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(i i Ml | Tm Gee ti ll 2a | LN | SS || TT || ERT || sha fl {\ lt It lc Ta My i ES= A ii cll ee = |(I) rm fi hil Mi i ] i mm Ig te [a ih i | tit OM sla al mul if UD lh (eT | 7 you hiatal i hi | OT iil i | (uci il OO cc i i il I TT alkadiccsilkedbaical al pa ial lhl I S== x ——! l MI i a SiN it = 2 ———— ll 25 50 100 150 FRONTISPIECE. | >} El A | PLAN OF A FRUIT GARDEN. BARRY’S FRUIT GARDEN. I39 REVISED, ENLARGED, AND: NEWLY :ELECTROLYPED.) NEW YORK: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 245 BROADWAY. 1879, Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by ORANGE JUDD & CO., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. BY (ranefer fron Pat, Office Lib, > 1914, c oe&4 : a‘ nie Wy, € woe me Ree ree oe € € o r¢ ) ee ce 8 BES Sa Cece c ; . ¢ € ° c Cca a « ) € eq~® €.O 0 ¢ e€ e = e€e¢ = P ( Ge e 4 € r €,ce n AE CEORG o 8 ¢€ é oc c r ere Q c ce ce od COMES GX o oO. ce 6 ice jejele icte pee e : zs « e@ec @o ¢ “ee € eGe aaa c cc ee e a \ . apus fc Co fe € c Cc C c Cenc e “e er ene . p> ‘ c e: S e ee? Ee eet e c S e€ ee e c € © -€6@6 475 © ee bd oe © € e ¢ c € e e* ee e cee ce 6 © Ce cc c € é\ ie £6 © @ o@ eo: O56 2. a © «© © of o o ev «@ € © ¢ ccc Loveyoy, Son & Co, Coe E.sctrotypers & STEREOTYPERS, 15 Vandewater Street, N. Y. INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. The subject of this treatise is one in which almost all classes of the community are more or less practically en- gaged and interested. Agriculture is pursued by one class, and commerce by another; the mechanic arts, fine arts, and learned professions by others; but fruit culture, to a greater or less extent, by al. It is the desire of every man, whatever may be his pur- suit or condition in life, whether he live in town or country, to enjoy fine fruits, to provide them for his fam- ily, and, if possible, to cultivate the trees in his-own garden with his own hands. The agriculturist, whatever be the extent or condition of his grounds, considers an orchard, at least, indispensable. The merchant or pro- fessional man who has, by half :a lifetime of drudgery in town, secured a fortune or a competency that enables him to retire to a country or suburban villa, looks forward to his fruit garden as one of the chief sources of those rural comforts and pleasures he so long and so earnestly labored and hoped for. The artizan who has laid up encugh from his earnings to purchase a homestead, considers the plant- ing of his fruit-trees as one of the first and most important steps towards improvement. He anticipates the pleasure of tending them in his spare hours, of watching their growth and progress to maturity, and of gathering their ripe and delicious fruits, and placing them before his family and friends as the valued products of his own gar- den, and of his own skill and labor, Fortunately, in the Vv VI INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. United States, land is so easily obtained as to be within the reach of every industrious man; and the climate and soil being so favorable to the production of fruit, Ameri- cans, if they be not already, must become truly “a nation of fruit growers.” Fruit culture, therefore, whether considered as a branch of profitable industry, or as exercising a most beneficial influence upon the health, habits, and tastes of the people, becomes a great national interest, and whatever may as- sist in making it better understood, and more interesting, and better adapted to the various wants, tastes, and cir- cumstances of the community, cannot fail to subserve the public good. Within a few years past it has received an unusual de- gree of attention. Plantations of all sorts, orchards, gardens, and nurseries, have increased in numbers and extent to a degree quite unprecedented ; not in one section or locality, but from the extreme north to the southern limits of the fruit-growing region. Foreign supplies of trees have been required to meet the suddenly and greatly increased demand. ‘Treatises and periodicals devoted to the subject have increased rapidly and circulated widely. Horticultural societies have been organized in all parts; while exhibitions, and national, State, and local conven- tions of fruit growers, have been held to discuss the merits of fruits and other kindred topics. To those unacquainted with the previous condition of fruit culture in the interior of the country, this new, plant- ing spirit has appeared as a sort of speculative mania; and the idea has suggested itself to them that the country will soon be overstocked with fruits. This is a greatly mis- taken apprehension. After all that has been done, let us look at the actual condition of fruit culture at the present time. In the best fruit-growing counties in the State of New York, the entire fruit plantations, of more than three- fourths of the agricultural population, consist of very - INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. VII ordinary orchards of apples. Not a dish of fine pears, plums, cherries, apricots, grapes, nor raspberries, has ever appeared on their tables, and not a step has yet been taken to produce them. People are but beginning to learn the uses of fruits, and to appreciate their importance. At one time apples were grown chiefly for cider; now they are considered an indispensable article of food. The finer fruits, that were formerly considered as luxuries only for the tables of the wealthy, are beginning to take their place among the ordinary supplies of every man’s table; and this taste must grow from year to year, with an in- creased supply. ‘Those who consume a bushel of fruit this year, will require double or treble that quantity next. The rapid increase of population alone, creates a demand to an extent that few people are aware of. The city of Rochester has added 20,000 to her numbers in ten years. Let such an increase as this in all our cities, towns, and villages, be estimated, and see what an aggre- gate, annual amount of new consumers it presents. New markets are continually presenting themselves, and demanding large supplies. New and more perfect modes of packing and shipping fruits, and of drying, preserving, and preparing them for various purposes to which they have not hitherto been appropriated, are beginning to en- - list attention and inquiry. Immense amounts of money are annually expended in importing grapes, wines, figs, nuts, prunes, raisins, cur- rants, almonds, ete., many of which might be produced perfectly well on our own soil. Pears have actually been imported from France by the New York confectioners, this present season (1851). These are facts that should be well understood by proprietors of lands, and especially by those who have allowed themselves to imagine that fruit will soon be so plenty as not to be worth the grow- ing. | It is too soon, by a century, to apprehend an over sup- VIII INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION, ply of fruits in the United States, except of some very perishable sort, in a season of unusual abundance, in some particular locality, where one branch of culture is mainly carried on. It is because fruit culture has been almost entirely neg- lected until within a few years, that the present activity appears so extraordinary. A vast majority of the people were quite unaware of the treasures within their reach; and that in regard to soil and climate, they possessed ad- vantages for fruit growing superior to any other nation. We had no popular works or periodicals to diffuse informa- tion or awaken interest on the subject. For fourteen or fifteen years Hovey’s Magazine of Horticulture was the only journal exclusively devoted to gardening subjects, and it only found its way into the hands of the more ad- vanced cultivators. We had some treatises on fruits, but none of them circulated sufficiently to effect much good. Previous to 1845, Kenrick’s American Orchardist, and Mannings Book of Fruits, were the principal treatises that had any circulation worth naming. Coxe’s work, Floy’s, Prince’s, and some others, were confined almost wholly to nurserymen, or persons already engaged and interested in fruit culture in the older parts of the country. Mr. Downing’s “ Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,” that appeared in 1845, was the first treatise of the kind that really obtained a wide and general circulation. It made its appearance at a favorable moment, just as the planting spirit referred to was beginning to manifest itself, and when, more than at any previous period, such a work was needed. Mr. Downing enjoyed great advan- tages over any previous American writer. During the ten years that had elapsed since the publication of Ken- rick’s and Prince’s treatises, a great fund of materials had been accumulating. Messrs. Manning, Kenrick, Prince, Wilder, and many others, had been industriously collect- ing fruits both at home and abroad. The Massachusetts INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. Ix Horticultural Society was actively engaged in its labors. The London Horticultural Society had made great ad- vancement in its examination and trial of fruits, and had corrected a multitude of long standing errors in nomen- clature. Mr. Downing’s work had the benefit of all this; and possessing the instructive feature of outline figures of fruits, and being written in a very agreeable and attrac- tive style, it possessed the elements of popularity and usefulness in an eminent degree. Hence it became at once the text-book of every man who sought for pomo- logical information, or felt interested in fruits or fruit- trees; and to it is justly attributable much of the taste and spirit on the subject, and the increased attention to nomenclature, that so distinguishes the present time. Mr. Thomas’s recent treatise, ‘‘ The American Fruit Culturist,” on the same plan as Mr. Downing’s, is also a popular work, and will be the means of diffusing both taste and information. Mr. Thomas is a close and accurate ob- server, and his descriptions are peculiarly concise, methodi- cal, and minute. “Cole’s Fruit Book” is also a recent treatise, and on account of its cheapness, and the vast ac- cumulation of facts and information it contains, is highly popular and useful. Besides these, periodicals, devoted more or less to the subject, have increased in number, and greatly extended their circulation, so that information is now accessible to all who desire it. The light which has been shed upon fruit-growing by these works, and the taste they have created, have not only improved old systems of cultivation, but introduced new ones. Until within a few years, nothing was said or known among the great body of cultivators, or even nur- serymen, of dwarfing trees, of the uses of certain stocks, or of modes of propagation and pruning by which trees are made to bear early, and are adapted to different cir- cumstances. The entire routine of the propagation and 1* x INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITICN. management of trees was conducted generally in the sim- plest and rudest manner. Whether for the garden or the orchard, they were propagated in the same manner, on the same stocks, and in the same form taken from the nursery, planted out, and left there to assume such forms as nature or accident might impose, and produce fruit at such a time as natural circumstances would admit. The art of planting fifty trees on a quarter of an acre — of ground, and bringing them into a fruitful state in four or five years at most, was entirely unknown, Small gar- dens were encumbered with tall, unshapely, and unfruitful trees, that afforded no pleasure to the cultivator; and thousands of persons, who are now the most enthusiastic cultivators, were entirely discouraged from the attempt. Fruit gardening, properly speaking, may be said to have only commenced. It is no longer a matter of mere utility, but taste also; and, therefore, adaptation, variety, and beauty are sought for in garden trees, and modes of culture and management. Nothing so distinguishes the taste of modern planting as the partiality for dwarf trees, and the desire to obtain information in regard to their propagation and treatment. This has not been anticipated by any of our authors. The standard or orchard system alone is fully treated of, as being the only one practised ; and this requires so little skill in the art of culture, that only the simplest instruc- tions have been given. The very elements of the science have been unexplained and unstudied, and cultivators in the main find themselves both destitute of knowledge in regard to the management of trees in the more refined and artificial forms, and the sources from which to obtain it. But avery small proportion of those engaged or en- gaging in tree culture have studied the physiology of trees in any degree. Very few have the slightest knowl- edge of the modes of growth and bearing of the different species of fruits, or even of the difference "between wood . INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION, XI or leaf-buds and fruit-buds. Very few understand the functions of the different parts of trees, and the relation in which they stand one to another; the principles that govern and regulate the growth and maturity, the forma- tion of wood, and the production of fruit. Practice is no better understood than principle. Persons engaged largely in tree growing will frequently ask the most ab- surd questions on the subject of propagation of stocks, of pruning, etc., matters that should be understood by every man who has a single tree to manage, but especially in- dispensable to those who wish to succeed in conducting garden-trees under certain modified forms, more or less opposed to the natural. The preparation of ground, lay- ing out small gardens, the selection of suitable trees, and a multitude of minor, but nevertheless, important matters are very imperfectly understood. Neither our State nor national governments have ever manifested a disposition to favor the rural arts with anything like a liberal patron- izing policy. Advanced, wealthy, and powerful as we are, not a single step has been taken, in earnest, to establish model farms or model gardens, in which experiments might be made, and examples given, that would enlighten cultivators, and elevate and honor their profession. What- ever advance has been made, is due wholly to individual taste, energy, and enterprise; and to these alone are we permitted to look for future progress. Having for many years devoted much attention to this particular branch of culture, and feeling deeply interested in its success, and having, by a business intercourse with cultivators in all parts of the country, an ample opportu- nity of understanding the nature and extent of the infor- mation desired, I have prepared the following pages to supply it, at least, in part. Iam well convinced that the work is neither perfect nor complete. It has been prepared, during a few weeks of XIT INTRODUCTION TQ FIRST EDITION. the winter, in the midst of other engagements that ren- dered it impossible to bestow upon it the necessary care and labor. My original intention was to give a few brief directions for the management of garden-trees, but it was suggested by friends that it would prove more generally useful by adding a sketch of the entire routine of opera- tions, from the propagation in the nursery to the manage- ment in the orchard and garden. This has involved much more labor than it was intended to bestow upon it, or than I could really spare from business. It has, therefore, been performed hastily, and, of course, in many respects, im- perfectly ; but yet it is hoped it contains such an exposi- tion of principles and practices as cannot fail to diffuse amongst the inexperienced much needed information. AI doubtful theories, and whatever had not a direct practical bearing on the subjects treated, have been excluded, both for the sake of brevity, and to avoid anything calculated to mislead. The principles and practices set forth are not new, Visionary, nor doubtful, but such as are taught and practised by the most accomplished cultivators of the day, and have been successfully carried out in the daily operations of our own establishment. In the pruning and management of garden-trees, the French arboriculturists surpass all others. Their trees are models that have no equals, and that all the world admire. The English, notwithstanding their great gar- dening skill, and their refined and elegant modes of cul- ture, are far behind the French in the management of fruit-trees. French systems of pruning and training are at this moment advocated and held up as models by such men as Mr. Robert Thompson, head of the fruit depart- ment in the London Horticultural Society’s Garden; by Mr. Rivers, well known on this side of the Atlantic as one of the most energetic and accomplished nurserymen in Great Britain, and by many others whose skill and judgment command attention. Their introduction to INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. XIIL English gardens is going on rapidly, and bids fair to revo- lutionize their whole practice of fruit-tree culture. D’Albret’s great work on pruning is conceded to be the best extant, on that subject. He was the pupil and suc- cessor of M. Thouin, the world-renowned, vegetable physi- ologist and founder ee the great national gardens at Paris. His practice is founded upon the true principles of vege- table physiology, and strengthened by long years of fie most minute and successful experiment. M. Dubreuil, late conductor of the fruit department in the Garden of Rouen, has also published an excellent treatise on arboriculture ; and there are many other French works on the subject, all showing how thoroughly the science is there understood, and how minutely and _skil- fully its principles are dealt with. All these, as well as the best managed gardens, and the most perfect and beau- tiful trees in France and Belgium, have been carefully studied. The knowledge thus acquired, added to the experience of many years’ actual and. extensive practice, constitutes the basis of the course recommended. The same minute detail that characterizes European works has not been attempted, yet much detail is abso- lutely necessary, in order to prevent misapprehension on the part of those wholly inexperienced. Writers are apt to treat simple matters too much in the general, presuming them to be well understood. Detail is always tedious to those familiar with the subject, but nothing less can be satisfactory to the student. For the sake of convenient reference, the different branches of the subject have been separated into four parts. The first treats of general principles, a knowledge of the structure, character, and functions of the different parts of trees, modes of ee aie bearing, etc., etc.; soils, manures, modes of propagation, etc. This ae ie the groundwork of the study of tree culture. The second xXIV INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. treats of the nursery. The ¢hird of plantations, orchards of different kinds, gardens, etc.; their laying out and management, and of the pruning and training of trees in different forms. The fourth contains abridged descrip- tions of the best fruits, a chapter on gathering and pre- serving fruits, another on diseases and insects, and another on the implements in common use. Illustrations have been introduced wherever the nature of the subject seemed to require them, and it was possible to get them prepared. It is believed that these will prove of great value in imparting a correct knowledge of the various subjects. Upwards of one hundred of the more important figures. have been drawn from nature by Pro- fessor Sintzenich, of Rochester. | 3 P:%: Mount Hope Garden and Nurseries, Rocuester, N. Y.. e& PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. Twenty years ago the First Edition of this Treatise was published. What marvellous changes have taken place in our country during that period. Our population has been fully doubled. The Railway has spanned the continent and brought its most remote parts within a few days’ pleasant travel of each other. The Telegraph has brought together, as it were, every part of the world. Territories that then had scarcely a white inhabitant are now populous and productive States. In this general and extraordinary progress, Fruit Cul- ture seems to have held its own. In every part of our country, wherever the soil and cli- mate offer the least encouragement, Fruit trees are planted. The fruits of California attract almost as much attention as the products of her mines; yet, twenty years ago, there was scarcely an apple produced in the State, except in some of the old mission gardens. Societies for the promotion of Fruit Culture are organ- ized everywhere. Books on the subject are multiplied rapidly. Horticultural periodicals are increasing, and the agricul. XV XVI PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. tural journals, now so numerous, all give fruit culture spe- cial attention. We have made important acquisitions in the way of new varieties of fruits, particularly in grapes, and we have gained much valuable experience, both in methods of cul- ture and in regard to the relative merits of varieties under various circumstances of soil, climate, etc., but we have yet much to learn. Questions of pruning, training, tillage of the soil, etc., are discussed as warmly among practical men as they were twenty years ago. Diseases, such as the “ pear blight,” are as much a mystery as ever. ~ The First Edition was hastily prepared, and was, conse- quently, imperfect. My intention was to revise and cor- rect it very soon, but engagements, increasing from year to year, caused it to be neglected. Some five or six years ago I felt that, in many respects, it had fallen behind, and had its publication stopped. Then, seeing numerous other works on fruit culture appear, I concluded not to revise it. Lately, however, at the solicitation of friends, I have un- dertaken it; but, for several reasons, have not been able to give it the attention it demanded. The most important part of the revision has been the lists of varieties of fruits which are now made to conform to recent experience. Several other parts, however, have been re-written, and others altered and corrected. PP. &. GON EH NES. PARTE I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER I. PAGE. NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS or FrviT TREEs, : : . . ° . 21—69 CHAPTER II, SoIzs, : : ; : 5 . 69—74 CHAPTER III, MANURES, 6 ° cy e @ 74—80 , CHAPTER IV. THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES, . 80—100 CHAPTER V. PRUNING—ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE, ‘ ‘ - 100—118 PART -H. THE NURSERY. CHAPTER I. So, SITUATION, ETC., ’ 5 : + a » 121—172 PART ait. THE LAYING OUT, ARRANGEMENT, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF PERMANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT TREES, SELECTION OF TREES AND VARIETIES, AND PRUNING AND CONDUCTING TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS. CHAPTER I. PERMANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT TREES, . : . 1%5—220 CHAPTER II. PRUNING AND TRAINING APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FRUIT TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS, . : ~ 220—826 PART =1¥V.. SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, GATHERING AND PRESERVING FRUITS, DISEASES, INSECTS, IM- PLEMENTS IN COMMON USE. CHAPTER I. ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, . 329—487 CHAPTER JI. GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPORTATION, AND PRESERVATION OF FRUITS, ; ; : ° ° : . 437—449 CHAPTER III. DISEASES AND INSECTS, : § : ; - . 449466 CHAPTER IV. NURSERY, ORCHARD, AND FRUIT-GARDEN IMPLEMENTS, . 466—480 _ Jere ol 51 Mims 3 =o GENERAL PRINCIPLES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER I. NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIF- FERENT PARTS OF FRUIT-TREES. General Remarks.—A Tree is a living body, composed of many parts, such as roots, branches, leaves, buds, blos- soms, fruit, etc. All these have different offices to fulfil, assume different forms and characters, and are known and designated from one another by different names, when subjected to the practical operations of culture. Without some knowledge of the names and structure of these dif ferent parts, of the principles that guide their develop- ment, their relative connection with, and influence upon one another, tree culture cannot be, to any man, really pleasant, intellectual, or successful; but a misty, uncer- tain, unintelligible routine of manual labor. The industry of our times is peculiarly distinguished by the ‘application of science—the union of theory with practice in every department; and surely the votaries of the garden, whose labors, of all others, should be intelli- gent, will not allow themselves to fall behind, and per- form their labors in the dark. Fully sensible of the importance of this preliminary study, and confident that the minute and practical details of culture cannot be well understood without it, I propose here, before entering upon the main subject, to describe, in as few and as plain words as possible, the structure, character, connection, and respective offices of the various 21 2? GENERAL PRINCIPLES. parts of fruit-trees, and the names by which each is known in practice. SeEcTION 1.—TuHeE Roor. THE Roor is composed of several parts. Ist. The collar (A, fig. 1), which is the center of Fig. 1.—a TREE. A,the Collar; B,the Main Root; C, Lateral Root; D, Fibres; £, Stem, or Trunk ; #,Main Branch- es; G, Secondary Branches; 4, Shoots of one year’s growth. imme diately formed. growth, or point of union be- tween the root and stem, usu- ally at or just below the surface of the ground. In root grafting seedlings, this is the poimt where the graft is set. 2d. The body or main root (B, fig. 1), which usually pene. trates the earth in a vertical di- rection, and decreases in size as it proceeds downwards from the collar. It is also called the tap- root. A seedling that has not been transplanted has usually but one descending or tap-root, furnished, in all its length, with minute hairy fibres. 3d. The lateral roots (C, fig. 1) are principal divisions or branches of the main root, and take more or less of a spreading or horizontal direction. When seedlings are transplanted, a por- tion of the tap-root is cut off, and these lateral, or side roots, are 4th. The fibres or rootlets (D, fig. 1) are the mine hair-like roots which we see most abundant on trees that have been frequently transplanted. Different species of THE ROOT. 93 trees vary much in their natural tendency to produce fibres. Thus the pear and the apple require frequent transplanting, and often root pruning, to produce that fibrous condition, which is necessary to great fruitfulness ; whilst the roots of the paradise apple, used as a stock for dwarf trees, and the quince, are always quite fibrous, the former never, and the latter seldom, requiring root pruning. | The Spongioles is a term, which was formerly applied to the extremities of the root fibres, it being supposed that these tips were especial organs through which the plant absorbed its food from the soil. Later observations have shown that the absorbing surface of the rootlet is not at the very extremity, but just back of it; and that instead of there being a spongiole, or spongelet, the spe- cial office of which is to take up moisture, all the newly formed root surface does this work, in which it is facili- tated by great numbers of root hairs, which are delicate projections from the surface, and so minute as to be only visible by the aid of a microscope. The root fibres are composed of soft, newly formed, delicate tissue, and are exceedingly susceptible of injury. The slightest bruise, or exposure to a dry or cold air, is fatal to them; and this is the reason why transplanted trees generally receive such a severe check, and so frequently die. If trees could be taken up in such a way that the root fibres could all, or mostly, be preserved, trees would receive no check what- ever. By taking. proper precautions, large trees are re- moved in midsummer without a leaf flagging. The Growth of Roots.—The root increases in length by additions to its extreme point only. It does not ex- tend throughout its whole length, as does the joint of a stem. This manner of growth allows it to accommodate itself to the obstacles that it meets in its course. The ex- tremities of the roots, at first, consist of cellular tissue only, but soon woody fibre is formed in them, and their 94 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. internal structure is, essentially, like that of the stem, which will be described further along. The material for the growth of the root is supplied by the stem and leaves above, and these, in turn, are furnished with the crude material for their own support and enlargement by the reots. The parts of the tree above the surface of the ground, and those below it, are dependent each upon the other for growth and existence. Practical cultivators are familiar with many facts that illustrate the intimate relations and mutual dependency of the roots and stems. For instance, where one portion of the head or branches — is much larger or more vigorous than the other, if the roots be examined, it will be found that those immedi- ately under, or in direct, connection with the largest branches, will have a corresponding size and vigor. In cases where one side of the top of a large tree is cut off, as in top grafting, a large number of new shoots are pro- duced on the cut branch, and, if the roots be examined under, or in connection with this branch, a corresponding new growth will be found there. It is quite obvious, from these and similar facts, that whatever affects the roots or stems of trees, favorably or unfavorably, affects the whole tree. If the foliage of a tree be entirely re- moved in the growing season, the absorbent action of the roots is suspended ; and if the absorbing portions of the roots be cut off, the growth of the top instantly ceases. SrecTIon 2.—THE STEM. The Stem is that part of a tree which starts from the collar, and grows upwards. It sustains all the branches, and forms the medium of communication between the different parts of the tree, from one extremity to the other. Plants, like the grape, with twining, or climbing stems, are called vines; and such as have no main stem, but have _ THE STEM, 26 branches diverging from the collar, as the gooseberry, currant, etc., are called shrubs, or bushes. Where the stem is destitute of branches to some distance from the ground, it is usually called the trunk. Different Parts of the Stem.—A stem, or branch of a tree, is composed of the following parts, which are dis- tinctly observable when we cut it across. Figure 2 repre- sents a portion of a stem of a young tree, one year old, Se oo S SS Ss Js CD £ mrad 2-2 Fig. 2.—SECTION OF A STEM ONE YEAR OLD—MAGNIFIED. A, Bark; B, Wood; C, Epidermis; D, Corky Layer; H, Green Layer; F, Inner Bark, or Liber; G, Pith; H, Medullary Rays; JZ, Woody Fibre; A, Dotted Ducts; Z, Spiral Ducts. so cut as to show a cross section, and a longitudinal one at the same time. The bark, included in the dotted line A, consists of an outer and inner bark. The Rind, or Outer Bark, is composed of three layers. 1. The Epidermis, or Cuticle (C), which is found only on recent shoots, and the young parts of trees; this is thin, smooth, and delicate, like tissue paper, and is easily separated from the parts beneath it. Next within this is 2. The Corky Layer (D), which is usually of some shade of brown or ash color; this, seen through the epi- a ww * 26 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. dermis, gives to the young growth of trees its peculiar color, by means of which the experienced cultivator is enabled to distinguish varieties, even when not in leaf. Within the corky layer is 3. The Green Layer (#), which gives to the young shoots their green color. This, as the wood ripens, is soon covered by the corky layer. The Inner Bark, or Liber ().—This is the interior portion of the bark, in immediate contact with the wood. It is composed of perpendicular layers of soft, flexible but very tough fibres. It is this part of the bark of the Basswood that is used for tying in budding, etc., the tissue being separated by maceration. The bark remains with these distinct layers, only for a few years. It scales off, and falls away in forms varying with the kind of tree, but in all cases a portion of the in- ner bark is left attached to the tree. In the grape-vine, the inner bark, or liber, is renewed each year, and that formed the year before is thrown off in long shreds. Within the bark we have the wood, and in the center the pith. The wood is divided into 1. The Sap-wood (included in the dotted line B).—This ~ is the youngest, or last formed, layer of wood, immediate- ly below the inner bark. It is distinguished in all trees ‘by being softer and lighter colored than the older parts. 2. The Heart, or Perfect wood.—This is the central, or interior portion of the stem, or branch, grown firm and mature by age. It is generally a shade darker in color than the newly formed part, or sap-wood. As the en- graving, fig. 2, shows a stem only one year old, this is not represented. 3. The Pith (G).—This is the soft, spongy substance in the center of the stem and branches. In soft-wooded species, like the grape-vine, it is large; in hard-wooded ‘species, as the apple, pear, quince, etc., itissmall. in young shoots it is soft, green, and succulent, and fills an impor- THE STEM. vas tant part in their development. In the old part it is dry, shrivelled, and seems incapable of taking any part in the process of vegetation, and this appears evident from the fact that trees often continue to flourish after the center, containing the pith, has begun to decay, Structure of the Stem.—The stem is composed of woody fibre and cellular tissue, a substance similar to the pith. The woody fibre is arranged in perpendicular lay- ers, and the cellular tissue in horizontal layers, running from the pith to the bark and connecting them. The mingling of these two systems gives to the surface of the cross section of a stem the beautiful veined or netted ap- pearance observable in fig. 3, which represents the cross- section of an oak branch. The perpendicular layers of woody fibre are most clearly obsery- able when we cut a stem ver- tically; they are then easily r separated from one another. Fig. 3.—secrion of A BRANCH The layers, or plates of tissue 5 a a a | radiating from the center to the circumference of the stem and inner bark are called the medullary rays. Two of these are shown in fig. 2, marked by the dotted lines #. Growth of the Stem.—The stem of a tree is originally the extension of the cellular tissue of the seed. As soon as leaves are formed they organize new matter, which de- scends and forms woody fibres: the layers sent down from the first leaves are covered by those sent down from the next, and so on, one layer after another is pro- duced until the end of the season, when the leaves fall and growth ceases. A yearling tree has, therefore, a greater number of layers of woody fibre at the collar than at the top, and is, consequently, thicker; the second year the buds on the first year’s growth produce shoots, and these 28 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. organize new layers of woody fibre, that descend and cover those of the previous year, and thus growth proceeds from year to year. Between each year’s growth there is gener- ally a line, in some cases more conspicuous than in others, that marks off the formation of each year, so that we are able to reckon the ages of trees with great accuracy by these rings. When it happens that a tree, from certain circumstances, makes more growth one season than an- other, we find the ring of that season larger. The new wood in all our northern trees is always formed between the inner bark and the last layer of wood, so that one layer is laid upon, and outside of another, and the bark is continually pressed outwards. The new layers of bark are also formed at the same place, or within the previous one. From this mode of growth, it results that each layer of wood is more deeply imbedded as others are formed above it; and each layer of bark is pressed outwards as others are formed within it. In some cases, as in the cherry, for example, the bark is so tough as not always to yield to the general expansion of the tree, and slitting is resorted to for the purpose of preventing an unnatural rupture, which would eventually take place by the continued pressure of growth from within. SEcTION 38.—BRANCHES. Branches are the divisions of the stem,and have an organization precisely similar: they are designated as, Ist. Main Branches (F, fig. 1); those that are directly connected with the stem or trunk. In pyramidal trees, they are called lateral branches. 'The branches of different species and varieties of fruit trees, differ much in their habits of growth; and it is highly important to the planter to consider these peculiarities, because certain habits of growth are better adapted to particular cireum- BRANCHES. 29 stances than others. Thus we have erect branches (fig. 4), which produce trees of an upright and compact form. Curved erect branches (fig. 5), proceeding almost horizon- tally from the stem fora short distance, and then becoming erect; these, also, form upright symmetrical heads, but much more open than the preceding. Also, horizontal, or spreading branches (fig. 6), that form wide-spreading Fig. 6. DIFFERENT HABITS OF GROWTH OF TREES. Fig. 4, Erect ; Fig. 5, Curved Erect; Fig. 6, Spreading, or Horizontal. heads with irregular outline. And, lastly, drooping branches, when they fall below the horizontal line. The branches of most varieties of apples and pears become pendulous when they have borne for some time; and even in young trees of particular varieties, some of the branches assume a drooping and irregular habit. 2d. Secondary Branches (G, fig. 1), are the divisions of the main branches: occasionally those near the stem take such a prominent part in forming the outline of the tree, as to assume all the character of main branches, ex- cepting in position, 30 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 3d. Shoots (H, fig. 1). This is the name by which young parts are designated from the time they emerge trom the bud until they have completed their first season’s growth. These have also important peculiarities that serve to distinguish certain varietics. They are variously designated -as stout or slender, stiff or flexible, erect or spreading, shortjointed if the buds be close together, Fig. 7. Fig, 8. Fig. 7, Wood-branch of the Apple; Fig. 8, Fruit-branch: A, B, C, Young Fruit- spurs on two-year-old wood; Fig. 9, Fruit-branch of the Pear; A, B, C, Young Spurs on two-year-old wood. and long-jointed when the contrary. The colors of their barks are also strikingly different, and form very obvious distinctions amongst varieties. The Snow Peach, for in- stance, has pale greenish shoots, by which it is at once distinguished. The Jargonelle, Rostiezer, and many other varieties of the pear, have dark purplish shoots, while the BRANCHES. 31 Dix and St. Germain are quite yellowish, the Glou Mor- ceau, grey or drab, and the Bartlett and Buffum quite reddish. The shoots of certain varieties of apples and pears, and especially plums, are distinguished by being downy, as they are furnished to a greater or less extent with a soft and hairy covering—in some cases barely ob- servable. 4th. Wood-Branches (fig. 7), are those eae only wood buds. Sth. Lruit-Branches are those bearing fruit buds ex- clusively. They are presented to us under different forms and circumstances, all of which it is of the highest im- portance to understand. In kernel-fruits, such as the apie 4 and pear, the most ordinary form of the fruit branch is that generally called the Sruit-spur (A, B, C, figs. 8, 9,10). It ap- pears first as & promi- nent bud, as in fig. 8 on wood at least two years old; and for two or three seasons it produces but a rosette of leaves, and con- tinues to increase in length, as in fig. 10. Fig. 10.—FRUIT-BRANCH OF THE PEAR. After it has produced A, B, C, Older Spurs. fruit, it generally branches, and, if properly managed, will bear fruit for many years. Apple and pear-trees of bearing age, and in a fruitful condition, will be found | covered with these spurs on all parts of the head, except the young shoots. In addition to the /fruit-spur, there are,on the kernel-fruits, slender fruit. branches, about as ieee as a goose quill, and from six to eight inches in oD GENERAL PRINCIPLES. length (fig. 11); the buds are long, narrow, and promi- nent, and the first year or two after their appearance, produce but rosettes of leaves, yielding fruit generally about the third year. On trees well furnished with fruit-spurs, these slender branches are of little account, but they are useful on young trees not fully in a bearing state. They are generally pro- duced on the lower or older parts of the branches or stem, and, in the first place, are slender shoots with wood-buds only; but owing to their unfavorab‘te position and feeble structure, they receive only asmall portion of the ascending sap, and the consequence is, they become stunted, and transformed into fruit-branches. In pruning young trees, slender shoots are | frequently bent over, or fastened Fig. 11. Fie, 12. in acrooked position to transform Fig. 11, slender fruit-branch them into fruit-branches of this of the apple—all the budsare kind; but this will be treated of fruit-buds. Fig. 12, a branch of the apple showing the in 1ts proper place. tendency of some varieties to Certain varieties of apples have bear on the points of the 4 . : . pranches*4 hepoint apie eh Oa vee habit of bearing the fruit the fruit was borne last sea- on the points of the lateral shoots ; son; B, a shoot of last year; : see C, its terminal fruit-bud. and fi equently these terminal fruit-buds are formed during the first season’s growth of the shoot. I*ig. 12 is an example; A, is the point where a fruit was bornc last season; B, a shoot of last season; and C, its terminal bud, which is a fruit-bud. The fruit-branches of the peach, apricot, and nectarine, are productions of one season’s growth; the fruit-buds form one season and blossom the next; but as e ra BRANCHES. on the apple and pear, there are different forms of the fruit-branch. In the first place the /frudt-spur (fig. 18), a group of buds like a bouquet ; these are little stunted branches on the older wood that have assumed thisform. The most important fruit- branches of these trees are the vigorous shoots of last season’s growth, containing both fruit- and wood-buds (fig. 14), and the slender fruit- branches, bearing all single fruit-buds, except a wood-bud or two at the base. Fig. 15, represents such a branch of the peach, A and B being wood-buds. The fruit- branches of the plum and cherry, and the gooseberry and cur- rant are similarly pro- duced. A yearling shoot = for instance, the second Fig. 13.—FRUIT-SPUR OF ‘ THE PEACH ON THEOLD Season, will produce a i shoot from its terminal bud, and probably shoots from two or three other buds immediately below the terminal, whilst those lower down will be transformed into fruit-buds, and produce fruit the third season. Fig.16isabranchofthe cherry. A is the two-year-old wood; B, one year; C and D, fruit-spurs on the two-year-old wood, with a wood-bud usually at the point. Fig. 17 isa fruit spur from the older wood ; A, the wood- bud at its point. Fig.18 is a branch of the plum ; A, the two-year-old wood; #, one year Fig. 14, mixed wood and fruit-branches of the peach; B, C, D, Z, fruit-buds; F, G, H, \eaf-buds ; J, double buds; C, triple buds, the two side buds being fruit- buds, and the center one, a leaf-bud. o* 84 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. old; C and D, spurs. Fig. 19 is a fruit-spur from older wood. The wood-bud in the centre of these groups of buds on the spur enables them to increase in length every Fig. 17. Fig. 15. Fig. 15,a slender fruit-branch of the peach; all the buds except A and B, and the terminal one, are fruit-buds. Fig. 16, branch of the cherry; A, two-year-old wood ; B, one year; Cand D,fruit-spurs. Fig. 17, fruit-spur of the cherry; the bud A, in the center of the group, is a. wood-bud. season. New buds are produced to replace those that bear, and so the spurs continue fruitful for several years, > BUDS. 35 according to the vigor of the tree, and the manner in which it is treated. The fruit-branches of the gutnce and the medlar are Fig. 18, branch of the plum; A, two-year-old wood; B, one year old; C and D, spurs. Fig. 19, fruit-spur of the plum on the old wood. slender twigs on the sides of lateral branches, and the fruit is borne on their points. Section 4.—Bups. Ist. The Nature and Functions of Buds.—In a practi- cal point of view, buds are certainly the most important organs of trees, because it is through them we are enabled completely to direct and control their forms and their productiveness. Whoever, therefore, wishes to become a skilful and successful tree culturist, must not fail to 36 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. make himself familiar with all their forms, modifications, modes of development, and the purposes they are adapted to fulfil in the formation of the tree and its products. The immediate causes of the production of buds on the grow- ing shoots of trees, and the sources from which they spring or in which they originate, are alike thus far mysterious, notwithstanding they have been the subject of a vast deal of research and speculation among the botanists and vege- table physiologists. -We are able, however, to trace clear- ly and satisfactorily the objects they are intended to fulfil in the development of the tree, their connection with, and dependency upon other parts, and the circumstances un- der which they can be made to accomplish specific pur- poses. Every bud contains the rudiments of, and is capable under favorable circumstances of producing, a new indi- vidual similar to that on which it is borne. This fact is clearly demonstrated in the propagation of trees by budding, where a single eye is removed from one shoot and placed in the wood of another, to which it unites and forms a new individual similar to its parent. So in propagation by eyes, as in the grape-vine, where a single bud with a small portion of wood attached, becomes a perfect plant. Every perfect bud we find on a young yearling tree or shoot is capable of being developed into a branch. WNa- turally, they all do not develope; but we know that by the application of art they can be readily forced to do so. For instance, the buds of a yearling trec, if left to take their natural course, will only in part produce branches, and these will generally be nearer to the extremities, where they are the most excitable; but we can cause the lower ones to develope branches, by cutting off those above them to the extent that the particular character of the species or variety, or of the buds themselves in respect to vigor and vitality, may require. Hence it is that the - BUDS. 37 forms of trees are so completely under our control when we possess the requisite knowledge of the character and modes of vegetation of buds. 2d. The Names and Characters of Buds.—All buds are either, 1st, terminal, as when on the points of shoots (C, fig. 20) ; 2d, axillary, when situated in the angle made by the projection of a leaf from the shoot or branch (4, B, fig. 20) ; 3d, adventitious or accidental, when originating accidentally, as it were, or without any regularity, on the older parts of trees, and not in the axil of a leaf. They are often produced by the breaking or cutting off of a branch, or by a wound or incision made in the bark. In the management of trained trees, special means are taken Fie. 20. A,a superior bud; B, inferior; C,terminal: A and B, axillary. to produce these buds on spaces of the trunk that it is de- sirable to fill up. We sometimes see instances of such buds on the stumps of old trees. The terminal and axillary buds produced on young shoots, seem to have a different origin from these ac- cidental buds—the former are connected with the pith of the shoot, as we may see by dissecting them. On cutting into a young shoot below a bud we find a cylinder of pith entering into the bud from the pith of the shoot, but we do not find this connection existing in the case of the adventitious buds. Practically considered, buds are classified as follows :— 1. Lateral—Those on the sides or circumference of 38 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. shoots, being the axillary buds of the botanist (4, B, fig. 20). 2. Terminal.—Those on the points of shoots (C, fig. 20). 3. Superior.—Those on the upper side of horizontal branches (A, fig. 20). 4, Inferior. —Those on the lower side of horizontal branches (B, fig. 20). 5. Stipular.—The small, barely visible buds found at the base of ordinary buds. 6. Dermant or Latent.—These are scarcely apparent buds, generally towards the base of branches: They may remain dormant for several years, and then, in some spe- cies, be excited into growth by pruning close to them. Buds are again classed as leaf-buds and fruit-buds. 7. Leaf-Buds (Ff, G, H, fig. 14), produce either leaves or branches ; they differ in form from fruit-buds in being in most cases longer and more pointed in the same species. These are again designated as— Single, when only one is produced at the same point (Z7, fig. 14). | Double, when two are together (J, fig. 14). Triple, when in threes (C and J, fig. 14). These double and triple buds are almost peculiar to the stone fruits, and especially the peach, apricot, and necta- rine. The size, form, and prominence of leaf-buds vary in a striking degree in different varieties of the same spccies, and these peculiarities are found to be of considerable service in identifying and describing sorts. Thus, the buds of one variety will be long, pointed and compressed, or lying close to the shoot. Others will he large, oval and prominent, or standing boldly out from the shoot. Others will be small, full, and round. For instance, the wood-buds of the Glout Morceau are short and coni- cal, broad at the base, and taper suddenly to a very sharp point inclined towards the shoot; they have also very BUDS. 39 prominent shoulders; that is, their base forms a prominent projection on the shoot. The scales are also dark, with light gray edges. In the Josephine de Malines pear the buds are quite remarkable for their roundness, bluntness, and prominence. If shoots of the Bartlett and Seckel pears, two well-known varieties, be compared, although they present no decidedly obvious peculiarities, yet they will be found very different. Those of the Seckel are much broader at the base, more pointed, and lighter colored, being a dark drab, whilst those of the Bartlett are red- dish. These miscellaneous instances are chosen simply to draw attention to these points, and to show the ordinary modes of comparison. When we speak of leaf-buds, we have reference only to the simple bud and not to the large, pointed, spur-like productions frequently produced towards the middle or lower part of young shoots that have made a second growth ; that is, where growth has ceas- ed for a while and the terminal bud has been formed, and afterwards, in the same season, commenced anew, and made a ond growth. 8. Fruit-Buds.—In the early stages of their formation and growth all buds are but leaf- buds. Thus, on a young shoot of the cherry and the plum, for example, of one sea- son’s growth, the buds are all leaf-buds. The next spring a part of these produce new shoots, and others are trans- formed into fruit-buds that will bear fruit the following season. The transformation is accomplished during the second year of their existence, and it usually happens that they are the smallest and least fully developed that are so transformed ; the more vigorous pushing into branches. In the peach, the apricot, etc., on which the fruit-buds are produced in one year, the change from a leaf-bud toa fruit-bud occurs towards the latter part of the season. The primary cause of the transformation of leaf-buds into fruit-buds is not satisfactorily known, although many theories exist on the subject. Observation has taught us 40 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. many things in relation to it. It seems that all trees must acquire a certain maturity, either natural or forced, in order to produce blossoms or fruit. A tree that is fur- nished with a rich, humid soil, containing an abundance of watery nutriment, and left in all respects unrestrained in its upward growth, may attain the age of ten or fifteen years before it commences to form fruit-buds; while in a soil of a different quality, dry and less favorable to rapid growth, or if constrained in its growth by being grafted _on some particular stock, or by some particular mode of training, it may produce fruit in two or three years. An apple-tree on a common stock, planted out in ordi- nary orchard soil, does not usually bear until it is in most cases seven years old, and often more from the bud; while the same variety grafted or budded on a Paradise apple stock will produce in two or three years at most. We fre- quently see one branch of a tree that has been accidentally placed in a more horizontal position than the other parts, or that has been tightly compressed with a bandage or something of that sort, bear fruit abundantly, while the erect, unconstrained portion of the tree gives no sign of fruitfulness whatever. Asa general thing we find that where there is an abundant and constant supply of sap or nutriment furnished to the roots of trees and conveyed by them through the unrestrained channels which the large cells and porous character of young wood afford, the whole forces of the tree will be spent in the production of new shoots; but that as trees grow older, the cells be- come smaller, and the tree being also more branched the free course of the sap is obstructed, and becomes in con- sequence better elaborated, or in other words more ma- ture, and commences the production of fruit. Cireum- stances similar in all respects to these and answering ex- actly the same purpose, can be produced by art at an early age of the tree; and this is one of the leading points in the culture and management of garden trees, where . “4 7 . BUDS. 41 smallness of size and early fruitfulness are so highly desir- able. This will come under consideration in another place. Fruit-buds in most cases are distinguishable from wood- buds by their rounder and fuller form; the scales that cover them are broader and less numerous,and in the spring they begin to swell and show signs of opening at an earlier period. Like the wood-buds they are single, double, or triple, according to the number found together. They are single in pears, apples, and other trees of that class. Single, double, and triple, variously, on the stone fruits, gooseberries, and currants. Fruit-buds are also simple and compound. Simple, as in the peach, apricot, and Lp 7 almond, each bud of which [pee produces but one flower. / Compound, as in the plum, cherry, apple, pear, ete., each bud of which pro- duces two or more flowers. Those of the plum produce two or three, hence we find plums usually borne in pairs; those of the cher- ry four or five (fig. 21), and of the apple and pear six to eight ; and hence Fig. 21.—FLOWER orton CHERRY, we often find these fruits SHOWING THE PRODUCT OF A borne in clusters. They rer ee are also lateral or terminal, as they occupy the sides or ends of the branches or spurs on which they are produced. The ordinary position of the fruit-buds of different classes of trees will be understood from the preceding descrip- tions of fruit-branches. 42 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. SECTION 5.—LEAVES. Ist. Structure and Functions of Leaves.—The leaves, of all hardy fruit trees cultivated in our climate, are de- ciduous—that is, they decay and fall in the autumn, and are succeeded by others on the return of spring. The offices they perform during the growing season are of the highest importance to the life and health of the tree, and deserve the most attentive con- sideration. A leaf (fig. 22) is com- posed of two principal parts, the leaf-stalk, or petiole (A), which con- ~ nects it with the tree or branch, on which it is borne, and the expanded part (B, C,.D, £), called the blade. The base is the end (C), attached to f the stalk, and the apex, [ or point (D), the op- ie A posite one. The length is the distance from the Fig. 22.—A LEAF OF THE PEAR. : A, the petiole, or leaf stalk; B, C.D, HZ, the base to the point (C to blade; C, the base; D,the point; Line Z, B, J), and the width, a line he cutting the length at right angles, and extending from margin to margin (& to B). The leaf-stalk and its branches, forming the nerves or veins of the blade, are composed of woody vessels, similar to the woody parts of the tree or branch that bears it, in- side of which is a pith, similar to the pith of the tree; the leaf is thus connected with the pith and wood of the LEAVES. 43 shoot, and consequently with the ascending sap, as we may readily see, by making a vertical cut through the leaf stalk and shoot. The spaces between the veins of the leaf are filled up with a cellular substance similar to the pith, called parenchyma, and the whole is covered with a thin skin, epidermis. The cellular substance of the leaf is connected with the inner bark, and consequently with the descending sap, or cambium, that forms the new layers of wood. Both surfaces of the leaf are furnished with small pores, through which exhalation and absorp- tion are carried on; these are most abundant on the lower surface. This property of the leaves to receive and give out air and moisture through the pores on their surface, has caused them to be likened to the lungs of animals, and this comparison is, to some extent, correct; for we know that, without leaves, or organs performing their offices, trees do not grow; and, in proportion to the natural and healthy action of the leaves, do we find the vigor and growth of the tree. To prove that leaves have the power, in a greater or less degree, to absorb fluids, we have but to apply water to the drooping foliage of a plant suffering from drouth, and see how quickly it becomes refreshed. The dews of a single night, we know, too, will revive plants that the heat and drouth of the previous day had prostrated; and even if we put a flagging plant in a damp atmosphere, it recovers. The leaves of a bouquet can be kept fresh for a long time by sprinkling them with water. That plants exhale moisture and gases, cannot be doubt- ed. It is this very exhaling process that causes plants to wilt under a hot sun, or in a dry atmosphere. Plants that are transplanted with their foliage on, as annuals are in the spring or summer, will wilt, and even die, if ex- posed to the air and sun; but if transplanted in a moist day, or covered, so that evaporation cannot take place, 44 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. the plant does not appear to feel the removal. So with cuttings of many plants thus propagated; if placed in the earth with a certain amount of foliage on, and left uncovered, they will immediately die; but when we place a bell-class or a hand-glass over them, to prevent evapo- ration, they remain as fresh as though they had roots supplying them with moisture from the soil. It is on this account that transplanted trees so often die, when the branches and shoots are not in proportion to the roots. In transplanting, a portion of the roots is destroyed, and all are more or less deranged, so that their functions are feebly performed for some time after planting. If all the branches and shoots are left on, they will, as usual, produce leaves; but the absorption at the roots being so much less than the exhalation of the leaves, the juices contained in the tree, previously laid up, soon become ex- hausted, the leaves droop and wither, and the whole fabric perishes. In budding, too, if the whole leaf were left attach- ed to the bud, the evaporation would be so great as to kill the bud; hence we remove all but a portion of the stalk. A tree can neither mature its wood nor its fruit without the full and healthy exercise of the leaves. If, in the growing season, a tree is deprived of its foliage by blight, insects, etc., we see that growth is entirely suspended for a time, until new leaves are developed; and if the leaves be removed from a tree bearing fruit, we see the fruit shrivel and dry up, or ripen prematurely, and become worthless. These facts, and many others that might be cited, show the intimate connection existing between the leaves and the other organs of trees, and the influence they have on their growth and productiveness. It is be- lieved that the opening of the leaf buds in spring induces the formation of new roots; this is doubtful, as new roots may be seen forming at times when there are no leaves on the tree, and apparently no growth whatever going on in the buds. But it is well known that they will soon cease LEAVES. 45 to grow if leaves do not make their appearance. We observe in the case of trees, the tops of which have been so much injured by drying and exposure, that scarcely a sound bud is left to grow; in this case the roots, although in perfect order, remain nearly dormant until new shoots and leaves are produced, and in proportion as the leaves increase, so do the roots. The fact of the absorption and exhalation by leaves of certain fluids, has, to a very con- siderable extent, established the theory that the sap of trees is taken up from the roots, through the cells or sap vessels of the wood of the trunk and branches, in a crude state, and passes into the leaves ; that in their tissue, spread out under the sun’s rays, it receives certain modifications. Carbonic acid, which has been taken in a state of solution from the soil, and by the leaves from the atmosphere, is decomposed, its oxygen is given off into the air, carbon becomes fixed, and thus the component parts of the tree, the material of the cells, starch, sugar, gum, etc., are formed. After passing through this purifying or concen- trating process, the sap acquires a more solid consistence, and is called cambium ; so prepared, it returns down- wards through the nerves or vessels of the leaf to the base of the leaf stalk, and then between the wood and bark of the stem, forming new layers on its passage. Such is, at present, the most popular theory of the functions of the leaves, and the ascent, assimilation, and descent of the sap. Some distinguished writers on the subject reject this theory, alleging that “ there is no such thing as crude sap; that as soon as it enters the roots it becomes assimi- lated, and fit for the production of new cells, and that it passes upwards, forming new wood or cells by a chemical process.”* Observation, however, has clearly established that, in the leaves of healthy trees, chemical processes, depending on light and heat, and absolutely essential to * Schleiden’s Principles of Botany. 46 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. the well-being of the tree, are continually going on; for trees shut out from the light always make a feeble growth, and have a blanched and sickly hue, compared with the same species in the free air, and exposed to the rays of the sun. Ifone side or portion of a tree 1s shaded or deprived of its full share of light, it ceases to grow in its natural way, and the shoots are lean, slender, and imperfect. 2d. Different Forms and Characters of Leaves.—The IY Figs. 23 to 27.—FORMS OF LEAVES. 28, oval; 24, oblong; 25, lanceolate ; 26, ovate ; 27, obovate. different sizes and forms of the leaves of fruit trees, the divisions of their edges, the absence or presence of glands, the smoothness or roughness of their surfaces, are all, more or less, serviceable in describing and identifying varieties. | The terms designating forms are seldom mathemati- LEAVES. 47 cally correct, but merely made by comparison; for in- stance— Oval (fig. 23), when about twice as long as broad, and nearly of equal width at both ends. Oblong (fig. 24), three times, or more, longer than broad, and differing but little in width in any part. Lance Shaped, ov lanceolate, (fig. 25), when much long- er than broad, and tapering gradually to a sharp point. Fig. 28. Fig, 28, a leaf, folded, reflexed, and finely serrated, or toothed; Fig. 29, coarsely serrated; Fig. 30, crenate or scolloped. Ovate (fig. 26), when twice as long as broad, tapering to the apex, and widest towards the base. Obovate (fig. 27), the reverse of ovate, the greatest di- ameter being in the upper part. Round, roundish, approaching a circular form, like fig. 22, The apex or point is often a distinguishing feature ; some leaves terminate suddenly in a sharp point, others are drawn out to along, sharp point, peaked, whilst others are nearly round. Leaves differ much, too, in the form of the 48 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. base; some are rounded, some sharp, and some heart- shaped. The divisions of the edges are serrated, or toothed, when the edges are cut into sharp teeth, directed towards the point of the leaf; finely (fig. 28) or coarsely (fig. 29) ser- rate, as these teeth are fine or coarse; doubly serrate, when the principal division, or tooth, is subdivided. Crenate, or Scolloped (fig. 30), when the divisions are rounded, instead of being sharp, like teeth. Lobed, when deeply cut, and the penetrating angle large, as in the cur- rant, gooseberry, grape, ete. (Fig. 31.) Flat, when the surface is even (fig. Folded, when the edges are turned inward (fig. 28). Tefiexed, when the apex, or point, turns backwards, giving the leaf, more or less, the form of a ring (fig. 28). Waved, wrinkled, smooth, rough, etc., are terms well enough understood, used in describing leaves. Fig. 31.—LEAF OF THE CURRANT, LOBED. The leaf-stalk has often striking peculiarities in certain varieties, such as unusually long, stout, short, or slender. There are sometimes glands on the leaf-stalk, close to the base, and, in certain cases, on the leaf itself, that are chiefly taken notice of in identifying varieties of the peach and nectarine; these differ in shape, too, being globular (as in fig. 32), reniform, or kidney-shaped (fig. 33); these . FLOWERS. 49 little glands are supposed to be, and no doubt are, organs , Of secretion. >S £ ZA i These are all in- ‘ ass es ; teresting items in the SN study of the beautiful and almost endless va- riety of forms which the different classes of fruit trees,- and even Fig. 32, a leaf of the peach, with globular diff t ieti £ glands; Fig. 33, the same, with reniform, or eee, ar teties 2 kidney-shaped glands. the same class, exhibit in their foliage. Fig. 32. SECTION 6.—FLOWERsS. Ist. Different Parts of Flowers.— Flowers are the principal reproductive organs of trees, and consist of floral envelopes, the calyx and corolla ; and of sexual organs, stamens, and pistils. Fig. 34, which represents a flower ; Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Figs. 34 to 36.—DIFFERENT PARTS OF A FLOWER. Fig. 34, flower of the peach cut open longitudinally, A, the calyx; B, the petals; C, stamens; -D, pistil. Fig. 35, a stamen, A, filament, or stalk: B, anther. Fig. 36, the pistil, A, ovary; B, style; C, stigma; the ovary is cut open toshow the ovule, D. of the peach cut open lengthwise, shows the different _ parts and their position.. rf, The Calyx (A, fig. 34,) is the outer covering, and is usually green, like the leaves. Its parts are called sepals, 3 50 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. — These are either distinct or more or less united by their edges. The united portion is called the calyx-tube, and the free points the segments. The corolla (B, fig. 34,) is within the calyx, and is the colored, showy part of the flower ; its divisions are called petals. Stamens (C, fig. 34), immediately within the petals, are the male organs of plants. The delicate, thread-like filament (A, fig. 35), supports, on its extremity, the anther (B, fig. 35). This contains a powdery substance, the pollen, which is liberated when the anther is mature. The pistil (D, fig. 34 and fig. 36,) is the female organ, and stands in the center of the flower. It consists of the ovary, at its base (A, fig. 36), which contains the ovules or rudiments of seeds. The style (B, fig. 86) is the elongated portion, and the stigma (C, fig. 36,) is the portion that receives the fertilizing powder (pollen) from the anthers. The stigma is usually rounded like a i} . knob, but frequently it is incon- Fig. 37.—FLOWERS OF THE SpICUOUS. aime cat Flowers may be deficient in any of these organs except the anthers, ovary, and stigm2. These are indispensable to fructification, and must be present in some form or other, or the flowers will be barren. | 2d. Sexual Distinctions.—The fact that the two sexes, or sexual organs, the stamens, and pistils, are, in certain species, united on the same flower, and in others on dif- FLOWERS. 51 ferent flowers, and even on different trees, has created the necessity for the following distinctions: Trees or plants are called hermaphrodite (as in fig. 34), when both stamens and pistils are present on the same flower. Nearly all our cultivated fruits are of this class. Moneecious, when the male and female flowers are borne on the same tree, as in the filbert flower (fig. 37, A, the male, and B, the female flowers). Dicecious, when the male flowers are on one plant, and the female on another. A familiar in- stance, among cultivated plants, is the hop. ‘The strawberry is not truly die- cious, but In many varieties we find the stamens or male organs so incompletely developed (fig. 38), that they are of no service in fructifying the flowers. Such varieties are termed pistillate, and we Fig. 38.—FEMALE, OR PISTILLATE FLOWER OF THE STRAWBERRY. plant near them varieties with an abund- ance of these organs, strongly developed, as in fig. 39. 3d. Impregnation.—The process of impregnation is effected in this way: When the flowers first ones the pollen granules are contained within the anther. In ashort time, after the flow- er opens, the anther bursts, usually by a longitudinal slit, and sometimes by other kinds of opening, and the pollen is let fall upon the stigma, or is carried to it by means of the insects that fre- . Fig.39.--HERMAPHRO- quent the flowers in search of pollen pire rrower or THE = = Se STRAWBERRY. and honey. The stigma is furnished with a glutinous, or sticky secretion, to which the pollen adheres; there it prolongs a minute tube, which penetrates through the style of the pistil to the ovary, where it reaches the ovule, and impregnation takes place; new cells are formed within the ovule, which results in the production of an embryo plant. 52 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. This impregnation is sometimes, from certain causes, only partially effected in the cases of fruit where the ovary, or seed vessel, is composed of several cells, as in the apple, pear, ete., and hence the fruit takes an imperfect, one-sided development from the beginning. The difficulty that appears to arise in the way of the impregnation of the stigma of one flower by the pollen of another, distantly situated, either on the same plant, as in monecious trees, or on different plants, as mm the dic- cious ones, is wonderfully obviated by the provision that nature has made for its transmission—not only by the at- mosphere, but by. insects, that pass from one flower to an- other, feeding on their honeyed secretions; the pollen adheres to the bodies of the insects, and wee carry it from one flower to another, All natural flowers, of the same species, present the same number of petals in their flowers; but occasionally the stamens are converted into petals, and thus, what are called double flowers, are produced. Among fruit trees we have double-flowering apples, plums, peaches, and cherries. These seldom produce fruit; when perfectly: double, never. Many of our double flowers, roses, pzeo- nies, etc., have been obtained by this transformation of the stamens into petals. It is supposed to be caused by an excessively high cultivation given to the plants that produce the seeds from which these double varieties spring. 4, Period of Blossoming.—In treating of fruit-buds, allusion has been made to the causes which, according to observation and experience, promote fruitfulness. These are chiefly a slow or moderate growth, and a branching or spreading, constrained form, instead of an upright one. Some species of trees bloom at a much earlier age than others. Thus the peach, the apricot, and the cherry, will bloom in nearly one-fourth less time from the bud, all things being equal, than the pear. Somé species bloom > FLOWERS. 53 at an earlier period of the season than others; the apricot and the peach bloom very early, and this is the chief rea- son why the crop is so often destroyed in localities subject to late spring frosts. Among fruits even of the same spe- cies there is much difference in the period of blooming— one variety of apple being nearly two weeks later than another. This, in some sections, is an important quality, where every day tliat the blossom is retarded renders the crop surer, from its being more likely to escape frost. These differences are caused by various circumstances. Ist. The Climate.—The period of blossoming of the same species varies much in different localities. Rochester is at.least a week earlier than Buffalo, although the dis- tance is less that one hundred miles ;-and it is nearly two weeks earlier than Toronto, which is still nearer. The large bodies of ice in the lakes, at both Buffalo and Toronto, have, no doubt, a considerable effect in retarding the blossoming period. ‘2d. The Season and Position.—In the same locality, one season is frequently a week earlier than others, and trees on the south side of a wall or building will expand their blossoms several days before the same varicty in the open ground, only a few rods distant, and ten days to a fort- night before those on a north wall. _ 3d. The Soi/.—On warm, and light soils, the roots of trees are excited into activity much sooner than in cold, damp, and heavy soils, and the blossoming ae is earlier in consequence. ' The Different Characters of Flowers.—Flowers vary in size, form, color, and other qualities, even in the same species. In the peach, these distinctions are so obvious, that one of the principal classifications of pomologists is founded on them. Thus there are varieties with large showy jlowers (fig. 40), as the Serrate Karly York, and small (fig 41), as Large Hurly York, Crawford's Early, etc. The color also presents variations, some being 54 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. : deep, others pale rosc, and some almost white; two or three varieties of the peach have flowers wholly white, as the Snow Peach, for instance.. In all the other fruits, as in re pears, ies cherries, etc., the flowers fi) vary but slightly in form and color, sh the differ- ences are only taken note of in very full and minute scientific descriptions. A iio 47. few cases, however, are well Fig. 40, large flower of the ian Fic. marked, as the Jargonelle 41, small flower of the peach. pear, the flowers of which are nearly twice as large as those of most other pears. In connection with the flowers, it may be proper to ex- plain the important process of Hybridization.—This is performed by fertilizing the pistil of one species or variety, with pollen from the stamens of another. The seeds produced by the flower so impregnated will produce a cross, or hybrid, between the two parents. This process is now well understood, and is carried on to a wonderful extent, especially in the pro- duction of new flowers. Comparatively few of our popu- lar fruits have been produced in this way. FLOWERS. vd the stigma. It must also be guarded from accidental im- pregnation by other varieties, and the pollen from the selected male be applied at the proper moment—that is, when it bursts from the anther. Hybridization is only possible between species closely related ; for, although there is a relation between the apple and the pear, and between the gooseberry and the currant, they will not hybridize ; but different varieties of the apple will hybridize with each other, and’so with all the rest. _ It has been regarded as impracticable to hybridize the native with the foreign grape, but several parties claim to have at length succeeded. The varieties thus produced will be found in the descriptive list of grapes. Several parties have, from time to time, claimed to have succeeded in crossing the Monthly Alpine Strawberry with some of the large fruited sorts, but no instance of this kind has yet come to our knowledge, properly authen- ticated. It very often happens that the process of arti- ficial impregnation fails, and a pure seedling of one of the parents, instead of a hybrid, is the result. . The prospects now are that hybridization, better under- stood than formerly, will yield important results in the amelioration of fruits. [Since writing the foregoing, I understand that Colonel Wilder has really succeeded in producing hybrids between the Alpine and Hautboy species and the large strawber- ries, a march of great importance. | Blossoming in Alternate Years.—Many varieties of apples, pears, etc., fruits that take the whole season to mature, produce flowers in alternate years only, with great regularity. The reason is supposed to be this: The fruit, during the bearing year, attracts a large quantity of the ascending sap of the tree in the same way as the leaves do; but instead of returning it to the tree, it is appropri- ated by the fruit to its own growth. The consequence is, the buds that would have blossomed the following year, if 56 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. they had received their due share of nutriment, fail in attaining the proper condition, and produce only rosettes of leaves. During the unfruitful season, immense quan- tities of fruit-buds are again brought forward, and the year following, the tree is overloaded ; so it proceeds in regular alternation. This is never experienced in trees regularly pruned, and may be remedied by thinning out the crop in bearing years, leaving on but a reasonable amount, that will not exhaust the tree. The bearing years have been complete- ly reversed by removing the blossom-buds, or fruits, on the bearing year. wy Section 7.—THE Fruit. Ast. Character of the Fruit.—As soon as the ovuies are impregnated, the ovary begins to swell; the petals,stamens, and other parts of the flower fall off, and we then say the fruit is “set.” Asa fruit-bud is but a transformed leaf-bud, a fruit occupies the same relative connection with the tree as a branch; it attracts food from the stem and the atmos- phere in the same manner, and performs all the same fune- tions, except that it does not, like the leaf, return anything to the tree, but appropriates all to its own use; and this is the reason, as we have before remarked, that trees hay- ing borne a heavy crop of fruit one season, are less fruitful the next—this is the case only with fruits, as the apple and pear, that require nearly the whole season to mature them. Cherries and other fruits, that mature in a shorter period, and that draw more lightly on the juices of the tree, do not produce this exhaustion, and consequently bear year after year uninterruptedly. 2d. Classification.—In some fruits, as the apple, for in- stance, the fruit appears to be formed below, or at the base of the calyx; structurally, it is properly resmedan as an adhesion of the greater part of the calyx to the ovary; THE FRUIT. SY A the segments, or points of the calyx are still visible in the mature fruit, and often serve, to some extent, by their size and other peculiarities, as being spread out, or closed together in a point, to identify varieties. In other species, as the plum and cherry, the fruit is formed w7thin the calyx, or above it. Fruits of the former character, form- ing below the calyx, and including it in their structure, are classed as infertor—the apple, pear, quince, gooseberry, and currant, are all inferior, having the calyx adhering. Those formed within the calyx, and free from it, are ealled superior ; such are the peach, plum, apricot, nec- tarine, cherry, raspberry, strawberry, and grape. _ The more natural, popular, and useful classification of fruits is that by which they are divided into Pomes, cr Kernel Fruits, as the apple, pear, quince, medlar, etc. In speaking of these, we call the enlarged accessory parts the flesh, and the dry, bony, seed capsules, the core. Drupes, or Stone Fruits, are those which have a peri- carp of two kinds; the outer part soft and pulpy, the jlesh, and the inner one hard and bony, the pit, or stone, which encloses the seed in a shell, like a nut; as the peach, plum, apricot, cherry, etc. Berries.—These have soft, pulpy flesh, containing pees as the gooseberry, currant, abe grape. Compound Berries, like the raspberry, and blackberry, are made up of aiisake separate fruits, each like a stone fruit, on a very small scale. In the strawberry, the fruits proper are the seed-like ripened ovaries, which are more or less imbedded in a large, fleshy receptacle, which is an enlargement of the end of the flower-staik. _> Nuts, as the filbert, chestnut, etc., are fruits with a hard, bony covering, which are io contained in husks, or cups, that, when ripe, open and let the fruit drop. The outlines, or, forms of fruits, and their colors, exhibit eos variations, even in the same species. Tages: portion 2% 58 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. of the fruit, as the skin, flesh ( C, fig. 42), core (F, fig. 42), seeds (D), or stones, stems (A), and in kernel fruits, the calyx (B), has, in some cases, marked peculiarities, and in others, they are more minute and scarcely perceptible ; but yet, in astrictly scientific study of pomology, they are of more or less service. It would be forcign tothe purposes of this work to MY 7, notice these points in de- 4, Jy, tail; all that is deemed Y, necessary, useful, or ap- propriate, is to point out well-defined and practi- eal distinctions, and the Fig. 42. — VERTICAL SECTION OF AN APPLE, SHOWING ITS DIFFERENT PARTS. terms ordinarily made A, the base; B. the eye; C, the flesh; D, use of in popular de- the seed; #, the core; A, stem; B, calyx. scriptions. 3d. Different Parts of the Fruit: The Base (A) is the end in which the stem is inserted. The Hye (B) is the opposite end, in the apple, pear, etc., that have an adhering calyx. The Weck, in pears, the contracted part near the stalk, as seen in fig. 50. The Point is the end opposite the stem in stone fruits, berries, etc., that have no calyx, and consequently no eye. The Length is the distance from stem to point, or eye, A to B, fig. 42. The Width, a line cutting the fruit across, or at right angles with the length. The Basin, the depression around the eye, or calyx, in kernel fruit, B, fig. 42. . The Cavity, the depression around the stem. The Suture, in stone fruits, the furrow-like depression running from the base to the point. | > THE FRUIT. 59 4th. Different properties of fruits: Besides the principal divisions which have been alluded to, fruits are considered in regard to their szze, color, form texture, flavor, and season of ripening. ist. The Size.—Besides the natural difference in size that exists among different varieties of the same species, as, for instance, between the Bartlett and Seckel Pears, or the Full Pippin and Lady Apples, there are great dif ferences between the same varieties, owing chiefly to the following circumstances: Soil—We find that, in new and fresh soils, the nutritive properties of which have not been impaired by cultivation, as in the virgin soils of the West, fruit of the same variety attains nearly double the size that it does in older parts of the country, where the soil has long been under cultivation; and that in the same orchard, the tree growing in a deep, alluvial soil, will give fruit much larger than the one on a hard, gravelly knoll. Culture.—This has an important influence on the size of fruits. Ifan orchard has been for several years neglected, and the ground about tle trees become covered with grass and weeds, the fruit is small; and if the same orchard be plowed up, some manure turned in around the roots, and the ground be kept loose and clean by tillage, the fruit will double in size in a single season. Seasons.—In a dry season, when the supply of moisture at the roots and in the atmosphere is very limited, fruits are invari- ably smaller than in seasons of an opposite character. Number of fruits on the tree.—This affects the size of the fruit to a great extent in all seasons, soils, and climates, and under all grades of culture. It is perfectly obvious, that the greater the number of fruits a tree bears, the smaller they will be; for, as they derive their sustenance from the tree, a large number cannot be so well supplied as a smaller number. We cannot go into an orchard where there are many varicties without seeing an illustration of this. Here is a prolific 60 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. variety, doaded in every part; the fruits are small, cer- tainly not over medium size. There is a moderate bearer ; its fruits are thinly and evenly distributed over the tree; its fruits are, consequently, darge. So in the case of fruits that have been thinned; that is, a certain portion removed while young, either by accidental circumstances, or by design; every specimen is twice as large, as if the whole crop had been allowed to mature. The Engiish goose- berry growers, in preparing their prize specimens, leave but a few on each bush—not over a twentieth, or perhaps a fiftieth part of the entire crop. So in peaches, grapes, etc., grown carefully in houses. Where the size and beauty of the fruit, and the health and vigor of the trees are kept in view, a large portion of the crops, from onc- half to two-thirds, is thinned out before maturity. Age of the trees.—This influences the size of fruits to a great extent; we see fruit so large on young trees, as to be entirely out of character. As trees grow older, the vigor decreases, and the number of fruits increase, and they are consequently diminished ir. size. Zhe kind of stock has a tendency to modify the size; thus we find many pears much larger on the gwince stock than on the pear, and many apples larger on the Paradise than on the common apple stock. The reason of this 1s, no doubt, that on the quince and Paradise the juices of the tree are better pre- pared, richer, and better suited to the growth of the fruit. In the common pear and apple stocks, the sap is taken up in greater quantities, is watery, and better adapted to ~ form wood than fruit. CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE. The terms qualifying the sizes of fruits are always given comparatively, in regard to the two extremes, the largest and the smallest of the species; for instance—in apples, we may consider the Gloria Mundi and Twenty Ounce as extremely large, and the Lady Apple as extremely small: THE FRUIT. 61 - The terms used, therefore, are such as to represent the various grades between the two extremes. These are Very large, as the Gloria Mundi Apple, Duchesse @ Angouléme Pear, Crawford’s Karly Peach, Yellow Egg Plum, and Napoleon Bigarreau Cherry. Large, asthe Baldwin Apple, Bartlett Pear, Red Cheek Melocoton Peach, Washington Plum, and Black Eagle Cherry. Medium, as the Lambo Apple, White Doyenne Pear, Imperial Gage Plum, and the American Amber Cherry. Small, as the Karly Strawberry Apple, Dearborn’s Seed- ling Pear, Green Gage Plum, and Bauman’s May Cherry. Very Smalil,as the Amire Johannet Pear, Lady Apple, Winter Damson Plum, and the Jndulle (Karly May) Cherry. The distance between some of these grades, as between medium and large, etc., is so short, that they are frequent- ly confounded; still, they give a notion of comparative size that answers all practical purposes. It would, per- haps, have been more accurate, and, at the same time, more satisfactory to persons entirely unacquainted with fruits, to have given the comparative measurement of these different grades in inches and parts; but the varie- ties quoted as examples are common, and very generally known. 2d. Form.—It is execedingly difficult, even impossible, to find any single term that will give a mathematically accurate notion of the forms of fruits; for, although we call an apple round or conical, it may not. be, strictly speaking, either; very likely it partakes, to some extent, of both forms. But that is no reason why we should desig- nate it conical round: we simply call it round, or round- ish, if nearer round than any other form; and if it in- clines slightly to the conical, we cannot in any other way so well convey the knowledge of that fact as by simply saying so. 62 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. In the apple, the xownd form prevails, and in the pear, the pyramidal; hence, it is necessary to apply a different class of descriptive terms to each. FORMS OF APPLES. Round or Roundish (fig. 48)—When the outline is round, or nearly so, the length being about equal to the breadth. Fiat (fig. 46)—When the ends are compressed, and the width considerably greater than the length. SS Figs. 45 to 48.--FORMS OF APPLES. 43, round; 44, conical; 45, ovate; 46, flat; 47, oblong; 48, ribbed. Conical (fig. 44).—In the form of a cone, tapering from the base to the eye. Ovate, or egg-shaped (fig. 45). Oblong (fig. 47).—When the length is considerably greater than the width, and the width about equal at both ends, not tapering as in the conical. In addition to these forms and their various modifica- tions, some varieties are Angular, having projecting angles on the sides. One-sided, having one side larger than the other. am THE FRUIT. 63 Ribbed (48), when the surface presents a series of ridges and furrows, running from eye to stem, FORMS OF PEARS. It has been remarked that the pyramidal form prevails in pears; but they taper from the eye to the stem, which is just the reverse of the tapering form in apples. Their forms are designated thus— Pyriform.—W hen tapering from the eye to the base, and the sides more or less hollowed (concave) (fig. 49). Figs. 49 to 55.—FrORMS OF PEARs. 49, pyriform ; 50, long pyriform; 51, obtuse pyriform ; 52, obovate ; 53, turbinate; 54, oval; 55, round. Long Pyriform.—W hen long and narrow, and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 50). Obtuse Pyriform.—When the small end is somewhat flattened (fig. 51). _ Obovate, or egg-shaped.—N early in form of an egg, the small end being nearest the stem (fig. 52). Turbinate, or top-shaped.—The sides somewhat round- ed, and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 53). Oval.—Largest in the middle, tapering more or less to each end (fig. 54), 64 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Round.— When the outline is nearly round (fig. 55). FORMS OF PEACHES. There is too much uniformity in the forms of peaches to render tle adoption of any set of terms descriptive of them very serviceable. They are mostly round, occasion- ally approaching to oblong and oval; the sides are fre- quently compressed, flattened, exhibiting a suture or fur- row, running from the point to the base; the width, depth, ete., of this suture are, in many cases, peculiar, or at least worthy of note. FORMS OF PLUMS, Plums are round, oval, or oblong, as the peach, and marked, in some cases, by-a similar flattening of the sides, and by the suture... FORMS OF CHERRIES. Cherries are round or heart-shaped ; obtuse heart- shaped, when too round to be fully heart-shaped; and pointed, when the point is more than ordinarily sharp, or peaked. The suture is also taken note of, as in plums and peaches. Gooseberries and Grapes are always round or oval. Currants, always round. WStraiberries, round, conical or oval, sometimes with a neck; that is, the base is drawn out at the stem in the form of a narrow neck. aspber- ries are conical, roundish or long. 8d. Color.—The color of fruits depends much on their exposure to the sun’s rays. We find that in orchard trees, where the heads are dense, and a large portion of the fruit shaded and shut out from the sun, there is a great differ- ence in the color; indeed, so great, frequently, as to.make their identity, from appearance, quite doubtful. Varieties . THE FRUIT. 65 that are naturally—when properly exposed to the sun— of a bright red or a glowing crimson, remain green in the shade. The climate, too, seems to have considerable e& fect on the color. As a general thing, we observe that northern apples are clearer and brighter colored than those of the South. Dry soils and elevated situations produce more highly colored fruit than damp and low valleys. The terms used in describing colors are all simple, and well under- stood. 4th. Flavor, in table fruits, is one of the most impor- tant of qualities; for, however large or fair a fruit may be, if insipid or astringent to an unpleasant degree, or if it possesses some other disagreeable quality, it is unfit for the table. There are various kinds of flavor even among varieties of the same species: in pears, particularly, it is almost endless; the shades and degrees of sweet and acid, and the various perfumes that mingle with these, are almost infinite. The same circumstances mentioned as favorable to high and brilliant coloring, are also favorable to the production of fine flavor. Light, heat, a dry soil, and moderate growth, seem to be all essential to fine flavor. On trees somewhat advanced in age, fruits are apt to be higher flavored than on young trees that have just commenced bearing, and in a dry than a wet season. The philosophy of all this is, that in a damp soil or season, or in a shaded situation, when trees are young, and growing rapidly, the fruit receives more sap from the tree than can be properly elaborated by the action of the sun and atmosphere on its surface, and, consequently, the sugary principle is_pro- duced in small quantities—the juice is watery, sour, or insipid, as the case may be. The various terms by which flavor is designated, such as sweet, acid, subacid, sprightly, perfumed, musky, spi-, etc., are all well understood. 3 66 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. SecTIon 8.—THE SEED. The perfect seed contains the rudiment of a plant of the same nature as that which produced it. This rudi- ment of the new plant is called the embryo, and is found in a more or less developed state in all seeds. In fig. 56 is given an enlarged view of an apple seed cut longitu- dinally to show the embryo in piace, and fig. 57 shows the embryo of the same after germination, the lettering referring to the same parts in both illustrations. It consists of three parts—the cotyledons (a, figs. 56 and 57), which are the first pair of leaves, usually rudimentary ; these are the parts that first make their appearance, and are known as seed leaves. The bases of these cotyledons are united to the radiele, (c), and between them is a bud (8), called the plumule. The radicle and plumule are very inconspicuous in the seed (fig. 56), but as soon as the seed is excited into germina- ts tion by the heat and moisture of Fig. 56, apple seed divided: 3 Fig. 57, germinating seca. the earth, the radicle elongates, one a, cotyledons; 0, plumule; end penetrates the soil, and roots ¢c, radicle. z soon start from it, and the upper portion ascends in an opposite direction, bearing the plumule, and, in the apple, ete., the cotyledons to the sur- face, where they find the necessary air and light. The plumule, which is really a terminal bud, is soon lifted up by the development of a section of stem, unfolds its leaves, and exposing another bud, which in its turn repeats the same process, and thus the growth of the tree goes for- ward. It has been remarked that a seed contains the rudiments of a plant similar to that on which it is produced; but . xy THE SEED. 67 this needs some explanation. In distinct species, this will be true; but the seeds of varieties that have been pro- duced by culture and hybridizing, seldom, or never, repro- duce exactly their like, hence the necessity for the various artificial methods of multiplication, such as grafting, bud- ding, layering, etc. It is to these operations that we are indebted for the preservation of varieties that were origi- nated hundreds of years ago. Germination.—Heat and moisture, air, and the exclu- sion of light, are all necessary to the healthy and perfect germination of seeds. It may be well to consider, briefly, the part which each of these has to perform. Ist. Moisture.—If seeds are sown in a time when the ground is parched, they will show no signs of germi- nation until it is, in some way or other, moistened. The quantity of moisture necessary to a seed depends on the nature of its covering, and its size. A small seed, with a thin covering, will vegetate much sooner, and with less moisture, than a large seed, with a hard, bony covering. The moisture must, in the firs. place, soften the covering, penetrate to the mealy part of the seed, and prepare it for the chemical changes necessary to convert it into food for the embryo plant. If apple or pear seeds be kept in a dry, warm room all winter, they will not be likely to vegetate the succeeding spring, but if sown, will probably lie in the ground all summer, and possibly germinate the spring following. If cherry seeds are kept dry for any length of time, say two or three months, they will not germinate the season following; and peaches and plums have actually to be in the ground all winter to insure their germination the succeeding spring. Seeds will ger- minate much quicker when freshly gathered than after they have dried, because heat, moisture, and air have easier access to them, and act more quickly on them. These facts, of which all are well aware, show the necessi- ty for moisture, and the nature of its influence. 68 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 2d. Heat is the next most important element. Seeds do not grow in winter. We sow our apple, pear, peach, and plum seeds in November, but they show no signs of germination until a change of season. When the warmth of spring penetrates the soil, it reaches the seed, and, in connection with the moisture already imbibed, induces chemical changes, which excite the vital energies of the germ, decompose the mealy part of the seed, and prepare it for the temporary nutrition of the young plant. 3d. Air.—Although seeds may havc heat and moisture in the requisite proportions, still it has been proved, by many experiments, that without air, germination cannot take place. 7 ‘Practical cultivators are aware that seeds planted too deeply do not grow; many kinds will lic buried in the ground for years without growing, and when turned up near the surface, will germinate immediately. It is the oxygen of the air that constitutes its Importance ; it pro- duces, by forming new combinations with the constituents of the seed, that chemical process which converts the starch into gum and sugar, as we observe in ordinary cases of fermentation. Ath. Exclusion of Light.—The manner in which self- sown seeds in the forest are covered with fallen and de- caying foliage, plainly indicates that nature never intend- ed the light to strike germinating seeds. A seed entirely exposed would be at one time saturated with moisture, and at another parched with drouth; chemical changes would be alternately promoted and checked, until the vital principle would be destroyed, or so weakened as to produce a fecble and worthless plant. The depth of the covering should always be regulated by the size of the seeds. Small and delicate seeds may be sown almost on the surface, whilst large ones may be imbedded to the depth of four or five inches. The small seed requires lit- tle moisture, and has but a feeble force to penetrate an > SOILS. ; 69 earthy covering; but the large requires much moisture, and has force wash to push its way up. CHAPTER II. SOILS. Section 1.—DirrerEntT KInps oF Solt. Soils are usually designated by terms expressive of the predominant material in their composition ; thus we hear of sandy, loamy, gravelly, clayey, calcareous, or limy, and alluvial soils. A sandy soil is that in which sand is the principal in- gredient. Such soil is usually quite defective. It is so porous, that it parts almost instantaneously with moisture, and plants in it suffer from drouth, All the soluble parts of manures are also quickly washed out of it, and hence it requires continual additions to produce even a scanty growth. The great point in improving it is to render it morc retentive by the addition of clay, ashes, ete. _A clayey soil is that in which clay predominates. It may be considered the opposite of sandy, inasmuch as its defects are, that it retains moisture too long, is too adhe- sive; in dry weather it becomes as hard as a burnt brick, impervious to dews or light showers, and when thoroughly saturated with wet, it is tough, and requires a long time to dry. ~ No fruit tree succeeds well in such a soil; but it is capable of being improved and fitted for many species, and especially the plum and the pear. The obvious way to improve it is, by incorporating with it sand, muck, or leaf mould, : oe 70 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. A gravelly soil is one made up in greater part of small stones, pebbles, decomposed rock, cte.; such soils, as a general thing, are unfit for fruit trees, unless great labor is incurred in trenching, deepening, and mixing with clay, muck, ete., of opposite characters. | A loamy soil is one we hear a great deal about, and may be understood in various ways. It may be considered a mixture of equal parts of sandy, clayey, and vegetable soil. It is neither so light as the sandy, on the one hand, nor so tenacious as clay on the other; and, as a general thing, contains such c'cments, and is of such a texture, as to render it eligible for all ordinary purposes of cultiva- tion, and especially so for fruit trees. Loamy soils are spoken of as sandy loams when sand forms a large ingre- dient—say one-half of their composition ; gravelly, when pretty largely mixed with small stones ; caleareous, when lime is found in them. Calcareous soils have a large amount of lime mixed with the other ingredients of which they are composed. All the lands in limestone districts are of this character, and, as a general thing, are well adapted to fruit culture. Peaty soil consists chiefly of vegetable mould from de- cayed marsh plants, in low, wet places. It is unfit, in itself, for fruit trees, but is valuable for improving both light and heavy soils. Alluvial soils are made up of decomposed vegetable substances, the sediment of rivers, and materials washed down from neighboring hills; the valleys of all our rivers and streams are composed of this, and it is the richest of all soils. Fruit trees in such soils make a rank, vigorous growth, but they are not so hardy nor so fruit- ful, nor is the fruit so high flavored as on soils with more sand, clay, or gravel, and less vegetable mould. In treating of the different classes of fruits, we shall refer to the particular soils best adapted to them. SOILS. ry! -~Ssecrion 2.—DirreERENT Mopes or ImMprRovING SOILs. In regard to depth, soils vary materially, some being not over eight or ten inches in depth of surface, others a foot, while in deep alluvial valleys they are often two fect. For orchard and garden purposes, a deep soil is quite essential, to enable the roots to penetrate freely in search of food, and to enable them to withstand the demands of protracted drouths. Few soils in their ordinary condi- tion of farm culture are, in this respect, suitable for trees. Even where naturally deep and loamy, if the upper part only (say to the depth of six inches, which is as deep as most people plow) be in a friable condition, it cannot be considered as in a proper state for the reception of trecs, for their roots cannot be confined to six inches of the sur- face. Some means of loosening and deepening must be resorted to, and what are they ? 1. SUBSOII, PLOWING. This is the cheapest and best method, where a large quantity of ground is to be prepared for extensive pilant- ing. The common plow goes first, and takes as deep a furrow as practicable. The subsoiler follows in the same furrow, and loosens, without turning up, the lower part of the surface, and a part of the subsoil. Except in cases where the subsoil is a very stiff clay, or a hard gravel, and near the surface, the two plows can go to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches. This is our mode of pre- paring nursery grounds. If a single plowing in this way does not accomplish the desired end, a second may be given, going down still deeper. We had a piece of soil, the surface of which was about a foot deep, of black vegetable mould, with a slight ad- mixture of sand, resting on a stiff clay subsoil, which prevented the water from passing off. In this condition 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. we found it entirely unfit for trees; we subsoil plowed it six or eight inches deep, turning up the clay subsoil, and mixing it with the surface ; we also drained it, and spread over the surface the clay that came out of the drains, and in this condition we find it producing the finest trees, especially apples, pears, and plums. The soil is more substantial, and the surface water passes off freely. 2. TRENCHING. In gardens, too limited in extent to admit of plows, or where it.is desired to make the soil thoroughly and _ per- manently deep, trenching is the means. The spade is the implement used in this operation. A trench, two feet wide, is opened on one side of the ground, and the earth taken out of it is carried to the opposite side. Another trench is opened, the surface spadeful being thrown in the bottom of the first, and the next lower on the top of that, and so on until it is opened the required depth, which, for a good fruit garden, should be about two feet. If the subsoil be poor and gravelly, it is better to loosen it up thoroughly with a pick, and let it remain, than to throw it out on the surface. When the whole plot is trenched over in this way, the earth taken out of the first trench will fill up the last one, and the work is done. If ‘the soil be poor, a layer of well-decomposed manure may be added alternately with the layers of earth; and if the soil be too light and sandy, clay, ashes, etc., can be add- ed; and if too heavy, sand, lime, muck, peat, scrapings of dead leaves from the woods, or any other material cal- culated to render it porous and friable. If a garden is thus trenched in the fall or winter, and then turned over once in the spring, to effect a thorough mixture of all the materials, it will be in suitable order for planting. This is something like the way to prepare soil for a garden; and let no one say it is too troublesome or too expensive; > SOILS. 73 for, in two years, the extra pleasure and profit it will yield will pay for all. Nothing is so expensive nor so trouble- some as an ill-prepared soil. 3. DRAINING. There is a false notion very prevalent among people, that where water does not lodge on the surface of a soil, it is “dry enough.” However this may be in regard to meadows or annual crops, it 1s quite erroneous when ap- plied to orchards or fruit gardens. Staugnant moisture, either in the surface or subsoil, is highly injurious—ruin- ous to fruit trees. In such situations, we invariably find them unthrifty and unfruitful, the bark mossy, and the fruit imperfect and insipid. All the soils, then, not per- fectly free from stagnant moisture, both above and below, should be drained. In draining, it is, of course, neces- sary to have a fall or outlet, for the water. Having se- lected this, the next point is to open the drains. We usually make them three feet deep, and wide enough to give sufficient room to work—say three feet wide at top. narrowing gradually to six inches at the bottom, which should be even, and sloping enough to the ontlet of the water to enable it to run. Draining plows are now used advantageously, lessening very much the expense of opening the drains. The plow is constructed something like the subsoiler, and the horses are attached with a long evener, so that one can walk on each side of the drain. A sufficient number of men follow the plow to throw out the earth with shovels as fast as it is loosened. The two-inch pipe tile is the best for common drains. For outlet drains, the size must be proportioned to the number of small drains which discharge into it. Those who have much draining to do, and need infor- mation on the subject, should procure a work upon the subject. 4 7A GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Where draining tiles are not to be had conveniently, sma!l stones may be used. The bottom of the drain should be filled with them to the depth of eight or ten inches. In using these, the drains require to be at least six inches deeper than for tiles, in order that a sufficient quantity of stones can be used without coming too near the surface. Some brush, or turf, with, the grassy side downwards, should be laid on the stones before filling in the earth, to keep it from filling up the crevices. Objections are sometimes made to draining for orchards on the ground that the roots may get into the drains, and fill them up. This difficulty is obviated by placing the rows of trees at a proper distance from the drains. CHAPTER IIL MANURES. Srecrion 1.—ImrortTancre oF MANURES. No soil, whatever may be its original fertility, can sus- tain a heavy and continued vegetation for many years without becoming, to some extent, exhausted. Indeed, there are few people so fortunate, except those who settle upon new, uncultivated lands, as to procure a soil that does not need manuring to fit it for the first planting with trees. It is, then, a matter of importance for every man, who has more or less land to cultivate, to inform himself well on the subject of saving, preparing, and applying manures. In this country, the only class of men, general- ly speaking, who can be properly said to collect and manage manures with system and care, are nurserymen and market gardeners near our large towns. It 1s very MANURES, 75 seldom that people generally give the matter a thought until garden-making time comes around in the spring, and then anything in the form of manure is carried into the garden, and applied whether fit or unfit. This is not the proper course. . Every garden should have its manure heap, that, in the fall or spring, when it comes to be applied, will cut like paste. In that state only is it safe to apply it. All parts of it are then decomposed thoroughly; all seeds of noxious plants are dead, and it is in a condition capable of yielding at once, to the roots of growing plants, healthy nutrition, that will produce a vigorous, firm, sound, and Sruitful growth ; and this is precisely what is wanted: far better to have a tree starved and stunted, than forced into a rank, plethoric growth, with crude, ill-prepared manures. SEcTION 2.—PREPARATION OF MANURES. The best gardeners pursue a system something like this: A trench is prepared, two or three fect deep, and large enough to hold what manure may be wanted. In the bottom of this trench, a layer of muck, grassy turf, ashes, anything and everything capable of being decom- posed, is laid down, say a foot deep. On the top of this, a thick layer of stable or barn-yard manure, two or three feet deep, then another layer of muck, gypsum, ete. In this way it remains until more manure has accumulated around the stables; it is then carried and deposited in another layer, with a layer of the other materials on the top. The manure should always be saturated with mois- ture, and trodden down firmly to hasten its decay; and if an occasional load of night soil could be mixed in with it, all the better. The layer of muck and other substances bemg always placed on the top of the last layer of manure absorbs the evaporations of the heap, and hastens 76 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. the decay of all. When stable manure is thrown down and left uncovered, a1 dense steam will be seen to rise from it; and this is the very essence of it escaping to be lost; and if it be thrown down in a heap dry, it will im- mediately burn—that is, dry rot. Its enriching ingredi- ents all pass off by evaporation, and there is nothing left but its ashes, so to speak. When the heafa has accumulated for four or five months, as described, the whole should be turned over, completely mixed, and piled up in a compact, firmly trodden mass, when it will undergo further decomposition, and, in a short time, become like paste. Adjoining every manure heap there should be an excavation, to receive its liquid drainage, in order that it may be saved, and either applied, in the growing scason, in a liquid state, diluted with water, or be thrown over the heap. ‘Special manures” have been much talked of lately. By the word “special,” is meant a particular quantity, of a particular mixture, for certain species, and even for certain varieties of fruits. Nearly all the suggestions on the subject are speculative, and unreliable. The subject is an important one, but we want direct and careful ex- periments. It is only when we know to a certainty what material certain trees need most of, and in what degree it abounds, or is wanting in our soil, that we can apply it safely. The experience of farmers and gardeners, grain and fruit growers, all over the world, affords undoubted evidence of the enriching qualities of stable manure. On all soils, and for all sorts of crops, it is an unfailing and powerful fertilizer; and we make it the base of all our manure and compost heaps. By mixing with it the in- gredients we have mentioned, we hasten its decay, save its parts from waste, and, at the same time, combine with it other substances that will not only enrich, but improve the texture of soils, and increase the supply of the mineral substances required by plants. Dr. Daubney, a distin- MANURES. yi guished writer on the character and improvement of soils, ctc, says: ‘ Fortunately, we are provided, in the dung of animals, with a species of manure of which the land can never be said to tire, for this simple reason—that it contains within itself not one alone, but all the ingre- dients which plants require for their nutrition, and that, too, existing in the precise condition in which they are most readily taken in and assimilated.” But a good sub- stitute for this article, where it cannot be obtained, is an important point. Some time ago, we noticed in the re- port of a discussion on manures in Boston, that the Hon. M. P. Wilder, one of the most distinguished horticultu- rists in America, stated that he had found the following compost equal to stable manure for gardening purposes generally, and for fruit trees. “One cord of meadow muck, having been exposed to the action of the air and frost at least one year; twelve bushels leached ashes; six bushels crushed bones. This mixture cost him at the rate of $4.50 cents per cord. Latterly, he added to this his stable manure, and about an eighth of the whole bulk of fine refuse charcoal from the depot of venders, which was delivered to him at $5 per cord ; and in this way he found it the best, as a gen- eral manure, he had cver used, On fruit trees its effect was remarkable. “Tn the spring of 1847, he planted a square in the nur- sery with imported trees from England, this compost hav- ing been spread and plowed in. These trees were from four to five fect in height, and although it is not usual for trees to make a large growth the first year, they ac- quired branches of three to four feet. “In June last, which is very late to set out trees, he prepared another square on rather poor land, and planted trees just received from England upon it. The soil had been thrown up to the frost the previous winter, and the compost here was applied in the trenches, near the roots, 78 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Mr. Wilder exhibited two shoots which had grown from those trees since they were set, in June. The shoots were four feet in length, and the wood hard, and well ripened.” In addition to all these sources for manure, it may be added that fallen leaves, scrapings of streets, weeds, wood chips, sawdust, the ashes of all prunings of trees and brush, soot, blood, animal flesh, soap-suds, and slops from the kitchen, and, in fact, everything decomposable may be used to increase the bulk of the manure heap, taking care that everything likely to waste by evapora- tion be covered at once with muck, charcoal, or some material calculated to absorb the gases evolved by decom- position. We very frequently see people, in the spring of the year, when their garden is undergoing a purifying and fitting up process, carry to the highway all the brush, dry stems of plants, and all the wreck of the previous season’s work, there to make a bonfire to get it out of the way, while at the same moment they complain sadly of the lack of manure. There was no such thing as a manure heap on the premises. Srecrion 3.—Moprs oF AppityInc MANURE. Where an acre or several acres of ground are to be prepared for trees, the better way is to spead the manure over the surface, and turn it in with the plow. When it is scarce, and economy necessary, it may be applied around the roots, by mixing with the earth at planting time. Quantity to be Applied.—This, of course, depends on two things—the necessities of the soil, and the quality of the manure. If the land be poor, an even covering of two or three inches should be given; if in tolerably good condition, one inch will be sufficient. One inch of well- MANURES. 79 decomposed animal manure will be equal to three inches of a partially decayed compost. Section 4.—Liquip MANURE. Manure, in a liquid state, has these advantages to recom- mend it: It can be applied to trees and plants in a grow- ing state without, in the least, disturbing the surface of the soil, and it supplies, at the same time, both nutriment and moisture. It can be applied to bearing trees, straw- erries, ete., in fruit, if defective in vigor, or suffering from drouth, and yield an immediate sustenance, that will enable them to produce much larger and finer fruit than they could have done without it. It may either be collected in a tank, kept on purpose near the barns, or it may be made when wanted by dis- solving manure in water. It may be much stronger for trees, the roots of which are a considerable distance from the surface, than for such plants as have their roots near the surface. It is the only prompt and effectual stimu- lant for trees on a poor soil, to enable them to perfect their crop. We have frequently witnessed its astonishing effects. It should be applied in the evening, and in such quantity as to penetrate to the roots; half a dozen water- ings will be sufficient in most cases, but it is better to apply it well diluted, and often, than a smaller quantity, too strong. A dozen shovelfuls of animal manure will make a barrel of liquid powerful enough for most pur- poses ; and if pure liquid soakage of the manure heap or urine of animals is used, at least one-half rain-water should be added. Soap-suds forms an excellent liquid manure for all trees. The grape-vine is especially bene- fited by liberal and frequent application. 80 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER IV. THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES. General Remarks.—The propagation of fruit trees may be classed under two principal heads—-the Watural, which is by seeds ; and the Artificial, by the division of | the plants, as in cuttings, layers, suckers, buds, and grafts. PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. Seedling fruit trees are propagated either to obtain new varieties, or stocks for budding or grafting. It 1s only where the very rudest system of fruit culture is practised —as, for instance, in newly-settled countries—that seed- lings are planted out to bear, for the reason that, unless in very rare instances, varieties worthy of cultivation do not reproduce themselves from seed. The important dif- ferences that exist between the seeds of different classes of fruit trees render it necessary to treat of each sepa- rately ; their management will therefore be given in detail, in connection with the propagation of stocks. There are some points, however, of general application, that may be considered here with propriety. It scarcely admits of a doubt, but that many of the difficulties met with in fruit tree culture, as maladies of various sorts, unfruitfulness, ete., are induced by a careless and indis- criminating system of propagation. The stock has a most important influence on the health, longevity, fruitfulness, and symmetry of the tree, and should therefore be propagated and selected with due re- gard to its soundness, vigor, and hardiness of constitution. If it were possible, seeds, to grow stocks from, whether of the apple, pear, peach, plum, or any other, should be taken only from healthy, vigorous trees, and from perfect, ‘ PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 81 well-matured fruits. This is more especially important in the case of the peach, which, in some sections, is affected with a fatal malady, known as the “ yellows.” In the case of the plum, too, care should be taken not to grow stocks from the seeds of trees affected with that well-known fungus disease, called ‘ black-knot.” I have strong reasons for believing that stocks grown from trees affected with this disease will soon fall a prey to it. Indeed, I have seen it make its appearance among seedlings during their first season’s growth in the seed- bed. As this disease is now so prevalent, I would recommend the total rejection of American seedlings unless grown from seed positively known to be the product of sound trees. It is safer to import stocks from Europe, where the plum-tree is exempt from the black-knot. In regard to other stocks, as the apple, pear, cherry, etc., usually grown from seed saved promiscuously, the greatest care should be taken to select and plant out, for budding or grafting upon, only such as show unmistaka- ble signs of health and vigor; all others should be dis- earded. The strongest stocks come from the sound and healthy seed, and it is a pretty safe rule to discard the small ones. A discriminating spirit is already becoming apparent among the best classes of cultivators, and their example will soon be felt. The selection of seeds for stocks is a point of more than ordinary importance, and merits the special attention of every man engaged, to whatever ex- tent, in the propagation of fruit trees. Production of New Varieties.—New varieties are pro- duced from seeds that have been properly hybridized, as described in the article on hybridization, or from seeds of the best specimens of the best varieties. Where it is desired to obtain seedlings of a particular variety, free from any crossing with others, the flowers 4x 82 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. should be protected while in blossom, to guard them against foreign impregnation ; seeds should be saved only from large, perfect, fine flavored specimens, and the seeds themselves should be plump and mature. Sometimes a good variety is obtained by selecting from beds of seed- lings, such as possess marked evidences of improvement ; vigorous, luxuriant growth, large, heavy foilage, promi- nent buds, and smooth, thornless wood. These characters indicate superiority, but do not always ensure superior fruit. The stock is supposed to exert considerable influ- ence on the seed; and if this be the case, it would be well to get such varieties as we wish seeds from, on their own roots, by layering, or grafting on roots in the ground, so that the graft will, itself, strike root. Mr. Knight’s mode, of obtaining seedlings of the best varieties, was to prepare stocks from some good sort that would strike from cuttings. These stocks he planted in rich, warm soil, and grafted with the kind he wanted the seeds from. The first season after grafting he took them up, reduced the roots, and planted again. In this way he had them bear fruit in two years. He allowed only a couple of specimens to remain on each tree, and these, consequently, were very large, mature, and every way fine, and from these the seeds were taken. Seedlings may be tested quickly, by bud- ding or grafting them on bearing trees. We may fruit apples and pears in this way in four or five years, whilst | ten or fifteen would be necessary on their own roots. 2. By Division of the Plants.—It has been remarked, in the article on buds, that every bud is capable, under favorable circumstances, of producing a new individual, similar to that from which it is taken. Hence it is, that out of the young annual wood of an apple, pear, peach, or any other fruit tree, we frequently make several hundreds, Every good, well-formed bud, properly separated, and inserted under the bark of the in- ‘dividuals of the same, or a closely allied ‘species, will, in PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 83 one year from its insertion, or with one season’s growth, have become a new tree. It is by these means we are enabled to disseminate new varieties with such wonderful rapidity. Ifa young tree, of a new variety, will make half a dozen shoots the first season, each bearing half a dozen buds, we can, if we have stocks to bud on, be in possession of thirty trees of that variety in two years from the time we obtained one tree, and in another year we may have four times that number. The production of a tree from a bud, a graft, a layer, or a cutting, is but the same thing, effected by different means. In all the cases, a part of the parent plant, with one or more buds attached, is separated from it. The cutting, sometimes composed of one bud, or joint, and sometimes of several, we put directly in the ground, where it forms roots. The graft is a cutting in- serted, not in the ground, but in the wood of another plant, to which it unites. The bud inserted under the bark of another tree, and the one buried in the ground, differ only in this, that one draws its support directly from the soil, and the other indirectly, through the tree to which it unites. | SrecTIon 1.—PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. A cutting is a shoot, or part of a shoot, generally of one season’s growth. The length of the cutting varies from a single eye, or joint, to a foot, according to the nature of the species, or the circumstances under which it is to be grown. The wood should be as stout and mature as possible, and should be cut close and smooth to a bud at both ends (fig. 58). In all cases, cuttings taken off close to the old wood, with the base attached, as in fig. 59, are more successful than when cut at several joints above; and in many cases, as in the quince, for example, an inch or two of the old wood left attached to the base of the cutting, as in fig. 60, render it still more certain of suc- 84 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. cess. The more buds we can get around the base of a cutting, the better, other things being equal; for these buds, as soon as they become active, send down new matter, from which the roots are emitted. Cuttings of the grape are sometimes made of a single eye (fig. 61), with an inch or so of wood above and below it. The time to make cuttings is in the fall, as soon as the | Figs. 58 to 62.—CUTTINGS. 58, a cutting, all of young wood; 59, a cutting, with a heel of old wood; 60, 4 cutting, with 2 or 3 eyes of old wood; 61, a cutting of a single eye of the grape vine; 62, a long cutting of the grape; line A, B, surface of the ground. wood is ripe, and through the early winter months. It should not be deferred later than January. The sod for cuttings is of the greatest importance to their success, for if, on the one hand, it be cold, damp, and compact, they will decay, and if too loose and sandy, they will dry up for the want of sufficient moisture. A soil so mellow that it cannot bake, and yet so compact as to retain humidity enough to support the cuttings until new roots are formed, seems to be absolutely necessary—such a ‘soil as we may a lpia vinta PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 85 suppose a good garden border to be composed of. Rooted plants can endure extremes, but cuttings require the most favorable circumstances. Time to plant.—The fall would be the better season to plant all cuttings, if we could cover them so as to pre- vent the frost from heaving them out. It is on account of this difficulty that we plant, from necessity, in the spring ; but spring planting must be done very early, that vegetation may proceed gradually. If late planted, warm weather comes on them at once, before they have formed roots sufficient to support the demands of the young leaves. Where only a few are grown, shading might, at certain times, be given, and some light substance, like sawdust, be spread about them, to preserve an even tem- perature and humidity, or they might be put in a cold- frame, where they could receive any required attention. Where acres of cuttings are grown, these things are not practicable. Depth to plant.—As a general thing, cuttings should be inserted so deep, that only two buds will be above the surface of the ground, and in the vine only one. If cut- tings are long, they need not be set perpendicularly, but sloping, so as to be within reach of heat and air. A cutting of a single eye of the vine, with a piece of wood attached, must be entirely covered—say half an inch deep; see figures 58 to 62, ground line, A, B. But such cuttings are seldom planted, except in pots, in houses, or in hot-beds. Preserving Cuttings.—If cuttings are not planted in the autumn, they should at least be prepared quite early in the winter, and be buried in the earth, out of doors, in a pit. A mound of earth should be drawn up over the pit to throw off water. At the very first fnvorable mo- ment in the spring, they should be planted. Trenches are opened as deep as necessary with a spade, and the cuttings set in it at the proper distances, from three inches 86 - GENERAL PRINCIPLES. to a foot, according to circumstances. When the cuttings are in the trench, the earth is partly filled in, and trod firmly down with the foot, then the balance is filled in and leveled up. Cuttings require particular attention in the way of weeding and hoeing; if weeds grow up thickly, and ap- propriate the moisture of the ground, or if the surface be allowed to crack, as it may, after rains, if not quite sandy, they will either make a feeble growth or fail entirely. The ground wants repeated stirring to keep it friable and perfectly free from weeds. Srecrion 2.—PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. A layer is similar to a cutting, except that it is allowed to remain in partial connection with the parent plant until it has emitted roots. On this account, layers are much more certain than cuttings. It is the surest and most simple method of propagating the Grape and the Gooseberry, and also the Quince, Paradise, and. Doucin, for stocks. It may be performed in the spring with shoots of the previous year’s growth, before vegetation has com- menced, or in July and August, on wood of the same season’s growth. The ordinary mode of doing it is, first, to spade over and prepare the ground in which the branch is to be laid, in order to make it light and friable. The branch is then brought down to the ground (fig. 63); an incision is made at the base of bud, A, through the bark and partly through the wood ; the knife is drawn upward, splitting the shoot an inch or two in length, and the branch is laid in the earth with the cut open, and kept down by means of a crooked or hooked wooden peg, B. The earth is then drawn in smoothly around, covering it two or three inches deep; and the end of the shoot that is above ground is tied up to astick, C,if it requires +e. _ following = au-! PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 87 support. In the Grape, Gooseberry, or Currant, a simple notch below a bud is sufficient, and they will root if sim- ply pegged down ; but roots are formed more rapidly when the shoot is cut one- third through, and slit as described, A long shoot of the vine may be layered at several points, and thus produce several rooted plants in the ~ course of one season. This is called serpentine layering (fig. 64). The Quince, Para- dise, and Doucin stocks, WARK NYAS oo ee NS NX Fig. 63.—A COMMON LAYER. where raised in large quan- A, the incision; B, hooked peg; tities, are propagated in 2 Greene. different way from that de- scribed. The process requires much less labor; and where plants root so freely as they do, it answers every purpose. We will take a plant of the quince, for example, and, in the spring, before growth commences, we cut it down nearly to the ground, leaving four or five buds at its base (A, fig. 65). Dur- ing that season, a ff} . number of vig- # orous shoots will be made. The oe a ei *: Vas ¥ Si oes ae e Ze === =— ———— Se oN \ AK tumn or spring \f ay the earth is core drawn up around the base of the Fig. 64.—SERPENTINE LAYER. plant, so that the crown, where it was cut, will be covered, and, consequently, the base of all the shoots for several 88 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. inches in height. During the next summer’s growth, every branch is sufficiently rooted to be separated and placed in nursery rows the following 5 , spring. This is the way to \ } f} obtain strong stocks ; for the NT vA Y cutting back of the mother Ny a plant produces very vigorous MG Ee shoots the first season, and SI PL / when another season’s growth is added, they are as strong as can be desired. We succeed in rooting \\ NN \ \ these shoots the first season ' rr en of their growth by carth- Fig. 65.—MOUND-LAYERING OR - g them up ahont cae BANKING-UP. A, the point at which the mother plant ss but they are not was cut back. quite strong enough, or suf- ficiently rooted, for transplanting and budding the fol- lowing season. ) x: H/ Y/ ASK \ SrecTION 3.—PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS. Suckers are shoots sent up from the roots. We observe them most frequently around trees that have had their roots wounded by the spade or plow. The wounds induce the formation of buds, and these buds send up shoots. They are occasionally used from necessity for stocks, but should not be employed where seedlings can be obtained. Occasionally, we find certain varieties of plum throw up fine vigorous suckers, that would make excellent stocks if taken off with good roots; but their tendency to produce suckers renders them exceedingly annoying in gardens, and, on this account, objectionable. The roots of the raspberry are full of buds, and, consequently, throw up great quantities of suckers, and the smallest cuttings . PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 89 of the roots will grow. Suckers, of any plants, that can easily be propagated by cuttings or layers, should never be used. | SEcTION 4.—PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. This operation is performed during the growing season, and usually on young trees from one to five years old, with a smooth, soft bark. It consists in separating a bud, with a portion of bark attached, from a shoot of the cur- rent season’s growth of one tree, and inserting it under the bark of another. When this bud begins to grow, all that part of the stock above it is cut away, the bud grows on, and eventually forms a tree of the same variety as that from which it was taken. Buds may be inserted in June, and make considerable growth the same season, as they do in the South, but, as a general thing, this is not desirable in the propagation of fruit trees. The ordinary season in the Northern States is from the middle of July until the middle of September, and the earliness or late- ness at which a species is budded depends, other things being equal, on the condition of its growth. Those accomplishing their growth early in the season are budded early, and those that grow until the autumn are budded late. Thus the season extends over a period exceeding two months. In all cases, the following condi- tions are necessary : Ist. Zhe buds must be perfectly developed in the axils of the leaves on the young shoots intended to bud from. This is seldom the case until the shoot has temporarily ceased to lengthen, as indicated by the perfect formation of its terminal bud. If buds are wanted before this condition naturally ar- rives, their maturity may be hastened very much by pinching the tips of the shoots. In ten or twelve days after the pinching of a very soft shoot, its buds are fit for working. 90 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 2d. The bark must raise freely from the stocks to be bud- ded. This only happens when the stocks are in a thrifty and growing state. Trees that accomplish most of their growth early in the season, must be watched and budded before they cease to grow ; those that grow very late must not be budded early, or the formation of new wood will surround and cover the buds; in gardener’s language, they will be “ drowned by the sap.” The implements needed are a pruning-knife, to dress the stocks by removing any branches that may be in the way of inserting the bud; and a budding knife, to take off the buds and make the incisions in the stock. The latter should have a very thin, smooth, and keen edge. Strings for tying in the buds are either taken from bass mats, or they are prepared from the bark of the basswood. We always prepare our own; we send to the woods and strip the bark off the trees in June; we then put it in water from two to three weeks, according to the age of the bark, until the fibrous, paper-like inner bark can be casily separated from the outer, when it is torn into strips, dried, and put away for use. Cutting and Preparing the Buds.—Young shoots, in the condition deseribed, are cut below the lowest plump bud; an inch or two of the base of every shoot, where the buds are very close together, and quite small, should be left. The leaves are then stripped off, leaving half of each leaf-stalk to handle the bud by, as in fig. 63. 7 Preserving the Buds.—W hen a considerable quantity is cut at once, they should be stripped of the leaves and wrapped in a damp cloth as soon as cut; and they may be preserved in good order for ten days, by keeping them in a cool cellar among damp sawdust, or closely en- veloped in damp cloths, matting, or moss. We often send buds a week’s journey, packed in moss slightly moistened ; the leaves being off, the evaporation is trifling, PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 91 none, in fact, when packed up, consequently very little moisture is needed. Ilaving the stocks, buds, and implements in the condi- tion described, the operation is performed in this way: The shoot to bud from is taken in one hand, and the budding-knife in the other; the lower part of the edge of the knife is placed on the shoot, half an inch above the bud to be removed (A, fig. 66) ; the thumb of the knife- hand rests on the shoot below the bud B; a drawing cut is then made parallel with the = shoot, removing the bud and the bark, to which it is attached, 7 half an inch above and Figs. iat todd Souratea, three-quarters: below it. This is the usual Fig. 66, a shoot of buds with the leaves : : taken off, showing the position of the knife in length, but it may, In removing a bud. Fig. 67, A bud badly taken many Cases, be shorter. of, with baion tn te centr. Tie 854 The cut is made jut : deep enough to be be- low the bark. A small portion of the wood is always taken off with it, and if this adheres firmly, it should be allowed to remain; if it parts freely, it should be taken out, but in doing so, the root of the bud must be carefully preserved, for if it comes out with the wood, the bud is useless. The root of the bud, as it igs termed, is a small portion of wood in the hollow part of the inside of the bud. Fig. 67 is a good bud; A, root of bud, B, root of leaf. Fig. 68 is imperfect, the roots of leaf and bud both out. A smooth place on the stock, clear of branches, is then chosen, where two 92 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. incisions are made to the depth of the bark, one across the end of the other, so as to form a T, (fig. 69); the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut is raised (fig. 70) with the smooth ivory handle of the budding-knife, and the bud is inserted between them (fig. 71); the upper end of the bark attached to the bud is cut square, to fit to the horizontal cut on the stock; the bass string is then wound around tightly, commencing at the bottom, and covering every part of the incision, leaving the bud itself and the leaf-stalk uncovered (fig. 72) ; the string is fasten- ed above the horizontal cut, and the work is done. The Figs. 69 to 72.—INSERTION OF THE BUD. Fig. 69, A, stock with the bark slit vertically and across. Fig. 70, the same, with the bark raised. Fig. 71, the same, with the bud inserted. Fig. 72, the same, tied up. success of the operation, as far as its execution is con- cerned, depends, in a great measure, on smooth cuts, an exact fit of the bud to the incision made for it, secure, close tying, that will completely exclude air and rain- water, and the quick performance of the whole. The in- sertion of a bud should not, in any case, occupy more than a minute ; ordinary practiced budders: will set’: two in PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 93 that time, and often two hundred in an hour, with a per- son to tie. Where the stocks and buds work well, two thousand is not an uncommon day’s work in our nurseries, especially of cherries, peaches, and apples. Budding is usually much more successful when performed in moder- ately dry weather than in wet—the sap being in a condi- tion more favorable for the formation of a union between the stock and bud. The chief difficulty, experienced by beginners in bud- ding, is the proper removal of the bud. When it hap- pens that the knife passes exactly between the bark and wood, the bud cannot fail to be good; but this rarely happens—more or less wood is attached, and the removal of this is the nice point. Where the buds are flat, the difficulty is less than when they have large, prominent shoulders, as the plum and pear have, in many cases. When all the wood is taken out of these, a cavity re- mains, which does not come in contact with the wood on which the bud is placed, and therefore, although the bark unites well, the bud will not grow. A little practice will enable the budder to overcome this and all other me- chanical difficulties. SECTION 5.—PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. Grafting is the insertion of a cion of one species or variety on the stem or branch of another, which is called the stock. Its principal object is the same as budding, to increase certain varieties that cannot be reproduced from seed with certainty ; but it is frequently performed with other objects in view. For instance: To Fruit a New Variety.—A cion inserted in a branch of a bearing tree, will bear fruit perhaps the second year from the graft; but if the same cion had been put ona young seedling, it would not have borne in ten years. One species is frequently grafted with success upon 94 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. another, by which certain important modifications are wrought upon both the size and fruitfulness of trees, and the quality of the fruits. Thus, we can graft, in many cases, with highly beneficial results, the peach and apri- cot on the plum, the pear on the quince, strong-grow- ing species and varieties on weaker ones, and vice versa. But experience has established the fact, that there must be, between the stock and graft, a closealliance. We cannot graft an apple on a peach, nor a cherry on a pear ; but the pear, the apple, quince, medlar, thorn, and mountain-ash —a naturally allied group—may, with more or less suc- cess, be worked upon one another. The French horticulturists, who are the most skillful and curious in all matters pertaining to the propagation of plants, describe in their works upwards of one hun- dred different modes of grafting, practiced in different ages and countries, and for the attainment of particular objects; but, however interesting the study of all these may be to the student and experimentalist, the great bulk of them are of little practical utility, and are never applied in the multiplication of fruit trees. It is, therefore, un- necessary to fill up the pages of such a treatise as this, with either a historical account, or description of them. The methods described below are those universally adopt- ed, with slight modifications, by the best practical propa- gators everywhere at the present day. Stocks are of all ages,from a yearling seedling to a tree forty or fifty years old; but of whatever age, they should be sound and healthy. Nursery stocks will be more particularly spoken of in the proper place. Cions are generally shoots of the previous year’s growth. Those bearing fruit-buds are only used for the purpose of experiment, and in that rarely. They should be cut in the autumn after the fall of the leaf, or in the winter, and be preserved carefully in earth until wanted for use. If intended for root-grafting early in the ; ; 4 PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, 95 spring in the house, it will be sufficient to bury their lower ends in earth, in a cool, dry cellar; but if wanted for out-door grafting, they should be buried in dry sand soil, in a pit, on the north side of a wall or fence, and deeply covered with earth drawn up in a mound to throw off the water. They are thus kept perfectly dormant un- til used, and not so dry as to shrivel the bark, They should always be taken from healthy, vigorous trees ex- clusively, and be of firm, well-ripened wood from the up- per branches of the tree. A moderate-sized shoot or cion, if well matured and sound, is much better than one as thick asa man’s finger, pithy and unripe. The implements used in grafting are the grafting-knife, saw, and chisel, (see implements). In whip-grafting or splice-grafting, the stocks being small require the knife only, or not more than the knife and chisel. It is always better to have two knives—one to prune and do the rough work, and the other to prepare the cion. Grafting composition is pre pared in various ways. Sosin, beeswax, and tallow, in about equal parts, answer very well. Lately, however, we have found it better to use more rosin and less bees- wax and tallow; thus, to two pounds of rosin we add one and one-fourth pounds of beeswax, and three-fourths of a pound of tallow. For whip-grafting on the root, and small trees in the nursery, we use thin calico cloth, satu- rated with this composition, instead of the composition it- self, and find it more convenient and expeditious. For root grafts, instead of cloth, we now use paper, which we find answers the purpose perfectly. This paper is a cheap brown article known here as “ grafting paper ” and is used by nearly all nurserymen for this purpose. The liquid Wax is spread on the paper with a brush, after which it is cut into strips an inch or so wide, ready for use. (Instead of tallow we now use raw linseed oil, a pint of which is equal to a pound of tallow.) We tear the calico into narrow strips, roll it into balls, and then soak it in the liquid com- 96 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. position until every pore of the cloth is filled with it. The person who applies it to the grafts takes it from these balls, tears it in pieces the length and breadth required by the size of the stock, and two or three turns of it around the graft secure it completely. This thin cloth soon decays, and yields to the enlargement of the part it incloses. We have tried tow, paper, and other materials, but find this the best. Having the cions, implements, and composition in readiness, the work is performed as follows : | Whip-Grafting on the Root.—F¥or this purpose, seed- ling stocks are generally used, one or two years old, varying from one-fourth to three- eighths of an inch in diameter. The graft is always made at the collar, and, therefore, the stems of the plants are cut off at that point ; the small tap-roots and any cumbrous fibres are removed, leaving them about four inches in length (fig. 73); they are then washed clean, and are ready for the opera- tion. The grafter then makes a smooth, even, sloping cut, an inch long, upwards, on the collar of the root, A ; and in the center of this cut he makes a slit: “or “dongtiea.b, 73. 74. 75: downwards. The cion, _ ig which should be three , Zit, ,!te ruts 4: te sloping cts or four inches long B, the tongue. Fig. %5,the union of cion and (fig. 74), is cut on the *teck. lower end with a sloping cut downwards, and similar ~ PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING, 97 in all respects to that made on the stock; a slit, or tongue, is made in it upwards, B, corresponding, also, with that on the stock; and they are then neatly fitted together, the tongue of the one within the other (fig. 75), and the inner barks of both placed in close and perfect contact, at least on one side. The fit should be so complete as to sit close and firm in all parts. The person who applies the wax takes a narrow strip of the cloth or paper described, and wraps it firmly around, covering the parts united. A man and boy can graft of these, twelve to fifteen hundred per day, and by a special effort, two thousand. When the grafting is thus performed, the grafted plants are put away as closely as they can be packed in small boxes, with sandy earth among the roots, and deposited either in a cold cellar or in a dry place out of doors, where frost cannot penetrate to the roots, until planting time in spring. Whip-Grafting on small trees, standing in the open ground, is performed in precisely the same manner, the oblique or sloping cut and tongue, corresponding in stock and graft, fitting into each other with precision, and the inner bark of both, at least on one side, placed in close contact. Stocks an inch in diameter can be grafted in this way. Either the cloth or the liquid composition may be applied, the latter put on with a brush. For all moderate sized stocks the cloth is preferable. In cold weather, a small furnace can be kept at hand to keep the composi- tion in working order. Cleft Grafting is practiced on trees or branches too large for whip grafting—say from an inch in diameter up- wards. In this case, the cion is cut precisely in the form of a wedge (fig. 76). The part cut for insertion in the stock should be about an inch or an inch and a half long, with a bud (A) at the shoulder, where it is to rest on the stock ; this bud hastens the union of the parts in the same way asa bud at the base of a cutting, set in the earth, = tae 5) 98 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. hastens and facilitates the emission of roots; the outer edge should also be somewhat thicker than the inner. A sloping cut (A, fig. 77) is then made on the stock, an inch and a half long; another cut () is made across this cut, about half way down, as at point B; the stock is split on one side of the pith by laying the chisel on the horizontal surface, and strik- ing lightly with a mallet ; the split is kept open with the knife or chisel until the cion is insert- ed, with the thick side out (A, fig. 78). Grafts of this kind heal much more rapidly than when cut at once horizontally. Very large branches are sawed horizontally off at the point to be’ grafted (A, fig. 79); the surface is then pared smooth Figs. 76 to 78.—CLEFT GRAFTING. with the knife, a Fig. 76, cion, with sloping cut on east side, like a split is made with wedge ; A, bud at the shoulder; 2, section showing c e shape of wedge. Fig. 77, the stock cut and split; 4, the chisel, nearly im the sloping cut; B, horizontal cut. Vig. 78, the cion the center, and two inserted in the stock. wedge-like cions in- serted (A, B, fig. 80); if both grow, and they are after- wards too close, one can be cut away. Another mode of grafting such large stocks, or branches, is to cut them off. horizontally, as above, and pare them smooth with the PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 99 knife; then cut the cion on one side, about an inch and a half long, making a shoulder at the top; then raise the bark from the stock with the handle of a budding-knife, and insert the cion between the bark and wood; ap- ply the composition the same as in the others, all over the cut part. Two or three cions may be put in each. The principal objection to this mode is that the grafts, if they grow rapidly, are apt to be blown off before they have united strongly to the stock. The great points to observe abkoays, are-—to have sharp in- struments, that will make smooth, clean cuts; to have placed in perfect contact the inner barks of cion and stoek ; to have the whole cut surface and every portion of the split perfectly covered with the com- position, and to exclude air and water. The cion should always be cut close to a bud at the point (A, fig. 76), and have a bud at the shoulder, or point of union with the stock (A, fig. 78). In grafting the heads of large trees, it is not convenient to use the composition in a melted state, to be put on with the Figs. 19 and 80.—cLerr brush, and the large cut surfaces See - Fig. 79, the stock cut horizontally eannot well be covered with the across ‘at A. Fig. 80, the same, cloth; it is, therefore, better to with two cions inserted. use the composition in such a state that it can be put on with the hands. A very small quantity of brick-dust may be advantageously mixed with it when intended for this purpose, to prevent its being melted by the sun, 100 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Double Working.—When we graft or bud a tree already budded or grafted, we call it “ double-worked.” Certain very important advantages are gained by it. Some varie- ties are of such feeble growth, that it is impossible to make good trees of them in the ordinary way of working on common stocks. In such cases, we use worked trees of strong growing sorts as stocks for them. Many varieties of the pear do not unite well with the quince stock; we therefore bud other varieties of strong growth, that do succeed, and use them for stocks to work the others on. By this means we are enabled to possess dwarf trees of many varieties, that we could not other- wise have in that form. We have fruited the Dix in two years by double working on the quince, when otherwise it would have taken not less than seven. Some varieties of fruit trees are much better than others, though of equal vigor, to graft upon. In the pear, for example, we find the White Doyenne makes a good stock for almost all other varieties—superior, in this respect, to any other we have ever experimented with. A great many improve- ments may be effected, not only in the form and growth of trees, but in the quality of the fruit, by double work- ing. Very few experiments have yet been made on the subject in this country, except from necessity; but the general interest now felt on all matters pertaining to fruit- tree culture cannot fail to direct attention to this and similar matters that have heretofore, in a great measure, been overlooked. CHAPTER V. PRUNING—ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. Pruning is one of the most important operations con- nected with the management of trees. From the removal of the seedling plant from the seed-bed, through all its a PRUNING. 101 successive stages of growth and maturity, pruning, to some extent, and for some purpose, is necessary. It may, therefore, be reasonably presumed that no one is capable of managing trees successfully, and especially those con- ducted under certain forms, more or less opposed to nature, without knowing well how to prune, what to prune, and when to prune. This knowledge can only be acquired by a careful study of the structure of trees, because the pruning applied to a tree must (aside from the general principles on which all pruning depends) be adapted to its particular habits of growth and mode of bearing its fruit. It is in view of this fact that the chapter on the structure and mode of formation of the different parts of fruit trees has been given in the first part of this treatise, that it may form the basis of this branch of culture. The idea that our bright American sun and clear at- mosphere render pruning an almost unnecessary operation, has not only been inculcated by horticultural writers, but has been acted upon in practice to such an extent, that more than three-fourths of all the bearing fruit trees in the country are at this moment cither lean, misshaped skeletons, or the heads are perfect masses of wood, unable to yield more than one bushel in ten of fruit, well matur- ed, colored, and ripened. This is actually the case even in what may be called, in comparison, well-managed orchards. Look at the dif- ference between the fruits produced on young and old trees. The former are open, the fruits are exposed to the sun, and, therefore, they are not only large and _ perfect, but their skins are smooth and brilliant, as though they were painted and polished. This ought to teach us some- thing about pruning. But this is only one point. We prune one portion of a tree to reduce its vigor, and to favor the growth of another and weaker part. We prune a stem, a branch, or a shoot, to produce ramifications of these parts, and thus change or modify the form of the 102 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. whole. We prune to induce fruitfulness, and to diminish it. We prune in the growing as well as in the dormant season, and, finally, we prune both roots and branches. Thus we see that pruning is applied to all parts of the tree, at all seasons, and to produce the most opposite results. It appears necessary to treat of pruning, under each of these circumstances, separately. Ist. Pruning to direct the Growth from one part of a tree to another.—The first period in the existence and growth of a tree in which this becomes necessary, is in the nursery. Those who have had any experience in tree culture, have observed that young trees in nursery rows have a tendency to increase in height without acquiring a well-proportioned increase in diameter. In certain cases, this want of proportion becomes so great, that the tree bends under its own weight, and hence it is necessary to resort to some method of propping it up. This condition is attributable to several causes. First, the absence of a sufficient amount of air and light around the stem, to enable the leaves on it to fulfill their functions properly. It has been shown that the formation of new wood de- pends upon the elaborating process carried on in the leaves, and that this process can be maintained only in a free exposure to the sun and air. This being the case, it is obvious that any part of the tree excluded from the action of these agents cannot keep pace in growth with other parts to which they have full access. In nursery rows, as trees are usually planted, the stems, after the first year’s growth, are to a great extent excluded from the light, consequently the buds and leaves on them can- not perform their parts in the creation of new wood. The top of the tree, however, is fully exposed, and, conse- quently, it makes a rapid growth towards the free air and light. When this is continued for two or three years in succession, the tree becomes top-heavy; the quantity of PRUNING. 103 woody fibre at the top is as great as, and it may be greater than, at the bottom; and hence it bends under its own weight. 2d. The tendency of the sap to the growing points at the top of the tree.—Growth is always the most ac- tive and vigorous at the newly formed parts, when trees are in a natural condition. The young buds are the most excitable, and the more direct their communication with the roots, the more rapid will be their growth. Hence it is that a yearling tree, furnished with fifteen to twenty buds or more, from its base to its top, frequently produces | a shoot from its terminal bud only, and seldom more than three or four shoots from the whole number of buds, and these at the top. This natural tendency, and the exclu- sion of light from the stems of nursery trees by their closeness to one another, are the chief causes of weak and crooked trees, to counteract which we resort to pruning. In “heading doun” a young tree, we cut away one- third or one-half of the length of the stem, and this removes the actively growing parts. The sap must then find new channels. Its whole force is directed to the buds that were before dormant; they are excited into growth, and produce new wood and leaves; these send down new layers of woody fibre on the old stem, and it increases rapidly in diameter, so that by the time it has attained its former height, the base is two or three times as thick as the top, and possesses sufficient strength to maintain an erect position. Maintaining an equal Growth among the branches of a tree is conducted on the same principle. Branches that are more favorably placed than others, appropriating more than their due proportion of the sap, and growing too vig- orously, are checked by removing more or less of their growing points; this lessens the flow of sap to that point, and it naturally takes its course to the growing 104 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. parts of the weaker branches that were left entire, and thus a balance is restored. Pruning to renew the Grouth of stunted trees.—lt frequently happens that trees, from certain causes, become stunted, and almost cease to grow, and every part as- sumes a comparatively dormant condition. In such cases they are cut back, the number of their buds and leaves is reduced, the whole force of the sap is made to act upon the small number remaining, and enables them to produce vigorous young shoots; these send down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are also formed, and thus the whole tree is renewed and invigorated. Pruning to induce Fruitfulness.—-This is conducted on the principle that whatever is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is unfavorable to the immediate production of fruit. Hence, the object in view must be to check growth and impede the circulation of the sap—just the opposite of pruning to renew growth. The only period at which this pruning can be performed, is after vegetation has commenced. If a tree is severely pruned immediately efter it has put forth its leaves, it receives such a check as to be unable to produce a vigorous growth the same season; the sap is impeded in its circulation, and the re- sult is that a large number of the young shoots that would have made vigorous wood branches, had they not been checked, assume the character of fruit spurs and branches. inching is the principal mode of pruning to promote fruitfulness, and will be explained hereafter. It depends upon the above principle of impeding the circulation of the sap and checking growth. Pruning to diminish Fruitfulness is conducted on the same principle as that to renew growth, for this, in fact, is the object. Pruning the Roots.—-This is practiced as well to pro- mote fruitfulness as to lessen the dimensions of trees. The roots, as has been shown, are the organs that absorb PRUNING. 105 from the ground the principal food of the tree, and in pro- portion to their number, size, and activity, other things being equal, are the vigor and growth of the stem and branches. Hence, when a tree is deprived of a certain portion of its roots, its supply of food from the soil is lessened, growth is checked, the sap moves slowly in its channels, is better elaborated in the leaves, and the young branches and buds begin to assume a fruitful character. Roots are also pruned to prevent them from penetrat- ing too deeply into the earth, and to induce the formation of lateral roots near the surface, similar to the cutting back of a stem to produce lateral branches ; the principle is the same. Pruning at the time of Transplanting.—This is per- formed, not only to remove bruised and broken roots and branches, but to restore the tree to a proper balance. As trees are ordinarily taken from the ground, the roots are bruised, broken, or mutilated, to a greater or less extent. This obviously destroys the natural balance or proportion that existed between the roots and stem, and in such a condition the tree is unable to grow. The demand upon the roots must therefore be lessened by reducing the stem and branches in length or number, or both; and the more the roots have suffered, the greater must be the reduction of the stem and branches to bring them to a correspond- ing condition. PRUNING MECHANICALLY CONSIDERED. Having now treated of the principles on which prun- ing depends, it remains to speak of its mechanical execu- tion; for it is not only necessary to know what and why, but how to prune. Theory is only useful as it serves to guide in practice. Ist. Pruning Stems or Branches.—The great point to be observed in making incisions on the stems and branches 5x 106 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. of trees, is to provide for the speedy and perfect healing of the wounds, or cut surfaces. In removing a portion of a branch, or stem, if we cut between two joints, and thus leave a portion of wood above the bud intended to be cut to, as in fig. 81, this wood dies, and we have the trouble of another pruning to remove it. If we cut too close to the bud, and thus remove a portion of the wood with which it is connected, as in fig. 82, the bud will either die, or disappoint us by producing a very feeble growth. The proper way is to take the branch to be operated on in the left hand, place the edge of the knife Figs. 81 to 84.—PRUNING. Fig. 81, cutting too far above the bud. Fig. 82, cutting too close. Fig. 83, the cut as it should be. Fig. 84, removal of a branch, the cross-line indicating the proper place for the cut. on it, opposite the lower part of the bud to be cut to, and then make a firm, quick, smooth draw-cut, sloping upwards, so that the knife will come out on a level with the point of the bud, as in fig. 83." In soft-wooded, pithy trees, like the grape-vine, for example, half an inch of wood ought to be left above the bud. The cut should also be made as much as possible on the lower side of the branch to prevent rain from lodging in the center. The position of the bud cut to is also worthy of consideration in pruning, to produce or modify certain forms. When . PRUNING. 107 we wish the new shoot of a lateral branch to take, as much as possible, an upright direction, we prune to a bud on the inside ; and if we wish it to spread, we choose one on the outside. In the annual suppression, or cutting back of young trees, to form a stem or side branches, the bud selected to form the leader is chosen on opposite sides every successive year, in order to maintain the growth in a straight line. If cut every year toa bud on the same side, it would, in two or three seasons, show an inclination to that side injurious to the symmetry of the tree. The removal of large Branches, where they are to be entirely separated from the tree, is often very clumsily performed. In orchards, it is not at all uncommon to see them chopped off with a common axe; and even in gar- dens there seem to be few persons who either know how, or take the proper care in this matter. They are either cut so that a portion of the base of the branch remains, and sends out vigorous shoots, defeating the objects of the pruning, or they are cut so close that a portion of the wood of the main branch or stem is taken with them, and a wound made that years are required to heal up. Both these extremes ought to be avoided. The surface of the cut made by the removal of a branch should in no case be larger than the base of the branch. Where a branch is united to another or to the main stem, we notice, both above and below the point of union, a small projection, or shoulder, as at the cross-line in fig. 84. The knife must enter just below that shoulder, and, by being drawn upwards in a straight line, the base is so completely removed that no shoots can be produced there, and yet the cut surface on the stem is no larger than the base of the branch. When the saw is used, the surface of the cut should be pared smooth with the knife, both to prevent water lodging on it, and to facilitate the heal- ing of the wound. 108 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 2d. Pruning the Roots.—This is performed by opening a trench around the tree, just at the extremities of the roots: the distance from the tree will, therefore, depend on its size, and the spreading character of the roots. The trench should be the width of a common garden spade, and deep enough to admit of an inspection of all the roots of the tree. If the lateral roots are to be short- ened, this is done first. The knife should be placed on the lower side of the root, and the part separated with a clean draw-cut, such as would be performed on a branch. If the tree has vertical or tap roots, they are most easily operated on with a sharp spade, prepared and kept for the purpose. A smart stroke with such a spade, in as nearly a horizontal direction as possible, will separate a pretty strong root. The extent to which root pruning may be performed depends on the character of the spe- cies, the condition of the tree as regards growth, and the object aimed at. Those practising it for the first time should go to work with great caution. It will be better to operate too lightly than too severely. As regards the season, it may be performed either at the end of the first growth, in July or August, or in the autumn or winter, when vegetation is quite suspended. We have operated on cherry trees with complete success in August, In a dry time, when little growth was going on. At this season, - a copious watering should be given after the pruning is performed. Implements of pruning, and the mode of using them, will be treated of in the chapter on implements, to be given hereafter. The Season for Pruning.—We are not permitted to be very definite on this point. The climate, the nature of the species, etc., control the period of pruning to a great extent. In the South, what we term the winter pruning —that performed during the dormant season—may be done very soon after the fall of the leaf.. In the North, PRUNING. 109 it} is deferred to February, March, and even April. In Western New York, we prune apples, pears, and other hardy fruits any time that we have leisure, between the fall of the leaf and the first of April. The peach we prune just as the buds begin to swell. The fruit and leaf buds are then easily distinguished from one another, and the objects of the pruning are accom- plished with more precision. Grapes may be pruned any time in the winter, as a portion of wood is always left above the bud; and if the wood is wanted for propagation, it should be cut before the season of severe frosts arrive, as the buds are liable to be injured. Gooseberries and currants, also, any time in winter. The stone fruits should always be lightly pruned, because severe amputations almost invariably produce the gum. Where it is absolutely necessary, in the spring, the wound should be coated with grafting composition, or with that recommended by Mr. Downing: *‘ Alcohol, with sufficient gum shellac dissolved in it to ‘make a liquid of the consistence of paint, to be put on with a brush.” This excludes air, and is not affected by changes of weather. Pinching is a sort of anticipated pruning, practiced upon the young growing shoots, intended to promote a uniform circulation of the sap, and thus regulate the growth, and also to induce fruitfulness. Ist. To regulate the Growth.—In the management of trees, this is an operation of great importance, as it obvi- ates the necessity of heavy amputations being made at the winter or spring pruning. Instead of allowing certain superfluous or misplaced shoots to acquire their full de- velopment at the expense of other parts, we pinch them early, and give to the necessary parts, or branches of the tree, the nutriment which they would have appropriated if allowed to remain. In this way we are able to obtain 110 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. results in one season that two or more would be required for, if we depended wholly on the winter pruning. We will suppose, for an example, the case of a young nursery tree in the second year, intended for a standard. In ordi- nary cases, the terminal bud, either the natural one or a ym “Eb = Q RR QH = Fig. 85, A—Fig. 85, B.— PRUNING AND PINCHING. Fig 85, A, head of a young tree; 3, the leader; a, a, vigorous shoots below it, that ought to have been pinched. Fig. 85, B, a branch of the pear, twice cut back, with the lateral shoots pinched ; a, a, the first section ; ¢, ¢, ¢, the second; b, and d, d, shoots pinched close to favor the leader and those below them. that. pruned to, is developed into the leading shoot or stem, and a greater or less number of buds below it pro- duce branches; and it frequently happens that some of PRUNING. 111 these, if not pinched, acquire so much vigor as to injure the leader, and produce a consequent deformity in the tree. Figure 85 (A) represents a case of this kind, which is very common, and too often neglected. The shoots, a, a, ought to have been pinched the moment they began to exhibit a disposition to outgrow the leader. There are other cases, still worse than this, familiar to all tree growers; for instance, where a strong shoot is produced on the middle or lower part of the stem, attracting an undue proportion of the sap, thus contracting the growth of all other parts, and giving the young tree a deformed character. All such shoots as these should be nipped early, the moment their character is apparent, and thus a year’s growth, nearly, will be saved to the tree, and its proper form and proportions be preserved. In conducting young trees for pyramids, the constant and careful appli- cation of pinching is absolutely necessary, for in them we must have the lower branches always the strongest and longest, and it is only by operating on the shoots, in their earliest stages of growth, that we can fully attain this end; for the strongest shoots do not always grow at the desired point, but by timely attention they are perfectly within our control. The various accidents and circum- stances to which young trees are subject, give rise, in a multitude of cases, to an unequal distribution of the sap in their different parts, and this produces, to a greater or less extent, deformity of growth. This at once shows the necessity for pinching, to check the strong and favor the weak. Pinching to promote Fruitfulness—Those who have never practised this, or observed its results, may have seen, if experienced in tree growing, that a shoot of which the point was broken, bruised, or otherwise injured, dur- ing the growing season, frequently becomes a fruit branch either during the same or the following season ; and this, especially if situated in the interior of the tree, or on the PS, i 112 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. older and lower parts of the branches. The check given to the extension of the shoot concentrates the sap in the part remaining; and, unless the check has been given very early in the season, or the growth is very vigorous in the tree, so that the buds will break and form shoots, they are certain to prepare for the production of fruit. It is on this principle of checking the growth and concentrat- ing the sap in the pinched shoot, that pinching to induce fruitfulness is performed; and its efficiency may be esti- mated from the fact, that trees on which it has been prac- tised, have borne fruit four or five, and perhaps seven years, sooner than they would have done without it. It is a most useful operation in the case of vigorous growing and tardy bearing sorts. The mode of performing it is to pinch off the end of the shoot with the finger and thumb; if a small portion of the remaining part be bruis- ed, no matter, it offers a greater check than if a clean cut were made, as in pruning to a bud; and in the general winter or spring pruning which follows, the bruised parts can be cleanly separated. The time to perform it depends wholly on circumstances. If the object be to regulate growth, then the time to do it is when the tendency to undue or ill-proportioned growth is first observable, and this will be from the time the young shoots are two to three inches long and upwards. The particular season of the year or day of the month will, of course, depend upon the earliness or lateness of the season, and on the soil and ~ situation as well as on the habits of growth of the species or variety to be operated on. The true way is to be al- ways on the watch. If the object be to induce fruitful- ness, the length which the shoots should attain before being pinched, depends upon the nature or mode of growth and bearing of the species, and will be more definitely treated hereafter, under the head of “The Pruning of Trees ;” the object now being merely to indicate general principles and modes of operating. To illustrate this, let PRUNING. 13 us suppose the lateral branch of a pear tree, (fig. 85, B). This was cut back the first time to 0, and below that point five shoots were produced, none of which were need- ed for branches. We therefore pinched them in June, when about three inches long or thereabouts, and the result is, they are now fruit branches. The same branch was cut back the second time to d, d, and on that section seven shoots were produced that were not needed in the form of the tree, and were consequently pinched, and will become fruit branches. At the points 6,and d, d, are small spurs, the base of shoots that have been pinched close to favor the growth of the leader, as well as the development of the shoots below. Without pinching, it would have been impossible to obtain such results in this branch in the same time. M. Dubreuil, formerly Professor of Arboriculture in the Garden of Plants at Rouen, in France, sums up the gen- eral principles of pruning as follows. (I may remark here, that in 1849 I visited the Rouen garden, and found M. Dubreuil’s theory and practice beautifully illustrated on the trees in his charge. My visit was made at the time of his practical lectures, and I was able to examine the whole with the most satisfactory minuteness. The trees there, under all forms, and embracing all the hardy spe- cies of fruits, were the best that I found anywhere, not even excepting the much admired and famous pyramidal pear trees of M. Cappe, at Paris. They were not only perfect in form, but, as regards vigor and fruitfulness, in the most admirable condition.) He says: “The theory of the pruning of fruit trees rests on the following six general principles: “1. The vigor of a tree, subjected to pruning, depends, in a great measure, on the equal distribution of sap in all its branches. “In fruit trees abandoned to themselves, the sap is equally distributed in the different parts without any other 114 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. aid than nature, because the tree assumes the form most in harmony with the natural tendency of the sap.* “ But in those submitted to pruning, it is different; the forms imposed on them, such as espalier, pyramid, vase, etc., change more or less the norma! direction of the sap, and prevent it from taking the form proper to its species. Thus nearly all the forms given to trees require the devel- opment of ramifications more or less numerous, and of greater or less dimensions at the base of the stem. And, as the sap tends by preference towards the summit of the tree, it happens that, unless great care be taken, the branches at the base become feeble, and finally dry up, and the form intended to be obtained disappears, to be replaced by the natural form, that is, a stem or a trunk with a branching head. It is then indispensable, if we wish to preserve the form we impose upon trees, to em- ploy certain means, by the aid of which the natural direc- tion of the sap can be changed and directed towards the points where we wish to obtain the most vigorous growth, To do this we must arrest vegetation in the parts to which the sap is carried in too great abundance, and on the con- trary favor the parts that do not receive enough. To ac- complish this the following means must be successively employed. “(1.) Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short, and those of the weak parts long. We know that the sap is attracted by the leaves. The removal of a large number of wood-buds from the vigorous parts, deprives these parts of the leaves which these buds would have pro- duced; consequently the sap is attracted there in less quantities, and the growth thereby diminished. The feeble. * This is not true in all cases. Peach trees, we know, in our climate, left to themselves, exhibit a very striking example of the unequal distribution of the sap. The ends of the branches attract nearly the whole, leaving the lateral shoots and lower parts to die out. In other species, similar instances might be quoted, and as a general thing, the proposition is unsound, except in a comparative sense. PRUNING. 115 parts being pruned long, present a great number of buds, which produce a large surface of leaves, and these attract the sap and acquire a vigorous growth. This principle holds good in all trees, under whatever form they may be conducted. “(2.) Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part, and remove the whole, or greater part, from the feeble. We know already that the fruit has the property of attracting to it the sap from the roots, and of employing it entirely to its own growth. The necessary result of this is, what we are about to point out, viz., that all the sap which arrives in the strong parts, will be absorbed by the fruits, and the wood there, in consequence, will make but little growth; while on the feeble part, deprived of fruits, the sap will all be appropriated by the growing parts, and they will increase in size and strength. “(3.) Bend the strong parts, and keep the weak erect. The more erect the branches and stem are, the greater will be the flow of sap to the growing parts; hence, the feeble parts being erect, attract much more sap than the strong parts inclined, and, consequently, make a more vigorous growth and soon recover their balance. This remedy is more especially applied to espalier trees. “(4.) Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous shoots as early in the season as possible, and from the feeble parts as late as possible. The fewer the number of young shoots there are on a branch, the fewer there are of leaves, and consequently the less is the sap attracted there. Hence, in leaving the young shoots on the feeble part, their leaves attract the sap there, and induce a vigor- ous growth. ““(5.) Pinch carly the soft extremities of the shoots on the vigorous parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts, excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous Jor their position. By thus pinching early, the strong part, the flow of sap to that point is checked, and natural- 116 GENERAL PRINCIPLES, ly turns to the growing parts that have not been pinch- ed; this remedy is applicable to trees in all forms. “(6.) Lay in the strong shoots on the trellis early, and leave the feeble parts loose as long as possible. Laying in the strong parts obstructs the circulation of the sap in them, and consequently favors the weak parts that are loose. This is only applicable to espaliers. “(7.) In espalier trees, giving the feeble parts the benefit of the light and confining the strong parts more in the shade, restores a balance, for light is the agent which en- ables leaves to perform their functions and their action on the roots, and the parts receiving the greatest proportion of it acquire the most vigorous development. “2. The sap acts with greater force and produces more vigorous growth on a branch or shoot pruned short than on one pruned long. ‘This is easily explained. The sap, acting on two buds, must evidently produce a great- er development of wood on them than if it were divided between fifteen or twenty buds. “Tt follows from this, that if we wish to obtain wood branches, we prune short, for vigorous shoots produce few fruit-buds. On the contrary, if we wish to obtain fruit branches, we prune long, because the most slender or feeble shoots are the most disposed to fruit. “ Another application of this principle 1s to prune short, for a year or two, such trees or parts as have been enfee- bled by overbearing. (This principle deserves especial attention, as its application is of great importance.) “3. The sap tending always to the extremities of the shoots causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor than the laterals. According to this principle, when we wish a prolongment of a stem or branch, we should prune to a vigorous wood-bud, and leave no production that can interfere with the action of the sap on it. “4. The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the more likely it will be to produce fruit-buds, This PRUNING. WW principle is founded on a fact to which we have already had occasion to refer, viz., that the sap circulating slowly is subjected to a more complete elaboration in the tissues of the trec, and becomes better adapted to the formation of fruit-buds, : “This principle can be applied to produce the following results: When we wish to produce fruit-buds on a branch, we prevent a free circulation of the sap by bending the branches, or by making annular or circular incisions on it; and, on the contrary, when we wish to change a fruit branch into a wood branch, we give it a vertical position, or prune it to two or three buds, on which we concentrate the action of the sap, aud thus induce their vigorous de- velopment. “5. The leaves serve to prepare the sap absorbed by the roots for the nourishment of the tree, and aid the forma- tion of buds on the shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived of their leaves, are liable to perish. This principle shows how dangerous it is to remove a large quantity of leaves from trees under the pretext of aiding the growth or ripening of fruits, for the leaves are the nourishing organs, and the trees deprived of them cannot continue to grow, neither can the fruit; and the branches so stripped will have feeble, ill-formed buds, which will, the following year, produce a weak and sickly growth. “6. Where the buds of any shoot or branch do not de- velop before the age of two years, they can only be forced into activity by a very close pruning, and in some cases, as the peach, this even will often fail. This last principle shows the importance of pruning the main branches of espaliers especially, so as to insure the development of the buds of their successive sections, and to preserve well the side shoots thus produced, for without this, the interior of the tree will become naked and unproductive, and a remedy will be very difficult.” If these principles and practices of pruning be carefully 118 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. studied in connection with the habits of growth and bear- ing of the different fruit trees, pruning will be compara- tively an easy matter. The mode of obtaining any par- ticular form or character cannot fail to be perfectly plain and simple; yet no one need hope to accomplish, in all things, the precise results aimed at, for even the most skillful operator is sometimes disappointed; but those who give constant attention to their trees will always discover a failure in time to apply a remedy. I insist upon it, because I have been taught it by most abundant experience, that the most unremitting watch- fulness is necessary in conducting trees in particular forms. It is not, by any means, /abor that is required, but attention that the most delicate hand can perform. Fifteen or twenty minutes at a time, say three times a week during active growth, will be sufficient to examine every shoot on a moderate collection of garden trees ; for the eye very soon becomes trained so well to the work, that a glance at a tree will detect the parts that are either too strong or too weak, or that in any way require attention. This is one of the most interesting features in the management of garden trees. We are never allowed to forget them. From day to day they require some attention, and offer some new point of interest that attracts us to them, and augments our solicitude for their prosperity, until it actu- ally grows into enthusiasm. eee. PF. —_eoo—— eee NURSERY. 119 Pee, ON OURS E RY: CHAPTER I. Section 1.—Som, SiruaTIon, ETc. It is not a part of the design of this treatise to give anything like a full exposition of nursery operations, for this would, in itself, be a subject sufficiently extensive to form a volume; but as all fruit growers should possess at least some knowledge of nursery management, it seems quite necessary that the more important points should be noticed. Ist. The Soil, as to Dryness.—For a fruit-tree nursery the soil must be perfectly dry, both above and below. In damp, springy soils, or where the subsoil is so compact as not to admit of the surface water passing off immediately, trees do not thrive; the roots are destitute of fibres, the wood is watery and delicate, and where frosts are severe, the trees are cast out of the ground by the expansion of the water with which the soil is filled. We have known of a single instance in which several thousand dollars were lost by planting a pear nursery on a soil imperfectly drained. The plants grew finely the first season, were budded, the buds had taken, and in the autumn all looked prosperous; but the autumn rains filled the soil with water ; the situation was low and level, and the subsoil compact, so that the water could not possibly get away. The consequence was, the roots decayed, the plants were cast out of the ground, and the injury was so great and so general that the whole plantation had to be taken up. This ground was then thoroughly drained, and is now as good a pear soil as can be found. This single instance illustrates the importance of a dry soil, as well as twenty would. We frequently find that, in the same row of trees, if there happens to be a low, damp spot, the trees in it 6 121 122 THE NURSERY. have no fibrous roots, and are altogether inferior to those on the adjacent dry ground. 2d. Depth.—As a general thing, the soil of a nursery should be a foot to eighteen inches deep; but all trees do not require the same depth. Those (such as the pear) whose roots descend more than they spread, require the deepest soil. The best quality of nursery trees are grown on common farming land, twice plowed with the common and subsoil plows, one following the other, as described in the chapter on soils. This gives depth enough for all ordinary purposes. 3d. Texture—A soil of medium texture, between the heavy and the light, is, on the whole, the most advan- tageous, as being the best adapted to general purposes. A good friable loam, with a gravelly subsoil, or a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay, that will allow water to pass off freely, will be found suitable for almost any species ; and one great advantage of such a soil is, that it admits of rotation in crops. Ath. Quality.—For the growth of young fruit trees, a soil should be in such a condition as to furnish a sufficient supply of nutriment to insure a vigorous and robust growth ; but it may be too rich, and produce rank wood that will not mature properly, and be unable to withstand the change of climate or soil consequent upon transplant- ing. Where manures are used, they should be well de- composed ; fresh, warm manures excite trees into a very rapid growth, but the wood is watery and feeble. PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 7 to be transferred to nursery rows in the spring follow- ing; a year is thus saved, but the stocks are, of course, much inferior. If earthed up in midsummer, they will be partially rooted in the antumn, too, but not so well as if bent down; for the bending has a tendency to stop the sap at the point fastened to the ground, and hastens the formation of roots. This stock may also be propagated from root cuttings. The Paradise.—This, also, is a distinct species of apple. The tree is of very small size, never attaining over three to four feet in height. It is used for stocks for dwarf trees or bushes that occupy but a small space in the gar-: den. It is propagated in precisely the same manner as that described for the Doucin. 2d. Stocks for the Pear.—The pear seedling and the guince are the only two stocks on which the pear can be advantageously worked to any considerable extent. The Mountain Ash and the Thorn are occasionally used for special purposes only. Pear Seedlings.—TYhe seeds are obtained by collecting such fruits as can be had containing perfect seeds. Nearly all the seeds used in this country, of late years, have been imported from Europe. Great care should be taken to gather the fruits of hardy, healthy, vigorous trees only, and the seeds should be full and plump. The seeds are separated and washed, as described for apples. They are also saved and planted in a manner similar in all respects; but, in this country, it is a much more difficult matter to succeed with pear seedlings than with the apple. This difficulty is owing chiefly to a species of fungus, called “leaf-blight,” that attacks the leaves of the young plants, very often before they have completed their first season’s growth. To obviate the difficulty which this malady pre- sents, a vigorous growth should be obtained early in the season. New soil, or that in which trees have not be- fore been grown, should be selected—an old pasture is the 128 THE NURSERY. best. The autumn before planting it should be trenched, or subsoil-plowed, to the depth of two feet, for the pear has long tap roots, and liberally enriched with a compost of stable manure, leaf mould, or muck, and wood-ashes, in about equal parts; four inches deep of this, spread over the surface before plowing, will be sufficient for any ordinary soil. Lime should also be given liberally, unless the soil be naturally and strongly calcareous. THE FRUIT GARDEN. ~ 197 should also be sheltered from the north and west winds. The former are destructive to the blossoms in spring, and the Jatter frequently blow off the fruit before its maturity. In sections of the country subject to late spring frosts, an elevated situation is to be preferred, as in the case of orchards. A full eastern or southern aspect should be avoided, because in both the sun’s rays strike the trees while the frost is upon them, and produce in- juries that would be avoided in other aspects. Where artificial shelter is required, a belt of rapid-growing trees, composed of evergreens and deciduous trees mixed, should be planted on the exposed side, but at such a distance as to obviate any difficulty that aie arise from the injuri- ous effects of shade, or from the roots entering the gar- den. Such a belt a trees might, at the same time, be tino to impart a pleasing and highly ornamental appear- ance to the grounds. | _ 2d. The Soil is a most important consideration. As in a garden a general collection of all the fruits is to be grown, and that in the highest state of perfection, the soil should be of that character in its texture, depth, and quality, best adapted to general purposes. It should not only be suitable for the apple and the pear, but for the peach, the cherry, and the plum—a good, deep, friable loam, with a gravelly clay subsoil, and entirely free from stagnant moisture. In this country, our warm summers and frequent, protracted drouths render a deep soil for a garden absolutely necessary. The means for deepening, drying, improving, and changing the character of soils have been already pointed out under the general head of Soils, and need not be repeated here. Suffice it to say, that it will always be found true economy to be liberal in the first preparation of the soil; for after a garden is laid out: and permanently planted, improvements are always made with greater difficulty and expense. Inclosures.—The cheapest and most ordinary kind of 198 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS, inclosure for gardens, in this country, is the tight board fence, and the picket or paling fence. The former should be made of stout cedar posts, set at six feet apart and three or four feet in the ground, the ends being previously charred, or covered with hot gas-tar, to increase their durability, connected in the middle and on the top with cross-bars, or rails, which may be two by four inches. The boards should be well seasoned, matched, and se- curely nailed to the cross-bars. Where the fence is required to be higher than the posts, the boards can ex- tend above the top rail two, three, or even four feet, if necessary. The picket or paling fence is made in the same way, as far as the framework, posts, and cross-bars go; but, instead of matched boards, pickets, from three to six inches wide, and pointed on the top, are used, and a space of two inches left between each. Where the pro- prietor can afford the expense of a brick or stone wall, it will prove the most permanent, and, in the end, the cheap- est inclosure. The hight of the fence or wall depends somewhat on the extent of the garden. In ordinary cases, eight or ten feet are the proper hight, but when the gar- den is very small, five or six feet are enough; and the open paling will be preferable, except on the north side, to the tight board fence, as it offers less obstruction to the air and light. A high fence around a very small garden, be- sides being injurious to vegetation in it, looks quite out of character, giving to it the appearance of a huge box. Live hedges, as recommended for orchards, might be employed around country gardens of considerable extent, say an acre or upwards, but they require to be kept in the neatest possible condition. Trellises—In England, and other parts of Europe, where the summer temperature is not so high as it is here, espalier trees are trained directly on the garden walls or fence; but our hot sun renders this unsafe, except in the case of the grape, or on the north sides of the walls. The THE FRUIT GARDEN. . 199 sun strikes the south side of a fence with such force that the foliage in contact with it is burned. It is therefore necessary, where the walls or fences are to be occupied with espaliers, to erect suitable trellises at the distance of six to twelve inches from them, on which to train the trees. The form of these differs according to the nature of the subject to be trained. They are generally made of upright and cross-bars, of inch boards, three inches wide, placed within six to twelve inches of each other, accord- ing to the growth of the species; the larger the foliage and the longer the shoots, the greater may be the dis- tances; thus, the grape twelve inches, and the peach eight. Sometimes they are constructed of wooden bars and wire rods alternately; these answer a good purpose for the grape, as it fixes itself to the wires by the tendrils. The trellis is fastened to the wall by iron hooks, and should stand a little farther from it at the bottom than at the top, for the purpose of giving the tree a better ex- posure to the sun, rain, etc. Fruits are grown so suc- cessiully in this country in the open ground that walls or trellises are seldom used, except to economize space. In the North, however, where the more tender fruits do not succeed in the open ground, walls may be advantageously employed, as the trees trained on them are easily pro- tected both from winter and spring frosts. Laying Out the Bruit Garden.—This is the arrange- ment or distribution of the ground into suitable plots or compartments, necessary walks, etc. The mode of doing this depends on the size of the garden, and the manner in which it is to be planted. Fruit gardens, properly speak- ing, are such as are wholly devoted to fruits; but a very common form, as has been already observed, is the mixed garden, where a portion only is devoted to fruits, and the remainder to culinary vegetables. We will first consider The Fruit Garden proper.—tin all fruit gardens the number of walks should be no greater than is absolutely 200 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. necessary for convenience. In small places, the better l rm lan appears to a ia 28) be to eens the principal walk around the out- side, leaving as much as possible of the interior, ——| 3@= == - = Or =D bi where air and : light are enjoyed 8 to the greatest 8: 7) extent, for the trees. A border should be left be- | tween the fence and the walk, of sufficient width for the trees to be trained on the fence trellis. If, appearances were to be strictly ob- served, this bor- der should be as wide as the fence | is high, but, as | a gencral thing, | five to six feet will be sufficient ; and ‘where ground is limited, appearance must, in many cases, be cacrificd to economy. Where the work is all performed by manual labor, the walks need not be more than five to six feet wide, as that admits of the passage of a wheel- barrow, and this is all that is required. Fig. 100 is a design for a very small garden, fifty feet by o5@ Ges OOOO 0 9: Ox eT l | pT ri | ff HM | ies Fig. 100.—PLAN OF A SMALL FRUIT GARDEN. ———— > THE FRUIT GARDEN. 201 one hundred. A is the entrance gate, four feet wide; B, B, a walk, five feet wide; CO, C, fence border, six feet wide. The rows of trees are eight feet apart. The pyram- idal pears and cherries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, at seven feet apart in the row. Nos. 5 and 6, dwarf apples, at four feet apart. No.7, pyramidal or dwarf standard plums, at seven feet. Nos. 8,9, and 10, low standard peaches, at ten feet apart, the outside ones four feet from the walk. Nos. 11, 12, 18, and 14, low standard quinces, etc. Nos. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, espaliers, apricots, grapes, ete. One border is filled with gooseberries and currants, the other can be occupied with raspberries and strawberries. This arrangement gives in this little garden twenty pyram- idal trees, thirteen standards, twelve dwarfs, six espal- lers, besides space enough for two dozen currants, two dozen gooseberries, two dozen raspberries, etc. For sev- eral years a few strawbcrries and low vegetables, such as lettuces, radishes, beets, carrots, turnips, or even dwarf peas, may be grown in the spaces among the trees, but in no case to be permitted nearer than within three fect of a tree. In regard to distance between trees, my ex- perience is, that where a good crop is of more importance than a great variety, dwarf and. pyramidal trees of the pear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, nectarine, and quince, should have ten to twelve feet. This distance would re- ‘duce the number of trees in the plan (fig. 100). The mixed, or fruit and kitchen garden, is laid out in asimilar manner. The trees are planted in rows, on a bor- -der six to ten feet wide, according to the size of the trees, along the walks, leaving the interior of the compartments for vegetables. This arrangement is a very common one, and generally answers a very good purpose; but where ‘it is practicable, it is much better to devote a separate portion exclusively to fruit, in order that the one may not in any way interfere with the other. In such a garden, -the number of the walks, and consequently fruit borders, g* 202 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. will depend upon the proportion of the ground intended to be allotted to fruit; and this again will be regulated by the means, taste, and demands of the family. The frontispiece of this work gives the plan of a mixed fruit and kitchen garden, one hundred and fifty feet wide by two hundred long, being one hundred and ten square rods; somewhat less than three-quarters of an acre. The design is to have two tree borders exclusive of the outside or fence border. The center main walk, from A to C, is ten feet wide. That crossing it in the center, six feet wide. The small walk, next the fence border, four feet wide, and that between the two tree borders, five feet. The fence border is six feet wide, and may be planted with espalier trees, vines, etc., besides currants, raspber- ries, strawberries, or anything of low growth, not requir- ing the fullest exposure. The tree borders are all eight feet wide, except the dwarf-apple border, which is only six. The outside border is planted on the two sides with low standard or pyramidal peaches, apricots, plums, quinces, etc., at twelve feet apart, and the two ends with pyramids, at eight feet. The inside bor ders are planted with pyramids and dwarfs, the former at eight, and the latter at six feet apart. A, is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, a space to turn a horse and cart upon. This arrangement gives thirty standard trees, cighty-three pyramids, and forty dwarfs, leaving clear the outside border, over six hundred and sixty feet long, and six wide, and the four interior compartments, each about thirty by sixty feet. In crop- ping the latter with vegetables, they may be divided, as in the design, into narrow beds, three or four feet wide, separated by paths, eighteen inches wide. In gardens of greater extent, it will be well to increase the distance be- tween the trees. Walks in the Fruit Garden.—The number of these, as has been remarked, should be simply sufficient for con- THE FRUIT GARDEN. 203 ducting the operations of gardening with convenience ; this being provided for, the fewer the better. Where horse labor is employed, the main walk, either through the center or around the sides, should be nine or ten feet wide. Where manual labor alone is employed, as in small gardens, five or six feet will be sufficient, and even four feet, as that admits of the passage of a wheelbarrow. Between each compartment, or line of trees, there should also be a path, two or three feet wide, as a passage for the gardener or workmen, and others who may desire to inspect the trees. Where the expense can be afforded, the main walks should be gravelled, so as to be dry and comfortable at all seasons, and in every state of the wea- ther; for it is presumed that every man who has a fruit garden, worthy of the name, will wish to visit it almost daily, and so will the members of his family and his friends who visit him. The labor and expense of making a walk depends upon the nature of the soil. If dry, with a porous subsoil, absorbing water rapidly, six inches of good pit gravel, slightly rounded on the top, will be sufficient. If the soil be damp and the subsoil compact, it will be necessary to remove the earth to the depth of a foot in the center, and rising towards the sides, so that the excavation will resemble a semicircle; this is filled with small stones, and a few inches of good pit gravel on the top. This makes a walk dry at all times. We often see very comfortable and neat-looking walks made of spent bark from the tannery; six inches deep of this will last two or three years, and no excavation is necessary in any kind of soil. It is not to be supposed that so great expense will be incurred, in any case, in the formation of the walks of a fruit or kitchen garden, as those of a pleasure ground or flower garden, and there- fore it is unnecessary to suggest either costly modes or materials, ‘The chief point is to secure dry, comfortable walking, without introducing any material that will 204 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. produce a decidedly unpleasant contrast with vegetation. This can all be accomplished by the cheap and simple means referred to, and others that may suggest them- selves. The main walks alone should be gravelled ; the smaller alleys, or paths, between the different lines of trees or com- partments of the garden, are principally for the use of the workmen. In very small gardens, where it is important to economize the ground, the spaces devoted to the walks may be of plank, raised on pillars or blocks a foot from the ground; the roots of trees can then penetrate the ground below the walk as well as the border, and scarce any ground will be lost. Water.—A supply of water in the garden is a most important consideration in our warm, dry, sunny climate. Good crops of culinary vegetables cannot be secured in many seasons without a liberal application of water; and fruit-trees are greatly benefited by frequent showering, especially in dry weather. It refreshes them and drives away insects. A good well or cistern should therefore be provided in every garden, and be situated as near the center as possible, to be convenient to all parts. SELECTION OF TREES. Their Form.—We start upon the principle that, in all cases, tall standard trees, such as are usually planted in orchards, are totally unfit for the garden. This is the chief defect in American fruit gardening. All the trees for a fruit garden should be either dwarf standards, with trunks two to three feet high, pyramids, branched from the ground, or bushes, with stems six to twelve inches high. Trees in these forms are, in the first place, in keep- ing with the limited extent of the garden, and convey, at _ first sight, the idea of fitness. In the second place, they ~ give a great variety on a small space, for three or four is THE FRUIT GARDEN. ~ 205 such trees will not occupy more space than one standard. In the third place, they are in a convenient form for man- agement; they are easily pruned or protected, and the fruit is easily gathered, and less likely to be blown off Fig. 101.—pyRAMIDAL APPLE-TREE. than on tall trees. Finally, they bear several years sooner than standards, Among the forms mentioned, the pyramid is certainly the most beautiful; and in the best fruit gardening regions of Europe, where almost every conceivable form of tree has been tried, it is to-day the most popular, 206 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. because it has proved the most advantageous and success- ful. The apple for pyramids (fig. 101) should be on the Doucin stock. Certain varieties, such as the Hawthorn- den, Keswick Codlin, Summer Rose, Duchess of Olden- burg, and many other moderate growers and early bearers, will make good pyramids on free stocks, but they will require more summer pruning and careful management to keep their vigor under check than they would on the Doucin. But apples for the fruit garden, even on the Fig. 102.—DWARF BUSH APPLE-TREE. Doucin, should be such as naturally make small trees, and are inclined to early bearing. In these respects, it is very well known there is a wide difference between varieties. Those mentioned above, and others similar in character, frequently bear, on free stocks in the nursery rows, at the age of three or four years from the bud, whilst others do not bear until eight or ten years old. This is a point that should always be regarded in selecting garden trees; for it is the natural and proper desire of every one who plants a tree in the garden to obtain fruit from it as early as possible. 5 = THE FRUIT GARDEN. 207 The Apple for Dwarfs.—The apple, worked on the Paradise, makes a beautiful littledwarf bush. We know of nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or a little square of these miniature apple-trees (fig. 102), either in blossom or in fruit. Those who have not seen them may imagine an apple-tree, four feet high, and the same in width of branches, covered with blossoms in the spring, or loaded with magnificent golden and crim- son fruit in the autumn. They begin to bear the third year from the bud, and the same variety is always larger and finer on them than on standards. We have had Red Astrachans on Paradise that measured eleven inches in circumference. The French plant a square or compart- ment of these in the kitchen or fruit garden, as they do gooseberries and currants, six feet apart; they also alter- nate them with pyramidal pear-trees, in rows; and in some of the best mixed kitchen and fruit gardens two dwarf apples are planted between two pyramidal pears, thus giving double the number of apples as of the pears in a border or row. In small gardens, the apple should not be admitted under any other form, and even to a limited extent in that; for it is the great fruit of the orchard, and in nearly all parts of this country extensive- ly grown, and car be purchased at very moderate rates. Dwarf Apple trained in Horizontal Cordon.—In Eu- AF yh NG EEE Ge BY gw \e yes aii wast of A ae I S23 ee =3R; = Dee Ss ie i roo SS 9) LN , Fig. 103,—aAPPLE CORDON (Single). ropean gardens, the dwarf apple is frequently trained on what are called “horizontal cordons” along the walk borders, and are very pretty objects. The cordon, as the drawing (fig. 103) shows, consists 208 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. of single stems, or arms, trained horizontally on a wire or wooden rail, about ten or twelve inches from the ground. This stem, or cordon, is kept furnished with fruit spurs, and produces fruit on its entire length. The cordon may be either single or double. The single consists of a single stem, or Fig. 105.—PYRAMIDAL PEAR-TREE. % feet high; 4 feet wide at the base. > arm, and the double of a pair of arms, one trained to each, side, as in fig. 104. The Pear as @ Pyramid (fig. 105). —The pear is emi- nently the tree for the pyramidal form, either on the free stock or -on «the quince. On the lat- ter, however, the trees bear much éar-— lier, are more pro- lific, more manage- able, and conse- quently preferable for small gardens. On the pear stock they require con- stant summer prun- ing and pinching, and, in some cases, THE FRUIT GARDEN. ~ 209 root pruning, to subdue the natural vigor, and induce early fruitfulness. Certain varieties, however, do not succeed on the quince, but a large number of melting varieties do, and produce larger and finer fruit on it than on the free stock. The tardiness of bearing of the pear-tree, when grown in the ordinary standard form, on pear stock, has, more than any other cause, retarded its general cultivation. No better proof of this can be adduced than the general partiality now shown for trees on quince stocks that bear at the age of three or four years. The introduction of these trees, a few years ago, was really the first thing that gave a gen- eral impulse to pear-tree planting. With most people, it is a very important thing to obtain fruit in two or three years, instead of waiting eight or ten. The best man- agement of trees on free stocks cannot bring them into a bearing state short of six or seven years, unless it be ‘some remarkably precocious variety. People, therefore, who wish pear-trees for pyramids that are easily man- . aged, and will bear early, will select them on quince stocks, in case the varieties they wish to cultivate have been proved to succeed well on it. The Cherry is as easily managed in the pyramidal form as the pear—not only the free-growing sorts, Hearts and Bigarreaus, but the Dukes and Morellos ; the latter, however, are less vigorous, and more easily managed. All should be worked on the Wahaled stock ; this has, to some extent, the same effect on the cherry as the quince has on the pear. After the second or third year’s growth, it subdues their vigor, and induces fruitfulness. The Dukes and Morellos should be chosen where very small trees are desirable. The Plum as a Pyramid.—The plum has rarely been cultivated as a pyramid, but recent experiments prove that it is quite susceptible of that form under proper management. It should be worked on a stock calculated 210 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. to subdue its natural vigor. The native, or Canada plum, and the Myrobolan, or Cherry plum, are suitable. Sum- mer pruning and pinching, as well as occasional root pruning, are all necessary to check the vigor of most kinds, and keep them in suitable dimensions for small gardens where it is necessary to plant them close. Our specimen plum orchard consists eutirely of dwarf stand- ard and pyramidal trees, planted in rows, ten feet apart, and cight feet apart in the row. They were planted some twelve or fifteen years ago, and are now models of beauty and productiveness—that, too, without any summer pruning, root pruning, or pinching. The Plumas a Dwarf Standard.—Besides the pyra- mid, this is the only form in which the plum should be admitted into the garden. The dwarf standard, with a trunk two or three feet in hight, and a symmetrical, round head, is a very pretty and appropriate form, and requires less skill and care in the management than the pyramid; and with proper care, the trees require but little, if any, more space. The Peach.—The best garden form for the peach in this country, generally, is that of the dwarf standard, with a trunk eighteen inches to two feet. With proper management, which will hereafter be described, this form is easily conducted, even when the trees are on peach stocks, The plum stock, and especially the sorts recom- mended for dwarf plums, give trees that are less vigor- ous, and more easily kept in a small space. In most parts of our country, the fruit ripens perfectly in the open ground, so that espalier or oblique cordon training, as has been remarked, is seldom practised, unless to save ground, or in northern localities, where protection of the buds during winter, or of the blossoms in the spring, 1s neces- sary. In such cases alone are espaliers to be recommended, as they require much greater care in pruning and train- ing than any other form. Espalier trees ‘are of various s THE FRUIT GARDEN. SLE forms, but the fan, as it is termed, is the best adapted to the peach. It consists of two main branches or divisions of the stem, spread out in the form of a V; each of these bears a certain number, as many as may be necessary to fill the trellis, of secondary branches, and these furnish the bearing wood. The production and management of this and other espalier forms will be treated fully under the head of pruning and training. The Apricot and Nectarine—The remarks applied to the peach apply with equal force to both these trees ; they succeed equally well as low standards or as espal- iers or cordons. The apricot is more generally grown in these forms than any other tree, because its early blossoms are so easily protected, and the curculio does not appear to be so troublesome to it as in the standard form. The Quince, in the garden, should either be a dwarf bush, with a stem twelve to eighteen inches high, and a compact, symmetrical head, or a pyramid. In the latter form it is quite easily trained, but requires more care, of course, than as a bush, as the upper part of the tree must always be kept subordinate to the lower, and this requires regular and constant attention. No fruit tree is more neglected than the quince, and yet it is a profita- ble and most beautiful tree, either in blossom or fruit. It well repays the care required to keep it in proper shape. The Filbert.—The remarks on the quince may be ap- plied with equal propriety to the filbert, as regards form. The bush, branched from the ground, and the low stand- ards, with two-foot stems, are the ordinary forms; but in some of the French gardens it is conducted with great success as a pyramid. These are the principal trees of which it is necessary to speak in regard to form. Other species will be referred to under the head of Pruning. Having now pointed out the most eligible forms for garden trees, and their respec- 212: PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. tive advantages, planters will be able to make a choice adapted to their tastes and circumstances. Those who do not employ a professional gardener, and who have but a smail portion of spare time to devote to their garden, should by all means adopt such forms for their trees as require the least skill and labor, provided always that it be appropriate to the size of the garden, and consistent with good management. | The next point to be considered is, The Age of the Trees.—This will depend very much on. circumstances. For pyramidal trees it is yet difficult, al- most impossible, to obtain in the nurseries specimens of more than one year’s growth that are suitable. The yearlings are never sufficiently cut back, nor the branches of the second and third years so managed as to have the requisite proportion of length and vigor to fit them for being moulded, with any ordinary treatment, into.a per- fectly pyramidal form. If suitable trees cannot be found. of two or three years from the bud or graft, vigorous. yearlings, worked at the ground, should be chosen, as they are in a condition to take easily any required a : and though fruit may not be soon obtained from them, yet they will, in the end, be much more satisfactory ; for, unless a right beginning be made in the training of a tree in any form more or less artificial, no art can afterwards completely correct the errors. If we take a two or three year old tree, managed in the nursery, as usual, with a naked trunk, two to two and a half feet from the ground, and a branching head, or, what is nearly as bad, a few weak side branches below, overrun with strong ones above, the most severe process will be necessary, in order to pr acs Jateral branches in the proper place; and thus as much time will be lost as would bring forward a yearling, and the tree will not be so pect cae formed, nor in any respect so satisfactory. The general impatience that ex- ists in regard to the growth and bearing,of trees is the THE FRUIT GARDEN. Site great cause of this defective character when taken from the nursery. The nurseryman is averse to cutting back his trees, as they lose a year in hight; and planters or pur- chasers are not generally discriminating enough to be will- ing to pay him a proportionate price. He finds tall trees more attractive. When planters do get these trees, they cannot be persuaded to cut them down; they wish to ob- tain fruit as soon as possible, and therefore the tree is al- lowed to proceed in the defective form it assumed at the nursery. For Dwarfs and Dwarf Standards, it is less difficult to obtain the right sort of trees, for this is the form that nur- sery trees that have not been cut back, ordinarily assume, Those, thercfore, who prefer such trees can always be sup- plied with them well advanced, even in a bearing state, if so desired. As in the pyramid, however, persons who intend to make models of their trees, will do well to pro- eure yearlings worked at the surface of the ground, for on them, heads or lateral branches can be formed without any difficulty at any desired point between the collar and _ ter- minal bud. Another consideration is worthy of note on this point. There is a much greater risk in removing three or four year old trees than yearlings, and they are more difficult and expensive to pack and transport. The yearling is easily removed and easily transported, and its growth is comparatively unaffected by the change. The gardeners most famous for their handsome, well-managed fruit trees, invariably select yearling trees, that is, trees that have made one year’s growth from the bud or graft. Bat it is not always practicable to procure trees of this age, as few of them are called for, and nursery-men dislike to break upon their young stock before it has attained the usual marketable age. Selection of Varieties—The selection of varieties of fruits for a fruit garden should be made in view of all the eircumstances that can affect their usefulness. They 214 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS, should be adapted to the soil, and more particularly to the climate. It is well known that in every section of the country, certain varieties seem to succeed remarkably well, whilst others, of the greatest excellence elsewhere, entirely fail. Our country is so extensive, and embraces such a variety of clinate, that it 1s impossible that the same varieties should succeed equally well in all parts; and planters should consider this well. Those who have had no experience in cultivation, nor a proper opportunity for acquiring knowledge on this point, should consult others. Any intelligent nurseryman who has a corre- spondence with all parts of the country, and is thoroughly alive to all the branches of his profession, and the re- sults of experience, can aid planters greatly in making appropriate selections. It is true that the amount of knowledge collected on this head is yet comparatively small, and quite insufficient for a general guide, but it is every day accumulating, and what there may be is well worthy of attention. The experience of fruit growers, as elicited at recent pomological conventions, has brought to light a multitude of highly important facts, bearing on this very point. These will be more particularly noted when we come to the description of fruits. Varieties should be adapted in their growth to the form they are to be grown in, and to the extent of the garden. —Yor pyramidal trees, varieties should be chosen whose habits of growth are regular, or slightly spreading, the branches assuming more of the horizontal than the upright, and those disposed to branch low down should be preferred to those of an opposite habit. Where the gar- den is small, moderate or slow growers should be pre ferred to rapid and vigorous growers. They should also be well adapted to the stock on which they are worked. This is a very important point, but one on which only a few persons in this country have yet acquired any con- siderable amount of actual experience. » Still, many im- . THE FRUIT GARDEN. 215 portant facts have been gathered, and if. becomes every planter to avail himself of them. If he plants pears on quince stocks, for instance, it is important to know that certain varieties are much better on that stock than they are on the pear, and that others fail and are worthless on it. The varieties should be adapted to the wants and wishes of the planter.—Those who plant fruit gardens have not all the same objects in view. One man plants his garden simply to supply his family with good fruits. This is his main purpose. He should, therefore, select the very best varieties, considering not the guality alone, but their productiveness and other useful properties. Such a per- son has no desire for a large collection, but looks merely for an assortment that will yield a succession of ripe fruits during the season. Another, who regards the mere value of the fruit Zess than amusement, recreation, and cxperi- ment, will make his collection as varied as possible. Where any particular class of fruits can be had very cheap in market, it should be planted sparingly in the garden, so that such as may be scarce or dear can be grown in larger quantities. It is only by taking all these into account that planters can hope to make their fruit garden answer their particular views and purposes. The planting of a fruit garden should be considered as of equal importance with the building of a dwelling, so far as the doing of it well is concerned. The dwelling is constructed with a view to the convenience of the family, and is, therefore, in all its parts, supposed to be adapted to their wants and mode of living. The fruit garden is intended, also, to promote the comfort and convenience of the family, and should be, like the dwelling, in all respects as nearly as possible adapted to their wants and circumstances. Having now treated of the soil, inclos- ures, trellises, walks, arrangement, selection of trees and varieties, we proceed to the taking up of the trees and planting. 216 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. Taking up the Trezs.—This has already been described under the head of Nursery Operations, to which the reader is referred. Planting has been described under the head of Pranting the Orchard ; and the operation being the same in both cases, it need not be repeated. The arrangement of the trees, however, is different, and this point requires a special notice. In regard to position—KEKach class of trees, such as pears, apples, cherries, ete., should be planted together in the same rows or division, and if any difference exist in the soil, each should be planted in that best adapted to it. Thus, plums should have that most inclined to clay; pears and apples, the deepest and richest; cherries, peaches, apricots, etc., the driest and lightest. Where the garden is large, the pyramids should be in one compartment, the dwarf standards in another, and the dwarf bushes in another; but where it is necessary to economize and fill the ground to the best advantage, the dwarf bushes may alternate advantageously with the pyramids or dwarf standards, and this especially along the walk borders. Varieties, too, of the same or similar habits of growth, should, if possible, be together. The espalier trees should be placed so that the earliest blos- soming kinds, such as the apricots, will be most secure from the influence of spring frosts where these prevail; the trellis facing the north will be the best for this pur- pose; but where it is intended to protect them, the aspect is of little account. In the north aspect, fruits are very much retarded in their ripening; and this circumstance may be turned to a good account to prolong the season of some late cherries, currants, ete. We have seen fine Morellos in perfection on a north wall here, in the month of September. The distance at which trees should be planted in the garden.—This will not be the same in all eases; for ina RA THE FRUIT GARDEN. 217 large garden it is not necessary to plant so close as in a very small one, and in a very rich and deep soil a greater distance will be required than in a dry and light soil. There is also a great difference in the growth of varieties. Some might be planted at six fect apart, and have as much space in proportion as others would at eight. This shows that no rule, as regards distance, can be observed in all cases, and this particularly in small gar- dens, where advantage should be taken of every circum- stance. In large gardens, a uniform distance may be adopted, even if some space be sacrificed. The following distances may serve as a general guide, and may be in- creased or diminished according to circumstances - DISTANCE IN THE OPEN GROUND. Apples.—Pyramids, on free stock, ten feet apart; do., Doucin, eight feet apart; do., dwarf standards on Doucin, ten feet apart; do., dwarf bushes on Paradise, five or six feet apart. Pears. —Pyraimids on free stocks, ten to twelve feet apart; do., on quince, ten feet apart; do., dwarf stand- ards oi quince, eight to ten feet apart. Plums.—Dwarf standards, eight to ten feet apart; do., pyramids, eight to ten feet apart. Cherries.—Pyramids, Hearts, and Bigarreaus, eight to ten feet apart; do., Dukes and Morellos, six to eight feet apart; do., dwarf bushes of Morellos, five to six feet apart. Apricots.—Dwarf standard on plum, eight to ten feet apart; do., pyramids, six to eight feet apart. Peaches.—Low standards on peach, ten to twelve feat apart; do., on plum, eight to ten feet. Nectar tat Gath as peaches. Q@uinces.—Pyramids or bushes, six to eight feet apart. 10 : 218 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. Filberts, six to eight feet apart. Gooseberries and Currants, four or five feet apart. Raspberries, two to three feet apart. Mr. Rivers gives the following distances in his “ Minia- ture Fruit Garden”: Pyramidal Pear-Trees, on quince stocks, root-pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, in larger gardens, not root-pruned, six feet apart. Pyramidal Pear- Trees, on the pear stock, root-pruned, six feet apart. The same, roots not pruned, eight to ten feet—the latter if the soil be very rich. Horizontal Espalier Pear-Trees, on the quince stock, for rails or walls, fifteen feet apart. Upright Hspaliers, on the quince stock, for rails or walls, four to six feet apart. Horizontal Kspaliers, on the pear stock, for rails or walls, twenty to twenty-four feet apart. Pyramidal Plum- Trees, six feet apart. Espalier Plum- Trees, twenty feet apart. Pyramidal Apple-Trees, on the Paradise stock, root- pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots not pruned, six feet apart. Espalier Apple- Trees, on the Paradise stock, fifteen feet apart. The same, on the crab stock, twenty to twenty- four feet apart. Peaches and Nectarines for walls, twenty feet apart. Apricots for walls, twenty-four feet apart. Cherries, as bushes on the Mahaleb stock, roots pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots not pruned, six feet apart. Espalier Cherry-Trees, on the Mahaleb, for rails or walls, twelve to fifteen feet apart. _ THE FRUIT GARDEN. 219 Oblique Cordon Trees, of all varieties, two to three feet apart. florizontal Cordons, of all varieties, ten to twelve feet apart. DISTANCES FOR ESPALIER TREES ON WALLS OR TRELLISES. The distances between espalier trees must be reculated not only by the growth of the species and variety, but by the hight of the walls or trellis. If these be low, a greater length, of course, will be necessary than if high; for every tree must have a certain extent of surface to be spread upon. Hence, if a trellis be only cight feet high, nearly double the length, and, consequently, double the distance between the trees, will be required that would be on a trellis fifteen or sixteen fect high. As a general thing, peaches, apricots, or nectarines, on walls or trellises eight or ten feet high, should be fifteen to twenty feet apart, if on free stocks, and twelve to fifteen if dwarfed on the plum. Cherries, ten to twelve feet. Our Native Grapes, Isabelia, Catawba, ctc., at twelve to fifteen feet apart, on an eight-foot-high trellis. Foreign varieties will not require half this ; indeed, the better way is to keep these trained to simple stakes, and planted in the border, where their out-door culture is attempted. In this way they are easily laid down and protected. 220 PRUNING. CHAPTER I. PRUNING AND TRAINING APPLIED TO THE DIF- FERENT SPECIES OF FRUIT-TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS. Srecrion 1.—PRuUNING THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. These two trees belong to the same genus, Pyrus ; their habits of growth and bearing are similar, and they may therefore be treated, as regards their pruning, under the same head. If we take, for example, a shoot of last season (fig. 7), we find it, in the spring, before vegetation commences, furnished on all its length with wood-buds; when growth commences, the terminal bud, and probably two or three of the others nearest to it, produce shoots; the others to- wards the middle produce small shoots that are, in subse- quent years, transformed into fruit branches (like fig. 10). Some do not push at all, but are converted into fruit- buds (as in figs. 8 and 9), whilst those at the base gener- ally remain deena until excited into growth by close pruning. All the buds on these trees have small, incon- spicuous buds at their base, which are capable of produc- ing shoots when the principal bud is destroyed or injured, and these buds render the fruit-spurs so enduring. In young trees, the fruit-buds are many years in process of formation, and in bearing trees, three to four years, ac- cording to circumstances. When the trees are not sub- jected to pruning, the result of the mode of growth described is, that the terminal buds grow and form one section upon another, leaving the lower parts mainly des- THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 221 titute of bearing wood, unless it be an occasional spur, the sap always tending to the points. Standards.—The management of this form of trees has been fully treated of in all our works on fruit culture, and in all the agricultural and horticultural journals, so that now it is pretty well understood, and especially by those who give considerable attention to the subject of fruit-trees; it will not be necessary, therefore, to enter upon much detail in regard to it. A standard apple or pear tree, for the orchard, when taken from the nursery to be finally planted out, we will suppose to have a straight, stout trunk, four to six feet in hight, as the case may be, and a head composed of a certain number of shoots or branches, but generally shoots of one year’s growth. At the time of planting, three or four of these shoots should be selected to form the main branches, or frame-work, on which to build the whole head, and the remainder cut clean out; those reserved should be cut back full one-half, and from the shoots pro- duced on these, at and below the cut, two of the strongest are selected, each on opposite sides, and the others are rubbed off while they are soft. In selecting these shoots, care must be taken to have them equally distant from one another, and pointing in such directions as not. to cross or interfere. During the first season, these young shoots must be watched and kept in a regular state of vigor. If any threaten to become too vigorous, they must be pinched and checked at once, so that perfect uniformity be pre- served. This is the time to secure a well-formed and nicely-balanced head. A very slight circumstance some- times throws the growth into one side or one branch of a young tree, and produces a deformity from which it never recovers. The trunk must be kept clear of all shoots, by rubbing off such as appear at the earliest possible moment, when it can be done without the use of a knife. Suppos- 22 PRUNING. ing we commenced the head with three branches at time of planting, there will be, at the end of the first season, six. The attention required after this will be to maintain an uniform growth among these six branches, and their mem- bers and divisions, and to prevent the growth of shoots in the center. The leading defect in all our orchard trees is too much wood, the heads are kept so dense with small shoots that the sun and air are, in a great measure, excluded, and the fruit on the outside of the tree only is marketable or fit for use. The head should be kept open, rather in the form of a vase, so that the wood, leaves, blossoms and fruit may all, on every part, enjoy the full benefit of the sun and air, without which they cannot perform their functions, or attain maturity and perfection. Too many people imagine that trees can take care of themselves, as trees in the forest, on the pease that nature pre- serves a balance in all her works; but it should be borne in mind that a fruit tree is not exactly a natural production. It is far re- moved from the natural state by culture, and the farther it is re- moved, that is, the more its nature is refined and improved, the more care it requires. Fig. 108 repre- sents a young standard pear tree. er stem four feet high, and the head Fig. 108.—A YOUNG twice cut back, as at the letters a STANDARD PEAR-TREE. =, Re ward on three aan branch. Pinching.—If this be properly es, twice pruned at AandB. attended to, very little knife prun- ing will be necessary, except to shorten the leading shoots, because as soon as a superfluous or misplaced THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 223 shoot appears, it is rubbed off, and when one becomes too vigorous, it is pinched and checked. The great ad- vantage of pinching is, that Ist. It economizes the sap of the tree. That which would be expended on superfluous shoots is turned to the benefit of the parts reserved, and thus the bo ho is greatly promoted. 2d. All wounds necessarily inflicted, where knife-prun- ing is depended on, are completely avoided. These facts should be remembered. Standard apples and pears are not generally pruned with a view to hastening their bearing, but are allowed to arrive at that state in their natural way. In the case of tardy-bearing sorts, how- ever, it may be desirable to apply artificial means, and these will be pointed out in treating of dwarfs and pyra- mids hereafter. Dwarf Standards.—These are similar to standards, except that the trunks are low, not over two or three feet in hight, and the head is retained in a smaller space. Their management is always much easier when the stocks are such as to dwarf or restrain the growth. Thus, apples on the Paradise or Doucin, and pears on the guince. The main branches, or frame-work of the head, are produced by cutting back the three or four branches that. form the head of the tree as it comes from the nursery, in the same manner as recommended for stand- ards. The jirst season, all superfluous productions are rubbed off, and a balance maintained among the shoots by pinching. The second year, in the winter or spring, the shoots of last season are shortened, say one-half, as a general thing. This induces the development of the buds on their lower parts. The cut is made at a good, plump bud, capable of producing a vigorous shoot; and this is selected to prolong the branch. If one or two secondary branches 224 / PRUNING are needed to fill up a space, those next the leader, if properly situated to fill the space, are chosen, and all be- low them are pinched when about two or three inches long, in order to check the production of wood where it is not wanted, and to convert them into fruit branches or spurs. The growth of all the main and secondary branches is regulated and balanced by pinching; and if the pinched shoots, intended for fruit spurs, start again into growth, they must be again pinched. The third season, the shoots of the previous year are cut back as before, say to four, five, or six eyes, according to their strength. One shoot is chosen to continue the pro- longment of the branch, and the others are pinched in season to convert them into fruit spurs. Thus the tree is conducted from year to year, until it has attained the full size required. In this way the trees commence bearing quite young, and every branch is furnished, in all its length, with fruit spurs. Pyramids.—Under the head of “the selection of trees,” it has been recommended to obtain thrifty yearling trees in preference to older ones, not properly managed. We will, therefore, begin with the yearling tree, and although the management of the first year after cutting back has been given in the nursery, it may be well to repeat it here, to save the reader the trouble of referring back. Objects of cutting back.—The object in doing this is to produce branches near the stock, that will form the base of the future pyramid. If left entire, the tendency of the sap to the extremities would produce shoots there only, leaving a naked space entirely inconsistent with the form in view. We therefore reduce the stem to such an ex- tent, that but a small number of buds are left on it, and the sap, acting on these with great force, causes their development. How far to cut back.—It is obvious that this must de- pend on the character of the subject. Invyearling plants, THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 225 both of the pear and apple, there is presented a great difference in different varieties. Some invariably pro- duce lateral branches the first season. The buds are so perfectly developed, that when the second growth takes place in mid-summer, they break, and form branches, in some cases as much as a foot long, and in others only a few inches. Then, among the varieties which do not thus produce side branches in the second growth, there is a great difference in the plumpness and prominence of the buds. In some they are larger, and stand out boldly from the wood on the whole length of the stem, appa- rently ready to push under the least excitement. In others they are small, lie flat to the wood, and have every appearance of being difficult to excite into growth, and especially those towards the base. It should always be borne in mind that it is better to cut too low than not ‘low enough. The difficulty of cutting too low is, that the shoots produced are nearly all of equal length, and a certain number of them require to be checked to give each one its proper dimensions. The difficulty of rot cutting low enough is, that where we should have branches at the base, we have none, or, if any, they are smaller, instead of larger, than those above them. The remedy in this case is more difficult than the other. The vigorous shoots at the summit must be checked, and even the leading shoot, in order to throw back the sap into the lower parts, to act upon the buds there. The error which produces such a difficulty is very common, as we know by experience, among persons not familiar with the growth of young trees or the development of the buds on their stems. It must be laid down as a general rule that the more feeble the plant, and the smaller and the more imperfectly developed the buds, the lower it is necessary to cut. The condition of the roots, too, must be taken into account; for where the roots are weak, broken, or injured, 226 PRUNING. and consequently unfit to yield to the stem any considera- ble amount of nutriment, the buds will break with less force, and a more severe retrenchment will be necessary. All these circumstances must be consid- ered. Forexample, we will take a young pear-tree, of one year’s growth from the bud, without branches (fig. 109), which we will suppose to be four feet, which is the ordinary average hight of yearlings. If the buds are full and prominent on it, we cut to a good bud, about twenty inches from the stock; but if the buds are less prominent, cut to fifteen or - eighteen inches, and if very feeble, with small buds, cut to within twelve inches, or five or six buds of the stock. If the roots have been injured much, and the stem somewhat dried or shrivelled, it should be cut to within three or four buds of the base. These different cases are mentioned because it frequently hap- pens that persons who live at a great distance from nurseries often find their trees, on their arrival, in the condition de- scribed, and it is necessary that a course of treatment for them should be indicated. The bud cut to should, if possible, be one of the best on the stem, and be on the side of the tree opposite that in which the A yearling pear- bud was inserted, so as to continue the tree without bran- stem in a straight line. | ches. The cross- : line indicates the .t isa great advantage to have a tree Se or well established in the ground before cut- ark a ting it back, to produce the first branches to form the pyramid; because, in that condition, it is capable of producing vigorous shoots the first season. It . THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 227 is on this account that a young tree, cut back in the nur- sery, presents a1 much more perfect form, at the end of the second year, than those that have been transplanted. Some good cul- tivators advise to defer the cut- ting back for the formation of the permanent branches until the plant has stood one year after transplant- ing; but this course is attended with many difficulties, and, on the whole, it is better to cut back when the tree is planted, even if we ob- tain but a moderate growth; for the older the buds are on the lower part of the tree, the more obstinate and unmanageable they are. If we fail to accomplish our ends in the first cutting, we can repeat it the next year. Pruning the Branched Yearling. —Among trees of this kind, some have branches a foot or more in length, while in others they resem- ble short, stiff spurs, two to four inches long. These two characters require different modes of treat- ment. Where there are branches of sufficient force, and properly situated to form the first series of main branches, they must be treat- ed in the same manner as though the tree were two years old. The Yearling pear-tree with branches, the pruning indi- cated by the cross-lines. strongest and best situated are selected and pruned to with- in four to‘six inches of their base, according to their vigor and position ; the lowest should not be more than six inches from the stock. The small, feeble, superfluous ones are en- 228 PRUNING. tirely removed ; the leading shoot, which, in such casey, is short, and provided with plump buds, does not require a A two-year-old pear-tree, not cut back far enough the first season ; the second pruning, to produce bran- ches below, is indicated by the cross-line. heavy shortening; in most cases, one-half will be quite suficient. Figure 110 represents a tree of this kind ; the cross-lines indicate the cuts. Where the lateral branches are short and spur-like, they will require very careful treatment ; the strongest and best placed are reserved. If the lower ones have good terminal buds, they are left entire; those above them are shortened, the lower to three, the next above to two, and the up- permost, next the leading shoot, to one bud. This will give their pro- ductions a proper relative degree of vigor. The leader is cut back fur- ther than in the well-branched sub- ject, because it is presumed the buds are less excitable—as a _ general thing, within four to six buds of the highest lateral, or one-half of its length. There is another class of trees neces- sary to be noticed here, because they are very common—two-year-old nur- sery trees that have not been properly treated. Figure 111 represents a tree of this kind. A few inches only of the top were taken off at the com- mencement of the second year’s growth, and after that it was left to itself. Branches, therefore, were pro- duced only at the top, leaving a vacant space of two feet—the very part that should have produced the first THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 229 set of main branches. The best disposition to make of such trees would be to conduct them in the form of dwarf standards, which they really are at present ; but it happens that, in some cases, it is desired to convert them into pyramids, and therefore it is essential that the proper means be pointed out. - Two-year-old trees, like yearlings, disfer materially in the character of the buds on the lower part of the stem. On some, these are quite prominent, so much so as to appear to have made some advance towards development, while in others they are quite flat and dor- mant. It is obvious that trees in the first condition will not require that severe retrenchment on the head, to pro- duce branches below, as the last. In this case it will generally be sufficient, and especially if the space be- tween the stock and first branches does not exceed two feet, to cut back the leader to three buds, and the lateral branches below it to one bud; but when the buds are small and backward, or when the branchless space is over two feet in length, the two-year-old wood must be cut back to within eighteen inches to two fect of the base. The formation of lateral branches is encouraged by cut- ting notches in the stem, above a bud, at the point where the branch is desired. We find that in the case of im- ported trees, or those carried a great distance, and more or less injured, nothing short of this severe cutting can insure branches low enough to form a pyramidal tree. It seems a great pity to cut back a tree in this manner, and lose a year or two of its growth and bearing, but it is absolutely necessary when the pyramidal form is want- ed. There is still another class of trees that we sometimes see sent out from the nurseries. These are two or three years old; have been cut back, and are pretty well fur- nished, in all their length, with lateral branches, but, from the want of proper care, those on the upper parts have acquired greater vigor than those below, presenting the tree in a situation just the reverse, in this respect, of what 230 PRUNING. it ought to be. In pruning this specimen at the time of planting, the lower branches must either be shortened very slightly, in order to get a strong bud for a leader, or they must be left entire, while those above will be cut close; where we want the longest and strongest branches, there we leave the most wood. The most important pruning performed upon a tree is the jirst one, for it is this which makes all future manage- ment easy and successful, or difficult and unsatisfactory. This is the reason why it has appeared necessary to treat of it sominutely. Having encountered all the difficulties that others are likely to encounter, and having described them and pointed out the means by which they are to be overcome, it is believed that the matter has been made so plain, that any man of ordinary intelligence, and possess- ing the slightest knowledge of tree culture, can take his knife and prepare his trees in such a manner as to give him a most reasonable hope of attaining his ends. We now proceed to the Summer management of trees thus cut back.—We will first consider the case of the yearling without branches. If it has been cut low enough, as directed, nearly all the buds below the cut will push. As a space of six to twelve inches should be kept clear between the ground and the first or lowest tier of branches, such shoots as may appear on that part will be rubbed off at once. Of the re- maining ones, a certain number, three to six, according to the length of the stem, will be reserved. These must. be the strongest, and properly situated on the stem, within eight to ten inches of space between each branch, and that immediately above it, and regularly placed on all sides of the stem. Some recommend leaving on all the shoots that are produced the first season; but in certain cases this would be bad practice, for if the buds be very close, the shoots would be so numerous that the strength of all would be impaired, and much pruning would + THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 231 be required the next season. The better way is to select such as are wanted, and rub off the others; the sap which they would have appropriated will be turned to the ac- count of the permanent branch- es, and increase their vigor. The leading shoot must be directed in a straight line; in some cases a support may be necessary. If the branches immediately below it are so vigorous as to inter- fere with its growth, they must be checked by pinching. In some cases it may be necessary to do this when they are an inch or two in length. It some- times occurs that the bud cut to is injured by the weather, close cutting, or some other cause, and pushes sofeebly that \ the laterals below it, having more vigor, take the lead. This must be prevented in time. A proper relative degree of vigor must be maintained among all the branches by checking, when necessary, the most vigorous. The first summer’s treatment of the branched yearling (fig. 112) will consist in maintain- ing a uniform growth among the lateral branches, and in the Fig. 110. ease of the leading shoot, as al- 4 tro 3rell, yentee, aw ready described. Some lateral the first pruning. shoots will be produced on the branches, and these must all be pinched at an inch or two, as it is yet too soon to allow of the formation of secondary branches. The sum- 232 PRUNING. mer treatment of the two-year-old tree, fig. 110, will be conducted on the same principles. The encouragement of the leading shoot will require special attention to sc- cure it in an upright posi- tion, as, in many cases, where two-year-old wood is cut back, the leading shoots assume a horizontal or curved direction. The Second Pruning.— We have now a tree com- posed of two sections; the first is the two-year-old part, furnished with lateral branches; and the second, the leading shoot produced last season (fig. 113). In pruning it, our object will be to establish a new sec- tion of branches on the leader, to continue the pro- longment of the lower branches, and to induce the formation of fruit - spurs towards their base. To ac- complish these ends, we shorten the leader or stem, on the same principle, in re- lation to its character, as already directed for the yearling trees, from one- Pear-tree three years old, twice half to two-thirds its length, pruned; the third pruning is indicated gnd sometimes more. Everv by the cross-lines. bud between the one we cut to and the base of the shoot, should push; and the bud to produce the leader should be large, perfectly THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. Joe formed, and opposite the cut of the previous year. The lateral branches on the first section are shortened ac- cording to their vigor, always remembering that the lowest must be the longest, to carry out the pyramidal form. They should also be cut back sufficiently to insure the growth of all the buds on them. This point requires considerable care, for if not cut back enough, the interior of the trees becomes naked, instead of being supplied with shoots for bearing spurs; and if cut back too far, the shoots will be too vigorous and diffi- cult to control. The appearance of the buds, and habits of the variety, will be a sufficient guide, if properly studied. The lowest branch on the left-hand side of fig. 113, having failed to attain its proportionate growth, will be left entire, or nearly so. Treatment of the growing shoots.—W hen the buds have all started, and made a growth of an inch or two, their force and forwardness will indicate the uses to be made of them. Each of the main branches of the first section may be considered as a stem; its leader will require the same treatment to favor its extension. At this time a secondary branch may be required to fill up the space, which widens as the branches extend. If so, a shoot is selected for this purpose, and all the others on the same branch are checked at two inches, and converted into fruit branches. All the laterals are treated in this way. The second section, now in process of formation, must be managed as directed for the first section. During the first scason, the requisite number of shoots is preserved, and the superfluous ones removed carly. The leader is maintained erect; and the laterals immediately below it, being always inclined to vigorous growth, must be checked to keep them in a proper condition, relative to the leader and the branches below them. The leading shoot must always maintain its preéminence. It often happens that the lateral shoots of the main branches that have been 934 PRUNING. pinched will start and grow again. In such cases another pinching must be performed within an inch of the previ- Pear-tree four years old, three times pruned; cross-lines indicate the fourth pruning; will now be in a bearing state. ous one. As a gen- eral thing, this will be sufficient ; but if not, a third must be given in the same way; for if they be allowed to extend into wood branches, they . will require knife-pruning, and create confusion among all parts of the tree. A very general error in con- ducting trees of this kind, and in- deed all others, is to allow the branches to be too close to each other, so that when they come to bear, the wood, foli- age, and fruit, on the interior, are so ex- cluded from the air and light that they all suffer. The fruit is imperfect, and the spurs become feeble, and gradually per- ish. The tree has now two branched sections, each from twelve inches to two feet, as the case may be, and with THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 235 four to six branches on each; the leading shoot is from one to three feet in length. The average hight of three-year-old trees, on the quince, in our grounds, transplanted at one year old, and twice pruned, is five to six feet. A few very vigorous- growing varieties, that throw up a leader every season three to four feet in length, are seven to eight feet; but these are comparatively few in number. Third Pruning.—This is done on’ precisely the same principles laid down for the second. The leader of the stems is cut back in proportion to its vigor; the lateral branches are also shortened in the same manner. It must always be kept in mind that the lowest branches must be longest ; and when it happens that they do not take their due proportion of vigor, as compared with those above them, and if pinching has not been duly at- tended to the past summer, to maintain regularity, the weaker must now be favored with a Jong pruning. It has been remarked that the habits of growth and bearing of the pear and apple are similar, but it should be noted that, in treating them as pyramids, the apple- tree is more liable to lose its vigor at the top, and there- fore it is necessary to keep an eye to this point in their management. From what has been said with reference to an equal distribution of the sap, the remedy for this difficulty will be obvious, viz., to reduce the vigor of the lower parts by pinching, shortening, and heavy crops, and to favor the upper part by long pruning and thin- ning, or wholly removing the fruits. Management of the Fruit Branches.—About the sixth to the eighth year, from the first pruning of the tree, it will have attained nearly as great dimensions as, in many cases, will be desirable, and be well furnished with fruit branches. After this period, the object of the pruning will be to prevent the extension of the tree, and maintain the fruit- 236 PRUNING. bearing parts in a healthy and productive state. Without proper care they will be liable to suffer from bearing too much, or from the growth of young wood on the ex- Fig. 118.—PYRAMIDAL TRAINING COMPLETE. tremities of young branches. To diminish the growth, and favor the fruit branches, the young shoots | must be pruned shorter than before, in order to turn the sap more to the ben- efit of the fruits, and when the fruit-spurs become too numer- ous, so as to be too near one another, and produce more fruit than the tree can sustain. with safety, a portion of- them must be pruned off. The lower parts always experience this difficulty first, the sap circulating more slowly there than in the summit. Fruit-spurs of the pear and apple, if well managed, con- tinue in a vigorous bearing state for a great many years. To renew and prolong their vigor, the older parts must, from time to time, be cut away, and new productions created at their base to take their place. THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. Pas is Pruning and Management of the Apple as a Dwarf on the Paradise stock. Nothing is more simple than the treatment of these little bushes. They should have short stems, six to eight inches from the ground, and the head should not be allowed to exceed three to three and a halt feet in hight, because the roots are very small, and do not take such a firm hold of the ground as to admit of a head that would offer much ob- stacle to the wind. The branches should be evenly distrib- uted around the head, open in the center, in the form of a vase, and be furnished in all their parts with bearing spurs. These are the points to aim at In commencing the for- mation of these trees. The proceedings are as follows: First Pruning.—We will suppose that the subject is a yearling bud or graft, a single shoot eighteen to twenty inches in hight. In this case, the stem is cut back to the point where it is intended to form the head, six to ten inches, as the case may be, from the stock. Below this, most of the buds will start and form shoots, from which we select three or four of the strongest and best situated, equally distant, if possible, around the stem, and rub or pinch off all the others. The growth of the branches thus seiected for a head, is cncouraged during the first season, by keeping down all other productions that may appear. - Second Pruning.—The tree has now three or four branches destined to be the basis of the framework of the head. These branches are cut back full one half their length, according as the buds in the variety are casily excited or not, the object being to induce all the buds below the cut to push. After growth has commenced, and an inch or two of new wood been made, the shoot from the bud cut to, will be chosen as a leader to continue the extension of the branch; and if secondary branches are wanted, they will be chosen from those best situated, to fill up the ex- 238 PRUNING. isting vacancies. All the other shoots are pinched when two or three inches long, to convert them into fruit spurs, and to prevent their interfering with the growth of the wood branches. If one pinching is not sufficient, another must be given in the same way as recommended for pyram- idal trees. Indeed, the whole process, as far as it goes, is the same; but the same efforts are not necessary to maintain an equal distribution of the sap, for the tree is so low, and the form so natural, that no branch is more favorably situated than another; and hence they are easily kept in a uniform state of vigor. The branches of irregular-growing sorts will require to be secured by stakes in their proper places for a year or two at first, until they have assumed a permanent position. The third and all subsequent prunings will be con- ducted on the same principles as the first and second, already de- | scribed, until the tree has attained | its full size. Tig. 114 represents [ a dwarf apple-tree, four years old, , / three times pruned; the two last 1/ prunings are indicated by the let ) r ters a and 0. / Management of the Bearing Tree.—In most cases the apple on the Paradise is disposed to ex- cessive fruitfulness, and unless the : fruit branches be occasionally thinned and shortened, in order pwarr apple-tree, four years to reduce the number of bearing °!4, stem ten inches high, head buds, and to produce new wood, sod vevirsl dies ae eet ’ » and several secondary branches: the tree becomes enfeebled. Bad pruned three times, as at «a, d, management of this kind has pro- "°"'"" a 5 mulgated the belief that the apple on the Paradise is ex- ceedingly short-lived; but the fact that plantations exist in the most perfect vigor at the end of twelve to fifteen > Zi THE APPLE AND THE PEAR, 239 years after planting, shows that by proper treatment their existence is not so fleeting. The spurs must be managed in a manner similar to that described in treat- ing of pyramids, to renew them, and the slender fruit branches must be shortened. This, in addition to the manuring to be hereafter described, constitutes the sub- stance of their management. The Pruning and Management of the Apple and Fear as Lspaliers.—In the cool, moist climate of England, this is 2 popular and advantageous method of training apples and pears, The specimens of this kind in public and pri- vate gardens there, are admirable in their way, and illus- trate the skill and handiwork of the English gardener very favorably. The best espalier for the apple and pear is that of the Horizontal, that is, an upright central stem, with Fig. 115.—PpEAR-TREE TRAINED HORIZONTALLY. horizontal arms or branches at equal distances on both sides (fig. 115). The production of this tree depends in the main on the same principles as the pyramid, and does not require illustration. The young tree is cut back to within six inches of the ground. From the shoots pro- duced below that point, three are selected, the upper one to form the upright leader or stem, and two lateral or side ones to form the two first arms. The first season these shoots are allowed to grow upright and are kept in equal vigor. At the commencement of the second season 240 PRUNING. they are all cut back far enough, say one third to one half their length, or even more in some cases, to insure the growth of all the buds. The upper shoot on each is selected for a leader, and the others are pinched at two inches or less. After the pru- ning, the arms are brought down half way to a horizontal position, and towards the latter end of the season, wholly. A uniformity of growth among all the parts is main- tained according to the means and principles already laid down, and year after year the tree is thus treated until the requisite hight and number of horizontal arms or branches be obtained. In the case of very vigorous growing sorts the leader may be stopped in June, and thus a second pair of arms be produced in one year. The upright leader and the branches are treated in a similar manner—a difference in vigor always requiring a corre- sponding difference in treatment. For espaliers, the apple should be on the Paradise or Doucin, and the pear on the guince, because these stocks all diminish the vigor of wood growth, which is often the chief difficulty in managing trained trees. The aspect for these trees should never be due south. A railing to train such trees on, is made of upright posts sunk in the ground, and connected with cross-bars, at eight to twelve inches apart, upon which the arms of the espalier are fastened with willow or bass matting. Mr. Rivers, in his “ Miniature Fruit Garden,” exhibits a sys- tem of growing pears in espalier, in the form of pyramids, as adopted by himself. I saw these trees when in Eng- land, in 1849, and although it appeared a very ingenious and economical arrangement, admitting a great number of varieties in a small space, and besides very well adapted to an English climate, yet it did not appear to offer any advantages that would warrant its recommendation in this country, unless under rare circumstances in the most northern sections. Whoever will study attentively the _ THE PEAR. 241 means described for conducting a pyramid, can succeed fully in training the espaliers or wall pyramid. THE PEAR IN WINE-GLASS FORM. Captain Wm. K. Austin, of Dorchester, Mass., has very successfully adopted a method of training his dwarf pear- trees, which he calls the “ wine-glass pattern.” Hovey’s Magazine of Horticulture, February, 1865, contained a full account of this method of training by Captain A. himself, and I extract from that the following condensed statement: “T take good, thrifty dwarf trees, say two years from the bud; I set them out in April, eight feet apart, in rows, and the rows twelve or fifteen feet apart. I cut off the top, or head it back, cutting out the center leader, if any, and prepare the tree for a low start. The first season the growth is usually small, but the second spring (a year from planting) they are prepared to start vigor- ously, and must be headed back or cut in, and the tree formed this second summer into the form you desire it to take. A certain number of leaders, ten or twelve, may be allowed to grow, the lower ones about eighteen inches - from the ground, with a clean stem below that. “Nothing but these /eaders are allowed to grow—no central leader, but all equally distributed. All side shoots and spray are kept down by nipping or cutting off with very light shears, leaving always three or four leaves at the base of the twig. “These leaders, having all the sap, grow fast, and must be topped, when too long, about the 10th of July, or sooner, if necessary, to check and concentrate the ener- gies of the tree, and stock it up. This may have to be repeated more than once, but if topped too early, the tendency is to throw out more side shoots, and increase the labor. After the 10th or middle of July, the growth 11 249 PRUNING. becomes sluggish during the hot weather, and if in the fall they start to growing again, the same process must be repeated, and thus all the pruning is done during the growing season. CORDON TRAINING. 243 “This being done each year, the tree is constantly in shape; no saw is required to remove large limbs and waste its energies, and no sap lost in superfluous growth. The wood being exposed to the sun and air, ripens well, and predisposes to the production of fruit spurs and buds, and thus early bearing is secured.” I saw these trees of Captain Austin’s not long ago, and was delighted, not only with the symmetry, regularity, and naturalness of their form, but with their vigor, health, and productiveness. It is really a model pear garden. The system is exactly that pursued by the French in the management of their “ cordons,” and Captain Austin’s “leaders” are “ cordons.” His “ wine-glass” trees are like the French “ vase,” or ** goblet,” but less artificial. Captain Austin does not tie or restrain the branches in any way, but leaves them free to spread after their natural habit, and that is one feature of the system that, in my opinion, adds much to its value, CORDON TRAINING, M. Dubreuil says that, “ with all the progress we have made in arboriculture, in the employment of means for the speedy attainment of certain ends, it still requires six- teen to eighteen years to perfect the form of an espalier pear-tree in any of the large designs, such as palmette, fan, etc., which cover from thirty to sixty square feet of wall (eighteen to twenty metres). “Add to this the labor, care, and skill required to obtain these forms in perfection, and the means necessary to riaintain an equal growth and vigor between the differ- ent parts of the tree, objects which are so complicated that a large number of gardeners fail in their execution. “Struck by these difficulties, we have sought to remedy them by suggesting a new form which, much less difficult to establish than any of the others, permits the surface of 244 PRUNING, a wall to be covered much sooner, and brings the trees into full bearing at a much earlier period, without abridg- ing their duration. We have given to this new method, invented by us, for the pear, in 1852, the name of ‘ Cordon Oblique Simple.’ Its application is made as follows: “Take young trees, one year from the graft or bud, healthy and vigorous, having single stems; plant about eighteen inches apart, and incline one from the other, at an angle of about 60°. “Hach one is cut back one-third its length, above a bud, in front, as at A, fig. 117. During the summer fol- lowing, the development. of the terminal shoot is favored as much as possible, and all the others are transformed into fruit branches or spurs by the aid of these operations, recommended for the same purpose, in training the pear as a pyramid. In the spring following, each of these young trees presents the aspect of fig. 118. “The second pruning con- sists in applying to each of the lateral branches the care Fig. 117.—OBLIQUE CORDON necessary to transform them PEAR—FIRST YEAR. . : into fruit-spurs, and to cut back one-third the new terminal shcot. The summer treatment will be like that of the preceding. “ At the third pruning, the young stem should ordina- rily attain two-thirds its entire length, when it should be brought down to an angle of 45° with the surface of the ground; and the terminal shoot and laterals are subjected to the same operations as in previous seasons. If these trees had been brought down at first to an angle of 45°, it * CORDON TRAiNING. 245 would have promoted the growth of strong superfluous shoots at the base, to the detriment of the terminal shoot. “To complete these trees, it remains only to continue to prolong the stem, by means of the operations described, until it reaches the top of the wall. Having reached that, the stems are cut, each year, about fifteen inches below the coping of the wall, in order to make place for the annual growth of a vigorous shoot, which will cause the sap to circulate freely through the whole extent of the stem.” “‘ As to the side of the horizon to- wards which the tree should be in- clined, this is a matter of no import- ance where the walls run east and west ; but for those north and south, the stems should be inclined to the south; the fruit branches en the lower sides will thus be better ex- posed to the light. It is reeommend- ed, however, that where the walls are situated on sloping ground, the trees Ai should be inclined towards the summit Fig. 118.—oBi1quE cor- of the slope, otherwise they would , P°% Pe ar attain the top of the wall toosoon, °;.°"*: | + “The trees being planted about eishieen saokaa apart; it results that the espalicr, W hen complete, is-composee of" branches, lying parallel, with a space of aturt’2 fect “be- tween face, asin fig. 119. +. *" “The Eiatiecs, cued in this Srp’ ‘cm: ve completed in five years, whereas, by other methods; it-weuld require ten or twelve. “They may begin to fruit the fourth year, and be in full bearing the sixth, while twenty years would be required by the other methods. 246 PRUNING. “Another advantage of importance is, that on the same extent of wall required for an espalier of the large kind, you can have a great many cordons, each of which may be a different variety, thus greatly increasing the interest of the plantation. “ Besides, if a large espalier tree dies, it makes a great blank on a wall, and requires a quarter of a century to Vie oat ; if = Seen eee 5 SS oe SS, ee Se i Fig. 119.—OBLIQUE CORDON PEAR-TREES. replace it; but if a cordon dies, the blank is a small one, and very soon filled up with a new tree. “The fol: owing Sb acs have been urged against this for me = See ry ek “Tt has been feared that keeping the tree in such a small space wil} induce such vigorous growth as to pre- ven$ fuivsfulmesss Fig. 183.—TRELLIS OF WIRES AND POSTS. the ground. Now place upright wires, secured at the top and bottom, so that they will slide to meet the wants of the shoots of the vine. This wire may be of No. 14 or 16. It is not absolutely essential that the trellis be built until the vines have grown one season; but if the vines do well, the cost of supplying temporary stakes, ete., will more than balance the interest on the cost of the trellis. With the vine planted and trellis built we have next to understand Pruning.—It must first be observed that the grape- vine bears its fruit on shoots of the current year, produced 276 PRUNING. from eyes on the previous year’s wood. Fig. 134 repre- sents the old wood, with its bearing shoot. It is impor- tant to understand this, because it shows the necessity of keeping up a supply of young wood wherever we desire fruit to be produced. It is immaterial what method of training be pursued, this principle of production must always be remembered. To illustrate the pruning, we will suppose the plant to be one or two years old, as ordinarily sent out from the nursery. It may have only one shoot, or it may have sey- eral. However this may be, all are pruned off but the Fig. 134.—FRUITING BRANCH OF THE GRAPE. The cross-line near the end shows where it ought to be stopped. strongest, and it is cut back to within two eyes of its base. These two eyes will produce shoots, and when they have made a growth of two or three inches, the weaker | one is rubbed off and the strong one trained up. It is al- lowed to grow on until September, when the end of the shoot is pinched to mature and strengthen it. Any side shoots that appear during the summer should be pinched off, as well as any suckers that may appear about the roots. Fig. 135 shows the condition of the plant or vine at the close of the first season’s growth, and the cross-mark the line at which to cut in pruning for the Second Year.—lIf the shoot of last year made a strong growth of ten or twelve feet, it may be now cut back to three eyes, and two canes be trained up; but if it made THE GRAPE. par iy | only a weak growth, it should again be cut back to two eyes, and one shoot only trained up. Side shoots, laterals, or “ thallons,” as they are some- times called, should be carefully watch- | ed, and as soon as a leaf has formed one inch in diameter the shoot should be pinched off just beyond it, with thumb and finger. In ashort time this leaf will have become of full size, and the bud at its base have matured and again pushed forth a new shoot, which should be stopped as at first. This sometimes occurs two, three, or more times in a season. No suckers from below the main canes should be per- mitted to grow. In September these canes are to be stopped as before, and no fruit allowed. Third Year.—We have now two strong canes with which we commence the framework of the vine. Each of these is cut back at the winter pruning to within two or three feet, not buds, of its base, bent in the form of a bow, and tied to the lower wire of the trellis. After the buds have started in the spring, and made a growth of four to six inches, these canes should be loosen- ed and laid in, as in fig, 136, and fast- ened to the lower horizontal bar of the trellis. The bud on the end of each at ¢, will produce a shoot to con- tinue the prolongment in a horizontal pic. 135,—yine at THE direction, and a bud (a) on the upper £ND or THE FIRST YEAR. side of each will produce a shoot to be trained to one of the upright bars—the first one on its division, or half of 278 PRUNING. its trellis; all others are rubbed off, or the buds cut out. Thus each of these arms produces two shoots—an up right and a horizontal one. During the summer, these ——— —_ — ————~ ——. Fig. 136,— VINE WITH ITS ARMS LAID DOWN. The arms to be shortened atc, the bud a to be allowed to produce a shoot. shoots are carefully tied in as required, the side shoots pinched off from time to time, and all suckers rubbed out as they appear. They are also stopped in September, as before. Fourth Year.—Each of last year’s shoots is cut back to within three feet of its base. It may be necessary to cut the horizontal ones closer than the upright ones, to obtain another strong upright shoot. The two upright canes already es- tablished will pro- duce a shoot from their tops, to con- tinue their exten- sion upwards, and the horizontal ones, as before, produce a shoot at the point to be carried out- Fig. 187. wards, and one on Vine with horizontal arms, A, A, and upright per- the top to be train- manent canes, spur-pruned. ed up to one of the upright bars. This year several fruit shoots will be produced, on each of which one or two bunches of grapes may be ripened. In this way the vine goes on adding every season two new upright canes, and two or three feet in length to the previous ones, until the whole trellis is covered; when the management will consist in THE GRAPE. 279 pruning the spurs every winter to about threeeyes. Each fruit branch should only be allowed to produce two bunches of fruit, and when the shoot has made four to six leaves beyond the last bunch of fruit the end should be pinched. This will, of course, cause the full development of the foliage, and in a short time the last bud wi!l push out a side shoot or lateral, which must again and again be pinched as it grows. The object of this is to arrest the production of useless wood and turn the sap to the benefit of the fruit. Fig. 187 represents the appearance of a vine trained in this way. By such a system as this the trellis is covered in every part with bearing wood, the fruit and the foliage are all exposed fully to the sun, a uniformity of vigor is main- tained between the different parts, and the appearance is beautiful. | There are many other forms of training, each of which has its merits and its advocates, but it should always be remembered that the tendency of sap in all vegetation is toward the extreme shoot, or end, and any system of training that assists that will soon render weak and barren the buds nearest the crown. The Thomery system, so called from its being practised in a little village of that name in France, is one of the neatest and most systematic, as well as effective when thoroughly practised, but it re- quires considerable skill and much labor. It is, in_ brief, to form the trellis as we would for any other mode, only making it higher, the placing the vines at equal distances, and training the first and third with arms to the lower wire; the second and fourth have the main stem carried up to the second wire, where the arms are formed. In fruiting, canes are grown annually from spurs along these arms, and tied as they grow to the upright wires on the trellis. It is estimated that to keep a vine in good bearing condition, it should not cover, at any time, over six to eight feet of one wire of the trellis, and, as before 280 PRUNING, stated, if the trellis is required to be high, it may be so done by first training the main stem of the vine to the hight of trellis wire upon which it is to be grown. Another mode, termed the Guyot system, consists in growing two canes upon the vine the second year, one of which is cut back to two buds, and the other to two or three feet, and tied down to the lower wire (see fig. 138). Upon this lower or horizontal cane, the fruit is grown, and the shoots, as they extend, are tied to the next wire above. The two canes from the spur are grown to about five feet, when they are stopped in, and all the season the pinching of the side shoots, or laterals, is continued, and all suckers rubbed away. This system is modified or changed in the hands of some growers, by not fruiting the horizontal cane the first year it is laid in, but pinching off all fruit, and carrying upright canes, to be stopped at the second or third wire, according to strength of vine, and on them to make the fruit the following year. This is again changed by some growers spurring back each al- ternate cane springing from the horizontal one, and so fruiting alternately. Others, again, cut back these upright canes from the arm in proportion as they extend from the mainvine. The upright cane nearest the main vine is thus left, say two feet, and the next from it fourteen inches, and THE GRAPE. 281 so reducing that the end of the arm has only a bud from which to grow a new cane (see fig. 139). This is sup- posed to assist in more equally distributing the flow of sap. The upright canes from the main vine are yearly cut back and renewed for use as arms when wanted. In cases where the modes of training above described J = ye \l = po ETT YA ERT Fig. 139.—VINE ON THE GUYOT SYSTEM. cannot be conveniently adopted, two or three poles, twelve to fifteen feet high, may be sunk in the ground, with a space of three or four feet between them at the bottom, and fastened together at the top, forming a cone around which the permanent canes may be trained in a spiral manner. This produces a very beautiful effect, and occupies com- paratively little space, but the grapes will not all ripen so 282 PRUNING. well, nor will the training be so easy as on the flat surface of a trellis. Another way of arranging the poles is with the tops outwardly, and securing them at distances by hoops. This mode gives light and air to the vine, but requires good stout poles, well set in the ground, to support it against strong winds. Very tasteful arbors may also be made over some of the walks, by training the vine over the wood-work, or wire frame, in the same manner as on a trellis. This is a very common practice and offers many advan- tages. Ingenious persons who care well for their garden, as well in its appearance as its productions, will conceive other plans still better adapted to their particular wants and taste than any of these; but the main point must always be kept in view, that is, to provide for the foliage a free, open exposure to the sun. Any system that does not secure this, will fail to a greater or less extent. In the management of a grape-vine, as in the manage- ment of other trees, summer pruning, 7. é., pinching the ends of shoots, not cutting away of foliage, is of great consequence. Ifavine is left to itself all summer, or from one winter pruning to another, it will be found that a vast quantity of useless wood has been produced, and that to the serious detriment of the bearing shoots for the follow- ing year. The growing vine should be frequently visited, shoots tied in, strong ones checked, superfluous ones rubbed off, and every part kept in its proper place, and in a proper degree of vigor. VINEYARD CULTURE, A quarter of a century since, taking our knowledge of position, soils, etc., from the vineyards of Europe, we sup- posed that hill-sides, or warm, sheltered positions only, were suited to the culture of the grape, but thanks to the THE GRAPE, 283 energy and spirit of trial which pervades the people of this country, we have now such a variety, and so suited to soils, climates, and localities, that the culture of the grape may be said to be adapted, in the way of profitable culture, to nearly every variety of soil, climate, or location. The quantity of grapes produced as an item of profit per acre, depends much upon soils, location, nearness to market, and variety grown. The statements of growers vary greatly in the amount, all the way from one and a half tons to five and six tons per acre, and the gross re- ceipts are given all the way from three hundred to eight hundred dollars. Such varieties as the Concord, Isabella, etc., it may be safely estimated, will produce one year with another from two to three tons, and the Delaware, Miles, etc., from one and a half to two tons per acre. Seasons, insects, and diseases, care and culture will, of course, vary results, and while the grower may one season obtain four tons to the acre, the same vines another year may not produce over one ton of fine, marketable fruit. It should, however, be remembered that, while certain varieties of the grape can be grown in varied soils and locations, there is a requisite to be obtained for the pro- duction of the richest grapes and the best vines; that requisite being in the sugar contained in the fruit, and only to be had in the grape when planted in soil and location exactly suited to its best development. The grower who seeks only for a table market, has first to select the variety to meet his soil and location, and then to grow large berries and bunches, well colored, and just sufficiently matured to make them vinously sweet. The grower for wine purposes must have another view— for his crop value depends upon the full maturation of the sugar in his grapes. Soils and Sitwation.—Although we have said such is the variety of grapes now cultivated that some one may 284 PRUNING. be selected for nearly every soil and location, yet we do not thereby desire to convey the idea that all soils and lo- cations are equally adapted to the grape. Our experience and observation have taught us that it is only upon a com- paratively few locations and soils that the best grapes are produced. A high elevation, sloping to the east and south, or, if a large lake or body of water he on the north, then a gentle slope to the south, as along the south shore of Lake Erie, with a soil of clay underlaid with broken shale rock, is, perhaps, the best of all soils and lo- cations. The next to this is a rolling and moderately ele- vated position, adjacent to some large body of water, a stiff clay, with an underlay of shale rock; next, is the same location with a clay soil resting on a grayel bed. The next is a good, rich, clayey loam, resting upon a shele or gravel bed, and lying nearly level; and the last we would use for the grape, in any case, is a light, sandy loam, resting either upon a compact yellow sand or a gravel. This last will produce fine, handsome bunches, of many varieties, but the durability of vines in such localities is doubtful. Shelter.—Shelter is not indispensable to all vineyards, but many localities exposed to violent winds may be benefited materially by the planting of groups or masses of trees, at proper distances, on the side from whence come the strongest winds. Evergreens ameliorate the temperature of the winds better than deciduous trees, but, in absence of them, the planting of Beech, Maple, etc., will assist in checking the liability to sudden changes, and protect the vines and fruit from the effects of the high wind, which, as we now write, October, 1871, has done much damage to our own vineyard. Preparation of the Soil—The first preparation of the soil is an important item in the forming of a vineyard. The vigor and healthiness of the first and second years’ growth of the vine often decide their future. No young THE GRAPE. 285 plants, with small fibrous roots, can be made to grow rapidly unless the soil be fine andrich. This applies to the grape-vine ; hence the necessity of making the soil for the planting of the vineyard deep and rich at the outset. If the land is level so that it can be plowed, then plow it as deep as possible with the common plow, and foliow in the furrow with a subsoil plow, thus loosening the ground. toa depth of not less than sixteen to twenty inches, the | deeper the better. Hill-sides not too steep may be pre- pared by using a side-hill plow, and in plowing leaving a strip of three or four feet unplowed at distances of from eight to twenty feet, for the purpose of prevent- ing washing. Very steep hill-sides must be dug with the pick and spade. If the ground is not what is called in good heart, but has been cropped yearly without manure, it should be dressed with a coat of ashes, bone- dust, or well-rotted barn-yard manure, and worked in with the harrow or cultivator. Time to Plant.——Where the soil is well drained, or of a light sandy or loamy character,and the climate not too se- vere, we should prefer to plant in the fall. In such case we should cover the entire plant with an inch or so of soil, to be removed as soon as the frost will permit, in the spring. The advantages of planting in the fall are, that as a rule the ground works better, and the work is therefore better done; add to this that the earth becomes well settled among the roots and often new fibres will be thrown out, ready for growth ia spring. But we have planted at all periods, when the ground would work, from October to June, and, if our plants were in good condition, have been successful. Kind of Plants—Vines one or two years old, with well-ripened tops and roots, the latter one quarter of an inch in diameter, are perhaps the best, whether grown from single or triple-eyed cuttings, or by layers. Distance to Plant-—The distance apart at which to 286 PRUNING. plant must depend upon the soil, variety, and mode of training, separately and collectively. Nearly all varieties have a tendency to make more wood in light, sandy, grav- elly, or loamy soils, than on clays. Strong, rampant- growing sorts, as the Concord, Ives’, Norton’s Virginia, Clinton, etc.,on loamy or rich soils, should have at least ten or twelve feet space on the row, and the rows eight feet apart. If the ground is of a heavy clay, then the distance on the rows may be reduced two feet. For varieties like Catawba, Iona, etc., eight feet apart each way is about right. Delaware, Walter, and other short- jointed varieties may be planted at six feet in the rows, the rows eight feet. The above, if the training is to be upon trellis, in any of the renewal modes. If the train- ing is to be on stakes, in the serpentine or bow system, then the distance may be reduced one foot each way. For very long pruning and training on trellis, the distance must be increased, some cultivators planting at twelve feet, with the vines eighteen feet apart in the row. Depth to Plant.—In heavy soils the upper tier of roots should always have at least four to five inches of earth over them, and in light or dry soils six to eight inches. Pruning—when and how.—For the annual or winter pruning the best time is as soon as the wood is ripened in the fall, but the work may be done any time until the warmth of spring starts a rapid circulation of sap. Never eut close to a bud, but leave an inch or two of wood be- yond. For summer pruning, see Garden Culture, page 276, and for the lengthof wood left at the winter pruning, refer to the method of training that it is proposed to practise. Modes of Training.—Under the head of Garden Cul- ture, we have described several modes of training that are sometimes practised in the vineyard, to which the reader is referred. In Ohio and Missouri, the mode gen- erally practised is called the renewal-cane system, and con- THE GRAPE. 287 sists in yearly cutting away all the wood of two years old or more. The vine is taken, say at the close of the second summer, with, as supposed, three good strong canes grown from a point near the ground; two of these canes are cut back to from four to six feet, according to the strength of the vine, and are tied to the lower wire in a bowed shape (see fig. 140), while the third cane is cut back to three or five buds, according to the age and vigor of the vine. The long bent canes are for fruiting, while on the shoots that grow from the centre cane all the fruit is rubbed off. The next season the bearing canes —F-= Fig. 140.—Bow TRAINING. are cut away, two or three new canes are laid in for fruit, the centre cane cut back as before, for new shoots, and so from year to year the practice repeated. Some vignerons practise training and fruiting by leaving very long canes, with more or less of the laterals, these latter being pruned to one or two buds, from which, it is claimed, some of the best fruit is grown. Such varieties as the Clinton, Nor- ton’s Virginia, Concord, etc., are by some considered best when grown in this way. Training upon stakes is a practice esteemed by many as giving better circulation of air among the vines. Some use two stakes, on one of which two canes of the previ- Dsl: a PRUNING. ous year’s growth are tied spirally (see fig. 141), and on the other the new shoots are conducted as they grow, and tied so as not to be removed. In the winter pruning these canes are shortened, and those that bore last year are cut down for the production of new canes, Another practice is to use three stakes, on the centre one of which the new shoots are grown, and on the two outside ones a cane is train- ed for fruiting. Another system of training on stakes is to cut back the vine to three or four eyes for fruiting, and two or so for new canes; the whole, then, as they grow, are trained to the one stake. This practice answers for some weak growers, or for those with sparse foliage, but is not advisable with : strong-growing, vigorous sorts. Fig. ee ea For more complete details of = modes of grape-growing and prun- ing, we refer to the various valuable books devoted ex- clusively to the subject. CULTURE OF FOREIGN GRAPES IN COLD VINERIES, Repeated experiments made during many years in all parts of the country, have convinced people generally that the delicious varieties of the foreign grape cannot be pro- duced with any considerable degree of success in the open air. A large number of the hardiest French and German sorts have been tested in our ground, but not one of them has borne satisfactorily. A few good bunches have been obtained the first season or two under very favorable cir- THE GRAPE. .289 cumstances; but after that the failure is complete. This has rendered glass, heat, and shelter necessary. The Buildings.—These are constructed of all sizes and at various degrees of expense. Some have single lean-to roofs; others have double or span roofs. The walls of some are built of brick or stone; others are wholly of wood. The cheapest and simplest structure of this kind is the lean-to. The back may be nine or ten feet high, composed of strong cedar posts six feet apart, and boarded up on both sides. The ends are made in the same manner. The front may be two or three feet high, made of posts, and boards or planks, same as the back. Sills or plates are put on the front and back wails, and then rafters at three anda half to four feet apart. The sashes slip in between the rafters, and rest on a strip of wood on their sides. Unless the grapery be very small, the sash should be in two parts, the lower one twice as long as the upper, and fixed; the upper to slide down over the under one on pulleys, to ventilate the house. Doors are in each end at the back, and means are provided tor admitting air in front by the opening of boards like shutters. But acheap structure is not the best economy, and while such may be admissible, on a merely commercial place, it would be out of character in any neatly kept grounds. The maxim, that “whatever is worth doing is worth doing we'l,” holds good in the construction of a grapery, and therefore, however plain the architecture of the de- sign, the materials should be of the best, the arrangement convenient, and the putting together done in a workman- like manner. Lean-to or single-roof houses may frequently be built against the south or east side of a wall or out-building, and thus can be constructed cheaply, but a span-roofed house is much the best. Fig. 142 gives a good representation of a single-roof ee 5 PS eta ne a 7 : 299 TUE GRAPE. | | house against a wall, and fig. 143 represents a span cur- vilinear - roofed house, 20 x 30 feet, which we have built upon our own grounds and found very successful. Fig. 144 is a representation of a straight - roof. house, for cold grapery, taken from Woood- — ward’s Graperies. Position of Fouse.—A south or south - east fronting is the best for a lean-to house, and for span roofs anorth and south line af- fords the most equal amount of sunlight. The border is made for the vines outside the front wall, or part outside and part in, twelve to six-— teen feet wide, F Ha ih also two or three iy rie eee deep. This is done by digging a trench or pit the length and width; ATMA, ———= cc ceo IO Fig. 142.—SINGLE-ROOF HOUSE AGAINST A WALL (From Woodward's Graperies). . THE GRAPE. 291 draining it thoroughly, that not a drop of water can lodge about it. Then lay a few inches of small stones, broken bricks, shells, etc., in the bottom for drainage; and fill up the remainder, six inches to two feet above the level of the ground, and sloping outwards, with a good compost, of three-fourths surface loam (turf from an old pasture), and the other of well-rotted stable manure. All these must be prepared by frequent turning and mixing a few months beforehand, | The vines may be one or two years old, and are prefer- Wa Hyp Z Fig. 143.—sPAN CURVILINEAR-ROOFED HOUSE. able raised in pots from single eyes. They should be planted in the spring. A plant is placed under each rafter outside, or inside, and carried through under the wall into the house. The stem is cut back to two or three eyes, and when these break the strongest shoot is selected, and the others pinched off. This shoot 1s trained, as it grows, toa light trellis of iron, or thick wire rods attached to the rafter, and twelve to fifteen inches from the glass. If all goes well, it reaches the top of the house that sea- son. In September the top may be pinched to check the flow of sap, and throw it more into the lateral buds to increase their strength. During the summer no other shoot is allowed to grow but this. 292 THE GRAPE. Pruning.—In November or December it is taken down, pruned, if according to the spur system, which is the igh SP eat simplest, to within Wiel Mh dir three or four feet of | its base, laid on the ground, and covered with leaves, evergreen boughs, or mats. There it remains till the buds begin to swell in. the spring, when it is again fastened to the trellis. The shoot from the terminal bud cor- tinues the cane, and no fruit is allowed on it. Those below it pro- duce lateral shoots, from each of which a bunch of grapes may be taken, and cach of these must be stopped at three eyes above the bunch ; and this is repeated as often as necessary, to give the fruit the whole benefit of the sap. The lead- ing shoot is again stopped in September by pinching off its point, to increase the vigor of its lateral : | buds. In. the fall, when the leaves ee doped the vine is again taken down. The leader is pruned back to» wien three to Fig. 144.—sTRAIGHT-ROOF COLD-GRAPERY (From Woodward's Graperies). THE GRAPE. 293 four feet of the old wood. The laterals that have borne are pruned to three eyes, and it is then covered up. This is the routine of spur training. In lang cane pruning, the young shoot, after the first season’s orowth, is cut back to three eyes, and the next season two shoots are trained up. The next season the strongest is selected for fruit, and pruned to about three feet ; each of the eyes left will pro- duce a fruit shoot, from which one bunch only will be taken, The weaker cane is cut back to one eye, and this produces ashoot for next year’s bearing, and so this goes on. When the vine becomes strong, several bearing canes may be provided for every season. - This renewal or long cane is very simple, and requires much less cutting than the spur. It also produces a superior quality of fruit, but in general not so large a quantity. Thinning the Fruit—When the fruit attains the size of a garden pea, one third of the smaller ones should be cut out carefully with pointed scissors (see implements) that are prepared for this purpose. The object. of this is, to allow the fruits to swell out to their full size. Varieties that produce very compact bunches require more severe thinning than those of a loose, open bunch. ‘Cleaning the Vine.—At the time the vines are taken from their winter quarters and trellised, they should be well washed with a solution of soft soap and tobacco- water, to kill all eggs of insects, and remove all loose bark and filth that may have accumulated on them during the season previous. The house, too, should be cleaned and renovated at the same time. Syringing the Vines and the Fruit.—Every one who has a grapery must be provided with a good hand-syringe, for this is necessary during the whole season. As soon as they begin to grow, they should be occasionally syringed in the morning, except while they are in bloom. After the fruit has set, they should be syringed every evening, and the house kept closed until the next forenoon when 294 ORCHARD ILOUSES. the sun is out warm. The inside border should receive frequent and ample supplies of water. In a dry time the outside border should also be freely watered. Kegulating the Temperature.—W hen the temperature exceeds ninety to one hundred degrees, air should be ad- mitted at the top, and, if necessary, at the bottom. The admission of abundance of air is one of the important features of the management of the grapery. To Prevent Mildew.—This may be looked for in July. Syringing freely night and morning, and the admission of air during the warmest hours of the day, are the best pre- ventives of this disease. Dust sulphur on the floor, at the rate of one pound for every twenty square feet; andif the mildew continues to increase, syringe the vines in the even- ing, and dust the foliage with sulphur. This is but an imperfect outline of the management of a cold grapery. Those who wish full information on all points of the subject, should consult some of the special treatises on the culture of the grape under glass. ORCHARD HOUSES. The advantages of glass structures for the growing of all varieties of fruits are but yet little appreciated. By means of the orchard house, peaches, apricots, and indeed all varieties of fruits may be grown without fear of insects or frost. By it the owner of a small garden or city lot can secure to himself a large amount of fruit grown in a small space, and at a time when it cannot be purchased. To the commercial fruit-grower the orchard house of- fers pecuniary profit from the sale of fruit; and to the nurseryman it is becoming yearly more and more a neces- sity, toward testing the correctness of new varieties from * hich to propagate. The construction of an orchard house is similar to that ORCHARD HOUSES. 295 of a grapery, except that it should be higher at the sides, with the roof more flattened, in order that the trees may be brought as near the glass as possible. Ventilation is an important item, as too great heat, or a confined atmos- phere, are incompatible with success. A span-roof house should have ventilators all along the bottom and top, and lean-to houses require even more openings tlan span-roofs. Mr. Rivers, of England, who first set in motion the art of fruiting trees in the house, built his first houses like sheds, or what is termed lean-to, and so far the most of the structures erected in this country for this purpose have been of that style. The house of Mr. Pullen, in New Jersey, which has proved a commercial success, is fourteen fect wide and one hun- P dred feet long. The house of | Mr. Lovering is the same width, with the back wall twelve feet and the front wall four feet high. Fig. 145 is an end view, taken from Dr. Norris’ work on |, “Fruit Trees in Pots,” in which # 4 the interior arrangement is y ti X\ _ given as follows: “The fruit i \\ \j border (three feet six inches ” wide) is raised nine inches above the walk (which is two feet six inches wide); the first back border is three feet wide and raised sixteen inches above the walk. The second back border is raised one foot above the front one and is four feet wide.” In “ Peach Culture,” by J. A. Fulton, a lean-to honse, twelve feet wide by fifty feet long, is described, with the back wall fourteen fect high and the front four feet (see fig. 146). In this house it will be seen that the lower range of sash is hung on hinges to a plate securing the lower ends of the upper sash, and no other ventilation is sup- plied, except by the opening of doors, It is designed, in Fig. 145.--END VIEW OF HOUSE. ORCHARD HOUSES. 295: . 3 in the ground, not in pot | is house, to grow the plants i own ee ie - practice which we, from our —a or tubs ° nd. ie eS ewe built upon our own g1 a a P e ears sine Ss uate twenty-five by seventy ae a pe: Es 3 nterior ¢ ge- roof fe ‘Sacpeeeially (fig. 147 ). peek Ri i “th border along the sides, a w ment 1s Wl LI: — — = YYyy Y | i meat i — HUAN | ae IN | i il maa I ' Uti i ATT UT Nt ’s Peach Culture). Fig. 146.—preacu-House (from Fulton's P r tables all on ll d, and a bed in center, the beds o vel. a lean-to, by ie seb ee of a span-roof Ae of thee and the a ae and more equable rate: rae . Sen < A e eyes lame ane ae desirable. C d inside, point to it as the m i ble’ heise eee Sane oaate ee a section of a mova 1 teen 18 gs] ates Be ts, the house fourteen fect w re built in England apie tt as desired. These houses oe rot Teter aa ee ne fe is from Pearson—but we do 1 —our Ssketc i y. ivers was of trees in this country. ; Mr Rivers eae Although the first race ne yet he has found the t1n¢1a ? 4 h wus a. i e free from ar ope: Me é ps ae ne heating, and it is proved advantag _ ORCHARD HOUSES. 297 certain amount of artificial heat is necessary, in order to get the fruit much in advance of what it would be out of doors. Varieties of Trees.—The peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, and cherry are the fruits for which the orchard-house may be said to have been specially designed, and if the house be small, they alone should occupy it. Large houses will, of course, give room for the pear and apple, for the fig, orange, etc. It is not absolutely necessary that the varieties be IM re iO i ; ith HE cK oa | i eps IE \ Fig 147. --SPAN-ROOF ORCHARD-HOUSE. worked on stocks as dwarfs, but when such can be had, the peach and nectarine on the plum, and the cherry on the mahaleb, will be found to assist toward early maturity, and the compressed artificial growth which the restricted limits of this mode of culture command. Trees in Tubs or Pots.—The first orchard-house grow-. ing of trees was in pots, but we have found in practice that boxes of about fifteen inches diameter at top, ten inches at bottom, and twenty inches deep, with the bot- tom board set an inch or more above the side pieces (see fig. 149), and with holes for drainage, gave us better stow- age when we desired to pack away the trees for winter, and were also less liable to accident and injury, which sometimes occur from breaking of pots. It has been asserted that the porous nature of the pots was an advan- tage, but we found success in the boxes, as do hundreds of 13s* 298 ORCHARD HOUSES. others who for years grow oleanders, figs, oranges, etc., in tubs. One-year-old trees from the nursery are the best with which to commence. Management.—The young tree being potted, using good, fresh turf loam two parts, and one part well-decomposed manure, cut it back to about one foot, and if there are any side branches grown, cut them back to one or two buds. The first season the tree may be grown in the open air, the pots or boxes plunged in the ground. As the LO we X G —4 an “a | “yy S = Fig. 148.—SECTION OF MOVABLE HOUSE ON IRON SUPPORTS. young shoots grow, the side branches should be stopped when they have made a foot or so of growth. Watering must be attended .to during the heat of summer, but as autumn approaches it should be graduated, in order to have the wood ripen off finely. In autumn, as soon as the wood is well ripened, or on approach of cold weather, the trees should be removed to the house, the boxes plunged in soil, and the whole covered with mats or straw. If the house is not ready, the trees may be stacked on their sides in a shed, and pro- tected by having straw or leaves packed in, among, around, and over them. We have found this practice quite successful and much Superior to that of a cellar. “ae ae time will assist greatly in fer- ORCHARD HOUSES. 299 If fire heat is to be used, it should be started sometime in January, and the temperature by day kept at from 80° to 90°, sinking at night to from 40° to 50°. If the fruit is to be obtained by means only of the protection and heat of the glass, then the trees should remain covered \ \ until all risk of severe frosts ac has passed. As the season | advances the heat will, of course, be increased. Great care should be given to the watering, keeping the trees always moist, but never wet, and also to ventilation. The spring or winter pruning is best done just as the trees come into bloom, but if the summer pinching is attend- ed to there will be little or no occasion for any winter pruning. The introduction of bees into the house at blooming ! tilization. In their absence the tree should be occasion- Fix. 149.—rREE GROWN IN Box. ally jarred by a slight blow from the hand. As the period of ripening approaches, or as soon as they begin to show color, the trees should be removed to a warm, sheltered spot in the open air, and the boxes plunged in the ground. During the season, or until the tubs are removed to the open air, for ripening the fruit, they should be lifted and turned every ten days to check the growth of outside roots. Watering with liquid manure assists in giving vigor to the tree, and size 300. ORCHARD ILOUSES. to the fruit. The aphis and red spider are best kept in check by fumigating with tobacco. Propagating Houses.—Small glass houses for the pur- pose of propagating rare plants, keeping plants in winter, or starting them forward in the spring, may be built very cheaply, and, attached to any considerable garden, may be made both profitable and pleasantly useful. The span-roof house costs really but a trifle more than Fig. 150.—sECTION OF PROPAGATING-HOUSE. a lean-to, when the surface covered is estimated, and it is so much more ornamental, so much easier managed, and the opportunity to give plants the position and light re- quired, is so much greater, that we wonder it is not more generally adopted. It is not always possible to select a location in just the best place, but when this can be done the ends of the house should be north and south, and it should be where perfect drainage may be had, after having excavated three feet deep, for the purpose of sinking the side walls be- low the level of the ground, and thereby reducing the ex- pense of heating. Twelve feet is a good width, while the length may be regulated to suit the proprietor’s wants. THE FILBERT. 301 Heating with hot water is unquestionably best, but many good houses are now, and will continue to be, warmed by means of brick flues, or, what is perhaps better and cheaper, by sections of stone pipe. A series of connected houses, that we have built, are twelve feet wide and eighty feet long, and we know of nothing better, for a single house, than ome of these by itself (fig. 150). In this the sashes are fixed permanently to the ridge-pole and plate, and ventilation obtained by cutting away the sash-bars at top, at distances of ten feet, and forming a frame to be hung on hinges. Movable sash- bars or frames are by some preferred, and where there is any other use for them than as applied to the house proper, they are probably best. _ Bottom heat is obtained when the house is heated by flues or pipes, by simply inclosing the space along one side, below the bench, with boarding, leaving the upper board hung on hinges, so that the heat may be let into the house as required. Tanks of hot water as the base for forming bottom- heat are also used, and when great care is practised they are of the best; but there is a liability to dampness in houses so heated, and in extreme cold weather it is diffi- cult to get heat in the main part of the house without too much for the plants. SECTION 9.—PRUNING AND TRAINING THE FILBERT. The filbert in this country is a neglected fruit. It is seldom found in the garden, and more rarely still in a pro- lific, well-grown condition. Of all other trees, it requires regular and proper pruning to maintain its fruitfulness. The blossoms are monewcious—that is, the male organs, which are in long catkins (fig. 37), are produced from one bud, and the female flowers from another. ‘The blossom or fruit buds are produced on shoots of: 302 THE FILBERT. one year’s growth, and bear fruit the next. The fruit is borne in a cluster on the end of a small twig produced from the bud bearing the female organs. It is said that in the neighborhood of Maidstone, county of Kent, England, the filbert orchards occupy several hundred acres, and from these the principal supply of the London market is obtained. One acre has been known to produce £50 sterling, or $250 worth, in one season. The pruning of these Kent growers is supposed to be most perfect of its kind, especially for their soil and cli- mate. It is described as follows in me “Transactions of the London Horticultural Society :’ ‘**The suckers are taken from the parent plant generally in the autumn, and planted in nursery beds (being first shortened to ten or twelve inches), where they remain three or four years. They are slightly pruned every year, in order to form strong lateral shoots, the number of which varies from four to six. But though it is the usual _ practice to plant the suckers in nursery beds, I would ad- vise every one to plant them where they are to remain, whether they are intended for a garden or aslarger planta- tion; and after being suffered to grow without restraint for three or four years, to cut them down within a few inches of the ground. From the remaining part, if the trees are well rooted in the soil, five or six strong shoots will be produced. Whichever method is practised, the subsequent treatment of the trees will be exactly the same. “In the second year after cutting down, these shoots are shortened ; generally one third is taken off. If very weak, I would advise that the trees be cut quite down a souend time, as in the previous spring; but it would be much better not to cut them down until the trees give evident tokens of their being able to produce shoots of sufficient strength. When they are thus shortened, that they may appear regular, let a small hoop be placed THE FILBERT: 303 within the branches, to which the shoots are to be fas- tened at equal distances. By this practice two consider- able advantages will be gained—the trees will grow more regular, and the middle will be kept hollow, so as to ad- mit the influence of the sun and air. “Jn the third year a shoot will spring from each bud; these must be suffered to grow until the following autumn, or fourth year, when they are to be cut off nearly close to the original stem, and the leading shoot of the last year shortened two-thirds. ‘jin the fifth year several small shoots will arise from the bases of the side branches which were cut off the pre- ceding year. These are produced from small buds, and would not have been emitted had not the branch on which they are situated been shortened, the whole nourishment being carried to the upper part of the branch. It is from these shoots that fruit is to be expected. These produc- tive shoots will in a few years become very numerous, and many of them must be taken off, particularly the strongest, in order to encourage the production of the smaller ones, for those of the former year become so ex- hausted that they generally decay; but whether decayed or not, they are always cut out by the pruner, and a fresh supply must therefore be provided to produce the fruit in the succeeding year. The leading shoot is every year to be shortened two-thirds, or more should the tree be weak, and the whole hight of the branches must not exceed six feet. “'The method of pruning above detailed might, in a few words, be called a method of spurring, by which bearing shoots are produced, which otherwise would have had no existence. Old trees are easily induced to bear in this manner, by selecting a sufficient number of the main branches, and then cutting the side shoots off, nearly close, excepting any should be so situated as not to interfere with the others, and there should be no main branch di- 304 THE FILBERT. rected to that particular part. It will, however, be two: or three years before the full effect will be produced. By the above method of pruning, thirty hundred per acre have been grown in particular grounds and in particular: years, yet twenty hundred is considered a large crop, and. rather more than half that quantity may be called a more usual one; and even then the crop totally fails three years out of five; so that the annual average quantity cannot be reckoned at more than five hundred per acre. “When I reflected upon the reason of failure happening: so often as three years out of five, it occurred to me that possibly it might arise from the excessive productiveness of the other two. In order to insure fruit every year, I have usually left a large proportion of those shoots which, from their strength, I suspected would not be so productive of blossom-buds as the shorter ones; leaving them more in a state of naturc than is usually done, not pruning them so closely as to weaken the trees by excessive bearing, nor leaving them so entirely to their natural growth as to cause their annual productiveness to be destroyed by a superfluity of wood. These shoots, in the spring of the year, I have usually shortened to a blossom-bud.” | Such is the management of these celebrated filbert growers, their principal object being to keep the trees small, open in the center, and covered in every part with fruit spurs. A similar system, but less severe in the cut- ting back, may be pursued here; some such course of treatment as recommended for the head of the quince as to form and fruitfulness. Instead of relying on the spring pruning to subdue vigor and induce fruitfulness, pinching should be practised during the summer; for this not only checks the produc- tion of wood, but of roots. Root pruning, too, may be safely See in August, when pruning and pinching of the branches prove aca ! In all cases, suckers must be completely eradicated: THE FIG." 305 every season, or as soon as they make their appearance. The want of pruning, and the growth of suckers, make the filbert in nearly all our gardens completely barren; a rank production of wood only is obtained year after year. We find that grafting the finer kinds on stocks of the common filbert raised from seed, renders the trees much more prolific naturally, and also smaller in size. We have trees here now bearing only three years from the graft ; the stems are eighteen inches to two feet high, and they are very pretty. Their natural vigor is greatly subdued by the graft. The French conduct them in pyramids with great success, on the same principle as other trees. Section 10.—Cuitrurr, Pruninc, anpD TRAINING OF | THE Fic. In the Northern States the fig is cultivated with very little success in the open ground, but fine crops are pro- duced in the vineries recommended for foreign grapes; and it is in these only that its culture can yield any con- siderable degree of satisfaction, north of Maryland at least. Propagation.—The surest and best mode is by layers. A large branch may be layered in the spring, and will be sufficiently rooted in the fall to be planted out. Cuttings also strike freely, and make good plants in one season. All the modes of propagation recommended for the quince, may be applied to the fig. Cuttings are generally prc- ferred in the South. Soil.—It succeeds in any good, rich, warm garden soil, suitable for other fruit trees. In very light or dry soils the fruits fall before maturity, as they require at that season in particular a large amount of moisture; but it is better that it be too dry than too moist, for in the latter case nothing but soft unripe and unfruitful shoots are ob- | tained, whilst in the former, moisture can be supplied at 506 THI FIG. the time when it may be required. The wood should be short-jointed, the buds not more than one-fourth an inch apart. In England dry chalky soils produce the finest crops. Pruning.-—The fig is somewhat peculiar in its mode of bearing. No blossoms appear, but the figs are produced on the stem, appearing at first like buds. The young shoots of last season bear fruit the next; and the shoots produced during first growth produce fruit the same season, and this is called the “second crop.” These never ripen, and should never be encouraged where the plants require protection. In warm climates, as in some of our South- ern States, these two crops ripen perfectly, though the first from the previous season’s wood is larger and better. This mode of bearing shows that little pruning is neces- sary, beyond the cutting away of old or worn-out branch- es, and thinning and regulating others. Unfruitful trees, in a moist and rich ground, should be pinched in summer to check their growth, and concentrate the sap more in the lateral buds. Poot-pruning, too, may be applied as on other trees. Mr. Downing recommends this in his “Fruits and Fruit Trees.” Training.—Wherever the trees are hardy enough to withstand the winter without protection, as in the South- ern States or California, they may be grown in the form of low standards, as recommended for the peach; but when protection is required, where the branches have to be laid down and covered during winter, they must be grown in stools or bushes, with a dozen or more stems rising from the socket. These are easily laid down and covered, and easily brought up to their places again, in the way that raspberry canes are managed. To produce this form, the young tree is planted in the bottom of a trench about a third deeper than in ordinary cases, and a basin is left around it. At the end of the first season’s growth, it is cut back to a few inches of the base; there THE GOOSEBERRY. .. 307 a number of shoots are produced. As these grow up the earth is drawn in around them, to favor the production of other shoots at their base; and in this way it is man- aged until the requisite number of branches is obtained. Protection—Trained in this way, a trench is opened for each branch, or three or four may be put in one trench, if convenient ; they are fastened down with hooked pegs as in layering, and covered with a foot of earth, which should be drawn up in the mound form, to throw off the water. The fig is sometimes grown, at the North, in large pots or tubs, and stored in a cool cellar or pit during winter. Ripening the Fruit.—In fig-growing countries, and to some extent here, there is a practice of applying a drop of olive oil to the eye of the fruit, to hasten its maturity. This is usually done by means of a straw. Training in Graperies—The back wall of a lean-to cold vinery is an excellent place for the fig. It may be trained on a trellis in a fan or horizontal manner, but severe pruning must not be practised to produce regu- larity. SEcTION 11.—PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY. The gooseberry produces fruit buds and spurs on wood two years old and upwards. Fig. 151 represents the two- year-old wood, A, with fruit buds C, C, and B, the one-year- old wood with wood buds, D, YD. Of these wood buds, the upper one next season would produce a shoot, and the lower ones would probably be transformed into fruit buds. At the base of one of the fruit buds, C, may be seen a small wood bud, d; this during next season will produce a small shoot or spur. The great point to aim at in this country must always be to maintain a vigorous condi- tion; the moment the plant becomes feeble or stinted, the fruit is so attacked with mildew or rust as to be utterly 308 THE GOOSEBERRY. worthless. Hence it is that young plants usually bear ex- cellent crops for the first or second year, while after that the mildew is in some varieties and situations unconquerable. The bush should have a stem of three or four inches in hight, and a head composed of five or six main branches placed at equal distances and inclined outwards, to prevent denseness and confusion in the center. These main branches should be furnished with bearing wood in all their length. The pro- duction of such a bush may be accomplished by the following means: Supposing the young plant as it comes from the nursery to be either a two-year-old cutting, or a one-year bedded layer; in either case it will have a stem of two or three inches at least, and a few branches at the top. Before planting, all the buds on the part of the stem to be below the ground are cut out, to prevent them from producing suckers. Among the branches, three of those most favorably situated, are selected for the rete ated coe formation of the head, and the others are gooseberry. A, cut out entirely. The reserved branches are ae ; an then cut back to two or three buds; from year; C, C,fruit- these one shoot is taken on each branch, and buds; D, D,wood- the others are pinched to favor this. -By this buds; d,a small : wood-bud at the Method we shall have three stout shoots in base of fruit- the fall. If the plant had been well rooted, bud C. ° : instead of being newly transplanted, we might have taken two shoots instead of one from each shortened branch. These three branches are cut back at. the next pruning to three or four buds, and from each two new shoots arestaken, giving at the end of that sea- son six stout young shoots, situated at equal distances, THE GOOSEBERRY. 309 At the next or third pruning these branches are cut back about one-half, in order to produce lateral branches and fruit spurs. At the fourth pruning, the leading shoot is shortened one-third to one-half. Any lateral branches not required to fill up spaces, or such as are improperly placed, are cut back to three or four buds, so as to convert them into fruit-branches. In this way the pruning is conducted from year to year. When the plants become feeble from overbearing, the fruit branches may be headed down and replaced by new vigorous shoots. The better way, however, to provide for this difficulty, is to raise young plants from layers or cuttings, to be at once substituted for such as fall a victim to the mildew. PEARS. 367 dots; flesh very juicy, sweet, melting, agreeable.—Early Autumn. Tree a slender but healthy and vigorous grower, and a good bearer; this is one of our native pears that has been too much overlooked; a very beauti- ful and excellent variety for the amateur’s collection. CLASS III——-WINTER PEARS. Beurré Easter (DoyenNé& v’Hiver, and a dozen or more othersynonyms). Large, roundish, oval; yellowish, more or less of russet in dots, which sometimes gives it a brownish cheek; flesh fine-grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy, sweet, and rich.—Very late Winter, we have often kept it until April. The tree is a moderate grower, making a compact, upright, round head, bearing abun- dantly. It is one of the best sorts for the South and South-west, but requires warm exposure when grown North and East. Everywhere it requires good, rich soil, good culture, and careful thinning of the fruit to bring it to perfection. Beurré Gris d’Hiver Nouveau.—Medium to large, roundish, obtuse; rich yellow russet, with a fine, sunny cheek of dark red; flesh slightly granular, buttery, melt- ing, rich, sugary.—Early to mid Winter. Tree a moder- ately vigorous grower, somewhat irregular, good bearer ; a noble fruit, worthy of careful treatment. Beurré d’Aremberg (Duc p’AremseErs, etc.).—Origin France. Medium to large, obovate, uneven surface ; greenish yellow, yellow at maturity with some russet ; flesh white, buttery, juicy, rich, vinous.—Early Winter. Tree a slow grower and unhealthy; a delicious winter pear, but seldom planted, on account of its serious defects. Catiilac.—Large, or very large, broad, turbinate; yel- lowish, with a brown cheek; flesh firm.—Early to late Winter. Tree a strong grower and good bearer, best in 368 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, rich soil, and valued as a baking or cooking pear, and for confectionary purposes. Columbia,—Origin New York. Large, obovate; pale green in autumn, becoming golden yellow at maturity, with deep orange cheek in sun exposure; flesh juicy, sweet, aromatic.—Early Winter. Tree an upright, hand- some grower, and a good bearer. Fruit liable to be blown off, needs watching. Dana’s Hovey.—Origin Massachusetts. Small, obovate, | pyriform; pale yellow, netted and patched with russet ; ~ flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, aromatic.— Early Winter. Tree a healthy, vigorous grower, hardy, and productive; a high-flavored, delicious pear for the garden ; too small for profitable market growing, though it commands high prices where known, like the Seckel. Doyenné d’Alengon (Dovenné D’Hiver, D’ ALENCON, etc.).—Medium, roundish, slightly pyriform; yellow, shaded in sun with dark crimson, considerable russet ; flesh granular, buttery, juicy, sugary, sprightly, per- fumed.—Middle to late Winter, often keeping until spring. Tree moderately vigorous and productive; a valuable pear, like the Easter Beurré, though not in same degree ; needs high culture and thinning of the fruit to bring it to perfection; tree more hardy than Easter Beurré. Glout Morceau.—Flemish origin. Rather large, often very large, varying in form, usually short, pyriform; greenish yellow, with patches and dots of greenish brown ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sugary.— Early Winter. Tree is of a roundish, spreading habit, very healthy and hardy, not an early bearer, but when mature produces an abundant crop, regular and uniform. It is distinct in wood and foliage from other varieties, and forms one of the handsomest of pyramids on quince roots. In localities where the pear blight prevails it seems pecu- . PEARS. 369 liarly liable to attack, and recently has not been much planted. Josephine de Malines.—Medium size, roundish, flat- tened ; pale yellow or straw color at maturity, sometimes netted and patched with russet; flesh white, tinted with rose, juicy, melting, sweet, slight aroma.—Mid-W inter, often keeps until Spring. Tree a moderate grower, hardy, foliage small, quite productive; a very valuable late pear, and rapidly gaining in popularity. Lawrence.—Origin Long Island. Medium or above in size, obovate, obtuse pyriform; clear, light yellow, with more or less of russet; flesh juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic.—Early Winter. Tree a moderate grower, healthy, and a good bearer ; valuable both for garden and orchard. It usually commands the highest price in market ; one of the most valuable early winter sorts. Uvedale’s St. Germain (Pounn, and over thirty other synonyms).—Large, pyriform; yellowish green; flesh firm, excellent for baking or stewing.—Early to late Winter. Tree a strong, healthy grower, very productive ; valued everywhere for cooking or preserving. Vicar of Winkfield (La Curt, and two dozen more synonyms). Origin France. Large, long pyriform ; pale yellow at maturity, often, when well grown, with a brownish red cheek ; flesh moderately juicy, half-buttery, sprightly and good.—Early to mid or late Winter. Tree a healthy, vigorous grower, and very productive ; this is one of the most profitable as an orchard sort among the whole list of pears, but needs to be well grown to be good; trees are apt to be overladen and should be thinned. Winter Nelis (Bonne pe Matrves, etc.).—Medium size, or below, roundish, obovate; yellowish green, patched ~ and marbled with considerable russet ; flesh fine-grained, buttery, very juicy, sugary, aromatic—Early Winter. 1¢* an ry . 370 SELECT VARIETIES: OF FRUITS. Tree thrifty, hardy, rather slender and somewhat irregular grower, an early and regularly abundant bearer ; valuable for the garden or amateur culture, but not pratiaiie in the orehad. The crop usually needs thinning, especially on trees of considerable age; fruit is always inferior when the tree is overloaded, but this applies to nearly all varie- ties, though not in the same degree. | CLASS IV. Varieties of pears scarcely entitled to a place on the select list, and too good to be omitted. Some are very popular and valuable in certain localities; others are new, or comparatively new, and promising. This list might have been greatly extended. Abbott. —Medium, pyriform; yellowish, shaded with red; white, granular, juicy, buttery, melting.—Septem- ber. Rhode Island. Adams.—Large, obovate, pyriform; greenish yellow, russet and red cheek ; very juicy, melting, vinous.—Sep- tember. Massachusetts. | Andrews.—Rather large, pyriform; yellowish green, — with a dull red cheek; juicy, melting, fine, vinous flavor. —September. Massachusetts. André Desportes.— Medium, roundish, pyriform ; green- ish yellow, bronzed in sun; melting, fine, juicy, sugary.— July. France—new. Beurré d’Amanlis.—Large, roundish; dull yellow green, reddish brown cheek; flesh yellowish, coarse, but- tery, melting; unreliable in quality, good old market he) sort.—Septem ber. Beurré d’Angleterre.—Medium, pyriform; dull green, netted with russet; buttery, melting, juicy, pleasant.— September. France. New. Beurré @Albret,—Medium, long pyriform; yellow, — ; . PEARS. 371 with cinnamon russet; very juicy, buttery, melting, vinous.—October. An excellent fruit. Beurré Brows.—Large, obovate, oblong; yellowish green, with reddish brown and russet; flesh white, melt- ing, buttery, extremely juicy, sub -acid.—September. France. A fine old sort, often excellent, but too variable. Beurré Durand,—Medium, oblong, pyriform; yellow, with splashes of red in the sun; fine, melting, sugary, vinous.—September. France. Beurré Golden of Bilboa.—Medium, obovate, pyri- form; yellow, slight russet; very buttery, melting, fine- grained, vinous.—September. Spain. - Beurré Mauxion.—Medium, roundish, pyriform; yel- low russet, with a red cheek ; fine, buttery, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous, perfumed.—September. Belgium. - Beurré del’ Assomption.—Large, short pyriform; lemon yellow, some russet; fine, melting, juicy, vinous, per- fumed.—-August. France. Tree a vigorous grower; a promising new sort. Beurré Moire,—Large, oblong, pyriform; greenish yellow, tinge of red in sun; granular, buttery, melting, fine, rich, perfumed. October. — France. Bergamotte d’Esperén.—Origin France. Medium size, roundish, flattened, or flat; skin thick, rough; greenish yellow, russet patches; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy, rich. Tree healthy, vigorous, and productive. Bezi Esperen.—Large, roundish, pyriform; dull yel- low, some russet; juicy, sprightly, vinous.—October. France. Bezi de Montigny (Compresse pe Lunay, etc.) —Me- dium size, roundish, obovate; yellowish grecn; flesh melting, half-buttery, juicy, sweet, musky.—Mid-Autumn. Tree vigorous, healthy, productive. 3¢2 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Black Worcester.—Large, pyriform; green, nearly covered with russet, coarse; valued for cooking.—-W inter. Bonne Sophia.—Medium, acute, pyriform; pale yellow, shade of crimson, nettings of russet; juicy, fine, melting, sweet, perfumed.—-October. France. New and prom- ising. Bonne de Puits d’Ansault,— Medium, roundish : bronzed yellow; slightly gritty, melting, juicy, sugary, musky, agreeable, of fine quality.—September. France. Caen de France.—Medium, short pyriform; yellow, with dull russet; fine-grained, juicy, melting, vinous, aromatic.—December, February. France. A variety of great excellence. Church.—Below medium, flattened; greenish yellow; very buttery, melting, rich, sweet, perfumed. September. Comte de Flandre.—Large, long, pyriform; yellow- ish russet; very buttery, melting, juicy, rich, sweet.— October. Belgium. Doctor Lindley.— Medium, obovate, pyriform ; yellow, with slight russet; melting, sweet, perfumed.—Novem- ber, December.—France. New and promising. Duchess d’Orleans (Sr. Nicnoras, etc.). — Origin France. Above medium size, long, pyriform; yellowish green, with sometimes a red cheek; flesh melting, juicy, slightly aromatic.—Early Autumn. Tree an upright, moderate grower, and a good bearer; a handsome and excellent amateur sort. Duchess Precoce.—Large, pyriform ; greenish yellow, becoming clear yellow; melting, juicy, sprightly, although not rich.—September. France. New and promising. Duc de Brabant (B. pe Warertoo, FonpaNTE DES CuARNEUSE).—Origin Belgium. Large, pyriform ; green- ish, with crimson red in the sun; flesh very juicy, but- tery, melting, vinous.—Mid to late Autumn. Tree vigor- ous, hardy, and productive. an. PEARS. 373 ~ Duchesse de Bordeaux.— Medium, roundish, pyriform ; yellow, with considerable russet ; moderately juicy, sweet, pleasant, scarcely melting.—January. France. Edmonds.—Origin Monroe County, N. Y. Large, roundish, pyriform, with a very long stalk; yellow, or straw color, with occasionally bronzed red in the sun; flesh fine-grained, buttery, melting, sweet, with a peculiar and very agreeable aroma; quality variable, especially on young trees—Early Autumn. Tree a remarkably strong, upright grower, and an abundant bearer. General Tottleben.—Medium to large, obtuse, pyri- form; greenish yellow, patched with russet; whitish yel- low, a little coarse, melting, juicy, slightly aromaétic.— October. Belgium. . General Taylor (Homewoop).—Medium, obtuse, pyri- form; yellow, crimson in sun, nettings and patches of russet ; a little coarse, juicy, melting, sweet.—October. Maryland. Gratioli of Jersey.—Medium, roundish, pyriform ; greenish yellow, netted and patched with russet; juicy, rich, melting, vinous.—September. Isle of Jersey. Henry the Fourth.—Below medium, roundish, pyri- form; greenish yellow, with gray specks; not fine- grained, juicy, melting, perfumed.—September. France. An old variety. | | . Henri Despories.—Large, pyriform ; yellowish green; juicy, melting, sweet. August. Tree a moderate grow- er.—FTrance. New. Jalousie de Fontenay Vendée,—Origin France. Me- dium size, long, pyriform ; dull yellow and green, a red cheek and some russet; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich.—Mid-Autumn. Tree a vigorous grower and early and abundant bearer. Jules Bivort.—Medium to large, pyriform; yellowish, with more or less russet ; very juicy, buttery, sweet, melt- ing, vinous.—October. 374 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Kingsessing.—Large, obtuse, pyriform; greenish yel- low; rather coarse, juicy, buttery, melting, sweet.—Sep- tember. Pennsylvania. Livingston Virgalieu.x—Medium, roundish; greenish yellow ; whitish, juicy, sweet, pleasant.—-September. Pennsylvania. Madam Eliza.—Large, acute, pyriform; light yellow, traces of russet; fine, juicy, melting, sweet, perfumed.— October. Tree a good grower. Belgium. Maurice Desportes.—Medium to large, acute pyri- form; dull yellow, with russet; fine-grained, melting, sweet.—October. Tree a vigorous grower and produc- tive. France. New: Marie Louise.—Large, long pyriform; yellow, mottled with russet ; very buttery, melting, vinous, sweet.—Octo- ber. Belgium. A fine, old sort, but variable in some localities. Marie Louise d’Uccles—Above medium, roundish, pyriform ; yellow, shaded with brown in sun, netted and patched with russet; juicy, melting, vinous, a little astringent.--September. Belgium. New. Mount Vernon.—Medium or above, roundish, pyriform ; russet on.yellow, brown red in sun; granulated, juicy, melting, slightly vinous, peculiar flavor.—November. Massachusetts. A promising, new American sort. Nantais (BruRRE pr Nayrxs).——Large, long, pyriform ; greenish yellow, with a red cheek ; atin juicy, sweet, pleasantly perfumed.—October. France. Nouveau Poiteau.—Origin Belgium. Large, pyriform ; greenish, with patches and dots of russet; flesh whitish, buttery, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous. —Late Autumn. Tree a very vigorous, upright grower, and productive ; a beautiful tree and a noble fruit, but quality variable, often pasty and insipid. PEARS. 375 Oswego Beurré.—Origin New York. Medium, round- ish, flattened ; yellowish green, with thin russet until fully ripe, then fine, yellow russet ; flesh melting, buttery, juicy, vinous, aromatic.—Mid to late Autumn. Tree erect, moderately vigorous, and a great bearer even when young, sometimes cracks, Ott.— Small, roundish ; light yellow; melting, sugary, aromatic.—August. Pennsylvania. Platt.—Medium, roundish, flattened; pale yellow, con- siderable russet ; buttery, juicy, half-melting, pleasant:— October. New York. Petite Marguerite.—Medium, obovate; greenish yel- low; sweet, juicy, vinous.—August. France. New and promising. Pitmaston Duchess.—Large, pyriform; yellow, with patches of cinnamon russet; melting, juicy, rich, delicate perfume.—October and November. New and promising. Pius the 9th.—Above medium, roundish, long, pyri- form; yellow, considerable russet; juicy, a little firm, melting, brisk, vinous. October. Belgium. Variable. Rapelje’s Seedling.—Mcdium, obovate to pyriform; yellowish, mostly covered with gray russet ; juicy, some- what granular, melting, sweet, vinous.—September. Long Island. An excellent fruit. Rutter.—Medium to large, roundish; greenish yellow, considerable russet ; moderately juicy, a little gritty, al- most melting, sweet.—October. Pennsylvania. New and promising. St. Ghislain.— Medium, pyriform; clear, pale yellow; buttery, juicy, sprightly, rich.—October. Belgium. A fine, old sort, but rather superseded by others of same season larger and more attractive. Souvenir du Congres.—Large ; beautiful yellow, with 576 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. bright red in the sun; melting, juicy, musky.—Septem- ber. France. New and highly commended abroad. Williams d@’iliver.—Large, pyriform; greenish yellow, firm; moderately juicy, vinous, slightly sweet.—January. France. This purports to be a winter Bartlett, and has been highly commended. SELECT ASSORTMENTS OF PEARS. To aid the inexperienced amateur in making up small assortments: TweELvE Varieties oN PeEar_ Srocxs.— Bartlett, Clapp’s Favorite, Doyenné d’Eté, Beurré Bosc, Lawrence, Beurré d’Anjou, Seckel, Winte: Nelis, Dany s Hovey, Sheldon, Paradise tose Doyenné Bougge TWELVE VARIETIES ON QUINCE Strocks.—Beurré d’An- jou, Duchess d’Angouléme, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Howell, Urbaniste, White Doyenneé (where it succeeds), Vicar of Winkfield, Doyenné d’Alengon, Brandywine, Tyson, Rostiezer, Josephine de Malines. TWENTY-FIVE VARIETIES FOR THE GARDEN ON QUINCE. —Bartlett, Rostiezer, Tyson, Beurré d’ Anjou, Beurré Diel, Belle Lucrative, Beurré d’Amanlis, Duchess d’ Angouléme, Doyenné White (where it succeeds), Doyenné Gray, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Seckel, Onondaga, Urbaniste, Beurré Easter, Beurré Gris ice Glout Morceau, Vicar of Winkfield, Josephine de Malines, Uvedale’s St. Germain, Beurré Superfin, Beurré Hardy, Howell, Brandywine, Doyenné d’Alengon. For Prorir on Quince Srock.—Duchess d’Angou- léme, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Beurré d’Anjou, Howell, and White Doyenné where it succeeds. QUINCES, 377 SECTION 3.—QUINCES. . Apple-Shaped or Orange.—Large, roundish, with a short neck; of a bright’ golden yellow color; tree has rather slender shoots and oval leaves; very productive. This is the variety most extensively cultivated for the fruit.—Ripe in October. Pear-Shaped.—This has generally more of a pyriform shape than the preceding; the fruit is larger, the tree stronger. Portugal.—The fruit of this is more oblong than the preceding, of a lighter color and better quality; the shoots are stouter, and the leaves thicker and broader ; usually propagated by budding or grafting. A week or two later than the Apple. A shy bearer. Angers.—The strongest grower of all the quinces, and the best for pear stocks. The fruit is much like the orange in appearance; later, keeps longer. The tree does not bear as young, but when once it reaches matu- rity is a good, regular bearer. Rea’s Seedling (Rra’s Mamoru, VAN StYKE). Native of Greene County, N. Y.—A magnificent fruit, averaging much larger than the Apple-shaped or Orange, resembles it in appearance, and by some preferred for culinary purposes. Chinese,— Usually cultivated for ornament. Quite dif- ferent in appearance from the others. The leaves are glossy, sharply and beautifully toothed ; the fruit is large, oblong, bright yellow, and keeps until spring; little used. The flowers are large and showy, with the fragrance of the violet; worked on the other sorts; rather tender, re quiring a sheltered situation. A very tardy bearer. Japan.—This is very distinct from all the others; very bushy, thorny, and hardy. There are several varieties, all of which may be reckoned among the most beautiful 378 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. of all our hardy spring flowering shrubs. Fruit about as large as a chicken’s egg; unfit for use. ———>e——— SECOND DIVISION.—STONE FRUITS—APRICOTS, CHER- RIES, PEACHES, NECTARINES, AND PLUMS: Section 4,—SELEcT APRICOTS. Alberge de Montgamet (Montcametr).—Medium size; pale yellow, with tinge of red in the sun; flesh yellowish, adhering to the stone; juicy, perfumed, excellent.’ The tree is a hardy, fine grower.—Last of July. | Beauge.—Resembles Moorpark, but ripens later. Blenheim (Sarerey).—Medium size, oval; orange yel- low ; flesh juicy, moderately rich.—Ripens eight or ten days betore Moorpark. | Breda.—Small, round, dull orange, marked with red in the sun, flesh orange-colored, juicy, rich and vinous; parts from the stone, kernel sweet, tree hardy, robust, and pro- lific—End of July and beginning of August, Canino Grosso.—Large ; orange color, becoming red in the sun; flesh reddish yellow, high-flavored.—Middle of July. Tree vigorous, hardy. Early Golden (Dvsors)——Small; pale orange;. flesh orange, juicy and sweet; kernel sweet; tree very hardy and productive. The original tree at Fishkill is said to have yielded $90 worth of fruit in one season.—Begin- ning of July. Early Moorpark.—Resembles Moorpark, but ripens earlier. Medium size, roundish, oval; yellow, mottled. with crimson in the sun. APRICOTS. 379 Hemskirke,—A large English variety, much like Moor- park, but ripens a little earlier. It is known by its stone not being perforated, as is that of the Moorpark. -Kaisha.—A variety from Syria; requires a warm, sheltered location; medium size, roundish; yellow, mot- tled and tinged with red in the sun; flesh tender, sugary, high-flavored; separating freely from the stone.—Last of July. Large Early.—Large; orange, with a red cheek ; flesh sweet, rich and excellent ; parts from the stone; tree vig- orous and productive.—Beginning of August. _Meerpark.—One of the largest and finest apricots; yellow, with a red cheek; flesh orange, sweet, juicy and rich; parts from the stone; growth rather slow, but stout and short-jointed ; very productive. - Orange.—Medium size; orange, with a ruddy cheek; flesh rather dry, requires ripening in the house; adheres slightly to the stone.—End of July. Peach,—A very large, handsome, and excellent variety, quite similar to the Moorpark; the shoots are not so short- jointed, and the fruit a degree larger. Red Masculine (Earty Mascurryg, etc.).—Small, near- ly round; well-marked suture one side; bright yellow, tinged with deep orange, and spotted with dark red; flesh juicy, musky, pleasant; the earliest to ripen.—Early in July. Tree hardy and a good bearer. Saint Ambroise.—Large ; deep yellow, reddish next the sun; flesh juicy, rich and sweet.—Middle of August. Sardinian.—Small; white, with a red cheek; moder- ately juicy.—Very early in July. Tree productive. Turkey.—Medium to large, nearly round ; deep yellow, mottled with orange in sun; flesh pale yellow, firm, juicy, excellent.—Middle August. 380 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. SECTION 5.—SELECT CHERRIES. CLASS I.—HEART CHERRIES. Fruit heart-shaped, with tender, sweet flesh. Trees of rapid growth, with large, soft-drooping leaves. Belle d’Orleans.—Origin France. Medium size, round- ish, heart-shape; pale yellow, partially covered with red ; flesh very tender, juicy, sweet and delicious.—Early in June, or immediately after Karly Purple Guigne. Tree a fine grower and an abundant bearer; one of the finest early varieties. Black Eagle.—Origin England. Rather above medium size, obtuse, heart-shape; deep purplish black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high-flavored juice.—Early in July, or just after Black Tartarian. Tree a strong grow- er, a moderate bearer while young, productive when old. Black Tartarian.—Origin Russia. Very large, heart- shape, uneven on the surface; purplish black; flesh half tender, very juicy, mild, delicious.—Last of June. Tree very vigorous, upright, very productive; one of the most popular and productive varieties in all parts of the coun- try ; always commands the highest price in market. Coe’s Transparent.—Origin Connecticut. Medium size, round; skin glossy, pale amber, mottled and spotted with carnelian red; flesh very tender, juicy, sweet and delicate—Middle to last of June. Tree a vigorous grow- er, forming a handsome, round head, very productive ; this is one of the best of dessert cherries, but too tender for marketing. Delicate.—Origin Ohio. Rather above medium, round- ish; clear amber yellow, with a rich, bright red in sun ex- posure ; flesh very tender, juicy, sweet, with a rich, high flavor.—Last of June. Tree a thrifty, spreading grower, productive ; most valuable for family use: CHERRIES. 381 Downer’s Late Red.—Origin Massachusetts. Medium, roundish; clear, lively red, mottled with amber; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly, a little bitter unless fully ripe, when it is sweet and fine.—Early to middle July. Tree very hardy, a fine, erect grower, very productive; the fruit is borne in clusters, and will hang for a considerable time on the tree. | Early Purple Guigne.—Medium size, roundish, heart- shape; dark red, purplish when mature; flesh purple, juicy, tender, rich and sweet.—EKarly in June. Tree a free but slender grower while young, hardy, and makes a fine, spreading, open head, bearing very abundantly ; it is indispensable as an early variety, and is found highly profitable as a market sort in some localities. Elton.—Origin England. Large, heart-shape, pointed ; glossy pale yellow, shaded, mottled and streaked with red in the sun; flesh somewhat firm, nearly tender when fully ripe, juicy, sweet, rich, high flavor.—Middle to last of June. Tree vigorous, spreading, irregular in growth, a good bearer; one of the best of the large, light-colored cherries. | Governor Wood.—Origin Ohio. Large, roundish, heart-shape ; light, rich yellow, shaded and marbled with red ; flesh almost tender, juicy, sweet, with a rich, deli- cious flavor.—Middle to last of June. Treea fine grower, forming a round, half-spreading head, very productive; liable to overbear, which might be remedied by judicious pruning. Knight’s Early Black.—Origin England. Large, heart- ‘shape; deep purple, almost black; flesh purple, tender, juicy, sweet and rich, high flavor.—Middle to last of June. Tree a spreading, stocky grower, and productive. Ohio Beauty,—Origin Ohio. Large, obtuse, heart- shape; pale yellow, mostly overspread with clear, bright red; flesh quite tender, juicy, brisk, delicious——Middle Pale oak 382 SELECT VARIETIES. OF FRUITS. of June. Tree a vigorous, rather spreading grower, very productive, and hardy ; ranks among the best of the light- ae varieties. Wilkinsoa.—Medium, hear euWbped deep red, almost purplish black; flesh purplish, tender, juicy, pleasant.— Middle July. Tree vigorous, upright, productive; valued because of late ripening. CLASS II.—BIGARREAU CHERRIES. These are chiefly distinguished from the preceding class by their firmer flesh. Their growth is vigorous, branches spreading, and foliage luxuriant, soft, and droop- ing, Bigarreau or Yellow Spanish.—Large, obtuse heart- shape; beautiful waxen yellow, with bright red aheak in the sun; flesh quite firm, pale yellow, juicy, rich, sweet and delicious flavor.—Last of June. Tree a vigorous, stocky grower, making a fine, round head, very produc- tive; an old variety of the largest size and best quality. Buttner’s Yellow.—Origin Germany. Medium size, roundish; pale yellow ; flesh crisp, juicy, sweet. Last of July. Tree a vigorous grower, moderately productive; the peculiar color of this cherry makes it attractive. Cleveland Bigarreau,—Origin Ohio. Large, round, heart-shape ; bright, clear red on yellow; flesh half-firm, juicy, sweet and ie —tLast of June. Tree a fine grower, spreading and productive. Gridley or Apple Cherry.—Ori igin Massachusetts. Me- dium, roundish; dark reddish Brbwit black when fully ripe; fiesh very firm, not juicy or high-flavored.—Middle July. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive; a capital market variety because of its lateness and firmness. Monstreuse de Mezel (Great Bicarreav). —Origin France. Large or very. large, obtuse, heart-shape, uneven » 2 Ponts , CHERRIES. - 383 surface; dark red, almost black at maturity; flesh firm, juicy, well-flavored.—Early to Middle July. Tree very vigorous, forming a large, wide, open, spreading head, productive and profitable. Napoleon Bigarreau (“ Royat Ann ” in California and Oregon).—Very large, heart-shaped; pale yellow, dotted and spotted with deep red and dark crimson; flesh very firm, juicy, fine flavor—Karly July. Tree a vigorous grower and very productive. : Osceala.—Origin Ohio. Large, heart-shape ; dark red, almost black; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, excellent.—Last of June. Tree a moderate, healthy grower, and a good bearer. Pontiac.—Origin Ohio. Large, obtuse, heart-shape, sides compressed; dark purplish red, almost black when fully ripe; flesh halftender, juicy, sweet, rich, excellent. —Last of June. Tree vigorous, upright, round-headed, very productive ; a valuable orchard or table sort. Red Jacket.—Origin Ohio. Large to very large, reg- ular, obtuse, heart-shape; amber yellow, mostly covered with light red; flesh half-tender, juicy, sweet, good flavor—Middle July. Tree a free, healthy grower, form- ing a large, spreading head, very productive ; ripens late, and is very profitable for market. Reckport Bigarreau.—Origin Ohio. Large, round- ish, obtuse, heart-shape ; amber yellow, shaded and most- ly covered with bright red; flesh half-tender, juicy, sweet, rich, excellent.—Middle of June. Tree avery erect, vigorous grower, forming a remarkably beautiful, upright head, and very productive. Tradescant’s Black Heart (Evxuorn).—Origin. Eu- rope. Very large, heart-shaped; deep purple, almost black; flesh firm, moderately juicy, purplish, sweet.— Middle to end of July. Tree vigorous, upright, with a 384 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. peculiar gray bark, a great bearer, and valuable for mar- ket or garden. CLASS III.—DUKE AND MORELLO CHERRIES. These two classes of cherries are very distinct from the preceding. The trees are of smaller size and grow slowly ; the leaves are thicker and more ercct, and of a deeper green. The fruit is generally round, and in color varying from light red, like Belle de Choisy, to dark brown, like Mayduke or Morello. The Dukes have stout, erect branches usually, and some of them, like Belle de Choisy and Reine Hortense, quite sweet, whilst the Morellos have slender, spreading branches, and acid fruit invariably. These two classes are peculiarly appropriate for dwarfs and pyramids, on the Mahaleb stock, and their hardiness renders them well worthy of attention in localities where the Hearts and Bigarreaus are too tender. Belle de Choisy.—Origin France. Medium size, round ; skin thin, translucent; pale amber color, mottled with yellowish and bright carnelian red; flesh very tender, amber - colored, melting, juicy, sweet.—Last of June. Tree a healthy grower, makes a handsome pyramid on the Mahaleb, a regular but moderate bearer; an excellent dessert sort, valued for garden culture. Belle Magnifique,—Large, roundish, bright, rich red ; flesh juicy, tender, rich, rather acid until fully ripe, when it is fine for the table and excellent for cooking.—Last of July. Tree very hardy and healthy, 2 moderate grower, abundant bearer, fine as a dwarf or pyramid, on mahaleb. Carnation.—Large,; round; yellowish white, mottled and marbled with red; flesh tender, juicy, rich, a little acid unless fully ripe, when it is a rich, pleasant sub-acid. Middle to last of July. Tree a good grower, with a rather low, spreading habit; a moderate, regular bearer. _ _ _ CHERRIES. 38D Donna Maria.—Medium size, roundish ; dark, clear red; flesh tender, juicy, rich acid.—Middle July. Tree a healthy grower, hardy, forming a small, round-headed tree, that comes carly into bearing and bears profusely ; a valuable and profitable variety for market or cooking. Early Richmend,—Small to medium, roundish ; borne in pairs, and usually recognized by the calyx remaining on the stem next the fruit; bright, clear red; brisk, rich acid.—Early to last of June. Tree hardy, healthy, vigor- ous, forming a medium-sized tree, with long, half-pendent shoots, very productive, valuable and profitable. Late Duke.—Large, heart-shape, flattened ; rich, clear, rather dark red; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly sub-acid. —Ripens gradually and hangs a long time or until last of July. Tree a vigorous grower for its class, and a good bearer; makes a fine dwarf or pyramid. Louis Philippe.—Origin France. Large, roundish, reg- ular; dark, almost purplish-black red; flesh red, tender, juicy, sprightly, mild acid, excellent.—Middle to last of July. Tree a vigorous grower, making a large tree for its class, with a handsome, round, spreading head, very productive; a very valuable sort for dessert, canning, cooking, or market. May Duke.—Large, roundish; dark, lively, rich red ; flesh tender, very juicy, reddish, rich, and excellent sub- acid.—Middle of June. Tree hardy, vigorous, and _ pro- ductive, the fruit ripening gradually in succession ; makes fine dwarfs or pyramids. Morello (English).—Large, roundish ; dark red, nearly black ; flesh dark purplish red, tender, juicy, sub-acid.— Late July. Tree a small, healthy, but slender grower, forming a pretty round head as a standard, and a fine bush as a dwarf. | Reine Hortense.—Origin France. Large to very large, roundish: bright, clear red, marbled and mottled 17 386 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. in yellow; flesh tender, juicy, slightly sub-acid, delicious. —Middle to last of July. Tree a healthy, vigorous, handsome grower, and a moderate, even, regular bearer. Royal Duke,—Large, roundish, oblong ; rich, dark red at maturity; flesh reddish, tender, juicy, sub-acid.— Last of June. Tree an upright, compact grower, with branches stouter than the average of its class, an even but moderate bearer. SMALL SHLECT LISTS. Six for the Garden.—Rockport, Coe’s Transparent, Black Tartarian, Black Hawk, Late Duke, and Louis Philippe. For the Market Orchard.—Karly Purple Guigne, Gridley, Napoleon, Red Jacket, Black Tartarian, Pontiac, Monstreuse de Mezel, Early Richmond. SECTION 6.—SELEcT NECTARINES. The nectarine tree differs in nothing from a peach, and the fruit only in being smooth-skinned. It is peculiarly liable to be destroyed by the curculio. The same pre- ventive remedy against curculio must be applied as with the plum. Boston,.—Origin Massachusetts. Fruit large, roundish, oval; bright yellow, with a deep red and mottled cheek ; flesh yellow, sweet, pleasant, peculiar flavor.—tEarly in September, Freestone. Tree hardy and productive. Downton.—Origin England. Large, roundish, oval ; pale green, with a violet, red cheek; flesh greenish white, melting, juicy, sweet, rich and high flavored.—Last of August. Freestone, Early Violet (Vioterre HArive).—Rather large, round- ish; pale yellow green, nearly covered with violet purple NECTARINES., 387 red; flesh whitish, rays of red at stone, melting, juicy, rich and high flavor.—Last of August. Freestone. Early Newington (Lucomser’s Brack, ete.).—Origin England. Large, roundish, ovate, swollen point at apex ; pale green, nearly covered, mottled and marbled with red, thin bloom; flesh greenish white, red at stone; juicy, sugary, rich, excellent.—Early September. Clingstone. Elruge,—Origin England. Medium size, roundish, oval; greenish, mostly covered with violet red, deep red in the sun; flesh slightly stained with red at the stone, very juicy, melting, with a rich, fine flavor.—Early Sep- tember. Freestone. This variety is widely grown and generally successful. Hardwicke’s Seedling.—Origin England. Fruit very large, roundish, or roundish oval, swollen point at apex ; pale yellow, with a dark, violet red cheek; flesh pale green, tinged with red at the stone, juicy, melting, rich. —Last of August. Freestone. Tree very hardy and ex- cellent bearer. Hunt’s Tawny.—Origin England. Fruit medium size; roundish, narrowing to the apex, swollen point, one side enlarged; pale orange, with a deep red cheek in the sun ; flesh orange, melting, juicy, stained with red at stone.— Middle of August. Freestone. A hardy tree, early and productive. Pitmaston Orange.—Origin England. Large, round- ish, ovate, swollen point; rich orange yellow, red, bronzed in sun; flesh orange yellow, red at the stone, juicy, excellent.—Last August or early September. Free- stone. Red Roman.—Large, roundish, a little flattened ; greenish yellow, with a brownish red cheek; flesh firm, greenish yellow, red at stone, juicy, rich, vinous.—Early September. .Clingstone. Tree healthy and productive; an old, foreign variety of great value, 7 388 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Rivers’ Orange,—Originated by Thomas Rivers, Eng- land. Much like its parent, Pitmaston Orange, but ripen- ing later. Tree a great bearer. Stanwick.—Origin England, where it was grown from a stone brought from Syria. Large, or above medium, roundish oval; greenish white, much covered and shaded with violet red, when grown in the sun; flesh white, melting, rich, juicy, sweet.—Middle September. Compar- atively a new sort, of great promise in the South, and suited to warm, sheltered locations. Victoria.— Origin England. Fruit resembles Stanwick, except that it ripens a month earlier. It originated with Thomas Rivers, England, from seed of Karly Violet, fer- tilized by Stanwick, and is as yet untested in this country. Norr.—Mr. Rivers has recently originated many new varieties of Nectarines, some of which promise to be valuable. Srecrion %7.—SELECT PEACHES. Fl. 5. DENOTES SMALL FLOWERS; gl. GLANDS; glob. GLOBOSE; AND rel. RENIFORM; f. FREESTONE; C. CLINGSTONE. Bellegarde (Earty Royat GeoreE, etc.).—Origin France. Gl. glob., fl. small. Fruit large, round, suture shallow; pale yellow green, with a rich, purplish red cheek; flesh marked with red at the stone, very melting, juicy, rich, and high flavored—Last of August. F. An old variety, but one of the handsomest and best. Bergen’s Yellow.—American Origin. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit large, globular; deep orange, with red; flesh yel- low, melting, juicy, rich, luscious.—Early September. F. A fine peach, but only an indifferent bearer. | Cole’s Early Red.—American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit medium size, roundish ; pale yellow, nearly covered with > Aaa fa » PEACHES. 389 red ; flesh melting, juicy, rich, sprightly.—Middle August. A vigorous tree, hardy, abundant bearer, a profitable market sort. Columbia (INpIan Peacu).—American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit medium to large, roundish, with distinct suture; dull yellowish red, with streaks of dark red; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, excellent.—September. F. O2e glands, fl. s. Fruit medium to large; pale yellowish white, considerable red in the sun; flesh melting, whitish, red at stone, very juicy, rich, and excellent.—Middle August. F. Tree a slow grower, mildews badly at the North, but South it is one of the best and most profitable sorts. Early York (Srerrate Earty Yorx).—Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large ; fruit medium size, round- | ish, slightly ovate; pale red on greenish white ground, dark red in the sun; flesh greenish white, very tender, melting, juicy, sprightly, rich, excellent—Middle of August. Tree a good, fair grower, prolific; one of the earliest and best for orchard or garden. Freeman.—Comparatively a new variety, originated at South Pass, Ill., where it is esteemed, on account of late maturity, as a market sort; gl. glob. Fruit large, round- ish; yellow, with rich red cheek in the sun; flesh yel- low, red next the stone, juicy, sweet, rich.—Middle Octo- ber. F. George the Fourth,—Believed to be American. Gl. glob., fl.s. Fruit large, round, deep suture, one side en- larged ; pale yellowish white, rich, dark red cheek in sun ; flesh tinted with red at the stone, melting, juicy, very rich and delicious.—Last of August. F. Tree vigorous, hardy, and productive; one of the best in quality, and successful in almost every locality. Grosse Mignonne.—Gl. glob., fl. large. Fruit large, roundish, depressed, hollow suture at apex; greenish PEACHES. ool yellow, mottled with red, purplish red cheek; flesh white, marked with red at stone, meltine, juicy, very rich, high, vinous flavor.—Middle August. F. Tree a free grower, good bearer; in quality this peach has no superior, and is everywhere esteemed. Haines’ Earlyx—American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Medium size, round, flattened at apex, one side enlarged; pale white, nearly covered with red; flesh greenish white, very juicy, melting, sweet, fine flavor.—Early August. F. Tree a fine grower, hardy and productive, valued highly for the orchard. Hale’s Early.—American. Gl. glob., fl. large. Fruit medium, nearly round; greenish, mostly covered with red; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich, sweet.--Last of July. F. Tree very hardy, a vigorous grower and abundant bearer; it is the earliest ripening good peach, but is liable to rot in some localities; where it does not, it is one of the most profitable. Heath Cling.—American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit very large, oblong, roundish, suture distinct, swollen point at apex; skin whitish, with blush or red tinge in the sun; flesh greenish white, very tender, melting, juicy, rich, and of the highest flavor, adheres closely to the stone.—Octo- ber. Tree very hardy, vigorous, and productive. This is one of the best and most popular varieties in all the South and South-west. It does not always ripen well at the North, but may be gathered and kept for weeks. It is well suited to espalier training. Hysiep’s Cling.—American. Gl. ren., fl.s. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval; pale white, with a rich, red cheek; flesh very juicy, melting, vinous, rich, adheres closely to the stone.—Early in October. Tree a good grower, hardy and productive; an excellent fruit, and highly valued wherever grown. Jacques’ Rareripe.—American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit 392 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. large, roundish, compressed; dark, rich yellow, mostly covered with dull red;. flesh yellow, red at the stone, juicy, slightly sub-acid.—Middle September. I. A popular and profitable peach in all the New England and Northern States. Kenrick’s Heath (Heatao Free).—American. Gl. ren., fil. s. Fruit very large, oblong, with a swollen point at apex; pale greenish white, with a purplish red cheek ; flesh a little coarse; greenish white, deep red at the stone; juicy, melting, pleasant sub-acid.—Middle September. F. A hardy, vigorous, and productive variety, profitable, but not of the highest quality. La Grange.—American. Gl. ren., fl.s. Fruit large,. roundish, oblong ; greenish white, some red in sun; flesh. juicy, melting, very rich, sweet and high-flavored.—Last of September. F. Tree a hardy, good grower and bear- er, highly esteemed and profitable in New Jersey, Del- aware, and the peach regions of the South-west. Large Early York (Honest Jonn).—American. Gl. - glob., fl.s.. Fruit above medium, roundish; whitish, with a clear, rich red cheek; flesh almost white, fine-grained, juicy, rich, mild, excellent.—Last of August. F. Tree vigorous, hardy, productive, and profitable cither for orchard or garden. Late Admirable (Teron ps Venus).—Gl. glob., fl. s. Very large, roundish, oval; deep, bold suture, small, acute, swollen point at apex ; pale, yellowish green, with a red cheek, very dark in sun; flesh greenish white, red at stone, juicy, melting, delicious.——Middle of September. F, Tree vigorous and productive, hardy; valuable and profitable either for garden or orchard. Lemon Cling.—American. Gl. ren, fl.s. Large, ob- long, with a large projecting point at apex, like a lemon; fine yellow, with a rich brown red cheek; flesh firm, yellow, red at the stone, to which it firmly adheres; rich, 1s E 7 PEACHES. 393° sprightly, vinous, sub-acid.—Last of September. A na- tive of South Carolina; the Lemon Clingstone is suc- cessful and popular North and South. Many seedlings have been grown from it, but none to supersede it. Monstrueuse de Doue.—Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit large, roundish, suture distinct; whitish, nearly covered with red ; flesh red at the stone, juicy, melting, vinous.—Last of September. F. Tree very vigorous and productive; an excellent variety from France, not as well known or ex- tensively cultivated asit deserves. Morris’s White (Morris’s Wurre Rarerier).—Amer- ican. Gl. ren., fl.s. Fruit rather large; greenish white, with a creamy tint when fully ripe, and a slight tint of purplish red on the sun-exposed side; flesh white to the stone, juicy, melting, sweet, and rich.—Middle of Septem- ber. F. Tree a vigorous grower, healthy, moderate but good bearer. A fruit highly valued for canning. Noblesse.—-Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large. Fruit large, roundish, oblong; pale green, with clouded red in the sun; flesh greenish white, juicy, melt- ing, excellent.—Last of August. F. Tree healthy and productive. A capital old English sort, highly esteemed wherever grown. Oldmixon Cling.—Gl. glob., fl. s, Fruit large, round- ish, oval, one side slightly enlarged; yellowish white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale white, exceedingly rich, melt- ing, and juicy—Middle of September. Tree healthy, hardy, vigorous, and productive; one of the best and most profitable of the clingstones. Oldmixen Freestone.—Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit large, roundish, slightly oval, one side swollen; pale yellowish white, marbled with red, deep red in the sun; flesh white, red at stone, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous.—Early to middle of September. F. Tree hardy, very productive ; one of the most valuable of all the white-fleshed peaches, either for orchard or gar en. Sg 394 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Red Cheek Melocoton.—American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit large, roundish, oval, swollen point at apex; yel- low, with a deep red cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the stone, juicy, melting, rich, vinous.—Middle September. F. Tree very hardy and productive; this is one of the most reliable of all varieties, profitable for orchard or garden. From it a large number of varieties have been grown, few, however, sufficiently distinct or superior. Salway.—Fruit large, roundish, one side enlarged, suture distinct ; deep, with a marbled, rich, brownish red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, rich, vinous, sugary.— Middle October. F. This is a new English variety, giv- ing promise of great value as a lniesipea ae showy; market sort. Scott’s Nonpareil,—Large, roundish; yellow ; a seed- ling from Red Cheek Melocoton, ripening a few days later, and highly esteemed in New Jersey, where it orig- inated as a valuable market variety. Smock Freestone.—American. Gl. ren. Fruit: large, oval, compressed on its sides; orange yellow, mottled with red, deep red cheek in sun; flesh yellow, red at stone, moderately juicy and rich, vinous.—Early October. F. Tree a vigorous grower and productive; highly valued as a late ripening, showy, and profitable market sort. Snow.—American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit medium, roundish; clear white; flesh white to the stone, juicy, melting, sprightly, sweet, and rich.—Early September. F. Tree hardy, very productive ; highly valued for preserv- ing, canning, etc. | Stump the World.—American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit very large, roundish, oblong; creamy white, with a bright, red cheek ; Seth ohne juicy, high-flavored. —Last of September. F. Tree vigorous: and productive, es- , teemed in New Jersey, where it originated, as a profit- able market variety. PEACHES. 395 Sturtevant.—American. Fruit medium size, roundish ; rich yellow, mostly covered with dark, rich red; flesh yellow, red at the stone, juicy, melting, sugary, rich, ex- cellent.—Early September. F. Tree a good, healthy grower, and an abundant bearer ; esteemed in Ohio, where it originated as the best in quality of all the yellow- fleshed varieties. Surpasse Melocoton.—This is a seedling originated in the grounds of Ellwanger & Barry, of large size, roundish, oval; rich yellow, with a red cheek; flesh pale yellow, nearly white, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous, excellent.— Early September. F. Tree a strong grower, productive, and promising to be a valuable market sort. Susquehanna.—American. Large, nearly round, suture distinct; yellow, with a beautiful, broad, red cheek; flesh yellow, sweet, rich, juicy, vinous.—Middle to last of Sep- tember. F. Tree a fine grower, very popular in Penn- sylvania. Tippecanoe Cling.—American. Gl. ren., fi. s. Fruit very large, nearly round, flattened slightly at sides; yel- low, with a fine, rich, red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, vinous.—Last September and early October. Tree vigorous, productive; a handsome peach of very good quality, valued highly where known as a market sort. Troth’s Early.—American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit medium size, roundish, oval; whitish, bright red in sun; flesh white, red at the stone, juicy, sweet.—EKarly in Au- gust. F. Tree vigorous, very productive; this variety is extensively grown, and esteemed highly valuable as a market orchard sort; it is also fine for the orchard, house, and the garden. Ward’s Late Free.—American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit rather large, roundish, slightly oval; white, with a beau- tiful red cheek; flesh white, tinged with red at stone, juicy, melting, sweet, delicious—Late September. F. 396. SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Tree vigorous and productive; very valuable for orchard or garden. Walburton Admirable.—English. Fl. s. Fruit large, roundish ; greenish white, shaded with dark red in the sun ; flesh whe stained red at the stone, melting, juicy, rich, and sweet. tat of September. F. Tree a good grower and productive; this variety, wherever it has been grown in this country, has been found valuable. Yellow Alberge (Barnarpv’s Yettow).—Gl. glob., fl.s. Fruit medium or above in size, roundish; yellow, with a deep, purplish red cheek ; flesh yellow, deep red at stone, juicy, sweet, vinous, pleasant.—Early September. F. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive. This old French peach holds a popular position as a reliable and profitable variety, although only of second-rate quality ; from it many seedlings have been grown, almost identical with its parent. Yellow Rareripe.—American. Gl. glob., fl.s. Large, roundish ; orange yellow, a rich, red cheek, shaded off and striped; flesh, deep yellow, red at the stone, melting, juicy, vinous, excellent.—Last of August. F. Tree vig- orous and productive; one of the best and most profitable very early yellow-fleshed peaches grown. SELECT GARDEN VARIETIES. Hale’s Early, Early York, Cooledge’s Favorite, Oldmix- on Freestone, Large Early York, George the Fourth, Ward’s Late Freestone. Varieties generally successful in New England, West- ern New York, Ohio, and Michigan.—Cole’s Early Red, Columbia, Cooledge’s Favorite, Crawford’s Early, Craw- ford’s Late, George the Fourth, Jacques’ Rareripe, Large Early York, Late Admirable, Morris’s White, Oldmixon Free, Red Ghesk Melocoton, Smock, Ward’s Late Free, and Yellow Rareripe. PLUMS. 397 Varieties for Profitable Market Orchards. — Hale’s Early, Troth’s Early, Yellow Rareripe, Crawford’s Early, Crawford’s Late, Haines’ Early, Oldmixon Freestone, Red- cheek Melocoton, Smock, Yellow Alberge. Varieties successful South and South-west.—Hale’s Early, Early Tillotson, Troth’s Early, Columbia, Craw- ford’s Early, Druid Hill, Crawford’s Late, George the Fourth, Haines’ Early, Heath Cling, Red-cheek Meloco- ton, Smock, Stump the World, Tippecanoe, Freeman. SECTION %.—SELEcCT PLuMs. Autumn Gage.—Origin New York. Medium size, oval, broadest at the stem end; pale yellow, with a thin, whit- ish bloom; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, pleasant, separates freely from the stone-—September. Tree a vig- orous, spreading grower, and an abundant bearer. Bleecker’s Gage.—Origin New York. Medium orabove in size, roundish, oval; yellowish, with a thin, white bloom ; flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet, excellent, separates freely from the stone.—Last of August. Tree a good grower and productive. Bradshaw.—Large, oval, obovate; reddish purple, with a light blue bloom; flesh rather coarse, juicy, brisk, pleasant, adheres slightly to the stone.—August. Tree an upright, vigorous grower, productive and profitable. Coe’s Golden Drop.—Origin England. Large, oval, distinct suture; light yellow, with dark, carmine red spots in the sun; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, rich, adheres to the stone.—Last of September. Tree a moderately vigorous grower, hardy, and a great bearer; a variety widely disseminated and highly esteemed. ‘Columbia.—Origin New York. Large or very large, nearly round; brownish, reddish purple, covered with a blue bloom ; flesh orange, sweet, and rich, separates from ~ 398 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITs. the stone.—Last of August. Tree a very vigorous grower, and productive. A valuable market sort. | Denniston’s Superb.—Origin New York. Medium or below, roundish, flattened ; pale, but rich, yellow blotches of purple in the sun; thin, white bloom; flesh, juicy, rich, sweet, vinous, separates from the stone—Last of August. Tree moderately vigorous, forming a small, round head, very productive; one of the best for the garden. Duane’s Purple.—Origin New York. Large, oval, dis- tinct suture, one side enlarged ; pale red, becoming reddish purple in the sun, lilac bloom; flesh amber color, juicy, sprightly, moderately sweet, adheres partially to the stone. —Middle to last of August. Tree very vigorous and productive. . Early Favorite.—Origin England. Small to medium, roundish, oval; very dark, almost black, blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, vinous, separates from the stone.—Early in August. A new sort, highiy praised abroad,.but as yet little grown in this country. Fellenberg.—An old, Italian prune, a moderate, spreading grower, great bearer, and very valuable ; fruit medium, oval; dark blue, with a bloom; flesh dark yellow, juicy, sweet, and good, separates from the stone.—Early in October. General Hand.—Origin Pennsylvania. Very large, roundish, oval; deep yellow, marbled with greenish yel- low; flesh coarse, pale yellow, sweet, moderately juicy, separates freely from the stone.—-September. Tree very vigorous and productive, fine for market. German Prune,—Medium, long, oval, one side swollen ; purple, with a thick blue bloom; flesh firm, not juicy, greenish, sweet, pleasant, separates freely from the stone. —September. Tree a good grower, very productive, val- uable for market and highly esteemed for drying. — « PLUMS. 399 Green Gage.— Origin France. Rather small, round; yel- lowish green, with dottings of red in sun; flesh pale green, exceedingly juicy and melting, rich, sprightly, luscious, sep- arates from the stone-—Middle of August. ‘Tree a short- jointed, healthy but slow grower, making a small, round head, and bearing abundantly; has no superior in qual- ity ; suitable fora choice garden collection. . Huling’s Superb.— Origin Pennsylvania. Very large, roundish, oval, shallow suture; greenish yellow, cov- ered with a thin pale bloom; flesh greenish yellow, rather coarse, rich, brisk, sprightly, adheres to the stone. —Middle of August. Tree a very vigorous, upright grower, with large foliage, a good, moderate bearer. Ickworth Impératrice.—Origin England. Rather above medium size, obovate; purple, traced with fawn ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy, rich, adheres partially to the stone-—Early October. Tree a good, fair grower, productive; valuable for its late ripening, and for its peculiarity of hanging a long time on the tree as well as keeping after being gathered; not much grown, but promising to be of great market value. Imperial Gage.—Origin New York. Rather above medium size, oval, suture distinct; green, until fully ripe, when it is known by the peculiar marbling of two shades of green; white bloom; flesh greenish, very juicy, rich, melting, pleasant flavor, separates freely from the stone. —KEarly September. Tree one of the best of growers, and productive; everywhere popular and profitable for mar- ket or garden. Jefferson.—Origin New York. Large, roundish, oval ; golden yellow, with a beautiful red cheek; flesh orange yellow, juicy, rich, luscious, separates freely from the stone.—Last of August. Tree a moderate, rather slow grower, but a regular, good- bearer; one of the best in quality. | at a 4CO SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, July Green Gage.—Medium, roundish, oblong, suture distinct ; greenish yellow, tinted with pane in the sun; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, separates from the stone.—Last of August. Tree a moderate grower, productive. Lawrence’s Favorite.—Origin New York. Large, roundish, a little flattened ; dull, yellowish green, clouded with streaks of a dark shade. flesh greenish, juicy, melt- ing, rich, sprightly, delicate, vinous, separates freely from the stone.—Middle of Lape Tree vigorous, upright, very productive. Lombard,—Origin New York. Medium, roundish, oval; violet red, thin bloom; flesh deep yellow, juicy, pleasant, not rich, adhering to the stone—Last of Au- gust. Tree vigorous, a great -bearer, popular and _ profit- able as a market sort, succeeds where many other sorts fail. Lucombe’s Nonsuch,—Origin England. Above medi- um, roundish; yellowish green, distinctly streaked with yellow and orange; flesh pretty firm, greenish, adheres to the stone.—Early September. Tree moderately vigorous, very productive. Magnum Bonum, Yellow (Yetiow Kee, etc.).—A pop- ular old variety, with some twenty synonyms. Large, or very large, egg shape, or oval; yellow, with white dots and a thin oe flesh yellow, acid until fully ripe, when it is sweet, adheres to the stone.—Last of August. Tree very vigorous, productive; valued for market and cooking. : | McLaughlin.—Origin Maine. Large, roundish, flat- tened at ends; yellow, dotted and marbled with red in the sun, thin bloom; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, very sweet, delicious, adheres to the stone.—Last of August. Tree a hardy, vigorous grower, productive; one of the most valuable. Monroe Gage.—Origin New York. lather above medium, oval; greenish yellow, rarely a blush; flesh PLUMS. 401 greenish yellow, not very tender, but swect.—Early Sep- tember. Tree vigorous, productive. Ontario.—Originated by Ellwanger & Barry, New York. Large, roundish; yellow, marbled; flesh moder- ately juicy, sweet, rich, adheres to the stone.—Early in August. Tree a good grower and very productive. Orleans.—See Smith’s Orleans. Peters’ Yellow Gage.—Medium, roundish, oval; yel- low, with crimson dots in the sun, thin, light bloom; flesh yellowish, juicy, adheres slightly to the stone.—Middle of August. Tree a moderately vigorous grower; an abundant bearer. Pond’s Seedling.—Origin England. Very large, oval ; yellowish, covered with violet red, thin, white bloom; flesh yellow, a little coarse, juicy, sugary.—Middle of September. Tree a good grower, and an abundant- bearer ; a beautiful fruit. Prince Englebert.—Origin Belgium. Large, oblong, oval; deep purple, with a blue bloom; flesh yellowish green, juicy, sugary, rich, separates freely from the stone. —Last of August. Tree vigorous, a great bearer; very valuable for market, dessert, or cooking. Prune d@’Agen (Rose pe SeErcent, etc.). — Medium size, oval; violet purple, with a thick bloom; flesh green- ish yellow, juicy, rich, sugary, and delicious, adheres slightly to the stone.—Last of September. Tree a mod- erate grower, very prolific. Quackenboss.—Origin New York. Large, roundish, oblong; deep purple, covered with blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, a little coarse, juicy, sprightly, sweet, adheres slightly to the stone.—September. Tree a very rapid, upright grower, and productive. Reine Claude de Bavay (Bavay’s Green Gace).— Origin Belgium. Large, roundish, a little flattened ; greenish yellow, with splashes of green, thin bloom; flesh: 402 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. yellow, juicy, sugary, melting, rich, excellent, separates from the stone.—Last of September. Tree a vigorous grower and very productive; one of the best in quality, very valuable and extensively planted as a late market sort. ake Saint Catherine——Origin France. Medium size, obo- vate, deep suture; pale yellow, a little reddish in the sun, thin, white bloom; flesh yellow, juicy, rather firm, and adhering partly to the stone-—Middle to last of Septem- ber. Tree an upright, rather slender grower; productive and highly prized for drying. | Saint Lawrence.—Originated in the grounds of EIl- wanger & Barry, New York, from a seed of Smith’s Orleans. Large; dark purple; flesh juicy, melting, sweet, adheres to the stone——September. Tree a good grower, productive. Shropshire Damson.—Origin England. Medium to small size, oval; dark purple; flesh melting, juicy, sep- arates freely from the stone.—October. Tree healthy and productive; one of the best of the Damsons. Smith’s Orleans,—Origin Long Island. Large, round- ish, oval ; reddish purple, covered with a blue bloom; flesh deep yellow, a little firm, very juicy, brisk, vinous, adheres to the stone.—Last of August. Tree vigorous and very productive; one of the most valuable for orchard or garden. Victoria (Saarp’s Emprror, etc.).—Origin England. Large, roundish, oval; light yellow, marbled, spotted, and shaded with lilac and purple, thin, lilac bloom; flesh yellow, coarse, not juicy or sugary, a little vinous, and separates from the stone.—Middle September. Tree vig- orous, but irregular in growth, productive; a plum of the largest size, showy, and valuable for market. Wangenheim,—Origin Germany. Medium, oval; deep purple, thick, blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, rather Se eae ' 54, ~ firm, juicy, sugary, rich, separates from the stone.—Last of August. Tree a moderate grower, but good bearer; one of the best designated as Prunes. Washingten.—Origin New York. Large to very large, roundish, oval; dull or deep yellow, with marblings of gréen, with a pale red or crimson blush in the sun; flesh yellow, firm, very sweet and rich, separates freely from the stone——Last of August. Tree a stocky, vigorous, healthy grower, very productive; one of the most reli- able for market or garden. Yellow Gage (Prixces).—Origin Long Island. Medi- um to large, oval, broadest next the stalk ; golden yellow, covered with a white bloom; flesh deep yellow, rich, sugary, juicy, melting, separates freely from the stone.— Early in August. Tree very vigorous, forming a large, spreading head, very hardy and productive; a popular and profitable variety. PLUMS. 403 SMALL SELECT LISTS OF PLUMS. For the Garden.—Coe’s Golden Drop, Green Gage, Im- perial Gage, Jefferson, Lawrence’s Favorite, Smith’s Or- leans, Reine Claude de Bavay, McLaughlin, Washingten. For Market.—Imperial Gage, Yellow Magnum Bonum, Smith’s Orleans, Pond’s Seedling, Lombard, Reine Claude de Bavay, Bradshaw, Columbia, General Hand, Quacken- boss. For Drying. German Prune, Saint Catherine, Fellem- berg. 404 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. THIRD DIVISION.—BERRIES. CURRANTS, GOOSEBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, STRAW- BERRIES, BERBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, MUL- BERRIES, GRAPES, AND FIGS. Srcrion 8,—SELEcT CURRANTS. The Currant is a most useful fruit, indeed indispensable to every garden, large or small; it fills a space of a cou- ple of weeks after the strawberries, raspberries, and cher- ries, and before the apricots, early apples, and pears; and: besides this, it possesses such a remarkable combination: of swect and acid, as fits it for an almost endless variety of useful and agreeable preparations, both in the green and ripe state. The white varieties are mildest flavored, and therefore: better for using in a raw state when ripe. The red are preferable for jellies, etc., on account of their beautiful color. - Black Naples.—The largest and best black currant; bears profusely ; valuable for jam and jellies. Cherry.—Very large, exceeding an inch in Sree ence, bunches short, ear dark a ripens same time as Red Dutch, shoots stout, short-jointed, and erect, foliage thick, dark green, slightly folded, and bluntly and coarsely’ serrated. Mr. Lewelling, of California, has 40 acres’ planted with this variety ; we saw the plantation in full fruit in 1870. It is stated that the crop of 1871.was 150,000 Ibs., sold at from 8 cents to 15 cents per pound. La Versaillaise.—Similar to the foregoing in all re- spects, so much so as to be supposed by many to be iden- tical; it is generally believed that it is less acid anil the bunches a little longer; a very vigorous grower, pro- ductive, and highly valued. GOOSEBERRIES. 405 Long-Bunched Red.—Much like Red Dutch, but with clusters longer and larger, and rather larger fruit; a strong-growing, productive, and valuable variety. Prince Albert.—A moderate grower, with large, stiff, deeply-cut foliage, very productive; valued for its late ripening ; fruit light red, large, acid. Red Dutch.—A_ well-known variety, generally super- seded by the larger varieties. Short-Bunched Red,—A strong, upright grower; ber- ries large ; bunches short ; mild acid. Victoria or Houghton Castle.—Very large, bright red, bunches five or six inches long; hangs on the bushes after others are gone; distinguished at once by its remark- ably long bunches and bright red color, and by the foliage, which is quite distinct, dark green, coarsely and bluntly serrated, quite flat, and frequently reflexed or turned backwards at the edges; the shoots are not so stout and erect as those of the Cherry. White Dutch.—Yellowish white, transparent, milder than the red, and better for using raw ; excellent. White Grape.—Larger every way than the preceding ; the largest white currant ; growth rather spreading, foliage thicker, deeper green, and more reflexed. There are sey- eral other sorts under cultivation, of little value, unless to those who are making large collections for curiosity and experiment. SrecTION 9.—GoOOSEBERRIES. CLASS I.—ENGLISH VARIETIES. The following, from the large English sorts, have all proved excellent. In our climate these are all more or less subject to mildew. Red,.—Albion, Crownbob, Echo, Houghton’s Boggart, Tronmonger, Lancashire Red, Prince Regent, Roaring 406 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Lion, Shakespeare, Sportsman, Top Sawyer, Wineberry, Young’s Wonderful. White.—Chorister, Fleur de Lis, Leigh’s Toper, Queen Caroline, Smiling Beauty, Whitesmith, Wellington’s Glory, White Muslin, ete. Green.—Berrier’s Greenwood, Chipendale’s Conquer- ing Hero, Green Mountain, Green Vale, Green Willow, Green Ocean, Independent, Jolly Cutler, see. Heart of Oak, Profit. Yellow.—Bunker Hill, Capper’s Early Sulphur, Golden Drop, Husbandman, etc. CLASS TI.—AMERICAN VARIETIES. American Seedling (Pate Rep).—A vigorous grower ; bush upright, with slender wood; very productive, never mildews; fruit medium to small, pale red, sweet, very good; hangs a long time, very valuable. Downing.—Originated at Newburgh, N. Y. An up- right, strong grower, productive; fruit medium or above, roundish oval; green, with the rib veins distinct, smooth, juicy; very good. The best for family use of any of the American sorts. ; Houghton’s Seedling.—Raised in Massachusetts from the seed of anative variety. Itis a vigorous grower, with drooping branches, very productive; fruit medium size or below, smooth, pale red, sweet, very good. Mountain Seedling.—Originated with the Shakers at Lebanon, N. Y.. Avery strong, straggling grower, form- ing a large bush, productive; fruit large for its class, skin thick, flesh sweet; valued for market. Smith’s Improved,—Sim‘lar to American, but lar Ber in size of its fruit, a a RASPBERRIES. 407 Section 10.—SrrLect RASPBERRIES. CLASS I.—FOREIGN VARIETIES AND THEIR SEEDLINGS OF AMERICAN ORIGIN. Belle de Paluau.—A French variety, with strong, vig- orous, upright canes; fruit large, conical; bright crimson, firm, juicy, and rich; short, purplish spines. Clarke.—Originated at New Haven, Ct. Canes strong and vigorous, long spines, halfhardy; fruit large, coni- eal, bright crimson, rather soft, juicy, excellent ; produces suckers freely ; succeeds finely in light soils. Fastollf.—--Canes very strong, nearly hardy, erect, branching; fruit very large, faeces conical ; purplish red, rich, phe flavor; productive. Franconia,— Canes strong, branching; yellowish brown, short, stout, purple spines, large, obtuse, conical ; purplish red, pretty firm, rich acid; one of the hardiest of this class, productive and profitable. French (Vicu-Presipent FreNcu).—Originated in Philadelphia, Pa. Canes strong, upright, spines short and stout ; fruit medium to large, roundish, rich, bright crimson, large grains, sweet and very good, Hornet.—A French variety, with strong, upright, vig- orous canes, stout, purplish spines; fruit large, conical, rather firm, crimson red, juicy, sweet. Hudson River Antwerp (Rep Antwerp or THE Houp- son Rrver).—Origin unknown. Has been long and profitably cultivated along the Hudson River, where it is esteemed most valuable of all sorts for market. The crop from three acres has in one season sold for $1,500. Canes short, stout, almost spineless, Knevett’s Giant.—A very strong grower, crect, small, reddish spines; fruit large, obtuse, conical, deep red, firm, rich; almost hardy and very productive. 408 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Orange (BrinckLe’s OranGe).—Origin Philadelphia, Pa. Canes strong, branched, white spines; fruit large, conical, clear, orange yellow, juicy, rather soft, sweet, rich and excellent; the best of all the light-colored varicties. Red Antwerp.—This is the common Red Antwerp of England; distinct from the Hudson River Antwerp. Canes tall and strong, light, red spines; fruit large, ob- tuse conical, dark red, juicy, brisk, vinous, fine flavor. Semper Fidelis.—An English varicty, with strong, up- right canes, purplish, stiff spines; fruit large, conical, firm, juicy, sub-acid. é ? Victoria,—An English variety of rather dwarf habit ; fruit very large, dark red. CLASS II.—AMERICAN SPECIES AND VARIETIES, BLACK CAPS, ETC. American Black Cap (Doorirrrr, Jostyn’s Brack Cap, etce.).—A hardy, native variety, improved by cultiva- tion, very productive; one of the best of its class for profitable market growing, as it ripens early and carries well. Davison’s Thornless,—A variety of the foregoing, but free from spines and ripening some days earlier; the fruit is not quite as large as the American Black Cap, but is swecter; moderately productive. | Miami (Mammora Cxiuster, McCormick).—Another variety of the Black Cap, stronger in its growth, fewer spines, and very productive; the fruit is also larger, deeper color, more bloom, and ripens later. Ontario.—A new variety of the Black Cap found near Fairport, N. Y., and introduced by E. E. Lord, of New- ark, N. Y. Larger and a few days earlier than the com- mon sort, and quite as good in quality, but has a thick coating of white bloom, which injures it for market. ae) eet ee ns 8 Ps oe ny RASPBERRIES, 3 409 Philadelphia.—A variety found wild in the county of Philadelphia, Pa. Canes very vigorous, tall, branching, almost free from spines, and very productive; fruit medium, roundish, dark crimson, moderately juicy, mild sub-acid, rather soft; a hardy and valuable variety, succeeding finely on light soils, and in latitudes where the Ant- werps can not well be grown. Seneca Black Cap.—A variety of the Black Cap, larger and later than the American, very vigorous and very productive; fruit has a shade of purple, with a light bloom, juicy and sweet. CLASS III.—AUTUMNAL BEARING VARIETIES. The product of this class of Raspberries is upon the ends of the canes of the present season’s growth, and to insure a full autumn crop, all the old canes should be cut away in the spring, and all the suckers kept down, con- fining the new growths to the few strong, vigorous canes. Belle de Fontenay.—A French variety, with stout, branching canes, and an over-abundgnce of suckers, which must be cut away as so many weeds, in order to insure a crop; fruit large, roundish, conical, purplish red, sprightly, moderately firm, and rich. Catawissa.—A native of Pennsylvania. Canes strong and productive; fruit medium, rather flat, crimson or purplish red, thick bloom, sprightly sub-acid; a fine sort for the garden. Merveille des Quatre Saisons (Ocroper Rep).—A French variety, with strong, upright canes and purple spines; fruit medium, roundish, somewhat conical, bright red, rather soft, juicy, sweet, and rich, Ohio Everbearing,—A variety of the American Black 18 410 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Cap, in every respect identical, except that it has the habit of fruiting in autumn. Surpasse Fastollfi—A new, large-fruited variety ; bright red; promising. White Perpetual,—Strong, vigorous canes; fruit large, pale, yellowish white; productive. SrecTion 11.—SELEcT STRAWBERRIES. CLASS I,—AMERICAN VARIETIES. Agriculturist.—Originated in Newark, N. J. Plant vigorous, a little variable, sometimes very fine, broad foliage, productive; fruit large, roundish, conical, irregu- lar, dark red, pretty firm, juicy, sweet, and rich. Charles Downing (DowNer).—Originated in Kentucky. Plant very vigorous, with long leaf and foot-stalks, pro- ductive ; fruit large, conical, pretty regular, scarlet, firm, pinkish flesh, juicy, sweet and rich. Durand’s Seedling.—Originated in New Jersey. Plant moderately vigorous, productive; fruit large, irregular, scarlet, somewhat firm, juicy; ripens early and keeps long in bearing. Downer’s Prolific (Downer).— Originated in Kentucky. Plant vigorous, hardy, very prolific; fruit large, round- ish, conical, clear, bright scarlet, rather soft, juicy, rather acid; ripens early. Green Prolific. —Origin New Jersey. Plant very vig- orous, hardy, and very productive; valued for home or near market; does not bear long transportation; fruit large, obtuse, conical, scarlet, surface soft, rather acid, but rich. Hovey.—Originated at Boston, Mass. An old, well- known sort, succeeds in rich, good soils, is one of the Tarr ee ee ee - ad J -T - ae i ca ee ee - STRAWBERRIES. 411 handsomest and firmest grown; plant vigorous, moderately productive; fruit large, or very large, roundish, rich, shining scarlet; flesh firm, rich, juicy, sweet, agreeable ; medium season of ripening. Ida.—Origin New York. Plant vigorous, very pro- ductive ; fruit medium, roundish, conical, dark, rich red; flesh rather firm, sprightly, juicy, slightly acid; among the earliest, and continues late. Jenny Lind.—Origin Massachusetts. Plant hardy, vig- orous, and productive, ripens early ; fruit medium, coni- eal, dark glossy crimson, rather firm, juicy, sprightly, sub-acid, Kentucky (Downer).—Originated in Kentucky. Plant very vigorous, with leaf and fruit stalks hardy and pro- ductive; fruit large, roundish, conical, dark red, moder- ately firm, juicy, a little acid, rich, and good; ripens late ; a new sort, as yet but little grown; promising. Large Early Scarlet.—An old variety, an abundant bearer, very early, and hardy; fruit small to medium, roundish, ovate, scarlet; flesh tender, rich, excellent ; should be in every garden. Lennig’s White.—Origin Pennsylvania, Plants vigor- ous; fruit large, roundish, flattened, whitish, tinged with red; flesh soft, tender, juicy, a delicious pineapple flavor, excellent ; a moderate bearer, but of such superior qual- ity as to be indispensable for the amateur’s garden. Longworth’s Prolific —Origin Ohio. Plant vigorous, hardy, very productive; fruit large, roundish, light crim- son; highly valued for canning; extensively grown in California, where it is regarded as oné of the most profit- able. Nicanor.—This variety originated in the grounds of Ellwanger & Barry, New York, as eedling of Zriomphe de Gand, and so far as tested—now some eight years— 412 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. proves to be a valuable and profitable variety, either for market or garden. It is hardy, vigorous, productive, early, following close to Karly Scarlet, and continues a long time ; fruit uniform, moderately large, roundish, conical, bright scarlet ; flesh reddish, rather firm, juicy, rich, sweet, fine flavor. ifs a . Philadelphia, — Vigorous, productive, ripens early. Large, roundish, conical, bright, juicy, sprightly, good.. } President Wilder.—Originated by Hon. Marshall’ P. Wilder, of Massachusetts. Plants vigorous, hardy, pro- ductive ; fruit large and handsome, obtuse, conical, bright crimson scarlet; flesh juicy, firm, rich, sweet, excellent: This is a new variety of high promise, and in general, so faras tested, sustains all the awards of praise that have been bestowed upon it. : Russell’s Seedling (Russet1’s Proriric).—Origin New York. Plant vigorous and productive; fruit. large, coni- cal, scarlet crimson ; flesh rather soft, mild, pleasant. Wilson’s Albany,—Origin New: York. - The: most widely grown and universally successful and profitable of any strawberry yet produced. Plant very hardy, vig- orous, and very productive, early to. ripen and continuing to the latest ; large, conical, deep crimson; flesh crimson, tender, eae juicy, sub- acid ; ; Will only rank as second or third in aah CLASS IL—FOREIGN VARIETIES. ne 2 Jucunda,—Plants vigorous, hardy, pr ndieetirans ‘fruit large to very large and beautiful; coniéak somehimed flat- tened coxcomb shape, clear, light ee ; flesh light pink, moderately firm, sweet, often hollow and deficient in flavor. Napoleon III,—Plants vigorous’ in rare cases, moder- ately productive, generally ‘badrs? only ‘a few: aoe ‘and es te ae ee "'e #4 STRAWBERRIES. ~ 413. beautiful fruit ; fruit large to very large, irregular, conical, sometimes coxcomb shape, light scarlet ; flesh white, rather: firm, juicy, sweet, and rich. Perpetual Pine (Grorper’s).—Plant vigorous, produc- tive, commences to ripen early and continues a long time in eae: ; fruit large, roundish, flattened, obtuse, coni- eal, scarlet; flesh firm, juicy, rich, sweet. 4 . Triomphe de Gand,—Plant vigorous, hardy, and pro- Bative fruit large, roundish, obtuse, sometimes cox- comb coe ae wi ened at apex end, glossy; firm, a little melee at core, juicy, rich, aromatic, agree- able. This and Jucunda are probably the most peneraes successful of the foreign sorts. _ Trollope’s Victoria (GoLtpEN QuveEEN, ctc.).—Plant vigorous, moderately productive; fruit large, roundish, pale red; flesh light scarlet, tender, juicy, sweet, rich, aromatic. CLASS 4II.—ALPINE VARIETIES, ’ - * Alpine Wood.—The wild strawberry of Europe; red and white incolor. Plants very hardy, productive, ripen- ing a long time in succession; fruit small, conical, with a peculiar iasky. agreeable fg ; easily grown Sout seed. Alpine Bush,—The bush Agas make no runners, and are highly valued on account of their long- continued, reg- ular bearing from June to October, and for “the facility with which they can be used as ee plants, both useful and ornamental; the fruit is small, red or white in color, conical, pleasant, musky, juicy, sweet ; propagated by division or seeds. | Autumnal Galland,—A productive variety, large, coni- eal, light red, excellent. 414 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Montreuil.—A large and excellent variety of the Al- pine, much grown around Paris. CLASS IV.—HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRIES, Belle de Bordelais—A new French sort, medium size, dark red, fine flavored; plant very beautiful, as all this class are, when in bloom; productive. Monstrous Hautbois.—Plant very vigorous, with broad serrated foliage, highly ornamental, very productive, bear- ing its fruit, which is large, on high footstalks, dark col- ored, with a rich, slightly musky flavor. Royal Hautbois—Plant vigorous, very prolific, fruit medium to large, roundish, conical, dark crimson; flesh soft, sweet, musky, rich ; originated by Thomas Rivers, of England, from seed of Belle de Bordelais. €xcrion 12.—BERBERRIES. EPINE VINETTE OF THE FRENCH. Common Red,—-This is everywhere well known; grown not only for the fruit, which is used for preserves, jellies, and pickles, but for ornament. The bright scarlet oval fruit is borne in rich clusters, and hang on until late in the autumn. Sweet-Fruited (Brerseris putcis).—The fruit of this is much less acid than the common. The plant is not so vigorous. Besides these, there are several species and varieties cultivated chiefly for ornament: Zhe White-fruited, The Violet-fruited, the Variegated-leaved, foliage marked with yellow; Zhe Purple-leaved and Purple-fruited, the most unique and ornamental of all, the former with beautiful violet-purple foliage. , F ; : £ BLACKBERRIES. 415 They are all easily propagated by layers or suckers, and the rare sorts by grafting ; seeds of the purple produce a large proportion true. SECTION 13,—BLACKBERRIES. Dorchester or Improvep Hicn Busu.—A moderately strong, upright grower, very hardy, a good, moderate bearer; fruit medium to large, oblong, deep, shining black, when fully ripe, soft, juicy, rich, of the highest flavor, but not most productive. The only sort culti- vated twenty years ago. Kittatinny.—A strong grower, very productive, quite hardy ; fruit large to very large, roundish, conical, glossy black, rather firm, rich, juicy, sweet, excellent; widely disseminated and everywhere a success; profitable for market or garden. New Rechelle or Lawron.—A very strong grower, with strong, stout spines, hardy in most localities, very productive; fruit very large, oval, black, rather soft, juicy, tender, sweet, excellent; requires to be fully ripe, otherwise it is acid and lacking in flavor, Wilson’s Early.,—A moderately strong grower, produc- tive, and ripening early; fruit large, oblong, oval, black, firm, juicy, alittle hard at center, sweet and good; a profit- able, early market sort. All the Blackberries ripen just after Raspberries, and help to fill up a vacant season just before the early peach- es, pears, etc. The fruit is not only agreeable for the dessert, but among the best for canning, and always healthful. Several other varieties have been introduced, but none -of them equal in value to those described above. 416 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Srecrion 14.—MULBERRIES. Black.—This is a native of Persia, The berry is an inch and a half long, and nearly an inch in diameter, black, succulent, suzary, and rich. The tree is highly ornamental, very erect, with a large, spreading head. The leaves appear late in spring, are large, heart-shaped, some- times lobed, deep green, and form a dense shade. ~ Everbearing.—This variety was grown from seed by’ Chas. Downing and is regarded as a valuable fruit; the fruit is large, one and a quarter inch long, and nearly half an inch in diameter, color from maroon to blue black; flesh juicy, sugary; sprightly, and vinous; it ripens grad-: ually, a long time in succession. Johnson.—This variety originated in Ohio, It is a strong, vigorous-growing tree, with very large leaves, and very productive; the fruit is large, blackish, sub-acid, mild, pleasantly agreeable. . Section 15.—GRAPES. SELECT HARDY NATIVE GRAPES. CLASS I,—BLACK GRAPES. Adirondac.—This is a grape of excellent quality, the vine moderately vigorous, or rather delicate, a good bearer; fine bunch, large berry, ripens among the ear- liest ; well suited to warm localities. Originated in North-’ ern New York, near Lake Champlain. Alvey.—A hardy, vigorous vine, moderately produc-- tive, bunches of medium size, berries small or medium; sprightly vinous, pretty free from pulp. Good in quality ; not profitable. Ripens with Concord. Origin Pennsyl-. vania. | Barry (Rocrrs’ No. 43).—A vigorous vine, produc- GRAPES. ALY tive, bunches large, compact, berrics large, round; juicy, sweet, pleasant ; flesh nearly free from pulp. Ri- pens about time of Concord. Canada (Arnotpy’s No. 16).—The vine of. this variety is much like Clinton, its bunches and berries larger, flesh nearly free from pulp, juicy and good. Ripens with Con- cord. Raised by Charles Arnold, of Ontario, and said to be a cross between Clinton and Black St. Peter’s. ~ Clinton.—A well-known old sort. The bunches are small to medium, compact, berries small, black; colors early, but requires a considerable time after that to attain full maturity, and will hang until carly winter. Success- ful both North and South. + 7? Ps ~ GRAPES. 419 Isabella,—This old, well-known sort continues popular and profitable in many localities, but is rapidly being su- perseded. It is a vigorous grower, an immense bearer, and hardy, but in some localities it is liable to mildew. In quality, it is the best of any of the black grapes of its season. Bunches large, rather loose; berries oval, pretty large; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, slightly musky. Still one of the best for market, where it ripens, asit carries and keeps well. Israella.—Originated with Dr. C. W. Grant, of Iona Island, N. Y. The vine is vigorous and a good bearer, ripening about with Concord. Bunch medium; ber- ries above medium, black; flesh free from pulp, juicy and sweet. Ives (Ives’ Srepiinc).—This originated with Henry Ives, Cincinnati, O. The vine is very vigorous, hardy,. and very productive. It is esteemed as a profitable wine grape, and is a tolerable table grape when fully ripe. Bunch medium size, compact, shouldered ; berry medium, roundish oval; flesh with some considerable pulp, yet juicy and sweet. JRipens with Concord. Merrimack (Rocexrs’ No. 19).—Vine vigorous and pro- ductive. Bunches medium, rather short; berry large, round, slight bloom; flesh tender, juicy, sweet. One of the earliest and best of the Rogers varieties. Miles.—Of Pennsylvania origin. Vine a moderate grower, hardy, and very productive. One of the very earliest, good grapes to ripen. Bunch and berry small, round; flesh tender, slight pulp at center, juicy, vinous, very good. ; Norton’s Virginia,—Introduced to cultivation by Dr. D. N. Norton, of Richmond, Va. It is a strong, vigorous, long grower, producing very abundantly, and highly es- teemed for wine. Bunch medium, shouldered; berries 420 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. small, purplish black ; flesh tender, juicy, rich, brisk, rough, sweet flavor. Although most largely grown in Missouri, it is equally adapted to the North, as it ripens with Isa- bella. Othello (ArNnotpv’s No. 1).—Originated with Charles Arnold, Canada West. A good, strong grower and pro- ductive, ripening early or with Delaware. Bunch large, cholera: compact; berry large; flesh firm, j jurey, a lit- tle pulp. es. very good. Senasqua.—Originated with 8. W. Underhill, Croton Point, N. Y. A vigorous grower, and productive. Bunch medium to large; berry medium or above; purplish black; flesh juicy, tender, free from pulp, sweet, vinous, excel- lent. Ripens about with Concord, or perhaps a few days later. Said to be a cross between Concord and Black Prince. New and but partially tested. Telegraph (CuristrnE).—Originated in Philadelphia. Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive; one of the earliest to ripen. Bunch above medium to large, compact ; berry large, round, black; flesh juicy, tender, very little pulp, not as sweet as aetna Prolific, but free of all the musky, flavor, and ripening at same time. Te Kalon.—An old variety, originated at es N. Y. OF FRUITS. Crass Til.—Warrrt Graprs. Allen’s Hybrid.— Vine vigorous grower, not hardy, pro- ductive, liable to mildew, ripens early ; bunch medium or above, pretty compact; berry medium, roundish, pale whitish yellow; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, slightly vinous, delicious. Rarely escapes destruction by mildew in West- ern New York.” - Hp Autuchon (Arno.p’s No. 5).—Originated with Charles Arnold, Paris, C. W. Said to be a cross between Clinton and Golden Chasselas. Vine moderately vigorous and productive; bunch long, moderately compact ; berry me- dium; greenish white, with a golden hue when fully ripe ; flesh free from pulp, juicy, sweet, sprightly, and rich. Said to ripen with Delaware. New and but little known. Croton.—Originated by S. Underhill, Croton Point, N.Y. Said to be across between Delaware and Golden Chasselas. Vine vigorous, very productive; bunch large, shouldered; berry medium or above, greenish yellow ; flesh juicy, sprightly, sweet, rich, delicious. “Ripens among the earliest, or about. with Hartford Prolific. Promises to be a valuable garden variety. Cuyahoga.—Origin Ohio. Vine vigorous, healthy, and productive, requires a warm soil and location at the North ; mildews at the South; bunch medium; berry medium, greenish amber ; flesh tender, juicy, vinous, sweet ; when well ripened, one of the best. Ripens with Catawba. Lydia.—Originated on Kelley’s Island, O. Vine moder: ately vigorous, with rather sparse foliage, moderate bearer while young, good bearer when old and long. pruned; bunch medium, short, compact; berry round, greenish white, amber yellow at maturity; flesh juicy, rich, sweet, very little pulp. Ripens with Delaware. One of the very best in quality. See id vw GRAPES, , 425. Martha,—Raised by Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo. Vine a vigorous grower and a good bearer, hardy and healthy ; bunch medium; berry large, roundish, greenish yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, a little pulp at center. Ripens with Concord. Maxatawney,—Originated in Pennsylvania. Vine vig- orous, hardy, healthy, and productive. Ripens with Isa- bella, and is one of the best of the white grapes ; bunch me- dium, rather loose, berries medium, roundish oval, green- ish or yellowish white, tinted with amber; flesh free from pulp, tender, sweet, juicy, sprightly, delicious. Rebecca.—Origin Hudson, N. Y. Vine a free but not strong grower, an abundant bearer, hardy in most locali- ties; ripens soon after Concord,.and deserves a place in every garden; bunch medium, compact; berries medium, greenish yellow, almost golden amber at full ripeness ; flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet, delicious. When well ripened it is not surpassed by any of the native grapes. SELECT FOREIGN GRAPES. — Crass IL—Btack or PuRPLE GRAPES. Alicante (Back Paestrng, etc.).—Bunch large, shoul- dered, compact ; berries nearly round, black, with a little. bloom; flesh tender, juicy, fine. An excellent late varie- ty; hangs well. Black Frontignan (Muscat Norr, etc.).—-Bunches long ; berries medium size, round; flesh musky, rich; a good bearer. _ Black Hamburgh.—One of the most popular, because well known and tested. It is an admirable grape, and a general favorite; bunch large, often double-shouldered ; berries large, roundish, slightly oval; juicy, very sugary, rich. 426 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. Black St. Peter’s.—Bunches large, long ; berries large, black bloom; flesh tender, rich, and juicy. Late, and hangs a long time after ripe; valuable. Burckhardt’s Prince.—Bunches long ; berries medium, deep black; flesh firm, juicy, vinous. Champion Hamburgh.—An excellent grape. Much like Black Hamburgh. Duc de Magenta,—Bunch and berry large; flesh juicy, rich; ripens sometime before Black Hamburgh. Early Black Bordeaux.—Bunches short, shouldered ; berries medium or above; flesh tender, melting, rich, and sweet. One of the best early purple or black grapes known. Gros Maroc.—Bunch large, compact, shouldered; ber- ries large, round, black; flesh firm, sweet, vinous. DISEASES. 451 Pear-leaf Blight.—This disease has already been al- luded to in treating of pear seedlings. It is a sort of rust that appears on the leaves in July or August, first as small brown spots; these spread rapidly over the leaves until they are completely dried up and growth stepped. It appears in a certain spot as a center, from which it spreads. Whether it be an insect, a fungus, or some at- mospherical cause that produces this blight, is unknown. Certain cases favor one or other of these opinions. More ‘minute investigations are wanted on the subject. To avoid its evil effects as far as possible, the great point is, to get a rapid, vigorous growth, before mid-sum- mer, when it usually appears. Seedlings grown in new soils do not appear to be so much affected as in old. Where stocks are affected very early in the season, they become almost worthless, on account of the feebleness produced in both stem and roots by such an untimely and unnatural check. Some special applications, such as coal cinders, iron filings, copperas, etc., have been suggested, but no evidence has yet been produced of their efficacy. The Gum in Stone Kruits—The cherry, plum, apricot, and peach are all more or less subject to this malady. The cherry is particularly liable to it in the West. It is produced by different causes, such as a wet soil, severe pruning, pruning at an improper time, violent changes of temperature, etc. The gumming of the Cherry in the West is considered by some to be owing in a great mea- sure to the bark not yielding naturally to the growth of the wood, and hence they practise longitudinal incisions on it. The cherry-tree has a very powerful bark, and in some cases it may not yield naturally to the expansion or growth of the wood. We have seen about a foot of the trunk of a cherry-tree several inches smaller than the parts both above and below it. The bark was as smooth as glass on it, the first rind being unbroken, whilst on the large parts this was quite rough. This was a case arising 452 DISEASES AND INSECTS. from the obstinacy of the bark, and could only be remedied by longitudinal incisions on the small part. It is most probable that the extent and severity of this disease in the West is owing to violent changes from a hard frost to a bright sun and rapid thaw, by which the sap becomes deranged, and accumulates in masses. Trees that are branched near the ground will be less likely to suffer than those with tall, bare trunks. Where it has made some progress in any tree, pare off the diseased bark, clean off all the gum, and let the surface dry up; then apply a plaster of grafting composition, or a solution of gum shellac in alcohol, put on with a brush. When the stone fruits are pruned severely in the spring, the sap does not find sufficient vent; it accumulates in masses and bursts the bark. This fact should always be kept in view in pruning, and a sufficient supply of active buds be left to absorb the sap. The Yellows in the Peach.—This is supposed to arise from negligent cultivation. It exhibits itself in a yellow, sickly foliage, feeble shoots, and small fruits prematurely ripened. It is said to be contagious. Trees exhibiting these symptoms should instantly be destroyed. To avoid it, propagate only from trees in perfect health and vigor. Mildew on the Peach.—The young shoots, leaves, and even the fruit of certain varieties, and especially the gland- less ones, such as Hurly Anne, Early Tillotson, ete., are attacked by this. The only remedies are, to give the trees a dry, good soil, that will keep them in a vigorous condition, and to syringe freely twice a day when it begins to appear. The gooseberry suffers seriously from the mildew, owing mainly to the heat of our summers. In Northern New York, in Maine, Vermont, and Lower Canada, the finest large English varieties are brought to greater perfection than in warmer districts, and with good culture almost come up to the English standard. In a cold, damp-bottomed soil at Toronto, almost on a level ~~ SS 2 = ae ; . DISEASES. 453 with Lake Ontario, fine crops are produced witli compara- tively little difficulty from mildew or rust. This would indicate as a remedy, a cool soiland situation, and mulch- ing the roots to keep them cool. The plants should be renewed every three or four years, and they should be kept vigorous by liberal manuring and good culture. Rot and Mildew of the Grape.—Both the rot and mil- dew on the grape have been attributed to various causes, none of which seems to prove reliable. Both diseases seem to come and go with seasons, now here and there excessive upon one variety one season, and another the next, evidently to us bearing the impress that it is miasmatic or sporadic, and developed according to the atmosphere and condition of the vine as regards health and vigor. The preventive seems to be in the free use of sulphur, by dusting the vines and keeping the influence of the sulphur thereon, from the time the seed is formed until the coloring is at least half-completed. The Plum-tree Wart or Black-Knot.—The cause of this disease is still a matter of doubt and uncertainty. Some hold to the opinion that it is a gall produced by an insect, others that it is of fungous origin. The latter opinion is entitled to the greatest weight. We do not believe that insects have any agency whatever in producing this dis- ease. Cions should never be taken from a diseased tree. Cutting out the diseased branch clean to the sound wood, the moment the knots begin to appear, is an effectual remedy, and they should all be burnt up. We have saved trees six inches in diameter, that were af- fected on the trunk so seriously, that one third of its thickness had to be removed to get below the disease. After it was cut out, we applied a plaster of grafting composition, covered it with a cloth, and in two years it was all healed over and sound. Plum-trees are so neglected in the country, that mul- titudes of them are now standing literally loaded with 454 DISEASES AND INSECTS. these warts—not even an inch of any branch free from them, the most disgusting objects in the way of fruit trees that can possibly be imagined. The Curl of the Leaf in the Peach—This disease causes the leaves to assume a reddish color, to become thick, curled, and deformed, and finally toperish. It is supposed by many to be caused by insects; but it is really induced by a sudden change of weather. In proof of this we may adduce the fact that peach-trees under glass are never affected with this disease; and the more sheltered the position is, the less is the injury. A number of warm days, that cause the expansion of the young leaves, followed by a cold rainy day, is almost sure to produce it to some extent; and the more severe and protracted the cold, the more,extensive and fatal it is. The peach-trees in Western New York suffered more from this in 1849-50 than in the ten years previous, owing to a protracted cold time in each season after the young tender — leaves had expanded. In both these seasons the check was so severe, as not only to produce this disease in its worst form, but the gum also; for the sap not being absorbed by the leaves, became stagnant, sour, and corroded, and burst the bark. Trees in sheltered gardens suffer less than those in exposed orchards. There is no possible way of guarding against this; and the only remedy known to us is, to pick off the diseased leaves the moment the weather changes, that new healthy ones may be produced. Secrion 2.—TuHEr Principat INSECTS INJURIOUS TO Fruir TREES. Aphis or Plant-Louse.—There are several kinds of these. The two most troublesome to fruit trees are the green and black, small soft insects that appear suddenly in immense quantities on the young shoots of the trees, suck their juices, and consequently arrest their growth, INSECTS. 455 ‘The apple, pear, and cherry are especially infested with them. They multiply with wonderful rapidity. Itis said that one individual in five generations might be the pro- genitor of six thousand millions. Were it not that they are easily destroyed, they would present an obstacle almost insuperable in the propagation and culture of trees. , There are many ways of accomplishing their destruc- tion. Our plan is to prepare a barrel of tobacco juice, by steeping stems for several days until the juice is a dark brown, like strong beer; we then mix this with a solution of soft-soap, or soapsuds. A pail is filled with this, and the ends of the shoots where the insects are assembled are brought down and dipped into the liquid. One dip is enough. Such parts as cannot be dipped are sprinkled liberally. It is applied to the heads of large trees by means of a hand or garden syringe. It should be done in the evening. The liquid may be so strong as to injure the foliage, hence it will be well for persons using it the first time to test it on one or two subjects before applying it extensively. This application must be repeated as often asany of the aphides make their appear- ance. The dry weather of mid-summer is generally the time most favorable for their appearance. The season of 1871 has been remarkable for the prevalence of this pest all over the country, not merely on fruit but on forest trees. It has been so in Europe also. The Woolly Aphis or American Blight—This is a small insect, covered with a white woolly substance that conceals its body. They infest the apple-tree in particu- lar, both roots and branches, living upon the sap of the _ bark, and producing small warts or granulations on it by the punctures. They are more particularly troublesome on old rough-barked trees, as they lodge in the crevices, and are difficult to reach. The wind carries them from one place to another by the light down in which they are enveloped, and thus they spread quickly from one end of 456 DISEASES AND INSECTS, a plantation to the other. Not a moment should be lost in destroying the first one that makes its appearance. Where the bark is rough it should be scraped smooth; if the roots be affected the earth should be removed, and every part washed, and every crevice filled with the fol- lowing preparation, reeommended in Harris’s Treatise: “Two parts of soft-soap and eight of water, mixed with lime enough to bring it to the consistency of thick white- wash, to be put on with a brush.” them in order to cause them to throw out fibres and make balls suited to future removal. The One-Horse Cart.—This is an indispensable machine in the nursery, orchard, or large garden. Four-wheeled wagons are difficult to unload, and require a great deal of space to turn in. The cart can be turned in a circle of twelve or fourteen feet, and the load discharged in a mo- ment, simply by taking out the key that fastens the body to the shafts, throwing it up, and moving the horse forward. Our carts are about six feet long and three wide in the body, shafts six feet long, wheels four and a half feet high, and tire two and a half wide, to prevent them from sinking into the ground. The box is about a foot deep, and when large loads are to be carried a spreading board is put on the top with brackets. Cost from $30 to $50. The Wheelbarrow (fig. 163).—Every man who has a rod of ground to cultivate should possess this machine. In small gardens it is sufficient for the conveyance of all manures, soils, products, etc., and in larger places it is al- « IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL, 469 ways needed for use, where a cart cannot go. The handles or levers should be of ash or some tough wood, and the Fig. 163.—wHEELBARROW sides and bottom of any light wood. The wheel is soft Gi, —- wood, shod with iron. a = The Spade (fig. 164).—The best kinds excellent, strong, light articles. They work clean and bright as silver. There are several sizes. For heavy work, trenching, draining, raising trees, etc., the largest should be used. The Shovel (fig. 165).—This is used (v., in mixing, loading, and spreading com- ‘||| posts and short manures. The blade ll} should be of cast-steel. i The Forked Spade (fig. 166).—This \) resembles a fork. It has three to five al stout cast-steel tines, at least an inch | wide, and pointed. It is used instead of a spade to loosen the earth about the roots of trees, to turn in manures, etc., being much less liable to cut and injure them than the spade. pee ree The Dung-Fork (fig. 167).—There are several kinds. Those of cast-steel, cut out of a solid 470 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. plate, with three or four tines, are the best, light and dura- ble; they are sometimes made with six tines. It is the only implement proper for loading, mixing, or spreading fresh rough manures with facility and dispatch. Fig. 165.—SHOVEL. Fig. 166.—FORKED SPADES. The Pick—This is a useful, and even indispensable implement in the deepening or trenching of soils with a hard subsoil that cannot be operated upon with the spade. It consists of an ash handle, and a head composed of two levers of iron pointed with steel, and an eye in the centre for the handle. The Garden-Line and Reel (fig. 168).—The line should be a good hemp cord, from one eighth to one fourth of an inch in diameter, attached to light iron stakes about eigh- teen inches long. On one of the stakes a reel is attached. ' IMPLEMENTS OF .HE SOIL. 471 This is turned by means of a handle, and the line neatly and quickly wound up. The Hoe.—This is a universal instrument in this coun- try. In some cases, all the gardening operations are per- formed with it. Its uses in tree culture are to open trenches for seeds, to cover them, to loosen and clean the surface of the ground from weeds, etc. There are two kinds, the draw hoe (figs. 169, 170, 171) and the Dutch or thrust hoe (fig. 172); this wedo not use at all. Of the different kinds and forms of the draw hoe, the most generally useful is the square, a cast- Fig. 167.—DUNG-FORKS. steel Bete. about six inches long and four wide, with a Fig. 168.—LINE AND “light, smooth anette The semicircular and triangular hoes may be advantage- ously used in certain cases. The Pointed Garden Hoe (fig. 178) is useful among borders and small plants. The Rake (fig. 174) is used to level, smooth, pulverize, and clean the surface of the ground after it has been spaded or hoed, or to prepare it for seeds, ete. REEL. They are of different sizes, with from 472 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. six to twelve teeth. The best are those of which the head and teeth are drawn out of a solid bar of steel. Those that are welded and riveted soon get out of order. SECTION 2.—IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING. The Pruning Saw.—This is used for cutting off branches, either too large for the knife, or so situated that the knife cannot operate. It has various sizes and forms. Some are jointed, and fold like a pruning-knife; others are like the common carpenter’s handsaw, but smaller and stouter. Two forms are shown at fig. 175, The Bow-Saw (fig. 176).—This is the most J generally useful form for the gardener or nur- Fig. 169.—seryman. The blade is very narrow, and stiff SQUARE ened by an arch back. It is fastened at both vee | thends by a rivet to the screw on which the back turns, and by which it is adapted to. different pur- poses. It is indispensable in making horizontal cuts close to the ground, as in heading down. Some are set with a double row of teeth on one side, ty j Wa Fig. 170.—TRIANGULAR DRAW-HOE. Fig. 171.—sEMICIRCULAR DRAW-HOE, NU and the edge is much thicker than the back; these work much easier than those toothed in the ordinary way, and it would be an object to have them where much saw-prun- _ IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING. 473 ing is to be done. Wherever the saw is used, the cut surface should be pared smooth with the knife, to facili- tate its healing. Long-handled pruning-saws are sometimes recommended, but never should be | used in pruning fruit- trees, if possible to avoid it. The branch to be operated should be reached by means of a ladder, if need be, within arm’s length, and cut with a common saw. Hand Pruning- Shears (fig. 177).— ' There is a kind of these made now, that, having a mov- ing center, as in the figure, make a smooth draw cut almost equal to that of a S24 knife, and it is a very ———_— expeditious instru- ment in the hand of askilful workman. In pruning out small dead branches, shortening in peach- trees, etc., 1t will perform four times as much work as a knife. THRUST-HOE. Fig. 173. — POINTED GARDEN-HOE. Pruning Scissors (fig. 178).—These- scissors cut as smoothly as a knife, and can be easily car- ried in the pocket, ready to take away a small branch wherever it may chance to be observed. Lopping or Branch Shears.—These are very strongly AGA NURSERY. AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. . made, with long wooden handles, and are used for cutting’ Fig. 174.—GARDEN RAKE. thick branches from trees, shrub- bery, hedges, etc. One form is shown in fig. 179. Pole Pruning Shears. — These resemble the hand-shears, but are worked by a string passing over a pulley, and are fixed on a pole of any required length. They are used in cutting cions, diseased shoots, etc., from the heads of lofty scans atl trees. Grape Scissors.,—These are small, sharp-pointed scissors, as in fig. 180, for thinning bunches of grapes. The Pruning-Knife.—The best for general purposes are those of medium size, with a handle about four inches long, smooth, slightly hollowed in the back; the blade about three and a half inches long, three quarters of an inch wide, and nearly straight (fig. 181). For very heavy work a larger TA mT yey ail | Fig. 175.—PRUNING-SAWS. size may be necessary. “ Saynor’s” (English) knives of this kind are unsurpassed in material and finish. The Budding-Knife.—This is much smaller than the _ IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING. 475 pruning-knife, with a thin, straight blade, the edge some- times rounded at the point. The handle 1s of bone or ivory, and has a thin, wedge-shaped end for raising the bark. Bud- ders have various fan- cies about shape and size; one form is given in figure 182. The Grafting- Chisel.—This is used for splitting large Fig. 177.—HAND PRUNING-SHEARS. stocks ; the blade is about two inches long, and an inch and a half wide, in the shape of a wedge; the edge curved so as to cut, and not tear the bark; the handle eight or ten inches long, at the end of which is a narrow wedge to keep the split open until the = cion is inserted. (See figure Fig. 178.—PRUNING-SCISSORS. 183.) The whole is of steel. Some are made with the blade in the middle, the wedge at one end, and a hook to hang it by on the other. Mr. David 8. Wagner, of Pulteney, N. Y., has invent- ed an ingenious implement for Fig. 179.—LoPPING OR BRANCH SHEARS. grafting grapes; as it is patented, those who desire to know about it may inquire of the inventor. 476 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. Tree-Scraper (fig. 184).—This is made of heavy plate- =~ steel, with a long, jointed =< handle for scraping upper ee branches, or a short one Fig. 180.—GRAPE SCISSORS. for the trunks. SECTION 3.—LADDERS AND F RvuIT-GATHERERS. Ladders.—Of these there are many kinds. For the fruit-garden, where the trees are low, the self-supporting ladder (fig. 185) is the most conveni- ent and best. It should be made of light wood, with flat steps, so that a person can stand upon them and work. The back, or supports, consist of one or two light pieces of timber, fixed at the top with hooks and straps, so as to be contracted or extended at pleasure. A ladder of this kind, six or eight feet high, will answer all the demands of a garden. Orchard Ladders are of various kinds. For pruning or gathering the fruit from lofty trees, a great length of lad- der is necessary ; it is therefore desirable that the mate- rial be as light as possible consistent with the necessary strength. Some- times these long lad- ders are composed of several smaller ones, that fit into one another, all Fig. 181. PRUNING-KNIFE. Fig. 182.—BUDDING-KNIFE. Fig. 183.—GRAFTING CHISEL. Fig. 184.—TREE-SCRAPER. _ LADDERS. 477 mounted on a frame with a small wheel, by which they are easily moved about. The Folding Ladder is a very neat and convenient ar- ticle for many purposes. The inside of the styles is hol- lowed out, and the steps are fastened to them by means of iron pins, on which they turn as on hinges, so that the two sides can be brought together, the steps turning into the grooves or hollows in them, the whole appearing like a _ round pole—B. It is more \ easily carried and placed where 2S AZ wanted than the ordinary lad- ee ek appern, er. A represents it open, : and B closed (fig. 186). There are also Self-supporting Orchard-Ladders, com- posed of three upright pieces of any required length, and spread widely at the bottom, to give them stability. Two : of the sides are fixed, and are furnished with steps all the way up. The third is longer and movable, and can be extended or contracted at pleasure. A piece of board wide enough to stand upon can be extended from one side to the other, resting upon the steps at whatever hight it is desirable to work. On the movable side a pulley is fixed, by which the baskets of fruit are let down as they are gathered. Two persons or 478 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. more can ascend and work on a ladder at the same time. Fig. 187 represents one of these; a, 6, the two fixed sare A sides; C,the movable one. It dT is considerably used in France. The Orchardists Hook isa light rod, with a hook on one end, and a movable piece of UN1c? Nese IL wood that slides along it. A ; ya The person gathering fruit draws the branch towards | a him with the hooked end, and | ut = retains it there by means of C VY the sliding piece which is x hooked to another branch. This is an indispensable in- a. strument in gathering fruit Fig. 187.—SELF-SUPPORTING = from large trees. pe ae fk Fruit-Gatherers.—Of these there are many designs by which the fruit may be taken Fig. 188.—GRAPE-GATHERER. from the tree by a person standing on the ground. They Fig. 189.—HAND SYRINGE. answer very well for gathering a few ripe specimens for FRUIT-GATHERERS. 479 immediate consumption. The ladder, hook, and hand are the only safe and expeditious fruit-gatherers. Some are made in the form of a vase of wood or tin placed on the end of a pole. The edge of the vase is toothed, and when the stem of the fruit is taken between two of the teeth, and slightly twisted, it drops. Others are composed of a pair of shears on the end of a pole, to which a basket is attached that slides up and down the handle. BA (nen er io SHAT THT Mite e aE ; an TAS itt cowie Wiliccené¢ S-zaill ¥ Us o Ne i A 4 / HAP Al aly {3 | if oh A aaa l AA mn Uli a Ce i A, A iS The Grape- Gatherer resembles a pair of shears com- bining the property of pincers. They cut a bunch of 480 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS, grapes, and hold it firmly until it is brought down. These are very useful for gathering a few bunches of grapes from the top of a house or trellis (fig. 188). SECTION 4.—MacHINES FOR WATERING. The Hand-Syringe (fig. 189).—This is a very useful implement for sprinkling and washing the foliage of trees in dry weather. There are various kinds, made of tin, copper, and brass, and sold at various prices. Whatever sort 1s used should have several caps (A) to regulate the quantity or shower of water discharged; and they should also have an inverted or “ gooseneck” one (2) to throw the stream, if necessary, on the under side of leaves, or in any oblique direction. There are, also, hand-engines, barrel-engines, and bar- row-engines, all of which are very useful. In every large garden there should be both the syringe and one of these en- gines; for watering is a most important affair in gardening | under our hot sun and_pro- Fig. 191,—waTERING-Por. tracted drouths. The Barrow- Engine (fig. 190) is the most useful for general purposes; it is easily moved from one place to another. The improved kinds are easily worked, and the water-box, being provided with a strainer, excludes anything likely to derangeits operations. The Garden Watering-pot (fig. 191).—This is a tin or copper vessel that may hold from one to four gal- _lons of water, with a spout six or eight inches long, by which the water is discharged. There should bea rose or roses, as in cut, to fit on the spout, pierced with large or small holes, by which the water can be discharged in a shower. Every pot may have several roses, pierced with holes of various sizes, to adapt them to different purposes. — 7 INDEX. 481 —_*O+ — Almonds...... RPP ATANE alala, sala < archers se 434 Buds, Proll... 3 .2sd cate eee 89 POMPE ETON Gos ccs eg vies nee. oo. 455 Inferior: .:.c uses eee 38 Animals Injurious to Fruits and “*; . Lateral $24. coeo aoe See Lad Ba 3 ea I er 464 £0 head. Siig ok 30 a ee 38 (oie oo ee 462 ‘© Names and Characters of...... 37 Aphis or Plant-Louse.,............. 454 ‘* Nature and Functions of...... 35 Apple and Pear as Espaliers, Train- %. Preserving’. >. i. eiace amines een 90 TT AO os cn et eee eae 239 = Stipular Sn 38 ‘© asa Dwarf on Paradise Stock.237 *" Superior. .$....-3.... °==—- 38 “Se ged JCA ie teas ah oe a 450 crs erminales, teu we. neste eee 37 TOL NV ATI se sori ccs saujee 6 207 ore UnbyING Tosca ee ee ee 150 PeMeMEMUNIENO Ces odes aids eco wee Sota Caniker- W.OlMis.0 selec s cee cs ee 458 er @rce Borer, yo st tec. cee. =i: PEM YE OPUS 1s i acttrwe ca oro hainis Frock, pote amon 465 Bee SPECS OC OMGON- 250.0 ssce ses « 207 Cherries. .. 2 ait ote etc chao Cen an ten eee ene RO ea ate ia a 457 Bigarres. cnc oe scar be eeeoee Apples, JawPN HAWLEY 8 Gye dl BRR PRICE 335 “ Distance apart to Plant..... 217 Choice Garden Varieties. . .356 ‘“ Duke and Morello......... 384 ** Distance apart to Plant... ..217 ,. Worms QEywaesnueete ds. an; 64 Bee sor wars 225) 330 e725 508, 356 os Rca t,o a ee epenmeriie Of e005) tS... 62 Si , JBaG ings. pain: 2s ot eae ** for Ornament and Preserv- se Pyramidal: -headed Standard O51 7) lee Ga 35 SW» Salect. Lish@isw 33.2 hee. 386 “List of, for the Eastern and “,.. The Duke'Classiof: 3.22.2. 250 Middle States.............5 ‘* The Morello Class of...... .250 - ARGS 1 ne 443 | Cherry and Pear Slug............... 459 gg 2 ee ri 331 ‘* Pruning as a ‘Pyramid ener 251 A OE ee ee 340 ce 3: as a Dwarf or Bush .253 ENED. GUTS ex fee i el 378 + 8 * Standard. a ** Distance apart to Plant.. Bot He *¢ .. .an:Hspaliersty7 22% “Foy yr LEME VT eg SOR ee a IR 190 he “ as.a. Standard.:..... 350 Ae Praning and Management. 269 oo) «er ONaN ee te... /Ja.8 ch atad eee’ ook 249 as Training ~ibtetleet pe are Perec 211 3 Pyramidal Form forwxi4 2 o 209 ao) ESSE eet 167 ‘*.. Drees, Figs ys: Standard..... 190 LU CLES) a a ae ee 25) | (Chestnuts s: f2 teae 4s) ceaeesee ee 167, 435 oC SESGS 2 be i ie inn eee A} |} CLON Sr siseconsre Bieta terete gee ede foe 94 MEMES, srote oo Gos cae conn 4560 ) Climate. s/s reve reroeaas APE eek ee 53 Tes) OSE ey a a aa 414 | Codling-Moth, Destroying i ae 457 ceil iis LC ROARS ESS eee re 459 Cordon, Dwarf Apple trained in Blackberries ~3hs GR eee 166, 415 Horizontally 5 207 EMOTO (2 ino Se oso 8'e 445 ‘s Training of Pear-'Trees.. .243 peices. Culture of the.... ..... olf |: Cracking: 5. stomata ee 5 Blossoming i in Alternate Years..... 55 | Curculio or Plum-Weevil........... 460 > JA Li TOTO Be Beene 52 | Currant as an Espalier............ 1 311 Branches, CIA) phelests Ral rena aaa 29 SC... aaa PyPAmmid-+.....oectoe sole LURE 36 6 Isao anna 29 s Manuringe the:...2..:.. 22. Scene oe Horizontal............... 29 6. Pruning the: 6 fs oso ee oy ele es PCN. 2) os ie cists os, © 29 +“. the Black. wi< ees cfeece ae 311 eS POEUTID ES ao vras «sw Sole Preis 28 ‘6. « WOTML te Euacses totes ne one 460 a BECOMGATY. « vin cicisc.c' = 0's 2D | Currante ese eee oe ed eae 165, 404 Bud, MOEMAAUE OLS. oc cscs 149 ‘* Distance apart to Plant.. ..218 Treatment of the Growing... .151 ‘os Paekingyee Stor. Soe eee 445 Badaing, Propacation by........,-. 89: |- Custard. Apples 202) tis)... 22 oes 434 Lo a ae .... 148 | Cuttings, Propagation by........... 83 RM sy oy acess ce ceccercss 464 Diseases, Apple Blight. ...¢.....c00: 450 BPSOIVENTILIONS:. 02.055 ecce sees ey | Bitter Hof: .5.. Seco 450 BPRMULAEN onc calss'ec sc ccce sees 37 < Cracking: 2 decree. nie .450 ** Compound and Simple Fruit.. 39 aS Curl of the Leaf in the * Cutting and Eee: Ss ay rn ‘Peal, 7a) ss wiviin eas 454 * Dormant or Latent.. jek eee - Fire-Blight,.. ..-.s0.+--. 449 482 Diseases, Stee in Stone Fruits.....451 LOW: Aas. wiclnnye Oe ere sitios 450 ee Mildew of the Grape..... 453 ag Mildew on the Peach. ....452 et Pear-leaf Blight.......... 451 st Plum-tree Wart or Black NO ee eine k miss ete eae 3 ae Rot of the Grape......... 453 ee Rustor HuNCHs cess 450 ce Twie-Blight. es Re AMES Ee 449 ae Yellows in the Peach..... 452 Distances to Plant: Espalier Apple-trees.... .. ...218 Cherry- 4Hises secs: 218 ee Pinm-atrecsis.piescs ess 218 Horizontal Cordon. Trees....... 219 Espalier Pear-trees.218 Oblique Cordon 'Trees......... 219 Pyramidal Apple-trees......... a8 IPGaretrees! 2s. tea 218 42 Plum-trees....-...... 218 Upright Espalier Pear-trees... en Double Working... 322: sense eee 100 Drainine.aek ae eee nis esewieee eee "3 Dwart Rushes ira. ee eek 157 Cy eC DETLY-tLCCS. Ee estaele nae - ee 253 ‘© Standard Cherry-tree....... 254 Dwarfs and Dwarf Standards...... 213 a EnepAgi mle gor: Lecce ss 2 207 Espalier Cherry-trees. ....0....... 4202 CUPLANEAS Ue erst oe Sts 311 ¥ BN -SHADRO sok Moses 2s te 262 ee Peach- GEES seh, (sows wedges 261 ne £ BOWATC es... 5 267 ee Trees in LP jpgete othe reves 158 Fig, Prapasanve Of Gne.. Jtecioesoe 805 * Protectipe she t.2 si fej Fs SeOUR “Pruning Ge Denke oc Ho ee 806 st” Soil For, phe. «nc ieace nese e< 54805 ‘a Training i in Graperies... ..... 307 {Ne ec eee 42006 IOS SN is = oe) An Soe ye 167, 429 Filbert, MOLMIOf sh as85 orc fees oe Oat 211 ci) Leyes 3 ¢: een oe RIAD my oy Sa hae, 167, 435 ‘Distance apart to Plant....218 Wige-Biighit 6c. 2%, sei eee RG a eure "449 Flowers, Different Characters of... 58 Parts of.i.: ....8 49-52 Fruit and Kitchen Garden.......... Q01 Branches, Management of. . ..285 o*...7Oharacters Of s:n.c heen s Dees ee 56 ef Classification Of eee 3 fe 56 st 1ZeC-OL. 0. ats 60 ee Different PATES OD ss fess. esis st’ Mormlolse sc. coe wakes ahs 61 sf Flam dling 33" /s.isisgieeenic ase 443 ee Garden, ‘Inclosures for....... 197 SF hayins .OUL. ge oe o' 199 SS ae Propetia! Suntec. sece 199 #6 . Selection of Trees... 204 cf ae Situationot-.¢..fei9G 2 aS Solltor see Sesncene a 197 ce ae Trellises TOP Ure antes 198 Be Walks in the........ 202 + st WAGE TOR. caeeic kote 204 ry SORE R Eo ROR ees OR RS ee key 43% fe Mar king. RA a PE RES Sap 442 ¢ Packing ais.el othe lakers etpreteteee ele . 441 INDEX. ; F Fruit, Ripening of. . ....2. . >> «ce eaee 254 a eee eee ei See oe 463 ‘© Tree as an Espalier.......... 261 Se Sealy Aphis ..2.00.0..... 456 SS. Pee BOF), Y. os ue eee 463 te Woolly Aphis........ pune 455 ‘* Tree, Forming a Standard... ..256 AES 169 ‘* Tree in the Form of a Vase. .258 Labels for Nursery Trees........-.. 168 “ Tree, Pruning the.. ee as Layer, OTIS CCT Ee ee ee 87 rs Tree, Root- Pruning the. a 253 je OUUTEN Go ee 3 e¢ Trees, Dwart ...:. => ..ceoe 134 SE RMEMIMG ts 2. occ. cas wns 87 “S Trees, Fan-shaped Espalier.. .262 Layering, Propagation by.......... &6 Re Trees, Settings : 253 Pl Anceee ae 189 Laying out the Fruit-Garden....... 199 “ Trees trained on a Wall...... 262 PRC MLOT Ne Se SS ee ce wee 464 "Yellows: im the... 2.4 See 452 Leaves, Different Forms and Char- Peaches. ... 0:02 i-nacuascisls pale 888 acters of... . 46-49 ‘* Distance apart to Plant .. .217 Leaves, Structure and Functions of 46 SO .. Norms, of... incest €4 Lemons pssst as NAAR toe oe i saiscs oe 433 66 Backing o>. Jit... eee 444 2500.0 See 433 ‘s Select'Gardensy.tcaren soak 396 484 INDEX. Peaches, Select List of.:. ......... 896 | Pruning, Root.. PAPE 104 Pear as a Pyramid.............+...- 208 Season for.. pease (ile So Prinine the». ob. esesweens eae 220 ‘the Apple and Pear....... 220 + Seedlings Lai oa Ge Senne ae 127 ** as Espaliers.. ~ o * an Wine- glass SVORIA td hos. 241 “on Paradise Stock......... x37 Peéar-leaf Buieht hj: eee 451 Apricot...: 2222 269 Pear-Trees, Cordon-trained......... 243 #4 Cherry asa Pyramid ..... 251 ee Cutting back Pyram- c “ - Standard.. 5 ACA s-Gicecie meee ae 224 “Currants c-2i-6-5- eee -.310 a4 Hirst Broninovor.....- 231 sf Grape. 5 ctekeee eee 275 = Management of Fruit ‘Gooseberry. :.... . aes -amnoen Branches of.......... 235 ANectarine 2. ccnaeeereee “ae e210 cs Oblique Cordon........ 244 “* Peach Tree..-3..0 eee 258 A Objects of Cutting ‘t” Plum.,..5..c jc.55 2 eee 268 BACK j:8).Jeeaies te wanes 2 ‘+’ ’ Raspberty. =a. eee ee 812 sk Pruning the easing: oe Pyramidal Training................ 208 we Pyramid nimvat Ren cpa es Pyramids ue ace ines alo OUR I eT ee 155 s Second Pruning of.. 2 Quince, Angers... .*= j..cssvseoeeem 130 z2 aed Management ee Pruning and Training the.248 aC ness eae S 230 sf Training the:. i.ci:.2oeeereue = Third Priming 0f..5: <5 985 | Quince’. ... . 3.2: sect eee B77 3 Training Dwarf Stand- a Distance apart to Plant... .217 TO oe ons wid s SeeetOn eee 223 “ ~ Packing..<.. <.)<00e eee 444 Ke Training Standard..... 921 | Rabbits... .c0 sac) <. cack eee eee 27 nt MORES Of +). aq.4 te baos ae 80 * “the Different Parts:ofs-. sceae 25 Propagation by Division of Plants. 82 | Stocks...........-.s0:05 eeeeeeeeees 94 Pruning and Management of the + Doucin..... ..shee ee 124 Peach. ol Ge rice ne tee 254 % "for Apples . Jcdua.o2ts cee 124 Pruning and Preparing Trees for “Cherry. ... sc sss ee ee i381 Plagiting 12ers ae 191 ‘© Apricot and Nectarine......134 Pruning and Training the Quince. .248 Plum: « sé. S55 va ciosicon esaces 340 MRE cs oo 5. ss,5/0 oa ed comp aeres 341 the synonymous namesin Italics. Beauty of Kents 7.25. ieee 335 Belmont. 720... cen eee Be a Nae eter yh 341 Ben Davis sco ase cance oan 341 BenOD1,... osc cmccet etal amtea o eeae 331 Bently’s Sweet... <2 ens c0 aera 341 Bethlehemite:o:..)35.0 eee 341 Bonuniy . 254254 casnswedes eee 342 Broad well ..2s2220 2.4. soeen ieee 342 Buckineham: soc. aascaen se eee 842 Bullock’ $ Pippi. 5. Fee dae tna 340 Cable’s GUUGOWE . vac.c'once+ nde wma 841 Camphield? 2 .5e.-n: Seattle ae 335 Canada, Reinette... ........cccen+ eeOee Cannon Pearmainsg..424222 eee 342 Caralina Red Junesi.e., v/a, sneeeaee 3382 Carolina Watson... .% 2.2505 ene ee 3832 Gartér’s Bluess3. eee .836 486 INDEX. GAYUOG TREO ISUTEGs anor ear Q51-+ | Menacere. «0.62. 1000s ene 346 Chenango Strawberry..............0830 Michael Henry Pippin... eee 346 OSs well ccm. ... .-tr| Northern Spy. 5.-esneeeeee pe 3 dae. 348 Karly Red Marearet........2......02 332 | Ohio Nonpareil 2.2... eee 3389 HEV SUAWDEIEV ea cs cies creme ncee: B92) ORO Werte. a sfowe cise See, 887 arly Sweet DOUGH: kes: .2eceeb eee’ 8337} (Orange Sweeb. oc. : cs aoe citer 347 Linglish Red Streak... 0... ...cceeees 342 | Ortley.;...... ..on.nses eee 248 Buoliah SRE es cetowas ses hese 343 | Peck’s Pleasant.....:..+ sseeseees< 348 English MULE. Saint RES Oe eat 349 | Pennsylvania Red Streak........ _.. 802 POPUL ELEY. Fs oon alae wo tse eho Bey Rie 342: | Phillip’s Sweet... .assoscweee eee 348 Esopus Spitzenburgh............-. 343. | Pomme Gris... 5. .-- soe ....849 Haligwater... voviswp vaca cece eeecee 344 | Pomme Royadle.:...-. ~o.sasenesenn 336 Fail Cheese of Virginia...........4. 339.-| Porter 2-005 0i< tet ide: cee ee 339 PUTS A TNS « sa.s'as So ile as ne ee 836 | Poughkeepsie Reussét........++ «+++ 343, TRIO NEN Aas dan aioli 342 Primate e cag ieeal bul OTe REE ee 333 EVID Oi 3 os aia c6 dinieie hoe caters Oe 957 | Pryor'’s Red. ....2.25 santos eee 349 POMEMNERS. to. She seh neen es Laan ate 344 | Pinnpkin Swell 26. 2s. i sae eeiae 388 Pee Roel Die Cai ceteaaM es ce conte fe 2 337° | Quacn Anne........iientoe see ee CGD CS CRP IC PRS a stake Hcl oe are hares wate B41 4) Ham Dons. .cnaw ec cnc see 349 Gilpin re tel gate, Bike teletabe tres Ee aca tite 344. || Ramsdell’s Sweet... essere 849 Golden Russet of Western N. Y....844 | Rawle’s Janet.................--.-- 849 OMe DODRCE 55a, Nata noes ee on nial 336 | Red Astrachan..:.......:.ssanee 833 Golden Sweet... 5.22. -as0cs-snigue tee 333 | Red Canadas. o.2...2 55 2 eee ee 349 Tavensteines wc veer aee cela B37 || ed SUNEGING So soins seine eee 332 Green Cheese Hest As gece coc a elle 844, |) ReQunG oo kes cae eee ieee 843 Green Newtown Pippin..........+6- S47 | Red Spileenbdurgn. .c~ <0 eee 339 GreenjSiveet...caseecaes Enis an terancte 344 | Red Sweet Pippin. .... 000 2.--qee geen Grimes’ Golden Pippin.--......... 345 | Red Winter Pearmain........:..... 350 Haw ihormdeni sr. ccc5 veece coment aes S37 | emetic * CORnGdG ee ane eee eee 842 MO Oss ca sce Fe Jn se he eee tae 352 | Rhode Island Greening........... 350 Hichtop Sweet........ SEM certains 993°] RIDston ElppIn Sy .cm.caseiee lteter 850 LOCK UN OP canoe es Se Oe 994 >| (Richarad’s: Graft. acct see eee eee 339 HOMANY ooo san veins cece owes locweee O40. | Hichfield NOnsuchs onc oss snr eeee 849 TONY (GLCCNENG Vato. cence sess tae ars 844... |. Romanite.... ..+..02- 006s essen eee Howe's Virginia 'Crabs..s.0.. ccs 345 | Rome Beauty..........-...---.---- 389 Hubbardston Nonsuch............. 945 “| Roxbury Russet... - eee eee 350 JCHCIS) ee apis vcteeiee state noe e eas 837 | Sherwood’s Favorite. .:....0.--+.--- 336 SENUOT Ye sok ctee a tes see Hee eee 3419. |. Shockleys.aeo ts 44-6 ase eer ener 850 Jersey OWEELI Sori. cece seers eee ae 999’ (Smlith Si@iders cs. cee eee enrollee 350 donathane Cook uticce cee acan sees 3415 -| SmOkeCHOUSC.. ..°. sis snieleieaterie sleet oi 351 UMASS Se ak wee tee ROE B45 | SHOW is it. Soe See oe = ole wreeaniaeleatatete 344 Keswick Codhint: 725: ot -cernem sais te 338. | Sops Of Wine... .. . . eee Yellow Newtown Pippin........... 353 eels Richmond «::..--::..ce0-2,0 NOP eck = odeeteee eee Pe, Applies—Crab. pigon. sTa\o] gichaa wai vm aoe e aaiete ce oe en 381 ; OVETROr WOR oe eee eee 381 Cherry Crab....:...<..2.--.......-.d04 Great Bigarreau... ........ ss. 399 Teds Crab PA Titan tora RO yee os po Griddley + ...sc2. 22860: 352 5S5ot Rees Large Red Siberian Crab........... 354 ae hts Bay Black............... oe Large Yellow Siberian Crab........ 354 Tn Philiopets ot eke 385 Montreal PERMIAN for Soc--5,t cpoxelayel ste > ae 354 May Duke Bee Seen eee 385 Son agg Siberian Crab oteeesceeeeeee me Monstreuie geo Mezelyo)..5......:882 Transcen MEM acters) tum Ja sinrcie'a sso = 354 Naicad Bigarreau Ben cen. ed alae = Wellow Siberian-Crab............0- 354 Ohio Beauty... ccee.ce cree * "" gay RECON eon cls als a) nieineleo Sie siclmardie a srotore 383 Apricots. > ST aa So BE 383 Alberge de Montagamet............ Sie yineeed PaCKet,.....-..., 0207 ee wien 383 MEM Sy 0 28 o's ciaialenaereie v6, ais rests So's See) ‘eine: Hortenee.... 2.5355 a “deeteeee 385 OECD Se ren en ts erica iets ote hs 378 | Rockport Bigarreau................383 MRE UR FEI tA oh oo> a he crc oan aretecnt a Se | MARCEL AMD... aes baie cede gee sone 383 ACS Ss Se ie EROVEL DOKGe.. . osote ene cock eee 886 MMRRIRRSUE Meets e525 cn oysiccieters/aee mae 378 | Tradescant’s Black Heart.......... 383, MGS MAOWIONW ooo cael se caccne dees ie. 4|~ We UKINSON:.. i. . 72 ela eee 382 RE EMEA. Cg reece eecsccsOhe | Mellow Spanish... ..sc:s.seassaaes 382 ES IVEONVOGL DATE. «soc nis ve nate ses 378 eereitke. * ee ee ee ee Chestnuts, Cli lb os ia Sees: 79 MOREY cas oes cae cenceace ree DOOD | eee eve cial ye = Montagamet ae Ses pRB ARG ere 378 | Dwart Chestnut KS ae Pee eg ana en 435 LS i ER eee Sie | Wigesat.’ sash iccccs xi ccs eee 435° ene: RE Oe ee ao Spanish Chestnut.................. 435 leel: LS Cle hee 379 Saint Ambroise. :.::::.............379 pabrnrixNee MIELE wh Saree SS sti cieione oo arn.s.0 Sm) | Elite “Waplesr: oor cacn sons ae oe ae a es tees a7. | Cherty. i. oc teee panatnda'asatane es oe Tec osienie ex's 379 .| Houghton Castle. -. 2.0... ...6 6... 403 La Vefauillaise, 2. 270808 32s: 404 Berberries. Long-bunched Red....... OBES Ge: 405 Berberis duleis......0.c0ee0 vse 444 | Reed uted 2220000000408 Bayo naet L nto. = epee ewinsielsh=)<'='s Short-bunched Red ccf ooo: iacecan 405 Bweeb-fruited:......-...... 0c cece eee 414 Victoria cae geeestesetes ceetteerees 405 11te UCN i bia. a niwiat west a ais’ cuclelete te anata Blackberries. W Uitte: Gisise nnn oe 3 cone ee 405 REE o.oo otal ki wre a5, cn wd 415 Improved High Bush Spann Pia ARE blk 415 Figs. Ne sce oie caw ane ee ASG | BOTS 5 rals% on victim Rok ae eee 429 os eee Sie) | AGUNG, oii. cccccnm «fase meetande 429 488 INDEX. NEO LIOUE . 3's nie vie sank s eee ean eer A996") To Kalon:, 0: 22022 o .: sce, eee 375 DAM AIS MEL ONCY.« tere cece Soci Sete ie 368 Ott... ... 8 kak ode nas oe 375 DEATHOUN Ss WECM See eee. e ae Bde | POUNG? 3; 2c 5. 1 occe0s pee tee 369 IDES TNONES bo Solis aca ape eee 360°. |) Pratts:..0e. clkca ce ta eee 365 MS PONETES 20. * foo P ease bee eee 361 | Rapelye’s Seedling....... eee hay. 375 UTES SSIES SAN en Salemi ics ACU a 361° || Rostlezer is cco: sce oer eens cates 358 Totior Lindley AS el ada ee ne Ste | Rutter: sc 2s. ndoseeeet. Cee eee 375 OCLOY MUCEGET oe sks alseceel eee oils 302-1 St'Ghislain .:.+3:..csee ee ene 315 Doyenné Boussock..............--- 362 | St. Michael Archangel..............365 Movyennée cd’ Alencon. .. 2.02.60. Se BOS, |: SE. LNECHOUAS.. <3. 0% enc B12 MPOmENNe Te oo... sateen dae wees Bor. | Seekel »s.5 02: sacssees tee 365 Doyenné LU ETO RE Viera ateracntee i Mearete ici ciers 367 | Sheldon’. ..,..0.+.5s «ses eeee 366 DOV CNIMENA HALUCR ie Pe ae eieyecelsye aerate 368 | Souvenir d’Esperen................ 366 Doyenne du" Comices. eee. eee 362 | Souvenir du Congres.......... Svoi oaem Doyenne 'GYAy, py eeeu creas urine 362 | Stevens’ Genesee.” ... 5... 2s eeweeee 366 Doyenhe White 2) Ga setn: sees? 302 | Summer Dovyenne::-. 0.2225: eee 857 Duchesse d’Angouléme............ 363. | Summer Virgalieu......-.-- onsen 358 Dit PL APOE ci ceige ve ee tee tee abt. | Swan's Orange. ....' s..+- 4. eee 365 Duc .de Bravest 7,- 25. e gisesOle | TyS80th. >. 5s5.2.0.ucie eee 358 DUC Ue BBOT ALOU acca seer aco, | Urbanistesn. 5. 2. ies cee ee 366 Duchess Orleans Varo sse cee 372: | Uvedale’s St. Germain............. 369 Duchess Precoces.-cessnct ae ae av2 |} Vicar of Winkfield.:..... = 22-neeee 869 Duchesse de Berry @Eté.. .. ..... B00 -| Vergalieu... ..00.: 2a eee eee 362 Duchesse de Bordeaux............. 303. | “Washineton.).. 7, asec .esee eee 866 DUP Gn dees. Sewsiancsc'c ote shinee eee 361 | Williams’ Bonchrétien..........62.- 356 WdAMONGS cn deh aes eek ee Peete eae Williams’ d’Hiver:........oncs.2enee 376 eae Here etre reisinrg ep isteeletatesete oe ae Winter Nelis.)2>2cc...5-a0n)- eee 369 lemis PENN AL geneer acre Aco gee 36 Fondante @’ Automne........2.005++ 359 Plums. Fondante des Charneuse............8%72 | Autumn Gage............2-eeeeeee 397 i 7101} 0 0 Nees ae RIE AS So crate ober 363 | Bavay’s Green Gage... .ciceeee eee 401 General sWavione tu. ctetee ners sien 373. | Bleecker’s Gage..... 0. ...25) eee 397 General Tottleben................:. 373 .| Bradshaw. . «00. =\««c +: == s9:=emeeee 397 Henri Desportes........ foe Gee 873 | Denniston’s Superb...............- 398 Henry the Fourth........... sige 373 | Duane’s Purple... <3..0c-e sere 398 dE DYE POINT Od) Stans SAPS OM ADE OOO Voc IO: 373. | Early. Favorite... ..\5.2 22. em seein 398 LOWEN ee he co lepersjo pie Riviete aus ee 364 | Fellenbero. . 22... ..::0,500-sescheee ey >) J alousie de Fontenay Vendee...... 3%3 | General Hand... ......-+ ae 398 SORES S SSCODBNG. Te 5% sisi Sininle aie Wiehe 364 | German Prune... .. <2. ss sctosteeem 398 Josephine de Malines..............869 | Green Gage...........eeee ee eeeees 399 - Jules Beoms. 6. os. ccneh eee eee 873. | Huline’s Superb..... ...---.s0memee 399 Kinosessing i. ivaom a: tek eee 874 | Ickworth Impératrice..........---- 399 Kirtland: <2: ccc; sesooa ete ae 364 | Imperial Gage....2. 0. 2s eee 399 EG CUP. oo oa cvs ada ce ceanld cece sOO9, || MUCTELS OM yo. clue: sats ery siete tae 399 La WIeRCe 3). c. on ener 369 ‘ July Green Gawe.......- isa Se 400 INDEX 491 Lawrence’s Favorite............... 400 AUTUMN VARIETIES PRINT COS oN: i sv'eus es see. 400 Lucombe’s Nonsuch................ 400 | Belle de Fontenay.................. 409 Meenum Bonum.........:......... 400 | Catawissa, ....-.. 21.250 cer. seven 409 MTT PD eee. ek s.s-...... 400 rae oo Quatre Saisons...... 409 Meee Gare... :....-....... 4 tober TO. . «ns adeantae ee 409 See 401 Ohio Everbearing.................. 409 OMS Seer sc2cscsei......5. 401 | Surpasse Fastollf... 00.2.0 02.220 410 a Yellow OO a 401 | White Perpetual.. os bs 410 OUST S CC | 1) aca 401 rimce fenelébert.....:......2...... 401 Strawberries. BRUNER emeiicio: o.c0.s fukaee® ove 403 M % 2 2 401 | Acriculturist ee 4 Se eo 401 | Charles Downing.............. 2. 410 Reine Claude de Bavay..... ....... 401 | Downer Bosses) ts <5 oe 410 0 TO OI. 1 (2 400 | Downe... 41 Pe CALNETING. 00556 sees ese eee 402 | Downer’s Prolific... 777" 410 eT WICHCC. ss. 25 cess.. sos cose S02: | Turand’s Seedling...) ee er a BNNNCTOP. 6 seco eee ec os Ae Groen Prolific. Cte ce ae pth Shropshire Damson........ EC Pee Hovey... ..00..c.é.2s ee 410 ee. BOICBMS trois cnc cst tenes cisle Sead sa... tcc oo 411 HOUND att crc coe sie a ots Ge coca raleres Spe ce, Poa ait a he Been NCI. S-ccceaeet one cee ctee 402 Jenny Lind...........--..-seeeeee. 411 REnICKY: (222 8S noe eee ee ee ee 411 Washington Soars ele wieie eperetete scelotn ecebere ore 403 Laree Early Scarlet SRS aearenenees 400 Poe tee a inne aes + ee = Yell G. bs a DP Mennio:s: WiDite. pears cece ne see 411 ellow ae Co ceneereeceesseeccenes 03 Fane orth’ s Prolite. sss 411 ® ETO) se mace Roceee Sho aarrciepeed 411 a Quinces. aq | Philadelphia. - ec 412 Apple-shaped..00.000020.0.0000°80 | Russelhs Protiie. 00S ie 2 DIRE aoe ea pen Ste Russ en el acer sd ) UBSElUS: BeeGliNe: 2.2... sacs 412 ra Ret een e tere cee: cece ene c ee ee ee ou Wilson's Albany: ...../:..:.00. «<6 412 ee ee eee ot PPE PIACU oe 8 5 Sock hose cee cust 7 FOREIGN. RENTER Sov. Soa a sae cet s scam oe S00 |) (Ale Os eo 413 emasecdlince,......\.........--.. 377 | Golden Queen........ reer 413 Rea’s Mammoth.................... pete ICUNCA........<-... 00 « adie ieee 412 EN foes woes S cok, San nin ein ae 377 wPuleon LIL... .# .,. 02 cates eee 412 a erpetual Pine. «.3:.\ovses ona eee 413 Raspberries. Triomphe de Gand...........+..-+. 413 Meine CARE TIER rollope’s: Victoria. . 222 sesso 413 > SES (1 i aan eri aga CITT (ORE ROE? CRAG 408 eee ts BS eat Pa ees 413 | OSE ne eee: © 407 mine: Wood... 23.5 .. RP 413 COS TIE Sips i ee ier ae an Age) Autumnal Galland: .....2sc.\caseeeee 413 eons SAREE EDR eee. See Athan | NEOHGTCTIL s.6:.7..0:s:« w «-o.0 seinen (eee 414 RRM eMR ES ooo Said ul’ < vials vice Tarts «so « 407 , i, oe ocsic eee es 407 ae Hudson River Antwerp............ 40 | Belle:de: Bordelais...) 7. nna 414 POEVEMES IAN Gyo ccanceccc.. sseeee 40% | Monstrous Hantbois............<... 414 legs ae Pe icicles cee neces 408) | Royal Hantbois.. .\: <0.) non emetenee 414 e RUBEN at aitictaiis cc aied ae ss 408 3 Red Secor. of the Hudson River. .40% Tropical Fruits, Sv ie UG ECS 408 | temon 433 Vice-President French... ..... crea. | Time... ...2...2. 5 433 ee #8 | Domepranais......... nn AMERICAN VARIETIES. Pawpaw as «= tin.n oie 6.9610 whale ete 434 American Black Cap. te 4og | Custard Apple...........2....25 ee 434 avison’s TIL oe 408 Saree 408 Wainee, wostyn 3 Black Cap..... .. .2+--+++ 408. |. Black Walnut... 22. o4.0e 2 see 436 Mmmmoln Cluster... ...-.0..2-20-- 40S |" Buttemué: 2s eee eee eae 436 RI eee. sec eat vce e ues 408 | Dwarf Prolific Walnut............. 436. 2 Do a6. eS eae 408 | Enelish. Walnnt. 2... «cen sence 436 MEAG TOHIG. 2 21... ee cee 409: | Hickory-Nut.22....cs.- «sas osm 436 Benecs Black Cap....:..........-+. 409. ' Madeira Nuti...ce: ie. csaw coomne 436 oie sat » oe ed ‘ nits bj ae r Sie ‘ She Ee we te Tt 4 h t ’ pining eu! ; dy wi, 9) Ot OE alg area. Giieee ate 4 nde ae des eee ae oe AS jb av Oe ~ Pee ee Oy Ol eae! Ce hn ee a es eee i ce t ae . , © : er ee ae ee ee . el PCr CSP yrs: ‘ a i “4 peice ear \ , < hy ‘ a} ‘ Pri i are @ le ‘ , oe). eee ‘ ; » 9 bi wh ge Petre po” 280 Liat P ee +6. 0n Oe Vet Owe ’ - ss * . es i ‘ Ae rose ee ee a ee 4 7 > 4 ee rie ? : 2 PY oar .* ee ea ea 4 P° a9 Se 8 ae ae ree arr Z > a : rm +, P core we e 4 . a Sy * Ps te c ’ - 2) ’ ee YR, A! ng oY Da 4 73 ’ re, Gir mis PAA ar. Gin ks, wnea kidlert aiee cde / ; 1 on > + ue a re, Pe a oe ee ee ee 7 wa ere . P : Y } eee ee rare Lg ee) > ear Pa A y . , ” Pyar : y * ae - s a a elw alee Oe : Da. 4 Ha Page e - ‘ 4 bm eee - * he pie ap By ‘ =es ee +e ee 4 Fe hese, * ey dic s ee ‘ \ * goes 2 . ——— pcr Ban (4 : ; 84 Ogee L'a¥ zs vii 7168369