//

ft

SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT
OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION,

SOUTH KENSINGTON.

HANDBOOK

OF THE

/

/

COLLECTION ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE WILD SILKS OF INDIA,

IN THE

INDIAN SECTION OE THE SOUTH
KENSINGTON MUSEUM,

WITH A

CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTION

AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

%

BY THOMAS WAEDLE.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY GEORGE E. EYRE AND WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE..

PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY.

FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE.

AND SOLD AT THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

1881.

Pvive -One —ft/iitiingr.

Med

K7198

>

THE WILD SILKS OF INDIA.

The Lords of the Committee of Council on Educa-
tion think it desirable to direct public attention to the
Collection illustrative of the Wild Silks of India which
forms a part of the Indian Section added to the South
Kensington Museum in December 1879; and they have
accordingly requested Mr. Thomas Wardle, who has for
several years paid special attention to the subject, to prepare
this Handbook .

They trust that this work may not only add largely to
the interest of the Collection, but that it may lead to the
further development of one of the most wide-spread and
important natural productions of the Indian Empire,
and thus be a means of increasing the material prosper ity
of Her Majesty's Indian subjects .

South Kensington Museum,

August 1881.

SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT
OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION,

SOUTH KENSINGTON.

HANDBOOK

OF THE

COLLECTION ILLUSTRATIVE OF
THE WILD SILKS OF INDIA,

IN THE

INDIAN SECTION OE THE SOUTH
KENSINGTON MUSEUM,

WITH A

CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTION

AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

BY THOMAS WARDLE,

LONDON:

PRINTED BY GEORGE E. EYRE AND WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE,

PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTT.

FOR HER MAJESTY’S. STATIONERY OFFICE.

AND SOLD AT THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

1881.

Price One Shilling.

WELLCOME INSTITUTE i
LIBRARY

Coll

welMOmec

Call

No.

QL~

CONTENTS

Preface -

Chapter I. Classification of wild silkworms -

„ II. History of silk -

„ III. The silk of commerce

„ IV. Wild silks

,, V. Tusser silkworm and silk -

„ VI. New and improved processes of reeling,

spinning, dyeing, and printing Tusser

silk, with account of its uses - - 28

VII. Tusser embroidery - - - 47

VIII. The Eria silkworm - - - 48

IX. Dyeing of Eria silk - - - 53

X. The Moonga, Mooga, or Muga silk - 55

XI. Carding and spinning Eria and Muga

cocoons - - - 58

XII. Attacus Atlas - - - 61

XIII. Various other wild-silk producing worms 64

XIV. Life-history of several silk-producing

worms, and Table of the diameter,
strength, and tension of a single fibre
and dimensions of cocoon of the chief
mulberry and Indian wild silks - 68

XV. Moths’ scales - - - - 69

Page

- xi.

1

- 8
- 11

- 13

- 13

Appendix I. The Indian silkworm, by Dr. G. Birdwood 7 1

„ II. Table of Indian coins, weights, and

measures - - - - 76

„ III. Catalogue of the Collection of Wild Silks
in the Indian Section, South Kensington
Museum - - - - 81

„ IV. Description of the machinery used in
Italy and France for reeling cocoons,
and the mode of using it - - 86

„ V. Lyons Chamber of Commerce and Wild

Silks - - - - 90

a 3

Q 3255. Wt. 8948.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

(The lame, cocoons, and moths are shown of the actual size.)

Plate

55

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55

55

55

55

55

55

55

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VI.

VII.

VIII.

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55

I. Fig. 1. — Bombyx mori (male).

„ 2. — „ „ (female).

„ 3. — Larva of Bombyx mori.

„ 4. — Cocoon of Bombyx mori from
Bengal.

,, 5. — Cocoon of Bombyx mori reared in
Italy from Japan seed.

II. „ 1. — Antheraea mylitta or Tusser moth
(male).

„ 2. — Antheraea mylitta or Tusser moth
(female) .

III. Larva of Antheraea mylitta or Tusser

silkworm.

IV. Fig. 1. — Tusser cocoons.

2. — „ cocoon cut open to show the

chrysalis inside.

V. „ 1. — Antheraea Assama or Muga moth
(male).

2. — Antheraea Assama or Muga moth
(female).

1. — Larva of Antheraea Assama or Muga
silkworm.

2. — Muga cocoon.

1. — Antheraea Roylei (female).

2. — „ Frithii.

1. — Attacus ricini (male).

, 2. — Attacus ricini (female).

IXe Attacus Atlas (male).

X. „ „ (female).

XI. Fig. 1. — Larva of Attacus Atlas or Atlas
silkworm.

,, 2. — Cocoon of Attacus Atlas.

XII. ,, 1. — Cricula trifenestrata (male).

55

55

2. — „ „ (female).

3. — Larva of Cricula trifenestrata.

XIII.

„ 4. — Cocoon ,, „

,, 1. — Actias selene (male).

„ 2. — Larva of Actias selene.

55

3. — Cocoon of Selene.

XIV. Actias selene (female)

XV. Fig. 1. — Antheraea Heifer i.

,, 2. — Caligula Simla.

XVI. „ 1. — Antheraea pernyi (male).

„ 2.— „ „ (female). .

,, 3. — Cocoon of Antheraea pernyi.
XVII. „ 1. — Antheraea yama-mai (male).

2.— „ „ (female).

55

Vll

Plate

»>

5)

53

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

XVIII. Fig. 1. — Larva of Antheraea yama-mai.

2. — Cocoon „ „

3. — Cocoon of Attacus ricini.

1. — Attacus Cynthia (male).

2. — „ „ (female).

1. -— Larva of Attacus cynthia.

2. — Cocoon „ „

3. — Neoris Huttoni

1. — Saturnia carpini (male).

2. — „ „ (female).

3. — „ Grotei.

1. — Loepa katinka (male).

2. ' — „ (female).

3. — Larva of Loepa katinka.

1. — Loepa miranda (male).

2. — Diagram showing the point (x) on
wing from which the scales have

been taken.

XXIV. Tusser Districts.

XXV. Eria
XXVI. Munga
XXVII. Atlas

XXVIII. Fig. 1. — Silk of Bombyx mori.

2. — ,, ,, „ showing trans-

verse sections.

3. — Silk of Antheraea mylitta or Tusser
silk.

4. -

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

*&■

33

33

33

33

33

33

3»

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

1n‘

33

33

33

33 33 33 33

showing Florets and transverse
sections.

5. — Silk of Antheraea Assama or Muga
silk.

33

6.-

— Silk of Antheraea pernyi

33

XXIX.

33

1.-

—Silk of Actias selene.

33

2.-

— Silk of Attacus ricini or

33

3.-

33 33 33 AtlaS.

53

4,-

— „ „ Cricula trifenest

33

5.-

— „ „ Antheraea yama-

33

6.-

— „ „ Saturnia carpini,

33

XXX.

Foliage of Tectona grandis.

33

XXXI.

33

Terminalia tomentosa.

33

XXXII.

33

„ Catappa.

33

XXXIII.

33

Bombax heptaphyllum

33

XXXIV.

33

Careya sphaerica.

33

XXXV.

33

Ricinus communis.

33

XXXVI.

33

Lagerstraemia Indica.

33

XXXVII.

33

Carissa Carandas.

33

XXXVIII.

33

Terminalia Arjuna.

33

XXXIX.

33

Ficus Benjaminia.

33

XL.

33

Morus alba.

33

XLI.

33

Ailanthus glandulosa.

33

XLII.

33

„ excelsa.

Vlll

Plate

XLIII.

33

XLIV.

33

XLV.

33

XLVI.

33

XL VII.

33

XL VIII.

33

XLIX.

o'

33

33

33

33

33

33

LI.

>?

Foliage of Artimisia Indica.

Nauclea Cadainba.

Sarcostemma brevistigma.

Cariaria nipalensis.

Odina Wodier.

„ Cedrela Toona.

Scales from wings magnified 140 diameters :
Fig. 1. — Bombyx mori (male).

2. — Antheraea mylitta (male).

3 „ „ (female).

4. — Attacus ricini (male).

5. — ,, cynthia (male).

6. — „ Atlas (male).

Scales from wings magnified 140 diameters :
Fig. 1. — Attacus Atlas (female).

2. — Antherma pernyi (male).

3. — Cricula trifenestrata (male).

4. — Actias selene (male).

5. — Anthersea yama-mai (male).

6. — „ „ (female).

Scales from wings magnified 140 diameters :
Fig. 1. — Saturn ia carpini (male).

2. — „ „ (female).

3. — Anthersea Roylei (male).

4. — „ Helferi (male).

5. — Loepa katinka (male).

6. — „ miranda (male).

Scales from wings magnified l4o diameters :
Fig. 1. — Caligula Simla (male).

2. — Neoris Huttoni (male).

3. — Bombyx mori (male), taken from
different parts of wing.

4. — Anthersea mylitta (male), taken
from different parts of wing.

5. — Anthenea yama-mai (male), taken
from different parts of wing.

6. — Actias selene (male), taken from

different parts of wing.

LI II. Scales from wings magnified 500 diameters
Fig. 1. — Attacus Atlas (male).

2. — Actias selene (male).

3. — Cricula trifenestrata (male,

4. — Saturnia carpini (male).

5. — Loepa miranda (male).

„ 6. — Neoris Huttoni (male).

LIV. Scales from wings magnified 500 diameters :
Fig. 1. — Bombyx mori (male).

2 — Anthersea mylitta (male).

3. — „ pernyi (male).

4. — „ Roylei (male).

5. — „ yama-mai.

6. — Attacus ricini (male).

LII.

JJ

J5

5)

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55

55

35

53

55

35

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

IX

Plate

>>

>>

5)

>>

>5

}>

}f

55

LV. Tusser on Tusser embroidery.

LVI. Native reeling implements; scale £ of the
real size.

LVII. Cocoon-reeling machine, side view.

LVIII. „ „ „ diagonal view.

LIX. Brass vessels belonging to tray ; scale \ of
the real size.

LX. Brushes for the battage ; scale ^ of the real
size.

LXI. Measuring reel ; scale ^ of the real size.
LXII. Fig. 1. — Fine balance for deniering *, scaled

of real size.

„ 2. — Stove for heating basin ; scale 1
inch to the foot.

LXIII. Cocoon ladle for basin ; scale ^ of the real
size.

LXIV. Fig, 1. — Champignon ; scale ^ natural size.

„ 2. — Croiseur ; scale ^ natural size.

„ 3. — Tray and utensils ; mechanical
drawing, scale 1 inch to the foot.
LXV. Cocoon-reeling machine; mechanical draw-
ing, end view, scale 1 inch to the foot.
LXYI. Cocoon-reeling machine ; mechanical draw-
ing, side view, scale 1 inch to the foot.

*** The illustrations have been engraved by Mr. Edmund
Evans from drawings by Mr. W. H. Rider, Mr. G. R. Rigby
and Mr. G-. C. Wardle, students in the Leek Art Class, and
Mr. F. Sugden. The drawings for Figs. 1, 2, 4, and 5, Plate I.,
Plates II. to VII., IX. to XXIX., and LY. were executed by
Mr. W. H. Rider; for Plates XXX. to LIY. and LYI., by
Mr. G. R. Rigby ; for Fig. 3, Plate I., Plates LVII. to LXIII.,
and Figs. 1 and 2, Plate LXIV., by Mr. G. C. Wardle; for
Fig. 3, Plate LXIV., Plates LXV. and LXVI., mechanical
drawings, by Mr. F. Sugden.

I am glad to acknowledge the help I have received from my
assistant Mr. .T. T. Rigby in the microscopical examinations and
other details.

T. W.

Q 3255.

b

PREFACE.

Amongst the many names o£ persons in various coun-
tries interested in the cultivation of wild silkworms, the
utilisation of their products, and the entomology of
the subject, I venture to give the following list, which
will be found interesting by many, and will serve to show
to what a large extent this important subject has been
made a matter of study and investigation. In England we
have Dr. Roxburgh, Captain Hutton, Mr. Hugon, Dr. Bird-
wood, Mr. F. Moore, Mr. P. H. Gosse, Captain Mitchell,
Mr. Butler, Major Coussmaker, Lady D. Neville,
Lady Gilbert, Mr. Calvert, Mr. Geoghegan, Dr. Alex.
Wallace, Dr. Mackenzie, Mr. E. Heycock, and others. On
the Continent are M. Guerin Meneville, M. Personnat, M. Ro-
bert, M. Camille Mayne, M. W. Reed, M. Braine, M. Maurice
Girard, M. Wailly, M. Costa, Wilhelm Carl Berg, M. Matthieu
Bonagous, Mich. Judisky, Roo Yan Westmas, N. H. de
Graaf, Dr. Chavannes, and many others. My friend,
M. Rondot, member of the Chamber of Commerce, Lyons,
and President of the Silk Jury, class 34, at the Paris
Exhibition of 1878, also author of several important works
on silk and Eastern dyes, is at the present time giving much
economic attention to this question, for the purpose of con-
sidering supply for the increasing demand of the French
trade in wild silks.

Amongst those who have interested themselves especially
in the utilisation of these wild silks must be mentioned
Dr. Birdwood, C. S. I., who was one of the first, if not the
first, to call public attention to the importance of Tusser
silk, in a lengthy report to Government in 1858, which
forms a useful and interesting appendix to this Handbook.
(See Appendix I.)

Mr. Geoghegan is the author and compiler of a valuable
report to the Government of India on the silk industy of
India, dated 1874, and forming Part II. of “East India
products” which is indispensable to a study of the subject.

Xll

Major Coussmakeris pursuing with a praiseworthy deter-
mination, at Poonah, the culture of Tusser silkworms, with
a view of making Tusser silk as systematic an industry
as that produced by Bombyx mori and the other m
silks.

Besides many others, the enthusiastic labours of the
French, aided by their Socidtd d’Acclimatation, set us a
great example. They have succeeded in domesticating, if
not in almost naturalising, several Eastern species of wild-
silk producers, and in obtaining from them silk of some
industrial value.

I would take this opportunity of mentioning that at
the Paris Exhibition of 1878 the highest prize, a grand
medal of honour, was awarded by the Jury of Class 34,
Group 4, to the Indian Government on account of the
collection of examples of the wild silks of India then
exhibited. The medal was forwarded to His Excellency
the Viceroy of India.

Thomas Wardle.

Leek, Staffordshire,

July 1881.

THE WILD SILKS OF INDIA.

CHAPTER I.

Classification of Wild Silkworms.

Tile term wild silks of India must be regarded as
applying to all species of silk other than that produced by
the Bombyx mori, the worm which feeds on the mulberry
leaf, from which is obtained the silk of commerce by regular
organised industries in Bengal, France, China, Japan, Italy,
Persia, Siam, and in some other parts of the world.

For the most part, if not almost entirely, at present, the
worms which produce these wild silks feed on the leaves of
trees and plants which grow wild in the jungles and forests
of India, or at any rate are not cultivated for silkworm
food.

An impetus was given to the utilisation of these silks
by the displa}7 of some of the most important of them at
the Paris Exhibition in 1878, by Her Majesty's Government
of India, in a collection which I had the honour of being
appointed to arrange.

Since that time, as new uses have been found for
Tusser silk, one of the chief and most widely spread of
Indian wild silks, the question of supply has become a most
important one.

The object of the present collection and of this Handbook
is to draw public attention to the growing importance of
the subject, and to present in as concise a form as its wide
range will permit all information likely to be of either
scientific or practical use.

It is believed the time is near when, by the aid of enter-
prise and capital, several species of the wild silks of India,
not yet exported to England, will become as organised a
production as the mulberry-fed silks, or the tea and cinchona
planting of India ; and this, not by simply collecting cocoons
produced by the silkworms in their wild state, but by the
systematic plantation of suitable food trees, careful attention
to the rearing and breeding of the worms, the proper and
timely collection of the cocoons, the application of proper
reeling machinery, the collection of all the imperfect cocoons

Q 3255.

A

2

to be carded and spun by the elaborate machinery of
Europe, and, lastly, by the adoption of my improvements
and developments in dyeing and printing them, the results
of a long and continuous course of study and experiment.

The value and importance of these silks have largely
increased since it has been found that they now can, by
suitable processes, be bleached, dyed, and printed into almost
all shades of colour.

For several years I have been occupied in investigating
the tinctorial adaptability of these silks, for the Government
of India, under the direction of Sir Louis Mallet, C.B.,
Under Secretary of State for India, who has, with the
Council, taken a warm interest in their gradual develop-
ments, the results of which are displayed in the present
collection.

The silk-producing Lepidoptevous insects are of many
species, possessing very marked structural differences, whilst
the variety and quiet beauty of their colours, and, with the
exception of the mulberry feeders, their large size, con-
tribute greatly to the charm of studying this branch of
natural history, and they make a collection, apart from
their great usefulness, worthy of being placed in the first
rank.

The}r belong to the order Lepidoptera, and are all mem-
bers of but two families, Bombycidce and Saturniidce.

All the Saturniidce are silk spinners, but not all the
Bombycidce.

' The British Museum Catalogue contains the names of
294 species of Saturniidce. Mr. Butler, of the British
Museum, informs me there have been 100 more species
added since the publication of the catalogue.

The following table shows the position of these two
families in the great system of classification of the animal
kingdom : —

O

Division III. — Articulata.

Sub-Division II. — Anthropoda (or true articulata).

Class YIII. — Insecta.

Sub-Class III. — Metabola.

Order X. — Lepidoptera.

Sub-Order I. — Heterocera (Moths — 8 groups or tribes).

Group. — Bombycina.

3

Family 1 0. — Genera . — Bombycidce.

Bombyx,

Theophila,

Ocinara,

Trilocha.

Fami l y 8 . — Gene ra. — Baturniidce.

Antliercea,

Attacus,

Caligula,

Neoris,

Actias,

Salassa,

Rinaca,

Saturnia,

Loepa

Cricula.

Rhodia,

Mr. Frederic Moore has kindly furnished me with the
following list of all the silk-producing Lepidoptera of
India known at the present time. It is the most complete
one yet published, and shows how rich India is in silk-
producing insects : —

Mulberry-feeding Silkworms —Domesticated.

Bombyx mori (Linnaeus). — The common silkworm, domes-
ticated in China, Bokhara, Afghanistan, Cashmere, Persia,
S. Russia, Turkey, Egypt, and Algeria, Italy, France,
and Spain, in all which countries it produces but one crop
annually, spinning the largest cocoon and the best silk, of
a golden yellow, or white.

Bombyx textor (Hutton). — The Boro poolloo of Bengal,
domesticated in S. China and Bengal ; an annual only,
producing a white (sometimes yellow) cocoon, of a different
texture and more flossy than B. mori.

Bombyx sinensis (Hutton). — The Bina, Cheena, or small
Chinese monthly worm of Bengal, partially domesticated in
Bengal, where it was introduced from China; produces
several broods in the year ; cocoon white and yellow.

Bombyx crcesi (Hutton). — The Nistry or Madrassee of
Bengal, introduced from China ; domesticated in Bengal ;
yielding seven or eight broods of golden yellow cocoons
in the year,- of larger size than B. sinensis.

Bombyx forlunatus (Hutton). — The Dasee of Bengal
yields several broods annually, spinning the smallest cocoon
of a golden yellow colour.

Bombyx A rracanensis (Hutton). — The Burmese silkworm,
domesticated in Arracan, said to have been introduced from
China through Burmah ; yields several broods annually ;
cocoons larger than the Bengal monthly species.

a 2

4

Mulberry-feeding Silkworms — Wild.

Theophila Huttoni (Westwood). — The wild silkworm of
the N.W. Himalayas. A wild species, the worms being
found abundantly feeding on the indigenous mulberry in
the mountain forests of the N. W. Himalayas.

Theophila Sherwilli (Moore). — The wild silkworm of the
S.E. Himalayas.

Theophila Bengalensis (Hutton). — The wild silkworm of
Lower Bengal. Discovered in the neighbourhood of Cal-
cutta feeding on Artocarpus lacoocha. Found also at
Ranchee, in Ohota Nagpore.

Theophila religiosa (Heifer). — The Joree of Assam and
Deo-mooga of Cachar. Feeds on the bur tree ( Ficus
indica) and the pipul (F. religiosce).

Theophila mandarina (Moore). — The wild silkworm of
Chekiang, N. China. Worms stated to feed on wild mul-
berry trees, spinning a white cocoon.

Ocinara lactea (Hutton). — Mussooree, N. W. Himalaya.
Feeds on Ficus venosa , spinning a small yellow cocoon,
yielding several broods during the summer.

Ocinara Moorei (Hutton). — Mussooree, N.W. Himalaya.
Also feeds on Ficus venosa, as well as on the wild tig,
spinning a small white cocoon. It is a multivoltine.

Ocinara diaphana (Moore). — Khasia hills.

Trilocha varians (Walker). — N. and S. India.

Atlas and Eria Group.

Attacus atlas (Linnaeus). — China, Burmah, India, Ceylon,
Java. This appears to be almost omnivorous, feeding in
different districts upon the shrubs and trees peculiar to
them. At Mussooree it is found upon Braclleia ovata,
Falconeria insignis, and several other trees ; at Almorah
the yellow-flowering barberry is said to be its favourite
food. In Cachar it feeds on various other trees. Cocoon
well stored with a fine silk.

Attacus silhetica (Heifer). — Silhet.

Attacus Edwardsia (White). — Sikkim, Cherra, and
Khasia hills.

Attacus cynthia (Drury). — China. Domesticated in the
provinces of Shantung and Honan. Feeds on the varnish
tree ( Ailanthus glandulosa).

Attacus ricini (Jones). — The Eria of Assam, and
Arindi of Dinajpore. Domesticated in the Northern parts
of Bengal (Bogra, Rungpore, and Dinajpore), in Assam and

Cachar, feeding on the castor-oil plant ( Ricinus communis),
yielding seven or more crops annually. Cocoons somewhat
loose and flossy, orange red, sometimes white. The so-called
“Ailanthus silkworm” of Europe — the result of a fertile
hybrid between the Chinese and the Bengal species, was
produced some years ago in France, by Monsieur Guerin-
Mdneville, and subsequently reared, from whence it was
introduced into various parts of the world.

Attacus Canningi (Hutton). — N.W. Himalayas. Com-
mon in a wild state, feeding on the leaves of Goriaria
nipalensis and Xanthophyllum hostile. Cocoons hard and
compactly woven, rusty orange or grey. An annual.

Attacus lunula (Walker). — Silhet.

Attacus obscurus (Butler). — Cachar. Not very common.
Stated to feed on a plant called Lood.

Attacus Guerini (Moore). —Eastern Bengal.

Actias Group.

Actias Selene (McLeay). — Mussooree, Sikkim, and Khasia
hills ; Madras. The worms feed upon Andromeda ovali-
folia, Coriaria nipalensis , wild cherry, and walnut, at
M'ussooree, and on Odina wodier in Madras.

Actias Sinensis (Walker). — N. China.

Actias Leto (Doubleday). — Sikkim and Khasia hills.

Actias Mcenas (Doubleday). — Sikkim and Khasia hills.

Actias ignescens (Moore). — Andaman Isles.

Tusser and Moonga Group.

Anther era mylitta . (Drury). — Anthercea paphia of
authors ; the Tasctr, Tusser , Tussar, or Tussali silkworm.

These well-known and valuable insects (of various unde-
termined species) are widely distributed over India, from east
to west and north to south, on the coast, and in the Cen-
tral Provinces. They feed in a wild state upon the
her ( Zizyphus jujuba), the asun ( Terminalia edata ), the
seemul ( Bombax heptaphyllum ), &c.

Anthercea mezcinkooria (Moore) ; the Mezanhoorie silk-
worm of the Assamese. — The worms which produce the
inezankoorie silk are stated to feed on the addakoory
(? Tetranthera sp.), which is abundant in Upper and Lower
Assam. The silk is nearly white, its value being 50 per
cent, above that of the moonga.

Anthercea nebulosa (Hutton). — This is the Tusser of the
Sonthal jungles of Colong. It is also found in Singbhoom,
Chota Nagpore

6

Anther cm Perrotteti (Guer. Men.). — Described as being
found in the districts of Pondicherry, feeding upon a species
of Zizyphus, the jambool ( Syzygium jambolanum), &c.
Stated to produce four broods in a year.

Anthercea Andamana (Moore). — An allied species to the
Tusser. Inhabits the S. Andamans.

Anthercea Frithii (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas. A
common species, inhabiting the hot sub-tropical valleys
below 2,000 ft. Known only as a wild species. The
cocoon is stated to be similar to that of the Tusser in
form, but of finer silk.

Anthercea Helferi (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas. This
is a common species found in the hot valleys of Sikkim.

Anthercea Assama (Heifer). — The Moonga or Mooga of
the Assamese. The moonga silkworm feeds upon the trees
known in Assam as the charnpa ( Michelia sp.), the soom,
kontoolva, digluttee ( Tetranthera diglottica ), the pattee
shoonda ( Lcmrus obtusifolia), and the Sonhalloo (Tet.
macrophylla). It is extensively cultivated by the natives,
and can be reared in houses, but is fed and thrives best
in the open air and upon the trees. The silk forms an
article of export from Assam, and leaves the country
generally in the shape of thread.

Anthercea Roylei (Moore). — The oak-feeding silkworm
of the N.W. Himalayas. A common species, feeding on
the hill oak (Quercus incana ) of the N.W. Himalayas
(Simla, Masuri, Almora). The cocoon is large and very
tough, the silk being pronounced promising, and worth
cultivating. They can be reared easily in the house.

Miscellaneous Group.

Salassa Lola (Westwood). — Sikkim Himalayas.

Rinaca Zuleilca (Hope). — Sikkim.

Rhodia Newara (Moore) . — N epal (Kathmandoo). W orm s
feed upon a species of weeping willow. Spins a brilliant
green cocoon, pendent from the twigs.

Caligula Thibeta (Westwood). — Mussooree, N.W. Hima-
layas, 7,000 ft. Common, the worms feeding on Andromeda
ovalifolia, wild pear, and the cultivated quince, forming a
light, open, net-like cocoon.

Caligula Simla (Westwood).— Simla, N.W. Himalayas,
v/ 5,000 ft. Feeds on the walnut, Salix Babylonica, wild
pear, &c. ; forms an open, net-like cocoon.

Caligula Cachara (Moore.) — Cacliar.

Neoris Huttoni (Moore).- -Mussooree, N.W. Himalaya,

7

6,500 feet. The worms appear in April, feeding upon a
species of wild-pear tree ; spins a thin silken cocoon.

JSTeoris Shadulla (Moore). — Yarkand.

Neoris Stoliczkana (Felder). — Ladak.

Saturnia Cidosa (Moore). Hot valleys of the Sikkim
Himalayas.

Saturnia Grotei (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas.

Saturnia Lindia (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas.

Saturnia Anna (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas.

Loepa katinka (Westwood). — Sikkim, 5,000 to 7,000
feet. Assam.

Loepa Sikkima (Moore). — Hot valleys of Sikkim.

Loepa sivcdica (Hutton.) — Mussooree, 5,000 feet. Spins
a long cocoon, pointed at each end, and of a dark greenisli-
grey colour.

Loepa miranda (Moore). — Sikkim Himalayas.

Cricula trifenestrata (Heifer) ; the Haumpottonee of the
Assamese. — Noted as being very common in Assam, the
worms feeding on the soon tree, forming an open net-like
cocoon of a beautiful yellow colour and of a rich lustre, the
silk being spun in the same manner as the Eria cocoon.
Occurs also in Moulmein, where the worms are stated to
feed upon the cashew-nut tree (Anacardium orientate).

Cricula drepanoides (Moore). — Sikkim.

To this number may be added a few others which,
although not of India, are well worth the attention of the
Government of India for the purpose of acclimatisation
there.

Anthercea, Pernyi (Guer. Mdn.) — The oak-feeding silk-
worm of Mantchouria, N. China. This is described as
having been long known to the Mantchour Tartars, very
large quantities of the silk used among the Chinese. The
worms feed on various species of oak ( Quercus Mongolica ,
&c.), the cocoon differing from the Tusser in form and texture.
The silk is represented as strong, but with little lustre.
Two crops of silk are produced in the year — a spring and
autumn crop.

Anthercea Confuci (Moore). — A species allied to A. pernyi,
inhabiting the hills in the neighbourhood of Shangh ai, N.
China.

Anthercea Yama-mai (Gudrin Menevillc). — The Ycima-
mai silkworm of Japan.

An oak-feeding species, forming a cocoon of a pale
yellowish-green colour. This worm feeds on the oak, and
produces excellent silk of considerable commercial value in
Japan. I should strongly recommend its introduction into

8

India. It lias been acclimatised in Europe, and, crossed
with Bombyx attacus Pernyi , is successfully reared in
France, the eggs hatching at almost freezing point. The
silk is much cultivated and used in Japan. Its fibre is
oval, and 950th of an inch thick.

Saturnia pyretorum, from South China. — The worm feeds
upon the Liquidamber formosccna in Canton, Amoy, whore
the silk is stated to be woven into a coarse fabric.

Pfeoris shadulla (Moore). — Yarkund.

Theophila mandarina (Moore). — N. China.

CHAPTER II.

History of Silk.

It may be useful to give a brief history of the silk of
commerce in introducing to the reader the wild silks of
India.

The Chinese appear to be the first people who applied
themselves to sericulture.

The words “ Seres,” used by Theophanes, and (e Serinda,”
by Procopius, were in all probability so used to indicate
that part of the East, which was no doubt China, where the
silk industry existed at a very remote period.

Hr. Birdwood states* that Ptolemy was the first to use
the word Serice for China, or rather, the northern part of
it, known later as Cathay ; and that the word is derived
from the Chinese name of the silkworm, see, in Corean sir,
whence the Greek 2%, the silkworm ; S%c, the people
furnishing silk ; and ipiKov, serikon, silk. The Latin
sericum had been traced direct to the Mongol sirkeh ; and
the serikoth of Isaiah, xix. 9, has been supposed to be silk.
Of the same root as the Latin sericum is the French sole,
the German seiden, the Russian sheolk, the Anglo-Saxon
seolc, the Icelandic silke, and the English silk . In Persian,
silk is ab-resham ; in Hindustani reshm ; in Arabic khuz ;
in M alay sutra ; in Tamil pattu.

We are informed by Hawae-nan-tze, in a Chinese work
called the “ Silkworm Classic,” that Te-ling-she, the
principal queen of ITwang-te, B.C. 2640, was the first to

* See “ Discussion ” printed with the Author’s lecture on the Wild Silks
of India before the Society of Arts, London, May 9, 1879.

0

rear silkworms, and the Emperor Hwang-te was induced
to invent robes and garments from this circumstance.

But Dr. Balfour states* as follows : “ There seems to be no
doubt that China is the country where the product of the
silkworm was first used as a material for textile fabrics,
and that the industry has gradually radiated from China, as
a centre, till it covers, at the present day, a number of very
widely distributed areas of very diverse climatic conditions.
The Chinese historians carry back the cultivation of the
mulberry and the breeding of silkworms to the period of
myths. If they are to be believed, the art of silk reeling
was known in China in the time of Fouh-hi, a century
before the date usually assigned to the Biblical deluge, and
the Empress Si-ling-chi, wife of the celebrated Hoang-ti
(2,602 years before the Chistian era) did not disdain to
share in the labours attending the care of the insect, as
well as in those of the loom, the invention of which seems
to be attributed to her, and to have raised her to the
position of a tutelary genius, with special altars of her own.
But whatever the precise date of the discovery, it appears
there can be no question of the very high antiquity of the
knowledge of the worm and its product in China. A series
of imperial edicts and a voluminous literature of practical
treatises testify to the importance of the industry and the
care that was taken to foster an art which was considered,
according to M. de Rosny, ‘ best fitted to promote the
morality of the people and extinguish pauperism in the
empire/ ”

The queen and wives of the nobles through successive
generations personally attended to the rearing of the silk-
worms.

That this silk was of the mulberry -fed kind is evident
from a further extract from the “ Silkworm Classic,” which
says that afterwards, “ when Yu regulated the waters, B.C.
“ 2200, mention is made in his work on the tribute of the
“ land adapted for the mulberry tree having been supplied
“ with silkworms, from which time the advantage thereof
“ gradually increased.”!

It is not known whether silk was utilised in India at so
early a period as this, probably not ; but that India learned
the art from China is generally understood, although at
what period is not known.

About the middle of the sixth century, the Western World
received a supply of silkworms’ eggs. These were conveyed

* Cyclopaedia of India, vol. 5, p. 335.
f Horsfield and Moore’s Catalogue, p. 377.

10

from China to Constantinople T>y two Persian monks, who
had gone to the East as missionaries, and had observed in
China the various processes connected with the rearing of
silkworms, the nature of the trees on which they fed, and
the preparation of the silk. This occurred in the year 552,
in the reign of Justinian, who gave every encouragement to
the introduction of the valuable insect. The eggs were
secrectly conveyed from China within a hollow cane ; at
the proper season they were hatched, and the caterpillars
were fed on the leaves of the wild mulberry tree. The
monks continued to superintend at Constantinople the
rearing of the insects and the whole process of manufactur-
ing the silk. From this small commencement the myriads
of silkworms have sprung which throughout Eastern and
Western Asia have met the demand for silk, which has gone
on increasing from that time to the present.

For more precise information respecting the westward
spread of silk culture, I would strongly recommend to my
readers Dr. Birdwoocls excellent Handbook to the British
India Section of the Paris Exhibition, p. 104 ; and to his
later volume, “ Indian Art/’ published as a Handbook to the
new India Section of the South Kensington Museum.
These learned histories of silk will be read with much
X>leasure by all who can see in silken stuffs something more
than a mere commercial value. The account of its utilisa-
tion and spread from East to West is described with almost
the charm of romance. Its development is traced from its
earliest days in the East to its introduction at last into our
own country in the reign of Henry YI., and again to
the times of the persecution of the Huguenots by Louis XIV.,
which drove their silk workers by a happy tide to our
shores. How that tide has in our own times returned to
France, and carried with it, not the workers, but the
industry, I leave for statesmen and manufacturers to think
over and retrieve.

Europe may almost be said to have got hold of the silk
industry by a fraud ; the two monks before mentioned
brought away the eggs from China concealed in their
walking canes. A similar account is well related by
Dr. A. Wallace of the way the eggs of the prized Yama-
mai silkworm were abstracted from Japan by a young
Japanese, who, at the instigation of his European tutor,
obtained them at the risk of his life, for this was an
offence there punishable by death. A further account of
the circumstances connected with this event will be found
at page 65. It would be but a small return for the

11

benefits we have obtained to ourselves by these frauds if
we could teach those weaker peoples the benefits of the
better making, and above all the more friendly interchang-
ing, of stuffs and commodities. It is with this hope that
I have arranged the present collection ; that, having India,
with its extensive wild-silk regions, in our possession, we
may, by gentle means, teach the native to improve the
culture and preliminary stages of its manufacture, so that it
may be brought from them in a state fit to be used by us
for all the purposes of which it is really capable ; and, to
use the words of Sir Louis Mallet in the first letter of
instruction I received from the India Office, that “ a new
and very profitable industry may be founded in India.”

The natural history of every kind of silk may be briefly
stated to be this : From a small egg laid by the moth, of
whatever species, appears in due season a small larva, or
caterpillar, or worm, as it is usually called. This worm,
after having lived its day, feeding only on the leaves of
certain plants characteristic of its species, and increasing in
size, spins, or rather secretes, a fine silk thread around
itself for covering and protection during the time it lies
dormant in the next stage of its existence. As soon as it
has secreted all the silk, it changes into a pupa or chrysalis,
and remains inside its silken cell until the time for its
appearance as an imago or perfect moth, having four scaly
wings, with six legs and two antennae, which are larger in
the male than in the female. When its hybernation is
ended it emits a fluid which softens the end of its cocoon
cell, and, by means of its wing spines and legs, parts the
fibres aside until the opening is large enough for it to creep
out. After a short time its wings expand and dry, and it
enters into its perfect state.

It lives only a few days in this phase of its existence.
It is in this stage only that the race is perpetuated, the
female laying a number of eggs, and dying soon afterward.

CHAPTER III.

The Silk of Commerce.

The silk which is generally known as the silk of
commerce, in both ancient and modern days, is distinguished
from all others by the singular circumstance of the larvje
(Plate I., Fig. 3) which produce it being fed only on the

12

leaves of the mulberry tree (Plate XL.) The moth
(Plate I., Figs. 1 and 2) is therefore named Bornbyx mori.

It must not be inferred, however, that there is only one
species, as is too generally thought. Mr. F. Moore assures
me there is sufficient structural variation in moths which
were at one time understood to be Bombyx mori to
constitute a specific difference. The following species feed
on the mulberry, ana their silk is in ordinary and pro-
miscuous use along with that of the mori : —

Bombyx sinensis (Hutton),

Bombyx crcesi (Hutton),

Bombyx fortunatus (Hutton),

Bombyx arracanensis (Hutton),

Bombyx textor (Hutton),

and no doubt several others not yet defined, but whose
silk varies vary much, such as that called Canton and that
called Tsatlee , although both are from China, as well as
the silk from Japan, which has a thicker fibre than the
mori silk of other countries, being ^ ^ 0 of an inch thick,
as against -^tVo °f an inch of the mori silk of Italy. The
strength and tension of this and the wild silks, as well as
the respective sizes of their cocoons, are given in my table
of microscopic measurements on page 68, which I have
carefully revised. I commend the study of this table to all
engaged in silk manufacturing, whether of ordinary or
wild silks, as I consider the results of the highest impor-
tance. In the column of relative strengths it will be seen
that the breaking strength of a single fibre of Bombyx
mori or mulberry-fed silk is 2§ drams, whilst the weight
of 7 drams is required to break a single fibre of Tusser
silk.

The eggs of Bombyx mori and the other species of Bombyx
form a most important article of commerce between Japan
and Europe. They are imported from Japan into Italy
and the South of France annually, to supply the deficiency
caused by the silkworm disease known as pebrine, and also
to infuse, as it were, new blood. The value of the eggs is
about 25.s. per oz.. Twelve pounds of cocoons are required
to produce one pound of silk. The value of the raw silk
of Bengal in London is now from 14$. to 18s. per lb.
The colour is generally of a rich golden yellow ; but it is
also sometimes white. In China and Japan it is all white,
with rare exceptions.

13

CHAPTER IV.

Wild Silks.

As far as I can learn, the only species of silk at present
utilised in India besides those of the several species of mul-
berry-feeding worms of the genus Bombyx are the wild
ones of the following species : —

Anthercea mylitta, or Tusser worm.

„ Assama , or Muga worm.

„ perotteti.

„ nebulosa.

„ Roylei.

„ Fritkii.

„ mezankooria.

Attacus ricini , or Eria worm.

„ atlas, or Atlas worm.

„ Edwardsia.

Cricida trifenestrata.

And perhaps

Attacus selene and Anthercea Helferi.

Of these only Anther cea mylitta, A. Assama, and Attacus
ricini have been utilised to any important extent, although,
in addition to them, there is in India a large number ot
other species which produce silk cocoons.

The Indian localities of the four principal ones, Ricini,
Atlas, Muga, and Tusser, are shown on the maps, Plates
XXIV., XXV, XXVI, XXVII, by shading.

The unshaded spaces, representing large portions of terri-
tory, on each map, are not left unshaded because the districts
they represent do not produce the respective silks, but
because I have received no reports from the India Office
which give an}^ account of their being found there. I
believe the Tusser worm will be found to be productive
over the whole of India and also of British Burma.

The only wild silk at present exported from India is the
Tusser, which I shall describe in the following chapter.

CHAPTER V.

Tusser Silkworm and Silk.

The most important Indian wild silk is that known as
Tusser, Tussah, or perhaps more properly spelled Tasar.

14

As tliere are several modes of spelling this word, I add a
table of synonyms showing them : —

Tasar. — Name in India for both the Tusser worm and
the silk.

Tussore. — French.

Bombyx seide. — German.

Tusser, Tussah, Tussa, Tussar, Tusseh, modes of spelling
used in England, no doubt derived from the Hindostani
word Tusuru , which means a shuttle.

Tusser silk is the product of the larva of the moth
Anther cea mylitta of Linnaeus (Plate II., Figs. 1 and 2).

This species is also known by the following synonyms : —

Phalcena Attacus mylitta (Drury).

Bombyx mylitta (Fabricius).

Anthercea mylitta (Hubner).

Attacus mylitta (Blanchard).

Saturnia mylitta (Westwood).

Phalcena paphia (Roxburgh).*

Saturnia paphia (Heifer).

Bughy silkworm moth of the Beerbhoom Hills.

Kolissurra silkworm moth of the Malirattas.

There is but little doubt that this silk has been utilised
for many centuries both in India and China, but I have
not been able to find any important account of its ancient
history.

One of the earliest notices of this insect, or of a species
very nearly related to it, is given by the venerable Rum-
phius, who was born at Hanau in 1657, in his “ Herbarium
Amboinense ” (dedicated by him to the East India Com-
pany), vol. iii. p. 113, pi. 75; he discovered the larvae in
Amboina feeding on the Mangium easeolari rubrum
(. Bhizophora caseolaris, Linn.), a plant of the order of
Terebintacece. t He says : —

“ When I had kept the cocoons for three weeks a moth
came out quite perfect, which was the most beautiful and
largest I had ever seen, which, biting away the silk, showed
its head, and at the same time drew out with it a little
flock of yellow silk ; this the moth performed at night.
Its body, like all other moths', is a dirty yellow colour, and
in length two joints of a finger; it has two downy horns
on its head of a golden hue, and four large wings, of which
the two largest are about an inch long and of a golden

* Not of Linnaeus. The true P. Papliia is an African species (jP. Moore).
t Ilorsfield and Moore’s catalogue of Lepidopterous insects, pp. 386, 387.

colour, but a purple line runs through them transversely
and every wing has, as it were, in its middle a window-
like eye, which is surrounded by a purple circle, and, as it
were, of the transparency of glass/'

The larvae, when fully grown, are about four inches in
length; they have twelve joints or articulations, besides
their extremities ; their colour is green, resembling the
leaves on which they feed; and they are marked with
reddish spots and a reddish -yellow band running length-
ways. They feed on the following plants : —

Rhizophora calceolaria (Linn.).

Terminalia cdata glabra (Assum tree).

Terminalia tomentosa (the saj tree).

Terminalia catappa (country almond tree).

Tectona grandis (teak tree).

Zizyphus jujuba (ber tree).

Shorea robusta (sal tree).

Bombax heptaphyllum (Semul).

Gareya sphcerica.

Pentaptera tomentosa.

Pentaptera glabra.

Ricinus communis (castor-oil plant).

Cassia lanceolata.

Lagerstrccmia Indica , vern. Daiyeti.

Carissa Caranclas, „ Karinda.

Terminalia arjuna „ Sadara.

Ficus Benjaminia „ Nandruk.

Major Coussmaker remarks : —

“ The Daiyeti (. Lagerstrccmia Indica ) is a most pro-
mising plant for feeding the Tusser worm, as the harder
it is cut back and eaten off by the worms the more
luxuriantly it throws up shoots, especially when watered
liberally ; these shoots are clothed with leaves the whole
way up, and the caterpillars greedily devour every bit of
leaf, and even the more succulent parts of the shoots.
I have not been able to raise this plant from seed, but
find that the roots have excessive vitality.

“ The Bher ( Zizyphus jujuba) is the tree on which, in
the Deccan, the greatest number of cocoons are found. It
grows very thickly, but only from seed, as far as my
experience goes. The leaves are rather sparsely distributed,
and the growth is very straggling. The caterpillars eat up
every leaf, and also devour the flowers. The Karinda
(Carissa Caranclas ) is more leafy than the Bher, and the
caterpillars also eat it off very closely, but it recovers leaves

16

slowly, and the plant does not grow quickly. The Ani
( Terminalia tomentosa ) and the Sdddra (Terminalia
arjuna) have much larger leaves than the preceding shrubs,
but they grow very slowly, at all events for the first two
years of their existence ; the Ani is the favourite food of
the worm in the Konkan. The Nandruk plants planted
by me have not thriven well, nor did the worms feed on
them this last monsoon, though on the more elevated
country from Satara towards the south I have found many
cocoons on this tree.”

Mr. Watkins, of Messrs. Watkins and Doncaster, natura-
lists of London, has succeeded in raising Tusser worms, I
believe, for the first time in England, and has some now
feeding on oak leaves ; the evergreen oak appears to be
the best.

In six weeks from the time they are hatched the worms
begin to spin their cocoons, which they most curiously
suspend from the branches of the trees by constructing a thick
hard cord or pedicle of silky matter, exuded before spinning
commences, which is made to grasp the branches. (Plate IV.,

Fig- !)•

Major Coussmaker remarks that in 1878, in his establish-
ment, the first worm was hatched on the 15th June and the
last spun its cocoon on the 15th November.

Tusser silk is found, as will be seen by referring to the
map, Plate XXIV., over nearly the whole of India.

In the Central Provinces, Mr. Geoghegan says, Tusser is
utilised in Raipore, Bilaspore, Tumbulpore, the Upper
Godavery, Chanda, Bhundora, Nagpore, Balaghat, Seonee,
Chindwara, Beetool, and Nursinghpore. Sumbulpore is
said to yield 3,500 seers (7,000 lbs.) of silk ; Raipore, 6,000
(12,000 lbs.) ; Bilaspore, 900 (1,800 lbs.) ; and Chanda,
22,500 (45,000 lbs.). The silk is woven and used in the
Provinces in mixed fabrics of cotton warp and Tusser
weft. But, at any rate in some districts, muktahs (gar-
ments worn by Brahmins after bathing), cholees (women's
bodices), and deputtas and dorwas seem to be made of pure
Tusser silk.

Captain Brooke* says : —

“ In Seonee it is a regular organised and thoroughly
understood industry, from the rearing of the insects to the
weaving of silk into cloth, with all its accompanying
machinery of trade guilds, money lenders, &c. This state
of things is, in my opinion, no disadvantage ; for, in place

* Geogkegan, “ Silk Industry of India, p. 199. ”

17

of having to contend with the difficulties which in India

O

always surround the introduction of anything new or
unknown, the demand is all that is necessary to stimulate
production to any extent required. Nor is this a figure
of speech, for the natural food of the Tussar worm is the
leaves of the saj, lendeya , and dhowra trees, all of which
are found in every part of this district, and are, I believe,
common to the whole of Gondwana. These trees are,
besides, propagated with facility, and, as far as the require-
ment of the insect goes, are of rapid growth ; hence, if the
silk became more known and better valued, and the profits
sufficiently attractive, we might witness a development
of the culture similar in kind to that which has of late
years taken place in the case of cotton. Supposing, then,
a demand to spring up, I am of opinion that the supply
would, in a very short time, amply meet it. The nucleus
of no inconsiderable trade now exists, and only awaits the
stimulus of high prices.

The primary question whether the product is, or may
become, of such value as to occasion a large demand, is
one, perhaps, that more nearly concerns traders than Indian
administrators ; still, so convinced am I of the value and
beauty of the fabric that can be woven from well-reeled
Tasar that I would venture to strongly urge Government
action in introducing it to the markets of Europe.”

The worms require protection from birds and ants, which
are their greatest enemies. The first cocoons are made in
August, and are sold, after the moth has escaped, to the
silk dealers at 4 to 8 pice (1 \d. to od .) the hundred. The
unpierced cocoons are only sold to rearers, as seed, at 1 . 8
rupees to 2 rupees (3s. to 4s.) per hundred.

Captain Brooke says : —

“ In Chanda and Bilaspoor, Central Provinces, the rearing
of the worms is attended by many ceremonial observances,
which begin when the insect leaves the egg, and are not
discontinued until the cocoons are gathered and taken
to the rearer’s house. During the feeding of the worm
the Dheemurs lead lives of the strictest abstinence.

“ No female is allowed within a considerable distance
of the trees upon which the worms are feeding, and
if by chance a woman or impure man passes near the
feeding grounds the trees and worms are sprinkled in the
name of Jogni (an incarnation of the god Mahadeo, whom
the worms are supposed to represent) with water taken,
if procurable, from a running stream, and in which tulsi
leaves have been steeped. During the same period the
Q 3255. B

18

Dheemurs carefully abstain from flesh, fish, or haldi as their
food, nor do they cut their hair or shave, and carefully
deny themselves all ablution. When the cocoons are
formed they are collected into a heap, and a goat, pig, or
fowl is sacrificed to Mahadeo in his form Jogni ; the blood
is sprinkled over the cocoons, and, after a bout of liquor,
are taken home. On the third day following the Dheemurs
shave and resume their normal condition.*’^

The caterpillars moult five times, at intervals of from
five to eight days. When first hatched they weigh but ~
of a grain, and are about ^ of an inch long ; but at the end
of their larval existence, which is from forty to forty-five
days, they have attained a size of seven inches long, one
inch in diameter, and weigh about 370 grains (Plate III.)
They then begin to spin their cocoons, which are of an egg
shape and silvery drab in colour (Plate IV., Fig. 1). The
silk is all regularly deposited in a compact manner, resem-
bling in substance the shell of an egg (Plate IV., Fig. 2).

The cocoons vary much in size. The largest I have seen
are from Sambulpoor, and are two inches long and 1\
inches in diameter. The weight of the large cocoons is,
without the pupa and supporting pedicle, 28 grains ; the
ordinary size 16 grains. Mr. H. Meyer, of Milan, has reeled
for me an unbroken double thread from one cocoon, which
weighs 12 grains, and measures 1,332 yards, or a little more
than three quarters of a mile.

Major Coussmaker remarks t : —

cc As a rule, there are certainly two crops in the year ;
the moths of the first batch come out in about four or six
weeks after the first lot of worms (which come out at the
commencement of the rains) have spun ; those of the second
batch remain quiescent until the rains begin again, that is
to say, until May. As this entails the chrysalis remaining
in the cocoon as long as eight months, exposed to the
hottest sun and occasional thunderstorms, the cocoon had
need to be made a hard impenetrable material; so inde-
structible is it, that Blieels and and other tribes which live
in the jungles use the cocoon as an extinguisher to the
bamboo tube in which they keep the “falita” or cotton-
rope tinder used by them for lighting their tobacco and
the slow matches of their matchlocks. The cocoon is also
cut into a long spiral band, and used for binding the barrel
of matchlocks to the stocks, being, as the natives say, un-

* Captain Brooke, as quoted in Geoghegan, “ Silk Industry of India, ” p. 1 10.
f “The Tusser Silkworm,” p. 9, 1873.

19

affected either by water or fire. The cocoon consists of two
kinds of silk ; what it first spins is reddish, and of this the
pedicle and outside network are made. This silk consists of
threads of different lengths, but the rest is generally un-
broken from beginning to end of the cocoon.

“ After the caterpillar has spun a layer of silk thick
enough to conceal itself, it discharges some kind of gum
or cement, thick like plaster of paris, and with its muscular
action it causes this secretion to thoroughly permeate the
whole cocoon and solidify the wall. In this manner it goes
on spinning layer after layer of loops, and cementing them
altogether until the whole of its silk is exhausted, and the
wall of the cocoon becomes so hard that it requires a sharp
penknife to cut through it. The ring at the end of the
pedicle, which has been spun round the twig, is a most
necessary provision of nature ; for it often happens that
either the caterpillar has been unable to attach its cocoon
to a leaf, or that during the long time the cocoon remains
unburst on the tree the leaf or leaves to which the cocoon
was at first attached become separated from it, and the
cocoon hangs suspended to the twig like a berry.”

After eight or nine months in the pupa state a moist spot
is observed at one end of the cocoon. The moth is now
about to emerge both from its pupa shell and from the
cocoon. It secretes an acid fluid which softens the
cement of the cocoon, and enables it to separate the fibres
sufficiently to allow of its creeping out, it being no doubt
assisted in this by its short pointed spines. The head
of the moth first appears with its antennae, broad in
the male and narrow in the female, thus enabling the
observer to note the sex and to put them in pairs. The
male moth generally flies away the night of his exit from
the cocoon, after his wings become extended and dried.

The female rarely flies off, but during the first three days
of her existence she lays her eggs, which hatch about 12
days afterwards. The new life of the moth does not extend
to more than eleven days. As will be seen from Plate II.,
the moth is a fine and handsome insect. It measures
across the wings about six inches in the male and about
five inches in the female. Notice the vitreous and
transparent wing spots. They are like those of the Atlas
moth, but smaller ; they are regarded with superstitious
reverence by the natives, who see in them a resemblance
to the chakra or discus of the god Vishnu, and from this
consider the moth a sacred insect.* The colour of the moth

b 2

* Geoghegau.

20

is reddish-brown in the male, but the female is much
yellower.

Major Coussmaker has formed a breeding establishment
at Poonah, and has planted many young trees for feeding
the worm. He has changed his former plan of feeding
them on cut twigs brought to them in captivity, and now
allows them, carefully watched, to feed in the open air on
the growing shrubs. This was an evident change for the
better. The larvae moulted in four to five days, instead of
five to eight days ; they spun their cocoons in 28 to 35
days, instead of from 40 to 50 days, and the moths emerged
from the cocoons in 30 days, their eggs proving more fertile
than under the former plan.

A report on Tusser culture from Major Coussmaker is
dated Poonah, February 21st, 1880, from which I have ex-
tracted a few particulars : — •

“ The great difficulty in rearing the Tusser worm is to
ensure an unfailing supply of suitable food, and, in order to
obtain this, the shrubs should be planted in the form of
hedges. I am in favour of growing Daiyeti (Lagerstrcemia
Indica), an ornamental shrub fairly abundant in the can-
tonment of Poonah, thickly planted on ridges so as to form
continuous lines of food, while the Blier (Zizyphus jujube/)
and the Karinda ( Carissa Garandas) might be planted as
hedges surrounding the plantation, as they naturally grow
into thick tangled masses, and, being thorny, would keep
out cattle. In three years the Bher will grow from seed
into a bush four feet high, and in the same time the Daiyeti
raised from cuttings and root suckers would be nearly as
high, and the whole plantation would be ready for feeding
by the commencement of the third monsoon after it had
been started. I should, if possible, lay it out with a view of
irrigating it, for, though there is no necessity to water the
trees during the rainy season, still liberal watering and
plenty of manure will always increase the supply of leaf ;
by high cultivation of this nature my small plantation is
now so far advanced that next monsoon I hope to be able
to state how much ground will be required for a definite
number of worms.

“ Last year the worms finished spinning their cocoons in
the early part of November, and it appeared to me that
when the cold east winds which we had at the end of
October set in the worms made no further progress,
and more of them died at that time, instead of spinning
their cocoons, than at any other period of their existence.
During the five months I was rearing them this last season

21

I could not detect any epidemic or any well-defined
sickness among them, nor did there appear any difference
in those reared in the open or in the shade, or on the large
or small trees, or under cover ; insects, birds, mice, rats,
squirrels, and lizards carried them off* repeatedly, but the
reason of so much life being lost was that I tried to
preserve more than I had food for ; in fact, they died from
preventible accidents.

“ One of the most interesting, and I think important,
facts that I have this year been able to prove, is with
regard to the composition of the cement with which the
caterpillar hardens its cocoon.

“Former analyses of this agent made for me, in England
by Dr. Taylor and in Bombay by Dr. Lyon, had shown
that it contained the acid urate of ammonia, that it was
in fact excrementitious ; and this year, by opening the
cocoons at various intervals, I was able to convince myself
of the fact that when the caterpillar has left off feeding
and begins to spin it voids the food remaining in the
alimentary canal, first of all in a more or less solid form
and of a dark colour, but after it has become fully en-
veloped in the cocoon the excrement comes away as a
light-coloured liquid, the hue and consistency of which
depend upon the amount of vegetable matter not pre-
viously evacuated and the amount of lime, carbon, and
ammonia present. The respective proportions of these
ingredients vary, I presume, with the food on which the
caterpillar has fed and with the state of the atmosphere at
the time of spinning, also the longer they remain coating
the fibre the harsher and more discoloured it will be. It
is therefore very necessary, I think, to remove this cement at
a very early date ; and this chemistry has shown the manu-
facturers how to do. Judicious feeding, too, may alter its
nature. Before long, fresh cocoons will be at an early
stage thoroughly cleansed from all discolouring matter, and
Tasar silk will be available for manufacturing purposes as
colourless as it is when first put forth by the caterpillar.

“ Through the kindness of my correspondent in Santhal
country 1 have procured a few cocoons of the large or
Chattisghari variety of the Tasar moth, and as this crosses
readily with the small or Desi variety which only is found
in the Southern Maratha country, I hope next season to
procure larger cocoons than I usually do.” *

*

Gcoghegan, “ Silk Industry of India,” p. Ill,

22

The following is extracted from a letter sent to me by
J. F. K. Hewitt, Esq., Commissioner, Cliota Nagpore, dated
September 20th, 1880.

“ I shall be exceedingly obliged to you for any infor-
mation you can give as to the cost of machines for reeling
Tusser silk, in order that I may submit a proposition to
Government for the introduction of silk reeling as a jail
industry, as I thought that if this were proved to be
profitable it might give such a stimulus to the cultivation
of the Tusser worms as would lead capitalists to lay out
the money necessary to make the yield of Tusser from the
Highlands of Central India equal to what the country
can easily produce with the assistance of capital and
organisation. The cost of a machine was a factor necessary
to make the system I proposed to Government complete,
and I am afraid that in the absence of this information
there may be much greater difficulty in having my proposed
experiment authorised than there would if I could show
clearly the cost on one side of the account and the probable
profits on the other.

“ I myself can do nothing in the matter beyond laying
before Government the probability that by a very little
effort a large quantity of Tusser can be produced in the
division under my charge, and the very great likelihood
of establishing a trade which will conduce to the permanent
increase of the wealth of the countrv, if means can be
found to increase the production of Tusser to meet the
present growing demand. I must say, however, that
Government can never stimulate a trade so quickly as
private capital. A much quicker and more easy solution
of the difficulty could be worked out by the large silk-
houses if they once determined to turn their earnest
attention to the subject. Before Tusser silk can be
produced on a scale sufficient to meet a really large
demand at all approaching to that for China silk, the
methods of the trade must be entirely revolutionised. At
present Tusser silk is entirely produced by the aboriginal
tribes whose villages lie in the valleys running through
the hilly country comprised within the circuits of Bhau-
gulpore, Chota Nagpore, and Cuttack divisions in Bengal,
the Chuttisghur, Nagpore, and Jubbulpore divisions in
Central India, and in the independent state of Bewa.
This country includes an area larger than that of France ;
and in almost the whole of the hills and forest country,
which cover fully three-fifths of its surface, Tusser silk

23

could be profitably produced if the requisite arrangements
were made, as the Asun ( Pentaptera tomentosa), on
which the worm thrives best, is found abundantly every-
where. The numbers, however, of the people who cultivate
Tusser are small, and these numbers are yearly decreasing
as the jungles are cleared and the distance between the
village sites and the jungles increases. The cultivator
requires that the trees on which the worms are fed should
be constantly watched, and superstition adds to the
difficulty of the cultivator by insisting that no one can
hope to cultivate Tusser worms and reap profit from the
cultivation, while maintaining his own health and that of
his family, without submitting to a long series of ascetic
ordinances during the whole time of watching the worms.
If he fails in doing this, the anger of the gods will in-
evitably destroy him and all belonging to him. As very
few of these people will ever consent to live in houses
separated by any great distance from their nearest
neighbours, it invariably happens that the cultivators find
out, as cultivation extends and the area of cleared land
between the village and the forest increases, that culti-
vation is easier and quite as profitable work as Tusser
growing with its concomitant annoyances, and so he gives
up Tusser and takes to cultivation instead. Of course, if
they kept a large number of the Tusser-feeding trees near
the village they might contrive both ; but this they do not
do, as their great object is to get rid of every cover near
the village within which wild beasts can hide, and the
universal practice, therefore, is to cut down every tree
and leave the cultivated land totally unshaded and open.
The increase of population, and the yearly increasing area
of forest cleared away, therefore tend to lessen the culti-
vation of Tusser, and it is not possible to increase the
production to meet a large demand except by inducing
the cultivators to betake themselves to uncleared forests,
or else to utilise the partially cleared lands for the
cultivation by planting fresh trees and preventing the
destruction of those still left. As to the first plan it will
be very difficult to carry out, as almost all the best
cultivable lands have been already cleared, or are in
process of clearance, so that the untouched forests mostly
consist of that grown on rocky hill sides where land
could not be profitably cultivated. As the means of
communication throughout the country are too imperfect
to allow of provisions being brought from a distance

24

without the labour of the largest part of the community
being used in the transport, it would be impossible at
present to make any use of these remote tracts, even if
the prejudices of the people as to living on places where
they could not grow their favourite crops, where they
would have to propitiate strange spirits without the hope
of obtaining a permanent settlement by their labours, could
be overcome. This last is the most formidable obstacle of
all ; and though the ideas of the Indian peasant are
translated by me into a somewhat illogical form, anyone
who knows them will concur with me in saying that this
is nothing like so illogical as the reality. This being the
case, the only thing to be done is to take up the cultivation
systematically ; and surely if the future prospects of Tusser
are so good as I, and I believe you too, think them to be,
it would be worth the while of some of the great houses
to send out trustworthy agents to examine the country,
select sites for establishing farms on which Tusser could
be grown, and devote their energies to superintending the
cultivation. By these means the production of Tusser
could be largely increased, and cultivation could be
extended so as to meet any possible increase of demand.
Such an increase is impossible at present, owing to the
difficulties stated above, and no largely increased supply
can be expected till the whole system is re-organised. If
the work be taken in hand, I cannot recommend a more
favourable field for experiment than Chota Nagpore. The
climate is fairly good, and much cooler than the plains.
There is a considerable number of people who are now
engaged in the cultivation, and who understand the best
methods, and who could be made the means of inducing

• . O

others to take to the cultivation, providing it were shown
to be certain to be profitable ; and the trees necessary for
rearing the Tusser worm can be found everywhere, and
are easily grown and propagated. If you know of any

large silkhouses willing to make experiments in this

direction, I am sure you cannot use a more effective

method of increasing the production of Tusser, and pro-
ducing a supply commensurate with the increasing demand,
than by calling attention to the above statement of facts.
X myself shall be very glad to give any information in my
power to any large firm wishing to make an organised
attempt to increase the production and systematise the
cultivation of the silk, as I am sure that no other trade
would be of such advantage to the country under my
charge/’

Mr. Hewitt, in a letter to me dated 19th February 1881,
gives me the following particulars regarding the price, &c.
of Tusser cocoons : —

“ The price of Tusser cocoons, as ascertained by me at
Chaibassa in December, the cheapest time of the year, was
8 annas (according to the present rates of exchange, about
lOd) per 80 cocoons. Cocoons vary in weight from 50 to
the lb. of the newest to 70 to the lb. of the oldest. 1,280
cocoons, not selected according to weight, are calculated to
yield about 2 lbs. 6 oz. avoirdupois of silk thread made of
from four to five strands, that number of cocoons being all
reeled together. This will sell in the bazaar for about
10 rs. 12£ annas, or about 17s. according to present rates
of exchange.”

Captain Brooke says : —

“ In Chanda and Sunboolpoor, Central Provinces, while
the cocoon crop is gathered, Koshtas, a weaving caste, visit
the villages and buy them from the rearers. They are
then, as soon as practicable, boiled in a lye made from the
ashes of Jungni stalks, a plant grown for the oil expressed
from its seed. This process effectually kills the chrysalis,
at the same time dissolving the mucilage of the cocoon.
The cocoons are then stored for use. The method of
reeling is primitive in the extreme, and to its imperfections
I solely attribute the scant attention this valuable and
very beautiful silk has hitherto received. A descrip-
tion of the process is as follows: — The spinner, always a
woman, sits on the ground ; on her left is an earthen
vessel, with a thickish rim, about six inches in diameter
and three inches deep. The saucer is three parts filled
v/ith a mixture of potash and ashes patted down to a level
surface, and kept damp with water. Upon this the
cocoons to be spun are placed, the outer portion, of inferior
and nearly useless silk, having been first removed. The
thread in ordinary use among the weavers is spun from
seven cocoons ; these are all placed at the same time in the
earthen saucer ; a filament is then taken up from each
cocoon, and, being brought together, are rolled between
the hand and left thigh of the spinner, which are kept
damp by an acid solution of tamarind and water.”

In Bengal the cocoons are put into boiling water to kill
the pup?e ; in some districts, when intended for sale, they
are put in boiling water and dried in the sun. In the
Nizams country the cocoons are loaded with dhobee’s
earth and alkaline ashes to make them reel. In the Mid-

26

napoor district they are boiled in cowdung and reeled bv
hand.

Captain Brooke says that in Seonee the pierced
cocoons are wound, and that no koshtee rejects a cocoon
simply because the moth has eaten its way through it. He
has fallen into an error in stating the moth’s mode of exit
from its cocoon. It does not eat its way out, but separates
the fibres with its legs and wing spine, and so creeps out.
It has neither teeth nor mouth proper.

Each species of silkworm has two stores of silk, one on
each side of the alimentary canal, and below its mouth it
has two so-called spinnarets or orifices, through which the
silk issues simultaneously in fine parallel filaments. As
the silk is drawn out of the stores, the worm coats it with
a varnish technically called gum, which contains a brownish-
yellow colouring matter.

The Tussev worm, in spinning its cocoon, takes short
sweeps of its head from side to side, depositing the silk
very closely in parallel fibres, which take a zigzag course
round the cocoon as he does so. It has been thought
that the worm twists or spins the silk as it exudes it,
but this is not the case. Besides the gum which coats the
silk, the worm secretes at intervals a cementing fluid, which
it kueads by an expanding motion of its body through the
whole cocoon to consolidate and harden it. This cement
gives to the cocoon its drab colour.

There is a striking peculiarity about the fibre of Tusser
silk. I have carefully and thoroughly examined it many
times under the microscope, and find undoubtedly that it is
almost flat (Plate XXVIII., Figs 3 and 4), and not round,
as is the case in the silk produced by the mulberry-fed worm
Bombyx mori (Plate XXVIII., Figs. 1 and 2).

There is no doubt that it is to this property that Tusser
silk owes its glassy or vitreous look, reflecting a little glare
of light from the angle of incidence on its flat surface,
whilst the mulberry-silk fibre, being round, reflects the
light in all directions.

By some this property is considered a drawback, but by
the time the fibre has become modified and the flatness
diffused in the loom I think the lustre of the cloth is en-
hanced by it.

This tape-like appearance gives the fibre this disadvan-
tage, that it is less homogeneous than the round fibre of
the mulberry silk, and I find an undoubted tendency in
it to split up into smaller fibrets, of which the fibre
is evidently composed, causing the silk to swell out

27

when subjected to severe dyeing processes, particularly
the bleaching one of recent date, thus giving a substantial
and important reason why its coloured cements should be
removed, if possible, by gentle action. The natural colour
of Tusser silk is a darkish shade of fawn, much unlike the
golden and white colours of mulberry silk.

The fibre ts have a distinct structure, upwards of 20 in
number, composing each fibre, and seem compactly laid
together, showing longitudinal striae under the microscope
(Plate XXVIII., Fig. 4). I conceive it is this fibrous com-
pound structure, absent in the mulberry fibre (Plate
XXVIII., Fig. 2), which is an element in its dye-resisting
power. I found permanganate of potash to be the best
agent to separate these fibrets.

The diameter, from edge to edge, of a single flat fibre of
Tusser from the outer part of the cocoon averages Tj-W part
of an inch, and from deeper in the substance of the cocoon
of an inch, but the ^external fibres are much more
variable than the internal ones. The thickness from side
to side is 0 of an inch. The outside fibres are capable
of supporting without breaking an average weight of
seven drams, and the inner eight drams, whilst the usual
amount of tension before breaking in all the fibres is one
inch to the foot (see table, page 68). The fibres, like all
other silk fibres, are laid in the cocoon by the silkworm in
pairs, and are, like all flat silk fibres, united by their edges,
and not by their flat surfaces.

All the Saturniidce fibres I have examined are more or
less striated and composed of fibrets, and are fiattish, except
the English species, Saturnia carpini, or Emperor moth
(Plate XXI., Figs. 1 and 2), which in North Staffordshire
spins a beautiful cocoon in the heather of our moorlands.
Plate XXIX., Fig. 6, is an enlarged microscopic appearance
of this silk, which shows its transparent and fibreless
nature ; and also, what is very curious, that the fibres are
round except when they come in contact with each
other, when they become flat ; no doubt, from pressure
whilst the fibres were in their fresh viscous state. This
apparent exception to the Saturniidce depositing flat
fibres, and the Bombycidce round ones, which I had esta-
blished, possibly points to the secretion of the sericine in
the different species, varying in viscidity, that of the
Saturniidce being secreted in a more fluid state than in
that of the Bombycidce. There may also be a difference in
the structure of their seripositors ; but this I have not had
at present an opportunity of investigating.

28

It is a fallacy, held b y some entomologists, that the worm
in all species, both Bombycidce and Saturniidce, twists or
spins the two threads together as it forms them at the
orifice of its spinnarets. The two threads are simply laid
side by side. It would be impossible to twist the two
threads without the worm itself revolving continuously
with the emission of the silk, or having spinning wheels
at the secreting orifice. I propose, therefore, to change the
word “spinnaret,” which conveys an inaccurate impression,
and substitute for it that of “ seripositor.”

CHAPTER VI.

New and Improved Processes of Reeling, Spinning,
Dyeing, and Printing Tusser Silk, with Account
of its Uses.

Leaving now the more beaten track of the natural
history side of the question, I come to speak of its
merchantable and art side.

In 1874 I had the honour to receive a communication
from Sir Louis Mallet, Under Secretary of State for India,
asking me to communicate, “for the information of the
“ Government of India, any details I might be in a position
“ to furnish on the subject of d}ming the wild silk pro-
“ duced by the Tusser worm.”

On my report being received I was requested to make
a full investigation of the subject, which divided itself
naturally into two heads — a consideration of the silk, and of
tinctorial matters. For the first, I found the raw Tusser silk
as it comes into this country to be prepared by the natives
of India and China in such a rude and filthy state as to
interpose unnecessary obstacles to its taking the dyes.
I felt sure that cleaner and more skilful methods of reeling'
and preparing the silk for the market would be accom-
panied by less resistance to tinctorial matter, as well as
furnishing a greatly improved quality. At my request,
orders were issued for the collection in the different pro-
vinces of India of a complete assortment of native dyestuffs
as well as a complete supply of Tusser silk.

In recommending the Government of India to have the
natives taught the dyeing of their wild silks with dyestuffs
indigenous to India, I had two motives, one to prevent the
native art of India being tampered with by the introduction

29

of European fugitive dyes and crude colours, and another that
they could be made to utilise that in which their country
has ever been so rich, the remarkable variety of native-
grown dyestuffs which in other than wild silk fabrics they
have known probably for thousands of years so well how to
use. To take dyestuffs to India must surely be carrying
coals to Newcastle. I have since received an extensive
and most interesting series of India dyestuffs and tanning
materials, which I have at present under examination.
Some of these native dyestuffs, with proper mordants, give
much more permanent colours than the fugitive aniline dyes
the use of which for artistic purposes and for goods intended
to last a long time pannot be too seriously lamented. They
are suitable only for dyes intended for short use. My
examination already promises well. I have succeeded in
applying several dyes to Tusser silk which seem to possess
the desirable merit of permanence, and no doubt others
will also impart colours to the silk with satisfactory results
when I have found suitable mordants for them. I also
received a quantity of Tusser cocoons, and, not being able
to have them reeled in England, I was authorised to go to
Italy to see if I could have them reeled there, and effect
my hope for improvement in the manufacture. By the
introduction of a friend, I obtained permission to visit one
of the filatures in Piedmont, at St. Cio, near Torre Pellice.
On arriving there I found an extensive mulberry-silk
reeling and throwing establishment, situated in a most
beautiful valley, in one of the southern spurs of the Alps,
about three hours' journey north of Turin.

On explaining my mission, and showing the wild cocoons,
I was told there was not much prospect of success, for
several trials had been made, and they had been found
difficult to soften and impracticable to w^ork ; but knowing
too well how natural is the tendency to look at objections
rather than at the means when any new idea presents
itself, and feeling too that the difficulties might be resolved,
I asked to be allowed to try myself. The permission being
generously granted, and every assistance kindly afforded me,
I was taken to the reeling room, where about 100 young-
women were at work, with well-trained fingers, reeling
the small Piedmont cocoons of Bornbyx mori. The opera-
tion was interesting in the extreme, heightened as it was
by their strange singing of old French songs, in a dialect
not even understood by the Italians, a strange and all but
forgotten tongue, which has to be learned by the mill-
overlookers before they can communicate their instructions

30

to them. I was told these girls were the descendants of
Huguenot refugees, escaped probably from Provence to the
Italian side of the Alps at the Revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, and that they still retained their patois and their
folk lore ; they worked hard for the few months of cocoon
reeling, from five in the morning until eight at night, for
a franc a day ; after work dancing and singing for the
hour before bed time in the most joyous way. Apartments
are provided for them at the factory, and when the reeling
season is over they separate and return to their Alpine
villages, to wait for the next season’s work.

The operation of unwinding the silk from the cocoon is
as follows : — A number of cocoons are immersed in an iron
pan, in water nearly boiling, with a little alkali to soften
them. A semi-rotating brush is placed over them, which
quickly catches the exterior fibres of each cocoon, and the
more readily enables the reeler to find the windable thread.
They are tlieu taken out and transferred to the reeler, who
sits leaning over an iron pan of about 1 2 inches in diameter
in which she has a few cocoons in hot water, the found ends
of several being in one hand. Four or six cocoons, as the
case may be, are being simultaneously reeled into a single
thread by the reel at her back, which draws off over her
head the cocoon threads while the cocoons are dancing
and turning in the water. When a thread breaks, or
the cocoon is reeled, another is quickly presented from
the lot in the other hand, the manipulation being one of
great dexterity. Several years are required to attain pro-
ficiency, and it is not until the fifth to the seventh year
that a reeler is entrusted with the most delicate reeling ;
the keeping of the size of the thread regular and free from
rough places being the most important care.

It is this branch of the manufacture that in Tusser silk
is so defectively treated in India. The native mode of
reeling the thread of silk from the cocoon is by the imple-
ments represented in Plate LYI. ; this shows how rudely the
manipulation is managed as compared to the more finished
reeling appliance of the Italians. In some instances the
silk is reeled from the cocoon round the naked knee-cap of
the reeler.

I took some of my wild cocoons, and, with much diffi-
culty and patience, after several trials, succeeded in softening
them by the aid of long-continued boiling in water, to
which were added soap, potash, and glycerine. When soft
enough, one of the most skilled girls was told off to reel
them for me, and, after ridding the cocoons of the outer

31

and coarser threads, she reeled the thread of four cocoons
into one, almost without a break, much to her own delight
and to the surprise of my friends and myself.

The next day, the resulting Tusser raw silk was taken
to the throwing mill, and there made into Organzine and
Tram, of such fineness as to surprise my friends, who said
they had no idea that Tusser silk could be made of so fine
a thread, and that they should think seriously about sending
a person to India to collect Tusser cocoons, that their work-
people might wind them after their mulberry crop had
been finished.

The usual size — that is, thickness — of thread of thrown Tus-
ser silk of commerce was, up to this time, 152 to 255 deniers ;
that is, skeins, of 1,000 yards long, weighing 9 to 15 drams.
From some of the finer raw silk a size of 6 to 7 drams
was obtained, but it was generally coarser. From the
cocoons the reeling of which I superintended I obtained a
size of 51 deniers, or three drams, per 1,000 yards. ( See
No. 15 in the collection.)

In 1878 I met M. H. Meyer, a silk manufacturer at
Milan and one of my colleagues in the silk jury at the
Paris Exhibition. He took much interest in my work
and its results. From cocoons I afterwards sent him he
obtained raw silk of 23-27 deniers, or 1J drams, per 1,000
yards. From this he produced Organzine and Tram (warp
and weft threads) of 50 to 55 deniers or 3 drams, results
agreeing with my own ; which are also in the collec-
tion. He found some of my cocoons very difficult to
reel, no doubt owing to their age, and to not having been
reeled before weather exposure. Fourteen pounds and
a half yielded one pound of raw silk. He informs me that
some cocoons he has just purchased in Marseilles were
larger in size than those I sent him ; they are darker in
colour, but reel much better. He is obtaining from ten
pounds of them one pound of raw silk.

Even a finer thread might be obtained ; but as the fibre
is only the y-fo-th part of an inch, or three times as thick as
ordinary silk, I think 51 deniers is a good and practicable
limit when native reelers can have proper appliances, and
be taught to be as handy as the reelers of Italy or the
south of France. I daresay some of my readers may
remember the improvements which took place in reeling
the mulberry silks of Bengal and Brutia, when superior
skill and machinery were introduced, a good many years
ago. Before that time, Bengal silks were held in very low
estimation, and were very difficult to work, but after the

32

introduction of better appliances Bengal silks were shown
to be as capable of refinement as any other ; and Brutia
silk now commands, by its superior quality, the highest
price in the market ; and I have no doubt that, in degree,
equal success lies waiting for the Tusser-silk industry.

I trust I may point to this manufacturing development
and great improvement with pardonable pride, more espe-
cially as I am not a manufacturer, and could scarcely
expect to find untrodden ground in a domain distinct from,
although allied to, my own.

The new-reeled silk is much lighter in colour than native-
reeled, and has very much more lustre ; in fact, it is the
most lustrous in the undyed state of all silks, and pos-
sesses greater strength. I found, what I expected to find,
that the silk thus reeled dyes much more easily ; more
shades and lighter ones can be dyed upon it than native-
reeled ; it has no disagreeable smell, and only loses two
ounces per pound in being cleaned for dyeing, where
native-reeled Tusser loses in some cases as much as six
to seven ounces per pound, and never less than four to
five ounces. It is as clean, to use a technical term, which
means free from “ slubs ” and irregularities of thread, as
ordinary silk. The cost of reeling new and good cocoons,
and manufacturing them into Organ zine and Tram, is
about seven shillings per pound ; but it would be less when
the collection and storing of the cocoons is better under-
stood, and the chrysalis more carefully killed. It is making
way, both all silk and in mixtures, in many fabrics where
extreme fineness is not required, and for a variety of pur-
poses, in passementerie, trimmings, braids, scarves, broad,
and narrow goods. It is now considerably used for these
purposes in France. Its price has gradually risen, whilst
that of other silks has either remained stationary or
actually depreciated.

I have urged on the Government of India the impor-
tance of introducing to the natives of India the European
modes of reeling cocoons, and some time ago drew their
attention to an invention which simplifies and economises
this operation.

Mr. Mackenzie, engineer, of Milan, has introduced a Milan
house of filateurs, who have invented and patented another
mode of reeling, by which skilled labour is dispensed with.
If this machine is pronounced by experts to be a success,
there is no reason why cocoon reeling should not be
carried on in any village home, as fiax spinning was
formerly. Should this machine be found to be unsuitable.

33

there is no doubt the ordinary reeling appliances of Italy
and the South of France would leave nothing to be desired
in effectively and economically reeling the Tusser cocoons. *

M. David, the largest ribbon manufacturer in St. Etienne,
seeing this improved manufacture and dyeing in the Indian
section of the Paris Exhibition, where they were first dis-
played, offered to buy all the cocoons produced in India,
if the price would not be more than one franc per kilo-
gramme. He has applied to the India Government for
2,000 kilogrammes of cocoons for experiments at his own
cost. It would be a very good thing for a trade to spring
up in Tusser cocoons. The natives could easily be en-
couraged to breed a larger supply, whilst improvements
in reeling would require time, and would meet with
obstacles of race, religion, and habit difficult to overcome ;
the enterprise in this direction would have to be
purely private and mercantile, as I think the Government
of India would not enter into commercial undertakings,
but would probably, and certainly ought to, give most
strenuous encouragement and help to stimulate the further
spread of this most interesting industry.

I was requested by Dr. Birdwood, in 1878, to show,
in the Indian section of the Paris Exhibition, the develop-
ments of which Tusser silk was capable. He placed me
in communication with Sir P. Cunliffe Owen, K.C.M.G., C.B.,
who entered most warmly into the idea, and took the
greatest interest in it throughout, giving me all the en-
couragement and help required to make the collection
worthy of being represented side by side with the
beautiful objects from India, worthy of the traditions of the
gorgeous East. It was the India of the artist which
asserted itself at Paris — the old historic land, from which
art manufactures in brocades, printed calicoes, jewellery,
ivory carving, and pottery may still draw their highest
aspirations.

In the wild-silk exhibits which I have been requested to
bring together in the new India section of the South
Kensington Museum are shown, not only the improvements
in manufacturing and dyeing of which I have spoken, but
another and more decorative phase, and one developed,
so far as I can gather, for the first time in the history of

* This machine has been recently much improved and patented. It will
shortly he brought to England for inspection, the inventor having sanguine
hopes of a very extended use for it in the silk-reeling districts of Asia and
Europe, both for reeling mulberry and Tusser silks. It will now produce a
larger quantity and will yield a perfectly classical silk.

Q 3255.

C

34

either the East or West — that of printing. It had struck
me that fabrics made of Tusser silk, either of native or
home manufacture, would be susceptible of much enrich-
ment if they could be printed upon. After many fruitless
attempts, at a considerable outlay, I at last succeeded, and
since that time I have had the satisfaction of applying and
fixing a much wider range of colours.

Thinking that designs of an Eastern type were naturally
the most applicable to cloths of this wild silk, I obtained,
by the courtesy of Dr. Forbes Watson, the loan of a large
series of wood-printing blocks, of native design and work-
manship, from the old India Museum. I have used these
for many of the printed illustrations in the collection, and
have consistently adhered to the use of Indian colours.
The designs on these blocks are exceedingly interesting,
as will be seen in Plate LY. In England the finer
details would be of copper, but in these they are of the
hardest wood, and the details of the pattern most skilfully
cut.

Since the results of my developments were exhibited at
the Paris Exhibition of ] 878, Tusser silks have been largely
printed and worn both in France and England. Printed
pompadours on Tusser have since been very fashionable.
These printed silks can be successfully used for wall
damasks, curtains, furniture coverings, hangings, and
women's and girls' dresses with excellent effect ; and I
would call the attention of upholsterers and broad-silk
manufacturers to the specimens in the collection in the
India section. The silk fabrics made of Tusser are very
strong, most durable, and possess much lustre. I have
pointed out at p. 68 the superior strength of Tusser to
ordinary silk, it being between three and four times
greater than that of Bombyx mori.

There will be found in the collection a series of patterns,
No. 87, which, by the kindness of Messrs. Clayton, Mars-
dens, Holden, & Co., who prepared them, I am enabled
to exhibit, showing to what uses the waste of Tusser silk
and the cocoons pierced by the exit of the moth can be put
by spinning in the same way as threads of cotton and wool
are manufactured. It commences with samples of pierced
cocoons which could not be wound, and waste silk from
ordinary Tusser manufacture, followed by samples showing
the various processes the silk undergoes before it is made
into thread or cord for weaving or for sewing purposes.
This series of patterns will be found described in order in
the catalogue at the end of this manual.

35

This suggests forcibly a promising economy in store for
the produce of all silk-making worms. There are many
species unknown to commerce, rejected because of their not
being capable of being reeled or wound in the ordinary
way ; but now that spinning machinery is in such a
perfected state, all cocoons and waste silk may be spun
and converted into materials of some use or other.

In Simla alone there are said to be eight or nine
species of Bombyx , which, no doubt, might be utilised in
this way as well as many, if not all, the species enumera-
ted in Mr. Moore's list at p. 3. I strongly recommend
that all the waste of Tusser be collected ; the outer part
of the cocoon, being removed by the native reeler, should
be put aside for this purpose. It is only practicable to
obtain one pound of reeled silk from 11 lbs. of cocoons
minus their chrysalides, and the remaining 10 lbs. of
waste is eagerly sought after by the European spinners.

Messrs. Clayton, Marsdens, Holden, & Co., silk spinners
of Halifax, have made for me several beautiful specimens
of fabrics woven in different designs from pierced cocoons
and waste Tusser, with which I furnished them from
material collected for me in India by the order of Her
Majesty’s Government of India. They have been suc-
cessful in perfecting to a surprising degree the manufac-
ture of fabric from Tusser-silk waste, which a few years
ago could not find buyers at 4 d. per lb., and which lay
about the English ports for some time quite unsaleable,
So much is it now in demand that it is worth 2s. per lb.
I also mention the successful weaving of reeled Tusser by
Messrs. J. Birchenough & Sons, of Macclesfield, who have
made in this branch a special effort of late years. Messrs.
Brocklehurst & Co., Messrs. Smale, Bros., and a few other
Macclesfield manufacturers, have also recently helped to
develop this industry.

Considerable quantities of Tusser silk have also been
manufactured in France by manufacturers unknown to me,
and not a little has been used in France and England for
the black gauffred braids so much worn of late for fringe ;
they have been almost as effective as mulberry-silk
braids.

In March 1878 there were nearly 2,000 bales of Tusser
raw silk in London that could not find buyers even at so
low a price as from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 9 d. per lb., organzine and
tram being at that time 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d. per lb., whilst at
the present time there is scarcely a bale to be bought in
the market, and the value of Tusser raw has risen to not

c 2

36

less than 7s. to 9s. per lb. Notwithstanding a long depres-
sion in the silk trade, which has caused mulberry silk to
decrease in value, Tusser silk has steadily increased to its
present rates. I attribute this remarkable change in the
value of Tusser silk partly to the fact of the discovery of
the successful application of colour by dyeing and printing
to this silk, hitherto so intractable and dye-resisting, and
partly to the immense improvements which have taken
place in its manufacture and applications.

Owing to my successful experiment in Italy in 1876 for
the Government of India, showing the susceptibility of even
so coarse a fibre as Tusser being reeled into yarn of 52
deniers, the idea has since been carried out in practice by
the Italian manufacturers to some extent, and cocoons have
been imported and reeled and thrown there. The present
price of improved reeled Tussar in Italy is now 3J to 4
times the price of ordinary native-reeled. I have lately
been receiving samples of beautifully reeled silk from thence,
and marked at the following prices : —

deniers. s. d.

Organzine 40' 44 - 21 11 per lb. No. 2 Sample

Tram - 40 '44 - 18 2 „ „ 3 „

Raw - 20*22 - 14 7 „ „ 1

I consider these prices above the intrinsic value of Tusser

silk ; but if better arrangements were made for collecting
the cocoons in India, the silk might be purchased at much
lower prices, and lower still if the improved reeling
appliances of Italy could be taken to India, where labour
is so much cheaper and time of so much less value.

These excessive prices are still more remarkable at a time
when the best silks of commerce are extraordinarily low in
price.

The uses of Tusser silk are rapidly increasing. My
spinners tell me that such are their orders for Tusser scliappe,
i.e., spun Tusser silk, that, large as their mill now is, they
would increase it threefold could they obtain an adequate
supply of raw material. They have recently bought
25,000 lbs. to 30,000 lbs. of Tusser waste, and would contract
for 30.000 lbs. more if supply were available. The price
they are now paying is 2s. per lb. either for cocoons or
waste. They have even been carding and spinning reeled
Tusser silk which they bought when Tusser raws were
low.

One of the most important uses to which Tusser silk
has yet been applied is in the manufacture, first accom-

37

plished in 1880 in England, of the fabric known as “ Seal
cloth,” which consists of a Tusser silk plush woven into a
cotton back.

The use of this fabric for cloaks and mantles for ladies,
winter wear offers a considerable advantage over the use
of sealskin, from its intended resemblance to which it has
derived its name, in that, having a woven back, it is
perfectly porous. Tusser silk is peculiarly adapted for this
manufacture, owing to its beautiful soft feel and lustrous
appearance, and to the fact that its fibre, being three times
as thick as mulberry silk, offers sufficient resistance to
pressure which would otherwise disarrange the fibres of
such long plush, which lie regularly, just as in sealskin.

Seal cloth has a most rich appearance, and easily recovers
injury from wet or pressure by simply being placed before
the fire and then brushed. Tusser silk for this manufacture
is spun into yarn, and not reeled from the cocoon, and its
application to this purpose is now becoming very
extensive.

Extensive orders are in contract for the winter season
in brown and a variety of colours ; the beautiful soft feel
of the plush is sure to make it a favourite material.

Owing to private arrangements of the manufacturers
with the merchants, who are not desirous that the material
should be exhibited at present, I am unable to obtain
specimens for the Museum, but by the time the Handbook is
published there will be ample opportunity to secure some.
It is likely to be the most useful and fashionable stuff for
cloaks and mantles for the winter, and, having a woven
back, will be porous, and not liable to the objections of
seal or other skins. The pile is made to lie exactly as in
sealskin.

It also bids fair to become a rival if not a substitute
for Utrecht velvet ; it has a marked adaptability to the
purpose for which this velvet is used, having a softer pile
and much more brilliancy. It is destined, for this use
particularly, to a permanent future unaffected by the
fluctuations of fashion.

I am glad to announce that I have found a new use for
Tusser silk : it will be found eminently applicable for
making silk carpets and rugs, for this reason, that its fibre
is three times thicker than the silk of commerce, making
therefore a better and firmer pile. A sample which I have
had made promises the best results.

It is also coming into extensive use for travelling rugs

38

alone and for woven tapestries of mixed materials. The
lustre of the silk enlivens up the effect in a very pleasing
manner.

Another use which I have also found for it is its insertion
in tailoring cloths for brightening up the effect.

I have placed in the collection a specimen of plush made
with Tusser organzine (No. 43 of the collection), which I
believe to be as superior in firmness of pile to the silk
carpets of India as the carpets of thicker wools and camels’
hair are to those made from very fine wools.

The following India-made carpets of silk are now exhi-
bited in the New India section at the South Kensington
Museum : —

One from Malabar, modern.

One from Wurungal, 16th century.

One Mongolian, 18th century.

One place not named, 18th century.

One silk and cotton carpet.

One from Hyderabad, Deccan.

Beautiful as they are, particularly the older ones, the pile
in each is inferior to the accompanying Tusser specimen of
plush ; and I wish to emphasise this superiority in order to
draw the attention of carpet manufacturers to the important
and not too well-known fact that a stiff fibre is generally
better than a fine one for carpet work, and that Tusser
silk accordingly is better than mulberry silk for the purpose,
whilst, in addition, it will not be possible to vulgarise the
effects of colour to so great an extent as may be seen in
most carpet-shop windows, because of the difficulty and cost
of dyeing Tusser silk into very pale shades, and also that
Tusser silk properly dyed inherently takes shades of
artistic merit.

The artistic effects will be correspondingly better with
the increased firmness of the staple, its greater durability,
and less liability of flattening by pressure and wear.

Tusser silk, both reeled and spun (and I hope my non-
manufacturing readers will by this time have recognised the
difference in manufacture between reeled silk and spun, i.e .,
carded and spun, silk), is being extensively used for making
mantle stuffs in imitation of and a substitute for sealskin.
I have no doubt that spun Tusser will also prove to be
applicable to carpet weaving as well as the reeled Tusser
described above, whilst, from the probability of its being
of lower value if quantities can be produced, it will be
employed in the production of low-priced carpets. The

39

present price, however, of Tusser spun yarn is 11s. per lb.,
actually greater, on account of the present large demand,
than Tusser organzine and tram made of native-reeled raw,
which can be bought at 7s. 6d. to 10s. per lb.

Thus, for both Indian and English silk-carpet weaving,
a new application lies open, as well as other uses now
being developed. As far as my examination has been able
to extend, I have not found in the immense collection of
native-dyed silks of all kinds of manufacture, artistic or
industrial, in the New Indian Museum, any specimens of
dyed Tusser silk except in the new collection of Indian
wild silk which I have had the honour to prepare and
arrange there.

In addition to the fabrics before mentioned, Tusser silk is
used for the manufacture of beautiful woven cloths, which
are styled grenadine or mandarin.

Had the people of India been able to have had Tusser
silk dyed into their artistic colours, no doubt this silk would
have been utilised for carpets and other kinds of art and
industrial coloured work.

I much regret that, owing to the superior quickness of
the Chinese, they are trying to supply the present demand,
and most of the Tusser waste and raw silk now finding its
way to England is from China. It behoves, therefore,
every one interested in India, both in governing and trading „
there, to open up the produce of a country in which this
silk is so widespread.

The following table shows the state of the London market
in Tusser silk for the last few years and the remarkably
increased consumption since the Paris Exhibition of 1878: —

Year.

Stock, Jan. 1st.

Imported.

Consumed.

Bales.

Bales.

Bales.

1874

662

none.

168

1875

494

none.

319

1876

175

427

174

1877

428

1,037

284

1878

1,181

837

736

1879

1,282

194

58

1,142

1880

1

The average consumption for the four years ending 1877
was 238 bales, whilst the consumption for 1878, the year that
attention was drawn to it by the Paris exhibits, more than

40

trebled itself, the purchases being, as will be seen in the
above table, 736 bales for that year. For 1879 the con-
sumption was still more surprising, being 1,142 bales.

The imports of Tusser silk and Tusser silk waste into
Marseilles since the commencement of 1879 are as follows :
During 1876, 1877, and 1878 are unknown.

1879, 53 bales of silk.

59 „ waste.

1880, 347 „ silk.

147 „ waste.

For the first three months of 1881, 144 bales of silk.

22 „ waste.

M. V. Bizob, of the firm of Messrs. Arles, Dufour, & Cie.,
of Lyons, to whom I am indebted for these particulars,
thinks the figures for 1879 are probably too small; but he
has no means of controlling them.

Tins table shows an enormous increase in France in the con-
sumption of Tusser silk. If the figures for 1879 are correct,
it will be seen that during the year 1880 nearly 4J times as
much of this silk was imported as during 1879 ; and the
first three months of 1881 show a still greater increase.

The following table shows the prices of silks of commerce
and Tusser in the London market for April 1879 : —

China raw tsatlee, No. 4, per lb.
Canton „ „ 1, „

4

)) >> jj

Japan raw marbush, No. 2^, per lb.

s.

15
13
11

16

Italian organzine

- 25

Bengal raw -------14

Brutia ,, - - - - - 23

Tusser „ - 4s. 6d. to 5

Tusser raw has since gradually advanced, the price being
now from 7s. 6d. to 10s., according to quality, as I have
previously shown.

cl.

6

6

6

0

0

6

0

3

Dyeing of Tusser.

A good deal is beginning to be said as to the rival merits
and demerits of aniline dyes and those of older and more
permanent natures. The advocates of each probably allow
their prejudices or preference to guide their conclusion
beyond what can be borne out by either history or practice.

It is perfectly true that the older modes of dyeing gene-
rally gave more permanent results than the modern modes.

41

That is an incontrovertible fact, and one need not stop to
cite instances to prove it.

Old specimens of woven fabrics of silk may be seen in
the South Kensington Museum, whose colours have stood,
but little impaired, for more centuries than the results of
modern dyes would stand months of exposure to light.

It is also as true that the dyes from aniline, napthalymine,
and other kindred derivatives are fugitive, and it is exceed-
ingly improbable that science will ever make them proof
against that most searching and crucical of all tests — light.

The natural hues of colour of the older modes of dyeing
and their combinations are also of more refined and
therefore more artistic tones than the modern chemical
dyes give ; hence they are preferred by those whose
tastes and insight are. more artistic than those of the
general public, which are more or less unrefined, and there-
fore more or less meretricious and gaudy.

But a remarkable change has gradually come over the
preference for colour throughout Europe within the last 20
years, or since the days when the magenta colour was
adored. Less gaudy colours are now preferred in all
decorative departments, and the truer principles of colour
combinations are more understood and liked. There can
be no doubt this change has been brought about, in painting
for instance, by modern pre-Raphael thought and work.

So much has this influence been felt, consciously and
unconsciously, that the colour products for the million,
recently and even now occasionally so gaudy, have given
way to more sober hues and combinations. As the whole
of the colour in modern commerce in dyeing and printing
is produced, practically so to speak, by aniline and analogous
dyes, it has been found comparatively simple to imitate
and produce the more sober hues by the admixture in
varying proportions of these chemical dyes, not, it is true,
so perfectly as to prevent detection by the skilled eye, or
more effectually by laboratory tests, but sufficiently so as
to subdue the garish effects I have mentioned.

Hence, it may be argued, are aniline dyes to be totally
condemned ?

Much as we justly condemn in the aniline dyes all that
is so garish and so fugitive, we are led to the consideration
of the controversy of to-day as to whether we may legiti-
mately use aniline dyes, or, in fact, any fugitive dyes, and
their combined coloured effects, or not.

I do not wish to be an apologist for fugitive dyes, whether
the source be aniline or not, but in fairness I ought not to

42

omit to put on record in this argument that, in practice,
there have always been the two kinds of dyeing, viz., per-
manent and fugitive and that each has its use.

No one can read an old French work on dyeing without
constantly meeting with the phrases bon teint (fast
dye) and petit teint (fugitive dye). They were always
produced to order by any dyer, but for different purposes.
In the East, too, where for thousands of years the best
dyeing has been done, has the same practice prevailed, and
the fugitive dyes have been used, but, it is true, to a more
limited extent than the permanent ones.

Having been engaged for some years in the examination
of both the dyed fabrics and the dyestuffs of India, I can
truly state that several of the dyestuffs of vegetable origin
are extremely fugitive ; yet they have long been and are
still used there.

There are many purposes for which the cheaper and more
speedily applied fugitive dyes may be used, and will always
be used so long as they are more economical in either saving
money or time, as, for example, all fabrics which are not
designed or intended to last long or to wear long or to be
exposed to sunlight.

I may mention two of the most useful dyes, without
which dyers all over the world would find it difficult to
match the patterns of their clients, neither of which are of
aniline origin. I allude to turmeric, an Indian dye, (the
root of Curcuma longa ,) and the sulphate of indigo.
The first I have been surprised to find to be the dye of
the brilliant yellows of some of the garments of India and
Kashgar, and it is even more fugitive than many of the
aniline dyes to both light and chemical re-agents. Sul-
phate of indigo, whilst being fairly fast to light, disappears
with washing, and should never be used for any fabric that
has to be afterwards wetted or soaped.

But whilst having written so much for the aniline side
of the question, I must not be supposed to waver in my
allegiance to bon teint , and I unhesitatingly say that
modern dyeing and printing is in a very discreditable and
unsatisfactory condition, and the fugitive dyes are mainly
used for purposes where a more rigid conscientiousness on
the part of the manufacturers would never permit their
use. It is no fault of the dyer; he provides either petit
teint or bon teint, at the desire of his customer the
fabricant, perhaps not to order always, but certainly to
price, and often very low price ; and inasmuch as petit teint
is cheaper and more quickly applied, materials are dyed

43

by modes which cannot be too emphatically condemned,
nor is the manufacturer or merchant to be altogether
blamed for this debased state of things.

For by far the most purposes of life to which colour is
found to be a necessity and a comfort, the quality of
permanence is imperative, as well as that such colour
should partake of that sobriety and refinement which
distinguishes art from meretricious imitation of it.

Amongst these may be mentioned all kinds of furniture
and upholstery decorations, carpets, printed fabrics, and so
much of dress as the tyranny of a frequent changing fashion
will allow.

The best modes of imparting colour to the wild silks of
India have for some time engaged my attention, at the
request of the Government of India.

With regard to the Eria and Mooga silks the investi-
gations are yet too incomplete for me to state more than I
have done under their respective headings, pp. 53, 61.

I will describe as briefly as I can some of the more
salient points in my recent experiences and developments
of dyeing Tusser silk.

Finding, many years ago, that Tusser silk opposed a
resistance in no ordinary degree to tinctorial matter, I
took an interest in the subject with a view of overcoming
this resistance.

In its small affinity, ordinarily speaking, for colouring
matter, it ranks with the vegetable fibres of cotton and
flax ; and whilst, in many processes, it would come out
scarcely tinted, the mulberry-bred silk would be found to
have seized the colour with avidity. It, however, takes
the aniline dyes, under certain conditions, moderately well.
At that time, and for some years previously, little Tusser
silk had passed through the dye-houses. About 40 years
ago an attempt was made to introduce it in Macclesfield
for sewing silk for black ; but, on account of its irregular
way of taking the dye, it was abandoned, with the result
that little or no Tusser silk has been used for sewing
purposes from that day to this. About 12 years ago I
made many experiments in dyeing this silk, and had the
satisfaction of seeing my way to further improvement.

In 1873, the firm of which I am senior partner, consisting
of my brother and myself, exhibited, at the International
Exhibition at South Kensington, the result of progress up
to that time in a series of black and coloured silks, which
were in advance of any similar effort, either English or
continental, as far as my observations or knowledge

44

extended, and they attracted a good deal of attention, and
led to a farther utilisation of Tusser silk, then a drug in
the market, except for dress silks for women and girls in
the undyed and pleasing shade natural to it, which is fawn
colour.

The development up to that time had been that this
silk could be dyed into any middle or dark shade of drab,
slate, brown, green, violet, or dark red, whilst to pale
shades of blues, pinks, cerise, scarlet, and others the dark
natural ground colour of the silk interposed an insuperable
barrier, as sulphur, or any then known bleaching agent,
could not reduce the silk to a whiter state.

The desideratum of pale shades led our quick French
neighbours to study the composition of the brown-colouring
matter, and to find a solvent for it. The credit of this
achievement must be awarded to the late M. Tessie du
Motay, who was led to try permanganate of potash, which
was at that time attracting much attention on account of
its great oxidising power on organic matter. He found
the browny colorant yielded to this agent. Unfortunately,
the oxidising action being too violent, the fibre of the silk
as well as its coloration was affected, and by the time
it became white enough for dyeing into pale colours the
silk was rendered useless. However, a secret had been
discovered ; and it was this, that oxygen, under certain
combining conditions, united with the colouring matter,
which then became separated from the silk.

The object now was to apply the oxygen under gentler
conditions. This M. Tessid du Motay again succeeded in
doing, and in a very ingenious way. He brought into
contact with the silk an insoluble body ; this, on contact,
should yield up an atom of oxygen, in the nascent form,
which should gently unite with the fawn-coloured matter
of the silk without attacking the fibre. This, although a
rough method, solved the difficulty, and the silk can now
be bleached so as to have a sufficiently pale ground to
admit of its being dyed into any pale colour except
white.

The substance he found to comply with the required
condition is binoxide of barium. Unfortunately, the process
is expensive. It costs almost 2s. per lb. to use and apply
it. This, in addition to the cost of dyeing, prevents its
being used as extensively as it would be if it were as cheap
as the mode of bleaching ordinary silk, which is by
sulphurous acid ; but there is a probability of the principle
being shortly applied by other methods which will be at

45

the same time cheaper and more within the legitimate
sphere of dye-house technical operation than that of
M. Tessffi du Motay ; I mean, whereby the nascent oxygen
shall be presented to the silk in the vat from a solution,
instead of from a solid, as at present.

Major Coussmaker has succeeded in obtaining perfectly
white Tusser silk by alteration of the conditions under
which the worm spins its cocoons. He causes the cater-
pillar to void all its cement before allowing it to spin its
cocoon, but he does not' give full particulars of his method.
His experiment is very remarkable. He has sent me a
cocoon which is free from all brownness, and resembles the
Chinese or Japanese cocoons in shade. If this result is
attainable, the difficult and costly bleaching process will be
rendered unnecessary. It would be curious aud useful to
know if so desirable a result is practicable.

For all darkish shades I have found aniline dyes the
most effective, and in some cases the only, way at present
of obtaining them ; and until effective modes of dyeing
Tusser silk into permanent dark shades are discovered,
'petit teint must be employed for them as also for the lighter
shades for commercial uses.

The artistic demand alone is not sufficient to stimulate
a growing industry like this, nor to encourage the utili-
sation of a product which can be cultivated over nearly
the whole of India ; and it is better to use what lies ready
to our hand, in the absence of better modes, and to accept
what commerce will, with or without our artistic leave,
be sure to take, on account of lowness of cost and rapidity
of application. I mean that the absolute permanence of
the dye for most of the purposes for which Tusser silk
will be used is of less importance than the development
and utilisation of so eminently useful a product of nature.

There are plenty of permanent dyes at hand for Tusser
silk for embroidery and artistic purposes if artists will only
be content to use those natural colours which the best dyes
will yield to this silk, and not require combination and
tones which are unsuitable both to these dyes and to this
silk. Such colours are darkish shades of subdued blue,
gold, yellow, low- toned purples, strong reds, greens, &c.

Amongst the numerous dye-stuffs indigenous to India ot
which I have received samples for examination, by order
of Her Majesty’s Government of India, I may mention the
following as being the best adapted for dyeing Tusser silk ;
and others will, no doubt, appear as my examination
proceeds : —

46

Lac.

Safflower.

Leaves of Phyllanthus emblica.

Calyces of Thespesia populnea.

Flowers of Butea frondosa.

Lndigo.

Hursinghar flowers (especially good).

Flowers of Cedrela toona (very good).

In addition to the above, I may mention the following
as being useful dyes, though not yielding such rich colours
as those previously mentioned : —

Munjeet (root of Rubia munjista).

Cotton flowers.

Sapan wood.

Flowers of Grislea tomentosa.

Root of Morinda citrifolia.

Ashna bark.

Root bark of Ventilago maderaspatana

The following also, although the colours produced by
them are poor in comparison to the preceding, will be found
to yield useful results with Tusser silk : —

Seeds of Cassia tora.

Pista phul.

Bark of Euphorbia tirucalli.

Pomegranate rind.

That Tusser silk should be more difficult to dye than
mulberry silk may well be inferred from the difference in
degree of solubility of the two silks. A neutral solution
of chloride of zinc gently heated dissolves mulberry silk
instantly, whilst it only dissolves Tusser silk slowly. In a
cold solution I found it took three days to dissolve
mulberry silk, but with Tusser silk a fortnight’s immersion
produced no effect.

Similar effects are also produced by an ammoniacal
solution of copper oxide, which has the property of effecting
the solution of both silks in the cold more quickly. The
cold solution rapidly dissolves mulberry silk and also cotton.
It dissolves Tusser silk more slowly, but its effect on wool
is simply to blacken it without dissolving it.

As the preparation of this solution requires care, it may
be well if I explain the method : —

1. Make a strong aqueous solution of sulphate of copper.

2. When cold, add to this solution a few drops of strong
ammonia until the wliitish-blue colour formed begins to
change to a deeper blue.

47

3. This whitish-blue colour is due to formation of a pre-
cipitate, which wash several times with water on a filter.

4. Dissolve the precipitate in cold concentrated am-
monia.

CHAPTER VII.

Tusser Embroidery.

Tusser silk, being lustrous and strong, is peculiarly
suitable for embroidery when reeled from the cocoon and
manufactured into floss. This new use of it has been
found by Mrs. Wardle, who by the employment of suitably
dyed shades has succeeded in obtaining very excellent
effects on a ground Tusser silk cloth, specimens of which
are in the collection, Nos. 50 and 52, lent by the Royal
School of Art Needlework, and No. 47, lent and coloured
by Mrs. Wardle, and worked by herself and the Leek School
of Embroidery. The old Indian print designs look re-
markably well in some of her colour combinations, as in the
antimacassars represented in Plate LV. and Nos. 50 and 52 in
the Museum collection. In every instance the use of violent
or crude shades has been avoided, and the effects are
singularly soft and pleasing.

It can be also used in combination with mulberry-worm
silk on grounds of other material, and also to heighten up
the effects of crewel wool work, as well as in a variety of
other ways which will readily suggest themselves to em-
broidery workers.

A good way is to print on the cloth designs of established
worth, and to embroider the designs so printed. ( See
Plate LV.)

Another way is that in which the Japanese are so ex-
ceedingly clever, to have a design worked out partly with
embroidery and partly in print colours. The effect is
excellent.

The effects may be varied ad infinitum , and I commend
this mode as a valuable addition to the embroideress's art.
There is for it a mixed result, avoiding a monotony of
effect one so often sees in modern embroidery, and also
less monotony for the worker as well as a large scope for
her interest and skill.

F urther information of the new embroidery will be found
in a very interesting little manual recently issued, entitled

48

“ Handbook of Embroidery,” written by Miss Higgin, and
edited by Lady Marian Alford, and published and sold by
the Royal School of Art Needlework, South Kensington.

CHAPTER VIII.

The Eria Silkworm.

The Eria silkworm, or Attacus ricini, feeds on the Palma
Christi, or castor-oil plant, Ricinis communis.

It is a native of Assam, and according to Mr. Geoghegan
is found to the south-west in a track comprising the dis-
tricts of Nepaul, Kumaon, Ladak, Darjeeling Dinagepore,
Rungpore, and perhaps parts of Bhangulpore and Purmiah,
and in Assam (sec map, Plate XXV.) In 1791 Sir W.
Jones drew attention to this silk, and Dr. Roxburgh in
1804. In Assam the worm spins a white silk, whilst in
Dinagepore the colour of the cocoon is brown.

Dr. A. Wallace states that there are two kinds of cater-
pillars, one white and the other green, the white caterpillars
invariably spinning red silk and the green ones white.

The leaves of the castor-oil plant, Ricinis communis or
Palma Christi, are the best and commonest food, but it
will also feed on the following : —

Koosool.

Hindograss.

Murkurdal.

Ohonnce.

Gomaree.

Litta PaJcoree.

Birzonally.

Xanthoxylon hostile.

Coriaria rpipalcnsis.

Ailanthus glandulosa.

Ailanthus excelsa.

Probably the most complete account of the Attacus
ricini is by Mr. Geoghegan, in his report on the Silk
Industry of India, of which I avail myself to gather some
useful particulars.

The Attacus ricini, according to Dr. Buchanan, feeds
both on Ricinus communis and Ricinus viridis.

The female moth lays her eggs round a twig and then
dies. These twigs are sold in the markets covered with

49

eggs, the dead moths frequently hanging to them, and
presenting a very curious appearance.

The caterpillar moults four times, and when fully grown
is about inches long.

According to Mr. Hugon, the natives soften the cocoon
in potash, and draw the silk off roughly with the fingei
and thumb, thus making a kind of spun silk. Dr. Buchanan,
however, says the silk is also wound on a reel in Dina-
gepore.

M. Guerin M^neville stated, in 1860, that it was impossible
to reel this cocoon. I am certainly disposed to think it is quite
impracticable to reel it. Still there is a method of using at
hand, and I know of no silk better adapted for spinning.

Dr. Heifer, in 1837, states in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society in Bengal, that this worm is so productive as to
give sometimes twelve broods of silk in the year, and that
it grows rapidly, and offers no difficulty whatever for an
extensive speculation.

Mr. Geoghegan says, with regard to the thread from
cocoons of Attacus ricini , that a seer of 96 sicca weight
(2T4d6o4Qlbs.) of this thread is worth from annas 12 (one
shilling and sixpence) to It. 1 (two shillings) ; but it is
very seldom sold, and the people who keep the insect rear
no more than is just sufficient to make clothes for their own
families.

Mr. Michael Atkinson, of Singapore, describes the cloth
made of Eria to be of incredible durability, the life of one
person being seldom sufficient to wear out a garment made
of it, so that the same piece descends from mother to
daughter.

The thickness of this fibre is T&0 0 °f an inch on the
outside of the cocoon, and y^Vo 4n the inner part. For
other particulars see table on page 68.

Mr. Hugon says that, fc in Assam, the quantity of Eria
“ cloth the merchants used to take away was ver}r con-
“ siderable, but in the latter years of the Assam Rajah’s
“ rule, from the disorganised state of the country, the
“ number of merchants gradually diminished. The quantity
“ the country is capable of exporting under an improved
“ management would be very large, for it forms at present
“ the dress of the poorer classes at all seasons, and is used
“ by the highest for winter wear.

“ So long ago as 1 769 vast quantities were being produced
in the country around Guraghaut.” He estimated the
anuual production at 1,000 maunds, or 82,000 lbs. “ In the
“ district of Dunung the annual yield of Eria is 1,000

Q 3255.

D

50

“ maunds, of which one third is exported either in the
“ form of cocoons or woven into heavy cloths (Borkapor.)”

Mr. Hugon stated, that for want of a proper solvent of
the gum the natives could not reel the cocoons. I am
disposed to believe the reason to be in the soft and irregular
way the worm excretes the silk. It forms its cocoon much
more loosely than the mulberry worm, and not being
cemented like the Tusser cocoon it becomes ravelled in the
attempt to reel it. Mr. Brownlow states that in Cachar
the Eria or Ricini worm is trained by the Cacharis, a
people living in isolated villages on the hills. They soften
the cocoons in a mixture of cowdung and water, and they
are then carried off to a spindle by the women of the tribe.
This silk is dyed by the natives with lac, munjeet, and
indigo ; but owing to its being much inferior to the silk
of commerce in taking dyes, only very poor colours are
obtained, the process for dyeing being too rude and un-
scientific. But there is a good use for it, and that is by the
same means I have pointed out for Tusser and other wild
silks of India ; namely, for spinning instead of reeling.

The natives of India use Eria silk for the manufacture
of garments, having the following names : —

Borkapor.

Meklas (petticoats).

Rhiha (scarves).

Goursha.

At page 58 will be found an account of the important
results I have obtained by spinning and weaving the silk
of this worm.

The Eria or Attacus ricini must not be confounded
with the Attacus cynthia or Ailanthus worm domesticated
to a small extent in Europe. The cocoons of the two are
essentially different ( sec Plate XVIII., Fig. 3, and Plate XX.,
Fig. 2). I mention this because of the lengthened efforts
in France and elsewhere to make the AilanthusAedi silk
available to commerce. It has not yet found its way into
the market to any but a tentative and experimental extent.

Attacus cynthia comes originally from China, and feeds
on the Ailanthus glandulosa. Its cocoons „were first
received in Europe in November 1856, and hatched out
the following year, and towards the middle of May 1857
the first living specimen of Attacus cynthia was born in
Europe. These cocoons were sent by Abbe Fantoni, a
Piedmontese missionary, from the province of Shan Tung,
in the north of China, situate just south of Pekin, to some

51

friends at Turin. This species was first introduced into
England in 1859, and reared by Mr. F. Moore, of the East
India Museum. The larvae, feeding on the castor-oil plant
and hatched from eggs sent by M. Guerin Meneville, were
exhibited by Mr. Moore, before the Entomological Society of
London, in October 1859. Afterwards Lady Dorothy
Nevill cultivated the species extensively in this country.*
Plates VIII., XVIII., XIX., XX., illustrate the entomological
characteristics of Attacus cynthia and Attacus ricini.

In a despatch to the Eight Honourable the Marquis of
Har ting ton, Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for India,
dated Simla, the 1st of June 1880, and signed by Lord
Lytton, late Viceroy of India ; Sir F. P. Haines, G.C.B.,
G.C.S.I. ; Sir John Strachey, G.C.S.I. ; Gen. Sir Edwin B.
Johnson, K.C.B., C.I. E. ; A. Bivers Thompson, C.S.I. ; and
Maj.-Gen.A. Fraser, R.E., the following statements occur: —

“In Bengal, small supplies of the (Eria) silk are at
present worked up chiefly for home manufacture and use ;
but there is no reason to suppose that production would
not be stimulated if remunerative prices could be obtained.

“ In Assam, it will be observed that in only a few of the
northern districts and in the Jaintia Hills can the silk
(Eria) be procured at present in any appreciable quantities.
From these districts it is estimated that 84,000 lbs. of raw
silk could be obtained annually. Elsewhere a very
limited amount of the silk is produced, not as an article of
external trade, but for home consumption. But as the
necessary food for the Eria silkworm grows in abundance
in Assam, it seems probable, as suggested by the Chief
Commissioner, that an effective demand would lead to a
large increase of production.”

A letter to the Secretary to the Government of India
accompanying the above despatch, dated Calcutta 26th April
1880, and signed by Babu Bajendra Nath Mitra, states as
follows : —

“ The districts in which Eria silk can be obtained are
Bungpore, Dinagepore, Bogra, Julpigoree, Darjeeling,
Chittagong, Gya, Shahabad, Purneah, atid Pooree.

“ In the Bogra and Julpigoree districts the silk is not
worked up as an article of trade, but for home consumption
only ; about 18 maunds of cocoons being annually pro-
duced in Bogra, and about 40 to 50 maunds of thread in
Julpigoree. In Darjeeling about 10 to 12 maunds of
cocoons could be annually obtained in the Terai.

* Dr. Wallace on Ailanthiculture.
Society for 1866.”

See “ Transactions of the Entomological

d 2

52

“ In the Chittagong district the silk is worked to a very
limited extent, the insects being tied on plum trees from
which the cocoons are gathered. The thread is made into
twine for fishing purposes, and is considered strong and
lasting. About Its. 300 worth of this twine is sold
annually in the local bazaars.

“ In Gya the silk is worked to a small extent in certain
wild tracts of that district, while in Shahabad the quantity
produced during the year amounts to about 9,000 lbs.

“ In Pooree the Eria worm can be seen on castor-oil
plants, and is believed to be common, though entirely ne-
glected by the natives. The worm is reported to be very
common on the Government estate of Khoorda, where the
plant on which it feeds, the ‘ ncdbeli,’ said to belong to
the moonseed order, grows in abundance.”

The following particulars are derived from a letter, also
accompanying the previously mentioned despatch, to the
Collector of Poonah, from W. C. Taylor, Esq., Settlement
Officer, Khoorda, dated Khoorda, 30th December 1879 : —
“ I forward some specimens of an Attacus found very
plentifully in the Khoorda jungles.

“ The caterpillars feed on a very common plant called
the Nalbeli , the botanical name of which I have not been
able to ascertain, but Dr. Stewart thinks it belongs to the
moonseed order.

“ The worm may be called a monthly worm, as there are
many broods in the year, and I have now a brood of worms
which are just spinning ; the cold weather has, however,
delayed their coming to maturity very much.

“ This species is very hardy and easy to rear, either in
confinement or in the open ; and as they produce so many
crops of good silk in the year, and there is such an abun-
dant supply >f food, I am sure it would pay well to
encourage production of this silk in Khoorda, and I can,
if desired, procure a bale of 50 lbs. of the cocoons.

“ The inhabitants of Khoorda appear to be quite ignorant
of the value of the silk, and, so far as I can ascertain, the
cocoons have never before been collected on the estate.

“ Even the Tusser cocoons are not collected to any
extent, and the cultivation of Tusser is not known in
Khoorda, although the value of Tusser is known, and there
are reelers and weavers of the silk on the estate/’

The following are extracts from a letter, which also
accompanies the foregoing despatch, to the Officiating
Secretary to the Government of India Home, Revenue, and
Agricultural Department, from S. O. B. Ridsdale, Esq., C.S.,

58

Secretory to the Chief Commissioner of Assam, dated
Shillong, the 20th September 1879 : —

“ At present about 54,000 lbs. of Eria silk in the raw
state, unreeled, can be obtained annually from the
districts of Kamrup, Darrang Nowgong, and Lakhimpur, and
about 30,000 lbs. from the Jaintia Hills. In the districts
of Goalpara and Sibsagar the production of silk is carried
on to a very limited extent, chiefly for home consumption.
In Cachar it is not an article of trade, but the silk is worked
up by the hill tribes in almost every village of the North
Cachar Hills for their own use. The Deputy Commissioner
of Sylhet reports that he cannot learn of any of this silk
being produced in his district. But here, as well as
throughout the whole of this province, the necessary food
for the Eria silkworm grows in profuse abundance, and
there seems no reason to doubt that, if the people of this
province could be induced to turn their attention to the
production of this silk, an almost unlimited supply could
be obtained.”

The “Times Weekly Edition/’ of July 2nd 1880, makes
the following statement : —

“ An attempt is being made to establish a silk-producing
industry in the Dehra Doon district, in the North-West
Provinces, and inGurdaspore district, in the Punjab. The
experiments aie under the management of Mr. Lepper,
agent for Messrs. Lister and Co. of Bradford. Mr. Lepper
has offered handsome prizes to the ryots growing the best
mulberry and castor-oil plant (this latter, no doubt, for
Eria sericulture plantations), and producing the best
out-turn of silk. There seems to be good reason to hope
that the experiment may succeed, and a new and prosperous
industry be set on foot in Upper India.”

CHAPTER IX.

Dyeing of Eria Silk.

The dyeing of Eria silk much resembles the dyeing
of Tusser. Whether owing to the flatness of its fibre, or to
the nature of its sericine, it is far behind mulberry silk in
its natural affinity for dyestuffs. Heat and the media of
mineral salts, however, are the principal agents in bringing
the fibre into a dye-receiving subjection. The specimen
skeins of dyed Eria silk, Nos. 60 and 61 in the Collection,
are favourable examples of what I have been able to effect
in dyeing this silk. The dyeing baths have to be much

54

stronger in tinctorial matter than those for mulberry
silks. It follows, therefore, that there is an unavoid-
able increase in the cost of dyeing Eria silk, as is
also the case in Tusser silk, and to about the same extent.
Probably I shall not be far from accuracy in stating that
Eria silk requires twice as much dyestuff as mulberry silk,
thereby causing the dyeirig to cost considerably more.
The Eria cocoons being of two kinds, some of them rust
colour and others white, cannot be dyed into pale colours
without bleaching, which again adds to the cost of dyeing.
It bleaches very well with the bioxide of barium process,
and takes excellent colours in pale tints afterwards. For
dark shades bleaching is not necessary, nor would it be
necessary for paler shades in silk spun from the white
cocoons if they could be kept separate from the brown
ones.

From the specimens in the Collection it will be seen that
I have succeeded in imparting a variety of colours to this
silk which leave little or nothing to be desired. As far as
I can learn, I believe this is the first time in Europe that
Eria silk has been dyed. If it has been attempted,
certainly no such colours have been obtained as those in
the Collection.

The geographical distribution of Tusser silk is one of the
most important and promising features in the present
effort to extend its utilities. It is found almost, if not
entirely, over the whole of India as well as in British
Burma ; the cocoons are everywhere. It has a larger area
of growth by far than cotton, and probably may be produced
as extensively. That a great future is in store for it is
certain. Labour is cheap in India, and the natives cannot
too soon turn their attention to rearing the worms and
collecting and reeling the silk for exportation to Europe.

No one can doubt that when it is found that any fibre
can be utilised extensively, and that fibre has a wider
range than cotton, the chances of an abundant supply
under cultivation are almost certainties, and it is then only
a question of time and perseverence to bring it into the
market at prices which will cause it to be sought after and
used as extensively as it deserves.

This argument has been well used by Mr. T. Dickins,
Chairman of the Silk Supply Association, with reference to
the mulberry-fed silkworm of commerce ; for wherever the
mulberry tree will grow and come into leaf at the same
time as the eggs of Bombyx mori are hatched, there can
silk be cultivated. This also gives for mulberry silk a

wider range of growth than cotton, and probably before
long several of our Ultra- Austral colonies may begin to
export silk. The cost of colonial labour seems to be the
only hindrance.

In a correspondence I had with Mr. Lister since this
report appeared he informed me that Eria and Muga silk
are, to his mind far before Tusser ; but any of them could
be used profitably when all the conditions of profitable
success are duly considered. He feels no manner of doubt
that, with time and patience, wild silks will be profitably
used. With regard to Tusser, he says that when it is
reeled by the natives it is so full of faults as to be dear at
any price, and when reeled by Europeans so costly as not
to pay. This adds another strong argument in favour of
my earnest recommendation to the Government of India
that the natives of India, whose time is less valuable and
labour less costly, should be taught the European methods
of reeling. He asks, “ As to Eria, is it simply a question of
cost of production in the first place, and then can it be
reeled ? If not, can it be produced so cheaply as to pay to
use it for combing and spinning ? ” My reply is emphati-
cally, “ Abandon all ideas of reeling Eria silk ; the cocoon
is too soft, and the fibres mingled together too irregularly,
to afford any hope of successful reeling commercially.
Produce it on a large scale, comb and. spin it, and the
success is complete.” Mr. Lister’s opinions are of the
highest possible value, as he is probably the largest spun-
silk manufacturer in Europe, and, besides his immense
spinning establishment at Manningham near Bradford, he
has sent out to India a large and expensive staff to
cultivate the wild silks and the plants on which the worms
feed, and has gone there himself in order that the experi-
ments may be carried out under his own supervision.

CHAPTER X.

The Moonga, Mooga, or Muga Silk.

This silk is produced from the worm known as the
Moonga, Muga, or Mooga, Anther cea A.ssama (Plelfer) ; also
the Saturnia Assama of Westwood. It is found in Assam,
and also sparingly in the DehraDoon, and is the next in im-
portance to Tusser ( see Map, Plate XXVI.) Mr. Geoghegan’s
description of this silk occupies three pages of the Blue-
book on the Silk Industry of India, from which I abstract
the following particulars : —

56

<f The worm that gives the common fawn-coloured Moonga
silk when fed on the most common plants gives a whitish
silk when fed on the leaves on which other worms feed.
The plants it feeds on are named and estimated as follows : —

“No. 1. Champcv ( Michelia champaca ). — The silk pro-
duced from tbe worm feeding on this plant gives the finest
and whitest silk, used only by the rajah and great people,
and is called champa pattea Moonga. The thread is sold
at from 11 to 12 rupees a seer (11s. to 12s. per lb.)

“ No. 2. Maizankurra (called also adclakurry). The old
trees are cut down and the jungle about burnt, and the
worms are fed upon the tender leaves of the off-shoots for
one year, when the leaves become too old and hard for the
worms. Silk is sold at 6 to 7 rupees per seer (6s. to 7s.
per lb.).

“ No. 3. Soom ( Sarcosternma brevistigma). — This is the
common tree of the vicinity ; the silk from the worms fed
on this gives the finest sort of fawn-coloured Moonga.
Silk is sold at 3 J to 4 rupees per seer (3s. 6d. to 4s. per lb.)

“ No. 4. Soonhalloo (Tetranthera macrophylla). — This is
also a brown silk of inferior quality. This plant is most
common in Dhurumpore and about Russa Chokejr.

“ No. 5. Digluttee ( Tetranthera doglottica). — This is also
brown silk of inferior quality, but the worms fed on the
leaves of this tree increase much in size.

“No. 6. Pattees lioonda ( Lauras obtusifolia ).

“ The worm also feeds on the Kontooloa.

“ The Monga worm gives broods five times a year, and
the cocoon is very large, but thin. I could only obtain silk
the produce of worms feeding on Nos. 3 and 4, and manu-
factured into cheap cloths for the lower classes.

“ In its natural fawn colour it stands washing much
better than ordinary silk, keeping gloss and colour till the
last.”*

Mr. Geoghegan, on page 114 of his “Silk Industry of
India/’ says : —

The cycle of the insect is thus given : —

From emergence from the eggd
to commencement of cocoon j

- 30

days.

In the cocoon -

- 20

As a moth -

- 6

»

In the egg -

- 10

))

Total

- 66

days.

There are five broods per year.

* Geoghegan, “ Silk Industry of India,” p. 25.

57

In 1873 Colonel Hopkinson, the Commissioner of Assam
gave more modem figures : —

“ It thence appears that the Soom forests (on which the
worm is chiefly fed) cover an area of about 34,000 acres,
of which about 18,000 are assessed, yielding a revenue of
nearly Bs. 28,000 (2,8001.). By far the greater portion of
the assessed area lies in the district of Sibsagar. The
production of the silk is said to employ some 48,000 persons,
but it is not their sole calling. The out-turn of silk is
estimated at upwards of 100,000 lbs. But as it is admitted
that the greater part of the silk is reserved for home
manufacture, this estimate cannot be regarded as absolutely
trustworthy. The price of the yarn per seer (2 lbs.) varies
from Us. 5 (10s.) to Bs. 9 (18s.) in the several districts.
The small portion exported goes to Calcutta and Dacca.
From the former place it is said to find its way to some
extent to Bhangulpur and Bombay.

“The Silk Committee of the Nigri Horticultural Society
reported favourably on some Munga silk sent down by
Captain Jenkins in 1839, and expressed their opinion that
the article was calculated to become of extensive and
valuable use to our home manufacturers.”*

One acre of land yields 50,000 Muga-silk cocoons, which
yield upwards of 12 seers (24 lbs.) of silk, price Bs. 5 per
seer, or 5s. per lb.

From Mr. Hugon’s description of the mode of reeling
it is evident it is of the rudest kind, and points to a
remedy in the improved continental reeling appliances.

The following particulars by Mr. Hugon in 1834 are
interesting : — The Muga silk industry is confined to Assam
and some Tipperat villages. The quantity of land planted
with food for the Muga was 5,000 acres, capable of yielding
1,500 maunds (123,000 lbs.), of silk. This silk formed one
of the principal exports of Assam. The average quantity
was 257 maunds (21,070 lbs.), valued at Bs. 56,054 (5,605£.),
leaving the country principally in the shape of thread.
He advocates the use of the Moonga silk in coloured
fabrics, it being easily dyed.

The diameter of the fibres of Muga silk taken from the
external part of the cocoon averages inch, but the

external fibres are very variable. The diameter of the
inner and less variable fibres is T-0(,-0- inch. The outer
fibres will break with a weight of 2J drams on the average,
but the inner will support three drams. The tension of the

* Geogbegan, “Silk Industry of India/’ p. 25.

58

outer fibres averages one inch to the foot, and of the inner
If inches. All the fibres are, like Tusser, flat and striated,
and united by the gum in pairs by their edges.

The following table is given by Mr. Hugon, showing the
nature and prices of the various kinds of cloth made from
Moonga silk : —

Size of

m

4^

r—j

*4-1 *

o ^

o.g

#

Name of Cloth.

Yards and

bC

+3 >

w a

4^>

Remarks.

Inches.

*

Seh

o a>

Ibs.oz.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

Goovias - - -

4x 30 in.

12

3 9

4i

4 14

>• Dkoties.

Ditto -

9 x 1-4 in.

2 0

10 0

1 0

11 0

)

Mekla -

2f x 1

8

2 G

3

2 9

Petticoats.

Rliia

6f x £

1 0

5 0

6

5 6

Scarfs.

(Worn as turbans or

Gaurslia -

4^x 20 in.

4

1 3

14

1 44

\ round the waist.

Poonta Boor Cappor -

6|xlJ

2 0

4 0

9

4 9

(Made of the floss and
i worn in winter.

Plates V. and VI. illustrate the entomology of this
species.

CHAPTER XI.

Carding and Spinning Eria and Muga Cocoons.

In consequence of a suggestion I made to the Govern-
ment of India in 1879, instructions were sent out to the
Eria and Muga districts for the collection of a quantity of
both kinds of cocoons, and in November and December
1879 I received five cases containing 70 lbs. of Eria cocoons
and 45 lbs. of Muga cocoons.

These I at once sent to my spinners with instructions to
them to card or dress and spin the cocoons and return the
silk to me with samples showing each stage of the process,
particularly in yarns, for weaving, knitting, sewing, and
embroidery purposes, and in woven fabrics.

The cocoons were subjected by them to a thoroughly
exhaustive treatment, and I have very great pleasure in
describing the results of the operations, which happily have
been most successful.

Specimens of the silk at the end of every operation were
sent to me which exemplified the result of each process.
The staples carded from the cocoons were most beautiful

59

and valuable, and the yarns and cloths resolved from these
staples were of such a character that I feel sure it can only
be a question of a short time to develop the carding, spin-
ning, and weaving: of these silks into a most useful and

o* o

extensive industry, if it is possible in India to have a co-
extensive production of Eria and Muga worms.

In the case of the Eria the staple obtained from the
first draft’s operation is glossy, long, and very fine.
(See specimen, 1st draft, No. 58, in the Collection at the
Indian Museum.) Its fineness is owing to that of the
ultimate fibre. It is about one half finer than Tusser
silk, although not more than two thirds as fine as the
Bengal mulberry-fed silk of Bombyx mori, or silk of
commerce. The after or shorter drafts are also of much
importance as showing the economising of the shorter
fibres after the longer ones have been removed. These are
used for less important manufactures than the long staple.
Nothing is wasted in the modern mode of spinning. The
yarns made of these fibres are of great regularity and fine-
ness, proving this silk capable of uses for spinning and
weaving purposes to an unlimited extent.

It would not be worth while to waste time in encou-
raging efforts to wind or reel the Eria cocoon. Its proper
and simple destination is the carding frame, and from thence
to be spun. This is the only way to develop it into an
extensive industry, and one for which, on account of the
modern spinning machinery, a large demand is already
waiting.

Woven cloths of great strength and durability can be
made from yarns spun from Eria silk, and these cloths
appear to take printing matter very well. (See the undyed
fabrics woven in a variety of designs, Nos. 64, 65, and 66 in
the Museum collection.)

The staple produced from the Muga cocoon is excellent.
The silk appears to be naturally of a much darker colour
than Eria, but I am not sure if this is not owing to cir-
cumstances that may be controlled.

The woven specimen comes out of the loom very much
darker than I anticipated, and does not bleach so well as
Eria. It promises, however, to be a most useful and
valuable silk, if it can be obtained or cultivated in quantity.
Any quantity, however large, would be easily bought
up for spinning. Mr. Blair, of Glasgow, informs me that
he has sent out to Assam for a ton of Muga cocoons
for experimental purposes. I think it will prove to take

60

dyes more freely than the Eria, and is well worth in-
vestigation.

I feel certain, from the comparative fineness of the fibre,
that this silk is undeveloped both as a reeled and thrown
product, and that organzine and tram of finer deniers
than Tusser could be obtained from the cocoons as well as
a regular and even thread. The cocoon is larger and firmer
than that of the Eria, and can be reeled without difficulty.

My spinners have suggested that the Government of
India should authorise the collection of a few hundred
pounds more of Muga cocoons for further developements ;
and in supporting their suggestion, I hope, for the purpose
of seeing what can be done in dyeing and printing this silk,
that the Government of India may consent to send for the
necessary quantity. My spinners would, if requested, buy
the whole or part of them, and have requested me to urge
the collection of wild silks in India, so that much greater
quantities may be put in the market, the demand in
England, France, and Germany being already enormous.

The following is a copy of a letter from Messrs. Clayton,
Marsdens, and Co., who are the largest silk spinners in Hali-
fax, and well illustrates the large demand which exists at
present for wild silks : —

“ The manipulation of the waste products of Tusser and
other wild silks has been a study with my firm for some
years past, and we have arrived at such a state of perfection
in the yarns produced from them that we may fairly say
that as an industry it is thoroughly established.

‘'These waste products consist of the foul and spoilt
threads thrown off in the process of reeling from the
cocoon, of the husks remaining when the reeling is com-
pleted, of spoilt or pierced cocoons, and of the waste made
in winding the reeled silk for manufacturing purposes.
All these products are now of value, and the demand for
them is largely on the increase, consequent upon the ex-
tended demand for the improved yarns now made from
them. They have been found particularly suitable for silk
plushes, a trade largely on the increase for shawls and
other garments, and for the manufacture of dress materials.
The demand for these yarns for some of the above pur-
poses, at present, far exceeds the supply. In the face of
these facts, the supply of the raw material becomes a most
important question, and the efforts of the Government of
India to develop the resources of India to meet this in-
creasing demand are very timely, and must prove beneficial

61

both to the natives of our Indian Empire and to many
manufacturing industries at home.

“ The silk from the specimens of Eria and Muga cocoons
worked by my firm is of a most brilliant and rich character,
as will be seen from the specimens now exhibited in the
Indian section of the South Kensington Museum. Their
spinning qualities are quite equal to any of the wild silks
from China.

“ What is required is to encourage the natives to collect
these waste silks and develop facilities for bringing them
to market, and here I may make a few guiding remarks
as to the collecting and packing of these products.

“ I may say that waste silk in any form is of value, more
especially the large cocoons of the Muga and Eria species.
But it should be well understood that, for use as waste silk,
no cocoons should he sent to this country with the chrysalis
or worm in them. It will be obvious why, when it is
stated that the worm or the dust of the worm in the
cocoon is of no value whatever, and that the weight of
these worms many times exceeds the weight of silk in each
cocoon.

“ Pierced cocoons, or cocoons out of which the worm has
worked itself, are the most valuable as waste for spinning
purposes. But all the classes named above are suitable,
and may be collected and forwarded with profit to this
country.

“ In collecting and packing these, it is of importance to
avoid admixture with any foreign or vegetable matter in
the shape of sticks, straw, and dirt, as much as possible.
The cleaner the shipments are, the better the prices they
will command in our market/’

Muga silk is much better to dye than either Tusser or
Eria ; it takes both the aniline and older dyes very freely,
and better colour can be more easily obtained than upon
Tusser or Eria silk, and at less cost. I have dyed some
beautiful colours upon Muga yarns which came from India,
for the Paris Exhibition.

CHAPTER XII.

Attacus Atlas.

The next species I will describe is the Attacus Atlas of
Linnaeus, which is also known by the following names :

62

Phalcena Attacus Atlas (Linn.)

Bombyx Atlas (Fabricius).

Saturnia Silhetica (Heifer).

The image or perfect moth of this species is the largest of all
the silk moths. As will be seen by Plates IX. and X., it is a
grand insect. It is called in France, Le Geant des Papillons.
The largest specimens measure upwards of 10 in. in expanse
of wing. According to Horsfield it feeds on the Melokko
( Phyllanthus emblica), a plant known also in India as
Kupu gaga. Mr. Geoghegan says the silkworm is found
in Mussooree on the Falconeria insignia, Bradleia ovata,
and other plants ; in Kumaon, on the barberry, where it is
abundant, and also eastward to Cachar.

A letter dated Khoorda, 30th December 1879, from
W. C. Taylor, Esq., which I have previously mentioned in
speaking of the Eria worm, states that Attacus Atlas is
found in Khoorda, and, like the Eria worm, feeds on the
“ Nalbeli ,” which Dr. Stewart supposes to belong to the
Moonseed order. It feeds, too, on the Boom tree, Sarco-
stemma brevistigma. Mr. P. H. Gosse has written a most
interesting life-history of this species, describing all that is
known of it. His paper, from which I quote a few pertinent
facts, will be found in the “Entomologist” of February
and March 1879. He says. “It is a widespread species
ranging over the South and East half of Asia, continental
and insular, common on the slopes of the Himalaya, and all
through India to the points of both peninsulas ; abundant
in China ; scattered over the isles of the Archipelago, from
Java to the Moluccas, to Borneo and the Philippines, a
range of 35° of latitude and 55° of longitude.”

His efforts to breed the Atlas worm in England are
described ; and although he has not been very successful,
owing to sickness and death in the larval stage, his account
is very interesting. Captain Landy, of Surbiton, -has
succeeded in obtaining fifteen good cocoons from twenty-
four eggs, the larvae having been fed on the common
barberry. Mr. Gosse has fed his on the sallotv, others on the
plum and apple tree leaves. He states that all the family
of Saturniidce are very polyphagous.

It is interesting to observe the micaceous or window-
like spot on each of the four wings. These, although
characteristic of the Saturniidce, are almost more largely
developed in Attacus Atlas than in any other species. The
French call these vitreous membranes porte-miroirs.

There are several varieties of Attacus Atlas which show
their divergence from the type by the variations of these

63

fusiform window-like ornamentations. In some they are
single, in others double.

The diameter of the external fibres of the cocoon is very
variable, averaging about inch, whilst that of the

internal fibres is more uniform, and about yqVo ^nc^- The
outer fibres are capable of supporting an average weight of
2-i- drams, and the inner 2£ drams. The tension of the
outer fibres is one inch to the foot, and the inner inches.
The fibres are flat and longitudinally striated, and united
in pairs by their edges.

The egg of Attacus Atlas is of a inch long. The
larvse moult six times. The cocoon of Attacus Atlas is
from two to three inches long, and about one inch wide at
the widest part, and weighs two grammes, or the -^th of an
ounce.

Mr. Gosse says, “ The colour of the cocoon is a light umber,
or drab ; its surface (independently of the impress of leaves)
roughly granular, scarcely at all silky or floccose, except at
the mouth ; its substance thin, parchmenty, very firm ; the
interior very smooth, and even sub-glossy. The upper
extremity forms a natural orifice for the exit of the
moth, made by the conveyance of a great number of silk-
fibres, which are left ungummed, and are thus soft and
flossy, the gummed, stiff silk passing up on one side and
contracting into the cord. Thus the cocoon is not closed,
like those of Bombyx mori, of Telea, of the Anthercea, but
open, like those of A. cynthia , of the Samice, of the
Saturnice. As a result of this structure, the exit of the
imago leaves no disturbance behind, no witness, no dis-
arrangement of these soft fibres, such as is the case with
Yama-mai, Pernyi, and Mylitta {Antliercea mylitta).,>

Mr. Geoghegan states the silk to be difficult to reel,
though it reels partially if boiled with vinegar. Captain
Hutton says the silk is decidedly good, and Dr. Chavannes,
of Lausanne, considers its introduction into France desi-
rable. He says the worm is the Fagara of China, where
it has long been cultivated.

A Government Report gives the following particulars
with regard to the food plants of the Attacus Atlas : —

1. Phakeera {Cinclionacece).

2. New name, probably a laurel, foliage redolent of
prussic acid, fruit like a plum kernel, containing a large
portion of oil resembling that of bitter almonds, stature
large ; not very common.

3. A tree resembling the China tea plant, of frequent

64

occurrence as a weed in tea gardens ; stature middling ;
common in j hum lands, less so in primitive forests.

4. Nag dance ( Artimisia sp.).

5. Monphul (Cachar name), known in Dacca as the
Myna kata.

6. Balos, a weed fed on also by the Attacus Canningi.

7. Koorkooree, one of the commonest of jhum weeds, one
of the most eligible for training the Atlas worm.

8. Lutki ( Osbeckia ), a very small plant, but the silk off it
is very white.

9. Bon Chelita, a large, hardy, rapidly growing tree,
sufficiently common for the purposes of silk cultivation.

10. Kadam (Nctuclea).

11. Chelita {Bellenia speciosa ), eminently adapted for
training the Atlas worm.

12. Boidraj (Padrelace ?) The silk off this plant is very
dark.

1 3. Lood, also fed on by Attacus Canningi.

CHAPTER XIII.

Various other Wild Silk-Producing Worms.
Anther^ea yama-mai.

This species is a native of Japan, although it is found
also in China, and has been introduced into India, thougn
very sparingly.

In Japan its silk is said to be most highly prized, and
reserved for the use of Royalty ; but as to being so of late
years I am inclined to doubt, as the silk is not very fine, and
I saw many woven specimens of it in the Japanese silk
exhibits in the Paris Exhibition of 1878. The cocoon
is of a beautiful pale-green colour (Plate XVIII., Eig. 2).
It has been naturalised in Europe, and is a very hardy
species.

A cross between the A. yama-mai and Bombyx Attacus
pernyi is a great success in France. It is so hardy that
hatching is said to take place at freezing-point. I have
recommended the Government of India to encourage the
acclimatisation of this species in India, as I feel certain it
yields a most useful species of silk ; and although a coarser
fibre than that of Bombyx mori , it is finer than that of
Anther cea paphia , and it has a very glossy appearance

v

being flat and striated. The diameter of the fibres is
of an inch. Owing to the want of sufficient quantity I
have not been able to test its dyeing capabilities, but I
have no doubt it can be dyed with moderate facility in all
colours, though it may not yield as complete a whiteness
as China silk. The Japanese had some very interesting
fabrics of this silk in the Paris Exhibition of 1878. Some
were composed of A. yama-mai silk entirely, and some of
Bombyx mori silk ornamented with stripes of A. yama-mai
undyed, giving a pleasing variety with its greenish-white
appearance.

Samples of fibres and fabrics made of yama-mai silk will
be found, Nos. 81 and 82, in the collection. The entomology
of the species is illustrated in Plates XVII. and XVIII.

The following is extracted from “ Cassell's Technical
Educator,” and is the translation of a notice published by
M. Pompe Vein Meedervoort relative to the introduction of
the Yama-mai into Europe : —

“ In 1862 I had the honour to make the aquaintance of
M. Eugene Simon. He informed me of the great value of
the Bombyx Yama-mai, and together we made every
effort, but in vain, to procure eggs of this species ; we were
told it was absolutely impossible to obtain them. M. Simon
being obliged to return, I made him promise before he left
to continue my efforts, and in case of success to offer the
eggs to the French Government. But the more I tried,
the more I saw how difficult, if not impossible, was the
attempt. I applied in vain to the Japanese merchants,
the silk growers, to many native naturalists with whom I
was on friendly terms, lastly, to the Government, but all in
vain. The reply was ‘ The penalty of death is inflicted on
anyone who may export these eggs.’ Another idea then
possessed me ; to apply to one of my pupils. As the
Principal of the Imperial School of Medicine at Nagasaki,
I was surrounded with students from the different provinces
of Japan, and amongst others from the provinces of Echizen
and Vigo, or Hiogo, where alone the Yama-mai silkworms
are reared. One of these youths, who had on several
occasions given me proofs of his extraordinary devotion,
was selected by me for the purpose ; to him I explained
the whole affair, and proposed that he should go to Vigo at
my expense, in order to collect and send me as many eggs
as possible. This brave young man, whose name I have
promised never to divulge, started on the morrow, and
after an absence of 15 days secretly sent me the eggs,
which he had collected with much difficulty and danger to
Q 3255.

E

66

liimself. He told me that no one suspected the object of
his journey ; that was in October 1862. My mission to
Japan was finished November 1st, 1862. I started for
Europe by the English mail packet, and undertook the
charge of carrying these eggs to Europe. This was by no
means an easy matter on board a steam ship in the Tropics.
If the eggs were kept in the cabin, a great risk of their
premature hatching was incurred, for the temperature there
in the month of November is above 95° F., and in the
Red Sea 105° and more. I followed the advice of M. Simon,
and placed the eggs in an ice box on board ship, though
often but little ice was therein. To this precaution is due,
in a great measure, their safe arrival in Europe in good
condition. I arrived at the Hague early in January 1863,
and at once sent out the eggs. The greater part were sent
to the French Government and to the Imperial Society of
Acclimatisation, according to promise I had made to my
friend M. Simon/'

Actias Selene, or Phalaena Attacus.

This species feeds on the Munsooree ( Goriaria nipalensis),
The cocoon is enclosed between two leaves. The silk does
not appear to be windable, but it is of a eoarseish kind and
might be spun if it could be obtained in sufficient quantity.
It is very desirable that the applicability of this silk be
investigated.

In addition to the Munsooree this worm feeds on the
wild cherry and walnut. The diameter of the cocoon fibre
is, as will be seen in the table, page 68, T^0-o- of an inch, and
it has about an average strength and tension, and thus
presents no obstacle to its use. The cocoon is rather large,
being 3 inches long and 1J inches in diameter. The
entomology is illustrated in Plates XIII. and XIY.

Attacus Edwardsia.

In the Indian Museum there are two specimens of an
Atlas moth, from Darjeeling, of an intensely dark colour,
and possessing sufficient structural divergence from A ttacus
Atlas to warrant Mr. Moore's affirming it to be a distinct
species. It has been named Attacus Edwardsia. Mr. Gosse
has the following interesting note respecting it : —

As Darjeeling is 7,000 feet above the level of the sea,
and has a climate in which rain and snow are abundant in

67

winter and humidity is constant, it surely would be not
difficult to acclimatise this noble form (be it variety or
species) in the British Isles.*

Antheraia Perotteti.

This is described by Mr. Geoghegan as producing a strong,
wiry, and brilliant silk, but requires carding. The larvae
feed, in captivity, on the Odina wodier (Roxb.). fC Undergoes
four moults and yields four crops a year/’ Fishing lines
of this silk are said to be made in Dinapoor.

Anther^a Roylei.

Is described by the same author as being found in
Darjeeling, and in the Himalayas from Kumaon to the
Punjaub, and feeds on Quercus incana. The silk is good,
but not abundant, and the insect can be domesticated.
Yields two or three crops a year.

Plate VII. Fig. 1, illustrates the entomology of this species.

Bombyx textor.

This species, known as the “ Pat ” silkworm, is found in
Assam. It feeds on the mulberry tree, and is probably a
variety of Bombyx mori, the cocoons being of the same
yellow colour, although somewhat different in shape.

The diameter of the fibre of the silk produced from this
worm is in*> as fine as silk °f mori.

A Government Report gives the following particulars
concerning it : —

“ The ‘ Pat 3 gives only one crop of cocoons in the year.
In Upper Assam the eggs are hatched about the end of
December, and in Lower Assam about the end of January.
The worm is more delicate and has to be treated with more
care than the Eria. The silk is, however, more valuable.
Great care has to be taken to keep everything about the
1 Pat 3 scrupulously clean.”

Cricula Trifenestrata.

Very abundant in British Burmah, where the cocoons
rot in the jungles for want of gathering. The silk of this
species promises to be most useful, and only waits importa-
tion to Europe and utilization. It is a strong, rich, and
glossy silk. See also pp. 7, 68, 85, and 126.

e 2

* Gosse’s “ Life-history of Attacus Atlas, ” p. G.

68

CHAPTER XIV.

Life-history of several Silk-producing Worms, and
Table of the diameter, strength, and tension of a
single fibre, and dimensions of cocoon, of the chief
Mulberry and Indian Wild Silks.

The following table of the life-history of several of the
chief silk-producing worms is given in a Government
report : —

Name of Silkworm.

Cf-i

O .

•gs

Ph

'5; 03

s

-a c-S'g

0.^1 CJ

Ph

o

o

.2 o
Ph

TJ-iP-P O .
O C fV.2 w

vc®3

^ SC-2 CO

G -
o o

• rH 43
43

o o
o

<» a
o a

o.s

P.^

St» go

>5®>.

VH Vj iC^

0^3 V- r-

pH

Tussar or Kulkuri

Moonga
Eria

Pat major, or Bombyx textor
Pat minor, or Bombyx crsesi

j"3 or 4
(. clays.

G days

9 days
10 days

36 days
30 days

15 days
5 or 6 days

1G to 20 days

Not known exactly. A complete cycle is made in from
43 days to 2 months.

3or4 1 0 months 30 to 40
days. 10 montils clays

5 or 6 days

20 to 25 days

Table of the Diameter. Strength, and Tension of a single
Fibre and Dimensions of Cocoon of the chief Mulberry
and Indian Wild Silks.

Name of Worm or Silk.

Country.

Diameter in
fractions
of an inch.

Tension or
limit of
stretch be-
fore break-
ingin inches
of single
Fibre one
Foot long.

Strength of
single Fibre
in drams
avoirdupois.

Dimensions of Cocoons in
inches.

Outside

of

Cocoon.

Inner
part of
Cocoon.

Outside

of

Cocoon.

Inner
part of
Cocoon.

Outside

of

Cocoon.

Inner
part of
Cocoon.

, c

China

1

2 15 0

1

2 150

11

1A

2f

21

11 X

Bombyx mon, or mul- )

Italy

1

1

1

1»

2!

21

li x

5.

berry silk - -j

J apan

1

1 H OO

1

1 0 50

1

If

2!

21

If x

5

C

Bengal

1

1

H

n

2f

2J

li x

1

Bombyx textor

India

1

1

n

H

21

2!

H x ]

if

Anthersea mylitta, or

51

1

7 7 0

1

1

1

7

8

If X

7

Tusser silk.

Attacus ricini, or Eria

>5

1

ISO 0

1

14 30

1

11

1|

21

If X

3

silk.

Attacus Cynthia, or Ai-

yy

1

12 5 0

1

12 50

1

n

21

21

If X

3

lantlius silk.

Ansthersea Assama, or

1 _

1

1030

1

3

21

3

If X ]

Muga silk.

Actias selene

x

1

1100

1

n

2

21

3 x 1

1

Attacus atlas -

55

1

132 0

1

1000

1

h

2i

21

31 x

3.

Anthertea yama-mai -

Japan

1

l

3

1

21

3

If x

1

Oricula trirenestrata -

India

3 30

_

r

2 x

i

4

GO

CHAPTER XV.

Moths’ Scales.

Under the microscope, the dust-like particles which are
removed by the finger when the moth’s wing is touched
are more or less triangular-shaped plates pointed at the
end of their attachment to the membrane of the wing, and
widening out at the extremity of their lengths into either
serrated edges, as in the case of Anthercea yama-mai,
Plate L., Figs. 5 and 6, or long digitate processes or spikes,
as in Actias Selene, Plate L., Fig. 4, giving in the various
species a most interesting variety of shapes, from the narrow
fusiform appearance in Attacus Cynthia , Plate XLIX., Fig. 5,
to the broad scales of the Tusser moth, Plate XLIX., Figs. 2
and 3, which are not unlike the shape of a bat- wing burner.

The scales, as they rest in situ on the moth’s wing,
overlap each other with great regularity, like the tiles of a
roof, and somewhat analogous to the imbrications observable
under the microscope in the fur and wool of many animals.
I have had drawings made of the scales of some of the
species the silk of which is likely to come into more or
less extended use.

The first 24 diagrams have been drawn from the

microscopic appearance of the scales when magnified

140 diameters, all being taken from that part of the
moth’s wing indicated in Plate XXIII., Fig. 2, except the
following : —

Bornbyx mori (Plate LII. Fig. 3).

Actias Selene „ „ 6).

Anthercea mylitta „ „ 4).

Anthercea yama-mai (Plate LII. Fig. 5).

The scales represented in these four diagrams are taken
indiscriminately from all parts of the wing.

The object of this inquiry is to show the structual
differences of the scales of the various species of the Indian
silk-producing Lepicloptera. I cannot say that I have dis-
covered sufficient divergence in form corresponding with
specific differences in the moths, but there is no doubt such
divergence is very wide, and sufficient to distinguish the
genus Attacus from that of Anthercea.

The size of the scales is not in proportion to the size of
the moths, as may be seen from the scales of A nthercea
mylittc 6 being broader than those of Attacus Atlas, although
the expanse of wing in the Atlas moth is 4 to 5 inches

70

more than in Anthercea mylitta. There is, however, a
curious correspondence between the scales of the moth
Anthercea mylitta, which are the largest, and the fibre spun
by its larva, which is the coarsest, and between the scales
of the moth Bornbyx mori, which are the smallest, and the
fibre spun by its lava, which is the finest.

In some of the species the difference between the scale
of the male and those of the female is considerable. In
Anther cea mylitta the extremities of the scales of the male
are much more digitate, whilst in the female they are
simply serrated. In Anthercea yama-mai the scales of the
male appear to be broader and shorter than of the female.
The greatest divergence, however, is in the case of our
English moorland species, Satwrnia carpini, or the
Emperor moth (Plate LI., Fig. 2). The scales of the male
bear some resemblance in shape to those of Bornbyx mori,
whilst those of the female have extremely long spikes at
the two outside edges, forming horn-like processes.

The bodies of the moths are generally covered with
downy hairs, becoming in some species very long at the
inner extremities of the wings.

I have had drawings made of the scales of twelve species
much more highly magnified, to ascertain their structural
differences. I have taken a single scale of each of the
twelve species from the part of the wing indicated in
Plate XXIII., Fig. 2, and magnified it 500 diameters (see
Plates LIII. and LIV.)

71

APPENDIX I.

The Indian Silkworm, from the Annual Report of the
Government Central Museum, Bombay, for the year
1859-60. — By Dr. Birdwood, C.S.I.

In paragraph 18 of last year’s report I mentioned the
steps taken up to that date for the cultivation of the in-
digenous silkworm of the Deccan. As therein stated, my
attention was first drawn to this subject by Mr. Hey cock,
at the meeting held in the Town Hall on the 15th December
1858, for the purpose of founding the Victoria Museum
and gardens. Mr. Heycock said that, during an excursion
to Bassein made by him in the preceding month, he entered
the house of a friend who until lately had resided in Bengal,
and who had collected a number of silkworms in his garden
gathered off the “ Wild Plum ” of the surrounding jungle.
His friend told Mr. Heycock that the Tusseh silk of Bengal
was produced by these worms, but that in this Presidency
no one knew what they were, and they were left to be
devoured, and their cocoons were wasted. From a cocoon
obligingly given to me by Mr. Heycock I found that I was
very familiar with it in the parts of the Deccan in which
I had been stationed, although ignorant of its value. I
had often seen the worm feeding on the leaves of the Blair
tree (Zizyphus Jujuba) during the cold season about
Sholapoor, and had noticed that its cocoons appeared about
October and November, and that the moth burst from
them about July, when it immediately laid its eggs, which
were hatched in one or two weeks. In bringing these
facts to the notice of Government, in a letter, No. 193, of
December 31st, 1858, I suggested that should it be deemed
desirable to introduce the rearing of silkworms into this
Presidency, one or two hundred Tusseh cocoons should be
procured from Bengal, and distributed throughout this
Presidency, with the view of determining whether identical
species of cocoons were to be found in the Presidency, and
in what collectorate ; and that should it appear from this
investigation that the production of silk can be undertaken
in any of the collectorates of this Presidency, a few ryots
from Bengal, acquainted with the mode of rearing the

72

worms and off-reeling their cocoons, with perhaps one or
two silk weavers, should be brought round to Bombay to
introduce this new industry to our ryots, and at first
through the instrumentality of the jails. Government,
having approved of the proposed measures, sent to Bengal
for the Tusseli cocoons ; and these, having arrived in this
port in October 1859, were distributed in the following
November to all the collectors under the Presidency,
excepting those of Butnagherry and Belgaum, with the
circular No. 2791 of 1859, General Department. The
Bengal cocoons are those of the Saturnia Mylitta , and
indentical with those shown to me by Mr. Heycock and
found by me at Sholapoor, the Bombay Paphia to which
I had attributed the Deccan cocoons being the same moth
as the Saturnia Mylitta, under another name. Saturnia
Mylitta of Bengal is found there, on the Blair tree.

But Bengalees, it seems, distinguish between the cocoons
found on the Blair and those cocoons found on the Asseen
tree. The former they call Baghy, the latter Jarvo, and
the latter they deem the better sort. The Asseen of Bengal
is the ain, aeen, ayen of this Presidency, the Terminalia
glabra vel alata vel Pentaptera tomentosa of botanists,
found throughout Goozerat and the Coucans, on which the
worm has been noticed to feed in these countries by
Dr. Gibson, and by Mr. Bellasis, the collector of Surat.

During the last three weeks I have found the cocoons of
the Saturnia Mylitta on the Komba or Kumber of this
island, the Careya arborea of botanists, a handsome tree of
the myrtle kind, a native of the Coucans, Goozerat, and
Khandeish. The only collectorate from which I have yet
had reply to last year’s circular is that of Surat, where
Mr. Bellasis wishes to have a Bengal ryot sent at once.

The Agri-Horticultural Society of Western India, and a
private merchant of Bombay, are also anxious to have the
services of expert Bengalees placed at their disposal.

The cultivation of the worm is an easy matter. When
they abound and are accessible, it is sufficient merely to
protect them and their eggs from the depredation of birds.
If not abundant, or not accessible, nurseries of Blair or Ayen
trees should be raised for them, and, if by Government, in
connection with the jails. A few trees only are necessary,
as the worms can spin just as well in frames as on the
branches of trees. If a supply of leaves can be kept up
by irrigation, the worms will probably spin all the year
round, as in Bengal, instead of only after the rains.

Reeling off the cocoons is a delicate task, but when once

73

learnt it can he done with the coarsest machinery, as will
appear from the account given of silk reeling in a work
recently received from Europe, entitled — “ Twelve Years in
China : the People, the Rebels, and the Mandarins.” It has
been objected that any attempt to introduce the cultiva-
tion of silk here will be very expensive, that there is little
chance of its succeeding, and that it should be left to
private enterprise and not be undertaken by Government.
It is forgotten, however, in urging the first objection, that
the experiments now recommended are not for the natura-
lisation of a foreign worm, but simply for the utilisation of
an indigenous species. Signor Mutti’s experiments near
Poona, in 1838, were for the purpose of introducing the
China mulberry and the China worm into this country,
and they cost Rs. 2,00,000 and failed utterly. The worm
now proposed to be utilised is already naturalised, with its
food, and it only has to be protected against the enemies
which at present naturally check its increase. Shield it
from these, and in all likelihood it will multiply here in
unlimitable quantity. But notwithstanding the Saturnia
Mylitta is indigenous to Western India, and that silk
rearing and reeling would in all likelihood become a very
popular industry with the natives of this Presidency
under ordinary circumstances, it would still be unsafe to
predict positively of the results of the experiment I recom-
mended last year. Bengal is too far away to afford any
argument for anticipating the success of cocoon-rearing
here. Fortunately, however, the experiment has been
tried at our own doors with every good fortune. From a
letter No. 401 of January 1860, received by me, as Secretary
of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Western India, from
Captain C. P. Maloney, Secretary to the General Committee
of the Madras Exhibition of 1859, it appears that the
rearing of silkworms, the preparation of raw silk, dyed and
undyed, and the manufacture of silk stuffs from the Satur-
nia Mylitta , is carried on to a very great extent in the
territories of his Highness the Nizam.

The report on the industry received by the Madras
Committee is from Syed Mohdeen Padshah, talookdar of
Wurrangal. In the hot season, in the months of Chittur
(April) and Visak (May), the Tussah chrysalis is little
larger than a pigeon's egg.

In the season when they gather the flowers of the
Mowah (. Bassia : latifolia) the people search for the Tusseli
cocoons in the jungles, and find them on the Blair and
Muddi or Arichunmugay (. Ayeen ) trees. Tying them in

74

bundles they hang them up in their houses with great care.
AVhen the thunder comes the moths burst from the cocoous,
the male moth being red and the female yellow. The
female moths, in numbers from two to 20, are placed in
baskets lined with tar ( Bomssus flabelliformis) and teak
(. Tectona grandis ) leaves, and plastered on the outside
with cow-dung.

After nine or 10 days each moth deposits from 50 to 200
eggs, resembling grains of J owaree slightly flattened, and
then dies. During the breeding season the experts
(NyJcavarram and Rosawaram) in charge of the worms fast !
The eggs are kept in the baskets from eight to 10 days,
when the young caterpillars appear.

These are carried into the jungle and placed on Muddi
(. Ayeen ) and {Chung ay) (?) trees, the trunks of which are
surrounded with ashes to keep off ants. People are also
kept in the neighbourhood to frighten away kites, crows,
and other animals of prey.

When the caterpillars have devoured all the leaves,
baskets are made of rousa grass (. Andropogon calamus
ctromaticus) lined with Muddi {Ayeen) and ( Chungay ) (?)
leaves, and the caterpillars are placed in them and hung
up among the branches of the trees. There they are left
for two months, after which the worms begin to weave their
cocoons. In preparing the Tusseh silk the cocoons are
first steamed with water, to which various ingredients have
been added to promote the solution of the substance which
holds together the fibres of the cocoons.

The cocoons are then dried and then again placed in pure
water, when, one of their fibres being drawn out, they are
reeled off on an instrument made for the purpose similar to
an ordinary spinning wheel.

Seyd Mohdeen states that from 300 to 800 cocoons are
sold for a rupee, while Tusseh silk fetches from 10 to 12
rupees a seer and a half undyed.

If dyed it costs a rupee per every 5 to 8 tolas. He gives
receipts for all the dyes, and adds that three crops of cocoon
can be obtained in a year, although he has only followed
out the history of the hot-season crop.

There can be no doubt now that this industry would
prove very remunerative throughout the Deccan, especially
as we should here dispense with the costly experts employed
during the breeding of the moths by the Nizam’s people,
probably for purely superstitious reasons. Their fasting
looks, however, as if the industry were attended with some
risks, something to be prayed against.

75

The employment of Roossa grass baskets at a later stage
has also probably a superstitious significance.

The interest of Government in the matter extends only
to introducing the industry to the notice of the Deccan
ryots; ’when they have once been made acquainted with
its value, Government will leave it to be carried on as a
commercial speculation. Every Government must neces-
sarily have a direct concern in adding to the exchangeable
products of its subjects. When the latter are on an
equality as regards intelligence and civilisation with
their rulers, the national prosperity is in sufficiently safe-
keeping and may wisely be left entirely in their hands.
But when it unfortunately happens that a Government is
far ahead of its people in intelligence and civilisation, as in
this country, it is bound to directly interest itself, to a
certain extent, in any practicable and moderate scheme
which may be proposed for their material benefit. In
concluding this subject, I would beg to add that it would
be probably unadvisable to carry the preparation of the
cocoons in this Presidency beyond the stage of undyed
raw silk.

The best books on the Tusseh moth are Jardine’s
Naturalist’s Library Volume, “Sastic Moths.” “Remarks
on the Silk Worms of Assam,” by Thomas Hugon, in the
6th vol. of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
“ On the Indigenous Moths of India,” by Dr. Heifer, in the
same volume. “Account of the Tusseh and Arindy Silk
Worms of Bengal,” by Dr. W. Roxburgh, in vol. 7 of the
Transactions of the Linnman Society. “ Silk Culture in
India,” at page 115 of Royle’s “ Reproductive Resources of
India.” “ Account of the Silk Trade and Silk Manufactures
of the Punjab,” in part 2, vol. 10, of the Journal of the
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. There is
also a report of the proceedings of the East India Company
in regard to the trade, culture, and manufacture of raw silk,
published in 1836, which I have not yet seen, and on the
experiments formerly instituted for the introduction of silk
culture into this Presidency there is Signor Mulli’s “ Guide
to the Silk Culture in the Deccan,” printed in 1838, in
English, Goozerattee, and Mahrattee, and a pamphlet
“ On the introduction of Silk, and the Cultivation of the
w Mulberry under the Bombay Presidency for the Agri-
“ Horticultural Society of Western India,” by Dr. Charles
Lush, formerly superintendent of the Government Gardens
at Dapooree. Reference to the subject is also made in the
following reports of the Chamber of Commerce of Bombay : —

76

Report for 1838

Page

8

))

1830-40, first quarter

- 15

}}

„ „ second „

-

- 12-15

n

„ „ third „ -

-

10

))

„ „ fourth „

-

- Ill

))

1840-41, „ „ -

-

- 10

>>

1841-42, „ „

-

- 18

))

1842-43, third „

-

- 11

v

,, ,, first ,,

-

7

)>

1843-44, second „

-

- 12

)>

„ „ third „ -

-

7

»

„ „ fourth „

-

- 11

1844-45, first „

-

7

)}

„ „ fourth „ -

-

- 13

)>

1845-46, second and third quarters 12

1816-47, „

10

APPENDIX II.

Table of Indian Coins, Weights, and Measures.*

Money.

Silver is the legally constituted medium of exchange in
all money transactions throughout all the British Indian
Possessions. Gold coin was intended to he a legal tender,
at a fixed value of 16 rupees for the gold mohur of Calcutta,
and 15 rupees for the gold rupee of Madras and Bombay;
but it is not demandable in payment, and is left to find its
current value in the market.

Value sterling.

3 Pie
12 Pie
16 Annas

15 Rupees

16 Rupees
100,000 Rupees

100 Lakhs

1 Pie

1 Piasa or \ Anna
1 Anna
1 Rupee
1 Gold Rupee
1 Gold Mohar
1 Lakh

£ s. cl.
0 0 01

0 0 Of
0 0 11
0 2 0

1 10 0
1 12 0

= 1 Karor

10,000 0 0

1,000,000 0 0

* From “ Times of India Calendar and Directory,” 1870.

77

The value of a rupee is generally assumed as equal to
2s. sterling. At the Calcutta mint price of silver it is
worth 2s. 0 035cZ. ; at the commercial par of exchange,
Is. 11* 51c?. ; and at the London mint price of silver it is
worth Is. ll*04d.

The rupee weighs 180 grains troy, or one tola, and
consists of 11 parts of silver and one of alloy. The gold
rupee is of the same weight and standard. The copper
coins are the half anna, weighing 200 grains ; the quarter
anna or paisa, 100 grains; the half paisa, 50 grains ; and
the pie, 33J grains.

In Bombay, accounts are still often kept in rupees,
quarters, and raes, 25 raes making one anna.

In Madras, accounts were formerly kept in Star Pagodas,
fanams, and cash.

80 Cash = 1 Fanam or panam.

42 Fanams = 1 Star Pagoda, Hum or Varalia.

The Pagoda was of gold 19J carats fine, and intrinsically
worth 7s. b\d.

1. — Bombay Local Weights.

4 Dhanor yav = 1 Raktica or Gunj 2*1267 gr. tr. *01182 tola

8 Raktica = 1 Masha 8*5069 .. *09452

4 Masha = 1 Tank

72 Tank, or 30 pa’is = 1 Ser

40 Sers = 1 Man

20 Mans = 1 Khandi

2*4889 dr. av. *37809 „

ll£oz. av. 27f „

28 lb. av. 1088-| „

560 lb. av. 6*8056 Imp. man.

The Khandi for Cotton is 28 mans or 784 lbs. avoir, or
7 cwt.

The “pakkaser” is 1^-f lbs. avoir., or 72 >59 tolas. At
Panwel the ser weighs 72*83 tolas.

The British Indian or Imperial ser and man are
2 * 9387755 Bombay sers and mans respectively ; and the
Bombay man is 0 * 3402778 Imperial mans.

The Bombay ser weighs 317*51485 grammes, and the
man 12*700594 kilogrammes.

Poona.

The ser is 80 Ankushi rupees or 76 * 66 standard tolas, or
1 * 9714 lbs avoir., or 2 * 33604 lbs. troy = *9583 B. I. seers.

The weights are the same as the British Indian, only one
24 th part lighter.

Tanks

Chhatanks

Paua

Sers

Paserri

Mans or 120 Ser

= 1 Chhatank 1*9714 oz. av. 0*958 Imp. chhat.

1 Pau-ser 7*8856 „ 3*833

1 Ser 1*9714 lh. av. 0*958 Imp? Ser.

1 Passeri 9*857 „ 4*791

1 Man 78*856 „ 38*329 ,,

_ „ 1 Palla 23*657 „ 2* 875 Imp. Man.

6| Pallas (20 Mans) 1 Khandi 1577*12 „ 19*165

99

78

Kachclia mans of 12J and 14 sers are also used in the
district.

In the Khed, Purandhar, and Bhimathadi talukas the
ser weighs 76 tolas; in Shiwner and Indapur, 76 \ ; in
Pabal, 77 ; and in Mawal, 75 tolas.

Ahmadnagar and Sholapur.

The British Indian or Imperial weights are in use.

At Ahmadnagar the Palla is 2J mans.

At Sholapur: 1 Manki — 4 dharas = 12 sers.

Satara.

The ser varies in different localities from 92*75 tolas at
Koley to 115 tolas at Mamdapur. In Satara city it is 93*25
tolas.

Sindh.

The British Indian weights were declared by proclamation
1st August 1853 to be the only legal standard.

8 mans = 1 khandi = 658|- lbs. av. = 23*510204
Bombay mans.

Surat.

The Surat ser of 35 Surat tolas is variously stated from

36*4583 to 37 tolas, and the man from 37J to 38 lbs.

avoirdupois, the former being probably the more accurate

determination, from which —

1 Surat ser = *455729 British Indian sers.

1 „ = l1 339286 Bombay „

1 British Indian ser = 2*1942857 Surat „

1 Bombay „ = *746667 Surat „

The Khandi for Cotton is 21 mans, or 7 cwt. 3^ lbs.

Khandesh, c be.

The British Indian system is authorised in these
districts.

Broach, &c.

At Broach the ser is 40 tolas.

„ Ahmod „ „ 38*5 „

„ Jambusar and Anklesar 38 „

„ Wagra 37 * 5 „

„ Hansot 38 * 8125

Madras.

10 Pagodas = 1 Palam 1^ oz. avoir. 3*038 tolas

8 Pollums — 1 Ser £ lb. „ 24*304 „

5 Sers = 1 Yis 3^ lb. „ 121*528 „

8 Yis or 40 Sers = 1 Man 25 lb. „ 972*222 „

20 Mans = 1 Kbandi 500 lb. „ 6*0764 Imp. mans.

The Madras man is 0*303819 British Indian mans, and the
British Indian or Imperial man is 3*2914286 Madras mans ;
1 Bombay man = 1*12 Madras mans, and 1 Madras man
= 0*892857 Bombay man. The Madras man is sometimes
stated at 30 lbs. tro}^ or 0*3 British Indian man, equal to
24*6857143 lbs. avoir., which makes the Palam exactly
3 tolas and the khandi 6 British Indian mans.

The Mangelin for pearls is 6 grains. 18 Madras Chows =
55 Bombay Chows.

The Pagoda Weight = 52*56 grains.

6. — Measures of Time.

1 Pal

60 Pal _ 1 Ghari

7J Ghari _ 1 Pahar, or prahar

8 Pahar or 60 ghari = 1 Din

7 Din =1 Hafta

30 Din = 1 Mahina

12 Mahina = 1 Baras

24 seconds.
24 minutes.
3 hours.

1 day.

1 week.

1 month.

1 year.

The Hindus reckon by a lunar year for religious, and by
a sidereal year for civil purposes.

days hrs. min. seconds.

The exact length of the sidereal year 365 6 9 19*6

By the Surya Siddhanta it is 365 6 12 36*56

By the Ary a Siddhanta „ 365 612 30

By the Brahma Siddhanta „ 3656129

By the Parasara Siddhanta „ 365 6 12 31*4

And since the Gregorian year has an average length of
365d. 5h. 49m. 12s. the Hindu year = 1*000042 Gregorian
years.

The Gregorian year = 0*999958 Hindu years. The
year of the Surya Siddhanta = 1*000045286 mean solar
years, or one day in excess in 60 * 46 years.

80

1. — The following are some of the principal Foreign Gold
Coins, with their approximate values in Rupees, reckoning
gold at 15 times the value of silver of the same degree of
purity.

Gold Coins.

Weight
in Grains.

Stan-

dard.

Value.

British Sovereign ....

123*274

916f

Rs. a. p.
10 4 4

German Ducat - - -

53*89

986

4 13 3

Trench Napoleon of 20 francs -

99*545

900

8 2 4

Russian * Imperial of 5 roubles

101*005

916

8 6 8

Persian Gold Rupee ...

—

—

14 15 6

Italian Pistole of Pius VI.

84*43

917

7 0 7

Persian Toman ....

73*0

971

6 6 0

Double Eagle of the United States 20 dollars

515*98

900

42 3 4

Madras Star Pagoda ....

52*40

812

3 14 2

2. — Intrinsic Value of the principal Foreign Silver Coins.

Silver Coins.

Weight
in Grains.

Stan-

dard.

Value.

Great Britain.

Rs. a. p.

436*36

925

2 7 1*

Crown ...

■

m

174*55

_

0 15 8

Florin

a

•

87*27

-

0 7 10

Shilling ...

•

“

Persia.

Rupee of Shiraz, A.H. 1245-1248

-

-

105*12

916 §

0 9 4

Larin of Persia and Arabia

-

-

74*5

965

0 6 11*

India.

Timasha of Nipal

-

-

34*3

929

3 0 1

Rupee of Nipal 1808-1824, average

-

-

84*7

768

0 6 4

Madras half pagoda

-

-

326*73

894

12 1 3

„ 5 Fanam

-

-

71*51

900

6 0 3

Goa rupee ...

-

-

168*5

864

i

0 14 1*

81

APPENDIX III.

Catalogue of the Collection of Wild Silks in the Indian
Section, South Kensington Museum.

1. Eggs of Anther cecc mylitta, or Tusser moth.

2. Drawing of Tusser silkworm, Anthercva mylitta
(Linmeus), natural size, full-grown.

Synonyms : —

Bomhyx mylitta (Fabricius).

Attacns mylitta (Blanchard).

Saturnia paphia (Heifer).

3. Moths and cocoons of the Tusser silkworm, Anthercva
mylitta (Linnseus).

4. Tusser silk moths hatched at Leek from cocoons sent
to Mr. T. Wardle, by Major Coussmaker, from Poonah.
The cocoons are shown below the moths.

5. Tusser moth and its pierced cocoon, showing filaments
of silk.

(3. Cocoons of the Tusser silkworm with pedicles, some
of which show portions of the branches to which they
were attached.

7. Tusser cocoons cut open to show the chrysalis or pupa
inside each.

8. Tusser cocoons from which the moths have emerged
at the pierced ends, with pedicles showing mode of attach-
ment to branches from which the worm forms its cocoon.

9. Tusser cocoon cut open to show the compact interior,
and also a portion of it pulled out to show the silky fila-
ments of which it is composed.

10. Tusser cocoon showing the filaments of silk drawn
out from the pierced end, and the mode in which the silk
is deposited.

11. Native-reeled Tusser silk and reeling implements.

12. Tusser raw silk, native reeled with native reeling
implements from Bhagulpore, Hazareebagh.

13. Waste Tusser silk from Tamba, Bombay.

14. Tusser Tram unbleached. Tusser Tram bleached,
showing result of the new mode of removing the brown
colouring matter from the silk.

15. Improved reeled Tusser raw silk, also Organzine and
Tram, with one specimen bleached, in ^lie, following
order : —

Q 3255. v

82

16 hanks of Tusser raw silk, reeled in Italy, showing the
improvements in reeling of which Tusser is susceptible.
Size, 23 to 27 deniers, or 1^ drams per 1,000 yards.

9 hanks of Tusser Organzine (warp), made of the above
improved Tusser raw. Size, 52 deniers, or 1,000
yards, weighing 3 drams.

1 hank of the above Tusser Organzine, bleached by the
improved process, and ready for dyeing.

12 hanks of Tusser Tram (weft), made of the above
improved Tusser raw. Size, 52 deniers, or 1,000
yards weighing 3 drams.

16. Native rudely dyed Tusser silk from Azimgurh.

17. Series of Tusser Organzine and Tram in skeins, for
weaving, dyed with European dyes, chiefly aniline, to show
the capability of this silk for modern commercial dyes
( 'jpetits teints), illustrative of the improved application of
commercial dyes by Mr. T. Wardle.

18. Second series of Tusser Organzine, European dyes,
as above.

19. Tusser silk for weaving (Organzine and Tram, 52
deniers) of the improved reeling, and dyed.

The dyes are modern, chiefly aniline, to show the
capability of this silk to receive the modern commercial
dyes (not permanent, “petits teints”), as improved by
Mr. T. Wardle.

20. Skeins of German dyed Tusser silk for weaving.

21. Frame of Tusser net silk fabrics, cocoon reeled
English manufacture, natural colour, undyed, plain.

22. Frame of Tusser net silk fabrics, cocoon reeled
English manufacture, natural colour, undyed, figured.

23. Frame of Tusser net silk fabrics, cocoon reeled,
English manufacture, natural colour, undyed, figured.

24. Frame of Tusser Schappe or spun silk fabric, woven
in figured designs, undyed.

25. Frame of Tusser Schappe or spun silk fabrics, woven
in figured designs, undyed.

26. Frame of Tusser Schappe or spun silk fabrics, woven
in figured designs, undyed.

27. Furniture cloth, undyed Tusser silk, figured weaving.

28. Piece of Tusser silk, ornamental weaving, French.

29. Frame of Tusser printed silk cloth, native woven,
designed by W. Morris, Esq., M.A., printed by Mr. T.
Wardle.

30. Frame of Tusser printed silk cloth, native woven,
designed by W. Morris, Esq., M.A., printed by Mr. T.
Wardle.

31. Frame of Tusser printed silk cloth, native woven,
designed by W. Morris, Esq., M.A., printed by Mr. T.
Wardle.

32. Frame of Tusser printed silk cloth, native woven,
designed by W. Morris, Esq., M.A., printed by Mr. T.
Wardle.

33. Printed Tusser silk cloth.

34. Printed Tusser silk cloth.

35. Six prints on Tusser cloth, printed with Indian
colours and designs.

36. Two pieces French woven Tusser silk with dyed
stripes of Italian silk.

37. Piece of Tusser silk dyed black and printed in
gdd.

38. Piece of Tusser silk dyed red and printed in gold.

39. Large Tusser silk cloth palampore, printed with
Indian colour and design.

40. Large Tusser silk cloth palampore, native woven,
printed in Indian designs in centre, with lotus border.

41. Shawl of Tusser silk and wool.

42. Uniou Tusser silk scarfs, made of dyed and undyed
Tusser silk with a little admixture of mulberry silk.

43. Black Tusser silk plush. The first utilisation of this
silk to a pile surface, made as an experiment in Germany
in 1879.

44. Tusser silk plush, called “Seal Cloth,” made of
Tusser spun silk. The new and important English manu-
facture of 1880.

45. Fichu or shawl, made with Tusser spun yarn.

46. Specimen of furniture silk, woven in design, undyed.
English.

47. The new Tusser embroidery, “ Tusser on Tusser/’
worked with Tusser silk floss on ground of Tusser silk
cloth ; Indian designs ; floss d}^ed with Indian dyestuffs ;
11 borders. Executed by the Leek Embroidery School.
Lent by Mrs. Wardle, Honorary Superintendent.

48. Tusser coeoons, called also Tasar, Tusseh, Tussah,
and Tussore.

49. Tusser floss silk for embroidery ; series of colours
dyed with Indian dyestuffs.

50. Chair cover, No. 1, “ Tusser on Tusser.” Em-
broidered from Indian designs with Tusser floss on native
woven Tusser silk cloth. Floss dyed with Indian dyestuffs
by T. Wardle. Executed by the Leek School of Em-
broidery ; the colouring by Mrs. Wardle, Honorary Super-
intendent.

84

51. Pulpit cloth, Tusser embroidery on silk velvet.
Executed by the Leek School of Embroidery ; the colouring
by Mrs. Wardle, Honorary Superintendent.

52. Chair cover, No. 2, “ Tusser on Tusser.” Embroidered
from Indian designs with Tusser floss on native woven
Tusser silk cloth. Floss dyed with Indian dyestuffs by
T. Wardle. Executed by the Leek School of Embroidery ;
the colouring by Mrs. Wardle, Honorary Superintendent.

53. Moths and cocoons of the Eria or Arindy silkworm,
Attacus ricini.

54. Frame of dried leaves of some of the plants on which
the Tusser and Eria silkworms feed, viz. : —

Tusser, Terminalia catappa.

„ Pentaptera tomentosa (deciduous).

„ Tectona grandis.

„ Eleccecaria insignis, L. {Falconer ia, Royle).

„ Shorea robusta.

Eria, Ricinus communis.

55. Eria cocoons.

56. Eria silk, Assam, as rudely spun ready for weaving
by the natives.

57. Twenty-eight skeins of Eria silk, native dyed.

58. English carded Eria silk of Attacus ricini , 1st draft,
showing its beautiful fibre.

50. Four hanks of Eria spun yarn (not reeled), 30/2 (i.e.,
30 skeins of 800 yards each per lb.), showing the highly
improved state of yarn by English spinning machinery.

60. Fourteen colours of dyed Eria schappe or spun silk,
aniline dyes, for commerce.

61. Eria Schappe or spun silk (not reeled), 16/2 fold,
dyed with Indian dyestuffs, five colours.

62. Brown Eria Schappe or spun silk (not reeled), 16/2
fold for “ seal cloth ” plush.

63. Eria silk cloth, native home spun and woven (to
show the roughness of the cloth).

64. Eria silk cloth, from improved English spinning,
undyed, quite new, woven in figured designs.

65. Eria silk cloth, from improved English spinning,
undyed, quite new, woven in various designs.

66. Five pieces of Eria cloth, printed by Mr. T. Wardle
from designs of W. Morris, Esq., M.A.

67. Muga or Moonga silk cocoons, Anther cea Assama ,
Duran g, Assam.

68. Moths of the Muga silkworm, Anthercea Assama.

69. Three skeins of Muga reeled raw silk.

70. One skein of Muga silk in the “boiled off” or dis-
charged state, and ready to be dyed.

71. Six skeins of Muga silk, native dyed, Assam.

72. Carded Muga silk, showing its beautiful fibre.

73. Cloth of Muga spun silk, undyed.

74. One piece of Muga spun silk or Schappe woven in
figured design, undyed.

75. Cloth of Muga spun silk, printed by Mr. T. Wardle,
design by W. Morris, Esq., M.A.

76. Five pieces of Muga spun cloth, printed by Mr. T.
Wardle, designs by W. Morris, Esq., M.A.

77. Silk from the cocoon of Gricula tvifenestrata , abun-
dant in Burmah ; first draft.

78. Moths and cocoons of Attcccus Cynthia , or Ailanthus
silkworm.

79. Moths and cocoons of Attacus Atlas, North and
South India.

80. Moths and cocoons of Anthercea Yama-mai.

81. Yarn from cocoons of Anthercea Yama-mai.

82. Cloth made from yarn of Anthercea Yama-mai,
undyed and dyed.

83. Moths and cocoons of Actias selene, with drawing of
larva.

84. Moths of Actias leto.

85. Moths of Actias mcenas.

86. Large glass case containing Tusser silk cloths printed
with native Indian dyestuffs, Indian designs : —

1st side, five specimens.

2nd side, two specimens : palampore and fent.

3rd side, palampore.

4th side, five printed cloths and one hand painted.

Lent by Messrs. Liberty & Co.

87. Case of Tusser silks, illustrative of the various stages
in the manufacture, by spinning processes, of Tusser cocoons
and waste Tusser silk into yarns and cloths. Prepared and
lent by Messrs. Clayton, Marsdens, Holden, & Co., Halifax.

Compartment 1, Tusser raw waste.

„ 2, Tusser waste boiled off.

„ 3, Tusser waste carded, lap.

„ 4, sliver.

„ 5, stubbing.

„ 6, roving.

„ 7, yarns, natural tint 3/2, 5/2, 8/2, 10/2,

15/2, 16/2.

„ 8, yarns, natural tint, 20/2, 21/2, 25/2,

30/2, 32/2, 33/2, 35/2, 40/2.

Compartment 9, yarns, dyed.

„ 10, three specimens oi* figured weaving ;

Tusser spun cloth.

„ 11, three specimens of figured weaving ;

Tusser spun cloth.

„ 12, three specimens of figured weaving;

Tusser spun cloth.

APPENDIX IV.

Description of the Machinery used in Italy and France
for reeling cocoons, and the mode of using it.

Cocoon Reeling Machine , made by Messrs. J. Berthaud et

Co., Ingenieurs Mecaniciens, Rue de Venddme, 132,

Lyon.

This machine has been drawn on Plates LXIV., LXV.,
and LXVI., very accurately, to a scale of 1 inch to the
foot, in order that it may be reproduced in India should
it be found inconvenient to send to Europe for them.

It is in principle and practice the best form of reeling,
and that most commonly used in the South of France and
Italy. Should its use become general in India, the
refinement in the qualities of both mulberry-worm silks
and the wild silks would be so marked and bettered that
much larger trade would be done. Although vigorous
efforts were made by Government in 1881 to improve the
reeling of the mulberrry-worm silk of Bengal, and with a
large amount of success, the natives seem to have become
indifferent, and the qualities of most Bengal silks have
fallen from their standard, and are not inquired for in
proportion to their deserts if properly reeled. I should
indeed be glad if these remarks may have some effect in
stimulating the Government, and those in Indian interests
in the silk trade, to insist on the European modes of reel-
ing in all silk produced for export. If this were made
a condition we should be able to rely more on our own
dependencies for silk instead of having to buy such large
quantities from China or Japan.

The lettering indicates the same parts of the machine in
each drawing: —

A. Cast-iron framework of the reeling machine.

B. Windlass for supplying the motive power ; this may be
substituted by a pulley for steam power.

C. Driving wheel, cast-iron.

<S7

D. Cog-wheel for a motion for the bar P which is to go
and come ( de va et vient ), thereby causing the silk to be
distributed on the reel instead of its being reeled all in one
portion of the reel. Its action is to spread the silk over
the reel as it is reeled.

E. Wooden drum wheel on reel axle driven by the
friction of the wheel C.

F. Reel on which the silk is wound whilst being drawn
off the cccoon, showing silk on its circumference.

G. Bars of reel, one of which is movable to enable the
reeler to remove the silk.

H. Lever and ball, which lowers at the will of the reeler,
and throws the wooden drum E out of gear instantly
stopping the machine.

I. Small cog-wheel driven by D, which see.

J. K, L. Guiding apparatus for placing the silk evenly
on the reel.

M. Two bars of glass with brass ornamental triangle at
bottom to lead the threads of silk to the reel.

N. Bar of iron with holes and bolts to fasten and steady
the machine to a beam or other supporting framework.

O. Continuation of bar, the end of which overhangs the
cocoon tray and carries the bar P.

P. Wooden bar containing the croiseur Q and the
2 agate centre guides RR.

Q. Croiseur.

R. Two guides with agate centre, over which the silk
passes on its way from the cocoons to the reel.

S. The silk threads on their passage from the cocoon to
the reel.

T. Cast-iron frame holding U.

U. Square brass tray holding V and the implements
necessary for the reelers’ use ; namely, vessel for cold water,
perforate spatula (Plate LXIIL), small saucepan, brush for
“ battage ” or removing the outside unwindable portion
and finding the reelable ends of the silk (Plate LX.)

V. Round tinned copper or pewter basin, 17 ins. diameter
and 6 ins. deep, containing the hot water or softening solution
in which the cocoons are placed for reeling. This basin has
a perforated false bottom through which passes the steam
pipe W to heat the contents of the basin. When the
heat is supplied with the stove (see Plate LXII., Fig. 2), the
pipe is removed by unscrewing the nut at the bottom of the
basin and substituting a “champignon” (Plate LXIV., Fig. 1),
which serves the purpose of a blank flange.

W. Steampipe.

88

X. Agate filieres in brass frame, through which the
filaments pass onwards to the reel forming the thread.

Y. Tray, cup, and pipe in corner of tray to pour off
superfluous liquid from any cocoon that requires special
attention.

Mode of using the Machinery.

The first operation after purchasing the cocoons is to
suffocate them, that is to say, to kill (<f etouffir ”) the chrysalis
in the cocoon.

For this operation there are two systems in vogue ; the
one called “ steam killing,” the other the “ dry killing.” As
to which of these systems is the better depends on the
opinion of the throwster (“ filateur ”), some preferring the
first named, others the second. The apparatus for steam
killing consists of a chamber, larger or smaller, into which
is introduced a steam jet. The cocoons are spread over
trays called cavagues, three or four minutes being sufficient
to kill them, the temperature being 70° to 75° (158° to
167° Fahrenheit).

The cocoons having undergone this operation are damp ;
they are then spread upon the tables, care being taken to
move them about from time to time, so that they may dry
evenly. Two months are required for the complete drying.
As we shall see, the dry operation has not this incon-
venience, for the cocoons coming out of it are completely
dry and ready to pack. The dry apparatus consists of
one large chamber, into which tables with or without
wheels (‘c wagons ”), whereon are placed the “ caragues ”
filled with cocoons, are pushed. Two furnaces introduce
the hot air which raises the temperature to 70 to 75
degrees. This is hot enough to kill the cocoons in 5 to 0
hours (they may be left in 20 to 22 hours, and then
withdrawn perfectly dry). Cocoons having undergone the
killing operation are submitted to a further process before
being put into winding. This is called the “ cocoon
sorting.” This process is simply, 1st, picking out the dead,
the stained, and the double cocoons ; 2nd, sorting out
the different shades so that the silk may not be streaky ;
3rd, sorting the coarser from the fine.

This is a very important operation, being of great assis-
tance to ever}T spinner or winder. As is well known, there
is infinite variety in the degrees of coarseness or fineness of
the ends, and if not carefully sorted there would be great
irregularity in the size. In addition to this, cocoons with

80

coarse ends (called satines) require much more killing.
To produce good silk, these require, 1st, less drying;
2nd, less heating.

If care is not taken in sorting, there would be fine and
very coarse ends in the same basin, and some cocoons more
dried than others. It would be, as we have already stated,
more difficult to reel evenly (or with a regular thread), and
in addition to this the silk would be irregular in strength,
which would be fatal to one of the chief properties of silk.

The threshing (“ battage ”) of the cocoons is done by
means of the “ escoubette ” or besom by moving this
over the cocoons already prepared until their outer
covering sticks to it. (This outer covering is termed
“frisons.”) The thread or end then becomes fine and
clear, and constitutes good quality raw. According to the
“ titre ” required, the ends coming from 4, 5, or 6 cocoons
are run together. The temperature of the water in the
basin should be from 85 to 90 degrees centigrade. Winding
too cold causes the silk to lack tenacity.

The cocoons being sorted, put them into the basin (the
water should be boiling) to prepare them ; an operation which
lasts some minutes, and of which the duration varies accord-
ing to the nature of the cocoons. The cocoons being prepared
and cleared, — that is, threshed with the besoms in such
a manner that the fibre of the cocoons remains attached
to it, — all the ends from the cocoons are attached together
to the frisons-hook, which is found in front of the platetage ;
you then detach 8 or 10 cocoons and join the threads
together by fours or fives, and pass each of these united
threads ( [i.e ., four or five ends put together) into the two
ends of the drawplate, or of the drawplate carrier, to the
hinge F, placed at the back of the basin. You then
lay these two threads across together by means of the
“ croiseur” H, attaching the two ends of the fork of the
said “ croiseur.’' The two ends are then separated in
coming from the “ croiseur,” and are each passed to one
of the end carriers G, passing them on each side of the
guider placed at the regie E, so that they may be only
twisted one half turn in front of the guider, so that if
one of the threads should break, the other remaining
comes out of the blade of the “ asple ” to go winding
itself up on the shaft. This operation accomplished, the
“ asple ” is turned until a break-down occurs, in which
case the winder stops the “ asple ” or “ tour ” (wheel) by
means of the throw-off D. This “ ddbarquage ” D may be
worked by the foot.

90

When several of the cocoons are broken or finished, the
winder must at once replace them, taking from those that
are attached to the “ frisons ” (button), and throwing with
the end of the forefinger under the filiere ” at the top of the
basin, so that those ends attach themselves to the remaining
thread. The regularity of the “ titres ” of the silk depends
entirely on the regularity with which the thread winding is
fed by at once replacing with fresh cocoons any broken down
or run out. The “ titre ” of the silk is found by winding
400 turns of silk on the gauge, or 476 metres, and weighing
these 476 metres with the small weights, called deniers,
supplied with the balance.

Good cocoons will sustain a strong “ croiseur.” Inferior
will only sustain a relatively weak one.

APPENDIX Y.

Lyons Chambers of Commerce and Wild Silks.

In 1880, at the request of Monsieur Rondot, president
of the jury, class 34 (silks), at the Paris Exhibition of 1878,
and member of the Lyons Chamber of Commerce, and of
several other influential gentlemen connected with the silk
industry of France, I had the honour to send to the Cham-
ber of Commerce, Lyons, a collection similar to that ex-
hibited by the Government of India at the Paris Exhibition
of 1878.

A copy of the letter acknowledging this gift is appended,
together with a translation of an extract from the proceed-
ings of the Lyons Chamber of Commerce giving the results
of certain experiments on the Indian silks.

La Chambre de Commerce de Lyon a Monsieur Thomas

Wardle.

Monsieur, Lyon, le 18 Mai 1880.

Yous avez bien voulu faire don a notre Chambre de
Commerce cPune collection tres complete et tres intdressante
de papillons, cocons, soies greges et ouvrdes, soies teintes, et
tissus unis et fa^nnes, proven ant de di verses especes de
vers a soie qui, dans l’lnde, se nourrissent de feuilles autres
que celles du murier.

91

Nous ne saurions vous exprimer, monsieur, combien
notre chambre a dt^ sensible a cette libdralite liors ligne.
Elle comprencl que ce n’est pas sans beaucoup d’efforts et
de recherches qu’une telle collection a pu etre reunie. Les
catalogues et informations methodiques qui l’accompagnaient,
en la rendant encore plus precieuse a nous, ont fait apprdcier
l’esprit tout a la fois scientifique et pratique qui vous avait
guide.

C’est un fait desormais acquis, ce nous semble, d’unc
part, qu’il est possible de tirer de ces cocons sauvages des
soies d’une finesse relativement grande ; et d ’autre part,
que ces matieres, traitees par des procedes qui sont en
partie votre oeuvre, sont susceptibles de recevoir une
diversity de teintes et de nuances de nature a satisfaire a
toutes les exigences des consommations.

A ce point de vue, la collection que nos industries seront
appeles a etudier leur ouvrira sans doute une nouvelle
source de travail ; et c’est la, monsieur, ce qui distingue
votre liberalite des dons plus ou moins recommandables
qui sont faits quelque fois a notre musee. Aussi, notre
chambre a-t-elle pris soin de la signaler a M. le Ministre
de F Agriculture et du Commerce, par une lettre special e ;
et elle a donne des ordres pour qu’une vitrine lui fut
attribute dans son musee, avec mention du nom du
donateur.

Nous vous prions, Monsieur, cl’agreer, avec l’expression
de notre gratitude, 1’assurance de notre consideration la
plus distingu^e.

Le President,

Le Secretaire, (Signd) Oscar Galline.

(Signe) F. A. Severn.

Extract from the Minutes of the Proceedings of the
Chamber of Commerce of Lyons,

At the Meeting of the 17th February 1881.

Present :

Mons. Sev1:ne, Vice-President,

MM. de la Rocliette, Roche- Alix, Osmont, Fougasse,
Muiaton, Marius Due, McRoe, Payen, Desgeorges,
Paule, Pariscot, and

Gourd, Secretary.

M. Sevene, the Vice-President, presented the following
report : —

92

Messieurs,

It is within the recollection of the Chamber that,
in the month of January 1879, the Indian Government
sent to the Chamber, at Mr. N. Rondot’s request, two
cases of Eria and Mooga cocoons, with the request that
they might be experimented upon in France. These cases
contained smothered and bitten cocoons. The Chamber
has only received during the last few days the reports
drawn up by the manufacturers to whom we have sub-
mitted the cocoons.

The spinning cocoons have been divided in two lots,
and confided to two manufacturers. The yield, after
immersion, varied between 8 and 9 kilogrammes, that is to
say, that 8 or 9 kilogrammes of cocoons were necessary
to obtain a kilogramme of silk, whilst 4 to 4|- kilogrammes
of Bombyx du murier ( Bombyx mori) are sufficient. This
small proportion is due to this circumstance, that the
outside shell of the cocoon has to be removed before the
good silk is reached, and the quantity of silk to be reeled
is diminished by so much.

The expense of spinning would be about 10 francs per
kilogramme.

The raw silk appears to be very light ; therefore the loss
in scouring would not be considerable.

A most careful sorting (“ triage rigoureux ”) of the cocoons
is the first condition to be fulfilled in order to facilitate
the spinning, which would require special care. This is
a point on which the two manufacturers to whom we
have confided the cocoons rightly insist, and upon which
it seems to us the attention of the Indian Government
must be particularly called.

The same observation was made to us by Messieurs Franck
pere et fils and Martelin, who have consented to make
experiments on the lot of bitten cocoons.

In order to give a chance of success to the importation
of these cocoons, they say in their report: —

“ The first condition would be to insist on a most careful
sorting, by the shippers, of the light and dark cocoons.
The latter should be rejected ; we consider them useless on
account of their colour. The strongest scouring is not
sufficient to bleach them enough for the consumers of
schappes (waste silk thread) to use regularly the thread
thus obtained.

“ On the other hand, there is no objection to the regular
use of the light cocoons.

“ The experiment we have made has been satisfactory
enough.

“ In the scouring we have had to lose about 3 per cent,
more than with the ordinary cocoons, in order to obtain a
material well prepared for combing. Notwithstanding this,
and although the cocoons are comparatively light in colour,
this material has retained a terreous tint rather objection-
able, which leads us to fear that some difficulty might be
met with when dyeing certain shades.

“ In the combing we have obtained the usual yield.

“ The threads are long and shiny, in spite of their little
fineness due to the origin of the cocoons, and their elasticity
(“ souplesse ”) is sufficient to allow of their being easy to spin.

“ The price of cocoons being most variable, it is not
possible to state the value of these cocoons.

“ We think that this value must be about 30 °/0 (thirty
per cent.) below that of the silk-worm house cocoons. That
difference is accounted for by the loss in scouring, the
colour of the material and its want of fineness.

“Good European seed, yielding about 80 % of silky
matter for working into silk and 20 % chrysalis and other
waste, is worth on an average 10 francs.

“Good light Tussah cocoons, yielding about the same
quantity of silky matter, would almost surely find buyers at
30 % less, say 7 francs.

“Large quantities of Japanese cocoons are brought to
Marseilles, and sold at prices not exceeding 2 or 3 francs ;
the price of 7 francs must be amply remunerative to make
it advantageous to send such cocoons to Europe.”

It results from this report that the importation of bitten
Tussah cocoons is very likely to prove successful. The
threads obtained by Messieurs Franck pere et fils and
Martelin are veiy fine, and would surely be used in the
manufacture of mixed fabrics, silk and schappes, and cotton
and schappes (waste silk threads).

The importation of smothered cocoons might perhaps be
less advantageous; the Indians have a superiority over us
on account of the low price of labour, which enables them to
reel the silk very slowly and to turn it to the best possible
account.

The value of the cocoons appears to us to be too low to
incur considerable expenses of shipping, on account of the
size and weight of the cocoons, of which the chrysalis forms
a by no means inconsiderable part.

Such is, messieurs, the answer I propose to give to the

94

Indian Government, together with our thanks for having
sent the cocoons and submitted them to our examination.

This report having been read,

The Chamber decided that it should be sent to the
Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, with a request that
it might be forwarded to the Indian Minister in London.

Samples of the threads obtained both from the smothered
and bitten cocoons to be annexed to this report.

This extract certified correct by
Le Secretaire, Membre de la Chambre,
(Signed) A. Gourd.

Seal

of the Chamber of Commerce
of Lyons.

INDEX

Page

Actias ignescens - 5

Actias leto 5

Actias msenas - - 5

Actias selene - 5, 66, 110, 111

Actias sinensis 5

Ailanthus glandulosa - 48, 50

Ailanthus Avorrn - - 50

Antheraea Andamana - 6

Antheraea Assama - 6, 55, 103

Antheraea Confuci - 7

Antheraea Frithii - - - 6

Antheraea Helferi - - 6, 112

Antheraea mezankooria - 5

Antheraea mylitta - 5, 14, 99

Antheraea nebulosa - - 5

Antheraea pernyi - - 7,113

Antheraea Perotteti - - 6, 67

Antheraea Roylei - 6, 67, 105

Antheraea yarua-mai 7, 64, 114, 115
Assam - - - 48

Atkinson, Mr. Michael 49

Atlas cocoon, silkworm, and silk 61

Attacus Atlas - 4, 61, 106, 107

Attacus Canning! 5

Attacus cynthia - 4, 50, 117

Attacus Edwardsia - - 4, 66

Attacus Guerini - 5

Attacus lunula - 5

Attacus obscurus - 5

Attacus ricini - 4, 48, 105, 115
Attacus silhetica - 4

Battage - - -87,89

Berthaud, Messrs. J., et Cie. - 86

Binoxide of barium - 44

Bleaching of Tusser silk - 44

Bombycidse - - - 2, 3

Bombyx Arracanensis - 3

Bombyx craesi - « - 3

Page

Bombyx fortunatus 3

Bombyx mori - - 1, 3, 11, 98

Bombyx sinensis - - - 3

Bombyx textor - - 3, 67

Bon teint - 42

Brooke, Captain - -16, 17, 26

Caligula Cackara - 6

Caligula Simla 6

' Caligula Thibeta - 6

; Canton silk -

Carpets of Tusser silk - - 37

Castor-oil plant - - - 48

Catalogue of South Kensington
Museum Collection of Wild
Silk - - 81

Cement of Tusser cocoon - 26

Central Provinces - 16, 17, 25
Champignon - - - 89

China silks, colour of - - 12

Chinese Tusser silk - - 39

Chota Nagpore - 22

Classification of wild silkworms 1
Clayton, Marsdens, Holder, &

Co., Messrs. - - 34, 35, 60

Cocoons of Tusser silkworm 18, 101
Coins, Indian, value of 76

Consumption of Tusser silk - 39

Coussmaker, Major G. - 16, 18, 20
Cricula trifenestrata 7, 67, 68, 85

109, 126

Croiseur « - - 87

Diameters of silk fibres -

68

Dimensions of silk cocoons

- 68

Dyeing of Eria silk

- 53

„ Muga silk -

61

„ Tusser „

- 28,40

06

Page

Eggs of Bombyx mori - - 12

Embroidery of Tusscr silk - 47, 152
Emergence of Tusser moth

19

- 27

- 49

- 40, 92, 115

from cocoon
Emperor moth
Eria cloth
Eria cocoons

Eria silkworm and silk -

Fabrics of Eria silk

48

55

55

Muga

- 49, 50, 59
- 58, 59

Tusser ,, - 34-37, 39

Fibres of silks of the Saturn iidse 27
Fibres of Tusser silk - - 26, 27

Franck pere et fils, Messrs. - 92, 93

Garments of Eria silk - - 50

„ Muga „ - 58

Geoghegan, Mr. - - 16, 48, 49

Gosse, Mr. P. H. - - 63

Handbook of Embroidery - 48

Heifer, Dr. - - - 49

Hewitt, Mr. J. F. K. - - 22

History of silk - - 8

History of Tusser silk - - 14

Hugon, Mr. - - 49, 57

Indian coins, money, weights
and measures - 76

“ Indian Silkworm,” by Dr.

G. Bird wood - - 71

Larva of Tusser moth - 15,100
Larva of Attacus Atlas - 108

Lepper, Mr. - - 53

Life-history of most important
wild silkworms 68

Lister & Co., Messrs. - - 53, 55

Localities of Eria silk 48, 51, 52, 53
„ Tusser silk - 16

,, wild silks - - 13

Loepa katinka - -7,119

Loepa miranda - - - 7, 120

Page

Loepa Sikkima - 7

Loepa sivalica 7

Lyons Chamber of Commerce 90, 91

Mallet, Sir Louis, C.B. - 2, 11, 28
Measures, Indian - 76

Meneville, M. Guerin - - 49

Microscopic appearance of
various silk fibres - 125, 126
Money, Indian - 76

Moonga silkworm and silk - 55, 92
Moore, Mr. F. -
Moth of Tusser silkworm
Muga cocoon
Muga silkworm and silk
Mulberry- feeding silkworms

tree -

3

19

55, 103

- 55

- 3, 4,

11, 12

- 137

Names for Tusser silkworm
and silk -
Natural history of silk -
Neoris Huttoni
Neoris Shadulla
Neoris Stoliczkana

Ocinara diaphana -
Ocinara lactea
Ocinara Moorei -

14

11

- 6, 117
7
7

4

4

4

Packing wild silks for expor-
tation - - 6 1

Palma Christi - - 48

Pebrine - - 12

Petit teint 42

Plantations for Tusscr sericul-
ture - - 20

Plants on which Actias selene
feeds - - - - 66, 143

Plants on which Antheraca
Perotteti feeds - - 67, 144

Plants on which Eria worm
feeds - 48, 132, 138, 139, 143
Plants on which Muga worm
feeds -

56

97

Page

Plants on which Tusser worm
feeds - - 15, 127-136

Plush made from Tusser silk 37, 38
Poonah - - - 20

Price of Bengal silk - - 12, 40

Prices of silks of commerce - 40

„ Tusser silk -

- 39, 40

Printing Tusser silk

- 34

Reeling Eria cocoons

- 55, 59

„ Muga cocoons

- 57

„ Tusser cocoons 25,

30, 32, 88

,, machinery - 86

, 154-163

,, „ , makers of 86

„ „ , mode

of

using

88

,, native implements

- 153

Rhodia Newara

6

Ricinus communis

- 48

Rinaca Zuleika

- 6

Royal School of Art Needle-

work -

48

Salassa Lola -

6

Saturnia Anna

7

Saturnia carpini

- 27, 118

Saturnia Cidosa

7

Saturnia Grotei

7

Saturnia Lindia

7

Saturnia pyretorum

8

Saturniidae

- 2,3

Scales of silk - producing

moths -

- 69, 146

Schappe of Tusser silk -

- 36

Seonee

- 16, 26

Seripositor -

28

Silk of commerce

11

Simla -

- 35

Page

Softening Tusser cocoons for

reeling

- 30

Spinning of cocoon by Tusser

silkworm -

26

Spinning of Eria silk -

- 50, 58

„ Muga silk

- 58

„ Tusser silk

- 35

Strengths of silk fibres

- 68

Superstitions connected

with

Tusser sericulture -

- 17, 19

Tensions of silk fibres -

- 68

Theophila Bengalensis

4

Theophila Iluttoni

4

Theophila mandarin a

4

Theophila religiosa

4

Theophila Slierwilli -

4

Throwing of Tusser silk

31, 35, 36

Tusser cocoons

- 18, 101

„ „ mode of soften-

ing, for reeling

- 30

„ moth -

99

„ organzine

- 31, 36

,, on Tusser embroidery 47, 152

,, sericulture

16

„ silkworm and silk

- 13, 100

„ tram -

- 31, 36

Uses of Tusser silk

- 36

Values of Indian coins, money,

weights and measures - 76

Wallace, Dr. Alex. - - 48

Waste of Tusser silk - - 35, 60

Weights, Indian - - 76

Wild silks - 13

98

Fig. 1.

PLATE I.

Fig. 2.

Bombyx mori, or mulberry feeding
silkworm (Male).

Bombyx mori (Female).

Fig. 3.

Larva of Bombyx mori.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

Cocoon of Bombyx mori Cocoon of Bombyx mori reared in

from Bengal. Italy from Japan seed.

99

PLATE II.
Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Antheraea mylitta or Tusser moth (Male).

Antheraca mylitta or Tusser moth (Female).

It 2

100

PLATE Iir.

Larva of Anthersen, mvlitta or Tussor silkworm,

101

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.

Tusser cocoons.

Fig. 2.

Tusser cocoon cut open to show the chrysalis inside

L02

PLATE V.
Eig. 1.

Anthersea Assama or Muga moth (Male).
Fig. 2.

103

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1.

Muga cocoon.

104

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1.

Antheriea Koylei (Female).

Fig. 2.

Authcisca Fritliii (Male).

105

PLATE VIII.
Fig. 1.

• Attacus ricini (Male).
Fig. 2,

106

PLATE IX.

IMS

Attacus Atlas (Male)

107

PLATE X.

Attacus Atlas (Female).

108

PLATE XI.
Fig. 1.

Cocoon of Attacus Atlas.

Larva of Attacus Atlas or Atlas silkworm.

Fig. 2.

109

PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.

Cricula trifenestrata (Male).
Fig. 2.

Cricula trifenestrata (Female).
Fig. 3.

Larva of Cricula trifenestrata.

Fig. 4.

Cocoon of Cricula trifenestrata.

110

PLATE XI ri.

Fig. 1.

Actias selene (Male).
Fig. 2.

Larva of Actias selene.
Fig. 3.

Cocoon of Selene.

Ill

PLATE XIV.

112

PLATE XV.
Fig. 1.

m

Anther sea Helferi (Male).

Fig. 2.

Caligula Simla (Female).

] 13

Cocoon of A utherica pernyi.

PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1.

Antheraca pernyi (Male).
Fig. 2.

Antheraea pernyi (Female).
Fig. 3.

114

PLATE XVII
Pig. 1.

/

Anthenea yama-mai (Female)

115

PLATE XVIII.

Fig. 1.

Cocoou of Anfheraca yama-mai.

Fig. 3.

11

2

Cocoon of Attacus ricini

116

PLATE XIX.

Fig. 1.

Attacus cynthia (Male).

Fig. 2.

Attacus cynthia (Female)

117

PLATE XX.

Fig. 1.

Larva of Attacus cynthia.

Fig. 2.

Cocoon of Attacus cynthia.

Fig. 3.

Neoris Huttoni.

1 LS

PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1.

Saturnia carpini (Male).

Fig. 2.

Saturnia carpini (Female).

Fig. 3.

Saturnia Grotei (Female).

1 1 9

l'LATE XXII.

Fig. 1.

Loepa katiuka (Male).

Fig. 2.

Loepa katinka (Female).

Fig. 3.

Larva of Loepa katinka.

120

PLATE XXIII.
Fig. 1.

Loepa miranda (Male).

Fig. 2.

Diagram showing the Point (x) on wing from
which the scales have been taken. {See Plates
XLIX to LIV.)

121

PLATE XXIV.

The shaded parts show the districts in which the Tusser moth has

been found

122

PLATE XXV.

The shaded parts show the districts in which the Eria moth ( Attacus ricini ) has been

iound.

128

PLATE XXVI.

rlhe shaded parts show the districts in which the Munga or Muga moth (Anthercca

Assama ) has been found.

124

PLATE XXVII.

The shaded parts show the districts in which the Atlas moth has been found.

Fig. 1.

PLATE XXVIII.

Fig. 2.

Silk of JBombyx mori, or silk of commerce. Silk of Bombyx mon, showing transverse

sections.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Silk of A nth erica mylitta or Tusser silk. Silk of Anthenea mylitta or Tusser silk,

showing fibrets and transverse sections.

Silk of Antheraea Assama or Muga silk

Fig. 6.

Silk of Authei'ica peruvi.

12G

Silk of Attacus Atlas.
Fig. 5.

Silk of Anthoraca yama-mai.

Silk of Cricula trifene6trata.
Fig. 6.

127

PLATE XXX.

Tectona grandis.

] 28

PLATE XXXI.

Terminalia Catappa.

PLATE XXXII.

Q 3255.

I

130

PLATE XXXIII.

Bombax heplaplivllum.

131

PLATE XXXIV.

Carey a sphgerica.

T 2

132

PLATE XXXV.

Eicinus communis. •

133

PLATE XXXVI.

Lagerstrsemia Indica

134

PLATE XXXVII.

Carissa Carandas.

135

PLATE XXXVIII.

136

PLATE XXXIX.

Pious Benjiiminia.

137

PLATE XL.

Morus alba (the Mulberry).

138

PLATE XLT

139

Ail until us excelsa

140

PLATE XLIII.

Artimisia Indica.

141

PLATE XLIV.

Nauclea Cadamba.

142

PLATE XLV.

Sarcostemma brevi stigma.

143

PLATE XLVI.

Coriaria nipalensis.

1U

PLATE XLVI1.

< )rdiua wodier.

145

PLATE XLYIII.

Co dre la Toon a

IC

/

Q 3255.

146

PLATE XL1X.

Fig. 1.

Fig.

9

Antheraea mylitta (Male).
Fig. 4.

Bombyx mori (Male).
Fig. 3.

Antliersea mylitta (Female).

Attacus ricini (Male).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 5.

Attacus cynthia (Male).

Attacus Atlas (Male).

Scales from Wings magnified 140 diameters.

Fig. 1 .

Fro. 2.

147

PLATE L.

Attacus Atlas (Female).
Fig. 3.

Anthersea pernyi (Male).
Fig. 4.

Cricula trifenestrata (Male).

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Antheraa yama-mai (Male).

Scales from Wings magnified 140 diameters.

Antheraea yama-mai (Female).

Jv 'Z

14S

Fig. 1.

PLATE LI.

Fig.

2.

Saturnia carpiui (Female)
Fig. 4.

Saturnia carpini (Male)

Loepa kutiuka (Male). Loepa mirauda (Male).

Scales from Wings magnified 140 diameters.

149

Fig. 1.

PLATE LIT.

Fig.

o

Caligula Simla (Male).
Fig. 3.

Neoris Hutconi (Male).
Fig. 4.

Bombyx mori (Male).

Fig. 5.

Taken from different parts of Wing.

Anthersea mylitta (Male).

Antheraja yama-mai (Male). Adi*, selene (Male).

'1 a ken from different parts of Wing.

Scales from Wings magnified 140 diameters.

150

PLATE LIU.

Fig. 1.

Cricula trifenestrata (Male).
Fig. 5.

Fig. 2.

Saturnia carpini (Male).
Fig. 6.

Locpa miranda (Male). Neons Iluttoui (Male).

Scales from Wings magnified 500 diameters.

151

PLATE LIV.

Fio. 1 .

Fig. 2.

Bombyx inori (Male).
Fig. 3.

Anthersea mylitta (Male).
Fig. 4.

Antliersea pernyi (Male).
Fig. 5.

152

PLATE LV.

Tusser on Tusser embroidery.

153

PLATE LVI.

/

Native reeling implements ; scale £ of the real size.

154

PLATE LVII.

Cocoon-reeling machine, side view.

155

PLATE LVJI1.

Cocoon-reeling machine, diagonal view.

156

PLATE L1X.

Brass vessels belonging to tray ; scale ^ of the real size

157

PLATE LX.

158

\

PLATE LXI,

Measuring reel ; scale £ of the real size.

159

PLATE LXI1.

Fig. 1.

Stove for heating basin ; scale 1 inch to
the foot.

160

PLATE LXIII.

Cocoon ladle for basin ; scale | of the real size.

161

PLATE LX IV.

Fig. 1.

Champignon ;
scale ^ natural size.

Fig. 2.

Tray and utensils ; mechanical drawing, scale 1 inch to

the foot.

Q 3255

L

162

PLATE LXY.

163

PLATE LX VI.

Q 3255.

■

A,

LONDON:

Printed by George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode,
Printers to the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty.

For Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

[8948.— 2500.— 10/81.]

.

-