HARVARD UNIVERSITY

MUSEUM OF COMPAKATIVE ZOOEOOY,

ij.nj

MAR 26 1897
i68T Qrt HVW

Bhes and Bhh-khkping,

SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL.

Plate I.

A

Bacillus Diseases of Bees.

Comb from Hive suffering from Bacillus aZyci (Foul Brood)— Natural Size. B,
Healthy Juices (500 diameters). C, Bacillics alvei in Juices, Early Stage, Lept^
thrix Form (500 diameters). D, Bacillus alvei in Juices, Kater Stage (500
diameters). E, Bacillus alvei, Spores, Latest Stage (Coffee-coloured Material)
—500 diameters. F, Streak of Blood laden with Bacillus alvei (1000 diameters).
G, Group of Bacillus Gaytoni (500 diameters).

o

BEES & BEE-KEEPING;

Scientific ant). iPractical.

A Complete Treatise on the Anatomy , Physiology j
Floral RelatlonSj a?id Profitable M ayiagement
of the Hive Bee.

BY

FRANK R. CHESHIRE, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.,

Lecturer on A piculture at South Kensington ;

Author of “Diagrams on the Anatomy of the Honey Bee;” “Practical
Bee-Keeping;” “Abdominal Distention in Bees during Winter;”

‘ Honey as Food ; ” “ The Apparatus for Differentiating the
Sexes in Bees and Wasps;” “The Relations of Insects to
Flowering Plants;” “Foul Brood not Micrococcus
BUT Bacillus— The Means of its Propagation,

AND THE Method of its Cure;” etc., etc.

With Numerous Illustrations of the Ijiternal and External Structure
of the Bee, and its Application to Plant Fertilisation ;

Bee Appliances, and Methods of Operation, Diseases, ^c..
expressly drawn for this work by the Author.

VOL. II.-PRACTICAL.

LONDON :

L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, W.C.

All Rights Besebved.

i M

LONDON :

PRINTED BY ALFRED BRADLEY*, 170, STRAND, YV.C.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

Introduction i

I. — Bees under Proper Control 7

II. — Hives for Bees 29

III. — Hives for Bee-keepers 37

IV. — Natural Increase 123

V. — Artificial Aids to Comb-building - - - - 171

VI. — Controlled Increase 225

VII. — The Raising and Introduction of Queens - - 283

VIII. — The Apiary : Its Establishment and General

Management 357

IX. — The Production of Honey 441

X. — Wintering 515

XI. — Diseases and Enemies 534

XII. — The Chemistry of the Hive 581

XIII. — Races 604

XIV. — Calendar 630

ERRATUM.

Page 463, line 15. For destroying, read restoring.

BEES & BEE-KEEPING.

INTRODUCTION TO VOL. II.

In entering now upon the practical aspects of
apiculture, and striving to understand what the in-
telligence and ingenuity of man have already accom-
plished in converting the wondrous capabilities and
instincts of the bee into an instrument for his

material advantage, it is hardly possible to avoid

some regrets, and the casting of a wistful glance

towards the path we have long trodden together,

opening up to us, as it has, so many marvels, not
infrequently awakening a thrill of delight, though
sometimes leaving us humbled, in making us realise
that, even in what we are pleased to call the little
things of the realm of Nature, we stand before an
invisible Presence whose wisdom is inscrutable. But,
while we reflect that art and man’s device lag sadly
behind in the perfection of detail animated creation

2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

everywhere presents, and that upon the former we
gaze perhaps as frequently to criticise as to admire, it
is a consolation to remember that the studies through
which we have passed, and the conclusions we have
reached, will constantly recur, as forming part of
the foundation of a truly scientific system of manage-
ment ; and we shall not be long in discovering that
our knowledge of the bee, as such, will act as a
master key in unlocking and unravelling the main
difficulties of the utilitarian side of the question,
proving again that knowledge is not merely power,
but frequently money also. None can have read
with any care the recent journalistic literature of
bee-keeping without some surprise, and, possibly,
perplexity, at the marked divergence of opinion
amongst those whose dictum would by most be
regarded as authoritative. We find, not only diver-
gence, but direct opposition, one denouncing as a
blunder what another claims as an advance. It is
true that many roads may lead to one goal, and that
methods having very little in common may be
equally successful ; while dissimilarity in purpose,
purse, and taste, may induce even an antithesis of
system, which may be, nevertheless, thoroughly justified.
Quot homines tot sententise is not so much a charge
against man’s judgment as a testimony to the infinite
diversity of the circumstances which limit him ; but
the extreme disagreement to which attention has just
been called, and which the now fashionable “ selected
questions ” have made prominent, cannot, in the
Author’s judgment, even in the majority of cases, be
explained by any or all of these suggestions, but

INTRODUCTION.

3

points to a too common forgetfulness or ignorance of
first principles and scientific fact.

The man who believes that the thaw, and not the
frost, bursts the water-pipe, will act quite differently,
in his endeavour to prevent catastrophe, from the
one who correctly understands the case. The dis-
agreement in method is not due to inequality of logical
faculty — for here the men may be equals — but to
erroneous premises, leading to a wrong deduction.
Similarly, the disagreement of the “ Doctors ’’ will
be found to be often traceable to ignorance of a
sorely neglected branch of apiculture — the one, indeed,
to which it has been the Author’s special endeavour
to direct attention ; and since he cannot escape
stating an opinion upon debatable matters, it shall be
given without any mental reservation, and will be
supported, to the best of his ability, by the grounds
upon which it appears to him logically to rest. It
will thus, at least occasionally, happen that he will
have many, possibly all, of the great names against
him ; but, in such cases, he will not, in justice to his
readers, hesitate to point out his isolation, and the
more carefully to give the reasons which induce him
to dare to differ from ordinarily recognised authority.
This course may seem lacking in prudence, but he is
encouraged in it by the remembrance of the practical
unanimity with which errors, now fully exploded,
have been received and propagated; showing that
the voice of the majority is by no means necessarily
accurate, but that, perhaps even frequently, error is
with the many, and truth with the few. But it must
not from this be imagined that the Author lightly

4

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

values the legacy of accumulated observation we
inherit, or that he has any intention of replacing the
individual experience of others, except in the spirit
of the ancient and wise admonition, “ Prove all
things, and hold fast that which is good.” He thus
trusts that he may be saved everywhere from the
teaching of error ; but if, unhappily, not, he can only
say, time is with the truth, and may it quickly prevail !

A mere fragment of space will be devoted to the
history of apiculture (of which enough and to spare
has been written in most guide-books), all our
attention being needed for the subject as it now
presents itself, since our difficulty consists in saying
all that seems desirable within the limits of a read-
able book. The ancient workers did indeed well,
and should spur on our efforts, for freely we have

received, and it is for us to freely give : but their

methods of investigation were crude, and their hives
clumsy, while the microscopy and chemistry of their
day were valueless ; and, unfortunately, their short-
comings in methods of investigation were made up,
in many cases, by a fertility of imagination which
has given currency to fancies from which we have
not even yet shaken ourselves clear. In recent
times progress has been rapid, for practical apicul-
ture is an art which has, during the last forty

years, not only undergone a complete revolution,

but has attained a development and multiplicity of
detail which would have bewildered our immediate
predecessors. It is often said that improvement
leads to simplification ; but this is only in a certain
sense true. The stage coach is not more simple

INTRODUCTION.

0

than the springless bullock-truck, nor is the loco-
motive more simple than the stage, but surpassingly
more complex ; for improvement consists in securing
a certain advantage by readier methods, or by gaining
a greater advantage by some, possibly more Intricate,
plan. So in apiculture, the relatively splendid results
now attainable demand immensely more care, atten-
tion, foresight, and knowledge, than the bygone “ let-
alone system” ; and, again, as we learn to secure
greater harvests from a single stock, civilisation and
competition demand and necessitate some greater
refinement in the method of marketing the crop ; so
that progress has not shown the way to wealth to
the idle, but has, rather, increased the labour of the
bee-keeper, though it has undoubtedly sweetened that
labour by making it more intelligent. The keeping
of bees has about it a fascination peculiarly its own,
and so many have, con amove, joined the apiarian ranks
in recent years, that the output, often exceeding an
average of bolb. per hive, has grown more rapidly
than the demand ; hence, prices have decreased. All
methods of saving both labour and capital must,
therefore, be carefully studied by those who are
apiarians by profession ; while the dilettante bee-keeper
may satisfy his tastes, since to him pleasure, and not
profit, is the aim. To satisfy the needs of both,
miscellaneous appliances, which are from any point
of view genuinely serviceable, will be introduced in
our subsequent chapters ; but, of course, the intelligent
reader will understand that he is in no way recom-
mended to possess himself of anything until he is first
convinced that his particular requirement is thereby

6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

met. The illustrations are, in all desirable cases,
actually working drawings, made to scale, so that the
amateur carpenter may increase his gratification by
becoming his own hive and appliance manufacturer,
introducing any modification which his inventiveness
may suggest ; but, in fairness to the professional, it
should be here stated, that hives are now turned out
at prices little, if at all, in advance of the cost of
materials to those who purchase in small quantities.

It is, perhaps, hardly possible to arrange the
chapters in a manner that shall be strictly logical,
or so that the treatment of each subject shall in no
case presuppose a knowledge of matters to be sub-
sequently considered ; but this difficulty is of less
than usual moment, since readers will commonly be
already bee-keepers, and probably familiar with one
or more of the smaller treatises.

Let us now commence our journey together. The
Author, while acting as guide, claims no infallibility,
but simply a consciousness that he has no interest to
serve but truth, which he trusts will at all times
save him from any imputation of selfish bias, however
much his judgment may be held to be defective. He
desires to eschew every “ fad,” to steer clear of every
prejudice, and to avoid all suspicion of partiality ;
and should the reader meet positions contrary to
those he cherishes, he is asked, before giving the
verdict in his own favour, to carefully consider the
stated principles upon which the Author bases his
judgment ; and in all cases let us be at one in the
desire that light may spread, to the end that the bee-
keeper may be ennobled and apiculture advanced.

CHAPTER I.

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

Stings — Bee Dress: Gloves, Veil, Mask — Terrifying
Bees — Langstrothl s Law (?) Disproved by Dissection
of Bees Volunteering an Attack — Heddon^s Criticism
— Smoke and Smokers — Clark? s Cold Draught Ex-
amined— Carbolic Acid as a Quieter — Mixture used
by Rev. G. Rayner — Spraying with Carbolic Acid —
Mr. Howard^ s Plan — A Bee-keeper’ s Atomiser —
The Webster Fumigator — Mr. Sproule's Method of
Using Creasote — Cyprians : Their Temper ; How to
Treat — Anointing to Prevent Stings — Methyl Sali-
cylate— Sting Palpus — Extracting Stings — Cures.

Dread of the marvellously perfect and relatively for-
midable instrument of attack and defence the bee
possesses has doubtless deterred multitudes from the
pursuit of apiculture as a delightful and health-giving
recreation, while possibly it has not been without its
effect upon some of those whose tastes might other-
wise have led them into the adoption of bee-keeping
as a means of support. A correct estimate of the
risks to be run, as a set-off against the enjoyment
and profits to be realised, ought to be made at the
outset ; for the character of hive we may adopt, and

8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the system we may pursue, will depend in no incon-
siderable degree upon the extent to which we realise
that the greatest possible liberties may with impunity
be taken with this insect, notwithstanding its ability
to inflict pain. To follow the footsteps of our fore-
fathers, hiving swarms in skeps, and letting them stand
until autumn to gather as best they can, and then,
under cover of darkness, committing the industrious
creatures to suffocation over the fumes of burning
sulphur, requires but little of that courage upon which,
to the uninitiated, the modern school, with its hives
that turn inside out, would appear to draw rather
heavily. Light is, however, being diffused, and the
manipulations given in connection with our numerous
county associations, at agricultural, flower, and other
shows, have at least made clear that he who knows
the art has bees completely at his bidding. Let us,
then, describe how the learner may become master
of the situation ; for his favourites will be more dis-
posed to resent his interference at first than after
he has acquired the method of deftly performing
the necessary operations of a modern apiary. The
warrior who has donned an impenetrable armour may
well be fearless ; and so with the novice — the more
complete the protection, the greater the calmness
under unexpected difficulty — so that, if he would
avoid even risk, he may dress thus : Gloves of india-
rubber, like those used by photographers, and which
are lined, for those consisting of rubber exclusively,
although less clumsy, are too troublesome to get on
and off. Yet this difficulty may be lessened by the
use of French-chalk dust, commonly called “boot

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL,

9

powder.^^ Indiarubber is perfectly sting-proof, but
impervious to perspiration, and so most unpleasant
in hot weather. A woollen glove, covered by a cotton
one, and worn wet, practically secures the hand against
all assaults, while scarcely interfering with the com-
fort of the operator. To the gloves should be added,
by stitching on the outside, gauntlets of calico, about
5in. or 6in. wide, and carrying an elastic band, which,
passing over the coat cuff, absolutely saves the upper
limbs from danger. In chilly weather especially, bees
are likely to fall to the ground, and crawl up the legs
of the operator, and administer stings under pressure ;
so that a string round the ankle, over the trousers,
may not be without its advantages. Those ladies who
undertake general manipulations amongst bees would
do well, if stings affect them much, to wear a divided
skirt, and protect the ankles.

Gloves are soon thrown up as confidence is gained ;
but even the expert must often protect his face. For
this purpose, make a veil in the form of a bottom-
less bag, by joining the ends of i^yds. of leno ; make
a hem at the selvage, and run in an elastic about I5in.
or i6in. long when slack, so that it may clip round
the hat, as at A, Fig. i. If it be passed under the
collar, and the coat buttoned over it, while any excess
is stowed in the opening of the waistcoat, it will
enable us to laugh at the assaults of the enemy, pro-
vided the hat brim be only broad enough. These veils
are occasionally made of white material^ but the part
standing before the face should always be black, or
the threads of the net will reflect light, and them-
selves be seen, so as to materially impede our view

10

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of the creatures with which we have to deal. Veils
of wire cloth are obtainable of all hive-dealers ; these
are transparent, but are cumbrous and awkward, while
the idea that they are safer, because their stiffness
holds them at a distance from the face, is quite illu-
sory. They are sometimes moulded into masks, with
an opening for the pipe, and a draw-door to permit
of expectoration ; but, as a non-smoker, I have no
need of, and have had no experience with, such con-

Fig. 1.— Bee Veils.

A, Bee Veil as placed on Hat. B, Silk Net Bee Veil as worn by Lady Operator.

veniences, beyond knowing that these wire masks
are almost always discarded after a time for the
more simple, portable, and withal convenient, con-
trivance. I prefer immensely, and generally carry
in my pocket, a bee veil made of fine black silk
net, which is not, in the end, expensive, as it is
remarkably durable, and occupies very little room,
since it can easily be hidden in the closed hand ;

A

B

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

I

while it is cool in wear, and weighs a bare ^oz.
It admits also a much better view through it than
leno, on which account it is strongly to be recom-
mended to those desirous of studying the economy of
the hive. The face-protector for ladies is preferably
sewn up above the hat, as at B, Fig. i, any ornaments
upon which would prevent the elastic just described
from making a bee-proof joint. A little practice
will generally cause all protective dressing to be
discarded but the veil, and even this, when stocks
are gathering honey freely, is unnecessary. But our
safety is as fully secured by putting the bee upon its
good behaviour as by defending ourselves from the
attack ; and our success here depends upon two plans :
either terrifying the bee into submission — for which
purpose smoke is generally used — or gaining its con-
fidence by gentleness. It would be unpardonable here
to omit that, since Langstroth wrote his invaluable
treatise, by almost universal consent the supposed
sheet anchor has been inducing the bees to gorge, by
which it has been a thousand times stated they be-
come imperturbably amiable, and as harmless as flies,
and even, according to some, unable, as well as un-
willing, to use their stings. But let Langstroth* speak
for himself: “One of the peculiarities which consti-
tute the foundation of my system of management,
and, indeed, the possibility of domesticating at all so
irascible an insect, has never, to my knowledge, been
clearly stated as a great and controlling principle.
It may be thus expressed : A honey bee, when filled

,* Langstroth’s “ Hive and Honey Bee,” page 25.

2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

with honey, never volunteers an attack, but acts solely
on the defensive. This law of the honeyed tribe is so
universal, that a stone might as soon be expected to
rise into the air without any propelling power as a
bee, well filled with honey, to offer a sting unless
crushed or injured by some direct assault.” If this be
accurate, we have a means of making bees, however
vicious, perfectly harmless ; but most assuredly it
is very far from correct. I have been fiercely stung
by bees darting from a hanging swarm to which I
have offered no kind of violence,* and frequent dis-
sections of bees which have volunteered an attack
have shown that these are very generally full of honey,
while empty ones are the more submissive. Every
experienced bee-keeper must know, too, that rich
stocks are more belligerent than poor ones, while those
in actual want resent nothing. The truth seems to lie
here : Bees, when terror-struck, rush to fill themselves at
their stores^ and are then harmless^ not because they
are filled, but because terror-struck. Their gorging
is the result of their submission, not the converse. It
is really remarkable how constantly effect has been
taken for cause, but I am pleased to find that Mr-
Heddon combats the position of Langstroth, whose
error may often lead to loss of time, and loss of
command also. Mr. Heddont says : We have been

told that the reason the application of smoke puts
bees in a friendly attitude is because it frightens
them, which causes them to fill themselves with honey,
and when so filled they cannot, without disgorging

* *• Practical Bee-keeping,” page 30.

f “ Success in Bee-culture,” page 18. James Heddon.

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

3

the same, assume an attitude in which they can use
their stings. While this teaching may be correct*
in part, I think that the effect of smoke is to frighten
out of them all idea of battle. It seems to instantly
impress them with the utter uselessness of opposing
‘an enemy with a breath like that.’”

Smoke, then, although not without a rival, to be

Fig. 2.— Bingham Smoker.
b, Bellows ; fb, Fire-box ; n, Nozzle.

hereafter introduced, is the bee-keeper’s talisman, and,
with this properly applied, almost all races of hive
bees may be completely and immediately tamed, or
rather terrified, into submission. If in the summer
time a skep be lifted from its stand, even with the
greatest care, many of the brave little inhabitants will

* This teaching has not a shadow of a shade of tnith in it.

14

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

sally forth to repel the disturber ; but if a few puffs
from a pipe or from smouldering rag had first been
blown into it, the bees would have retreated between
the combs, where they might have been easily kept
by a further dose after the skep had been lifted
and turned up for examination. The habitual con-
sumer of tobacco, who owns but a few hives, may
perhaps shift with his pipe, from the stem of which
he may pour a terrifying stream by grasping the
bowl between his little finger and palm, and with
the remainder of his hand forming a tube, through
which he blows; but to those to whom ‘‘the weed'’
is no solace a “smoker" is indispensable. All the
different forms of these are practically reducible to
two — the Bingham and the Clark — although our Eng-
lish makers have given various names to them after
adding special hand-guards to prevent burning, or
making some alteration which does not touch general
principles. The Bingham (Fig. 2) is mostly used, and
is my preference, for reasons presently given.

Both smokers, which are not very different, may be
well understood by Fig. 3, representing them in section,
and a knowlege of their construction is, in practice,
necessary, as it enables the owner to see the cause
of, and remedy any hitch in, their performance.

In the Bingham, the bellows boards are kept apart
by a spiral spring while the air is admitted by

the valve {v). When the bellows are collapsed by
thumb and fingers, the air is driven forcibly out
through the blast-pipe (3/). The current enters the
lower end of the fire-box (which is pierced by a hole
somewhat larger than the diameter of the blast-pipe, and

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

5

which stands opposite the latter), and now passes
through the grating [g) and the smouldering fuel, and
escapes by the nozzle. It has been urged that the smoke
so ejected is objectionably hot^ and hence the Clark
“Cold Draught’^ (B). Here the bellows boards are
kept asunder by an external spring {sp). As the
bellows are flattened by the hand, the air escapes

Fig. 3.— a, Bingham Smoker. B, Clark’s Cold Draught Smoker
(Sectional Vie\v, one-fifth actual size).

b. Bellows; v. Valve ; sp, Spring; fb, Fire-box ; d, Door to Fire-box ; g. Grating ;
n, Nozzle ; bp, Blast-pipe.

by the blast-pipe [bp), not to pass through the
fuel, but to escape at once by the nozzle. It is,
however, true that every air current by liquid friction
draws other quantities of air into its wake, and so
the smoke discharged from the fuel, and filling the
nozzle, is sent forward with the blast. It is con-

i6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

tended that this mixed blast is cold. Testing this
smoker by a delicate thermometer, the bulb of
which was placed in the smoke about lin. from
the nozzle mouth, 23odeg. was almost immediately re-
gistered ; while a Bingham, burning with about the
same vigour, gave only a few degrees higher. The
reason for this is clear. The air from the bellows of
the Clark drives forward a relatively large amount of
smoke-laden, heated air from the fire-box, and so only
partially reduces its temperature ; but in the same
degree it diminishes the amount of smoke it carries.
As the stream leaves the nozzle, it mixes with other
quantities of cold air, and so quickly loses its high
temperature ; but the Bingham does this also. Com-
paring the two, we find the Bingham stream hotter
than that of the Clark at the nozzle, but more
densely laden with smoke ; while at the distance
from the nozzle of the former at which its tem-
perature is lowered to that delivered by . the so-
called “ Cold Draught,” the density of the smoke,
other things being equal, has become the same. The
Clark smoker, therefore, gains only this very doubtful
advantage, that it may be held slightly nearer to
the bees, and to achieve this it introduces two grave
practical defects. First, if the fire-box were air-tight
at its base no air could be drawn through the fuel
for delivery at the nozzle, and so large leakage is
necessary around the door [d), or else the door must
be left partly open. This permits suffocating and
blinding streams of smoke to issue, to the great an-
noyance of the operator. Secondly, tarry matters,
always produced whatever kind of fuel is used, by

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

7

degrees get into and clog the blast-pipe (bp), which,
on account of its form and position, is difficult to clean.
It is true that the nozzle (n) and the grating (g) in
the Bingham occasionally get somewhat choked ; but,
when this occurs, they are cleared with great facility.

The question, “Which is the best smoker?’’ is often
asked, and for this reason I have fully stated my ob-
jection to an appliance which stands <in high favour
with many; and without doubt, the Bingham and the
Clark are both exceedingly effective ; for, if the
Bingham only have a fire-tube wide enough,* both
may be made to burn almost anything — peat, rotten
wood, chips, wooden laths, are all excellent. I gene-
rally use brown paper, which is with us a waste pro-
duct. Some of this, roughly torn, rolled up, packed
pretty closely into the fire-box, and lighted (as it may
be instantly by a match) either top or bottom, will
smoulder for hours. The fuel is introduced in the
Clark at the door (d), and into the Bingham by the
removal of the coned nozzle (;;). If the smokers
are stood as in Fig. 4, they burn freely, because in
the Clark the leak at the door (d) supplies sufficient
air, while in the Bingham the blast-pipe not entering
the fire-box, but acting like a steam injector, gives
room for the admission of a current. This excellent
arrangement in the Bingham also saves the blast-pipe
from clogging with the tarry residues. To reduce the
rate of combustion, stand the smoker on the bellows
bottom ; and to extinguish, plug the nozzle.

The manner of using the smoker will be hereafter

* No fire-tube smaller than 2|in. in diameter can be recommended,
except for very small apiaries.

VOL. II.

C

8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

explained ; suffice it now to say, that usually a strong
puff or two at once brings into subjection the largest
and most fiery colony. But it must not be under-
stood that smoke is alone useful as inspiring fear. It
may be what the whip is to the horse, but often it
acts as the rein, and directs the bee to follow the
course we desire. A hive is opened, and the insects
appear in numbers where they would be crushed were
we to close again. But our smoker instantly re-
moves the difficulty, since the trespassers accept its
notice to quit in a twinkling ; and, should they lurk
in a somewhat inaccesible corner we might desire
cleared, a sharp squeeze of the bellows, even at a
distance of i8in. or more, will immediately cause them
to take their departure, whilst with flapping of wings
they sound the retreat. Some distinguished apiarians
use carbolic acid (the odour of which is most hateful
to bees) in the cases in which the majority employ
smoke. To the Rev. G. Rayner, I believe, falls the
honour of originating this method, and making it a
practical success, while ‘‘Lanarkshire Bee-keeper”
and Messrs. Raitt and Howard give to it applications
of considerable value, to be noticed under their
appropriate chapters. It is now followed by a con-
stantly-increasing number, and in manners which
seem to indicate that it will ere long displace smoke
in certain manipulations. The originator has favoured
me with the following summary, which, although it
anticipates some matters, I prefer to give in extenso :

“ I have used carbolic acid as a bee-quieter In pre-
ference to smoke for upwards of twenty years, and
consider it more easy of application, equally effective,

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

9

and less disturbing to the bees, while to its powerful
antiseptic property I attribute chiefly the immunity I
have enjoyed in my apiary, for a period of forty
years, from the much-dreaded disease of foul brood.
Much care is required in the use of it, since it is a
most powerful acid, blisters the skin, and is highly
poisonous. As a bee-quieter I use it, in solution
only, in the following proportions : —

i^oz. Calvert’s Xo. 5 carbolic acid.

I5OZ. glycerine.

I quart of warm water.

The acid and glycerine to be well mixed before adding the water,
and the bottle to be well shaken before using.

“ The application is very simple. A goose quill or
a small brush, moistened with the solution, is passed
over the alighting-board, and around and within the
entrance. The quilt is then raised slightly and gently
on one side of the hive, and the brush, replenished
with solution, is passed over the frames as far as the
centre of the hive, when the quilt is allowed to fall
into its place. The other side of the hive is treated
similarly, and the manipulation may then commence
on either side, the brush being kept in readiness for
use when required, a few passes over the tops of the
frames occasionally being all that is required to keep
the bees quiet. Bees thus treated are less inclined to
form clusters, and to roll off the combs, than when
under the influence of smoke. Another method of
application is to steep a piece of thin calico in the
solution, and, after wringing it, to spread it over the
frames of the hive, when every bee will disappear.
Cases of sections, also, may be thus cleared of bees

20

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and removed from the hive while the bees are at full
work.”

My experience with carbolic acid leads me to regard
it as quite invaluable in certain operations, but I
could not subdue an irritable stock so promptly by
the means Mr. Rayner gives as with smoke. Painting
over the frames occupies considerable time, and any
but an expert would be likely to give the bees first
chance. The visibility of the smoke is an advantage
to the learner, and he can drive a stream some
distance before him, while with a feather he must
come to close quarters. With a powerful spray-pro-
ducer, such as used by gardeners, and holding half-a-
pint of water, with about -V^h part Calvert’s No. 5
carbolic acid, I have managed many stocks, since my
experiments on the cure of foul brood (see “Diseases ”),
wdth most satisfactory results. To Mr. Howard, how-
ever, must be ascribed the credit of calling the
attention of bee-keepers to the value of the carbolic
spray. He adds about 10 per cent, of good liquid
carbolic acid to warm water, and, as the quilt is
being withdrawn, applies this in fine splashes from
a flat brush, or, preferably, by an atomiser. The
bees instantly retreat in dismay ; and, should they
appear again to apparently calculate what chance
they have with the enemy, a second fine shower com-
pletely cows them. This treatment is in itself anti-
septic, and therefore useful where disease threatens,
as Mr. Rayner wisely hints, and checks robbing (see
“ Robbing”) in a most helpful manner. The atomisers
of the drawing-room and operating-theatre are too
delicate for apiary work, and if the makers would

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

21

only give us one like to that I have rigged up for
my own use, it would be an advantage. It consists
of an ordinary Bingham bellows, with its blast con-
nected to the spraying bottle by an indiarubber tube.
On the top board of the bellows is fixed a zinc tube-
like case, into which the bottle fits, while the zinc
bottom of the case is continued over the front of the
bellows, to prevent them being injured by drip. The
zinc case is so deep that it extends above the bottle,
which could not be broken if the arrangement were
dropped. Slots are made before and behind, to give
exit and entrance to the spraying nose and the
indiarubber tube, the former being protected from
dirt by an external pipe lin. long and Jin. in diameter.

Mr. Webster makes an apparatus much like a
Bingham smoker in form, holding in the body a
sponge, which he at first purposed soaking with
carbolic acid, but now employs, at my suggestion,*
crude creasote. Indeed, where common carbolic acid
is used to terrify bees, the main effect is produced,
not by the carbolic acid itself, but by the impurities
with which it is associated, of these, the cresols
being the most important. Mr. Howard, instead

of introducing a special piece of apparatus, fits a
case into the fire-box of the Bingham, thus making
what he has denominated the “ Raitt fumigator.” This
case carries wadding saturated with carbolic acid, the
vapour of which is driven forwards, as smoke would
be. It appears to me, however, that no additional
machinery of any kind is required, and that strips of

* Mr. Webster, to his honour be it said, most openly and hand-
somely acknowledged my little help in the British Bee Journal.

22

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

creased brown, alternated with blotting-paper, rolled
up until the diameter of the fire-box is reached, tied
with string, and then soaked with the nauseating
material, and placed in the ordinary Bingham, will
act as well as a specially-made fumigator ; while, if
corrugated brown paper be substituted for the ordinary,
the passing air is driven through a multitude of small
tubes, and is even more fully charged with vapour
than it would be in travelling through and around a
sponge. With very savage stocks, Mr. Sproule suggests
that the creasote, to the amount of a few drops,
should be rapidly vapourised by being added to the
burning material in the usual smoker. When so
employed, no colony can stand against it. He relates
that one of his, that seemed utterly untamable, gave
in at once; and Mr. Simmins by this method im-
mediately vanquished some Syrians — of which more
anon — which had been the bete noir of his whole
apiary.

In thus pointing out the best means of making
bees succumb to our wishes, variations in race must
not be overlooked. In former days, I had one or
two sore battles with Cyprians, which, I have little
doubt, might have been altogether avoided had I
then known the special peculiarities of these most
handsome bees. Their courage is boundless ; but
their calmness is as marked, and no bees are less
likely to interfere with a visitor to the apiary, and
none can do more work with so little external fuss ;
but they have immense “decision of character,” and
cannot be conquered, after their antagonism is fully
aroused, until their ranks are decimated and all are

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

23

weakened, to say nothing of the pangs of the
operator, and the uproar in the apiary. Although
Cyprians cannot be subjugated by smoke, which
maddens rather than terrifies them, certain strains of
them at least, if suitably treated, are even more amen-
able to the manipulator than ordinary Ligurians. I am
not unconscious of the strong condemnation they have
received from such an acute and reliable observer as
Mr. Raitt, and many others, whose opinions cannot
be lightly put aside ; but I ‘‘ speak that I do know,
and testify that I have seen,^^ in adding that, although
now and again a vicious Cyprian stock is met, yet
that a bad name could not possibly be given to those
in my possession, as well as to those I have had
an opportunity of handling in the apiaries of others.
Nor can I doubt that in some quarters bad reports
of Cyprians have come from owners who have failed
through not understanding how to approach them. It
is said with truth, that men in their treatment of us
are often like looking-glasses — reflecting our mood,
frowning on us if we frown on them, but receiving
us with hearty goodwill if we give evidence of confi-
dence and respect. This is pre-eminently true of
Cyprian bees. Gentle measures find them gentle.
With as little disturbance as possible lift the quilt
from two or three frames, and if the bees then
appear fussy, wait a few seconds, on no account
using smoke. The insects will seem to realise that
the intrusion is not that of an enemy, and will quiet
down, when we may proceed to totally uncover and
examine. As the frames are now lifted, and the light
streams on to the backs of these little beauties,

24

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

their unusual stillness is very noticeable. To please
friends rather naturalists than bee-keepers, and who
have wished to see “the Cypriots,’’ I have fre-
quently fetched a frame, carrying bees and queen
from a hive about 200ft. away, and, having made my
exhibition behind glass, have returned all to the status
quo ante without a single bee flying, or indicating
any disturbance. When recently visiting Rotting-
dean, carte blanche was given me with regard to the
apiary, and in indifferent weather I fully examined
and carefully tested the temper of the Cyprians,
taking stock after stock without veil or any protec-
tion, and in no case received even a threat of a sting.
Cyprians have faults in our climate, as well as ex-
cellencies, quite outside the question of temper ;
but their surpassing loveliness of form and colour
would induce some to keep them, especially if
their disposition could be reckoned upon, and to this
end irritable colonies, whenever discovered, should be
re-queened; but our point here is — with Cyprians
use no smoke, and with them, as with all bees, avoid
all quick, darting movements. So handle the combs
that they are not jarred, and be especially cautious
not to strike or kick the hive. Make no needless
noises, and do not allow the breath to play upon the
bees ; and should one dart out with threatening mien,
strive to remain unmoved, when escape is extremely
probable, while a hand in retreat is almost certain to
retire wounded. Should our gentle wooing be uncannily
received, it is best with Cyprians to give up for the
time, or else conquer by the carbolic spray or
smoker with creasote added. These, especially the

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

25

former, may, indeed, be used from the first, but for
myself I would prefer, with Cyprians, to regard these
methods only as alternative.

But another style of defence remains to be noticed,
and which is certainly well worthy of the attention of the
learner whose confidence is only in the making. At
the first bee show at the Crystal Palace (1874), well
do I remember the comical expression that stole over
the countenances of more than one who asked to be
informed in confidence what substance was rubbed
upon the skin to prevent the bees stinging, for then
the onlookers could not imagine that the mastery of
the manipulators was other than some trick upon
trained bees, or the result of some secret anointing*
The idea that then caused merriment as a ludicrous
fancy has been actually tested, and Mr. R. Franks,
writing to the British Bee Jourjial^ August ist, 1885,
says that by washing the hands with vinegar, and
.allowing it to dry on, those handling bees will escape
being stung. This plan really has its value, as has
also rubbing the hands with common disinfecting
powder ; but both of these applications do not act
upon the skin as Pears’ soap is advertised to do.
An oily body, however, which, judging from my own
experience, would not spoil the whitest hand, and
known to the chemist as methyl salicylate, is infinitely
more effective, and, after applying a few drops of it,
I have been quite unable to get my own bees to sting
me. But, judging that home stocks might not put this
restrainer of naughty bees to a severe test, since I
generally prepare any queen breeding savages for a
post-7nortem^ I determined to try my fortunes upon

26

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the before-mentioned ‘‘awful example’’ at the Rotting-
dean apiary. This fearfully vicious stock covered
twenty standard frames, in two storeys. The afternoon
of the 3rd September was cloudy and misty, with strong
wind and high temperature. The bees were flying,
but gathering was all but over — the conditions just
those to breed ill-temper : plenty of work, but terribly

small wages. Mr. Simmins and myself put four drops
each of methyl salicylate into our palms, and then,
“washing our hands with invisible soap, in imper-
ceptible water,’’ we proceeded to open the hive. The
bees came at us like pellets from a pop-gun, but no
stings followed ; and, strangely, they constantly ran
over our fingers, not exhibiting any dislike to the
somewhat aromatic body coating them. We darted our
hands over the disquieted insects, and I stretched out
my fingers upon the top of the frames, some of
which were now lifted out and examined, but they
only struck us in their headlong fury. We then
kicked the hive, making the bees boil up, apparently
resolved to do or die, perhaps both. But Mr. Simmins
escaped unscathed, while I received one sting in the
knuckle. Oh ! that I had been greased all over, for
several got up my sleeves and took savage satisfaction.
The insufficiency of mere defensive measures now be-
came evident. We had opened the hive, but to close
it was impossible, since its upper part was hidden
from view by our “ enemies.” A thin hive quilt was
placed quietly over them, and the top stood on corner-
ways, but some hours after numbers were outside
waiting for us. The one sting in the knuckle notwith-
standing, the experiment was conclusive that methyl

BEES UNDER PROPER CONTROL.

27

salicylate, or oil of winter green, gives practical immu-
nity from stings, and as such would be hailed by some
with delight, while to many more it would at least
have the transient value of inspiring confidence in
the abandonment of gloves. It can easily be washed
from the hands, and may be purchased pure at about
one shilling an ounce ; but it is liable to be terribly
adulterated and weakened. I have tried a great
variety of substances Avith varying success, such as
camphorated oil, cedar oil, creasote, glycerine and
vaseline made into an emulsion ; but the innocence,
ready removal, and persistency of the odour of methyl
salicylate, leaves it without a rival.

A most interesting question now arises, the key
to which is given in Vol. I., page 191 — Why does the
bee not sting when she strikes with that intention ?
Because she examines the spot to which the sting
is to be applied with beautiful feeling organs — the
palpi (/, A, Plate VI., Vol. I.). At the very ex-
tremity of each of these is a delicately-haired, bulbous
form, which is nervous in character, while several
strongly-bulbed hairs, clearly tactile in function,
are arranged immediately above it. The supposition
that there is not time for the bee to determine
whether she will sting or no, as “ it is done in a
flash,” arises from our judging of her movements
by our own. Large creatures are necessarily slow ;
but be it remembered that she can flap her wings
more than 400 times per second, and that each flap
involves the extension and contraction, through a
nerve impulse, of the muscles employed in the wing
movements, and we shall see at once that the “ no

28

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

time ” difficulty is removed. If a sting be received,
extract immediately, for reasons given under “ Sting
Structure ” (Vol. L), but do not grasp the organ by
the thumb and finger, as this will only force out ad-
ditional quantities of the virus from the poison bag,
which is almost always left behind. Pull the sting
out, if possible, by the nail, running over it in the
direction opposite to that by which it entered. The
cures (?) for stings are legion. The poison is acid
(formic being its main constituent), as may be seen
by the litmus test, and so it has been argued that
alkalis — ammonia, soda, &c. — should be used as neu-
tralisers ; but experience does not corroborate the
theory, which is simply chemical where it should be
physiological. Arnica montana and Ledum palustre
appear to help many, but I have known cases in
which they have been positively injurious. The
system, according to a law well known to physio-
logists, will become habited to the poison, and so
stings are usually less and less painful ; but cases are
well known of old hands, who have stood stinging
without after-consequences, suddenly suffering severely.

This matter has been thus fully treated that
the beginner may have at his will all that our
present knowledge Is able to provide ; so that, should
he find a sting a serious matter, he may have his
panoply at command ; but a little experience will
enable almost all to so manage that every kind of
operation may be performed, with the protection the
veil affords, with only a sting now and again as an
occasional mischance.

CHAPTER II.

HIVES FOB BEES.

Bees the Friend of Man — Man the Friend of Bees
— The First Essential of a True Hive — -Bees
Building in Bush — Strange Swarming Places — •
Use of Protecting Cover — The Arrangement of
the Swarm — Theoretically Globular — Disposition
of Combs — Heat-giving Layer — Bees First Hive-
makers — Apis Dorsata- — -Hive Elasticity — Small
Swarms Choose Side of Hive — Hive Shape —
Movable Side — Simple and Complex Hives.

We closed our last volume by endeavouring to sum
up the value of the bee to the human race, her
honey, although toothsome, yet forming but a minor
fraction in the total of her benefits, for “ seeds,
flowers, and fruits, follow in her train. ’’ Truly, then,
notwithstanding an occasional exhibition of naughty
little ways, as we think them, she is the friend of
man ; and man himself, although sometimes, in ignor-
ance of his own interest, cruel to the little creature
to which he owes so much, is, after all, a friend to
the bee in providing a dwelling, which wondrously
increases her prosperity, as, indeed, it should, since
the interests of both are bound up together. The

30

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

bee-keeper needs a hive for his convenience, but the
first essential of a bee’s true home is the comfort
and well-being of the little inhabitant ; therefore, let
us now consider ■ hives for bees. In 1874, the Hon.
and Rev. H. Bligh presented me with a portion of a
bush in which an escaped swarm had built a con-
siderable quantity of comb, had stored honey, and
raised brood for a sufficient time to have a second
batch of drones considerably advanced ; but adverse
circumstances had greatly overmatched the al fresco
colony, and after a brave stand they had succumbed^

Fig. 4.— Hypothetical Arrangement of Swarms.

A and B, Cross Sections of Cluster — hh. Building Bees ; ?<■&, Warming Bees.
C, Cross Section after Combs are built— c, Combs ; other letters as before.

as bees in this climate so placed must. That external
protection is essential, and that the instinct of the
bee leads it always to seek it, is certain ; and now,
as in the primeval forest, the hollow tree constantly
furnishes for it a domicile while, failing this, it will
shift in almost any cavity, and under my observation
have fallen many odd choices, amongst which figure
a wooden pump, giving entrance by the spout, a
hollow wall, beneath the floor of a summer house,
under the roof of a church, a recess in Dover Cliff,
a disused chimney, and a pillar letter-box, from

HIVES FOR BEES.

31

which a Civil Servant, bearing G.P.O. on his collar,
in defiance of general orders, requested me, with
many apologies, to kindly make the collection.

We shall gain much every way by studying the
reason an external cover augments the results of
bee labours, and assists in the propagation of the
species. Let us suppose an absconding swarm to
remain unobserved in a bush ; the bees gather into
a compact mass, those on the outside {wb^ A, Fig. 4)
clinging closely together, and protecting those [bb)
within, where a high temperature must be maintained
if wax is to be secreted (Vol. I., page 160). They
would, theoretically^ assume a form circular in cross
section ; for, imagine the disposition of the sustaining
twigs to be such that a triangular outline (B) is
induced, then the bees at the angular point e would
straggle away to d at the centre of the side, to be
more closely identified with the rest, and this would
continue until the triangle had become a circle. We
see the same thing in a street crowd, which naturally
takes the round form, because those standing at any
angle change to a spot where a better view of the

centre may be obtained. The instinct just referred

to — the clinging of the bees to each other, and

gravity stretching them downwards — disposes them in
the form of an inverted cone, closed on all sides by
serried, clinging ranks, except at the point where a
small opening is left for the exit and entrance of the
interior insects. Cutting the cone now horizontally,
we should find the bees within somewhat loose, and
disposed in festoons as a preparative for comb-build-
ing ; while the outside bees, forming a protecting

32

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

wall, would have no other function than to husband
the heat of the wax-workers. After a few days, a
similarly made section would give us the disposition
of parts seen at C, Fig. 4. Centrally, we have the
largest and first started comb, and on the right and
left others less developed, so that the united outline
is approximately spherical, or rather elliptical ; for, the
side of the comb being a better defence than its edge,
the diameter of the body of bees tends to increase
most in the direction of the combs’ length. Upon

and around the combs are the builders and nurses,
while an agglomeration of bees furnishes the envelope,
of from lin. to ijin. in thickness. This peripheral
mass takes no direct part in the work going on within,
except, as already said, in making it possible there
to preserve a temperature of 95deg., which is the most
favourable for the secretion of wax and the raising of
brood. This envelope, or crust, would increase or de-
crease in thickness according to atmospheric changes.

HIVES FOR BEES.

33

On our hottest days, since its services would be
unnecessary, it would break up altogether ; but with
the sinking of the thermometer, as the sun approaches
the horizon, the bees would hasten to re-form the ex-
ternal mantle, its thickness growing most rapidly on
the side of the cone most exposed to the chilling
influences of any air-current. The working population
is thus in a hive the sides of which are formed of living
bees, who would appear from this to be the most
ancient hive-makers. This observation teaches us at
once the primal advantage of the covering, whatever be
its form, in which our bees are kept. It is, as Fig. 5
will make clear, to diminish, or even to make needless,
the inactive peripheral crust, by substituting for it
walls such bad heat conductors that, by their help, the
workers alone may keep up the necessary tempera-
ture for wax-working and brood-raising; so that the
greatest number, or even all, of the population may
be disposable for active service. In temperate lati-
tudes, bees can sustain themselves year after year in
clefts of rocks, or hollow trees, but in the open never,
as the former situations alone liberate the main body
for remunerative labour. The advantage of some
cover is even observable in hot climates. The Apis
dorsata of India commonly builds beneath the branches
of trees, and here the comb is always single, with
dense clusters of bees on each side of it ; but should
this species begin to build in a rock crevice, the
side protection releases so many for work that the
combs are duplicated, and the colony becomes un-
usually numerous. Those hives, then — other things
being equal — will give the best results which most
VoL. II. D

34

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

completely annihilate the exposed surfaces of the
swarm, which would require such large contingents of
bees as mere heat-formers if left unprotected.

Since swarms vary much in weight and numbers, and
the same swarm occupies more space as its combs
increase, we have brought before us the need of
elasticity in the hive, a feature of great importance,
which has been overlooked until quite recent years.
By way of illustration, let A, Fig. 5, represent in
section an ordinary straw skep. If a colony large
enough to fill it as they hang in festoons be

placed within, the protection is so complete that
the bee-envelope is not required, and during the
warm part of the day multitudes can be spared
to make booty in the fields, while at night comb-

building progresses apace. Should, however, a much
smaller swarm be put in possession of this dome
of straw, the bees not only suffer from being weaker
in numbers, but from the size of the hive ; for,
since they can only half fill it, they are on one
side at best but poorly sheltered, and so the weak

must give up some of their strength to supply a

layer of warming bees {wb^ A, Fig. 5). Their
instinct, singularly, directs them to choose the side of
the skep, which thus minimises their disadvantage, by
reducing their exposed surface, as will be seen by the
curve c which gives the outline of the same swarm
if centrally stationed. It also brings them in contact
with the hive entrance, e, so that an efficient guard
may be kept up without detailing a detachment for
the purpose.

It has been thought that, because bees naturally

HIVES FOR BEES.

35

cluster and work in approximately globular forms,
rectangular hives are unsuitable for them. The in-
ference has not much justification if the question be
properly analysed. It is true that the globe has a
theoretical advantage, since it is the solid which has
the smallest amount of surface in proportion to its
content. Thus, one cubic foot of bees in globular form
would have 4^ square feet surface ; in a Stewarton
hive (see “Stewarton 5-I square feet surface; and
in a cubical box (the cube being the rectangular solid
with the least surface in proportion to its solidity), 6
square feet surface. But these differences are really
insignificant when compared with the benefit deriv-
able from utilising all the bees ; e.g.^ if a swarm be
placed in the rectangular hive (B, Fig. 5), wax-
workers are able to continue their operations into the
very corners, if the walls are only sufficiently non-
conductive. The disadvantage here, then, does not
arise from the angles, but from excess of space, which
is so great that one side of the colony is exposed,
and many bees {wh) are kept in enforced idleness ;
while (introducing the principle of elasticity), if the
movable side, or dummy (^), had been brought up to
the line a b, the external idlers would have been set
free, and converted at once into gatherers and builders,
the combs, as a result, growing much more quickly.
The dummy here is capable of absolutely adjusting
the hive to the size of the swarm, be the latter
large or small ; so that, in every case, nearly all the
bees may be actively utilised in adding to the general
wealth.

The position chosen for exit and entrance by all

D 2

36

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

colonies building in the open shows to us that bees
need less protection beneath than on the sides or
above, for the heat they produce by their respiratory
processes* is gradually carried up, by ascending air-
currents, to the spot where their combs are being
enlarged, and as these grow downwards the builders
descend with them. The heat-preserving layer of
bees above is mainly needed to save this warm
air from too rapid dispersion, clearly showing the
importance of at first limiting the top surface, or roof,
of the hive in which a swarm is placed, to the amount
that can be actually covered ; so that the heated air
has no lateral escape, but is held in the requisite
position, not by bees, but by the hive itself.

It is true that hives gather no honey, but, in so
far as they effect the objects which have engaged our
attention, they are the cause of much being gathered ;
and since hives of very simple construction may in
this respect be perfect in action, we admit at
once, as the old type of bee-keeper is fond of
urging, that bees may become as rich and as strong
in a skep or box as in the most perfectly-constructed
hive of the modern school — i.e., if that hive be left
without intelligent management. But we urge that
the skep or box bars much of that management
which the bee-master finds conducive to his highest
advantage ; and we therefore turn from the old
forms, which no doubt were, in not a few cases, hives
for the bees, to those \vhich we regard as hives for
the bee-keeper.

* See “ Trachea?,” page 34, Vol. I., and “ AVintering,” Vol. II.

CHAPTER III.

HIVES FOB BEE-KEEPERS.

Introduction — Huher — Forms of Comb: Laws Regu-
lating its Position — Cutting Combs — Comb Irregu-
larities — Interspace — Stature of Bees — Laws of
Bee-space — Huber's Observatory and Book Hives —
Fixing Combs — Huber' s Artificial Swar?ning — Plan
for Watching Growth of Comb — Dzierzon's and
Langstroth's Inventions- — The Superiority of Lang-
stroth's Hive — The Stewarton — Storifying Hives
— The Carr-Stewarton — Cheshire Makeshift —
Standard Frame- — Utility of Makeshift, in Queen
Raising) as a Twin Hive and in Preventing Swarm-
ing- — Cheshire Hive, Loose Hinges, Metal Ends —
Cowan, Eclectic, Sandrmgham, Combination, Giotto,
and Heddon Hives — The Principle of Inversion.
The necessities of bee-keeping as an art, together
with the desire to investigate the methods of the little
comb-builder, and to fathom the mysteries of the
economy of her home, have, for the more than twenty
centuries elapsing since the time of Aristotle himself,
stimulated the inventive faculties of men towards the
production of a hive which should permit of handling
and scrutiny in all its parts, without involving any

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

38

destruction either of the bees or their works. So
simple, apparently, are the means by which these
objects are attained in the hive of to-day, that it is
difficult now to realise the number of the steps by
which the goal has been reached, and the amount of
effort the solution of the problem has demanded. The
progress of the ancients was painful and slow, but it
undoubtedly paved the way for the rapid march of the
last hundred years. The mournful — and, alas ! true —
sentiment, that “the evil that men do lives after
them, the good is oft interred with their bones,^^
happily does not contradict a fact, of which we may
be too forgetful, that we inherit, and actually live in
the presence of, the embodied thought and effort of
the ages : a fact vividly brought before us by a study
of apicultural history, bristling as it is with the names
of worthies the mere mention of which would fill
pages. But due regard to our space and object make
it desirable to omit that which, though containing the
germs of progress, is yet practically obsolete and
valueless, and to commence our studies with the
devices of Huber,* from whom the dawn of modern
bee-keeping may be considered to date, referring
those with historical tastes to “ Bevan on the Honey
Bee,^’ which gives an excellent summary, and the titles
of the works of not a few of the older writers. It is,
however, necessary, in order that we may understand
the nature of the difficulties to be surmounted, that we
should examine the forms bees naturally give to their

* We leave out of view the ancient Greek bar hives, which seem to have
been disused and forgotten, and the plans of the Candiotes, from whom
Huber is said to have borrowed some of his best ideas on hive-structure.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

39

combs, and bring before our minds two laws of the
bee world which have made possible the movable
comb hive, as distinguished from the older forms, in
which the combs were fixed, and incapable of manipu-
lation.

The nature of comb has been so minutely examined
in Vol. I., that it suffices here to point out that the
cells containing worker larvae are of the uniform depth
of a bare -|-in., the comb being ^in. full in cross sec-
tion, and that if the midrib {mr, B, Fig. 6) be flat, the

Fig. 6.— Face and Cross-section of Comb (Natural Size).

A, Comb Face— we, Workers Escaping ; sw. Sealed Workers ; ec, Empty Cells ;
gl. Growing Larvae ; sd. Sealed Drones. B, Comb Section — ec, Empty Cell ;
p. Pollen ; sh. Sealed Honey ; e, e, Eggs ; sZ, Spinning Larva ; sp. Sealed Pollen ;
fl,. Feeding Larva ; mr. Midrib.

surface of the comb will, in this case, be equally so.
The cells in which drones are raised are deeper, giving
to the combs a thickness of about i^in. It is often
desirable to cut combs without fracture ; a dry blade
makes very poor work, but if a thin, well-worn dinner
knife be dipped into methylated spirit, sections as at
B may be obtained without any breaking down of the
cell walls. Making such a one, we find the pollen is
placed in worker cells, being generally patted down
into thin cakes so soon as stored, so that pollens of

40

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

varied colours lie over one another in strata, as at
/, B. Upon these honey is often placed, after which
the whole is, for future use, sealed down in the general
line of the comb face {sp). Although the thick-
ness of comb devoted to brood and pollen is constant,
that used for storing honey is liable to great fluctua-
tion, the cells being elongated until sometimes a thick-
ness of 3in., or even 4in., will be reached, as the bees
endeavour to fill up vacancies in accordance with their
own ideas of economising space, as may be seen at
if, B, Fig. 7.

Fig. 7.— Straw Skep in Section, showing Arrangement of Combs
(Scale, jV).

A, Vertical Section— /6, Floor Board ; e, Entrance ; hr. Brood ; p, Pollen ;
h. Honey ; //j. Feeding Hole ; hs, bs, Bee-space. B, Horizontal Section— sfr,
Skep-Side ; c, c. Combs ; sc, sc. Store Combs ; bs, bs. Bee-space.

Even in a shelter that presents no inequalities they
never keep the midrib perfectly straight, the latter
being always disposed to take a slightly sinuous course,
as at c, c, B ; but if they encounter irregularities, the
queerest accommodations often arise. The swarm in
the privet bush, referred to in the last chapter, had
combs of the most whimsical forms, for which space
had been found by carving all the leaves from their
petioles, while the twigs had been worked in in such

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

41

a way as to give the whole structure considerable
rigidity.

Combs are started from the upper part of the
domicile — e.g.^ from the roof of the skep, or box hive
— those consisting of worker cells only, normally
having their midribs rather less than i-jin. apart.
The brood comb being scarcely lin. in thickness,
an interspace of nearly iin. remains, which gives
the bees manning the comb on both its faces
room to pass each other without molestation, as
a worker can squeeze through -g^in., and projects
about -^in. from the surface on which it is placed ;
while the stature of the drone is about Jin. The
“ bee - space,’^ as it is termed, is much lessened
between the faces of contiguous combs devoted to
honey, as here only room for the passage of a
single bee is left. The honey is normally stored

above {h, A), and at the sides (i-c, B), where the combs
are thickened as a result of what has been already
advanced ; but the reduced passage-way is preserved,
and they are only very slightly, if at all, attached to
each other.

The two laws already referred to may be briefly
expressed. First ; Bees invariably preserve spaces
around the lower parts of the ends, and beneath
the combs {bs, A, Fig. 7), making any one imme-
diately reachable from any part of the floor board,
and capable of being ventilated from the hive
door. Secondly : Openings between ^in. and -Jin.

in least diameter, of every shape, and wherever
placed, with the single exception of the upper part of
the comb, are never closed, but are used as passages :

42

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

larger spaces have comb built in them ; smaller ones
are stopped by propolis.

Huber,* in writing to Bonnet, August 13th, 1789,

Fig. 8.— Huber’s Book, or Leaf Hive, and Parts (Scale, |).

A, Book-hive— e, e. Entrances ; s, s, Side Leaves ; h. Hinges. B, Side View of
Frame, or Leaf— Top Bar ; c. Comb ; p, p, Pegs. C, Part of Bin, Cross
Section ; Lettering as before.

points out that, in using an “ observatory hive,” as
recommended by Reaumur, and consisting essentially

* “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles.” Unabridged Edition.
Fran9ois Huber, 1814.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

43

of two glass plates, fixed by a frame at somewhat
less than 3in. from each other, the bees built two
parallel combs, instead of the single flat one desired,
and so hid their operations from view. To prevent
this he allowed no more than eighteen lines* between his
glass plates, and in this narrow chamber succeeded
in establishing swarms, which he had provided with
comb already built, as, if left to themselves, the bees,
instead of constructing a single large comb parallel to
the glass sides, would arrange a number of tiny ones
set at right angles to them, so strongly does their
instinct revolt against building one comb only. He
found that his bees had sufficient freedom of move-
ment, and they could not form in thick bunches
upon the comb, as they did where greater width was
allowed them. The colonies appeared to be content,
and worked with assiduity, while no cell was hidden
from view. But, he argues, it might be objected
that the natural conditions had been so changed that
the instinct of the bees might not have full play.
So that, to overcome every species of doubt, he
arranged a form of hive which did not lose the ad-
vantage of the narrow one, while approaching much
more nearly the ordinary shape, in which bees build
many combs parallelly disposed. Having procured
several deal frames (B, Fig. 8), ift. square, and fifteen
finest wide (on which width numbers were put as in
the Figure), he united them by hinges (^, A), in such

* The French inch being f of an English inch, makes this amount
i-^in., or only ^in. more than the normal. See page 41.

+ Fifteen French lines, i^fin., as nearly as possible — the amount now
accounted the best for each comb and interspace.

44

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

a way that they could be opened and shut at will,
like the leaves of a book, at the same time covering
the outside frames by squares of glass (j*, j“), which
represented the book-covers.

He fixed a small comb on the under side of the top
bar of each frame, by means of a little lath, holding
all in position by pegs (/, p) until the bees had
attached the comb, when the scaffolding was removed.
In the same letter he says : ‘'This hive is, in fact, only
a union of several of the very flat hives that can be

e, e. Entrances ; s, s, Side Leaves ; st, st, Strings.

separated from each other at will. I admit that one
cannot visit the bees in a hive of this sort until they
have themselves solidly fixed into the frames their
combs, which would, without this precaution, tumble
from their places, crushing and injuring the inhabi-
tants, who would be irritated to a most disagreeable
extent. You will call to, mind that I showed you,
when you visited my retreat, a hive of this form
which had been a long time in use, and that you

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

45

were singularly astonished at the tranquillity with
which the bees permitted one to open it from which
we gather that, practically, the frame hive has been in
use for more than a hundred years.

But we must not omit to note that Huber made his
hive of practical service, foreshadowing many present
methods — e.g.^ swarming his bees artificially by simple
division of the colony. He placed partition boards
(j, j-. Fig. 9) in the centre, permitting each half to
have an entrance when a new queen was raised in

Fig. 10.— Huber’s Bar Hive for Studying the Way in which Comb is Built.
•c6, Comb Bar ; g, g, Glass Sheets ; s, s, Screws ; e, Entrance.

the queenless portion, a method of procedure the
merits of which will be hereafter fully discussed. Nor
did this remarkable man, who thus gave us a movable
comb hive not requiring very large changes to make
it greatly like those now used by some advanced
apiculturists, fail in contriving an observatory (Fig.
10) which could be supposed to be first cousin to
some that have in recent years competed at our
shows. His object was to watch the growth of comb.

46

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The top was formed of comb bars (cd), between each
of which stood plates of glass {gj g) ; two large screws
(.y, s) raised each comb bar when the comb was to
be examined. He is not clear in his explanation,
but probably the glass plates moved in grooves, and
were only^allowed to descend a certain distance into
the hive body.

The main defect in Huber’s hive, the inevitable
destruction of bee-life in closing it after examination,
remained for a considerable period unremedied, until
Dr. Dzierzon, of Carlsmarkt, invented in 1838, and
made public in 1845, frames to hang within a box, or
hive body, which was manipulated from its side, made
to open like a door. In 1851, Langstroth, quite inde-
pendently of Dzierzon, introduced very similar frames
(Fig. ii), which he, unlike Dzierzon, manipulated from
above, making his roof movable, and thus securing
far greater facility of handling, and giving possi-
bilities of management of which Dzierzon’s hive was
incapable. Although second in order of time, the
superiority of his method has commanded for Lang-
stroth first place in connection with this matter.
The frames are hung about ^in. from each other
with the top bar resting on the rabbet, so that the
combs stand in their natural relative positions. The
employment of slips, triangular in cross-section, at
the sides {s, s), and under the top bar, was to
secure straight combs ; but more modern contrivances
have made this device needless.

The seed idea of the movable frame — the most
pregnant invention ever made in practical apiculture —
existed in the leaf of Huber’s book-hive, which took

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

47

advantage of the first law, already introduced, since,
had the bees built their comb to the bottom and sides
of it, instead of leaving passage-way, his arrangement
would have utterly failed, as the two contiguous faces
of adjacent combs would have been cut off from all
the rest ; but, unlike the more perfect devices of
Dzierzon and Langstroth, it derived nothing from
the fact that spaces (the bee-space) iin., or rather
more, in least diameter, are allowed to remain open,
leaving the frames with combs, honey, brood, and

th CO Is

Fig. 11.— Section of Langstroth’s Original Hive and Frame (Scale, ,V)-
CO, Cover ; bb, Bottom Board ; and e, Entrance of Hive ; bs, bs, Bee-space ;
tb, Top Bar ; and s, s, Sides of Frames.

adherent bees, ever free for examination, removal,
passage from stock to stock, or utilisation in fresh
and previously impracticable ways ; so that the new
hives made, even in the hands of their inventors, a
new system of apiculture, which has been developing
and advancing to the present hour.

The Stewarton (Fig. 12), still much esteemed in
Scotland, while it is not without defenders amongst
advanced bee-keepers south of the Cheviots, and
which consists of octagonal boxes, that may be tiered

48

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

one upon another, would have been noticed in this in-
troductory sketch before the Langstroth, since it is said
to have been invented about 1819, at Stewart Town,*
Ayrshire, by Robert Kerr, who himself adopted the
octagonal form from Mewe’s hive, dating as far back
as 1652, had it not been improved and modified
within the last twenty years by “ Renfrewshire Bee-
keeper,’"’ so that it really now contains an adapta-
tion of the Langstroth frame. The lower body, or

Fig. 12.— Stewarton Hive (Scale, jW),

S, S, Slides ; A, A', Supers ; B, B', Body Boxes ; H, Handle ; W, Window ;
D, Door ; E, Entrance.

breeding and wintering, boxes (B, B'), are yin. deep
and I4in. in internal diameter, and have eight bars,
the six in the centre i^in. broad, and the two outside
ones (where honey is stored) ijin. Between these
run slides {s, s, Fig. 12), of which the sectional
view is given in Fig. 13. By the removal of these,

* See “ The Stewarton, the Hive of the Busy Man,” by Rev. Dr. E.
Bartrum, M.A.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

49

since the combs are fixed to the bars, the bees are
admitted from the lower to the upper boxes. The
four central combs are surrounded by frames, so that
they may be inspected and interchanged with only

Fig. 13.— Stewartox Slide and Central Bar. (Cross-section, exact size.)

/, Foundation Guide.

little less facility than in ordinary frame hives. The
side bars (A, Fig. 14) are shorter, and their ends not
rectangular, and have had no frames adapted to them.
As a consequence, the combs they carry are fixed to
the hive side, and, without breaking or cutting, are
not open to examination ; to remedy this, 1 have for

m m

Fig. 14.— Side Bar and Comb of Stewarton (Scale, 4).

A, Top View— m, wi, Mortices for Receiving Uprights. B, Front \ iew— w, i/, I prights.

myself added uprights, triangular in cross-section,
which are morticed into the top bar. A bottom rail
is not required, and is, indeed, better omitted, as, in its
absence, the bees run their comb down to within ^in.
VOL. II. E

50

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of the floor board (as vve see at A, Fig. 7), instead of
iin. above the bottom rail, which must have a bee-
space allowed below it (as in Figs. 18 and 19). All
the combs are thus made movable ; but so cleverly
are the slides fixed with propolis (see Propolis ”)

by the bees, that terrible earnestness is requisite to
draw them from their position.

Each box has an entrance cut in its front ; but, if
two or three boxes are used, the entrance of the
lowest is alone left open. “ Renfrewshire Bee-keeper’’
advises increasing the entrance- way, by making similar
openings on each side of the usual one.

The octagonal shape is, in the opinion of the same
charming writer, an immense benefit to the colony
during winter, an opinion which I can only very
partially endorse, for reasons given in the previous
chapter. The variation in the form of the* top bar
which it entails certainly prevents the complete inter-
changeability of combs which a rectangular hive pos-
sesses, while it to some extent stereotypes the mutual
positions of the combs of any one hive, disadvantages
which will hereafter become apparent. The Carr-
Stewarton, however, retains the square form, and
rejects the unconquerably inconvenient slide, adopting
frames like to the Langstroth, while it gives us com-
pletely the telescopic character of its prototype — the
one feature which has made the Stewarton commend-
‘able, and the importance of which is only now
beginning to be generally realised. Both of these
hives may be extended, by the addition of stock-
boxes and supers, to suit precisely the strength of
the colony and the yield of honey, while they can

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS

5

with the utmost facility be compressed as seasonal
exigencies may demand. Indeed, it appears to me
that, by the addition of a sunk half bee-space in
the floor-board of the Carr-Stewarton, and half bee-
space above and below the frames of its body-boxes
and supers, or section-boxes, a very fair imitation of

Fig. 15.— Outer Casing for Thin Hives.
c, Lower Cover ; I, Lift ; r, Roof.

the Heddon hive (see “ Heddon Hive ”) is obtained
at once.

As the correct management of these tiering, or
storifying, hives necessitates, during the honey season,
repeated changes, not only in the number, but in the
order, of the several storeys, these are made light and
handy ; but, on this account, they are not able to

52

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

protect the bees from extremes of heat and cold. It
is, therefore, usual to provide them with outer cases,
as in Fig. 15. The lower one, carrying a porch, an
entrance, and an alighting-board, is covered in winter
by the roof (r) ; but, as the bees expand in spring,
and the hives receive additions of bodv-boxes and
supers, lifts (/) are added as may be required. A
single body-box will winter well if chaff be packed
within the outer case, over and around it. In my
own apiary, chaff-boxes (see Figs. 17 and 19) are
used with most satisfactory results.

Having looked at main features, it is necessary
to pass to details. During the last ten years, some
thousands of hives have been exhibited, each sup-
posed by its designer to have some special claim
to distinction. In making a selection amongst so
many, it is not pretended that the chosen are
better than the omitted, but that they appeared to
some extent typical, and to present points which
were worthy of being brought before the attention
of the student. Skeps will hereafter be dealt with,
as their importance is quite secondary, and as a know-
ledge of the frame hive will make them and their
management the more easily intelligible.

Makeshift hives, as they are termed, find a place
in many apiaries, and these may be, in some cases,
good enough to afford bees a sufficient home through-
out the year. Upon the principle of passing from the
simple to the complex, my own makeshift (Fig. 16)
is introduced, which, although containing nothing
beyond bare essentials, is yet extremely convenient —
more so, in some respects, than any hive with which

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

53

I am acquainted. Its principal peculiarity consists in
its having only three fixed sides, the fourth being a
movable dummv, or division-board.

The British Bee-keepers’ Association, with the idea
of preventing the difficulties arising from every hive-
maker choosing some special size, adopted “ The
Standard Frame,” the outside dimensions of which
are : iqin. long by 8|in. deep, the top and bottom
bars being fin. and Jin. thick respectively, and the
uprights Jin., the width of all sides being -|in. This
size has very largely displaced others ; but there are
signs that progress will lead to this frame being in
turn discarded.

Supposing the Standard Frame to be selected, the
division-boards (^, d')y which fit closely all round, must
be iq^in. long by 8Jin. deep, giving Jin. bee-space at
the sides, and beneath the frame fin., which, at the
hive bottom, is not found in practice to be too much.
The lugs, or ears (/, /), will require to be made the same
length as the thickness of the hive sides {s, s). Even
those who use the Standard Frame give various
lengths to their top bars ; if the hive sides be made
of lin. stuff, the top bar of the frame will be i6jin.,
which is sufficient. It is economy in material to cut
the division-board iqjin. by 8Jin., nailing along the
upper edge a strip fin. by i6^in., to form the ears.
The hive sides (s, s) will be 8Jin. high, and from 2oin.
to 2qin. long ; I recommend the latter measure, for
reasons presently apparent. Upon these are nailed
slats (s/, s/), extending fin. above the sides, so as to
cover in the ends of the frames. The bottom board
{dd) need not be thick, and the pieces composing it,

54

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

if not tongued, should be halved out as shown.
Having cut two division-boards (d, d'), of accurate size,
proceed to nail on one side (.s'), driving the nails from
the under side of the bottom board. With the hive
still inverted, adjust the second side by means of the
division-boards, placed into position so that accurate
fitting is secured. Fit on the front {/), 8|in. deep,
cutting into it the door, or entrance, fin. high and
not less than bin. long, not in the middle, but at
right or left, so that it opens into the hive at its

Fig. 16.— Cheshire Makeshift (Scale,

bb, Bottom Board ; f. Front ; s, .v, Sides ; d, si, Slats ; e, Entrance for Second
Nucleus ; d, d', Division-boards ; I, I, Lugs, or Ears, of same ; n, n, n. Nail-
heads ; w. Mire Clip-ring.

corner. This position has many advantages. To in-
sure the accurate distancing of the hive sides, put
the division-board into position, close up to the front
piece ; then nail the latter on, holding the side
against the division-board while doing so. For top
covering of this makeshift, any of the styles presently
mentioned would be applicable. If it stand in the
open, some watertight roof must be provided, the
nature of which would depend on the pocket of the

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS,

55

owner ; but with such an addition it would winter
colonies better than many.

To introduce all the uses to which this hive might
be put, would be premature ; but let it here be noticed,
that it is perfectly elastic, and capable of equally well
accommodating a nucleus of two or three frames
(see “Queen-raising”), or a full colony, since the
dummy (d) may be placed in any position. In
ordinary hives, close-fitting dummies (which are really
the only effective ones) soon become so fixed with
propolis that it is difficult to remove them, but here
the absence of the fourth side makes it easy. The
sides (.S', i-) have a certain small amount of play, and,
by drawing their free corners somewhat apart, the
propolis is cracked, and the division-board made free ;
carefully rubbing the edges and bottom of the latter
with tallow or vaseline once or twice in a season will
greatly aid the operation. Since it is desirable that
the sides fit closely up to the division-board, they
may be tightened up thus : At the free corners and

the middle of the bottom board fix round-headed nails
{n, n, n), and make a tube-like ring by coiling a piece
of bell-wire eight or ten times. Fasten a well-waxed
and loose string over the two upper nails. Double
the string in the middle, and pass it through the coiled
wire {w). Putting the centre over the lower nail, and
pushing up the coil, will tighten the string, and bring
the sides so up to the division-boards that there will
be no leak of heated air. A trial or two will deter-
mine the best length for the string, but most bee-
keepers would content themselves with the two upper
nails, over which a string could be fastened very

56

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

rapidly. When the division-boards again require re-
moval, or the floor-board is to be cleaned — an opera-
tion performed with the greatest facility — slip down
the coiled wire, and the string will fall completely
out of the way.

This hive will also always be of the accurate size
for two colonies, a feature which no other possesses
in an equal degree. One with four sides, and with
room for twelve frames and a division-board, by
example, would leave an awkward gap with colonies,
say, of four and five frames respectively, the gap
necessitating two division-boards and a separation of
the stocks. Thus, their mutual assistance, in tending
to keep each other warm, is almost entirely inopera-
tive. But with the form under consideration, the first
nucleus has the division-board (d) fitted up to it; the
second nucleus is then added, and is, in like manner,
closed in by the other division-board {d'), this having
a portion of its corner, fin. by from qin. to bin., cut
out, so as to form the hive mouth (e). As either of
these lots increases or diminishes, the hive is expanded
or contracted, and always gives the best possible kind
of protection. If one colony only, and that requiring
food, be placed within it, the division-boards change
places, d' going next the bees, which are then fed by
bottle or comb between d' and </, in the manner which
is the very safest for weak lots, the removed corner
giving access to the food, and the outside board (d)
presenting an impassable front to all inquirers. The
absence of the fourth side, then, is not merely an
economy or a simplification, but actually augments
facility of manipulation : for, with the usual form, as

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS,

57

the stock grows, the division-board is driven to the
hive side, so that the lingers cannot get behind it ;
and when it is crowded out altogether, it must be
removed by perpendicular lifting — often a matter of
no little difficulty^ — and a space is generally left, in
which the bees build comb against the hive side.
But the main utility remains to be considered : it is,
that, by giving flight from the removable dummy {d'),
the hive may be opened without touching the supers
that may be upon it ; the front combs are thus always
at immediate command. To those acquainted with
Mr. Simmins’s system,* the immense advantage here
is at once evident, as, so fast as the bees build up
the space left at the entrance, their combs, with a
minimum of labour and disturbance, can be displaced,
and frames with starters only supplied ; and thus swarm-
ing is at once efficiently prevented — a matter of the
highest moment, to which we shall have to return.

This style of hive, in addition, admits of a variation
in structure many would find highly useful, and possibly
preferable, to the one figured. The front {/) is
omitted, and that which is really a division-board is
permanently nailed in or near the centre, so that the
ground plan resembles a capital which the up-

rights are the sides, and the cross-piece the permanent
division. As the colonies retire upon their stores in
the winter, they aid one another in sustaining tem-
perature, and in the spring this mutual assistance
facilitates the drawing-out of sections or foundation.
The movable fronts may be supplied with handles, if
desired, and there is no occasion for them to reach the
* See “ Original Non Swarming System,” by S. .Simmins.

58

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

bottom, as the door may be left the whole hive width
stopped by Langstroth blocks — i.e., two triangular
pieces so placed before the opening that they cover
much or little of it, as desired. If metal runners
(see Fig. 22) be added, the front had better have the

Fig. 17.— Cheshire Hive (Scale, jV).

Ay, Hive Side ; sc. Super Case ; p. Porch ; ah. Alighting-hoard ; np. Nucleus Porch ;
ct, ChafF-tray ; /o, Feeding Opening ; /, Fastening ; r, Roof ; v, Ventilator.

space lying between the runner and the hive side
filled by a wedge cut to shape.

Let us turn to a form in which completeness has
been the aim, and in which the well-being of the bees
and the comfort and convenience of the manipulator

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

59

have been consulted in preference to any question of
cost. The hive here illustrated (Fig. 17), and made
by Mr. Holland, closely resembles the one devised and
generally used by the Author, and so has his name
affixed to it, although it differs considerably from an
earlier pattern bearing the same designation. It stands
on splayed legs giving it a firm base and a height suit-

Fig. 18.— Cheshire Hive during Honey Harvf..st. Section from Side to
Side (Scale, i’.,).

c, Comb ; g, s', Separators ; fn,fn. Foundation ; other Letters as before.

able to the operator. These legs are painted on the end
grain several times, at intervals, and then have zinc
plates fixed upon them, so that rotting is for many years
quite prevented. The sides [hs, /is, Figs. 18 and 19)
are double all round, with an interspace of lin., packed
firmly with cork-dust, which the writer’s experiments
(see “Wintering”) have proved to give fourteen times

6o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

as much protection as dead (?) air, upon which so much
reliance was formerly placed ; for, if the two skins of
wood inclose only air between them, a constant cir-
culation is kept up — the air rising on the side next
the bees, to be replaced by that which has cooled by
contact with the outer skin — and thus heat is being

Fig. 19.— Cheshire Hive PREPAUEn for Winter, section from Front to
Back (Scale, J5).

.fb. Floor Board ; e, Entrance ; d, Division-board ; 0, Cake ; other Letters as before.

unceasingly dissipated. Cork-dust, in consequence of
these experiments, is now being used by many makers.
The frames are usually of the Association standard size,
and are twelve in number ; but the hive is perfectly
elastic, as the close-fitting and cork-packed division-
board {d, Fig. 19) permits of the colony being restricted
as their strength and the season may demand. Over the

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS,

6l

frames is placed waterproof cloth, a piece of Hessian,
or unbleached calico, according to the season ; while,
at all times when two supers are not on the hive
(see Fig. i8), a chaff-tray (c/. Figs. 17 and 19) — un-
speakably superior to carpeting — is used over the
frames. This chaff-tray consists of a ring of wood,
3in. or 4in. deep, with a bottom of rather loose sacking ;
so that, when it is placed in position, the chaff beds
itself down completely over the top of the hive, fitting
any irregularity, and preventing all needless leak of
heated air. Fig. 19 shows 0^ a flour cake, under the chaff-
tray, and explains the statement just made. The loss
of numberless colonies is no doubt traceable to defects
in the top covering, the non-conductive qualities and
close fitting of which are far more important than
those of the hive side itself. A rim of wood [sc) gives
considerable shelter to the bees during any manipula-
tion in windy weather, while it so places the roof-piece
that the latter can still be opened and closed on
hinges if a doubling-box carrying eleven Association
Standards, or two supers (Fig. 18), rest upon the
ordinary frames. The roof-piece is hinged, and has
a short chain attached to it, so that it is retained at
a right angle to its closed position (see Fig. 17), thus
affording ample table-room for necessary tools, such
as the smoker or spray-producer. When the roof-
piece is shut down, the fastening [f, Figs. 17 and 18)
acts automatically. It consists of a brass ring, with
a screw-plate, fixed to the roof-piece, and a horizontal
ring on the super case. One springs over the other
at the moment of shutting, and prevents the possi-
bility of wind opening the hive ; while a padlock may

62

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

be added at the owner’s discretion. The roof (r) is
covered with zinc, with wood beneath it ; the zinc
being everywhere free, as seen in Fig. 19, it cannot
buckle or tear by expansion or contraction ; while the
whole so shuts as to be absolutely bee-proof, a point
Avhich should be reached in every well-constructed
hive. Every facility is afforded for raising a queen in
a nucleus, besides accommodating the stock, as the
tight - fitting division-board [d, Fig. 19) completely
separates the nucleus from the parent colony. Two
frames would be sufficient for the former. Its entrance
is placed at the angle np (Fig. 17). The manipulator
stands behind the hive ; the bees of the main colony
flying from him as they pass from their entrance, while
those of the nucleus are saved from troubling by the
roof-piece, which provides its table room on the right-
hand side. If feeding be needed, a corner of the thin
cover is turned back, and a bottle given at the
opening fo^ the bottom of which is fitted by a pierced
block, over which Mr. Holland adapts a feeder, illus-
trated subsequently. Should the food be required by
the nucleus, the chaff-tray stands as in Fig. 17; if by the
main colony, the chaff-tray is turned round. Feeding,
however, would rarely be required during the time the
nucleus was at work, and so the main colony, if in
need, .may be generally fed behind the dummy, as
hereafter described. The comfort of this hive consists
not a little in its self-contained character; it is the
same summer and winter, and for wintering qualities
it is impossible to excel it — without wraps to stow
away, or carpets to be piled on as winter draws near.
It is all the year capable of being opened and

j

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

63

closed at once, with a certainty that every part will
fall into position, and discharge the function required
of it. The details of the method of using this, or any
of the other hives figured, could not here be given
without covering ground which properly belongs to
other chapters, but two or three structural points need
explanation now ; e.g., the Author does not hinge

his hive cover, as in Fig. 16, for a loose cover has
one or two advantages worth retaining — to name one
only, it admits of tiering up to an unlimited extent.

Fig. 20.— Loose Hinge for Hive Roof (Scale, i).

A, Portion of Hive, open— a-c. Section Cover or Roof-piece ; /t-s. Hive Side ; aL Iron
Strap, or Loose Hinge ; n. Notch for Screw. 1>, Same shut— Lettering as
before. C, Loose Hinge applied to Hive, with I’linths— Lettering as before.

Mr. Green, some years since, exhibited the first loose
hinge ; but it was both weak and difficult of application,
and so the Author devised the plan which Fig. 20
will make clear.

Iron straps [st, A), fin. wide, bin. long, and j^in.
thick, have three screw-holes bored and countersunk
towards one end, and a notch {n) cut near the other.
The straps — a pair to each hive, and on opposite
sides of it — are fixed by screws so that the middle

64

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

line of each is the same distance from the inner angle
of the super case as its notch is from the lower edge
of the same — that is, the distance ab=an’, 2in. will
be found to be ample. The screw upon which the
strap turns must be the same distance (2in., e.g.) from
the back of the hive body, and just so much more
from the top edge of the hive as the super case laps
over it. To remove the roof, it only needs to be

lifted — when open, as at A — and the screws slip from
their notches, and leave all free. The plinthed hive
will be treated as at C, the plinth having a part
chiselled out on the inner side, to admit the strap.
The extreme comfort and convenience of this ar-
rangement can only be understood by those who use
it, and it only needs to be known to be extensively
adopted. There is nothing to place on the ground ;
the hive is opened and closed instantly, without
possibility of error, and fastened automatically withal ;
no chain to offer any impediment to the hands ; and a
table provided capable of carrying chaff-tray and every
requisite. With the loose hinge, the part sc (Fig. 17)
is not necessary, as the roof-piece may be made of
any depth. If doubling-box or supers, or both, be
upon the hive, it is only necessary to lift the roof-
piece from its loose hinges, and then place it over
the honeyed tower.

The frames of this hive, unlike those used by the
Author, are supplied with what are called metal ends,
of which several forms are in use ; one, which may
do duty for all the rest, is represented in Fig. 21.

The object of these metal additions is to keep
the frames at their proper relative distances, to preserve

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

65

the bee space, by means of the triangular strut {fs),
which holds the frame { fs) at jin. from the hive side ;
and to prevent the bees passing to the ear, or lug
(/, I, A and B), so that the part by which the frame is
handled may be kept clear of propolis. This substance
often annoys the bee-keeper greatly, for, in some locali-
ties, it is gathered in such abundance that frames of
the usual kind so glue the fingers that work is seriously
impeded, while the skin is disagreeably stained, even
after the resinous body has been removed by the
method explained under Propolis.”

Fig. 21.— Metal Ends Fitted (Full Size).

A, Side View— me, Metal End ; ef, End Face of Ditto : ts, Trianp:ular Strut ; tb.
Top Bar of Frame; I, Lug, or Ear; fs, Frame Side; hs. Hive Side; gr.
Groove. B, Perspective View of two >Ietal Ends— Lettering as before.

The rapidity with which these novelties have gained
favour is perhaps explainable by their possessing the
last-stated advantage, great in itself, yet, as I venture
to think, almost the only one with which they can
be credited, and which may be fully secured, as shown
at B, Fig. 22, by more simple and less costly means.
It is certainly claimed that they protect the colony
during winter, but it is evident that their power of
retaining the heat the bees generate is at best but
exceedingly small. Disregarding their considerable
VOL. II.

66

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

cost, their disadvantages are numerous. At first they
work freely, but every time a frame is moved the
propolis is drawn out into strings, to be squeezed flat
between their adjacent faces [ef) when the frames are
once more pressed into position, until the latter be-
come literally fixed, and can only be freed by a wrench,
which irritates the stock, and in turn disturbs the
operator. Bees getting beneath the lower side of
the metal end, as the frame is replaced, cannot be
seen, and so crushing is inevitable. Others, again, are
jammed between the “ends’’ themselves, unless much
time be taken ; while not a few remain between and
beneath the lugs, to be imprisoned and perish if the
quilt be put on over them. So great is the contact
surface, that the least propolisation prevents the frames
being pushed backwards and forwards in number ;
while it will become apparent, during our progress,
that keeping the frames at a stereotyped distance is
more a fault than a virtue. When the extractor is
used, the metal end must be removed and replaced ;
yet it is true that this, though troublesome, is not a
matter of difficulty, as projecting edges are cast on
the interior faces ; so that, as the “ end ” is pushed on
to the ear, grooves {gr) are cut into the yielding wood,
permitting it to be easily slipped off, and returned to
its position, fixed for all practical purposes.

About fourteen years since, the Author introduced
the metal runner (;;zr, Fig. 22), consisting of a strip
of stiff tin or zinc, nailed to the hive side, and raising
the frame end Jin., practically stopping propolising
on the under side of the lug. In those days, a
crown board — i.e., a wooden cover, was used instead of

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

67

the quilt (^), giving a space above the frames of fully
Jin., so that propolisation only occurred between the
hive side and the end of the ear. To reduce this, the
Author cut off the frame end at an angle of about 45°.
Both of these plans have been extensively adopted,
along with the wire nail distance-keepers, which were
placed at the opposite sides and ends of the top bar,
very near to the upright of the frames, which by this
arrangement fitted equally well in any order, and
with either face of each comb towards the operator.
These distance-keepers may be either panel-pins, bell-
hangers’ staples {ds, B, Fig. 23), or screw-rings

projecting far enough to keep the combs at the de-
termined distance from each other. Thus arranged,
the frames can be slidden backwards and forwards,
either singly, or five or six at a time, and any one
removed without jar, or the smallest risk to a bee.

In reference to the tin runner, the advantages of
which to the operator are so apparent, a want of
scientific knowledge has given voice to a statement
that metal is injurious inside a hive, because it

conducts away the heat. Metal would, undoubtedly,
act prejudicially if only partially within ; the warm
air in such a case giving up its heat to the metal, which
would readily part with it to the air without. If

the metal strip be wholly within the hive, however, it

stands at the temperature of the interior air, from which
it can, in consequence, abstract no heat. In a frosty
atmosphere, e.g.. If a half-crown or other coin be held
between the thumb and finger, the metal will quickly
cool them to numbness ; but if the coin be placed
in the palm, and covered by the fingers. Its

F 2

68

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

presence, after it has reached the heat of the hand,
will in no way affect temperature. It is true that,

in winter, the part of the runner nearest the cluster
will be slightly warmer than the rest, and that it

will tend somewhat to equalise temperature ; but the
conduction from this cause is so infinitesimally small
as to be practically nil. Both tin (iron) and zinc
stand low down as conductors amongst the metals,
and, in addition, their capacity for heat is not more

than a tenth of that of water ; or it may be stated, for

the benefit of those unacquainted with the scientific
bearings of the matter, that it would require as much
heat to raise i oz. of water through any number of
degrees, as would be absorbed by lo oz. of either of
these metals. Thus, then, syrup holding 31b. of water,
and given as food at the heat of the external air,
would abstract more heat from the cluster of bees
than Jcwt. of zinc placed cold in their midst. But
metal runners, while hanging frames are used, may
be safely left to take care of themselves ; let us,
therefore, see how we may obviate the propolisation
on the ear, which the use of the quilt now occasions.

The Author has had made, for experimental pur-
poses, some reversible — or, more correctly, invertible* —
frames, which have led to a solution of the difficulty,
by the substitution of a thin iron lug (z7, B, Fig. 22)
for the wooden one. For this purpose, nothing
seems to excel hoop-iron No. ig, Jin. wide. This
is thin enough to be bent to shape while cold, and

* These frames permit of the bottom of the contained comb being
made the top, and so should be called invertible. The word “reversible,”
implying that the front may be turned to the back, is here inapplicable,
and should be discontinued.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

69

is at the same time so rigid that no ordinary wear
and tear can damage it. For a simple ear, a piece
2^in. long is cut. One inch of this, or as much as
the thickness of the hive may make desirable (a, d), is
placed in the vice, over an iron block to which a ^-in.
bevel has been given ; a few blows with the hammer
will form it, care being taken that the bends are made
at right angles to its length. With the part a, b,
placed on a level with the bottom of the top bar, it is

s, Screw ; other Letters as before.

nailed, through holes previously punched, to the frame
side, over an iron block, so that the nails are
clinched. The bevel gives the form, standing at 45°
between a and the pin and which acts as the

triangular strut [ts, Fig. 21) of the metal end, accu-
rately keeping the frame side :fin. from the interior
of the hive. It is clear that this lug, when in
position, will stand away from the quilt (y, B) only
its own thickness less than that of the top bar, and.

70

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

as a consequence, that no propolisation will occur,
except at the point immediately below a, which does
not come into contact with the fingers.

But another advantage may by this form be secured :
if it be intended to make the frame invertible, the
perpendicular part of the attached hoop-iron, instead
of being short, and firmly nailed, is cut rather more
than half the depth of the frame, the centre of the
side of which is carefully found and marked, and the
hole for the screw [s] drilled. The hoop-iron is turned
up as before, and receives two holes, the first care-
fully placed, and countersunk, so that, when the screw
(.S') passes through it, the part b, may stand, as
previously remarked, on a level with the under side
of the top bar of the frame. The second hole is to
receive and loosely pass the pin [p). After the screw
{s) has adjusted the strap, so far as depth is con-

cerned, the pin (y>), in the form of a wire nail, is
driven through the hole made to receive it, until
fixed firmly in the frame side, when the head is cut
off, by cutting-pliers, at the external surface of the
strap. The strap, in virtue of its slight pliability, can
be immediately lifted off the headless pin. It now

receives a half rotation on the screw (j-), so that it

lies along the lower half of the frame side. A second
wire nail is driven through the vacant hole, and
decapitated as before. The strap can now be

returned to its former position, in which the pin, by
passing through the hole, will retain it. Two straps
being fixed at the opposite ends make the frame forth-
with most completely invertible, while, at the same
time, the holding of it by the ears keeps the straps

HIVES FOR. BEE-KEEPERS. 7 I

close to the frame sides, and firmly fixed by the upper
pins. All ordinary frames permit thus of at once being
converted into those that are both anti-propolising and
invertible, the only alteration required being the
removal of the existing ears, and the fixing of the
straps. This can even be accomplished in those that
are furnished with combs, if fine screws be used
instead of wire nails for the pins, the heads of the
screws being, of course, removed. By the use of this
device, ail that recent theories have seemed to make
desirable, is attainable, while, as before said, the
fingers remain unsullied ; and so small is the pro-
polisation between the metal of the runner and that
of the ear, that the slip movement is deliciously
smooth and easy.

A question remains for settlement : Shall we

use distance-keepers of any kind ? They have
their advantages, and facilitate manipulation much,
where propolisation is sufficiently guarded against to
permit several frames to slide laterally by reasonable
pressure. For these I know of nothing superior to
my old arrangement — the bellhangers’ staple, fixed as
explained at page 67 — except, possibly, the screw-
ring which Mr. Sproule has substituted for it. Some
have murmured that these tear the face of the
combs ; but such may safely be regarded as belong-
ing to the small class who would object to chisels
because they cut one’s fingers. The bee-keeper of
small experience ?nust depend on a distance-keeper ;
he who has become an expert ?nay do better by
dismissing them all. His combs must then be placed
singly^ by eye, and those who are bad judges of

72

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

measure might mark on the hive side the normal
position for combs and interspaces. Although several
of my hives have no distance-keepers, yet my own
preference lies now with one extending fin. only
from the frame of |in. wide, so that a minimum
of ijin. is preserved, when no accident permits of
the frames jamming together, and crushing the bees
in the brood nest. Such distance-keepers, at the
same time, do not interfere with those variations in
interspace which recent observation has shown to be
desirable ; e.g., swarms and stocks furnished with

guides ijin. apart are compelled to build worker
comb (see “Swarms”), to the exclusion of drone. If
the raising of brood, and consequent increase in
the number of bees, be the object, a reduction in
the usual interspace, in all but the coolest weather,
leads to most satisfactory results. If foundation be
given, similar management quickens the drawing out,
and increases the surface operated upon, while it con-
siderably reduces the chances of stretching. There
are other cases in which increased distance is
required, to which the devices referred to present no
impediment ; these, therefore, had better be noted
while dealing with broad-shouldered frames.

Bees are small creatures, and our attempts at
separating them into two or more lots in one hive
may end in disaster through any defects in the
division-board. Accurate fitting is also demanded,
because air flows with surprising quickness through
small gaps, handicapping seriously weak colonies,
which may thus lose the heat that they, even
under favourable conditions, maintain with difficulty.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

73

The division-board the Author has found most per-
fect in its action is seen in Fig. 23. Two thin

boards are kept about Jin. apart by wooden slips.
Upon the outer edges of those intended to occupy
the sides, strips of cloth [cp, C), six or seven in
number, are fixed by long, thin nails, as at a. The
slips are placed between the boards, so that the
strips of cloth are doubled, with their edges outwards
{h) ; these are cut to form with a straight edge and
keen knife, and then planed down until the size to

tb th

C

Fig. 23.— Cork-packed Division-board (Scale, i).

A, Front View — tb. Top Bar ; I, I, Lugs, or Ears, with Cloth Packing. B, End
yiew— Top Bar ; ds, Distance-staple ; cp, Cloth Packing ; w, w. Wooden
Sides. C, Top View, Top Bar removed — cp. Cloth Packing.

fit the hive is obtained. The bottom slip is afterwards
added, the space being packed with cork dust, and the
top bar fixed on. A strip of cloth, rolled up, is next
fastened under each lug (/, /, A), and the board is com-
plete. The thickness of the face-boards which come
near to the hive side prevent the bees reaching the
cloth, so that the latter is not propolised ; and if a
little oil, or, better, vaseline, be placed upon it, the
movement of the board wall be for a long time both
easy and agreeable.

74

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The bee-keeper may have occasion, not only to
divide his bees into separate lots, under one roof, but
actually be necessitated to confine one or more of the
individuals of a colony of which the others are neces-
sarily left free. One example will now suffice :
The queen unimpeded may travel to the combs which
we have in idea fondly devoted to table uses, and
there deposit eggs, interfering with our notion of the

Fig. 24.— a, Queen-excluder Zinc (least size, to pass Workers). B, Passes
Queens, but not Drones. C, Passes Drones.

fitness of things, by changing the larder into a nursery.
The more bulky body she possesses, as compared
with the workers, enables us to restrict her mean-
derings while her attendants enjoy the fullest liberty.
This is now accomplished by what is called “excluder-
zinc,” or “ queen-excluder,” the varied methods of em-
ploying which will require, subsequently, detailed
explanation. A worker, when loaded with honey, can
just traverse a hole -g^in. in least diameter, which must

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

75

be made quite -g^n. more to give passage to even an
under-sized queen. Slats of wood, carefully placed,
or wires accurately distanced, have for a lengthened
period been in occasional use to prevent the queen’s
unwelcome visits ; but the more convenient, and withal
reliable, form (A, Fig. 24), just now referred to, has
of late years been extensively employed. It consists
of sheet zinc, with oblong* perforations about -^in. in
width, and a full -g-in. in length. This material, used
as a diaphragm, while no obstacle to the workers,
should present to the queen an impassable barrier,
and, doubtless, in all cases would, but from the general
want of truth in the size of the openings. Several
specimens the Author has measured give every varia-
tion between -g^^in. and ^in., and even these limits
are occasionally exceeded. The result is, that many
unimpregnated, and a few impregnated, queens may
escape through it — a considerable practical disad-
vantage, which has much impeded some experiments
related under “ Queen Raising,” and which would not
appear to be unpreventable, since there can be nothing
in the process of perforating which makes accuracy
unattainable. Reference to the Figure, showing holes
(B) that will retain drones but not the queen, or will
permit all to pass (C), while those in A are of the least
diameter that will allow a worker to escape, will make
the necessity of care in this matter the more evident.

* Mr. O. Poole, many years since, placed ordinary perforated zinc,
having circular holes, ^vin. in diameter, between his hives and his supers,
and achieved considerable success; but the French gave us the form now
universally adopted, by making the perforations oblong (see
Bee Journal^ June, 1875, page 31 ; August, 1877, page 68; April, 1878,
page 212).

?6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Fig. 25 represents, in section, the Cowan hive, the
substance of the description of which, as given by
the inventor,* is here reproduced. It consists of a
body-box [hs, hs), of lin. pine, arranged to take from ten
to thirteen frames, of the Association standard size,
and which rest on two tinned-iron strips, fitted to the
rabbets of the front and back. B, the floor-board, of
i-^in. pine, is strengthened by means of two wooden

Fig. 25.— Section of Cowan Hive (Scale, J,)-

ah, Alighting-board ; e, Entrance ; tr, Tunnel Roof ; p. Porch ; B, Bottom Board ;
I, Ledger ; hs, hs. Hive Sides ; s, s, s. Sections ; he. Hive Case ; sc, sc. Super
Case ; r. Roof.

ledgers. The entrance (e) leads into a passage, Jin. deep
and Sin. wide, formed between the hollow cut from
the floor-board and the tunnel roof (^r), which prevents
the bees escaping into the outer case. The latter is
of deal, -|in. thick, with its lower division {/ic, the hive
case) resting on the floor-board, and carrying the porch.

* See “ British Bee-Keeper’s Guide Book,” by T. AV. Cowan, F.G.S.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

77

The lift, or super case (jc), is surmounted by the
roof (r), fitting loosely over sc, and having an
inclination towards the back, to allow rain to run off.
It is covered with paper-felt or calico, and painted
to make it waterproof.

Beneath the porch (j>), a rabbeted piece permits two
shutters to slide, so as to contract or enlarge the en-
trance. The alighting-board (a3), I5in. wide, slopes to
the ground, and is fixed to the stand, which is bin.
high. The alighting-board, from its position, saves many
bees, which would otherwise be lost if blown down
by high winds when returning. Root’s metal corners
are used, as may be seen at the angles of the frames
in the illustration. They consist of tin plate bent up
into form, and give the frames great rigidity. As in
cross section they are like an inverted U (fi), it is im-
possible to stick them fast, at the same time that the
risk of crushing bees is reduced to the smallest limits;
but, of course, as in the case of ordinary wooden ears,
they are propolised to the quilt at their upper part,
to the great discomfort of the operator.

In this hive there are neither distance-pins, notches,
nor broad shoulders, securing the advantages arising
from variability in the interspacing of comb previously
pointed out. Division-boards are used which fit
the hive at the sides, but allow :fin. beneath during
the summer months. For wintering, they are made
to fit tight by having strips of cloth tacked round
the edges on the outside, by which the hive space
can be contracted without loss of heat.

All the parts being separable, the hive can be
easily moved or examined, or turned in any direction

78

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

on the floor-board, which can be readily cleaned or
exchanged. The outer case being in two storeys,
there is ample room for doubling, and a third storey
may be added if more space is needed.

To prepare this hive for winter, the frames are
reduced to six, on each side of which are placed the
tight division - boards previously mentioned. The
spaces outside the division-boards, and inside the hive
body, are filled with chaff. On the top a chaff-tray
is used, such as the Author has so earnestly and so
long recommended, while chaff is poured down around
the hive until the outside cover is filled to above the
level of the frames.

A hive well worthy of attentive study is the “ Raynor
Eclectic,” with a description of which the Author
has been favoured by the inventor, the Rev. G.
Raynor, M.A. This hive has its parts displayed in
Fig. 26. Its walls are made of double pine, with
cork-dust packing. It is divided into two compart-
ments, the entrances of which, at its opposite ends,
extend its entire width, and are provided with slides.
The front, or brood compartment (dc), is fitted with
twelve frames, of the Association standard size, and
can also accommodate four section-holders, each con-
taining three ilb. sections, two of the holders being
intended to be placed upon each side of the brood
chamber, standing one upon the other. Two double
division-boards {dd, db), packed with cork dust, are
provided, for reducing the size of the hive, and affording
protection in winter. The after part {ac) is separated
from the front by zinc excluder (see Fig. 24), covered
by a shutter, and is supplied with three frames, by

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

79

means of which it may be used as a nucleus for
queen-raising.

When not required for this purpose, the shutter is
removed, and the vacant space caused thereby is filled
by sections in a wide frame, allowing bee-spaces beneath
and on the sides ; and the after compartment [ac^ Fig.
26) is occupied by four more section-holders, corre-
sponding with those in front — the whole interior of
the after part being thus utilised as a honey compart-
ment, the back entrance being closed. Above the

Fig. 26.— The Raynor Eclectic Hive (Scale,
be. Brood Compartment ; ac, After Compartment ; ah. Alighting-board ; p, Porch ;
e. Entrance; hs. Hive Side (movable) ; db, db, Division-boards; ar, Section
Rack ; r, Roof.

frames of the brood compartment is placed the section-
rack (j-r), which receives the eight section-holders
from below, each with its three ilb. sections; so that,
when these sections are fairly commenced in the
front and after compartments, the holders, with sections
and bees together, are transferred to the case above,
while empty ones take the places from which they
have been removed. The brood frames are fitted with
metal ends (see Fig. 21), and slip freely upon hard-

8o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

wood runners. Both sides of the hive are movable,
and frames can be taken out on either hand while the
section-case is in position. The hive, which is sub-
stantially built, on a strong stand, with stout legs,
and covered in by a capacious and well-ventilated
roof (r), may be considered as a type of those hives
which accommodate both a full colony and nucleus.

Messrs. Neighbour have recently exhibited a hive,
called by them the “Sandringham” (Fig. 27), moderate
in price, yet still substantial in build, and having a
modification which may be found of considerable ser-
vice. To this alone special attention will be called,
since the Figure will be, in other respects, intelligible in
the light of previous descriptions. The doubling-box
(C), which is as nearly as possible square in plan, is
sufficiently large to slip completely over B (the hive
proper). To prevent it actually doing so, strips (of
which the sections are marked .s", .y) are nailed on within
it, about i-Jin. from its lower edges. By means of
these the upper storey rests upon the top faces of
the hive sides. Of course, the doubling-box would
be too capacious to carry the frames, so two sliding
parts {s/) are run down in grooves, as at C'. These
reduce the width to just iq^in., and give above the
usual frame accommodation, making the doubling-box
into a second hive, into which standard frames fit,
and which could be actually independently used with
an adapted bottom board. The doubling-box is placed
in position, and combs are added, if extracted honey
be the object. At the close of the season, the bees
are reduced to the limits of the hive proper, when the
slides {s/) are drawn out, the porch is detached from

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS,

its place, where it is held by two thumbscrews, and
fixed, upside down, upon the doubling-box, which is
now inverted, and slipped over the hive, as at B', C',
until the aforesaid internal strips arrest its further
descent. Instead, then, of the doubling-box becoming
an extra article of bee furniture, to be housed during

11

1 1 r

1

i ^

Fig. 27.— Section and Details of Sandringham Hive (Scale, ^).

A, A', Stand; B, B', Hive Body; C, C', Doubling-box; D, D', Roof; e, e',
Entrance ; p, p', Porch ; c, c, Comb.s ; a, a, a', Dead Air Space ; to, lop Bar,
g, q. Quilt ; al, si, Slide-piece ; gr. Groove ; s, s, s, Stops ; v, v', Ventilator.

the winter, it does duty in affording the colony addi-
tional protection in the time of need, the roof (D ),
placed over all, giving storage space for the removed
sliding pieces. If the hive be run for comb honey,
section racks (see Fig. i8), instead of frames, are
placed in the upper storey, in which the sliding
parts are not then required.

VOL. II. ^

82

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

In 1878, Mr. Abbott introduced his ‘‘ combination
hive, in which the frames were placed, after the usual
manner of Continental bee-keepers, parallel with the
front of the hive, instead of at right angles to it.
Although at this time almost* a novelty in England,
this plan had been already justified by long experience.
Many arguments were, however, adduced against it,
to which Mr. Abbott replied as follows in the British
Bee Journal^ October, 1878: “We would plead that
transverse frames are almost wholly used in many
countries — Italy and Denmark, for instance — while the
principle of causing bees to build transversely, where
frames are not used, is ‘ as old as the hills,’ and
prevails throughout Egypt and Japan to the present
day, and is, as a rule, a highly successful aid to obtain-
ing large quantities of honey with the minimum of
cost and labour.” The bees are caused “ to take
possession of earthen tubes, similar to drain-pipes,
of about 4ft. in length. One piece of comb having
been fixed transversely, as a guide, a few inches from
the entrance, parallel to this the bees build all their
other combs, those for brood being at the front, and
those for honey towards the rear end of the tube ;
and when harvest time comes, or the bees show
signs of overcrowding, that end is opened by the
removal of its plug, smoke is blown into it, and the
bees thus driven towards the front, while the operator
removes such combs as contain virgin honey.” The
plan of transverse combs is now largely adopted by
British bee-keepers.

# See British Bee Journal, Januar>% 1874, page 143, and March, 1874,
page 1 70.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

83

The general arrangement of the hive needs no
special explanation. The brood frames {bf^ Fig. 28)
may be closed in behind by a tight-fitting dummy,
and any number may be employed which the body
is capable of accommodating, while but two only, in

Fig. 28.— The Abbott Combination Hive (Scale, J^).
ah. Alighting-board; si, Sliding Doors; “p. Porch; hs. Hive Side; he Hive Case;
hj'. Broad-shouldered Frames ; sf. Section Frames.

virtue of the position of the frames, give no difficulty
at all with regard to the entrance. Nor would frames
running from front to back, if the door were placed
at the angle (see pages 54 and 58), which I hold
to be the only philosophical position.

84

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

When the bees, as spring advances, show signs of
requiring increased space to store incoming honey,
a division of zinc excluder (see Fig. 24) is introduced
between the last brood comb and the last but one.
Next to this are placed one or more wide frames
(s/, Fig. 28), each containing sections similar to those
used in supering, and beyond comes the before-
mentioned division-board. The queen has thus no
access to the surplus department, which, in conse-
quence, cannot be spoiled by brood. The bees carry
some of their pollen through the “excluder,” which
the one ordinary frame is left to receive, while the
honey is stored alone in the sections the wide frames
{s/) contain. What needs be said upon comb honey
does not properly occur here ; but, in reference to
this arrangement, it must be imrhediately pointed out
that, if brood has hatched, or is hatching, from the
last frame, the comb honey will undoubtedly be
sullied with particles from it, and these will mainly
consist of larval excrement. A careful study of pages
21, 172, J_8i, 241, and 243, Vol. I., will make this
clear. The bare idea of such a contamination is
nauseating, and it wt'll obtain, more or less, wherever
comb honey is built on a /eve/ with the brood combs.
Whether, apart from this consideration, the “com-
bination ” principle may be superior, equal, or in-
ferior to that of storefying, must at present remain,
it being sufficient to remark that progress, with solid
reason, is most clearly leading us to confine the lower
part of the hive, as absolutely as possible, to brood-
raising.

Mr. Abbott pointed out that, by using excluder zinc

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

85

between the first and second frames from the entrance,
the queen would be prevented from leading off a swarm;
making the hive, in his own words, ''the only one in
the world in which swarming can be positively pre-
ventedi' The difficulty of removing dead drones may
be urged, but is not of grave importance, if care be
taken to inclose little or no drone comb, and the con-
finement be not long continued. Indeed, Mr. Jones

Fig. 29.— Details of Abbott’s Combination Hive (Scale, ^).

A, Top View of Frames — he, he. Hive Case ; tb. Top Bar ; bs, bs. Broad Shoulders.
B, Side View of Interior— /w, hs. Hive Sides ; e. Comb, or Fouiulation ; other
Letters as before.

advocates a similar plan with the Jones-Heddon Hive,
while Mr. Heddon less confidently suggests the same.

It will be remembered that all hives previously con-
sidered have had the ears of their frames wholly within
them ; but Mr. Abbott carries his top bar through, and
so secures, as did Mr. Pettit before him, the advantage
of handling without bringing the fingers into contact

86

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

with the bees. With Mr. Abbott’s plan, the distance
space is kept by the introduction of broad shoulders,
which he at first placed on both sides of the ear.
The giving of the whole interspace (as at bs, bs, Fig.
29) to opposite sides and ends of the top bar is an
arrangement he derived from the Author. These
broad shoulders have two advantages beyond the one
stated : the fingers are not smeared with propolis, and
the frame is steadily kept in position by the width
of base the broad shoulders present ; but the incon-
veniences and impediments to scientific working that
their use involves are so great, that I have three
times abandoned them, after making a serious effort
at bringing them into use in my own apiary. Indeed,
the temptation to adopt them vanishes with the intro-
duction of the iron ear shown at Fig. 22. All the dis-
advantages of metal ends enumerated at page 66,
except that relating to the imprisonment of the bees
around the lugs, are with them intensified, while, in
addition, the wood by turns swells and shrinks in
most uncomfortable fashion. The propolisation adds
grievously to the difficulty of management, and, with-
out wedging between the ears, the interspace cannot
be increased for wintering, for giving place temporarily
to a thickened comb, or even to a queen-cage (now,
with most of us, a small matter), while for extraction
they are a serious drawback. Since the ears rest
upon the hive side {/is, B, Fig. 29), thinned down
to reduce the contact surface, the protection is least
where it needs to be greatest. Chaff is recommended
to be kept during winter between the hive case {/ic)
and hive side.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

87

Hive-construction now seems to be passing into a
new phase. Up to the present we have referred to two
generically distinct frames only — the standing frame,
or leaf, of Huber, and the hanging frame of Lang-
stroth. To Huber the bee was of surpassing interest,
in its anatomy, its instincts, and its architecture. His
enthusiasm was that of the scientist, while honey
and wax, that stimulate the perseverance of the pro-
fessional bee-man, he almost left out of view. It is
not unlikely, then, that although he failed to so modify
his frame as to make it practical, it yet contained
possibilities which he left unobserved ; and the fact
that so accomplished and honourable an apiarian as
Mr. Quinby, after using the Langstroth for many
years, abandoned it in favour of a species of standing
frame, of which Huber’s must be regarded as the
antitype, obliges us to inquire into the reasons of
his preference for the latter, especially when we call
to mind that he had no trade interest to serve, and
that he has been followed in his particular choice by
some of the most successful and intelligent honey-
producers of the American continent. Beyond this,
although it is as yet impossible to determine the
exact direction in which new developments may
lead, it needs no gift of prophecy to see that the
principle of inversion, which has already received a
passing notice, will immediately modify our methods
of manipulating comb honey, and that it will probably,
in many apiaries, also extend to our body-boxes. If this
be so, the hanging frame, which depends upon the
force of gravity for keeping it in position, must either
be rotated independently of that which supports it

88

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

(as at B, Fig. 22) ; or it will have to be substituted
by one which either admits of being readily fixed, so
that inversion of the hive shall not displace it (as in
the Heddon, Fig. 34), or of standing equally well
either way up, like the Hetherington-Quinby frame
(/r. Fig. 31) — i.e., in other words, be a species, of
which the Huber standing frame is the generic type.
In Quinby's adaptation of Huberts idea the ends are
wide [ws, ws, A, Fig. 30), equalling the thickness of the
comb and the interspace together, while the top and

Fig. 30.— Details of Quenby’s Hive.

A, Quinby Frame (Scale, y\)— Top Bar ; us, us, Wide Sides ; h. Hook ; st.
Stiffening Piece. B, End Board (Scale, j\)—sp. Sunk Panel ; h. Hook. C, Corner
of Fi-ame, &c. (Scale, t)— Bottom Board ; gr. Groove ; ip, ip. Iron Plate ;
h. Hook ; st. Stiffening Piece ; tvs. Wide Side.

bottom bars are placed each Jin. from the ends of the
sides, and are only Jin. wide. Thus, since neither
top bars nor bottom bars meet when the frames are
pressed up together, the contact-surface is reduced
to one-half of that of the Huber frame, while the
scraping up of bees on the floor-board is entirely pre-
vented, by permitting to them passage-way beneath
the bottom bar. Hives made of somewhat similar
frames, placed side by side, were used by an Italian
apiarian, from whom they have been often named

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

89

Giotto hives. Mr. Quinby stiffened his frames by
angle-pieces (s^), and saved them from the accident
of falling over by grooving the bottom board c,

Fig. 30) through its entire length, and fixing partly
over this groove an iron plate (ip). To one corner
of the frame he attached an L-shaped piece of iron
hooping (k), so that, as one corner of the frame stood
in the groove, slipping it forward brought the hook
under the iron plate, and at once fixed it. To com-

Fio. 31.— Bottom Board and Hethkrington Standing Frame.

A, Bottom Board and Details (Scale, ^\)—bb, Bottom Board ; fr, Frame ; ip, Iron
Plate ; w, w. Wire Ventilator ; si, Slide Runners ; br. Bridge ; e, e. Entrance.
B, Section of Frame Corner (Scale, i)—bb, Bottom Board ; ip. Iron Idate ;
h. Hook ; n, n. Nails ; sb. Side Bar.

plete the hive, end boards (B) were used having
a panel recessed on one side :^in., so that room
was left for a thickened comb. On the other side,
the end board had the panel flush with its frame.
His entrance {e, Fig. 31) was ingenious ; the bottom
board, cut away in two parts, had running over
it a thin iron bar, or bridge ibr), made flush with tlie
rest, and upon this the front corners of the frames
rested. He also ventilated by means of a grating

90

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of wire (w, w), under which a shutter ran in slides
{s/, si), to close the opening when not needed. The
defect of the Quinby frame lay in the fact that the
hook stood in a depression, instead of on a level
with the bottom board. This has been remedied by
the celebrated Hetherington Brothers. They place
the surface of the iron plate {zp, B, Fig. 31) on the
general level, and turn over one-third of its width.
The side bar (sd) has a wide saw-cut made in it, lin.
deep, while the inner side is reduced in length Jin. ;

Fig. 32.— Bingham Hive (Scale, J,).

hb, Bottom Board ; e, Entrance ; si, si, Raising Slats ; sp, sp. Side Pieces ; tb. Top
Bars ; n, n, n. Nails ; w, u\ Wire Fixer.

the hook [h) is run into the saw-cut, and fixed by
nails [n, n). As the frame is moved forwards, the hook
passes under the bend of the iron plate, and fixes
the frame as before ; but this alteration permits of
adding hooks at all four corners, so that the frames
can stand either way up, or either end forwards. If
the bees are to be examined, the hive can be opened
at any desired spot ; increase or decrease, division or
union, even tiering up, can be performed with celerity.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS,

91

For the latter purpose, however, the Bingham hive
(Fig. 32) is most suitable. Here, as before, we have
wide ends to the frames, but not a bottom bar. Slats
are placed on the floor-board, to give the bees space
beneath the three-sided frames (?), and form an entrance,
which may be contracted by Langstroth blocks. The
frames are closed by end boards {sp), carrying nails,
around which wires {w, w) are placed. These are
tightened, so that the hive is held together, by in-
troducing a piece of wood, used as a spreader. With
extreme simplicity of structure, great space is secured
above, to receive surplus boxes, and as the frames are
only 5|-in. deep, they can be doubled, reversed, or
inverted in a body, as desired.

The Heddon hive has recently, in America, arrested
such general attention that curiosity and interest have
been excited in Europe. The opinions expressed re-
garding it have been instructively diverse ; some have
hailed it with extravagant anticipations of its capa-
bilities, while others are disposed rather to condemn
than approve. Since time has not yet permitted of
putting it fully to the test, it is wise to be content with
an account of its origin (for, in most of its features, it
is not a novelty), with a statement of the objects of
the inventor, and such a description that it shall be
perfectly intelligible in every detail to those who
have never seen it. Mr. Heddon at first endeavoured
to couple the principle of inversion with the Langstroth
or hanging frame, and to that end adopted a plan
which I do not think at all equal to that suggested
in Fig. 22. He practically removed from the old
frame the bottom rail, and nearly half the lower part

92

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of the sides, and then suspended a new and smaller
frame within, by two screws passing through the
centre of its sides, so that the comb could be
swung round after the manner of a toilet-table glass.
Thus, between the hive side and the lower part of
the swinging frame, Jin. intervened, of which he
says : ‘‘There is no danger of the bees building

combs, in even so large and handy a space, where
such space is no higher up than shown in the illus-
tration.^’ My experience certainly does not confirm
Mr. Heddon’s. Bees, in my latitude, if crowded,
would generally fill such a gap persistently.

Before inquiring into the reasons given by Mr.
Heddon for desiring to invert combs at all, a few
sentences should be devoted to the history of the
question. The German* Hanoverian Central-blatt
of September ist, 1874, speaks thus of inversion :
“The masterpiece of bee-keepers in Gatinais is to
have very strong and populous hives as early as the
honey glut takes place. When the Onobrychis sativa
(Sainfoin) flow'ers, they turn their hives (straw skeps)
upside down, so that the crown stands upon the
floor-board, the open part uppermost. Upon this they
place perforated sheet-iron (No. 35), and upon that
a second hive, already partly built up with empty

comb The holes of the sheet-iron allow only

worker bees to pass ; it is, therefore, evident that
the bees soon fill, with extra fine honey, the upper
hive, which has already clean, new comb in it.”

Mr. Desborough, of Stamford, adopted this method,
with the result that the honey contained in the in-

* See British Bee Journal, March, 1876, page 210.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS

93

verted combs was carried up into the super. To explain
this, the theory* was advanced that, as the cells have
an inclination (G, Fig. 36, Vol. I.) upwards, they are
unable to retain their honey, and the bees cannot
possibly fill them when the comb is inverted ; and
that, if all the cells are at the same time brought into
this condition, the bees must, nolens volens, carrv
the honey aloft into the super then presented to their
attention.

Mr. Heddon’st opinions, like my own, do not accord
with this notion. His views may be thus summarised :
Bees, especially Italians, in frames of the usual depth,
persist in crowding the queen, by storing that honey
that ought to go into the surplus department along
the upper part of the brood comb, and further down
in the corners (see Fig. 7).

If a comb so filled be reversed, the honey is placed
in an unusual position — that normally occupied with
brood ; should this be done in the breeding season,
or whenever the bees are intent upon increasing their
numbers, the honey will be immediately removed to
the surplus department, and soon the comb will be
one solid sheet of developing bees — a glad sight to
those whose experience has taught them the value
of a compact brood-nest, free from honey.

A question which may appear trivial to the un-
observant, but which is, after all, of the deepest moment,
here presents itself : Does the truth lie with Mr.

Heddon, or with the theory of the British Bee Journal
of 1876? To my mind, the latter clearly has nothing

* See British Bee Journal, February, 1876, page 184.
f “ Success in Bee Culture ” (page 86), by James Heddon.

94

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

to support it. I proved many years ago that comb
could be stored, on both sides,* with honey, ever; if
it stood at a very considerable angle, in which some
of the cells were more nearly perpendicular than hori-
zontal. The manner of filling-in store, as explained
at page 174, Vol. I., shows this to be possible.

Capping, added at the lower margin, is made to

grow upwards and around as honey is added, until
the finally-placed wax shred closes all in.

If the dip of the cell caused the desired removal,

It would do so at any time while honey is being

gathered or syrup-food taken, and the effect need
not be limited to periods of rapid breeding, as Mr.
Heddon states, and as my own experiments have fully
shown it must be. It is the unnatural position of
the honey, as beneath the brood, which acts mainly
in causing its removal above ; and this being so,
we learn at once, that a horizontal division of the
brood-nest, made to consist of two shallow body-
boxes, rather than one deep one, enables us so to
manipulate without inversion that this desired effect
may be obtained. We have only to interchange the
lower with the upper — i.e., to carry the honey down
and the brood up, as can be at once accomplished
in the Carr-Stewarton or the Bingham. But it logi-
cally follows from what has been already said, that,
even with inversion, the honey will only be transferred
to the normal bottom corners of the comb, unless
these have already become occupied with brood.

* ]\lr. Cornell, of Ontario, has informed me, since the above was
written, that he placed a comb of store flat over a stock to feed it, and
that, after the removal of the honey, the queen laid in the cells of the
under side, and, as the brood hatched out, storing and sealing followed.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

95

There are some advantages claimed for inversion
which interchangeability alone will not give, and which
had better be examined after the Heddon hive has
become familiar.

Fig. 53.— The Heddon Hive (Scale, y\).
st, Stand; bb, bb, Body or Breedinf>-boxes ; hb. Honey-board; sr, sr. Section
Racks ; c, Cover ; hh, hh. Hand Holds ; lb, lb', Langstroth Blocks : e. Entrance ;
I, Lath, or Cleat, giving Bee-space ; s, s. Screws ; si, si. Strengthening Slats.

Although we are discussing this question in the
light of principles whose application is universal, it

96

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

will be better that I should give the exact measure-
ments of the Heddon, premising simply that these
are absolutely empirical. The body-boxes (dd) are
each 5jin. deep by iplin. by I3in. outside, the
ends |in. and the sides fin. thick. Before nailing
together^ the inner part of the top and bottom edges
is rabbeted down (r and r', Fig. 34) ^in., leaving a
rim fin. wide only, so that, when the boxes come
together, they touch only at the fin. rim, while the
-^in. rabbet in each make together a full bee-space (ds)

Fig. 34.— Heddon Hive Details (Scale, xV)-
A, Ends of Frames, driven together by screw seen by removal of Hive End—
Side-piece ; s, Screw ; sb, sb, Side Bars of Frames ; r, r, Rabbets ; os. Offset ;
bs, Bee-space ; tr, Tin Rest. B, Longitudinal Section of Hive, showing Combs
or Foundation on Frames— tb, Top Bar; ep, ep, End Pieces; other Letters
as before.

of fin. This principle of allowing a half bee-space
above and below, in each horizontal section of the
hive, so that the needed fin., and no more, is given
in any possible combination, is a salient and new
feature in the Heddon. The bottom board carries a
lath (/, Fig. 33), fin. deep, and fin. wide at its upper
edge, upon which the hive rests, so that a larger, but not
excessive, bee-space is made beneath. An entrance
{e) is thus secured, which is regulated by the Lang-
stroth blocks {/d, lb'). Since the body-boxes are

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

97

made invertible, Mr. Heddon has felt himself com-
pelled to abandon the hanging Langstroth frame, and
adopt a modification of the standing form of Quinby,
with wide ends. This frame he dovetails together, in
the manner of section-boxes. The top and bottom
bars are ^in. by ^in. by iS^^in., while the end pieces
are fin.' by ifin. by 5|in. — i.e. (to preserve the before-
mentioned bee-space), fin. shallower than the body-box
itself, within which the length of the frame has ^in.
play. It will be seen that the end pieces of these
frames are ^in. wider than the top and bottom bars ;
hence, the space between any two top bars, or bottom
bars, will always be ^in., by which the bees pass
freely from section to section of the hive body. To
prevent these frames falling through the body-box,
the inside measure of which is ^^in. greater than

their external length, strips of tin [tr , tr\ B,

Fig. 34) are nailed on to the lower rabbets of the
end pieces [ep, ep). These tin strips project -fin.,
and give a resting-place for the frames which stand
upon them. As the outside width of the body-box
is I3in., and the thickness of the sides {sp, sp) fin.,
1 1 Jin. intervenes between the latter. Eight of the
frames, each ifin. wide, occupy iiin. of this, so
that the Jin. play provides the additional space re-
quired on the outside of the outer combs. To divide
this equally, a narrow offset {os, A), fin. thick, is

nailed into the corner, on to the side {sp) ; against

this the outside frame rests. Wooden thumbscrews
{s, s. Figs. 33 and 34), that have been previously boiled
in tallow, are now tapped into the sides, so that their
ends work on the edges of the wide sides of the
VoL. II. H

98

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

frames, squeezing them together until they hold their
position securely when the body-box is inverted.

The stand (s^, Fig. 33) needs little explanation.
The cleats of the bottom board touch its end pieces
a trifle before the bottom board itself touches the
side pieces, such a bearing causing the weight of
the hive to assist the cleats in keeping the bottom
board perfectly straight.

The honey-board (/id) Mr. Heddon arranges on the
“ break-joint ” principle — its slats standing over the
interspaces between the frames of the body-box — with
the object of preventing the building of brace combs,
as they are termed — i.e., strips and irregular extensions

Fig. 35.— Part of Queex-excluding Hoxey-board (Scale, i).
si, si, Slats ; qe, qe. Queen-excluder Zinc.

of comb, introduced between upper and lower frames,
or frames and section-boxes, filling the bee-space,
and attaching together, according to bee notions of
security, parts that the bee-keeper desires to remain
separate.

The frame which holds the honey-board together
extends in thickness -^in. both above and below the
slats, thus keeping the half bee-space so characteristic
of the Heddon system. The honey-board, as supplied,
has no further addition, but the inventor recommends,
and Mr. Jones actually places, queen-excluder zinc
(qe, Fig. 35) between the slats, which have saw kerfs

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

99

made in their edges, so that zinc wider than their inter-
space can be run in, and kept in position. Zinc
expands and contracts greatly by change of tempera-
ture, and would be, consequently, likely to seriously
buckle if given in full sheet ; but this is entirely pre-
vented by the arrangement described.

The section-racks (sr, Fig. 33) are constructed on
the general plan of the brood-chambers, with which
they have the same length, but a slightly greater
breadth ; their edges, however, abut accurately upon
the brood-boxes, which is accomplished by giving
to the sides a small outside bevel. Since they are
intended to hold frames accommodating qjin. by
qjin. section-boxes, they are only 5Jin. deep, which
allows ^in. for top and bottom bars of frames, and
fin. for two half bee-spaces. The sides of the section-
racks are fin. only (fin. less than that of the brood-
boxes), giving ift. full of internal width to the
section-rack, which thus accommodates seven frames,
each carrying four of the sections previously named.
The thinning of the side necessitates battening, to
give the tightening-screws (.r) sufficient hold, and
the rack itself adequate rigidity. The tin rest and
rabbet are applied to these racks as to the body-
boxes. The arrangement and management of sur-
plus honey receptacles will be treated generally in
a later chapter, to which any further description may
well be deferred, especially as other inventors have
here continued the march beyond Mr. Heddon’s
position.

Mr. D. A. Jones, while retaining the specialties of
the hive under consideration, has introduced several

H 2

100

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

modifications, which will be generally accepted as
improvements ; e.g.^ while his section-rack is equally
suitable to two distinct sizes of sections, he has made
the whole of the outer cases, whether for breeding or
honey, in all respects alike, and completely convertible.

These all have external battens, which act as hand-
holds, and give to the sliglit |in. thick cases the
stiffness they lack. The latter are I5iin. by iqjin.
outside, and 5jin. deep. The eleven frames to carry
the brood-combs have broad ends, which are only
i-^in. in width. They, together with the extra space
required for the outside combs, occupy the iqfin,
between the ends of the box. Frames to carry sections
are made to run both from side to side and from front
to back ; each of the former takes three sections
4^in. by qjin., the latter four sections 3iin. by
qjin., both these sizes being regarded, in Canada, as
standards.

We have now before us these hives, which are prac-
tically one, and it remains to inquire what advantages
they possess as a whole, or in their parts, and to
seize upon any points, should such be found, which
may be beneficially introduced into our methods of
hive-construction. First, every British bee-keeper of
experience must feel that Mr. Heddon’s method of
solving the mechanical difficulty of making his body
boxes invertible, by abandoning the Langstroth frame
and substituting for it the wide-ended standing one,
cannot be regarded as final ; and, indeed, Mr. Heddon
himself refers to it in language which is manifestly
apologetic. He says : Although these are fixed

frames, they are readily removed, and by simply

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

lOI

loosening the screws. I will endeavour to explain
how we overcome the usual difficulties accompanying
such frames. By virtue of the exceeding shallowness
of our frames, and the use of comb foundation, we
procure combs almost perfectly straight. The greatest
trouble usually arises from uneven combs — combs irre-
gular at their tops, just above the cells occupied with
brood. This occurs mainly from the fact that, where
bees use combs for storing, they leave only about Jin.
space between them, while those used for brood are
about twice that distance apart. These shallow frames,
and the practice of inverting and interchanging the
cases containing them, give us straight, uniform combs
throughout, and completely filled with brood, nearly all
the time we manipulate them.^' In criticising these
close-ended frames, which are ten times more difficult
of management if placed, as we here have them, in an
external case, instead of in the manner adopted by
Hetherington or Bingham, we must, to be fair,
remember that the idea is “ to manipulate hives, not
frames,^’ and that almost every required operation
can, it is held, be performed without the removal
of the latter ; but, giving these considerations their
fullest weight, it must still be admitted that Mr.
Broughton Carr but expressed what almost all British
bee-keepers would endorse, when he says :* In
our apiary, the whole affair, frames and screws,
would become fixed and immovable with propolis,
damp, &c., in a single season. We have always had
an insuperable objection to close-ended frames, on
account of the bee-crushing and propolisation they

* Bee-keepers' Record, December, 1886, page 214.

102

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

cause — he who says they don^t, errs ; but here the
mischief is considerably increased by the two ledges
on which the frames rest.” In addition to Mr. Carr’s
stricture, may it not be added, that the difficulty of
manipulating the broad-ended brood-frames is even
exceeded in the Heddon arrangement of the section-
boxes? These, as already explained, are pushed into
frames, to be, of course, stained by propolisation around
the four sides, on both faces, which would make their
removal so awkward that cracking of the sealing
would be a most likely accident.

Besides, the tightening screw, especially if used
throughout the year, as applied to brood-boxes has
many objections. If brought up so as to prevent
the sinking of combs at the time of inversion, swelling
of the wood would tend, with almost irresistible force,
to drive the hive side from its place ; while shrinking
would permit the frames to drop, and close absolutely
the entrance, to the destruction of the colony — a diffi-
culty which has been already encountered in a less
changeable climate than our own. Mr. D. S. Hall,
writing to the Canadian Bee Journal, utters his com-
plaint respecting this very matter, and suggests, instead
of tightening-screws, iron rods, passing all the frame
ends in the thickness of the hive side, and having a
bent portion to grasp the last frame behind it. On
the near end of the rod, which is external to the hive,
he would place a thick indiarubber washer, to give, by
its elasticity, a certain play for swelling or shrinking,
and upon this washer a screw nut. It is, however,
needless to dwell longer on the unsuitability of the
Heddon frame, for two reasons : First, that further

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

103

examination will, I believe, show that the plan of
interchanging body-boxes, as stated at page 94,
together with anti-swarming devices, presently to be
introduced, will give us even more than inversion of
the brood-nest can accomplish ; and, second, it is
certain that the inventiveness of bee-keepers will
quickly devise a really workable method of making
stock-boxes invertible. Indeed, Mr. J. M. Hooker has

Fig. 36.— The Hooker Sy.stem of Invertihle Hive Sections.

A, Part Section of Frames, &c. (Scale, i)—hh, Bottom Board ; I, l.ath on Bottom
Board ; bn, bs, Bee-space ; me, me. Metal End ; ,7, .7, Guide : br, br. Bottom
Rail ; nb, sb. Side Bar ; hs. Hive Side ; e. Edge of Hive Section. B, Perspective
View of Part of Two Frames in I’osition— Letterings as before. C, End View
(Scale, i)— c, c. Cutting Edge; b. Bevelled Face; other Letterings as before.

already ingeniously satisfied the problem, in a manner
which leaves Mr. Heddon quite in the rear, so far, at
least, as British bee-keepers are concerned, for here
climatic conditions seriously handicap any arrange-
ment which would be disorganised by constantly-re-
curring periods of dampness. Mr. Hooker retains
the l^in. wide frame, all sides of which are made of

104

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Jin. stuff. Upon each corner he places a special
form of metal end [nie. Fig. 36), which extends the
half bee-space above the top or below the bottom,
rail. The frames run parallel with the hive entrance.
The objectionable tin rest of Heddon is rendered
entirely unnecessary by widening the lath (/) on the
bottom board, so that it not only supports the hive
side {hs), but also the metal end ; by which device the
bottom rail [br) is raised a full bee-space from
the bottom board. At each end of the top and bottom
rails of the frames a central tongue [g) is left. This
runs through the side bar, and extends Jin. beyond
it, so that the frame is prevented from touching
the hive side while it is being inserted ; and at all
times the accurate lateral bee-space is preserved.
The width of the metal end spaces the frames ; and,
when they are placed in position, a dummy with a
stiffening-piece is operated upon by an outside screw,
which so pushes the perpendicular, external faces
of the metal additions together that, as Mr. Hooker
informs me, the most heavily-laden frames can be
inverted bodily, in the hive section, without the
smallest risk. Mr. Heddon’s hive sections, although
intended for inversion, yet are upright when the
frames rest on the tin strip, and upside down when
in the inverse position ; and then they somewhat
dangerously — as has been already pointed out — depend
exclusively upon the retaining power of the screws
for preventing the frames slipping. Mr. Hooker’s
hive sections, however, are absolutely alike above and
below, so that the expressions “ upright” and ‘‘upside
down ” do not apply to them. In no position do the

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

105

frames depend on the screw, but rest always on the
lath (/) or on the metal ends of a lower hive section.
This not only dispenses with the possibility of frames
sinking, but permits of the screw being slackened,
and the frames manipulated, whichever side of the
hive section may happen to be upwards.

Again, as the top and bottom edges of each hive
section are exactly in the plane of the respective
top and bottom faces of the metal ends, when one
hive section is placed on the other in storifying, their
edges abut simultaneously with the metal ends, which
are thus solidly supported, however far the tiering
may be carried ; while, of course, the bee-space is
secured. The section-cases are similarly arranged,
but this is not the correct place to describe them.
The metal ends have, cast upon their proximate
faces, cutting edges (c, c, C), which carve grooves
into the side bars as they are driven on, and so hold
them with sufficient firmness. Since the frames — as
previously pointed out — would not drop, even if the
screw utterly failed, it is possible that hard-wood side
bars to the frames, having their end shoulders cut
to the distance desired for comb and interspace, might
answer well for brood-boxes. In combs intended for
extraction, the fixed shoulders would be an impedi-
ment. The bevelled form {b, C) given to the metal
end is obviously to permit of the frames slipping past
each other, without hanging, while they are being
manipulated.

It would be both unphilosophical and unfair thus to
dismiss the Heddon without noting that it has called
our attention to some points of great moment, and

io6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

that it has also, interwoven with old plans, novel
methods which will hereafter make their mark. It is
narrowness, not patriotism, that would deny to one of
another country his full meed of praise, and I conceive
that the unprejudiced will not dispute that the half
bee-space in each hive section and in the bottom
board ; the narrow, abutting edges, giving possibility
of rapid handling; and the general invertibility of the
whole, although associated, perhaps, with some crudi-
ties, yet mark another hill-top passed in the pro-
gressive march of practical apiculture. Mr. Heddon
and Mr. Jones have also, by their hives, brought
prominently before us, and have done not a little
to settle, a question which has been much dis-
cussed— viz., the most desirable interspace to allow
between brood-combs. Mr. Heddon makes his frame
end ifin., while Mr. Jones allows ijin. full, or, more
accurately, i-g^in., a plan which resulted, apparently
somewhat to his own surprise, in the building of
worker-cells, to the exclusion of drone-cells, narrow
strips of foundation only having been given. A
little attention to the arithmetic of the matter will
elucidate the reason of this. Worker-comb, within
a very small fraction, is ^in. in cross-section. Bees,
each requiring g^in. for the accommodation of its
bodily presence, need to perambulate both faces
of this comb, to generate heat, to brood the eggs,
and to carry food to the helpless larvae. The whole
structure, with its two layers of attendants, thus
equals J-fin. + f^in. = -J^in., or i^in. Should starters
be given i-g^in. apart — /.<?., -^^in. more than the neces-
sary ijin. — the bees have just elbow-room, and no

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

107

more. It is their practice, in a state of nature, to
place their combs about i^in. or from centre

to centre. Such wide spacing is adopted in order that
they may have liberty, according to their habit, to
break into drone-cell making at any spot, as the
comb is worked downwards ; for their drone-comb, if
used for breeding, is, when capped, as nearly as
possible 1-2%-in. in thickness. The bee-keeper, how-
ever, by settling the interspace for the little artificers
at i-/^in., while permitting, as we have seen, all
needful room for worker-comb, bars drone com-
pletely, because its capped cells extend from the
midrib -^in., or |-f^in. The worker-comb opposite
to it extends, in like manner, from its midrib
or -j^in. ; the two together thus occupy -{-^in.,
which, subtracted from i-^o^n., the allowed distance
from midrib to midrib, gives -j^in. only, or insufficient
room for the queen to pass. The worker-comb would
thus be useless for the raising of brood. When greatly
cramped, in order to get room for queen-cells bees
will cut down worker-comb; but it is not their practice
so to do in order to raise drones, and hence drone
cells under these conditions would only very occa-
sionally be produced.

Combs will only be built satisfactorily, from starters
gauged so closely, when bees are crowded in in suffi-
cient numbers to work all the combs down simul-
taneously. Care on this point will generally secure
most regular and beautiful work. The calculation
just given, though, possibly, tedious, needs no apology
for its introduction, and should be regarded as sup-
plementing the statements made at page 72. These

io8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

considerations seem also to show that all metal ends
have been made too long. Would not i^in. be better
than i-2^in. ? If thus reduced, some of the objections
to them would be lessened ; and they might, by chips
of section-box placed between, be easily made to
bring up the interspace to the size desirable for
storing or wintering.

It was remarked on page 95, that some advantages
are claimed for inversion which interchanging alone will
not give. These claims deserve attention. First : Bees
do not build their combs down to the bottom rail, nor
to the lower part of the sides of the frame, while
they round off the corners as seen in Figs. 7, 18, and
27 ; but, if the frame be inverted, the instinct which
impels them to keep the combs securely attached above
causes them at once to add cells upwards, and at the
sides, until every part of the frame is fully filled.
This absolute filling of the frame is no slight im-
provement. It gives increased brood accommodation
in the same general area ; it solidifies the setting
of the comb, so that in handling, in extraction, or in
the shaking of a journey to the heather, e.g., it is
less likely to suffer ; it excludes the possibility of
adding slyly-packed drone-cells, which may enable
queens of an undesirable strain to perpetuate them-
selves ; it makes the work of brushing or shaking
bees from the combs more simple and rapid ; and it
prevents queens from eluding us by hiding between
the comb and bottom bar, as they not infrequently
do. To secure these advantages, but one inversion
in the whole history of the comb is required ; and
they may be secured, with frames of the usual form, by

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS. 109

simply cutting out its comb with care, and placing its
top edge upon the bottom rail. Temporarily securing
against displacement, as in “ Transferring ” (which
see), and returning to the bees to complete the work,
are all that is needed. Should the comb not be heavy
with honey above, its bottom edge may be made true,
and it may be replaced in its normal position, if desired;
but inversion is generally to be preferred. Second ; It
has been stated that inversion is a certain means of
preventing swarming, because it destroys the larvae
in the queen cells. It is sufficient, at present,- to
remark that this is only partially true, and that
dependence upon mere inversion for swarm-preven-
tion is delusive.

The objection that inverting old and dirty combs
immediately beneath sections leads to staining of the
cOmb-honey — of which I have examples in my posses-
sion, through the kindness of Mr. Corneil — may be
reserved until treating of “ Sections.

A hive much resembling, in general arrangement,
the one used by Mr. W. Raitt, and with which he
has been long so successful, has been designed by
Mr. John Howard, and called by him the Holme
Wood,” in which are shown so much ingenuity and
apicultural knowledge that this chapter, though al-
ready lengthy, could not be well closed without
introducing it. Mr. Howard has, upon the old stori-
fying system, engrafted modern, and some original,
contrivances, which make his hive an excellent one
for the honey-producer. He does not covet inversion
for his brood-boxes, while it may be applied or not
to the section-crates, as the bee-keeper may desire.

1 10

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

A substantial stand {st, Fig. 37), with short legs, is
capable of carrying any number of hive sections the

Fig. 37.— Howard’s “Holmk Wood” Hive (Scale, i).

Stand - at, Alighting-board ; jj, Porch ; Body-box ; Shallow Body-box ;
, Section-rack ; r, Roof ; Qc, Qc, Quiaby Clips ; bj, bj, Break-joint

tiering system can by any possibility require. The
bottom board is so contrived that, when the body-box

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

1 1 I

is pushed fully forward, the entrance runs the whole
width of the hive. Drawing the latter back reduces
the opening to one of 2in., formed by cutting a
hollow of that width into the floor-board itself. A

porch (y») may be provided as desired ; but as this is
not fixed to the hive front, no interchange of parts
interferes with its position. Cheshire slide-doors, to
regulate the entrance, usually accompany it.

The body-boxes are made of two sizes, one (dd)
accommodating Standard frames, the other {sdd) only
5Jin. in depth. They are both square in plan, so that
every storey added may have its frames crossing those
below it, as in the Figure, in order to miminise brace-
comb building. The frames, which are, in fact,
Mr. Simmins’s, are lin. wide, and have the fin. thick
top bar only i5Yin. or i6in. long; long enough for
all practical purposes, for it cannot be doubted that
the I yin. top bar of the Standard frame is not only
excessive, but that it has been a great impediment
to hive improvement. The usual |^in. lug is left by
cutting the top to a shoulder {sk, Fig. 38), against
which the Jin. thick side bars {sd) are nailed. The
frame is very solid, but of course more costly than
those commonly used. All the hive sections fit water-
tight, one upon the other, without filleting, by means
of a slightly broken joint (bj, bj, Fig. 37, and A, Fig. 38).
The l^in. side receives a -^in. rabbet, which is carried
down -Jin. The bevel {be) put on the outer half of the
top edge of each hive section throws off water, and
is thought by Mr. Howard to give that security
against in-driven rain which the Heddon lacks.

Two wide or three shallow body-boxes may be

I 12

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

used, or the wide and shallow together. The shallow
frames have no bottom rail, and it is claimed that
these give complete interchangeability upon natural
linesP and preserve winter passages by the division
of combs into two. The writer would, however, prefer
to winter his colonies in one rather than two of the
body-boxes. It is directed that these shallow bodies,
when used as a brood-nest, should have their combs
ijin. only from centre to centre. A shallow body-box,
when comb-building is rapidly progressing above, may
be added beneath as a swarm-preventing eke ; and
should the bees then furnish it with combs, these
may be utilised for storage, or employed in sections,
according to plans which Mr. Simmins has originated.

The sides are fitted together by halving out, and
are for the section-racks {sr) held in position by
Quinby clips (Qc, Qc, Fig. 37), each consisting of
two iron plates screwed to the hive, and an angle
piece which grasps both, but which can at once be
removed by a few upward taps with the hammer,
when the sides fall apart to admit of ready cleaning.
This plan has advantages, especially to those but
little acquainted with mechanical matters, and who,
nevertheless, would prefer to buy their hives in the
flat. The section-racks are only the depth of the
sections themselves, which, in consequence, stand flush
with the top and bottom edges of the rack containing
them ; and as the frames also stand flush with the
body-boxes, the needful bee-space is provided by
wooden rings, or, as Mr. Howard calls them, ‘‘ loose
trays,” having the break-joint on their upper and
lower faces. One of these is added beneath each

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS. 113

section rack, in which the sections are securely held
by an iron thumbscrew. If inversion be the practice,
the rack is rotated independently of the bee-space
ring. Should the bee-keeper find inversion of no
assistance in securing well-finished sections, he may
nail one of the spacing-frames on each of his racks,
when the latter assume a well-known form, and he
proceeds “ as of yore.”

The roof (r) is a very old acquaintance, but one
to which has been ascribed the virtue of not blowing
off. The reason is quite apparent. When a current
strikes the hive side, the air is reflected upwards
from the roof, and, by the law of reaction, the roof
is held down. I have seen these covers stand in a
gale of wind without moving, but it is wisest to load
them, since gusts shooting upwards may cause their
displacement, and work mischief. For this purpose,
one or two bricks may be battened in beneath the
top square of wood.

The most strikingly novel plan about this hive is
that which distances the frames, and keeps the queen
in her proper quarters, at one and the same time. Mr.
Howard turns up zinc strips (as at B, Fig. 38), making
each the length of the top bar, the width of the de-
sired interspace, and with perpendicular sides of fin.
The ends are plugged with wood blocks {wb^ B, Fig.
38) as far as the inner wall of the hive, and the upper
sides are perforated with holes lin, long and queen-
excluder width. The frames are now brought into
position, as at C, with one of these queen-excluder
strips between each ; a honey-board (offering but very
little impediment to the bees) and a distance-keeper
VOL. II. I

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

II4

are provided at one and the same time, and that with-
out increasing the height of the hive, while this form
secures the considerable advantage of being appli-
cable to any less number of frames than the hive
body carries. The ear of the frame is covered on all
sides, and so propolisation is there impossible, although

Fig. 38.— Details of “Holme Wood” Hive.

A, Break Joint (Scale, 5)—/, Inside; 0, Outside of Hive; be, Bevelled Edge.
B, Zinc Queen-excluder and Spacer— ?c&, Wood Block. C, Zinc Excluding
Strips as used (Scale, ^)—tb, tb, Top Bars ; sh, Shoulder ; sb, sb, Side Bars ;
ge, Queen-excluder ; I, Lug.

it would probably be rather excessive about the zinc
standing over the comb.

Other interesting points in this hive will occupy
us in their appropriate places.

The remark — the like of which is often made — that
shallow body-boxes permit of interchanging o?t
7iatiiral lines'^ calls for some comment. I quite dis-
agree with the implied statement that “ interchanging

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

II5

is in itself one whit more natural than “inversion’'; for
it is through the unnaturalness (see page 94) of both
that they achieve results which are unnaturally favour-
able to the bee-keepers. Many of the latter appear to
me, in their objection to that which is artificial, to over-
look the fact that nearly all management is necessarily
of this nature. What, e.g.^ can be more unnatural than
supering ? and yet upon that very fact its success de-
pends. Bees build normally from the roof of their
domicile, storing their honey above and breeding below.
We practically uplift their roof, and present them with
a hateful gap, which they — circumstances permitting —
struggle to fill to our advantage. What more unnatural
than a fowlhouse or a cow-shed? Yet the farmer knows
that, without these “artificial” additions to his farm, his
poultry would die, and his stock suffer. How ludicrously
artificial is dredging up the immotile oyster, carrying it
to another climate, and replacing it in a new pasture !
Yet the gourmand knows that the high condition of
the mollusc he so much loves is due to its change
of residence. Every method of management must
stand or fall by results, and cannot be logically pre-
judiced, much less dismissed as incorrect, simply upon
the ground that it is unnatural.

It is a great advantage to the bee-keeper to be able,
at least for a season or two, to watch bees actually at
work. Observatory or unicomb hives, as they are called,
give this opportunity, and are a never-failing source of
delight to visitors to the apiary. They consist most
usually of a narrow (see page 43) box, capable of accom-
modating, in a single layer, four or six frames. One
side is made into doors (see Fig. 39), and the bees are

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

I l6

confined, and to some extent protected, by double
glass. If the hive be placed in a room (its most suitable
position), a long tunnel must be necessarily traversed
by the bees in leaving and returning. This may be
very much extended, and yet, in a few days, will
present no impediment to the labourers. Our con-
ventional hive entrance may be widely departed from
without bad effect. I have seen, e.g., in Mr. Simmins’s

apiary, bees travelling up and down a long, perpen-
dicular shaft, which left their hive at one of the top
corners, and then turned abruptly at a right angle
to conduct them through a thin wall into the open.
Not only did the workers know their way about, but
the queens flew from this and similarly situated stocks,
mated, and returned in the most orderly manner. It
is usual to people unicomb hives by transferring combs
and adherent bees from an established stock, giving no
more brood than can be cared for under the new and

e

Fig, 39.— Neighbour’s Observatory Hive (Scale,
/A, Feedhole ; e, Entrance ; a. Axis of Rotation.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

II7

unfavourable conditions. Baize-lined doors cover the
glass ones, while a warm, movable shutter, is added on
the opposite side, greatly aiding the bees in main-
taining temperature. In two cases, bees so situated
have, in my experience, survived the winter; but the
better course is to add the stock to a weak one in
the autumn. Should the hive be exposed to the direct
rays of the sun, the glass will permit the radiant heat
to enter, but will prevent its escape, and, in con-
sequence, temperature will rise rapidly, until combs
melt and the stock is wrecked. Low powers of the
microscope can be used in examining the eggs and
growing larvae. For this purpose, artificial light
should be thrown, as directly as possible, into the cells,
by a bull’s-eye condenser. Mr. Abbott introduced
perhaps the most convenient, and, in my opinion, the
most generally useful, form of observatory. Instead
of occupying a table, and engrossing a considerable
space, it is held at the top and bottom corners by
pivots which are attached to the wall, so that it moves
after the manner of a door. The lower pivot is large
and hollow, the exit and entrance passing through it.
It may be placed by the side of the window, and
rotated into the light for examination, or pressed
back to the wall out of the way. Much ingenuity
has been expended in devising unicomb hives which
could be folded up into a compact form, so that the
heat of the bees might be retained easily, but no
“observatory” presents so few disadvantages as the
more simple arrangements described.

Having now introduced and discussed with some
fulness almost every principle of hive-construction

8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

which promises, or did promise in a recent past, to
assist the intelligent apiarian, it remains but to give
some directions of general application which may aid
in the treatment of hives already in possession, or
in the selection of those yet to be purchased.

Most treatises say much with regard to hive-capacity,
and, were we content to deal with those obsolete types
that are quite inelastic, a determination of their correct
size would be a most important matter. But, seeing
that we simply replace the layer of warming bees {wb,
Fig. 4), which is larger or smaller according to size
of swarm, number of combs constructed, temperature
of the external air, and a multitude of other contin-
gencies, it is clear that our elastic hive, to do its
best work, must not only be capable of adjustment,
but must be actually adjusted, in so far as the
economic use of the bee-keeper’s time permits, to
every cause for variation. While this adjustment, and
the principles determining it, must receive attention at
various points in our future studies, it is for us now to
fix the maximum, beyond which our hive never need
be extended. A few years since, a bushel (2218 cubic
inches) was constantly suggested as the correct thing;
but since, on the average, bees in so much space
would devote it partly to breeding and partly to
store, it may be accepted that somewhat less than
this is abundantly sufficient for any one hive section,
and, indeed, far too large where the interchanging
of a horizontally-divided brood-chamber is practised —
storifying permitting, of course, of such additions as
special circumstances or a particular plan of operations
may demand. Most hive-makers give ten Standard

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

II9

frames, about equal to 1800 cubic inches, almost
always sufficient, although even here circumstances
alter cases ; the bee-keeper, by example, working one
way when he is increasing his apiary, i.e.^ desiring
to breed bees, and another when he has completed
his number of stocks, and is looking for his return
in comb or extracted honey.

The transit of hives from the maker’s either risks
damage or entails expensive packing. Many would
do well to purchase in the flat, reducing not only
risk, but prime cost and freight at the same time,
beside which a little attention in the putting together,
which the maker could not give, in consequence of
the keen competition now obtaining, would triple
the durability of the hive, and increase the interest
of the owner. Take one example : Mr. Sproule in-
forms me that he bores a Jin. hole, about 2in. deep?
into the end grain of the legs of the hive stand. The
legs are now tied together, and stood on end, when
each hole is filled with crude carbolic acid, which is
rapidly absorbed. Fungoid growth and consequent
rotting are, for a very lengthened period, prevented.
Again, in putting together the body, painting the
abutting edges is of immense utility ; besides, the tone
of colour may be made to the owner’s taste. For
coolness in summer, and warmth in winter, light
colours are preferable, because these- both radiate
and absorb heat less than dark ones. There is a
meaning in the whiteness of the Polar bear and
Arctic fox. Bees have the colour sense strongly
developed, and so they are considerably assisted in
marking their location by variation in this respect.

20

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Where hives are rather crowded together, the opera-
tions of the apiary (often involving the removal of

a hive from one spot to another) will be greatly

facilitated by having interchangeable roofs, made as
dissimilar as possible in tint, while the whole of the
hives are alike. Where a hive is removed, the roof
remains, and so no difference is made in outside
appearances, the bees, as a consequence, returning

unhesitatingly to their old station, and entering the

new hive as we desire. This object is achieved in
some small apiaries, where tasteful arrangement is
much considered, by having what may be termed
loose boxes. These are each just large enough to
receive a single-sided hive, and have a porch and
alighting-board in front, with a door behind, and a
hinged roof. The hives are carried from one to the
other, as occasion may require. The loose boxes, being
arranged at the first, remain always in situ, giving
no indication of the disturbance practical operations
involve, the bees, being, of course, cheated into the
acceptance of any home we may choose to place in
the loose box, which they have from use regarded
as their own. While it is occasionally necessary that
the bees should thus lose the identity of their hives,
it is equally important that the bee-keeper should
never do so ; and, to that end, every hive body should
bear a number with which it can be always associated
in the mental or book notes made respecting it.
Frames pass also constantly from hive to hive, and
the bee-keeper should therefore carefully avoid odd
sizes, which will actually deprive him of half the
advantages of the movable comb system.

HIVES FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

I2I

It is most important that the hive roof should be
absolutely watertight : the slow drip from melting snow
has ruined many a colony. In the event of a cover,
through alternate swelling and shrinking, proving
refractory, a cure may be thus made : Remove

external battens, should such exist. Then, after dry-
ing, paint thickly, and cover with unbleached calico,
tacking it at its edges, so as to remove all creases.
Now apply paint upon the calico also, until it is
soaked, when it will dry firmly adherent to the roof,
which will give no further trouble. The cottager with
slender purse, and with rude hive cover, may water-
proof the latter with little outlay, by first coating it with
hot pitch, over which he evenly spreads a sheet of
newspaper. The application of a hot iron, used
after the manner of the laundress, remelts the pitch,
incorporating it completely both with wood and
paper: all 'cracks are thus closed, and the cover made
absolutely rainproof for several seasons ; I have
seen such in good condition after ten years’ duty.
This plan may even be applied to home-made hive
bodies, the wood of which may be faulty, and the
carpentry not of the most finished description. These
processes must not be despised, although not aesthetic,
for by such occasionally the poor man may be
induced to enter upon better methods than those of
his forefathers.

One caution is needed with regard to home-made
hives. The body has the grain of the wood horizontal.
If the wood be brought down, when green, to the
correct depth, shrinkage will almost certainly lessen
disastrously the bee-space beneath the frames. No

122

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

injury will result from having this even Jin., so
that more should be at first allowed than the
customary fin.

Little has been said of the material most fitted for
bee-hives, for the general suitability of wood has
been long attested by its practically displacing every
other substance. Straw is cheap, a good non-con-
ductor, light and elastic, and easily moulded into
walls with curved outlines ; but it cannot readily and
accurately be made to take the rectangular form so
inseparable from the movable comb system. Rushes,
sedges, earthenware, plaster, cork-bark, dried mud,
have all been used, but where apiculture has become
a science, wooden hives alone are employed. The
non-conductivity of porous bodies depends much upon
the amount of air interlocked in their substance, and
hence light and porous wood is far better for hives
than that which is dense and solid. Pine is usually
employed, but willow, poplar, or lime, would be almost
equally suitable. With a double skin of such woods,
filled in between with charcoal-powder or cork-dust
(see page 6o), we have a hive wall which cannot be
equalled.

In conclusion, the hive is but an instrument which
is not automatic. It may be of the correct size and
shape, and of appropriate material, giving our bees
most efficient protection, and affording every facility
for manipulation ; but the observant and attentive bee-
keeper alone will reap from it, and the bees it contains,
all the harvest they are capable of supplying.

CHAPTER IV.

NA T URA L INCREA SE.

The Effect of Advancing Spring : Breeding Increased
— Premonitory Signs of Swarming : Drone-raising ;
Queen Cells — Excitement of Swarming — Settling
— Tanging: is it Useless? — Hiving — Fanning and
Intercommunication — Difficulties in Hiving — Swarm-
Box and Bag — Scouts — Queen-catching — Wing-
clipping— Piping — Casts — Plurality of Queens —
Peculiarities of Casts : Consist of Young Bees ;

Build Worker Comb — Risks Attending Casts —
Absconding Swarms.

Bees, in partial sympathy with sleeping Nature, spend
the winter in comparative inactivity, and breeding is
for a period suspended ; but as the sun begins to
climb the heavens, and the days lengthen, the colony
is roused, and initial steps are taken to prepare for the
labour of another summer by stimulating the queen
to provide eggs. She, moving round and round in
a spiral upon the cell first furnished, enlarges her
brood patch, while the dense cluster into which her
children have been driven by the biting air during
weary months of waiting, begins to expand, and those
that have been pressed together for mutual warmth

124

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

soon circulate singly upon their combs, gathering in
from outlying parts the stores that their renewed
activities demand. The slain, during the fight with
relentless frosts, are carried forth, and water, for
thinning down the inspissated honey to fit it for
brood-feeding, is eagerly sought by little gatherers,
who often venture to face the yet chilly wind at
the cost of their lives. Now the first spring blossoms
open their dainty cups, and the industrious creatures
fly in the sunny hours with impassioned earnestness,
bearing home upon their thighs high-heaped pollen
masses for the nourishment of their dependent young.
The fruit-trees at length put on their spring dress,
and countless blossoms yield abundant food. The
old workers receive the aid of their recently-hatched
sisters, and honey shows its glistening face in many
a cell. The queen is beginning to put forth all her
power, and population and wealth increase together.
Should prosperity thus flow on, there will be no place
found in which to bestow their goods, and the neces-
sity for colonisation at no very distant date begins
to be recognised.

Eggs have hitherto been deposited in none save
worker cells, but, with a division of the colony, males
will be needed to fecundate the young queens. The
larger cells are, in consequence, sought out, and soon big
drone grubs are the object of the attentive care of the
nurses. The spring production of drones may thus be
accepted as one of the signs of prospective swarming.
Ere long, the queen finds barely sufficient cells to
receive her abundant eggs, and now preparations are
started for supplying the place of the old mother, who

NATURAL INCREASE.

25

must needs accompany the intending emigrants. The
large, pendulous queen cells (see Fig. 3 and page
27, Vol. L), rarely less than three or more than
thirty, are commenced in succession, and when the
first-started of these are sealed, we may consider
that the time of departure is at hand ; this period,
in our latitude, usually running from the middle of
May to the middle of June. If the bees are over-
crowded and insufficiently ventilated, they may come off
soon after their queen cells have been commenced, or
even — though very rarely, and that in the case of yellow
bees — before queen cells have been started. Unfavour-
able weather may delay their exodus, and should this
be continued until the maturing princesses are within
a couple of days of leaving their cells, the latter are
cut down, and swarming for the time prevented.

On the morning of the day fixed for departure,
gathering is not wholly suspended, as some have said,
but it is much relaxed, as is proved by the “hanging-
out” cluster (a common accompaniment of small hives
when crowded) not being reduced in size, as the day
advances, by the departure of its bees to the fields.
The unusual quietude is quickly changed to tumult.
Some tell us that a signal within is given, since the
teeming thousands seem to be seized simultaneously
with some violent agitation ; but of this, it is best to
confess, we know nothing, except that the bees about
to leave the place of their nativity for “ pastures
new” commence to run about the interior of the hive
in wild excitement, vibrating the wings, held high
above their backs, while even the nurses of the brood
nest appear, for the nonce, utterly disorganised, rush-

26

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

ing hither and thither with the rest. The would-be
emigrants are not, apparently, unmindful of the neces-
sity for preparing to the utmost of their ability for
the contingencies of their expedition, as every bee
about to depart fills to repletion her honey-sac (pages
1 8 and 6o, Vol. I.), by which, with economy, she
will be able to supply her true stomach with food for
at least a week. There is also abundant proof that,
in premeditated swarming (if such a form of expres-
sion may be allowed), the wax-secreting organs
(page 155, Vol. I.) have for some days been under
stimulation, and that wax plates are already being
formed under the abdominal rings. The interior
excitement has the evident advantage of making
every bee aware of what is to transpire, so that
all can prepare and act in concert. They now rush to
the entrance, literally pouring forth in an impetuous
current, which sweeps into it toddling youngsters, yet
too weak to fly, and which are simply dropped to
the ground from the alighting-board. A cloud of

merry hummers, circling widely, fills the air with an
indescribable rustling murmur. More are yet crowding
through the narrow doorway, and, as we watch, we
may catch a glimpse of the queen herself as she
takes wing to join her children ; for the common idea
that the queen issues first, and the bees follow, is, at
least as applied to first swarms, quite erroneous. We
note that the giddy multitude now begins to some-
what concentrate, and to make a progress in a definite
direction, and, taking this as our cue, we glimpse the
chosen spot for alighting already blackening with
bees, the mass each moment growing, until nearly all

NATURAL INCREASE.

127

are settled, and the uproar of the previous minutes at
an end.

The fashion of rattling keys and frying-pans is a
thing of the past. The ancient ringing of bells and
making of noises may have had no object but to
warn neighbours, and to sustain proprietorship in the
rising swarm ; but I believe that the old idea, now
almost universally discredited, that these noises dis-
posed the bees to settle, is accurate. The investiga-
tion of undoubted auditory organs in the antennae
(pages 107, 108, Vol. I.), the difference between the
flight-note of the queen and that of the worker, ex-
periments made on small swarms and divided stocks,
and the observation that bees choose quiet times —
Sundays notably — for their departure, all point in one
direction. Langstroth tells us that, if a swarm is
disposed to take a longer flight than desirable before
settling, it may be brought to earth by throwing dust
among the intending fugitives ; while he and others
also have stated that flashing a sunbeam from a
looking-glass amongst them will have the same effect.
I have used a large garden syringe, as I believe with
advantage, in this relation.

When the swarm is once fairly settled, our object
should be to keep it cool, for the universal excitement
and close packing of the cluster raise the tempera-
ture to an almost unbearable extent, and the direct
rays of the sun may drive it to a new and, for us,
most inconveniently lengthened flight. If the settling-
place is in a bush, and we cannot proceed to hive
immediately^ cover the bush with a sheet, and, in
very hot weather, sprinkle this, and the bees also, with

128

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

water. The damping must not be a drowning, but,
being ample, it will bring the bees into closer con-
tact and aid us in dealing with them. If a tree has
been chosen, an umbrella thrust in amongst the
branches will give the welcome shade. Bees at
swarming-time are nearly always in the best of
temper ; but the statement that they then will not
sting is an utter and very misleading mistake (see
page 12). The novice should be veiled and gloved,
even if the position taken up is a convenient one, such
as the end of a bough. Should the swarm be intended
to remain in a skep, it had better be hived into the
one it is to permanently occupy. If a frame hive is
to receive it, let it be first secured in a skep, and
then transferred as hereafter described. We have
just said that the end of a tree bough is a convenient
position. Let us suppose that we have a swarm
so situated, and that it is not above our reach as we
stand upon the ground.

Provided with a small towel, or other similar article,
a skep (which should be clean within, and free of all
“beer and sugar ^’abominations), and a large stone
or 2in. wooden block, we are ready for action. With
one hand we hold the skep inverted immediately
beneath the swarm, and so close to the latter that
the point of the cluster is near its crown, whilst, with
the other hand, we grasp the bough as near as possible
to the bees without crushing any, and, with a short
and quick down and upward movement, we shake
as many of the insects as possible into the skep. The
novice would expect every bee to fly : some few

hundreds will do so, and career around ; but the great

NATURAL INCREASE

129

bulk, powerless in reciprocal embrace, as they hold
one on to another by the marvellous anguiculi, or
claws, we have already studied (page 124, Vol. L),
fall in mass, and are directly under control. Did
we give them time to recover from their surprise, and
to disengage themselves, they would commence to
run up the sides of the skep, and roll over its edge

like boiling milk in a saucepan ; to prevent this, we,

as immediately as possible, drop the towel over the
skep, holding the former in position by its corners. .

If the spot the swarm is to permanently occupy be
near, we may walk to it at once or not, as we
please ; but the next step is, without releasing the
towel, to slowly turn the skep over, placing one
edge of it on the stone, and the other on the
ground. The towel is now allowed to fall to earth,

its corners being laid flat, so that the bees may not

get beneath it, but have a convenient platform by
which to enter their new home. A board may be
substituted for the towel, or both may be omitted
should the earth at the spot be fairly smooth and not
dusty. If, after the subsidence of the temporary com-
motion produced, we find that the bees are beginning
to draw near to the hive, flying about the gap between
it and the towel in a spirit of inquiry, and then enter-
ing, while those on the bough seem excited and
bewildered, running hurriedly about, and now and
again taking a little turn on the wing, we may conclude
that we have secured the queen, and that, before long,
all will be comfortably clustered within the hive. We
shall observe now, on the outside surface of the skep.
and on the towel, a small army of fanning bees, all
Vol. II. K

130

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

heading towards the opening. Singularly, no writers
mention what I have always observed — viz., if the
queen be within, bees continually issue from the
skep, running from fanner to fanner, in alternate
diagonals, giving each one two quick taps with the
antennae, which seems to me to convey: “All right,
keep it up ; mother’s at home, but she’s terribly
hot.” The fanners, thus encouraged, do not relax their
exertions for a moment.

If, instead of these assuring indications, the bees
within the skep are apparently disquieted, and begin to
leave it in numbers, the fanners also, lacking infor-
mation, impatiently stopping their work, and running
about, whilst the mass on the bough is comparatively
tranquil, and evidently increasing in bulk, we may be
pretty sure that the queen is not in our party, and
that the previously-described operation will have to
be repeated, for, ere long, the bees will desert our

skep and join their comrades who have the queen

in their keeping. We may, in this case, often save

ourselves trouble by at once re-hiving the residue
as at first, in anything at hand — e.g.^ a big flower-pot
or pail (my hat has been pressed into the service

more than once) — and adding the second lot to the
first, by pouring or shaking it out against the opening
beneath the skep ; but excessive meddling must be
avoided, as bees under constant disturbance are
unable themselves to ascertain the whereabouts of
the queen, the spread of information on this point
through a swarm requiring several minutes at least.

Hiving under the circumstances described is a
most simple matter, the operation itself being but the

NATURAL INCREASE.

13

work of a few seconds ; but difficulties are at times
met which tax both the patience and ingenuity of the
bee-keeper. If the point of settlement be a bough at
a considerable height from the ground, the easier
plan is to place a ladder so that the bough may
stand over the shoulder of the climber, who saws
through the limb with as little shaking as possible,
and now descends with the bees over his back.
Unless very roughly disturbed, the swarm is not likely
to depart during the operation ; but it is, nevertheless,
wiser to use the syringe cautiously before the sawing
is attempted. Should this have been impossible,
let the bees now be sprinkled with water, and then
dropped, by a sudden shake of the bough, imme-
diately in front of the hive to be occupied, which
has been propped up an inch or so to give them
ready entrance. Should they not turn to march in
at once, scoop up two or three lots with a large
card, and shoot them, with gentle violence, under
the hive front. Their joyful note, indicating that
they have found a house to let which just suits them,
will immediately draw on the rest to take possession.

The difficulty just supposed may be surmounted in
other, perhaps better, ways. Fixing the skep on a
fork, holding it aloft beneath the swarm, and bang-
ing the bough with a long-handled rake, has been
suggested by a well-known woodcut ; or the Shepherd
swarm-taker and hook (A and B, Fig. 40) may be
used. It consists of a lidless ^in. box. Sin. square at
top, and I bin. deep, put firmly together, and bored
on all sides with fin. holes, and having passed
through it a strong, light pole. The second pole

K 2

132

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

must be of corresponding length, with a stout hook
(/z) fastened at the end of it. Hold the box close
under the cluster, and jar the limb once or twice
with the hook, and the operation is completed. Lower
the box carefully, and pour or shake the bees out
in front of the hive to be occupied. If the bees need
be kept waiting for their permanent home, put the
box on the ground, and cover it closely with a sheet.
The defect in this swarm-taker consists in its being
fixed to the pole, so that it cannot be kept in the

Fig. 40.— Tools to Secure Swarms.

A and B, Shepherd Swarm-taker and Hooked Pole—/*, Hook. C, Cheshire’s Im-
proved Form of Swarm-taker— r, Iron Rod ; f, Ferrule. D, Canvas Bjrg for
Swarm-catching.

desirable perpendicular position when placed under
the bees. My arrangement (C) overcomes this diffi-
culty. The thin iron rod (r) passes loosely through
the box, above its centre of gravity, so that the latter
always rights itself, whatever may be the position
of the pole ; while to pass it through any opening,
between branches by example, the box can be kept
horizontal by putting the side a downwards. The
holes in these boxes have quite a fascination for the
bees, while they supply such abundant ventilation
that the cluster remains contentedly within. Some

NATURAL INCREASE.

133

use and recommend a bag (D) made of cheese-cloth,
instead of a box. The swarm is dropped into the
bag by cutting it gently from its attachment by
means of the iron ring, which is then turned edge-
ways, so as to hold the bees prisoners while they are
carried to their hive. To get rid of the bees, the
bag is turned inside out. The disadvantage here
lies in the liability of the bag to catch on every
projecting twig, and to become hopelessly contorted
amidst branches.

These forms of apparatus have the one virtue of
being very rapid in action, but would be only rarely of
service, except to large owners in favour of natural
swarming, to whom the quick disposal of each colony
is important, as reducing the liability of swarms
uniting — a veritable nuisance, hereafter considered.
We may, in the absence of special appliances,
operate thus : Firmly attach two or three small, leafy
boughs to the end of a pole of sufficient length to
enable us to reach the swarm, and provide another
pole, furnished with a hook. Push the leafy bunch
in amongst the cluster, and allow a minute or two
for the bees to attach themselves to it ; now draw
it back gently, carrying as much of the cluster as
possible with it, holding those we have secured near
to, and, if practicable, somewhat beneath those hang-
ing in the original place of settlement, so as to catch
at least part of those whose fall we intend to compass.
Now shake the tree limb with the hook, throwing
off all the bees remaining upon it into the air.
Those on the wing, anxious to join the majority,
settle at the end of our pole, and are soon so

34

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

clustered there that we may walk away with them,
and hive as before.

Bees sometimes gather around the main stem of a
tree where many branches are given off, and where
dislodgment by shaking is impossible. The skep
may, in some cases, be pushed in, and fixed over
them, and they driven towards it by smoke. At the
same time, they may be coaxed by a piece of comb
containing brood, or store, fastened firmly within the
skep. In such cases I have succeeded better, as I
think, when the floor board has been added, so as to
leave a very wide entrance. In one instance in my
experience, the bees passed in so slowly that not
until nearly noon of the succeeding day could the
skep be removed. Brushing with a goose wing,
which many recommend, 1 have never found useful ;
agitating a weed, such as a dock head, amongst them,
much more quickly makes them travel upwards : but
it is impossible to give specific rules for every case ;
much must rest with the ingenuity of the operator.

Should the swarm be intended to stand near to the
position in which it was hived, it should be removed
thither as soon as the main body have taken up their
quarters, for two reasons ; First, After swarming, bees
carefully mark their new location, and those taking a
flight before the hive is placed on its stand are in
danger of being lost, by returning to the wrong spot ;
Second, There is abundant evidence that bees, at least
occasionally, send out scouts to hunt out a suitable
domicile, and, should these return from a successful
trip, they will, in all likelihood, conduct our swarm to
the nesting-place of their choosing ; and is it not

NATURAL INCREASE.

135

impossible to believe that such retreats as those
mentioned at page 30 could have been detected
without some organised plan ? Moving the swarm
to its destination during the absence of the scouts
will leave the latter as lost bees, when they will
probably re-enter the stock whence they originally
came. In newly-settled countries this difficulty will
require to be more carefully guarded against than in our
own. Not a few instances are also on record of
bees coming out and, without settling, making off to
some distant, hollow tree, or taking direct possession
of an unoccupied hive with,* or even without, combs,
seeming to involve that the selection had actually
been made before the day of swarming. On the
other hand, circumstances show that the would-be
colonists commonly commit the future to the keeping
of the fitful goddess, and just await what may turn
up. I well remember a very late swarm, of unknown
ownership, presenting itself on the extremity of an
upper limb of a tall chestnut, and, wetted by rain,
swaying about, in a strong wind which sprang up,
until the third day after settling, when I, in sheer
pity, hived the nearly exhausted insects, which, under
kind treatment, afterwards did well. The semi-
abortive attempts made by unnoticed swarms at
establishing a home in the open (page 30) can
hardly be explained upon any other supposition.

* A hive with empty combs is so exceedingly likely to be adopted by a
swarm ihat such, it is said, have been used as decoys, with the most dis-
reputable object of trapping swarms from neighbours. In one’s own
apiary, such hives may possibly act as helpers, and were often recom-
mended in the days when bees were left to take their own line with
regard to colonisation.

136

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

If the swarm we have just hived is to be taken
any considerable distance, it may be packed so soon
as the bees have collected within, or be left till
evening. A piece of coarse canvas, known as

scrum,” should be spread out smoothly on the
ground. The hive, now lifted cautiously, and kept

quite upright, so as not to break the cluster of bees
hanging from the roof — much in form like a swallow’s
nest under the house eaves — is placed upon the
canvas, which is drawn up round its sides, and tied
with string. The skep is now inverted, and may be
carried with safety, both to porter and bees, to its
destination, or conveyed by cart or rail, the essential
point being that the canvas is kept upwards. It is
well here to mention, parenthetically, that a swarm
confined as described in a skep, is exceedingly
likely to perish if the canvas be beneath, even if
the skep be held high in air; for, if the cluster be
broken, the mass of bees lying upon and pressed
against the canvas stops ventilation so completely
that the upper individuals get asphyxiated before
they can crawl up the sides, so as to relieve their
companions, which are held down by their weight.

The skep, upon its arrival, should be placed on a
bottom 'board, and slightly raised by a stone inserted
beneath its front edge. The string is now untied,
and the canvas released from the mouth, but not
removed until the bees have had time to get clear
of it by clustering above. Where bees have to

travel, the preferable plan is to first place them in
a swarm-box (see “ Artificial Swarming ”).

It was previously stated (page 128) that, if a

NATURAL INCREASE.

37

natural swarm is intended to tenant a frame hive,
it should still be taken in a skep. We have, there-
fore, to explain how to pass the bees from the
latter to the former. Spread out upon the ground,
as near as convenient to the final station, a table-
cloth, sheet, or opened-out newspaper, stretching
it as smoothly as possible, and fixing down the
corners by stones or wooden strips, so that the
wind may not disturb it. Place upon this the frame
hive, from which the bottom board has been removed,
so that its back comes to the edge of the cloth, or
paper, giving a considerable unoccupied area upon
which to throw the swarm. Prop up the front of the
hive with a stone, or block, at each corner, leaving
about an inch space, by which the bees may rapidly
enter. Cautiously raising the skep with the contained
swarm, and standing with the feet well asunder,
while holding the skep firmly between the open

palms, with a sharp, sudden, and decided jerk, shake
out the bees upon the sheet close to the hive.

By repeatedly dropping, as it were, and catching

again, the skep between the hands, beat out of it

the few dozen remaining bees. The fallen swarm,
startled, does not attempt to take wing, and for the
first three or four seconds merely spreads out upon
the sheet, after the fashion of a semi-liquid mass ;
but the suitability of the hive is immediately recog-
nised by the party advancing into it, which at once
starts a joyful note, calling the whole body to the
newly-offered home, towards which, in a moment, and
as if by magic, every head turns, and the march
progresses until all are safely within. Sometimes,

>38

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

there seems some hesitation, or the bees make an
advance not quite in the direction desired, difficulties
which may be left to right themselves, or which may
be immediately remedied by the scooping process
previously explained ; and, unless the handling be
rough and careless, not a bee will sustain injury.
Sometimes, the rapid onward march (especially with
hives that have a fixed bottom board) may block the
entrance, and cause the bees to gather densely on
the hive front, whence they may be dislodged by
brushing with a feather, or, better still, scraping with
a card; but a little patience will generally be found
more serviceable than too much anxious fussing.
The observed entrance of the queen is an end to
troubling, as all are sure to follow. With hives with
fixed legs, a large board, propped up to the entrance,
will replace the sheet, and all will proceed as before.
Instead of these plans, the cover may be taken off,
and the cluster thrown down upon the tops of the
frames, one or two of which have been removed ;
but the bees are so likely to “boil over” the hive
sides, that beginners are not recommended to try it.

Cases now and then occur in which bees, after having
entered a hive, appear to be dissatisfied with it, and
refuse to remain. My late friend, Mr. John Hunter,
recounts that he hived one lot of bees no less than
six times, on six consecutive days, before they sub-
mitted to the inevitable. In such cases, an unfailing
cure, consists in giving a frame of unsealed brood,
rather than desert which the bees will brook a hive
not to their fancy.

Sometimes, swarms issue and, without apparent cause,

NATURAL INCREASE.

139

return. Perhaps their queen has defective wings, and
is unable to fly. The fact that, in these cases, the
bees do occasionally cluster, raises the question, Is
the queen the predisposing cause of clustering ? I
decidedly incline to the supposition that the bees are,
in such cases, the victims of a contagious error, started,
perhaps, by a goodly number settling at one spot,
which error cannot be dispelled until all have quietly
collected; and that, normally, the queen is the cause
of clustering, in the sense that she is tempted or
conducted along to the chosen spot, some settling
first, to give her encouragement. She joins imme-

diately, and continually rises to the surface of the
mass, as external layers are added to it. On two
or three occasions I have actually witnessed this order
of procedure. In the event of a threatened return,
or when the bees, after issuing, continue in great
commotion without decidedly settling, search may be
made for the mother on the ground in the neigh-

bourhood of the hive, where she will often be found,
accompanied by half a dozen or a dozen of her
children. Placing her upon a convenient twig, in the
spot in which the bees are most dense, they will
probably soon gather around her ; and this will they

equally do if she be retained in the hand, though

perhaps few would trust sufficiently the harmlessness
of the experiment to try it. By removing the hive
whence the swarm has been thrown, and putting in
its place an empty one, and laying the queen near
the entrance after caging her (see “Queen Cage”),
nearly all trouble is avoided. The bees, returning,
find the queen, and gather about the cage, when she

140

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

may be liberated, that mother and children together
may pass into their new home.

By carefully looking over a hanging swarm, the
queen may often be seen walking over its surface,
and occasionally passing into the interior. I am led,
however, to remark, from constant observation, that
the queen is not by any means always seen at the
lower part of the collected mass of bees, as one writer
at least has ventured very positively to assert. So
soon as a glimpse of her is obtained, she may be
grasped quickly and tenderly, and treated as in the
case just supposed. Many times I have so caught
her ladyship, and, having imprisoned her beneath a
pipe-cover cage of large mesh, fixed on to a side
of a broken section by an indiarubber band, have
brought the swarm back to her, and to the hive I
intended it to occupy. Before carrying off the queen,
it is well either to shake some part of the cluster
off into the air, or to hold the cage in contact with
it for a minute or two, when a bunch of bees collects
upon it, attending to the queen’s wants pending the
arrival of the main body. Of course, after the swarm
has returned, it may be placed in any position we
please, since bees, under the swarming impulse, seem
to utterly disregard the stock to which they pre-
viously belonged, and adhere to their new abode,
wherever situated.

Although we are here discussing natural increase,
a method must be introduced which is distinctly
artificial. It consists in removing one or both of the
anterior wings of the queen, so as to prevent her
travelling to a distance to establish a new colony.

NATURAL INCREASE.

141

We have already learnt that, after fecundation, the
queen flies only at swarming time. “ Wing-clipping,’’
as it is termed, therefore, in no way interferes with
the queen’s natural movements, the one case mentioned
being excepted. When a swarm issues, she, in her
attempt to soar with the merry throng, only falls to
the ground in front of her hive, where the bee-keeper
finds her making abortive hops, and may then secure
his fugitive bees in the way just previously detailed.
But the practical out-working of this arrangement is
not always so beautifully convenient as the theory
might suggest. No swarm can be lost, it is true,
but the queen generally will be if the alighting-
board of the hive is not continued to the ground,
or if the bee-keeper be not at hand to take his-
part ; and then the returning bees will rear a number
of princesses, to possibly spoil his stock by leading off
colonies one after the other, each of which is far
more likely to be irrecoverable than the prime swarm
accompanied by a full-winged queen. By reference
to page 135, Vol. I., we find that the wings receive
nutrition during the whole life of the bee, and that
both nerves and large tracheae pass into them. The
removal of the wing may, therefore, not be so absolutely
unimportant as some assume ; although, judging from
analogy, I am of opinion that it is not prejudicial, and
that Professor Cook’s suggestion, that the queen may
be made even more vigorous through the excision,
“ as useless organs are always nourished at the ex-
pense of the organism,” is quite accurate. Much, how-
ever, turns upon the ultimate condition of the divided
trachea, and this, I believe, rarely closes. Many who

142

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

practise wing-clipping incline to the belief that queens
thus maimed are more likely to be displaced than are
those that are perfect ; yet it is clear, on the other
hand, that such queens may do duty for the allotted
term of their existence.

The raison d’etre for “ clipping ” is less with us
than in America, where it is mainly in vogue, though
even there some of the largest owners are against it.
I have clipped but few queens, and think that our
knowledge now of the principles by which swarming
can be controlled make the process of so little service
that its disadvantages quite outweigh its benefits. I
shall content myself, therefore, by explaining the best
method of using the scissors, for the enlightenment of
those who desire to experiment. Since the costal
nervure (page 139, Vol. I.) is the most highly organ-
ised part of the wing, while it has least to do with
sustaining the insect in the air, it is best, perhaps, to
remove as many as possible of the wing cells, leaving
the costal nervure intact. If this be done with the
anterior (larger) wing of one side, all balance is
gone, and flight is impossible ; but those who would
maim aesthetically (?), say this interferes so much with
the beauty of the queen, that it is best to give her
a “symmetrical ” appearance by cutting off the greater
part of both larger wings. Those who are accustomed
to handle delicate matters may finger a queen without
the least risk of injuring her; and it is best to grasp
the thorax so that the wings stand outwards, while
the legs are confined, and our scissors will then make
the cuts as we desire^ especially if we somewhat glue
the wings, by stroking over them a little honey with

NATURAL INCREASE.

143

the finger. If pinching the queen be dreaded, let her
fly on a window pane, with three or four of her bees,
until the latter caress and feed her, when the scissors
may be applied ; but the risk remains that she, upon
the touch of the steel, may raise her leg, and lose
more than was intended.

We have as yet by no means exhausted the catalogue
of methods intended, like the foregoing, to minimise
the trouble, disappointment, and loss, associated so

Fig. 41.— (^l'een-trap, or Swarm-arrestor (Scale, i).

A, Section— e, Knti-ance ; qe, qe, Queen-excluder Zinc ; Wire Window ; c. Wire
Cone, with opening above ; qc. Queen Chamber. B, I’erspective View —
Letterings as before.

frequently with natural swarming. Much ingenuity
has been exhibited in devising plans for luring the
queen about to depart, into imprisonment, so that
she and the bees may be secured without difficulty.
Although none of these can be recommended as
undoubted successes, yet they cannot be altogether
omitted from a treatise like the present. There is a
common likeness about these queen-traps, or swarm-
arrestors, but that used (Fig. 41) by Mr. Henry Alley,

144

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of Mass., U.S.A., may suit our purpose, as illustrating
the general plan followed. It is placed before the
mouth of a hive from which a swarm may be expected,
when the bees pass in at drawn on by the light
streaming through the queen-excluder (y^), through
which they readily escape, and by which they make
their return. Should a swarm issue, the bees will
suffer but little impediment, while the queen, failing to
gain her liberty at the excluder, will try any opening
that she may discover, and so possibly pass up a
cone (c. A), of coarse wire cloth, freely lighted by
a wire window (w), and by the openings in the
excluder zinc {qe) above it. Having passed out of
the cone, into the queen chamber (yc), she will never
discover how to return to the hive. Previous ex-
planations now apply. Hives being changed, “ the
arrestor” may be stood before the front of the empty
one, the side .$• preferably downwards, and the queen-
excluder (y^') towards the hive mouth, when the
returning bees will gather upon it. Withdrawing
the zinc half an inch or so will give the bees access
to the queen, and, ere long, all may be expected to
take possession of the hive. Drones, if numerous,
will much interfere, and the queen may possibly fail
to find the cones, of which there are only two; while
the considerable alteration in the position of the
entrance, suddenly made when the “arrestor” is placed
in situ, not a little troubles the returning workers.

Mr. Howard improves upon Alleyns idea by giving
the queen-excluder [cqe, A, Fig. 42) an arched form.
The bees enter at te, the workers passing the
excluder at once, and the drones or queen struggling

NATURAL INCREASE.

145

upwards, when the principal light is above, attracting
them through the wedge-shaped opening {we) (which
extends the whole length of the trap), to be securely
caught. The returning bees cannot enter w, as the
zinc is here of fine perforation ; but the front of the
hive is still hidden, and the change in entrance some-
what bewildering. How far I avoided these dis-
advantages in my trap (B), much older than those
described, others must judge. I used it, in former
years, to secure drones of the wrong sort, and found
its action all that could be desired. Wooden ends

Fig. 42.— Queen and Drone Traps— Sections (Scale, i).

A, Howard’s Trap— ge, qe'. Queen-excluder ; he. Hive Entrance ; te, Trap Entrance ;
IV, Window with fine Perforations ; we. Wire Wedge with Opening above. B,
Cheshire’s Trap— A/, Hive Front ; ab. Alighting-board ; t. Tube ; e. Entrance
for Returning Bees ; ex. Exit ; other Letterings as before.

hold in position the parts shown. It fits up to the
hive entrance {he), and even a porch, if wide enough,
presents no difficulty. The bees march forwards,
by the trap entrance {te), towards the light, ascend-
ing an incline of thin wood, with a piece of window
glass {gl) over it, the two forming a narrow, flat
tube {t). Now, flying to the holes, the workers
escape, while the drones or queen remain. In return-
ing, the workers quite naturally avoid the strange
form, and walk down the known hive front {hf), to
VoL. II. L

146

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

join their companions, by the slit which is close to
their usual door, and within hearing of the fanners.
This slit requires no very careful regulation in width,
since it is dark, and unobserved from within, so that
no bees escape by it. The ventilation of the hive
is unimpeded, every drone passing at once forwards,
and the returning bees clearing the entrance im-
mediately. These appliances may be useful as drone-
traps, to secure possible mischief-workers found in
purchased stocks, e.g., or in temporarily preventing
a swarm making off from a hive under suspicion ; but
they are more likely to suit the tastes and needs of
the amateur than to find favour with those who look
to honey-production as a serious matter.

Bees have the remarkable and, to me, unintelligible
habit of swarming on spots that have been pre-
viously selected by other lots of bees. The suggestion
is made that the odour of the queen explains the
peculiarity. To make the suggestion is easy, but to
accommodate it to the facts is difficult or im-
possible. Swarms are with me discouraged, and

in some recent seasons I have had none ; yet, when
such come off, notwithstanding the interval, during
which the leaves* have dropped to be succeeded by

* I freely admit that our sense of smell is relatively so extremely weak
that we should err egregiously were we to judge by it of what the lower
animals can accomplish ; e.g., it has recently been proved, by carefully-
conducted experiment (Mr. G. F. Romanes), that a small fraction of a
square inch of leather from the boot of the master is quite sufficient
to establish an individually-recognisable trail for a setter dog; and, in
addition, I would emphasise what every observ’er of bees must know, that
the queen undoubtedly leaves an odour. On one occasion, I saw a fertile
mother, lost by her swarm, resting on a leaf in a rose-bush ; and this, for
several days after, almost continually had bees upon it. The fingers that
have handled, or the knife that has dissected, a queen, are ver}' attractive ; but

NATURAL INCREASE.

147

others, they go almost without exception to a wild
plum, growing in a laurel hedge near by, which
does not, so far as can be seen, present a more
comfortable or convenient landing-stage than many
dozens of trees and shrubs within sight of the stocks
as they stand. The observed fact may, however, be
of service to the novice who is wise enough to
tempt his first colonists to a position of his own
choosing; and, in this connection, what has been
called the “ bee-bob ’’ may help in more ways than
one. A dark-coloured mass, accidentally or inten-
tionally resembling a forming cluster, brings to it
bees that are intent upon not missing their com-
panions, and these, by alighting, quickly convert
the appearance into reality, and so the swarm is
secured. Langstroth says : “ By proper precautions,
before the first swarms issue, the bee-keeper may so
educate his favourites that they will seldom alight
anywhere but on the spot which he has previously
selected. The Rev. Thomas Hunt, of Wyoming, U.S.A.,
has devised an amusing plan, by which he says that
he can at all times prevent a swarm of bees from
leaving his premises. Before his stocks swarm, he
collects a number of dead bees, and, stringing them
with a needle and thread, as worms are strung for
catching eels, he makes of them a ball about the
size of an egg, leaving a few strands loose. By
carrying, fastened to a pole, this 'bee-bob' about

it must here be remembered that she, except in the rarest instances, does
not touch the object upon which the swarm settles, as it is her habit to
clamber over the bodies of the bees. May it not be suggested that the
swarm, even after a short stay, leaves behind shreds of wax upon the
twigs and stems, and that these, possibly, may have an effect }

48

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

his apiary when the bees are swarming, or by placing
it in some central position, he invariably secures
every swarm/^

The obviously necessary instinct just referred to
may, however, bring to the bee-keeper an entangle-
ment not quite easily unravelled. The conditions
which ripen one stock for swarming will be likely to
similarly affect another ; while the advent of pecu-
liarly favourable weather may determine more stocks
than one to leave at about the same time. And, in
addition, the sound of a swarm in the air has a
peculiarly exciting effect, often bringing out others
that, without this stimulus, would not have left till
days later; while nuclei (see “Nuclei^’), especially if
very weak, similarly prompted, often leave bodily.
Under the united action of these causes, a union of
swarms is not an altogether uncommon experience.
Separation must be accomplished, unless one queen,
at least, be sacrificed ; although it is wise to re-
member that a doubled swarm, if early, will generally
also be profitable. If two swarms only have joined,
sprinkle well with water, and hive in a skep or
basket as usual, and now arrange a sheet, spread
flat, and two hives, instead of one, as before directed.
Throw the bees upon the sheet, near its middle, and
at a point equidistant from the two hives, again
sprinkling gently, so as to thoroughly disincline the
bees from taking wing. Now scoop up a small con-
tingent for each hive, which drop down just in front,
to draw on the rest. Have, if possible, an assistant,
and carefully scan the thinned-out, advancing ranks,
so as to catch sight of the queens. If so far fortunate

NATURAL INCREASE.

49

as to discover one, cage her immediately, continuing
to so direct your bees that they are about equally
divided between your hives. If both queens are seen,
the plan is evident ; but, missing the second, wait
until one of the lots shows that it finds itself queen-
less, when they, of course, receive the now liberated
prisoner. Should both queens escape unseen, still
all may be well, for fortune may have been on your
side; but if one lot is beginning to give evident
tokens of unrest, an examination of the other lot
may show you both queens balled — i.e.^ inclosed in
distinct masses of clinging, hissing bees, the size of
a hen’s egg, or even larger. Removing one of the
lumps, and transferring it bodily to the orphans, will
almost invariably put all right.

All your efforts failing, while it is clear that the bees
of one hive are queenless, and are beginning to leave,
they may be shut in, ventilation being provided for.
Three or four taps then given on the side of the
hive start a tremendous uproar, when any spare
queen may be safely passed in at a convenient point,
the roaring mass for the moment being held back by
smoke. Next day the hive should be placed in its
proper position, and the prisoners liberated. In these
cases, “ perseverance surmounts difficulties,” and it
may be wise, while one lot is held captive, to again
shoot the bees having the two queens on to the
sheet, securing another chance at hunting out the
one in excess, as the troubled insects separately crawl
past; and, if sprinkling be judiciously applied, but
few will take wing. Should the bee-keeper have only
entered his novitiate, and not yet have acquired the

150 BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

faculty of recognising queens quickly, his best course
will be to pass all his bees into a twin hive — one
capable of accommodating two stocks (Fig. 16, e.g.).
Removing the division [d), giving as much internal
capacity as possible, and putting a comb in each
of the two opposite ends, will prepare the hive for
the purpose. When the bees are all within, remove
to a cool place, and in the morning the two swarms
will probably be found self-divided, and centred
around the widely-separated combs, and with their
own queen in each case. The union of swarms and
casts does not admit of such easy treatment, as
an unimpregnated queen is not so acceptable as a
fertile mother. It is helpful, in most cases, to give
a frame containing eggs and larvae, and then, if the
lot entering has no queen, it will remain. In a day
or two, its condition can be ascertained by looking
over the comb ; and, if queen-cells are found, a new
mother may be given, as explained under “ Queen
Introduction.^^

The importance of being able to verify the stock
whence a swarm has issued must already have become
apparent. This is not usually difficult, as, on the
ground near the front of it, a number of young grey
bees (page 126), which have been carried out in the
stream, will be found wandering, or huddled together.
An internal examination of the hive so indicated will
confirm our supposition if we discover it to be queen-
less, reduced in population, and possessed, as it almost
certainly will be, of queen-cells, some of which are
sealed, as at A, Fig. 43.

In Chapter VI., the making and treatment of swarms

NATURAL INCREASE.

15

will be our subject ; and, since artificial colonies are in
circumstances altogether similar to natural ones, the
method of aiding and best utilising our hived bees
may well be deferred. The parent colony, however,
now demands both our study and attention. Here
we find a widely-extended brood-nest, comprising,
perhaps, 40,000 or 50,000 pupae,* larvae, and eggs,
testifying to the activity of the queen, who furnished
this number of cells during the twenty or twenty-one
days before her departure ; and although, possibly,
20,000 emigrants have left, yet a sufficient number of
bees, ordered by that hidden wisdom we call instinct,
has remained to carry on the -work of tending the
multitude of advancing grubs, maintaining the tem-
perature, and completing the work of raising new
queens already in progress when the swarm left-
Except under quite unusual circumstances, abundant
honey is in store. Narrowing the doorway, to assist
in husbanding heat, and to make the work of defence
against robbers easy, is all that is required ; and even
this may be omitted, unless the weather should take
an unfavourable turn. For reasons presently made
clear, it is generally desirable, however, to place the
swarm on the stand the parent hive occupied, and
carry the latter to a new position. This adds to the
swarm all the flying bees that had preferred “ the
old house at home,” and, of course, proportionately
weakens the parent stock, which should now be more
carefully guarded against chill, and would benefit by

* Nymphs, or chrysalids (N, Fig. 4, Vol. I.) ; all these terms apply
equally to the condition assumed afcer sealing, cocoon-spinning, and the
last moult but one.

152

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

having very thin syrup, or water only, given to it for
a day or two, to supply the nurses (page ig, Vol. I.),
so that the younger larvae may not suffer. Since no
eggs are now being laid, in three days the amount of
brood requiring attention begins to decrease, while
population constantly grows ; so that food, except in

Fig. 43.— Queen-cells, Cocoons, and Royal Jelly.

A, Queen-cell, Sealed (Natural Size). A', Ditto, Torn Open, to destroy Princess.
B, Half-built Queen-cell, containing Feeding Larva and Royal Jelly. B',
Section of Same, showing Contents. C, Queen-cell from which Young Queen
has Hatched— f. Lid. C', Section of Same, showing Remains of Royal Jelly,
Cast Bowel, Exuvium, and Cocoon — V, Lid. D, Portion of Queen Cocoon
magnified 80 diameters. E, Contents of Complete Cell (Wax removed by
Ether) — rj, Royal Jelly; hi. Bowel and Exuvium; co. Cocoon.

very adverse weather, will be gathered in considerable
excess of the requirements of the stock.

Much that is new in reference to queen-cells has
already been advanced (pages 172 and 241, et seq.^
Vol. I.), but additional points, of practical importance.

NATURAL INCREASE.

153

as well as scientific interest, still await our con-
sideration. Some of these cells, at the time of the
departure of the swarm, are, normally, already sealed
(A) (although considerable variations occasionally occur
in reference to this matter), while in others (B) the
nymphs are still feeding, and the object of, literally,
unceasing attention, royal jelly (B'; r/, E; and page 82,
Vol. I.) being added, in astonishing profusion, by a
constant stream of workers inserting their heads in
succession. At the close of the feeding stage, a
sealing full of minute perforations is added by the
never-weary attendants, when the well-fattened larva
weaves within a cocoon {co, E), of very singular
structure. That of the worker, or drone, is scanty,
and consists of threads of tolerably uniform thickness
(page 176, Vol. I.), while that made by the princess is
heavily felted, and extraordinarily Irregular. The fibres
are a transparent brown, of every diameter between
y^-Q-in. and g-oVo^^- threads, unlike those of the

spider and silk moth, evidently remain for some time
in a semi-fluid state, and so are partially confluent :
while here and there droplets have been allowed to
issue from the spinning gland, to fuse all together, as
may be seen by a magnified view of a part of this
structure (D). To obtain the cocoon, place the entire
cell in ether (a rapid solvent of w'ax), and shake,
with one or two changes of the ether, until every
trace of wax has disappeared, when a pretty object
for the microscope remains, whose general form is seen
at CO, E. So strong are these threads that, fixing
the upper and lower parts of the cocoon between
wooden slips, a 3olb. strain will not break them.

54

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

By dissolving the wax of the cell, we isolate the cast
skin, and bowel and contents (^/, E), deposited by
the queen against the cell side, and find these to
stand just clear of the main mass of the cocoon
itself.

As the inclosed princess approaches the com-

pletion of her wondrous transformations, the bees
nibble away the covering of wax and pollen by

which they, about a week previously, shut her in ;
so that a cell containing a nearly-matured queen
may be generally recognised by its having the rough,
felt-like, brown cocoon exposed. The fully-deve-
loped insect next frees herself of her almost im-
palpable exuvium (the last moult), and begins to

bite through her cocoon, by means of her powerful,
notched jaws. Turning within her cell, her bites are
continued in a circle, until the end of the cell (or
cocoon, rather) is all but separated as a lid (/, C),

when the least effort from within — should the workers
not resist — will enable her to make her escape. Often
the lid is detached, but generally it continues hinged ;
and, should an inquiring worker pass in after the
exit of the rightful owner, she may suffer as did the
heroine of ‘‘ The Mistletoe Bough, for, the lid closing
upon her, the workers may add wax fixings, which
accidentally compass her death. Many queen-cells,
from this cause containing dead workers, have been
sent to me by correspondents who have thought them
extraordinary and unique. When so closed again,
they may also be mistaken by the bee-keeper for
those still containing queens to hatch, an error which
may have disagreeable consequences.

NATURAL INCREASE.

155

The most advanced queen, having gained her
liberty, and increased in strength during some few
hours, manifests an anxiety to seek out and destroy
her immature sisters ; and, should the bees not desire
to send out a second swarm (technically a ‘^cast”), she
is permitted to visit the royal cells, and assist the
workers in tearing open their sides, just above the
leathery cocoon, as at A', when the helpless prin-
cesses are butchered, some of them at least, in
certain cases, by thrusts from her sting, the utilitarian
spirit of the workers impelling them to drink up
the spilt ‘‘blue’’ blood of the nymphs ere their
bodies are thrown from the hive.

The honey-flow continuing, and the population in-
creased by all the hatching since the departure of the
swarm, a further desire to colonise commonly yet
exists, when the bees somewhat rudely check the
right royal impulse of undying hatred to a rival, by
keeping back the would-be murderess, as well as
preventing those that are nearly as advanced as
herself from leaving their cells, upon which they
thickly crowd. Each of these princesses cuts her
cocoon, the same as did the now free sister ; but the
bees put wax over the joint all round, except at one
spot, where an opening is left, through which the
tongue of the prisoner is now and again extended,
that the workers may supply her wants. Whether
the aspirant for queenship feels hatred, indignation,
or fear, the writer does not know, and he thinks it
unfavourable to progress that poetical fancy — almost
poetical licence — has been mixed up so frequently
with the facts he is now endeavouring to describe ;

156

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

suffice it to say, that the lady under coercion gives
origin to a sound which can easily be heard outside
the hive — a sound comparable to, though happily
much weaker than, that of a toy trumpet. It is a
high-set, rasping note, likened to Peep, peep, peep,”
and hence the word ‘^piping” has been applied;
but “ Teet ” and “ Zeet ” have seemed to some to
better mimic the “vox regalis,” which in France and
Germany is represented by “Tuh” and “ Quak,” for
that of hatched and unhatched queens respectively. To
the piping call of the former, often described as a
challenge, the latter replies with a duller, less metallic
sound. These notes serve some purpose indubitably.
They clearly have the advantage of informing the
several members of this “ Royal family ” of each
other^s presence, and so tend to drive out those at
liberty, should others in concealment be preserved
from attack, at the same time that they keep the bees
themselves informed of the general outlook, and of
the points needing protection. They, in consequence,
act as a guide to the bee-keeper, and, if continued
a couple of days, may always be accepted as evidence
that a swarm ere long will issue.

Singularly silent are all writers respecting the
means by which piping is produced, but the problem
is surely of sufficient interest to make it worthy of
an attempted solution. Let us clear the ground, first
by saying that the queen can, and does, pipe,
although rarely, at all periods of her life, and not
only under the above-given conditions. If held in
the hand, or separated from her swarm, and caged
(especially if several caged queens be put near

NATURAL INCREASE.

^57

each other), the note is sometimes emitted ; while if
dubiously received, or threatened with encasement,
when introduced to a colony as an alien, her
peculiar, plaintive call is almost certain to be heard.
From previous explanations of the causes of buzzing
and humming, we must, I think, dismiss the idea
of either spiracles or breathing-tubes having anything
to do with this singular phenomenon ; while the

mouth, being merely an opening leading to the

stomach, is necessarily incapable of any form of
utterance. It is certain, also, that the wings are not
concerned in its production, since queens clipped so
vigorously that not a vestige of wing remains can
be as noisy as others. Many insects, and some

spiders and Crustacea, are favoured with natural
musical instruments, formed of hard, wrinkled sur-
faces, denominated “ stridulating organs,’’ which, by
certain and varied movements of the bodies of the
possessors, evoke grating, creaking notes. I re-
member Professor Stewart showing, about a year
since, at the Linnaean Society, the stridulating organ
of the spiny lobster {Pah'nurus). The file-like bow
was exhibited under the microscope ; and a male

carapace, kept soft by glycerine, produced, when
rubbed, the peculiar screeching rasp — something
between the torture of the saw-sharpener and the
quack of a duck — which is apparently so touchingly
beautiful to the female Palinurus. To take only one
other example : in the small, yellow, meadow ant*
[Lasius flaviis) the third abdominal segment is

* Sir J. Lubbock’s “Ants, Wasps, and Bees,” page 230.

158

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

laterally thrown into about ten irregular ridges, each
approximately yoVo^^- across, and these would seem,
from analogy, to enable the insect to produce a note
inaudible to us.

Careful microscopic scrutiny of the bodies of
several queens (although, unfortunately for this pur-
pose, I had only dried or preserved specimens), leads
me to the belief that their piping is actually an
effect of stridulation resembling that of the ant. The
chitine of the lateral portions of the third and fourth
abdominal plates has its scale-like character (see D,
Fig. 22, Vol. I.) greatly changed. It is here hairless,
and the individual scales are enlarged from
to about y-^in. in width, and have their surfaces
abruptly bowed at right angles to the axis of the
body, so as to give a form which appears to me,
after examining stridulating organs in other creatures,
capable of stridulation. To view the nature of these
parts, very strong and oblique reflected light is neces-
sary. This position is made the more probable from
the remarkable incurved character of the edges of
the plates, which would rub on the file-like part if
the hypothesis be correct. The position and arrange-
ment of the apparatus would fully explain, too, the
muscular tremor observed by many, myself included,
to accompany piping. Some have described this as
the movement of bellows held sideways ; others have
compared it to the working of an accordion. No
other part of the body, so far as I have been able
to discover, suggests, by its conformation, that it
could be employed in stridulating, save the joint of
the collar (the junction between the pro- and mesa-

NATURAL INCREASE.

159

thorax), and here eight or nine delicate line indenta-
tions occur; and possibly the tremor of the abdomen
may be accompanied by a rasping of these loosely-
articulated parts, so as to increase the sound. The
difference between the note of the queen at liberty
and the princess in the cell needs no further ex-
planation than the obvious one, that the voice of the
latter is muffled, while her body-rings are yet soft,
and, consequently, less resonant.

Piping, which cannot be mistaken for any other
sound made by the bees, may be heard by placing
the ear against the hive, on the morning or evening
before the issue of any swarm after the first ; and as
the first cast usually comes off nine* days after the
swarm, let the bee-keeper listen, as described, on the
evening of the eighth day, when, if piping be heard,
it is certain evidence of the intention of the bees,
which may, however, be frustrated by unfavourable
weather obliging them to permit the destruction of
the supernumerary princesses. Yet the lively maidens
are less fastidious, with regard to the state of the
elements, than the matrons, and, instead of waiting
for the sun to near the meridian, as old queens mostly
do, they are sometimes off four, or even five, hours
before noon, or may delay their departure till near
evening. Family jealousies, perhaps, account for
their indifference to external conditions, for danger
at home seems to drive out the free queen, or queens,
which, after piping awhile, go first with such as see
well to accompany them. The presence of more

* The queen cells remain sealed eight days before the contained queen
hatches out. This determines the period of nine days.

i6o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

queens than one is accounted for in one of two
ways : Either two or three, perhaps several, queens
have been allowed to hatch ; or, during the excite-
ment of colonising, some of the cells which had
been guarded have been left, and the contained
princesses have escaped, and flown immediately.

The queens which leave their cells without inter-
ruption so soon as they have carved their cocoons
are not fit at once to take wing ; but those held
back by the workers toughen and strengthen in
confinement, and are able to fly the moment they
are free. Last spring I raised in a stock a number
of Carniolan queen-cells, which were all, save one,
transferred to other colonies, while a queen was
already at liberty in the hive. The latter I carried
away on her comb to form a nucleus (see “ Nuclei ”).
Returning to the stock, I lifted up the frame carrying
the queen-cell, to judge of its condition. The queen
had been kept back, but her guards, being dis-
organised by the movement, permitted her escape,
when she instantly flew, and the bees as immediately
began to rise in a cloud from the opened hive, to
form her attendants. They clustered in due form,
and were as soon as possible returned. Here we
note that the virgin queen went firsts the bees follow-
ing ; that, as a delayed queen, she was strong for
flight when hatched ; and, next, that the bees, un-
aware of the loss of the queen at liberty, continued
to so treat the one in the cell that she hastily left
the colony, although she thus rendered it queenless.
Why, also, did the bees, without an appreciable in-
terval, follow her as a swarm ? Is not the conclusion

NATURAL INCREASE.

l6

irresistible, that the sound of the queen’s flight (dis-
tinct to trained human ears) led them off? We need
no argument to prove that bees hear, for we have
already studied the structure of the auditory apparatus
(page 107, Vol. L).

After the issue of the first contingent, queen-cells
still remain, which now and again are permitted to
hatch in turn — a mania for colonisation seeming to
get possession of the bees ; so that a succession of
after-swarms comes off during several days, extending,
in rare instances, to the utmost limit of the eighteenth,
or even twentieth, after the departure of the old
queen. These are generally so weak in numbers
themselves, while they so depopulate the stock, that
neither they nor it are of much service — at least, for
the current season. Thirteen years since, I had four
after-swarms in five days from one hive, which after-
wards filled a fine super, while all of the casts, with
no additions of brood or combs from established
stocks, became strong colonies ; but this was quite
exceptional, and, after all, was secured by the kind
of attention which bees do not always get.

The exodus of the first after-swarm is generally
followed by the destruction of the queen-cells. Some-
times, fights between hatched queens occur; and these
are serious affairs. The amazons having once fairly
met and grappled together, one at least must die. But
the over-circumstantial accounts of “royal duels” (see
“ Queen Introduction ”) made by some of the older
writers are clearly rather imaginations than facts.
One, e.g., amusingly describes how “ they glare at
each other, like two fencers intent on securing first
Vol. II. M

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

162

chance/^ quite forgetting that the interior of the hive
is in darkness. Another, telling of the distresses of
these royal personages, explains that, “during all
the days piping lasts, not one of the princesses ever
closes an eye in sleep,” a statement which is fault-
lessly accurate, since they have no eyelids.

The swarm collects into a single compact cluster ;
but the cast, which has often more than one point
of congregation, may make two, or possibly three,
masses, which are almost always sufficiently near to
each other to be, at some point, in actual contact.
If, in hiving, one queen is secured, so that the
cluster remains while another queen, at least, is left,
it is needless to strive to bring all into one mass, as
in the case of first swarms ; and if we desire to
secure or utilise the queens, it is better that the two
lots stand temporarily side by side.

The bee-keeper who is anxious rather to obtain
honey than increase, may return his cast, even if he
cannot determine the stock whence it came, by pick-
ing off the accompanying queens as the cluster hangs,
or by sprinkling and hiving, and then hunting out the
queens, by shaking the bees round in the inverted
skep, and beating them down from the sides by
occasional blows outside from the hand, or by giving
the top of the skep a bang on the ground. The poor
Insects, so treated, will become terrified, and ab-
solutely harmless, the queens being usually seen as
they are turned to the surface. When all queens
have been secured, the bees will cluster in the hive
(now stood upright); but, twenty or thirty minutes
later, discovering their condition, they return to the

NATURAL INCREASE.

163

old home. Should the bee-keeper, however, know
at the outset the stock whence the cast issued, it
may, after hiving, be stood next its parent till even-
ing, and then returned, by being thrown down in
front, on a board or sheet. Yet this does not always
end the trouble, the performance often needing to be
repeated next day. Even if the queens in the cast
have been captured, other cells hatch, and off may
come new lots — possibly, as we have already seen,
to the number of four or five.

A better plan is to frame hive in the usual manner,
and stand the cast as close as possible to the original
stock, both doors facing one way ; or, if the hives have
not fixed legs, one may be placed on the other. In
two, or at most three, days, with very rare exceptions,
all the queens, save one, will have been killed, both
in stock and daughter. The queen in the latter we
now remove, and then unite, either by putting all frames
into the one hive, giving a little smoke, or by brush-
ing the bees from their new worker-combs on to a
board or sheet. Should we need young queens, we
modify our procedure, and wait until mating has taken
place, shutting the bees up, meanwhile, to few frames,
so that all are covered. Now remove the queen, and
introduce where required, and unite as before. A
couple of casts, individually weak, and from different
hives, if only of about the same age, may often most
usefully in this fashion be made to furnish beautifully
regular worker-comb (since casts build worker-comb
only, unless they should lose their queen), and a
supernumerary young fertile mother; while their union
will make them into a good and strong stock.

M 2

64

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Even the best of these plans is too troublesome to
be to the taste of those whose aim is profit rather
than amusement ; to such, the preventioji of after-
swarms is the important point. Cutting* out all queen-
cells save one has been given as a specific, deferring
the operation until five or six days after swarming,
so that no eggs or grubs capable of being converted
into queens may remain. The queen-cell elect should
be built on worker-comb, robust, long, and sym-
metrically rounded at the end, like A, Fig. 43. The
short cells, abruptly terminating, and sealed diagonally
to their length, should always be destroyed, as they
yield queens only partially differentiated from the
worker, as I have anatomically proved (page 80,
Vol. I.). But the process is not an absolutely certain
preventive, since, very occasionally, the one queen
resulting will come off, and leave the colony desti-
tute. The cutting-out of queen-cells is, moreover,
subject to misadventure. It is difficult to find all,
and those passed by will usually be the small, ill-
placed, and inferior ones, yielding those poor queens
which, through our meddling, possibly get a chance
of deteriorating our strain of bees. Sometimes, the
one cell left does not hatch ; and, again, even the
keen-sighted may leave, and depend upon (page 154)
a cell that has already furnished a queen.

It has previously been pointed out that it is wise to
put the swarm on the stand of the parent colony,
which is carried to a new position, and thus loses
all its bees as yet old enough to fly. This greatly

* A gash with a knife, certainly killing the lar\-a, is all that is needed.

NATURAL INCREASE

165

aids the swarm, while the stock is so depleted that
it only rarely sends out a cast. Mr. Heddon, who
carries this system yet further, and claims, in conse-
quence, to make it invariably successful, shall speak
for himself : “ Let us suppose that colony No. 8

swarms June 15th. We mark upon the hive, ‘ O, June
15,’ and on the hive in which we put the swarm, ‘ S,
June 15.’ When we hive the swarm (always on full
sheets of wired foundation), we place it on the old
stand, moving the old colony a few inches to the
north (our hives front east), with its entrance turned
northward, away from its swarm, about 45deg. As
soon as the new colony is well at work, having their
location well-marked (say, two days), we turn the old
colony back parallel with the new one. Now both
hives face east, sitting close beside each other. While
each colony now recognises its own hive, they are,
as regards all other colonies, on one and the same
stand.

“ The dates on the back end of the hives indicate
that second swarming may be looked for about
June 23. About two or three days before that date,
and when the bees are well at work in the fields, we
remove the old hive to a new location, in another part
of the apiary. This depopulates the old colony, giving
the force to the new, leaving too few bees in the
old one for the young ‘misses^ to divide; and as
they at once recognise this fact, they fight it out on
the line of ‘ the survival of the fittest.’

“ Remember that you are to remove the old hive
to its final location when the workers are mostly in
the field, and to move it carefully, so that very few

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

1 66

bees carried away with it will mark the new location.
The old colony contains no very young brood, and
very many newly-hatched bees, so that there will
be no loss* of brood by this operation. In sixt to
ten days the old colony will have a fertile queen,
as a rule, and become quite populous, when surplus
receptacles may be adjusted to it. In my practice
with this method, and the practice of many others

who have used it, I am not aware of one instance

of failure. The plan embraces the advantages of
speed and certainty ; there is no hunting for
queens or queen-cells, or even opening the hives.
It needs only to be properly executed to be
appreciated.^^ The general utility of this plan,
and the reasons of its success, are too obvious to
need comment. I cannot forbear, however, immediate
reference to one point, of vital importance, lest the
reader should imagine, as I believe erroneously, that
Mr. Heddon seriously intends that, in the fighting of
the queens, we get “ the survival of the fittest.’^ I
shall hereafter, at length, endeavour to show that,
since the most combative queen has the greater
chance, queen-fighting is ever tending to select the
most jealous and irritable — in itself a disadvantage —
while the progeny of such queens are also likely

to possess undesirable qualities. Let us never forget,

that ^/le needs of the bee-keeper are not concurrent
with those natural selections which are ?nerely
favourable to the queen herself, and so man must

* Mr. Heddon means by chilling or neglect.

f This is certainly an under-statement ; from eleven to fifteen days
would be the average.

NATURAL INCREASE.

167

step in, and direct the production of queens, if he is
to secure qualities which are to him, as a honey-pro-
ducer, of the highest value.

But to return to our cast. A yet neater plan of
preventing after-swarms, which is, unlike the fore-
going, applicable to hives with fixed combs, as well
as others, is possible if we have supernumerary queens.
Giving a fertile mother to a colony that has cast a
prime (or first) swarm will cause the queen-cells to
be cut down, and so prevent further trouble. So
ready are colonies, under these conditions, to accept
a new queen, that even unimpregnated ones may be
run in at the entrance (see “ Queen Introduction ”),
within an hour or two of the swarm issuing, with
perfect safety. The princesses, then very immature,
are, as a result, destroyed.

In the busy season, the bee-keeper cannot do all
that he would, and casts will occasionally occur, and, if
properly treated, may be made into capital stocks, for,
in some respects, they are even superior to prime
swarms, which consist largely of old bees whose term of
existence is rapidly running out; and so the 20,000
individuals, or thereabouts, that we hive, will have
decreased, possibly, to 10,000, or even less, by the end
of three weeks, when additions will commence from
brood hatching. An after-swarm, on the contrary, con-
tains a vast preponderance of young bees which were
too frail, at the time of the first exodus, to take part in
it ; and these, having life before them, are not nearly
so much thinned, at the expiration of the month which
must elapse before new bees are added, as is the swarm
at the less period above referred to. It will be remem-

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

1 68

bered here, that the young queen does not generally
mate until from five to seven days after hiving, and
that two days later she begins laying. On the twenty-
first day next following, grey bees are gnawing out ; and
so the month is made up. This advantageous youth-
fulness in the cast is shared by the queen, who will
reach her prime in the succeeding season. On the
other side, the risk of the queen’s marital flight must
not be overlooked. A bird’s bill, or a spider’s web,
or a mistake on her part at her return, may doom
her colony, unless it be assisted by another queen, or
ripe queen cell. Eggs are an unsuitable remedy, as
they so tardily accomplish their purpose ; and, unless
prevented by foundation (see Chapter V.), during the
whole period the bees are engaged in raising a new
queen, drone-comb only will be built.

Casts often give the bee-keeper an opportunity of
increasing his stock of queens, for each one of the
latter may be made to head a nucleus at any spot
we please, if we give comb (as described under
“Nuclei”) and a contingent of bees. Here her lady-
ship mates, to be afterwards disposed of as our
purposes require. I have many times thus secured
four or five queens from one cast. But hereafter we
shall see reasons for supposing that this, although very
convenient and, ordinarily, most useful, is not, after all,
the most philosophical way of securing our queens.

Bees sometimes abscond because their stores have
run out, and circumstances are desperate. Such have
usually been called “hunger” or “ vagabond ” swarms.
The method of preventing this annoyance and loss
is obvious. After hiving the woebegone subjects of

NATURAL INCREASE.

169

misfortune or neglect, a comb of store and some
unsealed brood should be at once given ; then gentle
feeding, continued with a generous hand until they
have abundance, will restore contentment.

Through endeavouring to include all the difficulties
likely to arise, the whole question may have been
made to appear unduly complex to the beginner ;
but a little practice will show the mutual bearing of
the numerous facts given, and enable the memory to
easily carry them for use as required. The more

advanced may suppose that I have been excessively
cautious in recommending the novice to use gloves
and veil in work commonly so easy as hiving swarms ;
but, be it remembered, my advice is to the “ novice,”
whose remembrances of book directions are likely to
get sadly scattered if he smart under an unw’elcome
sting, and then many may follow. In my opinion,
the learner is far more likely to develop into a
fearless adept if he start with a success, than if he
begin by a failure and literally “ taking pains.” In
the first case, his confidence grows, and his progress
is secured, as his mind is free to observe, and make
deductions ; in the second, he neither learns nor
achieves anything, while his timidity is increased.
I have known, beside, of more than one of those who
affect to sneer at a veil, making, now and again,
more active use of their legs than their fingers. To
the experienced, gloves are always a nuisance, and
the veil very rarely needful ; but to the learner
working alone, I would say — any dressing that may
be necessary to give calmness, is helpful. Under
my own eye, in the grounds of the Natural History

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

170

Museum, with 200 persons present, having less than
half-a-dozen veils between them, almost every opera-
tion of the apiary has been performed, with one or
two stings, all told ; but I have been at hand to
prevent wrong steps, or the results would have been
far different.

Let us close with one reflection. How wondrous
is this swarming instinct in the bee, with its attendant
recognition of suitable conditions of population,
wealth, and prospect — with its orderly execution, in
correct sequence, of drone - production and queen-
raising; and then, when all is ready, and the elements
invite by their calmness, and the mysterious lot has
been cast determining who shall go and who shall
stay, the immediate change in the bearing of queen
and every emigrant worker : the former, always

hitherto hiding in the darkness, now coming forth to
sport in the sunbeam ; the latter, that have striven
with such devotion to till the honey-cells, now becoming
robbers in their own hive — for their old love is for-
gotten, and they turn their backs upon the house
of their nativity, and the home for which they have
lived and laboured, not even bestowing upon it a
backward glance as they sail away. But even now
beautiful unselfishness marks every movement, for
they go to face difficulty, and toil in the founding
of a new settlement, so that the mother and more
favoured sisters may cause the race to multiply
exceedingly.

CHAPTER V.

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDIXG.

Ancient Methods — Comb Guides — Guides in Skeps —
Guide Bars — Plain Guide-7iiaker — Wax Smelter —
Foundation : its Pjiportance — M ehring s Invention —
Wax Sheet — Cheshire Foundation — Foundation
Machines — Fixing — Split Top Bar — Hooker's
Stretcher — Lee's Dovetail Joint — Carr’s Adjustable
Ends — Sagging: Methods of Preventuig — Wired

Foundation — Cheshire Fixers — Wired Frames —
Embedders — Cast Foundation — Thickness for
Foundation — Mathematics of the Question — Varia-
tion in Size of Cells — Abnormal Comb — The First
and Second Row of Cells — Singular Adaptation,
The movable comb system demands ability to direct
and control the position given by the bees to their
slabs of cells. The most obvious, and probably the
most ancient, method of securing this necessary power
was that followed, at the Eastern end of the Medi-
terranean, many centuries since, and adopted by
Huber, who fixed the straightest pieces of comb at
command against the under side of the top bars
of his leaf hive (page 42). Up to our own day,
this system, somewhat modified, is used largely on

172

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the Continent, and although, perhaps, we should regard
it as a little primitive, it may, perchance, be of service,
and so justifies a few lines of explanation. Comb —
preferably that made tough by breeding, and which
contains no honey — is first cut into strips of three
or four cells deep. The frames to be operated upon
being inverted, the under side of each top bar is
painted well with wax, to which a little resin may,
with advantage, be added. A heated iron (the
homely poker answering well) brings again the
cement to the liquid condition, when the comb is
pressed into place, care being taken that the midrib
lies along the centre of the wood. The comb strips
can, if necessary, be flattened by rubbing with a
heated laundry iron the surface which is to be fixed.
Methylated spirit, applied to a thin knife, as before
stated, obviates all ragging, and makes the cutting of
even tender comb so easy that scarcely a cell wall
need be broken.

Even skeps are not beyond the reach of the refine-
ment of straight combs. Dark pencil lines ijin. bare
apart give the position for the guides, which may be
fixed by painting the part each is to occupy three or
four times with wax, and then, while the latter is
still liquid, pressing the guide on to it, and holding
steadily till the work is secure. Wax so used should
be heated in an arrangement after the form of the
carpenter’s glue-pot, to prevent burning, while boiling
water imparts a desirable temperature for working.
Using glue for comb-fixing is a French fashion. The
glue is certainly easily manipulated, and the bees
quickly make all solid, after their own taste. The

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

173

guides completed, a stick may be run through the
skep, about 4in. from the bottom rim, and at right
angles to the guides, when the combs, as built, will
be fastened and saved from lateral sway. Skeps so
prepared are capital travellers, and, being abnormally
regular, are most useful for demonstrations of
driving in bee-tent work.

The knowledge that bees extend their comb down-
wards indefinitely, and that the cells above determine
the position of those below — the fact to which the
before-going method owes its success — was followed by
the observation that the midrib precedes the cell, and
that the comb always grows not only downwards, but
from the centre to the surface, and hence two, perhaps
more refined, plans for directing comb-building were
soon scored as successes. The first consisted in giving
prominence to the line which the midrib was intended
to follow; Mr. Woodbury, e.g.^ adding a central project-
ing slip beneath his top bar, while he rounded off the
lower angles of the latter, so that the clinging bees
should place their “foundations” on the central line, so
temptingly pushed before the attention of the wax-
workers. Langstroth and others, in like manner,
achieved the same result by setting a top bar, triangular
or square in cross-section, with its lower faces at
45deg. to the horizontal (Fig. ii) ; Mr. Woodbury’s
idea being, in turn, simplified by cutting a saw-kerf
into the top bar (D, Fig. 44), and placing within a
wooden slip (m), which was often made additionally
attractive by being painted with wax.

The second process, instead of striving to coax the
bees to place their midrib as desired, actually manu-

174

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

factured the latter in situ, which they must either
accept as part of their structure, or destroy at some
cost of labour. The plain wax guides to which I
refer, although not so well liked by the bees, are,
in some respects, quite equal to narrow strips of
foundation, now generally used ; they certainly are
less liable to fracture, and can be much more quickly
set in position, and in the following manner: Pre-

FiG. 44.— Simple Guide Maker (Full size).

A — th, Top Bar of Frame; sh, Side Bar; ft, Block to make Guide; g, Gutter to
receive AVax. B and C, Sections— AA'ax Guide ; s, Stop ; other Letterings as be-
fore. D— Top Bar, with ws, AA'ood-strip Guide.

pare, by carefully planing, a slip of soft wood [b, A
and B, Fig. 44), free from knots, about Jin. thick, and
of the length between the sides of the frames to be
waxed, and drive into it two brads (j-, B), at bare j^in.
from its edge (or bare half the width of the frame) ;
thoroughly soak this slip in water, and it is ready
for use. Place it upon the under side of the top bar
{tb), alloAving the brads to act as stops ; it will then

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

175

cover slightly less than half the width of the bar. The
wax may be painted on with a brush, but it is far better
to hold the top bar against the ball of the left thumb,
by pressing upon b with the fingers, and so inclining
the frame that a gutter (^) is formed, one end of which
is much higher than the other. At the top part of the
gutter, now pour in a few drops of clear wax, which
should be many degrees above its melting point, and
will run from end to end, quickly or slowly, as the
decline is increased or decreased. The wax, settincr, will
adhere to the bar with astonishing tenacity, while the
slip may be removed at once, since to it no attachment
has taken place, the wax standing as a thin wall [w).

Fig. 45.— Spoon for Dropping Molten Wax.

The latter is made both more solid, and more symme-
trical, by a slight chamfering of the slip {b). It will be
modelled by the bees into a midrib of the usual pattern,
while time will be saved, since operations will be
started immediately at two or three points in the length
of the guide, where, naturally, one alone would have
been taken, and less wax need be secreted. The
plain guides should not, however, be made more than
Jin. deep, or they will considerably puzzle the poor
little sculptors, whose pittings w’ill then frequently be
misplaced, so that corrections of their first sketch
will hinder more time than has been saved. Frames
so furnished, placed between straight combs, and

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

I 76

given to casts, will be filled out with beautiful and
most useful slabs of worker-cells only.

The application of the molten beeswax is much facili-
tated by a simple device readily made out of an ordinary
spoon, by turning up the sides of the bowl, as indicated
in Fig. 45, so as to form a narrow trough with a pointed
end, which can be brought close to the spot where the
w'ax should be placed.

Those who have many stocks will find an apparatus
commonly called a “wax-smelter” of frequent service.

Fig. 46.— Cheshire’s Wax-smelter— Section (Scale, i).

A, Smelter ; w, w, Water-chamber ; co, Cover ; fh, Feedhole for Wax ; sp. Spout;
sc, Spout-cover ; j, Jacket to Spout ; p, Guard ; cw, Clearing Wire. B, Jacket
on Spout in situ — Letterings as before.

indeed, indispensable, if methods are followed which
require the use of liquid wax. The construction
given in the guide-books is possessed of very grave
faults, which I have remedied in the smelter seen
in section. Fig. 46. An oval form, in plan^ is,
perhaps, best both for inner and outer chambers,
while the spout-jacket (/) is shaped like the bow of a
ship. In making it, the wax-chamber is separately
completed, and the water-box made entire, save that
the covers [co, sc) are not added. The wax-chamber

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING

177

is next put into position, and its spout tacked with
solder to the end of the jacket. The cover (co),
perforated to pass the feedhole (/>^), is now, with sc,
soldered to the water-chamber and around the wax
feedhole, when all is complete. The advantages
are these : In the old form, the amount of water

contained could not be discovered, and hence boiling
dry, and consequent unsoldering, was of frequent
occurrence, when the structure was such that repair
was almost impossible; here, the water is in full
view, and if, by any chance, repairs are needed, un-
soldering the covers and the junction between spout
and jacket liberates the wax-chamber, and makes
the whole business as simple as any tinker could
desire. The spout is more convenient, since no angle
exists to prevent it being brought up close to its
work, while the water circulates freely round it,
saving the wax from chilling. A clearing wire (cw)
is kept in the water-chamber, to apply if any sub-
stance should clog the narrow exit. The wax cannot
run from the feedhole (f/i), and a ring of perforated
metal (^, g) permits of the use of the smelter so soon
as the contained water reaches the boiling point. A
considerable block of solid wax is long melting, and
the old model will not work satisfactorily till this
operation is complete ; here, so soon as the water is
of the required temperature, the molten wax will flow'
freely, since the perforated ring holds the unmelted
part of the block, in which it is embedded, away from
the spout, in flowing through which the wax acquires
the heat of the surrounding water. Those who have
been troubled by old defects will best appreciate these
VoL. II. N

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

178

alterations. Whatever plan be adopted for heating
wax, care should always be exercised in preventing
burning.

The fact just now enunciated, that bees will accept
and utilise a wax midrib, prepares the way for the
description of a device which was the earliest to
strive to take the fullest advantage of all it implies.
The conception that complete artificial midribs might
be adopted was a grand one, and, although failure
attended the first experiments, failure but pointed the
way to a success finally so complete and important
that its effect on apiculture is already only second to
that of the introduction of the movable-comb system
itself. Great thoughts do not always, in their incep-
tion, show their importance, and so history often fails
where we most desire her teachings ; but it would
appear that one Kretchmer, a German, about 1843,
dipped tracing-linen into molten wax, and afterwards
passed it between rollers to give it the form of the
midrib. The bees would, probably, start their combs
upon the lines laid down for them, but, reaching the
fibres of the linen, they would, in their endeavours to
tease them out, involve the handiwork of their
human helper and director in hopeless ruin. Another
German (Mehring), fourteen years later, contrived
wooden moulds, in which the wax received the
desired shape ; but these gave way to others for
casting type-metal plates (Fig. 47), upon which the
facsimile of the rhombic bases of perfect cells were
so accurately formed that the two plates in my posses-
sion, put face to face, fit into one another without a
traceable loss of contact in anv part. These marvels

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

179

of exact workmanship were made about I2in. bv yin.,
and it is clear that, if a thin sheet of wax could be
sufficiently pressed between them, it would receive the
absolute figure given by bees to their midrib ; in
other words, it would resemble comb with the cell
walls removed.

Let us now devote our attention to the manner in
which these wax sheets were, and are, prepared, for
they now form the base upon which our modern
foundation is manufactured.

The first need is a dipping-vessel necessarily some-

Fig. 47.— Portion of a Type-metal Plate— (.e., Form of Come Midrir
(Five cells to the inch).

what greater in depth and width than the sheets to
be made, and this should be fitted into a second,
containing water, so that burning the wax is impos-
sible, as by no carelessness can it then be raised
above 2i2deg. Fahr. Some prefer the dipping-can to
carry a perpendicular diaphragm of perforated metal,
on one side of which is added, from time to time,
fresh wax, to keep up the quantity. The wax needs
only to be a little above its melting point (i5odeg.).
Dipping-boards are prepared of seasoned, knotless

i8o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

pine, from Jin. to -|in. thick, and made very smooth.
These should be, when dry, the width required for
the sheet. Soak the boards thoroughly, when they
will swell as much as the sheets will shrink in
cooling. Dip one of these soaked boards into cold
water, shake off all excess, and then plunge more
than half-way into the wax. Raise it again, when
it brings up a layer of wax, covering both its sides.
Hold perpendicularly till the wax ceases dripping.
Plunge now into cold water, reverse the end, and
proceed as before. Twice dipping at each end will
give a sheet thick enough for brood-combs ; one dip
suffices for sheets to be used in sections. As the
ends of the boards are submerged longest, and
also as the wax has a disposition to run from the
middle when the board is uplifted, the layer at the
end of the board is thicker than the rest. This
defect is remedied by dipping more than half-way,
so that the central parts get four layers to the two
of the ends. In cooling and contracting, the sheet
partly strips itself from the wet wood, from which
it can be separated with great facility. Adhesion,
caused by imperfect soaking, will spoil the boards : if
the result of roughness through wear, the remedy is
drying and careful rubbing with fine glass-paper.
Should the wax used be too hot, the excessive con-
traction will sometimes cause the sheets to actually
split ; and incipient cracks, passing unnoticed, will be
likely to wreck the sheets when given as foundation
to the bees.

Foundation is now sold so cheaply that none
would care, perhaps, to make wax sheet ; but the

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

l8

amateur would succeed w^ere he to use a layer
of one or two inches only of wax over w^ater, in a
sufficiently deep vessel. More dips and more cold
water are required, but the resulting sheets are more
even in thickness, and may be converted, w'ithout a
foundation machine, into a practically useful founda-
tion, as hereafter explained.

Let us return to the type-metal plates and the manner
of using them. After lying in a bath of soapy water,
at i2odeg., to soften and prevent sticking, the w^ax
sheets were placed between the plates, which were
generally backed by a pair of strong, hinged boards.

Fig. 48.— Cheshire’s Pla.ster Mould and Block for Making
Artificial Midrib, in Section (Scale, J).

A, Midrib in situ—tb, Top Bar of Frame ; sb, Side Bar ; bb, Bottom Bar ; sc, Screw ;
prn, Plaster Mould. B, Top Bar Carrying Midrib— Letterings as before.

used like lemon-squeezers, when a fairly sharp im-
pression was produced. The plans for fixing embossed
sheet into frames apply equally to modern foundation,
and so need now receive no attention. All attempts
at using these sheets of full size failed. No sooner
w’ere they warmed by the bees than their stamped
pittings became shallower, and the sheets stretched.
Practice showed that guides i^in. or 2in. deep could
not with advantage be exceeded, and so I started a
process which must not be altogether omitted, as it
enabled me to use full sheets with perfect success

i82

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

some time before machine foundation had appeared
amongst us.

Moulds {pm, A, Fig. 48) were made, in plaster of
Paris, upon the type-metal plate before described ;
when these were properly dried, their edges were
planed true. For use, one was soaked in water,
and placed upon a block having four adjusting
screws (j-c), upon which rested, horizontally, a frame,
so that the middle of its top bar {tb) was slightly
higher than the level of the mould. Molten wax

was now painted against the top bar and over the
plaster, where the chill immediately set a skin of
wax, which, of course, did not adhere, while it
completely incorporated itself with the wood. The

top bar, raised, brought with it a firmly-attached
sheet in correct position, and as straight as an arrow.
A dabbing motion with the brush produced the best
impression, which, after a little practice, I was able
to make nearly perfect upon the upper side : that

below was, of course, completely so. When these
sheets were given to the bees, the results were
almost incredible ; but they made evident what had
before escaped me, that the lozenges of the metal
plate w’ere rather too small, and so I determined
to utilise natural comb. Old straight pieces were
selected, 'and, with many devices, which it would be
tedious to recount, the cell walls were shaved down,
when a cast was taken, to replace the one of Fig. 48.
A swarm w^as provided with ten sheets made from these,
and, in sixty-two hours after hiving, I was charmed to
find ten combs absolutely complete, without a drone-cell,
and all as flat as a table. In many instances, these

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. 183

sheets were converted into combs in twenty hours,
besides having many eggs laid in them.

It is the fashion to prefer worker-comb to drone for
supers and sections. It is more than a mere fashion,
as we shall note when treating of honey ; but it cannot
be denied that drone-sized cells store more in propor-
tion to the amount of wax required, and demand, in
proportion to their area, less labour in their construc-
tion by the bees, who in them deposit no pollen; and
so I determined to be able to secure drone-celled mid-
ribs for my supers. Carving at the old comb had proved
that the lozenges all disappear. I have now shown
that the excrement of the larvae fills up the corners
(page 22, Vol. I.), and that all cells, as constructed,
are at first curvilinear in their concave bases ; these
and other reasons convinced me then, and still do so,
that cup-like concavities are theoretically correct for
artificial midribs. Following this line, I procured the
extremely large shot called SSG, drove them through
a jin. hollow punch, arranged them in due order in
a tray, heated them, and filled in their interstices with
paraffin wax, then took a cast from them in plaster,
soaked this cast in paraffin, and took another from it,
which, for my new purpose, replaced /w. Fig. 48.
The sheets were brush-made, as before ; the top
bars of the supers then in use simply taking the
position before given to the top bar of the frame.

These drone midribs worked to my fullest satis-
faction. One instance of their performance will
suffice. I fully furnished three Woodbury supers,
each bin. deep, and exhibited the result at the
Alexandra Palace. The whole of the combs (built

84

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

without separators) were so flat that no point existed
in which a newspaper could not be read between them
through their whole depth of i8in. — a regularity which,
I venture to believe, has never been excelled in any
one instance to the present hour. But a fact of
some importance lies before us, to receive comment
hereafter. These sheets did not stretch, and most
severe trials, through which they were passed in
Pettigrew skeps, did not break them. Why were
they, when of equal weight, more capable of sustain-
ing strain than machine-made foundation of the
present day ?

Fig. 49.— Roller-pressed Foundation.

With all these good points, these waxen sheets
had two defects, the first remediable, the second
fatal. They were more or less imperfect on the
side next the brush ; this I obviated by a process
immediately after obsoleted by the introduction of cast
foundation. But they were inherently messy, and
Mr. Root (whom I should imagine to be amongst the
neatest of men) gave such an account of the drop-
ping wax when he tried his hand, that I felt almost
vain of my tidiness, while it was evident that some-

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. 185

thing different was needed to settle the problem.
And, ere long, dainty pieces of foundation, modelled
to perfection in white wax, by being pressed
through a roller machine like a patent mangle, by
which they had acquired almost a metallic lustre,

Fig. 50.— Foundation Machine (Scale, p.
r. Rolls ; ys, ps, Pressure-screws ; dw, dw, Driving Wheels ; It, Lubricating-trougli.

found their way from across the Atlantic. This
material w'as sent out by “ John Long,” but was
made by a machine invented by Weiss, a German.
The rhomboidal bases were exact, and the cell
walls partly raised, as we find them in Fig. 49. The

86

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

rollers being only bin. long, the sheets formed were
of restricted dimensions ; but American enterpise saw
“ there was money in it,” and Mr. A. I. Root,
whose painting in wax had produced such an un-
sightly picture, quickly had machines ready for the
market, and our friend Mr. Raitt, who became, to use
his own words, “the happy possessor of a machine,
the first of the kind on this side of the Atlantic,” was
soon busy turning out foundation of delightful finish
and great tenacity. Many alterations and some im-
provements have followed, but even yet no pattern
seems to stand better than that made by the earlier
machines in which the rhomboids are kept at the
pitch given to them under pressure by the side walls
standing between them.

The sheets, having been made on dipping-boards,
are ready to be passed between the rolls, which can
be adjusted by the pressure-screws ps) to the

thickness of foundation required — a point which should
be carefully studied at the time of dipping. The
sheets are somewhat extended in their passage, which^
for reasons hereafter given, may break down the
molecular arrangement of the wax, and diminish its
cohesion. The sheets would stick hopelessly to the
rolls unless a “lubricator” were employed. This is
added in the lubricating-trough {l£). Some use soapy
water. Mr. A. I. Root recommends thin paste, made
of cheap starch, as the very best material with which
he is acquainted. From experiment, I believe that
infusion of quilla bark, might, with great advantage,
replace the soapy water at least. Its action in pre-
venting sticking is simply perfection. The altera-

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

187

tions just now referred to have mainly applied to
the particular cut of the rolls, modifying somewhat
the form of surface given to each cell base. Amongst
a considerable number of distinct makes, one or two
only need be mentioned.

The Van Deuzen mill produces what is known as
flat-bottomed foundation, in which the rhomboidal
bases are dispensed with altogether ; cell walls alone
being engraved on the rolls. This mill is usually
made to turn out thin white wax foundation for
sections, which has great beauty of finish, but is
thought to be not quite so acceptable to the bees
as the more common pattern. An interesting and
ingenious variation in the form of the rolls has been
originated by Mr. Pelham. A reference to the accom-
panying figures will enable us to understand his
system. Wax sheets, of course, run through these
machines, not from above downwards, but in the
direction of their length. If we cut a piece of
foundation (A, Fig. 51) into strips (which would be
horizontal as the foundation hangs in a frame),
taking care that the cut passes through the centre of
each alternate line of cells, we obtain strips precisely
like to each other ; and although the right and left
{r and /, A, Fig. 51) edges of each strip are dis-
similar, still the right or the left edge of any strip is
like to the corresponding edge of every other. If,
therefore, we could multiply any one of these strips,
and place the results side by side, we should make
up the form of a complete midrib. Modelling a
matrix for one of these strips on the edge of a ring
{ri, B), taking care that the pattern returns into itself,

i88

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and then multiplying the said ring, we are in a position
to build up a roll at much less cost than if all had
to be independently produced.

Mr. Pelham carries this principle further, and, in
so doing, makes a virtue of necessity, in increasing
the width of the cell base, while he takes one or

Fig. 51.— Details of Sectiox-m.ade Foundation Machine.

A, Comb in Strips (natural size). B, Section-made Roll (scale, «, Axis ;
ri, r/, Rings; ro, Roll, partly completed. C, Plan of Pelham Roll. D, Portion
of Matrix for Edge of Ring (actual size). E, Side View of Ring, carrying Dies.
F, Portion of Axis, carrying four Rings united and one separate.

two liberties with the form of the midrib, which
secure mechanical advantages without appearing to
appreciably damage its suitability. If we examine
the strips (A), we find it impossible to retain the
five complete hexagons each carries without taking

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

189

in parts of others ; but if we reduce these hexagons
sufficiently, without altering their relative positions and
distances from centre to centre, as at C, we may draw
lines a b and c d, and so separate the hexagons with-
out breaking into the outline of neighbouring ones.
Mr. Pelham, perceiving this, so widens his cell wall that
these dividing lines can be drawn as we have them
in the figure. The resulting hexagons, in one file
only, have their matrix prepared on the edges of
rings, of which the side view of one is seen at E.
When they are fitted together, the centre of each
hexagon is necessarily in line with the space between
two in the ring adjacent on each side, as at F. The
rhomboidal form of base is not adhered to, the cell
being merely furrowed down the middle, as at D,
in obedience to the wedge-like form given to each
die, well seen at the edge of the ring [rl') ; nor
are the impressing dies set radially (E), the latter
innovation aiding them in clearing the deep impres-
sions made. Excellent as this form of foundation
is- admitted to be, I have noticed in it occasion-
ally, and in some others — notably the English flat-
bottomed — frequently, that the cells of the two
sides are not properly superposed. This defect is
visible immediately if the foundation be held up to
the light. When it occurs, the building-out is often
confused, with some small, useless cells, and others
of drone size.

There are many methods of fixing foundation, that
by molten wax being the most usual, while it is
applicable to every form of frame. I employ a
board (Fig. 52) rather thicker than half the width of

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

190

the frame, while its length and breadth are such that
the latter freely passes over it. Battens {d, d), 2in.
longer than the board, are fixed flush with its edges.
Screws (i-, s) are added, and so regulated that, when
the frame is passed over the board, the sheet of
foundation, put into place, may have its upper edge
lying along the centre of the top bar. The whole
is taken into the left hand, the board lying over the
left lower arm. The thumb now grasps the top
batten, while the fingers embrace the top bar and
press it into position against the board. The foun-
dation, which must have its upper edge cut true, is,
if necessary, pushed against the top bar, and has

Fig. 52.— Board for Fixing Foundation (Scale, i).
b, b, Battens ; s, s, Regulating Screws.

such an inclination given to it that the wax poured
from the spoon (Fig. 45) or the smelter (Fig. 46)
may run dowm between it and the wood which is
to support it, and, in so doing, weld the two firmly
together. The smelter is now returned to the lamp
or hot plate and a moment given to the wax to set,
when, by a turn of the wrist, the board is brought to
the perpendicular ; the right hand now removing the
frame, holding it plumb, and placing it in a hive or
rack. A little practice will enable this operation to
be performed with great quickness, and, if the plan
recommended be followed, “breaking down” will be
unknown. If the wax be too hot, it will melt the

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

191

foundation; if too cool, it will not adhere. The former
error is hardly possible in chilly weather. Some re-
commend that the sheet be waxed on both sides, from
which I beg to dissent. The line of molten wax

partly conceals the form of the cells lying beneath it,
and hinders the work of extending the comb at this
point. Keeping one side perfectly clear secures an
immediate building-out of the walls of the upperniost
cells on that side, and so prevents the falling of

combs, of which complaints are sometimes heard.
Dr. Bartrum, some years since, asked if I thought
this one-side fixing really strong enough, referring to
a Stewarton that I had supplied throughout with

foundation. My answer consisted in lifting and

carrying the inverted Stewarton body-box by the
foundation attached to its middle bar.

To avoid the need of molten wax, some bring the
circular saw through the middle of the top bar,

dividing the latter up to the ears, in order that
the edge of the foundation may be inserted. The

operation is, however, not an easy one, and is

unfair to the foundation in two ways — first, in the

struggle to get it into place, a partial fracture is
likely to be produced, to result in complete break-
down when the foundation is warmed in the hive,
and called upon to support the weight of the adherent
bees; and, second, the insertion is not so easily
accomplished near the ends of the saw-cut as in its
middle, inducing, unless great care is exercised, buck-
ling, which will ’develop most annoyingly whilst the
foundation is being drawn out in the hive. Mr. Hooker
suggests opening the saw-cut by a wedge, and then

1Q2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

driving into the upper side of the top bar a steel
appliance resembling a two-pronged fork, terminated
by parallel knife edges instead of points. The wedge
being withdrawn, the tool holds open the cleft, per-
mitting the more convenient insertion of the founda-
tion, but the before-mentioned difficulties remain.
Others reduce these by half dividing the top bar by
a second cut run transversely into the extremity of
the first, or end the trouble by a third cut,
completely separating half of so much of the top
bar as stands between the sides. After inserting

Fig. 53.— Details of Lee’s Dovetail-jo lnted Frames (Scale, p.

A, Part of Standard Frame— Top Bar ; sb, Side Bar ; dj. Dovetail Joint ; /*•,
Foundation Space. B, Lower End of Side Bar. C, Ditto with br, Double
Bottom Rail. D, Upper Corner of Standing Invertible Frame— Letterings as
before.

the foundation, the parts are joined up again by
nailing. These devices all weaken the frame, and
require a far greater expenditure of time than waxing,
to which they are, in my opinion, unequal.

Mr, James Lee, long known to bee-keepers as a
most accomplished manipulator of the saw-bench,
has just invented a frame presenting so many good
points that it must become a favourite. It is intro-
duced here because of the extreme fatility and security
with which foundation can be inserted in it ; but its
structure must be examined in order that it may be

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

193

understood. The side bar {sd, A, Fig. 53) has a
peculiar dovetail worked on its upper end, which fits
into a corresponding hollow cut transversely into the
two pieces which, standing parallel to each other,
form the top bar. It is intended to send out these
frames in the flat, the foundation being inserted
during the building-up. The ingenious frame-block
(Fig. 54) makes this operation quite delightful, and

Fig. 54.— Lee’s Block for his Standard Dovetailed Frame (Scale, i).

A, Block m situs, Stop ; c, c. Cheeks ; bb. Bottom Board ; fr, Foundation
Rest; b. Button; kh. Hand Hollow; sb, sb. Side Bars of Frame; br, Bottom
Rails. B, Longitudinal Section through Block— Letterings as before.

even to the novice who may have no mechanical
ability it is perfectly easy. The half top bar is
first dropped into position between the foundation
rest {/r) and the stop (j‘). The side bars are next
added, being slipped between the cheeks (c, c), and the
foundation rest, as seen in the section, when their
dovetails are driven home, firmly connecting them
with the half top bar; the buttons (d) being turned
so as to keep the former firm until completion.
VOL. II. O

194

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The lower bottom rail follows, being inserted (prefer-
ably with a touch of glue) into the side-bar notches.
The foundation is now placed in position, its upper
edge covering the half top bar, the upper face of
which is exactly level with the face of the foundation
rest. The second half top bar is next pressed on,
so as to grip the foundation. To assist in this, the
marked and proximate faces of the two pieces are a
little convex. Adding the second bottom rail com-
pletes the whole, and lifting the block to the perpen-
dicular, turning the buttons, and removing the frame,
with its fixed sheet of foundation, is the work of a
moment ; and I find, after a number of trials, that the
whole operation of building-up and fixing foundation
occupies about half a minute.

Two practically essential questions at once suggest
themselves : Is the foundation firmly held ? and is

the frame thus pushed together sufficiently solid
for work? The result of experiment is far more
to the purpose than a statement of opinion. Two
sheets were tested. The first remained unmoved
till the strain reached iqlb. ; it then broke, part
being left in the cleft: the second, at 151b. parted
at the side, some portion being withdrawn, and
some left in the cleft. The weight was distributed
by clamping the sheet. The rigidity of the frame
is remarkable, and its accurate make prevents any
trace of winding. The dovetail, also, has great
holding power. The lighter, invertible standing
frames (D, Fig. 53) were more easily tested than the
Standards, and here the dovetails bore an average
strain of 52lb. before the side bar was broken from its

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

195

place. Mr. Lee’s idea is to use foundation so deep
that its lower edge may hang loosely between the
bottom rails, and thus be kept perfectly straight.
Whether this be practicable will much depend on
circumstances to be presently considered. He has
not limited his dovetail joint to frames, but has
applied it to hive bodies and sections, all of which may
be sent out in the flat, and put together without nails,
in a manner requiring no further explanation than that
furnished by Fig. 55.

Fig. 55.— Corner of Hive Body, with Lee’s Continuous Dovetail Joint

(Scale, D*

tb, th, Top Bars ; hs, Hive Side.

The poet but expresses a prosaic truth of this
mundane state in sinking: —

O O

“ He that expects a perfect thing to see,

Expects what ne’er was, nor is, nor e’er shall be ” ;

and foundation, with its all beauty (for a sheet from
the hands of an expert maker cannot but excite ad-
miration), still has a fault — a liability to stretch when
warmed by the heat, and pulled by the weight, of
the bees. Purity of material, skilful manufacture, and
careful management, are all essential if we would
prevent this fault from making itself disagreeably

O 2

196

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

evident. Adulterants are largely used by wax-refiners,
and amongst these hard paraffin occupies a con-
spicuous place. Bees accept the mixture, and in cool
weather beautiful combs* appear ; but the melting
point (about i5odeg. for wax) is lowered by the
fraud, and the tenacity at 8odeg. and upwards so
exceedingly reduced, that the ardour of a July sun
will probably involve the bees and their works in hope-
less ruin. The methods which unmask this cruel cheat
will come before us when treating of adulteration.

Even with a genuine article, the maker must know
his art : Mr. Raitt, speaking from long experience,

says ;t Air bubbles that get lifted with the dipping-
board, and then run down its surface before the wax
cools, leave behind them a thin track, which becomes
a weak part in the sheet. The edges of the sheets,
unless well pared, are also thinner than the rest,

and may lead to a fracture close to the top bar.

Those that are right are uniform in texture and

thickness, and show no flaws. If the sheets are

dipped too thin, they do not contain enough wax

to fill the grooves in the rollers that form the cell

walls, and an important element of strength is then
lost. The midrib may be excessively thin, and yet

* Mr. A. I. Root, about ten years since, claimed the successful use
of a mixture of paraffin and Burgundy pitch as a substitute for wax
for comb foundation ; but he soon had to confess that he had shouted
“Eureka” prematurely, the heat of summer converting the satisfaction
of the ingenious inventor into annoyance for himself and his bees. It
is interesting to note, in this connection, that paraffin was first pro-
duced, in the laboratory of the chemist, by distilling beeswax with
caustic lime. There is a long series of paraffins, gaseous, liquid, and
solid ; those specimens having the highest melting point are too hard,
too brittle, and too expensive, to be used as adulterants,
f “Bee-keepers’ Record,” Vol. iv., page 49.

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. I97

no harm result, if the side walls be fully raised. A
glance along the surface of the sheet, between the eye
and the light, will reveal any such deficiency. We
find we can make perfect sheets on the original Root
machine that weigh seven to the pound, Standard size,
though on the later machine only five or six can be got.”
Having secured the best that a conscientious and
able maker can supply, caution is still needed. In
hot weather, without some device to prevent sagging,
foundation cannot safely be given to stocks, even
in single sheets, without great risk of undue

stretching; but the careful bee-keeper will either
adopt such a device, giving him ability to get
foundation converted into comb under any likely

conditions, or he will contrive to have his foun-
dation built (drawn out) in the spring. Under this
plan, combs removed from the stocks in preparation
for wintering, instead of being returned in the opening
months of the season, as the colonies increase in
numbers, are held in reserve for swarms, extraction, or
condemned bees. The foundation may, in this case,
extend to within ^in. or a little more from the
bottom rail, and, it we please, reach to the sides
of the frame at top, and clear them by jin. at
the bottom ; then worker-cells will be secured, filling
the frame, yet giving the bees the chance of piecing
on just a very few of the larger size in the corners.

Foundation 3in. or 4in. in depth loses its mam value^

as the bees, especially if prosperous, persist in filling
the unoccupied part of the frame with drone-cells.

My own experience in hiving swarms upon unaided
full sheets is such that my advice would be, Don’t.

198

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Stretching is all but inevitable, and a breakdown not
infrequent. In attempting this, which some (whose
cautiousness is less than my own) recommend, fix
the foundation carefully, and keep the hive in the
shade until the evening. Then, without jar, place it
in true position, so that the sheets hang plumb. If
unable to keep the hive out of the sun, cover it with
towelling or sacking, occasionally thoroughly soaking
the latter with water. Now introduce the bees, by
throwing down in front, as explained in the last
chapter, allowing them only the usual doorway by
which to enter, so that they may not suddenly collect
in heavy masses upon any of the sheets. Have only
a single thin covering over the tops of the frames,
holding down its edges by wooden slips, and place,
if possible, the frames at not more than ijin. from
centre to centre. This is most important : the bees
in ascending hang closely on to the sheets, and to
one another ; and the larger the interspace, the
greater is the weight each sheet must sustain, and
the smaller the amount of surface upon which opera-
tions will be commenced. The risk is reduced im-
mensely if foundation be alternated with comb, when
the interspace should still be small.

Those using metal ends here labour under a
disadvantage I have previously pointed out. Mr.
Broughton Carr, to remedy this, has just given us
a handy appliance, which will be hailed by many as
a felt want. It is a metal end, allowing of the
desired variation in frame distance, with a very in-
considerable amount of labour. The triangular strut
(Fig. 21) is not provided, the inventor well arguing

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

199

that this is a valueless addition when the frame
ends themselves keep the lateral spacing. They are

struck up from ordinary tin plate, and grasp the lug
by their own elasticity. When it is desired to re-
duce the interspace, it is only necessary to draw
back every alternate one, as at A ; and this can be
accomplished without removing the frame from the
hive. The retention of the Standard top bar ne-
cessitates the prolongation of the metal to where
it is doubled round, so as to meet the face of the

Fig. 56.— Adjustable Metal Ends (Scale, i).

A, Cart’s, Set for Narrow Spacing. B, Ditto for Wide Spacing— Metal Ends.
C and D, Another Form suggested by Author.

next “end,” and preserve the exact distance of
from centre to centre. I have often thought that the
form suggested by C and D, made in type-metal,
would answer the purpose of many. The wide sides
of the “ends” being made i-^^^n., will make this the
distance of frames from centre to centre. Under the
arrangement D, the opposite side being i^V^n., the
turning of every alternate “end” makes the spacing
the mean between the two — i.e.^ Iw'b., as at C. This
form has inconveniently narrow, abutting faces, and
the disadvantage of requiring to be pulled off and

200

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

put on again ; but it has the good point of being
capable of spacing to every distance intermediate
between the widest and narrowest, by slipping the
alternate ends back, much or little, as may be
required. Propolis would then, however, in most
localities, do its evil work.

The extreme importance of being able to use founda-
tion at all normal temperatures, and with stocks or
swarms indifferently, stimulated the search for methods
which should completely overmaster the besetting
weakness adverted to (page 195), and the Van Deusen
Nillis wired foundation, with flat bottoms to the cells,
first promised a satisfactory solution of the difficulty.
At intervals of an inch, thin iron wires were em-
bedded, taking the perpendicular as the foundation
hung in the frame, and so holding the sheet that
the disposition to stretch downwards, under the
weight of the builders^ was entirely obviated. Every
cell of the resulting combs was mathematically
symmetrical ; but careful experiment showed that the
grubs maturing in those through whose bases the
wires ran, frequently died, and I had cases of long
lines of dead larvae, pointing out unmistakably the path
the wire took. This fatality appears to have been
due to neglecting to use wire properly protected by
tinning. The reason why the flat bottom was chosen
is obvious. The wires passed between the rolls, along
with the sheet, and, had the rhomboidal bases been
preserved, the wire would have been bent backwards
and forwards at angles of about 30 deg.* to the per-

* The angles really are 35deg. i6min., and I9deg. 28min., as those Avith
mathematical tastes may discover.

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

201

pendicular, and, straightening under strain, it would
no longer have prevented sagging.

It is manifest from this consideration that, similarly,
the rhomboids of the foundation are prone to sag;
besides, it must not be forgotten that all substances,
unless absolutely non-elastic, when bent are subjected
to molecular strain, which operates in tending to
restore straightness to them when softened. If a sheet
of wax be bent by the fingers, it will be found
(especially when warmed) to partially regain its original
shape. In like manner, the flat wax-sheet is bent back-
wards and forwards into “Vandykes,^’ in the horizontal
as well as perpendicular line, as the cell bases are
being marked upon it. The warmth of the bees, whilst
elaborating the comb, inclines the sheet to reduce the
bending it has received, and so become longer than
the top bar holding it, compelling it thus to assume
a waved form from end to end, while, from the same
cause, its perpendicular measurement is increased — an
effect all must have observed. My brush-made sheets
flowed as liquid wax into the form they were intended to
assume, and so possessed no such tendency. The cell-
wall in foundation, then, is the solidifier, and hence
needs, as Mr. Raitt has so wisely shown, to be made to
fill the cut of the rolls. Theoretically, it would appear,
from the foregoing, that flat-bottomed foundation would
be stronger than that bearing the impress of the
rhomboids. Practically, the opposite is true. I per-
sonally inspected in an apiary, last summer, over one
hundred sheets of flat-bottomed foundation, that had
broken down and sunk into every conceivable curve,
by the side of sheets made on a Root machine, not

202

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

one of which had failed ; and yet the theory is not
at fault. In the former, the rhomboids are small and
the cell-walls very wide, most of the material forming
them being driven from under the dies : each wall,

in fact, is made by two lots of wax flowing, during the
squeeze, towards each other, but which never become
actually one, and, as a result, present little resistance
to fracture or tensile strain.

The mischief wrought by the wires amongst the larvae
led me to experiments which some may yet repeat
with advantage. I placed on the face of the founda-
tion, perpendicularly, and at each i^in., lengths of fine
sewing-cotton, previously dipped into thin glue, pass-
ing the finger along them, to bring them into contact
with the incipient cell-walls. The sheets, under try-
ing conditions, were given to bees, when no trace of
sagging occurred, for each cell-base acted as a bow,
of which the cotton was the string, preventing the
points of attachment from receding from each other.
The cotton, after some days, is teazed away by the
bees. A great variety of fibres were experimentally
used, glued human hair answering much better than
most. Political economists say that the value of an
article increases with its scarcity ; so my experiments
with this material had to be discontinued on the
ground of extravagance. A young lady, it is true,
came to my relief with a beautiful lock, but not until
fine silk had shown itself to be the best substance
hitherto tried. This was at first built in near the
base of the cell, but wherever it crossed from wall
to wall it was soon nibbled completely away. Those,
then, may venture to give foundation anywhere, and

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. 203

anyhow, who will devote sufficient time to fix it by
molten wax, and then glue to it the finest sewing-
silk, in the manner described. While watching these
experiments, a method of procedure occurred to me
which I venture to think has been inadequately under-
stood by British bee-keepers, or it would have been
far more extensively adopted. If a sheet of founda-
tion be drawn out on one side, much in advance of
the other, its free points will curl towards the less
complete side, because drawing out involves some
expansion, as we have already seen. It was clear
to me, that not only drooping needed preventing, but
curling also.

'p — I — rn — I n‘

p p P P V V

U'S

Fig. 57.— Tool for Making Fixers (Scale, i).
ws, Wooden Strip, Perforated ; /, Fixer ; p, p, Pin.s.

I cut No. 18 tinned wire into lengths {/, Fig. 57)
about 2in. greater than the depth of the frame, and
then soldered to each, by their heads, six common
pins {p, p, p). These were easily placed for the

soldering by making, in a waste board, a coarse saw-
cut for the wire, and six finer ones, ijin. apart, and
across the first, in which to lay the pins, the heads
1 of which were wetted with solution of chloride of

I zinc and sal ammoniac, and then touched with a

I copper bit and a particle of solder. Next, a wooden

\ slip {ws), a bare .\in. thick, was prepared, and pierced

204

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

with holes so placed as to receive the pins and the
ends of the wire (^, e'), which had been turned up over
the top and bottom bars of a frame. The fixer {/)
was now brought down to ws, when cutting-pliers
removed the ends of the pins flush with the lower
face of the slip. To fix the foundation, use the
board (Fig. 52), and place the foundation precisely
as for waxing, bringing it well up to the top bar.
Now place the fixers as in Fig. 58, putting one near
to each end, and driving the pins decidedly, and at
once, through the foundation, taking care not to
work the pins loose by any attempt at re-adjustment.

/ / / / ./■

Fig. 58.— Cheshire Found.\tio.\-fixers (Scale, ^).

A, B, Board ; tb, Top Bar of Frame ; /, /, /, Fixers.

and the work is complete. When the frame is lifted,
the foundation will be found to be so solidly held
that no ordinary shaking will loosen it from the pins.
The frames may be carried horizontally, in piles of a
dozen, anywhere about the apiary, to be given to
such stocks as may chance to need them.

It will be seen at once that sagging is impossible,
the sheet being held by thirty distinct points, and, in
addition, that twisting or curling is entirely pre-
vented, since each point cannot move from the centre
of the frame width. Considerable experience has
shown that when swarms, in hot weather, are pro-

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

205

vided with foundation alone, held by my fixers, it is
well to add waxing, as without it here and there the
sheet may droop over from the top bar. With this
precaution, perfect combs are, under all circumstances,
produced, and even pieces of foundation, fitted together,
will yield results but little less perfect than whole
sheets.

The first effort of the bees is to fix the founda-
tion to the pins by building around them little
struts of wax, but if a tiny hole be made near the
pin, the bees on the opposite side of the sheet seem
to communicate through it and dig away the wax,
until a hole nearly |in. in diameter is made ; it would
appear, with the idea of removing what they consider
an obstruction. All this shows the importance of
fixing at once the foundation in its proper place. If
the sheet be cut so large as to reach the bottom bar,
the bees are disinclined (they are not properly able)
to finish out the lowest cells, while they often nibble
for themselves passages (pop-holes). All things con-
sidered, although the fixers permit of filling the frame,
it is unwise to take advantage of it. The wire
should not be thicker than the size already named,
or time will be wasted by the bees in building struts
of comb from its side towards the foundation. The
new comb produced will be able to sustain all the con-
tingencies of a journey from the first without break-
ing, by simply leaving the fixers in position, although,
of course, they render a few cells useless. When the
comb is rather more than half built out, my general
practice is to remove the fixers by a rocking move-
ment, accompanied by a pull. The cell walls sur-

2o6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

rounding the pins are somewhat broken, but an hour
at most finds all repairs completed.

With the object of giving combs solidity, thin pine
boards have been coated with wax, and then passed
through a flat-bottomed foundation machine. The
idea originated in America, and was not accounted
successful. Good combs are at times built ; but if
the bees, in excavating, get down to the resisting
wood, instinct seems to tell them that no cell can
back on to the one in hand, and they immediately
start from the wood-face a strut, which begins a
comb, built between the boards instead of upon them.
This instinct prevented more than a very partial
success in my attempts to get cells built upon glass,
in order to study the development of the egg and
larva ; but it is by no means difficult to secure what
many would regard as a curiosity — a comb, three cells
thick, actually having two midribs. Next a sheet of
brood, place a slab of sealed honey in a full stock,
giving rather an excessive interspace. Draw it back,
little by little, as cells are built up on the face of the
honey ; eggs will be laid, and brood in due time
matured. I have had several such combs in my
possession.

It is usual, at the present time, in America, to
prevent sagging, and secure flatness and solidity, by
“wiring^’ the frames, and subsequently fixing the
foundation in place — a practice but little followed, as
yet, in England, partially, no doubt, because of our
more temperate climate, while we use sheets of
considerable thickness. The top and bottom bars
are finely pierced, as in Fig. 59, when fine tinned

0

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. 207

wire (No. 30) is cut into lengths sufficient for one
frame ; it is then drawn through the central hole
(a), leaving equal lengths free, so as to finish without
waste, when it is sewn backwards and forwards, as
indicated in the figure, and finally fastened, a thin
nail [n) being commonly used. Frequently, a central
perpendicular strip of doubled tin is added, as a
stiffener, to prevent the bending of the bottom bar
under strain, and two diagonal wires are used. These
break up the continuity of the comb, but give great
stability. The foundation is now placed on the board

Fig. 59.— Wired Frame and Embedder (Scale, i).

A, Frame— w, Wire.s ; n, Nail. B, Embedder— /i, Handle ; e, e, Embedding Edges.

(Fig. 52), and the wired frame put over it, care being
taken that the wax sheet is well up to the top bar.
The wires are now to be sunk into the wax, and
this operation needs a fairly high temperature,
8odeg. being none too hot. A small, flat-ended
nail, or a bradawl, will answer by simply pressing
the wire down at intervals of from ^in. to lin., but
it is best to use an embedder (B). Grasping

it by the handle (/z), the little tin projections {e)
soldered to its curved face are brought, in sequence,

2o8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

into contact with different points of the same wire,
which is thus driven down to the centre of the
foundation. Some use the wheeled apparatus (Fig. 6o).
The method of operating is obvious. The wheel,
which is stellate, is grooved at the edge, so as
to hold the wire beneath and between the cutting
points (/>, p). As the wheel is driven, the wire, in
short lengths, is pushed down into the body of the
wax.

The foundation is now very securely held, but it
cannot be safely given in all cases without attach-
ment to the top bar. Waxing in the usual way

would be my preference, but some slightly turn up
the edge of the foundation and bed it into the very
material of the top bar by squeezing with a chisel,
or its equivalent : this process — which occupies more
time, requires more wax, and is less neat, than work
done by the smelter — must clearly be performed
before the embedding.

Mr. Given’s press does not emboss its foundation
between rolls, but between flat dies, and frequently
the frames are first provided with wire, upon which j
the plain wax sheet is laid, when the dies, which fit j

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING. 20g

inside the frame, and are hinged together, are applied
above and below, and the whole passed through the
press, turning out perhaps the most solid midrib pro-
duceable, as the wax by this process suffers no exten-
sion in area. The method is, however, only suitable
to a very large apiary possessing its own press, as
frames already “ wired and waxed ” would occupy
much room^ and need careful packing for transmission.
The “ Given system — metal taking the place of

plaster — is so exactly like a method of my own, that
the explanation of the latter will make the former
more intelligible, while it will redeem a promise given

Fig. 61.— Casts for Impressing Sheets, Section (Scale, Jj;)-
A—b, Board ; p, Plaster ; //', Frame in which Plaster is Cast. B, The Mould
Sheet— 66, Bottom Bar of Hive Frame. C, The Mould Open— <6, Top Bar ; 8b,
Side Bar of Frame ; other Letterings as before.

on page i8i. Take a sheet of good foundation, place
it upon a flat board {d, A, Fig. 6i), and make a frame
of wood iff'), ijin. deep, and slightly smaller than
the hive frame used in the apiary. Cut slots in one
side, to admit two bent garnet hinges (/i) ; grease,
to prevent adhesion ; and place, with the hinges (/z)
in position, over the foundation, which has its cell
I bottoms filled with water, from which all air bubbles

I are to be carefully removed. Now mix sufficient
1^1 plaster of Paris (dentists’ by preference) to fill the
' mould, and pour in. Its weight will displace the

water, which will flow off at the top. The plaster

II VOL. II. P

210

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

having set, invert the whole, so that the foundation
is uppermost. Now repeat the process ; break off
the two wooden frames used, open your mould, and
remove the foundation, and you have the form B.
Dress the edges as may be necessary, and the
apparatus is complete. Sponge the faces of the
mould before using. If you desire wired foundation
a la Given, wire the frame, and place it as in C.
Soften your sheets in hot water as much as possible
without endangering them ; place one on and

close the mould instantly. Although the impression
will be much inferior in sharpness to the original,
it will be worked out by the bees into comb not to
be excelled.

Our outline of plans would be incomplete were we
to omit that foundation has been made by casting,
using an apparatus much like that of Fig. 6i, but (it
is only fair to myself to add) of considerably later
date. The mould is partly opened, is submerged 2in.
or 3in. in liquid wax, hinged side down. By a sharp
movement the two faces are brought together, and
the wax thrown up between them. Surprisingly
perfect sheets are in this way produced.

We now leave the mechanics of the question for
a few considerations, which have too often remained
unnoticed ; and first in order, the one touching size
of cell claims our attention. Very careful measure-
ments of some hundreds of combs, built by numerous
colonies of black bees, showed only inconsiderable
variations and an average of 144 cells, measured
across their parallel sides, to each 3in. Yet these
bees experienced difficulty, as already stated, in build-

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING

21 I

ing out impressed sheet, made by the Mehring plates
(Fig. 47), giving barely 15^ cells to the same space,
indicating, as another fact will presently yet more
forcibly show, how sensitive they are to the size of
the cell. It is apparent also that the different races
of bees we have amongst us do not all make the
cradles for their larvae of the same size ; e.g., the
blacks build drone-comb four cells to the inch ; but
I have a fine large slab of most perfect workmanship,
turned out by a Carniolan stock, measuring all over it
accurately 3^ cells to the inch. There now lies before
me a comb, started with 2in. of foundation, 14J
cells to the 3in. ; but the eye, running along the
two opposite diagonals, which are at 6odeg. to the
horizon when the comb is in situ, shows that the
lines of cells are curved from each other, proving
that the bees have disagreed with the sized cell
of the foundation, and have actually contrived near
the bottom of the slab to make their cells 14 to
3in. only. Both Mr. Raitt and myself pointed out
many years since that Root’s earlier foundation,
giving 13^ cells to the 3in., was accepted only with
ill grace, and that the combs were often modelled
into a mixture of drone, worker, and misshapen cells ;
and Mr. Raitt suggests using this very foundation
for sections, because it would not suit the taste of
the queen any way. Yet, is it not possible that there
are certain strains of the larger races — the Carniolans,
by example — to which it would be even more accept-
able than that which we regard as orthodox ? 1 he

sizes of the races are so characteristically marked,
that this point must have practical importance. In

212

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

two stocks representing average Carniolans and
Cyprians, weighing evidenced the disparity to be
considerable, that between the workers being greater
than that between the drones. Taking twenty of
each for purposes of comparison, I found —

20 Camiolan drones weigh 66grs.

20 C)T3rian ,, ,, 6o ,,

20 Camiolan workers ,, 40 ,,

20 Cyprian ,, ,, 28 ,,

It is clear at once that variations in size of founda-
tion are, at any rate, desirable, and the actual differ-
ences between those combs which have been taken
as models may perhaps explain, to some extent,
why the rolls of different makes have been set to
different gauges, although reasons are not wanting
for supposing that mere accident has had more to do
with it.

Mehring plates give 30J cells to 6in.

Long’s foundation . . . . „ 30 ,,

Raitt’s ,, .... ,, 29 ,, ,,

*Flat-bottomed foundation . . ,,28 ,, ,,

Original Root ,, .. ,, 27 ,, ,,

Flat-bottomed drone foundation ,, 25 ,, ,,

Natural worker-comb seems to vary between the
extremes of 30 and 27 cells to the bin., and drone-
comb between 26 and 21 to the same space.

The thickness of foundation has been determined
a good deal by the demand made upon it for resist-
ing strain, and hence that running about five super-
ficial feet to the pound, z>., of -^Cin. in average thickness,
is usually recommended for brood-chambers. Were

* The size of this foundation cannot be stated absolutely, since it fails
in not measuring the same along the three diagonals, which cut the
parallel sides of the hexagons at right angles.

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

213

these sheets pared down to the wondrous thinness of
natural comb (Vol. I., page 172), they would furnish a
sufficient amount of wax to complete the structure, which
contains no less than eleven times its own area of
tracery (exclusive of the capping). It is interesting
to note how this immense amount of surface as cell
walls and midrib is arranged. A, Fig. 62, represents,
twice natural size, the edges of the former, which
are supposed to be divided from each other as indi-
cated. If we turn the separated sides a, a to the
centre of the cell a\ they will there exactly meet.

B

Fig. 62.— Details of Cell Walls (Twice Natural Size).

A, End View of Cell Walls. B, Side View of ditto—/, Face of Comb ; m, Middle
Plane of Midrib ; s, s, s, Spaces Closed by Midrib.

covering the dotted line; and if this process be
repeated with each cell, as suggested by the lettering
of the illustration, we shall convert the hexagons into
a series of perpendiculars, placed at half the cell-
diameter from each other. (If there be any difficulty
in following the Figure, a few hexagons, built up
i on a table with lucifers, may be transformed into
perpendiculars at once.) Having this method of
^ converting the polygons into an equivalent of such
, simplicity, the length of line of which is immediately

214

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

ascertainable, it is evident that we have only to
discover the exact depth of the cell walls, to be able
to calculate the amount of surface these contain on
any given area of comb ; but the structure of comb
does not quite so easily submit to estimation as
some would imagine, the apparently simple question
of cell depth having too many mathematical subtleties
about it to make it fitting to fully discuss it here.
It will be seen by B (Fig. 62), representing the side
view of the opened-out cell walls, that those of each
cell meet the median plane of the midrib (m) in three
points (for the top and bottom lines of the Figure join
when folded round in the natural position), and that
between these the cell sides fall short of the middle
line. The cell walls do not, therefore, make up the
full width of the comb, part of which (represented by
the spaces s, s, s) is filled out by the inclined rhombs
forming the bases. Calculation shows the deficiency
to be about -gV* ** cells are -kin. in

diameter, or — which is the same thing — the perpen-
dicular lines into which their sides are convertible
3^in. apart, and the comb lin. thick, it is clear
that every square inch of comb will contain -Iy of
ten square inches of ceil wall. To this the midrib
must be added, the area of which, as consisting
of rhombs inclined to the cell face, must be greater
than the area of the comb itself, the excess being

* The general formula lor all comb, drone or worker, I find to be —
tan. iQdeg. 28min. x cell diameter

\/ 3 (comb thickness)

The whole calculation is too lengthy to be introduced ; but a study of a
well-made piece of comb or foundation, some knowledge of trigonometry,
and a little patience, will enable the reader so disposed to verify it.

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

215

about ^ of the whole.* And thus the cell walls
and midrib together make up eleven times the comb
area very closely. If to this be added the sealing,
we find that the industrious labourers have to
produce a surface of wax tissue of upwards of 1300
square inches to furnish a Standard frame, or about
enough, in a hive of eleven frames, to ceil a room
ten feet square.

Thick foundation would, we have said, furnish suf-
ficient material for the completion of the comb ; but
the bees very rarely work more than half their cell
walls out of even the stoutest sheets given them,
leaving a thick mass of yellow wax in the neigh-
bourhood of the angles of the rhombs. It has often
been noticed that the amount of paring to which
the foundation is subjected varies according to
external conditions, and that, especially when busy
honey-gathering, the bees scrape the foundation but
little. The reason is not far to seek. The cell of
worker-comb is not much larger than is absolutely
necessary to admit the wax-builder’s body. The
scraping and thinning of the cell base supply
materials which must be stowed somewhere until it
can be put into form, and the instinct of the
modeller leads her to pack it along the rim of the
gradually-growing cell walls ; but heavy additions
cannot here be made, or the little worker would
herself be prevented from getting at the seat of
her operations. When the cell wall is half drawn
out, the foundation is, of course, only partially

* The total area of the rhombs is to the area of the comb as \/ 3 : \/ 2.

2i6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

reduced in thickness, and, did the cell remain empty,
the drawing-out would be continued, reducing the
accumulation on the rim, when wax would be econo-
mised by further scraping, so as to secure material
for the extension or completion of the structure ; but
the return of the foragers, in prosperous times, puts
nectar on to the bases of the half-drawn-out cells, or
the queen bans disturbance by the deposition of an
egg, and further thinning is henceforth entirely pre-
vented.

Drone-cells, on account of their greater diameter, per-
mit of almost unlimited heaping-up of material on their

Fig 63.— Half-finished Cells on Drone-foundation (Twice Natural Size).

A, Cells showing Fittings in Heapecl-up Wax. B, Cell in Perpendicular Cross
Section— p, p, Fittings ; cw, Cell Wall. C, Cell in Horizontal Cross Section.

edges, and so drone-foundation is far more commonly
completely thinned down than that of w’orker size; A,
Fig- 63, e.g., giving an exact representation of comb
worked on thick drone-foundation, showing the im-
mense width to which the cell walls may be extended,
while yet yielding to the worker ready entrance. The
strange disposition to hollow the surfaces, probably
derived by the bees from burrowing ancestors, is very
noticeable ; and to such an extent has this been
carried in some specimens in my possession, that
the pittings have actually been converted into inci-

/

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

217

pient cells. We thus learn why foundation the cells
of which are rather smaller than the size most accept-
able to the bees to which it is given, is but little thinned
down, while the foregoing considerations show that
foundation five square feet to the pound gives no
greater aid to the bee than that little more than
half its thickness. The excess of wax the former
contains may be, and is generally, of service in
adding solidity during drawing-out, but it remains in
the midrib, where it is rather a disadvantage. Strict
economy is inconsistent with the use of this heavy
foundation, while that of lighter make (seven feet or

Fig. 64.— Foundation Correctly and Incorrectly Suspended.

thereabouts to the pound), aided by my fixers or any
of the several plans indicated, will yield combs which
leave nothing to be desired.

In natural objects, even small differences are usually
not without a meaning, and here foundation, which
is an imitation of a natural midrib, should not be
suspended sideways in the frames. A piece of comb,
as built, will always have its hexagons disposed as
in A, Fig. 64, the perpendicular walls on both its
faces giving, in consequence of their position, the

2i8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

highest possible resistance to downward strain. As
comb or foundation so placed has no horizontal walls,
it is clear that it will have no perpendicular ones
if suspended as at B. The sides of the hexagons
are in this case either horizontal, and consequently
useless in resisting down strain, or are subjected to
the great disadvantage of all inclining 3odeg. to
the perpendicular, towards which any pull would tend
to bring them, thus throwing the whole of the
tension on the comparatively weak midrib, making
stretching, distortion, or even rupture, all but inevit-
able.

When we inquire how it happens that bees na-
turally arrange their cells in a manner which statical
laws show to be the most desirable, we are met by
facts as beautiful in their adaptation as they are re-
markable in their method of achievement. Some of
these attracted the attention of, and greatly charmed,
the older Huber, although it appears to me he failed to
see their inner meaning, or give to them their proper
interpretation. We have already learned (page 170,
Vol. I.) that each surface involved in comb is, in all
respects, the result of interaction of two bees scoop-
ing simultaneously, or of one bee working alternately
on its opposite sides. If we now take a piece of
foundation, cut at its top edge, through the upper
angles of the hexagons, as at A, Fig. 65, and bring
it against the top bar [tb), we find we have given to
the bees, according to our last statement, an impossible
task, since the openings 0, 0 are too small to permit
a bee to enter in order to operate on the upper
surfaces of the sides (j-, j) of the hexagons. But this

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING.

219

failure on the part of the bees is of the highest
service, for could the hexagons of the topmost row
be constructed complete, the attachment of the re-
sulting comb would be of the most fragile description,
since the sides {s, s) would, from their position, be
little able to resist strain. In effect, these sides are
absolutely ignored, and cells of a special form, really
irregular pentagons, produced (B), which have four
sides of wax, closed above by the top bar forming a
fifth. These cells, called by Huber, under a mis-
apprehension, cells of the first row (“ /e preinier

Fig. 65.— Attachment Cells (Twice Natural Size).

A, Comb Foundation— Top Bar. B, Foundation, partly drawn out.

rang'"), but which I purpose, for a reason stated
hereafter, denominating “attachment cells,” give, by
their extended perpendicular sides, the strongest
possible fixing, since the strain is absolutely in the
direction of their length, while the inability of the
bee to reach into a rectangular corner necessitates
a thickening of the upper extremity of the wall,
where it joins the top bar, thus adding to the solidity
of the structure.

The modification of the attachment cell is not,
however, confined to the cell wall, the rhombs being

220

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

SO altered that they, too, secure the highest possible
rigidity, and in the following manner. The two lateral
rhombs (r, r) are carried upwards to the top bar,

ceasing to be rhombs, and becoming trapezoids.
These have a much less inclination from the per-

pendicular than the lower rhomb, /r (see footnote,
page 200), and even this inclination is reduced by
the relative positions of the bees modelling them
on opposite faces of the comb ; while, from a
reason before given, they are thickened at their

upper edges.

The full beauty of these adaptations cannot be
seen without studying both faces of the comb and
noting how they are related to each other ; and,
probably, many are unaware that, while all cells

(save the attachment cells) on one face of the comb
may be alike, they must, of necessity, differ from
all those of the opposite face. In dealing with this
matter, although neither face can rightly be regarded
as front or back, it will be a convenience to follow
Huber, and call them anterior and posterior respec-
tively. If A (Fig. 66) represent the posterior face
of a piece of comb naturally built to a top bar
B will be the form of the anterior face of the same
piece, which comparison shows to differ from A in
almost every particular. The attachment cells, it is
true, have, in both, the same beautiful adaptation of
their sides, previously noticed, but the bases of those
of the posterior face contain but two trapezoids each
instead of two and a rhomb, and these are not
paired, as are those of the anterior face. Trapezoids
I and 2, belong to one cell in A, and to two

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING,

221

distinct cells in B. The lower rhombs in the line
a b' belong to the attachment cells in B, while their
opposite sides {a b) form the upper rhombs of the
second row of cells of A ; these cells, and those of
every other row, having their rhombs arranged as those
of B inverted — i.e., the anterior face of a piece of founda-
tion becomes the posterior one by simple inversion :
so that foundation, although having sides, as we have
already seen, has, strictly speaking, neither top nor
bottom ; or, with regard to it, these terms are con-
vertible. The variation in the height of corresponding

I 2 3 4 5 6 ^5 6' 5' 4' 5' 2 \

A, Posterior Face. B, Anterior Face. Similar letters and figures refer to opposite
sides of the same parts in each.

rows of cells on the two faces, is indicated by the
similarly lettered lines in the Figure, and, while it is
clear that the attachment cells of the posterior face (A)
must be sufficiently deep to admit a bee, those on
the anterior face must be deeper by half the diameter
of the ordinary cells, measured between the angular
points instead of the parallel sides ; i.e., they must
be far too deep and irregular in form, both in the
sides and bases, to be suitable to breeding purposes —
a point the import of which we shall presently see.

222

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Huber was so pleased in discovering that the cells
of premier rang'' obeyed all the laws of construc-
tion, that he erroneously concluded that they were so
formed in order that the laws of construction might
be obeyed. Had he followed up his investigation,
which seems since his day to have had a long slumber,
he would have found that obstacles placed in the way
of the bees lead to the formation of these special cells
in any row, and in any position with regard to the
horizon we please. It is only necessary to lift an ordi-
nary frame of comb out of a hive, to see that the cells
built against the frame side are constantly like to
those Huber supposed to be found in the first row
only ; and when by chance (and this happens frequently)
the comb is built down in part to the bottom bar,
we have cells again of the form under discussion,
except that they are upside down. From this the
inappropriateness of Huber’s title justifies the new
name I suggest — ‘‘ attachment cells.”

The unsuitableness of the irregular cells for brood-
raising has been noticed in passing; yet this unsuit-
ableness does not bar their fitness for storing honey,
and so bees build out such to the side bars of their
frames to stiffen their comb, and receive their store
until they come down to the line of the brood ; but
here (see Figs. 7, 14, and 27), since such additions
would increase labour but not accommodation, cells
of true form only are constructed, and these natu-
rally stop short of the hive or frame side, as the
case may be. The fact that bees thus attach their
combs laterally as far down as the honey, has been
cited times without number, and, as I take it, most

ARTIFICIAL AIDS TO COMB-BUILDING,

223

illogically, in favour of close-ended frames ; for it has
been said bees so build in order to prevent a flow
of air round their comb, and sustain temperature,
the supporters of the argument ignoring utterly the
obvious truth that warmth is really vital to the
brood, but • comparatively unimportant for the honey.
Had this been their object, surely the attachment
would have been continued all the way down the
comb side. An unprejudiced examination of the
question can, I venture to assert, lead to no other
conclusion than the one I have advanced. The
difficulty bees have in filling up an accidental hole
in their comb points in the same direction. So
soon as the hole is too small to readily admit them,
their work becomes confused, irregular, and patchy ;
while, if section racks in which breeding has un-
fortunately occurred be examined, they will frequently
give a corroboration of my position. The foundation,
it may be, is attached laterally, and very similarly, in
two boxes : in one honey is stored, and here the cell
walls are all built out, the nectar having been added,
pari passu, with their growth, and sealing to the very
wood covers all ; but in the neighbouring box, where
the queen has volunteered her assistance, the midrib,
as before, continuous to the wood, remains as at first,
while the cells are completed only so far as the bees
could work on both sides of the whole boundary of
each hexagon. Indeed, very irregular surfaces for at-
tachment of comb so impede the bees, that they are
often content with thick additions of wax to give soli-
dity. In this way, combs in skeps are frequently quite
thin against the straw, as noticed under “Bumping.”

224

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

Our chapter on Bee Architecture (Vol. I.), together
with this we are now concluding, should leave our
minds impressed with the richness of that treasure-
house of beauty we call Nature. Man’s foundation
has, indeed, accomplished much ; yet not because it
is ‘‘an original,” but because it is “a copy.” It aids
the bee by spreading out a wide field upon which
may be exercised from the first the modelling energies
of multitudes, which, in a state of nature, must, in
quiescence, hang and wait until the labours of those
above shall carry down the growing tracery to within
their reach. It aids her, too, in saving the exhausting
and expensive secretion of wax, by giving her second-
hand material to use as new. Not less it aids her
master, by compelling her to bend her will to his,
and build upon the plan that he has traced, forming
also her cells of the size that he directs, and so
banishing from her home the drone he does not de-
sire. But he has to “ stoop to conquer.” First, he
must learn of her the wonders of her ways — pain-
fully and slowly tracing out the intricate relations
of the form which secures the fullest economy, the
greatest strength, and the largest cell-accommodation ;
and then, humbly imitating the pattern she has set,
showing a wisdom she has not learned, and too
profound to be her own, he verifies the proverb that
“ in all labour there is profit,” by tripling a prosperity
in which he is the self-constituted partner.

CHAPTER VI.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

Disadvantage of Natural Swarming — Variation and
Selection — Importance of Artificial Selection to Im-
prove the Race — Artificial Swarming ofi Skeps —
Driving: Open and Close — The Rationale ofi Driv-
ing : Cautions respecting — Transferring — Trans-

ferring-boards— Three out of Two^’ — Plans with
Frame Hives — How to Examine Combs of Latter
— Handling the Queen — Making Swarms by Jerking
and Brushing — False Cluster — Swarm-box — Weigh-
I ing Bees for Sale — Number of Bees to the Pound —
Nucleus-swarming — The Prevention of Swarming.

The hive bee’s natural means of increase, “swarming,”

! demands so much time, and is accompanied by such
I uncertainty and inconvenience, that but few api-

11 culturists nowadays have not taken the matter, as

far as practicable, into their own hands, increasing

I the number of their colonies, when they deem such

i increase desirable, by a variety of methods called

I generally, but with doubtful accuracy, “ artificial
'll . ,,

y, swarming.

It is needless to point out that if the question of
* colonisation be left to the determination of the bees,

! VoL. II. Q

226

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

swarms will now and again settle in most incon-
venient positions, or come off at most inconvenient
times, or be lost by leaving when no watcher is
at hand ; while, on the other side, the seemingly
perverse insects often most tantilisingly idle, week
after week, in big clusters at their hive door and
swarm not. Unfavourable weather, also, will sometimes,
after all things are ready, keep the queen back until
the princess intended to succeed her is necessarily
destroyed.

But these evils, although the most conspicuous, are
by no means the most important ones inseparably
connected with natural modes of increase. An in-
dication of two or three of those not at first
apparent, will make clear my meaning. It has already
• been pointed out (page 125) that the swarm departs,
normally, so soon as the queen-cells are sealed,
although frequently the bees leave several days
earlier. Eight days subsequently, or thereabouts, the
first princess hatches, and in seven days more, all
things being favourable, mates, two days later de-
positing her first eggs ; so that the parent stock is
seventeen days at least without a fertile queen.
This, occurring in the height of the laying season, is
a far more serious check than the loss of the whole
of the bees of the departed swarm, which probably
did not contain more than 16,000, or at the most
20,000, individuals (the number of bees in swarms is
usually much overstated) ; for a present queen could,
during that seventeen days, have deposited — according
to her quality, the number of bees attending her,
and the condition of her hive — between 30,000 and

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

227

40,000 eggs, which could have been nurtured into
adult bees at an expense of bee life far less than
the difference between the number in the swarm
and the number of eggs laid.

From all this it is clear that any decrease man can,
by management, make in the seventeen days afore-
said, will be to the great advantage of his stocks ; and
we shall presently see that it can be easily reduced
one-half, while very workable plans practically anni-
hilate the interregnum altogether. Again, in natural
swarming many queen-cells are built (page 125), the
contained larvae of which are all lavishly nurtured at
great cost in time and energy, yet usually one only
of the resulting queens reaches the stage in which
she pays for her bringing-up ; the rest are ruthlessly
slaughtered and cast forth — a loss pure and simple to
the community which at first laboured for, and then
destroyed, them. In a well-managed apiary, however,
in which artificial swarming is followed, this leak of
wealth is well-nigh stopped, and the queens which
are supernumerary, and so, under natural conditions,
necessarily devoted to destruction, are, in the greater
number of instances, transferred to other colonies, which
are thus saved the cost borne by their neighbours.
But. I would lay the deepest stress upon a point yet to
be considered. Attentive observation will show that,
amidst a well-marked uniformity in anatomical structure,
instincts, and capability, there is a range of variation in
the bee which is by no means narrow. In half-a-dozen
stocks of the same race, which start the season in
similar hives, with equal quantities of comb, with like
population, the same forage-ground, and identical

Q 2

228

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

treatment, the results will often be extremely dis-
similar; and while I know, from careful investigation,
that these disparities are occasionally the result of
unhealthy conditions, from which some stocks have
suffered and others not (for bees are subject to dis-
eases in a variety, and with a frequency, of which
the bee world has been ignorant, as I intend more
fully explaining hereafter), yet generally the diver-
gencies follow from variations in the bees themselves,
which variations, if philosophically handled, open up
possibilities to the apiculture of the future, of
which, at present, we have little idea. In a certain
sense, the queen, or, more truly, the queen and
the drone with which she has consorted, are the stock.
In a measure, this has been some years recognised,
and many a queen has suffered decapitation because
of the naughty ways of her children ; but if in
temper she multiplies herself in her progeny, it is
equally true that she is the medium by which every
other quality and capacity is made to inhere in the
colony which she heads.

Returning to our hypothetical stocks, we find one, it
may be both in population and in wealth, forging rapidly
ahead of the rest. We tier section rack upon section
rack, and still the bees hold on filling the space
given to them ; and when the honey-season closes,
we discover we have a magnificent result, beating our
record, and giving us, perhaps, a reputation for bee-
mastership which we little deserve. The next stock,
possibly, after refusing our sections, swarmed and
swarmed again, and so has made us the proud
possessors of a little string of new colonies, with

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

229

which our apiary in the coming year shall have,
as we fondly hope, larger possibilities than it has
had in the past. The rest have been, perhaps, an
all-round average — some better, some worse — but
nothing especially remarkable. Our half-dozen stocks
thus left to themselves, so far as increase is con-
cerned, present us with an instructive type of a
process which has been at work through the ages,
amongst the honey bees, in a state of nature.
Variations have constantly been occurring; but those
bees which have been the largest hoarders of honey
have been, on account of this characteristic — especially
if it has been very marked — restricted in any effort to
multiply the race by swarming. The queens of these,
the most valuable stocks, have left no progeny, and
the variation which (from the bee-keeper^s point of
view, at least) is most worthy of perpetuation, and, if
possible, of augmentation, has died with the queens
which have given it origin. But not so with the
persistent swarmers, which, in the nature of the case,
amass less wealth : theirs it is to raise new queens,
start new .colonies, and so strongly impress their own
variations upon the bee-life of the future. It is true
that reckless swarmers, rushing out to start new
colonies at unfavourable seasons, do not naturally
perpetuate their peculiarities, for they succumb in the
struggle for existence ; but, after this abatement is
fully made, the fact remains that natural selection
unduly favours the swarming impulse, while it gives
no encouragement to those variations which lead to a
collection of honey considerably in excess of the
needs of the colony gathering it.

230

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Similarly with our own bees : the golden opportunity
of improving the race has been allow'ed to slip
through our fingers. Our apiary is increased truly,
but with bees of the swarming type, not conspicuous
as honey-gatherers. What should we think of the
stock-raiser who would save for breeding purposes
the cow-calves from the mothers that most quickly go'
dry, and send those of the heaviest milkers to the
butcher ? If we see the case clearly, should we not
deem ourselves guilty of equal folly in permitting the
multiplication of the less desirable while making no
effort to prevent the extinction of those exhibiting
much-coveted peculiarities ? Is it our belief in the
natural, and the condemnation of that we call artificial
(page 1 15), which send us astray? If so, we need to
be reminded that well-chosen artificial processes are
not against natural ones, but in extension of them.
Is it not truly natural for man, to whom has been
given ‘‘dominion over the fish of the sea, and over
the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that
moveth upon the earth, to exercise his mastership
according to the guiding of that intelligence without
which his dominion would be a mockery — /.(?., to
interfere by introducing the so-called artificial, in order
that that which is already good may be better, and he,
the master, secure, in the fullest attainable measure,
the supply of his needs or the object of his desires?

Natural swarming, then, which gives natural selection
full play, or even possibly, through unwise meddling
on the part of the bee-keeper, causes it to work still
more inimically to his highest interest, can never
secure results so favourable to apiculture as those

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

231

that must flow from wisely-conducted artificial
methods. Artificial swarming has well-nigh outlived
opposition : it is now admitted to save time and

trouble — and, unhappily, as it is conducted in very
nearly every apiary, it does no more, for the philosophy
I am now advocating seems to have been all but
absolutely overlooked ; but we ought to claim, as we
are undoubtedly able to achieve, immensely more than
this. Man, in the wild horse and the mouflon, has had
put into his hands the instruments by which animals,
incomparably in advance of their prototypes, have
been produced. Relatively, he has even greater power
over the future of the bee, that power lying in proper
attention to variation and selection. Nor must it be
forgotten that variations, which are at first fitful,
appearing and disappearing, are made constant and
permanent by persistent following. A single decade,
rightly used, with the bee, would do great things, as
two or three selections per year are quite within the
range of possibility ; but we must leave the further
discussion of this important matter until we reach the
question of queen-raising.

The methods of swarming artificially are practically
endless, but it will be only necessary to give such as
exemplify the principles that must ever be borne in
mind while making any modifications that the special
object in view, or the condition of the stocks, may
seem to demand. Of course, our plans will largely
depend upon the character of hive with which we
have to deal ; and so I purpose treating the question
under three heads — firstly, explaining how to swarm
hives with fixed combs ; secondly, those with frames not

232

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

interchangeable ; thirdly, those with interchangeable
frames — subsequently giving such information as will
enable the bee-keeper to judge of suitability of season,
ripeness of hive for increase, &c.

In dealing with skeps or box hives, the bees which
would, in natural swarming, voluntarily leave have to
be ejected from their house and home by a process
called “ driving,” which has been, on account of the
astonishment it is likely to awaken, constantly chosen
for exhibition purposes in the bee-tent. If we are
to operate upon a skep, two or three puffs from the
smoker are driven into its mouth, so as to frighten
its inhabitants, causing them to leave their floor-board,
and retreat amongst their combs to fill themselves,
with honey — they being allowed two or three minutes
for the operation, during which, if the bees are known
to be irritable, an occasional rap may be made upon
the straw. There are two kinds of driving, both of
which deserve explanation. Having provided a stool
or table, so as to make our work as convenient as
may be, we lift the skep, turn it bottom upwards, and
place its crown in a tub (Fig. 67) or a shallow pail,
and immediately place over all a second skep having
the same diameter as the first. A long bandage, or
jack-towel, is fastened round the edges of the two hives,
in such a way that not a bee can escape. The lower
hive — that is — the one containing bees and combs,
is now beaten with sticks, or with the hands, to jar
the whole fabric, and terrify the poor little honey-
gatherers, whose composure has already been upset
by the noisome cloud which was at the first shed
amongst them. The beating must be fairly continuous.

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233

but not violent, or we are likely to break the combs
from their attachments (particularly if we direct our
blows towards the comb face), and so bury the bees
in the ruins of their city. In from one to five minutes,
the wildest confusion prevails within, each bee rushing
madly about ; when the whole, making a roaring noise
by the vibration of their wings, commence a stampede
into the empty hive standing over them, from the

Fig. 67.— Arrangkment for Open Driving
rs, Receiving Skep ; s. Skewer ; di, di, Driving-irons ; t, Tub.

roof of which, a few minutes later, they may be found,
by the removal of the bandage, hanging much after
the fashion of a natural swarm. The method so far
outlined is called close driving,’^ because the edges of
the two hives are brought into contact, and the escape
of even a single bee is prevented. In this particular
it will recommend itself to the beginner, whose
nervous dread of a sting yet weighs with him

234

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

in his choice of plans ; but with the single excep-
tion that it may be performed by lamplight
much more easily than those who have never
tried it could imagine, it has little to recommend it,
as, for expeditious swarming, removal of queens, &c.,
it is not to be compared with “ open driving,’^ which
differs from the foregoing in placing the hive to re-
ceive the driven, or forced, swarm over the other, at
an angle, as in Fig. 67. One, or better two, stout
kitchen skewers, thrust, a hand-breadth apart, through
the edge of the receiving skep {rs), into the rim of the
lower one, serve to keep the two in the right relative
position, which should present the least possible im-
pediment to the bees in their upward march. The
union should occur at the part of the circumference
opposite the ends of the combs, as the several seams
of bees between them are thus more readily enabled
to pass into the receiving skep, and here it is that
they seethe out in the greatest numbers. The
shadows in the Figure show how the light should
fall. Let the operator stand with his back to it, and
with the skewers opposite to him, so as to command
a perfect view of all that passes within. He may
grasp, with one hand, the front edge of the receiving
skep, which thus becomes the lid of a box, kept par-
tially open, while the skewers form the hinge ; but
Mr. Hunter introduced a small wire appliance to fix
the hives together, and added the driving-irons (dt),
as in the Figure, for holding the upper skep at any
desired angle. Pointed sticks, pressed firmly into the
straw of both hives, answer every purpose, having,
like the driving-irons, the very considerable ad-

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

235

vantage of entirely freeing the hands of the operator.
Commence now to drum or beat upon the side of the
skep, either with the bare hand or with a stick, as in
open driving, when the bees will almost immediately
begin to ascend ; and, as we continue thudding, careful
watch should be kept for the queen, who will generally
be espied eagerly seeking security by clambering
aloft amongst her retreating children, who make no
attempt to escape by the opening between the hives ;
nor do they at all threaten to use their stings. They
are so terror-stricken that thoughts for their own safety
entirely banish notions of vengeance, and, under these
circumstances, they are harmless as flies. Generally
speaking, the veil is a needless impediment whilst
driving. The beginner should start with one, but
may throw it off so soon as the bees indicate their
subdued condition, by commencing to run upwards.
At the time we lifted the stock, probably large num-
bers of bees were out foraging, and these, at their
return, would, after a futile search for their old home,
strive to enter other hives, to possibly meet the rapid
despatch. An empty skep (a decoy skep), resembling
the one removed, should be placed for their amuse-
ment, when they will enter, leave, and re-enter, until
our operation is complete, and we are able to deal
with them.

Driving for the purpose of obtaining a forced
swarm is usually only undertaken in genial weather :
but sometimes it has for its object the removal of
both bees and combs from the skep in order that
they may tenant a frame hive, and then adverse
conditions may need some care in preparing the stock

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

236

for the operation. In cool weather, and where honey
has not recently been gathered, about twenty minutes
or half an hour before attempting to drive, the skep
should be inverted after smoking, in order that the
bees may be freely sprinkled with warm, thin
syrup. This syrup should contain not more than a
pound of sugar to a pint of water (if thicker, it
would be likely to glue the bees together), and
should be made by boiling with vinegar, or some other
acid, such as citric or tartaric, so as to convert the cane
sugar into grape sugar (see Bee Foods), or the syrup
will dry and crvstallise upon the bodies of the bees,
like so much chalk. Of this a gill will be sufficient,
and, if the combs be tough, the skeps may be held
so that the syrup may be poured into the cells of
the several combs. The feeding and the excitement
will raise the temperature, and greatly expedite our
work. Indeed, drumming for twenty minutes upon a
hive caught up immediately after smoking will not,
usually, drive as many bees as two minutes will dis-
lodge from one in proper condition.

In open driving, the skeps need not be of the
same diameter ; indeed, on one occasion, when on
a visit where a few stocks of bees were kept, having
consented to make an artificial swarm, I could dis-
cover nothing better to receive it than a lady’s chip
bonnet-box. The box was well scored inside, to give
the swarm foothold, and in a few minutes the whole
operation was, with perfect success, accomplished.
A well-known writer on apicultural matters tells
us that the bees run up to escape the distressing
jarring of their combs ceaselessly kept up by beating

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

237

upon their hive walls. Were this correct, it is pretty-
evident that they would rather descend to the hive
crown, where the combs are attached, and where,
consequently, the jar is the least, and the relative dis-
tances of the combs not interfered with. I take it
to be a matter of instinct, which does not alter its
method although the circumstances under ' which it
works are reversed. Frightened bees instinctively
run upwards^ in order to retreat from the edges
and exposed portions of their combs, and reach their
honey, and so save all they can of that wealth they
dare no longer defend. We cheat them, in driving,
by putting the honey beneath, while their unalterable
instinct, forcing them upwards, brings them into the
open, and carries them on until we have them sus-
pended from the roof of our receiving skep as a
swarm. If a skep or frame hive, in its natural
position, be banged a few times, so as to vibrate
the combs, the bees will be found above gorging
themselves at the open honey-cells.

The inversion of the hive is no essential part of
the operation, and, with the skep, the impossibility of
removing its crown is the only impediment to its
being driven in situ, as the following example will
illustrate. One of our swarms, in 1871, built so

irregularly in an ordinary Woodbury hive that the
removal of any single comb was impracticable. In
order to accomplish the re-arrangement of the interior
it was essential to lift out all the frames and combs
in one mass, and this necessitated the previous removal
of the bees. The crown-board (occupying the place
of our present quilt) was taken off, the colony gorged.

238

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and a Woodbury, containing frames only, and without
its bottom board, placed upon it. A few minutes’
rapping sent almost every bee into the upper hive,
which, with its forced swarm, occupied the old stand,
while the straightening process was in progress.

We have said that beating upon the hive from one
to five minutes will cause the bees to ascend, but
with very weak and poor stocks, or in cold weather,
this time is often much exceeded ; and sometimes,
with a -conjunction of the unfavourable conditions
stated, the bees utterly refuse to leave. In this case,
they may be got out by throwing, which must not,
however, be attempted unless the combs are tough,
and provided with cross sticks. The skep is held
between the hands at the rim, the fingers within, and
the thumbs without, when, by a decided downward
jerk, most of the bees will be at once dislodged.
Give them no time to recover their astonishment, but
repeat the process, and, after three or four shakes,
hardly a bee will remain. Of course, a sheet must
be spread to receive them ; and if a hive be placed
on the side or corner of this, in about the position
the stock occupied, the bees will enter and cluster,
so long as new bees are being added, even if the
queen be not with them.

It is, at all times, difficult to drive from hives but
partially filled with combs, since the bees cluster in
its unoccupied parts rather than leave ; while the
attempt must not be made with very young colonies,
whose combs are so tender that breakage must
follow the necessary beating. A caution is also

needed against driving after hot days, when much

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

239

honey has been gathered, or this will commence to
run from the combs so soon as the skep is inverted ;
w’hile our jarring will so shake it out that the bees
may be hopelessly glued together, from which cause
not only may we fail in obtaining a forced swarm,
but the colony will be damaged, and perhaps even
the queen killed. Let the operation be attempted
on the following morning, when the limpid, newly-
gathered nectar will have considerably thickened by
evaporation, and, further, the process of sealing — i.e.i
the capping of the store cells with thin w'axen lids —
will have progressed during the night ; while, also,
the temperature will have dropped, making the combs
less liable to collapse.

The great destruction of bees commonly attending
driving competitions and similar exhibitions — such an
unfortunate travesty of the humane system — is gene-
rally due to the bees being strangers to the place in
which the operation is necessarily undertaken, so that
all escaping, being irretrievably lost, gather into little
knots representing those that, under ordinary circum-
stances, would retire to the decoy hive. Driving
in the apiary, under usual conditions, hardly necessi-
tates the loss of a single bee.

Let us now return to the question of making an
artificial swarm from a skep, which, of course, is treated
as just described. During the ascent of the bees, we
watch carefully for the queen, whose presence is
essential to the success of the operation. A quick,
or, rather, an educated, eye will rarely allow her to
pass unnoticed : but, if she has not been seen, while
the great majority of the bees have already made

240

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

their ascent, detach the receiving skep and turn it up
for an examination ; and should her majesty not show
herself, shake the bees sharply round, as in the
operation of sifting, when they will roll over each
other, like so many grocers’ currants — the object
of our search being, in all likelihood, thrown to the
top, to be at once detected. The disposition to run
upward still shows itself, and the bees, as they get
opportunity during the disturbance to which they are
exposed, commence to crawl (for they will not fly)
up the sides of the hive and cluster thickly upon it,
giving to the queen a hiding-place, of which she
will not be slow to avail herself. Beat them down,
therefore, by sharp raps on the outside of the skep,
or strike its roof vigorously upon the ground to
accomplish the same purpose. Repeating the opera-
tion a few times, we can hardly fail in discovering,
if present, the mother, in spite of her attempts at
concealment behind her bewildered children. The
queen having been seen, place the forced swarm
upon the old stand, and shake out the bees that have,
in the meantime, returned from the fields to the decoy
hive, when they will enter their new abode, and, find-
ing their queen, will, with the rest, commence comb-
building, as would a natural swarm. The old hive
must now be placed on a new stand.

To the inexperienced there are two possible diffi-
culties, about which a word or two of explanation
seem requisite. First, finding the queen. Some are
not quick at this, even after considerable practical
experience, and such operators must depend on other
evidence than that of sight. Nothing may be left

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

241

to chance, since the queen does not invariably rise
during the driving, while her presence is absolutely
essential to the swarm. If the forced swarm, being
placed on the stand, remains tolerably quiet for the
space of twenty minutes, or half an hour at most
— the bees not rushing wildly in and out of the
hive, nor running over it apparently in search of
something — it may be concluded that they have dis-
covered their mother, notwithstanding our failure. But
if their excitement is great and, apparently, increasing,
while the driven hive is quiet, the evidence is un-
favourable, when either the driven hive must be
again operated upon, in the hope of securing her,
or the bees returned to the old stock, replaced in
its original position, so that another attempt may be
made on a future day.

The second difficulty is leaving in the old stock
just the fitting number of bees for carrying on the
work of the colony and raising queens. This is
often most conveniently managed by arranging the
stock and swarm with reference to their old location.
If not more than half the bees had been driven when
the queen was seen to rise, the old stock must occupy
a totally new site, while the swarm is put in posses-
sion of the original stand, to which, from force of
habit, many of the bees still left in the stock will
come after their first flight ; but if the stock has been
driven very bare of bees, it is well to place the forced
swarm and parent hive on opposite sides of the stand
formerly occupied by the latter. The distance inter-
vening between will depend upon the general arrange-
ment of the apiary. Where the hives are compressed
VoL. II. R

242

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

into a small space, the two may be nearly in contact ;
but where they are widely dispersed, each may stand
3ft. or 4ft. from the old spot, with the object that
the bees returning from the fields may be as likely
to enter the one as the other. Should the stock
appear to be getting more than the necessary number
of bees, disguise it by some cover, or place it still
farther from .the old position, to which bring it
nearer in the opposite difficulty. Where space is
very restricted, these same effects may be produced
by simply rotating the hives or bottom boards, so
that the mouths are more or less changed with regard
to the points of the compass. If the driven swarm
is to be sent away, it should be packed as a natural
swarm (page 136), and the stock will then occupy
its old stand.

The bee-keeper who has sufficiently advanced to
undertake the processes just described is not likely
to look with favour upon skeps ; and since these can
often be cheaply purchased, they are not unfrequently
used for supplying the population for a frame hive.
The latter, handled upon non-swarming methods, will
almost invariably give better results if the whole
population of the smaller skep, together with the
combs and brood, be put within, so that no actual
increase in number of stocks occurs ; and, indeed,
converting two colonies in skeps into one in a frame
hive, will often be found a most profitable arrange-
ment ; the process in these cases becoming that
of transferring, which may be quite logically treated
here, since it involves the making of an artificial
swarm as its preliminary step. After the removal

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

243

of every bee that can be induced to depart by
driving, we proceed to draw all sticks (if such
exist), either seizing them by a pair of nippers at the
projecting ends, and rotating them to detach them
from the combs, or we minimise the destruction of
bee handiwork by sacrificing the skep, simply cutting
it in half, while inverted, by passing through its sides,
and between the combs, a sharp dinner-knife. If we
refuse, from notions of economy, to destroy the skep,
honey-knives may be employed. Of these, two form
a set — one, used to cut combs from the sides of the
skep, and which a piece of straight hoop-iron, from
I4in. to I Sin. long, and ground to an edge at the
end, may well replace ; while the other is formed of
an iron or steel rod about iSin. long and -j^in. thick,
having 2in. at the extremity turned to a right angle.
The latter part is formed into a cutting blade, the
surface of which is horizontal when the rod is held
in the perpendicular position. The first knife having
performed its work of separating the combs at the
sides, the second is brought into play. Having

slipped it down by the side of the comb, it is turned
so as to bring its blade into position for cutting from
the hive roof.

Instead of these knives, I much prefer my home-
made device, which consists of two thin, bluntly-
pointed, wooden laths, sufficiently long to pass between
the combs to the roof, while held firmly. Around
these, when placed one on the other, a piece of
tinned wire. No. 30 (the same as that used for wiring
foundation), is passed loosely from points to ends, so
that the laths can be held about ijin. apart by draw-

244

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

ing the wire tight. The laths are passed down on
opposite sides of the comb to be removed, the wire
between the points cutting completely round it at one
operation, in the neatest and most rapid manner;
while the tension slightly imbeds the wire in the
wood, so that it remains in position when the laths
are put down awaiting their next employment. The
removal of one comb accomplished, carefully lift it,

and place it on a board greater in length and breadth
than the frames to which we are to transfer. Place
the frame over the comb, and, with a sharp dinner-
knife, mark the size of the former upon the latter,

so that, when trimmed, it will fit somewhat tightly,
and as accurately as its size and shape will admit
of — and it is desirable, rather than necessary, that
the top of the comb as built in the old hive shall

also be the top as we fix it, the cells inclining some-

what upwards. Keep the comb against one side of
the frame, in order that a firm attachment may the
more quickly be made, and fit in any good pieces of
worker-comb that aid in filling out the frame, and
these the bees will unite by newly-formed cells with
a neatness that must be seen to be understood.

Thickened combs (see Fig. 75) should be shaved
down, and drone-cells wholly rejected, or placed only
in the upper part of the outside frames. Should the
comb not be deep enough to fit down to the bottom
rail of the frame, while no pieces can be econo-
mically added, it is necessary to put against its
lower edge a strip of thin wood, about Jin. wide,
when two or three tapes, that ought to have been
laid on the board before putting the comb down, are

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

245

passed round the frame and comb, or comb and lath,
as the case may be, and securely tied. The board
is now raised to the perpendicular, with the comb
and frame upon it, when the latter is lifted by the
ears and placed in the hive. Whilst treating the
combs thus seriatim^ it is highly important to keep
the brood together, and, if their previous relative
situations be preserved, better fitting will be secured.

The operation will be more easily performed, if a

Fig. 68.— Simple Transferring-board and Sticks.

A, Board— s, s. Slats ; t, Tapes. B, Sticks— jr, u\ Thin Tying Wire.

few slats be nailed to cross-pieces, as in Fig. 68.
The tapes [t, t) are laid in between the slats (a, a),
ready to be brought up round the comb, before the
latter is put into position. But those who do much
transferring will find they are greatly facilitated by
my transferring-board (Fig. 69). The operator places
the apparatus upon a table — he standing opposite to
its face A B — and now lays the comb, with its top
towards himself, upon the sixteen rods A B C D, made

246

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

somewhat like the teeth of a toilet-comb. The mark-
ing and trimming are managed as before described,
while’ the zinc tray (^r)- catches the bleeding honey,
which falls immediately through or runs down to the
dripping edge [de) seen in the cross section (A, Fig.
70) ; while the edge of the tray [tr) allows the knife
to be conveniently cleaned by scraping. The space
beneath the board gives both hands an opportunity
to act in concert from its opposite sides ; and the
tape (f) — some use lead wire — is now passed through,

Fig. 69.— Cheshire Transeerring-board (Scale, i).
h, Hook ; /,/, Feet ; tr, Tray for Dripping Honey ; de, Dripping Edge ; cl, cl. Clips.

between the teeth and beneath the lath, or, if the
comb extend to the bottom of the frame, beneath the
bottom rail {dr) and tied at k (B, Fig. 70), the
angle of the top bar, as here a secure knot can be
more easily made than at any other point. The frame
is now pushed from the operator until its bottom rail
touches the stiffener (C D, Fig. 69), when the
apparatus is raised in front until it stands on its
back (as at B, Fig. 70), leaving the comb and frame
resting in the perpendicular position ; the latter being
then lifted by the ears, and placed in the hive.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

247

When the transferring-board is out of use. the hook
(/i) being released permits of the folding back, at each
end, of the foot {/). The tray is now turned face
downwards upon the sixteen teeth, over two of which
the clips {cl, Fig. 69) slide, and securely hold it in its
place. Within the tray can be placed the brush, tapes,
knife, and other requisites — no small convenience

Fig. 70. -Details of Cheshire Transferring-board (Scale,

A, Section, with Frame and Comb in Position-^?-, Tray to Receive Falling Honey ;
de. Dripping Edge ; / toot ; tb, Top Bar ; hr. Bottom Rail ; c. Comb ; t, t, Tape.

iransfeiTing-board turned up to remove Frame— Knot in Tape; h, Hook.
C, IransfeiTing-board Packed up; other Letterings as before.

when the transferring is to be done at a distance
from home. The thickness, when closed, is i^in.

If the comb is waved, it may be desirable to
place a thin stick, jin. longer than the frame, on
each side of it, and pass a small indiarubber ring
over the projecting ends. This will keep the comb
flat until the bees have made it secure. Indeed, it
is the practice with some to use neither tapes nor

248

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

string, but to depend upon sticks (B, Fig. 68), which
are ^in. square, and fin. longer than the frame
depth ; these are, at one end, fastened together in
pairs, by annealed wire, which keeps them about lin.
apart. Either of the transferring-boards illustrated
permits of these being most readily slipped over the
comb, while fastening the free' ends is but the work
of a few seconds. When it is found difficult to keep
the midrib of the comb in the centre of the width
of the frame, strips of lead or zinc are of ' service.
These, bent over the top or side bar, press both faces
of the comb by their ends, and firmly hold it until
fixed. It will be impossible to prevent the destruc-
tion of some larvae ; but the beginner need not
grow faint-hearted : repairs will be quickly executed
in a* wondrous manner; while the mortally wounded,
and those killed outright, will be quickly removed,
their juices helping to sustain the labourers in their
arduous duties — the economics of the bee-hive never
being trammelled by mere sentiment. The combs
should be put together, and the bees so confined by
a division-board that no unoccupied spaces may
remain, room being subsequently given as the growing
population may warrant. The work so far completed,
the bees may be introduced, as explained at page
137. The honey set running during the operation
will be gathered up, and will supply immediate needs ;
but great demands will be made for wax-secretion,
to fill gaps and make attachments, so that it is usually
good economy to feed slowly for a day or two ; but,
of course, circumstances liable to much variation must
guide us. The stock, settling heartily to work — even

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

249

more heartily through the disguised blessing which
has befallen -it — will henceforth, in this particular, be
treated as those of the rest of the apiary.

In forty-eight hours an examination may be made,
when, if the combs appear firmly fixed, the tapes
may be removed; but excessive haste is likely to be
the precursor of disaster, as one comb falling will,
like a tumbling skittle, knock down most of the others.
Let the beginner who has concluded that artificial
supports are no longer necessary, draw a sharp knife
across the tapes, severing them upon the top bar of
the frame, as it occupies its usual position ; it may
then be gently raised, the perpendicular being care-
fully preserved. The tapes, by a touch, can now be
detached from each side, without giving the jar to the
tender work so likely to lead to misfortune if the
whole operation is carried out by the novice with the
frame outside the hive. If the tapes be not removed,
the bees will tease and fret them until they dislodge
them literally fibre by fibre. Many years since, I had
fastened in a comb by a string, and quite forgotten
the circumstance, until, apparently, a piece of
extremely thick chenille was observed, waving in a
singular manner at the hive door. The chenille, as
I approached, resolved itself into a dense chain of
bees, most earnestly flying, while holding on to the
string, which they had torn almost to fluff, had
separated from their comb, and were endeavouring to
eject altogether from their domain ; success being only
delayed by the string locking itself between the hive
and the bottom board.

During any part of the honey -harvest, transferring

250

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

may be performed in the open ; but generally a
building is necessary to avoid the annoyance of
robbers. Chilly weather is unfit, because the brood
is likely to suffer, while repair is carried on tardily ;
but experience will enable the operator to undertake
the work at almost any time. I have transferred as
early as the ist of March, and as late as the middle
of November; but it is well to remember that very
hot weather makes the combs so soft that they sink
out of form, the lower cells being flattened by the
weight of those above them. Four or five days after
transferring, it is desirable to clean the bottom board,
as a considerable amount of debris is thrown down
in the process of repairing and refitting. . Some
would transfer without driving, simply clearing the
bees by smoke from the comb to be excised, and
then brushing down those removed with each comb
in front of the new hive. Except with very weak
populations, the majority would find ordinary driving
less troublesome.

We must here note that Mr. Heddon claims a
method of transferring, which he denominates ‘‘ modern,”
as distinguished from the “old” plan just detailed.
Mr. Heddon may have been the first to suggest the
“modern” method in America, but it is certain that
a substantially identical one was practised in Eng-
land several years before he made mention of it. I
find, by example, that I recommended it twelve
years since, suggesting that the bees be placed on
sheets made as explained on page i8i. It is so
simple and obvious that none could secure through
it a reputation for inventiveness. The skep is re-

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

25

moved, and a forced swarm, together with the queen,
driven and placed upon the old stand, in a hive fur-
nished with a sufficient number of sheets of foun-
dation. These will quickly be drawn out, giving the
queen an opportunity for rapid laying. If we intend
that, three weeks later, the present brood in the parent
hive — then coverted into bees — shall be added to the
forced swarm, we stand the parent and swarm close
together, turning the former so that its doorway is
somewhat averted from the old position. In twenty-
one days all the brood will be hatched, save, perhaps,
a few drones (which are twenty-five days between
egg-laying and hatching). A second driving secures
the bees and the young queen, which must be removed,
and the bees united. The combs may now either be
fixed in frames, or extracted and run down for wax.
It is true that foundation gives, economically, such
perfect combs that transferred ones seem ungainly,
and hardly worth the labour involved in preserving
them ; whether their interim value warrants this is
a question which each bee-keeper must determine for
himself.

“ Three out of two ” is the title of a method of
moderate increase which has very much to recommend
it, and, where two or more hives are possessed, is
decidedly to be preferred to any plan which, by
removing a swarm, halves the colony at one opera-
tion. Early in the season, too, when we may fairly
indulge the hope of securing fecundation for our new
queens by special drones (see page 273), but when
the hives, though prospering, are as yet none of
them strong enough to retain an efficient working

252

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

population, and besides spare a good swarm, this
plan may be put into execution, since every bee
is, by it, at command to people the new hive. On
the morning of a day when the honey-gatherers
are flying strongly, drive every inhabitant from the
stock selected to supply the swarm, which place on
the stand of the parent stock. The parent stock is
now made to occupy the stand of a second hive,
which, in turn, takes a new position. All the bees
of the parent hive remain with the driven swarm.
The bees in flight from the second stock people the
parent hive, feed the brood, maintain the required
temperature, and raise a new queen; while the second
stock, though losing its foraging population, has suffi-
cient young bees not yet engaged in honey-gathering
to carry on its work. (This method is applicable to
frame hives as well as skeps, if driving be replaced
by shaking or brushing, as presently explained.)

Suppose, e.g.^ a bee-keeper to possess a Ligurian
and a black stock, and that he desires to favour the
Italians at the expense of the blacks. By driving
all the Ligurians, and placing their hive upon the
stand of the black stock, which is carried to a new
location, half the blacks become nurses for Ligurian
brood, and for raising a Ligurian queen; while the

black stock, by constant hatching within, will, in a

few days, be as strong as ever, and, at the expiration
of ten or eleven days, if previously well furnished with
brood, may be itself swarmed (technically ‘‘forced’'),
when it will be placed on the stand then occupied
by the first parent stock referred to, which will, in

turn, go to a new position, thus losing the flying

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

253

bees, which had been, as it were, lent to it until it
had hatched out a sufficient number to be inde-
pendent of their aid. To make the matter clear, let
I., II., III., IV. represent four stations, of which II. and
III. are occupied as below.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

Then, after forcing Ligurian swarm — say. May i —

I.

II. III. IV.

Hl<xck

Stock.

Ligurian
bwaj'm .

I )

Ligurian
Stock .

Queeniess . J

And, after forcing black sw
I. II.

1

\ B/ack 1^
Swarm.

Ligurian-

Sivai-m.

J I )

arm — say. May ii or 12 —
III. IV.

One great advantage of this arrangement lies in
this — that, at the expiration of the ten or eleven days
after the first swarming, the Ligurian stock removed
to Stand] IV. will have finished queen -cells, only one
of which will be required for itself ; a surplus one
may then be cut out and given to the black stock,
which has just* lost its queen, and which will, in

* It is wise, unless we take the precaution ot using a “ Doolittle
Cage” (which see), to delay inserting the queen-cell until the day following
the removal of the swarm, or the queen-cell may be torn open.

254

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

consequence, have a breeding queen ten or eleven
days earlier than if left unaided : in view of the enor-
mous laying powers of the mother bee, an advantage,
as before remarked, equivalent to a swarm.

We have now the opportunity, if possessed of other
skeps, to repeat the operation upon as many pairs of
these as there are ripe queen-cells at command, for
each two made into three will require but one new
queen; and if we have been wise enough to select for
yielding our first swarm a stock which gave fine results
the previous summer, we, by this step, not only,
possibly, satisfy the swarming impulse and secure sortie
increase, but also tend to improve the strain of our
bees.

The queen-cells are frequently planted upon the
lower edges of the combs, so that any one of them may
be easily taken out, even from a skep, by cutting
away with it, with a thin, sharp knife, or a piece of
sharpened clock-spring rounded at the end, about a
square inch of comb, while the bees are kept in check
by a little smoke. There is some difficulty in inserting
queen-cells into skeps, as they must be placed in the
midst of the brood if possible. By separating the
combs a little, one may be passed between them, and
simply held by their grip, or it may be put in at the
feedhole between the combs, room, if necessary, being
cut for it. The position in which it stands is not
material — it will hatch on its side, or upside down,
unless inverted at an early stage — but the cell itself must
be free at its extremity, to give the queen an exit.
Queen pupae are very sensitive to chill, so care should
be taken in not exposing to cold the cells, which the

CONTROLLED INCREASE

255

operator must also tenderly handle, as a pinch, espe-
cially near the end, is likely to fatally injure the soft-
bodied grub. Indeed, it is undesirable, even with the
most careful manipulation, to transfer queen-cells until
near the time of their hatching, which may be known
by the bees thinning down and roughening the cell
at the end (page 154). This ripe condition is some-
times, though rarely, reached by the tenth day after
artificial swarming ; * but frequently we may have to
wait to the thirteenth or fourteenth, watching carefully,
or the objects of our solicitude may be destroyed
through the most advanced princess escaping from* a
cell, overlooked at the time we were searching for
such as were ready for removal.

Plans only possible with frame hives now demand
attention. Let us suppose we have sold a swarm, and
intend sending it packed in a skep. We may commence
by quietly removing the frame hive some few yards
from its stand, reversing the position of its mouth
to prevent its being recognised by its proper in-
habitants ; but since, with strong colonies, even the
expert is sometimes baffled in finding the queen,
it is prudent to secure her ladyship as the first move.
Taking a dome cage (see “Queen Introduction”),
and a card, we lift the quilt, using no more smoke
than is absolutely necessary; for disturbance sets the
queen on the run, drives her from the brood-nest,
and decreases our chance of seeing her quickly.
Having pushed the division-board on one side, so
that our frames may be moved laterally, we first run

* Queens so rapidly produced are of inferior quality (see “Queen
Raising”).

256

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

over those of the brood-nest. Lifting out a side one,
carefully raising it in front of the eyes, and scan-
ning the side towards us unsuccessfully, we bring the
frame from position i to position 2, Fig. 71, by lower-
ing the right hand and raising the left until the top bar
becomes perpendicular. The frame is now, by a gentle
swing, soon acquired, made to take, upon the ears
held in our fingers as a perpendicular shaft, a half-
revolution towards the right, which brings it into
position 3, and thus the opposite face of the comb
is presented to us. Reversing the up-and-down
motion of the hands restores the top bar to the

Fig. 71.— The Four Positio.ns taken by a Comb during Examination.

horizontal (position 4), with the comb inverted, but
yet perpendicular, as we have kept it from the first,
so that its weight in no way tends to loosen it from
the frame. The previous movements, in an inverse
order_, return the comb to position i, when we replace
it in the hive, but as far from the next brood-comb
as interior space will admit, lest the queen pass at
once to it, and so elude us. Continue the search,
and, when the queen is found, either hang the frame
upon a comb-stand — of which the most portable form
is seen in Fig. 72 (it is simply hooked on the side
of the hive under operation, and requires caution in

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

257

its use, either in chilly or in exceedingly hot weather) —
or hold the frame by one ear, and, with the hand
at liberty, pick off the queen, seizing her by the
roots of the wings, for the thorax of a queen is ex-
ceedingly strong and tough, but the abdomen must
on no account be subjected even to the most tem-
pered pressure. The frame, lowered by the one hand
holding it, may now easily be stood in the hive
diagonally — i.e.^ one corner up — or, by a little practice,
the hand retaining the queen can aid the other
by its little finger, when the frame can be at once
replaced properly. The queen is now held up by
the finger and thumb under the dome of wire,
and released, the palm immediately forming a floor,

for which the card is at once substituted. The State
prisoner is now placed on the top bars of the
frames, the quilt readjusted, a little smoke blown
in to induce the bees to gorge, and the hive closed,
after which it is turned half-way round and removed
four or five yards away, where it must await the
completion of our arrangements.

We next place on a stand [st, Fig. 73), as
nearly as possible the height of the hive mouth, a
board (i-3) and skep [sk')^ raising the front of the
rim of the latter on a stone or small block, which

VOL. II.

S

258 BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

should take exactly the position of the mouth of
the frame-hive before its removal, because to that
spot the bees will fly with an accuracy which
is truly surprising. Going to the stock, we lift back
the quilt with great caution, lest we disturb the queen-
cage and set the prisoner free. The excessive space

Fig. 73.— Making an Artificial Swarm (Scale,

■•ib, Swarming-board ; at, Stand; i>k, Skep ; c, False Cluster.

left between two of the frames has caused the bees
there to gather thickly, so that we secure at once a
considerable number. The frame, now held by the ears,
is sharply jerked downwards in front of the skep, as
we stand behind, so as to be out of the way of the
bewildered hummers on the wing. The bees imme-

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

259

diately drop in great part from the comb, and a
second shake finishes the work quite sufficiently.
Returning to the hive, we lift the queen, and release
her amidst the rapidly-entering throng. So soon as
she disappears under the edge of the straw, all
anxiety respecting her is unnecessary. The process
of throwing is continued with other frames until suffi-
cient bees have been obtained to form the swarm.
Regulating the frame distance in the parent stock,
adjusting the dummy, and covering up snugly, so far
completes the process, which should not, from the
beginning, have occupied more than a quarter of an
hour.

Two cautions seem requisite. First, if nectar has
been gathered freely into the frame hive, jerking off the
bees is inappropriate, as the thin fluid is thus thrown
from the combs, and, becoming rapidly viscid bv
evaporation, may gum the bees together ; while newly-
built, tender combs, would not bear, without fracture,
the strain which jerking involves. In these cases,
brushing must be adopted, the use of a feather or
goose-wing being constantly recommended. I greatly
prefer a painter’s large duster, but it must be rightly
used. Rapidly whisking the very ends of the hairs over
the bees, in the direction in which they are desired to
drop, clears them off without irritation, in a manner I
have never accomplished with a goose-wing. If the side
of the brush be used, or if it be applied nervously
and slowly, the bees get entangled, and, by buzzing,
not only show their own anger, but excite that of the
rest. Mr. McKnight says that he employs a tuft of
long grass for this purpose with most satisfactory

S 2

26o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

results. The second difficulty could only perplex the
beginner. Bees constantly play at follow-my-leader,
for they are to the manner born ; and should a few,
during the general inquiry for the lost home and lost
mother, run, as though in the secret, to the side of
the board, others follow, until quite a contingent
may form a false cluster {c) under its edge. Left
to themselves, they by degrees become conscious of
their mistake, and, after showing some restlessness,
turn their heads, and go off to join the majority.
These false clusters never need be suspected of
containing the queen, if she has been seen to enter
the skep, for her rude awakening to the fact that
times are troublous will so well teach her to love
darkness rather than light, that she will on no account
leave the skep for the exposed surface of the swarm-
ing-board.

If the error of the frightened insects be observed
in time, shovelling up the stream on to a card, and
throwing it into the hive opening, will nip the
nuisance of wrong information in the bud. Some-
times, the weight of the cluster grows until the hold
the topmost bees have upon the board is insufficient
for the weight, and all tumble ; when a stick or lath,
having one end placed near them, on the ground,
and the other leaning against the board, will supply
ladder-way, by which they will quickly regain the
hive.

If time presses, we may expedite the entrance of
the bees by the card and a little smoke, when the
packing will be accomplished as described on page
136. The old stock is immediately returned to its

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

261

position, giving an opportunity to the stray bees to
re-enter ; and the few youngsters crawling on the
ground will almost all be saved by the use of the
lath as before.

The skep, although light and handy, is by no •
means all that can be desired for the successful
transit of bees (page 136). I recommend, with the
fullest confidence, a form of box (Fig. 74) which I have
never known to fail on the longest journeys to be
taken within the United Kingdom. It needs but little
explanation. The swarming-board (sw) is used as

Fig. 74.— Swarm iNG-BOX (Scale, y\)

, sir, Swarming-boanl ; /i, Haiiclle ; Perforated Zinc.

before, while the mouth (E F) stands in the place
and stead of the mouth of the old hive, of which
H replaces the front. A stout cord (/?), having knots
inside, serves as a handle, and keeps the right side
up, while it furnishes good attachment to the cluster
hanging within. The perforated zinc above and
below gives thorough ventilation, which can never be
closed even if the box is put on its front or back.
After the swarm has been made, and has clustered as
seen in the Figure (weighing being easily possible
even before this), the front zinc is tacked on, when

262

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the box is turned down on its face, and the bees fed
with rather thin syrup, by standing one or two in-
verted bottles on the back zinc. Each pound of
bees thus provided will take up about two ounces
of syrup, scarcely more than one-third of an ounce
of which will be lost during a twenty-four hours’
journey. This feeding makes up for the full gorging
of natural swarms, and adds much to the staying
power of the bees. At their arrival, the box is stood
down, to permit the cluster to form, when the zinc
is prised off, and the whole thrown out at the door
of their new home, as in cases already considered.
A box fifteen inches wide, eight inches from front to
back, and a foot high, having zinc pieces four inches
wide, will carry five pounds of bees in any weather
in our climate, and is superior to those constructed
entirely of wire-cloth, as used in America, not
only because of its greater ability to sustain rough
handling, but for the reason that the latter, acci-
dentally stood in a hot sun, expose the bees to
baking to death, while the openings on all sides
prevent the establishment of a direct air current, as
secured by the box I recommend, for the bees, hanging
exclusively against the wood, leave the zinc clear for
the work of the fanners.

It is a very just, and, happily, a now common,
practice to sell bees by the pound ; for the size of a
swarm, especially if made artificially, is almost as inde-
finite as that of the proverbial “piece of chalk.” An
open box, suitable to travelling bees, has the shoot
of a very large, smooth funnel, oblong in cross section,
placed within it, when the whole is stood on a

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

263

balance, and the weights adjusted so as to turn when
the quantity of bees desired has been added. These
are jerked or brushed from the frames into the funnel
mouth, when they slide to their destination. In this
case, the queen is best given at the last, by lifting a
corner of the perforated zinc cover. The bees need not
all come from one stock, and the queen may be an entire
stranger to every worker. Being fastened up, they
soon discover that they are queenless, broodless, and
imprisoned, and commence their lamentations by a
loud and characteristic roaring buzz. Any queen may
now be dropped in, and she will be received as the
harbinger of hope. When the heterogeneous colony
is liberated on new ground, it goes to work as would
a natural swarm. Mr. Simmins, who has done so
much to improve and simplify queen introduction, is,
1 believe, the originator of this very useful method.

In order to give the purchaser confidence in the
strength of the swarms offered, some dealers have
quoted 20,000 bees as a guaranteed number ; but
surely this has been done under a misapprehension,
continued because of the difficulty actual counting
involves. It has been already stated (p. 212) that
bees of distinct races vary considerably in weight,
but the amount of material contained in the digestive
tube, and the state of the honey-sac, may cause the
number per pound to differ much more widely. I found
10,200 individuals, brought to starvation, weigh ilb. only,
while the larger of the dark-coloured bees, gorged as
at swarming time, weigh ilb. per 3000 — the smaller,
yellow races running up to 4500 or even 5000 per pound ;
and these bees will yet take more food when it is

264

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

offered them. • Ligurian hybrids, as swarming bees,
usually run 3500 to the pound, which may be regarded
as the average. From this we find that, when allow-
ance is made for the small number of comparatively
heavy drones mostly accompanying the swarm, ylb.
weight may only contain the guaranteed number of
individuals, while, in average cases, more than 52lb.
will be required. In the face of this, the dealer who
gives his customer qlb. of bees for a swarm may be
accounted not only just, but even generous.

Should we, in making swarms in our own apiary,
and for our own use, be dealing with movable-comb
hives whose frames are, unfortunately, not inter-
changeable, we are forced to proceed somewhat on
the previous lines. The hive to receive the swarm
may either have its mouth opened to the fullest
extent, with the swarming-board simply fitted up
under the alighting-board, or it may stand propped
up without its bottom board, where we find the skep
(Fig. 73).

We at length come to consider plans requiring inter-
changeability of combs — /.(?., uniformity in size of frame —
a condition more or less obtaining in all well-managed
apiaries. Here we have every scope, and the possible
variations are endless, while it would be difficult to
unreservedly particularise any one of the latter as
the best, since surrounding circumstances, our faith in
the facility and safety with which queens may be moved
from stock to stock, and our methods of raising our
queens, must often greatly influence our choice in the
matter. All that has been previously said about the
advantage of obtaining ripe queen-cells for insertion

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

265

into artificially-swarmed stocks will be here remembered;
but in every apiary of fair size, managed on the
movable-comb principle, laying queens, and not queen-
cells merely, should be raised in advance, so that,
as a rule, neither part of the colonies we swarm or
divide need suffer, even for twenty-four hours, the
losses involved in queenlessness. Hereafter, too, we
must learn that queens of the highest type can only
be secured by certain precautions, which are impossible
when stocks are allowed to re-queen themselves as
best they may ; but experience will show that, in
practice, even the most expert cannot invariably
accomplish all that theory indicates as desirable, and
that, as in many other matters, we must rather be
content with what we can, than what we would, achieve.

The proprietor of a single stock, which must first
be very strong, can hardly do better than proceed
thus ; On the morning of a fine day, let him take
one, or better two, combs of sealed or well-advanced
brood, and place them, with the queen, in a new hive,
adding on each side two frames of comb, or, if these
are not possessed, foundation, closing up the five or
six frames with a division-board, and placing the
whole on the original stand, while the parent goes to
a new station, which need not be distant if the hive
receive a half-rotation. Each bee that has already
become a forager will, at her first flight, return to
her accustomed place, and join the new-made colony,
which is thus sufficiently strengthened to enable it
to make progress. The gap left in the parent stock
by the removal of some of its frames must be closed
by pushing the remaining ones together, to conserve

266

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the heat of the brood-nest ; and it will be wise to
contract, by a division-board or dummy, rather than
add new frames of comb or foundation, unless the
stock had been previously overflowing with bees.

In the absence of a laying mother or sealed royal
cell, the orphans must be left to their own devices, in-
volving loss, which may, however, by a little trouble,
be very considerably reduced. The principle involved
is important, and should always be borne in mind in
the management of nuclei (see “Nuclei^’). The parent
stock rapidly grows strong by its brood hatching,
this process continuing for three weeks, at pre-
cisely the same rate as if the old mother had
suffered no disturbance ; but in three days, the last
egg laid by her before her removal having hatched,
the amount of unsealed brood begins to diminish, and
on the ninth day none remains, so that the younger
bees, which should devote their energies to nursing,
are reduced to enforced idleness. On the other hand,
with proper attention to feeding — should a restricted
honey flow make it necessary — the queen will soon
have deposited all the eggs for which she finds
accommodation, or which can receive attention ; for,
had we not meddled, she could have kept all her
nurses busy, but the greater part of them are now in
another hive. The mother, thus limited, ceases to be
of advantage to her colony until brood by hatching
has once more supplied her with empty cells. This
waste of energy, due to lack of nurses in one stock
and lack of eggs in the other, is clearly remediable
by transferring, every few days, a comb of eggs to
the parent, and returning for it a comb of hatch-

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

267

ing brood and stored honey. We thus keep the
queen up to her work, and the nurses of the parent
stock busy — a process by which both colonies are made
much stronger than they could be without it; and,
by the time the young queen is laying, instead of her
hive being utterly broodless, so that its population
keeps shrinking for three weeks — a fact which almost
always makes a stock useless for honey-production —
she is surrounded by brood in all stages. For these
great advantages, the old queen has to pay the in-
significant penalty of a little greater strain upon her
egg-producing powers. Two small colonies, having
one queen between them, can in this way often be
made as well off as though they had two.

Making three out of twof previously described as
applicable to both skeps and frame hives, may, with
the latter, advantageously take the following slight
modification ; On a fine day, when the bees are flying
briskly, remove half the combs, one by one, from a
colony occupying, e.g., Stand II., page 253 ; which
combs, in my opinion, especially if we intend to re-
queen immediately, should embrace half the store and
half the brood-nest of the hive under operation.
Shake or brush off every bee, placing the combs in
order in a new hive, and then fill up, in both cases,
by combs or foundation. I have frequently seen the
shaking cause much disorder, and the loss of many
bees, the combs being jerked over the tops of the
exposed frames. Instead, by removing the dummy
altogether, or pushing it well on one side, secure a
gap of 2in. or so. Then, in this gap, raise the frame,
by the ears, 5in. or bin., and bring it sharply down.

268

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

making the hands act as stops, by striking on the
edge of the hive side, so that the frame does not
reach the bottom board by a handbreadth. The bees
fall to the floor, are not crushed, and are all, young
and old, within. The few stragglers, and those on
the wing, flying to the comb, may be brushed off
as we are conveying it to its new resting-place. The
stock on Stand III. is now carried to a fresh site — say.
Stand I. — while the hive containing the bee-less combs
and brood takes its place. The flying bees of the re-
moved stock provide, as in cases before noted, the
working population, which will, if need be, raise a
new mother. It has been* advised to here cage a
spare fertile queen, which may be liberated in
thirty-six hours. This plan may, and would, succeed
in conditions where scarcely any plan could fail,
viz., in continued favourable weather, and during a
honey flow ; but in our uncertain climate neither
of these can be calculated upon. If the sky
become overcast, and the flight from the removed
stock, consequently, sluggish, new contingents of
bees will join from the removed stock during,
possibly, a week, rendering the introduction of the
queen most risky. I would immensely prefer adding
the queen from the removed stock, which, having lost
its old bees, gives the most favoured conditions for
queen-introduction by caging, a system which I no
longer follow, using instead of it the Simmins method.

I should simply introduce direct my new queen at
night, with the most perfect confidence that she would
be duly accepted (see “Queen Introduction”).

* “ British Bee-keepers’ Guide Book,” page 85.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

269

A still more gentle increase is often of the highest
service. Take one, two, or even three combs con-
taining brood and honey, from several stocks, until
sufficient are obtained to comb a hive, shaking or
brushing the bees off, as before, at their several stands.
Place the hive containing the collected combs on the
stand of a vigorous stock, from which, for reasons

tb ib tb

mr mr mr

Fig. 75.— Cells Extended Unduly (Scale, i).
tb. Top Bar ; mr. Midrib ; whs. Wide Bee Space between Brood-cells ; 7ibs, Narrow
Bee Space between Honey -cells ; ec, Elongated Cells.

previously given, I recommend the queen to be
transferred, so that she does not change her station.
Re-queen the removed hive in the evening. The
gaps left in the stocks supplying the combs may be
filled by frames, preferably fitted with foundation, and
so placed that combs stand between them, when they

270

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

will be very quickly drawn out. It is extremely desir-
able that these combs are either filled with brood to
the top, or that the store over the brood be sealed.
If they consist, in any part, of open honey-cells, these
are often most annoyingly elongated, as at ec, Fig. 75 ;
for, as honey is brought in, the cell-wall is made to
grow, and so encroach upon the space the comb con-
structed upon the foundation ought to occupy, the
cell-mouths of the facing combs here only giving
sufficient accommodation for a single layer of bees.
The cell depth for larvae is a constant quantity — a
bare -Jin. — and hence- always leaves the space for the
foundation to be fully drawn out. As brood is extended,
the temporary difficulty will work its own cure : the
lengthened honey cells will be cut down, and the shallow
ones deepened ; but this may be expedited by cutting
back the excess, and placing the central comb of the
Figure between other two. Inversion of the central
frame, if eggs have been deposited beneath, will make
the cure absolute from the beginning. The frames
should be placed a full i^in. from centre to centre,
whether foundation be given or not : in the latter case,
the building of drone-comb will be thus checked.

The last method of swarming of which anything
need here be said is called sometimes “ nucleus-
swarming,” and differs from the preceding, in that
the bees are brought to the new queen, instead of
the new queen being introduced to the bees. Small
colonies are established, usually on one frame of
brood and two of store, and to each of these a
selected queen-cell is given. When the queen,
having been fecundated, begins to lay, her colony, by

CONTROLLED INCREASE

27

changing places with a strong stock, and receiving
combs of brood, or some similar device, is built up
to full strength. I cannot agree with those who
describe this plan as “by far the best system.’’
It is one of the best, but no more. Nuclei should
frequently be in course of building up soon after their
creation ; and so complete is the mastery we now
have over queen-introduction, that it is often much
more economical in time, to remove the queen when
ready to be utilised, under one of the plans previously
sketched, and then to give another queen-cell. The
nucleus, aided by one or two frames of eggs, will
be of full strength by the time the second queen is
laying, and thus ranks as a stock without further dis-
turbance. The full discussion of this question would
be premature : it must now be left to be treated under
“ Queen-raising,” to which the reader is referred.

Typical plans are now before us, which need no
extension, although they may be varied almost ad
infinitum^ the intelligent bee-keeper constantly finding
some specialty Inviting a departure from stereo-
typed courses ; but If tempted to experiment, let us
remember that artificial swarming will not be suc-
cessful unless it conform to all the conditions made
necessary by the instincts and economy of the bee.
The earlier worthies, in ignorance of some of these,
were landed in discomfiture — i.e.^ Huber (p. 45)

divided his colonies into two, one of which was neces-
sarily left in an orphan condition ; he then gave, to
each half, vacant frames, in which to build comb
equal in amount to that which had been removed.
As it is an Instinct of the bee to build drone-comb

■ 2']2 BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

exclusively while queenless, or possessing only an
unhatched queen,* one of the hives would be half
filled by that which, normally, can be used solely for
store, or for raising a horde of useless consumers. If
this stock be a second time divided, and the half
containing the drone-comb be also left queenless,
extinction of this section of the colony is certain,
queens being occasionally able to lay worker eggs in
drone-comb notwithstanding; for, probably, they would
not even possess the means of raising a new queen.
Foundation enables us to commit to queenless bees
the task of comb-building, since the size of the cell
is not left to their selection.

For the benefit of the more enterprising of my
readers, I append a few general principles, most of
which were originally given in my “Practical Bee-
keeping,” about twelve years since, and by which the
experimentalist may do well to test any plan before
putting it into execution.

I. No swarming to be attempted before drones are
rather numerous, or at least before patches of
drones have been some days sealed. The old stock
loses its queen, and the drone will be needed for her
successor in about twenty-three days. The drone is
sealed sixteen days, and is impotent until twelve or
fourteen days old ; he must, therefore, be sealed about
seven days before the egg to produce the queen was
laid if he is to be in time for service. Exception :
When we have a fertile mother to give to the old
stock.

* So soon as the queen leaves the cell, the bees start worker-comb.
This has been denied ; I have proved it by many conclusive experiments.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

273

2. Drones, as well as queens, should come from
selected stocks, and may be obtained early by working
such stocks into strength by giving brood, feeding,
and placing a comb of drone-cells in the centre of
the brood-nest. The feeding should be constant, or
drone-eggs may be laid and destroyed more than
once.

3. Selected drones and selected queens should, by
preference, come from distinct mothers (if two such, of
high quality, are at command), or they will not so
willingly mate ; and possibly, unless this condition be
observed, bees of the highest energy are not obtainable.

4. No swarming should be undertaken in chilly
weather, or when honey is not abundant : the swarm
has no capital, and an empty house. Unless it
obtains large supplies, it cannot build comb, and is
liable to starve. Exception : When we feed con-
stantly, or supply stored combs to the swarm.

5. Comb-building must not be left to a colony with
an immature queen, or drone-comb only will be con-
structed until she leaves the cell. Exception : When
full sheets of foundation are supplied.

6. Although a natural swarm may be placed in any
position, and the bees will keep to it, a driven swarm
must occupy the old stand, or be sent to a new
locality, not less than a mile off. I have known
of drones returning four miles. Exception : When we
confine the swarm to its hive, in a dark room, till
the third evening, providing ample ventilation, and
giving sweetened water ; the bees will then remain
wherever stood. With many stocks, results nearly
as satisfactory may be obtained if they be thoroughly

VoL. II. T

274

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

aroused and frightened, both by jarring the hive
and giving heavy doses of smoke, and then leaning
a board against, or hanging a red cloth over, and
a few inches in front of, their flight-hole, so as to
arrest their attention, and cause them to mark their
location when taking wing.

7. Driven bees, or any deprived of their combs,

if left on their proper stand without a queen, will
disperse amongst neighbouring hives, although their
stay may be lengthened by disturbance, and adding
more bees occasionally. Exception : If a piece of

comb containing unsealed brood be given, the bees
will not desert their hive.

8. Close partially, and according to circumstances,
the mouths of stock hives that have been forced
{{.e.f swarmed) ; they are relatively weak, and are
likely to suffer from chill ; they are also queenless,
and are liable to be attacked by robbers.

g. If, from an oversight, a stock is left too bare
of bees, it should be fed with sweetened water, and
may, with the precautions mentioned in No. 6, be
completely confined to its hive. In extreme cases,
it should be placed in a warm room, but even then
many of the young larvae will die from neglect.

10. Swarm from your best stocks (?>., those giving
what you most desire) : this is a golden rule, and too
often forgotten. Remember, you thus get a good
queen for the swarm, and her qualities will be con-
tinued in her successor in the stock. Raising queens
from weaklings that seem incapable of anything better,
is reversing Nature’s law that the Attest alone shall
survive, by perpetuating the progeny of an effete

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

275

queen, and keeping the apiary under a star of ill omen
in consequence.

11. Nothing tends more completely to profitlessness
than prolonged queenlessness during the spring laying.
If combs of eggs be given at intervals, this state-
ment does not apply.

12. Honey-production and rapid increase cannot co-
exist. A mania for the making of swarms has, in its
results, disgusted more young bee-keepers than all
other causes of disaster put together. The manu-
facturer of weak colonies has usually to pay for
their maintainance in the summer, and mourn their
decease in the spring ; so that, instead of profit, he
loses his money, and his bees into the bargain.

The greatest difficulty of the bee-master is yet to
be studied ; for it is not in multiplying his colonies,
but in preventing their multiplication, or in con-
trolling absolutely the how and when of their increase,
at the same time that he keeps them all at their
highest strength, that he can best vindicate his title
as an expert in the art ; while by no other means is
it possible for him to attain distinguished success in
honey-production, and emphatically so if this honev
is to be sold in the comb. Advice as wise as it
was quaint was given, many years since, by Mr.
D. A. Jones, in my hearing, at a little private party
of bee-keepers, in reply to the question, “What do
you think the most important rule as affecting profit
in the management of our stocks?” He said at once,
“ Keep as few as you can.” Supplying the ellipsis
which was conveyed by the smile and the twinkle of
the eye, the reply would run, “ Keep your bees in

276

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

as few colonies as you can,” which tersely gives the
very kernel of all that can be said respecting success,
if honey-production be our goal. The prevention of
swarming has been, and still is, the bee-keeper’s
ideal, and therefore, again and again, so-called swarm-
preventing hives have been declared, by their makers,
to deserve the title conferred upon them ; but if their
virtues in this respect depend, as is usual, upon their
great size, they are, on that very account, valueless
to the practical apiarian, as we shall presently see.

Hives, it cannot be denied, may, by their structure,
hinder or aid the bee-keeper, but none can by them-
selves secure the wished-for result : they are but

instruments, and if swarming is ever to be successfully
controlled, it must be by the exercise of wisely-
directed management. The whole of the conditions
which affect in any way the bees in relation to this
matter need to be considered, and amongst them
the influence of the queen upon her colony must not
be overlooked. Casts, as already stated, carry with
them a young queen, and, as a result, very rarely
build any drone-comb the first year. With this must
be associated a second fact — that casts in our climate
practically never swarm within the same period. On
the contrary, first swarms, having at their head the
old queen of the stock whence they came, commonly
build, if unprovided with foundation, considerable
patches of the larger cells, while their swarming
during the season of their issue (technically, maiden
swarming), although not quite common, is by no means
rare. Making due allowance for the fact that casts
are later than first swarms, it is still clear that

CONTROLLED INCREASE. 277

colonies having old queens are far more likely to be
seized with that disposition to colonise called the
swarming impulse, than are those headed by young
mothers. We have, then, in giving, as far as prac-
ticable, young queens to our colonies, a method of
reducing swarming in the apiary.

High temperature and insufficient ventilation pre-
dispose to swarming. The remedies here are both
obvious and easy of application — shading on the one
hand, and providing ample room for exit and entrance
on the other, being all that is necessary, as the bees,
by a system of fanners stationed not only at the hive
mouth, but arranged in the interior, establish currents
which, however extended their home, ventilate it as
effectually as the best-managed coal mine can be
by its up-cast and down-cast shafts.

The major cause is, however, want of room, for
bees are not infrequently driven to swarm by their
hive becoming so filled that their brood-nest is alone
left to receive the incoming honey. Straw hivists
have long known that small skeps produce more, and
earlier — although, of course, smaller — swarms than
large skeps ; and in frame hives, if store is coming in
abundantly, swarming may almost always be induced
by contracting the space the colony is allowed to
occupy. For, so soon as the combs are filled with
brood, eggs, pollen, and honey, queen-cells are com-
menced. It is true that the behaviour of bees, even
of the same race, is not quite uniform, and that
occasionally it is impossible to explain their doings.
Sometimes, e.g.^ they refuse to leave, but unmis-
takably indicate their need of greater space by

278

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

building comb outside their hive ; and but few bee-
keepers of experience have not seen it in porches,
under stools, between skeps and the wall, and such
like places : while, in rare instances, colonies will
swarm persistently with their hive only partially
furnished with comb. Notwithstanding such infrequent
and anomalous cases, giving room within the hive, in
advance of the requirements of the bees, may be
broadly stated to prevent swarming. It must be given
in advance, because the future is the child of the past,
for, if the swarming impulse already possesses the
colony, while their drones are hatching and their
queen-cells are started, swarming becomes, in a
measure, forced, and the enlargement of the hive will
not prevent it.

If we are working for extracted honey (see Ex-
traction), the problem is a comparatively easy one,
for the laden bees can always have abundant ac-
commodation provided for them ; so that the brood-
nest never need be choked by store, while the number
of combs it is allowed to occupy is not very material ;
but the details of the method must be left until Honey
becomes our subject. In working for comb honey
the case is far different. If the hive be extremely
large, the brood-nest and honey-store together only
fill it, and, practically, get mixed up together, while
the supers are untouched. If the hive be small, and
the brood-nest contracted, the conditions which in-
duce colonisation are soon reached, and much trouble,
delay, and loss may result. Adding sections at the
right moment, and replacing filled boxes by empty
ones as necessity required, perhaps, in most cases.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

279

prevented the rise of the swarming fever ; but none
pretended — even the most accomplished — to achieve
anything like uniform success, until Mr. S. Simmins
last year announced “ an original non-swarming
system,’^ adapted to hives in present use, based
upon purely natural principles, and resulting in “ a
total absence of any desire to swarm.” If this an-
nouncement be sustained by experience, it is hardly
possible to exaggerate its importance. The author of
the system has subsequently introduced a hive in
which he has endeavoured to give the fullest facility
for the application of his method ; but at present let
us leave this out of view, and endeavour to understand
the principle involved. About a quarter of a century
ago, Mr. Pettigrew, a most conservative straw-hivist,
wrote : “Can bees be prevented from swarming? Yes,
by the use of ekes ; and what are these ? Additions
or enlargements from below. Hives are eked by
riddle-rims, or hoops made of four or five rolls of
straw, of the same description as those in a straw
hive, and the same width as the hives raised by them.
These ekes are fastened to the hives by nails or
staples going into both, and the junctions covered by
any kind of cement or paste.” Here, then, is an old
statement somewhat like Mr. Simmins’ (although not
in the smallest degree invalidating his claim to
originality); and, if examined, they will be found to
mutually illumine one another.

At A, Fig. 76, we have the section of the filled
skep {sk), raised on its eke {e, e), by which, according to
Mr. Pettigrew, swarming would be prevented. The
brood-combs which were finished have become by

28o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

eking incomplete, and this, according to Mr. Simmins,
accomplishes the object, for he says*: No colony in

normal condition attempts to swar?n unless it has
all its brood-combs completedd^ To this undoubtedly
correct principle, which is practically invariable, I
venture to add a second, w’hich does much to explain
the first : That no colony in normal condition will

swarm, if by so doing it must leave the old colony

Fig. 76.— Arrangements to Prevent Swarming (Scale, iV).

A, Straw Hive in Section— s?.-, si;, Skep ; e, e, Eke; j, j, Joint; en, Entrance ; /"b.

Floor-board ; oc, Old Comb ; nr, New Comb ; >p. Space Unoccupied.

B, Ordinary Frame Hive, arranged upon the Simmins System — g. Guide : vc. New
Comb; sr, sr, Section Racks; c, c. Comb; hn. Brood-nest; others Letters as
before.

unable to defend its entrance. If a small swarm be
put into a large hive, it invariably so stations itself that
it can defend its hive-mouth in weather when other
colonies can fly (see Fig. 5 and page 34). In the
roof of Great Hadham Church, five or six colonies
were located, and the arrangements made by these
unfettered bees I thought peculiarly instructive. They
had built between the rafters, and went In and out

* Simmins’ Original Non-swarming System,” page 9.

CONTROLLED INCREASE.

28

where the slates overlapped the gutter, so that
their entrance was above ; and here their combs had
undoubtedly been commenced, and then run back to
the distance of 3ft. or 4ft., by which the defenders
were, from the first, close to the base of their opera-
tions. This instinct constantly manifests itself, and
every observant owner of frame hives must know that
at all active seasons bees keep up a loose string of
defenders from the entrance to the main body.

At B we have an ordinary hive arranged according
to Mr. Simmins’ plan, the brood-nest {dn), just before
the honey-flow commences, or before drone-cells are
capped, being limited to eight or nine frames ; and
these are kept at the back, while, next the entrance,
frames carrying Jin. starters or guides (g) only are
placed. Here, as before, we have an opening next
the entrance, and a possibility on the part of the bees
of extending the brood-nest, and so an entire absence
of a desire to swarm. But resemblance here ceases.
By referring to the skep, we find that the new comb
{nc) will be first extended next the mouth, and when
this is completed to within a bee space of the floor,
swarming may occur, notwithstanding the unoccupied
space {sp) behind. In B, in extending the brood-
nest, the frame next it — i.e., the one farthest from
the entrance — must be first built out, and then
the next will follow ; while the combs must be con-
structed from the roof downwards, so that the entrance
is the very last point reached ; and this gives the bee-
keeper time to appear upon the scene, and utilise the
constructed combs for his sections, as hereafter ex-
plained. In the skep, as the cells are multiplied the

282

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING

queen descends and occupies them with brood, while
honey is 'carried above, and stored in the old brood-
space — so that run or extracted honey is, after all,
alone produced. In the Simmins system the new
combs are not for the queen, but are carried aloft, as
we just now said, to the sections, so that they may
naturally receive the honey. Curiously, by this device,
the bees build combs for brood, and then store them
with nectar ; while, stranger still, as most would regard
it, the bees are, by giving combs in their sections, so
encouraged in storing that they there complete the
comb honey, and leave comb-building near the entrance
comparatively neglected. Further details it would be
premature here to consider will come before us in
a subsequent chapter.

This system has not been sufficiently long before
the bee-keeping world to have permitted of a practi-
cal test so thorough as its author has no doubt given
it before he ventured to speak so positively in its
favour ; but, judged by the light of theory and old
experience, as I have endeavoured now to do, it
promises great things to those raisers of comb honey
who will carefully follow it.

In a state of nature, the swarming instinct is an
essential to the maintenance of bee-life. Under
domestication this is no longer true ; so that we may
safely ‘seek to eliminate the instinct, and so not only
come to possess a non-swarming system, but a non-
swarming bee. The method of operation is purely a
question of queen-raising, which must next engage
our attention.

CHAPTER VII.

THE RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS.

The Feeding of Larvae — Royal Jelly a Misnomer —
Normal and Emergency Queen-cells — Queens of Low
and High Type: How Produced — Early Drones—
Cell-placing in Nuclei — Determining the Position
of Queen-cells — Alley’s System — Cheshire Nucleus
Hive — Dividing Frame — Queen Nursery for Hive —
Lamp ditto — Management of Virgin Queens- — ■
Breeding to Points — The Question of Size Con-
sidered— Breeding out the Swarming Instinct —
Selection of Drones — Artificial Fertilisation — •
Queen Introduction — Caging — Chloroforming —
Direct Introduction.

In Vol. L, especially at pages 26, 82 et seq., I have
already devoted much attention to my discoveries of
the methods adopted by the bees In rearing their
queens, and it will now be most convenient to
direct my readers to these passages, contenting my-
self with a passing reference to those points which
are vital to the understanding of the exceedingly
important question now before us. That two kinds
of eggs only are deposited by the queen has long
been known ; and It would appear that the Greeks of

284

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the Ionian Islands, in a remote antiquity, practised
rudely the art of queen-raising, by adopting methods
which induced the bees to convert into queens some
of those eggs which had been laid in worker-cells,
and which would have, naturally, yielded workers only.

Bee larvae, male and female, when they leave the
egg, are not fed on a mixture of pollen, honey, and
water, as is so constantly asserted — for they are then
too small and tender to deal with pollen grains as a
portion of their food — nor are they fed upon regur-
gitated material, as was taught by Dufour; but they
receive from the nurse bees a secretion, which is truly
a milk, from a gland carried in the head, and which, in
the nurses, is extremely active (No. i, Fig. 16, Vol. I.)
Those larvae intended for workers or drones undergo
weaning, the former being the more quickly deprived
of the highly nitrogenous food just referred to, and for
which is then substituted pollen, honey, and water —
the pollen containing non-digestible and waste
matters, which collect in the blind bowel, and subse-
quently stain the comb of a dark colour. The queen-
expectant is practically not weaned, but is fed on
with copious supplies of secretion diet, added with-
out stint by the workers crowding on her cell, and
ever inserting their heads, in order that they may add
their little quota of nutrition to the lucky baby. This
nutrition collects far above the immediate needs of
the insect; although, probably, the great amount in
which it is given is necessary to retain moisture and
permit of endosmose (feeding by absorption) long
after the cell is sealed. The so-called “royal jelly,”
then, is given to all bees alike at their birth. It is

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 285

soon cut off from the workers, and continued to the
end of the chapter with the queen, while the drones
receive a medium quantity.

Reasoning from these premises, it would appear
that the secretion diet has some curious power of
developing and strengthening the reproductive faculty,
which, in the worker, remains in abeyance, although,
it is not absolutely absent. At the same time, we
have brought before us two points — viz., first, the
raising of drone-brood is far more expensive and
exhausting to a colony than the raising of an equal
breadth of workers ; and, second, that queen-feeding
is not only exhausting, but not fully within the reach
of little and weak lots, which are, consequently, unable
to produce queens of the highest quality, of which we
shall have further evidence if we examine the young
worker larvae in colonies in dissimilar conditions, when
we shall note a vast difference in the amount of food
given to the babies. In swarms, e.g., the first hatched
are fed so profusely that they look almost like the in-
mates of queen-cells, because the workers are far in
excess of the nursing that is to be done by them; while
in poor colonies, with a considerable breadth of brood,
or in those that have been over-swarmed, the larvae ap-
pear dry and foodless, because their little throats carry
down more than the nurses are easily able to prepare.

As, from the foregoing, bees are able, by feeding,
to convert any young worker larva, or egg which
might produce such, into a queen, the bee-keeper has
but to remove the mother from a stock, and supply,
if needful, the eggs or young larvae, and the bees
will do the rest. When they discover their queen-

286

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

lessness, a mournful search is commenced. The
alighting-board and hive front are never free of
workers running to the right and to the left, and
investigating every corner. The usual wise division
of labour is replaced by a ludicrous waste of power,
since every bee seems to think it necessary that she
should personally scrutinise the spots that have been
visited a thousand times before. The trained eye,
giving a glance at the alighting-board, knows at
once that the queen is missed.

When hope has faded away, and the search is
pronounced useless, order again reigns, and the bees
settle down to queen-cell building ; but those who
think that cells constructed under these circum-
stances are like those which are produced to supply
successors to the old mother who is destined to leave
with a swarm, are in error. In the latter case, cups
in convenient positions, either on the edge of the
comb, or on its side, are based upon a solid founda-
tion of dense wax, aided by comb-nibblings and
scraps in general, so that it is nearly of the colour
of the comb upon which it begins to grow, and in
this cup {nqc^ Fig. 77) the queen deposits her egg,
which is from the beginning destined to form a
queen. In the illustration — drawn from an actual
cell, divided by a knife dipped into alcohol — it is
worthy of remark that honey (H, H) filled the
parts of worker-cells upon which the queen-cup
was fixed, and that the cells below [rc) were cut
back, so that full accommodation should be given to
the royal cradle and its crowd of attendants.

When queen-cells are built in the absence of a

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 287

queen, it is clear that either an egg or larva must
undergo removal, or that the base of the cell upon
which the egg is placed, and to which it is fixed,
must have existed before the queen’s departure.
Although I noticed, several years ago, in one or two
cases, circumstances which seemed to conclusively
indicate the removal of eggs, and have seen a queen-
cell built quite apart from any comb, with its base

A B

Fig. 77.— The Two Varieties of Quee.n-cele in Section (Natural Size).

A, Position of Comb from Hive under swarming impulse- nqc, Normal Queen-
cell ; e. Egg ; rc, Reduced Worker-cells ; pu. Pupa ; H, H, Honey. B, Position
of Comb Rom Hive which has lost its Queen— e^c, Emergency Queen-cell ;
rj, Royal Jelly ; co, Cocoon ; p. Pollen.

upon the bottom rail of a frame, as though a dropped
egg had been utilised, I am still doubtful, and only
feel it safe to say that, practically, eggs must hatch,
and the larvae must be brought up where the former
were laid. Under these circumstances, the worker-
cell is, of necessity, transformed into a queen-cell.
To this end, three surrounding cells are obliterated,
in order to supply foundation-room for the heavy

288

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

waxen* supports the pendulous extension will need,
while many worker-cells beneath (B, Fig. 77) are
cut back, and, for the time, rendered useless by
pittings and cross-webbings, to give the new structure
firm fixings. Such cells have been accurately called
emergency queen-cells (^yc), and are produced by
bees, without external interference, when they deter-
mine to supersede their queen on account of growing
infirmity. From this it would appear that the queen
is a party to the project of leaving with a swarm,
although she is not invited to take steps for her own
deposition — she, in the former case, laying, at the
suggestion of her children, what may be conveniently
called a queen-egg; while, in the latter, they transform
into a queen what she intended to be a worker.

It is now of importance to determine whether the
queen produced under the swarming impulse (the
queen-egg queen) is superior to the queen produced
under conditions of emergency; and here I can only
refer to the anatomical demonstration which I have
had both the honour and good fortune to be the first
to make, and which, as given in Vol. I, conclusively
proves the mode in which the egg receives its ferti-
lisation— an unvarying process indicating that the egg
in the queen-cup differs in no particular from that
in the worker-cell. Admitting, then, that eggs in
queen-cups are not superior to those in worker-cells,
it is still possible for the queen from the emergency
cell to be greatly inferior.

* Rarely, queen-cells are made extremely thin, and Mr. Neighbour
kindly gave me one, not more in any part than y^in. in thickness.
Thin webbing to the surrounding comb held it in place.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 289

The serious disadvantage of queenlessness we have
already noticed; and when bees discover this to be
their condition, in hot haste to replace the lost one,
they may (and all the races, save, perhaps, Cyprians,
frequently do) select larvae which have already passed
the age of weaning, and are, consequently, beyond
that fork in the road of development which divides
the path of queens from that of workers. The
distinctive organs of the latter are therefore already
in progress, and, although a new turn is taken, and a
queen is, in the end, produced, she is not of the
highest type; and those so formed, while having less
than the normal number of ovarian (egg-bearing)
tubes, I have found to possess well-marked indica-
tions of the gland No. i, which is especially the
property of the worker, for she alone has to feed
brood ; but all perfect queens, started from the egg,
are as truly devoid of this gland as is the drone
himself (Vol. I., page 81). The fact that queens are
started from the egg in normal queen-cells is sug-
gestive ; but, in addition, it is noticeable that the
amount of food given in the queen-cup exceeds that
supplied to a worker, even at the initial steps, so
that the argument in favour of securing queens which
received their promotion directly after leaving the
egg, needs no enforcement. Worker larvae between
two and three days old are capable of being con-
verted into VQs^QcX.dih\G.-looking queens ; but Mr. Doo-
little is stated by Professor Cook to have known
queens to be reared from worker larvae taken at
four and a half days after hatching. In this case, the
cells adjacent to the one containing the selected
Vol. II. U

290

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

larva were removed in the usual manner, and the
larva surrounded by a royal cell. Mr. Doolittle is
an observer who deserves respect, but my expe-
rience has , not furnished me with any exactly parallel
instance. Such a queen would be an interesting
subject for dissection, for I should expect her to be
neither worker nor queen, but a little of both. Re-
turning to our point. Should the bees of a deprived
stock but start one queen from an advanced larva,
she, because she first hatches, will alone survive if
no queen-cells are removed, and so the practice of
securing a new queen by the simple displacement
of the old one is, although very convenient, not the
very best (see page 265), and would, probably, if per-
sisted in for many generations, deteriorate consider-
ably the strain of bees subjected to its influence.

We have now before us the general principles by which
to be guided in raising queens of the highest excel-
lence, and in the forefront stand these two : First, the
larvae should be intended by the nurses for a queen
from the very beginning ; and, second, the nurses
must be numerous, and well nourished, and not have
put upon their secretive powers a drain which they
cannot fully bear. The conditions under which normal
queens are produced at the epoch of natural swarm-
ing especially emphasise this second point. Food is
then so abundant, that the old mother is beginning
to be crowded in her brood-nest; and as a conse-
quence, while young bees are daily more numerous, the
amount of nurse-work demanded is rather declining.
Under these circumstances, the heavy but then easily-
sustained burden of queen-raising is naturally under-

i

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 291

taken. It is the great defect of ordinary artificial
swarming^ that the swarm is first removed, and then
the weakened colony has not only to tend its brood,
but also to raise its queen. Under normal conditions,
to which exceptions are very rare, the queens are
fully fed first, and then the swarm departs. All this
can be imitated very completely by following the
natural sequence of raising our queens in order that
swarms may be made, rather than making swarms in
order that queens may be produced ; hence was
given the caution at page 265.

With our present slight control over fertilisation,
it is highly desirable that we obtain in number abnor-
mally early drones from the stock which we have
selected to supply the male element. This should be
strengthened by brood from other colonies, and stimu-
lated by carefully-sustained feeding. As the bees begin
to crowd, a comb of drone-cells should be placed in
the centre of the brood-nest, care being taken at
the same time that the bees should have no combs
they do not fully cover. Very soon, drone-eggs will
be laid ; and now, in our fitful climate, watchfulness is
needed, for a few cold nights, accompanied by uncertain
income (for the bees are not encouraged appreciably
by heavily-stored combs), may cause the objects of
our hope to disappear, in furnishing a repast to the
workers.*

The stock from which eggs for furnishing queens
are to be taken should have been kept carefully
going, and, about the time the earliest of the drones

* Drone-eggs are safe if given, so soon as laid, to a queenless colony ;
but this involves more labour than simple attention to feeding.

2Q2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

commence to hatch, a frame of fresh, bright comb
or foundation should be placed in the centre of its
brood-nest. In three or four days, this will be well
furnished with eggs; but, in any case, we must wait
until the earliest-laid begin to hatch, the tiniest
specks of food at the bottom of the cells being then
alone discoverable. We now remove the frame to
the hive in which the queen-cells are to be built out.
We shall get the latter more conveniently arranged
along the edge of the comb if we practically divide
it, by placing a horizontal bar across the centre of the
frame, and provide the upper and lower parts with
foundation, so that about an inch space is left between
each piece and the rail beneath. This cross-rail should
be i|-in. nearly in width, to prevent the combs oppo-
site to it being unduly built out. Some recommend
cutting one or two holes, perhaps lin. long and qin.
wide, in the comb itself with the aforesaid object.

We now remove the queen, and all eggs and un-
capped brood, from some strong colony, preferably
leaving all the bees, and using the queen to dis-
place some old or undesirable one, and distributing
the brood amongst other stocks, where it will
be of most advantage. If the queen must be
retained, a nucleus can be formed by giving one
or tw’O combs of brood and one or two of store.
Inserting the comb of selected eggs, and care-
fully feeding the stock if need be, secures, it will
be seen, all the coveted conditions, and the queen-
less colony will immediately start royal cells, in
numbers varying with its strength and race — Cyprians
and Syrians sometimes commencing four or five

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 293

dozen. It may be here remarked, in a parenthesis,
that Dr. Tinker objects somewhat to the plan detailed,
on the ground that the bees recognise that the brood
is not their own, and refuse to feed the royal foster
larvae as they should. This idea is quite contrary to
general experience, but Dr. Tinker favours a plan
which may often be advantageously adopted. He
says: “To rear fine queens out of season, and at an
unfavourable time, take from a colony its queen. In

Fig. 78.— Inserted Queen-cei.l (Natural Size).

three days thereafter, take out the larvae from the
formed queen-cells, and introduce into their places
small larvae (as they lie in the worker-cells not larger
than t^in. across) from the best breeding stock. The
bees fail to recognise the change made, and as the

larvae get a big start in the royal food in the cells,

they make the largest queens it is possible to

produce.” Alas ! then it is not only in the human
family that the rightful heir gets sometimes dis-

possessed by a substituted baby. But to return.

294

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

When the cells have been sealed five or six
days, preparation must be made for placing them,
and the formation of nuclei will usually be the most
desirable. The common method is as follows : A comb
of hatching brood, with the adherent bees, but without
the queen, is taken from a sufficiently populous stock,
placed in a hive, with a comb of store on each side of
it, sufficient bees being added, by shaking or brush-
ing, to keep all in condition, and a dummy or dummies
being added to close up the space. Twenty-four hours
later, the queenless lot will gladly receive the royal
cell, which should be ripe (see page 255), and which it
is commonly recommended to cut from its position
with a portion of comb. Having previously prepared
an opening — using a very thin and narrow-bladed
knife — amongst the brood of the central comb of the
nucleus, the queen-cell may be dovetailed in, to be
fixed by the bees, as in Fig. 78, allowing sufficient
space for the escape of the hatching queen. This
plan gives much trouble, greatly damages the combs,
which, are never again neatly repaired, and, by the
time it requires for its performance, is likely to

expose the cells to chill. The cell, at the time

of its removal, is soon to hatch, and I find it
quite sufficient, and fully as safe, even in chilly
weather, to detach with it a small piece of wax
tracery, which, when the cell is passed between the
top bars tb, Fig. 79), is pressed over {f), and

flattened by the finger. The attachment the bees

cannot gnaw away, because it is covered from them
by the quilt. They nibble down their comb a little at
a and b, and gather on the cell, which may be removed.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 295

without a trace of injury to anything, when the queen
lias left it.

The bees will frequently huddle their queen-cells
together in such a manner that it is impossible to
separate all from one another without an occasional
mishap, making a small opening somewhere, when
the bees will almost always refuse to let the cell
hatch, although we may repair with a little wax,
as some writers suggest. My handiwork, I believe.

AND Doolittle Cage.

A—tb, tb, Top Bars ; qc. Queen-cell ; p, p, Pupie. B, Doolittle Cage— Z, I, Lugs ; e.
Exit. C, Doolittle Cage in Section— rync, Queen-cell ; other Letterings as before.

has never been accepted where I have allowed the
little fidgets an opportunity of pulling it to pieces.
If we can break down our clusters to two, we can
generally save all, for a pair passed between the
top bars, if carefully watched, may be removed,
before mischief has happened, after one queen has
left. The remaining cell will be given to a nucleus,
which, even if kept waiting, will only amuse itself
by building cells that are soon to be destroyed.
A caution is needed with reference to separating
the top bars, with a queen-cell between them.

2q6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

They are often attached firmly to the latter, which
may be torn and spoiled unless a thin knife be
run down at k in the Figure,

How much it would tend to our convenience if the
bees could be taught to build their royal cells in

a symmetrical arrangement, at regular intervals ! and
many devices have been stated to possess the virtue
of giving the necessary instruction, but my experience
with them leads me to think that most of their

advocates have not seriously tried them. Merely
enlarging the cell mouth with a piece of conical
wood I have not found to determine the position
of a queen-cell one time in twenty ; but breaking
down the cell walls on the under side, after the
larva has escaped from the egg, and continuing
the destruction for 4in., or till the bottom edge of

the comb is reached, is more, though by no means
uniformly, successful. It is bad economy, however,
to allow the queen-raising stock to build more queen-
cells than we can utilise, or any in such positions
that they must be useless. If an examination be

made, the excess, or the awkwardly-placed ones, may
be destroyed by a gash, fatally injuring the grub.

Mr. Alley,* a very prominent American queen-raiser,
has carried the problem of placing royal cells to a
greater degree of refinement than any other ; and,
without recommending — for I venture on several
points to differ — I give an outline of his system,
which, to me, was too troublesome to be continued,
although so interesting that its omission would be

* “ The Bee-keeper’s Handy Book,” by Henry Alley.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUKFNS. 297

a grave mistake. Mr. Alley does not keep his queen-
mothers in full colonies, but in miniature hives, the
five frames of which give a total comb-space not
exceeding one-and-a-half British standards. His
object is to minimise the risk of injury to a selected
and valuable mother, and to quickly secure batches
of eggs of a known age ; but, admitting these
advantages, I think it a somewhat doubtful policy,
for, judging by numerous well-known analogies, if
the queen be not in the fullest activity (and, not-
withstanding the frequent exchange of the middle
comb for an empty one, she cannot be in this sized
hive), her eggs are less likely to yield highly prolific
queens. Special moods and passing conditions in a
fruitful animal are often continued in its offspring by
heredity ; and, referring again to natural swarming,
we find the normal queen-cell (nqc^ Fig. 77) to be
furnished at the very time the assimilative and con-
structive functions of the queen are under the fullest
stimulation.

Placing a frame of drawn foundation or young
comb in the centre of the hive, it will be found filled
with eggs in twenty-four hours, and is, in due course,
transferred to the queen-raisers. These are prepared
by Mr. Alley in a special manner, in conformity with
his views as to the origin and nature of “ royal
jelly,” with which it will be seen, from what has
already appeared, I am in only very partial agree-
ment. Manipulating in a room, so as to escape the
hindrance of wet or cool weather, he deprives a
strong colony of queen, brood, and combs, using
smoke to induce the bees to gorge, and to keep

298

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

them in check. They are brushed into a bottomless
box, somewhat smaller than a standard hive, and
covered with wire-cloth above and below. So soon
as they miss their queen they start an uproar, which
knows no pause until they are released (see page
263). Their confinement is continued in a cool, dark
room, for ten or twelve hours, a pint of syrup being
given them. Reasoning from what Mr. Alley has

sc

Fig. 80.— Alley’s System of Preparing Comb for Queen-raising.

A, Comb from Alley’s Miniature Hive cut into Strips (Natural Size). B, Side
View of One of the Strips— sc, Shortened Cells.

observed in pigeons, he concludes, quite erroneously,
as I think, that confined queenless bees “ prepare or
secrete the white, milky food which we find in the
bottom of the cells around the eggs (subsequently)
given them for rearing queens, and which is of the
same nature as the royal jelly upon which the young
queens feed while confined to the cell ; also, that it
is necessary that they be kept queenless until instinct

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 299

impels them to make this important preparation for
cell-building.’’

Everything being now in readiness, we visit
I the hive in which the breeding queen is kept, and

! take from it the middle comb placed there four days

previously. We find in the bottom of the cells a
I white, almost invisible, transparent larva, just hatched,
and already floating in a tiny quantity of food.
Taking this comb to the bee-room, which has been
warmed to prevent the larvae from, being chilled, we
! cut through each alternate line of cells (see dotted
lines ab^ cd, ef, Fig. 80), so as to divide the comb
into strips. These are turned on to their sides (B,

Fig. 80), on a flat table, and the cells on one face

(5c) cut down by a thin, keen knife, to within Jin.
of the midrib ; and then each alternate egg in these
reduced cells is destroyed, Mr. Alley recommending
for this work the dipped end of a common match.
It is inserted to the bottom, twisted between the
thumb and finger, and the object is accomplished.
Sufficient room is thus given for large cells to be
built, and for the bees to work around them, while it
permits of their being afterwards separated without
i injury. The strips have yet to be fixed in position.
Mr. Alley proceeds thus : He has previously cut from
a broodless comb — a number of which he keeps in
stock, and devotes to the purpose now explained —
such a portion as will give room to the strip A, B, Fig.
81, and the queen-cells to be built. The line of
section is made convex beneath (see Figure), so that
the cells should diverge as they descend. A mixture
I of two parts rosin and one beeswax is heated care-

300

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

fully, and the uncut cells of the strip B, Fig. 8o, are
dipped into it. It is immediately placed in position,
cell mouths downwards, and pressed with the fingers
gently into place, care being taken not to crush or
injure the cells in so doing. When the latter are
completed, the strip is taken with them, and the comb
thus left free for similar use subsequently.

The “nucleus,” or queen-cell hive receives the

Fig. 81.— Queen-cells built upon' Alley’s Plan (Natural Size).

frames and cell-building strips, and such combs as
may be required to fill it. It Is placed on the stand
whence the bees (page 298) were taken, and at such
an elevation that the bottom edge of the alighting-
board meets the top edge of the box containing the
worried and impatient prisoners, for whose escape a
slight gap is made, so that any objectionable drones
may be strained out. If none exist, a free regress is

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 301

permitted. No worker-brood is given to these bees,
of course, as all their energies are to be concen-
trated on queen-production ; but a little capped drone-
brood will greatly encourage them. If the imprison-
ment begin in the morning, the liberation may be made
at night, when the bees, by the next day, will be recon-
ciled to the new state of things, and have their cells
already started. That these are approximately perpen-
dicular and mouth downwards will puzzle none who will
look at the form of the normal cell (A, Fig. 77). The
cells will grow downwards, and occupy the position shown
in the Figure, in which Mr. Alley’s has been partially
followed. In practice, however, the spaces between the
cells will be, to a considerable extent, filled with a
wax septem, deeply pitted, and sometimes stored with
honey ; but these additions will not prevent the knife
from effecting the separation of the cells when they
are ready for transferring to nuclei. Mr. Alley, for
a reason which I have previously explained, cautions
all queen-breeders against permitting the bees to
build too many cells. He considers twelve sufficient
for an average colony of all races but Cyprians and
Syrians, to which a larger number may be per-
mitted. The excess may be destroyed by the
match, as before. My experience shows that, by
this plan, the bees will not convert every egg or
larva given them into a queen ; and often many are
missed, so that more strips must be supplied than
would, if fully utilised, make up the number of cells
we desire to have constructed. Liberal feeding, as
previously hinted, if the honey-flow be not abundant,
is an actual necessity.

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

302

We return to the question of nuclei, for which
the majority of bee-keepers use ordinary hives
reduced by division-boards, as before explained.
It has been a practice with myself to associate
the nucleus with the stock on one stand — as I

Fig. 82.— Cheshire Arrangement of Nuclei (Scale, and ^V)-

A, Stock and Nucleus— c, Entrance to Stock ; cn. Entrance to Nucleus ; D, Division-
board or Dummy. B, Small Colony in Hive— d, Division-board ; 1l, Flight Line
of Bees, C, Same Colony divided into two Nuclei. Other Letterings as before.

believe, with increased economy and convenience.
The stock has its entrance at one corner (<?, A, Fig.
82), the most suitable spot for many reasons, and
the best by far for “Wintering” (which see). When

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 303

! it is desired to establish a nucleus, for the purpose
of getting a young queen into laying condition, two
frames of the stock hive, one containing brood and
adherent bees, are placed behind the division-board
! (D). The warmth from the parent aids the nucleus, so

' that two frames are amply sufficient. The hive is now
i rotated about 45deg. from its former position (B) to
j that of C, by which many of the bees in flight will
! enter the nucleus chamber, whose mouth has been
I turned towards the old line of flight, while the
j mouth before used by the colony has been turned
from it. In twenty-four hours, a queen-cell may
safely be given to the nucleus, and the queen hatch-
ing therefrom allowed to remain until she begins
to lay, when she or -the queen of the parent colony
may be utilised elsewhere, and the two lots of bees
united, without any loss or disturbance of the 'apiary
i whatever, by simply removing the division-board, and
alternating the frames of stock and nucleus, the
mouth of which is now closed while the hive is turned
I into its former position (B). Should the stock, when
I the operation is undertaken, be not yet full, the combs
j or combs and bees, as most convenient, may come
! from any other colony, and the union, at the proper

I time, be effected as before ; and should the colony on

i the stock be weak, only occupying five or six frames.

! it may be made into two nuclei by the same process,
with the addition of a second division-board {d\ C),
arranged like that of the Cheshire Makeshift (Fig. 16).
so that both nuclei are at the back of the hive, assist-
ing each other in maintaining temperature.

Objections are quite rightly made to the intro-

304

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

duction of a second sized frame, even for the raising
of queens ; but my dividing standard is not really a
new size, since it is at all times admissible in the
standard hive, taking its place as one of the ordinary
frames. I have improved upon the pattern given in
my Practical Bee-keeping,” by making the frame
at once easier of construction, stronger, and more
simple. The Figure needs but little explanation. The
proximate side bars {sd, sb, A, Fig. 83) of the halves
are wider than the rest of the frame, since when the

Fig. 83.— Cheshire Dividing Standard Frame (Scale, y'^).

A, Frame as used in Standard Hive— Lug ; st, st, Wire Staples ; sb, sb, Side
Bars ; tb, tb. Top Bars. B, Hive in Cross Section, with Half-dividing Frame
within it— /(^, Hive Side. C, View from above Top Bars. Lettering as before.

latter stands with non-dividing ones in the hive, if
the centrally-placed bars were only of the usual |in.,
the comb opposite to them, wherever honey is stored,
w'ould be built out until a single bee-space alone
remained, whereas opposite the brood a double bee-
space would be left. The troubling irregularity is
in this way entirely avoided. The two halves are
held together by stoutish wire staples (v/, st, A and C),
pushed into holes made to receive them, so that they
grip the side bars together. The frame is filled by
natural building, foundation or, if needed quickly, by

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 305

a comb from a ‘^standard’’ transferred to it. Being
furnished with brood and store, it is, when required,
lifted from the hive, and the staples withdrawn and
replaced in previously-made holes in the end grain
of the side bars, forming in each half a sort of foot
(.s-^, B), which, with the one ear, holds the half frame
in position. The two halves are placed side by side
in a small hive, 3in. full in width, gin. deep, yjin-
from front to rear, and between the two combs the
queen-cell may be fixed next day, as at A, Fig. 79. I
make the mouth of these queen-raising hives large —
about I Jin. square — to give added bees a rapid
entrance, but have before this mouth a sliding door,
which contracts the opening if necessary, until one
bee only can pass.

If the dividing frame be given a wide space in the
stock hive for a few minutes before removal, sufficient
bees are usually taken with it to supply the nucleus ;
if more are required, they may be shaken down in
front in the well-known manner. Of course, care is
requisite that the queen of the stock be left at home.
It is possible to secure the fecundation of several
queens in succession in each of these little hives
during the summer; but their combs need to be once
or twice exchanged for another dividing frame carry-
ing hatching brood. If the nucleus walls are thick,
and they are well covered above, so that the bees are
neither chilled at night nor scorched by day, the two
little combs are perfectly sufficient. Several of these
nuclei may stand near to each other, facing the
different points of the compass, and, when queen-
raising is over, all the combs may be gathered into
VoL. II. X

3o6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

one hive to receive such help as will put it into
condition before autumn brings work to an end. The
objection that bees in such small numbers swarm out
is only true when they are ill cared for. Feeding
with candy cake constantly, seems to cure the evil.
With this attention, and leaving each laying queen
until she has filled the combs where free of store,
these small nuclei will sustain themselves, in average
seasons, with a drain upon the larger stocks that is
almost inappreciable.

Fig. 84.— Queen Nursery (Scale, i).

■p, Partition ; c, Cage drawn from Position ; qc, Queen-cell.

It sometimes happens that a second batch of
queen-cells are ready, and demanding immediate
attention, if they are not to be destroyed, and yet
no nucleus hives are at liberty to receive them.
Possibly, bad weather has delayed the first lot of
queens in securing impregnation, and they must now
remain where they are until eggs are laid, or until
they are discarded as useless. To meet this diffi-
culty, a device called a queen nursery has been intro-

RAISING AND INTRODLXTION OF QUEENS. 307

duced. Mr. Alley’s arrangement is practically as
follows: A frame (Fig. 84), say, lin. wide, fitting the
hive in use, is divided by partitions* {p) into a number
of small spaces about 2^in. square, and into these are
fitted cages (c), consisting of a wooden block, covered
on both sides by wire cloth, and having two holes
above, into one of which the queen-cell is inserted,
while the other receives a sponge dipped in honey, to
supply the queen with food. Mr. Jones makes a nursery
in which the queen-cell is held clipped by an india-
j rubber band, and gives a little trough of food beneath,
adding a few bees as attendants ; but the principle is
the same.

The frame being placed in the centre of a strong
stock, with the queen-cells fixed in position, the latter,
in due course, hatch ; but, strange as it may appear,
a normal colony will certainly allow the queens to
starve, while even a queenless one will generally
refuse to feed them. They are, therefore, dependent
upon the added food, in the form of honey, or
I honey and sugar ; and although the queens, under
I these conditions, will continue to subsist even for
I weeks, they undoubtedly suffer from a most preju-
j dicial defect in their diet. Queens, between hatch-
■ ing and mating, are normally great consumers of
pollen (page 84, Vol. I) ; and this is required, as fur-
nishing nitrogenous material, to add to the volume of
! their tissues. Queens allowed access to sugars only,

' become attenuated, although not visibly reduced — for
the hard, chitinous envelope prevents external shrink-
' age — and the bowel contains, instead of abundant

* Mr. Alley uses no partitions — a source of much inconvenience.

X 2

3o8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

pollen residues, a dirty-coloured, nearly fluid, mass.
Against ordinary nurseries, with all their convenience,
we must regard this objection as a grave one, which
is entirely avoided by placing, side by side, over
natural stores of pollen and honey, my flat introducing-
cages (Fig. 89), or any similar forms ; but unless
wooden strips be added at the edges, to delay the
bees in burrowing, the royal cells, or queens, would
not be safe for more than three days.

About twelve years since, while endeavouring to
follow out the changes through which the larva became
at length the (imago) perfect bee, I found that, if the
former be kept in a warm and damp atmosphere,
removal from the cell was by no means quickly fatal,
and that queens so treated could be carried through
all their changes while exposed to observation ; and,
moreover, that fluctuations in temperature considerably
delaying their development, did not prevent their j
arriving at length at the perfect stage, although ’
they were miserably enfeebled. All know well j]
that, in warm weather, workers will gnaw out,
here and there, from comb that has been days away ;
from its natural protectors. Reasoning upon this ‘
observation, an American, Mr. F. R. Shaw, constructed ;
what is now known as a lamp nursery, the object of i
which was to carry queen-cells on from sealing to |
hatching, apart from the interference of the bees, i
Mr. A. I. Root improved upon Mr. Shaw’s plan, j
substituting water for hot air,* but defects remained,
which I have endeavoured to reduce, making the
nursery as at Fig. 85.

* “A B C of Bee Culture” — “Lamp Nursery.”

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 309

The main part of the apparatus is really a hive,
with double walls of zinc or tin plate (the former is
far the more durable, and is not open to any valid
objection, if varnished within with shellac, dissolved in
spirits of wine), the space between which, about an
inch, may be filled with water (W, W), to entirely sur-

WC

Fig. 85.— Lamp Nursery in Sectio.n— Author’s Arrangement (Scale, i\,).

W, W, W, Water in Zinc or Tin-plate Double Cistern : P, Packing to Retain Heat ;

Open Water-trough ; xt, xt. Staples ; wc, Wooden Case ; /, Funnel ;
fh, Thermometer ; c, Cone of Metal ; I, Lamp ; hi, hi, Riiising-blocks.

round the contents of the nursery, except on the top.
To assist in the filling, a pipe, surmounted by a small
funnel {f), is passed through the outer case {wc)^
and enters the water cistern at the top. On the
opposite side another and smaller pipe is provided, to
allow the contained air to escape. The weight of water

310

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

would cause the metal to bulge badly, unless several
staples {st, st,) were soldered into the sides. While
the cistern is under construction, a piece of plank, lin.
thick, is passed between the inner and outer skins,
two holes are bored opposite to each other, and a
bell-wire passed through and fastened, by solder, as
indicated. An outer casing of wood is most desirable,
and this should permit of packing {p) with cork-dust,
charcoal-dust, or sawdust, so as to prevent, to the
uttermost, needless leak of heat. The case has a
hole beneath, 5in. or bin. in diameter, exposing the
cistern, and here a truncated cone of metal is soldered
to husband the heat of the lamp. Legs are added to
bring it to a convenient height, and to permit of
variations in the height of the lamp (/), which stands
on blocks {bl, bl).

The water required for a nursery capable of receiving
ten standard frames, would be about three gallons, or
3olb. ; and so great is the specific heat of water, that
this amount, protected as described, and warmly covered
above by quilting, would cool with extreme slowness
in the absence of the lamp, while its temperature
would be equally long in rising if the lamp power were
in excess of that required. Gas may be used ; but if a
lamp be employed, it should be of small size,* its
reservoir yet being large enough to hold a thirty hours’
supply. To start, fill with hot water, cover carefully,
and adjust your thermometer [tJi), either placing it
inside, or passing it through a hole in the cover, retain-
ing, by a fixed circular disc (rt’), only sufficient of the

* I find my nursery is amply heated, even in cold •^^eather, by the
smallest round-wicked paraffin lamp obtainable.

RAISING AND INTRODLXTION OF QUEENS. 311

stem above the quilting to permit of reading it without
disturbing anything within. Now let the temperature
drop till qodeg. are reached ; light your lamp, and
regulate its flame and distance until the thermometer
stands steadily. If we do no more than this, the air
within the nursery will be extremely dry, and, con-
sequently, injurious to queen-cells, for, under normal
conditions, the water carried into the hive in limpid
nectar, or as actual water, keeps its air almost at the
point of saturation. To remedy this, I depress one
side of the cistern into a long trough {tr)^ and this
I keep filled with water.

No honey now so stiffens that it is unfit for the queens,
as Mr. Root complains, and food given to them will
remain in condition for days. Our queen-cells may
now be cut out, and placed free within the nursery,
to hatch in the open ; or they may be placed in large
wooden pill-boxes, having two or three holes to admit
air, and a little piece of stored comb, to feed the new-
born aspirants to maternal honours, which will do per-
fectly well, without further attention, for a few hours
after making their exit from the cell. If we object
to cutting the comb in order to remove the cells, the
frames, freed of all bees, may be suspended within the
nursery ; but unless these combs have been rapidly
filled with eggs, by being placed empty in the centre
of the queen-raising stock, as before explained, two
difficulties meet us : first, all the brood cells will not
be sealed, and so some of the larvae must perish ;
and next, some of the workers will hatch out before
the queens, and so cause much confusion and trouble.
As, however, workers hatch on the twenty-first day from

312

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the laying of the egg, and the queen nearly always on
the sixteenth, if the eggs have been laid nearly at the
same date, the whole of the worker larvae and the queens
will be sealed so nearly together that we can wait
with advantage till the work of sealing is complete,
so that no sacrifice be made ; and, next, all the queens
will be out, and our comb returned to the hive some
days before any worker hatches. The delay in the
removal also reduces considerably the risk to the
immature queens involved in shaking and brushing the
comb so as to clear it of bees.

The bees losing their comb by its transference to
the nursery, should not be left, even for an hour,
broodless and queenless ; so either give them a queen
from the nursery, or another comb of eggs, to restart
them queen-raising.

The destruction of immature queens by their hatched
sister, aided by the bees, has already been noticed
(pages 155 and 161), and the same instinct shows itself,
although in diminished force, when the queen is alone,
and in the unnatural conditions of the lamp nursery, to
which, in consequence, frequent visits are needed,
unless, occasionally, cells are to be torn open, or queens
killed by the poisoned dart of a rival. The movements
of a queen within a cell, beginning some twelve hours
or more before she quits it, are easily traceable by hold-
ing the cell up to the light or to the ear. In the latter
case, the nibbling of the cocoon is most distinctly
audible, and such advanced queens may be transferred
at once to the stock to receive them. Pulling off
the cell from the comb, so as to damage the latter
as little as possible, may injure the base of the cell,

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 313

in which case, and, perhaps, in most cases, it is best
to give it in a Doolittle cage (Fig. 79), consisting of
a truncated cone of wire-cloth, into which the cell
is dropped. It is now placed between the combs, when
the two ears supplied to the cage suspend it from the
top bars of the frames. The sides and base of the
cell are thus safe from attack, and the queen gnaws
out in the usual manner.

When the queens are already free in the nursery,
they must be introduced to nuclei. Unimpregnated
queens are less acceptable to colonies than are laying
mothers, and their introduction is, under ordinary cir-
cumstances, more uncertain. Mr. Heddon gives his
experience as follows ;* “ We go to our nursery and
examine for hatched queens about five times per day,
going as early and late as we are up, so as to make
the interval during the night, between examinations,
as short as possible. We have not, as yet, had a
queen destroyed. When you find one or more
hatched, place each in a wire-cloth cage, and carry
her to one of your previously-formed nuclei. Smoke
the guards, and, removing the stopper from the cage,
place the open end at the entrance of the nucleus,
and let her run in. Just as she passes in, send a
light puff of smoke after her, and leave the hive with
your empty cage. 1 think that the less you arouse
the colony, the surer you are of success. I advise the
use of no more smoke than to make sure of sub-
duing the guards.

“ There has been some discussion regarding the
best age of the nucleus at the time the young queen

* “ Success in Bee-culture,” page 30.

314

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is run in. Some consider such introducing safe only
after the nuclei have their queen-cells capped, which
will be from three to six days after they are formed ;
but I have always endeavoured to get a young queen
in some time between twenty-four and forty-eight
hours after formation. I have, in many instances,
failed to have my queens on hand as soon as I
intended, and have this season run queens into nuclei
of all ages, from six hours to as many days, and I think
not a single failure has beset our efforts. We have
found about one in fifteen of our nuclei queenless ;
but as we seldom look after these matters previous
to a week after introducing, and have in no case
found queen-cells on the combs, I infer that these
queens were accepted, but were lost on their mating
trip, or otherwise, afterwards.” This question of in-
troducing virgins will come before us again presently ;
but we have yet to discuss one or two points in
reference to the selection of our breeding stock.

I remember well one of the most, if not the most,
scientific of British poultry-fanciers, remarking that he
had long desired to establish a breed with a special
type of feather. “Give me a bird,” said he, “with but
one feather such as I seek, and I shall not despair ;
but that bird has not yet been found me.” The idea
here involved is of general application to all animal
and vegetable races. Any peculiarity, if of service,
may, by natural processes, continued through long
periods, become settled into a specific characteristic,
or may be quickly intensified by careful breeding, man
practically leaping to the goal of natural selection, and,
bridging over what ages upon ages could only have

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 315

accomplished ; but the point now before us is : What
are the peculiarities that we require in our bees ?
All are agreed as to the desirability of great fecundity ;
stamina and longevity ; gentleness and adherence to
the comb under manipulation ; great honey-gathering
capability ; an indisposition to swarm ; good wintering
qualities ; good comb-building ; solid and impervious
sealing to honey ; and a compactly kept brood-
nest. But there are other points, which are of
relative rather than absolute importance, such as
purity of race, colour, and markings, both of queen
and workers ; and, lastly, size. It is clear that some of
the first are mutually dependent ; <?.^., fecundity and
honey-gathering capabilities are inseparably connected,
and longevity and wintering qualities go, necessarily,
hand in hand. The special characteristics of the races,
as such, will be treated of hereafter, while the question
of hybrids or pure stock, and that of colour, must be
settled by individual circumstances and tastes ; although
the latter has a practical application, in that light-toned
queens are far more easily seen than are those that
are dark.

The last point (size) is one upon which great mis-
apprehension abounds. The idea that it is desirable
to increase the dimensions of our bees is all but
universal, and, since I have ventured, more than once,
to stand alone in condemning it, I must give my
reasons for so doing. Apis dorsata has been hunted
up, although it is known to be a useless savage,
simply because it is big, and that by the very persons
who claim that the smaller hive bees are the best,
in that they give their vote generally to the yellow

3i6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

varieties. Fortunately, it is in the very nature of things
impracticable to “hybridise” our hive bees with dorsata,
over which we may inscribe “ Requiescat in pace!'

But it is still necessary to point out that the
smaller the creature, the greater, relatively, are its
powers, both for a mechanical and a physiological
reason. First, other things being equal, as an animal
is enlarged, its weight increases as the cube, and its
strength as the square only, of the ratio of the lineal
increase. Thus, if a man could be developed until his
6ft. stature became i8ft., his weight would be increased
no less than twenty-seven times ; while his muscles,
because three times their former width and thickness,
would have only nine times their former power. Such
a man would be just able to stand; but if he were to
stoop to pick up a pebble, he would be too weak to
rise again to the erect posture. This aspect of the
question is quite mechanical, and may be further
illustrated thus : An ordinary lucifer match, supported
horizontally at the ends, will bear about 7000 times
its own weight suspended from its centre ; but by
enlarging it 240 times, it becomes a great baulk

of timber, which would be broken by once its
own weight similarly suspended. Here we have

the reason why ants can build nests which, in

relative size, utterly transcend anything bigger creatures
can accomplish ; why some insects can jump even a
hundred times or more their own height, while the

gazelle can, at a push, do twice, and man and the horse
once theirs, leaving the elephant to disdain jumping,
as unsuited to his ponderous dignity.

The physiological reason is equally striking. Creatures

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 317

grow by transfusion of material in their living bodies,
and the more solidity their tissues have, the more slowly
does this transfusion occur. Some flesh-flies, in the
earlier part of their larval state, will increase in weight
two or three hundred times in twenty-four hours — a rate
of development absolutely forbidden, by physiological
and chemical laws, to creatures of larger proportions ;
for, other things being equal, as the size increases the
rate of development must decrease. The inconceivably
minute monad, weighing a fraction of a billionth
of a grain, by absorbing nutrition doubles its weight
and divides every four minutes. If food abound, and
the fluid surrounding the creature be free of enemies,
and not circumscribed, it, in the course of three or
four hours, may produce in its descendants an amount
of living, moving material exceeding the weight of the
largest' elephant ; while the latter animal, with its
digestive and assimilative powers stimulated to the
uttermost, could only, in the same time, add a few
ounces to the weight of its body.

The economics of the question must not be over-
looked. In gathering from clover, it has been shown
that about 3-5-oth grain is secured at each visit. Let
us imagine that our bee is enlarged twice, by which
its weight has grown eight-fold. As it flies, carrying its
large body from clover-bloom to clover-bloom, an amount
of wear and tear is involved which is eight times as
great as that accompanying similar movements in the
normal bee. This wear and tear is replaced by food
— of course, proportionately augmented, and which has
to be deducted from the -g-iT^th grain secured. The net
increase to the stock is, therefore, less at each visit, in

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

318

the case of the large bee, than in that of the normal
one. The former, however, has the advantage of
being able to decrease its return visits to the hive to
unload, because its honey-sac is larger ; but this is
the only gain, and it is much more than counter-
balanced by the fact that, with normal bees, eight inde-
pendent gatherers would be at work simultaneously for
only the same wear and tear that would permit of the
efforts of one if the bulk were increased as supposed.
Selection has gone on for ages regulating the propor-
tions of the wondrous insect between those extremes
in which the loss by excessively frequent returns to the
colony, and the loss through excessive bodily weight,
balance each other, and has thus given us a bee whose
size yields the best possible results.

The botanical reason for desirino- no alteration

o

was expounded in Vol. I. Flowers and bees have
been constantly interacting. The build of every floret
is adapted to that of its fertiliser, and, could we
suddenly increase the dimensions of our hive bees, we
should throw them out of harmony with the floral
world around them, decrease their utility, by reducing
the number of plants they could fertilise, and diminish
equally their value as honey-gatherers. Mechanics,
physiology, economics, and botany alike, show any
craving after mere size to be an ill-considered and un-
scientific fancy, for which it would be even difficult to
find an excuse.

Attention has already been drawn to the fact (page
228 et seq.) that natural selection tends to develop
the swarming tendency, while the bee-keeper’s interest
lies in checking this very tendency to the uttermost.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 319

It will be seen, from the plans suggested, that the
eggs furnishing queens, in the hands, of the expert,
are scarcely, in any instance, laid by a mother sur-
rounded in her stock by the swarming fever ; and since
I (if I may be allowed a convenient but, perhaps, slightly
! inaccurate expression) the mental conditions under
I which these eggs are laid are likely to reappear, this
i is of the highest moment. Every faculty or propen-
sity derives force from exercise, and diminishes in
intensity by infrequent use. This is equally true of the
organs of the body as of the instincts accompanying it.

I In our coal-mines exist eyeless spiders, the descend-
ants of those carried down, probably, in the fodder of
the horses, and which, in the darkness, long years
since, had to secure their food by the exercise of the
sense of touch. Their eyes, out of use, and never
stimulated by the presence of light, have decreased
in energy and size generation after generation, until
we have their progeny actually devoid of the organ
which circumstances had rendered useless. Similarly,
if queens be raised, generation after generation, from
parents which have never joined in a swarming expe-
dition, and which have been strangers to the stimulus
I of the swarm fever, it is certain that the disposition
j to swarm will gradually all but disappear.

The compactness of the brood-nest is a point of
more than trifling moment, aiding the bees in main-
taining temperature, and the bee-keeper in preserving
his brood and honey chambers practically distinct. It
: is the result, undoubtedly, of selection, and is not

dependent upon the environment of the queen. On
; one occasion here a swarm was hived carelessly, and

320

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

did not seem to settle well to work. At my return
home, a week after, I found the queen imprisoned
between the quilt and the chaff-box and the top bar
of one of the frames, her head only being free. The
bees had recognised her, and no doubt duly supplied
her with food, and so they had remained. At her libera-
tion she walked slowly down, but showed a conspi-
cuous dent in the thorax. Her egg-producing powers
were unimpaired, but she had lost the instinct of
regulating the brood-nest, never leaving one side of
one comb, in which she laid and relaid continually
in the same cells until brood appeared, when she
moved off to others. The same lack is observable in
the fertile worker, which will often lay as many as a
dozen eggs in a cell.

But one more point before we leave this question
of selection, the importance of which can only be
fully appreciated by the bee-keeper who apprehends
clearly that nature and art are not at one in the
objects sought. Individual variations* in the period
of development of queens have affected that period
in a remarkable manner. In a state of nature the
queen that hatches out first — or, other things being
equal, which develops most quickly (Vol. I., page
244) — has the best chance of surviving; and hence,
natural processes have, in contravention of some
analogies, so expedited the maturation of queens,
that they, the larger creatures, develop in about six-
teen days, while the workers do not leave their
cells till four and a half days later. This selection
is an all-round advantage, being not only favourable

* See “ Social Instincts of Bees,” by G. D. Haviland, B.A.

le

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 32 1

to the individual, but also to the species, by
decreasing the period of necessary queenlessness.
But in some matters the individual is favoured to
the injury of the community at large ; e.o.^ the
jealousy of young queens, leading them to fight, and,
if possible, kill their sisters, gives the greater chance
to the most jealous, or the best fighter; and this
has constantly intensified the instinct of queen-rivalry
and hatred, until it has resulted in the impossibility
of having more queens than one in a hive — a fact
favourable to that queen, since she alone can leave
progeny ; but how great a disadvantage to the
species ! If this single queen be lost in her mating-
tour, her colony is doomed to extinction, and the
same fate awaits it should she die while no eggs
exist in her hive, or even in the presence of these,
if no drones are found to fecundate her successor.
It is not, then, in relation to the swarming impulse
alone that art seems capable of improving upon
natural processes ; and this is as it should be, for
man has thus left open to him a delightful field for
the exercise and encouragement of his intelligence.

But, it will be asked, of what certain advantage is
selecting the queen if the drone is beyond our con-
trol ? Much every way, but chiefly that in selecting
the queen of the present, we select the drone of the
future; because the queen is herself by herself the
drone-parent, and as she is, so he will be. Opinions
have been expressed as to the special influence the
drone exerts on the worker progeny, but these are so
contradictory that they are valueless. Where a cross-
mating occurs, the workers will present every variety
VoL. II. Y

322

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

between the race of the mother and that of the father;
it seems, therefore, idle to assert that the drone gives
colour, size, and temper, the queen working qualities,
and so on. The prepotency of both parents is seen in
various individuals, for reasons which are at present
beyond our knowledge. But it is not fully true that
the drone is beyond our control. We may secure his
presence in the colonies of our selection abnormally
early in the year, as already explained, or we may delay
our queen-production till drones in stocks possessing
queens have been killed, in both ways giving to those
of our choice a field cleared of rivals. We obtain
drones late by transferring to queenless stocks combs
of eggs, so long as our drone-raising queen can be
induced, by feeding and nursing, to lay in drone-cells
given in the middle of her brood-nest.

But, beyond this, we may secure impregnation at
a period of the day when all but our selected drones
are at rest at home. Our nucleus, when the queen is |

five or six days old, is closed up with due precaution, |

and carried to a dark, cool room, and kept till the )

afternoon of the second day, when heated, diluted j

honey is given, and, so soon as the drone wing is no (
longer heard, the hive is restored to its stand in the |

full sunlight, and the bees liberated. The excitement j

set up will bring forth queen and drones (the drones j

may with advantage be in a second nucleus), and our j
object will probably be secured. Should we fail,
another attempt must be made. The evidence of our i
success is borne by the queen’s body, as described at |
page 207, \o\. I. I,

The anticipations that some advanced men amongst ii

1

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION ■ OF QUEENS. 323

US have entertained, in reference to artificial fertilisa-
tion, t.e., the accouplement of the queen by mechanical
means, have not, at present, so far as I am aware,
been realised, while the prospect has quite lost the
hopeful character it at one time possessed. Professor
McLain, in a very appreciative private letter to myself,
detailed his experiments of some, of which I condense
his account. Having hatched a queen from a cell in
the charge of bees in confinement, he found orgasm
advanced on the sixth day. The next evening, five
or six drones were placed in a glass jar, when
the queen, dropped amongst them, commenced an
“ amorous dalliance,” indicating that the time for
operating had arrived. A drone was removed without
alarming him, and sprayed with chloroform, his head
snipped off and he pinned back downwards, his
abdomen opened, and the testes and seminal sac
removed. The queen was then held head and back
downwards, by gently grasping the thorax between
the thumb and forefinger, and upon her open vulva
were squeezed the contents of the seminal vessels.
Three drones were employed, and the queen, by a set
of muscular movements, seemed to receive the material
even with eagerness. The queen, after wing-clipping,
was returned, and the bees liberated. Careful exami-
nation had shown that there were no drones in the
hive, so that the improbable suggestion that she had
been fecundated in confinement is inadmissible. In-
deed, at this time (October) all drones, normally, had
disappeared, the weather being both cold and damp.
Twelve hours later, the queen possessed the appear-
ance and action of a fertile mother. Her abdomen

324

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

was distended, and she was moving about leisurely,
and peering into the cells, while the bees were giving
that service rendered to queens when they are eager
to stimulate ova-production. The following morning
(thirty-six hours after the operation), about 500 eggs
had been deposited in worker-cells. In due time,
worker-bees were hatched from the eggs, and the
queen was still laying (November 25) when the
colony was packed for winter. In the meantime, eggs,
laid by this artificially-fecundated queen, had two
queen-cells raised from them in queenless nuclei.
The resulting queens were treated as before, and one
laid in worker-cells three days after the operation.
Advancing winter prevented further experiments.

It is careful work like this that makes history, but
Professor McLain was not actually alone, for another
worker was, at about the same period, travelling along
similar lines, and, strangely, I was in the confidence of
both ; so that, instead of experimenting myself, honour
demanded that I should do no more than watch results.
I refer to Mr. Simmins, who has been struggling
with this problem as one of the highest value, if only
a thoroughly satisfactory solution be found for it. I
have aided him by microscopic examinations from
time to time, but in no other way. Had practical
success crowned his efforts, a detailed account of his
plans would have been necessary, but it is only need-
ful to say that perseverance and ingenuity, having both
been brought to bear, show that the necessary concomi-
tants of an alliance cannot be mechanically commanded.

Partial successes are frequently obtained, but these
are insufficient. One queen operated upon appeared

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 325

to lay in a normal manner, but microscopic examina-
tion showed that while the spermatheca was partly
charged with spermatozoa, these were not arranged
in the surprising order (see Fig. 43, Vol. I.) I have
always observed in ordinary cases, but were in endless,
tangled confusion ; so that the queen, although able
(as she did) to produce workers, would be commercially
valueless, as her powers would be a most uncertain
quantity. The operation is, in addition, troublesome,
and demands more knowledge and greater delicacy of
handling than one bee-keeper in a hundred could be
supposed to possess. I know that some have claimed
perfect results since Professor McLain’s report ap-
peared— one calling the process easy, and saying that
he has 200 queens artificially fertilised ; but those who
know most of the subject will also be the most re-
served in receiving such statements. I do not venture
to enter the ranks of the prophets, and I admit freely
that failure is constantly the stepping-stone to success,
but it is my deliberate opinion that, although artificial
fertilisation may be of service to the scientist, it cannot
as yet be regarded as having entered the arena of
practical apiculture. Fertilisation in confinement
appears to me to be more capable of successful ac-
complishment. What has been done in this direction
wdl, with greater convenience, come before us hereafter,
while treating of the various Races and their crosses.

Queen Introduction though so important a factor
in modern management, is absolutely an artificial
process, depending for its success upon an exact
adaptation to varied and numerous bee instincts and
consequent conditions of temper, the latter being neither

326

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

easily discoverable nor absolutely constant in their
operation. The problem has, therefore, not unnaturally,
been difficult of solution, and productive of opinions
no less conflicting than the methods followed are
diverse. The Author has a distinct preference, as will
be seen in the sequel ; but he desires to represent
fairly all that each system can accomplish, and so, in
a short historical sketch, will, as far as practicable, give
each advocate an opportunity of speaking for himself.

We have recently considered why every colony
possesses but one laying queen, and a second is never
tolerated in one and the same brood-nest, except
in the comparatively rare instance of an old mother
in her fading time having a daughter raised,
fecundated, and actually laying by her side some
short period before her absolute supercession. It
is so unusual nowadays to allow a queen to go
on to the natural period of decay that “ two
queens in a hive ” is indeed a rare sight, while it
hardly bears evidence to the most advanced manage-
ment. This being so, it is, of course, impossible
to introduce a queen to a stock until that stock is
already queenless. Experiments having no practical
issue, in which the stock, e.g., has been divided by a
perforated diaphragm, in order that a second queen
might be given to one half, while the old one remained
in the other, have shown by their failure that this
instinct, demanding a single queen in each undivided
brood-nest, cannot be set aside.

Nearly lOO years since, Huber* found that when a

* “Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles,” Vol. I., page I9<^
unabridged edition.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OP QUEENS. 32.7

queen had been removed from her colony, and the
agitation described at page 286 had reached its
height, returning her to her children instantly esta-
blished calmness (a new-born calm) in their midst,
but that the substitution of another queen did not pro-
duce the same effect. He states that if the alien is
introduced into the hive during the first twelve hours
which follow the carrying off of the reigning queen,
the agitation continues, and the bees treat the strange
queen as they would if their proper one were still
with them. They seize her, envelope her, on all
sides, and hold her captive in an impenetrable mass
during a long space of time. OrdmafMy,.. the queen
succumbs — i^' may be of hunger or of deprivation of
air. When '^eighteen hours are allowed to pass before
substituting a stranger for the one removed, the
former is treated at first in the same manner, but the
bees which 'have surrounded her grow weary more
quickly, and the mass is, ere long, less dense. Little
by little they disperse, and at length this queen comes
out of captivity. She is seen to walk off with a feeble
and languishing step, and sometimes she expires in a
few minutes. “We have seen,’’ Huber continues, “other
queens leave, in good condition, an imprisonment
which has continued seventeen hours, and finish up by
reigning in the hive where, at first, they have been so
badly received.” But if one waits twenty-four or thirty
hours before substituting a stranger, she will be wel-
comed, and reign from the instant of her introduction.

These early experiments roughly indicate that, while
the old mother is only missed, a stranger would be
regarded as an enemy, but when despair has

328

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

seized the colony, and they realise that their mother
has indeed gone beyond hope, another queen may be
at once accepted as her substitute. To which must
be added that, later on, the bees would, as we have
already more than once noticed, start queen-cells, so
that the void may be filled, and then again they in-
stinctively refuse to accept an alien.

The impossibility of determining the favourable

Fig. 86.— Introducing-Cages (Scale, i).

A, Raynor Cap;e— w, Movable Wire; pU Rest-plate: wrf, Upper Door; Id, Lower
Door. B, Alley Cage— we, Wire Cloth ; in. Mortise Opening ; r. Rest-piece.

moment with any certainty practically renders its
existence useless ; and, indeed, in many conditions
of the colony, the favourable moment never appears.
Bee-keepers have therefore had to face the difficulty,
striving to conquer by plans naturally dividing them-
selves, as follows : first, wearing out the instinct of

antipathy to a mother-in-law, by using some form of
cage ; second, putting the instinct into abeyance, by
stupefying or disorganising, and rendering hopeless ;

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 329

third, evading the instinct by deceiving the bees in
such a manner that no feeling of antipathy is aroused.

First : Caging. This plan admits of an acquaintance
being formed while the queen is safe from attack, and
generally, after confinement, continued for a day or
two — the period varying with changing circumstances
— the workers attend her at her liberation with every
appearance of attachment.

The

G. Raynor has been extensively used, and is repre-
sented at Fig. 86. The rest-plate (/?/), by lying on
the top bars of the frames, or on the edges of the
feed-hole, supports, between the combs, the body of
the cage, which is about 3in. long. Should there be
a queen in the hive to be operated upon, she must
first be secured. The cage,* with its lower door (/«')
closed, is now pushed down between two combs upon
which the bees are clustering, when the mother to
be dispossessed is run into imprisonment by means
of the upper door {ud). After twelve hours, a little
smoke is given at the entrance of the hive, and the
I upper door of the cage opened. The queen, disturbed
I by the smoke, walks out for a little fresh air, permit-
i ting the operator to replace her by her successor,
i Twenty-four hours later, if there be no apparent excite-
ment at the entrance, the lower door of the cage is
opened by pushing down the wire (w), giving the. new
queen her liberty. To these recommendations I add,
let the release of the queen be made after dark. The
1 modification of the method, when dealing with skeps,
is obvious.

* “ Queen Introduction,” by the Rev. G. Raynor.

cage bearing the honoured name of the Rev.

33^

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

' The bees may be allowed to liberate the queen them-
selves, by leaving the lower door sufficiently open to
permit of her exit, but plugging the lower end of the
cage, to the depth of ^in. at least, with a mixture of
honey and finely-powdered loaf sugar. This should
be carefully w’orked up, some time before it is needed,
until it is as tough as dough, or it will too quickly
soften in the warmth of the hive. This food is com-
monly called Good Candy,’’ from Mr. Good, who
first compounded it.

' Mr. Alley uses a capital introducing-cage, seen at
B, Fig. 86, and which he describes* as follows : Take

a block of wood 3in. long, 2in. wide, and Mn. thick,
and bore through it a ijin. hole, Mn. from one end.
Then cut the slot or mortise (jn) from the hole to
the end of the cage or block, being careful not to
cut out more than enough to allow the bees to pass
through after the wire cloth is fastened on. Now cover
both sides with wire cloth, as seen in the Figure ; cut
the’ tin rest (r) i^in. long and fin. wide, and
fasten it to one end of the cage by driving a wire
nail through the centre of it and into the block, which
it will hold between the frames.”

The cage may be used in introducing both laying
and virgin queens; these are .inserted through the
mortise hole, which should then be plugged with
good candy. The bees must have been queenless
three days before they will thus kindly receive virgin
queens. In my judgment, this cage is to be pre-
ferred to the Raynor, for a reason which does not
seem to have received attention. The queen has

* “The Bee-keeper’s Handy Book,” pp. 26 and 182.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 33 1

in the latter, if surrounded by angry bees, no spot
where she can for a moment remain without attempted
attack, and, 'although the wire cloth is fine — about
fifteen meshes to the inch — no sooner is a foot down
than one' of the mob is struggling to seize it, necessi-
tating perpetual movement. Feeding is impossible
under the circumstances, to which I attribute my
not infrequent' losses when I gave this cage a fair

Fui. 87. Dome Introducing-cages.

A, Dome Cage, with Metal Rim. B, Ditto, fixed in Cpmb. C, Benton Introducing-

cage. *

trial, now many years since.* With the Alley cage,
however excited and unfriendly the stock, the queen,
on any part of the circumference of the hole, is
beyond the touch of her enemies, so that she can
rest and sip at her candy if she will.

* Those cages that are closed by a wire, covering a long slot, which
wire is removed to give the queen liberty, are particularly objectionable,
since the length q,f the opening ,by the side of the wire gives the attacking
party an easy opportunity of seizing a foot or wing, and working mischief.

332

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

One of the oldest and most used — perhaps, for the ■
practical apiarian, the best cage — is the Pipe-cover, I
or Dome, seen in Fig. 87. It consists of a ring of f
tin plate, on to which is soldered a dome of wire r
cloth, with meshes not more than y^n. square. If »'
.the queen which we desire to instal be an imported f
one, the box in which she has taken her journey
should be opened under cover, as queens so placed
not infrequently take advantage of their new-found V'l
liberty by flight. This trouble arising in the open
air necessitates remaining in position, as the operator 1
himself has probably been made by the sportive matron J
a landmark, by which she shall, at her convenience,
re-discover the spot whence she took her departure.

A little patience will then commonly be rewarded by
seeing her return, when, lifting her by the wings, and
caging her as explained at page 257, we have her ready
for her temporary imprisonment in the hive. Select
now a tough brood-comb, and upon a part of it, contain-
ing some unsealed honey, after having driven the bees
from the spot by smoke, place card and cage; slip
away the card with caution — for a tiny leg is soon
broken — and then, with a screwing motion, cut the
tin rim into the comb down to the midrib, as at B.

The Rev. G. Raynor recommends that the bees be
prevented from gnawing out the cage by passing a
long needle through its base into the midrib of the
comb ; but I have always found the tin rim to hold
securely, the bees attaching the surrounding cells
to it. He also advises placing the comb diagonally
so that half of it stands outside the hive. I, however,
often use, for any purpose requiring command of

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 333

the comb, the homely contrivance represented in
Fig. 88. It holds a frame of any size, and side pressure
does not move it from the perpendicular, while both
hands are quite at liberty.

During prosperous times, twelve hours’ confinement
may suffice, but late in the season three days will
frequently be required; and Mr. Root, without exaggera-
tion, says a week is sometimes necessary. When
the hive is opened, if the bees are found clustering
densely over the cage, and curving their abdomens

Fig. 88.— Simple Comh-rest.
C, Cage for Queen.

as though determined to sting — encasing the cage,,
as it were, because they cannot actually encase
the queen — more time must be given. If we venture
to lift the cage, judging that the bees are no longer
unfriendly, or are even paying court through the
prison bars, any backing out of the way of the
advancing queen, accompanied by repeated touching
with a down stroke of the antennae, may be regarded
as a favourable omen. The excessive curiosity and
superfluous attention of one or two clambering upon
her back, apparently intent on cleaning her coat.

334

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING. -

portend no mischief, and the hive niay be closed ;
but should the bees begin to run together and cover
the' queen from view, she must be again caged, the
bees being driven away by smoke. .No gloves should
be used; they impede the operator, while they save
from a really imaginary danger, since bees, under these
circumstances, reserve their stings for the object of
especial vengeance — our pet queen. It is one of the
misfortunes of these cages that, after an apparently
contented acceptance of the liberated mother, satisfy-
ing the most critical eye, an encasement, without
assignable cause, may follow within an hour or two.
This is always attended with a good deal of noise and
uproar, which generally shows itself at the hive door.
If circumstances are suspicious, notwithstanding the fact
that any meddling may itself start ' trouble, it is best to
open the hive, and, if necessary, break up the regicidal
knot, which may be lifted out with the fingers, and
treated to smoke until the queen is visible, when
recaging is the only alternative.

Mr. Benton prefers a cage without a rim (C, Fig. 87),
made of wire cloth, ten or twelve meshes to the inch.
A piece 2in. by qjin. is rolled round a stick, and sewn
with wire at the edges to form a cylinder. The end,
cut into slits, and properly gored, is bent inwards to
form a roof, into which a piece of warm foundation
is imbedded with a pencil, five or six strands at
the lower end being then enravelled. With the queen
are caged half-a-dozen recently-hatched workers taken
from the hive to which she is to be introduced, and her'
prison is pressed into the comb until the wire points
reach the bases of the cells. Bringing the frames to

I

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 335

their proper relative distances, of necessity, so places
the comb bearing the cage that the crown of the latter
presses against the adjoining comb, so that the weight
of the cluster gathering upon it does not drag it from
its place. He recommends that the queen be liberated
next day about sundown if the unfavourable indications
above mentioned are absent. If present, the queen
must be left twenty-four or forty-eight hours longer,
when it will be necessary to look for and destroy
any newly-formed queen-cells, as these commonly bar
every effort at introduction by caging. It is also
^IMr. Benton’s practice, upon freeing the queen, to
drizzle diluted honey or sweetened water over both
- bees and combs, and not to touch the hive for two or
three days, lest the queen should be attacked.

All dome cages, with the advantages that the queen
' has both food and rest at command, have yet the
defect that the stock must be disturbed, and the bees
put into a suspicious temper, at the moment she is
delivered over to their attentions. The Peet cage
removes the latter objection, and retains the mentioned
advantages. It much resembles the Alley without the
mortise hole, but with one side only covered with wire
cloth. The uncovered side is simply fixed over open
honey-cells in the close neighbourhood of brood. The
method of affixingr is both crude and uncertain. Tin
tongues are pushed through the comb, and bent so as
to form a kind of rivet. The comb is injured, and the
cage cannot fail to occasionally slip, with fatal results
to the queen ; but, if all goes well, the bees burrow,
according to their wont, beneath the wood, making a
bee space between it and their comb, and thus they

336

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

in two or three days liberate the queen themselves.
They reach her one at a time ; there is no contagious
excitement, and, in every instance in which I have

If a strip of wire cloth, about qin. by 3in., be bent
round two wooden slips 2^in. long by fin. thick, the
cage (Fig. 89) will be formed : this will adjust itself to
any inequality in the comb better than the Peet, and
may, by the aid of a zinc strip (5^, C, Fig. 90), be held in

position with perfect security by a string (s^) ; but the
best form of fixing is undoubtedly the wire shown in
Fig. 89. The turned point A just grips the opposite
angle of the top bar, while the projection C passes
beneath the latter, and so the cage is held with a
gentle pressure by a weak spring, which nothing can
dislodge. The workers (w, C, Fig. 90) gnaw their way
into the Royal box, and find at the same time an
exit for the queen. Mr. Holland has arranged and

tried it, the queen has been well received.

Fig. 89.— Cheshire Introducing-cage (Scale, i).

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 337

an ingenious manner that the queen arrives with all
that is needful ready placed for her introduction. The
cage (A) is round, with a returned edge about Jin.
broad. It is packed for travelling as at B. Two
auger-holes [ah, ah) are run consecutively from the

Fig. 90.— Ciieshire-Hollam) Cage and Postal Arkangeme.nt (Scale, i).

A, Cage (Front View). B, Section of Cage as Packed with Queen and Workers for
Post— c, Cage ; ie. Inner Chamber ; /c, Food Chamber and Food ; v, v. Ven-
tilating Holes ; co, Cover ; bl, Block ; 2^, P, Partition. C, Cage I'ixed to Comb by
(sQ String— /f, Knot ; z, Zinc Strip ; q, ()ueen ; ?r, Worker liberating her.

same centre into a block (h/) ; in the deeper, smaller
hole, Good candy* is placed, under a cover (fc). Above

* For this and similar purposes Viallon candy (so called from M. Paul
Viallon) may be employed; and it has the advantage of containing a very
small amount of nitrogenous food, while it long remains moist and soft. To
make it, take i2oz. of powdered loaf sugar, 40Z. of brown ditto, one
tablespoonful of flour, and two of honey. Mix well ; add enough water
to make into a stiff batter, boil for one minute, and continue to stir
during cooling.

VoL. II.

Z

338

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

stands a partition [p, p), with a central opening |

to give the bees passage-way. Upon the partition, after
about two dozen attendants have been passed through j

the before-mentioned opening, the cage (c) carry- j

ing the queen is placed ; the wire is added, and the |

cover [^co) fixed down. \^entilating holes {y, v) are pro- j

vided, opening into a depression (an idea borrowed '

from Mr. Benton), so that they cannot be closed by
lying in contact with letters in the post. The inner
chamber is cosy and warm in chilly weather, but if the
bees feel it to be stuffy, they can pass into the cooler,
more open quarters of the cage itself. This cage, ;

which I believe would practically never fail, would i

delay overmuch the exit of the queen, if very tough ,

combs Avere used. The result may be quickened by ;

cutting diagonally, with a thin and narrow knife, \

through the cell walls at one spot beneath the edge |
of the queen’s quarters ; or delayed entrance to the
bees may be given by cutting as small a circle as
possible through the midrib, operating from the oppo-
site side of the comb to that upon which the cage is
fixed, the partly-separated portion remaining at first i

as a plug: the bees, gnawing away at the damage,
liberate the prisoner. This plan is followed with the ::
‘‘ Betsinger Cage,” and acts perfectly, although it J

permanently somewhat damages the comb. h

The cage has still its ardent advocates, and it is
not likely to be soon abandoned, although its greatest 1

defect is inherent: it is, that it is a cage — a strange «;

and un\velcome excrescence, which, in itself, excites i|

the antagonism of the bees (for they hate any intru. ||
sion into their brood-nest), and attracts their attention J

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 339

to the strange queen when they are least likely to be
amiable ; but this criticism does not apply to a form
of introduction which, though of the nature of caging,
seems to belong equally to our third head. It has
long been known that if a queen-cell, containing a

nymph, be opened at the base, so as to remove its

occupant and to give place to the queen we intend
to provide, a little thinning of the end, in which a
large pinhole is made, will convert it into a very
successful introducing-cage, care being taken that
the bees do not tear it open above, either closing
it well by wax-sheet, or protecting it by Mr. Doo-
little’s guard (Fig. 79). In 1874, Mr. Wood, of
Nyborg, Denmark, exhibited some imitation queen-
cells, cast in wax, which were to be used in this

way, but occasional failures caused them to be

regarded with disfavour. Mr. Simmins frequently
gives a virgin queen, by using a cage somewhat like
the Doolittle (Fig. 79). It is made of coffee-strainer,
and is cylindrical in form, iMn. long by a bare Mn. in
diameter. The end is closed by pressing the edges
of the cylinder upon a thin piece of foundation, thus
cutting out a plug. The queen is placed within, head
downwards, and gnaws out and escapes, much as she
did from her natural cradle. The conditions being
so like normal ones, the stranger behaves as though
at home, and is generally received without question.

Stupefying by the fumes of smouldering puff-ball,
or Lycoperdon, in order to introduce alien queens,
has long been practised, the Rev. G. Raynor employ-
ing it successfully when the art of queen-introduction
was in its infancy. Since it is much more troublesome

Z 2

340

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and less certain than chloroforming, while its dis-
agreeable odour hangs about the stock for some time,
I shall content myself by giving a precis of Mr. Jones’
experiences with the latter. Drop* a dry sponge into
the fire-barrel of the smoker, then a sponge wetted
with chloroform (a teaspoonful), and another dry one
on the top of this in the nozzle, when you are ready
for action. Proceed to the queenless colonies, and
puff in the chloroform at the entrance (as in the act
of smoking), say, for quarter of a minute. Then pass
to the next, and so on, for about two minutes. Return
to the first hive, give a few more puffs with your
chloroform smoker, and let your queen run in. Re-
peat this until you have gone over all those you at
first puffed. The bees have thus about two minutes in
which to get sleepy before the queen is introduced.
If the operation be performed in the middle of the
day, and the bees are returning from the fields, a third
dose in a couple of minutes is given, so that the new
arrivals may be kept quiet. Mr. Jones claims not only
to have introduced, without a failure, fifty queens ‘in
fifty minutes, but to have taken the worst cases
where fertile workers were present, and the most
obstinate queenless colonies, and to have “ never
missed.” The queens introduced were usually virgins,
and this makes the success the more conspicuous.
Mr. Jones was not the first to use chloroform, but
we are indebted to him for a simple and innocent
plan — the anaesthetic, as applied by him, being distri-
buted to all parts of the hive equally, killing none of
the bees, yet remaining for some time in sufficient

Canadian Bee Journal, A'ol. I., page 390.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 34 1

amount to keep them in a sleepy condition, out of
which they emerge so gradually that the queen
behaves as though at home, and no encasement
follows.

During the honey season, queens may, in most cases,
be successfully run in after very vigorously smoking
at the entrance. The smoke 'of tobacco appears to
me to be particularly objectionable, but is usually
preferred for this purpose on account of its stupefying
effect. The evening,’ as the light is failing, is the
time for the operation. Then all the bees are at home,^
and none escape the dose. The bees should be aroused
as little as possible in removing the queen to be dis-
placed, and, whilst they are suffering from the noisome
blasts, her successor placed within the entrance, and
driven forward by an additional puff. In introducing
virgin queens thus, forty-eight hours’ previous queen-
lessness is desirable.

Under our second head we have yet to consider
the effect of hopelessness, in addition to disorgani-
sation. The Rev. G. Raynor has put this so well
in his paper that I prefer to follow so excellent an
authority in extenso : In their normal condition, bees

will always show fight on the introduction of strange
bees to a well-stocked hive, whether by the entrance
or otherwise. But deprive the same bees of their
possessions — combs, brood, and honey — and they will
unite with any others presented to them without a
struggle. In the case of colonies, therefore, in fixed-
comb hives, such as skeps, the bees are driven out by
the ordinary method, and their queen is removed. By
I driving, the bees are thoroughly subdued, and all the

342

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

fight is taken out of them. The hive from which they
were driven is now placed upon a board or cloth, and
raised in front, and the bees are shaken upon the
board. As they run into the hive, the alien queen
(with accompanying bees, if any) is dropped into their
midst, and all joyfully enter together.

“ I have experimented’ on this plan with many hundreds
of colonies — condemned bees and others — and can truth-
fullv assert that it has never failed in a single instance.

O

The same method is easy of application to colonies in
frame hives, by removing their queen, and shaking or
brushing the bees from their combs, and allowing them
to run into an empty skep placed on the stand of their
hive. The combs are returned, the frame hive takes
the place of the skep, out of which the bees are shaken
as before, and the new queen is dropped amongst
them as they run into their former abode. Neither
syrup nor scent is used, as I have found them quite
unnecessary; and the operation is performed in a
more cleanly manner without either, there being, more-
over, less danger of attracting robber bees. The
method may be practised at any time ; indeed, I have
introduced queens thus in mid-winter, by removing
the hive to a warm room."

^^Ten bees have fully realised that they are irre-
mediably motherless, they will commonly accord a
friendly greeting to any queen offered them ; and many
times, when I have found a stock in this state, I have
simply put a fertile mother on the top bar of one of
the frames, and watched results. As a rule, a few
bees make inquiries, and she walks down, a most
welcome guest. Singularly, such stocks furnish both

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 343

the most easy and the most difficult subjects for
re-queening experiments, for, in rare instances, when
all the bees have become old, they not only utterly
refuse to accept a queen, howsoever presented, or to
raise queen-cells, but they, in a sort of dementia, will
destroy the latter if they are given to them, together
with all eggs and young larvae — this, possibly, because
they have partially lost the faculty of tending brood.
A case of this kind occurred to Mr. Hunter, and my
incredulity was only overcome after I became a party
to the experiments made with the colony.

A discussion, conducted with too much positiveness
on both sides, has recently been provoked in the
British Bee Journal by a correspondent stating the
following as a “ law ” which knows no exception :

“ When bees have no queen, nor means of rearing
one (z>., have no eggs, unsealed brood, or queen-cells
in their hive), they will always accept a fertile queen at
the flight-hole, or dropped in from the top. Providing
they have been in such a state for forty-eight hours,
it matters nothing how old the bees are, or how long
they have been queenless, and it makes no difference
how heavy the queen is with eggs, or how light, so
' long as she is fertile, and given alone, without caging.”
I have already noted that this is very usually true,
but have given evidence that the asserted absolute
uniformity of its application cannot be conceded.
The “law” is, however, so far constant as to be of
considerable value ; but the recommendation to remove
the queen, and all combs containing eggs or brood
(putting these into other stocks), and give the
strange queen forty-eight hours after, is, as we shall

344

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

presently see, an invitation to follow a long and
circuitous road when a short and direct one lies open.

The third class of plans present, like the others,
several varieties — e.g., Mr. Sadler* asserts that if, after
the abstraction of the old queen, thin sugar syrup be
scented with oil of peppermint, and poured between
the combs, from a vessel with a small spout, a stranger
then put on the top of the bars and wetted with the
same syrup will be at once accepted. Here the
queen, in her misfortune, is likely to welcome the
attentions of the workers in cleaning her, and so
secure for herself a good reception ; and this, in my
judgment, is a more important factor in determining
success or failure than the scenting. This method is,
in some respects, like that of rolling the queen in
warm honey, in a teaspoon, and dropping her in at
the feed-hole, which is reliable during a honey flow,
but most uncertain, as well as unsuitable, in early
spring or late autumn ; and although I cannot cite
proofs of failure of the method in which Mr. Webster
has so much confidence, I still think it hardly likely
to be more uniformly successful. In addition, the
objection to daubing either queens or bees with syrup
or honey is worthy of serious consideration, for the
spiracles (page 33, Vol. I.), especially those near the in-
sertion of the wings, are liable to damage by clogging.

Bee-keepers sought long for some system of queen-
introduction which should be immediate and practi-
cally certain, and some progress had been made in
this direction, when Mr. Simmins announced a
method which, if successful, left nothing to be desired.

I

I

* British Bee Journal, Vol. XIV., page 332.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 345

A slight modification was afterwards made in the
modus operandi^ which now stands thus : Remove

the queen from the hive that is to receive the
stranger, placing the latter, at dusk, in a warm situa-
tion, quite alone, and without food, and so keeping
her for thirty minutes. Then lift, at one corner, the
quilt of the hive to which she is to be introduced,
driving back the bees with very little smoke, and at
once permit the queen to run down. Close the hive,
make no examination for forty-eight hours, and leave
the operation until so late that a lamp is necessary
when the queen is introduced.

It was evident that a plan so simple and expeditious,
if only reliable, would confer a boon upon bee-keepers,
the value of which could hardly be exaggerated.
Honest trial has proved it, in my experience, to be all
but uniformly successful, and that, too, under circum-
stances in which the usual methods invariably fail,
as two or three typical cases will make clear.
Receiving a Cyprian queen from Mr. Benton, in one
of his boxes, I introduced her, in the manner above
described, to a Syrian stock ten days queenless, and
which had many queen-cells near maturity. About
forty- five hours afterwards, when the bees were getting
quiet, her ladyship was found, looking none the worse
for her ten days’ journey, saucy, and at home, and,
for love of her, the bees had pulled down all their
Syrian queen-cells. An albino was now given to
a stock possessing a fertile worker, such being usually
considered an insuperable impediment to the intro-
duction of a queen ; but she was accepted without
question, and, at the permitted time of examination.

3-|6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

liad laid a considerable breadtli of eggs. A second
albino had to ha,ve a home created for her, so I
divided, on the afternoon of August 19, a very
strong stock of Carniolans ; and, because the queen-
less half seemed excited, and in danger of being
robbed, I, as a precaution, removed, about 7.30 p.m.,
a queen, of less value — at least, of less rarity — than
the albino, from another stock, and introduced this
queen, in thirty minutes, to the half above-mentioned,
while, at the same time, the albino took her place-
The two stocks were thus queenless about four hours
and thirty minutes respectively. When the hives
were inspected, both queens were laying.

Three South African queens have been received
into this country ; two have perished dismally in
attempts at introduction by caging. The third was
first introduced direct by Mr. Simmins himself, then
passed on to me, on October 26th last, and again
introduced, in the same manner, on a biting night,
to a stock queenless six hours only. In my hands
she wintered, and went back to Rottingdean in the
spring, and the third time passed the ordeal without
a shadow of a hitch. These facts would appear suffi-
cient to dispose of the oft - made statement that
successful direct introduction necessitates two or
three days’ previous queenlessness ; while it is evident
that queen-cells (although it would be wise to remove
them, if possible) do not cause failure, and even that
the fertile worker succumbs before a laying mother
thus given. Following up the question, I tried many
dozens of experiments, and found that, by Mr.
Simmins’ method, it was quite easy, not only to

i

RAISING AND INTRODLXTION OF QUEENS. 347

introduce, but to get one queen to lay^ in half-a-dozen
distinct hives in a single week ; for the bees not only
receive the queen, but, when they have lost their
proper mother but a little time, appear utterly un-
affected by, or unaware of, the change.

My trials have, I believe, embraced almost every
supposable difficulty and variation both in season
and in the condition of the stocks, and show the
system to be practically perfect, as I have to record with
laying queens a single failure only, and in that I have
no evidence at all of the way in which the ill-fated one
vanished. To the colony in which the mishap occurred
I subsequently gave a black queen, to try the temper
of the enemy. She, being satisfactorily installed as
mother, was deposed one afternoon, to make way, in
the evening, for a Cyprian. The bees came out
rather strongly when the corner of the quilt was
I lifted, which necessitated more than the customary
slight puff of smoke. Half-an-hour later, hearing, as
I fancied, more than the usual noise of fanners at
the door, fear of losing another first-grade Cyprian
determined me to examine the stock by lamplight,
and so, if needful, rescue my pet queen from the
mauling I feared she might be experiencing. The
bull’s-eye lantern being placed near by, the combs
were removed one by one, when certainly less than
a dozen bees took wing, and, in the centre of the
brood-nest, the Cyprian turned up, walking about in
a normal way, as though she had been there a month.

The question may fairly be asked : How is it
that an alien is thus received, so that she begins
laying forthwith (if eggs have matured in her ovaries).

34«

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

precisely as though no change had been made in her
abode? The reasons appear to me to be these: First,
her half-hour’s solitude and fast make her anxious
both for company and food. When she is inserted,
instead of exhibiting nervousness and suspicion, any
society is welcomed in preference to lonely seclusion,
and her keen appetite brings her boldly to her
new-found associates, asking hospitality ; and so she
take^ the first step as the rightful mother. Secondj
it is dark. There is no need to guard against
robber bees, for none are in flight. The sentinels
have ceased to ask the pass-word, and all within the
camp are friends ; and then, she must belong to the
hive, for she did not pass the entrance at all, but is
found near the roof — and thus the bees are cheated
into kindness, where a knowledge of the truth would
make them wild with ra^e.

O

The condition of the queen has, however, some-
what to do with the bearing of the bees towards her.
She must not come in “ a questionable shape.” If she
be out of laying, she may disappoint the colony, and
so be overthrown, even after she has been accepted;
while want of personal cleanliness will make her safety
doubtful. The Italian queens of former days were sent^
with, perhaps, 200 workers, in boxes of about thirty-six
cubic inches capacity, each containing a small comb of
store. These had frequently, at their arrival, an odour
not of sanctity, since the attendant workers had become
distended beyond endurance. This fact greatly in-
creased the difficulty of introduction, for they who
keep every cranny swept, and* themselves as clean as
new pins, would not be likely to accept with much

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 349

grace an unwashed mother-in-law, grimed and travel-
stained, addressing herself, in most unpleasant fashion,
to the olfactories of her new feeders and attendants.
The older bee-keepers will corroborate this position,
as they will remember how frequently a stock would
accept a despised black after slaying a highly-prized
Italian.

Let me here point out, in a parenthesis, how very
much Mr. Benton has facilitated the introduction of
foreign queens by his admirable postal-box (Fig. 91).

Fig. 91.— Benton’s Queen Postal-box (Scale, |).

/c, Food-chamber ; 0, 0, Openings between Chambers ; vh, Ventilating-holes.

Two auger holes, communicating with each other and
the food-chamber {fc) by openings {0, 0), give suf-
ficient room for the queen and about five-and-twenty
attendants. The food, consisting of Good candy, is
covered down by a piece of thin foundation, beneath
which it remains without soiling, although immediately
accessible to the bees. The ventilating-holes {vh, vh)
are made at the bottom of the hollows {h, h), so that,
as previously explained, other packages cannot close
them.. Paper is neatly placed over the top, and upon

350

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

this is tacked a thin wooden lid. The bees have a
certain control over their temperature by using the
hrst or second opening, as circumstances dictate.
The food supplies no material to collect in the
bowel, and so the little captives arrive in a perfectly
cleanly condition; and the ease with which a journey
is endured will be best seen by outlining a circum-
stance referred to by Mr. Benton.* On August
i6th, 1886, he packed, amongst other queens, a first-
grade Cyprian to myself. Upon her arrival in
London, she was returned by the post-office officials
as “ not mailable,” and thirty-three days after her
removal from her hive she was again at her starting-
point. The bees were then “in fine order — but two
workers dead, rest bright and lively, queen as fresh
as though just taken from the hive ; the box without
a speck, and with no bad smell ; food about two-
thirds consumed.” She was allowed five days in a
stock, and then forwarded to me a second time, z>ia
iMunich, and was introduced, by Mr. Simmins’ method,
upon the evening of her arrival, after fifty-one days’
travelling, and she is now laying splendidly in a hive
labelled “ Madame la \Tyageuse.”

To return to our subject. Some use a dome cage for
keeping the queen her thirty minutes in solitary con-
finement ; but I prefer a loosely-corked, wide, short test
tube, which must, of course, be kept up to Fahr.,
or thereabouts. Placing the tube in the trousers
pocket will save the queen from chill while we are
going to the hive; and as the tube is approximately
upright, and she cannot climb the side, we have her
* British Bee Journal, Vol. XIV., page 461.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 35 1

exactly under command, and well in view, especially
if a slip of white paper be pasted down one side of
the glass. The corner of the quilt lifted, the inver-
sion of the tube rolls her out, and she is on the top
bar of the frame in a moment ; while, with the dome
cage, she is likely to cling to the edges, and, perhapS)
in the pale light of the lamp, elude us for a few
moments, so that the stock gets a needless and un-
desirable amount of disturbance.

In summing up my own impression with regard to
varied re-queening systems, I have little hesitation in
saying that the plan of direct introduction last described,
if properly managed (and, with so much simplicity, mis-
management is hardly possible), will give a lower percent-
age of failures than any of the usual forms of caging,
while the trouble involved is not a tithe of that caging
demands. No time is lost, either to queen or bees,
and the operation, being completed at a stroke, places
no burden on the memory of the operator. In addition,
no drug is used, nor smoke in nauseating volumes, and
there can be no suspicion of injuring, even temporarily,
the health of either bees or queen ; while, if one
pleases, every queen in the apiary may be changed
from one hive to another with no greater loss than
one half-hour’s ovipositing.

An attempt has been made to deprive Mr. Simmins
of the honour of giving the method to the world of
bee-keepers. Then Watt did not invent the steam-
engine, for he built on Newcomen ; and so on in
endless chain, for almost every invention is inter-
linked with some part of the legacy of thought, the
heritage of every age. But he is an inventor who^

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

35

->

out of that legacy, brings some new application which
gives us a power we did not previously possess.
Direct introduction, as taught by Mr. Simmins, has
saved me queens, time, and anxiety, and I feel
pleasure in expressing my indebtedness.

In the height of a honey flow, when troops of young
bees are gnawing out, and the old ones are all too
busy in the fields to intrude overmuch into the brood-
nest, queens may be lifted off their combs and placed
down at once amongst the unsuspecting youngsters
of another stock, whose queen has just been carried
off, perhaps to exchange places with her successor ;
but we have not been dealing with such special con-
ditions, and transfers like these had better be left — by
the novice, at least — to those whose experience will
grasp the needful conditions for a commonly risky
experiment. Recently-hatched grey bees will agree
with any queen, and if it be desirable to keep the latter
in her travelling-box while her original attendants are
failing, new ones, if only quite young, may be given
to her from any stock with perfect safety. It may
aid the learner, also, to remark that stocks that become
queenless, especially if through a failure in intro-
duction, are more fussy and noisy under manipulation
than usual, and that this behaviour will be, to an expert,
a good sign of their condition.

Ere closing this chapter devoted to queens, some
notice must be given of those pseudo-queens, called
fertile workers, which sometimes appear, and especially
in those hives that have been long hopelessly queen-
less. One or more of the workers, without external
change, will commence ovipositing in an irregular

RAISING AND INTRODLXTIOX OF QUEENS. 353

manner, laying, generally, many eggs in a cell, some-
times as many as a dozen being found confusedly
heaped together. Some writers have erroneously stated
that several eggs in a cell is conclusive evidence of
the presence of a fertile worker, overlooking an
exception of not infrequent occurrence in modern
apiaries. Should a good queen be taken from a strong
stock, and placed in a nucleus where she has only a
small number of cells to receive her abundant eggs,
she will, having supplied all, go over them again and
again, until the appearance presented by the amateur
ovipositing of the fertile worker is produced. A young
queen raised in a nucleus will often do the same thing.
The fertile worker’s eggs, for reasons fully argued
in Vol. I., page 223, produce drones only, which,
bejng formed in worker-cells, oblige the extension of
the latter by extraordinarily prominent and convex
sealing, as found in the hives of drone-breeding queens.
The drones thus produced are smaller than the average,
but they have virile powers (see page 207, Vol. I.).

The theory advanced by Huber, and supported by
Dzierzon, that fertile workers have, by accident,
received some royal jelly through occupying cells
adjacent to queen-cells, needs no refutation, for we
have already shown that “royal jelly” — so named in
ignorance of the facts — is given to all workers and
drones in ' their earlier larval stages. These little
plagues have turned up in my stocks where no
queens have been produced. They are the counter-
part of the laying workers of the semi-social bees ;
but the manner in which their normally latent power
of ovipositing is brought forth admits of no easy ex-
VoL. II. 2 A

t

354

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

planation. The emotions of the higher animals have
often remarkable physical influences. Amongst many
like facts, it may be cited that buck hares have been
known to suckle a litter left by a doe, and a similar
function has been performed by a negro* under
the stimulus of strong feeling. It would appear
that, in the beehive, the desire to have young
to nurture brings the potency to generate progeny,
though its incompleteness is fatal. The poor bees,
aware that something is wrong, constantly strive to
raise queens from the eggs the counterfeit is pro-
viding ; in effect they secure but a dead drone, in
a queen-cell which frequently has a most abnormal
length. I have measured such, built by Tunisian
bees, exactly ijin. inside, while -j^in. is about normal
(see Fig. 43). The fertile worker ruins the colony,
yet to detect her is next to impossible ; perhaps
not one bee-keeper in a thousand has ever recognised
a specimen. Removing the hive to a distant point,
brushing off all the bees, and allowing them to fly
back, will generally lose the little pest, as, not
having flown previously, she will probably, get into
the wrong hive, to pay the usurper’s penalty. Pro-
viding the colony (where she or they are at work)
with frames of eggs, until all the nursing capacity
is fully occupied, will cause these pseudo-queens to
subside, and is, I have found, the best method of
treatment.

Some races are far more prone to develop fertile
workers than others, and in this respect the South

* See “Mental Physiology” (Dr. W. B. Carpenter), and “Principles of
Physiology ” (Power), p. 969.

RAISING AND INTRODUCTION OF QUEENS. 355

Africans would appear to have the pre-eminence ; and,
unfortunately, their workers visit other stocks to such
an extent, that these pests are exceedingly likely to
put themselves in evidence at any part of the apiary
during any temporary queenlessness. A Ligurian
colony in the Rottingdean apiary, that had been
deprived of its mother two days previously, was
found to contain quite a number of South
Africans, the progeny of the queen referred to on page
346. One of these workers was receiving court in a
ring of attendants. As she was lifted from the comb,
five workers refused to leave, gathering on my fingers^
caressing her, and offering food. These followed to
the operating-room, and continued to fondle the
detached thorax precisely as in the case of a true
fertile mother. Her ovaries were finely developed, even
more so than those represented at C, Fig. 42, Vol. I.,
possessing about fifty ovarian tubes each, and carrying
eggs in every condition. It was, to me, most ex-
tremely interesting to note that the stomach was
absolutely free of pollen, containing only the semi-
transparent fluid so distinctive of the queen, and thus
affording the completion of the evidence of the truth
of the theory respecting queen-feeding I advanced
at page 83, Vol. I. In another queenless stock,
visited the same afternoon, a South African worker
was seen in the very act of ovipositing. She was
seized with her abdomen still inserted in the cell, and
dissection immediately revealed a pair of ovaries about
one-fifth the size of those of a true mother.

A queenless nucleus of Carniolans, standing next
the South African stock, furnished a third fertile

2 A 2

356

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

worker, indicated by her race being apparent, and
known as a fertile worker by the attentions paid her
by the surrounding bees. Her ovaries were in like
manner developed. The stomachs of all three con-
tained the same character of material, while other
South African workers had only the usual aborted
ovaries, their stomachs showing, under the microscope,
multitudes of pollen grains.

The strange fascination these pseudo-mothers had
for the workers was extremely remarkable, for the
dissecting - knives, the fingers, the spilt juices, &c.,
could not be freed of the stray bees in the operating-
room ; and in this the pseudo did not seem at all less
attractive than the true queen. Since the former has
not copulated, the idea is dispelled that here can lie
the reason ; but as virgin queens, and those out of
laying, are less acceptable to bees, and so not so
easily introduced as those with active ovaries, it would
appear that some emanation from the latter has about
it the, to us, unintelligible charm, the effect of which
is, under certain circumstances, extremely singular.
If, e.g., a box which contains a laying queen, or which
has very recently contained one, be placed over the
frames of a hive having no fertile worker, and which
is hopelessly queenless, the bees will soon begin to
congregate upon it, while a gentle wing-flapping
spreads through the entire colony. Then, by raising
the box and allowing time, the bees may be gathered
suspended from it almost after the manner of a swarm.
Bees so behaving may be trusted with a new queen
immediately.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE APIARY: ITS ESTABLISHMENT AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT.

Selecting a Locality — Pasturage, and Desirable Condi-
tions— Operating-house : How to Clear of Bees —

Separate Stands — House Apiary — Purchasing Stocks
— Condemned Bees — Bumping — Capturing Stray
Colonies — Bee-hunting — Foods and Feeding — Syrup
and Syrup-feeders — Crystallisation of Food in
Comb — Dry Sugar Feeding — Candy Flour Cake —
Artificial Pollen — Milk and Egg Feeding — Water —
Packing Bees for Long Journeys — Spring Stimulation
— Spreading the Brood — Autumn Feeding — Robbing:
How to Stop — Bee-tent — Moving Stocks — Uniting —
Displacing Queens — Register of Operations.

But little will be said in reference to the locality of
the apiary, since the amateur determines this point by
that of his own dwelling, while he who makes bee-
keeping his profession will hardly need advice in
making a choice which, after all, must not be absolutely
settled by productiveness in honey ; climate, surround-
ings, communication by railroad or otherwise, nearness
to a possible market, and many other matters requiring
consideration.

358

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

No position will offer a combination of all advantages^
while it is true that scarcely a spot exists in which
bees may not be made, at the least, to secure their
own living; for even in overgrown London (except in its
very densest parts) a modicum of stained surplus may be
obtained, though, unfortunately, accompanied by a most
objectionable excess of sooty propolis. Rather than
one great breadth of an especial blossom, it is more
desirable to secure a long, and, as far as practicable,
an uninterrupted, succession of good honey -yielding
plants. Be it remembered that many timber trees (see
Vol. I., page 262, et seq.) in early spring most helpfully
encourage breeding by supplying pollen, and also
providing honey in quantity not to be despised ; while
fruit farms, small orchards, or even villa gardens, with
their peaches, plums, cherries, pears, and apples, followed
by the small fruits, are of the highest possible value.
Wild flowers innumerable, and later blossoming trees,
notably horse-chestnuts, keep up the succession, when,
should the melilots abound, and the trifoliums and
sainfoins make broad fields fragrant, the little labourers
may bear home a harvest to their storehouses, so that
there be not room to contain it. The lime groves,
spreading their choice perfume, and merry with the
hum of ten thousand busy wings glistening in the July
sun, gladden the heart of the bee-keeper, who is happy
indeed if still he may look on to late wild flowers,
bramble, wild thyme, and dwarf thistles, to be succeeded
by the late-born riches of the heather harvest.

Almost every locality has some specialty, and a
distance of a mile or two will often carry us from a
good to an indifferent district, or the reverse. A rich,

THE APIARY.

359

deep soil yields, with heavier leafage, fewer blossoms,
but more honey, than a thin one, but the honey is less
aromatic. A valley is to be preferred to a high land,
because the bees are not only screened from damaging
winds, but the empty ones easily rise along the hill-
sides, while those laden glide downwards to their
homes. The seaboard, or the bank of a wide river, is
not desirable, for there the hunting-ground is on one
side of us only, and, in windy weather, many a weary
burden-bearer, carried from her track, will drop, never
to rise again. The seed farmer is a most desirable
neighbour, while the careless husbandman is an unin-
tentional helper, for some weeds, although the farmer’s
bane, are the bee-keeper’s opportunity, the wild
mustard or charlock {Sinapis arvensis), e.g., in some
localities yielding more to the little nectar-seeker than
all the other plants to which she has access put to-
gether. Extensive sheep-runs on fine grazing land
unfit a district for bees, since sheep crop so closely
that scarcely a blossom escapes : but on semi-waste
tracks the stock the land is capable of supporting
will not be thick enough to keep down a multitude
of wild flowers, which may bring a harvest to the
bee-farmer, while some of these, rich in honey, are
actually shunned, and, with unwitting kindness, left
to spread by the grazing animals. Districts already
well supplied with bees should, if possible, be avoided,
because less honey {cceteris paribus) will be gathered,
unwelcome drones may too often set their mark upon
our stocks, and disease contracted in the colonies of the
unskilful is likely to be perpetuated and communicated,
now and again, through robbers, to our own apiary.

360

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

My readers will not need to be warned against a
common mistake — that the flower garden is the bees^
cornucopia. As an American humourist says, “ the
bee can get over a very high fence,” and the plants
which grow close to its hive door are not much visited^
its instinct rightly leading it further afield. If each
forager applied to the blossoms nearest home, how
much time would be lost in dipping into nectaries
already rifled of their sweets ! Cultivating a few
melliferous flowers near the hives, after the manner
of some amateurs, is scarcely more likely to increase
the weight of the supers than growing wheat in a
flower-pot is likely to cheapen bread. True, the
nearer to our stocks rich forage lies, the greater will
be our results ; but all included within a circle two
miles in diameter, having the apiary for its centre,
may be regarded by the bee-keeper as his -forage
ground. Certainly, his bees will travel to a much
greater distance, but the wear and tear and the time
occupied in the longer journeys detract considerably
from the net result.

A district may undoubtedly be considerably improved
by carefully sowing in waste places honey plants,
which will, when established, scatter their own seeds —
borage, melilot, and white clover, e.g. — but devoting
land to a honey crop is generally a doubtful invest-
ment ; for, even in America, where land is cheap, or
only half-occupied, and the population sparse, it is
a debatable point whether planting for honey actually
pays.

A gentle slope has advantages over a dead level,
and, if this runs to the south, so much the better.

THE APIARY.

36

while on the north, and to the east and west of the
north, should lie a windbrake, either of evergreen
trees, some building, or a fence. Intruding animals
should also be kept at bay, Mr. Root especially ostra-
cising dogs and fowls. Of the latter he says : “ A flock
of enterprising hens will make more disorder in a few
hours in a well-kept apiary than the owner can restore
in half a day.’^ He who would deny Mr. Root’s
statement must be an ardent poultry fancier, and as
blind as love can make him. Yet fowls may serve a
purpose in an apiary, and at Rottingdean I remember
seeing a troop of chickens whose function it was to
kill earwigs, and wonderfully had they learnt their
part. Whenever a hive was opened, they were in
attendance, and caught up the disturbed insect in-
truders as they dropped to the ground. Should a
bee settle on the feathery jacket, or appear threatening,
the beak had it and threw it down, and then gave it
a second grip before it could recover sufflciently to
take wing; so that the chicks, educated, no doubt, in
the school of adversity, rarely received a sting.

The possessor of even a few hives will And his
comfort enhanced by a small operating-house, in which
combs may be kept, section-boxes prepared, extrac-
tion performed, &c. The utmost care will not prevent
bees finding their way where there is so much to
attract, every opening of the door, in certain seasons,
admitting a few visitors ; while some operations
necessitate the carrying of stray bees into the
interior. The windows should, therefore, be so con-
trived that the unwelcome guests may be removed
or permitted to escape. For the first, the sashes may

362

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

be swung on central pivots (/>, A, Fig. 92), so that
bees collecting on the glass, whither they are drawn
by the light, may be placed on the outside by giving
the sash a half-rotation, and fixing it in its place by
a bolt. After the bees have wearied themselves by
fluttering on the glass, they usually collect in little
knots above the sash, whence they must be brushed
if they are to be removed ; but by adding to the sash
the guards g, g' , which may be of perforated zinc or
rough wood (although in the latter case drainage
should be permitted), the bees will congregate at c,

Fig. 92.— Arrangement of Windows in Operating-room. Sections.

A, Revolving Window— j/;, Pivot ; pi, Glass ; ssb, sb, Sashbar : g, rf, guards ; c, c',
Position of Clustering Bees. B and C. Windows with (o, o) Escape Slots—
pz, pz! , Perforated Zinc ; /, Fixing ; other Letterings as before.

and will, in consequence, be carried out to c by the
aforesaid half-revolution of the window.

Bees, in striving to find an escape, fly up the front
of the pane, and then drop to the bottom of it, so
that, if the glass [gl, B) do not meet the lower
sashbar [sb) by about an inch, the captives there
escape, while bees on the outside may be prevented
from entering by covering the opening with perfo-
rated zinc [pz) about six or eight inches wide, leaving
a bee-space between it and the glass. This works

THE APIARY.

363

capitally, and I feel certain, although I have never
tried it, that a flat exit tube of perforated zinc
[pz y C) at the upper part of the sash would be a
great advantage. The weight of the tube, if it be
fixed at would hold it against the glass, and no
rain would be carried inwards. The forms B and C
have the advantage of being automatic, but the
constant draught will sometimes be a nuisance, when
wooden slips may be temporarily Inserted in the
openings (<?,<?). This precaution must always be taken
before liberating queens from boxes in which they
have travelled.

In this country, the hives are almost always placed
on detached stands in the open; and if in more rows
than one, the quincunx order is most suitable, i,e.y the
hives of one row are opposite to the spaces between the
hives of the next. This gives the bees a less interrupted
flight-line, and saves the operator from the annoyance
of standing in front of any stock. In planning an apiary,
it is by no means necessary that the hives should face
the south or south-east, as some say — the well-being
of the colony being, apparently, so little affected by
this, that authorities may be found pleading for the
advantages of each point of the compass ; and
where hives are somewhat crowded, placing the alight-
ing-boards in different directions considerably reduces
the difficulties arising from excessive proximity. Thus,
if four hives be placed in a close line, running from
east to west, and face, in the sequence, east, south,
north, west, flying queens would not be endangered,
and the bees would be hardly likely to grow too
familiar — a common cause, unhappily, of quarrel.

364

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

both with bees and their masters. It is highly
desirable, however, that the hives stand level, so
that the frames hang plumb, or awkward combs
will be built. Weeds should also be kept clear of
the alighting-boards and around the front of the
hives. To this end, a thick layer of sawdust is
recommended to be laid on the surface of the ground ;
but spent tan is even more effectual, and less likely
to be disturbed by wind.

Single stands admit of greater facility, in many
manipulations, than is possible with the house apiary, in
which the operating-house gives accommodation to the
hives, whose mouths are openings in its walls, the latter
also carrying the alighting-boards. Many bee-keepers
would prefer a combination of systems, keeping the
bulk of the stocks on separate stands, and a few dis-
posed around the operating-room. The main difficulty
with all bee-houses arises’ from the young bees, which,
if a hive is opened on a sunny afternoon, or in bright
weather after rain, frequently fly out in numbers, and, not
knowing the legitimate entrance, will insist on returning
to their home by the road by which they left it, and
if they are driven out of the house and the door
closed, will, in despair, collect in a sulky little cluster.
Mr. Root says of these, “ they are seldom lost, for
they will usually be allowed to enter the hives nearest
the door;’’ but this weakens their proper stock, and is
apt to puzzle a novice sorely.

Square or oblong houses would not safely accom-
modate so many bees as octagonal ones, because a
long string of hives on a side would be likely to trap
flying queens into the wrong entrances, to their all but

THK APIARY.

365

certain destruction. The hives may be arranged in
two tiers, and, supposing three to stand in line on
each side of the house, the central one of the three
will need a back only, since the proximate sides of
the two outer ones will be party walls. The entrances
should be kept as far as practicable apart, by making
them at the outer angle of the outer hives ; while
painting the alighting-boards of unlike colours may
be of service. My own bee-house long since came
under the chopper, but Mr. Root thinks well of the
house apiary, and sums it up thus : “ It is always
sheltered and dry, and, if the building is kept painted,
the hives will always be in good repair ; this is quite
an advantage over outdoor hives. The hives can be
much more quickly opened, as they need no other
covering than the chaff cushions in winter, and a single
sheet of cloth in summer.* Secondly, surplus honey,
either extracted or comb, can be removed in less time ;
for we have only to remove it and store it in the centre
of the room, instead of the laborious carrying that has
to be done with outdoor hives. Also empty combs,
combs filled for destitute colonies, empty frames^ frames
of section-boxes, and, in short, everything needed in
working about the hives, may be stored in the centre
of the room within arm’s reach. Furthermore, we can
handle the bees, and do all kinds of work with them
during rainy and wet weather, when the outdoor hives
could not be touched. Nay, further, we can handle
the bees by lamplight after the duties of the day are
over. We have repeatedly made new colonies thus,
to avoid robber bees that were so annoying in the

In our climate this would be inadequate.

366

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING

day-time during a dearth of pasturage/' This is all
true, but bee-keeping is essentially an outdoor occu-
pation, and few would willingly exchange the fresh
air and sunlight of the open for the stuffy heat of a
bee-house. The loss of freedom in choosing where
every stock shall stand, and the inelastic character of
the house apiary, make it undesirable, except as an
adjunct to the separate stand system.

In starting an apiary, is it very desirable that those
with no experience go slowly. The acquisition of
three or four stocks will furnish abundant ground for
gaining solid practical knowledge, which will at first
grow more rapidly in the management of a few than in
the confusion of many colonies, for the memories of
most men are not sufficient to retain and systematise
the numerous points bees bring before their attention
until these by practice have become familiar.

Either purchasing swarms or stocks, or taking con-
demned bees, will enable us to make a beginning.
The swarms should be acquired early, and ought not
to weigh less than 31b. The lowest prices will be
quoted by cottagers owning skeps, but we must wait
in uncertainty until their swarms come off naturally;
and, as the skeps are small, the swarms will be light.
The packing may be unskilful, and our bee-keeping
may begin in annoyance. It is best for the novice to
apply to a reliable dealer, and purchase his bees by
weight. Paying too heavily for an especial race is
not desirable, as a queen or queens may be subse-
quently purchased, and made to head strong stocks,
in a few weeks, by the nucleus system. In buying
stocks of cottagers or inexperienced persons, it is

THE APIARY.

367

most important that evidence should be given of their
freedom from disease (see Foul Brood), or pitiable
failure may await us. In selecting sleeps, smoke, and
turn up, choosing those that have swarmed the year
before, and possessing, consequently, a young queen-
Give preference to large, flat plates of comb, in which
drone-sized cells are not over-abundant (especially if
it is intended to transfer to frame hives). Casts of
the year before will give these desirable conditions, but
their hives should be full of comb. In the autumn
the bees ought to be strong in numbers, and in the
early spring there should be at least four or five
seams of them. We may get evidence of the pre-
sence of a fertile queen by finding sealed brood.
Drive the bees up between the combs by smoke, and
separate the combs somewhat with the fingers, to get
a view of the cappings. It is only exceptionally
desirable to buy stocks in frame hives, on account of
the difficulty of transit and the higher cost. Colonies
and artificial swarms in changing hands should not
travel less than a mile, or many of the bees will go
back to their old quarters and be lost.

The miserable practice of sulphuring bees still con-
tinues in some districts. In the autumn, the colonies
of medium weight are selected to stand the winter.
The heavy ones for their honey, and the light ones
because they would starve if left, are “taken up’’ —
i.e.j a. hollow is made in the ground, to receive at
night a lighted rag, which has been dipped into
melted sulphur, when the skep is stood over it. The
bees, technically called “condemned bees,” feeling the
stifling fume, creep into their cells, or drop into the

368

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

pit,” and, when all are dead, the combs are removed,
the honey drained out, and the combs “ rendered ”
into wax. The dead bees in the cells are an impedi-
ment to the cottager, and so he is willing to give,
or sell for sixpence, or at most a shilling, per sleep,
the “ condemned,” upon condition that they are driven
(see Driving, page 233), and the skep, with its comb,
returned to him. He loses nothing, and is saved the
duties of the executioner.

The population of three, or even four, sleeps, put
together, then transferred to an empty hive, and
allowed six frames furnished with guides, and fed
until 2olbs. or 25lbs. is reached, will usually make an
excellent stock in the following spring, as no drone-
comb will be built. In driving, care should be taken
to secure the best queen ; e.g., take first a cast of the
year, or a stock that has thrown a swarm, and let
the queen run up, for she is young; then into the
same skep drive swarms catching the queens, that
must have been laying two seasons at least. The poor
folk from whom these bees come are, unfortunately,
too little instructed to see that their skeps no longer
gain honey when income drops as low as expenditure,
which is frequently some time before gathering actually
ceases. They, in consequence, defer taking up until
so late that this plan cannot be satisfactorily carried
out, although I have had condemned bees do ex-
cellently which were not hived till the last week
in September.* In an apiary in going order, combs

* Where heather abounds, the honey harv-est closes so late, and so
abruptly, that condemned bees cannot well be built up unless aided by
stored combs.

THE APIARY.

369

are always at command in the autumn. The later
condemned bees by their aid may receive a ready-
furnished home, and so be converted into wintering
stocks at once; or they may be utilised in strengthen-
ing stocks not otherwise populous enough to safely
hold on till spring shall once more greet us : they must
be added with the precautions given under “ Uniting.”
Taking condemned bees is excellent practice, and
small difficulties often have to be surmounted which
greatly instruct the bee-keeper, while he can afford
to experiment, as the loss involved in failure is incon-
siderable. The troubles arising from robbing and
hghting necessitate care and expedition, and so have
latterly led many bee-keepers to adopt a plan named
by Mr. Lyon “bumping,” instead of ordinary driving,
which, in cool weather, is a comparatively sluggish
process. In cases in which the combs are to be
removed, it has long been the practice with myself,
and I should suppose with many others, to abandon
the thudding when bees have driven badly, and break
or cut and break out the combs, sweeping off the
bees. Mr. Lyon* goes further, by making no attempt
at driving, his initial step being a loosening of the
contents of the skep by a bump or blow. He recom-
mends that the operation should be preceded by
providing some large vessel to receive the removed
combs, and a sack, or its equivalent, to cover them
from robbers; then, with a little smoke, to save the
operator from attack, the skeps should be so plugged
with grass thrust in lengthways that the bees are
prevented passing, while not deprived of air. After

* British Bee Journal, Vol. xiv., page 314.

VoL. II. 2 B

370

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

giving the skep to be bumped a good puff of smoke,
it is turned up, and, being held a few inches from
the ground, at an angle of 45® to the horizon, with
the faces — not the ends — of the combs towards the
operator, he rapidly pushes the whole from him,
striking the edge of the top on the ground, so that
the combs break from their attachments. If the combs
are very old, the blow must be a sharp one; if tender,
gentleness will do it. The sticks commonly run-
ning through the skep (page 243) should be drawn
out, with a screwing motion, by a pair of pincers, or,
if no projection be discoverable, notched through with
a penknife, or cut with a pair of pruning-shears, so
as to liberate the first two combs, after which they
will give no trouble. The combs will generally break
away close to the top of the skep, for reasons which
I have already explained' (page 223). Mr. Lyon says:
“Replace the skep on its stand — upside down, of
course — lift out the combs one at a time (a penny
gridiron* is very convenient to put down between the
combs to raise them on), brush the bees rapidlv off
both sides with a wingt into the skep, put the
combs into a pan, and cover them with a sack. As
each skep is emptied of its combs, replace it on its
stand right side up, resting the edge on two or three
stones, and leave it for the bees to cluster. Do
not forget to liberate the other bees before leaving.
The whole operation need only take five or six
minutes, against twenty or thirty for driving.” The de-
tails as to packing, transporting, and hiving, have already

* Most, like myself, would prefer the fingers,
f The usual, but a most inconvenient, instrument. See pages 134 and 259.

THE APIARY,

371

been given (pages 136 and 261). In travelling from
spot to spot in taking bees, all paraphernalia should
be reduced to the smallest possible compass, for nearly
everything must be carried, the cottagers rarely being
able to supply a want. Where practicable, I would,
however, have a spare skep and a large, light board,
which should occupy the old stand, the latter catching
the brushed bees. The first skep finished, the board
is removed, and carried to the next stand, after the
adherent bees have been shaken off of it.

Few bees are killed by this process, and the queens
only rarely suffer. Should the latter be required for
any purpose, they can easily be preserved by putting
them, as found (and they are commonly seen during the
brushing process), into wire-cloth* cages, and fixing
each with a French nail into the roof of the skep — it
does not matter which, so long as each lot has one.

“Bumping” is, no doubt, very useful for the purpose
now under consideration, but is unsuitable to warm
weather or combs containing brood, and is, moreover,
subject to a miscarriage, in that the combs, if stored
with honey in the attachment-cells (as they will be if
the bees have been pushed for room), break through
the store an inch or so from the top, bleeding badly,
and hopelessly gumming many bees. Cutting the side
attachments, bending down slightly, freeing the end
comb, and then moving the rest singly, will prevent this
misadventure, but will occupy slightly more time than
the “bump.” Carbolic acid, in addition to smoke, is

* I have used dome ca<^es, fixed on to a piece of a section box by
an indiarubber band. The wood has a neat, round hole previously
made in it, passing the nail freely, but not the head.

2 B 2

372

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

a great help in taking condemned stocks. Its watery
solution, wiped over the floor-board, will make the bees
leave the latter and cluster more quickly in the skep,
which should be propped high to avoid its fumes.

Capturing colonies which have located themselves
In undesirable situations, occasionally provides the
means of augmenting our stocks. The statement that
the plan of procedure will depend on circumstances Is
not very helpful. The dilflcultles are of one kind,
and so may be best explained by relating in short
two expeditions in which the writer endeavoured to
restore to civilised courses bees that had hoped, perhaps,
to bid adieu to the trammels of bar-framers, the dull
uniformity of foundation, and the innovation of section
boxes, by hieing away to the seclusion of a double-
brick wall in one case, and the roof of a church In the
other. The double wall formed part of an old structure
and through an aperture eight feet from the ground,
the result of decay, the swarm had evidently entered,
and had utilised an interspace only q^in. wide from
front to back. A bricklayer cut out some front bricks
to lay the colony open to view, and this work acted
like the hive-beating in driving, completely quieting
the bees, which made no remonstrance during the
dismantling of their home. The bricklayer soon
lost courage, and so I had to trench upon masonic
mysteries, lifting out the honeycombs as it was possible
to free them. These I found about 3ft. bin. deep^
and supported at intervals by cross bricks; but, un-
fortunately, as we came upon the brood-combs, the
queen, with the greater number of bees, retreated into
the recess, beyond reach. All the brood-combs, by

THE APIARY.

373

cutting, trimming, and fixing into frames, were made
ready for the hive ; but even the adherent bees,
except the very young, flew from them and returned
to their now concealed companions.

The queen was not with us, while nearly all the
bees were with her, and quite inaccessible, unless so
much of the wall was to be removed as to endanger
its safety. In this dilem.ma we fixed the frames, with
their brood-combs, as nearly as possible in true position,
and in the spot the brood had previously occupied,
nailing up over all a gardener’s large mat. So soon
as quietude was restored, the bees, with their queen,
returned to feed and warm their young. The next
morning the mat was lifted with as little disturbance
as possible. All were at home again, putting the
house in order. The hive to receive them stood

against the wall, just under their old entrance. Frame
after frame was lifted down, the queen, in due course,
making her descent with the rest. The few that
took wing soon learned the position of their comrades,
and the colony was established In its new quarters
with but very little loss, and yielded a fine super at
the end of the summer. The main point rests in
the manner of capturing the queen, by restoring, for
a time, the combs, to which she will infallibly return,
when their second removal Is too rapidly and quietly
accomplished to give her an opportunity of eluding us.

But to our second case. The three or four colonies
of the roof of Great Hadham Church — the descendants,
doubtless, of one — had behaved so badly, that further
forbearance was impossible. A swarm was sent
out not only on Sunday, but on the morning of

374

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

a confirmation, and, audaciously entering the church
window, clustered on an ornament not far from the
pulpit; but, to fill up the measure of their transgressions,
one reckless bee from this cluster committed the sad
indiscretion of stinging a bishop, and so brought well-
deserved banishment on her whole tribe. Not long
after, ladders were raised, and the Author, unaccustomed
as he is to elevated positions, was peering down between
the slates as the saucy insects were travelling in and
out through four or five openings. The master builder
in attendance came to receive directions, but a gust of
wind, common at such altitudes, nearly carried away
his hat. His rapid movements in preventing this
catastrophe produced a worse, for five or six bees,
possibly expecting retribution, regarded his quickness
as a menace, and 'took aim at his uncovered scalp,
when he retired discomfited. A practical breach was
soon made, and pailful after pailful of honeycomb, which
at length fairly filled a large saucer-bath, was the first
instalment of the booty. The brood-combs followed,
but, as before, the bees retired, and had to be gained
by the expedient previously explained. After the final
removal of the bees the following morning, the hollow
in which this colony had existed for several years was
filled with coke saturated with carbolic acid. This
last substance is so excessively nauseous to the genus
Apis that no fresh swarm would be likely to choose
this spot as a dwelling-place. The other families, now
the way had been shown, fared no better than the
first ; for a volunteer, clad in armour, attacked, defeated,
and captured another detachment, without receiving
damage, at a point where more climbing ability than I

THE APIARY.

375

possessed was required, whilst his clothing grew so
sweet and sticky, that not a few of the enemy became
attached to him.

Despoil, as far as possible, the store-combs first, so
as to destroy cover; and, if needful, restore the brood-
combs after their transference to frames. Remove
these as early after the return of the bees as prac-
ticable, when the disturbance and fright will cause the
worried insects to note the locality you have chosen,
and there remain.

As bee-hunting, properly so called, can be practised
only in sparsely-populated countries, the barest out-
line must suffice. The operation consists in tracking
colonies that have settled in the woods_, localising them-
selves in hollow trees. When bees obtain abundance
of honey from blossoms, they pass that in the bulk
unnoticed, so a “ bait ” is then useless ; but in the

autumn, when the natural supply fails, the bee-hunter
— provided with a small, bottomless box, whose lid is
a glass slide, and which contains, in its upper part^
diluted honey in a miniature feeder — repairs to the
forest, and pops his box over any bees he may find

foraging. Closing the bottom by his hand, the

bees rise and feed. Having placed his box in

the best position for seeing them at their exit, he
draws back the glass slide, and lies down, so as to
put them, if possible, between himself and the sky.
When they leave, they carefully mark their location,
and then start, indicating by their line of flight (the
“bee-line”) the position of their home. The bees,
returning for a new load, are carried by the hunter
a certain distance along the line they have struck,

3?6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

when the process is repeated. The first workers are
joined by others, and at last the nest is detected.
Sometimes, the tree is felled, ruining the colony
possibly, the “ bumping ” being too energetically ad-
ministered ; at others, the climber, having pronged
irons strapped down the side of the leg and beneath
the boot, brings down the nest somewhat in the
manner previously described.

Feeding, intelligently managed, does more than
anything else, in an uncertain climate like ours, to
increase the bee-keeper’s harvest; and we have now
to consider the requisites of foods given as substitutes
for, or additions to, natural stores, consisting of honey
and pollen, to which_, in certain cases, water must
be added. The first of these is practically non-nitro-
genous, and may for the moment be regarded as sugar
made liquid by water, as its sugar gives it its food
value, constituting it a producer of heat and force.
Sugar syrup properly prepared, on this account sub-
stitutes it so completely that nothing is left to be
desired. The curious compounds once advocated are
no longer employed, while such additions' as ale and
porter are now known to be not only useless, but
actually dangerous, since they contain nitrogenous sub-
stances in combination with ferments, and these, when
added to sugar, are extremely likelv, especially in the
warm hive, to cause fermentation of the honey and its
associated pollen, blowing the latter out of the cells in
a frothy mass, to the great detriment of the stock.*

* I have had two cases under the microscope in which alcoholic
fermentation from the cause given was in rapid progress in most of
the cells, the Torula cerevisicc (yeast) showing considerable activity,
while the honey had been made watery by destruction of its sugar.

THE APIARY.

377

Proper preparation of the syrup is most desirable,
for a reason presently apparent. It would appear to
be the common idea that sweetness in all dietary
articles is due to the presence of a substance which
is identically the same, whether revealing itself to
the taste in the grape, in honey, in milk, or in the
sweetmeat of the confectioner ; but the error is a
grave one, for the word “sugar” is generic, and applied
to a class of bodies having, with a common likeness,
well-marked differences ; and, in the examples cited,
the sugar of each differs from those of all the rest.
The sugar of our tea-table is named by the chemist
“ saccharose,” and is usually derived from the sugar-
cane, although its source may be sorghum, beet, or
maple, while it is also found mixed with other de-
scriptions of sugar in many fruits. The characteristic
with which we have here to do is the facility with
which it crystallises into oblique, six-sided prisms.
It is, on this account, sometimes distinguished as
crystallisable sugar. If a strong* syrup be made of
It by boiling with water, the sugar will re-crystallise
either as the syrup cools, or, subsequently, as the
water evaporates. If it be used in this form, it will
solidify, or, as the sugar-baker calls it, “grain,” about
the feeders and appliances ; and, if any of It drop
upon the bodies of the bees, it will dry, in appear-
ance, like so much chalk, which the bees will be very
slow to remove ; and, even If it be stored, it may, espe-
cially during the cold of winter, crystallise in the
cells. This can be effectually prevented by adding

* 31b. of sugar dissolve in ilb. of cold water. Syrup of this strength
will form no crystals on cooling.

378

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

to the syrup, while boiling, a small quantity of some
acid, changing or ‘‘inverting” it into non-crystal-
lisable sugar, identical in character 'with the sugar
of honey.

This change is very readily effected : when cane
sugar is taken into the mouth, the saliva immediately
induces the transformation ; boiling slowly does the
same. The sugar-refiner would have to raise his
syrup to 230° Fahr. did he not carry on the process
of evaporation in what is called a vacuum pan, in
which 150° is quite sufficient. He thus saves loss
by largely preventing the change of his crystallisable
into uncrystallisable sugar. We see this very matter
in the case of a fruit tart ; if sugar be added by the
cook before baking, the heat and the acid of the
fruit transform the saccharose into grape sugar, or,
more exactly, into a mixture of dextrose and levulose.
The flavour is more agreeable and natural, but more
sugar will be required, since two measures of sac-
charose have as much effect on the palate as five of
grape sugar. Cane sugar is changed into the latter,
in our case, as the first step towards assimilation,
which is perfectly identical with what ordinarily
occurs with the bee. The secretion, or nectar, of
most blossoms consists of cane sugar, and is con-
verted, by addition of the salivary juices (see pp. 80,
100, and 263, Vol. I.), into dextrose and levulose in
the act of sucking. The alteration is a chemical one,
and involves the addition of a molecule of water ;
so that, strange as it may appear, 342 parts of
saccharose become 360 of the dextrose and levulose
before mentioned.

THE APIARY,

379

If, then, the bee has the power of making the
transformation, why, it may be asked, be at the
trouble of effecting it ? Why not feed cane sugar
direct? The answer is three-fold — first, in most
forms of feeders, crystallisation is a practical
nuisance, fixing parts intended to move, and keeping
asunder surfaces intended to meet ; next, the trans-
formation is a physiological saving to the bee — a
matter, as I take it, of importance, at least where
large quantities of syrup have to be rapidly converted
with comparatively little other work to be done, as
in the case of condemned bees ; and, lastly, where
crystallisable sugar is rapidly stored, the conversion
is very imperfectly performed, and considerable crys-
tallisation in the cells is frequently the result. The
syrup which is carried over the ligula and between
the maxillae and labial palpi (page 96, \ oh L), as
is always the case where liquid food is presented
in bulk, largely escapes the action of the salivary
secretion.

The general practice of bee-keepers is in favour of
converting the sugar into the uncrystallisable form^
by the addition of an acid — a thick syrup being made
by boiling for a few minutes, with each qlb. of sugar,
I quart (or 40 oz.) of water and about half a table-
spoonful (or ^oz.) of vinegar. Stirring, so as to prevent
burning, is important. This syrup, as hereafter ex-
plained, is suitable for autumn feeding, wdiile, during
the spring and summer, double the quantity of water
would not be excessive, if the object be the raising
of brood or the building of comb. Should the syrup
crystallise during us-e, it may be re-boiled with a little

380

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

more acid ; for the vinegar is an uncertain quantity,
as its effect depends upon the very variable amount of
acetic acid it contains, and tartaric or citric acids may
well replace it : Joz. of either being quite sufficient

to convert, with ten minutes’ boiling, 81b. of sugar.

Instead of either of the foregoing, 40 drops of
sulphuric acid may be used to the aforesaid 81b. of
sugar, the acid being, if the bee-keeper so desire,
removed, by the addition, with careful stirring, just
before taking from the fire, of a little powdered chalk,
which is formed into calcic sulphate, to settle during
cooling. Sulphuric acid in this amount is, however,
not injurious, and may even be an advantage (see
“ Diseases”).

Salt is often recommended to be added to syrup
for bees ; and it is stated that they have a craving
for this substance. I am disposed to regard this idea
as a mistake, and water containing salt I have found
neglected where water free of it was at hand, this

being especially true if two sources of supply are
given within the hive. The bee-keeper can do no

harm by adding salt sparingly to his syrup, but he

will find it difficult to give a reason for the practice.

Dark, and otherwise inferior, honey, because not
marketable, may often be used as bee food with

economy; but honey is not so desirable as sugar
syrup, as its aroma excites neighbouring stocks, and
is likely to induce robbing. In times of scarcity, bees
will follow a promising scent with astonishing reso-
lution, and I have known quite a number to descend
a chimney 25ft. long because wax was being melted
on the fire beneath.

THE APIARY.

38

Neatness and convenience demand some receptacle
for the syrup to be kept about the apiary, and,,
perhaps, for this purpose, nothing is better than my
syrup-can. Its spout {sp, Fig. 93) is covered with
perforated zinc, to prevent bees entering to their
destruction, while the lid cannot be inadvertently
left open ; it is slotted and provided with a well to
receive the shovel {sh), which, when in position.

Fig. 93.— Cheshire Svrup Can.
sp, Spout ; sh, Shovel ; pz, Perforated Zinc.

drains the syrup remaining upon it through the per-
forated zinc ip2). Some makers have improved (?)
upon this form by putting a tube spout, provided
also with narrow openings to stop the ingress of
the bees, by which the can occupies more space, while
it cannot be cleaned within. In the form in the
Figure, every part inside is accessible to the hnger ;

382

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and this is necessary, for foreign bodies in the syrup
soon close the small openings in the spout. The
most durable substance for such a can is zinc, but
the syrup must be kept from contact with it (see
“Extractors’’). This can readily be managed if we
first heat the metal, by holding the can in water
at a higher temperature than that at which wax melts
(150® Fahr.), and then, being careful that the interior
is dry, paint with liquid wax.

In these days of science it is hardly necessary to
explain that, if a bottle with a wide mouth be filled
with syrup, and a fine canvas tied over it, it can be
at once inverted without the contents escaping, be-
cause of the upward pressure of the air. If the
bottle be turned over slowly, the syrup will commence
to flow out at the lowest part of the canvas, because
the air will enter at its highest. This cannot be
thoroughly prevented, however rapidly the inversion
be performed, unless some flat surface, such as the
bottom of a plate, be first put over the canvas, and
held in position until the inversion of the bottle has
been completed. If the latter now be placed over the
feed-hole {fh, Fig. 7) of a skep, the bees quickly, with-
out chill, and without leaving their cluster, draw awav
the contents, by the passing of their tongues through
the meshes of the canvas, and air, in bubbles, passes
in to supply its place. A far neater way of applying this
principle is by using a small board about 5in. square,
having a circular hole rather less In diameter than
the neck of the food-bottle. Upon this may be fixed
fine perforated zinc, that known as Braby No. 6 being
best. Such a feeding-stage is suitable for the frame

THE APIARY.

383

hive where it stands above a hole in the quilt, or
for the skep by being fixed upon its crown, where
long screws will hold into the straw with a tenacity
few would expect. The leak of heated air between
the wood and the irregularities of the skep must be
stopped by some luting, and a ring of dough, placed
around the feed-hole before the stage is pressed into
place, is all-sufficient. The shovel {sh, Fig. 93) is
used in putting the filled syrup bottle into position.
The shovel is placed over the mouth of the latter^
and the whole inverted as at A, Fig. 94, when not a
drop of syrup escapes — />., if the bottle was fully
filled. The elasticity of the air in a half filled bottle
will cause a little leaking. Standing the shovel over
the hole in the feeding-stage, the bottle is held bv
one hand, and the shovel quickly slid away from under
it by the other, when, as before, the syrup is taken
by the bees thrusting their proboscides up through
the perforations. In lieu of the shovel, although with
less convenience, a bricklayer’s trowel, or even a
piece of tin turned up at one end, may be used.

It is most important that no bees be admitted from
other hives to regale themselves around the bottle.
Our hive covers should be made, if possible, proof
against them ; but in cases where these are wanting,
a calico bag, large enough to slip over the feeding-
bottle easily, with a child’s large bead necklace
(costing id.) sewn into its hem, so fits down to the
hive top that no inquiring bee can steal a single
sip. Many would prefer a wooden box-like case,
coverinor the bottle, but it does not do the work
better, while it is more costly and more cumbrous.

384

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and incapable of accommodating itself to irregularities.
Students of rigid economy (and even those well-to-do
who, in the philanthropic spirit, instruct their poorer
neighbours, should be such) will find that tin cans (B,
Fig. 94) — now so abundant that they may be regarded
as waste — make excellent feeders. The lid should be
placed over the end grain of a piece of hard wood,
to prevent its buckling, and then, with a bird-cage
maker’s bradawl (a pointed awl), fine holes should
be pierced. If the can be now filled with syrup,

F

Fig. 94. — Appliancfs for Top-feeding.

A, Shovel and Food-Bottle. B, Section of Tin Can Feeder— j), Perforations in
Lid ; h, b. Air-bubbles ; fs, Feeding-stage.

and the lid placed on, it can be inverted without
mess or waste, and with no disposition on the part
of the lid to drop off, it being only necessary to
keep the can perpendicular. It is now stood on the
feeding-stage (/?). A disadvantage applies to it,
and equally to the nearly obsolete bottle and canvas.
When it is lifted, the bees escape by the feed-hole,
while many are brought away adherent to the feeder.
This can be entirely obviated by nailing wire-cloth
over the hole, when it is practically equal to, and

THE APIARY.

385

considerably resembles, a popular American feeder
(Fig. 95), consisting of a tin can, the edge of which
is returned so as to hold an indiarubber ring {ir) ;
within this fits a cover (C) of coffee-strainer, having
a cup upon its inner centre, to receive the end of a
coiled spring {sp). When the feeder is inverted, as
at B, the cover is held in position by the spring,
but is easily depressed by the finger, so that the
syrup may be poured in. When released, it flies
back into place ; and now the whole is turned
over, ready for standing over the hive. To prevent the

Fig. 95.— Can Feeder, in Section (Scale, J).

A, Feeder in Position. B, Feeder as held for Filling— ir, Indiarubber Ring ;
c, e. Returned Edge ; C, Perforated Cover ; sp, Coiled Spring ; uc. Wire-cloth.

escape of the bees, a piece of wire-cloth (wc) is laid
over the feed-hole, and is raised in the centre, so as
to allow the bees to get close up to the coffee-
strainer (C). The whole permits of being taken to
pieces immediately, in order that it may be cleansed.

We have now before us the general principles
involved in, perhaps, every form of bottle - feeder,
except those that attempt to regulate the supply by a
wick fitting with adjusted tightness into a small open-
ing— a plan which is too uncertain in its action for
VOL. II. 2 C

386

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the practical apiarian. Many years since, I endea-
voured to superadd some means of regulation, and
devised a stage which has been the parent of the
large number of rotating feeders now in use. Firstly^
I displaced perforated zinc by vulcanite plate, because
the latter is at once a substance not affected chemi-
cally by any description of food, and a splendid non-
conductor of heat. It can be, moreover, easily cut to
shape in a warm room. I give the original form,
which I think, in some respects, is still superior to
every other, since its cost is nominal, it can be

Fig. 96.— Cheshire Feeding-stage and Vulcanite Plate, (Scale, ^).

A, Food Cut Off— c. Centre Screw ; fh. Feed-hole ; /i. Outlying Holes ; st. Stop ;
s. Screw to meet Stop. B, Food at Half Supply— Letterings as before.

worked with any wide-necked bottle, large or small,
is incapable of getting out of order, can be cleansed
or absolutely disinfected most readily, and admits
of every gradation between the slowest and very
rapid feeding, as the holes in the circular arrange-
ment can be increased in number as may be desired.

The vulcanite plate, on its wooden block, is repre-
sented at A and B, Fig. g6. The curve cu has for
its centre the screw, the hole for which, like all
the others, is most conveniently made by a redhot

THE APIARY.

387

wire or hairpin, the burr being afterwards scraped
off. The dotted circle (//z) indicates the opening in
the block which stands exactly over the feed-hole in
the hive. The perforations are so drilled that, when
the stage is turned as far to the left as the screw .s'
meeting the stop will permit, the holes are all of
them out of the reach of the bees ; but when it is
desired that they taste of our sweets, the stage is
turned towards the right, when the outlying holes [h)
begin to pass within the area of the feed-hole, at first
permitting but a single bee to obtain food ; then follow,
as the rotation is continued, those in circular arrange-
ment, until, when the opposite stop is reached, all
are open, giving a bountiful banquet. These move-
ments are, of course, made when the food-bottle is
in position. The vulcanite should be roughened upon
the under surface, by deeply scratching it with a sharj)
knife, so that the bees may have foothold. Should
the plate be curled, place it in hot water, and then
press between two pieces of flat wood till cool,
when it will remain as desired. The vulcanite
is so close to the bees that they have not to dis-
connect themselves from their companions in order
to reach it ; and if the syrup be made cold by a chilly
atmosphere, the non-conductivity of the stage will
keep the space beneath it from being cooled. Metal
stages are here greatly at fault, often making feeding
by the bees in cold weather impossible, the food
rather tantalising than helping, since contact with the
almost icy zinc or tin would benumb at once.

It is clear that the can B, Fig. 94, can be made into
a regulated feeder by piercing the holes excentrically

2 C 2

388

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

(to one side) on the lid. If, in addition, brown
paper soaked in wax and rosin be waxed on to it,
and the holes opened out with a pin, we have a
feeder which, in practice, is nearly equal to the most
expensive. The advantages of regulated feeding will
be considered later on.

One of the most perfect top feeders was intro-
duced by the Rev. G. Raynor, which, embodying

%

Fig. 97.— The Raynor Feeder (Scale, i).

A and B, Sections through the Line n 6 of Bottle, Cover and Stage— f, Screw-
Lid ; CO, Cork ; ‘pi. Pivot ; p. Perforations ; cl. Cloth Lining ; ,sf, Slot. C, View
from above Stage. D, Ditto of Cover and Bottle Neck— f. Index ; other
Letterings as before.

some of the features of that last described, introduces
others. It consists of a bottle (seen in section at A,
Fig. 97), which holds nearly a pint and a half.
Its neck is fitted with a screw-lid (/), lined with cork
to prevent leakage, and perforated by twelve holes,
set in a semicircle. On its centre, a pivot (//) is fixed.

THE APIARY.

389

The stand is made of hard wood, with a circular
depression to receive the bottle neck, and a hole to
centre the pivot. It is hollowed beneath, so that the
bees may extend their cluster upwards, holding on to
the cloth [cl) which covers the under side, and feed
from the perforations, standing over the slot [si] in
perfect comfort, even in the chilliest weather. The
slot, |-in. wide, lies beneath the whole semicircle of
perforations when the index [i) stands at 12, so that
many bees simultaneously regale themselves ; but turn-
ing the bottle begins to place the holes, one after
the other, over the unslotted part, and so reduce the
number reachable, as indicated by the index and
figures — the latter marked on the stage — until o is
reached, when the supply is actually cut off. The

fact that bees from four or five frames can pass at
once into the dome is occasionally an advantage.

Top feeding is most expedient in cold, bad weather,
for even strong colonies, if at such times in need, can
hardly break from the cluster in order to bring in
sweets which may lie but a few inches distant, unless
these sweets are so positioned that they are really
kept warm by the bees. Giving this due consideration,
it is well to remember that bottle feeders all admit
of being used behind a division-board not extending
quite to the floor of the hive, as explained at page 56;
but they then require to be raised on two strips, to
give the bees access beneath, and a few drops of
syrup spilt will be at first desirable, as hinting where
riches may be gathered.

The ingenious bee-keeper will at once improvise
feeders suitable for standing in the position last

390

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

named, or even for use after dusk at the hive door,
in the warmer weather, a tumbler filled with syrup,
covered by a piece of board, and inverted, being
all that is actuallv needed, since the bees will con-
trive to secure the contents by applying their tongues
at the edge of the glass. The board, too, may be
omitted, sliding the tumbler off the shovel, on to the
hive floor, or a flat spot at the entrance, as the case
may be. And, indeed, it is barely required to make
a syrup, filling with sugar, adding water, and invert-
ing immediately, answering sufficiently; and since all
the food is gone by the morning, robbing is not
induced. Such a supply, given nightly to a strong
stock, during a failure in nectar, will keep breeding
going rapidly. Four flat-headed nails, added as feet
to the wooden stage, if such be used, will increase
its convenience, as it can then be set down with less
risk of crushing bees. In starting feeding at the hive
mouth, a syrupy trail should be led from the bottle
to the entrance, so that the bees may promptly begin
operations, as, if the food remain until other stocks
commence flying next morning, fighting and robbing-
are all but certain. The second evening the bees will
require no invitation — they will be anxiously looking
out for their attentive master.

It is the occasional practice with some, in weather
permitting bees to fly without risk, and yet yielding
no nectar, to feed in the open, for which the appa-
ratus B, Fig. 100, is exceedingly suitable. This
al fresco feeding would be a costly business to those
having many bee-keeping neighbours, as all their
stocks would understand the invitation to the banquet

THE APIARY.

391

as being general. The food, too, must be placed
some little distance from the hives, for the commotion
it occasions, if in their midst, would almost certainly
lead to robbing by the excited bees, just conscious that
abundance is at command close at hand. The syrup
should be given very thin, and the supply must be
suffered to run out towards the afternoon, or many
staying too late at the feast would perish. The
practice saves time, and is safe in the hands of an
expert, but it is not to be generally recommended.

The specific gravity of syrup is greater than that
of water, and hence the former immediately sinks as

Fig. 98.— The “Amateur” Feeder i.\ Section (Scale, i).

A, Feeder charged— S, Sugar : st/, Syrup ; ct. Central Tube, by which Fees
Enter ; ffl, Cover of Glass ; h, Handle ; I, Lid. B, Feeder arranged for Slow
Feeding— CO, Cone of Perforated Tin ; ?r, w, Wicks ; other Letterings as before

sugar dissolves. If the sugar lie at the bottom of the
vessel, the water there is soon saturated with sugar,
when it is incapable of dissolving more. We all have
observed, as an illustration of this, that sugar may
long remain only partially melted in an unstirred cup
of tea, notwithstanding the high temperature, and the
extreme solubility of sugar in hot water. To complete
the solution, in the absence of stirring, the denser
syrup must be removed from below, as in the case of
the inverted tumbler just cited, or the sugar must in

392

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

some way be kept above. Mr. Simmins has arranged
this in more feeders than one. “The Amateur”
(Fig. g8) may explain the rest. It consists of a
circular, tin box, gin. in diameter^ and 4in. high.
Through its centre rises a tube 2\n. wide, and

covered with perforated tin within and Avithout, to
give the bees foothold. The bottom is raised, so that
entrance may be gi\'en from half-a-dozen frames at
once if desired. Around the central tube is a moA^able
one of perforated tin, 2fin. in diameter, and closed
above by a loose, glass lid. This tube is fixed beneath
to a AA’ide cone {co, B), also perforated. When the
tube and attached cone are placed in the external
case, the space aboA’e is filled Avith loaf sugar (S), and
Avater (preferably Avarm, as mere solution depresses
temperature) added in the proportion of half a pint to
each pound, AAdien the result is obvious. The bees,
folloAving the direction of the arroAV, gain access to
the formed syrup betAveen the tAVO tubes. This feeder
presents a great surface of metal, and needs a Avide
separation of the bees from their cluster, and so is
not intended for cool Aveather. When this prevails,
and for sIoav feeding, over the inner tube (cl) is
placed a cover, pierced for tAVO lamp Avicks {w, w),
which, dipping into the syrup, hang doAvn in the central
tube, even to the very cluster, if desired, and feed by
capillarity, as indicated at B. These feeders are

ingenious time-savers, and a great convenience to those
Avho have no appliances at hand for making syrup in
the usual manner.

The diA'ision-board Itself may, by a modification,
be converted into a feeder. The form I prefer

THE APIARY.

393

(Fig. 99) consists of two thin boards, with an
inch interspace, accommodating a tin vessel capable
of holding three pints, or about 41b., of syrup. The
partition (/>) is returned above in the partial cover
(c), which permits of the quilt being turned back
sufficiently to fill at fh without any bees escaping —
the top bar being widened at w, so as to meet the
next frame. The partition does not reach the bottom,
an opening of -iin. being left, through which the syrup,

f tl'

Fig. 99.— Division-board Feeder (Scale, i).

A, Longitudinal Section, showing Interior— /7i, Filling-Hole ; fl. Perforated
Float ; sy, Syrup ; p. Partition. B, Top View— a, n, Nails. C, Section through
line a h—yt, Quilt ; other Letterings as before.

as indicated by the arrow, passes beneath the float,
which, rising, gives the bees ample standing, without
sullying any of them. They drink up the food through
the perforations the float carries. The top bar (td) is
so cut away that the tin vessel can be lifted in and
out of the division -board, which acts as its case, while
the bees have entrance given to them between i and 2j
where flat-headed nails are driven at intervals into the
side board, so that the quilt is supported, as shown

394

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

at C, and the passage-way [e) not interfered with.
The advantages of this division-board feeder over others
lie in the ease with which any defect in the float,
the amount of syrup contained, &c., may be seen at
once, while the vessel can, as before stated, be lifted
out for washing and returned immediately. For dry-
sugar feeding I prefer it to Mr. Simmins’ pattern,
(page 395), because the dry sugar can be poured in,
and its condition watched while the feeder remains
in the hive.

A division-board feeder somewhat like the fore-
going, but without the tin vessel, and made syrup-
tight either by accurate carpentry, and keeping the
grain of the sides and ends horizontal, or by painting
carefully within with very hot wax, can be converted
into a very simple feeder by adding a thin partition
jin. from the front, and fitting loosely, so that the
bees cannot get behind it, although the syrup may pass
round its edges. This is poured in behind, and the

bees take it at its surface, holding on to the partition

or the front while feeding. The feeder may be
made of any width, and provided with any number
of partitions, about jin. apart. Pouring the syrup
over the backs of the insects as they stand feeding
will save time, and rarely cause any to drown.

This principle is most usually applied where very
large feeders covering, possibly, the whole top of the
hive, or occupying an under storey in tiering hives,
are used to give wintering stores in the shortest

possible space of time. Thin partitions, which it is
not quite safe to have more than 4in. apart, stand

out of the syrup. In those used above, the bees

THE APIARY,

395

pass up, and return by a tube-like opening, as at cf,
Fig. 98.

Mr. Simmins’ dry-sugar feeder is iMn. wide,
and the size of a standard frame. The back and
front reduce the interspace to lin., giving room
for 31b. of a moist sugar, Porto Rico being recom-
mended. This space must not be increased unless it
be divided, or the bees will build comb in it. The
front reaches to within Jin. of the top bar, and is
hinged at the lower corners on wire nails, which are
driven through the sides. Or one-half only of the
front is removable for filling, after which a button
secures the charge. Mr. Simmins remarks that with
these feeders sugar is given “in a manner that causes
far greater stimulation to the bees than any plan of
feeding with syrup. The trouble of making syrup
is dispensed with, and the feeders are always ready
for use at a moment’s notice. The system is of

immense value in all large apiaries, and in those at
a distance from home. In many cases, no other feed-
ing is necessary ; but where any colony is likely to
run short previous to April ist, let it have sufficient
syrup, in one dose, to last until that date.” That this
feeding stimulates completely cannot be doubted; but
my use of these feeders leads me to remark that, in
dry, easterly winds,* during April and May especially,
.the bees are lost in great numbers in living for water.
This flying is largely stopped if water be given within
the hive, when a good colony will take quite a pint
daily. The use of American cloth to condense moisture

* ]\Ir. Simmins’ apiary would have a more humid atmosphere than that
of most inland places. iSfy position is a dry and over-drained one.

396

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is an insufficient expedient, and all but a total failure
if the hive be covered down warmly above (by a chaff-
tray, If the American cloth could be kept at

the temperature of the brood-nest, no moisture would
be deposited upon it at all. No moisture is deposited
upon a knife in a jet of steam, if the blade be as hot
as the steam. The water is only gained, then, in
appreciable amount, by suffering a leak of heat, which
is one disadvantage to cure another. Striving to com-
pare regulated syrup-feeding with dry sugar-feeding, as
a stimulant to brood-raising, I venture to think that
the former, at least in dry weather, has decidedly the
advantage, although, of course, as Mr. Simmins urges,
it is attended with more trouble.

Candy is a species of dry sugar which may be quite
safely given to stocks appearing likely to run short
of food during the winter. It is prepared thus : Add
about I pint of boiling water to each qlb. or 5lb.* of
loaf sugar, in a saucepan. Stir carefully, and boil for
a few minutes. Try if it be stiff enough by cooling a
drop or two on a piece of paper, or by plunging a
little of it, in a spoon, into cold water. In a few seconds
it should be tough enough to draw out into threads.
If not, continue to boil. When right, place the sauce-
pan in a sink, or stand it in a vessel of cold water,
stirring uninterruptedly, so as to keep the crystals
(the grain) very fine, and these, between them, hold
the saturated syrup. When the mass is getting into
a pasty state, pour into saucers or soup-plates in

* The absolute amount can hardly be given, as much depends on the
state of the fire, a slow one driving off more water, a quick one less,
before the boiling point is reached. The candy must set ; but short
of this, the larger the quantity of water it retains the better.

THE APIARY.

397

which thin paper has been placed. In half an hour
the cakes will have set, and may be turned out by
turning the moulds over and giving them a tap on
the table. If the last parts in the saucepan have
cooled too much to pour, a few seconds over the fire
will again set it running. The cakes are used under
the quilt or chaff-tray (as at Fig. 19), the paper
standing uppermost. As the sugar is eaten away,
a passage is opened up between the frames over the
top bar, and a cosy recess is formed for the bees.

Sugar as a substitute for honey only can be but a
partial diet. Pollen^ bee-bread, or farina, is the
natural nitrogenous or tissue-forming food of the bee,
and is an essential for the adult insect for its own
uses. It is true that, in a condition of comparative
quiescence, the worker may long exist without it — as in
a travelling-box, by example ; but it is demonstrable that
exhausting labour cannot be continued, and brood cannot
be raised, in the absence of pollen, or an equivalent.
The deticiency of candy in this respect may be made
good by adding to it some tissue-forming food, usually
farinaceous substances, which are stirred into it, in the
dry state, at the end of the boiling process. Flour-
cake is the name then given to it, and it is an excellent
provocative of brood-raising in the very early part of
the season. I prefer pea-flour, and first suggested its
use, because it contains about 23 per cent, of absolute
tissue-forming material; whereas wheat-flour, which
some recommend because it rather easily mixes with
the boiling sugar, has only about 10 per cent. Pea-
flour also contains much more fat and earthy matter,
and so more exactly replaces pollen, which is rich in

398

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

vegetable fat, sulphur, phosphorus and potash. What-
ever substance is chosen, a small handful for each pound
of sugar may be stirred in. It has been supposed by
some, that flour-cake is damaging to bees during winter.
It is undesirable in the early winter months, unless the
amount of nitrogenous matter it contains be small ;
but, for reasons hereafter to be stated, I believe the
moderate addition of about hoz. pea-flour to each pound
of sugar to be a great advantage when candy is given
as a resource during winter.

Pollen substitutes (“artificial pollen”) may at cer-
tain seasons be given in the open with advantage.
The balance of the economy of the hive perhaps
meets with some disturbance from the fact that we
deprive the bees of honey, yet, as far as possible, avoid
touching their pollen ; but a discriminating power on
the part of the bee does much to restore the balance.
The amount of this substance brought home somewhat
depends upon the plant yielding the nectar (some
labiate blossoms, e.g.^ so placing it that the bees
cannot collect it on their legs), but more is determined
by the needs of the stock. A swarm for the first few
days gathers honey almost exclusively ; but as eggs
begin to hatch, high-heaped pellets are constantly borne
in, and deposited in the neighbourhood of the larvae
for the use of the nurses. But it is not true, as some
have stated, that queenless stocks carry no pollen, and
by this may be known ; they invariably take a restricted
amount. Sometimes, in the early spring, the lack of
“bee-bread” seriously reduces the brood-producing
capacity of a colony. Especially will this be true
of those that have been nursed into strength by

THE APIARY.

399

late autumn feeding, and of stocks built up from
condemned bees. Sometimes, also, in old-standing
colonies, the pollen of the autumn, in the central
combs, has desiccated so as to be useless, while that
of the outside ones has mildewed and spoiled. One of
the signs of returning activity will then be the removal
of the first-mentioned, indurated masses, which the
bees, with admirable perseverance, tug at and teaze
until they accomplish their dislodgment. These are
then dragged to the alighting-board, where, in the
spring, they may be frequently observed in some
numbers. Under these circumstances, farinaceous
bodies exposed in bulk will often be taken by bees in
considerable amount, and to their great advantage.

Artificial pollen^ now largely used in many apiaries
as an aid to brood-raising, we owe to the obser-
vations and suggestions of the great German bee-
master, Dzierzon. He noticed very early one spring
that his bees were carrying home flour, which they
had stolen from a neighbouring mill. He profited by
the hint, and quickly gave them this substance close
at hand, with results in the highest degree satisfactory.
Rye-flour and chesnut-flour — the latter at a high price
— have constantly been insisted upon as especially
suitable. Their chemical constituents, however, show
the first To be unequal to wheat-flour, and greatly
inferior to oatmeal, while the second is far less desir-
able than pea-flour.

A good plan for giving it is to place, loosely,
some clean shavings in a skep, in a sunny corner,
sprinkling the pea-flour thickly upon them. A
wind screen, and a sheet of glass some few inches

400

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

above the skep, so as to protect from rain, will
be advantages. Bees are capable of instruction :
if they have been taught the value of artificial
pollen, and how to handle (?) it, by previous use, they
will not be slow in utilising our gift ; but if not,
they will probably pass it unnoticed, when they
must be tempted by a bit of bruised comb containing
honey, or by an old, dry piece, partially burned, to
lure by its perfume, or even by a drop or two of oil
of anise rubbed on the skep. Some have succeeded
in inducing their bees to take artificial pollen by put-
ting pea-flour into crocus cups, and so have palmed
off the artificial for the natural ; but the amount of
time this performance would require must rather
amuse those who know the quantity that even a
single stock well at work will carry — a German
authority states this at 2lb.

\\^hen a few bees, more adventurous than the
rest, have got a taste, and have loaded up, the diffi-
culty is overcome; the rest will follow, and soon a
deep hum will be heard from hundreds of busy
gatherers. They do not object to coat themselves
completely, diving in the head, and getting a dusting
on the under side of the thorax when they rise
on the wing, in order, by the action of the legs^ to
gather up and duly stow away the supply, which is
made adhesive by addition of saliva from the extended
tongue constantly passed between the front feet. Now
a second dusting adds to the amount before secured,
and which is already noticeable as small pellets stand-
ing upon the so-called pollen-baskets (page 13 1,
Vol. I.). Another dive or two, and they, fully

THE APIARY.

401

loaded, fly off to their hive, as white and as merry
as the miller and his men. The pea-flour is packed
so smoothly and closely upon the legs, that it glistens
with a polish, and is semi-transparent. It is filled
into the cells of the brood-nest precisely like the
anther dust of flowers. In fine, mild weather, the
bees will labour at this work with great industry, pre-
ferring the meal to the old pollen. They, in con-
sequence, breed early, and rapidly recruit their
numbers. When the opening blossoms furnish a natural
supply, the substitute is neglected. Yet so eagerly
is the latter taken in some cases, that, where the
supply is granted without stint and without interrup-
tion, an excess, useless, if not even harmful, may be
carried. It is wise, as natural sources become avail-
able, to discontinue our bounty the more quickly, to
compel the bees to repair to the blossoms.

Artificial pollen, given as now described, necessitates
the bees leaving their hive, and, in some springs, colonies,
possibly needy, are kept within by stress of weather.
Some years since, reflecting that, when natural pollen
is stored, it is frequently covered with honey, and then
sealed with wax, I concluded that, possibly, the
artificial pollen mixed with honey, or its food
equivalent, might be plac-ed at once in the cells, and
so save the bees the need of the exposure and labour
involved in gathering and storing it. I therefore mixed
pea-flour with syrup into a paste, and, removing a
comb from a colony distressed for lack of pollen,
applied the paste with a flat knife, as boys at
school sometimes apply butter to bread, “to fill up
the holes.” About 30Z. of pea-flour were put into

2 D

402

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the cells, and the comb returned. Two hours later the
bees had sucked out the excess of syrup, and had
packed the pea-flour down in the most beautifully
regular manner, as though it had been pollen gathered
in the natural way. Thus, what with much labour, and,
probably, much loss, could only have been accomplished
by the efforts of hundreds of bees, had been done,
through my help, by a few, with comparatively no
exhaustion, and actually no exposure. Next day,
the greater part of this pea-flour had been consumed,
while the dry, starved appearance of the brood, well
known to those who have over-swarmed artificially
(page 285), had passed away. Giving doses of pollen
as needed worked the stock into prosperity in most
adverse external circumstances.

Experimenting further, on the 8th of October, 1878,
when scarcely a speck of natural pollen was obtain-
able, and bad weather prevented outdoor gathering,
I put 4flb. of bees, taken from eight skeps, into an
empty hive, fed syrup freely, and examined all on the
nth. Comb had progressed well, and eggs were laid.
As I removed a comb, and pasted my pea-flour mix-
ture into it, I felt some compunction in marring its
spotless purity. Forty-eight hours later, almost the
whole of it (30Z.) had been consumed. There were yet
no hatched eggs that I could find. The bees, under
the labour of comb-building, needed the nitrogenous
food which the microscope showed in abundance in
their stomachs. The bees had made comb on sugar only-
but were doubtless growing in some sort emaciated
under the process, and the pea-flour supplied the place
of the pollen they would have consumed whilst gather-

THE APIARY.

403

ing their sweets, had this been done in the natural
manner. What an absolute refutation this to those
who assert that bees never eat pollen — a guess utterly
at variance with all scientific theories ! The hive, late
as was the season, went along splendidly, raising great
breadths of brood, and receiving its pea-flour as occasion
demanded. Good as were the results, and important
as is the teaching, a caution is needed. Pea-flour thus
given must be mixed with sugar carefully inverted — that
is, changed into dextrose and levulose by boiling with
acid — or honey must be employed ; and even then,
that which is not quickly consumed is so dried of its
sugary matters that it becomes too hard for use by
the nurses, and has to be removed at considerable
labour to the bees. In the few cases in which it
would pay for adoption, the plan, judiciously carried
out, is doubtless most serviceable.

We have not exhausted the menu of Mistress Apis,
for both the dairy and the hen-house have been made
to contribute nitrogenous aliment for her support
under the trying duties of wet nurse to a numerous
offspring. Herr Hilbert was the first to use milk, and
subsequently egg, concentrated nitrogenous foods, both,
but especially the latter, largely yielding the very
material for building up animal tissue ; for, during
incubation, the albumen of the egg is converted into
every part of the body of the chick. He recommends
that they be given in early spring, and discontinued
when natural pollen becomes abundant. The milk
he boils with a considerable amount of sugar, and
feeds in a tray-feeder beneath the frames. I have
given it in a simple bottle, and have used about i pint

2 D 2

404

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of milk to I lb. of sugar. The bees take it greedily,
and raise brood in consequence very rapidly ; but they
store it in their cells, so that decomposition subse-
quently sets in, and they then refuse to remove it —
at least, this has been my experience with every trial,
and at present I have a stock suffering from this very
cause. Baron von Berlepsch found the same. Care,
moreover, is required, or the feeding-vessels get
badly fouled, and the milk sours immediately. The
souring, however, does not hinder the bees in appro-
priating it.

Herr Hilbert claims to have had no difficulties, and
to have succeeded in getting, by means of his plans,
overwhelming populations. The egg diet he prefers
to the milk. The white and yolk are well beaten
up, and mixed with honey or syrup — 2lb. honey
or syrup to ilb. of egg substance. It is given be-
neath the cluster, when the bees only take so much
of it as they can use at the time for the preparation
of brood-food ; but it has the great disadvantage of
driving out the bees to search for water, of which the
milk diet contains sufficient. If any stock, having
already accepted egg food, refuse it, no further supply
is offered them for a week; but the mixture is taken
to a more needy lot. The Hilbert system is too
messy, and involves too much risk, to make it gene-
rally acceptable, although at times it might be peculiarly
useful, as with the condemned bees previously referred
to, for its stimulating influence is, possibly, unequalled.

JVa^er, the prime necessity of all life — for without
it not even an animal or a vegetable cell can live
— is at least as needful to bees as food. Bee-hunters

THE APIARY,

405

are quite familiar with the fact that no colonies of
wild bees will be found in a district where water is
not readily obtainable, “bee-trees” being almost always
situated at no great distance from a stream. Honey,
as drawn from blossoms, is extremely limpid, and
when first stored will flow from the cells with a
freeness hardly less than that of water itself. If, in
the height of the honey season, a comb in course of
filling be taken from a frame-hive, put on its side, or
turned upside down, and gently jerked, the newly-
gathered nectar will at once be displaced; whilst that
of earlier collection, although unsealed, as it may be,
will require the extractor to remove it. The latter
has lost its excess of moisture, and is approaching the
condition for sealing. That ordinary evaporation has
much to do with this thickening is all but certain ;
but that it is the sole cause, as generally stated, is
extremely doubtful, the bees, in moving their watery
honey from cell to cell, seeming to possess the power
of extracting from it some of its water ; and fre-
quently, when bees are rapidly gathering, they make
discharges which, by their character, clearly come from
their Malpighian tubes, the equivalent of the kidneys
of the higher animals (see page 286, \T1. I.).

While honey is coming in, it provides the requisite
water for forming the diet of the larvae ; and hence>
bees then are quite independent of our assistance in
this direction. But in early spring, when breeding is
progressing, and the hive contains no honey but old
store, the poor inmates often suffer the direst distress
for lack of water. They may at such times be found
flying in search of it, even when the temperature is so

4o6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

low as to make the death of not a few certain. One
of the signs of water dearth is the collection of par-
ticles of candied honey on the floor-board. The nurses
uncap the cells in succession, and extract from each
the most liquid portions, dropping, from time to time,
the solidified particles upon the floor beneath. .When
nothing remains but that which is candied, they, ac-
cording to a German experimenter, attack the unsealed
larvae, and devour the eggs, if any are still unhatched.
1 have never seen this extreme condition, but in the

Fig. 100.— Bee-fountains.

A, Earthenware Fountain— it’c, Water-chamber ; ds. Drinking-stage. B, Bottle
Fountain, or Open-air Feeder — b, Board ; (j, Grooves.

absence of liquid honey such results are to be anti-
cipated. American cloth, placed over the tops of the
frames, has been previously referred to, its service
depending upon its reduction of evaporation, by
stopping all upward ventilation, as much as upon
the water which actually condenses upon it. The
most effectual remedy, in weather which forbids the
bees flying, is to give a comb the cells of which have
been filled, by a syringe, with very thin, warm syrup,

THE APIARY.

407

or the division board or bottle feeder filled with the
same.

The rapid evaporation in the hot season incident
to the continuous inflow of fresh air then needed,
obliges the bees to be at work early in the morning
gathering the dew with which to thin the food required
by the multitudinous grubs. The wise bee-master
would not leave his bees to search out their own
watering-place, or they may learn to depend upon
some intermittent supply, and when that fails many
will be lost, both at home and abroad. For small
apiaries, the earthenware fountain (A, Fig. 100) will
be suitable. The water-chamber (wc) is inverted
and filled, when the drinking-stage is placed upon it,
and both are turned over together. The water fills
the grooves, from which the bees may drink in safety.
The bottle fountain (B) is similarly managed. The
stage consists of a thick board, about a foot square,
into which grooves are cut, :jin. deep and wide ;
these may be placed as near to each other as the
bee-keeper desires. Either of these appliances is
available for syrup, for open-air feeding, as indicated
at page 390.

For larger apiaries, tanks provided with floats, or
having gently sloping sides, would be desirable, unless
some natural supply render the arrangement unneces-
sary. Mr. William Raitt has, in a sheltered spot, a
shallow tank, containing spent tea leaves, to which
water is from time to time added. I have never tried
it, but the name is a sufficient recommendation.

Two warnings seem desirable. First: Do not pro-
vide the bees with water and, when they have learnt

4o8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

to trust to it, forget to continue it ; better far never
give any, or your well will be dry just when water
everywhere else is scarce. Give none, and the
clever creatures will rub along without your help,
perhaps not so well as though you gave it ; but make
them dependent, and then desert them, and they
will be, probably, reduced to such straits as will
make both bees and master suffer. Second: Carefully
avoid leaving feeding-bottles, &c., so as to collect
rain, or your bees in their searches will fall in, as
into a trap, and many a score will be destroyed.

Packing bees for long journeys, especially to
warm climates, depends more than anything else
upon giving sufficient water. With it, most trying
temperatures can be sustained. I have on several
occasions sent full colonies of bees to India, and the
main precaution has been to give, with sufficient venti-
lation (and this may be excessive — see page 262), an
unfailing supply of water. A pouch was arranged at
the back of the travelling hive, just beneath a 2in. hole,
open to the bees, and covered with perforated zinc.
This pouch was daily filled with water, into which was
placed a large sponge, with- its side lying against the
zinc window. The bees were carried in one of the
ship’s boats, on the port side, to screen them as
much as possible from the sun, and were shaded by a
tarpaulin. On one occasion only, when watering was
neglected, did they succumb.

Even during the icy grip of winter, the instincts of
bees direct them to make preparation for the pro-
spective gathering of Nature’s bounty, by starting brood-
raising, and commonly as early as January, in fairly strong

THE APIARY.

409

and well-conditioned stocks, the most extreme weather
will not prevent eggs being laid. Although these
wondrous little political economists thus hazard a
cautious expenditure, which may become a profit,
through a harvest of which as yet there is no
prophesy, they will only breed rapidly while they feel
themselves already in possession of an income justifying
the great consumption of store extensive breeding
entails. These principles need remembrance in study-
ing the important question of spring stimulation^
respecting which there is great difference of opinion ;
yet the actual difference is less than the apparent,
since locality, flora, climate, object (bees or honey),
amount of time at disposal, &c., account for much of
the divergence. In Britain the honey season is, even
in the most favoured districts, comparatively short, and
the main point is to secure immense populations in
our hives, which shall reach their maximum at the
opening of the first great honey-flow.

Stocks in good hands will, as a rule, demand no
attention during the winter months, which should be
passed by the bees without external disturbance of
any kind ; but with the opening of spring, with the first
fine days in March, an examination, in which the bees
are as little aroused as possible, may be made, to
ascertain their condition and the amount of stores they
still possess. The chaff-tray (page 61), which I have so
many years advocated, and which many are now begin-
ning to use, being lifted, or the carpeting raised, we look
for food, and, if this be apparently needed, provide
a cake of candy, putting over it American cloth — if
it be our practice to use it ; or we may give a large

410

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

bottle of syrup, fed rapidly. Colonies in great want
should, if possible, be supplied with a warm comb
of store from some stock possessing enough and
to spare. It is, generally speaking, unwise at this
early date to hunt up the queen, as the involved
exposure and disturbance are undesirable ; but any
stock discovered to be queenless should be united
to another, those having unimpregnated, or drone-
breeding, queens being treated in the same manner.
Should the bees, from any cause, be greatly reduced
in numbers, outside, useless combs should be put
beyond the tight-fitting division-board, and the lessened
company again made as snug as possible.

All are agreed that the early part of March is too
soon to stimulate; yet, if our district be in the South,
and such that fruit-blossom is our sheet-anchor for
honey, we must start thus early in order to be in
time for pears and apples : but bees will not now-
answer to the helm as in a month later, and no pre-
cautions will prevent their flying from the hive on
bootless excursions, during which numbers meet their
fate. Many authorities say that early stimulation will
lead to spring dwindling — z>., a condition of things
in which the old bees die off more quickly than new
ones are produced, and the colonies dwindle, until
often they become useless. There is, undoubtedly,
a diseased condition — of which more hereafter — which
leads to spring dwindling; but, apart from this, a
prolonged experience justifies me in saying that early
stimulation in the South of England does not neces-
sarily develop any indications of dwindling. If it should
do so, the cause lies in such poor protection during

THE APIARY.

411

the winter that the bees have been overtaxed In
maintaining their temperature, and are in the spring
already infirm, instead of ready for the duty of raising
a new population.

In the South by the beginning of April, in the
North, according to Mr. Raitt,’* some weeks later
— the period to some extent determined by the first
abundant gathering of pollen — spring stimulation may
most fittingly be commenced ; for it Is now needful
that the bees raise brood to their utmost capacity.
To this end the colony must be enabled to keep
up a considerable temperature, and removing the
outside combs_, so that the bees are somewhat

crowded between the dummies, is most important.
This removal of combs decreases their resources,
but will not discourage brood-raising if we begin to
feed ; and it Is not really necessary, and at first not
desirable, to give new’ material, as our object is not
an accumulation of store, but a densely-filled brood-
nest. I have already hinted that bees do not so
much arrange their household expenses according
to that which they have laid by, as according to
income; so that they are greatly stimulated by simply
uncapping their store, when their removal of the
honey from each opened cell. In order that they may
repair the slight damage which our uncapping has
occasioned, will aflfect them much as though an equal
amount of food had been given them. Instead of
uncapping with a knife, as is usual, I employ a wire
hairbrush, with which I strike the comb a few times,
making punctures in the cell cappings; this causes

* The Bee-keeper's Record, Vol. V., page 41.

412

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

no mess, and is less troublesome, while the bees
utilise the contained honey if it be placed near to
brood, and free the cells, at the same time, for the
use of the queen.

Mr. Simmins, in order to induce brood-production,
would put a dry-sugar feeder, holding 31b., on each
side of the brood-nest, replenishing as needed ; while
those who use syrup would adopt some of the devices
for regulating the rate of consumption. With dry
sugar many bees are constantly struggling to load up,
by licking sugar crystals, and a regular, but moderate,
influx of store is the result ; while with the Raynor
feeder, e.g,^ a similar effect is produced by means
already explained. The large bottle of syrup directed
to be given to those found needy at the first exami-
nation in March is to be “fed rapidly,^’ because
it is desired that this shall not stimulate to brood-
raising, but increase store. Syrup thus given is hastily
carried down by the bees, and deposited in the nearest
place (the brood-nest), so that the unburthened
labourer may return to the temporary “ land of
plenty ” for a fresh load. The queen, instead of being
incited to more rapid ovipositing, as a result of the
incoming supplies, simply has the cells, which other-
wise would have remained open for her service,
closed against her. Before any permanent animation
is produced, the supply is gone, and all lapses into
its previous condition ; but with continuous slow feed-
ing, where only two or three bees can fill their honey-
sacs at one time, how different is the effect ! Food
comes in slowly it is true, but the supply is constant
— dav bv dav the store increases, and the thriftv

THE APIARY.

413

little insects come at last to trust in what appears a
perennial spring. The natural result is a wider

deposition of eggs, and the grubs, in due course,
consume the sugar supplied, so. that we positively
exchange our syrup for bees. The increasing colony
will require to have the combs, of which it has been
dispossessed, restored to it ; but on no account should
any be given until they are actually needed.

Circumstances of very varied kinds will influence
the details of spring treatment considerably; e.g., if
our aim be clover honey, which begins to become
abundant rather later than the middle of June, we
should be able, if we intend to prevent swarming, to
secure immense colonies for supering by starting
stimulation at the beginning of May, when, in fair
weather, but little feeding would be required, our
results being achieved by the manipulation of the
brood-nest described in the next paragraph ; but by
stimulating a month earlier we may, in most seasons,
have both stock and swarm ready for the same crop
as honey-gathering colonies. Six weeks is the time
usually specified as being sufficient for building up to
giant strength. This is sufficient if we start with
those in good condition, having prolific queens ; but
with weak lots, unless these are aided by combs
of brood, a much longer period is required.

The form of the brood-nest is approximately
globular, for reasons given at pages 31 and 35, and
indicated at A, Fig. loi ; and as the bees increase,
the nest is enlarged on all sides, so that the nurses
may be condensed, and the vital heat more easily
retained by the peripheral bees, aided by the out-

414

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

lying combs. If, now, comb 5 be removed from
the outside to the centre of the nest, as at B, it
will have the very warmest and best position for
the raising of brood, of which at present it contains
but a small patch, on one side. The store it carries
will, therefore, be displaced (used mostly) whether it be
sealed or not, for bees will not allow food to remain
sealed in their brood-nest. The cells are now cleaned
until their bases will glisten in the light, and so afford
the queen accommodation for a great number of eggs.
By our interference the whole contour of the nest is

S12345 (Z 6 7 s S12534 d 6 n S

Fig. 101.— Brood Spre.vdixg.

A, Combs in Normal Position — s, s, Hive Sides ; d, Division-board ; e, Entrance.
B— Combs of Brood Spread ; Letterings as before.

disarranged, and the cause operating in filling comb 5
will restore promptly the globular form, while the
nest will be enlarged in all directions. If the bees
previously were doing their best, they are now
overtaxed, as they have a larger space to cover,
and more heat individually to produce ; and, should
a cold snap occur, they possibly will be forced
to condense, and leave the large mass of brood
on the outside of comb 4 to chill.

Spreaduig the brood is the name given to this
systematic disturbance of the brood-nest ; and although

THE APIARY.

415

it is, undoubtedly, capable of accomplishing great
things, it may, if prematurely or excessively practised,
cause nothing but loss. The learner should exercise
the greatest caution, and make haste slowly, and,
instead of taking an empty frame and inserting it
in the centre of the brood-nest, he should endeavour
to get the frames already in the hive filled with
brood. If the nest is established towards the end
of the combs, turning the alternate ones will “ spread
sufficiently for a week at least. If, at the next
examination, the bees have responded to our invitation
to enlarge their borders, we must not conclude that
they are able to bear a still greater increase.
The practised eye will determxine at once, but the
novice must ask whether young bees are hatching
out in any numbers, for our interference, for three
weeks after spreading the brood has been commenced,
will rather tend to diminish the working population,
by increasing the death-rate through forced marches.
Brood and store (as much of the former and as little
of the latter as possible) filling the combs, new ones
may be introduced, and that as frequently as the bees
are able to nurture the grubs the deposited eggs
produce ; for it is quite possible, by this plan, to
get eggs laid which are never converted into bees,
and, if we are going at so high a pace that the bees
cannot keep up with us, we shall find that all eggs,
and possibly young larvae, turned to the outside of
the nest, disappear. It is, of course, understood that
food is provided as may be required while the forcing
process is in operation. All working as we desire —
and neither with bees nor men does this always

4i6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

happen — at the end of the theoretical six weeks we
find our hives crowded, every frame — ten, or at the
most eleven, standards — containing much brood, and
the remaining space occupied with store, and a honey-
flow just opening. We now turn the current of the
colony in the direction of honey-gathering, to which
matter the next chapter is devoted.

Autumn feeding in preparation for winter, where
our system renders such necessary, will require atten-
tion almost immediately after the last sections are
removed, or the work of the extractor completed.
Modern management so entirely separates the brood-
chamber from the honey department, that the bees
are often deprived of, practically, all their stores ; and,
paradoxical as it may appear, the most populous
colonies, and those which have given the largest
supers, are usually just the ones which most urgently
require aid. It must be borne in mind, that when a
stock is storing in a super, the stimulus of prosperity,
and the apparent riches of the community, act upon
the queen through the workers, and result in continued
and energetic ovipositing, so that often almost the whole
body of the hive is one large nursery. But the poor
bees have, for our advantage, to find, as sometimes,
perhaps, their masters have done, that 'Aiches take
unto themselves wings and fly away;” and, just when
supplies suddenly fail, by the reaping machine, perhaps,
laying in a few short hours their “ El Dorado,” they
are left with the drain of an immense family, without
the independency they had struggled to accumulate.

Such stocks should now receive a large dose of
syrup, fed rapidly, to prevent them being discouraged,

THE APIARY.

417

and then, if the fields are yielding nothing, Mr. Simmins’
dry-sugar feeders may be used, permitting them
to continue breeding, but with constantly decreasing
energy, until the latter part of September, when
their stores, if necessary, should be quickly com-
pleted by a dose of syrup, which the bees will at
this date seal over almost completely. Delay in this
matter* will oblige them to go into winter quarters
to their disadvantage, with much of their store un-
sealed; while the surplus combs, presently to be
removed, will be in poor condition for keeping till the
following spring, to be then returned as explained
under “ Spring Stimulation.” Of course, we are
speaking of stocks that have been totally deprived.

The amount of store required by a colony much
depends upon the manner of wintering — the less ade-
quate the protection, and the more faulty the method,
the greater the amount of food required. It is false
economy to leave a stock too poor, and those with
more than a sufficiency are not only safer, but usually
come out stronger than others ; 2olb., or about four
standard frames fully stored, is generally mentioned
as the correct amount, and strong stocks should not
have less. Yet the consumption, apart from the pro-
duction of brood, from the middle of October to the
beginning of March, need not, in average seasons, be
more than one-fourth of the weight given.

Some bee-keepers insist upon the necessity of keep-
ing up breeding^with some briskness until the end of

* The difficulty of successful wintering with unsealed stores has been
much exaggerated. "With proper management, the question of sealing
is of secondary importance.

VoL. II. 2 E

4i8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

September or middle of October, so that young,
energetic bees may pass into the winter with all
their life before them, and carry on the work of
the following spring until a new generation has
arisen to supply their places, spring dwindling being,
I am sure erroneously, ascribed to the age of the
bees at the beginning of the winter season. I have,
in years gone by, advocated this position, but have
long seen that the effort of raising late brood is
often as destructive as it is constructive; and some-
times more power is taken out of the old lives
than is put into the new, while the excitement
late feeding and breeding maintain sends bees
abroad to chill and die in such numbers that their
loss tells seriously upon the ease with which tempera-
ture can be kept up during cold spells. But I am
not now running to the opposite extreme, and saying
that supers should be removed, and breeding closed
with unnatural abruptness. I merely deprecate an
effort to secure young bees when climatic conditions
seem to forbid.

Robbing is an occasional 'trouble to the careful
bee-keeper, but it is a very plague to the untidy.
When nectar is distilling bountifully in the blossoms,
bees leave syrup, or even honey, untouched, and
then great liberties may be taken. Mr. Broughton
Carr,* eg.^ narrates that, in removing his supers
in July, he merely stood them against the hives from
which they had been lifted, when the proper owners
left them without a sign of ‘‘robbing,” simply crawling
back into their home. The abundance of the honey

The Bee-keeper' s Record, Vol. IV., page 139.

THE APIARY.

419

flow was proved by the behaviour of the bees, for in a
time of scarcity, with a temperature high enough for
bees to fly, such an experiment would be the reverse
of gratifying. Blossoms failing, the busy creatures try
every cranny that smells of food to secure sweets, not
for themselves — so let us not blame them overmuch —
but for their progeny and their homes. A food-bottle
exposed, if with only a trace of syrup, or a few drops of
honey spilt, will now, possibly, work mischief, for a crowd
soon gathers, each one eager to secure a load ; and
the consequent fighting over the booty, with angry,
high-pitched notes, is frequently the prelude of further
trouble. The demoralised bees, having licked up the
repast provided by carelessness or inadvertency, now
cast about for riches in the bulk, which may be had
for the taking; and soon dodging inquirers, tempted
by the perfume, will be seeking at neighbouring doors
to pass the guards. Well-conditioned stocks give the
would-be robbers but little chance ; but the weak, the
queenless, and broodless, are less vigilant and deter-
mined, and, ere long, possibly, an organised attack
has been commenced, and great excitement is accom-
panied by continual tussles, in which twos and threes
roll over the alighting-board to the ground, upon
which several dead and dying may be seen. This may
last even for a few days; but usually ‘‘the combat
deepens” quickly, and, amidst an uproar which cannot
now be easily quelled, the doomed stock is robbed
out, the vanquished sometimes making common cause
with their assailants, and assisting to carry off all that
is removable to the robbers’ home, which they hence-
forward adopt.

2 E 2

420

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

When robbing has been once fairly started, it
is exceedingly likely to spread, for with bees^ as with
men, a lapse into dishonest courses is not often fol-
lowed by a return to virtue ; while bad example in
the few tends to demoralise the many. The trouble
must be dealt with, for, if the robbing propensity be
thoroughly aroused, the peaceful hum of the apiary
may soon be exchanged for a very pandemonium of
strife and destruction ; and, should one colony only,
suffer, the mauraders, emboldened by success, will be
eagerly watching for another chance, putting every
stock on the defensive, and begetting general ill-temper,
which may make the bees a nuisance by the frequency
with which the sting is brought into requisition.

The upsetting of syrup, the accidental exposure of
honey, keeping stocks long open in times of scarcity,
queenless colonies, excessive use of smoke, careless
harvesting at the close of a honey flow, and the
nursing of weaklings, are the main provocatives of
robbing. The causes may be avoided or reduced, but
with every caution it will at times occur. If noticed
early, while the attacked hive is still earnest in its
defence, it is usually not difficult to repress it; reducing
the entrance to iin., and repeatedly sponging the hive
with common carbolic acid stirred in water, or dredg-
ing carbolic acid powder over the combatants on the
alighting-board, or, better, hanging over the front, or
porch, a cloth sprinkled with carbolic acid or creasote,
is often sufficient. The defenders, being able to keep
back a host at the narrow pass, gain courage, while the
invaders are repulsed by the nauseous carbolic like
Tartars before a Chinese stink-pot. But it must not

THE APIARY.

42

be forgotten that a repulse is not utter defeat, and even
for days after, if our precautions are relaxed, the attack
is likely to be renewed.

Broodless or queenless stocks may, meanwhile,
have their lack supplied, the addition of a comb or two
of brood, in all conditions, having an immediate and
almost magical effect in restoring courage to the dis-
heartened; while they should be put into the best
condition for defence by having their hive contracted
as much as possible. In bad cases, it will be needful
to close the hive altogether, giving ventilation, and
transferring it to a cellar or dark room till the fourth
evening, when it should be put upon its own or a new
stand, its mouth slightly opened, and protected, if prac-
ticable, as advised on the succeeding page. As honey
is scarce, no loss is involved, the worried insects recover
in their enforced idleness, and the robbers shut in
with the rest will probably remain and assist the
defenders.

Another admirable plan is to throw over the hive a
sheet, weighting the latter to the ground by brick or
board, removing it at dusk, to give the proper in-
habitants entrance. After dark, the stock is carried to
another part of the apiary. The manipulating-tent
(Fig. 103) may be conveniently employed in lieu of the
sheet. The bees, as a result of their fright and annoy-
ance, mark their new position, and very little loss is
occasioned. It might appear wiser to keep the sheet
or the tent for a day over the stock in its new position ;
but this would but make it again a mark for the enemy.
Leaving the bee-tent in place after the removal of the
stock does good, by deceiving the assailants.

422

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The usual narrowing of the hive mouth, although
very helpful to an attacked colony, is not by any means
uniformly sufficient, even at the very opening of the
assault. Robbers that have gained confidence by
success, present themselves with so much assurance,
that they often slide past the guards, and get into the
wider opening behind the doors, before they are known
to be intruders. This happening continually, will allow
an intimidated hive, after the narrowing of its mouth,
to still suffer from the attack, which may slowly, yet
surely, work its ruin in spite of the precaution taken.
If, however, the mouth be not only narrowed, but have

a

Fig. 102.— Cheshire Anti-robbing Entrance, seen from beneath (Scale, i).—
a and 6, Fixed Slips ; c. Sliding Piece ; p, Pin or Stop.

the form of a tunnel given to it — as by two pieces
of tile set nearly together, with a third over them — the
would-be thieves are placed at a tremendous dis-
advantage; they have to pass guard after guard, and,
the moment they are challenged by one, others are at
hand to do battle, or commence the work of eject-
ment. The combatants fill the aperture in the tube-
like opening, and the skirmish, which, by its excite-
ment, gives, in ordinary arrangements, opportunity to
sneaking watchers to slip in, bars all ingress. The
defenders gain courage, and the marauders, finding it
all fight and no booty, seek some new field for their
energies ; and, to prevent these being possibly turned

THE APIARY.

423

against some other colony, send the disturbers home
apace, with a good wetting from the garden syringe.

My very simple device, which increases the help-
fulness of the tunnel, and is also of service in winter,
as noticed under its proper head, is seen at Fig. 102,
and as applied to the hive, at Fig. 17. It consists of
three slips about 3in. wide; the lower two {d and c)
are made by dividing one piece rather more than the
extreme length of the hive mouth, and Mn. or fin. thick.
The cut takes the form of an acute zigzag. The shorter
piece (3) is nailed to a ; the loose piece (c), sliding back-
wards beneath a, gives, without reduction, the size of
the opening to the hive as all three stand together on the
alighting-board. The opening is, however, altered in
a moment to suit season and size of stock, and has
this great advantage, that when robbing begins, and
it is needful to make the entrance very narrow, it is
still the one known to the proper inhabitants, to whom
it, in consequence, does not add the disadvantage of
a bewilderment at the very moment home has to
be defended against an enemy. The sharp bend now'
makes the attack more difficult; and if a pin (/>) be placed
on the under side of a, near the point of b, the danger
of narrowing the tunnel so as to prevent bees passing
will be avoided. It is generally wise, when it is
necessary to carry the contraction of the mouth to
extremes, to place perforated zinc over the feedhole,
or in some w'ay to give subsidiary ventilation ; and
after a battle an examination should be made at night,
lest the bees, in their hurry to carry out their dead,
should have blocked the narrow outlet.

Accidents will happen in the best-regulated apiaries;

424

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and should syrup be spilt, or honey dropped on the
ground, a sprinkling of carbolic powder will prevent
a bee touching it, and so save all excitement, with its
consequent danger.

In the fall of the year, it is often difficult to perform
even necessary operations, because no sooner is a
hive opened than robbers are on hand ; bees quickly
learning to watch the apiarian about, knowing that
where he is, there, probably, plunder is at command.
He has been, perhaps, tormented, and hurriedly closes
a stock, hoping, on the other side of the apiary, to
be able to change a queen, it may be ; but the wily
plagues follow him, and start in lively style the
moment the frames are bared ; but a resource remains,
which may often be of service. I have already hinted
(pages 234, 347) that much may be done by lamplight,
and that then bees do not fly. To those who have never
tried, it would appear almost incredible that at night
queens may be found and displaced, bees divided and
united, and even honey extracted, with fewer stings
than would be received in the daytime if robbers are
harassing. For this work a hurricane lamp, which
no wind troubles, or a bulhs-eye, which allows us to
stand in the dark while the combs and the hive top
are illuminated, are much to be preferred. The
smoker would, of course, be used, as in ordinary
manipulation. It may be mentioned here that in sharp
weather, or, indeed, at any season (see pages 297 and
342), almost any operation may be performed by
removing the bees to a warm room, and allowing only
so much artificial light as may be actually necessary.

The ubiquitous robber can also be nonplussed in

THE APIARY.

425

another way. We simply need a small and light tent,
covering hive, bees, and operator. Mr. Root advertises
one composed of net, which can be folded like a
huge umbrella ; but a structure somewhat more stable
would give greater satisfaction, and a tent 6ft. high,
2^ft. wide, 3Jft. long,* made to fold fiat, need not weigh
more, complete, than 35lb. If the bee-keeper can
dispense with the folding, the construction is so simple
as to need no description beyond what can be gathered

1 Fig. 103.— Manipulating-tent, to Prevent Robbing.

A, Wooden Frame. B, Tent complete— zoc, Wire-cloth; v, Vallance; e, Entrance.

I by Fig. 103. The frame (A) is made of light pine, i^in.
square in section, and destitute of knots. The upper
part is covered with fine wire-cloth, ^in. mesh, or with
strong, black, mosquito net. If the latter, diagonal
struts on the frame are needed. The lower part may
be either net or calico, the objection to the latter

3ft. by 4ft. will cover, at a pinch, two hives, and would be more
commodious.

426

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

being the hold it takes of the wind. The vallance
may be either free to roll up, or be nailed down the
legs, one angle being left loose, to give the operator
entrance. • A fastening will be only required when
the tent is used for a considerable time over one stock.
In the hem of the calico it is desirable to inclose a
light iron chain, which will fit down to any inequalities,
and so prevent bees entering beneath. Not only, with
this appliance, can hives be opened and examined in
comfort under any circumstances, but any colony may
be shut in out of the way by simply placing the tent
over it (see page 421).

Moving stocks and re-arranging the apiary are never
quite so easily managed as after a long, cold ’spell,
making the bees enforced prisoners for weeks in
succession. Whenever, then, the temperature rises
sufficiently (from 50° to 55°) to enable them to
have a winter dance and discharge their faeces, they
appear to note their position anew, and usually, with-
out trouble, enter the hive, wherever it may have been
placed ; but stocks vary a good deal in this particular.
Except under the circumstances mentioned, bees do
not ordinarily note their surroundings after these have
been once learned, and then the removal of their hive
even a few feet will utterly baffle them. They fly
helplessly round at their return, and, worn down,
settle about the old spot to perish. Should other hives
stand near by, they make an attempt at entrance, often
to pay the death penalty; while if very many pass
the guards unchallenged, they are likely to ball the
queen, and possibly destroy her.

Hives may, of course, be moved long distances (not

THE APIARY.

427

less than a mile), during the working season, with
no (or only inappreciable) loss, because the bees are
placed on new ground, and so note their locality at
their first flight. After remaining three or four
weeks, they can be returned to the desired spot in
the old apiary, because population will have changed
and memory will have faded. Or they may be moved
small distances each day on which the bees have
freely flown, and thus, by degrees, be transferred to
the position required. The interval over which any hive
may safely be carried depends considerably upon sur-
roundings. By example, if ten or twenty hives stood

@@0000

A

0

El a
0 i

B

0

near each other in an otherwise vacant field, the
hives bodily would form the landmark directing the
I weary foragers home ; and in this case, the whole apiary

i might be carried twenty yards or more without damage,

if the mutual positions of the several stocks were
carefully preserved : for first the hives would be found,
as a whole, by the bees, and then the special entrance
! would be indicated by its relative situation. But if
the hives had previously been gathered beneath the
shade of a conspicuous tree, the loss resulting from
>1 a change of even 5ft. or 6ft. might be serious. To

428

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

make this clear, suppose six stocks {a, d, c, e, f) to
stand between two small trees (T, T), as at A. The
removal of d and e to the positions at B would cause
disaster, as the whole flying population of d would
attempt to enter a or c, while that of e would join
d or f\ but if b and e be the only stocks (as at C), an
identical alteration in station would cause no difficulty,
unless the space moved over should exceed 5ft. or 6ft.,
as the returning bees would, without possibility of
entering the wrong hive in mistake, fly to the entrances
as indicated by the arrows at D.

Bees may be made to notice that they are on a new
stand, and to adhere to it, by sundry devices, of which
the best, perhaps, are given at page 273, principle 6.
Following on the same line, we may frequently succeed
by moving, and then immediately shaking them all in
front of the hive, letting them run in the manner of
a natural swarm. Some will fly back to enter the
decoy hive, containing a comb placed to receive them.
These should, when collected in the evening, be thrown
down at the station of our choice, when their thorough
fright will often cause them to stay. The repetition
of the process, in any case, will reduce the loss to a
minimum.

The packing of bees for transit has already received ,
some attention, and it is only needful here to enforce
the necessity of skeps conveying swarms being in-
verted. A skep in situ, however propped, is extremely
likely to compass the death of a large swarm, for
reasons given at page 136. Stocks with new combs
are quite unsuited to travelling. Skeps containing
those of some toughness should be closed by cheese-

THE APIARY.

429

cloth, and inverted in all but chilly weather. Combs
always travel best in the inverted position, because
the heavy honey then rests immediately upon the
base, and tends to hold the comb, instead of drawing it
from its attachments; but in cold times, bees would get
too much chilled in inverted hives. In cold weather,
both frame hives and skeps can be carried in the natural
position, the mouths being closed with perforated zinc.
Frame hives with strong colonies, in warm weather,
should be covered by cheese-cloth, or perforated zinc,
above and beneath, and the frames should be held in
position by nailing two strips, which run across the line
of the ears. The nails need be only partly driven
home, so that they may be easily drawn. With
sufficient fixing they permit to the frames a certain
amount of swung, wffiich relieves the energy of an
accidental blow. Frames too firmly fixed are much
more likely to arrive wdth combs broken dowm ; on
this account I do not think sticks betw’een the frame
sides to preserve the interspace desirable. For cart
carriage, a smooth bedding of straw’ is of great
service.

Should it be required to send off several colonies
when many of their bees are abroad in the fields, the
returning foragers may be saved by giving them a
nucleus in the centre of the space cleared ; and, in the
same manner, when bees must be moved small dis-
tances at awkw’ard times, a little ingenuity wall permit
the last moved, and preferably queenless, colony, to
gather up the w’anderers; or, by the aid of the latter,
a nucleus may be started.

In re-arranging the apiary, our notions of symmetry

430

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

must be made to bend to the habits and instincts of
the creature upon which both pleasure and profit
depend, or failure may dog our steps, however pains-
taking these may be. I well remember visiting the
apiary of a titled owmer, which, with the advantage
of modern appliances, and the attention of persons
of culture, failed to produce results at all equal
to those obtained by the aforesaid gentleman’s
tenantry, whose rude methods he was anxious to
displace. The proprietor, a man of most orderly
mind, introduced me to his bees, which were
housed in a line — a straight line of hives, all pre-
cisely alike in shape, colour, and size, faultlessly
clean, and arranged upon substantial pedestals with
stone tops, all of which were accurately equidistant,
with about 2ft. interspace. The hives, moreover, were
backed by a very long and very regular wall, which
formed a side of a painfully methodic kitchen garden,
and before them ran a path, wearying by its length,
and as straight as an arrow. When we first caught
sight of the apiary, it looked like a huge, brown
caterpillar, each segment of the body of which was
represented by a stock ; and I saw at once some
ground for the failure complained of, for, had all been
devised with an idea of puzzling and confusing the
poor bees, in order that, so far as their homes were
concerned, they should not distinguish ‘‘t’other from
which,” one could have pronounced the arrangement
perfect. It is obvious enough that a dead similarity,
not only in hives, but in their surroundings, must
lead to a good deal of visiting, begetting the excessive
familiarity which, if not breeding contempt, will lead

THE APIARY.

431

almost certainly to robbing* and disaster. But in
addition, with such an arrangement as I have been
describing, any poor queen seeking maternal honours,
in leaving her hive has a task put before her almost as
difficult as learning to distinguish a special note on
the keyboard of a piano ; and what wonder if she,
the hope and promise of her colony, bewildered by
our mistaken notions of trimness, fail, and, entering at
her return the wrong door, fall by an alien dart, and so
leave her proper home to extinction ? We must not
sacrifice the picturesque to the symmetrical, unless we
can place our stocks some distance from each other.
Long lines of similar hives must be avoided, unless
characteristic landmarks, such as shrubs and trees, rise
amongst them. Let variety in colour, if not in form,
come to our aid, and then we shall not need the resource
of fixing near the flight-hole of a stock containing a
queen approaching the period of mating, some con-
spicuous object, such as a leafy bough, to guide her
at her return.

Errors made by bees in finding their stands is the
main cause, probably, of a difficulty which has sorely
puzzled many. During examination, especially in
windy and uncomfortable weather, an encasement of
the queen in her own hive is commenced ; or, when
the hive is opened, she is found already balled, as
though she had been amongst strangers. The occur-
rence is comparatively rare, but is observed, as would

* The close placing of hives does not lead to difficulties, if the bees can
distinguish easily between them ; and in robbing, it is usually noticed that
the war rages, not between close neighbours, but between stocks lying
some distance apart.

432

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

be imagined, most frequently by far in early spring;
for it is presumable, that at this part of the year .bees
are least conversant with the exact position of their
own entrance. Careful watching of this phenomenon
has thoroughly convinced the Author that the trouble
is at least frequently commenced by an assault made
by one or two aliens^ which causes the queen's own
children, under a misapprehension, to follow suit, until
all the colony is in the same condition of ferment as
though a strange queen had been dropped amongst
them. Bees, as social creatures, can only act in
concert because they can give and receive information
from one another, and they are liable to be made the
victims of a mistake which, under general excitement,
cannot be rectified (see page 260). They all, in the
circumstances supposed, believe that a strange queen
is in their midst; and then freeing her from her
antagonists, and putting her on to another frame, does
not mend matters, for the hissing multitude no longer
recognises its own mother, whom they are quite likely,
if unrestrained, to hug to death. We have, no doubt,
before us the reason why many colonies turn up
queenless in the spring. Repeated and unseasonable
examination tends to beget the evil, which can only
be met completely by re-introducing the queen in her
own stock, either by caging, or — as I should distinctly
prefer — by removing with a few young bees, and re-
inserting at night, as explained at page 345.

Uniting — the name given to the joining of two
or more colonies — is usually both simple and safe;
yet occasionally obstinate cases occur, which may
land even the experienced in disappointment. In the

THE APIARY.

433

case of swarms, failure is scarcely possible. Bees,
in the absence of combs, very rarely fight ; and
swarms, filled as they are with honey, never do so
(see page 148). It is only necessary to throw them
down in front of the hive they are to occupy, and
allow them to mingle as they enter. Of the queens,
one only will be allowed to survive ; and it is
wise, if these are regarded as of unequal value, on
account of difference in age or race, to remove the
inferior: but no harm, per se, will result from per-
mitting the bees to settle the question. If one swarm
has been established even a few days, a second may
be added to it, in the evening, after flying is over,
if, at the moment the second lot is thrown down,
sufficient smoke be driven in at the hive mouth to
send back the guards. Watching is now desirable,
and any indication of fighting should be followed at
once by a fairly liberal use of the smoker. Where
tiering hives are used, the second swarm can con-
veniently be added in an under storey, but the first
swarm must be lifted with much caution, lest the
growing combs suffer fracture.

Additions to established stocks require more care ;
and especially is this true with condemned bees (page
369), or they may be “ killed to a man,’’ and so be
a source of weakness to those they were Intended to
strengthen. If the condemned bees, as is frequently
the case, are empty and hungry — and such are never
easily united to those on combs — they should, despite
the trouble it involves, be first fed, or, at least,
copiously sprinkled with syrup, when they may thus
be united to a frame hive. Jerk or brush the bees
VoL. II. 2 F

434

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

from their frames, practically making them into a
swarm (page 258). Throw down the condemned
bees at the entrance, and, when they are running in
freely, pour the rightful owners upon them. Stirring
together with a card will make an amicable union
the more certain. It is, perhaps, less troublesome to
shut up the stock to be strengthened to a few frames
by a division-board, covering their portion of the
hive carefully by the quilt, the remainder of which
is turned back for a reason presently apparent. The
condemned bees are now poured into the unoccupied
part, and as many combs, containing some honey —
and, if convenient, brood — given as may be needed
for clustering. The residue of quilt is put over
them, with a corner kept raised by a bit of stick,
to permit them to draw in, and to furnish a tem-
porary flight-hole. After two days, the condemned
bees will have become a small stock in fairly
normal condition, when, the undesirable queen and
the division-board being removed, the combs of the
two lots may be alternated with very little risk.
In reference to alternation of combs, Mr. Simmins
gives the following excellent advice : “ The hives to

be operated upon should first have the whole of their
combs fully exposed to the light, and each seam of
bees divided by drawing the frames so far apart that
none hang from one to the other.” It is better to
unite in the evening, to use smoke in fair amount, and
to handle the combs with considerable gentleness.

If empty hives are at command, it may be preferred
to first instal the “ condemned,” as previously described,
but in one of these placed by the side of the home

THE APIARY.

435

they are presently to occupy. The two sets of
combs, in forty-eight hours, are, after the displacement
of one queen, alternated as before in the one hive.
Many recommend that the remaining queen be caged
at the time of uniting, and liberated forty-eight hours
subsequently ; but I should, for myself, only regard
this as very exceptionally necessary. Neither do I
now practise scenting by sprinkling both lots with
thin syrup to which some aromatic substance, such
as essence of peppermint, has been added, although?
probably, scenting adds a favourable element to the
operation.

Bees on frames not interchangeable may be brushed
from their combs, and then treated on the same
lines as ‘‘condemned” lots, their brood, if any, being
saved by “Transferring” (which see). As previously
remarked, indications of fighting should be checked
by smoking, and, in bad cases, the addition of two
or three drops of creasote to the burning material
will have a very marked effect. Applying smoke
three or four times, at intervals of a few minutes,
with heavy thumping on the hive side, will, almost
invariably, permanently restore order.

In uniting queenless lots with others, Mr. Raitt,*
instead of alternating the frames, draws those belong-
ing to one of the colonies to one side of the hive,
placing in the middle a division-board, t or old empty
comb, with its edges smeared with crude carbolic
acid by means of a feather; he then places the
other stock at the opposite end of the same hive.

Bee-keeper' s Record, page 74, Vol. iii.
t Necessarily loose-fitting.

2 F 2

436

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

No bees pass the division-board until both lots have

acquired the same smell, and all ‘‘fight,’’ by this
means, is taken out of them.

It may happen that we discover a stock ( - Q) to
have lost its queen at a season when, presumably, a
successor could not be fecundated ; while in a dis-
tant part of the apiary stands a colony (W) so
weak as to need assistance : the union of these would,
therefore, appear most desirable. Of course, we may
bring the two up side by side by slow marches, as
described under “ Moving,” and then unite into one
strong stock by alternation of frames, or by Mr. Raitt’s
method — standing the new-made colony between the
stations just previously occupied by the two ; but the
moving may generally be avoided by a little ingenuity.
E.g.^ if the queenless lot stand near one of fair
strength (S), after smoking both S and W, care-
fully leaving the queen behind, carry as many combs
with brood and bees from S as will make \V strong.

S is now weak, and may be united to the queenless
bees on the new station (ns). Some will, of course,
return from W, but they will join their old queen,
and so no mischief will follow.

Our greatest difficulties are likely to arise with
stocks that have been long queenless, and in seasons
when the bees can fly freely, and yet gather nothing.
When nectar abounds, provided always that the new-
comers have not empty honey-sacs, there is a general
desire to cultivate the arts of peace ; and when the
weather is cold, all prefer comfort to chivalry. In

I w I

THE APIARY.

437

untoward conditions, it is wise to preserve the dis-
placed queen until we know that the one we have
selected is safe.

Twin stocks unite peaceably of themselves if, one
or two days after the displacement of one of the
queens, the division-board be lifted (see page 303).

Uniting before the honey harvest often gives us a
gigantic stock for two not large enough separately to
crowd into supers; and when the honey season has
slackened, so that we can make a forecast of what our
stock will be, preparation to meet the rigours of winter,
by uniting all weak lots, can hardly be undertaken
too soon. Should small nuclei still remain, three or
four of these can be put together, care being taken
that the store-combs occupy the sides, and the brood
the centre. The danger is slight, since small stocks
unite more readily than larger, and several families
put together seem to lose mutual antipathies more
quickly than where there are only two. Should the
nuclei have previously stood together, the question of
station gives no trouble ; but if not, make the union
on a cold day, so that the bees will adhere to their
combs, give a little smoke, and stand a board in front
of the entrance (page 274), and but few bees will be
lost, since the internal arrangements of the hive will
be so changed as to attract their attention.

Supercession of queens by their own bees, when from
age or defect they are found to be failing (page 326),
has already been noticed, and it is a question of
practical importance to determine whether the bees
should be allowed to follow their instinct, or the bee-
keeper should himself supply a young queen at times

43§

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING

and under circumstances which he may deem most de-
sirable. The answer will a good' deal depend upon the
management of the apiary. It is admitted that queens
are generally beginning to fail in their third season,
and this wall be emphatically true where they are
required to lay heavily and constantly during the
spring and summer. Unquestionably, the best results
cannot be obtained unless the queen is equal to every
demand in the early part of the season, which is in
itself a reason for superseding her at the end of
her second year of work ; and if it be true that we,
by careful management, are securing queens of
higher quality than can be, in the nature of the
case, produced under the swarming impulse, the
advantage of artificial supercession admits of no doubt.

The whole bearing of the chapter on “ Queen -
raising^^ shows that that selection which has had for its
object the maintenance of the race, does not secure
so fully the highest interests of the honey-producer
as he may secure them by wise interference. But if
our strain of queens is undergoing no improvement,
and we are not striving to breed out the swarming
impulse, it must still be remembered that, if the mothers
of our stocks are allowed to grow aged, the bees may
be awakened to the necessity of replacing them at
the wrong period of the year, or when eggs are not
at command, nor drones existent, and so snatch from
us the profit our stock might have produced, giving
us instead the losses of queenlessness or the annoyance
of a drone-breeder.

The artificial removal of queens will not be wholly
determined by age. Unsatisfactory ones, which do

THE APIARY,

439

not rise to the occasion, or whose bees possess un-
desirable qualities, or are deficient in desirable ones,
so that a poor record is made, will retire early, while
good average queens will be only rarely entrusted
with the work of a third season, exception, of course,
being made with those whose high quality has raised
them to the rank of queen mothers.

A register of operations is helpful where but two or
three stocks are kept, but it is essential in a larger
apiary, unless we are content to have vexatious failures,
and their attendant losses, through oversights or omis-
sions. Most men are incapable of retaining, by the
unaided memory, such a chain of observations as will
permit of accurate deductions respecting any stock, or
the characteristics of its queen. In the absence, then,
of any system of note-taking, experience, which de-
pends upon our grip of observations in their sequences
and mutual relations, is not likely to grow rapidly.
How, then, shall our notes be made? In a book; or
shall they remain attached to the stock ? Both
methods would appear to have their place. The book
(the hives being numbered) will preserve for reference
facts observed at a general inspection of the apiary,
made at a set season, such as spring or autumn, and
may enable us to exercise unusual caution in looking
after the wants of any stocks whose condition, from
weakness, shortness of stores, &c., may give occasion
for anxiety ; but the most serviceable notes, in my
judgment, are those which centre round the queen,
and, with a separate slate, or large card, for each
colony, and which follows the queen in her move-
ments, I have accumulated memoranda which have been

440

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of inestimable value in my study and practice. In this
way, the mother of the colony has what may be called
a ledger account, which is connected in such a manner
as to give rapidly a mental picture, not only of the
queen, her parentage, and her doings, but of our
treatment and its effects. Of course, each bee-keeper
would design for himself a system of symbols and
contractions, so as to express much in a little space.

Mr. Root sells a printed card, which he calls a
“Queen Register,’’ the exclusive purpose of which is
to mark the current condition so far as the queen is
concerned. The date Is determined by two pins re-
volving like clock-hands, and which point to one of
the eight months of activity between March and October,
and to one of the numbers between i and 31, arranged
in a circle. The third indicator, rotating like the
others, may be set to either of the following words
placed around it : “ Cell,” “ Hatched,” “ Laying,”
“ Approved,” “ Not Approved,” “ Missing,” “ Eggs,”
“ Brood,” which it is clear are intended to register
the different points reachable in queen-raising. These
cards are only intended to have a temporary value.
My notion of notes extends to observations, as before
expressed, touching system of treatment and results,
with such a brief chronicle of conditions at last exami-
nation as shall, as far as possible, render subsequent
inspection unnecessary, and so save disturbance to
the bees and loss of time to the bee-master.

CHAPTER IX.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

Honey : Where Stored Naturally — The Advantages of
Supering — Large Supers v. Sections — Glass Supers:
to Fix Combs in — Telescopic Supers — Clearing Bees
from Supers — Bar Supers — Divisional Supers —
Dovetail Sections — Folding Sections — Cutting and
Fixing Foundation — Lee’s Sections — Section Crates
, — Separators — Divided Crates — Brace Combs — In-

vertible Crates — The Principles Involved in Extrac-
tion— Uncapping — How to Secure Comb Honey — The
Application of the Extractor — The Size of the Brood-
nest — Methods of Supering — Treatment of Swarms
for Honey Production — Foujidation in Section: Rea-
sons for and against — Transferring Comb to Sections.
Bee-keeping, which has been gracefully called the
poetry of agriculture, has an intensely prosaic side ; it
is the question of food and money, and this now most
directly must occupy our attention, while we seek the
guidance of general principles.

The bee stores its tempting sweets at the parts of its
habitation least accessible to an enemy, and where,
during the grip of winter, the vital heat of the colony
should keep the edge of the store sufficiently warm

442

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

to permit of its being consumed as occasion may
require ; we find, therefore, that the brood-nest is kept
naturally near to the entrance, while the honey lies
above, behind, and at the sides. Wild bees, seeking
out such hollows as may best suit them, are forced to
accommodate themselves to the varying forms of the
cavities in which they build. Sometimes, their combs
are of necessity stretched out in great plates, few in
number; at others, they are numerous because in-
dividually small ; but the general principles indicated
with regard to the position of the honey always assert
themselves. We must also observe that combs are
built readily downwards, but lateral extensions are
made irregularly and slowly, while upward building
seems to present accumulated difficulty. All this is
true, because it is the nature of the bee to build from
its roof, to have no cavity unoccupied by comb over^
the cluster, and to extend its nest laterally, though
not until after it has established full communication
with its entrance. These facts need attention, since
our hives and methods, to give the best success, must
be modelled in obedience to their teaching.

Ancient is the practice of taking advantage of
storing behind the brood-nest while the colony is left
intact (page 82), and, reaching down to our own day,
the straw skep is often deprived by having its side
comb of honey excised ; but here, usually, an advance
is made upon primitive methods by placing over an
opening in the roof of the skep a cap, or super, to
which the bees have free access to deposit their
wealth, while it is, practically, a distinct chamber
so far as the queen and brood-nest are concerned.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

443

In this partial separation of the brood-nest from the
honey-chamber, the contents of which man appro-
priates, several advantages are gained : Firstly, comb
In the body of the hive, however situated, is much more
liable to be visited by the queen, and spoilt for table
use by the deposition of eggs, than is that in super-
added surplus receptacles. Secondly, the close contact
of nursery work, and the continual tramp of the busy
throng, soon mar the dainty purity which distinguishes
comb when first modelled by the wax-workers. Thirdly,
the honey of the separated chamber Is scarcely ever
mingled with pollen : the latter substance is the staple
material for forming brood and queen foods, and is
therefore normally placed, for the convenience of the
nurses, within reach of the cells containing eggs or
larvae. On the other hand, it is scarcely required at
all in the winter, honey being then needed to main-
tain temperature; and since pollen cannot, like honey,
be transferred from cell to cell, but after storing must
remain until It Is consumed, it Is not mixed by the
bees with that store that is distinctly marked off by
their instincts as for winter use. Pollen Is also more
completely kept out of our supers by causing them
to be furnished with thick combs, whose deep cells
are commonly avoided by the pollen-gatherers.

With the introduction of the frame hive, the pro-
ductiveness of individual colonies was greatly in-
creased, while It was made evident that bees could be
induced to store In any receptacle, however placed, if
only sufficiently connected wdth the brood-nest to be
warmed by it. From this It is apparent that supers,
all things considered, yielded the best results, and not

444

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

many years since those of huge proportions were the
great object of the bee-keeper’s ambition ; but, in spite
of the handsome appearance of delicate honeycomb in
a mass weighing, perhaps, loolb., the difficulty of
getting supers completed without the bees swarming,
their tenderness (scarcely permitting of their transport
by the usual means of conveyance), together with their
unsaleability, have obliged them to give place to small
boxes of honey, called sections. The complete dis-
missal of supers from our exhibitions and competitions
is undesirable, and a disposition to again encourage
their production is apparent, but our space will only
permit of a short reference to them.

Comb-building needs high temperature, and so keep-
ing a super warm is a primary point, or the bees will
only very reluctantly enter. Whatever be its material,
it is highly desirable to securely close all interstices
between the hive and it, afterwards carefully shelter-
ing from rain and sunlight. For general beauty of ap-
pearance, no material can equal glass ; but it requires
closely covering, both because exposed glass will allow
heat to be dissipated through it, and the moisture
rising from the hive will be condensed, so bedewing
the super within that it will be impossible for the
bees to attach their wax tracery. A non-conductive
jacket should be provided, after the fashion of a tea-
pot cosy. A double thickness of cloth or stuff, with
wadding between, answers perfectly ; but, lacking
such good coverings, a couple of brown paper bags,
one within the other, put down neatly into place, will
render signal service. Bees often refuse to enter if
this condition be neglected, but, should they commence

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

445

operations, much honey is wasted as food to enable
the wax-workers to replace that heat which is con-
stantly leaking through the super walls.

Bees are quite unable to walk upon the under surface
of damp glass, and only do so with difficulty if it be
dry (page 125, Vol. I.), so that they cannot, under any
circumstances, support from a glass dome the weight
of a curtain of wax-workers. Should our glass super
take this or any comparable form, combs or foundation
must be attached to give the bees foothold. Cut
some nice, clean pieces of comb, then warm the glass
over a lamp, when the attachment may be made by
simply pressing the pieces where it is desired they
should remain. They adhere with sufficient firmness,
and the bees soon make them secure. If foundation
be used, it should have been bleached by exposure
to light during several months, or its edge will match
badly with the rest. The comb or foundation may
be arranged radially or in some simple pattern, so
as to improve the appearance of the super when
complete, and, by the aid of foundation, simple and
very pleasing devices are producible within supers
with plate-glass tops. Deep supers are not adopted
so readily as sections, because of the distance the first
workers have to separate themselves from the main
body. Mr. Fox conquered this by using supers
telescopic in structure. These were constantly in-
creased in perpendicular height, so that the bees were
kept struggling to fill the gap formed by the repeated
carrying up of the roof.

When all is completed, the complexity of the form
of the comb, and the weight of the super, often

446

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

make the banishment of the bees far from easy. It
no honey-board has been used, the super must be
cut from the hive by a thin wire, and then propped
up from |in. to Jin., and the crack so closed that no
bee escapes. Leaving it from thirty to forty minutes
will enable the bees to clear up bleeding honey,

and repair somewhat the broken edges of the cut

cells. It may now be carried to a cool, shady

spot, gently inverted, and covered at its mouth with

a cloth. The jacket should remain on, or the light
passing through the glass will confuse the bees in their
efforts to find a way of escape. Every few minutes
the cloth may be removed, the bees shaken from
it, and as many permitted to fly as will do so. If
robbers make their appearance, the cloth must be
immediately restored to its place. If the super be
so large and heavy that inversion may cause bleeding,
or if it be not wholly sealed, it should be raised on blocks
within a case, into which the bees will by degrees pass.
If this case be provided with a trap, all trouble is at an
end. The most simple, although not the safest, form
is made of tubes of perforated zinc, Jin. wide — or
rather less — by 4in. or 5in. long, and pointing to-
wards the light, fixed into the side of the box, so as to
be flush within. Tubes not perforated are more likely
to be entered by robbers, as the odour at the end of
the tube will direct them to the honey. With per-
forated tubes the odour escapes against the box, and
keeps the little thieves fidgeting at the wrong spot.
Instead of tubes, my well-known five-pin trap may be
used. Over a large opening in the box is placed a thin
piece, slanting at about 45*^ to the horizon; in this are

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

447

made clean holes jin. in diameter. Four rather small
pins are driven in — two above and two below each
opening, each pair so close together that a fifth pin
can lie between the two pairs, exactly across the centre
of the hole, while its head cannot slip down between
the upper two. Instead of using two pins above
the hole, I prefer a pin deprived of its head, and
driven in somewhat like a bell-hanger’s staple, to
suspend the centre pin running across the opening.
Three or four of these will be sufficient. The bees,
coming to the light, press up the pin which crosses
the hole; it freely rises, and gives them exit; while
entry, as it falls back into position, is effectually
barred.

'■The difficulty of dealing with large supers directed
attention to methods of easy and cleanly sub-division.
The Stewarton Super, with combs attached to bars
which could be distributed with scarcely the rupture
of a cell, pointed the way to progress, and shallow
frames were introduced, capable of storing 2lb. or
31b. of honey. These were arranged in supers, like
the frames of the hive below. Next followed the
divisional super, consisting of a series of wide and
shallow frames, with a narrow bottom rail, raised Jin.
from the ends of the sides. The wide frames were
braced side by side, after the fashion of the Giotto
(page 89), and were closed at the ends by thin
boards, usually carrying a small^ circular window, to
enable the bee-keeper to judge of their condition ; for
when side frames, in such an arrangement, are com-
plete, it is practically certain that the central ones are
so. The wide top bars meeting together made the super

448

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

necessarily a one-storey affair only, but the combs were,
if only straightly built, most easy separable. They
were clean and handy, easily cut from the wood, and,
consequently, marketable. The divisional super is the
clear prototype of the section, and the passage from
one to the other was but a step. With the advent of
the section, a new era opened in the production of,
and demand for, comb honey, as now the waxen cell,
ready to yield its unsophisticated contents upon the
slightest pressure, could appear upon the table with
a neatness, finish, and beauty which before had been
unattainable.

Fig. 104.— Root’s Dovetailed Section Box.

A, Side Piece. B, Top Piece— ,o. Groove to ’•eceive Foundation. C, Top View of
Box complete— i/Z, gl, Glass. D, Box with (/) Foundation.

Many questions yet remained for settlement. Inter-
changeability of frames is hardly more desirable than
was some mutual understanding as to standard sizes
in sections, for many forms were already upon the
market ; but Mr. Root did much — at least, in establish-
ing a standard — by producing cheaply an ingenious
form (Root’s Dovetailed Section), which so nearly met
the requirements of the case that it has yet many
admirers ; while for stability and portability no suc-
cessor has excelled it. It is made of clean bass-wood

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

449

— z>., American lime — each box consisting of two
narrow and two wider pieces, planed on one side only
(the outer side), as bees fix their comb more easily to
wood as it leaves the saw. The sides A are about i-j^in.
wide, and 4Jin. long; the top and bottom pieces
being the same length, but Jin. narrower. The parts,
after they are brought to the correct thickness, are
clamped together in hundreds, and run over a ‘‘gang’’
of grooving-saws (thick, circular saws), which, cutting
grooves into the ends of the clamped-up pieces, leave
eight notches at each end of the separated sides, and
seven in those of the top and bottom. The eight pro-
jections (dovetails ?) of the top and bottom fit into
the hollows between the nine projections of the sides
with such accuracy that knocking them together with
a hammer gives a box with tolerable — perhaps suf-
ficient— rigidity; but a touch on the dovetails of thin,
light glue, which I have always used, holds the four
pieces together with astonishing tenacity.

The little labour glueing involves is, in my judg-
ment, more than compensated by the subsequent ease
and freedom with which these sections can be handled^
They are then beyond injury, and instead, when filled, of
depending upon the stiffening given by the comb, and
sometimes losing a bottom rail in removal, the sections
yield to the tender cells the fullest protection, pre-
venting the bleeding and depreciation too commonly
attending the use of flimsy boxes.

The greater width of the sides gives entrance-way
to the bees from below, as the top and bottom pieces
are kept Jin. apart as the sections stand side by
side. The corresponding openings above permit of
VOL. II. 2 G

450

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the sections being tiered one upon the other, as
hereafter described. This arrangement also provides
for an exceedingly simple and secure method of
glazing. The glass [gl, gl^ C), lying against the top
and bottom, is held in place by the sides. The
addition of strips of gummed paper makes the package
as complete and portable as can be desired. So
cheaply are the sections turned out, that the whole
honey-case, including glazing and full-sized foundation,
will scarcely exceed one penny in cost.

The box just described, when properly filled, holds
about ilb. of comb honey, and eight can be just

fitted into the Langstroth frame, so largely used in
America, while six of them can be placed together
in the compass of the British standard. Its capacity
seems also to have better suited public fancy than

those that are larger, and so other makers, in con-
sequence, in introducing new forms, have retained,
in many instances, the size first ‘ adopted by Mr.
Root — viz., a box qjin. square outside.

Folding or one-piece sections are now most
generally used. These are made, preferably, of white
poplar, and, like their predecessors, travel admirably
in the flat. Their peculiarity lies in their folding at
three angles, and dovetailing, as before, but at one

angle only. In order to make bending to a right

angle possible, V-shaped grooves {vg, vg^ Fig. 105), are
cut by machinery, almost dividing the wood. These
grooves, after folding, appear as a mitre (F), where b
indicates the point of bending. Some prefer the flat
plough joint, E. The wood, especially if dry, is likely
to break during the bending process ; but this may be

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

45

entirely prevented by standing a number of sections
together on edge, and pouring a stream of hot water
along the line formed by the grooves (vg, vg, B) lying
one behind the other. Driving the dovetails together
completes the operation ; but the box is less solid
than quite satisfies my notions of the fitness of things,
and I strongly recommend the use of thin glue, as

in in

vg vg vg

B

Fig. 105.— Folding Sections in the Flat.

A, Single Section ready for Folding— in, in, Incepts ; vg, vg, V Grooves ; d, d. Dove-
tails. B, Edge View of Sections ready for Watering— Letterings as before. E and
F, Angles formed by Plough and V Groove respectively— h. Points of Bending.

before suggested. The objection of the time absorbed
is not valid, for the use of glued and unglued sections
convinces me that the latter require much more time
in handling than the former, while they frequently
break, and sometimes are the cause of a good comb
being wrecked. In bending up the sections, a fold-
ing-block (A, Fig. io6), into which the section fits

2 G 2

452

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

with very little play, is highly serviceable ; for, while
it holds steadily the upright carrying the dovetail,
the overstraining of the joints, so likely to cause
fracture, is prevented, the section being at the same
time put up rectangularly. It will be noticed that
the incept (zn) provides passage-way for the bees, as
it is secured by the narrow top and bottom of the
Root. Incepts are now being made on all four sides,
an improvement hereafter fully explained. Straight
building, as with ordinary frames, must be secured by
the use of some kind of guide — either a starter or a
larger piece of foundation — unless w’e can fill our
sections with comb from the beginning.

We must now discuss how the foundation shall be cut
to the greatest advantage, and put into position. The
size of our sheets of the thinnest make (for that used
in the hive body is much too stout, and would spoil
the comb honey for table use) will, to some extent,
determine the size of the pieces for the sections, a
question respecting which opinions differ widely, as
we shall presently see. Boxes square outside, and

so 4in. square inside — if we desire to use foundation
to the fullest extent — may even carry pieces nearly 4in.
wide, and 3in. or a little more in depth. To cut
these, Mr. Root recommends two boards, one made
of strips of the width of the pieces required, and
another similar board, whose strips are as wide as
the pieces should be long. The strips are just far
enough apart to allow a knife to run between them.
The two boards are placed together with the sheet
intervening, and the cuts made from the two sides,
dividing the sheet into the forms desired. I consider

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

453

it to be far more convenient and quicker to use one
board only with my arrangement. Suppose, for the
sake of illustration, that the best size is 3in. by qin.
If the first strip be lin. wide, and the next strip as
much wider than the first as the difference between
the width and depth of the pieces, then the upper
edges of the strips being fixed 3in. apart — t.e., the
depth of the required pieces — their lower edges will be
4in. from each other — i.e., the width of the pieces.
Reference to B, Fig. io6, and the figures marked upon
it, will make this evident. The third strip will be 3in.

Fig. 106.— Section Apparatus.

A, Folding-block. B, Gauge for Cutting Foundation for Sections (the Figures
imply Inches).

wide, when the cut at its lower edge will again give
the 3in. interval, after which the series starts as at first.
The sheet, or two or three sheets of foundation, are
placed on the table. The board is placed over it, or
them, and 3in. strips immediately cut. Turning the
board half round makes the previously horizontal strips
perpendicular, when cuts, still made by the right hand,
from the other edge of the strips, will divide into pieces
qin. wide. These are then gathered up, and kept in
correct position one over the other, lest any foun-

454

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

dation should accidentally get suspended sideways
(see page 217). Those who try this arrangement will
find in it great comfort and convenience.

The foundation cut up has now to be fixed. Some
use the well-known Parker fastener, which squeezes
the foundation into the grain of the section roof; others
favour a tool much resembling a bradawl handle, the
large ferrule of which revolves like a wheel, and, being
guided by a stop, squeezes the foundation until it
adheres ; the piece which has the upper -^in. or ^in. thus

Fig. 107.— Apparatus for Fixing Foundation.

A, Single Block— si, st, Stops. B, Range of Blocks on Stand— .y, s, s, Section-boxes ;
f, f, Foundation ; cl, Cleat ; b, b, Blocks.

held tight is now turned to a right angle, so as to hang
in position. Many similar devices are employed, and
they have the one advantage that melted wax is not
required ; but, for neatness, finish, and certainty, I
prefer fixing by the aid of melted wax, and in this
preference I find myself in excellent company. The
most simple tool is a block (A, Fig. 107), with a thickness
more than half that of the section-box. Nails, to act as
stops {sf, st), are driven into its sides, so that the face of

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

455

the block enters the section far enough to hold the
foundation in the central line. The block, which it is
best to wet before using, is taken in the left hand; the
section, inverted, is put over it, when the finger ends
press the top of the section, and hold it firmly against
the block. The foundation is placed, and the whole is
held “angling in two directions,” so that a drop or
two of wax from the smelter (page 176), run along the
edge of the foundation, firmly cements it to the sec-
tion top. By the time the smelter is returned to the
heating lamp, the wax will have cooled sufficiently to
permit the section to be turned into the upright
position by a rotation of the wrist, when it may be
placed in the crate ready for use. I have shown that,
after all things are prepared, seven sections may be
thus waxed within the minute. The hole in the block
is important ; it gives thumb-hold, allows the air to
escape when the foundation is dropped into place,
and permits of the piece, if it settles down awk-
wardly, being adjusted immediately.

All who wax many sections will find my plan, now
appended, an improvement upon Mr. Doolittle’s, for
it leaves both hands free, while it is .extremely rapid
and satisfactory. A piece of board (B, Fig. 107), long
enough to support five or six blocks, has a cleat
(c/) at each end, so that it will stand at an angle
of 45*^ to the horizon, as in the Figure, or perpen-
dicularly if turned over upon its other edge. The
blocks are a little less than half the thickness of the
sides of the section, thus holding the foundation cen-
trally. They are put on at an angle, so that the face,
“ angling in two directions,” may cause the wax to run

456

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

down as already described. Holes are made in the
blocks, for the reason before given, and to permit the
fingers to move the foundation from either face. The
sections are placed on the blocks as at s, s, s, the
foundation {/, /) added, and the waxing done seriatim ;
the whole board is now turned over, when the sections
hang upright, ready to be removed to the crate, for
placing over the hive. With two of these a ver}" large
amount of work may be accomplished, while there is
no temptation to turn over the sections too hurriedly,

Fig. 108.— Lee’s Dovetail Section.

A, Joint, exact size— tb, Top Bar ; sb, Side Bar. B, Side Bar— d, d, Dovetails
(Scale, C, Top or Bottom Bar— g, Grooves. D, Built-up Section— i. Lug ;
other Letterings as before.

cracking the wax, and inviting a breakdown when the
bees are starting operations.

Mr. Lee, by applying his dovetail joint to sections,
has produced a form which presents not only novel
but useful features. The construction of the joint — seen
of full size at A, Fig. io8 — needs no further comment
than it received at page 192. The sides (B) are
divided like the top bars of his frame, similarly to
which the section is put together on a block, itself a
modification of Fig. 54. The foundation is held

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

457

securely between the halves of the split side bars,
and the section has enough and to spare of that
firmness which the folders often lack. By a plan,
in my idea far too inconvenient to be largely adopted,
three of these sections are placed in a frame (/r. Fig.
109) the top and bottom bars of which are cut to
follow the outlines of the top and bottom bars of the
three sections standing between them. It will be
noticed that this section, unlike Figs. 104 and 105, has
incepts [in, in) on its sides* as well as above and below,
so that, when the frames carrying them are placed
side by side, and close together, in an upper storey,
as is intended, bees can not only pass from storey
to storey, if several be placed one over the other, but
they can travel horizontally between the sections.
Such are called four-way sections. In addition, the
short lugs (/, Fig. 108) keep the boxes a bee-space
{bs^ Fig. 109) from each other, permitting the bees
to pass to each face of their work. These facilities
make unnecessary the unsightly openings (popholes)
between the section and the comb, the latter, as a
rule, in consequence, being made to fill the section,
to which it is evenly attached in every part. The
reduction of the width of the side has another
advantage : it gives the wax-worker opportunity of

here finishing the attachment cell (see page 177, Vol. I.,
and page 223, Vol. II.), because she can stand in a
position which permits of modelling the cell wall from
both its sides. This says much in favour of rather
narrower sections than those frequently used. In

This important improvement originated in America, and must be
generally adopted.

458

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

wide ones the difficulty explained in Vol I. tells
much against the completion of the comb to the
wood, the latter, in consequence, standing so far
out in front of the honey as to materially reduce
the beauty of the appearance of the section, by
throwing a shadow, and giving an impression of
incompleteness. Mr. D. A. Jones, at his visit to
this country, expressed to the Author, more than once,
the gratification he derived from noting that Vol. I.
had, theoretically, deduced what he, in actual practice,
had found to be true, but for which he had been
quite unable to give an explanation.

Fig. 109.— Sections in Frame (Scale, i).

Jr, fr, Frame ; in, in. Incepts ; bs. Bee-space ; sp. Separator ; si. Slot in
Separator for Bee Passage.

The sections under discussion can be used with
what has been called the ‘side’’ downwards, when they
can be arranged in crates, as at Fig. no; and as the
lug (/, Fig. io8) gives half bee-space, they can be
piled on each other ad lib. So standing they admit
of a modification which greatly enhances the beauty
of the whole thing. The bottom rail, in the sections
now referred to, is formed of a single slip of glass,
carried by a square groove instead of a dovetail,

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY,

459

and held by so arranging the joints above that the
sides tend to spring from the right angle towards
each other. Mr. Raitt exhibited sections with a glass
bottom rail as far back as 1875, and says of them:
“ The combs in these are almost always fastened down
along their whole length (the glass being thin and
somewhat narrow), and the honey is stored right on
to the glass, making a fine show of colour.” Sections
with all sides glass are rather impracticable and over
fragile, but a crate of such exhibited by the Hon. and
Rev. H. Bligh I thought to be the most beautiful

object of the kind I had ever seen.

Sections are sometimes placed by the side of the

brood-nest, in carriers or frames, as, by example, in

the “Eclectic” (page 78). Six of the 4^in. by 4^in.
may be very conveniently accommodated in a carrier
of the standard size, having a zinc bottom rail, which
practically does not increase its depth, while it is
sufficiently stiff, because one edge is turned up at a
right angle. One side, witff an inner loose piece,
is arranged as a parallel wedge, which tightens up

the sections, and yet, immediately it is withdrawn,
makes all free for removal. The separators, more
particularly explained hereafter, are permanently fixed,
and prevent the sides of the frames from being driven
beyond the correct distance from each other. In my
judgment, sections on the side of the brood-nest give
much trouble, and are, all things considered, undesirable.

The framing which holds the sections together, so
that they can be moved bodily, and placed over the
hive, is called either a rack or a crate, the former
term being generally applied when no box-like sides

460

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

are used. Crates are made so cheaply, and are,
withal, so much more serviceable for preserving
sections after they are taken from the hive, that
they alone need description (Fig. no will give a
general idea of a usual form). The sections are
arranged, in three rows, within a ring of wood -|in.
deeper than the sections themselves, which stand on
rails [r, r, Figs, no and in) running from front to
back of the crate. Each rail is formed of two pieces,
the lower supporting the corners of the sections, while
the upper stands between them, giving the bees liberty

Fig. 110.— Section Crate Filled.

cs. Crate Side ; r, r, Rest Rail for Sections ; t, Tightening-board ; /, /, Finger Space.

to travel all round their combs, and so avoiding pop-
holes, as previously explained, and, further, providing
finger-room {f, f), much facilitating the removal of
single, filled sections. The sections of some makers
are supported on a zinc sashbar (B, Fig. 113). They
readily slide backwards and forwards upon the rails,
but need to be kept firmly pressed together, so as to
prevent the bees inserting their messy-looking pro-
polis. This is accomplished by a tightening-board {t,
Fig. no), driven forwards by a spring or clamp (cl).

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

46

The removal of the latter loosens the board, and puts
each section individually under command at once. If a
single storey, or any number of storeys of sections be
used, calico will be placed above, to close the open-
ings, and then jacketing, or quilt, as may be deemed
necessary. If storey be tiered on storey, the crate
will provide intermediate bee-spaces, the bottom rail
of each section being left free, a point which seems
very desirable in securing nice finishing of the comb
at the lower edge.

Such a crate of sections as we have been describing,
placed, at the opening of an abundant honey-flow,
over a stock greatly in need of Increased accommo-
dation, would not only be taken to at once, but work
would also be commenced in all the sections simul-
taneously, and, as a result, the combs would grow pari
passu, their faces approaching each other until room
for the little labourers is alone found, when sealing
with dainty caps completes the work. But this ideal
exactness is only very rarely attained. If the bees
are. not greatly overcrowded, the addition of a section
crate gives them more space than they can instantly
fully fill, and a cluster takes possession of its central
part, as here, immediately over the densest masses of
brood, the temperature needed for wax secretion and
modelling is the more easily kept up. The first-
constructed combs then maintain the start they
have (see page 269), and so intrude into the ad-
joining box, preventing glazing, causing bleeding in
separating, unequal weight in the several sections,
and all-round annoyances, which half nullify the
advantages of the section system. To overcome these

462

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

difficulties, the separator has been introduced, as a
necessary evil, for it is an additional complication, while
there can be little doubt but that it is regarded by
the bees with a wee prejudice. The separator,
placed between the faces of each line of sections —
running, t.e., from a to b, Fig. no— may consist of tin,
zinc, or thin wood; but the first is certainly most
desirable. The bees, as before, work backwards from
the midrib, until the fixed separator, forbids a further
extension ; and when the sealing is added, the work
certainly looks as though the tiny artificers had been
taught the use of the plumb-line and the rule.

cs, Crate Side ; r, r, Rest Rail ; s, s, Sections ; sp, Separator ; si. Slot ; /, Finger j

Space. ' '

It is obvious that separators {sp, Figs. 109 and i-ii), i

consisting of a simple strip of metal extending across
the boxes (its original form) would prevent the bees !

passing by the side incept to the next box, as the ;

united depth of the incepts of two boxes facing each

other is needed to give the bees passage-way. To
obviate this, Mr. W. H. Greer, of Tennessee, and j

Mr. Sambels amongst ourselves, have, independently, ^

made exceedingly similar alterations, by introducing i

a slot {si) opposite to the sides of the boxes, i

so that the freedom of communication is practically
restored. This form of separator, involving another j[.

1

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

463

complication, can only be cheaply made by special
machinery; but that has already been provided.

We must not. fail to note that the separator has an
influence over the thickness of the combs, as, without it,
single passage-way alone remains between those that
are contiguous ; while with it, passage-way of the same
width is necessarily left on each side of the separator.

This reduces the weight stored in any given width of
section; but, what is worse,. the comb is prevented from
coming up flush with the edge of the box, which gives
the latter objectionable prominence. The presence
of four incepts, narrowing the sides, of course
balances somewhat this defect, which may be over-
come, even with wide-sided sections, by putting a half

bee-space on to the separator itself, thus destroying
the width of the comb, by holding the boxes a whole
bee-space from one another. The separator holds
its own because it gives always an amount of flat-
ness and regularity, which can only very occasionally
be attained without it ; and this is even true, although
in a less degree, of the thinner combs produced in
narrow section-boxes.

The separator [sp, Fig. 109) may be permanently fixed
to the frame, as the sections can be easily pushed out
from it by arranging on a board an upright stop to guide
the top bar of the frame, and then two thin pieces,
standing 2in. high, the length of the frame within, and
so placed that, when the frame is placed over them,
separator downwards, they should just meet the top and
bottom bars of the sections. Pushing the frame down-
wards, the separator passes between the thin pieces,
but the sections remain behind, resting upon them.

464

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

It has been already pointed out that crates of
sections are often completed in one part before even
a start has been made in another, and that, as a rule,
the central portions receive first attention. An
advantage is frequently gained, therefore, by dividing
the crate into three, as at Fig. 112, so that each row
of sections, by being held in a separate tray, may
be manipulated independently. The three parts
placed closely, side by side, cover the hive top, and
practically constitute a single crate. At the com-
pletion of the central tray, it can be removed, to

Fig. 112.— Divided Crate.
sp. Tightening Spring ; w. Window.

make way for a set of empty boxes in a similar
tray, or its place may be taken by that side tray
which may be found most advanced, while the
sections to be added fill the space thus created.
The Rev. G. Raynor is the designer of the crate
above figured, and which is much in favour. The
sections are held in close contact, as in ordinary
crates, by springs {sp), which have to be removed
in order that the contained sections may be lifted

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY,

465

out. Windows {w) enable the manipulator to form
a fair judgment of the progress made, so as to
prevent useless disturbance of the bees.

The building of brace combs between the under
• sides of the sections and the tops of the frame of
the hive causes some annoyance, which Mr. S.
Simmins has endeavoured to prevent by arranging
his sections in a crate, the bottom of which consists
of narrow slats, with about Jin. interspaces ; the
slats standing directly on the frames, but at right
angles to them, in the manner of the crossbars of
a lattice. The bees thus get entrance to the sec-
tions— which have a bee-space beneath their bottom
bar — through a series of openings about Jin. square.
Building over those openings would bar their ingress ;
and between them the space is too small, and, as
a consequence, brace combs are not attempted.
In the same manner, when running for extracted
honey, the frames of the upper storey run across
those of the body-box (see Fig. 37), and come close
down upon them, Mr. Simmins saying that “when one
has once tried the plan, he will never again submit
to a clear bee-space immediately above the brood-
frames. It is there alone that comb attachments
are liable to be built ; but any space allowed between
further super additions are not subject to this annoy-
ance. In following out this plan of working for the
past six years, I have not had a single piece of comb
attached to the sections.’’ It is impossible to secure,
by any one system, the minor good points of many
different ones, but it has long been my practice to
so place my crates that the section combs run across
VoL. II. 2 H

466

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

those of the brood-frames ; and this certainly visibly
reduces the difficulty under consideration.

A reference to page 92 et seq. will amuse the reader,
by showing that we have been told to invert frames
because honey can no longer then be stored in them,
and to invert sections in order that their storing may
be completed. He will, at least, be forced to admit
that the explanation given in this volume applies
perfectly to the practice in both cases, while it shows
the absurdity of some of the theories that have been
advanced. The inversion of the section at the right
moment is an advantage ; if performed at other times,
the comb is spoiled. When the bees have built nearly
to the bottom bar, inversion will cause the comb to
be attached, and completed above and below; the
most perfect results being obtained by fixing a second,
but very narrow, strip of foundation (about two cells
deep) completely along the bottom, which, after inver-
sion, becomes the top. Corner pop-holes (see page
457) are thus absolutely prevented.

The varying stages of progress made in different
sections of the same crate causes the use of the
invertible form, in inexperienced hands, to be some-
what hazardous ; and even Mr. Heddon has, in large
part, withdrawn his advocacy. But none can do
wrong by inverting solitary boxes near completion
at the moment others are being removed.

The reader is referred to page 112, where an in-
vertible crate, or rack, is described. Mr. Neighbour's
form is distinctive and good. Beneath the crate is
placed a loose tray {tr^ Fig. 113), half bee-space thick,
and the sections are inclosed between two exactly

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

467

similar half-cases (Jc). Three rows of seven sections
each are accommodated, and, when placed in the half-
case, rest upon wooden strips [st) and zinc rests (r),
which are, in section, of the form shown at r' (where
they pass through the wood), of which B is an
enlargement. These provide the second half bee-
space, and so hold the sections -|in. above the frames.
Each row of sections is closed by a glass plate

Fig. 113.— Neighbour’s Invertible Crate.

A—tr, Half Bee-space Tray ; Ic, Half-case ; sc. Screw ; bd, Pressure Board ;
gl, Glass ; gr, Groove ; r, r, Metal Rests. B, Form of Rest in Section (larger
scale).

(^/), against which the board {bd) is pressed by the
action of the screw In actually working a single

tier, but one half-case is needed, as a quilt closes the
spaces between the section-boxes (page 461) ; but when
it is desired to invert, the second half-case must be
added, and the screw tightened. After the operation,
the lower half-crate stands uppermost, and may be
removed, if desired, to do duty in another place.

2 H 2

468

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Sections, especially if well advanced, may be spoiled
by the inversion of frames of old combs immediately
beneath them (page 109). The spoiling is certain if
these have not been built on to the bottom rails, for
nibbling and paring commence, in order that the
comb may be accurately filled up to the rails now
above. The parts removed get interwoven with the
comb and cappings of the sections, discolouring them
to an extent that those who have not tried the ex-
periment would little imagine.

Before considering the means by which the bees
are to be induced to fill the sections, of which several
types have passed before us, we must discuss the
principles and practice of extraction — z>., of separating
the honey from the comb without the destruction of
the latter, as thus, commonly, the larger part of the
bee-keeper’s harvest is now secured.

About a decade and a half since, Herr von Hruschka
effected an economy which largely increased the
possible output of honey. He devised a machine
known in its present form as the honey extractor,
which threw, by centrifugal force, the honey from the
cells, by suitably revolving the loaded combs; these
were then returned to the bees, but little damaged,
for repair and refilling. The previous processes of
‘‘running,” “draining,” and “squeezing,” utterly
destroyed the combs as such, leaving the bee-keeper
in possession of the contained wax only, which pro-
bably would not equal in value the amount* of honey
necessarily consumed by the bees in order that they

* The determination of this amount is bound about by difficulty, but
the older estimates of 151b. or 2olb. are much too high.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

469

might secrete it (page 171, Vol. I.) ; but comb costs
much time and labour during its modelling, and all
this the extractor practically saves, while it gives the
readiest possible method of clearing the combs
during a rapid honey flow.

Hruschka’s machine — which was, in fact, an adapta-
tion of the then old centrifugal drying machine, and
was suggested to his mind by a boy’s trick in swinging
round a piece of comb tied to a string — consisted of
a wooden tub, within which revolved a cage comparable
to a street lamp, but open at top, and bounded by
stiff wire cloth. After the sealing had been shaved off
(uncapping), the combs were placed against the wires,
as at co^ A, Fig. 115, and a few rapid rotations of
the cage, produced by unwinding a string from the
axle, as in spinning a top, sent the honey from the
cells on the side of the combs remote from the centre
of rotation, the operation being completed by the
reversal of the sides. The extractors of to-day do
not usually differ, in any marked particular, from the
prototype ; but some are constructed in such ignorance
of first principles that these need our attention, in
order that we may judge of the efficiency of any
machine before investing in it, while the formulae
given may serve those making modifications in present
styles of construction.

It is desirable not to make the tinned iron can
(B, Fig. 1 15), now used, larger than necessary, yet it
must permit of the rotation of the cage within ; and
this has often led to an undue reduction of the latter,
by which the combs have been brought too near to
the spindle. Let the curves gih, kml (A, Fig. 114),

470

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

represent, as seen from above, parts of a larger and
smaller can, with diameters iSin.and I2in. respectively;
then standard combs, rotating within the cages, will
necessarily have radius-distances of which the lesser
will be about one-third of the greater. Now', centrifugal
force, with the same number of revolutions in a given
time, varies as the distance from the centre, as shown
at B, where the ball i (attached, like its companions,
by a wire, to a revolving frame) does not move from
its position, because its distance from the centre is o ;

Fig. 114.— Diagrams Illustrating the Principles of the Extractor.

A— c, Centre of Rotation, or Spindle ; gM, klm, Cans ; 'ca, eh, &c., Lines of Force.
B, Apparatus to prove that Centrifugal Force varies as the Radius-distance —
p, Pulley ; fr, Frame in Rotation ; b, Balance- weight ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Weights
Rotating.

whereas 2, 3, 4 and 5 fly off with constantly increasing
energy. It therefore follows that, wdth the same

velocity given to the spindle, the honey in the larger
can will fly off wdth three times the energy that it
will in the smaller.

The question arises ; Is the smaller machine neces-
sarily less powerful than the larger? By no means:
increased rapidity of rotation will immediately com-
pensate for lack of size, and that, too, wdth an actual
economy of driving pow'er (as explained by the

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

471

foot-notes,* in which the mathematics of the question
is given, as too complex for the general reader) ; but a
mischief arises, respecting which misconception pre-
vails. The lines of centrifugal force run, as the name
implies, directly from the centre — as ca^ cb, cd^ ce, cf\
and so the energy generated tends, in the middle of
the comb (w), to throw out the honey direct; while
in ca, the larger part of the energy is expended in
driving it against the side of the cell. As the lines
ca^ cb, playing upon the comb in the smaller can, are
so extremely divergent, the rending strain, tending
to drag the upper from the low’er part of 'the comb,
is so great that ere all the honey can be extracted
rupture is an almost inevitable result. To say that all
the honey is not extracted, as a consequence of small
radius-distance (as one writer has done), is a palpable
error ; for the top and bottom of the comb (the comb
standing sideways) have more than twice the radius-
distance of its middle (see t and 7n), so that the loss
through the obliquity of the forces at the greater dis-

* a. Centrifugal force equals the square of the velocity divided by

the radius distance = . '

r

/3.* The energ)’ required is in the ratio of the squares of the velocities.
If two systems have their radii as i : 4, and their centrifugal pressures
equal for equal masses, then

V 2 V 2

and 4 V 2 — V„2 ;

r 4 r

therefore

V’l^ ; : : I : 4;

i.e., (y8) the energy demanded is in the ratio of the radius-distances. This
points to the greatest possible reduction of the radius-distance ; but as
the latter decreases, the waste of energy from angular displacement, pro-
ducing pressure on the cell side, increases, and these balance one another,
for standard frames, at about 6in. For deeper frames, the radius distance
should be greater, Langstroth frames requiring 7iin.

472

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

tance is exactly compensated by their greater energy ;
therefore, it is as demonstrable"^ as Euclid’s proposi-
tions that the honey will be equally thrown out all
over the face of the comb, if this only stand perpen-
dicularly, whatever the radius-distance may be, but
that the tendency to lupture will increase as the dis-
tance is decreased. Calculation and experience alike
point to a radius-distance of about bin., for the centre
of combs of standard size, as giving the best results
for the energy expended.

From what has been said, the error of giving
the cage a taper form is evident. Here the cells
at the lower part of the cage are practically in a
small machine, and at the upper in a larger; demand-
ing the impossible condition that more rotations be
made below than above. It follows, therefore, that, to
extract at the lower part of the cage, excessive strain
must be put upon the comb at the upper. The taper
form has no excuse, except the fancy that the combs
lean safely against the cage while preparation is made
for rotation ; but since the cells have been uncapped,
the whole adheres quite sufficiently when brought up
against a perpendicular wire cloth ; and, indeed, this
close bringing up of the comb is most important, or
else, when the handle is turned, the comb will ‘Hiug ”
the netting, and possibly drag itself from the frame
in doing so.

* Diverging lines from the centre (c), meeting a comb, measure the
radius-distance of its several parts, and so, in accordance with the
principles already given, rej^resent the centrifugal force of each part
in direction and magnitude. Resolving these lines into two components
— one at right angles to the cell sides, tending to split the comb, and
the other in the direction of the cells, tending to throw out the honey
— we find the latter all exactly equal, , proving that the extracting
energy is alike throughout the face of the comb.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

473

Few are aware of the tremendous centrifugal force
accompanying high velocities, its increase being in
the ratio of the square of the rate. Combs, always
relatively tender, may be, in consequence, extracted
without damage, while, at an apparently slightly
greater pace, they are wrecked. The subjoined
Table* will make this clear. The highest rate given
is much beyond the endurance of any but the very
hardest combs, and is never required, thick honey
leaving, even in a cool atmosphere, when the pres-
sure equals four times or five times the weight, z>.,
the 2olbs. or 25lbs. of the Table ; but I have seen
geared machines most needlessly driven much beyond

* Table of Pressures made by Comb of

51b. weight against wire net

of Extractor

working at Gin. from

centre of spindle.

Pressure.

Velocity
per sec.
ft. in.

Revolutions
per Minute.

loz.

o 5f

8-56

llb.

I 9l

34-26

5lb.

.... 40^

76-63

lolb.

5

108-37

J5lb.

6 Ilf

132-72

2olb.

.... 80^

153-26

25lb.

8 Ilf

171-34

3olb.

9

187-69

35lb.

10 7t

202-73

qolb.

II 4i

216-74

45lb.

12 Of

229-67

5olb.

12 8f

242-31

The pressures and velocities per second corresponding to these revo.
lutions per minute may be found for any other radius-distance by
multipljung the amounts in the first or second column respectively by
that radius-distance in inches, and dividing by 6. Similarly, the
numbers of the third column, multiplied by -^6, and divided by
any radius-distance in inches, will give the revolutions required by
that radius-distance to sustain the pressures of the first column.

474

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

200 revolutions per minute. With 6in. or more radius-
distance, gearing is not required, as sufficient pace —
which should be kept at the lowest that will accomplish
the work — can be reached without it. Then brood —
even drone-brood, should such be found in the comb —
will not be displaced ; but brood should only under
exceptional circumstances find its way into the ex-
tractor. Care should be taken to place combs of
nearly equal weight on each side of the cage, for
the latter, according to a law of dynamics, will
endeavour to revolve around its own centre of gravity.
The effect of this: will not be felt until the combs
revolve quickly, when their increased pressure, if they
be badly balanced, will set the can rocking in an almost
uncontrollable manner.

The pressure on the wire net is of necessity so con-
siderable, that that of ordinary make is driven into
a concave form, which the comb fills, and is, in con-
sequence, often so bent that it cracks and, after its
return to the bees, breaks. Mr. MeadoAVS has remedied
this grave fault by a simple but effective device.
Behind the wire net (wn^ A and C, -Fig. 115) he
fixes, edgeways, strips of tinned iron (ze/^), which, like
the joists of a floor, give to the net perfect rigidity.
This plan is a patent, but surely all makers can do
something towards securing greater stiffness than is
usual.

Not only does the honey fly by centrifugal force,
but the air around the comb made rapidly to revolve,
also flies off, occasioning a strong and prejudicially
cooling air current. Mr. S. J. ' Baldwin was the first to
remove this disadvantage,, by placing the comb within

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

475

a bottomless, revolving cylinder, so that the air and
comb revolved together, becoming relatively still. In
the Raynor, the wire net and the webbings are
similarly surrounded by a casing of tinned iron {oc, C),
by which not only draught is checked, but the honey,
instead of bespattering the large can to the top, flies

Fig. 115.— The Raynor Extractor, with Details.

A, Section of Extractor— /r, Fixing Rail ; /, /, Frame for Cage ; wh, Metal
Webbing ; wn. Wire Netting ; co, Comb ; w, Wire Bottom ; p, Pivot ;
c, Stiffening Cone ; cb, Coned Bottom ; gt, Gutter ; st, Syrup Tap. B, Extractor
with Cage displaced. C, Perpendicular Section of Side of Cage Enlarged
— oc, Outer Casing; other Letterings as before.

off at the lower edge of the cage (/z), and is saved
from waste.

In the Raynor the combs can also be extracted on
both sides, without removal from the can — a good

476

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

point, but one the importance of which is being ex-
aggerated, for the time required in raising, turning,
and re-inserting a comb in a roomy cage is exceed-
ingly short. The operation of turning in the Raynor
is managed thus : If one of the two combs lies along
the line a b, B, the ear of the frame extends up-
wards, at the angle b. The outer cells having been
emptied, the ear is revolved in the fingers until the
comb lies along the line c d, when, as the outer side
has become the inner, the operation will be com-
pleted by again rotating the cage. The reversal of

A, Improved Rapid— cc, Comb-cases ; h, Hinge ; r, r, Revolving Ring of Tinned
Iron. B, Automatic— sp, Spindle ; p, p, Pivots ; cc, cc, Comb-cases.

the combs without removal constitutes the main feature
in Mr. Cowan’s extractors. In the ‘‘ Rapid,” the
combs are placed in two baskets, or cases, about 2in-
wide, and wired on both sides. These are hung, like
doors, at the angles of a framework cage, and can be
swung round so as to put either side of the comb
outwards, which can, in consequence, be freed of honey
from both sides without removal. This form is much
improved by substituting a ring of metal (r. A, Fig. ii6)
for the framework cage ; draught is reduced, and the

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

477

honey less scattered. The comb-cases (cc) are hinged
at A, and pass into their new positions as the arrows
indicate. To this plan it is objected that the saving
in time is inappreciable, if any, and that the double
motion of the revolving cage and the hinged cases
gives the whole an undesirable loose-jointedness,
but the form of the cages makes them handy for ex-
tracting from loose pieces of comb.

The “Automatic” (B), so called because the combs
reverse upon the stopping of the handle, has two racks
and stops, permitting the comb-cases (cc, cc) to
take a half-rotation upon the pivots (/,/). The inser-
tion of the unsealed combs is an awkward affair, as
they cannot be slipped in from above, but at the side,
which is removable, but needs fixing, for an obvious
reason. Turning the handle in one direction extracts
one side ; reversing the handle reverses the combs,
and extracts the other ; but this trifling advantage is
far outweighed by the mess and bother of inserting
and releasing the combs at the beginning and end
of the operation. At its birth it was highly eulo-
gised;* in justice, therefore, to my readers, I must
point out that it needs a very large can in propor-
tion to the radius-distance it affords. In Figs. A and
B we get a comparison, as here the radius-distances
are equal. It is more complex and expensive than
other extractors ; very messy and wasteful, as the
cages get coated through and through, and the large
can covered within. The objectionable draught is
here greater than in any other, while, in point of

Cowan’s “ Bee-keeper’s Guide-book,” page O9.

478

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

time required, it could not hold its own with any of
the usual types.

Machines have been introduced to extract from
four to six combs at once ; these appeal only to
the operator on a large scale, who will be able to
judge for himself of their suitability. They are,
necessarily, not portable, but they save labour when
the uncapping can be performed with sufficient quick-
ness to keep them going.

Fig. 117.— Abbott’s Single-comb Extractor.

A and B, Extractor (Little Wonder)—??, Xeck for Emptying Honey ; Wire Net ;
r, Reservoir ; st. Stick ; p, Iron Pin ; Ih, Loose Handle. C, Section — h, Honey ;
t, Thimble ; c, Comb ; other Letterings as before.

About twelve years since, Mr. Abbott introduced
a cheap and handy appliance, “The Little Wonder,’^
which has done excellent service, and is sufficient
where the stocks are few and economy needs study-
ing. With it one comb only can be operated upon
at a time. This, when ready, is placed against the
wire net {wn, A, Fig. 117), the iron pin (/), at the
end of the upright stick (st), being firmly socketed into

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

479

a board, or, better, a permanent iron thimble (^, C).
The whole now receives a whirling motion, by a sway
of the hand, which grasps the loose handle {Ih, B).
As the velocity increases, the honey [li, C) is thrown
out into the side can, where centrifugal force keeps it
heaped up. It may from time to time be drawn off from
the neck {n). For portability nothing can equal this
little extractor, which does its work perfectly, although
at a rather heavy expenditure of labour, as the honey
has to be kept going together with the comb ; it is,
in the hands of the novice, a little likely to fly from
its socket ; the iron thimble is therefore strongly
recommended.

Extractors, and all vessels used to hold syrup, should
under no circumstances be made of galvanised (zinc-
coated) iron (page 382), as the zinc and iron form a
galvanic* couple favouring an attack by the acid of the
honey. Sugar also has a reducing action, and is capable
of replacing five atoms of its hydrogen by the metal,
forming a poisonous compound, which in large quantity
in the honey is dangerous, and in small amount is
abolutely fatal to delicate flavour. Zinc vessels are
nearly equally unsuitable, and syrup kept in such,
especially if it be thin, is liable to become so impreg-
nated as to poison bees fed with it. I have had
such cases under microscopic examination. The can
may with advantage have a sufficient space beneath
the cage to hold qolb. or 501b. t before emptying
becomes necessary ; and if the material be tinned iron.

*F. Cheshire, in British Bee-keepers' Journal, Vol. XIV., pages 532,
573-

t An I Sin. can holds I2lb. for ever}'^ inch of its depth.

480

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

no damage arises from leaving the honey within for
any period convenience may dictate.

The cages are usually arranged to hold standard
frames, but it is often desirable to extract from
unfinished sections, for which no smaller machine
is required, as these can be conveniently arranged
on a hanger having a shelf-like stage wide enough
to carry them ; but since the newly-built combs are
tender, a little artifice is essential. First, partially
extract from one side, rotating slowly. The whole
weight of the honey on the cells of the inner side

I ^ .

B ^

Fig. 118.— Frame in which to Extract Sections (Scale, xV)-

A—s, s, s. Shelves ; sq, sq. Squares of Wire Cloth. B, Section of A — c, Comb ;
other Letterings as before.

will tend to push the comb from the section, but with
slight pressure only, as the Table (page 473) will show.
Now turn the face, and throw out all the honey,
once more reverse, and complete. A difficulty exists,
however, in that the combs, when unfinished, are
much narrower than the boxes, so that the former
receive no support from the wire cloth. This I
obviate by a wooden frame 2in. wide (A, Fig. 118)
about standard size, carrying shelves (y, s, s), upon
which six sections, 4iin. square, can stand. At the

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

48

back run cross wires, upon which are soldered squares
(.s-^) of wire cloth, the edges of which have been turned
back so that the squares stand up about iin., as seen
in the section B. They are so small that they
need no stiffening. The section box runs back, and
brings the half-thickened comb (c) into contact with the
wire, so that, as the frame stands within the revolving
cage, it can be extracted in safety. Broken pieces of
comb may be stood against the wire net of the
extractor, but a comb-basket is frequently useful. It
is simply two frames of coarse wire cloth, hinged
together at about the thickness of natural comb.

The removal of the sealing (uncapping) is accom-
plished by a knife, the handle of which is raised
above the general level of the blade, like that of a
trowel. The sealing has, all but invariably, behind it
a film of air* (page 174, Vol. I.), and the object should
be to cut through this, and so, as far as possible,
escape actual contact with the honey, the viscosity of
which so holds the blade, if wide and flat, that good
work is extremely difficult. Thin-bladed knives, turned
up near the end, to permit of cutting into hollows,
are frequently used, but the Bingham - Hetherington
Knife (A, Fig. 119), is justly the favourite. The
stout blade is so bevelled (C) that it must be kept
up from the comb, whereby the “cling” is greatly
reduced. The edge should be keen, and the hollow
front {/) permits of sharpening on a hone. It

* This film of air in part exists in sealing by Cyprian and other
eastern bees, as may be seen by uncapping under water; but in the
work of Blacks and Camiolans it is general over the face of the cell,
and adds much to the beauty of the comb.

Vol. II. 2 I

482

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is helpful to use the knife hot; the best plan being
to have a pair — one standing in heated water while
the other is in hand. The water should not boil,
or the wax will be melted and adhere to the knife,
delaying the operation. Some advocate making the
cut downwards, with a drawing movement, allowing
gravity to curl the cappings away from the knife ;
I, and most others, prefer to make it upwards (as
at B), turning the cappings into a receptacle, in

Fig. 119.— Uncappi.ng-knife and Details.

A, Knife seen from beneath. B, Section of Comb and Knife (Scale, Sealing
bl. Blade. C, Section of Blade.

which is fixed on edge a thin piece of soft wood, as
a scraper for the knife.

Efforts are being made to produce a machine
which shall perform the tedious work of uncapping.
Mr. Simmins uses serrated knives, acting simulta-
neously upon the two faces of the comb, which
passes down between. Flat finishing is essential,
and this is achieved by using, in an upper storey,
thin wooden dividers (separators), with ifin. full
interspaces. The combs in these are capped so
evenly that the knives catch every cell.

Mr. Hooker has recently patented an uncapping

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

483

machine (Fig. 120), which needs but little explanation.
The frame carrying the comb is clamped by screws
(j-, s) in an iron frame in which it is held

centrally by a stop. The iron frame runs on a V-shaped
guide {v, 7j), and is pushed by the handle {/i) against
the knife (k), and a similar one on its back face
attached to kh. A drawing cut is made as the
knives stand at the low angle of 20° while the blades
are set slightly inclined towards the comb at the edge,

s h s

Fig. 120.— Hooker’s U.vcappi.ng Machine.

i', V, V-shaped Guide; i.f., Iron Frame ; c. Comb; k, Knife; s, s. Screw Clamps;
h, Handle ; kh, Knife-holder.

SO as to clear behind and prevent clinging. Adjust-
ment can be made for variation in comb-thickness.

Other forms are also before the bee-keeping world,
one of much promise having a perpendicular shaft
covered with projecting points. This, driven by a
wheel and crank, revolves rapidly, uncapping the
comb, which is pushed past it, guided by a groove.
Simple experiments show that a very rapid move-
ment uncaps without any tearing of the cell walls,
and it is worth remembrance that each time a comb

2 I 2

484

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is uncapped it is improved, so far as evenness is
concerned, for the next operation.

The general public appear to foster a vague notion
that comb honey is necessarily unsophisticated, while
extracted may, at least, be regarded as a body whose
purity is not proven, for the beauty of the comb itself
would hardly account for the great disparity in the
prices of the two, although the disparity is quite

justified by the difference in the cost of production.
Wax is not human food, and when the errors just
expressed have passed away, and the wretched, bottled
imitations of honey, now well-nigh driven from the
market, have been forgotten, extracted honey will be
more highly valued than at present. Every effort
should be made to secure it in the most palatable

form, and to that end all should abandon the doubtful
policy of extracting from combs containing brood, for
the thought of it is, at least, not appetising, and
proper management of the brood-nest makes the

practice needless. The finest samples of extracted
honey, if obtained from the right flora, come from

fully-sealed combs in which breeding has not taken
place, for here the debris consists of wax alone,
specifically lighter than honey, and therefore soon at
the top for removal. ' If scrupulous care has been
taken in cleansing the extractor from dust and other
matters, this first grade stuff will hardly need straining,
standing and skimming being sufficient. An ideal
sample would have a delicate but characteristic aroma,
a rich flavour, leaving a distinct impression on the back
of the palate, and would be of a straw or pale amber
colour. It should possess perfect clearness, and, as

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

485

distinct from clearness, brightness, due to a high

refractive index, with density almost amounting to
toughness, so that the air beneath the cork should
rise very slowly through the mass upon the inversion
of the bottle. Any tendency towards a muddy-browm
in colour, especially if associated with a sickly odour,
is a grave fault, pointing to an admixture of aphide
honey (see page 270, Vol. I.). No sample should be
bottled too quickly after extraction, for the sharp
splashing in the extractor loads it with minute air-
bubbles, which at first impart a cloudy character, and
these, rising subsequently, form an unsightly froth,
which long remains.

Honey got from old combs, although possibly of

high quality, yet contains multitudes of tiny particles
more or less damaging to the colour; and should

these be associated with many distributed pollen
grains, perfect brightness will never be attained. The
particles, scarcely rising or sinking, can only be got
rid of by careful and slow straining through flannel,*
which should be made into a deep, conical bag, to

be, after most careful rinsing, filled with honey while
still wet. If, after straining, the honey is yet cloudy,
it may be kept in bulk some months in a warm
place, to be then syphoned out with a wide tube,
taking care that the submerged leg is about the middle
of the mass. As most of the foreign matter rises,
results nearly as good will be obtained bv running out
below from a syrup-tap, or honey-gate, as our American
cousins delight to call it.

o

* Running through muslin, or straining-cloth, is sufficient for all
ordinary purposes.

486

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The density of honey is an important point, and
on that account I just now enforced the necessity of
all the cells being sealed before extraction. If our
object is quantity, and not to win in a quality com-
petition, it may often be a great economy to extract
so soon as the cells are well filled. The compara-
tively watery honey thus obtained is somewhat liable
to ferment and become acid. This may be avoided
by exposing it, not to dust, but to a warm, dry atmo-
sphere. As the top layer of honey loses its excess
of water, it sinks and brings the thinnest again to
the surface.

The sinking of the densest portion will allow
honey in deep vessels to grade itself, and although,
by liquid diffusion, the density will at length become
equal, the process is exceedingly slow. A bottle of
honey of high quality, which had travelled from Higher
Bebington, Cheshire, to the Exhibition, Kensington,
and was then returned North, came back to the Author
with the refractive indices of different parts unlike.
The journeying had not absolutely mixed it.

Honey kept at a low temperature (or, rather, if not
kept at a high temperature) candies — i.e., some of its
sugar crystallises out. The crystals hold the liquid parts
between their meshes, so solidifying the whole that
it may be carried in paper like butter. The dispo-
sition to candy varies with the source whence the
honey has been obtained, some specimens . quickly
setting almost into a block. Candying is no proof of
purity, yet it is a presumption in favour of it, since
candying spoils the appearance of the honey, while
it may easily be prevented by adulteration, glucose

II

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

487

containing dextrose having frequently been added in
bygone days with this very object. The candying or
granulation can be removed by heating, and the best
plan is the water-bath — i.e.^ a double vessel, like a
glue-pot, the outer one containing boiling water, the
inner the substance to be heated. In this way the
honey cannot be appreciably injured; from which it
follows that new comb honey, in the absence of an
extractor, may be melted down. Carry the heating
only far enough to thoroughly liquefy the wax, and
then allow to cool : if the vessel has taper sides, the
wax can be most readily removed.

The beautiful, rich-coloured, and highly-flavoured
honey obtained from heather, the pride of the Scotch
hills, is, for the two or three days following gathering,
extremely limpid, dropping on the slightest jar from
the comb, if the latter be held in a horizontal position ;
yet it becomes so gelatinous when ripened that the
contents of a single cell, if successfully removed, will
retain its hexagonal figure for some time, and this
apparently from the presence of one or other of the
pectose group of bodies allied to arabine. The ex-
tractor is now unable to dislodge it, and Mr. Raitt,
whose name is so closely associated with heather honey,
has met the case by devising the honey press (Fig. 12 1),
respecting which he has favoured the Author with the
following particulars. The usual method hitherto em-
ployed in getting drained heather honey has been by
mashing the combs, and then expressing the honey
by means of strainer cloth ; and to do so with any
degree of success the broken-up combs had to be
heated. Even then the process was both uncleanly

488

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

and partially ineffectual, much honey remaining in
the cloth. Previous attempts at a press were on the
principle of dealing with broken-up combs, by which
a good deal of the pollen became mixed with the
honey.

The receiver occupying the middle of the stout

Fig. 121. — The Raitt Honey Pres«.

St, Strainer; bl, Block; w, w, Webbing; ivf. Wire Fastening; sc, Screw ;
e, Eye to receive Wire.

block-tin box, open in Fig. 121, is a perforated chamber
strongly backed by webbings (w, w). It is wide enough
to take only a single comb on edge (ifin.). The lid
being shut, and the wire fastenings passed

through the eyes (e), the pressure is applied by the
powerful screw . which slowly drives forward a

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

489

piston (the width -and depth of the box). This,
approaching the block (d/), so presses the cell walls
towards one another as to cause the honey to flow
only from their mouths, the cappings giving way
under the induced pressure, while the cell walls shut
together like the Angers of an empty glove, retaining
the pollen, which is thus, as it were, shut in. The
honey, passing the perforations in the receiver, falls
between the webbings into the strainer below. When
the comb has been crushed hard against the block (d/),
the screw^ is reversed a turn, and the block, or gate,
lifted out, exposing an opening in the side of the box
the size of the piston, which is again advanced until
the wax and debris adhering to it in a flattened cake
protrude beyond the receiver, and are easily removed.
The perforated metal [st) is meant to allow any drip
from the gate to find its way into the interior of the
rim on which the press stands, and which should be
fitted into a stool or table to give steadiness, and
to which the cheese-cloth strainer may be hung.
Mr. Raitt explains that large combs generally contain
so much pollen near their upper edges that its resist-
ance would prevent the lower cells from being
sufficiently pressed ; he, therefore, prefers to operate
upon pieces about half standard size, and such his
press was designed to accommodate. He adds that
“ the honey obtained by it, even from brood-combs-
has been equal to the finest samples he ever drained
from sections.”

Surplus, as all must admit, whether in the form of
comb or extracted honey, is unobtainable in large
amount without a copious flow of nectar, and, at its

490

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

opening, abundance of bees, respecting which see
pages 413 seq. If to these two essentials we add
the movable-comb system, and a hive of sufficient
capacity, it is hardly possible that we can escape a
good harvest awaiting the extractor ; but with all these
conditions acting together, it is easy to fail dismallv
in reference to comb honey, heavy yields of which are
only won by skill and well-timed attention on the
part of the bee-master. Extracted honey, therefore,
logically receives our first attention ; yet even here the
deepest knowledge alone can accomplish the best
results.

In working for extracted honey with long .hives,
empty combs may obviously be placed either behind
or on each side of the brood-nest, to be removed
when full} others then occupying their places ; but in
either position, only very few combs can be added
with advantage at one time. Here, in addition, the
honey ripens slowly, and sealing is sluggish, so that
our comparatively short season is gone before much
can be accomplished. But with the tiering or stori-
fying system, which has proved itself unequalled, the
heat of the brood-nest rises easily through any workable
number of storeys, quickening every operation, from
the secretion of wax to the last touch which covers
the honey from view ; while, under usual conditions,
the bee-keeper can add or subtract a whole storey at
a time, both economising his labour and reducing in-
terruption to the bees ; and, furthermore, he may, if he
so please, consult his convenience by leaving in position
the honey already gathered and sealed until the rush
of work of the mid-season is over. The broad lines of

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 491

the storifying system are quickly learnt, but the de-
tails allow of almost limitless variation ; these varia-
tions frequently being dictated by special but transient
circumstances.

Where standard frames are used, the brood-nest
occupies, under ordinary circumstances, a single storey
only, and to this, at the opening of the harvest or just
before it, the bees being already strong, another may
be added containing a set of combs, or frames fitted
with foundation. But circumstances alter cases, and
the problem is by no means so simple as would at
first appear, for arguments are adducible in favour of
making the addition both above and below the brood-
nest. For the latter, or nadiring method, it may be
urged that as honey is brought in it will take its
natural place above as bees hatch out, . while the
brood-nest will be gradually forced downwards, as
happens normally with undisturbed colonies during
the accumulation of wealth in summer, necessitating
the descent of the wax-workers, queen, and nurses
to occupy the storey below ; that, although the hive
has been doubled in capacity at one stroke, no peril
from chill arises, the bees passing down only as they
are able to occupy new territory ; that the danger
from swarming is, for the time at least removed, and
that the bee-keeper may, the honey flow continuing,
and the weather being warm, add another box of
combs ; and that, in this manner, the combs below
(foundation having been given) will reach completion
slowly — not'at all if those in the top tier be replaced as
they are capped by others that have passed through the
extractor, whereby the swarming impulse is most un-

492

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

likely to present itself. But, on the other hand, it is
clear that the brood-combs will not be quite free for
honey for twenty-one days after nadiring even if the
queen lays no more in them, and that extraction
cannot, therefore, commence for several weeks ; while
in the extractor, also, the newly-gathered pollen of the
brood-combs may in part leave with the honey, giving
to the latter a cloudy appearance.

The plan of adding the second box above is admittedly
not free from dangers, but, these being overpassed, it
gives superior results, and hence would be adopted
by the expert in honey-production as his experience
enables him, by first getting his brood-nest almost
wholly filled with eggs and larvae, to secure not only
a big population, but future space for the queen to
lay, as these are in succession converted into bees; while,
by the movements of the foragers, he can gauge the flow
of nectar and give new storage room ju§t in front of that
which is required in addition to ventilation and shading,
and thereby keep swarming in abeyance. If he adopt
nadiring, it would be early in the season, during a
moderate in-gathering, to be followed, in his calcula-
tions, by a great flow, at the advent of which another
set of combs would be placed on the top. For, if
placed between, they would most probably be at once
accepted by the queen as an invitation to unlimited egg-
laying, and not only would brood be formed where
honey was desired, but a very large part of the energies
of the population would be absorbed in brooding,
feeding, and sealing larvae, to become gatherers only
when gathering is nearly or totally at an end. This
question of the limitation of the production of brood

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

493

is most important, especially in relation to comb
honey.

To return to our stock, above which, let us suppose,
some days previously, a storey of combs had been
placed ; as these are getting in large part filled, while
the bees are gaining strength, a third tier should be
added, and, according to usual practice, beneath the
top box, in or-der that the latter may be carried off
when ready for appropriation ; but Mr. Raitt very
wisely urges that, where excluder zinc is not used, the
difficulty just now mentioned is likely to meet us by
the queen giving her attention to the alluring combs.
He therefore places these above, far away from the
haunts of the queen, until partly filled, and then inter-
changes the two top boxes, the upper of which wall
soon be completed, to be then taken away bodily, to
make room for one carrying empty combs as before.

The determination of the correct moment for adding
a new tier needs experience. The condition of
the upper box can be pretty accurately estimated by
turning back the corner of the quilt, and looking at
the outside face of the outside comb. This will re-
main unsealed longer than the others. Should white
capping be seen at its end, the time for removal
cannot be distant ; and if the bees are working
energetically, especially if the weather be very hot,
no time should be lost in increasing accommodation :
for it must not be forgotten that, as honey is gathered,
the space within is constantly reduced, while a box
of absolutely completed combs is generally well-nigh
vacated by the bees. In adding new combs, the rule
will ahvays be followed of spacing a full i^in.

494

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

(supers) for honey, and a full ijin. (nadirs) for
brood.

Of course, the process of adding empty and removing
full tiers is limited by season and district, as well
as the capabilities of the stock, and, these all being
good, a fourth box of standards may be required ; but
it is desirable, while securing to the bees abundant cells
in which to deposit their gains, to make the accommo-
dation no larger than this demands, or loss arises in
many ways, while the combs at the close of the gather-
ing, remain only partially filled. In working for comb
honey, this would be disastrous — with extracted, it is not
important, and for the following reason : Bees never

seal cells until they are full, and so half-filled ones
remain open when the honey yield drops to current
consumption ; but, after three or four days, this un-
sealed honey is as dense as the rest, and may be
thrown out by the extractor without the least detriment
to the general crop.

In working thus for extracted honey, it is not room
simply that is given, but comb with empty cells; so
that the bees drawn away to the fields by breezes
redolent with nectar, can, at their return, at once
discharge their load, and start unhindered for another,
without depriving their queen of the use of the brood-
nest, by which the strongest predisposition to swarming
is avoided ; but, in addition, our queens should be
voung (see page 277), and, unless the hives have very
non-conductive walls, they ought to be carefully shaded,
while the entrances should provide abundant ventila-
tion. My own run, by the removal of the sliding door,
i6in. by fin. — none too much; lifting the hive from

THE PRODLXTION OF HONEY.

495

the floor-board by shallow blocks, so that ventilation
is secured all round, being often desirable.

Mr. Raitt,* whose advocacy for simplicity is always
of the wiser sort, manages his entrances in such an
ingenious way that I wonder it has not been largely
adopted. It is, of course, necessary in tiering that
the doorway remain in the lowest box, but in that one
only. He rabbets both the sides and front and back
of his hives, which are 14^0. square within, so that
the frames may hang either way. The sides are
double, the front and back single ; but when the
frames run across the entrance, for wintering, dummies
front and back practically make the hive double all
round. For the working season the frames run from
front to rear, to secure more perfect ventilation ; but
the point lies in this — that the front, which is of equal
depth with the sides and back, on nailing together,
is kept up fin., leaving a doorway below, while its
upper edge stands up from the sides so as to close
the doorway of the exactly similar second storev, when
that is placed upon it ; and so on in every tier, the
lowest doorway being infallibly open, while all above
must be infallibly closed. The rabbet of the front is
necessarily made fin. deeper than that of the back,
so as to bring the bearings of the ears of the frames
to one level. These body boxes also act as super
covers when working for comb honey.

Doubling, as a favourite practice with many, demands
some notice; it consists in removing all the combs from
a strong stock, and placing them, filled as they are with

Bee-keepers' Record, Feb. 15th, 1885, page 21.

496

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

brood, in a second storey over another colony. , The
swarm formed may be advantageously utilised by being
run for comb honey over a contracted brood-nest, as
hereafter explained. With the doubled stock, the
progeny of the two queens will give, in a week or so,
an immense gathering population, filling the cells of the
upper storey as vacated. The process should antedate
by some days, at least, an expected honey flow,
at the beginning of which a third storey should be
added. In good honey districts, in a favourable
season, a fourth tier will be required, especially if the
top one remain on for complete sealing, so that it
may be removed bodily instead of each comb as ready.

Doubling, with every form of condensing that will
secure gigantic stocks, has its advantages — e.g.,
60,000 bees will give more than double the result in
surplus of 30,000, because temperature with a large
number is regulated and sustained with less individual
effort than with a smaller, and also because the 60,000
have but one queen instead of two, by which the
demand upon their energies in brood-tending is rela-
tively reduced. A loss, however, accompanies the
gain — the larger hive and denser throng impede move-
ment and delay work; and careful experiments seem
to indicate that after I2lb. of bees have been heaped
together, the loss is greater than the advantage. The
defect of doubling lies in the presence of brood in
the upper storey occasioning delay, as already pointed
out — a serious disadvantage with our short season, but
relatively unimportant in America, where the practice
is very usually followed.

In dealing with those stocks which, from any cause

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

497

save that of disease, have failed in rising to profit-
able proportions, some form of condensation is of
the very highest importance, and the novice must
not think that a strange thing has happened to him
if all his stocks are not first class ; for it is the
common experience of even the greatest adepts, who
sometimes, in describing their remarkable doings with
a few colonies, mislead by failing to note how little
they have done with others. Two poor ones (see
pages 432, 437) have two or three weeks of progress
put into them by union, and so possibly save the
harvest. A fair one, being filled up with brood from
a second like to itself, which henceforward is a nucleus
for queen-raising, becomes so quickly strong that it
enters the lists as a honey stock. It by no means
follows that frames of brood given should remain ;
and, indeed, in working for comb honey,’ it is often
most desirable to add such, and, after the bees are
hatched, remove them, as the less room the colony
has outside its sections, short of driving it to swarm-
ing, the better.

Storifying with standard frames is not so absolutely
manageable as with those that are shallower. Even
the preparatory operation of spreading the brood, when
the nest extends to two boxes, is more quickly done
by horizontal than perpendicular division. The nest is
very rarely centrally placed, and then a half-rotation of
one of the boxes spreads without risk. Interchanging
(page 94) cuts the theoretically globular collection of
brood horizontally, and the circumference is brought to
the centre, while the widest part of the nest takes the
top and bottom. Honey is now inevitably removed
VoL. II. 2 K

498

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

from the middle, and cannot be replaced above, for
brood already holds possession. In all subsequent
work, the shallower frame appears to the Author to
have every way the advantage, while he has proved it
to be superior for wintering purposes. Air. Broughton
Carr, whose splendid extracted honey is well known,
is an earnest advocate of a shallow frame, which he
has so cleverly championed, in the British Bee-keepers'
Record^ December, 1886, and January, 1887, that all
would do well to read his remarks. His narrow
tiers, bin. deep, carry between thirty and forty pounds
of honey. Shallower combs are more readily sealed,
the different grades of honey depending upon their
sources are more easily kept distinct, uncapping is
more readily performed, and in extracting from virgin
combs (of which more presently), fracture is less
likely. Those using standard frames may adopt with-
out prejudice tiering bodies of a less depth.

Smoke and carbolic acid are both of service in inter-
changing and giving new tiers, as well as in enabling
us to harvest the honey. When the first upper storey
is to be added, a cloth wrung out from the carbolic
mixture (page 19), or common carbolic shaken up with
water, and placed over the hive from which the quilt
has just been lifted, sends the bees below; to effect
this object we may adopt Air. Raitt’s plan of using
stiff paper (I prefer loosely-made brown), smeared
with crude carbolic acid. He says;* “On raising the
paper, gradually beginning at one side, we are able,
without interruption from a single bee, to pass a scraper
over each top bar, removing all propolis and bits of

* Bee-keepers' Record^ July ist, 1887, page 126.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

499

comb. The paper is again dropped for a moment,
and on again raising it we are enabled to slip in our
excluder without trouble. The paper is now laid aside,
and the upper storey, with all its empty combs arranged,
is at once set in place.” In inserting a storey between
others, paper smeared on both sides is used. The
storeys having the uniting propolis cracked by a
chisel, are lifted apart at one edge, and the paper
is worked in, covering the space between the two.
In a few seconds, all the bees above and below
have rushed from the junction of the storeys, when
the upper part is boldly lifted and stood upon the
edges of a box. The paper is withdrawn, the new
storey adjusted, and the upper one added without
molestation to the operator, and perhaps no death
by crushing even to a solitary bee. The use of
carbolic acid will not injure the honey as the whole
of It quickly evaporates, while smoke, in excess, does
impart a lasting bad odour to the comb.

In removing top combs for extraction, carbolised
paper Is put on under the quilt for a minute or two,
when the bees hastily descend. The frames are lifted
one by one, to have the few stragglers whisked off, and
then are placed in a tin comb-box or a spare storey,
over which a cloth is thrown. New combs are given,
and all covered down ; or the storey is exchanged
bodily for that carrying the empty combs. The danger
from robbers is at such times small, as no new combs
would be added unless nectar was still abundant.

Harvesting from many hives, some of which will
lose two or three tiers, necessitates more preparation,
and considerable care if gathering is drawing to a

2 K 2

500

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

close, as bad temper and robbing are then easily
induced. The rough plan of brushing bees back on to
the top of the open hive is fraught with danger, for
the odour rising attracts the thieves, while the stock,
bewildered by the light, and kept in check by smoke
or carbolic, is heavily handicapped in defending itself.
Fix, therefore, a platform about 2ft. square (page 258)
in front of the hive, resting one edge on the alighting-
board, so that the bees, in running in, ascend a
gentle incline. Driving the bees down as before, by
carbolised paper is of great assistance; but whether
we adopt this plan or no, a chisel is inserted, and the
top box raised on wedges too small to permit a bee
to escape ; and now smoke is puffed through the
opening, or the carbolic spray, or carbolised feather,
is used (page 20), when the box is lifted on to a
bottom board put to receive it. The paper is in turn
transferred to the second box, while a cloth covers
the first. The second box is now similarly removed,
and placed over its companion, when the hive is
covered down snugly, and its roof replaced. The
frames are next lifted out one by one, each held by
the ear, while the bees are jerked and brushed on to
the platform, and the comb placed in a vacant storey
provided for the purpose. When filled, this passes
to a place of safety, and the second box is cleared as
the first, its combs going into Box No. i, which is
immediately housed. Start now on another hive, pre-
ferably situated at some distance from the first, and
fix in position the liberated platform. In this way

but little excitement is caused, but should a mishap
occur, it is better to discontinue for the day, if possible..

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

501

Keep no hive open a moment longer than necessary,
and be particularly watchful that no bees get access
to the removed honey.

Extracting should be done under cover — it must
be, unless forage be quite abundant. The sticky,

messy frames, as emptied, should be returned to the
storeys whence they were taken, and then these,
piled according to convenience, may be given again
at dusk (not earlier) to the bees, to be cleaned out
and put into condition for keeping for the work of
another season. The quality of the honey gathered
at different periods by the same stock, and even at
the same period by different stocks, will often vary
widely; and, in extracting a quantity, an effort should
be made to secure that of highest type by itself, as
superior quality, mingled with second-grade stuff, will
but little raise the market value of the latter. Holding
up the combs to the light (even if they have been
bred in, the upper corners remain uncoloured) will
assist in forming a judgment of the contents.

Comb honey, to which much that has been said in
reference to extracted applies, if raised as a main or
exclusive crop, presents, in some respects, an essen-
tially different problem. The difficulties are greater,
and the results less certain, and are only undertaken
because of the relatively high price comb honey
commands. For extracted honey, finished combs are
given : the visits of the queen, should such occur,
occasion nothing more serious than delay, however
large the brood-patch : complete sealing is by no

means necessary, while threatened swarming may
without loss be commonly averted by emptying a few

502

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

frames. For comb honey, on the contrary, all ordi-
nary systems require the bees to build their comb'-',
either with or without the assistance of foundation :
the presence of a single egg is fatal : every cell

must be fully capped, while the giving of empty
comb outside the sections will hinder or stop storing
in them.

The difference involved in supplyini^ foundation
instead of complete comb is immense, for it must never
be forgotten that bees are social in their instincts, their
individuality is merged in that of the colony, they
follow precedent, and they act in concert because
they will to do as others have done. If these have
crowded their brood-nest with honey, they will crowd
it still ; if drone-comb has been started, they will follow’
the pattern ; if others have stored honey in their

supers, they without question accept their lead, and

there place their load. If, therefore, we can manage
to give the cue, we may settle the plans they will

follow ; but when once the wrong path has been

entered trouble awaits us. From this it follows that,
in giving comb, its acceptance for honey-storing is
certain ; for the bee’s instinct is unable to get behind
the fact of our interference. The comb is to her part
of her nest, because it is comb, and it is there above
that it may hold the in-gathering, and our will is done
as a natural sequence. Mr. Hutchinson truly says :*
“ Let the bees once get the start of the queen by
clogging the brood-nest with honey, and that colony
becomes practically worthless for the production of
comb honey ; and the oft-repeated advice to make

* “ The Production of Comb Honey,” W. L. Hutchinson, page 24.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

503

room for the queen by extracting the honey, is
equally valueless, as the bees will refill the combs
the first thing they do.’’ Be it noted it is worthless
for the production of comb honey. All this points to
the extreme importance of having, as far as possible,
the brood-nest — z>., all the brood-nest combs — a block
of brood before the sections are put on, and, in
addition, the giving to our section crate, as far as
practicable, an appearance of one that has already
been adopted, when its adoption is all but a certainty.
The most trivial matters will sometimes determine its
acceptance, and in my early days of bee-keeping I
made it a practice to pour and splash syrup about
within every super, the moment before putting it
over the hive : a few, rushing aloft to clear up sweets,
joined by a larger contingent, just playing at follow-
my-leader, frequently started operations which con-
tinued to a successful issue.

At the close of the honey harvest, unfinished, and
in consequence, unmarketable, sections remain on
hand. These, when extracted (page 480), become
most valuable stock, and, placed in the first given
sectioh crate, either alone or in combination with those
carrying foundation, will put us almost on a par with
those working for extracted honey. The advantage,
however, brings a difficulty. The combs will preserve
the start they have over the foundation, and serious
bulging will follow unless the now necessary separators
are used in the crate. No cause for great regret this, as
they are desirable under almost all conditions, although
perfectly straight combs are obtainable without them
(see pages 184 and 461). The Canadian narrow sec-

504

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

tions, exhibited in 1886, and raised without separators,
of which so much was sdd, were only approximately
regular, and, indeed, not nearly so regular as great
slabs of comb raised by myself, and some others,

many years before separators were thought of. The
Canadian honey required to be cased in the order
in which it was built, and then it was generally im-
possible to lift out a box without damaging its face,
or the face of its neighbour.

Mr. Simmins’ system depends largely upon the
bee’s preference for comb over foundation. Fig. 76,
intended to explain the principle, but not the details,
shows a space which would, in practice, accommodate
not less than five or six frames for a hive of one

storey,* and the combs built here may be utilised by
being put into sections. If eggs have been laid in

them, the eggs lose their vitality by the comb being
kept a few days before it is given to the bees. The
inventor depends more, however, upon combs built
earlier in the year in an upper storey, under the
stimulation of dry sugar feeding. These_, cut into
six, just fit qjin. square section boxes ; and since all
the boxes are supplied with combs simultaneously,
separators are not essential, and l\Ir. Simmins does

not generally use them.

The significant fact, however, is that bees so prefer
to wmrk in sections supplied with comb to building
below, that the former will be readily stored and

* One-storey hives are not best suited to the Simmins’ system. With
those in tiers, starters only are given in the bottom storey, while comb is
crowded into the sections. A loose comb is a bee’s abomination. Fixing
is followed by filling, so that the nadir unheeded is found to have made
little progress even at the end of the season.

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

505

finished, while starters in the latter position make
but slow progress, and the safety-valve against
swarming is thus kept open in the form of a vacancy
near the entrance.

The section crate must be so placed over the hive
that no leak of air is permitted. Crevices should be
carefully closed, and for this purpose old quilts, torn
into strips, will be useful. When the sections have
been started, the main difficulty is passed, and another
box should be added below the first, when it is,
perhaps, half completed ; the second, by creating a
gap between the progressing combs and the brood-
nest, strongly stimulates the bees to fill it. Henceforth
foundation is nearly equal to comb, as the situation
is already an accepted one, and bees got thus far will
generally, if properly handled, go through the season
without swarming. Previous explanations apply — new
crates, as needed, being added beneath, while filled
ones are removed from above.

The danger of the queen entering has convinced
most producers of comb honey that an excluder
(pages 74, g8, and 114) of some kind, is, at the worst,
the less of two evils. Opinions respecting the effect
of an excluder are diverse, some stating that it
considerably decreases the amount of honey, others
that it makes no difference. It is impossible, of
course, to dogmatise here, and comparison is im-
practicable; but I can conceive of no reason why the
amount of honey should be lessened, except that it
is likely by its presence to somewhat disincline the
bees to adopt the sections, since it tends to isolate
them from the main body. The excluder, however, is

5o6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

of practical value, in that it prevents any disturbance
of the frames in tiering up, and also gives most help-
ful control over the size of the brood-nest, the matter
next to be considered.

It would be easy to give a long catalogue of dis-
tinguished honey-producers, who all declare in favour
of small brood-chambers when comb honey is the
object. In the early part of the season the queen
should receive every encouragement to deposit eggs,
for the great spring laying is the foundation of all
surplus; but, as the summer advances, and the
duration of the yield is measured by five or even six
weeks (the date depending upon the flora and latitude),
the production of large breadths of brood is fatal to
high results. Let us imagine that the brooding,
feeding, and sealing of a single bee, from the egg
upwards, costs as much to the colony as storing four
cells with honey — an estimate which careful attention
to this problem has shown me to be moderate, even
for ordinary yields. Then the production of ilb. of
bees, i.e., 2lb. nearly of larvae (see page 20, Vol. I.),
will reduce the honey stored by i61b. ; if the comb has
to be built, by probably 81b. It is because a bee
in a fair yield is able to requite the colony with many
times its cost that a large population means surplus,
but if the I lb. aforesaid is produced at the end of the
honey yield, the expenditure has been made without
a possibility of return. The supposition that tremen-
dous laying on the part of the queen is requisite
right down to grey autumn, is most shallow — late
breeding, where heather is in prospect, is feasible
enough ; but the queen may, and should, by a limi-

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

507

tation of the brood-chamber, be brought to reduced
activity long before the period just now indicated. Mr.
Simmins says, in speaking of swarms made for the
raising of queens : “ If the swarm happen to be

taken before June, the number of stock frames

may be made up to eight, after a week or so. If

later than June ist, six only may be used, or too

much brood will be produced later than is beneficial
to the production of a surplus;” and years earlier, while
writing the first edition of Modern Bee-keeping,” I
thus expressed myself : ” Even in the best-managed

apiaries it is often found, at the time the honey harvest
opens, that some hives, though rapidly increasing, are
not sufficiently crowded to take advantage of super
space, while the honey yield is so short in duration,
that to wait while the bees are multiplying is to lose
it altogether. If comb honey be our object, wise
management would now either unite, as we have sug-
gested, or contract the hive, removing every frame,
filled or unfilled, that does not contain brood, leaving
only that which is necessary for the egg-laying of
the queen, and using a division-board, as explained
under ‘ Wintering.’ - The bees, though not particularly
strong, are crowded aloft, and super boxes become
ours where, but for this plan, we could have had no
hope. But it must not be overlooked that, as the
bees have no room for store in the hive body, they
will be left so poor at the removal of the sections
that sugar must be fed to them ; but our profits, as
well as our experience, if we have it, will cause us
to do this with a cheerful heart and a generous
hand.”

5o8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The practical question — what should be the size of
the brood-nest of stocks — admits only of an empirical
answer, as the strength of the colony, the character
of the district, the season, and the part of it to which
the question refers, are all concerned in its deter-
mination.

The ground is covered by the double statement that
the brood-chamber should be as large as the queen
can be got to fill in anticipation of the great in-
gathering, and as small as it can be made (so that
swarming is not induced) when the bees raised in it
will no longer pay for their upbringing. No nectar
flow from any single source is long enough continued
to forbid a contraction of the brood-chamber at the
time the surplus receptacles into which it is to be
stored are put on the hive. If, however, a second
source, such as heather after clover, is in anticipation,
the reduction of the brood-chamber would then be
premature. This reduction is a perfectly normal pro-
cess, and is brought about in the home of the wild
bee by incoming honey, at the very time we are
recommending its adoption ; but by adding crates or
extracting we prevent the honey from extending
downwards, so as to greatly limit the queen ; other
means are therefore necessary.

Large hives with deep frames can have the brood-
chamber reduced by dummies, but the top area is
lessened, and supers are not worked so freely where
brood is not beneath. Making the frames shallower
increases the supering surface ; aiid if the queen be
confined by excluder to the bottom box, this will
be packed with brood while all the honey is placed

THE PRODL’CTION OF HONEY.

509

above at the disposal of the bee-keeper. A contracted
chamber, thus filled, gives as much room for the exer-
cise of the queen’s energies as a large one partly
filled with honey, and overloaded with pollen.

The question of the brood-chamber of the stock has
some relation to that of swarms, which, however dis-
couraged, cannot be ignored and overlooked ; and here,
as in so many other cases, it is impossible to draw
a hard-and-fast line to be ever followed. If the swarm
be early, and the harvest lengthened, then it may be
converted into a honey stock by the power of the
bees it is able to raise, and a very restricted brood-
chamber would be unwise, while every encouragement
to egg-laying should be given ; but if it do not issue
until the flow has already commenced, the swarm
must be made a gatherer of surplus at once, or it
will yield no profit during the current year beyond
its own establishment. Suppose the swarm to issue
from a stock working sections, then, without returning
it, we may treat it as described (page 165), and, by
giving it a very small brood-chamber, force it at once
to continue the sections moved from the parent and
placed over it, for the hive proper would not really
hold all the bees. If we fill the hive with combs
and cover down by excluder zinc, the queen, sur-
rounded by a dense population, would lay rapidly,
and soon a large part of the power of the swarm
would be taken from super work, while others would
store in the unoccupied cells. If, however, foundation
were given, the conversion of this into comb would
occupy some time, and so delay egg-laying and honey-
storing below to the present advantage of the sections.

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

510

Mr. Heddon has advocated giving foundation, and not
comb, for a reason now apparent; but Mr. Doolittle^
Dr. G. L. Tinker, and others, assert that the bees
should build their own combs, and not have even
the aid of foundation ; while Mr. W. L. Hutchinson,*
a leader in the same school, has given us the results
of his experiments in hiving swarms in alternation
as they issued, on full foundation, or with starters
only, and has declared in favour of the latter. He
thus expresses himself: ‘M have many times hived

a swarm upon eleven frames of empty comb, each
a foot square, and in three days found every comb
full of honey, with the exception of a space, per-
haps, as large as my hand, in the centre of one of
the middle combs, which was occupied with eggs ;
and, were I raising extracted honey, I should most
certainly give a swarm all the empty combs it could
fill, but not ui the brood-nest. The advantages to
be gained by allowing a newly-hived swarm to build
its own combs in the brood-nest are fully as great
in raising extracted honey as in raising comb honey ;
but, in either case, the queen must be kept in the
brood-nest by means of a queen-excluding honey
board.

“ If a swarm is hived upon frames with starters
only, the first step is necessarily the building of comb-
Now if a super filled with drawn or partly drawn
combs (not foundation) is placed over the hive, the
bees will begin storing honey in the combs at the
same time that comb-building is begun below. If a
queen-excluder keeps the queen out of the supers, she

* “The Production of Comb Honey.”

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.

51I

will be ready w'ith her eggs the moment a few cells
are psrtly finished in the brood-nest; and if the latter
has been properly contracted, she will easily keep pace
with the comb-building. The result is that nearly
all the honey goes into the supers, where it is stored
in the most marketable shape, and the combs in the
brood-nest are filled almost entirely with brood.’’

It has been objected to this system that the brood-
nest would thus get in large part filled with drone-
comb.- To this I can reply, from direct experiment,
that the stricture is unfounded unless there be mis-
management. The bees perfectly well recognise that
breeding can only be carried on beneath the excluder,
and they follow their usual course, viz., they build
worker-comb to accommodate the brood, and occupy
outlying parts, if such be given, with store, for which
drone-comb is constructed.

In hiving this summer (July 8th), upon six standard
frames with starters only, 51b. of Cyprians, headed
by Madame la Voyageuse (page 350), I placed,
at the same time, a 241b. section crate above, con-
taininor about ten boxes of- extracted comb, and
the remainder foundation. Every part of the crate
was filled with bees the same afternoon. The sections
were completed perfectly to the bottom rail, their
caps, of course, being thin, and too transparent, as
is the practice with Cyprians; but no speck of pollen
was added. The brood- nest was filled with un mixed
worker, except about a quarter of an outside comb,
which was drone. At the removal of the super, the

brood extended, in all but the side combs, absolutely
to the top bar, the attachment cells being rounded

512

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

above in order to fit the larvae. The statement that
on this plan the pollen is carried into the sections, as
Mr. Corneil complains, does not agree with my re-
stricted experience of it. Some, however, corroborate
Mr. Corneil, and the difficulty would occur if the brood-
nest were restricted excessively. From eight to six
standards, according to season, would appear to be
correct. Swarms do not ordinarily carry pollen for
three or four days ; but if no cells then be found to
receive it, undoubtedly it would be carried aloft, and
more probably if narrow sections wdthout separators
were used. Mine were 4Jin. by 4Jin. by i|-in. The
whole plan is on its trial, but experiments on a small
scale may soon decide its true value.

What has been said of harvesting extracted honey
applies largely to that in the comb, especially if the
crates are removed en bloc. The bees remaining
after driving by carbolic may be got rid of by lifting
out the boxes, and giving each a rocking shake and a
whisk with a brush. In inserting a new crate be-
neath one in progress, in the absence of an excluder,
the half bee-space tray (/r. Fig. 113) is of great
service, as it saves the frames of the hive from
any displacement. In order to facilitate simultaneous
finishing of the boxes, put those containing comb on
the outside, those having foundation only, in the
centre. Towards the end of the honey harvest, should
the boxes be removed as finished, it is well to con-
tract the crate by adding my dummy boxes in the
vacancies. These are simply blocks the size of sec-
tions, or sections themselves, with thin wood on the
otherwise open faces. Now, tiering down and group-

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 513

ing the sections wisely will save us from having any
large number unfinished, but it must not be expected
that those slowly worked will equal in appearance
those obtained earlier. Sections must not be left on
after the income has fallen as low as expenditure, fully
finished or not, or the bees will spoil all by beginning
to break the cappings and carry down the honey.

The sections housed must be carefully kept secure
from bees, and in a warm, dry room. Cases to hold
one or two dozen, with glass sides, are a great con-
venience, and permit of an assortment of the stock.
Those poorly finished should be extracted. Those
containing dark-coloured, inferior honey, may be fed
back to the bees behind a division-board, or in an
upper storey. The comb wall be of great service
the succeeding season, as we have seen. Tempting
packages for sections, now so common, have their
value as increasing sales, but any description of them
lies outside our present purpose.

Sections do not keep so well as extracted honey.
They are unsaleable if candied, and must be melted
down. In a damp air they weep, and rapid changes
of temperature damage them, many cells showing
that they are defective (page 175, \"ol. I.), so that
evenness of colour is lost. They are difficult to
pack, and fragile at best. Extracted honey, liable
also to candying, brought about mainly by the action
of light, should, if in bottle, be kept in store in
the dark ; but, unlike comb honey, when candied its
transparency can be easily regained, without the least
detriment to quality, as explained at page 487.

Extracted honey from virgin combs is altogether
VoL. II. 2 L

514

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the equal of that in sections, and, ultimately, such
must it be. Formerly, muddy specimens, more the
product of the aphis than flowers, could even squeeze
their way into the prize list ; at that time the whole
nursery went whirling round to get a few pounds of
pollen-stained stuff ; soon the mistake was seen,
and, barring brood, we yet held to old brood-combs,
as being tough enough to bear extraction. Now
the extractor is so improved that virgin combs can
brave the ordeal ; and since those built on thick
and wired foundation may be used, there is no
fear at all that they will unduly suffer.

The truth is better faced ; the specks, tiny though
they be, found in that from combs in which breed-
ing has taken place, consist, mainly, of larval
excrement (see Fig. 4, Vol. I.), a fact which will
convince the far-seeing that 1 am urging no fancy,
but that which has much to do with the develop-
ment of the popularity of honey itself — a popularity
which will continue to grow, unless blind folly
prevent. If prizes were given for honey extracted
from combs which had never been contaminated,
and the capable judge, with a good- hand magnifier,
could determine the point instantly, an improvement
in the quality of the article would soon be produced,
far transcending, in effect, any of the tasty labels now
so common. A name should be given to it, and
although the word virgin, as applied to comb, covers
an old blunder, it is unremovably crystallised into
the language; and so '' extracted virgin honey” might
not be inappropriate, especially as it would appeal
correctly to a vague idea in the public mind.

1

CHAPTER X.

WINTERING.

Causes of Winter Mortality — Reducing Combs —
Winter Passages — Candy Cake — Hill's Device —
Hybernation Theory — Age of Bees — Most Favour-
able Temperature — Action of the Stomach Mouth
— Honey as a He at -forming Food — Necessary
Renewal of Air in Hive — -Daily Loss in Weight —
Bowel Distension — The Pollen Theory — Hive Walls
— Wintering Weak Stocks — Experiments on Non-
conductors of Heat — Cork-dust — Ventilation —
Dampness : Causes of — Clearing Floor-boards —

Snow-glare — Starved Bees.

No care during the season of activity can com-
pensate for neglect of the bees’ comfort and ne-
cessities during the period of repose. A winter well
passed has more to do with rapid building up in
the spring, and so with all subsequent success,
than the inexperienced can imagine. Setting on one
side the misfortune of disease, or the accident of
queenlessness, the fatalities which occur during
winter may be put down, in nearly every instance^
to one of four causes : paucity of bees, insufficiency

of food, want of proper protection, and errors in ven-
tilation. The first two difficulties will not meet those

2 I. 2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

516

who have acted in accordance with the recommenda-
tions given under “Uniting,” pages 432 et seq., and
“Food and Feeding,” pages 379, 409, 416, et seq.

With very strong stocks, the bees will not con-
dense sufficiently to make the desirable contraction
in the space they occupy, until the nights have
become actually cold, and I have found it often im-
possible to get all packed up in wintering condition
until November. Feeding should, however, be all
completed by the end of September (page 417), but
failure in this may be counterbalanced by abundance
of candy (page 396). In finally arranging, remove
all needless combs, reducing the strongest to eight
standards, and making six the rule for good stocks.
At the sides place thick, tight-fitting dummies, or
pour in chaff behind thin ones. Take from those
having an embarras de riche sse and give to poverty-
stricken neighbours, so that all may have abundance?
and yet a sufficiency of empty ceils to accommo-
date the bees, some of which, as the external air falls
to 45°, begin to crawl in head first, exposing the
breathing apertures (“spiracles,” page 33, Vol. I.) to
the slowly passing air-current, while others occupy the
interstices between the combs. They thus condense
their cluster, reducing its external surface; and as
each bee, so to speak, is a tiny furnace, carrying on
a process in its tissues and fluids w'hich is the exact
chemical equivalent of oxidising honey, temperature
is the more easily sustained. In this the bees are
assisted if the combs are set rather wider apart than
the normal distance — ifin. from centre to centre being
usually accepted as most fitting.

WINTERING.

517

Winter passages are recommended by many ; these
consist of a small hole, ^in. or more in diameter, cut
through each comb, about the middle of its length, and
one-third of its depth from the top bar, and having
a curled, stout shaving or wooden pill-box, without top
or bottom, placed within, so as to prevent the bees
filling the opening. Commonly, the bees of the

several seams are literal detachments, and when con-
densation takes place during cold spells, many in
the outside seams, unable to pass round the edges
of the icy frame, get isolated from the main body,
and freeze to death. With winter passages they pass
through the comb ; but these disfigurements are not
at all necessary with the plans hereinafter described-
A cake of candy ((?, Fig. 19), as suggested on

page 397, gives passage-way above the frames, but
the paper is liable to collapse ; and last winter I

cast the candy in section boxes, one side of which
had been made level by cutting, and the result was
excellent. One of these, placed on its side, and

covered down snugly under the chaff-tray, keeps
the bees above, feeding, and, as the candy disappears,
they cluster in the space it occupied, holding almost
all their honey under immediate command, and main-
taining heat with great facility ; while there are no
bees that are in any way separated from the whole
cluster. With this arrangement, and the wide setting
of the combs, the empty cells before referred to are
hardly required.

In the States and Canada, whose winter climate is
for the most part much more rigorous than our own,
a plan having much in common with that now given

5i8 bees and bee-keeping.

is adopted by some of the most successful bee-keepers.
It is known as Hill’s device, and consists in placing
over the frames several curved laths so nailed together,
concave side downwards, that they, forming a shallow
dome of lattice work, hold up the top covering, and
give opportunity to the bees to cluster above the top
bars. I prefer starting with a cake of candy, as it
makes the clustering of the bees above absolutely
certain.

As we proceed, the necessity for husbanding the
heat of the cluster, as far as practicable, will become
apparent. In order to grasp the position, we must
trace the manner in which bees maintain their tem-
perature, and the fluctuations to which it is liable — a
matter bound up with the management of the mouth
and top of the hive. All advanced apiarians are agreed
that bees do require considerable ventilation, notwith-
standing the extraordinary whim, much discussed a
year or two since, that all the air needed in winter
may pass through the hive side; but they are not
agreed as to the manner in which this ventilation is
best given. Bees hybernate, as the Rev. W. F. Clarke
has recently taught, and respecting which he is un-
doubtedly original, although he will find I gave the
outlines of hybernation* in bees six years earlier.
Yet they are, strictly speaking, warm-blooded, main-
taining a temperature which, though not constant, is
not suffered in the centre of their cluster to sink to
less than 65°, even in the most severe weather.
This temperature is kept up with the least effort

* “ The Causes of Abdominal Distension of the Hive Bee during
Winter,” Frank R. Cheshire, May, 1879.

WINTERING.

519

when the surrounding air stands at about 40°, or a
little more, which is, consequently, the most favourable
for wintering; and could it be preserved without
variation, as it practically may be by the plan of
‘‘cellaring” (adopted largely in America, but here little
used, because our climate is relatively so mild that
bees may be quite successfully wintered on their
summer stands), the bees would come through to the
spring, not only in good order, but, for the purposes
of the colony, young, with life before them.

The lives of bees vary much in duration according
to the season of the year, for their age is not to be
reckoned by number of days so much as amount of
service and the sum of the energy they have been
called upon to exert. In summer, when everything
prompts to the highest activity, the store of vitality
— the birth heritage of every bee, and apparently
a uniform and constant quantity — is quickly worn out,
and at six weeks, or at most two months, decrepitude
or death supervenes. But during the winter, if con-
ditions are favourable, the busy throng gives place to
the quiescent cluster, yielding usually but the slightest
evidence of movement. In this restful state bee life
is paid out slowly, and, at five or six months, those
inhabitants of the hive that were hatched so late as
to have no demand for honey-gathering made upon
them, are still possessed of so much of their initial
vigour that they can labour for the colony yet a
month or two when spring returns. Such bees, and
such only, can be said to have been successfully
wintered.

The conditions regulating the amount of activity of

520

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the cluster during winter, to which I drew attention
in 1879, have been remarkably corroborated by Pro-
fessor N. McLain, who has detailed some experiments
on this matter worthy of careful attention. His
experiments were conducted in a cellar over the tem-
perature of which he had full command. The bees
entered the hybernating state when the external tem-
perature was between 48° and 52°, the variation
depending upon the amount of humidity present.
At 41° Fahr. he found the shape of the cluster most
permanent ; while that temperature was maintained,
little change in the shape or location of the cluster
could be seen, and functional activity seemed to have
reached the minimum ; , even respiration appeared
to be suspended,* and the outlines of the clusters
remained unchanged for days together. Unrest and
activity increased as the temperature neared the zero
point. The degree of activity at 44° was not much
greater than that at 41°. At intervals of about one
week the bees roused themselves to activity, the form
of the cluster changed, and, after three or four hours
of cheerful and contented humming, having in the
meantime appeased their hunger, the cluster reformed
into a compact body, humming ceased, respiration
became slow, and profound silence reigned in the
hive. The more perfect the conditions, the longer
the periods of inactivity.

The reason of this fact, observed by Mr. McLain, is
as follows : During the periods between visible feed-

* Gaseous diffusion and oxidation are, of course, not really suspended,
but only greatly reduced, enough remaining to keep up the cluster
temperature given on page 518.

k

WINTERING.

521

ing, the bees are actually feeding upon the store of
honey taken into the honey-sac (page 60, Vol. L),
where it is held until appetite requires appeasing.
Then the stomach mouth — a marvellous structure, lying
behind the honey-sac — passes a ration backwards to
the true stomach, whence it enters the fluids of the
bee, to undergo oxidation, for we have already seen
that honey, and saccharine substances generally, are the
materials from which heat is produced (see page 376).
These consist of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, in
the proportions in which they exist in water, in
combination with carbon ; and although it would be
scientifically inexact to say that honey consists of
carbon and water, for our present purpose it is con-
venient so to regard it. The bees clustering together^
if surrounded by the most favourable conditions, are
able to maintain, in their centre, the 65° previously
referred to, by the slowest imperceptible breathing;
but if external temperature sinks, the bees, witliout
some counteracting action, would be prejudicially
chilled. This they prevent by elongating and con-
tracting their abdomens (a movement which may be
seen in any bees recently settled), thus rapidly drawing
in and expelling air by the before-mentioned spiracles,
fourteen in number. The cold, intensifying, needs
further efforts, and now the wings, gently flapping,
producing a buzzing murmur audible outside, pump
the air in and out with vigour, and fill up the tracheae
(page 147, Vol. I.), and hold off the grip of the enemy;
for, the more rapidly this breathing is carried on, the
more oxygen is brought into contact with the honey,
and the more of it is consumed, and the greater the

522

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

heat evolved. The honey-sacs now inevitably are
emptied more rapidly, necessitating their refilling at
the cells at reduced intervals.

A supply of fresh air to the cluster is, from all this,
clearly essential, for as the heat is in proportion to
the honey consumed, so it is in proportion to the
products of oxidation — the noxious gas (carbonic acid)
and the water — as a reference to the following Table
will show, in which all but the main constituents of
the honey have been disregarded for simplicity’s sake.

The 6oz. of carbon being united with i6oz. of
oxygen from the air, we obtain 220z. of carbonic acid
gas, which, with the i8oz. of water, are thrown into
the air of the hive by the consumption of 240Z. of
honey.

Let us first trace the 220Z. of carbonic acid gas, occu-
pying about twelve cubic feet at ordinary temperature.
Dealing with a stock wintered on seven standard
frames, set at ifin. from centre to centre, we find: —

Seven frames, each 8^ cubic inches, wood = 59^ cubic inches.

20lb. honey, specific gravity 1*386 = 400 .,

i^lb. wax, specific gravity *965 =43 ,,

Pollen estimated . . . . =z 20 ,,

Bees* . . . . . . . . 100

* The bees would fill more than 100 cubic inches in a measure, but the
large amount of air l}ang between and amongst them must, for our
illustration, be subtracted.

90Z. water.
60Z. carbon.

90Z. water.

622^

WINTERING.

523

Disregarding fractions, this, subtracted from 1500
inches, the solid content of the hive, gives 878 inches
— i.e.^ an air-space which we may, for simplicity’s sake,
regard as half a cubic foot, or 864 cubic inches. There-
fore, the twelve cubic feet of carbonic acid, produced
from the consumption of ijlb. of honey, would fill the
air-space in the hive twenty-four times. Nor is this all.
Air is only one-fifth — by measure — oxygen, the other
four-fifths being nitrogen ; and carbonic acid occupies
precisely the same space as the oxygen which unites
with the carbon to produce it. Therefore, if the
whole of the oxygen introduced had been converted
into carbonic acid, the air in the hive must have
been entirely renewed 24 x 5 = 120 times ; and,
further, the presence of carbonic acid is so deleterious
that 5 per cent.* only of the oxygen could be
utilised ; the proportion being also limited by the
laws of gaseous diffusion (interchange) in the breath-
ing-tubes of the insect. Thus it is impossible to
resist the conclusion that i^lb. of honey cannot be
oxidised for heat-production without the air of the hive
being changed 2400 times.

Authorities, with unusual agreement, state that the
loss in weight of a wintering colony in which breed"
ing is suspended is less than 2lb. per month. With
ordinary protection this is about accurate, but it may
be reduced to rather less than ilb. per month, or
about \oz. daily (see page 417). The ijlb. would,

In a similar illustration, given ten years since, in my “Practical
Bee-keeping,” I stated 10 per cent, as probably the very largest amount
that could be utilised. Subsequent experiments have shown 5 per cent,
to be very near the truth.

524

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

therefore, represent forty-eight days’ rations, and make
the daily essential number of renewals of the air volume
of the hive to equal 2400 ^ 48 = 50 ; ?>., the air of
the hive, even during this very restricted food-consump-
tion, would need to be changed completely during every
thirty minutes — a fact with which we shall have to deal
presently, in considering the question of ventilation.

The escaping vitiated and damp air from the hive
carries away, in its altered form, nearly the whole of
the consumed honey, so we see why, during continued
cold weather, stores are reduced, it may be many pounds,
while the bees have had no opportunity of discharging
themselves. Excrementitious matter is scarcely produced
at all by consumed honey, its saccharine constituents,
as we have already seen, yielding nothing that does
not pass off by the breathing apertures; but , every
activity is associated with wear and tear of the tissues,
and this provides, although in restricted quantity,
residua, which collect in the bowel, as do the non-
digestible substances contained in large’ amount in the
pollen which the bees consume to make good the
wear and tear aforesaid. A condition of most complete
rest — the hybernating condition — is accompanied by so
little wear and tear, and, consequently, so small a
consumption of pollen, that the bowel does not become
unduly distended, even after months of confinement
by stress of weather; but with inadequate protection,
accompanied by continued very low temperature, the
bees being forced to the before-mentioned vigorous
agitation of the abdomen and a gentle flapping of
the wings, the bowel becomes loaded beyond endur-
ance, and the bees, too heavy or too chilled to fly,

. WINTERING.

525

discharge themselves upon their combs, producing
a condition which has been incorrectly described
as “ dysenteric,” dysentery being a well-defined
disease, producing the symptoms described, but from
a different cause (see next chapter).

“ The pollen theory,” so called, now much advo-
cated in America, as usually expressed at least,
wrongly lays all the evil at the door of the pollen
and asserts that bees need nothing but honey or sugar
during the winter, and that, in consequence, no pollen
should be allowed them, when the disagreeable
results mentioned could not follow. It is true that
without pollen the bowels will not become distended,
but it must not be forgotten that the bees will suffer
emaciation from semi-starvation (page 402). All crea-
tures consume instinctively fitting food. Dogs long
deprived of nitrogenous aliment will die of starvation
with butter, which they commonly so much love, un-
touched before them. Honey the bees consume to
enable them to produce heat and give forth energy,
and pollen to renew their nerve and muscle waste,
selecting the one or the other, as Nature needs_
The right remedy for bowel distension appears to me
to He in carefully securing good wintering conditions,
and so saving that waste which makes nitrogenous
food necessary. In America, this possibly means cellar
wintering with a fairly dry air at a sustained tem-
perature of 43° or a damp air 2° or 3° higher. Healthy
bees, properly wintered in this country on their sum-
mer stands, would rarely, if ever, consume so much
pollen as to occasion the difficulty under consideration
The removal of the pollen has been found by many

526

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

to occasion a loss of condition, which tells much
against the rapid building up of the stock in the spring.

Honey as a food enters into the living fabric before
it furnishes material for oxidation, yet it remains true
that loss of heat is exactly equivalent to loss of
honey. This points to making the surrounding of the
cluster as non-conductive as possible, not only thus
saving stores, but the vital energies of the workers,
which must otherwise also be consumed in keeping
up temperature. The hive w'alls first require attention.
The volume of opinion in favour of highly non-
conductive hive sides would put the question beyond
the necessity of discussion, were there not some who
constantly seem to Imply that bees need little protec-
tion, and that probably thin hives are the best. It
should be instantly conceded that thin sides are
practically as good as the most non-conductive if too
much space is given, or If the top covering is
deficient. It is useless to fasten the window if the
door Is off its hinges. Mr. Raitt’s pithy saying, “The
best protection for bees is bees,” Is perhaps the most
incisively expressed argument we have in favour of
abundant protection. Little lots winter badly, but
cover them by bees that will absolutely prevent their
heat escaping, and you give them the best possible
protection. But do not the protectors need help ?
Yes ; by more bees if w’e can provide them, by
the best non-conductors available if we cannot.

The evidence that strong stocks come through all
right in thin hives proves little, and is no test.
The plan that will enable the very w'eak to winter
well on small stores must be the most helpful to

WINTERING.

527

those that are strong ; and experience shows me
that there is no risk with a pint of bees on two
frames, properly handled, in the South of England,
and I have wintered a teacupful, which subse-
quently built itself into a stock, with no help beyond
food. We have no need to see how much our
bees can sustain, but should rather desire to
bring them through till April, little tried, and ready
for the severe labour of giving us the nurses for the
heavy population which is to do the work of honey-
gathering, and so prevent spring dwindling, which I
venture to believe, in common with some of the best
observers, is almost always the result of excessive
effort, rendered necessary by poor protection.

Some years since, I made experiments on hive walls,
which have led many makers to modify their patterns.
I took a number of tin chambers, each holding i2oz.
of water. After filling with water at 200°, they
were placed in boxes, representing different descriptions
of hive sides, all of which had been before carefully
brought to a uniform temperature, and then the time
occupied by each in falling through a certain number
of degrees was noted. For this very delicate ther-
mometers were used, and the calculations based on
Newton’s Law of Cooling. The following results were
made clear: If a hive side of fin. pine have its pro-
tective power represented by i, that of a double
side with lin. dead (?) air space would equal 4, while
the same wooden sides packed tightly with chaff would
equal 10. It has been argued that air is a better
non-conductor than any solid substance, and, therefore,
is better than any form of packing ; but the fallacy

528

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

lies in this, that the so-called dead air is not dead
but circulating. It rises against the inner skin of the
hive, and falls where it touches the outer, and so is eyer
acting as a distributor of heat. In the same way, a
man in bed might argue that the air is a better non-
conductor than the bed-clothes, in which he would
be perfectly correct; but if he were to add, “I shall,
therefore, be warmer without them,’^ universal experi-
ence would contradict his conclusion. The bed-clothes
are useful because they prevent the circulation of air,
and that next the body, being warmed, is imprisoned
instead of passing away for cold to take its place.
Further experiments proved that cork-dust (a waste
product used for packing Spanish grapes, as sent to
this country), in lieu of the chaff packing, gave a non-
conductivity to be represented by 14. The cork has
many advantages ; it is perfectly effective even with
poor carpentry ; it is not liable to mildew, and if it
becomes damp, it does not droop down between the
wooden skins, as chaff would do.

In thin hives, in hard weather, the inner face of the
wood is too cold to permit the bees to touch it, so
that they are driven to remaining in the middle of
their frames, exposed on all sides. In those packed
as described they winter, by preference, against the
hive wall, and are thus only exposed on one side,
while they close the frame ends for themselves, and
can always pass freely from comb to comb without a
possibility of getting lost in detachments ; in addition,
by having* the entrance 5in. or bin. long at the corner,
the bees have always sufficient air, and work round
the hive as the store is consumed.

WINTERING.

529

The idea that thin walls are superior to thick
because the sun's heat in spring passes through to
warm the bees is certainly inaccurate. If the transitory
advantage existed, it would be at the cost of constant
loss, but it does not exist. Bees maintain 65°, and
must uninterruptedly, though very slowly, lose heat
through the hive walls until this becomes the tem-
perature of the external air. Those, therefore, in the
thicker hives will be warmer until this external tem-
perature is reached, but before then the bees would
be in full flight, and beyond the need of sun-warming.

The non-conductivity of hives is almost as needful
for summer as winter, and does not a little in aiding
in checking the swarming fever. Single-sided hives
may be covered with an outer case, and chaff packed
between. Treated in this manner, single Stewarton
boxes (Fig. 15) winter admirably. Chaff is filled in
around, while 2in. or 3in. of it is patted down above.
Weak stocks which it is desired to keep separate,
for preserving queens perhaps, may be most success-
fully managed in twin hives. Put them on such a
small number of frames that they really help each
other by clustering against opposite sides of the
division-board. A sort of ante-chamber may be made
by putting a division-board, with entrance-way beneath
it, in front of one of the lots, so that the bees pass
from under it into the ante-chamber, which has, on
one side of it, the ordinary hive mouth, by which the
open is reached.

Whilst the population is strong and the external
temperature not too low, bees ventilate their hive
(page 277) by a system of fanners in different parts,
VoL. II. 2 M

530

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

and especially near the hive mouth. These keep up
a constant current by uninterruptedly flapping their
wings while they hold on with their feet, the air of
the interior being scarcely less pure than that with-
out. Very strong colonies, if visited at an early hour
on chilly spring mornings, will be pouring out a stream
of condensed vapour — popularly steam — while the water
from it will continue to drip from the alighting-board,
and if a lighted candle be placed in the outcast of air,
it will be at once extinguished. But in biting weather
the little labourers whose earnest efforts to secure an
untainted atmosphere may often shame us, are driven
from the door to the cluster, where, closely huddled
together, they resist a temperature in which a single
bee could no more continue its vitality than could a
single coal continue to burn in the fire-grate. But
air, although the fanners have ceased, is no less
necessary than before, and our calculation shows the
large amount actually consumed. If it is all to pass
the hive mouth, this must not be greatly contracted,
or the fallacious idea of “ keeping the bees warm ’’
will make them possibly the victims of cold. Bees
stifled by contracted hive mouths, and the careful
closing of all apertures above, are in the condition of
coke in an Arnott stove with the draught-hole closed.
The process of heat-production cannot go on, and the
bees, stupefied by carbonic acid, possibly drop from
their cluster to die, and, in dying, close more com-
pletely the narrow opening by their bodies.

I strongly advocated, in former years, that ventilation
should be allowed through the top cover ; further
developments have made it doubtful whether this is

WINTERING.

531

SO necessary as was supposed. If a sufficient opening
(of 5in. or 6in. at least) be allowed at the entrance
(in addition, a ring of wood, 2in. deep, between the
hive and its floor board lifting the frames, is a valu-
able assistance), top ventilation may be omitted, and
American cloth be placed over the bees. It has, how-
ever, many disadvantages. I prefer slow upward ven-
tilation, and earnestly advocate a chaff-tray, regarding
the splendid covering it affords as far more important
than the hive side itself (pages 61 and 409), especially
if we give space above the frames, when notions oi
portability and cheapness may make us content with
single sides, notwithstanding their inferiority to cork-
packed ones. For wintering, the chaff-tray should
hold 4in. or 5in. of chaff, well patted down. The
sacking should be loose, so that it may fit the hive top
accurately, for small crannies allow most damaging
leaks of heat. A calico first goes over the candy or
section-box, as previously explained, and then a thick-
ness of flannel — but this may be omitted — and the
chaff-box follows. Carpeting fits badly ; if creased at
all, a direct through current, which punishes the bees
severely, is permitted ; and on the usual thin hive side
it is hardly possible to avoid those gaps which have
made many denounce all top ventilation, quite over-
looking how often this has been given in a manner
all must condemn.

Dampness is a great enemy to wintering bees. Prof.
McLain noted the critical temperature to be less in a
damp than a dry air (page 520), the reason being that
water has an enormous capacity for heat (specific heat)
(page 68), whether in the liquid or vaporous form ; the

2 M 2

532

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

latter abstracts heat from the bees, and intensifies their
struggle. The water produced by the honey is thrown
off in vapour, because the cluster is warm. If the hive
is thin, or the bees small in numbers, and, in conse-
quence, distant from the sides, or if the top protection
is scanty, the heated vapour is immediately deposited
as dew, and the interior of the hive is wetted. When
the sides are so non-conductive that the inner faces
are not below the dew point of the interior air, the
hive remains dry ; and since wood conducts more
freely than cork-dust, the inner lining should be as
thin as notions of strength will allow. In gentle
top ventilation, the heat of the cluster just beneath
the roof keeps the part in contact with the bees both
warm and free from damp, and the air passes off,
carrying the moisture with it. The combs below are
not mildewed, nor do they run with dew. If damp-
ness appear at all, it is behind the runners, beneath
the ears, where the temperature commonly falls to
the lowest point ; this, however, causes neither damage
nor inconvenience.

During or after long spells of cold, some recommend
a hooked wire to be passed into the mouth of each
hive, in order to remove any dead bees likely to choke
it, or stocks may be lost from stifling. I should regard
any such necessity as a proof of an error in manage-
ment. Yet the cautious bee-keeper will, when the
weather is mild enough to permit of a winter’s dance
after a cold spell, walk through the apiary, and probe
any stocks around whose doors bees are not flying, to
ascertain whether the exit is free. The floor-board
should gradually slope towards the mouth.

WINTERING.

533

Snow should be removed from alighting-boards, for,
although it is not to be feared while light and fleecy,
it is likely to get partly thawed and re-frozen, when
it would work mischief. If it cover the ground, and
the sun commence to shine brightly, the glare upon
it will frequently draw bees forth by the thousand,
the majority of which will get too far chilled to regain
home. Stop the glare, however, by placing a board
in front of the door temporarily, or narrow the anti-
robbing entrance (page 422) till no direct sunlight
finds it way to the interior.

If by any mischance a stock should be found
apparently starved, try at once a very warm room,
and sprinkling with thin syrup, when often those sup-
posed to be dead will recover. Feeding with candy
or barley sugar must then be continued till spring.

Mr. McLain has recently reported very favourably
of a special food he has prepared for building up
stocks which have passed the winter and taken a
good flight in the spring. It is fed in the same way
as honey or syrup, and is intended to provide the
elements essential in brood-rearing. His recommen-
dation carries weight; but I have had no opportunity
of trying it, and it appears to me to supply material
in a form better suited to the assimilative powers of
plants than of animals. The recipe is as follows: lolb.
of sugar, J pint of dairy salt, two tablespoonfuls each
of bicarbonate soda, rye flour, and finely-powdered
bone ash, one tablespoonful of cream of tartar. Mix
thoroughly, add two quarts of hot water, stir till dis-
solved, and boil for two or three minutes only.

CHAPTER XL

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

Bees are subject to Diseases: Reason for — Foul Brood
— Symptoms of Chilled Brood — Micro-organisms — •
Schonfeld’ s Experunents Disproved — Staining —
Bacilli Discovered — Adult Bees Diseased — Bggs
Infected — Bacilli Alvei — Chronic Attacks: Reason
for — Processes of Cultivation — -Sterilising — Colony
Forjn of Bacillus Alvei — Spore Formation — Artifi-
cial Infection — Manner of Propagation of the
Disease — Salicylic Acid Cure — Phenol Cure —
McLain s Plan — Camphor^ Crc. — -Bacillus Gaytoni
— Diverse Organisms — Torula and Dysentery —
Wax Moth — Preserving Combs — DeatF s-head
Moth — Braula Caeca — Tits — -Toads — Mice — Wasps
— Earwigs — Ants — Snails^

The all but universal opinion, that bees have general
immunity from diseases, except the much-dreaded foul
brood, and, perhaps, dysentery, I have during the last
three years shown to be extremely wide of the truth.
Sickly bees have neither pale cheeks nor sunken eyes,
and, therefore, all were accounted equally healthy ;
but the use of the dissecting-knife and microscope

I

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

535

reveals the presence of not only contagious or zymotic
diseases, but occasionally curious organic disorders ;
i.e.^ in the viscera of the large number of workers 1
have examined, one ailment of the latter kind — a form
of liver trouble — has occurred a considerable number
of times, and in bees coming from many different
localities. The Malpighian vessels (page 6i, Vol. I.)
become loaded with, and surrounded by, a dark
yellow-coloured oil, contained in cells, until the half,
perhaps, of the abdominal cavity is filled. No practical
purpose would be served in further describing the organic
afflictions of the poor bee, or in detailing the physical
deficiencies from which she occasionally suffers, such
as defective eyes, imperfect sting, crumpled wings,
or incomplete antennae, since neither the physician
nor the surgeon is likely to devote his attention
to individual cases. It is here sufficient to remark
that these flaws arise either from a defect in the
mother, or unfavourable conditions in the colony —
too low a temperature, or a dearth of water, being
the usual cause — although they are sometimes due,
as we shall presently see, to the existence of a disease
which is wasting the vitality of the general community.
Especially is this true in that most curious occurrence
of hermaphroditism, of which, hereafter, I will endea-
vour to give the key.

The contagious diseases of bees, unlike those that
are functional or organic, frequently attack the larger
number of individuals composing the colony, while
the malady may travel with devastating effect from
stock to stock, until the whole apiary is ruined. They
are caused by the growth and rapid multiplication

536

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

within the living frame of minute vegetable organisms,
commonly spoken of as germs, or micro-organisms,
which may be passed from individual to individual ;
and hence the possibility of infection.

When we remember that bees live in the closest
contact in very numerous colonies; that their usual
system of inter-communication is by actual touch ;
that they habitually pass food from one stomach to
another, while all the food they have has been carried
either within or upon the bodies of their fellows ; that
their very home is formed of one of their secretions,
and that their beds, cradles, and larders are all inter-
changeable, we shall admit that the circumstances are
such as would appear to favour the development of
contagious diseases. That they have done so is fully
proved by a careful examination of the case, for I
find the bee suffering from several distinct kinds of
organism, producing symptoms and results which I
have to some extent formulated, but which yet
require much patient devotion on the part of the
investigator. Of these germ diseases, foul brood, as
the most terrible and widespread, demands our first
attention.

Some indistinct references, made by ancient writers
as early as the Christian era, to a devastating disease
existing then amongst domesticated bees, render it
not unlikely that the malady until recently known as
“foul brood” is far from a novelty; but be this as
it may, it is certain that not until very recent
times have its ravages become so frequent as to
make it the terror of bee-keepers. Our modern
methods and facilities of transit have been the

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

537

occasion of spreading far and wide that which for-
merly existed, though confined to narrow limits. In
ancient days, bees did all their own travelling, and
that at swarming time; then they rarely changed
hands, except at the death of the owner, for the
selling of a hive was discountenanced as unlucky
even half a century back ; but now bee-dealing is a
well-established industry, both here and on the con-
tinents of Europe and America, so that bees are
continually passing, not only from district to district,
but, in the persons of queens and attendants, even
from one country to another. Man, then, suffers not
alone from diseases propagated by modern civilisa-
tion, but the animals which he has associated with
himself necessarily suffer with him. Let us consider
the matter under three heads : Firstly, the symptoms
and nature of the disease; secondly, the means of its
propagation ; and thirdly, the methods of its cure.

First, The symptoms and nature of the disease.
My readers are acquainted with the appearance of a
comb removed from a healthy brood-nest during the
breeding season. If the larvae are all unsealed, those
most advanced occupy the centre, presenting to view
the sides of their well-fattened bodies, as they lie
curled, in precisely similar positions, at the bottom of
their cells, which they, in large part, fill ; the younger
and less grown, also curled as they feed, lie around ;
while beyond are the recently laid eggs, which 1 have
had the honour of discovering may be the subject
of the disease even before they leave the body of
the mother.

Most careful microscopic examination is needful to

538

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

make the latter fact apparent ; but the larvae, on
the contrary, so change in appearance soon after
infection, that a practical eye at once detects the

presence of the pest. Whilst healthy, their bodies

are of a beautiful pearly whiteness, and their skins
are tense with fulness ; but where the disease strikes
a larva, it moves uneasily in its cell, often then

presenting the dorsal surface, as shown at A, Plate I.,
which well delineates a comb in a bad condition. Mere
posture is thus no insufficient evidence of an unhealthy
condition. The colour now changes to yellow, or
the faintest buff, distinguishable immediately in a
healthy brood-patch, which is, normally, perfectly
even in tone. The colour strengthens to a pale

brown, whilst the skin becomes flaccid and opaque ;
death soon occurs, when the body, shrunken by
evaporation, lies on the lower side of the cell, becoming
progressively darker, until it almost assumes the
colour of coffee; desiccation continuing, in a few
days nothing more than a flattish, black scale remains.
In an infected stock, these can be seen in number by
looking over the comb, having its upper edge towards
the face of the observer.

Should the larva escape contamination until near
the period of pupahood, it is sealed over in the
normal way. The cover furnishes a screen, on which
part of the cocoon is soon after spread ; but the in-
habitant of the cell is marked out for death, and
before very long the capping or sealing sinks, becoming
concave, and in it punctures of an irregular character
appear (A, Plate I.), which is nearly a conclusive
sign of the diseased condition of the colony.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

539

The sense of smell is also appealed to, as a peculiar
foul and extremely characteristic odour now escapes
from the diseased combs. This is difficult to describe, but
it reminds me of offensive glue; while it is notunlike
that from guano. The odour is not always present
with equal intensity ; sometimes it is only observable
when the hive is opened ; at others, it is quite pro-
nounced, even 3ft. or 4ft. from the entrance. As the
disease spreads, the bees lose energy, but in most
cases become unusually earnest in fanning at their
hive door. Dead larvae or pupae, in growing numbers,
occupy cells that should have been vacated to receive
eggs, and, being irregularly scattered, force the
latter to be distributed unmethodically, and not
as in a healthy stock. Should any attempt be made
at removing a dead larva which has assumed
the coffee-coloured stage, the remains, tenaciously
adhering to the cell wall, will stretch out into long
and thin strings, somewhat like half-dried glue. The
microscopist can easily explain this. The thin,
chitinous, aerating sacs and tracheae (page 33, Vol. I.)
do not undergo decomposition at all easily, and these
remaining occasion the peculiarity referred to. The
disease is terribly infectious, and, once started, soon
spreads from cell to cell, and not infrequently from
stock to stock, until, in the whole apiary, perhaps
not even one escapes.

Some of the symptoms described may appear in
the absence of disease, when the brood has died from
chill ; but then the characteristic odour is absent, and
the discoloration in the larvae is usually a change to a
grey, and not a brown. The microscope immediately

540

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

detects the difference, for if a speck of the interior
of a larva, dead through cold or neglect, be placed
on a glass slip, covered down in the usual way, and
then examined by a good Jin. or Jin. objective, the
field will be well-nigh covered with fat and other
cells, not looking very unlike those taken from a
healthy larva, as at B, Plate I. Although the descrip-
tions given will enable the bee-keeper to pronounce
pretty certainly upon the presence of foul brood, cases
do occur in which nothing but a microscopic examina-
tion will settle the point beyond the possibility of doubt.

Before discussing the nature of foul brood, it is
necessary to give some attention to the before-
mentioned micro-organisms, to the presence of which
is due, not only infectious diseases, but also all fer-
mentive and putrefactive changes. To them the general
name of Schizomycetes, or fission fungi, has been ap-
plied, because their method of increase is by splitting,
or fissuration. They are divided into four genera :
Micrococcus, Bacterium^ Bacillus^ and Spirillum.
There are many species of each, and they may be
classed as septic, or causing putrefaction ; zymogenic,
causing definite chemical changes, as lactic fermentation
in the souring of milk ; chromogenic, or colour-forming,
because in masses they bear certain distinct tints ;
and pathogenic, or disease-producing ; and it is here
vital to note that those organisms only which are
capable of growing and multiplying in the tissues
of an animal are pathogenic to that animal, their
presence immediately establishing a diseased condition.
Other organisms, even if artificially introduced into
healthy tissues, suffer rapid destruction.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

541

Confining our inquiry within the narrowest possible
limits, we have to do with pathogenic micrococci and
bacilli, the former being minute, globular bodies
(D, Fig. 123), which, at intervals, become slightly
elongated, and then show a compression at what may
be called the waist, giving them the form known
technically as the dumb-bell. The compression becomes
more pronounced, until, by separation, two tiny globules
are produced from the one ; each of these will, in
turn, divide, and so multiplication may go on at an
astonishing rate. Bacilli, on the contrary, are rod-
shaped (B and C, Fig. 123) ; and if we could suppose a
common ruler to elongate without increasing in thick-
ness, and then, at a definite point, break into two,
to again increase in each part in like manner, we
should have a fair idea of the question. But some-
times this increase in length is not accompanied
by separation, so that a line of bacilli may be
formed comparable to a long string of sausages;
and such is denominated a leptothrix (C, Plate I.).
Under certain conditions, however, the bacilli produce
spores, or seeds (E, Fig. 122), which the micrococci
never do ; while, in addition, bacilli are provided at
their extremities with wondrously delicate filaments
(B, Fig. 123), called flagella, which often defy detec-
tion, and are never seen but by the most skilful use
of the finest microscope. With these they strike the
fluid containing them, and so swim, much as a fish
does by the use of its fins.

Taking a speck of the tenacious, coffee-coloured
matter previously mentioned, and placing it upon a
glass slip, adding water, and then a cover-glass (an

542

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

exceedingly thin circle of glass, about fin. in diameter),
and making an examination by a |in. objective, or
any higher power, we find it to contain countless
swarms of very minute bodies, which dance in the
field with a lively Brownian movement. Magnified
500 diameters, they appear as at E, Plate I.

These, before the investigations I made in 1884, were
known to be associated with foul brood, and were sup-
posed to be micrococci, in consequence of reported
experiments made in Germany some years before by
Dr. Schonfeld, of whose account space will only permit
a very short summary. He states that, having procured
some foul broody matter — i.e., the brown material just
referred to — he, by a simple contrivance, aspirated air,
which he passed over the foul broody mass, through
cotton wool, which then he found full of micrococci.
He adds, that this cotton wool being spread over the
cells of a comb in which larvae were advancing, the
latter took the disease, and died with their bodies filled
with micrococci; and that lastly, having infected larvae
of Musca vomitorza, they not only died crammed with
micrococci, but these micrococci communicated foul
brood to previously healthy larvae in the bee-hive.
These experiments were accepted as so conclusive
and satisfactory, that for ten years they were quoted
as authoritative ; but many observations, which could
not be reconciled with commonly-received ideas re-
specting this malady, induced me, in 1884, to accept
an invitation to address an International Congress of
Bee-keepers on the subject, and to attempt to repeat
Schonfeld’s experiments, with such additions or modifi-
cations as might seem most suitable to my purpose.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

543

This attempt has left me in intense bewilderment
so far as any possible explanation of the causes ot
the errors into which Schonfeld undoubtedly fell.
My results showed that in foul broody matter no
micrococci necessarily existed, but that the minute
bodies (E, Plate I.) found in the coffee-coloured
material, which Schonfeld had erroneously taken for
micrococci, were really spores of a bacillus, which
neither he nor those who had preceded him had
ever seen, although one of them does apply the
name bacillus to the spore — because the spore is a
long oval (y, E, Fig. 122), and so would resemble, e.g.,
my Bacillus Gaytoni (G, Plate I.) ; and, further, that
the disease could not be at all easily communicated
to Musca vomitoria, while every dead larva of this
fly contained innumerable micrococci; and that, when
bee larvae were artificially infected with foul broody
matter, the bacillus nature of the disease was incon-
testable, while no micrococci, and not even the
bacillus spore, which Schonfeld had taken for a
micrococcus, could be discovered.

The process of staining is of enormous value in
such an investigation as that now under considera-
tion, and is given for the benefit of those who may
desire to follow it. The juices, or substances to be
examined, diluted with water if necessary, are, in
minute quantity, flattened between two cover-glasses,
which are separated by a slipping movement, so as
to leave the thinnest outspread film. The cover,

when the film is dry, is held by forceps, and quickly
passed two or three times through a spirit flame,
so as to set the contained albumen, and save the

544

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

material from being displaced by after-washing. The
processes of staining are extremely varied, but the
most simple, which is also one of the best, is here
all-sufficient. A watery solution of the aniline dye
called methyl-violet is placed in (preferably filtered
into) a little saucer, when the cover, film downwards,
is set swimming upon its surface. After from two to
twenty minutes it is lifted, and thoroughly washed
in water, to which, if the staining is too strong, a
little alcohol or acetic acid may be added. Failing
methyl-violet, red ink — i.e., eosin and water — may
be similarly used. The stains adhere more tena-
ciously to the micro-organisms than other matters
present, and so the former are seen far more clearly
than in their native, colourless condition. The pre-
paration is now ready for examination, either wet or
fixed down by Canada balsam, in the usual way.

Proceeding in the manner described, the juices of
a healthy larva present, as already hinted, the appear-
ance of B, Plate I. Fat-globules are numerous, whilst
here and there we note the large, white, blood
discs, and scattered throughout may be seen minute,
globular particles (smaller than the bacilli spores),
continually agitated with a Brownian movement. In
the coffee-coloured matter, on the contrary, we find
neither fat-globules, blood-cells, nor molecular base,
but observe, amidst the remains of broken-down
tracheae, the field crowded with small, ovoid bodies —
spores (the micrococci of Schonfeld), as at E, Plate I. ;
but if we have successfully applied our stain, we shall
possibly discover a few undoubted bacilli, some of
which are visibly passing into the spore condition.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

545

The absence of dumb-bell forms, and the distinctly
oval shape of what I presently found to be spores
of the associated bacilli, at the first arrested my
attention. Now, possessing myself of an infected
stock, so that the course of the disease could be
traced, I submitted the body of a grub recently dead
to the scrutiny of the microscope, and here I was
delighted by seeing hundreds of bacilli actively
swimming backwards and forwards, and worming their
way amidst degenerate blood-cells and fat-globules,
as seen at D, Plate I. ; while some of these bacilli
had already begun to sporulate, as may be traced by
a central enlargement. Securing other larvae of suspi-
cious colour only, I discovered that, at the incidence
of the attack, the bacilli do not break up, but grow
in thin chains (leptothrix), as at C, Plate I.

The examination of a larger number of larvae, not
only from the stock referred to, but from combs
coming from various parts of Great Britain and
Ireland, showed most conclusively that each individual
affected contains in its blood bacilli of an average
length of in., and diameter of 4000-0- in., mostly

swimming with a corkscrew-like movement,* the
termination of the rod, as seen in end view, constantly
describing a small circle; that when the disease is
establishing itself, leptothrix forms are common, some
of them even reaching y^in. in length; that these
then break up into bacilli, which rapidly multiply,
so as to crowd the fluids and tissues, as may
be judged from an exact drawing of a tiny blood

* I have only recently obtained sight of the flagella (B, Fig. 123), by
which the movement is caused.

VOL. II.

2 N

546

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

streak (F, Plate I.) ; that as the fluids of the grub
fail, by loss of fats and albuminoids, the bacilli begin
to swell centrally, as at <5, c, d, E, Fig. 122, drawing
the mycoprotein from their extremities, and thus
gradually become spores ; that after the death of
the grub, and during the assumption of the viscid-
putrid condition, this constant alteration of bacilli
into spores continues; that after removal from the
hive, it goes on so rapidly, that in a day or two
scarcely a bacillus, as such, is discoverable, whilst
the spores are innumerable ; and, in addition, that a
very cautious preparation of some broken-down viscus
will show that the bacilli and spores arrange them-
selves in a most singular line fashion, as seen at
F, Fig. 122, traces of which are visible at E, Plate I.

As might have been imagined, in an attempt at
repeating Schonfeld’s experiments, the supposed
micrococcus did not multiply, but immediately dis-
appeared, by conversion into the bacillus.

The somewhat extensive literature of this disease
had always gone on the assumption that it affected
larvae, but larvae only. This position did not appear
to me to agree with many facts I had observed ;
e.g., we may take away two or three combs, containing
5000 larvae each, from a stock, and it will continue
to progress pretty much as though it had lost nothing;
while, if foul brood attacks it, and kills, say, 1000 of
its grubs, it, as a rule, very perceptibly diminishes in
strength. The only theory that appeared to me as
satisfactory, was that the adults also die with the
disease, but that, according to a necessary instinct,
they leave the hive, and finish their course alone.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

547

This theory was fully borne out by examination.
Snipping off the end of the tongues of bees from
diseased stocks, and then squeezing them so as to
express blood, gave material which was found laden
with bacilli, in most cases. Bees, however, if far
gone, are almost bloodless, while the air-sacs, ex-
panding as muscle vanishes, seem to fill nearly the
whole interior cavity. This discovery was pregnant
with consequences, and bee-dealers and others who,
in ignorance of the facts, had always proclaimed that
swarms were incapable of being affected by it, and
that queens could never communicate it, had now to
be told that this error had, in all probability, been no
small part of the reason why foul brood had grown to
a veritable pest.

Continuing the investigation, I proved that a large
proportion of imago workers and drones die of this
disease if they are raised in infected stocks, and that
this explained the dwindling in numbers in any colony
from the commencement of the attack. But, further, if
workers and drones were liable, why might not queens
be so likewise ? and if this be possible, might we not
get a solution of certain peculiarities with which bee-
keepers of experience are familiar. E.g.^ some months
earlier I had imported a few queens from Italy, one of
which had been inserted into a stock, which quickly
after developed foul brood, while the queen lived only
six or seven weeks. In addition, if the queen might be
infected, why not the egg? In the case of pebrine,
this had already been proved to be the case. The
bee’s egg is, to the size of the bacillus, enormous.
Its length of diameter would enable

2 N 2

548

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

it to accommodate 100,000,000 spores of this organism,
which stands to the egg itself as a single drop to
1500 gallons. Following this line, and knowing that
foul brood had in some cases appeared to be more
particularly destructive amongst the smaller larvae, I
not unnaturally judged that, possibly, in these cases
the egg contained the germs of the disease at the
time of deposition. I communicated my suspicions to
several owners of large apiaries, explaining what
would be the probable peculiarities of genetic foul
brood, if such a form really existed. Mr. Hart soon
after sent me a queen from a hive which presented
the indicated symptoms — viz., the early death of the
larvae ; the earnestness of the bees in attempting to
raise a new queen, although their number was so
small that swarming was out of the question — this
earnestness seeming to indicate that they were con-
scious of some unfitness about the mother, which they
desired to remedy by displacing her ; and lastly, a
continuance of their hospitality to drones at a period
of the season when other stocks had destroyed theirs.

The queen was alive at her arrival, and I forth-
with began a careful dissection. Having removed the
left air-sac, which lies within the first and second
abdominal rings, and which was very much above the
average size — a constant indication of the presence of
bacilli — I came upon the ovary, of which I had pre-
viously removed many dozens. This one w'as abnor-
mally yellow, and very soft, so that it was difficult to
detach it from the larger external tracheae without
tearing ; but a separated ovarian tube, placed under a
second microscope, magnifying 250 diameters, at once

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

549

showed four or five bacilli, swimming along with a lazy
sort of progression. Detaching now a half-developed
egg, and crushing it flat, nine bacilli were quickly
counted.

This was not an isolated case. Queens from
badly-infected stocks are frequently themselves
diseased, and, amongst the very large number I have
had the opportunity of examining, some most inter-
esting examples have presented themselves. In one,
the spermatheca (page 224, Vol. I.) contained no
spermatozoa, although the queen was young and had
mated, since she had produced worker bees ; but the
spermatheca was filled with a dirty fluid, through
which were scattered innumerable minute and irregular
granules, amongst which swam large numbers of bacilli.
Here, then, was a distinctly localised attack, which
left the adjacent ovaries still in perfect health ; and
a question of some difficulty presents itself. The
disease seems always acute in the larvae, embracing
all parts of their organisation. This may possibly result
from the thinness of their membranes, the freedom
of their viscera, the frequency of invagination, and the
rapidity of interstitial changes in their case. In the
imago, on the contrary, the disease assumes a chronic
character, and, confined to a portion of the frame,
at least temporarily, may be several weeks, and
possibly, in queens, even months, in running its course.

The name foul brood, given in ignorance of the
nature and scope of the malady, is manifestly utterly
inappropriate. To say that a queen is suffering
from foul brood is clearly ridiculous. The name
Bacillus alvei^ which I proposed, is now passing into

550

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

general use in England and America, and on the
continent of Europe.

Bacillus alvei, running riot amongst the spermatozoa,
either because a bacillus has been accidentally intro-
duced into the vulva at the time of mating, or
because the drone himself was infected, offers a
curious subject for speculation. That the bacilli in
some way affect the vitality of the spermatozoa, I
have had abundant opportunity of witnessing, and
have strong ground for supposing that if these, de-
vitalised, are passed into the micropyle of the egg
(page 231, Vol. L), they, whose function it is to
differentiate the sex, only partially complete their
work, and hermaphrodites are produced.

The evidence as yet given that Bacillus alvei is
the cause, and not a consequence, of the disease, might
be regarded as conclusive ; yet science rightly demands
further corroboration, which is supplied by what is
called cultivation and re-introduction. Let me now
divest the process of cultivation of every non-essential,
so explaining it that any, with most trifling cost,
may follow the experiments given. The plans detailed
in the text-books are more elaborate, but are not
really better, as I can testify from following both.
Those desiring the more usual methods may consult
Dr. Klein’s “ Micro-organisms in Disease” or Dr. Crook-
shank’s “ Bacteriology.”

The banishment of micro-organisms would clearly
prevent those changes which are the direct result of
their presence — viz., fermentation, putrefaction, and
zymotic diseases. E.g., milk sours through the mul-
tiplication of a germ ; if the milk be boiled in a

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

551

flask plugged with cotton wool, the active organisms
are killed, and the air, returning through the cotton
plug, as the steam condenses after removal from the
Are, has the germs it may contain strained out of
it. The milk would probably (not certainly, for a
reason presently evident) remain good for an inde-
finite period, and would be called “ sterile ” — i.e.,
devoid of germs. If a single Bacillus alvei could now
be transferred to this milk, the bacillus would mul-
tiply, and we should have a cultivation. But milk is
opaque, contains fat-globules, and is in many ways un-
suited to purposes of investigation ; we therefore proceed
thus : As the cotton wool is likely to become a source
of contamination, the germs in it are destroyed by
placing it, in a tin box, in the kitchen oven, and
giving it, for about an hour, heat enough to very
faintly discolour it. Test tubes, about bin. by Jin.,
are, after careful washing, similarly “evened’’; and now
the cotton wool is fitted into their necks, making
plugs tight enough to hold well in, Jin. deep (/>, C,
Fig. 122). The evening process it is now desirable to
repeat ; but it may be omitted. A transparent, nutrient
jelly is made by chopping finely Jib. lean and very
fresh beef, soaking it in looz. of water twelve hours,
and straining carefully, pressing the meat as dry as
possible. Now add half a salt-spoonful of salt, and
a bare ounce of the best transparent gelatine ;* then
heat cautiously until the boiling point is reached
(taking care that the gelatine is not burned). A
little technical matter must here receive attention.

* ^oz. of peptone {Peptonum siccum) would improve the medium,
but may be omitted.

552

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The material is now, probably, acid, and in it Bacil-
lus alvei would not, on this account, grow ; a solution
of common carbonate of soda therefore must be
added cautiously, constantly testing with fresh scraps
of red litmus paper,* until its red colour begins to
become purplish. Now clarify with white of egg, in
the cook’s way, and strain through muslin. Transfer
the medium to the tubes through a narrow-necked
funnel, so as not to soil the sides, filling each to
the depth of ijin. or 2in. (^/, C, Fig. 122). Carefully
hold the cotton plug, with the fingers, at its exposed
end only, and re-insert immediately. So soon as
the tubes — which must be kept upright, lest the fluid
touches the cotton — are filled, they are stood up in
a saucepan containing some water, and boiled for an
hour, then allowed to cool, and similarly re-boiled
next day. Henceforth they will keep, without change,
until the gelatine has completely dried up, for the
obvious reason that all germs have been destroyed.
These tubes are valuable stock, and may be used for
the cultivation of any germs found during our search-
ings. A damp, cool place, in which they should be
covered carefully from dust, is best for storing them.
With indiarubber caps over the cotton wool, they
may be preserved, ready for use, for years.

Four or five inches of moderately fine platinum wire,
called a needle, and fixed by heating into the end of
a thin glass rod, completes our apparatus. Having
found a bee suffering from bacilli, we pass the platinum
wire through a gas or any other flame, heating it to

Books of this can be bought of the chemist for about 2d.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

553

redness, to sterilise it. It immediately cools, when we,
having first passed the end of the cotton plug through
the flame, to burn off any germs resting upon it, hold
our tube to be inoculated mouth downwards, touch
the needle upon the diseased material, withdraw the
plug, and carry the needle upwards through the
gelatine; the bacteria upon the former are left behind,
the plug is immediately re-inserted, and in a few days
colonies of bacteria will be observed growing in the
needle track. With Bacillus alvei^ Mr. Watson Cheyne
and myself found a most extraordinary arrangement
of the colonies, which has marked off this bacillus as
not only new to science, but one of quite peculiar
interest. The colonies, after four or five days’ growth,
are seen as little, whitish, opalescent, globular masses,
each containing, probably, many million individuals ;
but the bacilli soon break off from these, apparently
in search of nutriment, and, liquefying the gelatine
they touch, form fluid tracks, through which they swim,
and establish at length sub-colonies at a distance.
While many bacilli resemble alvei individually, the
colony form is characteristic, and distinguishes it from
every other. The progress made during twentv-four
hours may be judged by drawings of a single tube, as
seen at noon on two consecutive days (A and B,
Fig. 122). If these bacilli are growing on a flat surface,
their behaviour is almost fantastic. An actual form,
from a sketch, is given at G. As the nutriment con-
tained in the medium becomes exhausted, the bacilli,
as in the body of the bee, begin to pass into the rest
or spore condition, showing the forms a, b, c, d, E.

Some of the spores from the first tube, being now

554

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

carried by the needle, as before, into a second tube, the
spores germinate, bacilli developing within, breaking
the capsule, and escaping as seen at g, h, z, k, /, D :
multiplication by fissuration now occurs about ever)'
twenty minutes. If the tubes be inoculated in suc-
cession, it is evident that everything drawn from the

Fig. 122.— Bacillus alvei under Cultivation.

A, Colonies of Bacillus alvei under Cultivation (6 diameters). B, Same Colonies
Twenty-four Hours later. C, Culture Tube (Scale, \)—ffl, Gelatine; p, Plug.
D, Spore becoming Bacillus (1800 diameters). E, Bacillus becoming Spore.
F, Spores in Line from a Culture. G, Colony Spreading (50 diameters).

bee whence the virus was taken will be quickly elimi-
nated, the bacillus excepted. Twelve tubes were thus
cultivated in series in the Biological Laboratory, Ken-
sinorton, and then a culture was made in milk from the
last. Some of this, containing countless bacilli, I
sprayed over a comb of young larvae, part of which
I screened by a cardboard having four large lozenges

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

555

cut in it. Those exposed to the spray were in part
removed by the bees ; the rest died, passing through
all the changes observed in foul brood [Bacillus
alvei') y and were found full of bacilli ; while the
screened larvae matured in health, proving incontest-
ably that the bacillus is the cause of the disease.
This is further corroborated by all the cultures giving
off the exact odour of an infected stock.

Two other characteristics of this particular bacillus
need mentioning : First, the extraordinary and unique
size of the spore, which is about 2xJ^in- wide and
-i-^-QQ-oin. long. These, when stained, if examined by a
first-class or -^in., can be measured and identified

immediately after removal from the body of the bee,
or when found in coffee-coloured material. It is thus
that Bacillus alvei can be pronounced upon at once.
The second peculiarity is observed when the cultures
are made in agar agar, when the spores are formed
in line, as at F, Fig. 122. As already remarked, they
also lie in this order in the tissues of the insect ; but
to display them thus requires great address and much
patience.*

We have now to consider the means of propagating
the disease. It has been confidently asserted that the
honey is the seat of the contagium, and that bees
carry the disease into their hives by robbing. Of
course, this positive assertion has no better proof than
the equally false supposition that the disease only

For further information, see the “Pathogenic History', and History
under Cultivation, of a New Bacillus {Baciilus alvei)," by Frank R.
Cheshire, F.R.M.S., F.L.S., and Watson Cheyne, M.B., F.R.C.S.,
&c. {Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, August, 1885).

556

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

touched the brood. The honey, we have been told,
abounded with micrococci, whereas none are to be
found in it ; while I have searched most carefully in
honey in contiguity with cells holding dead larvae,
have examined samples from stocks dying out with
rottenness, inspected extracted honey from terribly
diseased colonies, and yet in no instance have I found
an active bacillus, and never have been able to be sure
of discovering one in the spore condition ; although it
must be admitted that the problem has its microscopic
difficulties, because the stains used to make the bacilli
apparent attach themselves very strongly to all pollen
grains, and parts thereof, and somewhat interfere with
examination. I have now discovered that it is im-
possible for bacilli to multiply in honey, because they
cannot grow in any fluid having an acid reaction. I
have prepared tubes of gelatinised meat-juice, omit-
ting to make them alkaline. The bacilli will remain
in such for months without sprouting. If, now, a
fraction of a drop of ammonia be placed on the
surface of the gelatine, the ammonia will gradually
transfuse into the gelatine, and impart the necessary
alkalinity. Immediately the dormant bacilli com-
mence to grow, and form colonies. Such minute
bodies as bacilli, produced in inconceivable numbers
in the hive — a dead larva containing frequently
1,000,000,000 spores — must occur in honey as an
occasional contamination ; but the idea that they grow
in the honey is quite contrary to all evidence. Of

course, since the manipulator can scarcely visit a
diseased stock without getting numbers of the bacilli
upon his fingers, the bees cannot perambulate the

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

557

combs without bringing their pulvilli (page 124, Vol. L),
and the hairs of their bodies, into dangerous contact
with them, and so the visits of robbers are likely
enough to result in infection of the stock whence they
came, while the honey w’ould, by its adhesiveness, aid
in carrying away the terrible spores.

A large number of observations has clearly shown
that the disease, in the larva at least, is not one of
the digestive tube, but of the blood, and, through it,
of every viscus. If honey were the means of com-
municating it, certainly traces of it would be found
in the alimentary sac ; but here I find the bacillus
only very occasionally. In the adult bee, however,
although the disease fills the blood, it is still very
prominent indeed in the chyle stomach. The nurses
in the hive are, with little question, the main means
of infecting the larvae ; travelling in the darkness,
they become aware of the needs of the occupants of
the brood-cells by constantly inserting their antennae,
which must, where disease reigns, be brought into
contact with bacilli. The transfer of these to the
next grub fed will there start the disease. It is also
extremely likely that spores are carried in the air,
and taken in by the in-draught set up by the fanners.
There will be no difficulty in this supposition when
it is remembered that these organisms are so minute
that a cubic inch of material would form a quad-
ruple line of them from London to New York.
Ordinary dust motes are, to such, huge by comparison ;
so that the means by which they are disseminated
must be altogether too varied. In the royal jelly of
the queen pupa dead of bacillus, I could discover no

558

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

bacilli, nor have I succeeded better with the food
provided to worker larvae ; so that, although I would
not dogmatise, my strong opinion is that, commonly,
neither honey nor pollen carry the disease, but that
the feet and antennae of the bees usually do. In a
somewhat different malady, Empusa musci of the
house-fly, the germs are known to take effect by
settling on the spiracles, or between the abdominal
rings, and the spiracle of the bee, in all its stages,
may be the especially vulnerable part.

The bee-keeper is, unfortunately, almost compelled to
become himself a probable cause of infection. His
hands, made adhesive by propolis, carry the spores or
bacilli, and so may transfer them, even hours later, to
healthy hives. The clothes should be kept, as far as
practicable, from contact with suffering colonies, and
the hands, after manipulating them, should be disin-
fected by washing with a weak solution of mercuric
chloride (corrosive sublimate), -i-oz. in one gallon of water
being quite strong enough. It must be remembered
that this drug is a violent poison, and the solution
should be kept in a bottle, so that a little may be just
poured over the fingers, and then distributed over the
hands, which may afterwards he washed in the usual
way. The solution, at the strength given, will not
injure the skin, and is the fluid used in laboratories
for the purpose given, where deadly germs are in
cultivation. Bacillus alvei is not harmful to human
beings, even if applied to wounds.

Our third head now demands our attention. In what
way can we most successfully, if at all, treat and eradi-
cate this pest ? Although ever an earnest advocate

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

559

of curative measures, I am yet at the outset constrained
to say, that the disease is so sadly infectious that those
who are by nature apathetic, or whose occupation will
only permit half attention to their bees, may inflict
grievous wrong upon their neighbours by attempting
any cure, as this is likely to be done in a fitful, negli-
gent fashion, keeping the disease languishing, while
other stocks are, through it, being made victims. To
such I advise, as the kindest course to self and others,
the destruction by fire of the combs, and, possibly,
even the frames and hives. If the bees are worth
saving, make a swarm of them into a skep, and
transfer forty-eight hours later into a frame-hive. If
there be much brood, the case not a very bad one,
and the robbing season not at hand, unqueen, cutting
out all royal cells eleven days later, and giving from
a healthy stock a royal cell just sealed. When
the queen hatches — by which time nearly all the
worker brood will also have left their cells — make a
swarm of them into a skep, and transfer, on the second
day, into a frame-hive. The queen will, in seven or
eight days, begin to lay, and probably all will go well.
The re-queening removes the possibly infected queen^
and gives in her place a healthy one, while the delay
gives time for the diseased bees to die off before
they are required to act as nurses, which is the
virtue of the so-called “ starvation cure.” The honey
in the diseased combs may be melted down, thinned
with water, boiled, and used as food, preferably with
medication.

The destruction of the hive, however, is never
necessary^ for, after the worst cases, it may be used

56o

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

again with perfect safety if, having been washed* and
dried, it be scrupulously painted with a mixture of two
parts methylated spirit and one part carbolic acid
crystals, or one-and-a-half parts good white fluid
carbolic acid. This mixture not only rapidly destroys
all bacilli and spores, but it glues them down into
place, by dissolving the propolis, and insinuating itself
into every cranny. Other methods are at command,
Mr. R. Sproule having contrived a disinfecting
apparatus, which he finds perfectly efficacious ; by it
he vaporises carbolic acid in steam, which is carried
through the carpeting by a pipe. The processes of
ovening, or prolonged boiling, will also, from what
has been said on sterilising, disinfect the hives and
frames. The oven of the kitchener will usually be
large enough to receive the latter, and so can render
them re-fit for use. I believe, for hives, the process
of painting with my mixture, now recommended, will
be found most generally useful ; but let none depend
on a hope that the spores will die by simply leaving
the hive empty for a season. I have just tried some
of these spores kept sixteen-and-a-half months in
a glass tube, and exposed on several occasions to
a temperature below frost. Upon introduction into
gelatinised meat-juice, they ‘ immediately started
growing.

The old German plan of giving salicylic acid t in
food, and spraying with a solution of the same,

* For the washing, the corrosive sublimate solution (page 558) may
be used with advantage, but thorough rinsing must follow.

t For further information, see the Address of the Author : “Foul Brood
not Micrococcus, but Bacillus — the Means of its Propagation, and the
Method of its Cure ” {British Bee yournal, Vol. XII., August 12, 1884). .

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

561

I found, many years since, effectual, but necessitating
much care and prolonged attention. Those advocating
salicylic acid, now recommend its use in a fumigator,
as devised by Mons. Bertrand. This apparatus,
which looks like a small still, contains a spirit lamp,
the flame of which rises beneath a metal dish. Sur-
rounding the latter is a cylinder of stout tin, covered
by an inverted funnel form, the neck of which is bent
to the horizontal, and made in cross section an oblong
5in. by i-^in. The hive is raised from its floor-board
until the mouth of the funnel passes in at the
entrance, and the corner of the quilt is lifted to
permit a free circulation of the vaporised acid,
I gram (— 15^ grains) of which is placed in the dish,
over the burning lamp. Every portion of the hive
is reached by the vapour ; and when the fumigation
is repeated every few days, in the early morning, or
late in the evening, so as to have all the bees at
home, under its influence, it is said to be very
effective. It is singular that salicylic acid at 220° C.
is converted into phenol and carbonic acid, and that
to vaporise salicylic acid without this conversion is a
delicate operation. Doubtless, therefore, the process
given is likely to be more really fumigation by phenol,
although, nominally, by salicylic acid. The objection
seems to be in the extreme uncertainty of the amount
of dose given by this arrangement.

The phenol treatment has been largely associated
with my own name, because I originated a new appli-
cation of an old remedy. My words at the Congress
were : “ About three years’ since, Mr. R. Sproule, an
Irish gentleman of culture, mentioned to me that he
VOL. II. 2 O

562

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

had used phenol in the treatment of foul brood with a
good deal of success. I replied that I would seek
opportunities of experimenting, and, if I found the
result advantageous, I would, as I am always glad to
do, mention his name, with thanks for the suggestion.’^
The suggestion, as I now know, was not novel. But
the way of utilising the remedy had not yet been
discovered, and Mr. Sproule, with it in his hands,
for want of noting the way of giving it, lost a large
part of his apiary. His plan was to feed with syrup,
into which he put a small quantity of Calvert’s No. i
phenol, or carbolic acid ; but Ligurians refused the
food, and succumbed to the disease. Striving to keep
to my expressed intention of seeking opportunities
to experiment, I, up to the close of 1883, found and
treated six stocks, with results that convinced me that,
with proper management, I had a remedy beside
which salicylic acid was but vexation of spirit. Old
experience with the latter drug had shown me that
the system of spraying was chilling and depressing,
and that medicine and food should, if possible, be
given together. We thus get a constant quantity, as
every grub must receive the same amount of nourish-
ment ; and if we have a curative agent, and have
ascertained the dose, the difficulty is accomplished.

“To place the food, with added phenol, on the hive,
will, however, do nothing* in the greater number of
cases. If honey be coming in, the bees will not

* These are the ver}- words I used in my Address three years since ;
and yet many, with a perversity which is almost incredible, say that
phenol will not cure, for they have given it in the food-bottle, but the
bees would net take it.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

563

touch it ; but open the stocks, remove the brood-combs,
and pour the medicated syrup into those cells imme-
diately around and over the brood, and the bees
will use a curative quantity of phenol.” In my ex-
periments I inoculated a stock, and allowed it to get
into a bad state, then inserted a comb of store in
the centre of the brood-nest, and treated one side,
from which the disease disappeared, but raged, although
with abated fury, in the other half. Having, by these
and many similar experiments, made the curability of
Bacillus alvei a certitude, and having ascertained that
of phenol could be given to the bees without limit-
ing the queen in breeding, or touching her health, while
dispatched the bacillus quickly when honey was
coming in, and when it was not, I, in the interest
of apiculture, requested the British Bee-keepers’ Asso-
ciation to provide me with a bad case, fully attested.

It arrived late, June 21st, 1884, with seven combs,
about half a pint of bees, and a queen-cell — which I
saw at once contained a dead larva only. Amidst
crowds of bad cells, scarcely any living brood was
visible. A casual counting of one of the best frames
gave 371 dead larvae on one side. The odour was
pronounced. The case needed confidence ; it was bad
indeed. With me, queenlessness presents the worst of
all obstacles. No grubs, no physic, no cure ! I had
stipulated that the stock should have a queen, and
so the difficulty was greater than I had anticipated.
Early next morning, seeing the utterly disheartened
condition of the poor bees, I went to a nucleus,
took out a very fine Italian mother, just proved as
purely fecundated, and putting her under a dome cage,

2 O 2

564

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

on a card, placed the card over the frames. The bees
came up, and seemed to see in her a new hope. The
cage was lifted, and she was welcomed immediately-
I waited three days, till she was regularly laying^

giving syrup phenolated i in 500; and now, since
I could not create bees, added two combs of brood.
This step was made necessary by the fact that I
required a strong hive by the time of the Congress.
The bees w'ere now shut up by a division-board ; but
the combs put behind it, waiting introduction as the
bees multiplied, smelt so badly — the weather being
hot — that I several times sprayed them with water
200, phenol I. Now I should compress the bees as
much as possible, and spray the removed combs

freely with water 50, phenol i. To return. Every
evening the medicated syrup was given, by pouring
around the brood-nest; but only so much as would
be likely to be used, the object not being to fill the

cells, but to get the food converted into bees. The

smell vanished, the bees became active and earnest.
The comb with 371 dead larvae on one side was
last added, and in six days I could only find five
sunken caps in the whole of it. Now and again a
grub took the disease, but quickly perfect immunity
was the issue. No cell was uncapped, no diseased
grub removed, nor the hive touched, except as de-
scribed. The bees cleaned their floor and their combs ;
while, in four weeks and two or three days, every
frame became filled with brood in the brightest
and best possible condition. Since this, worse cases
have succumbed in the same fashion. Abundant
corroboration has been eiven from those w’ho have

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

565

tried my method, and have succeeded, to their own
delight, while some have failed ; but the testimony
is general, that bees under phenol become more ener-
getic than are those that need no treatment.

The quantities are easily managed, i oz. of phenol
crystals (= carbolic acid No. i) will be sufficient for qolb.
of syrup, Joz. for lolb., or Joz. of liquid carbolic, P.B.,
for qlb. syrup, or rather less than three quarts. The
carbolic acid should be added to the syrup when the
latter is cool, and equally mixed by careful stirring.

Mr. McLain is just reporting some cures which
appear remarkable, and, since I have no personal
interest whatever to serve, I only trust that his method
may be superior to mine, although it certainly involves
much more trouble. I have used his remedy, and find
spraying with a syrupy fluid very messy ; but time is
needed before one can judge of results. I give his
recipe and treatment in his own words :

“To three pints of soft water, add one pint of dairy
salt. Use an earthen vessel. Raise the temperature to
90° Fahr. ; stir till the salt is thoroughly dissolved ; add
one pint of soft water, boiling hot, in which has been
dissolved four tablespoonfuls of bicarbonate of soda; stir
thoroughly, while adding to the mixture sufficient honey
or syrup to make it quite sweet, but not enough to
perceptibly thicken ; to ^oz. of pure salicylic acid (the
crystal), add alcohol sufficient to thoroughly cut it
(about I oz.), and add this to the mixture while still
warm, and when thoroughly stirred, leave standing for
two or three hours, when it becomes settled and
clear.

“ Treatment. — Shake the bees from the combs, and

566

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

extract the honey as clearly as possible. Then
thoroughly atomise the combs, blowing a spray of the
mixture over and into the cells, using a large atomiser,
throwing a copious spray ; then return the combs to
the bees. Combs having considerable quantities of
pollen should be melted into wax, and the refuse
burned. If there is no honey to be obtained in the
fields^ feed syrup, or the honey which has just been
extracted. If syrup is used, add i oz. of the remedy to
each quart of the syrup fed ; if the honey is used,
add 2joz. The honey and syrup should be fed warm,
and the remedy thoroughly stirred in; and no more
should be furnished than is consumed. Continue the
treatment, by thoroughly and copiously spraying the
diseased colonies, at intervals of three days, simply set-
ting the frames apart, so as to direct the spray entirely
over the combs and bees. In order to keep the bees
from bringing in fresh pollen, burn old dry bones to
an ash, pulverise in a mortar, and sift through a fine
wire-cloth ; and make a mixture of rye-flour and
bone-flour, using three parts of rye-flour to one of
bone-flour, adding enough of the syrup, or medicated
honey, to make a thick paste. Spread this paste over
part of one side of a disinfected comb, pressing it
into the cells with a stiff brush, or a thin honey knife,
and hang this in the hive, next to the brood. Con-
tinue this treatment until a cure is effected. Keep
sweetened brine, at all times, accessible to the bees,
and continue the use of the rye and bone-flour paste
while the colonies are recuperating.”

Microscopic examination of Bacillus alvei shows
clearly that it is subject to variations in the vigour

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

567

of its growth — sometimes the rods are longer and
stouter than at others ; but its colony form is quite
constant, and the spores, and the methods of their
production, are always the same. In blood serum,
this bacillus grows with even greater vigour than it
does in the body of the bee. Variation, which will
account for the disease being sometimes especially
virulent, is commonly observed in micro-organisms,
and forms the very basis of the system of attenua-
tion for inoculation purposes as practised by Pasteur
and others. Where the queen is diseased, probably
no treatment will be efficacious until she has been
replaced. This is a problem which seems to forbid
solution, since we have no means of determining the
condition of a queen until her life has been sacrificed.
Those who believe that the replacement of the queen
is all that is needed for a cure, will soon get evidence
of their palpable error. Pricking a needle into a
diseased larva, and then touching a larva in a healthy
hive with it, is, five times out of six, enough to start
a vigorous attack. It could not, however, be supposed
that the queen is, in such a case, the cause of the
malady. Summer is, without doubt, the best time for
treatment, as then the bees can not only more easily
bear the necessary disturbance and the chilling, but
they can be aroused to rapid brood-raising, which
involves the application of the remedy.

Bags containing camphor, placed within an infected
stock, have been stated to work a cure. They pro-
bably are an advantage, and might be used in winter ;
but, in my own trials. Bacillus alvei has gone on
developing and extending its ravages, notwithstanding

568

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the presence of the camphor. The so-called coffee
cure it cannot be uncharitable to regard as a mere silly
whim, which does not deserve to be dignified by dis-
cussion.

General vigour in the colony is, possibly, some
defence against an attack, for the cell life of the
bacillus has to battle against the cell life of the bee,
in order that it may convert the tissues of the latter
into its feeding-ground. Thus, in consumption, the
bacillus causing it may be held in check during
vigorous bodily health ; but a cold, or any lowering
of tone, gives the bacillus a chance, and it multi-
plies, invading the lung; producing the “ cheesing ”
so well known to the medical man. It is, on the
other hand, however, untrue that mouldy combs, want
of ventilation, dampness, or even chilled brood, cause
an outbreak, for this can alone follow the introduc-
tion of the special organism from which the disease
is alw^ays derived.

A considerable number of instances occur in which
numerous undersized, hairless, and greasy-looking bees
are found perambulating the combs, or are dragged,
nolentes volentes, to the hive door, and then and there
evicted. In other cases, crowds of these ‘‘abnormal”
bees die immediately in front of their homes, while
many are usually to be found running about upon the
ground, constantly stopping to rub their legs, antennae,
and bodies, with a nervous, uneasy movement, and
then, collecting into little knots, continue these con-
vulsive twitchings until they die. This disease is
commonly most destructive in the spring, but it may
continue active throughout the year. The old explana-

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

569

tion, that these glossy, or “ black bees,”* are robbers —
old felons, indeed, which have so often been severely
mauled in being driven from the communities they
were plundering that all the hairs of their bodies had
been pulled out — is clearly, for many reasons, inaccu-
rate. These bees I find, in every case, filled with a
bacillus (G, Plate I.) smaller than Bacillus alvei, and
which cultures have shown to be quite specifically
distinct. Its length is about in., and its width

Fig. 123.— Various Organisms Found in the Juices and Tissues of
Diseased Bees.

A, Colonies of Bacilhis Gaytoni in Cultivation (Magnified 5 diameters). B, Bacilli
(not alvei) found in Blood of Queen, showing Flagella (500 diameters). C,
Bacilli found in Blood of Queen (Two Species, one very large), showing Spores
(Magnified 800 diameters). D, Micrococci found in all the Tissues of a Queen
(500 diameters). E, Organism found in Blood of Queen — the only discovered
Example— not Cultivated (1000 diameters). F, Torula(?) found in Dysenteric
Worker (500 diameters). G, Torula found in Dysenteric Worker (500
diameters).

in., and it is often so short and rounded that
it might be mistaken for a bacterium. Its colony
form (A, Fig. 123) is very marked. Under cultiva-
tion, it slowly liquefies the jelly, producing a milky-
looking mass at the top of the culture. When seen
under a low power, the colonies have a singular kidney-
like form, being distinctly lobulated, and appear browm
under transmitted light. By reflected light they are

* So called because of the black appearance induced by the loss of the
hairy covering.

570

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

opaline, and when magnified fifty diameters show
that the bacilli are grouped in radiating clusters.
These characters mark off this bacillus from other
forms. I have named it Bacillus Gaytoni^ from
Miss Gayton, who found some of her bees suffering
three years in succession as I have described, and
at whose request I investigated the cause. Miss
Gayton imagined the disease to be connected with
the queen, and this I have been able to corroborate,
as the queen, in these diseased colonies, abounds
with these bacilli. What is more important, is that
her removal, and the establishment of a healthy
successor, usually banishes the unfavourable symp-
toms ; but this is not uniformly true, seeming to show
that the bacillus is readily communicable from bee
to bee, the attack being at times immensely more
virulent than at others. Weakness and loss of
vitality, with defective nutrition, would seem to
occasion the dropping of the hairs, and this is, no
doubt, favoured by the uneasy scraping, to which the
body of the sufferer is continually subjected. Very
large numbers of bees, sent me from different parts,
and one from Cyprus, have yielded this bacillus as
the result of cultivation, and I have found it the very
easiest to propagate. My experience in treating it is
very limited, but some trying phenol have testified
that very obstinate cases of it yield to the same
measures as would subdue Bacillus alvei — by the
side of which, be it remembered, it is a very slight
offender.

In human diseases, as well as those of the larger
animals, two or even more micro-organisms, have been

!

I

I

i

I

I

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

571

found growing in the affected tissues. Bees often
exhibit the same peculiarity; e.g., at C, Fig. 123,
we have a blood-stain from one of a number of bees
sent by a correspondent,* in which a beaded (spore-
bearing), large bacillus, is found growing side by side
with a very small one. The large bacillus collects
in dense plates (zooglea form), of many thousands,
in actual lateral contact. Of the significance of this
bacillus nothing is at present known, except that it
appeared to be the occasion of a most destructive
attack. Only two distinct instances of the occur-
rence of this bacillus have come under my knowledge*

The flagella of a bacillus found in a queen at Eden-
thorpe are peculiarly distinct ; and an interesting
example, picked out by my keen-eyed friend, Mr.
E. M. Nelson, when looking over my collection, is seen
at B, Fig. 123; here the flagella from two pairs of
bacilli have caught, and are drawing each other tight.

In a large apiary, a queen of very unusual size,
but with relatively small legs, was found to be too
weak to continue on the comb, and was literally
scarcely more than a bag of micrococci, the whole body
being completely broken down. Upon touching her
side with the point of the forceps, with the idea of
commencing a dissection, a thin, milky fluid escaped
in astonishing quantity. A trace of this, placed on a
glass slip, appeared as at D, Fig. 123. No similar
instance has come under my knowledge. A remark-
able, and also, to me, unique, case is illustrated at E,

* Names, of course, could not be given without permission; but I
have them attached to my collection for future reference.

572

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Fig. 123. This strange organism was found in millions
in the blood of a queen sent me, with a statement
that, although not old, she was useless, as she scarcely
laid at all. These organisms clearly multiply by fissu-
ration, and carry a thick envelope, while within they
have darker cross markings, exceedingly difficult to
define.

A distinction — as stated at page 525 — should be
drawn between an overloading of the bowel with
pollen residues, due to protracted cold in winter, and
a condition of distension resulting from the presence
and multiplication of fermentative germs. At F, Fig.
123, is represented an organism found in multitudes
in the fluids of dysenteric, or, rather, diarrhoetic, bees,
the bodies of which were tremendously swollen. The
organism, under cultivation in a peptone and sugar
medium, showed itself to be one of the phycomycetes,
known by the produced mycelium* and its manner
of fructification. The question is too technical to be
followed here in extenso^ especially as at present
further investigation is necessary. Other dysenteric
bees have contained a true torula (as at G), while
their uncapped honey had thinned by alcoholic fermen-
tation, and was frothing out with the underlying
pollen from the mouths of the cells.

The catalogue of germs observed in bees is by no
means exhausted, and I have now under experiment
one which has recently presented itself in the apiary
of the Rev. G. Raynor, which seems to be only
second to alvei in destructiveness, and respecting

* See Sachs’ “Text-book of Botany,” Second Edition, page 266.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

573

which it would be premature to give any details,
beyond that phenol is certainly, to some extent,
beneficial.

Finally, are these germs indicative of disease ?
Emphatically they are, in every case. Bacteria are
not found in healthy tissues, nor in healthy blood ;
and, since I may be reminded of an editorial in the
British Bee Journal of May 13th, 1886, which has
somewhat confused the minds of some, I will simply
give three references to the Royal Microscopical
Society s Journal. June, 1886, page 536: “Pasteur’s
experiments have shown that the tissues of animals
are the most perfect filters known, neither permitting
the entrance, nor tolerating the existence, of any
foreign material, unless the tissues are diseased.’^
August, 1886, page 665: “Herr G. Hauser has sub-
jected this question to fresh examination, with the
following results : In the living tissues and tissue-fluids
of healthy animals, he finds neither pathogenic nor
any other description of bacteria.” December, 1886,.
page 1036 : “ Herr J. von Fodor has examined the blood
of healthy living, or recently killed, animals, for the
purpose of ascertaining if bacteria develop. The blood,
placed in sterilised flasks, with the usual precautions,
was kept at the temperature of the room, or in incu-
bators at 95° to 98° Fahr., for several weeks, and, after
excluding errors from accidental impurities, the author
found that the blood contained no bacterial germs
capable of development.

“The author, furthermore, injected non-pathogenic
bacteria in enormous quantities into the jugular veins
of living rabbits, and found, in consonance with the

574

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

results of other observers, that the injected bacteria
disappeared from the blood within a short time.^^
Space, however, forbids my replying to the whole
article, the value of which may be gauged by one
point. I had drawn attention to the wild assertion
that, “ at every breath, w^e are inhaling thousands ” of
bacteria, and pointed out that three bacteria per in-
spiration was the highest number ever observed, while
one in eighteen inspirations was the average. For
these exact statements I am soundly lectured ; and, in
order to convict me of error, a reference is made to
Dr. Miquel, whom I had previously cited, and, to
refute me, a supposed calculation is based upon his
data. This concludes that every cubic inch of air at
midday contains 825, and at 8 p.m. 16,500, bacteria
— a deliverance positively comical in its extravagance.
My censor has only mistaken a cubic metre for a
cubic centimetre, and so his results are just one
million times too great — a degree of accuracy which
would argue that no single cell of honey should be
sold for less than ;^40, and that a good queen should
weigh one-quarter of a ton. It is possible, nay,
probable, that Mr. Cowan did not go, as his article
would have us suppose, to La Sejnaine Medicate ^ now
lying before me, but to an abstract in the Royal
Microscopical Society's Journal^ as here a printers
error occurs ; but this is unimportant, as either way
it would appear incredible that any person having the
least knowledge of the subject could have fallen for
a moment into such errors, much less have made
them the subject of a calculation, and an attack not
conspicuous by its modesty. Culture tubes can be

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

575

opened many times without contamination. I have
one still pure, over a year old, from which six dozen
inoculations at least have been made. Would this be
possible if one bacterium could be found, on an
average, in each cubic inch ? The actual average
is one in about 650 cubic inches for the open ; in
thronged rooms it is much greater, the highest

record, up to date, occurring during a soiree of the
Royal Society, when, of course, the air was laden
with foreign matter of every kind. Here Frankland
found two bacteria in three cubic inches of air. Per-
sonally, I could have afforded to have allowed this

criticism to pass, as I have done many others ; but
it would have been a failure in duty to have left

it unrefuted — to hinder the spread of light upon a
question of vast importance to the future of apicul-
ture. Had the courtesy been reciprocated which I
extended to the writer of the article in question
when, at his visit to learn my methods, I presented
him with a good number of my best preparations,
I could have replied in another place. My trust is,
that the presence of pathogenic organisms amongst
our stocks will be regarded as a grave — an in-
creasingly grave — matter, calling for the best efforts
of everyone ; for, unless the diseased stocks are
either cured or destroyed, the mischief they work
grows as bee-keepers multiply, and that in the ratio
of the square of their multiplication.

The enemies of the bee found amongst the animal
world are many, but their power for evil is as nothing
beside the vegetable foes we have been considering —
and so we may dismiss them quickly. Wax moths,

576

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

in Britain, are but little to be feared. Late in the

summer evening, the moth may occasionally be seen
flitting at the hive door, to gain access to the combs,
on which to lay her eggs ; but if the population be
at all numerous, the guards give her but a small
chance of effecting an entrance. Should she succeed,
the eggs deposited on the combs will be at once

ejected, unless the bees are so sparse as to leave

them unvisited. Eggs may possibly hatch if left in
unreachable corners, or on the debris collecting from
wax plates dropped during comb-building and sealing;
but here the little grubs only gain an existence by
gathering up the fragments, that nothing be lost, and
only where a colony is miserably weak, or has lost
heart through hopeless queenlessness, can they work
mischief among the comb. Here, if suffered to
remain, they worm their way through the midrib,

constructing a silky tunnel, on the walls of which
will be found their dejectamenta, resembling grains
of gunpowder, and by degrees the comb is utterly
ruined ; comb, therefore, in store may be destroyed by
their ravages. The egg is but y^in. in diameter, and
so likely to escape detection. Should the character-
istic flannelly line show itself, expose the whole to the
fumes of burning sulphur, or fumigate thus as a pre-
caution. The sulphurous acid produced quickly gives
the quietus to the little tormentors. No further atten-
tion will be necessary, if we place the combs out of
the reach of the moth, or if the season of her flight has
closed, as eggs also are, at the same time, destroyed.

The death’s-head moth (Achero?itia Atropos) is an
enemy of bees ; but the statement that she can swallow

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

577

a tablsepoonful of honey is, of course, a mere fable.
The bees would be able to prevent her entrance, but
she is capable of emitting a stridulating note like
that of the queen (page 157), which seems to terrify
the inhabitants of the hive. They generally close
with the enemy, however, after a time, and then
every scale (feather) of the moth is pulled out,
causing it to change its appearance in a most
remarkable manner. I have a specimen from a hive
near Lowestoft, which most persons would be unable
to imagine could have been a moth at all. That

Fig. 124.— Braula c^ca.

A, Braula (Natural size). B, Male Ditto, Magnified 18 diameters. C, Foot of
Braula (Magnified 80 diameters)— t. Teeth ; p, p, Pulvilli.

point is, however, settled by the nervures of the
wings. The moth is very rarely found in hives, but
the caterpillar is not uncommon on the leaves of the
potato, and is extremely large.

The Braula cseca (A, Fig. 124) is a small, reddish-
brown, wingless louse, parasitic on the bee, and of
relatively large size, being about in. long. It is
most generally found on imported bees, and rarely
survives a winter in Britain. I found them, however,
two years since, many hundreds strong, in each of
several colonies of black bees, at Orpington, which I
VOL. II. 2 P

578

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

visited because of this reported peculiarity. I removed
twelve braulse from one queen ; and, strangely, if a
very few only exist in the colony, the queen carries
them, they, at least, seeming to believe in “ royal
blood,” which they secure by means of a jawed
sucker. They are exceedingly difficult to dislodge,
as their movements are rapid, and as their bodies,
furnished with beautiful hairs, are ffattish ; while their
unique feet, each carrying two toothed combs t, C),
give them a secure hold of the webbed hairs of the
bee. Touching them by a small brush, pointed with
thick honey, will generally lift them from their place.
Beneath each foot are two pulvilli (/,/), of exquisite
beauty as microscopic objects ; they are provided with
knobbed, sensitive hairs, by which they feel the surface
upon which they are resting. The name cseca im-
plies that these creatures are blind; and this the female
appears to be ; the male also, possibly, but he has
rudiments of eyes. The eggs sometimes hatch within
the body of the mother. The larvae pass through
their changes in about fifteen days. The damage they
cause, even if numerous, is not apparently serious.
They are of great interest to the entomologist, who
has been puzzled as to their classification ; and they
have recently been translated from the Hippoboscidse
to the Braulidse.

The blue tit {Parus cosruleus) and the great tit
[Parus major) ^ during prolonged cold, are often
reduced to extremities, and then they are too ready
to make a meal of such members of our stock as
they may chance to pick up by waiting at a hive
door. The idea that they take drones only is inaccu-

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

579

rate, since they hunt most when drones do not exist.
To these birds we must add the fly-catcher and the
chaffinch, and, amongst other less offenders, the sparrow,
which I have seen to take bees when on the wing.
Some of these birds remove the stings, an interesting
collection of which was found by my late friend,
Mr. John Hunter, on a rail, after a blue tit had been
dining at his expense.

The toad I have known to fatten amazingly while
skulking beneath a hive, its lightning tongue causing
hundreds of over-fatigued labourers to disappear, as
they have dropped into a tangle of weeds, affording
too good a covert for the enemy. Keep down the
weeds, as recommended at page 364.

Mice and snails little trouble wooden hives, but the
uncleanly, ubiquitous earwigs are a nuisance. They
are nocturnal vegetable feeders, and make, if they
can, the dry, snug crannies about our hives their day
quarters, which they sully with their droppings. They
may be thinned considerably by providing hospitality.
Put two pieces of unplaned board over the chaff-tray,
or carpet, shutting between the two, plum skins, apple
peeling, crushed cherry, &c., and keep the boards
slightly separate by a stud of some sort. Open the
trap, in the daytime, in a chicken run. They are
destructive in the garden, seeming to prefer nibbling
the petals of the most beautiful flowers, so it is a
double service to trap them.

Wasps, of which we have several species, divided
into the social and the solitary, are useful creatures
in thinning off insect pests; but the social wasps
annoy bees considerably, though they accomplish little

2 P 2

580

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

against strong stocks ; the weak they often succeed
in impoverishing. Destroy all queen wasps in the
spring, as each of these — known by her large ab-
domen— starts an independent colony. Treat all nests
of Vespa vulgaris^ which are built in the ground, to
destruction by turpentine, paraffin, gas-tar, or gun-
powder. This is the more important, as large
numbers hybernate in these nests.

Ants are rather tantalisers than enemies ; populous
hives prevent them entering. In wet seasons I have
known them utilise bees in a most interesting manner,
by spreading their larvae (ignorantly called “ ants’
eggs”) in a layer over and between the top coverings
of the bees, so that the warmth of the latter and the
dryness of the situation might duly bring the chrysalids
to perfection. These were moved about, and carried
up and down from the nest beneath, as circumstances
dictated.

In closing this chapter, I cannot forbear asking my
readers to consult any of the older writers on the
subject. They will then, perhaps, be surprised to find
that, in former times, birds, wasps, moths, mice, snails,
and spiders, were the most dreaded foes, and diseases
accounted as trifling and infrequent ills. How different
the case now ! Our modern hives keep the old pests
pretty much at bay, but infectious disorders are on the
increase, and are also appearing in new forms. It is
no safeguard to shut one’s eyes to a danger. Safety
rather lies in a knowledge of the magnitude of any evil,
and respecting this one, slackness is all but criminal.

CHAPTER XII.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

Honey : its Constitution — Polarisation Defined : its

Application to Detection of Adulterants — Corn Syrup
— Dextrose — Cane Sugar — Microscopic Examination
— Formic Acid in Honey: its Food Value — Wax:
its Constitution; contains no Glycerine ; Attacked
by Lime — Melting Combs — Old Combs: to Treat —
GersteV s and Jones’ Extractors — Solar ^ Extractor
— Adulterants : to Test — Pollen — Propolis: How

Used by Bees; How to Clean from Hands; to
Prevent Adhesion of ; Sources of ; How Gathered
by Bees ; Useless to Bees under Domestication.

Honey, although of varied hues and distinctive
flavours, is still of fairly constant composition, its main
constituents being two kinds of sugar, called dextrose
and levulose, combined with water, which is subject
to considerable fluctuation in amount, the average
being between one-fifth and one-sixth of the whole ;
beyond these, small quantities of acid and some aromatic
principles are present; while pollen is always found
as an accidental addition. The blossoms whence the

582

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

bees gather nectar yield mostly cane sugar,* but this
undergoes inversion through the action of the salivary
secretion of the bee (see page 377 et seq.), and the
two forms of glucose before mentioned are produced.
The names dextrose and levulose imply right-hand
and left-hand sugar, and need some explanation, since
the properties to which they refer are the chief aids
in detecting adulteration in honey, a question in
which every bee-keeper has the deepest interest. To
the mere chemist these two forms of sugar are
identical, the composition of each being: carbon, 6
atoms; hydrogen, 12 atoms; oxygen, 6 atoms. Some
difference, however, exists in the arrangement of these
atoms, since the first is easily crystallisable, is not
especially sweet, and turns the plane of polarisation
to the right ; the second is non -crystallisable, is
very sweet, and turns the plane of polarisation to
the left.

The whole question of polarisation is complex, but
still a sufficiently clear idea of the involved point can
be conveyed in a popular manner. Ordinary light is
regarded as consisting of waves, or vibrations, travel-
ling with inconceivable velocity, the various waves
making up a beam moving in every possible plane.

* It has been calculated that one fuchsia blossom yields *117 grains
of sugar, five-sixths of which are cane sugar; one Claytonia, -oo6 grains,
two-thirds of which are cane sugar; each flower of the garden pea, -153
grains, almost wholly consisting of one or both of the glucoses ; vetch,
•002 grains per flower ; red clover, the same amount. Accepting this
grain per blossom as accurate, 3,500,000 visits must be paid to gather
I lb. of sugar. But all must know that the amount of honey in any
blossom depends much on external conditions, and is liable to very’ con-
siderable variation ; while the supposition that clover only yields one
seventy-seventh of that furnished by the garden pea (see page 306,
Vol. I.), would appear to need verification, and I, after careful attention
to the point, venture to think it very wide of the truth.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

583

When the light is polarised, all its waves are in one
plane. To bring this before the eye, let us suppose
the bent wire ab, Fig. 125, to represent a simple
wave, the plane of which is perpendicular — i.e.^ the
oscillations are up and down ; then the wave, cd^
making its oscillations sideways, would be said to
move in a horizontal plane. Any number of such
wires, put at random side by side, would represent
an ordinary beam, the vibrations of which are in every
plane, but if the wires all had their planes parallel,

Fig. 125.— Diagram explaining Sugar Analysis by Polarised Light.

ah, Ray with Perpendicular Plane of Vibration ; cd, Ray with Horizontal Plane ;
e/, Ray with its Plane undergoing Rotation ; t. Tube containing Sugar to be
analysed ; gr 1 and gr 2, Gratings.

they would represent a beam of polarised light. Let
gr I be a grating of perpendicular wires, set wide
enough to pass ab or cd, if straight ; then it is clear
that ab, although bent, would still pass, while cd
would be stopped. Many crystals arranged as prisms
are optically such gratings ; they will only allow rays
to pass in one plane. Common light in going through
them is therefore polarised. If a second grating, gr 2^
be placed behind the first, with its wires horizontal, ab

5»4

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is stopped, and every wire that can pass the first
grating is stopped by the second; and similarly re-
ferring this to light, two prisms placed with their
planes crossed — e.g.^ one perpendicular, and the other
horizontal, will stop all light.

Let us imagine a tube Fig. 125) containing
levulose in solution, held in by flat glass plates, to be
put between the two prisms ; the plane of polarisation
of the light will then be revolved, during its passage
through the levulose, towards the left, as at ef. If
there be sufficient levulose, and the tube (^) long
enough, perpendicular waves may be made horizontal.
The amount of rotation is ascertainable by noting
the position the second prism must take to exactly
counteract the effect of the rotation caused by the
levulose. Dextrose gives the opposite result ; but
since equal quantities of the same description of sugar
always produce the same number of degrees of rotation,
these quantities can be determined by an examination
by polarised light.

The main adulterant of honey is corn syrup,* pro-
duced in America in enormous quantities by the action
of acids at high temperatures upon the starch of
maize. The starch is not wholly converted ; some of
it remains in the form of dextrine, a kind of gum,
but the bulk is transformed into dextrose. Honey
so adulterated would rotate the plane of polarisation
to the right, whereas the opposite tendencies of the
equal quantities of dextrose and levulose in pure honey
would leave the plane of polarisation little affected,
although, as levulose has more rotatory power than

* “Adulteration of Honey,” Otto Hehner, page 12.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

585

dextrose, the balance lies with the former, and a slight
rotation to the left occurs.

The reader will have observed that dextrose is
described as easily crystallisable, and yet it is used
as an adulterant, not only to reduce the cost of
production, but to prevent crystallisation, or candying
of the honey (page 487). This enigma is explained
if it be remembered that the corn syrup contains about
one-fifth or one-sixth of gum (dextrine), which cannot
be converted into sugar by the processes employed,
and this gum is the actual preventive of candying.
If pure dextrose were added, the honey would candy
still more quickly as a consequence. The admixture
of dextrine becomes evident if the material be fer-
mented, when the gum remains, although the sugars
disappear. The process of fermentation is brought
about by the addition of yeast, and requires the
presence of small quantities of nitrogenous material.
Similarly, our forefathers were in the habit of con-
verting their doubtful residues, after squeezing or
straining, into mead* or metheglin — liquors of which
I have no experience. The sugars are changed, under
the action of the ferment, into carbonic acid, which
escapes, and alcohol, which remains behind.

Cane sugar in solution is only rarely used to
augment the volume of honey, its much larger cost
not making it so suitable to the purposes of the
adulterator as corn syrup. Cane sugar is, however,
also easily detected by the polariscope, as it, too, turns

* Honey, diluted with about four times its volume of water, and
exposed to the heat of the sun, in an open vessel, from which insects
are excluded, will, in about six weeks, become strong vinegar. This
\dnegar has a very fine flavour.

586

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the plane powerfully to the right. It is further
detected by the copper test, over which it has no
influence : while the sugars of diluted honey, if boiled
with solution of sulphate of copper* made alkaline,
reduce the copper salt to cuprous oxide, each molecule
of sugar reducing five of copper, so that the exact
amount of dextrose and levulose present in any volume
of honey can be ascertained ; at the same time, the
amount of cane sugar, if any, may be determined.

If cane sugar be inverted (see page 378), by treat-
ment with acids, e.g.^ sulphuric or tartaric, and then
used as an adulterant, the resulting mixed dextrose
and levulose, being identical with the sugars of honey,
cannot be detected by polarisation. Their origin,
however, betrays itself by the traces of acid which
remain, and which give white, cloudy precipitates with
barium or lead solutions.

Sugar solutions of any kind, and however flavoured,
if given in substitution of honey, are immediately
detected by the microscope, as the counterfeit contains
no pollen (see Fig. 127). Dilute the suspected material
with about five times its weight of water, and stand
twelve hours in a conical glass, when the heavier
pollen will subside. Draw up the sediment by a
pipette, or pour off the supernatant liquor, and
examine with a low power. The amount of pollen
discoverable in genuine honey is, however, extremely
variable, depending not only upon the special bees
which acted as collectors, but upon the flora and
the character of weather at the time of gathering,

* This is used in the form of “Fehling’s solution,” for which consult
any recent work on practical chemistry.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

587

much wind often rendering the honey cloudy from
the excessive quantity of pollen it then contains. If
the specimen be only diluted with the syrup, pollen
in small amount will be found, and the microscope is
then incompetent to pronounce upon the fraud.

That the chemist and microscopist are able to
expose so completely the miserable dishonesty which,
to gain an unfair advantage, would strive to pass off a
sophistication as a genuine article is highly satisfactory;
but it is even more consoling to note that adulteration
is on the wane — the first fact, undoubtedly, being the
main cause of the second — and Mr. Otto Hehner has,
by the able attention he has given to this subject,
earned the good wishes of all honey-producers.

The acid quality of honey has already more than
once been referred to. The contained acid is cer-
tainly partially formic, but in what association the
chemist is not at present able fully to determine.
Herr K. Miillenhoff* and the Rev. Wm. F. Clarke have
pointed out that formic acid is provided by the bees by
depositing droplets from their stings, which they touch
on the face of the honey ; Herr K. Miillenhoff adding
that thus the presence of formic acid, absent in
nectar, is accounted for. The acid, doubtless, exerts
an antiseptic influence, and without it fermentation is
likely. The expediency of removing honey while yet
unsealed, and so economising the time and energy
of the bees, is suggested, as the crop could be readily
and cheaply preserved by the addition of per
cent, formic acid.

The poetical conceits of the ancients touching honey
* “ Archiv fiir Anatomic Physiologic,” 1886, pp. 382-6.

588

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

are for ever dissipated, for not again can it be con-
sidered, except in a general sense, as aerii mellis
caelestia dona^ Virg.) Heaven’s gift ; while modern
science smiles at (“ quaedam siderum saliva, Pliny)
the saliva of the stars. It is well that it should
take its true place, as a delicious and most whole-
some food, occupying, in the right of its own intrinsic
merits, a position in our diet table from which it
cannot be driven without loss.

Honey derives considerable character from the
sources whence it comes ; but it must be remembered
that the special aroma and flavour of high-class honeys
depend upon, relatively, very small differences, always
supposing that the compared samples are properly
ripened, have a high specific gravity, and are abso-
lutely free of all uncleanly contaminations. Its food
value depends upon its sugars, which are in the very
best form for assimilation, since they are already* in
the condition in which they are normally absorbed into
the blood. They should, on this account, be taken
in combination with some solid food, to retard their
absorption, or the liver may have more presented to
it than it can immediately deal with. Honey, masti-
cated with bread, e.g., is liberated in the stomach
gradually, as the masses get broken up by solution
of the gluten. It may thus well replace butter, while
it is superior to sugar in many descriptions of cake
and confectionery. The Rev. J. V. Moyle has devoted
much time to multiplying the uses to which honey
may be put, and the ingenuity displayed in this direc-
tion is surprising.

* “Honey as Food.” Frank R. Cheshire.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

589

Wax, as a secretion of special glands, with its
circuitous derivation from saccharine substances in
the body of the bee, and many other related matters,
have already received attention in Volume I. ; but
we have yet to consider its chemical constitution, the
substances used as adulterants, and the method of
obtaining it in pure form.

Mr. Hehner has recently independently investigated
the composition of wax, and has corrected the errors of
his predecessors. If wax be boiled in alcohol, cerotic *
acid, forming about 14^ per cent, of the mass, dissolves
out, while the residue — myricine — remains practically
unaffected. Cerotic acid crystallises in delicate needles,
fusing at 172° Fahrenheit, while myricine is greyish-
white, without crystalline texture, and fuses at 127°.
If myricine or myricylic palmitate be boiled with an
alkali, it is broken into two bodies — myricylic alcohol
and palmitic acid, the latter uniting with the alkali,
and forming a soap. Wax differs from fat, in that it
contains no glycerine. The fatty acids, united with
alkalis, always liberate glycerine, in soap-making, e.g. ;
but if wax be saponified, no glycerine presents itself,
and thus the chemist is furnished with a method of
detecting a certain class of adulterations.

Much wax is wasted through failing to note that
lime in water unites with the cerotic acid, forming
an insoluble lime soap ; so that perfectly pure wax,
if boiled over hard water, has, after cooling, a curious
mass of material, greyish in colour and spongy in
texture, lying under it. Wax should never be melted,
nor should combs be rendered in any but rain or

* “The Chemistry of the Hive.” Otto Hehner.

590

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

distilled water, unless to the water is added an acid,
which, by uniting with the lime, prevents it from
attacking the cerotic acid of the wax. Vinegar will
do, but sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acids, in small
amount, would be better ; a teaspoonful of sulphuric
acid would be sufficient for half-a-gallon of water.

There are many methods of melting up combs so
as to secure their wax ; but if these be old, it is very
essential that they be first most thoroughly soaked.
It is sometimes stated that old combs yield no wax.
The reason in part lies in defective treatment, though,
of course, they never so well repay “rendering” as
do the fresher ones. Larval excrement collects in
quantity in old comb, and, if this be dry, no sooner is
the wax set running, than it is soaked up in such a
manner that it cannot afterwards be separated. When
a sufficiently large collection of scraps and pieces of
comb has been made to warrant a cooking, it is wise
to sort over the whole, and start operations with the
pieces in which breeding has not occurred. These,
in the absence of any appliance, need only to be
brought to the boil over a good quantity of slightly
acidulated water, and then stood by to cool as slowly
as possible, so as to permit the heavier dirt to sink
to the lower surface. Next day the cake can be
lifted, and the lower part scraped off. The removed
debris may go into the second boiling, for which the
combs should have been soaking from the previous
day. The cocoon skins, thoroughly wet, will refuse
contact with the wax, and the excrementitious matter
also will remain beneath, staining the water a deep
brown. After cooling, the exceedingly dirty mass.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

591

now in comparatively small compass, should be placed
in a canvas bag, along with a weight, and once more
boiled with water, when it will yield almost all its wax
if it be kneaded with a stick ; and this, left to slowly
cool as before, will be scarcely inferior in quality to
that first obtained. Mr. J. M. Hooker recommends
that the combs be put into a copper, and pressed
down as closely as possible. A hoop, just fitting the
copper within, is covered with cheese-cloth, and is
pressed down over the combs, and kept in place by
sticks wedged against the ceiling, or other means.
The copper is now filled with water, and, upon boiling,
the wax will separate from the refuse, and, rising
through the cheese-cloth, can be taken off, when cold,
in a solid block.

If tinned vessels are used for the melting, nitric
acid must not be employed. Metal is undesirable
with any acid, so that an excessive quantity should not
be added; and if rain water be at command, it may
be omitted. An iron vessel, made hot, and rubbed
with any kind of fat, will not afterwards discolour
the wax, as it is likely to do if this precaution be
not taken ; nor will acids in moderate amount now
affect it. Copper vessels are to be preferred.

Those who desire a special appliance, will find the
wax-extractor of Professor Gerster both convenient
and effective. It fits, like an ordinary culinary
steamer, over a large saucepan, and consists of a tin
cylinder, within which is placed the perforated basket
carrying the combs. Beneath is a circular tray, which
receives the dripping wax, to be carried off by a
spout passing through the side of the cylinder. The

592

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

arrangement has been improved by Mr. D. A. Jones
and others, as seen in Fig. 126.

Having filled the comb-basket (A), returned it to
its position in the extractor (B), and covered care-
fully by the lid (/), place the whole arrangement
upon the stove, first, however, filling the bottom with
water. The filler {/) gives a view of the amount
during the whole operation, avoiding the risk of
boiling dry, and also permitting the replenishment of

A, Perforated Comb-basket— c, Central Cone. B, Section of Extractor— Z, Lid ;
c, Cone ; tr, tr. Tray ; b. Block to support Comb-basket ; st. Steam-tube ;
f, Filler.

the tank without lifting out the comb-basket. Through
the perforated metal walls of the latter the steam
passes, gaining access to the combs, as indicated by
the arrows both around the tray {tr) and through the
steam-tube {st), wetting and heating the mass cen-
trally and on the sides. The melted wax, dripping into
the tray, is carried off by the spout to a vessel placed
to receive it, which should have taper sides, so that

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

593

wax, when solidified, may be easily removed. These
should be also slightly oiled, to prevent adhesion.
The receiver should be placed on a cooler part of
the stove, or be in some way gently heated during
the process, while hot water, 2in. or 3in. deep, should
be placed within it at starting ; by this means the
wax will be kept fluid, and the impurities will settle
to the bottom of it, from which they may be sliced
off when it has thoroughly set. These appliances save
labour, and are very cleanly, altogether preventing the
danger of boiling over, so likely to occur where combs
are placed in water, as the molten, swimming wax in
this case impedes the escape of the steam.

Wax may also be obtained by the solar extractor,
which depends for its action upon the curious fact that
glass is diathermanous for heat from luminous rays, and
athermanous for obscure rays — i.e., heat direct from the
sun passes through glass easily, but by contact with
material substances it is changed into obscure, or
non-luminous, heat, which, as such, cannot re-traverse
the glass. The accumulated temperature of green-
houses, if exposed to direct sunlight, is thus accounted
for, the heat passing into the house, but being unable
to pass out again. The solar extractor is of most simple
structure, and is, practically, a box having a sheet, or two
or more sheets, of glass, one within the other, for its
lid. Beneath comes the perforated bed, on which
rest the combs. The wax drops through the per-
forations, and must be duly received below. It is
sometimes mounted on a leg-stand with a universal
joint, so that the glass may be presented to the sun
wherever he may be situated. As it works dry, it
VOL. II. 2 Q

594

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

is of little service for old combs, and, in our uncertain
climate, it might be quite unavailable when most
required.

Perfectly clean wax having been obtained, repeating
the process of melting over water, if necessary, it
may be cast in moulds, which should be very sparingly
oiled, or receive a trace of glycerine, to prevent
adhesion. The cooling should be slow, or the mass
will crack in shrinking, because the outside sets hard
while the inner part is still hot. By slow cooling, the
temperature throughout is nearly uniform, and the
outside and inside contract toofether.

Many substances of animal and vegetable origin
possess some of the qualities of, and bear some
resemblance to, beeswax, and these, unfortunately, too
often and too successfully, are used as adulterants.
Mr. Raitt, as a practical judge, probably stands
second to none, and on this matter he thus speaks :*
“We have before us samples of ‘beeswax’ (?) of every
shade of colour to be desired, of every degree of
hardness, and tempered to any ordinary melting-
point, but that never had any connection whatever
with bees. Their basis is ceresin ; they are softened
by paraffin and stearin, hardened by Japan wax or
Carnauba, their melting point raised or lowered
accordingly, and tinted to perfection. They are
then everywhere sold as ‘pure beeswax’!!” “The
various adulterants used, according to that which is
wanted, are the mineral waxes, ceresin and paraffin,
the vegetable Japan wax, myrtle wax of the States,
and Carnauba wax of Brazil, the wax obtained largely
* Bee-keeper s Record, November, 1885.

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

595

in China from the insect Coccus sinensis^ and such
substances as stearin.” The most serious disadvan-
tage of these adulterants is that the doctored wax,
although its actual melting-point may be preserved,
loses tenacity when a high temperature is reached,
and so combs built out from foundation made of
it are liable, in summer weather, to drop from their
attachments, and convert the previous beautiful order
into chaos. Only last summer I saw most painful
loss and annoyance caused in this way.

To judge of the purity of wax by ready methods
requires much experience, but the following hints
may be of service : Pure beeswax, unbleached, is
of yellow colour, has an agreeable, somewhat aromatic
odour, and a slight, but characteristic, taste. In the
warm hand it becomes plastic, and, without either
oiling or heavily coating the skin, is, under pressure,
decidedly adhesive, while separated parts weld together
very perfectly. Broken, at ordinary temperatures, it
has a granular fracture, with a dry-looking, unpolished
face ; but when cut shows a glossy, waxy lustre, and
when chewed does not stick to the teeth, but crumbles
and breaks to pieces in the mouth, while a small per-
centage of adulteration will cause it to clog. Experts
depend much on this last indication. Rosin is some-
times used as an adulterant^ with the effect of making
the fracture smooth and shining. The rosin can be
slowly dissolved out in cold alcohol, while the wax
remains untouched. By evaporating the alcohol, the
rosin is obtained in a separated condition, and its
amount may be estimated. Benzine, unlike alcohol,
dissolves wax most readily, and so reveals at once

2 Q 2

596

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING,

earthy matters, meal, or other insoluble impurities,
added, not infrequently, to foreign samples, to increase
weight. Benzine, as a wax solvent, is the best material
for removing the latter from any fabric which may
by accident have been sullied by it. Fresh wax
melts at about 144°, but the melting-point rises 2^
or so by a few months’ keeping. The specific gravity
of wax is nearly equal to that of water, and ranges
between *960 and ’965, water being I'ooo. When adul-
terated with hard fats, its specific gravity is reduced, and
on this fact Mr. Hehner has suggested an exceedingly
simple test. Take a piece of undoubted pure beeswax,
and cautiously mix alcohol (methylated spirit) with water
until the wax just sinks ; a piece of wax so adulterated
would, in the same test fluid, rise to the surface. The
test must be applied, however, with great care, as
any air-bubbles in or on the piece to be. tried might
lead to its being condemned unjustly.

Bees varnish their combs with propolis on the
edges of the cells, where they often apply it quite
thickly, while they add a thinner coat on the cell
walls ; but it does not appear that this varnishing
wholly causes the colour the wax possesses in bulk.
The wax scales, as secreted (page 156, Vol. I.),
are daintily white, but the combs may be, under
special conditions, which are little understood, yellow
at the very bases of the cells from the beginning.

Wax can be bleached by exposing it to the action
of the ozone in dew ; but different specimens of wax
behave differently under identical treatment. The
usual plan is to run it out into films by dropping it
upon revolving wooden cylinders half immersed in

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

597

water, and then, whilst screening from the action of
direct sunlight, lest melting occur, exposing the films,
upon canvas, to the action of the air — ozone being,
as I have just stated, the bleaching agent. Wax
may also be chemically bleached by the action of
chlorine, or, indirectly, by nitric acid, as follows : To
I lb. of melted beeswax, add 2oz. of pulverised nitrate
of soda ; then stir in, by degrees, i oz. of sulphuric
acid, diluted in 8oz. of water. After partial cooling,
boiling water is poured in, to remove the newly-formed
sulphate of soda and the remaining acids. The wax
is now white and translucent, less unctuous than
before, and without taste or smell. Bleached wax is
harder than the unbleached, its melting-point being
raised, by the processes through which it passes, from
6° to 8°. On this account it is little fit for apiary
work, and so has here no particular interest.

Pollen has received, in Vol. I., detailed attention,
both in its relation to plant-fertilisation — to effect
which the bee is so frequently the agent — and in
relation to the food of the larvae. It is gathered by
bees, most generally, simultaneously with honey, and,
although usually carried back to the pollen-basket of
the third pair of legs, when on the wing, it may be
duly stored without flying, as I have often noticed
when bees gather from some composite flowers, such
as single dahlias. That bees have this power, may
be interestingly proved by making a paper case, or
packet, about ^in. or Jin. deep, and open at one end.
If pea or lentil flour be placed in this, the bees will,
when taking artificial pollen, enter in numbers, and,
while within, will pack up the farina into large

598

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

pellets, beautifully smooth and regular, which, if pea
flour be used, will resemble completely, in form and
colour, the cotyledon of the pea — i.e.^ the half seed
after the skin has been removed. The shallowness of
the case of course precludes the idea of the bees
rising in flight.

Pollen is used in large amount during the breeding
season, one stock often carrying, probably, 4olb. or
5olb. in a single summer. This is packed in worker-
cells, with but few exceptions.

Some plants, such as Nepeta Cataria (catmint) and
Erica (heather), so place the pollen on the bees’
body (see page 292, Vol. I.) that it is not, as is usual,
carried to the baskets, so that pollen cannot be said
to be stored from these ; yet grains from their anthers
constantly get mingled, in an accidental manner,
with the honey, and may in it be detected. Pollen
grains are beautiful objects, and some, having typi-
cal forms, or a special interest to bee-keepers_, are
represented in due proportion (except a, which is
only magnified half as much as the others) at Fig.
127. The external envelope consists of cellulose, and
does not digest, but becomes a bowel residue in the
larva. From this it follows that not only will the
honey, if microscopically examined, reveal the flora
from which it was obtained, but the dark material
collecting in old comb, if properly treated, will show
the sources of the pollen upon which the larvae
hatched in the comb have been fed. The grains are
all characteristically marked, and are very generally
about diameter; some are as much as

Y^^in., as in the vegetable marrow; others are as

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

599

small as 3oVo'^^’> forget-me-not and some

poppies. The most commonly recurring form is a
globe or egg-shape, covered with upstanding, blunt
spines ; that from the evening primrose (a) is large,
the grains being held together by abundant filaments ;
those from the pea tribe are oblong (e) ; those
from many of the thistles (m) sub-stellate ; and from
the clovers (n) fusiform, dotted and marked with a
longitudinal groove. Thus, the bee-keeper may, if

Fig. 127.— Pollen Grains, Various.

a, (Enothera (Evening Primrose), Magnified 120 diameters ; b, Symphytum of-
ficinale (Comfrey), Magnified 240 diameters ; c, Helianthus (Sunfiower) ;
d, Ajuga repta^is (Common Bugle); e, Lathy rus prate/isAv (Meadow Vetchling) ;
/, Polygala vulgaris (Common Milkwort) ; g, Ribes ruhrum (Red Currant) ;
h, Centaurea scabiosa (Greater Knapweed) ; i, Phlox Druminondi ; k, Fragaria
resca (Wood Strawberry); I, Clematis Jackmanni ; m, Carduus arvensis(Cre&p\ng
Plume Thistle) ; n. Trifolium repens (White Clover) ; o, Cheiranthus Cheiri
(Wallflower).

armed with a medium microscope, detect whence his
honey is coming. If possible, he should, however,
before determining, carefully compare the material of
the pellets, as gathered, with that from the plant he
imagines to be the source of supply.

Propolis^ a resinous substance, exceedingly tenacious,
varying much in colour, but usually a rich brown, and
which emits a balsamic odour, is used by the bees
both as a cement and as a varnish. With it they

6oo

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

fill every crack the bottom of which they cannot
reach ; so that our movable frames, should they present
much contact surface, are made fixtures, and the ven-
tilating (?) straw skep becomes so impervious that, if
inverted, it may hold water like a bucket.

New combs, as previously pointed out, are var-
nished by it, on the edges of the cell walls, which
thus gain additional strength; and by its aid excessive
ventilation may be reduced, or large, unw'elcome
openings may be closed. The doors of skeps are, not
infrequently, veritably curtained by a thin plate of
propolis, to which a varying proportion of wax is
added ; the curtains are carried dowmwards until the
bees’ notion of security and comfort is met. Some
years since, leaving, by an accident, three or four
frames of a hive quite exposed above, the bees com-
menced building out propolis, stiffened by wax, from
the opposite edges of the top bars, until, by the time
the error was noticed, they had very nearly finished
a sufficient roof for themselves. From this practice
of bees, in using propolis in their defence or protec-
tion, its name has been given, from the Greek
TTpoTToXt?, ‘‘ before the city.”

Propolis is collected in largest amount towards
the close of the season, as though in prepara-
tion for winter ; and it now becomes a serious
nuisance to the bee-keeper, often sticking his fingers
together, and staining them a greenish-yellow^. Soap
is almost powerless to remove it, but hot water and
an alkali — such as soda or potash — succeed better,
especially if the hands be first rubbed with oil or
lard ; but the best plan is, before the hands are

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

6oi

wetted, to apply methylated spirits (alcohol), which
dissolves the propolis quickly, although it is not
quite efficient in removing the stain. The structure
of the hives should be such as to reduce propolising to
a minimum, as in my anti-propolising frame (page 69),
the comfort of using which can hardly be imagined by
those having only ordinary types. The hands of the
amateur will be considerably saved by moistening
with glycerine before and during manipulating, as
the glycerine intervenes bet\veen the skin and the
propolis, and prevents adhesion. Great comfort will
also be secured by carefully rubbing tallow — or, better,
vaseline — upon the parts which it is desired to move,
as the bees are disinclined to propolise greasy surfaces,
while the grease keeps the propolis in such a soft
state that it does not accomplish the purpose intended
by the little artificers. Some races propolise less than
others, notably the Carniolans ; while none gather any
after October, until the succeeding April, so that clean
fixings put on in wintering will so remain until the
following spring.

The sources of propolis are many, the leaf-buds of
various shrubs and trees providing it — the poplar, the
alder, the beech, the willow, the fir, and others, giving
resinous exudations in the axils of their leaves and
bracts ; while, e.g., the resinous and exceedingly adhesive
leaf-buds of the horse chestnut, and the varnish-coated
blossom-buds of the hollyhock, must be known to all.
Huber, in his experiments, planted some branches
of the wild poplar before the leaves were developed)
and placed them in pots near his apiary. The bees,
alighting on them, separated the folds of the largest

602

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

buds, extracted the varnish in threads, and loaded
with it, first one thigh, and then the other; for they
convey it like pollen (page 13 1, Vol. I.), transferring
it by the first pair of legs to the second, by which
it is lodged in the hollow of the third. Bees
are not only exceedingly clever in finding natural
sources of supply, but they freely adopt artificial ones,
pressing into their service resinous gums, varnishes,
and even pitch. They also value propolis as a second-
hand article, and will scrape it from old, disused hives
and coated quilts, making such, in case of disease, a
fruitful source of trouble. Bees in some localities —
those devoid of trees — carry scarcely any propolis.
In one such case in my knowledge, sunflowers were
made to yield a substitute, in the transparent, adhe-
sive exudation they furnish.

If a piece of propolis be placed on the finger, and
a seat be taken near a hive, ere long a bee will be
at work appropriating the treasure ; and in this way
I have studied, with a hand magnifier, their methods
of packing it. The mandibles, by a gnawing process,
cut off a ribbon, which passes down under the thorax.
This, by a process of mastication, is softened, and
carried by the legs, backwards, without soiling any
part of the body, and finds its way to the pollen (?)
basket, wTere it glistens like a tiny, brown, glass bead.
The bee, loaded, returns to the hive, and here the
expectant painters lay hold of the material with their
mandibles, pull it off in strings, and apply it as
desired ; for it is never packed in cells, but put into
position at once, the propolis-carrier thus not un-
loading herself, as in the case of pollen. Propolis, in

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HIVE.

603

all proportions, is miscible with wax by the bees, and
they employ the two in blend, as occasion may
require.

Little propolis is gathered while the bees are busy
over a good honey yield, but when this closes, painting
begins in earnest, and, if section-boxes are left on
too long, they may be made very unsightly by every
inequality in the box itself getting a little patch of
brown stopping, while the capping of the comb may
be thinly glazed, so as to considerably damage its
appearance.

Propolis is not necessary to bees under domesti-
cation, although its value to those in a wild state,
in securing needed comfort and safety, is apparent.
The disposition to propolise is, no doubt, capable of
considerable reduction by careful selection, as the
amount carried by various stocks, apart from the
question of race, is very unequal. At a period when
bitumen from a mummy was regarded as invaluable
in the healing art, because oddity in the source of
any material was supposed to confer upon it strong
curative qualities, propolis, as might be imagined,
was found upon the shelf of the apothecary, whence,
however, it has now disappeared. Once it was used
in varnish ; but even here its fancied virtues have
fled^ for modern light has shown it to be only resinous
matter, of unequal character, and continually associated
with every description of dirt. Neither art nor science
now will have it, and the bee-keeper only wishes that
the bee could be taught that collecting it is worse
than labour in vain.

CHAPTER XIII.

RACES.

Necessary Qualities of Bees for Profit — Crosses —
Fertilisation in Confinement : Experiments upon

— The Genus Apis : its Natural and Artificial Dis-
tribution— Species Mellifica : Characteristics of —

Species Ligustica : Colour Bands of ; Character-

istics of — Cyprians : their Introduction ; Charac-
teristics of ; Temper of — Carniolan^ or Hungarian
Bees — Crosses Naturally Breed Out Drone Element
— Ligurianising — Albino Bees — Species Fasciata^
Adansonii, Unicolor ^ Cajfra, Scutellata, Nigri-
tarum^ Indica^ The B hoot an Bee, Dor sat a, El ore a —
Stingless Bees.

The species and varieties of the hive bee, with their
geographical distribution, would require a volume for
their complete treatment ; here, therefore, we must be
content with such a summary as may guide the bee-
keeper in making a choice of stock, so that his
capital and labour may yield him the best possible
return. Bees with marked energy, unquenchable
industry, and great powers of endurance, are evidently
necessary if conspicuous success is to be achieved ;

RACES.

605

while, amidst a whole catalogue of minor qualities,
the queen should be distinguished by fecundity ; the
workers should be, above all, notable honey-gatherers,
and rapid builders of flat, highly-finished combs, in
which drone-cells are not over numerous, they should
winter without difficulty, and be of reasonably mild
temper : and since the various races differ widely
amongst themselves, bee-keepers are justly inquiring
which race or races, and whether a cross or a pure
bee, will be most likely to realise their ideal.

Testimony is pretty general in favour of crosses as
working bees, and this should modify the disappoint-
ment all must feel in the relative failure, up to the
present time, of controlled fertilisation. The mis-
carriage of artificial methods has already come before
us, at page 323, and further efforts, during another
season, have only made me feel the more strongly the
accuracy of the opinion I there ventured to express.
Artificially fertilised queens may be of great value
in securing a pedigree stock, but they, I fear, will
never be of service in heading colonies in actual work,
since the number of eggs they are capable of fecun-
dating, unless our methods much improve, will always
be very restricted.

Fertilisation in confinement would appear to have
been occasionally successful, with the most simple
means, during the last ten years at least, unless we
must suppose that testimony has been given under a
total misapprehension. Yet it is evident that the hope
of progressive apiarists has met disappointment in
many experiments carefully and expensively under-
taken. Mr. Simmins has, during two seasons, been

6o6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

struggling with the problem, and although conquering
difficulty after difficulty, and giving to his queens and
drones considerable flight-space, he has failed, up
to the present, to achieve what could be called a
practical success. Mr. McLain* has had very similar
experiences, as in his last Report he states that he
had six colonies in a house loft. by i6ft., and 8ft.
high, partly covered with wire-cloth. These colonies
knew their location, and returned freely to their
hives. Into these six virgin queens were introduced.
When the latter were five days old, ten drones
were liberated near to the entrance of each colony.
Most of the drones persisted in flying against the
wire. “ When the young queens flew from the hive,
seeking a mate, they mingled among the drones,
crawling over them, and caressing them with their
antennae, meeting with no response. These queens,
with one exception, seemed to have no difficulty in
getting the location of their respective hives. The
result was, one queen mated. Mr. McLain concludes
that the difficulty was in the irresponsiveness of the
drones. To explain this, he supposes drones not
capable until specially fed by the workers, an idea for
which I venture to think the evidence insufficient.
He seems to believe this special feeding supplies the
secretion ' which I pointed out as coming from the
mucous gland (see page 199, Vol. I., where 1 have
explained that drones are not all, or always, in a
virile condition). Having inserted six other virgin
queens into the same six stocks, he secured a strong
colony under the swarming impulse, in which queen-

“ Report on Experiments in Apiculture,” by Nelson W. McLain, 1887,

RACES.

607

cells were being built. This colony was placed in
the house previously mentioned, the wings of the
old queen being clipped. Drones were soon found
in nearly every hive in the house, and three of the
six queens were fecundated. Mr. McLain is hopeful,
and intends trying in a larger, wire-covered inclosure,
and concludes by saying: “If practical control of re-
production can be secured by so simple and inexpen-
sive a method — and the facts, from my experience, as
given above, seem to warrant the conclusion that this
is true — then the Rubicon of scientific apiculture is
passed;” an expression of opinion which appears to
me to over-estimate the general importance of fertili-
sation in confinement, which never can be more than
exceptionally applied, however practicable it may be
made. The selection of the queen is always possible,
and the extent of the influence this exerts must be
judged in the light of previously-considered facts,
and what is subsequently said respecting crosses.

The genus Apis contains about sixteen species,
which have such a near approach to structural identity
that some naturalists are willing to regard mellifica^
our native bee, as the generic type, of which a few
at least of the so-called species are merely varieties.
It is urged by such, that mellijica^ ligusiica, and
fasciata^ e.g., interbreed with avidity, and that their
progeny are prolific ; but this is no proof of specific
oneness, as closely-allied but universally-admitted
species often possess the powers indicated.

The whole genus is naturally restricted to the Old
World, for although members of it have now become
naturalised in America, Australia, and the islands of

6o8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

the Pacific, they were originally conveyed thither by
Europeans; and, respecting their introduction to North
America, it has been remarked that the Red Indians
were in the habit of noting the gradual absorption of
their territory by the white man through the forward
advance of his herald. Apis mellijica. This species
has also been carried to India and Northern, Western,
and Southern Africa.

The structural similarity obtaining among the dif-
ferent species greatly simplifies our present task, for
all our past studies apply, with equal force, to nearly
every member of the genus ; and our work now lies
in merely marking differences in colour, size, temper,
and capability, together with such variations in habit
as may make the several species more or less desir-
able for culture.

Apis mellijica^ the brown or German bee, which
is indigenous to middle and Northern Europe, and our
only native, domesticated species, commonly referred
to as the black bee, is of sombre hue, though its
brownish-black body is relieved by definitely arranged
hairs of lighter colour. It is well known to us all,
and must, therefore, be our standard of comparison.
The advent of the brighter-coloured Southern and
Eastern bees has eclipsed mellijica perhaps more com-
pletely than was just. True, its temper, although not
equally irritable in our different strains, is always
uncertain, and it is far too fond of buzzing before the
operator’s nose in threatening style, even showing its
general awkwardness to those who only venture near
to its door. If long under manipulation, it gets into
a ferment, and is prone to boil over the top of the

RACES.

609

hive, while the bees on the fullest combs run into
lumps, hide the queen, or tumble off pell mell in their
hurry. Amidst its other faults, it is quarrelsome with
neighbouring bees, yet only an indifferent defender
against robbers ; it unites badly, does not easily learn
a new location, and is relatively slow in building into
strength in spring ; but it is a good honey-gatherer,
and usually, in my experience, flies as early and as
late as Italians. One good point it has, which should
atone for many faults — it excels as a comb-builder,
and places over its honey, cappings of snowy
whiteness, beside which the work of the yellow races
is patchy and inartistic ; and the comb honey so sealed
is less liable to injury by damp. This race is also
less prone to swarm out, and leave unfinished sections.
It is not its habit to clog the brood-nest, and, as a
possible consequence, it adopts sections more easily
than the yellow races. Here, then, are good and bad
qualities associated. The object of the bee-keeper would
be achieved if judicious crossing could retain the
comb-building capabilities of the native race, and yet
secure the greater coolness and fecundity of the
Italian. Many crosses of Italian mothers with black
drones produce splendid honey-gatherers and good
builders, while the queens are easily found because of
their light colour ; but the temper of the workers is
often at fault. Judicious selection should each genera-
tion bring us nearer to the bee required.

Apis ligustica, the Ligurian, Italian, or Yellow Alp
bee, although long known to naturalists, did not attract
the attention of bee-keepers until nearly thirty years
ago, when, in our own country, Germany, and America,
VoL. II. _ 2 R

6io

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

it quickly rose to high favour. M, Hermann, a bee-
cultivator, Canton Orison, Switzerland, transmitted the
first consignment of living Italians that reached our
shores to Mr. A. Neighbour — the late Mr. Woodbury,
the “ Devonshire Bee-keeper,” receiving, in the same
package, a queen and her attendants. These arrived
July 19th, 1859. Since that time, importation has
been continued, and the race multiplied, until almost
all our black bees give indications of an admixture of
Italian blood.

The Italian Alp bee, called Ligurian, from Liguria,
the Roman name for the district lying immediately
North of the Gulf of Genoa, really extends over
Northern Italy and South-eastern Switzerland, its limits
being set by the Helvetic and Carnic Alps. There

are, however, two types of the Italian. The smaller,

very bright in its colouring, possessing a yellow scu-
tellum, and a less amiable temper than its relative,

is referred to by Morawitz and Douglas as suited to

hot climates, and is stated by Dr. Gerstacker to
extend to the islands and mainland of Asia Minor and
the Caucasus. This is mainly found in Southern
Italy. The larger, rounder, more tawny, and better
known type, commonly called the ‘‘ leather-coloured
Italian,” prevails in the North ; but these diffe-
rences shade insensibly into one another. This bee
is somewhat less than mellifica ; the abdomen is
flatter and more pointed, but the main distinctions
lie in colour. The six telescopic, abdominal rings of
mellifica are all dark, but four light bands cross the
dorsal (back) plates, consisting of very closely-set,
short, tawny hairs. When, by the presence of Bacillus

RACES.

6ll

Gaytoni (page 569), these hairs drop, the colour of the
plates is fully seen, and hence the name “ black ” bees
is then given. These hairs are present in the Italian,
and, as before, on the second, third, fourth, and fifth
abdominal rings, but are lighter and yellower ; while the
first three rings are themselves in large part a trans-
parent, tawny yellow — transparent, as may be seen by
allowing a bee to fly on the window-pane. The first
abdominal ring on the dorsal side mainly faces the
thorax, and may be missed by careless observation ; its
lower edge only is black. The upper two-thirds of the
second is vellow, the upper third smooth and hairless,
because this passes beneath the ring above it when the
body is contracted. A band of yellow hair covers the
second third, and adds much to the beauty of the bee,
as hairs and ground are alike yellow. The lower third
of the ring is glossy black, carrying many microscopic
hairs, and a minute fringe. The third ring resembles
the second, while the fourth and fifth carry yellowish
hairs, but are black. The sixth ring, black also, is
nearly hairless.

These are the characteristics which mark off “ three-
banded Italians ” from hybrids, which, amidst much
variety, only in a few instances carry the three
bands, although the second abdominal ring is usually
well marked ; but, amongst the first cross even, we
find some that are only slightly removed from the
pure black, showing touches of yellow near the ends
of the first dorsal plate, though the drones, of course,
retain the appearance of the pure Italian. Many
unported Italians do not fully exhibit the yellow of
the third abdominal ring, and so it has been pretty

2 R 2

6i2

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

generally conceded that the Ligurian is not a pure
race. Be this as it may, it must be remembered that
we have sufficient evidence that dark bees do exist
in Italy, and that the Italian and German bees are in
contact between the extremities of the two mountain
ranges previously mentioned ; and, indeed, I have seen
several lots of imported Italians ” which, if bred in
this country^, would have been pronounced undoubted
hybrids. The under side of the abdomen is parti-
coloured, the plates being indefinite tawny yellow about
their edges, and dark brown in the middle. Yellowish
hairs cover the thorax and head, and, as here the
skeleton is browner than in mellijica, the whole bee
looks lighter and yellower.

The drones are smaller than are those of mellifica,
and are not nearly so yellow above as the workers.
On the under side of the abdomen, however, yellow
preponderates, the last plate beneath being quite
light. The queens vary greatly ; some have the
abdomen long, beautifully taper, and nearly wholly
yellow. I have had them quite yellow, except a
chocolate-brown dot in the median line, on each dorsal
plate. Such queens are not only handsome, but are
found most readily, even by those not quick-sighted
in these matters. Others are so dark that they closely
resemble the queens of mellijica. Nor is the variation
limited to colour, some being so small that they hardly
exceed workers in size. The legs of an Italian mother
are a yellowish-brown.

This race is very generally of mild temper, calmly
bearing manipulation, and is readily subdued by smoke
or carbolic acid ; it adheres steadily to the comb, when

RACES.

613

this is lifted from the hive, the queen then still con-
tinuing to walk deliberately, often depositing eggs
while under observation. The queens are very pro-
lific, and can, under proper handling, fill an enormous
brood-nest ; the bees, in consequence, rapidly build
up in the spring, and can bear artificial swarming to
an extent that would be ruinous to blacks. They
are splendid defenders of their stores, but, upon little
encouragement, become determined robbers. They
are almost proof against the attack of the moth, and
this has much to do with their reputation in America,
where the moth is so destructive. As honey-
gatherers they are most excellent, and, for industry,
unsurpassed ; but under unskilful treatment they
are likely to convert too much of that they gather
to nursery uses, instead of gratefully hoarding for a
kind, though inexperienced, master. Failing here,
many have condemned Italians and other yellow bees,
while want of knowledge in the apiarian himself has
been the weak point. Their comb honey is not
equal in appearance to that produced by blacks, but
for extracted honey they are very profitable bees.
They winter indifferently, unless carefully protected,
not being so truly a mountain race as some have
stated. There is little doubt but that their beauty
and gentleness have been the main causes in making
them all but universal favourites, and that their im-
portation, by introducing new blood, has been a
general advantage to our native rnellijica.

A few years since, the announcement was made
that another and superior race of bees had been
discovered on the island of Cyprus, and that Chan-

6i4

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

cellor Corri had imported them into Europe. One
or two queens arrived in England, the very first
coming, from Mr. Jackson, into the hands of the
Author ; but they were useless as tests, because weak,
and probably diseased, as they were unable to remain
on their combs. Glowing descriptions, however, of
the beauty and value of these bees, together with
reports of another race in the Holy Land, aroused
enthusiasm, which reached the far West, and Mr.
D. A. Jones, of Canada, seconded by the able Frank
Benton, set sail from New York on January ist, i88o,
on a voyage of more than 6000 miles, in search of
the new races. On the return journey, Mr. Jones
passed through London, and the Author, amongst
others, then met the traveller, and saw his treasures.
Cyprian bees could now be really tried. If the Italians
are beautiful, the Cyprians are lovely : smaller, flatter,
more taper, brighter in colour, the yellow being rather
orange than tawny ; the bands and pubescent hairs
of the abdomen are similarly arranged, but both the
black and yellow are more strongly marked than in
the Italian. The back of the thorax is also yellower,
and the scutellum (at the after part of the thorax,
above) brightly yellow. The abdomen is quite bright
at the sides and beneath. The drones — one-third
smaller than those of mellifica — are beautifully coloured,
yellow preponderating, and require to be seen in
spirits to be fully appreciated. The queens — brighter
in tone, and more uniform than the Italians — are lively,
and of good size. Their breeding powers are immense,
and they have a curious disposition to raise very large
numbers of queen-cells, these sometimes reaching

RACES

615

fifty or more. The good and bad points of Italians
seemed to be intensified in Cyprians, temper excepted,
which was described by many as demoniacal. It is
true that, when thoroughly irritated, they make war
with a will, and the bee-master needs the philosophy
of a stoic, or the hide of a rhinoceros, if he is to
stand his ground, for the enemy will submit under
no treatment that does not involve decimation; but,
doubtless, the troubles — of which the Author has had
to bear his part — following the introduction of these
beautiful bees were largely due to want of special
knowledge of the race. A better acquaintance with
them shows that, with proper handling, they are
amongst the gentlest of bees. Probably, very savage
Cyprian stocks were once not uncommon, and, even
yet, now and again occur (see page 23) ; but of such,
in recent years, I have seen no example. It is not
my practice to use a veil in manipulating them, and
for slight operations no kind of taming appliance is
provided. By opening the hive deliberately, and,
if there be a little disposition to fuss, waiting just
a few seconds, almost anything may be done, with
only a remote chance of a sting. Indeed, I always
feel safer with them than with Italians, and would
select them or Carniolans, in preference to any other,
for showing to an unveiled stranger. The manner
in which they are cultivated in Cyprus seems to
forbid the idea of ferocity, as the hives are often
built into the walls of houses, which exist in narrow
streets.

The fecundity of Cyprians is prodigious, and their
honey-gathering powers great indeed. They build comb

6i6

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

rapidly, and, naturally, make few drone-sized cells.
They winter better than Italians, and quickly grow
strong in the spring. Mr. Benton claims that “where
Italians or blacks could not survive, the Cyprians will
live and flourish.” He attributes their high quality to
the unfavourable conditions surrounding them in their
native island, where forage is often so scarce that it
is wonderful that a bee remains. The untiring energy
and perseverance necessary to maintain a subsistence
under such circumstances, have developed their
characteristic activity and restlessness, as well as
fitted them for better defending their stores.

The Holy Land or Syrian bees are found on the
higher ground of the Holy Land and Syria. Although
they vary amongst themselves in minor character-
istics, they are possibly the progenitors of the two
previous yellow races. Mr. Silas Clark says of them :
“They have existed thousands of years — evidently from
the foundation of the world — and have had no chance
to mix with other races. The monks in the old con-
vent near Jerusalem believe that they were the first
bees given to man.” My acquaintance with them
IS restricted, but those I have seen are decidedly
inferior in brightness to Cyprians, although their
markings are similar and their bodies larger. They
are splendid foragers, flying, if necessary, to great
distances from their hives. Their tempers appear to
be, unfortunately, liable to considerable fluctuation,
although many stocks can be handled with the same
ease as Italians.

When visiting the Rev. G. Raynor, I had given to
me some most remarkable pieces of comb, proving

RACES.

617

the curious habit of this bee in building extraordinary
numbers of queen-cells. Each comb in the hive was
surrounded — below and on the sides — by a double
row of these cells ; and each section-box was similarly
furnished. The stock threw seven swarms; from the
first, twenty-one queens were found killed, and ninety
queens were found free in the hive, the cells show-
ing that 170 queens had been raised. The Cyprians
exhibit the same peculiarity, in a less degree. The
Syrians also develop fertile workers, quite usually,
during an interregnum ; but the difficulty is less than
with other races, since the fertile workers do not
interfere with the raising or introduction of a queen,
and when the latter begins to lay they subside.

In order to see the full beauty of Syrians or
Cyprians, or, indeed, any yellow race, the comb
must not be removed from the hive, for the wings
then reflect the blue tints of the sky, and break up
the yellow colour. Separate the combs widely, and
look down between them.

Carniolan or Hungarian bees are universally recog-
nised as extremely gentle ; they do not seem to be
specifically distinct from mellijica^^ although the varia-
tion is well marked. The form is like to that of our
native bee, yet somewhat larger, and more robust.
Its hue is dark greyish - black, frequently showing
two indefinite, orange spots near the extremity of the
first dorsal plate of the abdomen. The most con-
spicuous distinctive feature, which gives it a quiet
beauty, lies in the four rows of pubescent hair, which

* There are several varieties of mellifica, some being useless : heath
bees, by example.

6i8

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

are denser and much lighter than in the ordinary bee.
The queens are larger, and often of a pale bronze
colour, while the drones are strong and solid (see
page 212). The popularity of this bee has grown
suddenly, but is fully justified by its excellent qualities.
The merest novice can handle it in confidence. It is
a grand comb-builder, making cells slightly larger than
those of our native bee (page 21 1). It gathers very little
propolis, using wax instead. It winters magnificently,
coming in strength right through into the spring.
With great force of constitution, it is long-lived, so
that nuclei retain their numbers a lengthened period,
in the absence of laying queens. It is very prolific
and industrious, and gathers honey in large amount ;
but it is a free swarmer. This point can be dealt
with by the intelligent apiarian.

The bees crossed between Cyprians and Carniolans,
although unequal in colour, are yet beautiful, for
where the yellow of the Cyprian is wanting, the
dense, light pubescence of the Carniolan is present
as a compensation. As a business bee, this cross
promises, perhaps, better than any other.

Respecting crosses, it must be observed that there
is a constant disposition to breed out the drone
element. Suppose, e.g., a large apiary to contain

Carniolan mothers, suffered to produce no drones,
the latter being entirely provided from one or two
Cyprian colonies in which drone-breeding is en-
couraged. The swarmed colonies become hybrids ;
and, if the pure mothers are now replaced by
similarly cross-mated queens, it may be supposed
that the apiary has the chosen cross established in

RACES.

619

it. Such is not the case : the following summer, all
the drones produced in the hybrid stocks will be
Carniolan, and, unless the supply of Cyprian blood be
kept up, the stock will, collectively, gradually revert
towards the Carniolan type (see page 321). This fact
seems to have escaped the attention of those who
wrongly assert that, unless we can absolutely control
fertilisation, no advance can be made in the produc-
tion of a special strain. It is clear that the queen
exerts three times the influence over her posterity
that the drone does, since her blood is one-half of
that of the fecundated daughters, and the whole of
that of the sons.

The circumstances just enumerated greatly favour
any attempt at establishing one race in lieu of
another; e.g., in what is called “ Ligurianising,” one
or two, or any number of Ligurian queens, are
introduced into an apiary. They are encouraged in
drone-breeding, and other drones are, as far as
practicable, banished. Some queens are purely mated,
some crossed. The crossed ones the second year
raise the drones, which are still pure, and the purely-
mated furnish the queen-cells ; and in this way, theo-
retically, Ligurians may be made to supplant blacks,
or any one race any other. Practically, unless a

position of great isolation can be secured, it is not
so, for bees seem to prefer crossing. Many years
ago, when bees were few about me, I placed twenty
pure queen-cells in as many stocks. I had abundance
of Ligurian drones, and none of any other race —
nineteen of the queens crossed ; this has been cited
as evidence of the difficulty of securing pure im-

620

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

pregnation, but I regard the case, myself, as an
extreme one. Although the drone from the cross-
mated mother is pure, it must not be forgotten that
a drone from her daughter is crossed ; so that these
daughters must neither be allowed to furnish drones
nor provide queen-cells.

The practice of selection may soon bring into
prominence any existent feature, and sometimes, with
care, a sport may be perpetuated. Either selection,
or a sport from the Ligurian, has produced the so-
called Albino. I believe it to be a sport, because a
similar instance occurred in Mr. Benton’s apiary, in
a queen, now in my possession. The term “albino”
is quite incorrect, and should not have been applied.
For an instance of true albinism, see page 117, Vol. I.
The bees under consideration are whiter in the body
than Ligurians, because the down is lighter; while the
abdominal rings are somewhat paler in colour. Much
difference of opinion has been expressed respecting
these albinos ; by some they are vigorously praised, by
others as strongly denounced, as weak and profitless ;
the mean probably nears the truth, as there seems no
reason why they should be better or worse than
other Ligurians, for such they undoubtedly are.

Having now considered those races that have
secured a favourable report, and which seem to
possess the points requisite for building up an ideal
bee, or “ the coming bee,” as our American cousins
are fond of saying, let us give a glance to the better
known of the other species of the genus Apis.

The most important of these is Apis fasciata, or
the Egyptian bee, found also in Arabia and Asia

RACES.

621

Minor. The workers are rather smaller than the
Italian. The general colour is a blackish-brown, with
abundant whitish pubescence. The nervures of the
wings are russet colour. The first two, and part of
the third, rings of the abdomen are dark orange.

This bee was introduced into Germany, in 1864,
by M. Vogel, and into England, in 1868, by Mr.
Woodbury ; but it seemed to the latter to possess no
superiority, while he found it excessively vicious.
Apis fasciata was domesticated in Egypt, in a remote
antiquity, as is proved by reference* made to it in
one of the earliest hieroglyphic writings that have
come down to us, carrying us back to the period of
the building of the Pyramids. The valley of the
Nile is well isolated, and thus the purity of the race
would be preserved ; but it is quite supposable that
a branch of it would push on north-east, and so
develop into the Holy Land and Syrian bees, which
may not be the originals, as Mr. S. Clarke supposes.
Conjecture will serve no useful purpose, but some
naturalists incline to this opinion.

The ancient Egyptians originated the idea of a
floating apiary ; the hives were placed on boats which
ascended the Nile, as in its upper parts the annual
inundation more quickly subsided, and was immediately
succeeded bv melliferous flowers. The boats descended
the river so as to secure the most abundant pasturage,
reaching Lower Egypt in the month of February.

* Sir Gardiner Wilkinson draws attention to a hive being represented
upon an ancient tomb at Thebes. The ancient Egyptians were also
acquainted, doubtless, with the economy of the bee in having one queen,
as the figure of the bee was adopted as early as the Twelfth Dynasty,
expressing, in symbol, the idea of a people governed by a sovereign.

622

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

The boats shifted their position during the night,
so that bees might not be lost. Niebuhr states that he
met upon the Nile, between Cairo and Damietta, 4000
hives. Mr. C. Perrine attempted a similar plan on the
Mississippi in 1878, putting nearly 500 colonies into
two barges, which were to be towed up the river, and
so keep company with the great honey flow, as it
gradually passed northwards, where, of course, the
season is later. The great loss of bees, by dropping
into the water, made the experiment so like a failure
that the idea is now quite abandoned.

Apis fasciata crosses freely with the drones of the
yellow races, although, among other distinctions, its
cells are smaller, eleven across the parallel sides
measuring 2in.

The species adansonii (Latreille) resembles ligustica,
but is again smaller. It exists in Senegal.* The
natives hang the hives in the branches of trees, to
preserve from abounding lizards. The harvest, consisting
of honey, used as sugar, and wax for exportation, is
taken by stifling the bees, and emptying the hive,
wdiich is now restored to its old place, awaiting a
swarm looking out for new quarters, and does not
usually remain long uninhabited, since swarming con-
tinues nearly throughout the year.

Apis unicolor (Latreille), with a black, shining
abdomen, without bands of colour, is cultivated in
hives in Madagascar; but the honey is often unwhole-
some, being, in part, gathered from the abundant
euphorbias. This bee has been taken to the Isle of
Bourbon and Mauritius, and also to the Canary Islands.

* Maurice Girard, “Les Abeilles.”

it

RACES.

623

In the south of Africa, two species of Apis are
found: Apis caffra^ black, with the base of the

second segment of the abdomen dull red; and Apis
scutellata, with the abdomen brown, and the base
of the segments clothed with ash-coloured hairs.

It is by no means clear what species of bee has been
known amongst us as “ South African,^’ the only
surviving specimens having been in the hands of
Mr. Simmins, and, by his kindness, of myself (see
page 346). The queen was probably hybrid, as the
bees were differently marked, yet most jet black on
the abdomen, with lines of white hairs ; so that they
did not agree with either of the foregoing^ being
probably in part mellijica. The South Africans,
whatever they were in race, indicated that they
were not likely to be an advantage in our climate.
The queen bred vigorously, but the stock did not
increase, for the simple reason that the young bees
dispersed themselves in all directions, some hundreds
being found sometimes in near-standing stocks; and,
again, when the temperature is not quite high, they
remain within, and gather nothing. Their disposition to
throw fertile workers (page 355) into other colonies is a
serious drawback, for the nuisance is frequently a fatal
impediment to the raising of a queen from an inserted
cell, and to the introduction of a virgin queen ; while,
in their presence, stocks are rapidly brought to ruin.

In equatorial Africa, in the Congo region, Apis
nigritarum is found, with black antennae, carried upon
a yellow tubercle ; black abdomen, grey down, with
the first segment, and the base of the second, yellowish,
the wings being transparent.

624

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

India has several species of hive bees, and the
climate is exceedingly favourable to apiculture, yet
the industry is, generally speaking, so ill-developed as
to be only of slight commercial importance. A great
field seems to be open for the application of scientific
methods in the handling of native races, and so pro-
ducing honey in large amounts, of good quality, free
from pollen and brood-juices — an art in which the
Hindoo needs European instruction. Wax could also
be produced in vast quantity. It remains yet to be
seen whether the Ligurian, Cyprian, or Syrian, may
not, especially in their mastery over the wax moth,
be superior to any native bee. Mr. J. C. Douglas,
who has especially studied this question, is strongly
in favour of the introduction of the southern variety of
the Italian. The proper solution of the problem would
be of advantage to our Indian Empire. But it must
not be supposed that throughout this vast collection
of countries the native plans are all equally primitive.

In Lower Bengal they have not progressed beyond
the adoption of an earthen vessel for a hive, and
the destruction of all the bees when taking the honey.
In the Punjab they use cylindrical hives,* made for
the purpose to which they are devoted, and formed
of wooden logs, or earth and wattle ; and here the
bees are more productive. In Cashmere, the hives are
built, as they are further west, in the house walls, the
bees and their brood-nests not being destroyed, as
the honey, which is stored behind, is removed from
within, whilst the bees are driven forwards by tapping
and smoke. Here feeding on meal and sugar, or
honey, is practised. The most advanced bee-keepers

RACES.

625

are in the Bashahr district of the Punjab, where a
variety of Apis mellifica is found, and special pro-
vision is made for the bees in the construction of the
houses. These have roofs extended to form a wide
verandah. The walls are of wooden bars, leaving
square openings, into which earthenware hives are
fitted. The door behind admits the swarm, and also
permits of the removal of the harvest, the bees enter-
ing by a hole in front, beneath which is a small
earthenware alighting-place. The men devote a con-
siderable part of their time to the care and protection
of the bees. There is interest in the obseiwed fact
that, where the same species of native bee is found,
both in the hills and on the plains, the variety in-
habiting. the colder climate is the more produc-
tive.

Apis indica is very widespread, being not only
common in Hindostan, but in the islands of the East
Indian Archipelago, notably in Java. It is a small
bee, black, with grey pubescence, with the first and
second abdominal segments of a brown red; but the
colour-bands are distinctly yellower on the lower
grounds, or where temperature runs higher. It builds
comb between Jin. and Jin. in thickness, with six worker
and five drone-cells to the linear inch. It has been
successfully cultivated by a few Europeans, in frame
hives, on the hills, and both super and extracted honey,
its product, have been exhibited. It is kept by the native
Hindoos in rude hives of various builds, but frequently
made like a drainpipe, of bamboo, and shut at the
end by board. These hives are often placed, by the
natives, beneath the gutters of their houses, they
VOL. II. 2 S

626

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

destroying the bees periodically. Apis indica is likely,
especially in the wild state, to suffer badly from the
moth, enormous numbers of wild colonies perishing
every season from this cause and want of stores ; for
it is noticed that, in Lower Bengal, Apis indica collects
very little, if any, surplus honey, but that the surplus
is surprisingly increased by domestication, and bears
no fixed relation to that which would be produced by
the same bee naturally.

The Bhootan bee* is, probably, specifically distinct
from Apis indica^ than which it is a good deal larger.
All the bees, including the queen, are very dark, with
white hair. Their worker-comb has 5J cells, drone-
comb 4^ cells, to the inch. They are exceedingly
mild in temper — so much so, that the guards retreat
immediately, instead of offering a defence — and have
been kept, experimentally, by Europeans, in frame
hives, and have swarmed naturally. In the instances
in which worker-comb of Apis mellijica was supplied,
it was used for raising drones, and so these stocks
yielded scarcely any surplus. It does not resist the
ravages of the moth. Both these bees are incapable
of crossing with Apis mellijica.

Apis dorsata (normally building under boughs, but
frequently in caves) is the giant of the genus ApiSy
the smallest of its workers being quite equal in size
to the largest of the queens of any of the European
races. There are several varieties of this bee
scattered over India, Sumatra, and Java, the larger
being found in the hills. The thorax is black
beneath, with reddish hairs ; the upper part yellowish,

* “Hive Bees Indigenous to India,” by J. C. Douglas.

RACES.

627

with brown, triangular spots ; but the colours are
darker in the hill varieties than in those inhabitating
the plains. The comb has 4J cells to the inch, and
no drone-comb, as distinct from worker, is constructed ;
and, as might be supposed from this, the drone is
the same size and shape as the worker, excepting
that it has the eyes meeting above, as in the drone
of Apis mellifica. The question of crossing with Apis
dorsata has already received notice (page 315). All
attempts at permanently hiving it have to the present
been abortive. In many parts it migrates regularly
at certain seasons, its habit being to leave its comb
on failure of pasturage, reminding us of the “vaga-
bond^’ swarms (page 168) of Apis mellifica.

Apis fiorea is interesting as being the smallest
known species of the genus, while its drone is,
relatively to the worker, the largest, and most differen-
tiated from the female and worker. Its worker-comb,
of nine cells to the inch, is beautifully regular. The
drone-cells are thick on the sides, six to the inch,
and circular in cross-section, adding, if it were needed,
confirmation to the theory that the hexagonal form of
the bee cell is due, not to design on the part of the
bee, but to crowding together of cells which, if sepa-
rately constructed, would be cylindrical.

Several other varieties are known to naturalists ;
but, as these generally give no promise of being,
under any circumstances, reducible to domestication,
they are of little interest to practical apiarians, and
so are here left out of view.

Beyond the confines of our Indian empire bees
exist, but the accounts given by travellers, through

2 S 2

628

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING

pardonable ignorance, are so confused and indefinite
that it is difficult to trace distinctions.

Dr. A. Gerstacker concludes that the Egyptian
variety* extends over Syria and Arabia, through im-
perceptibly minute variations in the Himalayas, on
to China. Central Asia appears to be deficient in
hive bees, although they are found in Siberia and
Trans-Caucasia. R. P. David refers to Chinese bees,
of which the swarms are placed in hives formed of
the hollowed trunks of trees ; but Trschewalsky did
not find them in any of the Chinese provinces visited
by him. Apiculture is not unknown in Japan, but of
the races of bees cultivated our information is very
scanty. Hives are described as made of plank, with
flight-holes below, and arranged in stands with a
projecting platform. Swarms are frequently caught
in straw hives suspended near to nests of wild bees,
and in which sugar has been placed. A swarm having
taken possession, it is brought to the hive in the
garden of the house.

Hive bees — and, amongst them, notably the best-
known species. Apis mellijica — as friends and com-
panions of man, are spreading almost wherever civilisa-
tion reaches, for bees, aided by man's attention and
care, can exist under conditions which would entirely
prevent the settlement of the insect in the wild state.
The domestic bee is, therefore, not only able to main-
tain itself, but is actually profitable in the most diverse,
and often in very unfavourable, climates. It is found
in the far north in Europe, sounding its cheerful hum
in Lapland, while it flourishes on the sunny slopes
* Dr. Gerstacker regards fasciata as a variety of mellijica.

RACES.

629

of Africa, existing in great abundance in Algeria,
where it is domesticated by the natives, vastly helping
the hill races, who deal in honey, but, above all, in
wax. It has also multiplied enormously in both
North and South America, in the latter tending to
displace the Meliponx and Trigonal, which, although
belonging to the Apiase^ are generally inferior to the
genus Apis. The many species of Melipona are short,
squat, little bees, with very varied colours, and but few
pubescent hairs. Their legs are small, and they are
quite incapable of stinging, although the rudiments of
the organ of offence is discoverable. Their combs are
horizontal, supported on columns, with the single tier of
cells mouth downwards. In these the eggs are laid, and
the larvae fed, but they store their honey and pollen in
huge, irregular cells of wax, placed near to the brood-
nest. Their usual habitat is a hollow tree, but they

are not slow to occupy a box or basket. A. mellijica

domesticated in Chili keeps its hive filled with honey
all the year, needing no care. By its introduction to
Australia, it has not only multiplied, furnishing rich
harvests, but has, as in America, returned to the wild
state, multitudes of swarms living in hollow trees, out
of the reach of man, side by side with the native
Trigona. New Zealand has its fauna enriched by it;
it is flourishing in New Caledonia, and holds its own
as far South as Auckland Isle. It has made its home

in the West Indies, and gathers its honey in most of

the islands of the South Pacific and South Atlantic
oceans. It is a pleasant reflection that the little
cosmopolitan is one of the beautifiers of the earth,
increasing floral loveliness and multiplying fruit.

CHAPTER XIV.

CALENDAR.

The arrangement of a Calendar is necessarily some-
what empirical. The work of one season glides im-
perceptibly into that of another; while, in a climate and
country such as ours, due allowance must be made
for seasonal fluctuations and differences in latitude.
It is therefore recommended that, when a reference
is made, .the months before and after the current one
receive some attention ; while the index should also
be consulted. My readers will, without doubt, sub-
scribe to a bee periodical, in which advice suited
to passing conditions is invariably given ; brief notes,
therefore, are here sufficient.

J.VNUARV.

This is the season of rest in the apiary. Do not
needlessly disturb any colony.

Food. — If neglected stocks have been purchased,
or an oversight has been made, and any are suspected
to be deficient in store, give candy (page 396), or
even confectioners’ barley sugar. Cover the food given
warmly, under the quilt or chaff-tray, or with skeps

CALENDAR.

631

put it into the feed-hole, carefully closing every
opening, to prevent any leak of heated air. Semi-

starved bees, huddled together, cannot move to take
food in the face of cold ; such must be carried to a
w’arm room, and kept in the dark, until they have
fed up.

Snow having fallen, consult page 533.

Entrances may be examined the first fine day after
a cold spell (page 532).

Insectivorous Birds, if troublesome, should be kept
from the alighting-board by wire net (page 578).

Hives lying empty should now be made ready
for the future season ; clean, repair, and improve.
These, if sound and of good pattern, when thoroughly
overhauled and repainted are better than new, as
their joints are not likely to open in the sun. Stand
legs in saucers of crude carbolic acid ; this will
be absorbed, and rotting be effectually prevented
(page 1 19).

Section-crates may be prepared, the section-boxes
containing worked combs arranged, and in others,
even thus early, the foundation may be fixed ; although
the wax will harden slightly, the warmth of the hive
will soon render it plastic.

Make all possible preparation for the busier time,
which will bring with it more than sufficient employ-
ment.

February.

All the hints for last month (which see) still apply,
especially those referring to the needs of the bees.

Food. — If the weather be so warm as to induce the

632

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

bees to fly often, much more food will be consumed
than if they remain in cluster. On a warm day, the
needy may have a stored comb (not given icy cold)
exchanged for an empty one, or thick syrup may be
fed to them ; but candy is to be preferred.

Move Bees, that need moving, after a cold spell
(page 426).

March.

Bees, stimulated by their more frequent opportuni-
ties of leaving their hives, and by the w'elcome,
though small, supplies given by opening snowdrops
and crocuses, followed by almond and peach trees,
elms, willows, &c., begin now to carry forward the
work of raising brood in earnest. Make a cautious
examination (page 410), and, if essential, feed. In
the South of England, if dependent upon orchard
honey (which is not first quality), stimulate at the
same time, crowding the bees on to a few combs.

Borage may be sown along the hedgerows.

The Sunflower, sown now, although helpful in
autumn, by providing pollen, supplies, unfortunately,
a soft, resinous body, which the bees use as propolis,
making their hives most disagreeable to the manipu-
lator.

Queen Wasps now begin to make their appearance,
hovering about the hives. They should be diligently
destroyed (page 579).

Hives towards the end of the month may be
exchanged for the newly-painted ones, while the
removed may be still put into trim for increase in
stocks.

CALENDAR.

633

April.

The bee-keeper’s season is now open ; his favourites
are increasing in numbers and activity. Some of the
orchard trees, at the close of last month, and early part
of this, in forward seasons, are in full spring attire,
and, in favourable weather, the stocks are gaining
weight. Yet at this time, perhaps, more colonies are
ruined through want of food than any other. The
winter has disposed of the honey of the previous year,
and brood-raising now requires a good income to
meet necessary expenditure ;

Feeding is, therefore, essential in prolonged un-
favourable weather ; if this should be forgotten, the
bee-keeper will probably meet with

Signs of Starvation^ in the form of the bodies of
immature bees (white bees), on the alighting-board.
Food failing, ovipositing has been stopped, the eggs
and younger larvae eaten (page 248), and the chrysa-
lides (especially of drones) torn from the cells and
thrown out of the hive. Feeding immediately will
save the stock, but not until it has been so checked
that it is unlikely to yield much surplus.

Artificial Pollen may be given (page 399).

Spread Brood with caution (page 414).

Water must not now be overlooked (page 404).

Transferring may be undertaken (page 242).

Queenlessness may be suspected if, while colonies
generally are carrying high-standing pellets of pollen,
the one under examination takes but a small number
of half-sized ones. Should no queen exist, the best
policy is to unite to a weak stock having a queen
(see “ Uniting ”).

634

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Qiieen-raising and drone-raising stocks should now
be selected, and receive the best attention.

Robbing is likely to occur. Carefully avoid spilling
syrup, and keep no hives open longer than necessary.

Foundation may now be built into comb, and, as
an aid in this work, dry-sugar feeders are excellent.

May.

Good colonies are now becoming crowded, and care
must be taken to give room as needed, while the
queens should be encouraged in breeding to their
utmost.

Feeding will be required in a wet, cold May, while
in a fine, warm one.

Sections must be provided.

Swarms, if purchased, should, if possible, be secured
this month.

Nuclei may be started (page 294), and

Queen-cells, from selected queens, should now be
obtained (page 228 et seq.).

Phacelia, Melilot, Clover, C^c., may be sown ; ground
otherwise idle may thus be occupied to advantage.

June.

Special vigilance must be exercised to prevent the
swarming of the honey stocks, extracting or adding
crates of sections or empty combs as may be required.

Swarms issuing from hives, carrying partially-worked
sections, may be treated as explained at pages 165
and 51 1, receiving the sections left on the stocks,
when the former will be continued with no percep-
tible check.

CALENDAR.

635

Swarming for increase may be continued through
the month.

Feeding swarms issuing at the beginning of pro-
tracted bad weather is very important.

Extract the fruit honey separately from that from
white clover, which is in full yield at the latter part
of this month.

July.

This is commonly the busiest season, yielding the
greatest weight of honey, as wild flowers abound, and
the clovers are followed immediately by lime.

Gluts of Honey will occasionally force the bees to
fill up the brood-nest with store ; in this case they
hang idle in front of the hive, as before swarming.
In giving additional room, provide as much clean comb
as possible (pages 494 and 502).

Shade is desirable, lest combs melt, and fall from
their attachments ; but light-coloured, wooden hives,
with ample entrance, or propped up from the floor-
board, can hardly, thus far, suffer in the most ardent
rays of the sun.

Section-crates may now be removed as fast as fully
sealed.

August.

Those who are near to heather have yet another
harvest for their bees, as the moors now assume their
purple tone. Frame hives and sleeps travel best to
the moors as explained at page 429.

Drones are usually now worried out of the hives.
If any colony suffer its drones to live when they have

636

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

been driven out generally, that colony is probably
queenless.

Wasp Nests should now be searched out and de-
stroyed before the new generation of queens scatter
abroad to hybernate.

Robbing is again likely to occur, therefore contract
the entrances of the hives somewhat.

Surplus should now be removed, early in the morn-
ing or about sunset, and honey must be exposed
as little as possible, or temptation will work mischief
(page 500).

September.

The harvest, except in heather districts, is over, and
the aim should now be to gradually get the bees into
a restful condition, in anticipation of wintering.

Light Skeps, as pasturage is now scanty, may be
purchased very cheaply of cottagers, for transferring.
These, if in fair order, may, by feeding, be made
into good stocks.

Condemned Bees may be bought, and treated as ex-
plained at page 368. Whilst drumming bees for yourself,
show to the owners the method, and point out the
folly of destroying the little labourers in the sulphur
pit. You may not be able to make bee-masters of
cottagers in one lesson, but you can let in some light,
and may be gratefully thanked for your kindness;
while your willingness to buy that which the old
system destroys, is an unanswerable argument that
there is waste somewhere.

Queens of special race may be purely mated by
drones from queenless stocks (page 322).

CALENDAR.

637

Drones may be preserved till the end of the next
month in any stocks, queenless or not, by constant
feeding.

Feed up to wintering weight, getting the operation
completed by the end of the month.

Pollen may be transferred, in a frame carrying
abundance, from any stock to your condemned bees,
the latter giving in exchange one of their newly-built
white combs ; both stocks will thus be gainers.

Unite weak colonies and nuclei, if not done pre-
viously.

October.

Stocks now return from the moors, and honey for
the year is over.

Wintering Preparations must now be made. Con-
dense the bees, and increase the interspaces of the
combs. Consult “ Wintering.’^

Hives^ if leaky in the roof, or in any other way in
need of attention, should have their contents trans-
ferred to sound ones, for the benefit of the stock and
the repair of the hives.

Shelter the hives in front, in anticipation of snow
(page 533), so that the bees may not be bewildered
about their entrance by new arrangements in colder
weather.

Condemned Bees, in the first or second week of the
month, if strong in numbers, may still be fed into
good stocks, especially if helped by one or two pollen-
bound combs.

Honey and comb must receive attention, the latter,
if free of moth trail (page 576), being carefully packed,
or hung up until required in the spring.

638

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.

Wax scraps should now be run down into block,
as explained at page 589 et seq.

November.

The bees have now retired into winter quarters,
and, aided by a thoughtful and skilful master, they,
shoulder to shoulder, will keep the cold at bay, while
they moisten their candy or sip their honey beneath
their chaff dome, requiring only nominal attention, as
they wait the return of the sun to once more warm
the earth, and bring into being a new carpet of
flowers.

December.

The bee-keeper has himself retired into winter
quarters ; if he be wise, not only to wait, but to
reflect, plan, and prepare, so that the studies and
observations of the past may be the seed-corn of a
greater harvest of success in seasons yet to come.
If the preceding pages should aid in securing so desir-
able a result, the object of the Author will be so far
attained : but he would feel, with the reader, that
each step taken is mainly to be valued because it
enables us to make another advance ; for the hope of
progress should be the charm of every effort, in little
as in greater things, transforming the dead routine
of mere existence into the elasticity of abounding
life. He would therefore say : —

Let us, then, be up and doing,

AVith a heart for any fate ;

Still achieving, still pursuing,

Learn to labour and to wait.

INDEX.

A.

Abbott’s combination hive, 82
Abnormal bees, 568
Adjustable metal ends, 199
Adulteration of wax, 196, 594
After swarms (see also “Casts”), ^

155

frequently several, 16 1
leave at irregular times, 159
to prevent, 164, 165, 167
Age of bees, 519
Alley introducing-cage, 330
Alley’s plan for arranging queen-
cells, 300

“Amateur” feeder, 391
American cloth to condense
iQd:,,! moisture, 396
swarm-boxes, 262
Anti-propolising frame, 69
Anti-robbing entrance, 422
Ant, stridulating organ of, 158
Ants, 580

Apiary, floating, 621
locality of, 358
Apis adansonii, 622
caffra, 623
dorsata, 626

dorsata, its nest, 33, 315
fasciata, 620
florea, 627
indica, 625
ligustica, 610
mellifica, 608
nigritarum, 623
scutellata, 623
species of, 607

Apis unicolor, 622
Artificial aids to comb-building, 171
fertilisation, 323, 605
midribs, 178
pollen, 399

pollen, how to give, 400
pollen within the hive, 401
swarming by division, 45
swarming only suitable in warm
weather, 273
swarming, rules for, 272
swarming superior to natural,
230

swarms need feeding before
travelling, 262
Aspect for hive.-, 363
Attachment-cells, 219
Autumn feeding, 416

B.

Bacilli, flagella of, 541, 571
form spores, 545, 553
Bacillus alvei found in queen, 548
best time to treat, 567
colony form, 553
cultivation of, 550
found in eggs, 549
Gaytoni, 570

Gaytoni, colony form of, 569
how propagated. 555
McLain’s treatment, 565
not in honey, 556
phenol treatment, 561
salicylic acid treatment, 560
subject to variation, 566

640

INDEX.

Bacteria not found in healthy
tissues, 573

Balling of queen, 149, 327, 426,

431

Bee, albino, 620
Bhootan, 626
black, 608

bob, to induce swarms to settle,

147

bread (see also “ Pollen”), 398
Carniolan, 617
Cyprian, 614
dress, 8

dress in taking swarms, 169
drhing, 233

driving with hive in situ, 237

Egyptian, 620

fountain, 406

Holy Land, 616

Hungarian, 617

hunting, 375

Ligurian, 610

line, 375

louse, 577

milk of, 284

Syrian, 616

traps, 446

veil, 9

veil, ^vire-cloth, 10
wade distribution of, 629
Bee-keeping in India, 624
Punjab, 625

Bees, “ abnormal,” 568
age of, 519

apportionment of, in driven
swarm and stock, 241
“black,” 569
building in a bush, 30
by the pound, 262
crossed, preferred, 605
Cyprian, gentle, 23, 615
Cyprian, how to handle, 22, 615
deiend entrance, 280
deserting hive, 138
diarrhoetic, 572
dislike single combs, 43
dysenteric, 572

emotion, influence of, upon, 354
gorged when sw'arming, 1 2b
hear, 16 1

hermaphrodite, cause of, 550

Bees, how to collect on frame, 305
how to judge, 617
keep entrance under guard, 34
making mistakes, 260, 432
mark their location, 134
necessary qualities of, 604
not quieted by gorging 12
number in a sw^arm, 263
old, refuse a queen, 343
purchasing, 366
queenless, build drone-comb,
2 ! 2

quieted by carbolic acid, 19
salivary secretion of, 378
scooping up, 138
searching for queen, 286
size of, 315

subdued by driving, 235
taking up, 367
the first hive-makers, 33
the friends of man, 29
to make keep a new station,
273, 428

to remove from supers, 44b
under proper control, 7
w’eight of, 212
why they run in driving, 237
wdld, to capture, 372
wall not remain if combless
and queenless, 274
young, agree with any queen,

352

Bee-space, 41, 96
j Benton cage, 334
Benton’s queen postal box, 349
Bertrand fumigator, 561
“ Betsinger” cage, 338
Bingham hive, 90
smoker, 14

“ Black bees ” a disease, 569

Blind spiders, 319

Blue tit, 578

Book hive, 42

Bottle feeder, 382

Bow’ei cast by queen nymph, 154

Bowel distension, 524, 572

Box for sw’arms, 261

Brace combs, to prevent, 465

Braula caeca, 577

Breeding in January, 409

late to get young bees, 417

INDEX.

641

Breeding-out the swarming ten-
dency, 319

Broad-shouldered frames, 86
Brood, chilled, 539, 568
Brood-nest, compact, 319
globular, 413
size of, 506

Broughton-Carr, Mr., on Heddon
hive, 1 01

on shallow frames, 498
Brushing bees to make swarm, 259
Buck hares suckling, 354
Bumping, 369

C.

Cages, defects of, 339

for introducing queens, 328
Camphor and bee diseases, 567
Candied honey, to liquefy, 487
Candy, “ Good,” 330
to make, 396
“ Viallon,” 337

Capturing stray colonies, 372, 375
Carbolic acid, 18

in removing honey, 498
spray, 20

to prevent settlement of wild
bees, 374

treatment of Bacillus alvei, 561
Carniolan bees, 617
Carr’s metal ends, 199
Carr-Stewarton hive, 50

hive, interchangeable, 94
Cast defined, 155

skin of queen nymph, 1 54
Casts build worker-comb, 163, 276
do not swarm, 276
give supemumeraiy queens, 168
in plaster to form foundation,
182, 209

leave at irregular times, 159
often make two clusters, 162
to prevent, 164, 165, 167
to return, 162
to unite to parent, 163
Catching swarms, 132
Cells, attachment, 219

drone, peculiarities of, 216
elongated, 270
variation in size of, 210

VOL. II.

Centrifugal pressures, table of, 473
Chaff- tray, 61, 409, 531
Cheshire anti-robbing entrance, 422
arrangement of nucleus, 302
dividing-frame, 304
drone-trap, 145
feeding-stage, 386
foundation, 201
foundation-fixers, 203
foundation-fixers for sections,
454

hive, 58

introducing-cage, 336
lamp nursery, 309
makeshift, 52
pin trap, 447

plaster mould for making wax
sheet, 181

transferring-board, 246
wax-smelter, 176
Chilled brood, 539, 568
Chloroform to introduce queens, 340
Clark cold-draught smoker, 15
Clarke, Rev. W. F., and hyberna-
tion, 518

Clipping queens, 140
Close-ended frames, 223
Clover, its honey yield, 317
Clustering of swarms, cause of, 139
Cluster, temperature of, 518
Cocoons, 153
Colours for hives, 119
Comb, anterior and posterior face
of, dissimilar, 220
basket, 481
brace, to prevent, 465
built in a bush, 30
built outside hive, 278
devices in, 445
distances and thickness, 106
guides, 172

honey stained through inver-
sion, 109

honey, to obtain, 501
how most easily built, 442
how to cut, 39
how to examine, 256
in sections, importance of, 494,
502

laws in placing of, 4 1
mathematical properties of, 214

2 T

642

INDEX.

Comb rest, 257, 333

side attached as far down as
honey, 222

some curious geometric pro-
perties of, 213
thickened, to cut down, 244
three cells thick, 206
to render into wax, 590
worker-cells of, 39
Combination hive, 82, 490
Condemned bees, 367, 636
bees aided by combs, 369
bees, preserving queens of, 371
Contracting the brood-nest, 506
Controlled increase, 225
Copper test for adulteration, 586
Cork-dust, 59

for hives, 528

Comeil, Mr,, on staining comb
honey by inversion, 109, 468
Corn syrup, 584
Cowan extractor, 476
hive, 76

Crate, divided, 464
for sections, 460
Creasote and smoker, 22
Crosses breed out drone element,
618

preferred, 605
Crown-board, 66
Cultivation of disease germs, 551
Cutting combs, 172

combs by wire, 244
Cutting-out queen-cells, 164
Cyprian bees, how to handle, 23,

bees, characteristics of, 614

D.

Dampness, cause of, 531
prevented, 532

Dead air and cork-dust compared,
60

air space, 527
Death’s head moth, 576
Decoy hives, 135, 240
Development of swarming tendency,
228, 318
period of, 320

Dextrose and levulose, 378, 582

Diarrhcetic bees, 572
j Dipping-boards, 179
Direct introduction, 342
I introduction, experiments on,

I 345

introduction, w’hv successful,

347

Disease occasions variation in re-
sults, 228
' Diseases, 535
I Disinfecting hands, 558
i hives and frames, 559

! Distance pins, 71
Distances between combs, 106
I Divdded crate. 464
; Dividing a frame hive, 268

as formerly practised a failure,
271

Dividing-frame for queen-raising,

304

Divisional super, 447
Dhdsion-board, construction of, 73
feeder. 392
size of, 53

Dome cage, 255, 331
Doolittle cage, 313
Doubling 495
Doubling-box, 64, 80
Dovetail frames, 192
sections, 448

, sections, Lee’s, 456

I Driving, 233

cautions respecting, 238
competitions, 239
i in cool weather, 236

’ zfz situ, 237

to introduce queens, 341
Drone-cells, peculiarities of, 216
size of, 39

Drone-comb prevented by spacing,
72, 106

Drone selected b\’ imprisonment,
322

Drones expensive to stock, 285

produced before swarming, 124
to obtain early, 273, 291
to obtain late, 322
Drone-traps, 145
Dry sugar feeding, 395
Dysenteric bees, 572
I Dzierzon's frame, 46

INDEX.

643

E.

Earwigs, 361, 579
Egg diet, 404

Eggs for raising queens, 292

given to queenless stocks, 266
removal of, 287
subject to disease, 549
two kinds only, 283
Egyptian bees, 620
hives, 82

Ekes to prevent swarming, 112, 279
Elasticity in hive, 34
Elongated cells, 270
Embedder for wired frames, 207
Emergency queen-cell, 286
Emotion in bees, 354
Encasement of queen, 149, 327, 426,

431

signs of, 334

Entrance defended by bees, 280
of hive requires regulation, 274
Equalising stores, 516
Examining combs, 256
Excluder zinc, 74
Extracted honey, to obtain, 490
honey, working for, 278
Extracting sections, 480
under cover, 501

Extractor, Abbott’s single-comb,
478

Cowan, 476
Hruschka’s, 468
principles of, 470
Raynor, 475
zinc unsuitable for, 479
Eyeless spiders, 319

V.

False clusters, 260
E'anners, how arranged, 277

in new swarms, curious obser-
vation respecting, 130
in stocks, 530
Feeding, 376

artificial pollen, 400
autumn, 416
behind dummy, 56
dr>- sugar, 395

egg, 404

Feeding in the open, 390
milk, 403

rapid and slow, reasons for, 4 1 2
spring, 409
stage, 386

Fermentation of pollen, 376
Fertile workers, 352
Fertilisation, artificial, 323
in confinement, 605
Fighting of queens, 155, 161, 312,
321

Fixing foundation, 190
Flat-bottomed foundation, 187
Flesh flies grow rapidly, 3 1 7
Float feeder, 393
Floating apiary, 62 1
Flora, desirable, 358
Flour cake, 397

Flowers related in size to bees, 318
Folding block for sections, 451
sections, 450
Food of larvae, 284
recipe for, 379

Foul brood (see also “ Bacillus
alvei ”), 536
a misnomer, 549
attacks adult bet-s, 546
McLain’s treatment, 565
phenol treatment, 561
symptoms of, 537
Foundation, 184

cutting board, 453
fixing in sections, 454
how to suspend, 217
one-eleventh of area of surface
of comb, 213
on glass, 206
partially thinned, 215
sagging, 197

saved from stretching by
narrow spacing, 72
strengthened by various fibres,
202

the Given, 208

thickness of, 212

thin, for sections, 452

to prevent sagging of, 198

variation in size of cells of, 212

wired, 200

with wooden midrib, 206
Foundation-cutters, 453

2 T 2

644

INDEX.

Foundation-fixers, 203
Foundation-machine, 1S6
Fountains, 406
Four- way sections, 457
Fowls in an apiary, 361
Frame, block, 193
Dzierzon’s, 46
Hetherington-Quinby, 88
horizontally divided for queen-
raising, 292
standard, 53

Frames, anti-propolising, 69
broad-shouldered, 86
dovetail, 192
invertible, 68
wired, 206

Fumigator, Raitt, 21

G.

H.

Half bee-space, 96
Handling combs, 256
Hands, to cleanse, from propolis, 600
to disinfect, 558
Heather honey, 487
honey-press, 488
Heddon hive, 95

on introducing virgin queens,

313

Heddon’s invertible frame, 91

plan to prevent after-swarms,

165

Hehner on wax, 589

Heredity, importance of, 297
Hermaphrodite bees, 550
Hilbert’s milk and egg diet, 403
Hill’s device, 518
Hinge, loose, for hive cover, 63
Hive, Bingham,

body with Lee’s dovetail joint,

195

book, or leaf, of Huber, 42,
171

capacity of, 1 1 8
Carr-Stewarton, 50, 94
Cheshire, 58
combination, 82
Cowan, 76
elasticity of, 34, 118
entrances, curious, 116
for two colonies, 56, 150, 529
Heddon, 91
Holme Wood, no
Langstroth’s, 46
legs, to preserve, 119
makeshift, 52
observatory, 115
Quinby, 88
Ra\-nor Eclectic, 78
roofs, waterproofing, 12 1
Sandringham, 80
Stewarton, 47

that has swarmed, how to find,
126

used for queen-raising, 303
walls, experiments on, 527
'es, aspect for, 363
colours for, 1 19
decoy, 135
exchanging, 632
for bee-keepers, 37
for bees, 29
in the flat, r 19
loose roofs for, 120
materials for, 122
outer case for, 51
repairing, 631
shape of, 35

should be dissimilar, 430
sides of, should be non-con-
ductive, 526
their first purj^ose, 33
thin, discussed, 527
to disinfect, 559

Galvanised iron, injurious action of,
479

Gauge to cut foundation, 453
Gauntlets to protect arms, 9
Giotto hive, 89
Given foundation, 208
Gloves, 8

Glue to fix combs, 172
“ Good ” candy, 330
Gorged bees sting, 1 1
Great tit, 578

Greeks practised queen-raising, 284

Guide-maker, 174

Guides, to fix, in glass supers, 445

INDEX.

645

Hiving bees after a journey, 261
from sleep into frame hive, 137
swarms, 128

Holland postal and introducing
cage, 337

Honey a bee tood, 380
adulteration of, 584
analysis of, 584
and clover, 3 1 7
as food, 588 '-

board, Heddon’s, 98
candying of, 486, 585
chamber, separate, advantages
of, 443

comb and extracted, compared,

484, 513

composition of, 522, 581
extracted from virgin combs,

514

formic acid in, 587
harvesting comb, 522
harvesting extracted, 499
how to remove, 498
ideal sample of, 484
knives, 243

microscopic test for, 586
oxidised, to produce heat, 516
produced by single blossoms,
582

production of, 441
sac, 521
sections, 448

stored in horizontal comb, 94
to clarify, 485
to liquefy, 487, 513
to ripen, 486
vinegar, 585
where stored, 442
why removed after inversion,
93

Hooker on rendering wax, 591
Hooker’s, Mr. J. ^[., invertible
hive, 103

plan of fixing foundation, 191
uncapping-machine, 483
House apiary, 364

apiary, disadvantages of, 365
Howard, Mr., and carbolic acid
spray, 20

Huber on source of propolis, 601
Huber’s devices, 38

Huber’s device to obtain straight
combs, 172

error respecting the cells of
“ le premier rang,” 219
experiments on re-queening,

327

observatory hive, 42, 45
Hunger swarms, 168
Hunting bees, 375
Hybernation, 518

I.

Increase of stocks and honey-pro-
duction antagonistic, 275
India as a field for apiculture, 624
Influence of emotion on bees, 354
Inserting queen-cells, 294, 295
Interchangeability, 94
Interchanging, 493
Interspace between frames, 106
Introducing-cages, 328
Introducing queens, 325

queens by smoking, 341
Introduction, i '

Inversion, 92

advantages of, 108
of sections, 466
to cure thickened combs, 270
Invertible crates, 466
frames, 68, 91
Inverting sugar, 378

sugar, why needful, 379
Italian bee, 610

J.

Japanese hives, 82
Jealousy of queens, 155, 321
Jonas- Heddon hive, 100
Jones, Mr. D. A., on profitable
management, 275
on queen-introduction, 340

K.

Kohler’s plan of selecting drone,
322

L.

Lamplight manipulation, 234, 347,

365. 424

646

INDEX.

Lamp nurserv, 308

Metheglin, 585

Langstroth blocks, 96

Methyl salicylate, 25

Langstroth’s error respecting

salicylate, experiment with, 26

gorging, 12
frame, 46

Mice, 579

Micrococcus in queen, 571

top bar, 173

Micro-organisms, 540

Larvae, how fed, 284

microscropic examination of,

maturing without a cell, 308

543 ‘ .

transferred to queen-cells, 293

Microscope and unicomb hive, 117

weaned form bad queens, 289

Microscopic mounting of cocoon,

Laws of comb-structure, 41

153

Lee’s dovetail-jointed frames, 192

test for honey, 586

dovetail sections, 456

Midrib of comb, 40, 1 78

Legs of hives, to preserve, 119

Midribs made from shot, 183

Liberated queens flying, 332

Milk diet, 403

Ligurian bee, 610

Miquel and aerial bacteria, 574

Ligurianising, 2:52, 619

Molecular strain in stamping foun-

Location marked by bees, 134

dation, 201

to make bees keep a new, 273,

IMonads rapidly multiply, 317

428

Moth, death’s head, 576

Loose boxes for hives, 120

''■ax, 575

hinge for hive cover, 63

]Mouth of hive not left defenceless

tray, Howard’s, 112

by bees, 280

Lug, iron, 68

of hive requires regulation, 274

Lycoperdon, 339

ISIoving bees, 273, 426
stocks, 426

M.

Madame La Voyageuse, 350

stocks depends on surround-
ings, 427

Maiden swarming, 276

X.

Makeshift hives, 52

Malpighian tubes, their action, 405

Xadiring, 491

Material for hives, 122

Natural and artificial processes

Mating, time of, 226

contrasted, 115

IMcLain on hybernation, 520

History ^Museum, demonstra-

McLain’s experiment on artificial

tions in, 1 70

fertilisation, 323

increase, 123

experiment on fertilisation in

selection not always most

confinement, 606

desirable, 229

treatment of Bacillus alvei, 565

swarming, disadvantages of, 225

Mead, 585

Negro as wet nurse, 354
Neighbour’s invertible crate, 467

Meadows’ extractor web of, 471

^Melipona, 628

Sandringham hive, 80

Metal corners, 77

Night manipulation, 234, 347, 365,

ends, 64, 108

424

ends, adjustable, 199

Non-swarming system, 275, 504

ends, Carr’s, 199

Normal queen-cell, 286

ends made too long, 108

Nuclei too small swarm out, 306

ends, their disadvantages, 66 |

to receive queen-cells, 294

feeding-stages unadvisable, 385

to unite, 305, 437

runners for frames, 66 |

Nucleus hive, 55

INDEX.

647

Nucleus swarming, 270
Nursery, 306
lamp, 308
objection to, 308
providing with cells, 3 1 1
Nurses numerous for queen-raising,
290

Nymphs, 15 1, 153

O.

Observatory hive, Abbott’s, 1 1 7
hive, Huber’s, 42, 45
hive, Neighbour’s, J15
Oil of wintergreen, 27
One-piece sections, 450
Operating-house, 361
windows of, 362
Operations, register of, 439

P.

Packing bees, 136, 428
for long journeys, 408
Palinurus, stridulating organ of, 157
Pasturage for bees, 358
Pea-flour, 397
Peet cage, 335
Pelham foundation, 188
Pettigrew on ekeing, 279
Phenol treatment of Bacillus alvei,

561

Pin-trap, 446
Piping, 156

when heard, 159

Plaster moulds tor foundation, 182
Polarisation in honey analyses, 582
Pollen, amount gathered, 598
artificial, 399

can be gathered without fly-

ing, 59 J-

fermentation of, 376
grains illustrated, 599
grains, size of, 508
may be given within the hive,
401

nitrogenous, 397
stored in layers, 40
substitutes for, 398
theory, 525

Pollen, to judge sources of honey

by, 598 .

when dried, removed by bees,

399

Popholes, 205

Prevention of swarming, 276
Princesses destroyed, 155
fed in cell, 155
Propolis, 596, 599

how collected and used, 602
little gathered by Carnioldiis,
618

may spread disease, 602
sources of, 601
to cleanse, from hands, 600
used for protection, 600
useless to domesticated bees,
603

Protection for wintering, 526
Pseudo queens, 352
Puff-ball, 339
Purchasing bees, 366

Q-

Queen and drone, necessity of selec-
tion, 228

balling or encasement of, 149
327, 426, 431

destroys her unhatched sisters,

^55

diseased, micrococcus in, 571
fights, 161, 166
finding in casts, 163
finding in driven swarm, 240
finding in frame hives, 256
how she escapes from the cell,

154

how to cage, 332
how to handle, 257
introduced at once to hopeless
bees, 564

introduced at once to im-
prisoned bees, 149, 263
lost by swarm, 139
mating, 168, 226
not to change her stand in
artificial swarms, 268, 269
nursery, 306
nymph casts bowel, 154
period of development of, 320

648

INDEX.

Queen piping, 156
register, 440
scent of, 356

signs of presence of, in driven
swarm, 241

signs of presence of, in swarm,
130

stridulating organ of, 1 58
the cause of clustering, 139
to find, 140, 163
to make one lav for two hives,
266

unnamed organisms found in
blood of, 569, 572
virgin, goes first in swarming,
160

wing-clipping of, 140
with lost instinct, 320
Queen-cell, determining place of,
296

used as introducing-cage, 339
Queen-cells, 125, 152

Alley’s system of raising, 298
cutting-out, 164
destroyed, 16 1
how inserted, 294, 295
how known to be ripe, 154, 255
inserting into skeps, 254
naturally wasted, 227
number raised by Syrian bees,
617

of two kinds, 286
sometimes thin, 288
to select, 164
Queen excluder, 74, 505
Queen-excluding strips, Howard’s,

Queen-fighting, 155, 161, 312, 321
Queening an artificial swarm, cau-
tion respecting, 268
Queen-introduction, 325
Queenless bees build drone-comb,
272

Queenlessness, how occasioned, 432
loss through, 226, 265, 275
signs of, in stocks, C33, 635
signs of, in swarms, 130, 149,
241

Queen-raising, 283

by inserted eggs, 292
exhausting to stock, 285

Queen-raising in Cheshire nucleus,
302

Queens, bad, have gland No. i, 289
cannot fly at quitting cell except
when delayed,
equality of, 288
flHng, return to old spot, 332
flying when liberated, 332
how to save, in talcing con-
demned bees, 371
if dirty, difficult to introduce, 348
if diseased, incurable, 567
in nursery’ allowed to stan e, 307
introduced by a test tube, 350
introduced by chloroform, 340
introduced by puff-ball, 339
introduced by rolling in honey,
34-1

introduced by scenting, 344
introduced by smoking, 341
introduced easily during honey
flow, 352 '

laying, reduction of, 506
not weaned, 284
raised from transferred lar\-je,

293

several, in casts, 160
should be started from the egg,
289

subject to disease, 548, 567
supercession of, 326, 437
two in a hive, 326
virgin, to introduce, 315, 330,
339> 341

young, to prevent swarming,
277

Queen-traps, 143

Quilt causes propolisation of lugs
of frame, 67

Quinby clips, 1 12
hive, 88

Quincunx order for hives, 363

R.

Rack for sections, 460

Raitt entrance, 495
fumigator, 2I
honey-press, 488

Raitt, Mr. W., on wax adultera-
tion, 594

INDEX

649

Raitt, Mr. W., on wax foundation,

r96

Raynor crate, 464
eclectic hive, 78
extractor, 475
feeder, 388
queen-cage, 329
Register of operations, 439

of operations necessary, 120
Regulated feeding, 387
Relation of size to strength in
animals, 316

Re-queening, Huber’s experiments
on, 327

Rev. G. Raynor on the use of
carbolic acid, 18

Rhombs of attachment-cells, 220
Robbing, 418

causes of, 420
contagious, 420
prevented by tent, 424
prevented by tunnel entrance,
422

pre\'ented by working at night,
424

signs of, 419
to cure, 420

Roofs not moved by wind, 113
waterprooting, 12 1
Root’s metal comers, 77
sections, 448
Royal jelly, 153, 284
Rules for artihcial swarming, 272

S.

Sagging of foundation, 196
Salicylic acid, 560

acid vaporiser, 561
Salivary secretion of bees, uses of,

378

Scenting to introduce queen, 344
Schonfeld’s experiments, 542
Scooping up bees in hiving, 1 38
Scouts from swarms, 135
Section carriers, 459

crates, how to add, 505
frame, 458

frames or holders, 78, 84
rack or crate, 460
racks, 99

Sections, 448

cleared by carbolic acid, 19, 498
extraction of, 480
folding, 450

foundation top and bottom, 466

four- way, 457

inverting, 466

Lee’s, 456

of comb, 39

one piece, 450

Root’s, 448

secure from bees, 513

sizes of, 100

spoiled by inverted combs, 468
unfinished, 503
Selecting drones, 321
Selection of characteristics, 315
Separators, 462, 503

influence thickness of comb, 463
Simmins’, Mr., cage to introduce
virgin queens, 339
direct introduction, 345
dry sugar feeder, 395, 417
experiments on artificial fertili-
sation, 324

experiments on fertilisation in
confinement, 605
frame, 1 1 1

non-swarming system, 279, 504
syrup feeder, 391
Sinapis arvensis, 359
Size of bees, 315

of cells, variation in, 210
of hive, 1 18
Sleeps, inverted, 92
to drive from, 233
to secure straight combs in, 172
to swarm artificially, 232, 239
Slotted separators, 462
Slow feeding, 412
Smell in lower animals, 146
Smelter for wax, 1 76
Smoke, 13

in removing honey, 49 8
Smoker and creasote, 22
Smokers, 14
Snails, 379

Snow-glare, to prevent, 533
Solar extractor, 593
I Spermatozoa, diseased, 550
I Spiders, eyeless, 319

650

INDEX.

Spoon for dropping molten wax, 1 75
Spores, line arrangement of, 555
vitality of, 560
Spreading brood, 414, 497

brood, cautions respecting, 415
Spring dwindling, 410

dwindling, McLain’s food for,

533

stimulation, 409

Sproule’s, Mr., application of crea-
sote, 22

process of disinfection, 560
Staining micro-organisms, 543
Standard frame, 53
Starting bee-keeping, 366
Starvation, signs of, 633
Staiwed bees, weight of, 263
Stations for stock and swarm after
driving, 242
Stewarton hive, 47
Sting adds formic acid to honev,

587

cures 28
palpi, 27

Stinging, to prevent, 25
Stingless bees, 628
Stocks from condemned bees, 368
that have swarmed, how to
treat, 151

weakened by swarming, to
treat, 274

vStomach-mouth, 521

Stores, amount of, for winter, 417

Storifying hive system, 51, 91, 490,

'494

Strengthening nuclei by eggs, 271
Striduladng organs, 157
Suffocation from bad packing, 136
Sugars, variations in, 377
.Sulphuring bees, 367
Sunflowers, 632

Supercession of queens, 326, 437
Supering, 492
Supers, 444

divisional, 447
glass, to treat, 444
telescopic. 445
to clear of bees, 446
Swarm building in a bush, 30
deserting hive, 138
finding whence it issued, 1 50

Swarm leaves sealed queen-cells, 226
made up from several* stocks,
269

natural, may be placed any-
where, 140

number of bees in, 226, 263
placed on old stand, 15 1
theoretically circular in outline,

31

to cause to settle, 127
Swarm-arrestors, 143
Swarming, artificial, by division, 45
artificial, rules for, 272
; bv jerking or brushing bees,

! '258

how conducted, 125
impulse favoured by natural
selection, 229
maiden, 276
nucleus, 270

predisposing, causes of, 277
preparation for, 124
prevented by extraction, 278
tendency naturally developed,
318

I to prevent, 275

1 with interchangeable frames,

265

S warming-board, 258
S warming-box, 261
Swarms choosing same spot, 146
hunger or vagabond, 168
leafy bough to take, 133
returning, cause of, 139
select a future home, 135
sold by weight, 262
succession of, 16 r
to hive, 1 28

to prevent s''cond, or after, 164
uniting, 148

without foundation, 510
Swarm-takers, 132
I Syrian bees. 616
Syringing swarms, *13 1, 137
Syrup-can, 381
Syrup, to make, 379

T. •

Taking up bees. 367

Tallow to prevent sticking, 55, 601

INDEX.

651

Tanging bees, 127
Temperature, best, for wintering,
520

Tent to prevent robbing, 421
Test-tube to insert queen, 350
Thickened combs, to treat, 270
Three out of two, 251, 267
Throwing, 238

Tiering hive and system, 51, 91,
490, 494

Tin-can feeder, 384
Toad, 579

Top covering important, 61
Torula in dysenteric bees, 572
Transferring, 242

old and new method, 250
when possible, 249
Transferring-board, 245
Treatment of stocks after swarming,

151

Trigona, 628

Twin hive, 56, 150, 529

nuclei for queen-raising, 303
Two queens in a hive, 326
Type-metal plates for making mid-
ribs, 179

U.

Uncapping, 481
Uncapping-knife, 482
Uncapping-machine, 482
Unicomb hive, 115
Union of sw’arms, 148
United swarms, how^ to separate, 148
Uniting, 432

condemned bees, 433
Mr. Raitt’s plan, 436
nuclei, 305, 437
stocks, 434

stocks on distant stations, 436
swarms, 433
to secure honey, 497
twin stocks, 303, 437
weak stocks, 437

V.

Vagabond sw’arms, 168

swarms of Apis dorsata, 627

Variation in ttie bee, 227
Vaseline to prevent sticking, 55. 60 r
Veil, 9

Ventilation required, 523, 530
Viallon candy, 337
Vinegar made from honey, 585
to prevent stinging, 25
Virgin extracted honey, 514

queen goes first in swarming,
160

queens, to introduce, 313, 330,
339, 341

Vulcanite feeding-stage, 386

W.

Wasps, 579

nests to be destroyed, 580
Water, 404

Waterproofing roofs, 12 1
Wax adulteration, 196, 594
analysis of, 589
extractor, 591
its origin, 589
judging purity of, 595
moth, 575

secreted before swarming, 126
sheet making, 180
solar extractor, 593
specific gravity of, 596
to melt without w'aste, 589
to mould, 594

to prevent discolouring, 591
to remove stains of, 596
to render, from old combs, 590
Wax-bleaching, 596
Wax-smelter, 176
Webster’s fumigator, 21
Weeds, to prevent, 364
Weighing bees, 262
Weight of bees, 212
of star\-ed bees, 263
Weiss, inventor of foundation-ma-
chine, 185
White bees, 633
Wild bees, 372, 375
mustard, 359

Windbrake for apiar}’, 361
Windows of operating-house, 362
Wing-clipping, 140

how’ performed, 142

652

INDEX.

Winter condensation of bees, 516
loss in weight during, 523
passages, 517
Wintering, 515

candy cake for, 5 1 7
stores, amount of, 417
Wire to cut combs from skep, 244
Wire-cloth veil, 10
Wired foundation, 200
frames, 206

Woodbur\' top bar, 173
Wood’s imitation queen-cells, 339
Worker in queen-cell, 154
Worker-cells converted into queen-
cells, 287
size of, 39

I Worker-comb secured from casts,
163

Y.

Young bees agree wdth any queen,

352

queens to prevent swarming,
277

Z.

Zinc, excluder, 74, 98

injurious action of, 479
to prevent corrosion of, 382
Zinc-excluding honey-board, 98

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BRITISH BEE-KEEPERS’ STORES,

6. GEORGE YARD, FENCHORGH ST.,

LONDON, E.C.

Catalogue of Practical Handbooks
Ptiblished ky L. Upcott Gill, i^o,
Strajid, London, IV. C.

ANGLER, BOOK OP THE ALL-ROUND. A Comprehensive
Treatise on Angling in both Fresh and Salt Water. In Four Divisions,
as named below. By John Bickerdtke. With over 220 Engravings.
In cloth, price 5s. 6d., by post 6s. (A few copies of a Large Paper
Edition, bound in Roxburghe, price 25s.)

Ang'ling' for Coarse Fish. Bottom Fishing, according to the
Methods in use on the Thames, Trent, Norfolk Broads, and elsewhere.
Illustrated. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. ; cloth, 2s. (uncut), by
post 2s. 3d.

Angfling* for Pike. The most Approved Methods of Fishing
for Pike or Jack. Profusely Illustrated, hi paper, price Is., by post
Is. 2d.; cloth, 2s. (uncut), by post 2s. 3d.

Ang'ling' for Game Fish. The Various Methods of Fishing for
Salmon ; Moorland, Chalk-stream, and Thames Trout ; Grayling and
Char. Well Illustrated. In paper, price Is. 6d., by post Is. 9d. ;
cloth, 2s. 6d. (uncut), by post 2s 9d.

Ang'ling* in Salt Water. Sea Fishing with Bod and Line, from
the Shore, Piers, Jetties, Eocks, and from Boats ; together with Some
Account of Hand-Lining. Over 50 Engravings. In paper, price Is., by
post Is. 2d. ; cloth, 2s. (uncut), by post 2s. 3d.

AQUARIA, BOOK OF. A Practical Guide to the Construction,
Arrangement, and Management of Fresh-water and Marine Aquaria ;
containing Full Information as to the Plants, Weeds, Fish, Molluscs,
Insects, &c., How and Where to Obtain Them, and How to Keep Them
in Health. Illustrated. By Eev. Gregory C. Bateman, A.K.C., and
Eeginald a. E. Bennett, B.A. In cloth gilt, price 5s. 6d., by post
5s. lOd.

AQUARIA, FRESHWATER: Their Construction, Arrangement,

Stocking, and Management. Fully Illustrated. By Eev. G. C. Bate-
man, A.K.C. In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., by post 3s. lOd.

AQUARIA, MARINE: Their Construction, Arrangement, and Manage-
ment. Fully Illustrated. By E. A. E. Bennett, B.A. In cloth gilt,
price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

AUSTRALIA, SHALL I TRY? A Guide to the Australian
Colonies for the Emigrant Settler and Business Man. With two
Hlustrations. By George Lacon James. In cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d.,
by post 3s. lOd.

AUTOGRAPH COLLECTING : A Practical Manual for Amateurs
and Historical Students, containing ample information on the Selec-
tion and Arrangement of Autographs, the Detection of Forged
Specimens, &c., &c., to which are added numerous Facsimiles for
Study and Eeference, and an extensive Valuation Table of Auto-
graphs worth Collecting. By Henry T. Scott, M.D., L.E.C.P., &c.,
Eector of Swettenham, Cheshire. In leatherette gilt, price Is. 6d., by
post 7s. lOd.

BEES AND BEE-KEEPING : Scientific and Practical. By F. E.
Cheshire, F.L.S., F.E.M.S., Lecturer on Apiculture at South Kensington.
In two vols., cloth gilt, price 16s., by post 16s. 4d.

160 C 12/94

2

Published by L. Upcott Gill,

Vol. I., Scientific. A complete Treatise on the Anatomy and
Physiology of the Hive Bee. In cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d., by post 7s. lOd.

Vol. II., Practical Managfement of Bees. An Exhaustive
Treatise on Advanced Bee Culture. In cloth gilt, price 8s. 6d., by post
8s. lOd.

BEE-KEEPING, BOOK OP. A very practical and Complete Manual
on the Proper Management of Bees, especially written for Beginners
and Amateurs who have but a few Hives. Fully Illustrated. By
W. B. Webster, First-class Expert, B.B.K.A. In paper, price Is.,
by post Is. 2d. ; cloth. Is. 6d., by post Is. 8d.

BEGONIA CULTURE, for Amateurs and Professionals. Containing I
Full Directions for the Successful Cultivation of the Begonia, under
Glass and in the Open Air. Illustrated. By B. C. Eavenscroft. In
paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

BENT IRON WORK : A Practical Manual of Instruction for Amateurs
in the Art and Craft of Making and Ornamenting Light Articles in
imitation of the beautiful Mediaeval and Italian Wrought Iron Work.

By F. J. Erskine. Illustrated. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

BOAT BUILDING AND SAILING, PRACTICAL. Containing
FuU Instructions for Designing and Building Punts, Skiffs, Canoes,
Sailing Boats, &c. Particulars of the most suitable Sailing Boats and
Yachts for Amateurs, and Instructions for their Proper Handling. Fully
Illustrated with Designs and Working Diagrams. By Adrian Neison,
C.E., Dixon Kemp, A.I.N.A., and G. Christopher Davies. In one vol.,
cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d., by post 7s. lOd.

BOAT BUILDING POR AMATEURS, PRACTICAL. Contain-
ing Full Instructions for Designing and Building Punts, Skiffs, Canoes,
Sailing Boats, &c. Fully Hlustrated with Working Diagrams. By
Adrian Neison, C.E. Second Edition, Eevised and Enlarged by Dixon |
Kemp, Author of “ Yacht Designing,” “ A Manual of Yacht and Boat j

Sailing,” &c. In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d. i

BOAT SAILING POR AMATEURS. Containing Particulars of j

the most Suitable Sailing Boats and Yachts for Amateurs, and Instruc- 1

tions for their Proper Handling, &c. Illustrated with numerous j

Diagrams. By G. Christopher Davies. Second Edition, Eevised and
Enlarged, and with several New Plans of Yachts. In cloth gilt, price 5s.,
by post 5s. id. ]

BOOKBINDING FOR AMATEURS : Being Descriptions of the
various Tools and Appliances Eequired, and Minute Instructions for
their Effective Use. By W. J. E. Crane. Illustrated with 156 Engrav-
ings. In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

BUNKUM ENTERTAINMENTS : A Collection of Original Laugh-
able Skits on Conjuring, Physiognomy, Juggling, Performing Fleas, j
Waxworks, Panorama, Phrenology, Phonograph, Second Sight,

Lightning Calculators, Ventriloquism, Spiritualism, &c., to which are
added Humorous Sketches, Whimsical Eecitals, and Drawing-room^B
Comedies. In cloth, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

BUTTERFLIES, THE BOOK OF BRITISH : A PracticaH

Manual for Collectors and Naturalists. Splendidly Illustrated through-^B|
out with very accurate Engravings of the Caterpillars, Chrysalids, and^^
Butterflies, both upper and under sides, from drawings by the Author
or direct from Nature. By W. J. Lucas, B.A. Price 3s. 6d., by post
3s. 9d. §

170, Strand, London, W.C.

3

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTINGr: Where to Search,
and What to Do. By G. E. Simms. Illustrated. Li paper, price Is.,
hy post Is. 2d.

CACTUS CULTURE FOR AMATEURS; Being Descriptions of
the various Cactuses grown in this country ; with Full and Practical
Instructions for their Successful Cultivation. By W. Watson, Assistant
Curator of the Boyal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Profusely Illustrated.
In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post 5s. 3d.

CAGE BIRDS, DISEASES OF : Their Causes, Symptoms, and Treat-
ment. A Handbook for everyone who keeps a Bird. By Du. W. T.
Greene, F.Z.S. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

CAGE BIRDS, BRITISH. Containing Full Directions for Success-
fully Breeding, Rearing, and Managing the various British Birds that
can be kept in Confinement. Illustrated with COLOURED PLATES
and numerous finely-cut Wood Engravings. By R. L. Wallace. In
cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d., by post 10s. lOd.

CANARY BOOK. The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of
all Varieties of Canaries and Canary Mules, and all other matters
connected with this Fancy. By Robert L. Wallace. Third
Edition. In cloth gilt, price 5s., by post 5s. 4d. ; with COLOURED
PLATES, 6s. 6d.,by post 6s. lOd. ; and as follows:

General Management of Canaries. Cages and Cage-making,
Breeding, Managing, Mule Breeding, Diseases and their Treatment,
Moulting, Pests, &c. Illustrated. In cloth, price 2s. 6d., by post
2s. 9d.

Exhibition Canaries. Full Particulars of all the different
Varieties, their Points of Excellence, Preparing Birds for Exhibi-
tion, Formation and Management of Canary Societies and Exhibitions.
Illustrated. In cloth, price 2s. 6d., hy post 2s. 9d.

CANOE BUILDING FOR AMATEURS; A Practical Manual,
with Plans, Working Diagrams, and full Instructions. By Cotterill
Scholefield. Price 2s. 6d., hy post 2s. 9d. [In the, Press.

CARD TRICKS, BOOK OF, for Drawing-room and Stage Entertain-
ments by Amateurs ; with an exposure of Tricks as practised by Card
Sharpers and Swindlers. Numerous Illustrations. By Prof. R. Kunard.
In illustrated wrapper, price 2s. Gd., by post 2s. 9d.

CATS, DOMESTIC OR FANCY; A Practical Treatise on their
Antiquity, Domestication, Varieties, Breeding, Management, Diseases
and Remedies, Exhibition and Judging. By John Jennings. Illus-
trated. In cloth, price 2s. Gd., by post 2s. 9d.

CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE, for Amateurs and Professionals.
Containing Full Directions for the Successful Cultivation of the
Chrysanthemum for Exhibition and the Market. Illustrated. By
B. C. Ravenscroft. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

COINS, A GUIDE TO ENGLISH PATTERN, in Gold, Silver,
Copper, and Pewter, from Edward I. to Victoria, with their Value. By
the Rev. G. F. Crowther, M.A. Illustrated. In silver cloth, with gilt
facsimiles of Coins, price 5s., by post 5s. 3d.

COINS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, A GUIDE
TO THE, in Gold, Silver and Copper, from the Earliest Period to the
Present Time, with their Value. By the late Colonel W. Stewart
Thorburn. With 27 Plates in Gold, Silver, and Copper, and 8
Plates of Gold and Silver Coins in RAISED FACSIMILE. In cloth,
with silver facsimiles of Coins, price 7s. Gd., by post 7s. lOd.

4

Published by L. Upcott Gill,

By Hugh Dalziel.
In paper, price Is.,

COLIflE, THE. Its History, Points, and Breeding.

Illustrated with Coloured Frontispiece and Plates.
by post Is. 2d. ; cloth, 2s., by post 2s. 3d.

COLLIE STUD BOOK. Edited by Hugh D.4lziel. Price 3s. 6d. each,
by post 3s. 9d. each.

Vol. I., containing Pedigrees of 1308 of the best-known Dogs, traced
to their most remote known ancestors ; Show Eecord to Feb., 1890, &c.

Vol. II. Pedigrees of 795 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c.

Vol. III. Pedigrees of 786 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c.

COLUMBAHIUM, MOORE’S. Eeprinted Verbatim from the original
Edition of 1735, with a Brief Notice of the Author. By W. B. Teget-
MEiER. F.Z.S., Member of the British Ornithologists’ Union. Price Is.,
by post Is. 2d.

CONJURING, BOOK OP MODERN. A Practical Guide to Drawing,
room and Stage Magic for Amateurs. By Professor E. Kunard.
Hlustrated. In illustrated wrapper, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

COOKERY POR AMATEURS; or, French Dishes for English Homes
of all Classes. Includes Simple Cookery, Middle-class Cookery, Superior
Cookery, Cookery for Invalids, and Breakfast and Luncheon Cookery.
By Madame Valerie. Second Edition. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

CUCUMBER CULTURE POR AMATEURS. Including also
Melons, Vegetable Marrows, and Gourds. Illustrated. By W. J. Mat.
In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

CYCLES OP 1893, with Special Chapters on Tyres and Accessories.
By Charles W. Hartung (Stanley Cycling Club). Illustrated. In
paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

CYCLIST’S ROUTE MAP of England and Wales. The Third Edition ;
thoroughly Eevised. Shows clearly all the Main, and most of the Cross,
Eoads, and the Distances between the Chief Towns, as well as the
Mileage from London. In addition to this, Eoutes of Thirty of the most
Interesting Tours are printed in red. The map is mounted on linen, and is
the fullest, handiest, and best tourist’s map in the market. In cloth,
price Is., by post Is. 2d.

DOGS, BREAKING AND TRAINING: Being Concise Directions
for the proper education of Dogs, both for the Field and for Companions.
Second Edition. By “ Pathfinder.” With Chapters by Hugh
Dalziel. Illustrated. In cloth gilt, price 6s. 6d., by post 6s. lOd.

DOGS, BRITISH, ANCIENT AND MODERN : Their Varieties,
History, and Characteristics. By Hugh Dalziel, assisted by Eminent
Fanciers. SECOND EDITION, Eevised and Enlarged. Illustrated with
First-class COLOUEED PLATES and full-page Engravings of Dogs of
the Day. This is the fullest work on the various breeds of dogs kept in
England. In three volumes, demy 8vo, cloth gilt, price 10s. 6d. each, by
post 11s. Id. each.

Dog'S Used in Pield Sports. Containing Particulars of the
following among other Breeds : Greyhound, Irish Wolfhound, Blood-
hound, Foxhound, Harrier, Basset, Dachshund, Pointer, Setters,
Spaniels, and Eetrievers. Seven Coloured Plates and 21 full-page,
Engravings.

Dogs Useful to Man in other Work than Pield Sports ;
House and Toy Dogs. Containing Particulars of the following,
among other Breeds: Collie, Bulldosr, Mastiff, St. Bernards, Newfoundland,.
Great Dane, Fox and all other Terriers, King Charles and Blenheim

170, Strand, London, W.C.

5

Spaniels, Png, Pomeranian, Poodle, Italian Greyhound, Toy Dogs, &c.,
&c. Coloured Plates and full-page Engravings.

Practical Kennel Managfement : A Complete Treatise on all
Matters relating to the Proper Management of Dogs, whether kept for
the Show Bench, for the Field, or for Companions. Illustrated with
Coloured and numerous other Plates. [In the Press.

DOGS, DISEASES OP : Their Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment ;

Modes of Administering Medicines ; Treatment in cases of Poisoning, &c.
For the use of Amateurs. By Hugh Dalziel. Third Edition. In
paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d. ; in cloth gilt, 2s., by post 2s. 3d.

ENTERTAINMENTS, AMATEUR, FOR CHARITABLE AND
OTHER OBJECTS: How to Organize and Work them with Profit
and Success. By Robert Ganthont. In coloured cover, price Is., by
post Is. 2d.

FANCY WORK SERIES, ARTISTIC. A Series of Illustrated
Manuals on Artistic and Popular Fancy Work of various kinds. Each
number is complete in itself, and issued at the uniform price of 6d., by
post Id. How ready — (1) Macrame Lace (Second Edition) ; (2) Patch-
work ; (3) Tatttng ; (4) Crewel Work; (5) Applique; (6) Fancy
Netting.

FERNS, THE BOOK OF CHOICE : for the Garden, Conservatory,
and Stove. Describing the best and most striking Ferns and Sela-
ginellas, and giving explicit directions for their Cultivation, the for-
mation of Rockeries, the arrangement of Ferneries, &c. By George
Schneider. With numerous Coloured Plates and other Illustrations.
In 3 vols., large post 4to. Cloth gilt, price £3 3s., by post £3 6s.

FERNS, CHOICE BRITISH. Descriptive of the most beautiful
Variations from the common forms, and their Culture. By C. T. Druery,
F.L.S. Very accurate PLATES, and other Illustrations. In cloth gilt,
price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

FERRETS AND FERRETING. Containing Instructions for the
Breeding, Management, and Working of Ferrets. Second Edition, Re-
written and greatly Enlarged. Illustrated. In paper, price 6d., by
post Id.

FERTILITY OF EGGS CERTIFICATE. These are Forms of
Guarantee given by the Sellers to the Buyers of Eggs for Hatching,
undertaking to refund value of any unfertile eggs, or to replace them
with good ones. Very valuable to sellers of eggs, as they induce
purchases. In books, with counterfoils, price 6d., by post Id.

FIREWORK-MAKING FOR AMATEURS. A complete, accurate,
and easily-understood work on Making Simple and High-class Fireworks.
By Dr. W. H. Browne, M.A. In paper, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

FOREIGN BIRDS, FAVOURITE, for Cages and Aviaries. How to
Keep them in Health. Fully Illustrated. By W. T. Greene, M.A.,
M.D., F.Z.S., &c. In cloth, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

FOX TERRIER, THE. Its History, Points, Breeding, Rearing, Pre-
paring, for Exhibition, and Coursing. By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated
with Coloured Frontispiece and Plates. In paper, price Is., by post
Is. 2d. ; cloth, 2s., by post 2s. 3d.

FOX TERRIER STUD BOOK. Edited by Hugh Dalziel. Price
3s. 6d. each., by post 3s. dd. each.

6

PuUished hy L. Upcott Gill,

Vol. I., containing Pedigrees of over 1400 of the best-known Dogs,
traced to their most remote known ancestors.

Vol. II. Pedigrees of 1544 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c.

Vol. III. Pedigrees of 1214 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c,

Vol. IV. Pedigrees of 1168 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c.

Vol. V. Pedigrees of 1662 Dogs, Show Eecord, &c.

PRETWORK AND MARQUETERIE. A Practical Manual of
Instructions in the Art of Fret-cutting and Marqueterie Work. By
D. Denning. In paper, price Is., post Is. 2d. [In the Press.

FRIESLAND MERES, A CRUISE ON THE. By Ernest E.

SuFELiNG. Illustrated. In paper, price Is., hy post Is. 2d.

GAME AND GAME SHOOTING, NOTES ON. Grouse, Par-
tridges, Pheasants, Hares, Eabbits, Quails, Woodcocks, Snipe, and
Eooks. By J. J. Manley. Illustrated. In cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d.,
hy post 7s. lOd.

GAME PRESERVING, PRACTICAL. Containing the fullest
Directions for Bearing and Preserving both Winged and Ground Game,
and Destroying Vermin ; with other Information of Value to the Game
Preserver, illustrated. By William Carnegie. In cloth gilt, demy 8i'o,
price 21s., h^j post 21s. 9d.

GARDENING, DICTIONARY OP. A Practical Encyclopsedia of
Horticulture, for Amateurs and Professionals. Illustrated with 2440
Engravings. Edited by G. Nicholson, Curator of the Eoyal Botanic
Gardens, Kew ; assisted by Prof. Trail, M.D., Eev. P. W. Myles,
B.A., F.L.S., W. Watson, J. Garrett, and other Specialists. In 4 rols.,
large post 4fo. In cloth gilt, price £3, hy post .£3 3s.

GOAT, BOOK OP THE. Containing Full Particulars of the various
Breeds of Goats, and their Profitable Management. With many Plates.
By H. Stephen Holmes Pegler. Third Edition, with Engravings and
Coloured Frontispiece. In cloth gilt, price 4s. 6d., by post 4s. lOd.

GOAT-KEEPING POR AMATEURS ; Being the Practical Manage-
ment of Goats for Milking Purposes. Abridged from “The Book of the
Goat.” Hlustrated. In paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

GRAPE GROWING POR AMATEURS. A Thoroughly Practical
Book on Successful Vine Culture. By E. Moltneux. Illustrated. In
paper, price Is., by post Is. 2d.

GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT POR AMATEURS. The

Best Greenhouses and Frames, and How to Build and Heat them. Illus-
trated Descriptions of the most suitable Plants, wuth general and
Special Cultural Directions, and all necessary information for the
Guidance of the Amateur. Second Edition, Eevised and Enlarged.
Magnificently Illustrated. By W. J. Mat. In cloth gilt, price 5s.,
by post 5s. 4d.

GREYHOUND, THE ; Its History, Points, Breeding, Bearing, Training,
and Eunning. By Hugh Dalziel. With Coloured Frontispiece. In
cloth gilt, demy 8vo, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

GUINEA PIG, THE, for Food, Fur, and Fancy. Illustrated with
Coloured Frontispiece and Engravings. An exhaustive book on the
Varieties of the Guinea Pig, and its Management. By C. Cumberland,
F.Z.S. In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

HAND CAMERA MANUAL, THE. A Practical Handbook on all
Matters connected with the Use of the Hand Camera in Photography.
Hlustrated. By W. D. Welford. Price Is,, by post Is. 2d.

170, Strand, London, W.C,

7

HANDWRITING, CHARACTER INDICATED BY. With Ulus-
trations in Support of the Theories advanced taken from Autograph
Letters of Statesmen, Lawyers, Soldiers, Ecclesiastics, Authors, Poets,
Musicians, Actors, and other persons. Second Edition. By E. Baughan.
In cloth gilt, 'price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. dd.

HARDY PERENNIALS and Old-fashioned Garden Flowers. Descrip-
tions, alphabetically arranged, of the most desirable Plants for Borders,
Eockeries, and Shrubberies, including Foliage as well as Flowering
Plants. Profusely Illustrated. By J. Wood. In cloth, price 5s., by
post 5s. 4(Z.

HOME MEDICINE AND SURGERY; A Dictionary of Diseases
and Accidents, and their proper Home Treatment. For Family Use. By
W. J. Mackenzie, M.D. Illustrated. In cloth, price 2s. Qd., by post
2s. 9d.

HORSE-KEEPER, THE PRACTICAL. By George Fleming, C.B.,
LL.D., F.E.C.V.S., late Principal Veterinary Surgeon to the British
Army, and Ex-President of the Eoyal College of Veterinary Surgeons.
In cloth, price 3s. 6d., by post 3s. lOd.

HORSE-KEEPING FOR AMATEURS. A Practical Manual on
the Management of Horses, for the guidance of those who keep one or
two for their personal use. By Fox Eussell. In paper, price Is.,
by post Is. 2d. ; cloth, 2s., by post 2s. 3d.

HORSES, DISEASES OP: Their Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment.
For the use of Amateurs. By Hugh Dalziel. In paper, price Is.,
by post Is. 2d. ; cloth 2s., by post 2s. 3d.

INLAND WATERING PLACES. A Description of the Spas of
Great Britain and Ireland, their Mineral Waters, and their Medicinal
Value, and the attractions which they offer to Invalids and other Visitors.
Profusely illustrated. A Companion Volume to “ Seaside Watering Places.”
In cloth, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. lOd.

JOURNALISM, PRACTICAL ; How to Enter Thereon and Succeed.
A book for all who think of “ writing for the Press.” By John Dawson.
In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

LAYING HENS, HOW TO KEEP and to Eear Ch.'.iens in Large
or Small Numbers, in Absolute Confinement, with Perfect Success. By
Major G. F. Morant. In paper, price 6d., by post 7d.

LEGAL PROFESSION, A GUIDE TO THE. How to Enter
either Branch of the Legal Profession, with a Course of Study for each
of the Examinations, and selected Papers of Questions. By J. H.
Slater, Barrister-at-Law. In cloth, price 7s. 6d., by post 7s. lOd.

LIBRARY MANUAL, THE. A Guide to the Formation of a Library,
and the Values of Eare and Standard Books. By J. H. SlateR;
Barrister-at-Law. Third Edition. Eevised and Greatly Enlarged. In
cloth gilt, price 7s. 6d., by j>ost 7s. lOd.

MICE, FANCY ; Their Varieties, Management, and Breeding. Ee-issue,
with Criticisms and Notes by Dr. Carter Blake. Illustrated. In
paper, price 6d., by post 7d.

MODEL YACHTS AND BOATS: Their Designing, Making, and
Sailing. Illustrated with 118 Designs and Working Diagrams. A
splendid book for boys and others interested in making and rigging toy
boats for sailing. It is the best book on the subject now published. By
J. DU V. Grosvenor. In leatherette, price 5s., by post 5s. 3d.

MONKEYS, PET, and How to Manage Them. Illustrated. By Arthur
Patterson. In cloth gilt, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. 9d.

8

Published by L. Upcott Gill,

MUSHROOM CULTURE TOR AMATEURS. With Full Directions
for Successful Growth in Houses, Sheds, Cellars, and Pots, on Shelves,
and Out of Doors. Illustrated. By W. J. Mat. In paper, price Is, by
post Is. 2d.

NATURAL HISTORY SKETCHES among the Carnivora— Wild and
Domesticated ; with Observations on their Habits and Mental Faculties.
By Arthur Nicols, F.G.S., F.E.G.S. Hlustrated. In cloth gilt,
price 5s., by post 5s. 4d.

NEEDLEWORK, DICTIONARY OP. An Encyclopedia of Artistic,
Plain, and Fancy Needlework ; Plain, practical, complete, and
magnificently Illustrated. By S. F. A. Caulfeild and B. C. Saward.
Accepted by H.M. the Queen, H.E.H. the Princess of Wales, H.E.H. the
Duchess of Edinburgh, H.E.H. the Duchess of Connaught, and H.E.H.
the Duchess of Albany. Dedicated by special permission to H.E.H.
Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lome. In demy 4to, 528pp., 829
Illustrations, extra cloth gilt, plain edges, cushioned bevelled boards, price
21s., by post 22s.; with COLOURED PLATES, elegant satin brocade
cloth binding, and coloured edges, 31s. 6d., by post 32s. 6d.

ORCHIDS : Their Culture and Management, with Descriptions

of all the Kinds in General Cultivation. Illustrated by Coloured
Plates and Engravings. By W. Watson, Assistant-Curator,
Eoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew ; Assisted by W. Bean, Foreman, Eoyal
Gardens, Kew. Second Edition, Eevised and with Extra Plates. In
cloth gilt and gilt edges, price £1 Is., by post Jcl 2s.

FAINTING, DECORATIVE. A practical Handbook on Painting and
Etching upon Textiles, Pottery, Porcelain, Paper, Vellum, Leather, Glass,
Wood, Stone, Metals, and Plaster, for the Decoration of our Homes. By
B. C. Saward. In cloth, price 5s., by post 5s. 4d.

PARCEL POST DISPATCH BOOK (registered). An invaluable book
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PATIENCE. GAMES OP, for one or more Players. How to Play
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PHEASANT-KEEPING FOR AMATEURS. A Practical Hand-
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PHOTOGRAPHY (MODERN) FOR AMATEURS. By J.

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PIG, BOOK OF THE. The Selection, Breeding, Feeding, and
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10

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SEA-PISHING FOR AMATEURS. Practical Instructions to
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ROWLANDS’ ARTICLES

FOR THE HAIR, COMPLEXION, and TEETH, are the

wwmmmT ah©

ROWLANDS’ ODONTO,

An antiseptic, preservative, and aromatic denti-
frice, which whitens the teeth, prevents and arrests
decay, and sweetens the breath. It contains no
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ROWLANDS’ MACASSAR OIL

Is the best preserver and beautifier of the hair of children and adults ; prevents it
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brilliantine for ladies’ and everybody’s use, and as a little goes a very long way
it really is most economical for general use ; is also sold in a golden colour for
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Bottles, 3s. 6d., 7s., 10s. 6d., equal to four small.

ROWLANDS’ KALYDOR,

A most cooling, soothing, healing, and refreshing preparation for the Skin and
Complexion of Ladies, and all exposed to the summer sun and dust, or the cold and
damp of winter ; it is warranted free from all mineral or metallic ingredients, or
oxide of zinc, of which most Cosmetics are composed, and which ruin the skin.
It effectually disperses Chaps, Chilblains, Freckles, Tan, Sunburn, Stings of
Insects, Eedness, Roughness of the Skin ; relieves Irritation of the Skin,
Prickly Heat, &c., renders the

SKIN SOFT AND SMOOTH,

and produces a beautiful, pure, and delicate complexion. Size 4s. 6d. and
8s. 6d. ; half-sized bottles, 2s. 3d.

ROWLANDS' ESSENCE OF TYRE

Effectually dyes red or grey hair a permanent brown or black. 4s.

ROWLANDS' EUKONIA.

A pure Toilet Powder in three tints, White, Rose, and Cream, for ladies of
a Brunette complexion and those who do not like white powder. Boxes, Is.;
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Ask Chemists for ROWLANDS’ ARTICLES, of 20, HATTON
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SPRATTS PATENT

DOG CAKES.

Pamphlet on CAyiXE DISEASES GEATIS.

SPRATTS PATENT LIMITED, BERMONDSEY, S.E.

jij+tS— 2666