remarkable bees, but this would not have been possible without the co-operation of several enthusiastic collectors in the field, each of whom has contributed hundreds of specimens and many “nests”, together with a number of helpful observations. The author desires to place on record his appreciation of their conscientious endeavours. The late J. E. Dixon, an old and respected fellow-member of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, was the first to bring a twig of dry Melaleuca ericifolia from Frankston, Victoria. He said it had contained a nest of Exoneura, but did not know which species had bored the stem; only the empty gallery remained; circa 1930. In 1935, John Hardcastle, Junior, White Swamp, on the border of New South Wales and Queensland, forwarded a nest of E. perpensa Ckll., but only adults were present in the twig, which had been cut from “brush box”, Tristania conferta. In the same year, R. Willey, Woy Woy, New South Wales, collected a plant-stem occupied by imagines of E. hamulata Ckll. No larvae were present in either of these “nests”. Alex. Holmes, editor of the magazine “Bird World”, Woollahra, New South Wales, sent a twig of Banksia containing eggs, larvae, and imagines of the species that bears his name. That was in 1940; the first record of the larvae. In 1944, Norman Rodd, Lane Cove, Sydney, New South Wales, went into the field and was very successful in collecting twigs containing galleries, eggs, larvae and adults of several species of Exoneura, especially E. roddiana Raym. In the same year, Owen Dawson, on service with a radar unit, R.A.A.F., began to search for reeds and sticks drilled by these bees, and he, too, found the “nests” of several species, each of which contained eggs, larvae and adults. Newton Lawson, Canberra, Federal Territory, also sent a “nest” about that date. The author himself had collected the nesting galleries of several species during his excursions into the other States of the Commonwealth, and Rica Erickson, Bolgart, Western Australia, also found many twigs about 90 miles north of Perth. In October, 1948, C. E. Chadwick, entomologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney, New South Wales, discovered a series of “nests” in galls, all of which were taken at Bradfield Park, near Sydney, and these proved to be occupied by E. concinnula Ckll. It will be seen, therefore, that the research has extended over many years and it is now known that the Exoneurae are very remarkable bees, not only because of the unique appendages—like “arms” and “hands’—of the larvae, but also for the communal cell, which also is unique, and the progressive feeding of the larvae with a glandular secretion by the adults over a long period. The sharing of the work among several sisters undoubtedly elevates the genus to a social status, although the members of the family are few in number. Exoneura, 286 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. then, occupies a position between the populous social bees Melipona and the solitary wild bee Lestis, which remain at the original nest until the progeny emerge. The former bee builds wax cells, the latter nests in plant-stems. Kerr (1946) demonstrated that in Melipona, an American genus of comb- building social bees closely allied to the Australian Trigona, the castes are due to genetic factors, and not to differences in food. There are no specialised cells, not even for the queen. In Exoneura there are no castes and no cells, only the two sexes. The author’s researches in the Hymenoptera are assisted by a Grant from the Trustees of the Commonwealth Science and Industry Endowment Fund. SysTEMATIC PosiTION. Order HyMENOPTERA. Suborder HETEROPHAGA. Division XYLOCOPIFORMES. Superfamily ApPomwEa. Family CERATINIDAE. Genus Exoneura Smith. Exoneura Smith, Cat. Hym. B.M. ii., p. 232, 1854. Genotype, E. bicolor. Id. Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xvi. p. 465, 1905; Aust. Zool. vol. vi., pt. ii., pp. 148 and 153, 1930; Id. Rayment, A Cluster of Bees, p. 476, 1935. MorpHo.Loecy. Small, soft-bodied bees, with a smooth shining integument; a long slender glossa; often with ivory-coloured marks on the clypeus; anterior wings with only one recurrent nervure. The majority of the species have a black head and thorax and a red abdomen, but there is a group entirely black. ‘The bees have little pubescence, but the males are, anomalously, often more hairy than the females. Cockerell (1930) regarded Exoneura as an Australian derivative from the African Allodape. “It is an example of an Australian genus which is less primitive than its relatives in the other parts of the world.” ‘The present research demon- strates that the larval appendages have a parallel in the African genus; there is a epg onan progressive feeding of the larvae, and the bees are truly social in habit. The smallest of the described species is E. parvula Raym., which is only 3.5 mm. in length, with a black head and thorax and a red abdomen. It was described from Marysville, Victoria (CF. E. Wilson), but it has since been taken near Sydney, New South Wales (Alex. Holmes). Another small bee, E. yvloratula Ckll., is 4.5 mm. in length, and _ entirely black, having no pale markings on the “face”. W. W. Froggatt, the well-known entomologist, Sydney, collected it on flowers of Angophora. E. botanica Ckll. is another small, all black species, only 4.5 mm. in length. E. gracilis Ckll. described from Queensland (CH. Hacker) is very small. The largest Exoneura described is E. grandis Raym., and this belongs to the group with a black head and thorax and a clear ferruginous-red abdomen. It measures 10 mm. in length, a fine robust species without any pale markings on the “face”. The type was collected by the author on flowers of the bramble, at Caulfield, Victoria. Clarence Borch and Erasmus E. Wilson, both of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, obtained several “new” males by sweeping with a net over bracken ferns in the Grampians Range, Victoria, and EE. xanthoclypeata Raym. and E. bicincta Raym. were also obtained in this way. Although the genotype, E. bicolor Smith, was described from Perth, the author has few Exoneurae from Western Australian, only four species, whereas the RAYMENT. 287 related genus, Allodapula Ckll. is much better represented in the areas of low rainfall. Neoceratina Perk. is comparatively rare, and so far has been taken only in New South Wales. SpeciFic DeEscrRIPTION. Exoneura angulata, sp. nov. Type: Female. Length: 7 mm. approx. Black, with red abdomen. Head black, with the parts angulated from eyes down to antennae; from antennae up to carina of frons; clypeus lying as a low plane, so that the whole face is excavated, but on different planes, and is very distinctive; clypeus suffused with reddish, some minute punctures; supraclypeal area forming the base of the excavation; vertex with large angulated areas above the compound eyes which converge slightly below; node-like swellings surround the ocelli; a few smoky hairs; genae with a microscopic lineation; even the genae are angulated apically; labrum suffused with red; mandibulae reddish, darker apically and basally; antennae black, obscurely brown beneath on apical half. Prothorax with a few white hairs; tubercles black, with an ochreous fringe; mesothorax black, polished, with an excessively delicate tessellation, a few large punctures, and very scattered smoky hairs; scutellum similar; postscutellum rougher; metathorax black, with a comparatively coarse scale-like sculpture; the pleura have the most hair, which is ochreous on the polished plates; abdominal dorsal segments clear chestnut-red without any black markings, apical hair black and bristly; ventral segments red. Legs black, femora apically, tibiae and tarsi all of a darker red, with much black hair on the hind tibia, otherwise the hair is golden, especially the tufts on anterior Coxae; tarsi red, with golden hair; claws red; hind calcar red, much curved; tegulae reddish, with blackish suffusion; wings slightly yellowish, long, very iride- scent; nervures sepia; second cubital cell greatly contracted at apex; pterostigma dark-brown; hamuli five, weak, unevenly spaced. Locality: Dandenong, Victoria, 2nd November, 1948. Owen Dawson. Type in the collection of the author. Allies: E. excavata Ckll., which is larger and darker red; E. subexcavata, sp. nov., which has a bright yellow T on the clypeus. By the structure of the larvae the new species is close to E. richardsoni, sp. nov., which was nesting in close proximity in the garden of W. R. Richardson, Esq., at Essex Park. The larva of albolineata Ckll. has two large “arms’’ laterally, each with two “fingers”, E. angulata has only one “arm’’ laterally. Exoneura subexcavaia, sp. nov. Female: Length, 7 mm. approx. Black, with red abdomen. Head transverse, polished black; face-marks creamy-yellow; frons deeply ex- cavated around antennae; clypeus with a yellow, thick “I”’, on some specimens the stem is as wide as the bar; supraclypeal area rising to a fine carina that reaches the median ocellus; vertex with a few griseous hairs; compound eyes converge slightly below; genae similar to mesothorax; labrum reddish; mandibulae reddish; antennae black, obscurely lighter beneath. Prothorax not visible from above, black; tubercles yellow, with fringe of white hair; mesothorax shining, black, a delicate sculpture, scattered punctures, sparse hair; scutellum and postscutellum similar; metathorax black, sculpture more defined; abdominal dorsal segments red, dusky at apex, with a few dark hairs; ventral segments somewhat darker. Legs red, coxae, trochanters and extreme base of femora black, hair yellowish, except exterior of tibiae, where it is blackish; tarsi with golden hair; claws reddish; 288 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. hind calcar amber; tegulae amber; wings yellowish; nervures sepia; cells normal for genus; pterostigma amber; hamuli five, very weak. Locality: Emerald, Dandenong Ranges, Victoria (8th December, 1934, Owen Dawson and Rayment). Type in the collection of the author. Allies: E. abstrusa Ckll., the contour of the face of which is different, since it lacks such large excavations. E. excavata Ckll., which has no yellow face-marks, but closest to E. [a] simillima Raym. 1. On flowers of Leptospermum species. Exoneura albolineata Cockerell. (Records of the Australian Museum, vol. xvii., No. 5, Sept., p. 241, 1929.) A long series of “nests” built in dry stems of garden Dahlia and Hydrangea, Bramble and Rose, at Dandenong, contained many nursing females, and it was observed that the pale markings of the face varied in the females of the same nest. The lateral marks may be broad and long, narrow and short, and on some specimens reduced to mere dots, while the “TI” of the clypeus may be bright yellow and clear, but in some the mark is subobsolete, and one bee had an entirely black face. Determination is complicated by the fact that two species will occasionally shelter amicably in one twig during inclement weather, and there is some evidence that they work together in the rearing of the brood. ‘The type female has black legs, and these southern females have red legs, and they lack the black basal patch and bands on the abdomen, although the male has the basal black mark. The Victorian bees may be known as E. richardsoni, sp. nov. Exoneura richardsoni, sp. nov. Type, Male: Length, 5 mm. approx. Black, with red abdomen. Head polished, transverse; lateral face-marks large, ivory-coloured, shaped like a eucalypt leaf, filling the space between the clypeus and the orbital margin; frons excavated about the scapes, but rising to a median ridge, with its base on the black supraclypeal area, the ridge becomes bifurcate at the median ocellus; vertex with a few smoky hairs; ocelli large; compound eyes bulging, converging below; genae large for the genus, microscopically lineate; labrum ivory, a few white hairs; mandibulae ivory; antennae black, scapes ivory in front. Prothorax black, prominent, with numerous white hairs; tubercles black, with a fringe of dense white hair; mesothorax smooth, shining, with an excessively delicate tessellation; scutellum and postscutellum similar; mesothorax with a coarser tessellation, and considerable white hair laterally; pleura shining, with much long loose plumose hair; abdominal dorsal segments clear ferruginous red, a black patch on the basal one, a few dark bristles apically where the red is somewhat darker; ventral segments similar. Legs of the same clear bright red, with black coxae, and trochanters partly black, hind tibiae and basitarsi excessively stout, with black bristles on the outer surface, the femora with much long white hair; tarsi red, with some pale hair; claws red; hind calcar, tegulae and axillae amber; wings yellowish, iridescent; nervures dilute sepia, the first recurrent received by the second cubital cell at its anterior fifth; second cubital cell contracted above to half the width of the base; pterostigma large, dark-brown; hamuli five, weakly developed. Localities: Narre Warren, Victoria, September, 1950, Owen Dawson. Dan- denong, Victoria, 5th November, 1948, Owen Dawson and Rayment. 1. The initial ‘“‘A’’ was omitted from the specific name in the original description. See “Victorian Naturalist’, Vol. 65, pp. 208-212, Jan., 1949. RAYMENT. 289 Type and allotype in the collection of the author. Allies: This male is easily separated by its remarkably stout hind legs, especi- ally the broad basitarsi which, strangely enough, have an oval suturiform mark apically, and similar to that of the anterior leg of the primitive wasps Guiglia queenslandensis (Turner) in the Family Oryssidae. The sexes were not taken in cop., but the male was sheltering with a number of females, and it agrees structurally with them. Like certain other species of Exoneura the male has more hair than the female. The type of E. albolineata Ckll. was described from Dorrigo, New South Wales, but that has long lateral marks on the face. Larva: There are eleven appendages along each side of the larva, and there is a second row of very minute nodes on the ventral surface, so that each segment bears four nodes; the first is the smallest node; the second is the largest “arm” with three “fingers” and a stout “thumb”; third with two small “fingers”; fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth have small nodes, but the ninth, tenth and eleventh have long slender ‘fingers’. The larva of E. albolineata Ckll. has only three “fingers” on the largest appendage, and the second lacks the basal “finger” of the new species; the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth have long “fingers”, not small nodes. ‘These differences warrant full specific rank. Description of Male, E. rufitarsis Raym. (Aust. Zool., ‘vol. 21 parti 3p. 253, 1948.) Allotype, Male: Length, 5 mm. approx. Black. - Head almost circular from the front; shining bright; face-marks deep ivory- yellow; frons with a fine high carina that reaches the basin surrounding the median ocellus; clypeus ivory-yellow, the apex widely truncated, but laterally the yellow is indented at the tentorial pits, but expanded basally; a few white hairs; supraclypeal area black; vertex with a few long pale hairs; compound eyes bulging, converging below; genae finely lineolate, a few pale hairs; labrum yellow, with scattered black dots; mandibulae black, simple, an obscure median amber patch (the female has three small teeth); antennae black, scapes obscurely yellow on a front line, a few long white hairs. Prothorax with a few pale hairs; tubercles ivory-yellow, with a dense fringe of white hair; mesothorax shining bright, finely lineolate, a few short white hairs about the margin; scutellum similar; postscutellum rougher; metathoracic area large, coarsely tessellate, a few white hairs laterally; abdominal dorsal segments transversely finely lineate, a few coarse pale bristles; ventral segments similar. Legs black, anterior and median tibiae largely red; the hind tibiae blackish; tarsi all red, the hind ones darkest, a few pale hairs; basitarsi with fine black dots; claws reddish-amber, a large empodium; hind calcar amber; tegulae shining black; wings hyaline, rather broader than usual, iridescent; nervures blackish- brown, strong, first recurrent entering the second cubital at its basal sixth; cells: second cubital contracted apically to half its width; pterostigma large, blackish- brown; hamuli four, very weakly developed. Localities: Clyde, Gippsland, Victoria, 13th July, 1948, Owen Dawson; Dan- denong, Victoria, 3rd November, Owen Dawson and Rayment. Allies: Dissection of two males shows that it is very close to E. roddiana Raym., which is smaller; the female having red scapes, and the male black, the reverse of what persists in E. rufitarsis. The clypeal stripe is conspicuous on the female of E. roddiana, but practically obsolete in the new species. The larvae of both have only one “finger” on the “arm”. .E. roddiana was described from Lane Cove, New South Wales. (See plate xxx., figs. 5 and 25.) 290 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. Metsuops anp MATERIALS. The author used the following methods quite successfully. A dry twiggy branch of tea-tree, seven feet tall, was set up in a sheltered, warm, unfrequented part of the garden, and firmly secured to a couple of stout stakes. Dry stems of rose, hydrangea and bamboo were cut into lengths of about 25 centimetres. These had a diameter of 8 millimetres, and were tied vertically on the branch. Larger stems were utilised, and a coarse knitting-needle thrust down into the pith, and into these cavities the original tubes containing the Exoneura “nests” were gently inserted without disturbing either the bees or the larvae. The original tubes should first be split carefully, and the two pieces put neatly together again before placing in the protective stem. LLAN of BEES FUICHT when OBENTATING Ihe NET TARLTON RAYMENT Fig. 1: Plan of the orientating flight of Exoneura rufitarsis Raym. ‘The projecting dry twigs of the shrub preclude a circular course. It is advisable to wind a few strands of wool, soaked in carbolic acid and oil, round the base of the branch to repel ants, for these pests will sometimes raid the nests of the Exoneurae, and carry off eggs and larvae should the nest be temporarily unguarded. For continuous observation under a lens, thin tubes of plastic, blackened longitudinally, were used as “sleeves”, which could be rotated to expose a slit in the nesting twig, or reversed again to exclude light. The end was closed with a plug of porous pith, through which a fine needle hole provided a trifle of ventilation; very little air is needed. Using these simple arrangements, the author kept families under continuous observation for severat weeks without detriment to either the adults or the larvae. Of course, a pollen-pudding must be provided for the adults, and the amount of honey used must not reduce it to a sticky mass, for then the females walk over it RAYMENT. 291 and become incapacitated when the spiracles are clogged with the honey. The author experimented with his synthetic pollen and achieved some success, and he also supplied fresh pollen from the combs of the honeybee, and the larvae ate both kinds. A piece of pollen as large as a pea will be ample provision for a fortnight for a small family. LOCALITIES The “nests” of E. rufitarsis Raym. were obtained from Clyde, Gippsland and Dandenong, Victoria. The former district is thirty or so miles south-east of Melbourne, and six miles north of Tooradin, at the head of Western Port Bay. Geologically, the district is just within the old Red Sands of Sandringham, and which run on a finger-like extension through Cranbourne, 24 miles west of Clyde. The extensive swamp-lands at Koo-Wee-Rup are only a few miles to the east, the contours, then, are flattened out. The two or three hills of golden-yellow sand are probably old dunes, and there is a quarry which had been worked for the dark-red marl. Strangely enough, this material is known locally as “gravel”, and its colour is, of course, due to the presence of iron. “The red marl was used in many districts in the Red Sands area to dress roads and pathways. A very numerous colony of Nomia australica was studied in the marl, and its biology is awaiting publication. The actual site of the colonies of Exoneura rufitarsis is on the margin of a swampy flat carrying a dense growth of low “manuka” tea-tree, Leptospermum scoparium and woolly tea-tree, L. lanigerum, say, four or five feet tall. On the higher levels is a number of needle-bushes of several species, such as Hakea ulicina, H. nodosa and H. sericea; the prevailing eucalypt is E. viminalis. Seven “nesting” sticks were cut from a strong plant of golden spray, Viminaria denudata, which has a broom-like appearance, having more sticks than leaves, and, in summer, bearing masses of golden-yellow pea-shaped blooms; it is, of course, in the Family Leguminosae. ‘Iwenty-eight “nests” were taken at Dande- nong during 1948. Green twigs have no attraction for any bees, for the moisture in the sap favours the growth of moulds; consequently, only dry stems are utilised for “nest- ing’. The sticks were about the base of the plant, at a height of from one to about three feet from the ground. The 13th of July, 1948, was very cold, and the collector could not discover any flowers within a radius of half a mile of the “nests”, but beyond that distance he found a wattle, Acacia armata, and a hedge of tree-lucerne, Cytissus proliferus- albus, in bloom. However, the Exoneurae must have done better than the col- lector, for the triangular pollen-grains of some myrtaceous plant; thorny spherical ones from a composite, and plain spheres from some unknown source, were present in the ventriculus of the larvae, and they are quite different from the grains of the other two plants. How far the bees had to fly to reach their harvest could not be ascertained. Frowers Usep spy ExoNEURAE. The bees have been taken in the field on many botanical species, and, like the hive-bee, thrive on a diet of mixed pollens. Whether or not they are constant to one plant on each harvesting journey has not been determined, but microscopical examination of the scopae on homing bees seldom reveals an admixture of pollen- grains. What little contamination is present may be accidental. The females have a scanty pubescence; the most conspicuous are the branched hairs forming the scopae of the posterior legs; there is most hair on the femora and tarsi, and a few hairs on the gaster, but the bulk of the pollen is enmeshed in the scopae. However, there are never at any time any large loads visible on the legs. 292 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. In all the many “nests” investigated by the author, he has never found any store of either honey or pollen, other than small individual puddings. ‘The author has recorded that whereas the Anthophorae frequent a large number of botanical species introduced from overseas, the Exoneurae definitely prefer the native plants, and this would seem to indicate the arrival of Anthophora in Australia at a comparatively recent date. The following list of plants was compiled by the author and his collectors, and it has been checked by Messrs. P. F. Morris and J. M. Willis, National Herbarium. Family PrrTrosPORACEAE 77 39 CARYOPHYLLACEAE LORANTHACEAE CRUCIFERAE GooDENIACEAE RUTACEAE RosACEAE >i >? >) LEGUMINOSAE 2? bP) LOGANIACEAE UMBELLIFERAE VERBENACEAE LABIATAE EPACRIDACEAE PROTEACEAE ?? 3? bb) STYLIDIACEAE Species Bursaria spinosa 2) 2? 2 2? Z PP) x Stellaria media Loranthus sp. Alyssum sp. Goodenia ovata Boronia pilosa Rubus fruticosus 2? 2) >? >? Rubus CLoganberry ) Acacia pycnantha Genista sp. (Broom) Dillwynia ericifolia Platylobium formosum Ns obiuseangulum si Gunnii Daviesia sp. Callistemon sp. Angophora cordifolia Eucalyptus sp. ?? >? i corymbosa Kunzea ambigua Calytrix sullivanii Leptospermum arachnoideum flavescens 2? walkeri walkeri scoparium ot myrsinoides 9 7? Melaleuca ericifolia 33 ?? decussata uj squarrosa — Tristania conferta Logania floribunda Trachymene sp. Avicennia officinalis Prostanthera lasianthos Leucopogon spp. >? Banksia sp. Grevillea buxifolia sericea Lomatia sp. Siylidium graminifolium Locality Hall’s Gap Mordialloc Launceston Lane Cove Gosford Lane Cove Grampians Grampians Neerim Oakleigh Emerald Neerim Grampians Macedon Black Sands Emerald Grampians Emerald Grampians Frankston Como Como Bundeena Neerim Como Grampians Mt. Colah Como Heathcote Toorak Dandenong Emerald Grampians Emerald Frankston Cranbourne Grampians Grampians White Swamp Lane Cove Lane Cove Cook’s River Emerald Sandringham The author is indebted to these botanists for their co-operation:— State Victoria Victoria ‘Tasmania N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. Victoria Victoria N.S.W. Victoria N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. . Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria Victoria N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. Victoria Victoria N.S.W. N.S.W. N.S.W. White Swamp N.S.W. Mt. Buffalo Victoria RAYMENT. 293 Fig. ] RUBIACEAE Plectronia attenuata Edungalba Queensland CoMPOSITAE | Aster subulatus CIntro.) Lane Cove S.W. » Hypochaeris radicata Inverloch Victoria is Olearia ramulosa Grampians Victoria a Hi - Emerald Victoria be Taraxacum officinale (Intro.) Toorak Victoria e - ws Sandringham Victoria 5 Shasta Daisy Dandenong Victoria ARCHITECTURE. The majority of the “nests” investigated by the author have been in twigs, reeds, ferns or other plant-stems containing a soft pithy core. In every case the pith had been exposed, and in not a single instance was the fibrous woody wall attacked to effect an entry. ‘The sticks are always vertical and quite dry, and the entrance invariably at the top. Exoneura concinnula occupied galls. There is commonly an “iris” of wood-pulp constructed to reduce the diameter of a tube that is too large, and this ring near the “door”, say, 2 mm. in thickness, is the only evidence of worth-while constructive craft; the rest of the work is a mere crude excavation of soft pith. At the base of the shaft there is sometimes a plug of thin parings, but the work is exceedingly elemental. No attempt is made to build any cell-divisions, for the interior of the plain tube is utterly devoid of cells, and consists of a true communal cradle shared by all, eggs, larvae, pupae, adult males and females. ‘There is not a trace of any containers for food. en a couple of nests were built in a dry fern-frond, the galleries meticulously followed the soft pity core, and where a harder line of woody fibre was encountered, the bees either went round it, or else ceased work at the obstacle. In places only the thinnest woody wall separated the two galleries, yet it was never once pierced by the bees. It will be observed from the list of plant-stems utilised that only the softest of pith is excavated, and hard kinds are utterly neglected. One concludes that the bees are incapable of manipulating any stubborn material, for the small mandibles are not strongly formed, and their musculature is weak. The twigs favoured by E. rufitarsis Raym. were of “Golden Broom’, Viminaria denudata, and since seven “nests” were found on one plant, it would seem that the families prefer to labour in close proximity to each other. That the Exoneurae do not invariably seek pithy twigs, in which to establish their communal chambers, was demonstrated by Mr. C. E. Chadwick, entomologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney, who forwarded a series of galls which had been formed on the stems of Pultenaea stipularis Sm. by the Buprestid beetle Ethon Cprobably the species affine Laporte and Gory); collected at North Shore. These woody enlargements of the vegetable tissue were approximately 25 mm. in length, by 18 or so mm. broad, of irregular shape, but roughly subspherical, and each contained a cavity, more or less resembling a short wide tunnel. ‘The wall was dark and hard, much too hard for the weak jaws of an Exoneura. The cavities were undoubtedly the work of the original tenant. It was evident from this gall series that the bees in possession had made no attempt whatever to excavate the woody material, but had in every case used an entrance through a small hole which led to the interior—probably the exit hole. ‘The interior walls were granular rather than smooth, and there was little, if any, draping with silky secretion to make them more acceptable, and no pithy structure could be found in even the normal twigs of the plant. The collector observed that the interior of abandoned galls is usually cluttered with much frass left by the original tenant, but the Exoneurae are thorough in their house-cleaning, and every fragment is meticulously taken out before they “settle in’. The rubbish is removed with the mandibles. 294 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. The cylindrical eggs of the bees were attached to the wall by the usual agglutinative at the caudal pole, and the oldest larvae possessed appendages very This is the first record of the nest and the larvae of E. concinnula Ckll., and it is even more evident that the species in this genus can be separated satis- factorily only after a study of the larvae and their appendages. ‘This series of nests contained several eggs and fully developed larvae in October, and the biological cycle appears to conform to the typical pattern, a brood nursed by several sisters, in a communal cradle. The young larvae are fed over a lengthy period with a secretion of the pharyngeal glands, and later each larva receives its own individual pollen-ball. ‘The excreta are ejected in three or four small single pellets, each less than 1 mm. in length, at 20-hour intervals. These bees belong to the group with a red abdomen and an entirely black face, and are typical Exoneura concinnula Ckll. It was observed that several of the oldest larvae were lying criss-cross at one end of the chamber, without order, but this may have been due to shaking during transit in the mails. However, this record is interesting, because it shows the adaptive character of the bees, and although the collector thought that the high sugar content of the galls may have attracted the bees, the author considers that this has no bearing on the bees’ choice—the galls were merely suitable cavities, but if it be demonstrated in the future that these bees prefer the galls, then it is possible that some selective factor is involved. In any case, the cavities in the galls are very small, and would be quite inadequate for a numerous brood. It is significant that only one or two females were present in each gall, and the largest number of larvae and eggs taken from any gall was only six. The following table demonstrates the restricted character of the “nests” :— No. of Gall Length of Cavity Diameter Contents ‘ 13 mm. 5 mm. 1 adult, cleaning interior 2 12 4 1 adult, 1 egg, 5 larvae 3 18 a 1 adult 4 18 4 2 larvae, 1 adult 5 20 5 2 larvae, 1 adult 6. 18 5 1 Acarid mite, 2 larvae Th LZ + 1 full-grown larva 8. By collector 18 4 3 old and 3 young larvae, 2 eggs 9. By collector Ly 3 2 old larvae, 3 eggs The Exoneurae are singularly free from Acarine parasites, but No. 6 gall contained a milky-white mite, which did not do more than clamber aimlessly over the wall of the chamber. Mites are exceedingly numerous in the nests of the earth-digging halictine bees (Rayment, 1935), and have an important function in maintaining the nests in a sanitary condition, but the amount of excretal debris in Exoneura nests is very small indeed. The above mite proved to be a European species, Tyrofagus tenuiclavus; the first record for Australia. The collector sends a note stating that he found an entirely black bee in one nest, but dimorphism must be exceedingly rare in the genus, for although the author has examined many hunreds of Exoneurae he has not yet observed this phenomenon. It is known that individuals of two or more species will some- times congregate in a nest for shelter, and perhaps “mutual comfort”, but this habit of seeking the company of relations is strongly developed in many genera, but especially in Paracolletes, Halictus, Nomia, Anthophora, Asaropoda, and, of course, the hive-bee Avis, for it is the element of the swarming instinct. The largest “tube” in any plant stem measured 31 cm. in length in a twig 9 mm. in diameter, the bore faite a diameter of 3 mm.; the smallest sticks are only 5 mm. in diameter, so that the external walls are extremely thin. RAYMENT. 295 Exoneura hamulata Ckll. is a larger bee, consequently its tube has a diameter of 4 mm.; however, the majority of the species make a bore about 3 mm. and, in a few tubes, there was a blackish skin wad, very thin, at the base, and it may have been formed of discarded larval skins. PLANT-STEMS BorED BY EXONEURAE. Common Name Specific Name Locality State Banksia Banksia serrata Heathcote N.S.W. Bottlebrush Callistemon sp. Frankston Victoria Blackberry Rubus sp. Dandenong Victoria Brush Box Tristania conferta White Swamp N.S.W. Dahlia (Garden) Dahlia sp. Dandenong Victoria Coral-tree Erythrina sp. Lane Cove N.S.W. Golden Spray Viminaria antarctica Neerim Victoria e i as denudata Cranbourne Victoria Grass-tree Xanthorrhoea hastilis Fraser Park N.S.W i A 8 Lane Cove N.S.W. es Be minor Lane Cove N.S.W. Hydrangea (Garden) (Introduced ) Mt. Macedon Victoria 9 ” 7 Lane Cove N.S.W Lantana a Patonga Beach N.S.W. A its Lane Cove N.S.W. Paper-bark Melaleuca ericifolia Frankston Victoria Rush Giant Juncus pallidus Grampians Victoria Rose (Garden) Rosa sp. Dandenong Victoria Snow Daisy-bush Olearia lirata Neerim Victoria Spear Grass or Saw Sedge Gahnia tetragonocarpa Grampians Victoria Tree-fern Dicksonia antarctica Neerim Victoria Wandoo Eucalyptus redunca Bolgart W.A. attle Acacia sp. Lane Cove N.S.W. Wild Parsnip Didiscus pilosus Clyde Victoria - 59 Spartium junceum Cranbourne Victoria a =! Lindfield N.S.W. Galls (not bored) Pultenaea stipularis Sydney N.S.W. LarRvAL DEVELOPMENT. Critical examination of a large series of plant-tubes shows that in the black species E. roddiana and E. rufitarsis the eggs are attached to the wall, and project into the lumen at right angles, being fastened at the caudal pole with a clear agglutinative, a secretion of two glands in the apical segments of the female abdomen. The “gum” is exceedingly tough, and attaches the egg very firmly indeed to the wall. The egg is rather broader in proportion than the average of bees’ eggs, but little bowed and milky-white, measuring 1,200 microns at the long axis, and 433 microns at the short, which is a large egg for so small a bee. An egg of E. perpensa Ckll., measured just before hatching, reached the extreme of 2,100 microns at the long axis, and 500 microns at the short. Since the “fresh” egg of this species is about the same size as that of E. rufitarsis, they undoubtedly increase in length just before hatching, and by transmitted light, the developing embryo may be seen as an opaque patch in the large mass of the clearer yolk, the deutoplasm. The beautiful hexagonal sculpture, which is so conspicuous on the chorion of the egg of the honey-bee, is not evident on the ege of Exoneura. The eggs of the red-bodied E. concinnula are attached in a similar manner, but are widely separated, in no particular order, and only two or three are present. The eggs of E. rufitarsis are disposed along a slightly spiral line, and spaced approximately a millimetre apart. They are deposited generally in groups, although there may be only a single egg, or as many as eight. Although more often than not, in such a case, three or four of the eggs have hatched, without altering the original position; six is the commonest number. 296 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. In certain -of the red-bodied species, such as E. angophorae CkIl., the eggs, a dozen or so in number, may be deposited criss-cross in a mass at the base of the chamber, on a communal store of crumbly pollen, and the larvae appear to be able to mount the wall, and attach themselves by the long-pointed “tail”. The author had several in an experimental wooden cell, and, during the night, they “climbed” out, thus providing evidence of the larval ability to travel to a new position. Some of the red-bodied group also deposit their eggs in a line. Several “nests” of E. rufitarsis were under constant observation, and at a temperature of 10 deg. C. none of the eggs showed any observable change until the Ist of August, when the merest traces of segmentation were to be seen under a lens. These eggs were probably deposited on the 12th of July, so that 20 days had elapsed. Rodd recorded about 18 days in the warmer climate of Sydney. This is a very long period compared with the three days of the honey-bee in the warmth of the beehive, i.e., 35 deg. C Very young larvae showing short “arms”, and which were very probably 21 days old on the 12th of July, did not make any evident growth by Ist of August, although they had been constantly attended, nursed and fed with secretion by six females present in the stem. ‘The larvae consumed food throughout Steptember. The appendages showed signs of being absorbed about Ist October, and had disappeared by 12th October. ‘The pupae were recognisable as such about the 27th October, but at that date they were entirely white, and the compound eyes did not show any colour until 6th November. ‘The bees were finally pigmented and ready to emerge as imagines on 5th December. The temperature in the field, for the first half of July, 1948, seldom exceeded 12 deg. C., for the the winter was a severe one, and the lower readings established a record. Night temperatures were, of course, much lower. The egg appears to merge almost imperceptably into a segmented larva, for only the smallest trace of a twisted white “thread” remains to represent the original chorion of the egg. The strange-looking creatures project like tiny crosses from the wall; the “cross-arms”, of course, being the short appendages which soon appear. As the larvae grow they ascend the walls, and dispose themselves at regular intervals according to their age; the oldest always being at the higher end of the chamber, nearer the entrance. It was seen that the adults frequently “brush by” the larvae, even pressing them temporarily “flat” against the wall, but they swing back into their original position immediately the mother passes. The eggs are deposited by the several sisters inhabiting the tube, and large numbers of eggs have been counted in one tube when eight or so females were present. (See under heading—“Behaviour of the Individual.”) Usually it is found that where three females are present there will be eighteen or so eggs. CCom- pare the limited number of eggs in E. concinnula CklIl.) On the 12th July, 1948, a twig of Viminaria, from Clyde, contained the following bees in a cavity 20 cm. deep, seven females, ten males, twelve larvae, but no eggs. In a fern-frond bored by E. hamulata Ckll twenty-six larvae and eleven eggs were taken from two “nests”, together with nine females; no males were in the series, but that is not the usual condition, for several males are more often than not present in the chamber. The larval appendages provide the best specific characters. Some species, such as E. rufitarsis and E. roddiana, have only one “arm”, terminating in a slender “finger”, and are very distinctive. Exoneura angulata Raym. is a distinctive species with much black hair on the hind legs like E. angophorae, but that bee has black on the abdomen. However, it is easily known from all others by the angulated “face”. It was bred from dry stems of the garden Hydrangea, and several females were present to attend to the numerous larvae which were lying together in a squirming mass RAYMENT. 297 at the base of the chamber. Each of the larvae had its own individual pudding of pollen. There were 17 larvae and six eggs in one “nest” with several female adults. On cutting a sliver from the stem to expose portion of the interior, a female immediately ran forward, and carried a larva back to shelter. She repeated this manoeuvre several times until all the larvae had been taken under cover. (See ewes observation under “Behaviour’.) This species apparently feeds pollen very early. The fully developed larvae resemble those of E. richardsoni Raym. in having a large number of abdominal nodes, although they are shorter, and it would appear that angulata and albolineaia are allied. The thoracic appendages are different, and a description of the larva is appended. The fresh egg is typical, but a trifle longer, 1,500 microns at the long axis and 500 microns at the short. The larvae are of a bright pale-orange colour, and when curled tightly measure 3 mm. in diameter; when fully fed and straight, nearly 6 mm. in length. They have a strong instinct to cluster together and squirm about each other. There are eleven appendages on each side. The first is the longest, one “arm” with one exceedingly long “finger”, and two short “fingers”, then six short abdominal nodes, next one longer, then two very long, and a shorter one. There is an inner row of microscopic tubercles. Even the very small larvae were pale-orange, and it was evident that they had consumed some pollen, for it was visible in the mesenteron. Seventeen or so were transferred to bee-hive pollen mixed with “royal jelly” on 3rd November, 1948, but all failed to pupate. Contrary to the opinion expressed by the author in 1948, he is now convinced that the so-called pseudopodia are actually exudatoria, as Rodd suggested, for he has observed in two species at least, E. richardsoni Raym. and E. angulata Raym., the larvae apparently sucking the many nodules and appendages. At times the two “thumbs” of the largest appendages of E. angulata are in the mouth together, but most often only one is sucked at a time, and may be held in the mouth for a long period—two minutes or so. The larvae swallow a few “mouthfuls” of pollen mixture, and then stretch themselves vigorously and quickly backwards three or four times as though en- deavouring to “force’ ’the pollen down into the mesenteron. ‘They just as quickly contract several times into a circular bend as though struggling to reach the longer hind processes with the mouth. This exercise is a common and frequent action, and occurs after every few mouthfuls of pollen, and one node after another is touched with the mouth, although not held as is the “thumb” of the large appendage. Even the second row of microscopic nodes is licked and licked again. It was observed that the apex of the nodes is hyaline, and it may be slightly drawn in for a second, when it becomes somewhat flaccid. It suddenly becomes turgid and larger, and the larva touches it with the mouth. Sometimes three or four consecutive nodes are sucked, but it appears to be an effort to reach the apica ones. The “thumb” is sucked most often, the large appendage is ‘occasionally used as a prop or support, and it was often bent and twisted as the larvae struggled about on the ample communal pudding supplied by the author, but it does not appear to suffer any damage. The larvae ate, with apparent relish, a mixture of “royal jelly” from a queen-cell, and pollen taken from hive-bees, but none survived. 298 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. Contents of “nests” of Exoneura angulata Raym. in dry stems of Hydrangea taken at Essex Park, Dandenong, Victoria, October, 1948:— Adult No.of Stem Lengthem. Females Larvae Eggs Puddings iB 10 4 ef 6 Z ps 5 2 + 7 0 33. 7.8 2 0) 4 0 4. 11.5 7 14 4 9 3 L725 1] 0) 6) 0 6. 17 4 18 6 22, A lone female was sheltering in a small cavity, and two females were in another. ‘Two of the sticks exceeded 7mm. in diameter, and the gallery went down in a spiral, clockwise. No larva was more than 5 cm. from the base of the “nest”, and none of the eggs was attached to the walls of the lumen; all were deposited criss-cross among the small larvae and puddings at the base. The pud- dings were bright-yellow in colour, and the grains oval; only one pudding in five contained triangular grains (Leptospermum). The Hydrangea was growing in a shaded position. Early in November, 1948, at Dandenong, the author and his collector, Owen Dawson, found a long series of “nests” of E. richardsoni Raym. in dry stems of bramble and rose in the garden at Essex Park, the country home of W. R. Richardson, Esq., to whom the species is dedicated in appreciation of his hospitality and co-operation. In BLACKBERRY STEMS. Adult No. of Stem Length cm. Females Larvae Eggs Puddings ike 2.5 1 Gallery under construction 2h + 1 — — — 3 13 5 23 6 I 4, 10 4 18 Full-grown 5: 12.5 4 20 10 — In GarpvEen Rose STEMs. 6 15 6 16 6 — Ts 11 6 28 10 = 8. 10 1 1 — -- 9. 12.5 6 17 8 8 10. 10 2 3 4 _ 11. 15 4 18 3 3 12: 12.5 4 5 _ _ 13. 1] 6 8 3 — 14. 10 4 _ — —_ 15. 10 4 ] 7 7 16. 12.5 2, — — _ lege 7.5 4 3 6 2 18. 10 2 5 3 2 19; 10 4 — — _ 20. 10 2 8 4 — a 10 8 12 = r D2: 4 + 12 2 — This “nest” contained a mixed population, for there were two species, E. angu- lata and two E. richardsoni, and both appeared to be feeding the young. sb small black species, E. rufitarsis Raym., favoured the dry stems of garden Dahlia. The author has studied many series of “nests” constructed and occupied by Exoneura asimillima Raym., and this species may be taken as typical of the group which deposits the eggs first, in a mass at the base of the chamber, and later provides a supply of rather dry mealy pollen in the interstices about the eggs. RAYMENT. 299 All the larvae feed from the common store until they are well developed. After the appendages are absorbed, the larvae rest along the lumen of the tube, heads and tails touching. The supply of pollen is augmented daily, and the mass becomes more compact, with a larger proportion of honey, as the larvae grow. The youngest larvae are, of course, progressively fed with a secretion from the pharyn- geal glands of the head. 7 dine first “nests” in the stems of “Saw Sedge”, Gahnia tetragonocarpa, and “Giant Rush”, Juncus pallidus, were collected by Owen Dawson at the type locality, Grampians Range, Western Victoria, on 4th December, 1946. Another long series was taken by this collector on 20th November, 1949, at Cranbourne, Southern Victoria. Twelve dry flower-stalks of ‘““Grasstree”, Xanthorr- hoea minor, contained females and larvae in many stages, and the average number of progeny for one mother was six. The pieces of stems were broken off 13 cm. in length, with a diameter of 8 mm.; the “bore” was 3-4 mm. in diameter and the longest measured 12 cm., the shortest about 3 cm., but these short ones were in course of construction; the average length of the completed bores was 5 cm. ‘Two “nests” contained only very small larvae; one only eggs, no pollen; three females were present in three; two females in two; four of the “nests” contained only one female each. In no case were the larvae distributed along the lumen of the tube. The original flower-stalks of the Grasstrees were about one metre tall, and dry, as they were grown in the previous year. ‘The entrances were made where the pithy interior had been exposed on the end. In a few cases the entrances were through the woody side-wall, but these holes were the work of some other insect. The Exoneurae cannot penetrate hard fibrous structures. In all the larger stems the entrance is contracted with a neat ring of wood- pulp. The pollen-grains in these stems were triangular in shape, and had been collected from one plant, very probably Melaleuca ericifolia—or perhaps M. squarosa —which was abundant in an open gully among the sandhills, which are exploited commercially for the excellent sand. The aspect was N.W.-S.E. No individual puddings were present in this series of “nests”, but the oldest larvae were at the resting stage, and the appendages had been absorbed. Several of the older larvae from the Grampians had individual puddings, but as there is definitely some co-operation with females of other species, these may have been the progeny of an alien mother, or the habit may vary. Because the social habit is developing in the Exoneurae, the mothers of one species will feed secre- tion to the progeny of other females, and this complicates the investigations, and at times one is not entirely satisfied that all the larvae present in a populous nest are of one species. Three or four species of females are exceedingly close in morphological struc- ture, and difficult for the student to determine correctly. FE. asimillima Raym. is very close to E. holmesi Raym., which has a light ferruginous-red abdomen and amber tegulae, with considerable long white hair on the “face”, whereas E. asimillima has a dark blood-red abdomen, and the hair of the head is black. Over a series this is the larger, more robust bee, with black tegulae. All have red legs. Another very close species is E. obliterata CCkll.) Raym., but the larvae have only one long “finger” on the larval appendage, whereas E. holmesi larvae have three “fingers”. The “fingers” on the appendages of E. asimillima are small, and the Jarvae are clearly in the E. hamulata group. The first appendage has three “fingers”; the second a short basal one; the third is simple. The other segments of the abdomen have short inconspicuous 300 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. nodes. The larval appendages are of the greatest value to the taxonomist, and in the absence of the larvae, the adults are often exceedingly difficult to separate. At Essex Park large numbers of colonies of E. richardsoni Raym. were estab- lished in the dry twigs of a climbing rose that covered a garden arbour about sixty feet in length; consequently, the majority of the nesting sticks were in more or less permanent shade, for the arbour is ten or more feet in width. Since the nests were seldom higher than the observer's head, the large aggre- gation of both bees and sticks could be studied very conveniently. Stems investi- gated during the first week in December, 1948, were very populous, for they contained males, many females, eggs, puddings and larvae, and the flight of field bees was heaviest at that period, even though most of them were in shade. Mid- summer, then, sees the maximum in activity for this species, and this holds for all of the Exoneurae studied during this investigation. By autumn the curve on the graph goes down steeply. On 6th March, 1949, numbers of sticks were investigated, and a large percentage contained only a lone female, with three or so eggs which had been deposited loosely at the base of the lumen, and among several pellets of rather dry yellowish pollen. These are the colony—founding females which had departed from the parent nest to find a suitable stick for a new nest. A small percentage of sticks housed a solitary male apparently sheltering. In E. richardsoni the eggs were deposited “criss-cross”, without order, at the base of the chamber, among the communal food, but when the growing larvae require individual attention they are disposed up the wall at regular intervals. This habit is in contrast to that of E. roddiana Raym., which deposits its eggs in a low spiral line on the wall, and it would be interesting to discover whether or not this latter habit holds goods for all the black species of Exoneura. Up to seventeen pupae in advanced stages, together with a few callows, were present in many nests, and it was evident that these were the last of the second brood for the season. The colony-founding mothers represent the earliest individuals, and these pass through the winter nursing their progeny which form the first brood of the succeeding spring. The activity, then, reaches the minimum during the winter months of May, June, July, but does not cease entirely at any stage. The larva of E. lawsoni Raym. has two “fingers” on the “arm”, and there is a basal “thumb”, but the adults are black, and approach E. rufitarsis. In addi- tion, lawsoni has six long processes on the apical ventral segments of the abdomen, E. hamulata Ckll., a larger red-bodied species, has eight lateral “arms”, with three “fingers” on the first and second pair; one on the third pair, and a short nodule on the fourth pair. Another species, E. sub-baculifera Raym., has a prominent “teat” on the vertex of the head, and Norman Rodd suggested that the adults might obtain a secretion from these protuberances. Wheeler has pointed out that this actually occurs in certain ants. The larvae of E. baculifera Ckll. have only a very small cephalic node or “teat”, and only rudimentary lateral appendages. Rodd suggested that the unique teat-like cephalic node on the larvae of E. sub-baculifera Raym. may be an exudatorium, such as is present on certain ant larvae, i.e., Pachysima latifrons, the adults of which obtain an exudate, a lipoid, from the appendages; ant-larvae are known to exude fatty substances. Rodd suggested that male Exoneurae may obtain such an exudate, hence their continued association with the “nest”. Rodd observed the larvae of E. roddiana, each with a ball of pollen held between what Friese terms the pseudopodia, and Wheeler himself prefers this name. ‘The latter author says that the pseudopodia of Allodape ceratinoides hold the pollen-ball to the buccal parts. Holmgren thought that the several castes in ants may be due to “exudate hunger’, i.e., food castration. RAYMENT. 301 It was observed by the present author that the “arms” on larvae of E. rufitarsis Raym. did appear to be larger on some occasions, and he saw a female adult lick one. On another occasion he observed a nursing female feed secretion to an adult male. In any case, the larvae are fed probably for 20 days with the secretion, and after that pollen may be observed in the mesenteron, but never in the tightly-packed manner of Halictus and many other genera. The individual pollen-ball is supplied to the larvae at about 50 or so days after hatching, and the yellowish (greenish on Pollinite) mass is then visible in the mesenteron. This is much slower than what obtains in the bee-hive, where the larvae are fed for about eight days. It will be seen that while it is extremely difficult to separate the many field bees closely resembling E. angophorae, yet the larvae are very different, and it is unwise in many cases to write specific descriptions of new species in the absence of the larval forms. There are so many very cirtical species. The appendages reach their full development just about the time that the larvae are fully fed, but as metamorphosis is approached, the appendages are gradually absorbed, and then the taxonomist will be misled by their absence. The largest larvae measured over 3,000 microns in length. ~ In the “Victorian Naturalist’, April, 1946, the author suggested that the “arms” could be used for clinging to the few silken threads on the wall of the tube, but he has now definitely established that the larvae adhere to the wall by the long tapering anal end, which is unique in bees. The author had a number of “nests” of E. rufitarsis under continuous observation, and the females were observed to apply the mouth to the head of the larvae, and it was possible to see the transfer of a clear liquid, probably food. The “champing” and “mouthing” of the larvae indicate that they are requiring food. After the females attend to them the “mouthing” action ceases, and the larvae lapse into a resting-phase. By transmitted light it was possible to observe the processes of digestion in the mesenteron, which contained a pale-yellowish liquid. The contents “boiled” up in rhythmical ebullitions, like a miniature geyser, and then fell back again, and after each eruption the liquid became paler. Minute bubbles appeared to rise from the epithelial cells and mingle with the food. This led the author to postulate that enzymes were being released and incorporated in the mass. ‘The author was able to study under a lens the feeding of a secretion, by the several sisters, to the larvae in a tube. ‘The female bends the slender glossa back under the head, and opening wide her mandibles, takes the tip of the larval head right in between her open jaws, which do not move. A clear liquid is then exuded on to the larval mouth for a second or two. This is undoubtedly a copious secretion of the pharyngeal glands, and the larva injests it with a conspicuous “mouthing” of the “lips”. Another adult female will some- times “kiss” the larva after its feeding as though it were wiping the soiled mouth of the infant. There is evidence of continued care and gentle attention by all the mothers, but the glossa plays almost no part in the feeding, for the secretion appears to flow from the salivarium. (See “Behaviour of the Individual’, below.) The author has not observed a store of food in any of the many “nests” investigated by him, and to test whether or not the larvae could or would eat a pollen substitute he provided hungry larvae with pollen taken from the cells of the hive, and also a synthetic pollen which he had evolved, and the oldest larvae made a meal from both. Of course no adults were present at this experiment. The adult bees, too, repaired to another pollen-mass provided by the author. and opening the mandibles to their widest extent, plunged them into the soft batter of honey and pollen; the mandibles do not appear to move, yet the batter could be seen moving into the mouth as though it were being drawn in by suction. The long slender glossa is bent back under the head during the meal, and does not appear to play any part in the action. 302 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. It is definitely established that there is no food stored in the communal chamber; that the pharyngeal glands of the females are well developed, and that a secretion is fed to the larvae; a certain amount of pollen is incorporated later; and finally each larva receives its individual ball; and that progressive feeding is the rule of Exoneura. The author had difficulty in bringing the larvae through metamorphosis, probably because the presence of the adult nurses is essential for their proper development; consequently, he determined the time required for the trans- formation to be approximately 152 days. It was observed that ever and anon the adults apply the “mouth” to the cephalic pole of the egg, and stroke it downwards two or three times with the fore-legs—it appears to be a cleasing with the tarsal brushes. The action is repeated on the larvae. It is a remarkable fact that only a few of the many spring “nests” studied contained a pupa, although there were numbers of well- developed larvae present. Many pupae are present in mid-summer and autumn. That the larvae are able to survive long fasts is demonstrated by the following experience of the author. On the 8th June, 1946, he visited a sandstone gully at Lane Cove, Sydney, and collected several “nests” of E. roddiana Raym. in Acacia twigs, and these were packed in a tight tin container. The author returned to Sandringham, Victoria, after a month of travel on 8th July, 1946, but a chain of circumstances prevented him from examining the “nests” until 90 days later. When the package was opened, the author was astonished to discover that the larvae and adults were still very much alive. All were positively without food for that period. Rodd, too, observed that the bees are capable of surviving long periods of abstention. There are no distinctive characters on the pupa; no abdominal nodes and spines as in Halictus, Parasphecodes and Nomia, for it has the typical form of the social bees’ babies. ‘There are two or three spines on the legs, i.e., strigilis and calcariae. It was of interest to discover that larvae, feeding on a pollen-ball supplied by the author, showed a blackish mass, at the caudal end, about 24th October, and in a day or two a cylindrical pellet of excreta was voided. ‘The junction of the proctodeum and the mesenteron must occur much earlier than in the hive- bee, and while the larval feeding is drawing to a close. In the unnatural conditions inseparable from the author’s experiments, 152 days were required for the development of the bees from egg to imagine, and it might be argued that growth had been hampered by unsuitable food, but an examination of the “nests” on the tea-tree branch on Ist November revealed similar conditions. ‘These could be relied on because the date of the installation of the mothers in the stems was known and, thereafter, they had been left to their own resources. The feeding period of 30 days with secretion and 40 days with pollen is certainly very remarkable if that be the normal time. BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIVIDUAL. In winter, from the middle of July, the bees are sluggish, but there were many eggs, and a few young larvae in colonies of E. roddiana and E. concinnula, and E. rufitarsis even at that early date. Surprisingly, the bees do not, like all other wild-bees, dash out to the light when their tubes are opened and attached to the branch, but for safety, it is better to open the sticks at night, leaving the bees to emerge in their own time on the following morning. Like all other bees, both hive and wild, the actual doorway is examined first with extreme care. The bees walk round and round the periphery, evidently memorising the details, not venturing far on the initial excursions, and returning by the same path. The earliest appearance of females of E. richardsoni from the experimental tubes was on Ist September, 1949; August was distinguished by many warm 2] RAYMENT. 303 days, with a subnormal precipitation. When September opened, the tempera- tures registered max. 22.6 deg. C., min. 5.5 deg. C., and at 11.30 am. two energetic females emerged from one stem for a short flight of less than a metre. They were followed soon after by three females from other stems, but all returned after re-orienting the sites of the nests; three others departed to harvest in the field. A male was observed to issue from one stem and depart. He did not return until 35 minutes later. The bees seldom flew at lower temperatures. Lt YONA yey y Oe Ve J ) a, AMI, BX \ / — Tar.ton Rayment Fig. 2. 1. Dry branch with short lengths of Hydrangea stems tied on at convenient levels to attract the reed-bees Exoneura rufitarsis Raym. 2. Black sleeve over a stick, with a clear ‘window’ for observation of the larvae. 3. A split stem with a nest is inserted at the base of a larger stem. They descend into the tube and re-emerge many times to sit in the warmth, preening themselves, exercising their wings and brushing the body. The first flight is merely of 30 or so centimetres, made with the head facing the doorway. Longer and longer flights are made successively, as the “map of the country” is plotted in the insect’s brain. ‘These experiments in orientation are repeated so often that the observer's patience is sorely tested. Unlike other wild-bees, the males of which never return to the “nest”, and therefore have no need to memorise the way home, the male Exoneurae never desert the family; conse- quently, they are as meticulous as the females in orientating the site of the “nest”. (Refer to “Larval Food”.) The bees are certainly not nervous, suspicious or aggressive, for the observer may, with a very fine brush, actually guide the sunning bees back into the tube without causing them to take wing. They do not resent the author’s close presence, and betray no interest whatever in the movements of the lens. Should any bees emerge suddenly before they have orientated their new homesite, they will be lost, for then they cannot return. When they appear of their own volition they will re-orient themselves. The bees do not take wing immediately on emerging, but only after a long survey of the sunny surroundings do they fly on short courses, zig-zagging con- 304 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. stantly as they advance and retreat, with the head always directed to the aperture of the gallery. The pattern of the flight is very different from that of Halictus, which, having no obstacle in the near vicinity of its individual shaft, performs a number of circular sweeps. There is no doubt that the close proximity of several galleries amid a tangle of other dried twigs is responsible for the reed-bees’ care in orientating the “nest” accurately. The pattern of bees’ memorising flights is due to the nature of the environment. Such flights take place only during the warmest hours, between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. The cavity of the tube is frequently blocked by the flattened apical tergites of the abdomen. Males have been observed to hover, alight and enter the tube, and immediately block the entrance as described. The action is common e both sexes, and has been observed also in very different earth-digging halictine ees. In the half-cylinders the bees have no necessity to roll over in a ball when they reverse, but the action must be instinctive, for very frequently they tum in this surprising manner. The “ball” is, of course, formed by tucking in the head and the abdomen until the “body” is of the same diameter as the tube— it is a case of “heels over head’, rapidly and very neatly performed. The pithy debris near the door is pushed out by the hind legs and the tip of the abdomen, in the form of very fine shavings, but the boring is a slow process, although the material is both soft and light. In the tubes, the females of E. rufitarsis Raym. frequently dropped a globule of a secretion on the interior walls. It was early evident that six females in a tube secreted far more food than could be consumed by the nine larvae; consequently, the surplus was exuded on to the wall. The author succeeded in getting a globule or two placed on a glass slip, when it was seen to be microscopically grandular, with a slight milky opacity, and giving an acid reaction. Every now and then two females will approach and “kiss” each other—that is, the mandibles do not open, but the maxillary and labial palpi of both bees are extruded and moved about rapidly as they “caress” each other. On several occasions it seemed that some liquid passed from one adult to another. ‘The long glossa was bent back under the head and did not function. The author would say that some secretion is available, for he observed that after a female had fed a larva, another female would come along and sip a trifle from about the mandibles of both the adult and the baby as though “wiping its mouth”. The bees have frequent “rest” periods, when they stand immobilised for a minute or two; then the abdomen will pulsate rapidly for a little longer, during which time it can be seen that the ivory-coloured “thread” of the oesophagus, nerves, etc., at the foramen is also pulsating in rhythm. ‘There is, too, a short phase when the thorax is vibrated vertically very rapidly. The bee then resumes other activities. If one sister unexpectedly encounters another, the mandibles are held wide open, in a threatening gesture, but after a “kiss” both go on their way. The bees are exceedingly “light on their feet”, for while they often walk ~ over the eggs and the larvae, yet they never inflict the slightest damage to either. In the galls observed by Chadwick the adult females carried the larvae from place to place, and this action was observed by the author in several of the “nests” investigated by him; the transportation of the larvae may have been due to panic when the adults were suddenly exposed to light. ‘That observer also saw the females of E. concinnula closing the entrance with the subapical segments of the abdomen. A deal of time is devoted to cleaning the body. The antennae are con- stantly combed and brushed by the anterior legs, as is the long glossa, and the head and eyes. The median legs are turned up over the thorax, which is RAYMENT. 305 kept highly polished, since there is little hair; the median pair also clean the upper surface of the wings, and assist in the toilet of the hind legs, the wings are pressed flat under the abdomen, and the under surface is then vigorously brushed. ‘The gaster is cleaned by the posterior legs, and the pair are constantly being brushed together. Every now and then the wings are given a sudden flick or two. Considerable time and energy is expended on the toilet. The introduction of a strange male to five females in a tube under observa- tion produced no evident reactions, the bees showing no interest whatever in the stranger, but it should be remembered that the conditions were unnatural, and scent did not appear to have any significance. A few excessively tenuous threads are “licked” on the walls of the: tube, and the tip of the glossa travels over the surface without haste. Every now and then the head-capsule is rolled rapidly from side to side as the front legs curve round the genae and the compound eyes. The whole action suggests that of a man bringing his bowed arms alternately up over his head quickly. It cannot be a mere matter of cleansing, for the polished head is immaculate. The author suggests that this remarkable action excites the glands of the head. (See fig. 4, pl. xxvii.) These two organs in the Hymenoptera are the cause of some confusion to certain authors, who refer to the secretions of both glands as saliva. Indeed, one says the eggs of certain ants are stuck together with saliva, but probably the mucous glands in the apical segments of the female abdomen are the source of the “egg-glue”. ENEMIES AND PARASITES. Like all other bees, the Exoneurae have several enemies, endoparasites and ectoparasites are present, and of the former, minute chalcid wasps in the Family Encyrtidae are the more numerous. Norman Rodd, Lane Cove, sent to the author the dry shell of a red reed- bee, probably Exoneura angophorae Ckll., which contained a large number of hymenopterous larvae disposed in close symmetrical rows. The body of the host had been reduced to the merest dry skin, for the whole of the interior had been consumed by the horde of parasites. These were reared to maturity, and the adult wasps proved to be a new species, for which the author proposed the name Aphycus asperithorax Rayment, 1949. The tiny wasps could easily enter the plant- stems in which the reed-bees “nest” and insert an egg in every larva, for there are no protective obstacles, such as woody cell-divisions, in the communal chambers, and although the aperture of the bee’s tube is small, sometimes less than 3 mm., yet these parasites are much smaller. However, the chalcid parasites are also successful even when there are several cell-divisions in the plant-stem, for the author received such a one from Owen Dawson, Clyde, Victoria. This collector had broken off a dry stem from a plant of Viminaria denudata, thinking that it contained a nest of Exoneura rufitarsis Raym., but on splitting it, discovered several cell-divisions, with a larva occupying each chamber. Careful investigation showed that a tiny entrance had been drilled through the wall, a condition never present in Exoneura “nests”. This one proved to be the work of Hylaeus nigrojugata Raym., and it was quite typical, for it contained several cells of impalpable silvery tissue, each divided by a hard wad of dark red pollen residue and stercoral debris. It was evident that in no case had the plugs been perforated, and the parasitic female wasp must have entered each chamber successively as it was completed, for all the cells were constructed contiguously along the tube. ‘This stem was collected on 13th July, 1946; that is, in winter, and it was observed that, at that early date, each bee-larva was infested with numbers of still more minute larvae. Meta- morphic changes became evident on the 20th September, and most had reached the pupa stage by the 21st September. They were completely black by October 15th, and emerged as imagines about 24th October. An average of 22 was 306 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. obtained from each small bee-larva, but they were not disposed in such ex- ceedingly orderly rows as those of Aphycus. The progeny of the reed-bees is not more vulnerable to attack because of the utter absence of such barriers as cell-divisions, for “nests” containing several of these obstacles suffer equally heavy infestation. The excessive numbers of parasites present in each bee-larva would, at first glance, connote a similarly large deposition of wasp eggs, but the minute size of the wasp—a millimetre—presents certain difficulties for this concept, since the ovaries are not excessively prolific. It appears that only one egg is deposited by the parasite in each bee-larva, but the egg is capable of a remarkable division, so that dozens of young parasites result from the one ovum—“polyembryony”’. This phenomenon is not limited to the Encyrtidae, for it occurs in the higher animals, and even in man himself, as when a woman bears identical twins from one ovum. The author has recovered a partly-digested Acarid mite from the pollen residues in a larva of Exoneura, and also what appeared to be a triungulin. It would appear that if a triungulin of Stylops enter by the alimentary canal, and reach the mesenteron, then it might leave that organ prior to or at its junction with the proctodeum, and the parasite’s ultimate position, between the third and fourth tergites of the imagine, is reasonably explained. However, this is a mere speculation. 2 The bees are remarkably free from Acarine mites, 3 but one was present in a “nest” in a gall collected in Sydney. The reason for this freedom from mites is obscure, for Lestis,4 a large carpenter-bee, living in almost parallel conditions, sometimes has several score of mites on the body. Spiders constructing their webs on shrubs occupied by the bees secure an odd victim, but the captures by this enemy are few, and have little incidence on the success of the species. ‘The small size of the bees, and their rapid flight, apparently bestowed a certain im- munity from attacks by birds and entomophagous insects, for in the colonies established by the author at his home only a rare reed-bee fails to return to the “nest” during the working season. Ants range over most plants, and most often encounter the galleries of the Exoneurae, but as there are usually several female bees present in each “nest”, ants secure few victims. The size of the aperture seldom exceeds 3 mm. in diameter, and often is less, so that only the smaller black ants can effect an easy entrance. Iridomyrmex rufoniger often investigates, but is rarely successful. Notes on ANATOMY AND PHySIOLOGY. The glossa is exceedingly long for such small insects, and, as in all bees, covered with a mass of setae disposed in a characteristic pattern. In Apis, the hive-bee, and in Exoneura the setae are acute, but in Asaropoda they are spatulate; in Paracolletes they are still broader, in Anthophora they are leaf-like, and doubtless serve as spreaders of the saliva forming the colloidal membrane. It will be remembered that all animals lick with the dorsal surface of the tongue, and when bees turn the tip of the glossa under and backwards, the setae are then in the proper position for spreading. 2. In the few cases investigated by the author, the abdominal organs of bees parasitised by a stylops did not appear to have suffered any structural damage, and the observer is therefore tempted to formulate a theory. An exceedingly large per- centage of bees, Euryglossimorpha nigra Sm., from Mt. Canoblas, New South Wales, was parasitised by a stylops, and on one bee the third and fourth tergites had become permanently deformed, but the stylops had disappeared. 3. This Tyroglyphid mite was mounted and submitted to Mr. H. Womersley, South Australian Museum, and he kindly determined it as Tyrofagus tenuiclavus Zachvatkin, 1941. It is closely allied to the flour and cheese mites of Europe, and this is a record for Australia. : ie 4. Deutonymphs of Sennertis bifilis Canest., and in the wandering stage they are often present on carpenter bees. I am indebted to Mr. Womersley for both deter- minations. RAYMENT. 307 There are tour segments in the labial palpus, the basal pair being exceedingly long; the maxillary palpus has five segments, although in the generic diagnosis in “a Cluster of Bees” six segments are given in error. ‘The salivarium, near the base of the paraglossae, plays an important function in the physiology of the reed-bees, and the author observed that the secretion of the pharyngeal glands seldom flows down the pseudo-tube of the glossa, but wells up out of the salivarium. When the female is subjected to an anaesthetic, such as ether, a globule will sometimes appear at the salivarium, but generally it will be absorbed before it has time to flow down the glossa. This can be observed quite clearly when the whole of the mouthparts are extruded. McIndoo (1916) says: “It is strange that both liquids can travel in opposite directions along the same route by no force other than capillarity”. He believe that both honey and saliva flowed side by side in the glossal tube. Snodgrass (1925) says this explanation is “too strange, and Nature did not devise the plan”. The latter author says he “has no evidence that food liquids ever go up the ventral channel of the glossa”. My experiments demonstrated conclusively that in Exoneura at least the glandular “pap” does not pass along the glossal tube during the feeding of the larvae, for that organ is folded back clear under the head and, in that position, can have no function as a channel. ‘The secretion of the post-cerebral salivary glands, however, appears to flow along the glossal tube, but this is difficult to observe; only the tip of the glossa is used for draping the wall. The latter author observed a secretion welling out as a clear liquid which swells the glossal channel in honey-bees under an anaesthetic. Snodgrass says this occurs after the insects have been fed on cane sugar for some time. The globule on the salivarium may be seen in wild bees which have never known sugar; indeed, it is present in individuals which have never eaten. In Exoneura it is definitely the salivarium which is applied to the mouth of the larva. The pharyngeal glands of the head are well developed, and resemble a grape-like cluster of pearls when the nursing bees are secreting copiously. The general design ‘of the alimentary canal approximates that of the honey- bee; a narrow tube passes as the oesophagus through the head and thorax, enlarging into a clear thin pear-shaped honey-sac, again constructed and closed by the minute proventricular valve, greatly expanded as the cylindrical corrugated ventriculus, or true stomach, constricted yet again as the small intestine, and again greatly distended as the rectum or large bowel, and finally constricted to form the anus at the apical segment of the abdomen. As in the honey-bee, Apis, the epithelium of the rectum in E. rufitarsis is a thin cellular layer against the cuticular intima of the outer surface. On the anterior half are six rectal glands, circular in form, and clear, resembling ocelli. They are paler and appear to be semispherical, and covered with a microscopic, close network of tracheal tubes. Snodgrass says that each of the glands in the honey-bees is a “hollow cylin- drical tube, with a thick inner wall and a thinner outer wall. When the rectum is distended the glands bulge on the outer surface as six opaque ridges, but when empty the glands sink into the walls and protrude into the lumen”. The glands of Exoneura appear to have a similar structure. The rectum of the Exoneura examined, males and females, contained a few shells of pollen, but was not unduly distended, although it was winter. The author is unable to say what would be the appearance of the glands if the rectum were excessively distended as sometimes occurs when honey-bees are confined to the hive for long periods by stormy weather. Trappmann (1923) thought that a secretion from the glands is discharged into the rectum, and Pavlovsky and Zarin (1922) suggested that the glands are a source of catalase, and also bring about oxidising processes. However, the real function of the glands has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but as they are excessively large in the pollen-eating Halictine bees, and small in the species feeding 308 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. the secretion to the young, it would appear that Pavlosky and Zarin’s explanatiton is probably correct. The proventricular valve in Exoneura is similar in form to that of Avis, the hive-bee. It is quadrangular rather than spherical, and apparently functions in the same manner, i.e., regulating the supply of nectar passing through from the pear- shaped thin membranous honey-sac to the corrugated ventriculus, or true stomach, where it becomes available for the sustenance of the bee, the sac being merely a vessel for carrying the sweet. In certain hive-bees received by the author from Inverell, New South Wales, and which were dying on the ground under white-box trees (Eucalyptus albens), it was found that the proventricular valve was much enlarged, and so congested with pollen-grains that it could no longer function, and the bees succumbed. An exceedingly large yeast was present in numbers in the rectum, but whether or not this had any incidence on the mortality could not be investigated. There are a few malpighian tubules, about twelve, whereas the honey-bee has perhaps a hundred of them. The tubules undoubtedly function as kidneys, throwing off urates, phosphates and calcium carbonate, and a milky drop or two of these is voided on or before the first flight. It is significant that in the very different genus, Halictus, the tubules of the newly-emerged imagines are very yellow with waste products, but these bees are confined to a diet mainly of pollen. The tubules of Exoneura are much paler. The fat body is conspicuous in the imagines, but oenocytes are not prominent in the older larvae, although they are numerous in other genera feeding mainly on a honey and pollen diet, with a minimum of glandular secretion. The sting of the female is well developed, but incapable of penetrating human epidermis, for the bees are very small. The genitalia of the males is distinctive, with two fringes of stout spines, and are thus quite unlike the genitalia of other bees. ; The author was more than surprised to find that the anterior legs of Exoneura rufitarsis Raym. (5 mm. in length) were identical in size and proportion wi those of Halictus erythrurus dimorphus Raym. (5 mm. in length), although the latter is in a very different family of earth-digging bees and, therefore, far lower on the evolutionary ladder than the reed-bees. Such a close likeness is more than co-incidental; it demonstrates the common inheritance of the bees. SuMMaARY. The reed-bees are widely distributed along the eastern and southern littoral of Australia; from Queensland to Western Australia. All the species are small, 3-6 mm. and even less, in length, and none makes any attack on the observer, for they are neither excitable nor aggressive, but docile and attractive. The “nests” are almost invariably in stems or reeds with a soft pithy core, and there are no cell-divisions, only one communal chamber. The bees have very little constructive ability. Certain species attach the eggs in a row to the wall; others deposit them criss-cross, loose, at the base of the lumen; some species develop the larvae on a communal pudding. The incubation of the egg takes up to 20 days, and complete development of the larva over four months. The larvae have unique “arms” and “fingers”, and for 30 days or so are fed by the several nurses with a copious secretion of the pharyngeal glands of the head. Later, each larva receives its own individual pudding of pollen, which is held to the buccal parts on the ventral surface. The imagines and larvae are capable of surviving lengthy periods of abstention from food—more than 90 days, but the experiment was not pressed to the extreme limit. Incubation 18-20 days. 14-20 days. Copious secretion Pollen added 10 days RAYMENT. 309 The larval appendages provide the most reliable specific characters, and, in the absence of the larvae, it is unwise to describe any bee as new, for many species are very critical. That the pseudopodia function as exudatoria was determined conclusively. The appendages are absorbed on the approach of metamorphosis, and the faeces are ejected while the larva is still feeding, demonstrating that the junction of the proctodeum and mesenteron is effected at an earlier stage than in other bees. ere are no castes, but several sisters remain together in one stem, and attend to all the duties; males, too, are usually present, therefore, the genus must be regarded as a social one, although of a primitive kind. The experiments with E. rufitarsis and E. richardsoni demonstrated that not more than two broods, a spring and an autumn one of males and females, are reared each season. The adults have a long life compared with the simple wild- bees, for they live for more than twelve months, and are present in the home when the young are finally developed as imagines. There is, therefore, some support for Prof. W. M. Wheeler’s postulation that longevity of the parents is a factor in the evolution of the social state. The three types of larval development in Exoneura have parallels in the South African genus Allodape. There is some exchange of glandular food from one adult to another (Honey- bee workers normally pass honey from one to another, and secretion to the queen). The rectal glands are larger on genera feeding on a more primitive pudding of pollen and honey with a modicum of secretion. The bees visit many botanical species in entirely different families. The dates given in the calendar below are, of course, approximate only, for although several hundreds of larvae were kept under close observation, it was impossible to discern the actual beginning of the change from one phase to another. Moreover, the larvae were subjected to various experiments, and often it was not possible to determine conclusively the incidence of these on the ultimate development of the insect. The mother bees cannot be held indefinitely in the observatory tubes, and the absence of the females for long periods, in the artificial conditions of the laboratory, doubtless militate against the normal development of the larvae. Males are the first to succumb to imprisonment. CALENDAR OF DEVELOPMENT. Female Exoneura richardsoni Raym. 7 July, 1948: A series of females with eggs in plant stem. iS yahident , A granular opacity appears in middle of egg. 20) ‘x, »» Opaque area enlarged, but poles translucent. 260" “5: ,». Segmentation visible; eggs hatched, secretion being fed. Didh te » Females feeding larvae copiously with secretion. AO ik, ,. Progessive feeding with secretion continued. 5 Aug. ,, Nodes developing on larvae. LO}. 5, Copious feeding maintained; nodes larger. Py es ,» Nodes developed into defined “arms”. Key , Mothers adding some pollen to secretion. 20s ,, Orange-coloured pollen visible in mesenteron. DB his: » Pollen percentage increasing in food, but secretion decreasing. 37 days. Resting phase Larvae eating pollen-ball 30 days. Pupal phase 35 days. Total period 152 days approx. BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. a »» Pollen-ball given to larva on ventral surface. Pe », Larvae consuming pollen taken from hive-bees. Sept. ,, Larvae consuming synthetic pollen; greenish colour in mesenteron. 4 » Larvae receive “Royal Pap” mixed with pollen from hive-bees. » Mesenteron appears to contain much pollen. re » Pellet of excreta aggregating at caudal pole of larva. 5 », Larvae still feeding. First pellet excreted. Oct. _,, Desultory feeding by larvae. Second pellet excreted. a. » Feeding ceases; third pellet excreted; larvae writhe on exposure. a8 », Larvae apparently resting; “arms” almost absorbed. Hs » Resting phase continues, no movement. as » Pellicle somewhat flaccid, pupa revealed. Nov. ,, Pellicle still attached at caudal pole. BS » All eyes faintly pink. 2 » Eyes dark-pink, lead-colour on head and thorax. = »» Eyes, head and thorax all deepest royal-blue colour. Dec. ,, Eyes, head, thorax deepest blue-black; abdomen pale-amber; all appendages still white; wings dark-grey. 7 », Only tibiae, tarsi and mouthparts white; coxae, trochanters, femora and antennae blue-black; base of abdomen with dark cloud. 2 » Imagine fully developed, but wings milky white; walking with vigour; adult colouring now complete. The maximum for activity is reached in mid-summer, and during the second week in January the colonies are very populous, with many males present in the stems, and it appears that copulation occurs there; eggs, puddings, larvae, pupae, imagines, are all present at that period. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The author is indebted to the courtesy of Dr. A. J. Nicholson, Chief of the Entomological Division, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, for the serial sections used in the studies of the histology of the larval appendages of Exoneura richardsoni, sp. nov. hd e SOON DN AWN —a | EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxvii. Adult female, Exoneura rufitarsis Raym., “grooming” and feeding a young larva with the secretion; note the glossa folded back under the head. Two adult females during the “kissing” action. One female “wiping the mouth” of a nurse-bee after she had fed a larva. During the “draping” of the walls, the eyes and genae are stroked rapidly with the forelegs alternately as the head rolls from side to side. Adult females turn “heels over head” as they reverse in the lumen of the stem. Portion of the alimentary canal, showing rectum and circular rectal glands (marked by the arrow), malpighian tubules, and portion of ventriculus. Rectal gland more highly magnified to show the close network of trachea. Mandible of female Exoneurae is bidentate. Mandible of the male is simple. Genitalia of male E. perpensa Ckll. Genitalia of male E. rufitarsis Raym. at the same magnification. Note the unique spines. Anterior wing; note the absence of the second recurrent nervure; this character is responsible for the generic name. Anterior wing with five hamuli. Seventh tergite of the male. Myrtaceous pollen-grains removed from the ventriculus of a male. Labrum of the female. HS 9 9 NAMAWN bt ed bt re — SS eoleslenfestectestenten RAYMENT. ar 1 EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxviii. . Egg of Exoneura rufitarsis Raym.; note the hyaline caudal pole. Young larva before the lateral appendages appear. . Larva soon after the appearance of the appendages. . The appendages are fully developed at forty days. . As metamorphosis approaches the appendages are gradually absorbed. . At one phase the appendages become distended. The pupa presents no distinctive characters apart from the long spines of the tibiae. CAI] the preceding figs. at same magnification. ) Oblique ventral view showing the last phase of the invagination of the apical segments of the abdomen. . Larva of E. sub-baculifera Raym.; note the prominent cephalic protuberance and numerous abdominal processes. Oblique ventral view of apical processes of E. richardsoni Raym. . B. C. D. First, second, third, fourth lateral appendages of Exoneura hamulata Ckll. The pharyngeal glands are well developed in the Exoneurae. EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxix. . Front of head-capsule of female Exoneura rufitarsis Raym. Front of head-capsule of male; note the excavated areas about the bases of the scapes. Mouthparts showing the slender glossa and maxillary and labial palpi. The position of the salivarium is marked by an arrow in this and the next figure. Pressure from the cover-glass causes deformity of the parts. Head-capsule of female pupa showing the development of the mouthparts. . Portion of glossa highly magnified to show the arrangement of the acute setae. . Margin of galea highly magnified. . Anterior leg of male. Hooklet of the fifth tarsus of the male. Flagellum of the female. Strigilis of the male. Portion of the opposing comb of the antenna-cleaner. . Hind calcar of male. . Median leg of male. . Posterior leg of female. Two of the forked hairs from the leg. . Oblique ventral view showing the invagination of the apical segments of the abdomen. . Pharyngeal plate of the female. . Ducts of the pharyngeal glands more highly magnified. . The delicate sculpturing of the mesothorax. EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxx. Clypeal Markings on Species of Exoneura. . Male and female E. obliterata Ckll. . lawsoni Raym. . rufitarsis Raym. . richardsoni Raym. . asimillima Raym.; lower portion is suffused in female. holmesi Raym.; lower portion is suffused in male. . hamulata Ckll. montana Raym. . abstrusa Ckll. Male E. ziegleri Raym. Female E. angophorella Raym; median portion is suffused. 21-22. Male and female E. perpensa Female E. asimillima Raym. Female E. albolineata Ckll. 312 BIOLOGY OF THE REED-BEES. 25-26. Male and female E. roddiana Raym. Zi. 28. 29. 30. $C COIs ON ie ee 1 The female E. rufa Raym. has a suffused area. The female E. florentiae Raym. has the clypeus suffused. Male E. bicincta Raym. Male E. xanthoclypeata Raym. EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxxi. Adult wasp Aphycus asperithorax Raym. tenna of the wasp. One of the segments of the flagellum more highly magnified to show the large longitudinal pore-organs. Sculpture of the mesothorax and scutellum. Fifth tarsal segment and claws of the wasp. Expanded basitarsus of male bee Exoneura richardsoni Raym. Tyroglyphid mite Tyrofagus tenuiclavus Zachvatkin, taken from a2 gall. Apical segment of tarsus of mite. Deutonymph of Sennertis bifilis Canest. Gall-forming beetle Ethon affine Laporte & Gory . Striae and hair of thorax of beetle. 12-13. Lateral processes of larva of E. richardsoni Raym. 14. 15. 1S: Tarsal segments of anterior leg of beetle. The entrance to the “nesting” stick is often contracted with an iris of pithy substance. Front of head-capsule of female bee, E. angulata Raym. . Front of head-capsule of male bee, E. richardsoni Raym. Gall formed by the buprestid beetle on stem of Pultenaea stipularis. Section of the gall showing cavity and exit used later by the bee. EXPLANATION OF PLATE xxxii. Transverse section of young larva of Exoneura richardsoni, sp. nov. magnified 100 X. The section is cut apicad of the appendages. Transverse section of an older larva, with the lateral appendages partially absorbed. Transverse section of a larva near the base of the appendages. ‘The wing- muscles are in an early stage of development. co of the cell-structure immediately beneath the wing-muscles magnified 600 X. One of the cells more highly magnified. Transverse section of “thumb” of appendage showing the lumen. Longitudinal section of apical portion of the appendage showing cells and lumen. Three of the secreting cells of the lumen more highly magnified. Oblique section at base of the appendage. Cells at base more highly magnified. Transverse section of appendage showing cells and lumen. Transverse section of the larval mesenteron. ; Epithelial cells of the ventriculus do not differ from those of the hive-bee Apis. Sensory hair of the body-wall showing the connection with the cell beneath the cuticula. Oblique section at base of one of the two frontal processes of the head. The serial sections were prepared in the laboratory of the Entomological Division, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, A.C.T. The stain used was Mallory’s Triple for connective tissue. REFERENCES. Brauns, Hans (1926).—Annals South African Museum, xxiii. CocxERELL, T. D. A. (1930).—Australian Zoologist, Vol. vi., Pt. ii., p. 151. _———-—- (1934).—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. C10), xiv., p. 220. RAYMENT. 313 odin in (1948).—Vic. Nat., Vol. 65, No. 4, pp. 85-91, Aug., 1948. RESUME. TarLTon Rayment, 1951. Biology of the Reed-bees, Exoneurae, with Descrip- tions of Three New Species and Two Allotypes. The first account of the life-history of these remarkable bees, which are endemic to Australia. The feeding habits, development of the larvae, and the behaviour of the individual are investigated, and the larval appendages and ivory- coloured face-marks of many species are figured. The author suggests that the “arms and fingers” of the larvae are not pseudo- podia, but exudatoria, for he observed the larvae sucking the appendages, one after another, and concluded that a lipoid may be obtained in that manner. The rectal glands are compared with those of Halictus, and it is probable that the organs are small in species that feed progressively a rich secretion to the larvae, i.e., Apis and Exoneura, but very large in species supplying a simple pudding of honey and pollen to the young, i.e., Halictus. The author warns taxonomists of the dangers of describing as new any specimen in the absence of the larvae, which possess very good specific characters, though the adults may be exceedingly difficult to separate. The Exoneurae are definitely social bees of a simple organisation, and not solitary, as was hitherto believed. The paper is illustrated with 6 Plates and 2 Text-figures. A mite, Tyrofagus tenuiclavus, is recorded from Australia for the first time. New specific names: Exoneura angulata, E. subexcavata, E. richardsoni, spp. n. and E. asimillima, emend. for simillima Rayment. THE HUMMING BIRD. By Tom IREDALE. The Humming Bird is about as well known as any kind of bird, although it is not Australian and no near relatives occur in this country. In South America the class is represented by very many kinds, all small to very small, of resplendent plumage and commonly with quaint modifications of bill, wings and tail. They are remarkable for their rapid quick flight, although it is not now believed that they can fly at hundreds of miles per hour. A vague connection with Australia is through our famous Gould, whose hobby (we may call it) was this class of bird. Gould was originally a taxidermist, and though he later became famous as a bird illustrator, bookseller, man of business, he always maintained his skill in his early art. Thus he used to secure every new Humming Bird for his collection and set it up in appropriate style in a case until the famous Exhibition of 1851 was mooted. He at once saw a chance of showing off his skill and probably making money at the same time and secured a site in the Show Grounds. He then built his own little Exhibition of Humming Birds, and probably to his own astonishment it became one of the chief attractions and he made a lot of money out of it. Moreover, a small book was written about Humming Birds, based on this exhibition by a popular writer named Martin. Gould himself had begun one of his great folio works on the subject, which was com- pleted in 1861, but Gould was still interested in Humming Birds right up to his death twenty years later. When the Exhibition was closed, Gould had a large exhibition gallery prepared in his own home and his beloved Humming Birds remained there until his death, when they were purchased by the British Museum. The collection was on show there for many years (maybe is still), testifying to his great skill in displaying these minute and fragile gems. But the cause of this note is a different “Humming Bird”, a periodical issued under that name b another gieat lover of these beautiful, even bizarre, jots of bird-life. A naturalist traveller, Adolphe Boucard, collecting in Mexico and South America, became greatly attracted to these little birds, and emulated a continuation of Gould’s work. Becoming a dealer, he had every opportunity of acquiring speci- mens and maintained a magnificent collection. In 1890 he transferred his business from Paris to London and began a small periodical which he named “The Humming Bird”. As a sub-title he added, “A Monthly Scientific, Artistic and Industrial Re- view”, Guaranteed Circulation 5,000. ‘The first number, dated January 1, 1891, is a small quarto of eight pages of advertising matter and eight pages of text, a large reproduction of a photograph of the Editor, signed A. Boucard, being added. ‘The Preface begins: ““The ‘Humming Bird’ will be a monthly Record of everything new in the Scivntific, Artistic and Industrial World, passing from one subject to another, as its Synonym does when he is on the wing, flying from one plant to another in search of food. At times it will fly at great distances to see what is going on there and will return as quickly to its native place as often as necessary.” The Editor kept his promise and a very varied fare was offered. ‘The book seems to be very rare and does not appear in Mathews’ Bibliography as possessing any Australian interest. However, a new Bird of Paradise was described therein and it became necessary to examine the work, Casey Woods’ good description of the magazine whetting the appetite. I have managed to secure a copy which allows the present notice. I was surprised to find two notices relative to Australian birds which have hitherto been overlooked. On p. 27, Apl. 1, 1891, appears an article, “Notes on the Crowned Superb Warbler, Malurus coronatus, Gould’, signed Walter Burton. In this note Burton records that he accompanied Bowyer-Bower on his fatal trip. Sharpe recorded in the Hist. Coll. Nat. Hist. Brit. Mus., Vol. II., p. 317, under Bowyer-Bower, “took with him as assistant, Mr. Walter Burton, a first-rate taxi- dermist, one of the sons of Henry Burton, a well-known taxidermist, of Wardour Street (London )”. IREDALE. 315 On p. 53, July 1, 1891, another article, “Notes on the Great Bower-Bird, Chlamydodera nuchalis Jard.”, was contributed by Burton. This seems all, but on p. 7 Boucard began “An Easy Way of Making One Hundred Pounds Sterling a Year by collecting Specimens of Natural History at Leisure Time”. A short second article completed this effort, but in the March number another series with the same title to the end of “Year”, was begun by Walter Burton, based mostly on his Austra- lian experience, and after his second article a last one by Boucard was added and the whole five indexed as by Boucard and Burton. At the end of the first year Boucard thanked his subscribers and correspondents and hoped to make Vol. II. even more interesting by the addition of the “Genera of Birds” which he had been working on since 1876, and would begin with the Genera of the Humming Birds. It was reduced to small octavo in size and con- tinued monthly through 1892, but in 1893 it lapsed to a quarterly and slowly faded away in December, 1895. He had, however, managed to issue his Genera of Humming Birds, but he never got any farther with the larger “Genera of Birds”. There is nothing of Australian interest in the last four volumes, but to the omnivorous general reader this Humming Bird would be intriguing matter, as Boucard was involved in the Panama Canal imbroglio and he attempted to salvage his holdings probably without much success. Boucard also discusses the British Museum as seen by a Frenchman, the World’s Fair at Chicago, the Zoologica] Gardens of London, the McKinley Tariff, &c., &c., always interspersing notes on his Humming Birds. The latter volumes are filled up with contemporary notices of books and many obituaries of naturalists. Adolphe Boucard was born in 1839 and died Dec. 15, 1904, and there is an Obituary Notice in the Ibis, 1905, p. 299. ‘The popular writer named Martin”, mentioned above, was William Charles Linnaeus Martin (1798-1864), a friend and adviser of Gould in his early days at the Zoological Society. 316 AGAIN GOULD. An Amazinc Discovery. By Tom IRepAte. Gould admirers, all over the world, will be pleased to hear that a large number of pattern plates of his Birds and Mammals of Australia are now preserved in the Commonwealth National Library at Canberra. These had long been kept in the safe at the Museum of Technology in Sydney, until recently it was decided that they would be of more service in the National Library, where they would be available to students. I have been allowed by the authorities of both Institutions to make notes for publication of these wonderful Gouldiana, and to them the thanks of myself and all ornithologists are sincerely rendered. Firstly, the progress of a colour-litho- graph must be explained, as it is not well known to the present generation. The first act in the procedure is a rough sketch of the idea of the picture: when this is agreed upon the artist makes a finished painting. ‘This is handed to the lithographer, who etches in reverse on the lithographic stone, and from the stone proofs are printed. ‘These are in faint black and white (really grey and yellowish) and one of these is coloured to agree with the artist’s painting. When this is passed as accurate it becomes the pattern or “Key Plate”, and the series are coloured by hand in agreement and hence the name hand-coloured lithographs. These patterns become somewhat worn through the handling and are commonly discarded as having served their purpose and usually disappear without trace. The discovery of a large number of the patterns of Gould’s Birds and Mammals of Australia between eighty and one hundred years old was therefore very un- expected and the complete story is not yet quite disclosed. The series here dealt with include most of the plates published as the Supplement to the Birds of Australia and most of the Mammals of Australia. The patterns are included in five covers labelled “Birds of Australia (Supplement) Key Plates, part 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively” agreeing with the five parts of the Supplement which appeared between the years 1851 and 1869. ‘The covers are old boards of the Birds of Aus- tralia, indicating that they were preserved by the Publishers with access to spare unused covers. ‘The patterns have comments generally made by Gould in his slapdash writing with a soft pencil, so that many words have become smudged and illegible. The remarks generally refer to the colouring of the soft parts or other details, but many are unmarked: thus the first plate is pencilled “Ptiloris Magnifica. Remarks: The legs and feet must be pale lead colour [some other words smudged]. Eyes umber brown; claws black [some other word smudged]”. A magnificent double plate of the New Zealand Mystery Bird, the Takahe, whose mystery has been so astonishingly solved quite recently, was apparently beyond criticism, as it is quite unmarked. On another plate after pencilled instructions a date is added in ink, Saturday noon 7th and on another Monday 11th, apparently dates when the instructions should be completed. In connection with the plate of the head of the Palm Cockatoo the note reads: “Iris purple-brown. Cheeks pale dull crimson tinged all round the edge with pale yellow which usually passes into (hazel)”. Again, dealing with the Yellow Fig Bird, is noted in pencil “Brighter” against breast and eye patch; then in ink, “The breast to (be) done with ground Gamboge should be very bright and delicate”, then in pencil, “bare space round eye of the male much brighter’. An interesting comment appears in connection with “Megaloprepia” back more golden a little; then follows a pencil description, “Carpophaga assimilis Gould differ from puell of Teminck which is from N. Guinea in its large size Gin its back be more golden (or sulphur) green, in the more strong yellow marks across the shoulder which are more spots—puella in having more orange under tail coverts, the face of puella is lighter, more grey than affinis Caffinis crossed out and assimilis IREDALE. 317 written in); afhnis (again correction to assimilis), in fact, is intermediate between magnifica and puell”’. One note partially smudged is initialled J.G. As noted above, many patterns were passed without criticism. With regard to the Mammals a few comments were made and some of these are of great interest, especially the first one: “Be so good as to keep the work close as possible to the Pattern, as Mrs. Gould complains of the least deviation, &c. J.G.” ‘This note is written in ink and pasted on. Another comment reads, “See that all the greys are full as light and warm as the Pattern. x Centre of breast full strong. Dark mark on the body of the animals are full black in the Pattern”. Then H. C. Richter came upon the scene, due to Mrs. Gould’s unfortunate and untimely death, and it is interesting to see the earliest plates signed H.C.R. 1841 and here the note reads: “Increase the colouring of animals not so much as in the large figures. A little more than it is here. W.H.” What W.H. stands for is unknown. A note of explanation must be given regarding some of these plates. The Mammals of Australia was illustrated by Gould after he had begun the Macro- podidae and he used some of the plates from that unfinished work in the latter greater project. This was issued in parts between the years 1845 and 1863, and consequently the note about Mrs. Gould referred to the earlier work as also the early plates of H. C. Richter. The sequel is not yet disclosed, but it appears from a letter in the possession of Mr. John Ramsay, son of E. P. Ramsay, at the time Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney, that the whole of the Pattern Plates for the Birds of Australia should be somewhere in Sydney. So the search will go on. 318 AUDUBON IN AUSTRALIA. By Tom Ipepate. One of the most romantic episodes in Australian ornithological history came to light last year when it became known through the cognizance of Mr. E. J. Hall- strom that the last lineal male Audubon was a resident in Australia. John James Audubon died in America on January 27, 1851, and since that date has become the inspiration of bird preservation in that country, the Audubon Society being the largest instrument for bird protection in the world. Audubon became famous in his lifetime from the publication of his grandiose and novel paintings of birds, a task which almost dismayed him at the time. His life, wanderings in pursuit of birds, and his difficulty in getting his pictures published, have been well described and this work is now itself almost a classic. Fame in one direction is generally restricted to the students of the matter detailed, although a fleeting uni- versal interest is sometimes gained. Consequently, while Audubon is a national name in America and is well known to international ornithologists, it is absolutely unfamiliar to Australians generally. Hence the fact that the grandson of this famous American had settled early in his life in Australia and lived many years, leaving a son and daughter, who have continued to the present day, meant nothing to their neighbours. Paintings by the latter's famous great-grandfather hung upon the walls of their dwelling, but even these aroused no comment, and only now, a century after the death of Audubon, has this fact become generally known. This is due, as above noted, to Mr. Hallstrom, who got in touch with Mr. Len Audubon and secured from him some books which are of great interest to Australians. “These books had been presented to the great-grandfather of Mr. Len Audubon, John James Audubon, the artist, by John Gould, a younger contemporary who was paying homage to the more famous American in presenting copies of his less (but now scarcely less famous) pretentious illustrated works. Audubon, in his early forties, reached England in 1826 in the hope of pub- lishing his huge pictures; huge, for Audubon had selected an outsize one mettre, i.e., three feet three inches by two-thirds of a metre, two feet two inches, for his work. ‘This size is called elephant or double elephant folio and is the largest size ever used for bird pictures and then only by Audubon. Gould was content with an imperial folio measuring less than two feet by less than eighteen inches. Gould had published the Birds from the Himalayas and then concluded his Birds of Europe, ranking him only a little lower than Audubon. Whether these two greatest of ornithologists ever met is not known at present, as there is no mention in Audubon’s diaries, while the busy Gould had no time for such a detail as a diary. But the books in the possession of Mr. Len Audubon had been presented by Gould just before he left for Australia, and consisted of two parts of his Mono- graph of the Trogonidae Cissued in three parts), two parts of the Icones Avium (all that were issued of this project.) and two parts of the Birds of Australia and the Adjacent Islands (now known as the cancelled parts), one of the rarest of all Aus- tralian bird books. ‘This is of considerable interest, as all the copies were replaced when Gould restarted his work anew after his return from his unexampled suc- cessful trip to Australia. There is no comment by Audubon on anything in these Australian parts, but there are two notes in the other works worthy of record. Thus in the Icones Avium, Part I., dealing with Microura squamata Gould, Scaly-breasted Little-tail, Gould observes, “The great length of its tarsi, and the rounded and concave form of its wings at once indicate its partiality to the ground”. A pencil note reads: “x Concave-winged Birds belong both to the Water and the Land. Therefor this character is of little importance in this species. Audubon”. Part II. of the Monograph of the Trogonidae has written at the top in Gould’s IREDALE. 319 hand writing, “J. J. Audubon, March 21st, 1836, London”, and in text of plate 2 Trogon narina Gould repeated Levaillant’s note; “The nest is placed in holes of trees; the eggs are four in number, almost round, and of a rosy white; the female sits for twenty days, and the moment the young are excluded they take flight and follow their parents for a considerable period”. The last sentence is underlined in pencil and a pencil note by Audubon reads: “This beats my little Humming Birds, which cannot fly until they are one week old. Pray show this paragraph to Charles Watterton, “Esquire of Walton Hall’. There is a story behind this, as Neville Wood wrote: “The accuracy of these (Audubon’s) biographies has been doubted by our amiable friend, Mr. Waterton, of Walton Hall”. These presentation copies had been in the possession of the Audubons for all these years and had travelled from America to Australia, and the present Audubon was born in Australia. Curiously enough his father was born in England when his parents were there on business matters. Mr. Len Audubon thus becomes a perfect example of the unity of nations, = pee Parents of John James Audubon, his great-grandfather, were French and panish. NoTEs on THE MonoGRAPH oF TROGONS. Recent bibliographers have apparently known little about the publication of this monograph. In the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) Catalogue, 1904, appeared “A monograph of the Trogonidae, or family of Trogons. 36 pls. col. with descrip- tive letterpress, fol., London, 1838”. Sherborn (1922) added nothing to this. Zimmer (1926), whose bibliographic work in the Ayer Catalogue is excellent, shed some light by citing “1836-38. Published in three parts. Part I. is mentioned by Swain- son—therefore must date 1836 or earlier. I do not know what species were included in this part. Later Swainson cited species from Gould so that those species were undoubtedly included in Part I., or in Parts I. and II. if both were in print before July, 1837”. Casey Wood (1931) apparently did not have this issue, as he cited “The present edition is the second, the first appearing in 1838”. Going back to con- temporaries, Engelmann (1846) wrote “36 species, 3 Pts. in 1 Vol., with descrip- tive letterpress and 36 beautifully coloured plates in Imp. fol. Ibid [that is London], 1838”. However, Neville Wood in his “Ornithologists’ Text Book, published May, but with preface date Jan. 1, 1836, included “Monograph of the Trogonidae, by John Gould, London, 1835, folio”. This is confirmed in Weigmann’s Arch fur Natur, Vol. II., 1836, p. 268, wherein Part I. is recorded as having appeared in 1835. Hence we have dates 1835 to 1838 for the issue of the three parts, but no details of contents. Therefore, the present find solves all the matters in doubt, though the first part is not available. The cover is, and the contents can be, recovered by means of elimination. The cover reads: A/Monograph/of the/Trogonidae/or Family of Trogons/by/ J. Gould,/F.L.S./Part I./CTo be completed in three parts)/Price £2.2.0/London./ Published by the Author, 20, Broad Street, Golden Square./1835/Printed by C. Hullmandel./ Part 2 is the same cover with alteration only in the part and price, the part number being altered to 2, and the price to £2.10.0, the alterations being in manu- script. This cover bears at the top, “J. J. Audubon, March 21st, 1836, London”, in three lines in Gould’s handwriting. The contents are one plate and one page text corresponding, the Latin name under the plate succeeded by a vernacular, and the text similarly headed. ‘The fol- lowing is the order, but the plates are not numbered, nor, of course, is the text:— 1. Trogon temnurus, Temm. Cuba Trogon. 2. Trogon narina, Levaill. Narina Trogon. 3. Trogon duvaucelii, Temm. Duvaucel’s Trogon. 4. Trogon variegatus, Spix. Purple-breasted Trogon. 5. Trogon surucura, Vieill. Surucua Trogon. 6. Trogon melanocephala, Gould. Black-headed Trogon. 7. Trogon pavoninus, Spix. Pavonine Trogon. 8. Trogon melanopterus, Swains. Black-winged Trogon. 320 AupuUBON IN AUSTRALIA. 9. Trogon diardii, Temm. Diard’s Trogon. 10. Trogon melanopterus, Swains. Black-winged Trogon. 11. Trogon collaris, Vieill. Collared Trogon. 12. Trogon meridionalis, Swains. Little Trogon. The cover of Part 3 is the same as the preceding, save that the part and the phrase have been erased, leaving only the “Price L” in the space. Then “Part 3” has been written in, and the L after Price crossed and 2.18.0 added. The final 5 in the date has also been altered so that it now reads in print 1838. So that we now have the following data:— Part I.—Eleven plates and text, 1835. Price £2.2.0. Part II].—Twelve plates and text, 1836. Price £2.10.0. Part III.—Thirteen plates and text, 1838. Price £2.18.0. At the beginning of Part III. is a Preface, Introduction, Synopsis Specierum, List of Subscribers and a List of Plates (to be used for the order in which the plates were to be arranged when bound). Part III. 1. Trogon massena, Gould. Prince Massena’s Trogon. 2. Trogon caligatus, Gould. Booted Trogon. 3. Trogon aurantius, Spix. Orange-breasted Trogon. 4. Trogon pulchellus, Gould. Beautiful ‘Trogon. 5. Trogon roseigaster, Vieill. Rosy-vented Trogon. 6. Trogon fulgidus, Gould. ——— (Shining Trogon on plate). 7. Trogon citreolus, Gould. ——— (Lemon-breasted Trogon on plate). 8. Trogon hodgsonii, Gould. Hodgson’s Trogon. 9. Trogon ardens, Temm. Rosy-breasted Trogon. 10. Trogon neoxenus, Gould. Welcome Trogon. 11. Trogon macroura, Gould. Large-tailed ‘Trogon. 12. Trogon melanurus, Swains. Black-tailed Trogon. 13. Trogon gigas, Vieill. Giant Trogon. The List of Plates gives them in the following order which is, as bound, as these numbers are cited by Gray in his Handlist in 1870, before the second edition was issued. The volume arrangement, then, is:— Plate 1. Trogon mexicanus, Swains (ad. male). Issued in Part I., 1835. 2. Trogon mexicanus, Swains (young male and female). Part I., 1835. 3. Trogon elegans, Gould. Part I., 1835. 4. Trogon ambiguus, Gould. Part I., 1835. 5. Trogon collaris, Vieill. Pl. 11, Part II., 1836. 6. Trogon variegatus, Spix. Pl. 4, Part II., 1836. 7. Trogon caligatus, Gould. Pl. 2, Part III., 1838. 8. Trogon aitricollis, Vieill. Part I., 1835. 9. Trogon meridionalis, Swains. Pl. 12, Part II., 1836. 10. Trogon melanopterus, Swains. (male & female). Pl. 10, Part II., 1836. 11. Trogon melanopterus, Swains. (young male). Pl. 8, Part II., 1836. 12. Trogon melanocephala, Gould. Pl. 6, Part II., 1836. 13. Trogon citreolus, Gould. Pl. 7, Part III., 1838. 14. Trogon aurantius, Spix. Pl. 3, Part III., 1838. 15. Trogon surucura, Vieill. Pl. 5, Part Il., 1836. 16. Trogon massena, Gould. Pl. 1, Part III., 1838. 17. Trogon macroura, Gould. Pl. 11, Part III., 1838. 18. Trogon melanura, Swains. Pl. 12, Part III., 1838. 19. Trogon albicollis, Swains (temnurus). Pl. 1, Part II., 1836. 20. Trogon roseigaster, Vieill. Pl. 5, Part III., 1838. 21. Trogon resplendens, Gould. Part I., 1835. IREDALE. 32] 22. Trogon pulchellus, Gould. Pl. 4, Part III., 1838. 23. Trogon pavoninus, Spix. Pl. 7, Part II., 1836. 24. Trogon fulgidus, Gould. Pl. 6, Part III., 1838. 25. Trogon neoxenus, Gould. Pl. 10, Part III., 1838. 26. Trogon narina, Levaill. Pl. 2, Part Il., 1836. 27. Trogon reinwardtii, Temm. Part I., 1835. 28. Trogon gigas, Vieill. Pl. 13, Part III., 1838. 29. Trogon temminckii, Gould. Part I., 1835. 30. Trogon diardii, Temm. Pl. 9, Part II., 1835. 31. Trogon malabaricus, Gould. Part I., 1835. 32. Trogon duvaucelii, Temm. Pl. 3, Part II., 1836. 33. Trogon erythrocephalus, Gould. Part I., 1835. 34. Trogon hodgsonii, Gould. Pl. 8, Part III., 1838. 35. Trogon ardens, Temm. Pl. 9, Part III., 1838. 36. Trogon oreskios, Temm. Part I., 1835. WESTERN AUSTRALIAN BIRD BOOKS. By Tom IReEDALE. Some time in 1948 there was issued in Western Australia “A Systematic List of the Birds of Western Australia”, by H. M. Whittell and D. L. Serventy. Some time is written advisedly, as the Preface is dated June 4, 1947, the Fore- word September, 1948, and the Title Page 1948, and the copy received by me direct on August 23, 1948. This is an invaluable List, as hitherto the only catalogue available seems to have been one that appeared in the W.A. Year Book for 1900-1, prepared by B. Woodward from notes by A. W. Milligan and published as long ago as 1902. The present List is based on Mathews’ Lists with emendations from oversea ornithologists incorporated, although it professes to follow the “Official Check-List” of 1926. All the synonyms relating to Western subspecies are recorded without indication by the authors of any preference, which is all to the good. The Western Annstialian avifauna still provides many problems of distribution and will take many years to elucidate thoroughly, but it is certain that this List will prove exceedingly useful in that connection. Complaint might be made of certain eccentricities, but these will straighten themselves out with the progress that will eventuate in the near future through the production of a finer and more interesting work by the same authors. The latter is a fine octavo volume of some 365 pages, with two coloured plates, thirty-two text-figures, and a map. It is entitled “A Hand- book of the Birds of Western Australia Gwith the exception of the Kimberley Divi- sion)”, “published November, 1948”, but the names of the authors have been trans- posed so that these now read D. L. Serventy and H. M. Whittell. It is well-planned work with an introduction giving Aboriginal Names, Descriptions of the Species, Distribution, Nesting and Habits, etc. A section follows dealing with “The History of Western Australian Ornithology’, which will be read with great interest by all ornithologists; this is based on Alexander’s articles, which are now rare and were never well publicised, with much additional information by Whittell, whose investi- gations into this branch of ornithology have produced much valuable novelty. Possibly the succeeding section, Bird Geography, will create even more interest, as this subject is of great importance everywhere, and additional local information is very welcome. The rest of the book deals with the birds in the order of the Systematic List, but with still more alterations, so that the divorce from the “Official Check- List” becomes more pronounced. The descriptions are full and practically complete, while the field notes are, of course, more or less novel, as the scattered observations had not previously been brought together under a provincial title. It is especially noteworthy for its very complete indices. This is the best bird book yet produced on local Australian ornithology and should be followed by other State works, especially for New South Wales and Queensland, as South Australian and Victorian essays are already in train. It is very pleasing to record that a new edition has been called for, and was issued in February of this year (1951). It includes four more coloured plates, fourteen more text-fgures and nineteen more pages of text. 322 THE NATURALIST’S LIBRARY. An Essay 1n BIBLIOGRAPHY. By Tom IREDALE. (Plates xxxiii.-xxxiv. and text-figure. ) The dictionary meaning of bibliography is, “The knowledge and history of books”. An even better definition is found in an Encyclopaedia: “The word formerly meant the writing or transcription of books; but for nearly a century now [1914] the word has come to mean expert writing on books and MSS. with regard to points of variation between different editions, questions of authorship, binding, type, &c.” A common use of the word to-day is merely a list of books re- ferred to in the preparation of an article or book. The present use is the history of the publication of the abovementioned work and in attempting to unravel this attention must be given to so many obscure points that it seemed useful to indicate such in an article for the use of intending bibliographers in any sense. ‘The work © noticed was published in forty volumes between the years 1833 and 1843 and has been reprinted many times since. It was a publishing venture of the house of Lizars of Edinburgh, and the Editor was Sir William Jardine, who was also the writer of several of the volumes. Hence it is commonly cited as Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library. It started in a small way, but was so successful that reprints, alterations, improvements abound and the data of the original series are still confused. When I was associated with Mathews we, with the assistance of Sherborn and others, worked out the necessary items for the volumes dealing more or less with Australian birds. When, however, I collaborated with Troughton in the preparation of “A Check-List of the Mammals recorded from Australia’, I had to begin again upon the mammal series, and found inaccuracies everywhere. ‘The data provided in the Catalogue of Books in the British Museum, the dates given by Sherborn, Palmer’s Index, Engelmann’s Index, Casey Wood’s Introduction and Zimmer's Catalogue all proved erroneous in small details (small be it noted), but all the above are practically models of accurate work. Inasmuch as all the above have been unable to reach conclusively the truth about the issues of this work, I will not claim finality, either, but provide the present study as a basis for other students to whom more facilities for research are available. The series of forty volumes covers Mammals, Birds, Fishes and Insects, but were issued individually without reference to any group order and were later arranged into groups as above. An attempt was made to cover the desires of buyers for such rearrangement so that no less than three title-pages were provided in each volume, while the spine conveyed the nature of the contents in different language. In case this may read somewhat complicated, No. XII. may be cited as an example. ‘The twelfth volume to be issued has title No. 1: The Naturalist’s Library. Mammalia, Vol. IV., with a cut of The American Bison. ‘Then comes a page with, in the centre, The/Natural History/of the/Ruminating Animals. This is succeeded by another title-page: The/Naturalist’s Library./Mammalia,/ Vol. IV./Ruminantia./Part II./By/Sir William Jardine, Bart./&c. ‘Then follows another title-page: "[The/Natural History/of the/Ruminating Animals,/containing/Goats, Sheep, Wild and Domestic/Cattle, &c./Illustrated by thirty-three plates, with/ memoir and portrait of John Hunter.)/Part I./By/Sir William Jardine, Bart./the last two with the date 1836 at bottom. Then the spine is lettered Naturalists/ Library/Mammalia,/Vol. IV./Goats, Sheep,/&c. The size of the page is 63 inches by 43 inches, and in their advertisement the publishers called this ‘“Fools- cap 8vo’.* In the British Museum Catalogue this is accepted, but Bashford Dean in one place calls it 160 and in another 12mo. ‘The publisher’s announce- ment states that the cover is “extra Morocco cloth boards” and the colour as “maroon”, but at the present time the colour has faded to various shades of * 8vo is an abbreviation for octavo, 160 for sixteenmo and 12mo for duodecimo. See post. IREDALE. 323 brown. This is the original cover which was used from 1833 to 1843, and sets so covered are regarded as belonging to the original issue. This is where the first stumbling block appears, as through the increasing sales back numbers had to be reprinted and sometimes amended without any other indication than a mere change of the date on the title-pages, and not always that. Preceding the Frontispiece and Title-pages is a “List of Volumes/of the/ Naturalist’s Library,/in the order in which they were published”, and at the end “Advertisement Sheets” from which valuable information may be secured. These, of course, are missing in all later published copies. The names cited in this List do not exactly coincide with the title-page words, as while the twelfth volume, above cited, gives “Ruminating Animals’, the thirteenth shows ‘“Pachi- dermata’, the title-pages read ““Pachydermes’”, on the spine “Elephants, &c.” This last volume-name must have worried the editor or publisher, for when a new title-page was issued in 1843 under the new group-arrangement, the title-page records “Mammalia. Thick-skinned Quadrupeds”, this change appearing first in the list in the thirtieth volume. In order to check the stages of rearrangement it will be best to use the second title-page, which gives all the details, but they will be listed first in the order in which they were issued, although this does not appear elsewhere than on the printed fly-sheet (whose wording sometimes differs). Order of Issue Group Arrangement Author Printed by Date Vol. I.— Omithology, Vol. I., Humming Birds Jardine Ballantyne & Co. 1833 II.—Mammalia, Vol. I., Monkeys Jardine M. Aitken 1833 III.— Ornithology, Vol. II., Humming Birds Jardine Neill & Co. 1833 IV.—Mammalia, Vol. II., The Felinae Jardine Neill & Co. 1834 V.— Ornithology, Vol. III., Gallinac. Birds Jardine Neill & Co. 1834 VI.— Ornithology, Vol. IV., Gallinac. Birds, Part II., Game Birds Jardine Neill & Co. 1834 VII.— Ichthyology, Vol. I., The Perch Family Jardine And. Shortrede 1835 VIII.— Entomology, Vol. II., Beetles Duncan Stevenson & Co. 1835 IX.—Omnithology, Vol. V., Gallinac. Birds, Part III., Pigeons Selby Neill & Co. 1835 X.—Entomology, Vol. III., Brit. Butterflies Duncan Neill & Co. 1835 XI.— Mammalia, Vol. III., Ruminantia, art I. Jardine Neill & Co. 1835 XII._Mammalia, Vol. IV., Ruminantia, Part sl. Jardine Neill & Co. 1836 XITI.— Mammalia, Vol. V., Pachydermes Jardine And. Shortrede 1836 XIV.— Entomology, Vol. IV., Brit. Moths, &c. Duncan Lizars 1836 XV.—Ornithology, Vol. VI., Parrots Selby Neill & Co. 1836 XVI.— Mammalia, Vol. VI., Ordinary Cetacea or Whales . No author _ Lizars 1837 XVII.— Ornithology, Vol. VII., Birds of Wes- tern Africa Swainson Lizars 1837 XVIII.— Entomology, Vol. V., Forgn. Butterflies Duncan Lizars 1837 XIX.— Ornithology, Vol. VIII., Birds of Wes- tern Africa II. Swainson Lizars 1837 XX.— Ornithology, Vol. IX., Birds of Gt. Britain and Ireland Jardine And. Shortrede 1838 XXI.— Ornithology, Vol. X., Flycatchers Swainson Lizars 1838 XXII.—Mammalia, Vol. VII., Brit. Quadrupeds MacGillivray Lizars 1838 XXIII._Mammalia, Vol. VIII., Amph. Car- nivora Hamilton Lizars 1839 XXIV.— Ornithology, Vol. X., Birds of Gt. Brit. and Ireland, Part II. Jardine And. Shortrede 1839 324 Tue Naturaurist’s Liprary. XXV.— Mammalia, Vol. IX., Dogs Ham-Smith Lizars 1839 XXVI.-— Entomology, Vol. VI., Bees No author T. Constable 1840 XXVII.-— Ichthyology, Vol. II., Fishes Bushnan Lizars 1840 XXVIII.— Mammalia, Vol. X., Dogs Ham-Smith Lizars 1840 XXIX.—Entomology, Vol. I., Introduction to Duncan T. Constable 1840 XXX.- Mammalia, Vol. XI., Marsupialia Waterhouse T. Constable i 1841 *XXXI.— Mammalia, Vol. XII., Horses Ham-Smith Lizars 1841 XXXII.—Ichthyology, Vol. III., Fishes of Guiana, Part I. Schomburgk Lizars 1841 XXXIII.— Entomology, Vol. VII., Exotic Moths Duncan Lizars 1841 XXXIV.-— Ornithology, Vol. XII., Birds of Gt. Britain and Ireland, Part III. ’ Jardine Lizars 1842 XXXV.— Mammalia, Vol. XIII., Introduction to Ham-Smith Lizars 1842 XXXVI.—Ornithology, Vol. XIII., Nectariniadae Jardine Lizars 1843 XXXVII.— SS Vol. IV.—Brit. Fishes, ole XXXVIII.— mena sere Vol. V., Fishes of Guiana, art II. XXXIX.-— Ichthyology, Vol. VI., Brit. Fishes, Volo XL.— Omithology, Vol. XIV., Birds Gt. Brit. and Ireland, Part IV. Jardine Lizars 1843 Having numbered the groups as above in the last volume, a new series of title-pages is given, reading, “The/Naturalist’s Library/Edited by/Sir William Jardine, Bart.,/F.R.S.E., F.L.S., etc., etc./ Vol. I./Mammalia./Introduction to Mammalia/By Lieut.Col. Charles Hamilton Smith, &c., 1843. Vol. II., Mon- keys. Vol., III., Lions, Tigers. Vol. IV., Dogs, Part Ist. Vol. V., Dogs, Part 2nd. Vol. VI., Amphibious Carnivora. Vol. VII., Whales. Vol. VIII., Mar- supialia. Vol. IX., Thick-skinned Quadrupeds. Vol. X., Goats, Sheep. Vol. XI., Deer. Vol. XII., Horses. Vol. XIII., British Quadrupeds. Then Vol. XIV., Omithology, Humming Birds, Part Ist. Vol. XV., Humming Birds, Part 2nd. Vol. XVI., Sun-Birds. Vol. XVII., Flycatchers. Vol. XVIII., Parrots. Vol. XIX., Pigeons. Vol. XX., Gallinaceous Birds. Vol. XXI., Game Birds. Vol. XXII., Birds of Western Africa, Part Ist. Vol. XXIII., Birds of Western Africa, Part 2nd. Vol. XXIV., British Birds, Part Ist. Vol. XXV., British Birds, Part 2nd. Vol. XXVI., British Birds, Part 3rd. Vol. XXVII., British Birds, Part 4th. Now Ich- thyology. Vol. XXVIII, Fishes (Structure). Vol. XXIX., Fishes of the Perch Family. Vol. XXX, Fishes of British Guiana, Part Ist. Vol. XXXI., Fishes of British Guiana, Part 2nd. Vol. XXXII., British Fishes, Part Ist. Vol. XXXIII., British Fishes, Part 2nd. Vol. XXXIV., Entomology, Introduction to. Vol. XXXV., Beetles. Vol. XXXVI., Foreign Butterflies. Vol. XXXVII., Exotic Moths. Vol. XXXVIII., Bees. Vol. XXXIX., British Butterflies, and Vol. XL., British Moths, Sphinxes, &c. Hamilton Lizars 1843 Schomburgk Lizars 1843 Hamilton Lizars 1843 It will be noted in the first list that no author was given as the writer of the whales, but on the new title-pages appears the name Robert Hamilton. Also in con- nection with the book on Bees no author was cited, nor does his name appear in the new title-page, but in the advertisement in the front of the fortieth volume, in a list of the Authors’ Names and the Subjects treated by such, the Rev. Dr. Dunbar is credited with the volume on the Honey Bee, etc. These two omissions created a lot of confusion. ‘The essay on whales was attributed by Sherborn to C. Hamilton Smith, while Palmer in one place gave H. Smith (?), but also R. Hamilton. The pagination and date were also given incorrectly by Sherborn, who recorded Jan., 1836. ‘The British Museum Catalogue quoted 1839, while Palmer cited 1839, 1842 and then 1837, which is the correct date, the book appearing in January. In his reference to 1842, Palmer cites * Although the number is retained, it was explained at the time that Vol. xxxi. appeared before Vol. xxx. IREDALE. 325 p. 266, so apparently there was an amended edition, as the original ends on p. 264. But I have the original edition with title-page 1843, being Vol. VII. Cnot Vol. VI., which has the signature Vol. VI.), but with the signature Vol. XXVI., which is unintelligible, as also Sherborn’s and Palmer’s citation’s as Mammalia, Vol. IX. Apparently sheets were used from various issues which had the signa- tures in accordance with the arrangement adopted, as in one volume the first part is signatured Vol. XXVII., while the latter has the signature Vol. VII., though the title-page itself declares that it is Vol. XXII. As above noted, the first rearrangement began with Mammalia, a revised edition showed the order of the Mammal volumes altered, and then the Bird volumes were placed first and these began with the four volumes of British Birds, thus displacing all the series, and so on. Consequently, recognising the confusion, all the latest series have no volume number at all in the signature, merely the letter. Upon referring the volume on Bees to my colleague, Mr. A. Musgrave, he could not find Dunbar mentioned, but in one place the book was credited to Duncan, in another to Jardine, as it is in the British Museum Catalogue. ‘That Dunbar is correct is seen in the Advertisement dated Dec., 1838, in the 23rd volume (Mammalia, Vol. VIII., Amphibious Carnivora), where it is written, “A most interesting volume on the history of Bees, by the Rev. William Dunbar, being also in the press, will soon be in the hands of our subscribers’. However, before we retrace our steps, back to the eccentricities seen in the individual volumes, it must be pointed out that all the remarks in the places mentioned as to the reprints and re-issues are at fault. Immediately the series was completed in 1843 and the new title-pages as noted given in the last volume, a re-issue of the whole in a red cloth binding appeared. Whatever the cause, this arrangement was almost immediately forsaken and a new issue in the red cloth with the title-pages dated 1843 was made, beginning with the Birds, then Mammals, Insects and concluding with Fishes. In this case, British Birds begin the series. This red cover has been associated with the name of H. G. Bohn, of London, who somewhere about 1845-6 took over the southern sale from Lizars (who continued the printing for some years), and sold the work for many years, apparently dating many issues, as dates from 1845, 1846, 1848, 1851, 1855, 1861, &c., have been seen. So that at present neither the maroon covers nor the red cloths mean anything by themselves, three or more altered prints may occur in either binding, as some of the original issues have been found bound in red to match the later set. © The project began with Humming Birds and a comparatively small edition was first printed. It proved, however, so successful that a second printing took place within a year and in this alterations were made.: It would be an attractive piece of research for someone situated, say, in London, to collect data on the subject of Humming Bird prints alone. ‘The first issue had the plates without backgrounds; a second part had plain backgrounds added, and another edition had the backgrounds coloured. In the first issue the frontispiece of Linnaeus was unsigned and the memoir ran from pages 14 to 48, the work ending at page 147. The second print had a copy of Linnaeus’ signature added at the foot of the engraving, while the memoir occupied pages 25-60. In later editions the memoir was much extended. At the foot of the plates of the Humming Birds a Latin name alone was printed at first, but in the second print the English name was added in smaller type in brackets below. ‘The first print is dated 1833, the second 1834, but an advertisement in the second volume, also dated 1833, states, “The above Two Volumes (of the Humming Birds), done up in one, in rich silk binding and gilt leaves, containing Sixty-six Plates, coloured, with the Two Portraits, and Memoirs, price 14s”. Zimmer notes another special edition issued in 1840, notably having the backgrounds coloured and larger paper. Other dates have been seen for a similar book, but comparison is necessary in every case. In the first issue of the first volume two prints are known, one by Ballantyne, the other by Neill & Co., who printed the second volume. Also a copy of Vol. II. with the backgrounds added to the plates has the title-pages dated 1833, but the advertisement sheets at the back refer to May, 1835, so must have been issued after that date. 326 Tue Naturatist’s Liprary. In between the appearance of the two volumes of Humming Birds the first volume of the Mammalian series was issued. This dealt with Monkeys and all the early copies examined showed no complication. ‘Then Doctor Frank Marshall showed me his set which proved of great interest. There was an advertisement dated 1846 in the Introduction to the Mammalia, Vol. XV., wherein was noted that the fourteen volumes dealing with Ornithology had been issued and that the thirteen volumes of Mammalia, seven of Entomology and six of Ichthyology should be completed within eighteen months. ‘The Omnithology had begun with the Birds of Great Britain and therein was advertised, “The People’s Edition’, to appear fortnightly in parts, three parts to a voluume, in paper wrappers, at one shilling and fourpence per part. Apparently this did not eventuate, as nothing has been heard about it save the note by Engelmann, with the same information. But the important volume was Volume XXVII. dealing with Monkeys, which was signatured Vol. XXVII. The Memoir of Buffon occupied pages 17-34, followed by Eloge on Buffon by P. L. Courier (addressed to his fellow citizens, 35-36) 37-59; then came the Monkeys, pp. 67-272. However, this was succeeded by an Appendix: “A few observations on the new illustrations by Mr. James Stewart, the artist who made the drawing”, occupying pages 275-288. It then appeared that a large collection of Monkeys had been received by the Edinburgh Royal Zoological Gar- dens, and when Stewart saw them he made fresh paintings, Plates IX., X., XII., XIII., XIV., XV., XX., XXII, XXIII. and XXVII., from life and these super- seded the old ones, an entirely new one being also added on the title-page, all the others being redrawn. Unfortunately, the text was not amended, which it might have been, but Stewart’s action deserves the highest commendation. Probably the new illustrations appear in all issues after 1846, as I have an undated copy in the early red cloth which includes the paintings, but the Appendix with the explanations is deleted, and the Contents and Memoir are unpaged, then the Eloge is on pp. 1-23 and the Monkeys pp. 25-230, a stereotype of the first print, and thus the differences might have been overlooked without comparison, which, again, was not suggested. ‘There has not been as much interest in the other groups as in Ormitho- logy, and consequently there is probably much to learn. ‘The bird books have been excellently discussed by Zimmer and there is not a great deal to add, but there are slight differences to note even in this section. Thus the earliest volumes had Latin names only on the plates, and the green fly-leaf was ornamented by a large block of a bookback lettered “The Naturalist’s Library’. I have copies of the first five volumes in this state, but as above noted, second prints made almost simultaneously lack the adornment on the fly-leaf and generally an English name has been added underneath in smaller type to the Latin name on the plate. In still later issues the country of origin was also added and sometimes, as in the Fishes, the locality in the background is indicated by name. In the early issues the plates were distributed throughout the text, but to fill hurry orders they were lumped together at the end, and this apparently became the practice towards the end of the work. But here again there is no agreement, as in some of the post-1843 issues the plates may be found in the text. Thus I have examined some half dozen copies of the volume on Amphibious Carnivora in the original covering and in each I found the plates at the end, yet a post-1843 copy in the red cover has the plates throughout the text, which is a stereotyped print. The names on the plates in this volume are English only, Latin only, or English and Latin, sometimes with localities. Memorrs. The immortal section of these little books is that devoted to the account of some great naturalist, accompanied by an engraving. ‘These are very useful for reference, and as the list is given in other places in connection with the volumes, they are here re-arranged in alphabetical order for convenient usage. Aldrovandi, Vol. 22—British Quadrupeds 0000.02... A.D. 1522 or 1527—1605 Aristotle 5‘-Gallinaceous Birds 4...,.20 a Vee! Se een B.C. 384—321 Azara 28 = Does [hi Ae 2 Pee te eee eae ee ee A.D. 1746—1805? Banks 7=- The Perch