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Beginnings in Animal Husbandry 


FARM SCIENCE SERIES 


Beginnings in Animal Husbandry 
By C. S. PLums, Ohio State University 


Field Crops 


By A. D. Wiutson, University of Minnesota 
and C. W. WarsBurTon, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture 


Soils and Soil Fertility 


By A. R. Wuitson, University of Wisconsin 
and H. L. WALSTER, University of Wisconsin 


Agricultural Engineering 


By J. B. Davipson, Iowa State College of Agri- 
culture and Mechanic Arts 


Popular Fruit Growing 
By S. B. Green, University of Minnesota 


Vegetable Gardening 
By S. B. Green, University of Minnesota 


(OTHER VOLUMES IN PREPARATION) 


BOOKS WRITTEN BY CHARLES S. PLUMB 


A BIOGRAPHICAL DIRECTORY OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL SCIENTISTS 


Edited and published at Knoxville, Tenn., 1889; pp. 100; 
flexible cloth. The supply of these is exhausted. 


INDIAN CorRN CULTURE 
Chicago: The Breeders’ Gazette Print, 1895. Cloth; 
pp. 248; figs. 63. 
LITTLE SKETCHES OF Famous BEEF CATTLE 
Columbus, Ohio: Published by the author, 1904. Cloth; 
pp. 99. | 7 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF FaRM ANIMALS 
Boston: Gian & Co., 1906. Cloth; pp. 563; figs. 255. 


A PartTIAL INDEX TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY LITERATURE 
Columbus, Ohio: Published by the author, 1911. Cloth; 
pp. 94. 


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Photograph by courtesy McLay Bros. 


“For should I speake rather like a Philosopher than a Christian, I 
could not but agnize nature to bee admirable in all her workes, 
wherein man doth owe unto her infinite, and those very great 
thankes, in that shee hath accommodated and plentifully furnished 
him with all things needfull for his use, as also in that shee hath 
propagated (among all other) the horse, the most usefull for the 
service of man, and who best acknowledgeth his Master.” 

—Thomas de Grey, 1651. 


~ BEGINNINGS IN 


ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


By | 
CHARLES §$: PLUMB 
PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
OF THE Ouro STaTE UNIVERSITY 


(Evie pins CO A 


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COPYRIGHT, 1912 
By CHARLES S. PLUMB 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED _ 


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FOREWORD 


Agricultural education in America is comparatively new. 
Previous to 1870 but few colleges of agriculture existed in 
this country. During the period between 1870 and about 
1890, interest was awakened in this field of education. Many 
of the agricultural colleges graduated their first classes along 
in the seventies. Excepting a few men who had been trained 
in chemistry, as applied to agriculture, there were almost 
no instructors who had received what we now regard as an 
agricultural education. ‘The instruction known as agricul- 
tural, then consisted of lectures on familiar farm practices, 
frequently supplemented by manual labor on the part of the 
_ student. Text books were few, and the preparation of new 
ones was slow. 

Agricultural education under these conditions lagged, 
and how to encourage interest became a serious problem 
with the colleges. Educators insisted that the teaching 
should be largely based on pure science, and it was often 
difficult for the students to see the application. 

Recognizing this lack of interest, a few Western colleges 
conceived the plan of giving short winter courses of a popular 
nature, in which practical laboratory instruction should be 
given. Work in dairying, horticulture, and live stock judg- 
ing first received attention. This practical training was 
most favorably regarded by the students. These winter 
courses grew rapidly in popularity, and paved the way for 
more attractive forms of instruction for the regular students. 
Through this medium of the short winter course, both inter- 


est and attendance in the agricultural colleges rapidly grew. 
New courses of study were established, more buildings and 
equipment were required, and then agricultural education 
sprang into popularity. The production of new types of 
text books, on subjects heretofore undiscussed in pedagogical 
form, logically followed in this evolution in agricultural edu- 
cation. 

During this movement in behalf of rural uplift, a few 
progressive men urged the importance of agricultural educa- 
tion in the country schools of higher grade. This resulted 
in establishing agricultural schools of secondary grade in 
different parts of the United States, both North and South. 
During the past few years, country life has become popular. 
As a result, there is a widespread movement in behalf of 
agricultural education, and the subject is now being taught 
in its various phases in many schools all over the land. 

Recognizing the need of an elementary text book for 
young people, the author has seen fit to prepare this volume 
on animal husbandry, the first of its kind devoted to this 
special field. It is his earnest hope that such lessons as either 
teacher or pupii shall find within these pages, may result in 
a desire for yet wider knowledge of and a more sympathetic 
interest in our farm animals. 


CHARLES 8. PLUMB. 
Ohio State University, 
Columbus, Ohio, 
November 1, 1912. 


CHAPTER 


I. 

ET. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
‘i. 
AT. 
VIII. 


XXVIT. 
XXVIII. 


CONTENTS 


THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY . 
THE BREEDS OF HORSES 

THe BREEDS OF CATTLE 

THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 

Tuer Breeps OF SWINE 

ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS Tir Ouran 

REASONS AND METHODS IN JUDGING LIVE met 
THE PoINTs OF THE HORSE 

JUDGING THE HorRSE 

THE JUDGING OF CATTLE 


. THE JUDGING OF SHEEP . 
. ‘THE JUDGING OF SWINE . 


Herepity: Its MEANING AND Hharioret 
SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 
PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 
SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS ; 
THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
THE INFLUENCE OF Foops ON THE Bopy 
FEEDING STANDARDS: ‘THEIR ORIGIN AND USE 
How To CALCULATE A RATION 

CoaRSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE ; 
CONCENTRATED FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE . 
THE CaRE OF FARM ANIMALS . 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY 

JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY Pacoueat 
Eaas AND INCUBATION 

THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 

PouLtTrRY HovusEes AND EQUIPMENT 


PaGB 
14. 
23 
46 ~ 
74 
99 

114 
125 
138 
158 
173~ 
196 
209 
221 
230 
240 
248 
257 
265 
274 
281 
288 
303 
313 
325 
340 
349 
360 
374 


BEGINNINGS IN 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


CHAPTER I 
THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The study of domestic animals may be considered both 
a pleasure and a duty. A pleasure, because of the natural- 
born interest man feels in all animals; and a duty, on account 
of the service horses, cattle, sheep, and swine play in the 
world’s affairs. Between many people, and even nations, 


Vig. 1. A view at the Royal Agricultural Society Show of England. Photo- 
graph by the author. 
and their domestic animals, we find an affectionate, sympa- 
thetic relationship. The people of Great Britain, the world’s 
leading stockmen, from the King and Queen to the humblest 
laborer, show a keen and kindly interest in everything 
relating to farm live stock. One of the most interesting 


12 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


sights to be seen in Europe is the annual show of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England, where live stock is made 
the leading feature, and where vast throngs of people go to 
inspect and talk over the animals and watch the judges at 
their work. The average Britisher is a lover of animals, 
and expresses a common, inherited sentiment. This dis- 
position on the part of a people, develops the finer, more 
sympathetic qualities, and broadens and strengthens char- 
acter. In the same way, the boy or girl who shows a devo- 
tion to the animal given to his or her care, becomes finer, 
more sympathetic, and broader minded, andisrendered more 
resourceful and capable. From another point of view, ani- 
mals play a most important part on account of their uses for 
food and labor. Therefore, the study of animals as relating 
to farm economy and the markets of the world becomes a 
most important matter. 

The commercial value of the live stock industry is so 
great that only a brief reference can be made to it here. 
One is unable to comprehend the magnitude of the figures 
which relate to either numbers or values of farm animals. 

The thirteenth United States census, for 1910, reports 
the following numbers and values as applied to animals on 
our farms for that year. 


Cass oF Stock NUMBER VALUE 
RE 8 a 19,731,000 $2,076,000,000 
Mules and asses...... 4,184,000 13,092,000 
Rema SS os eS 61,226,000 1,485,000,000 
= oO a a a ete 52,448,000 209,536,000 
Pe, eee eo ae | 58,186,000 615,170,000 
i i 195,775,000 $4,398,798,000 


By these figures we see that we had in 1910 almost 200 
“million animals on our farms, and that they were valued at 
over four billion dollars, a sum far too big to comprehend. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK 13 


The significant thing is simply to realize the vastness of our 
live-stock industry, and the enormous sum of money here 
invested, besides the value of the animals themselves. The 
greatest live-stock producing section of the country includes 
the states of New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, 
South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. The two 
states of most importance in numbers of each kind of live 
stock in the United States in 1910, are as follows: 


iotsed 2s. 2... lowar first, with. ); 0. 2.0% 1,489,000 
Illinois second, with.. .... 1,450,000 

Cattle... . ee Be ) tems first, with......... 6,722.000 
(lowa. second, with........ 4,468,000 

oo JWyoming first, with ...... 5,397,000 
\Montana second, with... .5,381,000 
Ni we os ‘Tes Rieger, WIGD ks ss ox be 7,527,000 
Illinois second, with...... 4,684,000 


We see from the above that Iowa ranks first in numbers 
of horses and swine, and second in cattle, which gives this 
state the leading position in live-stock production; Illinois 
holds a close second place. 

The importance of our live stock may also be seen from 
another point of view in connection with our local markets. 
The city of Chicago is the largest live-stock market in the 
world. The Union Stock Yards of that city cover 500 
acres, and received in 1911 a total of 1614 millions of farm 
animals, valued at about 340 millions of dollars. Nearly 
272,000 car loads of live stock were received in these yards in 
1911. This is equal to 745 cars a day. At an average 
length of 34 feet to a car, these cars would make one 
solid train of live stock about 434 miles long. There are 
300 miles of railway in and about the yards to handle all 
this great traffic. Some 50,000 people live about the yards 
and get their daily incomes from them. Here are immense 


14 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


slaughter houses and meat packing plants, from which meats 
are shipped to all parts of the world. The Union Stock 
Yards and packing houses are noted features of the great 
city of Chicago, and are daily visited by tourists from all 
over America and many other countries. In 1909 there 
were 1641 slaughtering and meat-packing plants in the 
United States, in which were killed and prepared for food, 
over a billion dollars worth of farm animals. ‘These figures 
are given simply to show something of the importance of the 


Fig. 2. A view in the Union Stock Yards, Chicago. Photograph by courtesy 
The Farmer. 


live-stock trade and of the part it must play in American 
agriculture. 

The first use of animals by man dates back to the days 
when there was no civilization, when no written records 
were made, and the people lived as ignorant savages. This 
was in prehistoric times, when the only implements used 
were very crude ones made by hand, of stone, iron, or copper. 
That animals lived with man in these prehistoric days, we 
know, because the bones of man, and those of horses, cattle, 


THE IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK 15 


and other animals have been found mingled together in the 
remains of prehistoric villages in Europe. As man ascended 
in the scale of civilization, we find that animals became more 
and more associated with him in his daily life. The oldest 
historical works make frequent reference to farm animals. 
If one consults the Bible he will find in the Book of Genesis, 


- dating back over 2000 years before Christ, repeated reterence 


to herdsmen and horses and asses, cattle, sheep, and goats. 
In fact, these people of early days were farmers, and depended 
largely on their live stock. | 

The importance of domestic animals to man is to be seen 
in several ways. ‘There are some features of special interest 
to the student; namely, (a) the use of animals for clothing; 
(b) for food; (c) for labor, and (d) in relation to maintaining 
soil fertility. -Each of these is of sufficient importance to 
justify special consideration. 

The use of animals for clothing refers to the skin, hair 
and wool or other hairy covering. Earliest man is supposed 
to have used the skins of animals for clothing, especially in 
the cooler regions or colder parts of the year. 

For thousands of years people have woven cloth from 
wool, and the hair of camels and goats. At the present day 
the making of cloth from wool is a great industry in different 
parts of the world. Millions of sheep even now have their 
chief value in the wool that they produce. The leading 
industry of a number of English and American towns and 
cities is the converting of wool into clothing; so we find there 
great mills employing thousands of people. 

The use of animals for food is of first importance. It is 
for this that cattle, sheep, and swine have been domesti- 
cated; and the final end of all farm animals except the horse, 
ass, and mule, must be for human food. Meat is a concen- 
trated food, rich in the substances that give strong physical 


16 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


development. It is said that the meat-eating nations rule 
the world; and when we realize that the people of North 
America, Great Britain, France, and Germany are the 
greatest consumers of this food, we are inclined to believe 
the statement to be true. The average person in the United 
States eats about 180 pounds of meat a year. With a 
population approaching one hundred million people, it ean 
be easily understood that an enormous number of animals 
must be slaughtered for food each year. 


Fig. 3. Fattening cattle in a Western feed lot. Photograph by courtesy 
The Farmer. 


There is also another important source of food from ani- 
mals, that of milk and its products. Cattle have been so 
improved since domestication began, that today we have cows 
producing remarkable yields of milk. A yield of 5000 pounds 
of milk a year is very common; a large number of cows 
have produced 10,000 pounds; a yield of 15,000 pounds of 
milk in a year from a single animal is no longer remarkable. 
Milk is a very nutritious liquid food, and supplies a place 
in human diet as does no other substance. From milk is 


‘4 
By 
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. 


oF ae, 


THE IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK 17 


manufactured cheese, a valuable food that in Europe very 
generally takes the place of meat among the laboring classes. 
Butter, also a product of milk, is so greatly in demand that 
thousands of creameries engage in its production. In 1910, 
there were twenty million cows and heifers kept in the 
United States, primarily for milk. Five states had over one 
million dairy cows each. 

The use of animals for labor, no doubt dates from pre- 


“historic days when man subdued the horse. With the culti- 


Fig. 4. A miniature ox team in West Virginia. Photograph by Warren Booker. 


vation of the fields, both cattle and horses became beasts of 
burden and laborers in the fields. Cattle are commonly 
used for labor in parts of Europe, even dairy cows some- 
times being employed to draw loads. Oxen were much used 
in pioneer days for draft work in America, but have been 
generally discarded on account of their slowness, yet even 
today they may be seen serving in place of horses in some 
parts of our country. In the pioneer settlement of America, 
the ox team proved a very important means of transporta- 


18 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


tion through the forests and across the wide Western prairies. 
The great endurance, steady habits, and ease of keep, make 
the ox a favorite with the pioneer. 

In countries other than our own, where railways do not 
exist, the transportation of freight must be done by animals, 
or on the shoulders of men. In many countries the people 
use the backs of animals for this purpose. In northern 
Africa, the camel is known as ‘‘the ship of the desert,” for 
on his back is carried both man and freight from the interior 
to the coast. In parts of Asia, the elephant becomes a 
mighty beast of burden, performing wonderful draft service. 
The little donkey, regarded in America as simply a play- 
thing for children, is widely used over the world as a burden 
bearer. Thus we see that domestic animals, even today, 
play a very important part in moving merchandise and per- 
forming labor. Although modern methods of transporta- 
tion care for enormous quantities of freight, the fact is that 
the demand for the work horse does not diminish. The 
draft work on our farms mustbe very largely accomplished 
by the horse; while even in the city, in spite of the expensive 
motor truck, the horse is considered indispensable in a 
large amount of business. Professor T. F. Hunt states* 
that in England it is estimated that two horses will cultivate 
80 acres of light and sandy soil, or 60 acres of heavy, or clay, 
soil. In the United States, it appears that one horse or mule 
of working age is kept for every 30 acres of improved land; 
but in level prairie sections, far more service than this indi- 
cates 1s expected. 

The use of domestic animals in maintaining soil fertil- 
ity has long been recognized as of great importance. The 
earliest writers on agriculture, who lived just prior to the 
Christian era, about two thousand years ago, wrote more or 


*Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Vol. III, 1908, p. 11. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK 19 


less of the value of manures in keeping the soil fertile. The 
farmer of those days learned from experience that if he took 
a crop from the land one year, that the next harvest from 
the same soil would be smaller unless manure was 
‘used to replace the fertility removed in the crop. Thus we 
see that 20 centuries ago the farmer learned that he must 
replace fertility in his soil if he expected to reap abun- 
dant harvests. To secure this necessary fertility, he used 
the manure provided by farm animals, and much was written 
about the value of the excrement from different kinds of 
animals, and the preservation of manures. 

In very recent times, artificial fertilizers have come into 
extensive use. But in spite of this fact, the natural manures 
of animals have been absolutely necessary to keep up the 
fertility of the soil of most regions where high-class farming 
is practiced. There are lands in Europe today, said to have 
been cultivated for 2000 years, that grow great crops, made 
possible by the use of animal manures. This statement 
may be accepted as a fact, that, except in the case of some 
great river valleys, like the Nile, which are enriched by annual 
overflow, no agricultural region has continued to grow abun- 
dant harvests without the aid of manure from domestic ani- 
mals. Each year the wheat fields of Canada and the corn 
fields of the Mississippi Valley yield in reduced amounts per 
acre, unless fertility replaces that removed by the crop. 
Experience has also shown that where farmers keep the most 
live stock, there the crops are most abundant and the people 
most prosperous. 

We purchase commercial fertilizers to restore fertility 
to the soil; but these lack one thing of great importance 
found in stable manures, and that is vegetable matter, which 
is as necessary to the soil as is the chemical nutriment. The 
rotted manure in the soil makes it more porous and mellow 


20) BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


and permits the entrance of air and the growth of roots 
through it more freely than occurs where no vegetable 
mould is present. Interesting experiments conducted for 
more than 70 continuous years on the same land, in England, 
at Rothamsted experiment station, showed that wheat 
grown on unmanured land yielded just about 12 bushels per 
acre, while a yield of about 40 bushels occurred where 
stable manure was used. A ton of average stable manure is 
considered to contain about $2.50 worth of plant food. 
Professor Roberts has figured” that the average value of the 
manure produced by a cow each day is eight cents, while 
that of a horse is worth about a half cent less. The value of 
stable manure, however, depends upon the feed the animal 
gets. Feed rich in grain makes a more valuable manure 
than that from hay only, and so will return more fertility 
to the soil. 

The animal is a machine for changing coarse into fine 
material. The ideal kind of farming combines the growing of 
grass and grain and the feeding of these to the animals of 
the farm. These raw crops are thus converted into 
concentrated and high priced products, as represented in 
meat, milk, butter, cheese, or breeding stock. A large per- 
centage of the food consumed returns to the farm to keep 
up its fertility. Some forms of stock farming remove but very: 
little of the actual soil fertility. One reason why dairy- 
cattle farming meets with so much favor is because of the 
small amount of fertility sold from the farm in milk or 
butter. Professor Vivian states’ that the fertilizing value 
of a ton of butter is but 44 cents, and that 5000 pounds of 
milk contain but $4.89 worth of fertility. As much as 80 


*Bulletin 56, Cornell University experiment station. 
TFirst Principles of Soil Fertility, 1908, p. 120-121. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK 21 


or 85 per cent of the value of the food or crop becomes animal 
excrement, and thus is returned to the soil for its up-building. 
When, as in case of dairy-cattle farming, much more grain 
is fed than is grown on the farm, then the land steadily im- 
proves in its producing capacity. The best examples of 
intelligent general farming are to be found where herds 
and flocks are kept as important features of a well-balanced 
farm system. Where the special business is stock farming, 
then the final product in its concentrated form will yield far 


. Fig. 5. oe oe Reo mountainside, with no vegetation but grass. Photo- 
graph by the author. 

more important and profitable returns in the long run 
; than will any other method. One hundred acres of grain 
: _ shipped a thousand miles require a large expenditure of labor 
and money, while this same crop, in the form of a con- 
centrated product like butter or meat, may be transported 
at relatively much less expense. 

Stock farming is adapted to the cheaper and rougher 
lands. Much land that might not be used for other purposes 
can be devoted to pasturing farm animals. The grass on the 


a i i 


_— 


22 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


hills is usually finer and sweeter than on the lowlands. In 
various parts of the world where the land is naturally poor 
or of a rough character, stock farming is an important indus- 
try. In fact, no other kind of farming is so well adapted to 
these conditions. On the Cheviot Hills of Scotland, the 
principal industry is that of sheep raising, grass and sheep 
being the two. crops. In Switzerland, high up on the moun- 
tain sides are pastures which annually furnish feed for many 
dairy cows. On the rough, cheap hillsides of New England, 
dairy cattle are the most important source of income to the 
farmer. On the high, grassy hills of eastern Ohio, western 
Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, are to be found the largest 
flocks of sheep in this country east of the Missouri River. 
In the Southwest and far West of the United States, on 
the cheaper rolling or broken lands, will be found extensive 
herds and flocks. In the Northwest, among the cut-over 


lands that have been deprived of their timber by the lumber- 


men, dairy cattle and dairymen are being developed on a 
greater scale than elsewhere in America. In fact the farmer 
generally plans on the use of his cheaper, poorer lands as 
pasture for stock. Rightly handled, these lands in most 
cases greatly increase in producing capacity and value. In- 
asmuch as live stock also finds an appropriate place on the 
more fertile and level farms, we must recognize the fact that 
animals are adapted to greater extremes of soil and land con- 
ditions than are the staple crops. Thus animals in a world- 
wide sense, become subjects of great importance and interest. 


SS OTe lO S.C 


CHAPTER II 
THE BREEDS OF HORSES 


The origin of the horse was for many years not well under- 
stood. It used to be thought that the domestic horse 
was descended from the wild ass that lived in Africa and Asia. 
It is now pretty well agreed that the horse of today is 
descended from animals that lived in past geological times. 
Fossil remains of horses have been found in different parts of 
North and South America and in Europe. These are known 
as prehistoric horses, because they lived on the earth before 
man left any recorded history. 

The prehistoric horse in the earliest geological times, say 
three million years ago, was very small. He was probably 
about as big as a fox terrier, and is known as the ‘‘dawn 
horse.”’ During the development of the earth’s surface, the 
prehistoric horse passed through gradual and very important 
changes. There was an increase in size, and his body, legs, 
and head became more and more like those of the modern 
horse. Many parts of the skeletons of these early horses 
have been found in North America, especially in the far 
West, in Wyoming and the Bad Lands of that section. 
Scientific men have put the fossil parts of these horses 
together so completely that their development is clearly under- 
stood. From this first period up to the last, skeletons more 
or less complete have been found, showing the gradual 
increase in size and change of character through which this 
prehistoric horse passed. 

So we know that the horse has lived in America for 
millions of years. Just when the first domesticated ones 


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GINNING: 


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THE BREEDS OF HORSES 


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developed here, however, we do not know unless from those 
brought here from Europe by Columbus and the early 
explorers. 

How human beings came to use the horse, we do not 
know. It is thought that man first used wild ones for food, 


Fig. 7. A wild pony captured in central Asia, owned by the New York Zoo- 
logical Park. Photograph by courtesy Dr. W. T. Hornaday, Director. 


and later for carrying burdens. We have some forms of 
ponies at the present time that are supposed to be closely 
related in appearance to the more recent prehistoric horse. 
Some years ago in central Asia, true wild horses of pony size 


26 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


were discovered by a famous Russian explorer. These and 
the rough ponies of Iceland and northern Europe are prob- 
ably closely related to the latest form of prehistoric horses. 

The development of the breeds of horses has been due 
to different conditions. Climate, food, and man, have 
each had a very important influence. A mild climate and 
abundant food no doubt caused the horse to become gradu- 
ally larger than where the climate was cold and food not 
abundant. The Shetland pony comes from a region in the 
North Sea where the weather is very severe and food is never 
plentiful. So this pony on its native island is very small. 
In his American home, however, on the Western prairie, 
where food is abundant, and the climate mild, he develops 
into a greater size. The horses from hot climates have 
always been more active than those from cold. Thus in 
northern Africa, the Arab horse has developed into an animal 
full of grace and activity. So we see that breeds probably 
eradually developed in certain localities, and that different 
causes helped to bring about the final result. There are 
many breeds of horses and ponies in different parts of the 
world. The following, however, are the only onescommon 
in America, that should especially interest us. 

The Arab horse originated in the desert region of northern 
Africa, where he has been known since long before the time 
of Christ. The Arab is a saddle horse, but usually is a pony 
in size. The horses from Arabia and the Orient have had a 
great deal to do with the improvement of the horse in Europe. 
Between 1700 and 1800, many Oriental horses were taken to 
England. Their blood was mingled with the horses of that 
country, and especially with the race horse type, by which 


a great improvement in form and speed was secured. Arab © 


horses should be from 14 to 141% hands high, have beauti- 
ful, intelligent heads; backs especially suited to the saddle; 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 27 


and have strong, muscular quarters and legs. The pure 
Arabian may be gray, white, bay, chestnut, or black. He 
is not of special value in America. He was first brought 
here about 150 years ago, though but few pure-bred ones 
are here now. ‘The white or spotted horses often seen with 
circuses, are rarely pure-bred, and perhaps come from 
Turkey, Barbary, or elsewhere in the Orient, or have been 
‘foaled in America. 

The Thoroughbred horse is of British breeding. In 
early days in England the horse was used largely for war. 
He had to be strong, in order to carry men who wore heavy 
coats of mail. After armor became unpopular, the people 
began to make more use of horses for other purposes. King 
James the First, at the beginning of the 17th century, 
established the race track, and since then horse racing has 
been very popular in that country and in France. It was 
then that the development of the Thoroughbred began. 
The people wanted a race horse. They took their native 
light horses that showed speed and improved them by the use 
of Arab, Turk, and other racing blood imported from Africa, 
Turkey, and France. The people became much interested 
in breeding these running horses, and as a result, developed 
the Thoroughbred into the fastest and best-bred horse in the 
world. Three imported Oriental horses, the Darley Arabian, 
the Byerly Turk, and the Godolphin Barb played a most 
important part in improving the early race-horse stock in 
England. Descended from these were three English-bred 
horses, Herod, Eclipse, and Matchem, that are very famous 
ancestors of modern Thoroughbreds. This breed of horses 
has a fine, lean, medium-sized head; a long, slender, neck; a 
narrow, deep chest; a long, sloping shoulder; a short, strong 
back; very long, muscular hind parts; and legs that are short, 
lean, and strong, with the best of feet. The skin is thin, and 


28 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the hair fine and silky. The most desired height is 15 to 
1514 hands, and the most common colors are bay, brown, 
chestnut, or black, though there are other colors. A fine 
disposition and great courage are features of this noted breed. 
The Thoroughbred was first brought to America in 1730, 
and since then until recently, large numbers have been 
imported. This horse is raced under the saddle with a man 
called a jockey on his back. The fastest record of a race of 
any sort was made by Salvator, who in New Jersey in 1890 
ran a mile in 1:35%. 
Thoroughbreds have 
sold for enormous sums, 
Flying Fox having 
brought the _ highest 
price ever paid for a 
horse, of $187,500. The 
Thoroughbred has been 
much bred in America 
in the past to improve 
our racing stock, but at 
present he is little used, 
Wie: fe. Photograph by the author = eXcept in TUNING Rages 
where gambling is en- 
couraged. As betting at horse races is a violation of the 
law in most states today, this has done much to discourage 
the breeding of Thoroughbreds in America. In England 
and France, conditions are different. This breed has had 
a great history, and it is unfortunate that it cannot be 
popular in America, except as connected with gambling. 


The American Saddle Horse is a breed that has developed 


in the United States, especially in Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, and Missouri. Its ancestry comes with the mingling 
of the blood of the Thoroughbred and well made, easy- 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 29 


moving, native saddle stock. A Thoroughbred horse 
named Denmark, sired by an imported horse, was one of the 
most famous early sires of this breed. The American Saddle 
Horse shows much style in carriage of head and arch of neck 
and tail. He stands from 15 to 1514 hands high, and often 


“2 . ‘ 
eee 


- 
- 
teres 
as 
in Ae 
‘ 


Fig. 9. Kentucky’s Choice, a model American Saddle Horse. Photograph 
by courtesy The Farmer. 
weighs about 1000 pounds. His most frequent colors are 
bay, brown, or black. This breed of horses is growing 
more and more into favor on account of its extremely easy 
gait. Saddlers may be divided into two classes. One has 


30 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the walk-trot-canter gaits common with all saddle horses. 
The other class has five gaits, the walk-trot-canter, the rack, 
and the running walk or fox trot, gaits especially found with 
this breed. If a horse can show these five gaits, he is called 
agaited horse. If he has only the first three, he is known as - 
plain gaited. American saddle horses are in great demand, 
and when of high class, and educated to show their gaits well, 
bring high prices. 

The American Trotter or Pacer has its parentage dating 
from the light-weight trotting and running horses of Great 
Britain first brought to America. One of these, a Thorough- 
bred named Messenger, imported in 1788, through his great- 
grandson, Hambletonian10, did much for trotting blood. 
For many years we have had in this country a class of 
horses of the light harness type, that are commonly 
known as trotters. They were so called because, when they 
moved faster than a walk, their gait was a trot, a movement 
of the front foot on one side and the hind foot on the 
opposite side at about the same time. The pacer moves 
back or forward at the same time, the feet on the same side 
of the body. The pace is about three seconds faster 
as a gait than the trot. Occasionally a horse may be taught 
to trot or pace as desired. Some famousrace horses have both 
trotting and pacing records. The trotter or pacer is not a 
true example of a breed, because he has been mixed so much 
in the past in this country, with all kinds of blood ancestry. 
The principal idea seems to have been to get speed. Trotters 
of this sort are often referred to as “‘Standard Bred.” That 
means that they have official records of 2:30 (2 minutes, 


30 seconds), or better, or are from stock registered in the ° 


American Trotting Register. A nice type of trotter or pacer 
should weigh around 1000 pounds, and have a lean, intelli- 
gent head; a refined and graceful neck; sloping, well laid 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES ol 


shoulders; be narrow on top over the shoulders; have a strong, 
fairly level back; a muscular rump with tail set high; a deep, 
round body; and legs short, clean, and fine boned and good 
feet. This horse picks up his feet with snap, and moves off 
smoothly and easily. The coat is of different colors, with 
bay or brown most common. ‘The disposition is generally 
good, though it naturally varies. This American-bred horse 
is the fastest trotter in the world. Uhlan holds the world’s 
trotting record for the mile, in the time of 1:58 (one minute, 
58 seconds); and Dan 
Patch the pacing record 
of 1:5514 for the same dis- 
tance. During 100 years, 
from August 25, 1810, 
when a horse named Bos- 
ton trotted a mile in 
2:48144, to October 9, 
1912, when Uhlan trotted 
a mile in 1:58, the mile 
trotting record was re- 
duced 50 seconds, or an 4 
average of about one-half Fig. 10. Uhlan, a trotter with record 
second a year. Lou Dil- Boe Photograph by courtesy The 
lon, a _ beautiful little 
mare, long held the trotting record in a race against time, 
making a mile, in 1903, in 1:5814. This record, however, 
was made with the aid of a shield to keep the wind from 
affecting her speed. There are many kinds of records, as 
half-mile, mile, two-mile, fastest new performer, fastest 
mare, etc. Thousands of horses have trotted a mile in 2:30, 
or better, and many even as fast as 2:10. 

There are a number of famous trotting and pacing fami- 
lies, of which the Hambletonian, Mambrino, Clay, Pilot, 


~] 
bo 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


and Morgan are the best known. Among the most famous 
trotters that have lived in recent years are the following: 
Maud 8. 2:0824, Nancy Hanks 2:04, Cresceus 2:0214, The 
Harvester 2:01, Lou Dillon 1:584%, and Uhlan 1:58. 
Among pacers are Hal Pointer 2:0514, Star Pointer 1:5914, 
Minor Heir 1:59, and Dan Patch 1:55144. Trotters and 
pacers have sold for very high prices. Arion, the trotter, sold 


sae aging comets 
—- a 


t yeh oc ees 
Fig. 11. Angus Pointer, a 2:00 pacer. Photograph by the author. 


for $150,000, and Dan Patch, the pacer, was purchased for 
$60,000. Trotting and pacing horses have no great value 
outside of purposes for which horses of light weight can be used, 
such as driving, racing, and in certain kinds of business where 
no special draft power is required. Our people would be 
much better off today if we raised but a limited number of 


un 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 


C3 
Cec 


horses of this kind which we often call roadsters, and only 
the higher grades of these. 

The Hackney horse is a breed a was first produced in 
eastern England, especially in Suffolk and Norfolk counties. 
In these regions the trotting gait has long been popular. The 


) 


word Hackney means ‘nag,’ and the term has been used 


Fig. 12. Kathleen, a model Hackney mare, Photograph by courtesy 
F. C Stevens. 


there for centuries. The claim is made that this breed began 
important development about 1755, with a horse called 
Shales. He traced back to the Darley Arabian, to which the 
Thoroughbred is related. The Hackney is very common in 
England, but not in America. It isabreed that varies quite 


34 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


a good deal in size, ranging from a pony to a good-sized 
carriage horse. When of suitable size, standing about 16 
hands high, it is what is known as a heavy harness or ecar- 
riage horse. A Hackney of good type, is very attractive of 
head, has a long,-arching neck, a fuller chest than a trotter, is 
strong and short of back, has a long, full rounded hind 
quarter; a beautiful round,smooth body, and stands squarely 


Fig. 13. The Harvester, the noted trotter, with Ed. Geers, his very famous 
trainer, in the sulky. Photograph by the author. 


on short, clean-cut legs and good feet. Chestnut is a very 
popular color, as is bay and brown. ‘This horse is noted for 
the powerful manner in which he moves the legs in the trot. 
He has a bold stride, lifting the knees higher than does any 
other breed, and carrying the hind legs forward with dis- 
tinct power. The Hackney gait is a model in the opinion 
of many lovers of high-class carriage horses. If he is what is 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 


CO 
Ot 


termed a high actor, that is, moves his knees up high rather 
than far forward, he will have a short stride which is some- 
what slow, and is termed a ‘‘trappy gait.’””’ The Hackney in 
his native land is rather noted as a horse with considerable 
speed, and most excellent records have been made in driving 
over country roads. ‘This is the most popular breed in the 
stables of wealthy men who keep fine carriage teams, but 
in recent years the automobile has greatly injured the busi- 
ness of breeding such horses. The Hackney has been exten- 
sively distributed over 
Europe, North and South 
America and Australia. 
The French Coach 
horse originated in 
France. The people of 
that country have for 
centuries shown much in- 
terest in horse breeding. 
The famous Napoleon, 
over a hundred years ago, 
took an active interest 
‘in developing high-class Fig. 14. Decorateur, a French Coach 
eee POP Of ero “Photogreph by Eat Mick. 
France are great lovers 
of racing, and this breed came into prominence for that pur- 
pose. Some of the speed of the French Coach is inherited 
from the Thoroughbred and Hackney, many of which have 
been taken from England to France. The French govern- 
ment encouraged the people to breed these horses, partly for 
the army, and partly to give France a valuable carriage 
horse. The French government has extensive stables of 
valuable horses, and has produced in these many very fine 
animals. French Coach horses are usually bay, brown, or 


36 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


chestnut, though there are other colors. These horses are 
much like the other typical carriage horses in style and 
appearance, and do not have quite so trappy a gait as the 
Hackney. There are very few pure-bred horses of the 
French Coach breed in America, although they have been 
imported for many years. Probably more have been brought 
to Ohio and Illinois than elsewhere. 

The German Coach horse comes from northwest Ger- 
many. In this region the breed has been kept for centuries. 
The government takes an interest in the improvement of the 
horse, in much the same way as in France. The German 
Coach horse is somewhat larger than the other carriage 
breeds of horses, and lacks the speed and action of either the 
Hackney or French Coach. These horses are usually bay, 
black, or brown in color, and stand from 16 to 16% hands 
high. Not many horses of this breed are being brought to 
America today. Men who formerly bought carriage horses 
for driving, now use automobiles instead. 

The Percheron horse is also of French origin. There is 
a small section of France called La Perche, which is about 
100 miles southwest of Paris. It is a beautiful, rolling coun- 
try, where the farmers have fine water, sweet grass, and fer- 
tile fields. In this region the Percheron originated. The 
breed is probably about 100 years old, but it has passed 
through important changes during that time. Fifty years 
ago Percherons were not as big as now, and they could trot 
quite fast along the highways. The demands of Americans 
during the past 25 years have caused the French to develop 
a larger size in these horses. It is now the most popular 
draft breed in America. Mature stallions weigh from 1700. 
to 2000 pounds, and mature mares from 1500 to 1800 pounds. 
The height is from 16 to 17 hands. The color is usually 
either gray of some shade, or black, though bay or brown 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 37 


occurs occasionally. These horses are very massive appear- 
ing, when of the best type, having big bodies, strong wide 
backs, powerful hind quarters, muscular legs, and splendid 
feet. The legs are free from long hairs, this being one of the 
smooth-legged breeds. The Percheron foot is especially 
shapely, of fine texture and proper size. Good specimens of 


Fig. 15. Hautbois (74026), a splendid type, of Percheron stallion. First 
rize in 1911 at International Live Stock Exposition. Imported by McLaugh- 
in Bros. Photograph by the author. 


the Percheron have a very active gait and move off well 
with a load. We have no other draft breed in America 
that begins to have as many representatives as does this. 
Most of the draft horses seen in this country are largely of 
Percheron breeding. 


38 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The first French draft horses of importance brought to 
America came to Ohio in 1851. A horse named Louis 
Napoleon, that was later taken to Illinois, became famous for 
his fine colts. Since then, up to the present time, many 
draft horses have been brought from France to America, 
and especially to the states of the corn belt north of the Ohio 
River. Very high prices have been paid for these horses, 
and in 1909, one of them, Carnot, a noted prize winner in 


Fig. 16. Theresa (49283), a Percheron mare. Photograph by the author at 
how of Percheron Society of France, 1908. 

France and America, sold for $10,000. Many work horses 
with considerable Percheron blood have sold for from $400 
to $500. In 1900 such a work horse, weighing 1910 pounds, 
sold at auction in St. Louis for $730. A _ real high-class 
matched team of this kind, weighing around 3500 to 3600 
pounds, will bring a big price in the market. 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 39 


The Clydesdale horse is a breed that was developed 
in southwestern Scotland, where it has been known since 
about 1715. The Clydesdale is not quite so large as the 
largest draft breeds. It has certain features that perhaps are 
notable. To begin with the feet, they must be large, round, 
and wide behind at the heel, with a good, elastic frog. The 
bones of the legs should be hard and not round and meaty, 
but the arms and quarters must be heavily muscled. The 


Fig. 17. A Clydesdale horse at more Se ee in Scotland. Photograph by 
Scotchman thinks his horse has the best of feet and legs, 
and when either walking or trotting, that he has the best 
movement of any draft horse. Itisafact that many Clydesdale 
horses move with splendid action, and carry their feet with 
snap and trueness. This is a hairy-legged breed, with long 
hair on the back of both front and hind legs from the knee 
and the hock down. The body of the Clydesdale often lacks 


4() BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


massiveness, so that these horses appear shallow of body and 
long of leg. This is the principal criticism of this breed 
today. The shoulders usually slope well into the back, 
which accounts for the easy movement of this horse. The 
color is usually bay or brown, with white markings on the 
face and on the lower part of the legs. There are also chest- 
nut, black, and grays occasionally to be found. The height 
is about 16% hands for the matured males. Typical Clydes- 
dale mares weigh from 1600 to 1700 pounds, and the males 
two or three hundred pounds more. 

Clydesdales were first brought to America in 1842, bei 
taken to Canada, where they are quite common today. The 
breed has a wide distribution in the United States, though 
not in large numbers in any one state. Wherever the 
Scotch farmer has settled, we are likely to find these horses. 
The stallion Baron o’Buchlyvie in 1911 sold for $47,500. 

The Shire horse i$ an English breed of much the same 
general character as the Clydesdale. It has been bred for 
many years in England, and is as popular with the English- 
man as the Clydesdale is with the Scotchman. These horses 
differ in certain important respects, though they have the 
same color and markings, as a rule, and both have the hairy 
legs. The Shire is a somewhat larger and more massive 
breed than the Clydesdale, and has awider back and deeper, 
heavier body. For many years the Shire was considered 
very slow in movement, and lacked good action and quality. 
In recent years, English breeders have done much to improve 
them, and the criticisms of slow movement and coarseness 
are not as correct as they once were. The criticism due to 
_ the hairy legs is still made, and this breed, like the Clydesdale, 
is not at all common in America. These horses have been 
brought to America in small numbers since about 1836, 
when one was brought to Canada. Perhaps more of 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 41 


these horses are in Illinois and Iowa than in any of the other 
states. In 1910 a Shire stallion named Dan Pateh sold 
at Chicago for $10,000. 

The Belgian horse comes from one of the smallest coun- 
tries in Europe. Belgium has done much to improve the 


bs Sebi 


RES 
“3 Bee 


Fig. 18. Rosco V (12554), a yearling Shire horse, owned by Illinois University. 
Photograph by courtesy Prof. J. L. Edmonds. 


draft horse, and the Government has paid out large sums of 
money to develop the breed. The people take much interest in 
the work, and the draft horse shows of this breed alone at 
Brussels are among the very greatest exhibitions in Europe. 
Draft horses have been bred in Belgium a very long time, but 


42 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


they have been most improved since about 1850. The 
Belgian is a very compact, wide, deep, short-legged sort of 
draft horse. He has a small head, perhaps, for his size; has 
a broad chest; very wide, short back; a deep body; a rump 
which may be quite wide and muscular, yet somewhat steep; 
very heavily muscled, short legs; and medium-sized feet 
which have been criticised sometimes as being too small for 


Fig. 19. A Belgian mare. Photograph by courtsey A. Van Schelle 
of Belgium. 


such a heavy horse. The legs are free, from hair, like the 
Percheron. The Belgians show considerable activity when in 
motion, and are powerful draft animals for their weight, 
which ranges from 1600 to 2000 pounds, usually, according 
to sex. They stand about 16 hands high. In disposition 
these horses are very gentle and can be easily handled. Their 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 43 


color is usually bay, brown, chestnut, or roan. These horses 
were first brought to America in 1866. In recent years, a 
great many Belgians have been imported, and the breed has 
grown much in favor, being second in this regard, probably, 
tothe Percheron. It is getting quite afoothold in the Middle- 
western states. | 

The Shetland pony has its native home on the Shetland 
Islands, about 200 miles north of Scotland. These are very 
rocky islands, and produce but little feed for live stock. The 
climate is very cold and rough, and the winters are most 
severe. There are about 120 islands, and Mainland is the 
largest. These ponies 
have been bred here per- 
haps for centuries. They 
vary quite a good deal in 
type. The best sort of 
Shetland stands from 36 
to 42 inches high, and is 
a shaggy, drafty-looking 
little pony, especially in 
the winter. ‘These ponies Fig. 20. A Shetland Pony. First prize at 
should really Hoxie ture Glasgow. Photograph by the author. 
draft horses, with full chests, wide backs, long ribs, and 
long, wide, level rumps. The head should not be too fine, 
and should have a broad forehead, and a nice, open, clear 
eye, showing the pleasant disposition usual with ponies of 
this breed. There are different colors, but bay, brown, and 
black are most frequent. Shetland ponies are common all 
over eastern America, and are great favorites with children. 
They are very patient and are safe pets. In England, large 
numbers have been used in the coal mines to haul coal cars. 

The Ass is commonly referred to in America as the 
jack, this being the male, while the female is known as the 


44 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


jennet. This animal is descended from the wild ass of 
Africa and Asia. There are several breeds of the domestic . 
ass, most of which were introduced to America from Spain. 
During the Revolutionary War, George Washington was pre- 
sented with a male and female ass by the King of Spain. 
The jack usually stands about 15 hands high, and the 
jennets 144%. The hair is usually brown or black with 
a creamy shade around the muzzle or along the underside of 
the body. ‘The ass has long, large ears, rather a large head 


Fig. 21. A donkey and load of peat in Ireland. Photograph by the author. 


for the body, a short, stubby mane, a round but not very 
large body, rather large legs, and small feet. The tail is 
fine, with simply a brush at the end. This animal is slow 
of movement, very patient, and is a beast of burden 
used mostly among poor people of southern Europe and parts 
of Africa and Asia. In America it is but little used except- 
ing for breeding. 

The Mule is the offspring of an ass and mare. Mules 
differ much in size and value, and have features of both 


THE BREEDS OF HORSES 45 


parents. The head, mane, tail, and feet resemble those of 
the ass. The mules also bray like the ass. Mules show more 
fineness of bone and more activity than the ass, and are used 
entirely for draft purposes. Large, strong heavy mules are 
worth more money than the small ones. The best mules 


-resemble the high class draft horse in form. In the mule 
markets, these animals are classed according to their size 


and use, as plantation, lumber, railroad, mine, and levee 
mules. St. Louis is the largest mule market in America. 
The average price for mules is higher than that for horses. 
Mules are invaluable for draft purposes, and are commonly 
used all over the Southern states. They are more easily 
kept than horses, and possess more endurance and are 
always patient. 


QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 


1. What was the earliest form of the horse, and where was he found? 
2. Give some of the conditions that influenced the development of 


3. Why were Herod, Eclipse, and Matchem famous? 
4, What is the difference between a trotter and a pacer? 
5. Describe a Hackney horse and‘his gait. 
6. What conditions promoted the coach horse in France? 
7. Describe a modern Percheron. -° 
8. In what respect does the Scotchman think the Clydesdale a 
superior horse? 
9. How do the Clydesdale and Belgian differ in color? 
10. Tell of the Shetland Islands and their ponies. 
11. Describe the special features of the ass. 
12. What breeds of horses are found in your neighborhood? 
13. Learn, if possible, of the most important draft horse that has 
been known in your community. Why was he important? 
14. Learn of the breeding, if any, of the saddle horses in use in 
your neighborhood. 
15. Who owns the largest mule in your neighborhood? Can you 
give his height and weight? 


CHAPTER III 
THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 


The first early cattle of which we have any information 
existed in Europe in prehistoric times. The bones and skele- 
tons of two very different types of cattle have been found 
in Great Britain and parts of Europe. One of these was very 
much larger than the cattle of today, and has been ealled 
the Giant Ox. The other is much smaller and finer of bone. 
The skeletons of these two forms are quite similar to the 
cattle of our own time. Many bones of these animals have 
been found, and it is believed that even in the stone and the 
bronze age the people had cattle more or less domesticated. 
Pliny and the earliest historians refer to-swift and fierce wild 
bulls, called Uri, that were found in the forests and meadows 
of Germany and other parts of Europe at the beginning of 
the Christian era. The early Romans captured specimens 
of these wild bulls and took them to Rome and used them in 
their brutal festivities. 

Wild White Cattle have been known in England, Scot- 
land, and Wales since earliest historical times. These cattle 
lived in great parks. They had upright horns, were covered 
with shaggy hair, and were pure white in color, except the 
hair about the ears and muzzle, which was usually a dark 
red or black. A number of small herds of these cattle are 
kept today in Great Britain, one of which is at Chillingham 
Park in northeastern England. This herd numbers only 
60 or 70 animals, which run wild on an immense estate. 
They have never been tamed, but live by themselves back 
among the hills in the forests and meadows. It is believed 


gh? 
7 
ud 
- 
bats 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 47 


that these wild cattle are descended from the Giant Ox, and 
are the connecting link between the prehistoric form and 
our domesticated cattle of the present time. 

Shorthorn Cattle. This noted breed, commonly called 
Durham cattle years ago, originated in northeast England, 
in the counties of Durham and York. The river Tees flows 
through apretty valley, and for some distance isthe boundary 
line between these two counties. This region, many years 
ago, was called the Teeswater country, and the large cattle 


Fig. 22. A herd of Wild White Cattle at Vaynol Park, Wales. Photograph 
by the author. 


found here in northern Yorkshire were known as ‘‘ Teeswater 
Cattle.”” In southern Yorkshire, in what is called Holder- 


ness, was another kind of cattle having some things in com- 


mon with the Teeswater. Many of these were black. 


There were also red or red-and-white cattle in other sections 
not far from here. Some cattle of superior milking qualities 
were brought over from Holland, also, in the middle of the 
18th century. From these various sources came the Short- 
horn. In this section of England the grazing was fine; and 


48 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the city of Darlington, by the river Tees in Durham, became 
in time a great cattle market. 

The improvement of the Shorthorn began over a century 
ago. ‘Two brothers, Charles and Robert Colling, who lived 
on separate farms north of Darlington, did much to improve 
the native stock between 1775 and 1820. Some have called 
them the founders of the Shorthorn breed, though this is 
probably not correct. They developed their cattle so that 


Fig. 23. Ringmaster, champion Shorthorn bull at the International Live 
Stock Exposition, 1911. Owned by White and Smith of Minnesota. Photo- 
graph from The Farmer. 


they matured earlier, fed better, and had less waste at 


slaughter than the cattle with which they began. 

Thomas Bates lived in this same region, east of Darling- 
ton, and he bred a type of large, handsome cattle, noted for 
both beef and milk production. His cattle have been criti- 
cised for lack of vigor. He produced the Duchess, Waterloo, 
Wild Eyes, Oxford, and other families. Bates died in 1849. 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 49 


Thomas Booth, another great breeder, began to keep 
Shorthorns about 1780 on a farm southeast of Darlington, 
in Yorkshire. He had two sons, John and Richard, who 
also became famous breeders. Their cattle had thicker 
chests, were somewhat rougher in form, and perhaps better 
feeders than the Bates cattle, and became very popular. 
The Booths produced the Anna, Isabella, Bracelet, Moss 
Rose, and some other families. The Collings, Bates, and 


Fig. 24. Czarina 2nd. A thick fleshed type of Shorthorn cow. Owned by 
Chio State University. Photograph by F. H. Haskett. 


the Booths were famous as among the greatest improvers 


of Shorthorn cattle that have ever lived in England. 


Up in Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, where the winters are 


‘cold and rough, and the soil not the richest, lived a quiet 


man by the name of Amos Cruickshank. He developed what 
are known today as “‘Scotch Shorthorns.”’ 
for their early maturity, compact forms, strong constitutions, 
and fine killing qualities. Scotch cattle seemed to produce 


They are noted 


50 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


less milk than those bred by Bates, but were thicker fleshed, 
so that butchers liked them better. Cruickshank produced 
quite a number of the most popular families of today, among 
which the Violet, Venus, Orange Blossom, Brawith Bud, 
Spicy, and Lovely may be mentioned. Cruickshank died 
in 1895. He is regarded as the greatest breeder of Short- 
horns in the history of Scotland. 


Fig. 25. A Shorthorn steer owned by the Ohio State University. Photo- 
graph by the author. 


The distribution of Shorthorns is world-wide. It is the 
most common breed of English speaking countries, and more 
great improvers of live stock have been found among Short- 
horn breeders than any other one breed. So common is the 
Shorthorn, and so well is it suited to different conditions, 
that long ago it was nicknamed ‘‘The Universal Intruder.” 

The introduction of the Shorthorn to America occurred 
in 1783, when a few were imported into Virginia by Gough 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 51 


and Miller. These men imported still others about 1792. 
From this time on the Shorthorn continued to be brought to 
the American states long the Atlantic Coast. In 1834 a very 
important shipment came to Ohio, selected for the Ohio 
Importing Company. Since then many thousands of Short- 
horns have been imported, and are found distributed widely 
in North and South America. 

The Shorthorn characteristics are very distinct. The 
color is red, red-and-white, pure white, or a mingling of red 
and white forming what is called a roan. It is one of our 
largest breeds, and bulls 
at maturity should weigh 
around 2000 pounds, and 
the cows about 1400 
pounds. These cattle 
have white, waxy-colored 
horns of medium size. 
The heads are very shape- 
ly, and the muzzle is pre- 
ferably flesh color, dark 
noses not meeting with Fig.26. A good type of milking Shorthorn. 

Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 

approval. They should 

have broad backs, large bodies and unusually w ell dev eloped 
hind quarters. Shorthorns have been criticised for having 
plain shoulders and for being rather long of leg. In dispo- 
_ sition, the Shorthorn is unexcelled. This is the largest milk- 
producing breed of beef cattle, many cows yielding from 
6000 to 7000 pounds of milk. Rose of Glenside, in one 
year made over 18,000 pounds of milk, containing 735 
pounds of butter-fat,—a wonderful record. Shorthorn milk 
usually contains almost 4 per cent butter-fat, and is of 
standard quality. Cattle of this breed fatten well, and pro- 
duce a very high class beef. They are usually prominent 


52 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


at shows where cattle are exhibited. The future develop- 
ment of this breed will not be so great as in the past, per- 
haps, owing to the increased demand for special milk breeds; 
but from the beef standpoint, the Shorthorn may be expected 
to remain popular for a long time to come. 

The Hereford breed of cattle originated in the county of 
Hereford, in southwest England. There are many beauti- 


Fig. 27. Shadeland Leo, a Hereford bull owned by Purdue University. 
Photograph by the author. . 


ful meadows and grassy hills in this region. The cattle 
graze here the year round and are rarely kept under roof. 
We know but little of the origin of this breed. Cattle have 
thrived in this part of England for centuries. One noted 
English judge of live stock over a hundred years ago, gave 
the opinion that the Hereford might have been the first breed 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 53 


on the island. Some time before 1671, white faced cattle 
were brought from Holland to Hereford, and some think the 
Herefords get their white faces from these cattle. Late in 
the eighteenth century, the common color of the breed was 
red with a white face. As with the Shorthorn, a number of 
men became noted Hereford improvers and did much for 
these cattle. The Tomkins family is the most famous of 
early days. There was Benjamin the Elder, who died in 
1789, and Benjamin the Younger, who died in 1815. These 
men produced many famous animals and did much for the 


Fig. 28. An exhibitor’s herd of Herefords at the fair. Photograph by courtsey 
The Farmer. 


breed. William Galliers, John Price, and John Hewer 
also did much to improve the Hereford. John Hewer sought 
for more size, quality, and uniformity of color. He bred 
many famous animals during the middle of the last century. 
Herefords were first brought to America by that famous 
statesman, Henry Clay, of Kentucky. He took much 
interest in pure-bred live stock. Mr. W. H. Sotham, a 
native of Hereford, who emigrated to America in 1840, 
brought some of these cattle to Albany, New York. Mr. 


54 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Sotham did much to make the breed popular in this country 
during the middle of the nineteenth century. 

About 1875, men in Illinois, Indiana, and the West, who 
owned a great deal of land, became interested in the Here- 
ford. Since then these cattle have become very popular 
in the grazing sections of the West, and are found in large 
numbers beyond the Mississippi. The Hereford is a large 
breed, carrying as much size and weight as the Shorthorn. 
The color is its most striking feature, the head being white, 


Fig. 29. Black’s Ohio Champion, a grade Hereford steer, owned by 
Ohio State University. Photograph by the author. 


as is often also the top of the neck, the breast, brush of the 
tail, and legs below the knees and hocks, the rest of the body 
being red. They are often called ‘‘White Faces.” These 
cattle have wide backs, deep bodies, and short legs. ‘They 
have beautiful smooth shoulders, but the hind quarters are 
liable to be somewhat narrow, lacking the fullness of the 
Shorthorn. They are noted feeders, and have no superiors 
as grazers, thriving well with the least shelter and grain. In 
disposition they are rather nervous as compared with the 


es 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 55 


Shorthorn. They are inferior milkers, though producing a 
fair grade of milk.. The quality of “rustling,” as they say 
in the West, fine constitution, and ability to make early 
beef, has made the breed extremely popular in the far West. 
These cattle are also popular in South America and Aus- 


Fig. 30. Lucy’s Prince 46183, a famous prize-winning Aberdeen Angus bull 
and sire, owned by Bradfute & Son, of Ohio. Photograph by the author. 
tralia, on account of requiring but little attention on the 
range. In our fat-stock shows, Herefords have made good 

records, for they produce excellent beef and kill out well. 
The Aberdeen Angus is a Scotch breed of cattle that was 
first developed in and about the county of Aberdeen, in 


56 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


northeast Scotland. This section is about a thousand miles 
north of the latitude of Chicago. The winter climate of 
this region is rather severe, and the soil is not the best, though 
the grazing is good. Some think these animals are descended 
from the Wild White Cattle. It is a hornless breed. They 
first became celebrated through Hugh Watson, a tenant 
farmer at Keillor. He loved his cattle and studied carefully 
the improvement of his herd. As a result he produced more 
early maturing, heavier fleshed, and more compact cattle 
than had before been 
known in Scotland. He 
had a cow named “Old 
Grannie”’ that lived to be 
36 years old, and was the 
mother of 25 calves, a 
wonderful record for a cow 
of any breed. William 
McCombie was another 
famous breeder of Aber- 
deen Angus cattle. He 

Fig. 31. Foxy, 2nd prize Aberdeen Angus improved on the work of 
Shown by Ohio State University Povo. Watson, and his cattle 
ey, Sa became celebrated for the 
prizes they won in the shows of Scotland and France. Sir 
George McPherson Grant, who died in 1907, was the most 
noted breeder of recent days, and from his herd came some 
of the greatest cattle of the breed. 

The first Aberdeen Angus cattle were imported to Amer- 
ica in 1873, by George Grant, of Kansas. Later in the 
seventies a few head were taken to Canada, New York, 
Illinois and other states of the central West. It is only in 
rather recent years that these cattle have become popular 
in America. Aberdeen Angus are black in color, though 


= 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 57 


occasionally red will occur. They are inclined to be a trifle 
prominent in the shoulder, having only moderately wide 
backs, the loin not being so broad as that of the Shorthorn 
or Hereford. The hind quarters usually are rather round 
and full, though the tail-head may be a bit prominent. 
These cattle stand on short legs, and are very compact. 
They graze well, mature very early, fatten smoothly, produce 
meat of the choicest grade, and kill out with the least waste 
possible. In the fat-stock shows in recent years, no other 
breed has won so many grand championships. At our great 
International Live Stock 
Exposition at Chicago, 
the Aberdeen Angus has 
won a very large percent- 
age of the most important 
prizes where breeds com- 
peted against one another. 
In slaughter tests they 
have dressed out 72 per 
cent carcass to offal, 
which is a very high 
record. Some of the cows 
are good milkers and pro- 
duce an excellent grade of 
milk. In disposition, they are nervous and are more like the 
Hereford than Shorthorn. Aberdeen Angus cattle are not 
extensively bred east of the Mississippi, and do not seem to 
gain in popularity there, any more than does the Hereford. 
Iowa contains more important herds than any other state. 
The Galloway is a beef breed that originated in southwest 
Scotland in what is known as the Galloway country. Itisa 
hilly region, with plenty of grass, and has a somewhat cool 
and rather moist climate. These cattle have been bred 


Fig. 32. A Galloway steer. Photograph by 
the author. 


58 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


here for centuries. They are black, though other colors 
formerly occurred, are polled, have long, shaggy coats of 
hair, and are hardy and rather wild by nature. They are 
not quite as large nor so compact of body as the Aberdeen 
Angus, and do not fatten so easily. They produce a very 
high grade of beef, fine of grain and inclined to be free from 
extra fat, such as is often found in highly fed Shorthorns or 
Herefords. The Galloway is a breed that can endure severe 
winter conditions better than most others, on account of the 
protection of a thick hide and a long, thick, silky coat of 
hair. Very beautiful robes are made from Galloway hides 
with the winter coat of hair. This breed was first brought 
to America about 1850, or perhaps some years before. It is 
not popular and the herds are rather scattered, more being 
in the northwestern states and in Canada than elsewhere. 
The exhibit of the breed at the fat-stock shows and fairs is 
usually small compared with the Shorthorn, Hereford, and 
Aberdeen Angus. | 

The Jersey is strictly a dairy breed of cattle that origi- 
nated on the island of Jersey. There is a small group of what 
is known as the Channel Islands lying in the English Chan- 
nel, not far from the Normandy coast of France. Jersey 
contains about 40,000 acres, Guernsey about 12,000, and 
Alderney very much less. The climate here is quite mild 
and balmy much of the year. The cattle live out of doors 
_ during a very long season, each one grazing tethered by a 
chain and rope fastened to an iron pin in the ground. The 
herds are small, and these and potatoes are the chief sources 
of income on Jersey. There are perhaps 12,000 head on the 
island. 

Jersey cattle are supposed to have originated from stock 
in the neighboring districts of France. They have been kept 
pure of blood for much over a century. As early as 1763 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 59 


the people on the island adopted laws to regulate the impor- 
tation of cattle from France. For a very long time no for- 
eign cattle have been allowed to enter Jersey, except such as 
were butchered within 24 hours after landing. In 1833 
the people organized a society to improve the agriculture of 
the island, and the next year they drew up a scale of points 
for the bulls and cows. This was the first scale of points 
made for a breed of live stock. Since then it has been 


Fig. 33. Raleigh’s Fairy Boy 83767, an imported Jersey bull, champion 
of the breed at National Dairy Show and elsewhere, 1910. Owned by C. I. 
Hudson, of New York State. Photograph by the author. 


changed and improved a number of times. The people 
made notable progress in improving their cattle, and no 
doubt the competition of the show ring and the butter and 
milk tests which were established, inspired them to study 
to secure this improvement. 

The Jersey was first brought to America about 1850, 
Connecticut and Massachusetts men being the importers. 
Since then large numbers have been brought to this country, 


60 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


and have been widely distributed over the United States and 
Canada, so that now this is the most common dairy breed 
of cattle known. 

The Jersey is of medium size, though many seem small. 
Mature bulls should weigh around 1300 pounds, and the 
cows 850 pounds. ‘These cattle are rather lean and angular 
in form, having attractive heads, medium long necks, thin 
withers, prominent shoulders, fairly deep bodies, and thin, 
narrow hind quarters. The thighs should be thin enough 
and the hocks stand far enough apart to provide room for a 
good sized udder on mature cows. The modern so-called 
island type of Jersey has a beautiful udder, well developed 
in front, with the teats well placed. Many Jerseys of Ameri- 
can breeding have poor front udders, and they are criticised 
for having small and poorly placed teats. The color is 
fawn, but of various shades, some being the color of the deer; 
others very dark and some much lighter yellow. White 
occurs, though it is not popular, and but few animals have 
white markings. The most striking features in the appear- 
ance of the Jersey are the color; the wedge form; the short, 
dished face; the prominent, beautiful eye; the fine bone, and 
the deer-like character of the calves. The disposition of the 
cows is very good, but the bulls at maturity are liable to be 
nervous and are often cross. Jerseys mature very young, 
compared with other breeds. 

The Jerseys have always been noted for their milk, which 
is rich in butter-fat, and is usually yellow in color. The 
skin of these cattle show something of this rich yellow color, 
especially in the small, wax-colored horns, in the ears, and 
about the udder. The Jersey produces a fair amount of 
milk, and many cows have made over 5000 pounds a year 
each. Quite a number have produced over 10,000 pounds, 
and Jacoba Irene produced over 17,000 pounds in a year. 


i 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 61 


Jersey milk usually contains 414% to 5 per cent of fat, and 
makes a high grade of butter. Many cows have produced 
enough milk in a week to yield 14 or more pounds of butter. 
A number have records of over 20 pounds in a week. Many 
Jerseys have produced enough milk within a year to yield 
500 pounds of butter, and some have even exceeded this. 


Fig. 34. Golden Sultana, a very beautiful Jersey cow, imported by T. 8. 
Cooper & Sons. Photograph by the author. 


In one year Jacoba Irene made 953 pounds of milk fat, which 
is a wonderful record. Jerseys are commonin the more 
thickly populated states, and are great favorites at the fairs. 
In the breed tests of dairy cattle held at the great exposi- 
tions, the Jerseys have usually ranked at the top, especially 
at Chicago in 1893, and at St. Louis in 1904. Cattle of this 
breed have brought very high prices. In 1911, the bull 


62 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Noble of Oaklands sold for $15,000, and the cow Lady Viola 
for $7,500, the highest prices for a male and female of this 
breed. 

The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle came originally 
from Holland. Here the people have kept dairy cows for 
centuries. The country is very low, much of it lying below 
sea level, the water being held back by dykes. There are 
many meadows that are separated by canals. On long, 
narrow strips of pasture, with water on each side, one sees 
beautiful herds of black and white cattle, a most common 
summer sight in Holland. We do not know the origin of 
these cattle. They are perhaps descended from the Giant 
Ox. The present cattle are usually black and white, though 
red and white rarely occur. Cattle were brought to America 
from Holland by the early Dutch settlers of New York and 
vicinity. In 1795 the Holland Land Company sent some 
cattle to central New York. Later on, Dutch cattle were 
taken to Vermont and other Eastern states. Along in the 
middle and later part of the last century many were imported 
into America. This is our largest breed of dairy cattle, and 
mature bulls often weigh from 2000 to 2500 pounds, and 
cows from 1200 to 1500 pounds or more. 

The most striking features of the Holstein-Friesian are 
the large size, the black-and-white spotted color, and the big 
udders of many of the cows. The heads incline to be a trifle 
long and narrow, the horns seem small for such a large breed, 
the body is capacious, the rump is long and frequently steep, 
and the thighs are large and in many cases tend to besome- 
what thick and beefy. The udder is a notable feature of the 
cows, some being immense in size and capacity. Several 
cows have produced over 100 pounds of milk each in a day, 
and yearly records up to even more than 25,000 pounds of 
milk are established. The milk contains usually a small per 


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THE BREED 


64 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


cent of fat, 3 per cent being common, and 4 per cent unusual. 
The breeders are now endeavoring to produce cows that 
yield a milk richer in fat, and with considerable success. 
On account of the large amount of milk produced, the 
butter-fat even in a day, may amount to a very impor- 
tant total. The cow, Banostine Belle DeKol, produced 
27,400 pounds of milk in a year, containing 1058 pounds of 


Fig. 36. Pietertje Maid Ormsby 78051, a Holstein-Friesian cow that pro- 
Hicad: 145 % lbs. butter-fat in 30 days, a world’s record. Owned by J. B. Irwin, 
of Minnesota. Photograph from the owner. 


butter-fat, a world’s record. A very large number of Hol- 
stein-Friesian cattle are registered in the Advanced Registry 
(A. R. O.) of the Holstein-Friesian Association of North 
America, for having produced at least a certain amount of 
milk or butter-fat within a definite period under the super- 
intendence of a representative of an experiment station or 
agricultural college. This breed is widely distributed in 
America, though it is best known in the more thickly settled 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 65 


Eastern states and in the Middle West and Northwest, and 
is constantly growing in favor. The great feeding and pro- 
ducing capacity of the cows and their quiet disposition 
have added much to their popularity. The bulls are like 
all dairy bulls, and tend to be nervous and often mean in 
disposition. There are three recognized types of this breed, 
—(a) the thin-fleshed, wedge-shaped type; (b) those 
that carry somewhat more flesh; and (c) those that are rather 


Fig. 37. Jewel of Home Farm. A Holstein-Friesian bull, famous as a prize 
winner, owned by W. B. Barney, of Iowa. Photograph by the author. 


broad over the withers and thick in the quarters, and show 
more beefiness than dairy cattle men usually admire. Many 
people approve the medium between the two extremes, if 
the cow is a satisfactoryeproducer of milk. A bull of beefy 
form, with a thick pair of thighs, is not to be commended. 
Holstein-Friesian cattle mature somewhat slowly as com- 
pared with the Jersey. 


66 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Guernsey cattle originated on the island of Guernsey, 
another of the Channel Islands, and come from much the 
same ancestry as.the Jersey. The people of Guernsey 
adopted plans of keeping out foreign cattle similar to those 
of Jersey. However, the earlier Guernsey cattle show less 
careful breeding, and as a whole, have not been selected and 
improved as much as those on Jersey. (Guernsey is a tri- 
angular, hilly island, of about 12,000 acres in area, and 
supports a population of perhaps 40,000 people. The cli- 
mate is balmy and healthful. The people make a specialty 
of flowers, vegetables, and cattle. The island of Alderney is 
officially a part of Guernsey, and the cattle on this island are 
the same as the Guernseys, being so considered by Guernsey 
and by American breeders. In early days, though not at 
present, all the cattle from the Channel Islands in England 
and America were called Alderneys. 

Guernsey cattle resemble Jerseys, but are somewhat larger 
and are usually yellowish or reddish fawn in color. White 
spots are very common. As with the Jerseys, a very light 
creamy ring of hair is found about the muzzle, and a similar 
or light shade of fawn occurs around the eyes. A flesh- 
colored muzzle is preferred by breeders, a dark one not 
meeting with approval. Mature bulls weigh about 1500 
pounds, and cows 1050 pounds or so. Guernseys are usually 
of a quiet disposition, and the bulls are perhaps less nervous 
than are Jersey males. They are often rather plain of head 
and rough of shoulder and appear coarser than the Jersey. 
They are noted for the yellow color of the skin and secretions, 
the milk being especially high in color. CGuernsey breeders 
rarely color their butter, depending on its natural color. 
The cows give a high-class milk, which often tests above 
5 per cent fat. Of the common dairy breeds, this and the 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 67 


Jersey yield the richest milk, the advantage, if any, being 
with the Guernsey. | 

The American Guernsey Cattle Club was the first breed 
association to establish what are known as official tests for 
milk and butter production, conducted by disinterested 
experiment station or agricultural college employees. Since 
the Club began this work, the Guernsey has made a remark- 
able showing. Some of the largest butter-fat records made 


Fig. 38. Spottswood Daisy Pearl 17696, the champion Guernsey 
cow, with record of 957 pounds of butter-fat in one year. Owned by O. C. 
Barber, of Ohio. Photograph from the owner 


by cows of any breed have come from the Guernsey. Dolly 
Dimple produced over 18,000 pounds of milk in a year, 
containing 907 pounds of fat; and Spottswood Daisy Pearl 
finished a year’s record in January, 1912, of 957 pounds of 
butter-fat. For the number of Guernseys in America, an 
unusually fine showing has been made in official tests. 
Guernseys were first brought to this country about 1850, 
and were established in the vicinity of Philadelphia and New 


68 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


York. Even now the breed is of somewhat limited distri- 
bution, being found largely in the Eastern states. There are 
many herds in Wisconsin, and some important ones are in 
Iowa, Illinois, and Ohio. These cattle have never secured 
a strong foothold in the South, where Jerseys are very 
common. ‘There are many fine Guernsey herds in Eng- 
land, where the breed has made an excellent record. 


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tng Sipe Se toy, en 
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Fig. 39. Bargenoch Bonnie Scotland, an Ayrshire bull, owned by John Sherwin, 
Cleveland, O. Photograph by the author. 


The Ayrshire is a Scotch breed that originated in the 
region Robert Burns has made famous, the county of Ayr 
in southwest Scotland. It has rather a cold, damp climate 
in winter, but there is good grazing in summer. Except 
near the sea, the country is more or less hilly. The Ayrshire 
is a dairy breed, and one of the youngest of the prominent 
breeds. Cattle were taken to the Ayrshire country from 
various places, for Shorthorns, Highland, Dutch, Guernsey, 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 69 


Devon, and Hereford cattle are said to have been owned 
by the farmers of that region. From the mingling of color 
of these breeds we get the red, brown, and white markings 
that are features of the Ayrshire. At the beginning of the 
nineteenth century there were cows in southwest Scotland 
that were famous milkers, and by offering prizes for compe- 
tition, the Scotch people 
have still more encour- 
aged large milk produc- 
tion. The mature Ayr- 
shire bull weighs about 
1500 and the cows nearly 
1100 pounds. While a 
true dairy breed, the Ayr- 
shire inclines to be a trifle 
fleshy, with more thick- 
ness over the _ withers, 
along the back, and about 
the thighs, than have the 
Jersey or Guernsey. Some 
of the bulls are quite too 
beefy for the best dairy 
form, and these cattle fat- 
ten the best of any dairy 
breed. 


a Fig. 40. A fine example of breed char- 
Very striking features acter as seen in an Ayrshire head. Photo- 


graph from Mr. C. M Winslow. 


of the Ayrshire are the 
head, with its rather long, large, and erect horns, the red and 
white, or brown and white color, with white most abundant, 
the capacious body, and beautiful udder. No other breed of 
dairy cows has such a uniformly well-developed udder as 
the Ayrshire, the forepart being much extended, and the 
rear udder carried well up behind. At a big show these dairy 


70 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


cattle, without exception, make the most uniform and 


attractive exhibit of all breeds. The milk is of a good, - 


standard quality, testing usually from 31% to 4 per cent fat. 
It makes excellent cheese, and most of the famous cheddar 
cheese of Scotland is made of Ayrshire milk. 

Ayrshires have not been extensively tested in America, 
but cows easily produce 6000 to 7000 pounds of milk a year. 
The cow Netherhall Brownie 9th, in 365 days ending in 1911, 
made over 18,000 pounds of milk, which contained 821 
pounds of butter-fat. This is the best record for a cow of the 
breed. Ayrshires are not common in America, except in 
Canada and the northeastern United States. A few herds 
are found here and there in the Western states, as far as the 
Pacific slope. Cattle of this breed are well distributed in 
northern Europe, in South Africa and Australia. Ayrshires 
are hardy and do well in the cooler sections of the world 
where the winters are long. They were first imported into 
America probably in 1822, and have been brought here in a 
modest way at various periods ever since. They do not 
bring as high prices, as a rule, as Jerseys, Guernseys, or Hol- 
stein-Friesians. 

Less common breeds of cattle found in America are the 
Devon, Red Polled, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted, Kerry, 
Dexter, and French Canadian. The following are some of 
their more important characteristics: 

The Devon is red in color, and originated in Devon, 
southwest England. It is a breed that is found to be either 
beefy, or dual-purpose in form. It is a very old breed, and 
was brought to America by the early settlers of this country. 
Devons are not popular, and but few herds exist. It has 
lost ground in this country while other breeds have gained. 

The Red Polled, as its name shows, is red, and without 


horns. The breed originated in Suffolk and Norfolk coun- 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 71 


ties in eastern England. Red mulley cattle have been known 
in America since the early settlement of the country, but the 
first importation of the breed recorded was in 1873. These 
cattle are considered good for both beef and milk produc- 
tion. The cows make a very good grade of milk, but as a 
rule are not heavy producers, although some excellent milk 
records have been made. Red Polled cattle are most com- 
mon in the Middle-western states. 


Fig.41. McAlpine, a Brown Swiss cow, first in class at Illinois State Fair. 
Owned by Mr. E. M. Barton, of Illinois. Photograph by the author. 


Brown Swiss cattle originated in Switzerland. In color 
they are usually a dark brown, with lighter or cream-colored 
hair about the muzzle and along the top of the back. They 
incline to be heavy of head and neck, and coarse-boned; are 
likely to be somewhat fleshy, and often have rather meaty 
thighs. The*cows produce a very good grade of milk. While 
they often impress one as dual-purpose cattle, the association 
promoting them has officially declared the Brown Swiss to 


72 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


be a dairy breed. These cattle are not popular in America, 
and but few herds are found in any part of the country, these 
being mostly confined to New York and the Middle West. 

The Dutch Belted breed of cattle was developed in Hol- 
land. It is of the dairy type, and is noted for its black color, 
marked off by a white stripe or blanket of varying width 
which extends entirely around the body between the hips 
and shoulders. It has not made much of a reputation for 
milk or butter-fat production, and so far as public evidence 
oes, it is one of the poorest dairy breeds. There are very 
few herds in America, and they attract more attention from 
their peculiar markings than for actual merit. 

The Kerry is an Irish breed that has long been bred in 
Ireland. It is black in color, though white sometimes occurs 
about the udder of the cow. It is of small size, and will 
exist where most breeds would starve, hence is the poor man’s 
cow of Ireland. It is strictly a dairy type, and produces an 
excellent milk, testing about 4 per cent fat. Some of the 
cows give a large yield of milk, considering their size. There 
are but few Kerries in America. They are just beginning 
to attract attention as economical milk producers. 

The Dexter is another Irish breed, of uncertain ancestry 
but closely related to the Kerry. ‘These cattle may be black 
or red in color, and are the smallest breed found in America. 
Many of the mature bulls and cows stand only 36 to 40 inches 
high. The cows often produce excellent yields of milk, 
testing above 4 per cent fat. Cases are on record of cows of 
this breed, weighing around 500 pounds, that have produced 
in a year over 8000 pounds of milk. These diminutive cattle 
may never be popular for general dairying in America, but 
they will grow in favor for family use. | 

The French Canadian is a breed that has had special 
development for 200 years or so in Quebec, Canada. These 


THE BREEDS OF CATTLE 7 


cattle are black or very dark fawn in color, and probably had 
their origin in France, from the same source as the Channel 
Island cattle. This is one of the small breeds, the mature 
cow weighing about 700 pounds. French Canadian milk 
tests slightly above 4 per cent in fat. Some large milk 
records are reported from Canada, but the specimens of the 
breed to be found in the United States do not seem to be 
important producers. It is regarded as a very hardy breed. 
There are few herds in the United States, these being located 
in the northeastern portion, though especially in New York. 


IF YOU WERE ASKED THE QUESTION, COULD YOU TELL 


1. About the Wild White Cattle? 
2. Who Bates and Cruickshank were, and what they did? 
3. The characteristics of Shorthorns? 
4. When Herefords were first brought to America and by whom? 
5. Who ‘Old Grannie”’ was? 
6. How Aberdeen Angus cattle rank for beef? 
7. About Jersey and the other Channel Islands? 
8. How a Jersey cow should be described? 
9. Who Jacoba Irene was? 
10. How Holsteins rank as milkers? 
11. Where Guernsey cattle are most common in America? 
12. The characteristics of the Ayrshire? 
13. Who keeps pure-bred cattle in your neighborhood, the breeds 
owned, and which is the most popular? 
14..The name of any noted bull or cow in your state, and why 
celebrated? 
15. The best milk or butter record of a cow in your township? 
16. Whose cows make the best showing at the creamery? 
17. What kind of cattle are kept at the county infirmary, or poor 
farm? 


CHAPTER IV 
THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 


The origin of the domestic sheep is generally believed to 
be from several kinds of wild sheep found in different parts 
of the world. One of these is found in the hilly or mountain- 
ous parts of Asia, and is known as the Argali. It is much 
larger than our domestic sheep, has big horns, and a coat of 
black or dark-red hair, below which is a covering of white 
wool. Another form, called the Musmon, is found in the 
more mountainous parts of Greece and adjacent sections of 
Europe. Rocky Mountain Sheep are another sort living 
on the higher mountains of North America. Wild sheep 
have always been found in the elevated parts of Africa and 
eastern Asia. All of these sheep have certain features in 
common. ’ 

Just how long the sheep have been subject to the control 
of man we do not know. Neither have we any information 
as to the wild family from which the domestic form has come. 
Scientific men have had different views on this subject. 
Bones of sheep have been found among the remains of the 
lake dwellers of Switzerland, a people who lived before the 
dawn of history. The very earliest writings, including the 
Bible, show man to have had large flocks of domestic sheep, 
and to have valued highly both wool and meat. 

Three distinct classes or groups of sheep may be ae 
depending largely upon the character of the fleece. These 
are fine or short, medium, and long or coarse wools. These 
classes are somewhat due to the sorting over of the fleeces 
by the wool merchant, who finds that each class serves a 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 75 


special purpose in his business. Another grouping is also 


sometimes made, consisting of the fine-wool, or Merino 
class, and the mutton breeds. However, this last arrange- 
ment is more commonly referred to by shepherds than by 
wool dealers. There are many different breeds of sheep, 
some of which are but little known in America, and the fol- 
lowing are the only ones of importance in this country. 

The Merino is a very old breed that had its important 
early development in Spain. Here for centuries the Monks 


and wealthy people owned large flocks that were noted for 


their very fine wool. As long ago as the first century, the 
sheep of Spain were famous, and 700 years ago the manu- 
facture of wool into beautiful cloth was a great industry 
in that country. When the people of the other European 
countries learned of the fine wool that was produced there, 
they sent to Spain and obtained some of the Spanish sheep. 
Specially selected flocks were taken to Germany and France 
in the latter part of the eighteenth century. 

The first Merinos were brought to the United States 
in 1793. Three head were smuggled out of Spain by William 
Foster of Boston. He gave them to a friend, who killed them 


-for meat, not knowing how valuable they were, until 


he later paid $1000 for a ram of the same breed. Seth 
Adams of Massachusetts, later of Ohio, imported a pair 
in 1801, and in 1802 Colonel Humphreys of Connecticut 
brought to America nearly 100 head. These Humphrey 
sheep proved very valuable, and from them some of the best 
flocks in America started. Much interest followed these two 
importations. Soon other people began to import Merinos 
into the United States, and very high prices were paid for 
them. During 18 months ending in 1811, nearly 20,000 
of these sheep were brought to this country. The people 
became almost crazy over Merinos, and paid very high 


76 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


prices, some selling for as high as $1500 each. As our 
country developed, the Merino became widely distributed 
and but few of any other kind were kept for many years. 
During this time our people cared but little for mutton, but 
high prices were paid for wool, for which the Merino was 
especially valued. These sheep grew greatly in popularity 
in all wool-producing countries, so that even today there are 
more sheep of this breed than any other, for immense flocks 


Fig. 42. 


A Merino ram owned by S. M. Cleaver, of Ohio. Photo- 
graph by the author. 


are found in Australia, South America, and over much of 
the United States. However, the production of wool is 
growing less profitable, so that shepherds are gradually 
changing to the mutton breeds, or are giving up their 
flocks altogether. 

A number of different Merino families have been devel- 
oped in America. They all had their origin in the sheep of 
Spanish breeding, but in the hands of certain men, each 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 77 


gradually developed special features. In this way families 
of Merinos were established. For a great many years all 
sheep that had heavy folds over the body were known as 
Spanish Merinos. Later the people came to refer to sheep 
of this class that had been produced in America, as American 
_Merinos. In time, a larger sheep, with few folds or none, 

developed, that produced a longer and somewhat coarser 
grade of wool especially suited for certain cloth manufacture. 
These became known as Delaine Merinos. These sheep also 
produced a good grade of mutton. Among the Delaines are 
some family branches of interest, though not widely bred, as 
for example, the Dickinson and the Blacktop. Most of 
the Delaine improvement of importance took place in western 
Pennsylvania and in Ohio. 

Some of the most important features of the Merino may 
be considered here. These sheep produce the finest wool 
known. It is so fine that over 1000 fibers may be laid side 
by side within an inch space. The fleece covers the entire 
body, often coming down over the face to the nostrils, and 
covering the legs even to the toes. If the sheep has folds 
or wrinkles over the body, we expect to get the finest and 
_ shortest wool. The less folds over the body, as a rule, the 
larger the sheep and the longer and coarser the fleece. Aver- 
age Merino wool is about 21% inches long. 

On the outside of the fleece we usually find more or less 
grease or oil, or yolk, as it is called, mixed with dirt, most of 
which easily washes out, even in cold water. The cloth 
manufacturer removes this by scouring. Some fleeces in 
this operation lose 75 per cent of their weight. Wool 
buyers do not like a very heavy amount of oil, on account 
of this shrinkage when the wool is scoured. A common 
weight for a fleece is eight or ten pounds, but some have 
weighed over 40 pounds when taken from the sheep. Rams 


78 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


weigh at maturity 130 pounds or more, and the ewes around 
100 pounds. Those with folds weigh the least, while the 
smooth-bodied ones are larger. Merino sheep are very hardy 
and thrive on ordinary pasture. They run together in flocks 
much better than any other breed, and so are easily managed 
by shepherds and dogs when on great ranges or pastures. 
Large numbers of sheep that have Merino blood in them 
come into the markets, but really are of mutton parentage. 
They make excellent mutton, and are liked by butchers 
because they are neither too large nor too fat. More pure- 
bred flocks are found today in Ohio than in any other state, 
although New York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan have 
flocks also. West of the Mississippi there are large numbers 
of these sheep on the range. 

The Rambouillet sheep is a breed of Merinos that has 
been especially developed by the French Government. In 
1786 King Louis XVI of France sent a man to Spain to bring 
back a selection of Merinos. These were brought to one 
of the royal farms about 40 miles west of Paris, at a town 
named Rambouillet. Here on this estate the government 
has bred the descendants of these sheep for 125 years. ‘They 
were introduced into America in 1840, and for many years 
were known as French Merinos. About 1890 the name 
Rambouillet came into use, and now the term French Merino 
is rarely used. ‘These sheep have all the common features 
of the smooth-bodied Merino. However, it is the very 
largest family of this breed, and has been at times called 
the ‘Elephant Merino.” The ram weighs about 185 
pounds at maturity, though some have weighed 250 pounds, 
and the ewes weigh around 150 pounds. This family is 
known as a mutton Merino, and a mutton form is an impor- 
tant feature. Thus one may expect a broad back and a 
thick leg of mutton in a good specimen of the Rambouillet. 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 79 


One or two folds or more are not considered objectionable 
when found about the neck and breast, but the body should 
be smooth. The fleece of 12 months’ growth should be 
about three inches long, and compact over the body, with 
but little oil or dirt on the outside. Well-bred Rambouillet 
flocks shear about 10 or 12 pounds of wool per head. These 
sheep have grown in popularity in recent years, for they 
mature early, are hardy, and seem well suited to most parts 
of the United States where sheep husbandry thrives. On 
the Western range, and on the Pacific slope are found some 
of the very best and largest flocks in America. Many choice 
flocks are also owned in 
Ohio. Rambouillet sheep 
have been bred to a con- 
siderable extent in north- 
ern Germany, and very 
large numbers are now 
found in the Argentine, in 
South America. 

The Southdown is one 
of the oldest breeds of 

B Fig. 43. A Rambouillet ram lamb, bred 

sheep. Its native home by Tlinois University. Photograph from 
is on the Southdown hills 7" “°° ©°"* 
in Sussex county in southeast England. ‘These hills are of 
white chalk, and are covered with soil on which grass and 
the small grains do very well. About 1775 a man named 
John Ellman, who lived in Sussex, began to improve the 
native sheep and kept at this work for over 50 years. 
Through his efforts the Southdown developed into the 
best mutton sheep known, having splendid vigor, fatten- 
ing easily, maturing rapidly, and producing a carcass 
with but little waste at slaughter. While the fleece was 
not heavy, its quality was fine. Following Mr. Ellman 


SO BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


came Jonas Webb, who lived north of London, at Babra- 
ham, near the city of Cambridge. He was also one of 
the greatest English breeders. His Southdowns had more 
size and were a still better mutton sheep than were 
Ellman’s. As a mutton sheep, the Southdown has occupied 
a most important place for a century or more, being still 
considered the model sheep for that purpose. It has been 
used to help improve more breeds than has any other. 
Southdowns were first imported into America about 1800, 
and since then many others have been brought here. 

The Southdown has been noted for its short, neat head, 
which is more or less covered with wool down over the red- - 
dish-brown face. It has a short, thick neck, broad chest, 
wide back, thick meaty leg of mutton, and short red-brown 
legs. No other breed matures earlier, and it is not lacking 
in hardiness. Southdowns are well suited to grazing on the 
better class of pastures, but are not so good for the range and 
poor pastures as are some others. The flesh is very fine of 
grain and is not inclined to be overfat. Butchers especially 
admire this sheep because it kills out so well, with small 
amount of loss. The Southdown, or sheep with more or 
less of Southdown blood,‘have won more prizes in fat-stock 
shows where the carcasses were considered, than has any 
other breed. At our great International Live Stock Ex- 
position, the Southdown has usually won the grand-cham- 
pionship on the dressed carcass exhibit. Mature rams weigh 
about 175 pounds, and the ewes 135 pounds. These sheep have 
been criticised as being too small for the American farmer. 
The average fleece is short and light of weight, though of fine 
quality, and this has also made the breed generally unpopu- 
lar in America, although it is looked upon with more favor 
in the Southern states. In spite of these criticisms, the 


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81 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 


82 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


breed commands universal respect, and flocks of South- 
downs are found all over the civilized world. 

The Shropshire sheep originated from a number of dif- 
ferent types native in and about the county of that name in 
western England. This is a rather hilly region, with many 
fine pastures, and is well suited to these animals. A num- 
ber of different men were interested in the improvement of 


Fig. 45. A group of Shropshire sheep on farm of H. M. Brown, of Ohio. 
hotograph from W. E. Duckwall. 


the Shropshire, prominent among whom were Messrs. Meire 
and Adney. Some of the early sheep were very coarse and 
had horns, and Mr. Meire worked to improve the quality, 
to get rid of the horns, and to develop a better mutton sheep. 
In this he succeeded. Shropshires became somewhat — 
prominent in England about 1853, when they were first 
exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Society Show. About 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 83 


1880 much attention was given the breed, and large exhibi- 
tions were made at English shows. These sheep were first 
imported into America in 1860, by Samuel Sutton, of Mary- 
‘land. Twenty years later they were imported in larger 
numbers, and since then thousands have been brought to 
the United States, where this is the most popular of all the 
mutton breeds. In size the Shropshire is medium, the 
mature rams weighing about 225 pounds and the ewes about 
160 pounds. The head often has a covering of wool, or 
‘cap,’ down to the nose, which is covered with dark brown 
or nearly black hair. The back is broad, the leg of mutton 
very good, and the body is usually deep, showing good feed- 
ing capacity. ‘The legs are dark brown in color like the face, 
and are covered with wool to the knees in front and to the 
ankles behind. The quality of mutton is most excellent, being 
second to the Southdown only. The fleece is usually about 
34% inches long, and is of very good quality. A twelve 
months’ growth from fair specimens of the breed weighs about 
9 or 10 pounds. The combination of good size of body and 
weight of fleece has done much to make this breed popular 
with American farmers, as a great general-purpose sheep. 
Besides this, Shropshires are the most prolific breed we have, 
many ewes having twin lambs. Flocks are very common 
all over the so-called corn belt of the United States, espe- 
cially east of the Mississippi and in Canada. The American 
Shropshire Sheep Association is the largest organization of 
its kind in the world, and has done much to promote the 
breed. 

The Oxford Down sheep comes from the county of Oxford, 
in south-central England. It is a beautiful rolling country, 
with good pastures, and where wheat and small grains thrive. 
This is one of our youngest breeds of sheep, and comes from 
a combination of Cotswold and Hampshire blood. About 


84 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


1833 a man named Druce began to breed these sheep, and 
finally produced one of the largest English mutton breeds. 
For a long time the wool, though abundant, was rather 
inferior, but the size and the mutton quality of the sheep 
made it popular. A few of these sheep were brought to 
Delaware in 1846, and since then the breed has been much 
improved and has been gaining in popularity in America. 
As already stated, it is a large breed, the rams at maturity 


Fig. 46. A group of Oxford Down sheep on the farm of George Adams, 
England. Notice the style of hurdles used for temporary fencing. Photo- 
graph by the author. 


often weighing 275 pounds or more, and the ewes about 200 
pounds. The color of the hair on the face, ears, and legs is 
a very dark brown, quite like the Shropshire. Oxfords are 
not so heavily wooled over the head, and often the face is 
rather free of wool, and the ears incline to be rather smooth 
and large. Typical specimens have quite wide backs, fairly 
good legs of mutton, and deep bodies. During recent 
years the breed has been much improved, the flesh growing 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 85 


finer in quality, and the fat being laid on more smoothly. 
The fleece, which frequently weighs 12 pounds, is longer, 
more open, and coarser, than that of the Shropshire. This is 
a breed that has made a favorable impression on farmers in 
the states of the Middle West, where fairly early maturity, 
size, and heavy fleece are wanted. The ewes are quite 
prolific, and though not equalling the Shropshires, make a 
very good showing. The Oxford may be regarded as one 
of the most promising breeds for future development. 
Recently flocks have been extensively distributed to many 
sheep-growing countries. There are more of these sheep 
in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
and Wisconsin than else- 
where in America. 

The Hampshire Down 
sheep, like the Southdown 
and Oxford Down breeds, 
originated in southern 
England and under much | 
the same conditions of cli- | 
mate and soil. ‘Their 
ancestors were of two Fig. 47. A Hampshire ram, grand- 
kinds, one with white faces 1904.” Photograph from Chilmark’ Farms, 
and horns, and the other a a 
with dark faces and horns. Southdown blood was mingled 
with these two, from which came the more improved 
Hampshire, without horns and with an almost black 
face, ears, and legs. A man named Humphrey was 
the most important early improver of these sheep, and later, 
James Rawlence did much for them. The Hampshire is one 
of the largest breeds, mature rams often weighing 250 pounds, 
and ewes nearly 200 pounds. The head is one of the strik- 
ing features of the breed. The nostrils, lips, and face are 


86 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


quite black; the nose is very strong, or Roman in character; 
and the ears are dark, very large, and incline forward in a 
heavy style. Wool rarely extends much beyond the fore- 
head. The body is large, and the form is of the usual mut- 
ton type. Hampshire sheep often seem somewhat coarse of 
bone and large of limb. The fleece is about 4 inches long, 
inclines to be coarse and open, and usually does not shear 
much above 7 pounds with 12 months’ growth. Hampshires 
have long been popular for early or spring lambs, which are 
considered of excellent quality. The breed is undoubtedly 
erowing in favor, and during the past few years large importa- 
tions have been brought to the United States. .In the more 
fertile sections where feed is abundant, the Hampshire 
makes an excellent showing, as it does in its native home in 
England. The breed is widely distributed in North and 
South America, in Europe and Australia. In the United 
States, the important flocks are kept mostly in the Northern 
states east of the Mississippi. 

The Dorset Horn sheep receives its name from the 
county of Dorset, in southern England, where it has long 
been bred. It is an improved form of two native, horned, . 
white-faced breeds found in Dorset and Somerset counties. 
The modern Dorset Horn belongs to the middle-wool class, 
and is of medium to large size, rams weighing about 225 
pounds and ewes 165. Both sexes have horns, those of the 
ram at maturity being large and having spiral turns, while 
those of the ewes are small, and bend in a simple curve 
around toward the face. The head, ears, and legs have a 
covering of white hair, and the nostrils are of flesh color. 
The neck is often short, the back wide, and the body of large ~ 
capacity, with a fair leg of mutton. Dorsets are popular 
as lambs, and for mutton, although the quality of the mutton 
is not of the best. The lambs feed well and lay on flesh 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 


ral 
~J 


rapidly. As wool producers, this is a breed that should do 
better... The fleece tends to be short and the weight light, 
ranging around 6 pounds for average animals. These sheep 
were first brought to America in 1885, and while there are 


_Fig. 48. A pen of Horned Dorset ewes, champions at the show of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England. Photograph from the National Stockman 
and Farmer. 


numerous flocks in the Eastern states, the breed can hardly 
be called popular as yet. 

The Cheviot sheep comes from the Cheviot Hills in the 
border country between England and Scotland. Here the 
land rises into high grass-topped mountains nearly 4000 


88 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


feet above the sea. Grass is the universal crop, and here 
this breed of sheep has been raised for long beyond a cen- 
tury, and gradually improved during the passing years. 
Today the Cheviot is a medium-wool, fair-sized sheep, the 
rams weighing around 200 pounds at maturity, and the 
ewes 150 pounds. ‘This is one of our most beautiful breeds. 
The head is entirely free of wool, and the face and ears are 
covered with white hair, with black specks occasionally 


Fig. 49. Cheviot rams on pasture in Scotland. Owned by John Elliott. 
Photograph by the author. 


occurring. The nostrils are black, the nose tends to be a bit 
Roman, the eye is large and prominent, and the erect ear 
is usually pricked up as though listening. The Cheviot 
inclines to be somewhat narrow of back, with a moderate 
depth of body and fair leg of mutton, though in recent years 
it has been much improved. The fleece covers the body to 
the back of the ears and down to the knees and hocks, the 
rest of the leg being covered with white hair. The fleece 
tends to be somewhat open and is usually about 3% inches 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 89 


long and a year’s growth weighs 6 or 7 pounds. The fiber 
inclines to be coarser than that of the Shropshire, American 
breeders using the latter for a standard. 

Cheviots are very hardy, and in their native home on the 
mountains rely altogether on grass the entire year. They 
are active and independent, and do not flock as do other 
breeds. For this reason the breed has never been suited to 
the range country. The quality of Cheviot mutton is very 
superior, having very fine grain, and lacking surplus fat. 
In mutton carcass contests in the English and Scotch shows, 
the Cheviot has always held a high place. It is not widely 
distributed outside of its native home, though found in the 
United States in New York, Ohio, Indiana, and in other 
states of the Middle West. 

The Suffolk sheep comes from the county after which it 
is named, in southeastern England. It belongs to the 
medium-wool class, and is chiefly a mutton breed. The head, 
ears, and legs of the Suffolk are distinctly black in color. 
This gives a group of these sheep a very striking appearance. 
Mature rams weigh about 250 pounds and the ewes 175 
pounds. The fleece is not heavy. Suffolks are not exten- 
sively bred in England, and but few of them are to be found 
in America. In fact, they are very rare here, and are not 
often seen at our sheep shows, neither have they been much 
advertised in America. | 

The Tunis sheep takes its name from Tunis, in northern 
Africa, where it is supposed to have originated. In 1799, 
General Eaton, United States Consul at Tunis, received a 
gift of a number of these sheep, two of which survived a 
voyage to America. Other importations followed this one 
of General Eaton. These early importations were kept in 
the Eastern and Southern states, and little was done to 
improve them. They are peculiar in having a large, fat 


90 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


tail, and have often been called ‘“‘Fat Tailed Sheep.” In 
recent years, especially since about 1893, they have been 
bred in small flocks, in different parts of the country, but 
especially in Indiana. They are of medium size, with 
brown, or mottled brown and white faces, and brown legs. 
The tail is cut off soon after birth, as with other lambs, but 
the hind parts of the Tunis are somewhat heavier than 
corresponding parts of other breeds. The Tunis makes an 
excellent feeder, and lambs of this breed have sold for high 
prices on the market, and have met with much favor from 
stock buyers. The fleece is of good quality, averaging about 
3 inches long, and frequently 
containing red or brown fibers. 
But few of these sheep are to 
be seen, and fairs generally 
make no arrangement for them 
in the premium lists. 

The Leicester sheep (pro- 
nounced Lester) originated in 
central England in the county 
of that name. Here Robert 
Fig. 50. A Border Leicester ram. Bakewell, one of the most 

eee ae oe ae famous live-stock breeders in 
English history, developed and improved the native stock 
into the New Leicester. This was really the first improved 
breed of sheep known in England, and for a great many 
years it was extremely popular. Some of these sheep were 
brought to America, it is said, before the War of the Revo- 
lution. In 1800, New Leicester sheep were known about 
Philadelphia. In the early part of the nineteenth century, 
many were imported and sold for high prices. This is a 
large breed, and belongs to the long, or coarse-wool class. 
The entire head and ears are covered with white hair, the 


mi oo 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 91 


wool not growing beyond the back of the head. The ears 
are large but thin, and are usually carried in an erect posi- 
tion. The nostrils are black, the nose is somewhat promi- 
nent, and the eye bold and attractive. The Leicester has a 
full, wide breast; broad, flat back; wide rump; and fair leg 
of mutton. The body form is broad rather than deep, and 
sometimes these sheep appear long of leg. They fatten 
rapidly, and the rams at maturity weigh around 250 pounds, 
and the ewes 175 pounds or more. As mutton producers, 


they are not popular because they lay on too much fat. 
They require good pastures, and are not the hardiest sheep in 


the world. This, with their size, accounts for there being so 
few of them today either in America or elsewhere. The 
Leicester is the smallest of the long-wool breeds, and has 
a curly fleece that does not shear very heavily, 7 to 9 pounds 


-being about a year’s growth. Once a popular breed, this'is 


now the least known in America of all the so-called common 
breeds of sheep. In northern England, in the border coun- 
try, is an improved form or family known as the Border — 
Leicester, which is the more common type today. This 
family has a more vigorous constitution and has a clear white 
face, while the old breed has a bluish tint to the skin. 

The Cotswold sheep gets its name from the fact that in 
early times in England these sheep were sheltered in what 
were called ‘Cots,’ and were pastured on the treeless hills 
known as ‘Wolds.” That was in southwest England, 
where this breed has been kept for centuries. It is written 
that in 1464 King Edward IV gave permission to transport 
some Cotswold sheep to Spain. About 100 years or more 
ago, Cotswold and Leicester flocks were mixed a great deal 
in blood, by which it is said the former was improved. ‘These 
sheep were brought to America as early as 1832, and at one 
time were very popular, especially in the states east of 


92 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Illinois and north of Tennessee. ‘This is a large, long-wooled 
breed, larger than the Leicester, mature rams weighing from 
250 to 275 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. The head 
is somewhat large, and is usually white, though it may be 
gray or brown in tint. The nose is rather prominent, and 
the ears incline to be large and are carried somewhat heavily. 
If the forehead of the Cotswold is protected, long curly locks 
of wool hang down in front, often hiding the eyes. This 
breed has a broad breast, wide, flat back and broad rump, 
and shows a_ greater 
width than depth of 
body in the best speci- 
mens. While the Cots- 
wold feeds very well, if 
on good pasture and 
under favorable condi- 
tions, it is not a breed 
suited to scant pastures. 
The well-fattened carcass 
is too large, coarse, and 
fat for the present de- 

mand. The fleece is 
Fig. 51. A Cog Photograph by coarser and the curly 

iocks larger than with 
the Leicester. Good Cotswold wool is noted for its lustre, 
having a shiny, glistening quality, rather peculiar to this 
and the Lincoln breed, and is much valued by the English 
breeders. A twelve months’ fleece is usually from 8 to 10 
inches long, and weighs about. 10: pounds. There are not 
many Cotswold flocks in the United States, and the breed 
is more popular in Canada than here. The demands for a 
smaller sheep and a different grade of wool make it difficult 
for this breed to become popular in America. | 


8 


THE BREEDS OF SHEEP 93 


The Lincoln sheep comes from the county of that name 
on the east coast of England. This is a very old breed, and 
its improvement began while Bakewell was improving the 
Leicester. Some Lincoln sheep were brought to America 
before 1800, and they have been imported in a small way 
ever since. This is a large breed, being somewhat larger 
than the Cotswold, and having much in common with the 
latter. The head is large, and is gray or white in color, or 
gray mixed with white. The wool does not cover the entire 


Fig. 52. <A group of Lincoln ewes owned by William Shier, of Michigan. Photo- 
graph from the American Sheep Breeder. 
head, but frequently a small tuft of short locks extends over 
the forehead. The ears are large and usually have no wool 
onthem. The body form is much like that of the Cotswold, 
though perhaps deeper of rib. These sheep fatten easily; 
but the carcasses get too heavy and have too much external 
fat forthe present-day trade, and so the mutton is not popular. 
The Lincoln requires good grazing to do its best, as it is too 
heavy for the hill country. The Lincoln produces a fleece 


94 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


in long, wavy locks, not so curly but with the same lustre 
as the Cotswold. A year-old fleece is usually 8 inches long, 
and may weigh 10 pounds. Lincoln sheep have grown in 
popularity in their native home on account of the demand for 
them in the Argentine, where large numbers are kept. Very 
high prices have been paid for them in England, and in 1906 
a ram sold for $7600, the highest sum on record for the breed. 
In the United States, Lincolns have gained in favor some- 
what, although they cannot be regarded as popular. 

The Romney Marsh or Kent sheep originated in south- 
east England, in the county of Kent, on the marshes after 
which the breed is named. ‘The soil here is low, rich, and 
marshy. These sheep seem especially suited to the local 
conditions, not suffering from foot rot as do other breeds. 
The head and legs are white, the back is broad, and the body 
is of compact form. These sheep fatten very well on rather 
limited areas, and make a fair grade of mutton. The fleece 
weighs about 8 pounds, after a year’s growth, and is in good 
demand. Large numbers of Romney Marsh sheep are now 
found in the Argentine, and importations to America on a 
small scale have just begun, an association for promoting 
them having been organized at Chicago in December, 1911. 
Since it is almost an unknown, untried breed in America, 
its merits for our conditions remain to be shown. This 
breed belongs to the middle-wool class. 

The Black Faced Highland sheep has long been known 
in the highlands of Scotland, where it grazes on the grass 
and heather on the highest mountains. In this breed, as in 
the Dorset, both sexes have horns, those of the ram being 
spiral and very large and showy at maturity. Highland 
sheep have black or mottled black and white faces, with no 
wool beyond the forehead. While these sheep, which are 
from small to medium size, produce a very fine grade of 


THE BREEDS OF GOATS 95 


mutton on their native pastures, they are slow growers, and 
cannot be ranked as feeders, as we view sheep in America. 
Their chief value lies in their adaptability to rough, hardy 
conditions, enabling them to live through winters when most 
other breeds would perish. The fleece is very coarse, long, 
and open, falling from the body in wavy locks. Some 
Black Faced Highlanders have extremely coarse wool, with 
more or less hair about the lower thighs. In disposition 


they are wild and not so easily handled as other breeds. A 


few of these sheep have been brought to America, but they 
are not likely to meet 
with general favor. 

The Angora goat de- 
rives its name from the 
district of Angora, in Asia. 
These goats were first 
brought to America in 
1849, when the Sultan of 
Turkey presented some 
fee J. 6B. Davis, of 


: Fig. 53. Angora Goat King Cromwell, 
South Carolina. Large owned by R. C. Johnston of Kansas. | Photo- 


graph from the American Sheep Breeder. 


numbers are found to- 


day in the United States, especially in the far Western 
and Southwestern states. This breed is smaller than the 
common goat, individuals usually weighing from 60 to 100 
pounds. The color is pure white. The head has a pair of 
horns which slope backward and curve widely outward, 
with some twist in those of the buck, but none in the doe’s. 
The ears are large, often six inches long or more, and droop 
downward slightly. The Angora makes very good mutton, 
but is not valued for this as much as for its fleece, 
commercially known as mohair. In fair specimens this 
covers the body in silky, wavy ringlets, which in a year 


96 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


should become about 10 inches long. The fleece ought to 
show a curl quite to the skin. An average weight is about 
3 pounds. ‘The better grade of goats produces a mohair that 
is highly valued for making certain kinds of dress goods, 
plushes for upholstering work, etc. Angoras have been 
regarded with favor by some for clearing land of under- 
brush. They eat the tender twigs and bark, and thus gradu- 
ally kill the bushes. Goats have been used for this purpose 
in northern Wisconsin, Michigan, Missouri, and elsewhere. 


ee 


Fig. 54. A Toggenburg milch goat. Photograph from F. K. Cooke, of Illinois. 


Milch goats are found not only among different breeds 
developed for milk production, but also among the common 
goats we are all acquainted with, some of which produce ~ 
large amounts of milk. There are several breeds in Europe 
that have been especially developed for milk production. 
These include the Maltese goat on the island of Malta in 
the Mediterranean Sea; the Toggenburg, raised in a valley 


THE BREEDS OF GOATS 97 


by that name in Switzerland; the Saanan, also a Swiss breed: 
and several others. The Maltese is one of the best milkers, 
and may produce three or four quarts a day. This is a 
hornless goat, usually white in color. The Toggenburg 
is rated highly as a milker, often producing four or five quarts 
a day. This breed is medium brown in color, with white 
stripes down the face. The Saanan is a white or creamy- 
colored goat, and is noted for yielding equally well with the 
Toggenburg. In Europe goats are milked about six months 
before drying off. There is some demand for the milk of the 
goat, because it agrees so well with invalids and children. 
In regions outside of America where poor people live in 
large numbers, goats are commonly kept as a source of milk. 
The people of these countries value them highly, and they 
mean as much to them as milch cows mean to us. 


SOME THINGS YOU MIGHT REMEMBER ABOUT SHEEP 


1. The three classes or groups. 
2. How the Merino breed was introduced and promoted in America. 
3. Some of the features of Merino wool. 

4. Who Ellman and Webb were, and what they did. 
5. What the Southdown is valued for today. . 
6. Why the Shropshire is popular. 
7. The origin of the Oxford Down. 

8. The color markings of the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford, and 

Hampshire. 

9. What breeds of mutton sheep have horns in both sexes. 

10. Why the head of the Cheviot is attractive. 

11. What breed of sheep Bakewell improved. 

12. Why mutton from the large breeds is not popular. 

13. Where the Lincoln is popular and the prices it brings. 

' 14. What the fleece of the Angora is, and its use. 


98 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


SOME OTHER THINGS WORTH KNOWING 


15. What kind of sheep is most common in the state you live in? 
16. Who among your friends has the largest flock of pure-bred 
sheep? ; De 
17. How many breeds can you learn of within ten miles of home? 
18. As far as you can learn, what is the heaviest fleece produced 
. In your county, and from what breed and sex? 
19. Can you get some samples of wool of pure-bred sheep? 
20. What kind of sheep exhibit do you have at your state fair? 


q 
: 
4 
f 
| 
q 


CHAPTER V 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 


The wild hog, or wild boar, as it is usually called, of which 
there are different forms, is found in widely separated parts 
of the world. The common wild boar from which the 
improved breeds of today are descended, has been known in 
Europe since early historical times. This boar was common 
in England until the time of Henry II, about 1250. Boar 
hunting was as favorite 
pastime not only with 
the Romans, but even in 
the present day, in sec- 
tions of Germany and 
eastern Europe, wild 
boars furnish royal sport. 
In India these animals 
are hunted extensively 
by men on_ horseback, 
in a sport called ‘“‘pig 
Se «The. wild De, -),7)e Wild Bosse Reproduced trom 
hog is larger than the 
domestic one, and is very swift and strong. It is grayish- 
black in color. The rough skin is covered with short, wooly 
hair, over which are laid stiff, coarse bristles, especially along 
the spine. When the boar is angry or excited, these bristles 
usually stand erect. The head is rather large, long, and 
rough, and the older animals have short, heavy tusks that 
curve backward and away from the snout, and which are 
used in fighting. The wild hog is native to marshy forests. 


100 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The early forms of the domestic hog were found 
among the people of several countries, but more especially 
Great Britain, southern Europe, and China. Domestic 
swine were kept in herds in England as far back as 863 
years before Christ. It is said that in Greece large droves 
were cared for by swineherds perhaps 3000 years ago. In 
Italy these animals have long been valued, and the blue- 
skinned, thin-haired, long-legged Neapolitan hog of that 
country was imported into England perhaps two centuries 
ago to improve the Berkshire and the coarse white hogs of 
Great Britain. The Chinese produced a class of white pigs 
that American and British sailors bought on their travels 
and brought home, which were used to improve the native 
stock. Red hogs bred on the west coast of Africa were also 
brought to America over a century ago, and their blood 
mingled with our common stock. From this ancestry, 
after long years of careful breeding, in Great Britain and the 
United States, have come our present highly improved domes- 
tic breeds of swine, of which the following are of interest. 

The Berkshire hog is a native of England, and receives 
its name because of its early development in the county of 
Berks. This is a region of mild temperature in south-central 
England, well suited to live stock. The Berkshire was 
known as a breed late in the eighteenth century. Then it 
was black, or reddish-brown in color with black or light spots, 
and had large ears hanging down in front. It was small 
boned and fattened easily for those times, and frequently 
weighed over a thousand pounds. It was improved by the 
use of Neapolitan and Chinese blood in particular. In the 
middle of the nineteenth century, when it was considered | 
the best breed in England, the Berkshire was still reddish — 
or sandy-colored, with more or less black spots, but was not 
so large and coarse as those of the previous century. In the 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 101 


early days, Richard Astly and Lord Barrington did much to 


improve the Berkshire. This hog was first brought to 
America in 1823 by an English farmer who lived in New 
Jersey. Soon after others were imported, and since then 
large numbers of these pigs have been brought to the United 
States and Canada. | 

~The following are some of the most important features 
of the Berkshire today. The color is black, with more or 
less white on the face, feet, and tail. When all four legs, the 


Fig. 56. The champion Berkshire boar at Ohio State Fair 1911. Photograph 
from Graham Tanner. 


face, and tail are marked thus, they are termed the ‘‘six 
white points.”’ The head is fairly short, the nose slightly 
curved up or the head ‘‘dish faced,” as it is termed, and the 
ears are erect and pointing slightly forward. The head of 
the Berkshire is one of its most important breed characters. 
The size is medium to large, mature boars often weighing 
500 pounds, and sows about 400. Occasionally a boar in 
show flesh weighs from 700 to 800 pounds. The Berkshire 
should have a wide, strong back, but not much arched, and 


102 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


have a thick, full ham. He should have good legs 
and bone, and should stand well on his feet. The sows 
farrow medium-sized litters, averaging about eight pigs. 

Berkshires are fair feeders, and mature just moderately 
well under ordinary conditions. If not fed too much corn, 
they make a grade of pork that is unsurpassed. In the corn 
belt of America, with the feed and care given by Westérn 
farmers, the Berkshire may be regarded as a lard hog; 
while if fed a variety of grain, with corn only a moderate 
part of the ration, it makes a superior bacon. It has always 
been a popular breed of swine in England and America, but 
is not today as extensively kept as the Poland-China or 
Duroc-Jersey. Yet its merits have long been recognized 
among the critics of high-class pork. The breed is more 
widely distributed than any other in North America, being 
found in about every state and in Canada, and thrives under 
a wide range of conditions. It is the most popular breed in 
the East and South. In the West it is in less favor than the 
Poland-China or Duroc-Jersey. | 

The Poland-China is an American breed of swine that 
originated in southwestern Ohio in Butler and Warren 
counties. This is a rolling country, and produces extensive 
fields of corn, wheat, and grass. ‘There is no better region 
in America in which to raise hogs. In that section the early 
settlers kept large numbers of hogs, fed off their corn, and 
drove the hogs overland to the Cincinnati market. Dzif- 
ferent so-called breeds came into Ohio, including the Russian, 
Byfield, Big China, Irish Grazier, and Berkshire, the latter 
being taken to the state in 1835. From this mixture, in 
time came the Poland-China. At first this was a big, coarse, — 
spotted hog, which was rated as a good feeder. The coarse- 
ness was gradually reduced; no doubt the Berkshire blood 
bringing a very great improvement. 


“sate. 2. 
a as 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 103 


The prominent early breeders of the Poland-China were 
the Shakers and other farmers in Warren County. John 
Harkrader did much to improve them, and following him 
D. M. Magie, of Butler County, no doubt did much for the 
breed. Pigs of his breeding were widely known at one time 
as ‘“‘Magie hogs.” During the last half of the nineteenth 
century there were many noted herds in Ohio, Indiana, and 
Illinois. Although the Poland-China was long a_ black 
and white spotted breed, a change took place in this respect, 


=F =P ee mo 


Vig. 57. Globe Perfection, first prize Poland-China boar at Ohio State Fair. 
Bred by Ed. Klever, of Ohio. Photograph by the author 
and black, with a small amount of white, especially on 
face and feet became popular, and is so today. 

In present color markings the Poland-China much 
resembles the Berkshire. The head is of medium length, 
and rather straight in the face; the ears, which should be 
somewhat thin, point forward and then break over to form 
what is called a lop ear. A good head lacks coarseness, and 
inclines to be wide between the eyes, and is somewhat short, 
but is never dished. The body form of this breed is quite 


104 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


distinctly its own, the neck being short, the back wide and 
frequently strongly arched, and the hams highly devel- 
oped. These features of head, arch of back, and thickness 
of hams are Poland-China characteristics. The legs are 
often fine of bone, and incline to be moderately short, the 
pigs standing just fairly well on their feet. Mature boars 
often weigh around 500 pounds, and sows 400 pounds. A 
boar weighing 700 pounds is of large size. 

The Poland-China is distinctly of the lard type, and as 
it puts on fat easily, is noted as a feeder’s hog. When well 
fattened the carcass dresses out well, and is popular 
with butchers. The pigs often mature too rapidly, not 
getting as much growth as they should have for their age. 
Poland-China sows average smaller litters than any of the 
other common breeds. This has caused considerable 
unfavorable comment among farmers. It is an excellent 
grazing breed and will do well on clover or other succulent 
green pasture. At the present time there is much discussion 
among Poland-China breeders regarding type, one group 
preferring a medium-sized, rather fine-boned, tidy type; 
while another set of men demand what they call ‘“‘big 
Polands,’’ which mature into large animals having strong, 
heavy bone, and make good feeders. The Poland-China 
has been one of America’s most popular breeds, but at the 
present day it is not in such universal favor. This is due to 
lack of size or growthfulness, and to the small size of litter. 
Where well developed, it is one of our most important breeds 
for the corn belt. 

The Duroc-Jersey is a red or sandy-colored breed of 


swine that no doubt obtained its special color markings from — 


the coarse red hog brought from Africa, and from sandy or 
reddish English hogs, such as the Tamworth and sandy 
Berkshire. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, the famous 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 105 


‘statesman, imported some red hogs from Portugal in 1852, 
which reached America about the time of his death. In New 
Jersey large red hogs had been grown for many years, where 
they became known as Jersey Reds. In New York State 
another variety of red pigs developed that were called Durocs. 
They were smaller and finer in bone than the Jersey Reds. 
The blood of these two families was mingled together, from 
which was developed what we now call the Duroc-Jersey. 
The present-day Duroc-Jersey is red in color, of which there 


Fig. 58. Good-Enuf-Again, champion Duroc-Jersey 
boar at Ohio State Fair. Owned by W. H. Robbins, of 
Ohio. Photograph from owner. 


are various shades, ranging from sandy or light red to a 
cherry color or dark red. A medium red shade is the most 
popular. The head has a straight face, and the ears lop 
over forward. The back is usually slightly arched and 
the ribs are well sprung. The hams do not show quite the 
thickness of the Poland-China, but are likely to be of good 
size. The legs carry more bone than do most other breeds, 
and the hogs stand very well on the feet. The Duroc- 
Jerseys of a few years ago were inclined to be rather rough, 
and were frequently heavy of shoulder and had creases more 


106 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


or less along the sides. They have been greatly improved, 
however, in recent years. As to size, the boars easily weigh 
600 pounds, and the sows 450. Duroc-Jerseys mature fairly 
early, and finish off in fattening at 200 to 250 pounds, at six 
months of age. The breed has not thus far made much 
of a showing in carcass test competition. The sows seem 
capable of having large litters, this being the most pro- 
lific of the lard-type breeds. Duroc-Jerseys are produced 
more especially in the Middle-western states where corn is 
abundant and where they are very popular. Many herds 
of Poland-China have given way to the Duroc-Jersey. Ohio, 
Illinois, and Iowa have more of this breed than any other 
three states. 

The Chester White breed of hogs gets its name from 
Chester County, Pennsylvania, where it has been bred for 
a great many years. Claims have been made that the early 
colonists brought over coarse white pigs to Pennsylvania. 
In 1820 a Captain Jeffries, of Westchester, Pennsylvania, 
brought from England some white hogs. Others of the same 
color also found their way into that section. White hogs 
were brought to Ohio at an early date, and the Toddfamily — 
in that state became noted for developing what is known as 
Todd’s Improved Chester White. During the latter part 
of the nineteenth century, Mr. L. B. Silver, of Ohio, devel- 
oped a strain of this breed, which is now known as the Ohio 
Improved Chester White. This is frequently called the 
O. I. C. hog. All these different families or blood lines, 
however, represent the same breed, and differ only in minor 
details. The Chester White, as its name indicates, is white. 
Occasionally, small, black spots occur on the skin. This 
is generally the case with all white breeds known in America. 
The head rather resembles that of the Poland-China, in that 
the face is straight and the ears lopped over. ‘The Chester 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 107 


White is a true lard type of hog. It is a splendid feeder, and 
when well fattened, carries a very broad, arched back and an 
excellent ham. ‘The quality of bone in the legs is frequently 
too fine, and mature animals often stand badly on their feet. 
The quality of pork is excellent, if one does not object to 
the large amount of fat. This is one of the large breeds, the 
QO. I. C. hogs weighing very heavy. The usual run of mature 


Fig. 59. A Chester White boar. Photograph by the author. 


boars will weigh around 600 pounds, and the sows 450 pounds. 
The sows farrow good-sized litters, the breed ranking close 
to the Duroc-Jersey in this respect. Sows commonly have 
nine pigs to the litter. Chester Whites are widely: distrib- 
uted as a breed in the North, and especially east of the 
Mississippi. In the South any white breed is unpopular on 
account of color, white hogs blistering under the sun more 
readily than red or black ones. Ohio and Indiana have many 
Chester White herds. 


108 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The Large Yorkshire, called in England the “Large 
White,” is one of the oldest breeds of swine. Large, coarse, 
white hogs were bred in eastern and northeastern England 
before distinctions of types and breeds were known. English 
writers of over a century ago refer to these large, slow- 
maturing, narrow-backed coarse white hogs. They were 
improved by selection and breeding, and this work was done 


Fig. 60. A large Yorkshire sow, owned by the Ohio State University. Photo- 
graph by F. H. Haskett. 

in part by factory hands and laborers in the middle of the 
last century. Joseph Tuley was prominent in this work. 

The Large Yorkshire belongs to the bacon class. As 
grown today, it is the largest of the breeds. Boars at 
maturity often weigh 700 pounds or more, and sows 500 
pounds. The head inclines to be a trifle long, from an 
American point of view, and is sometimes slightly dished. 
The ears should be carried erect, but with age they usually 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 109 


incline forward. The body of the Large Yorkshire should 
show considerable length and have smooth deep sides, from 
which bacon may be cut to the best advantage. The back 
lacks the width and the ham the thickness of the lard type. 
The legs often appear long for the depth of body. Large 
Yorkshires do not mature early nor fatten and finish off 
so readily as do hogs of the lard type. They rather tend to 
continue their growth until they have attained considerable 
size before laying on much fat. Even then they will never 
fatten like our lard hogs, although they will gain as much or 
more in weight per day. This hog is well adapted for graz- 
ing on clover and other green feeds. The quality of the meat 
is of the very best. More prime bacon is made in Great 
Britain and Denmark from the Large Yorkshire than from 
any other breed. ‘The Danes make bacon production a great 
industry, and they rely on the Large Yorkshire or its grades 
for this purpose. Large Yorkshire sows are noted for far- 
rowing many pigs in a litter, this being our most prolific 
breed. On account of its bacon, this is the leading breed in 
Great Britain and Denmark. In America, these hogs have 
been bred for a great many years, but have never been 
_ popular in comparison with the hogs of the lard type. They 
are bred in different sections of the North, especially in 
Canada, and in the Northwestern states. 

The Hampshire is a breed of swine that until quite 
recently was known in sections of the United States as the 
“Thin Rind.” Where the breed came from originally, no 
one knows. It did not come from Hampshire, England, as 
the American Hampshire Association has claimed, for the 
English people already have a black breed with this name, 
while the American Hampshire is black, with a white band 
about the body. For many years ‘‘Thin Rind’”’ hogs were 
bred in a limited way in Kentucky, southern Indiana, and 


110 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


southern Illinois, and these were of the bacon type. Finally 
the breed was taken up by men in the corn section of Illinois, 
and it has gradually changed in form to a broader-backed, 
thicker kind, more nearly of the lard type. This shows 
what a corn diet will do in changing the form of an animal. 
Hampshire swine have straight and rather long faces, 
and the ears vary from erect to leaning forward. The 
back is of medium width and the body is usually very 
smooth along the sides. The hams lack fullness, and the 
legs tend to be somewhat long. The Hampshire is a good 
feeder, maturing just fairly early, and is gaining in popularity 
on account of the favor it has with the butcher. In carcass 
contests, hogs of this breed or its crosses have usually made 
an excellent showing. The sows also farrow good-sized 
litters, a much approved characteristic. This is not a large 
breed, mature boars weighing around 500 pounds, and sows 
about 300. The most notable herds are in Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, and Kentucky. 

The Tamworth is an old English breed of extreme bacon 
type. Its native home is central England, where it was 
known early in the last century. It is red or chestnut in 
color and of varying shades from very light to dark. In 
size it is large, the boars often weighing 600 pounds and the 
sows 450. The head of the Tamworth is undesirably long 
and straight. The ears at maturity are large and coarse, 
and lean heavily forward. The body is narrow, the depth 
of rib is short, the hams lack thickness, and the neck and legs 
are long. The Tamworth does not fatten easily, and is slow 
to mature, but produces an excellent grade of bacon. The 
sows are prolific, having large litters. There are but few of 
this breed in either England or America, for it is not at all 
popular on either side of the water. There are a few herds 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 111 


in the Mississippi Valley, but not enough to attract atten- 
tion at present. 

The Cheshire is a medium-sized, white breed of the lard 
type, mostly bred in New York State, the place of its origin. 
The breed originated about 1855, with the Large Yorkshire 
as an important blood line in the parentage. ‘The Cheshire 
resembles to quite an extent what the Englishman calls the 
Middle White, which is really a more compact, broader- 


. ‘ne J 
: < ag Pa ‘all & asi 
ie ay ak ef eo 


Fig. 61. A Tamworth sow. A first-prize winner at Ohio State Fair. Photo- 
graph by the author. 


backed, heavier hammed, lardier type than the Large 
Yorkshire. The Cheshire has a fair size, weighs well, 
matures early, and feeds and fattens to advantage. The 
sows farrow good-sized litters in comparison with other 
breeds. ‘This is one of the least known of American hogs. 
The Victoria is a white breed of swine, of which there have 
been two families, one of New York and the other of Indiana 
origin. The latter, developed by a Mr. Dyer, is the only one 
at all known today, and but very few herds of this family are 
in existence. It is a breed quite comparable in appearance 


112 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


to the Cheshire, and is of the lard type. The few herds 
kept are mainly for show purposes, to win prizes offered at 
certain fairs where money can be secured without compe- 
tition. 

The Essex is a black breed that originated in eastern 
England. It is of small size, and fattens very well into an 
excellent grade of pork. Its principal breed features are 
the black color, small size, short, slightly dished face, and 
fine, erect ears. Today the Essex is almost unknown in 
America, although at one time it met with a fair amount 
of favor. 


The Small Yorkshire, known in England as the ‘“‘Small 
White,” is of English origin. It was developed early in the 
nineteenth century, when certain men wished a small, very 
fat type of pig. This is distinctly a small breed, weighing 
at maturity about 200 pounds. The head is often short and 
extremely dished, so much so that easy feeding is impossible. 
In fancy specimens the head is almost distorted, the ears are 
erect, the neck short, back very wide, hams short and thick, 
and legs short. The Small Yorkshire matures early and 
fattens easily for its size, making a very fat type of pork. 
The sows are not prolific. The breed has been getting less 
and less common so that but few are found today in 
America. In fact there is no demand of commercial impor- 
tance for it either in this country or abroad. 


DO YOU REMEMBER ABOUT 


. The appearance of the wild boar? 

. How long ago herds of swine were kept in England? 
. When the Berkshire was first brought to America? 

. The size and form of the Berkshire? 

. Where the Poland-China originated? 

. The Poland-China as feeders and breeders? 


Oomr WN — 


THE BREEDS OF SWINE 113 


7. The origin of the Duroc-Jersey? 

8. Who improved the Chester White? » 

9. The special features of the Large Yorkshire? 
10. What change has taken place with the Hampshire? 
11. The color markings of each of the four leading breeds? 


CAN YOU TELL 


12. What breeds are kept by farmers in your township? 

13. Which is the most popular breed in your section? 

14. Who has been an exhibitor of pure-bred swine in your county? 

15. Whether the breeders of your native state have an important 
influence in improving the breeds elsewhere? 

16. If the swine show at your last county fair was a creditable one? 
Also at the state fair? 

17. Whether improved breeds are kept on any county or state 
farms in the state in which you live? 


CHAPTER VI 
ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 


Farm animals in early days in America were usually very 
inferior. ‘The settlers of New England and the older states 
did not give much attention to live stock. Until we had 
large cities we had no important live-stock markets. The 
farmers produced but little more than was needed for the 
local home sales. In 1830 the first railway was built in 
America. Before that, people drove live stock long distances 
to market. As early as 1804, cattle were driven overland 
from Ohio to Baltimore to find buyers. West of the Miss- 
issippi, large herds of cattle and sheep developed with the 
settlement of the country. There were great drives of 
cattle and sheep overland to Kansas City, St. Louis, and 
other places. It was not till 1865 that the Union Stock 
Yards of Chicago opened for business. Now it is much the 
largest live-stock market in the world. 


The study of animal form in a large way really began 
with the selling of stock in the market. At first people 
were not very particular. An increase in population, how- 
ever, increased the demand for meat. ‘Then men began to 
buy from the farmer and to sell animals in the markets. 
These sellers naturally saw certain differences in their stock. 
They saw that some beasts served a given purpose better 
than others, and that some were really worth more than 
others for the same purpose. So the men who sold in the 
markets, began to use special words to indicate the kind of 
stock they were talking about. 


iy: 


ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 115 
At first it was only a ‘‘good” animal, or a “‘poor”’ one. 
Then other words came into use to show still finer differences. 
If one looks over the market quotations in the early num- 
bers of the oldest agricultural papers, he will find just such 
words used in references to the stock. In the course of 
time, people began to see that farm animals differed in type. 
The word type, as applied to live stock refers to the special 
form or purpose of an animal. For example, we say 
that a horse is of the draft type. This means that he is 
large and strong, and especially formed to haul heavy loads. 
As stockmen use this word, however, it does not mean that 
the animal referred to is perfect. It is simply an expression 
that the horse or cow or whatever it may be, belongs to a 
special group in which we find others of various degrees of 
merit. The word type has not been used many years by 
stockmen. At the present time, however, all our farm ani- 
mals may be separated into fairly distinct, well-known types. 
The more simple classifications are as follows: 


Horses CATTLE 
1. Draft type. 1. Beef type 
2. Coach or carriage type 2. Dairy type 
3. Light harness or speed type 3. Dual or general-purpose 
4. Ponies type 
1. Mutton type 1. Lard type 
2. Wool or Merino type 2. Bacon type 


All of our farm animals may be sorted, and each one placed 
in a group representing one of these types. Each of our 
breeds of live stock, also, has one or more types. Where 
there is more than one type in a breed, it is the result of 
different lines of breeding. At the present time we hear more 
or less about the American type and the Island type of Jer- 
sey; the American type being somewhat larger, coarser, 
plainer-headed, and less symmetrical in udder than the 


116 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Island type. Some of the more important features that 
apply to each of the commonly recognized types are 
briefly stated in the following descriptions. More might be 
added to each description, but this is not essential at this 
time. 

The draft horse type is massive, showing great power for 
hauling loads. A horse of this kind should have a large head; 
thick, strong neck; very broad back; large, deep body; a 
long, heavily-muscled hind part; a set of four strong-boned, 
muscular legs, and large, well-formed feet. From a front 
view, such a horse appears thick through from the breast to 
the tail. From one side he appears short, deep, and com- 
pact of body. The smaller sized draft horse is often termed 
‘“chunky,”’ as expressing this compactness. Horses of this 
type weigh from 1500 pounds upwards. 

The coach or carriage horse type lacks the large size of 
the drafter, and is of more refined appearance. This horse 
should have a lean, attractive head; a long, graceful neck; 
a body of medium width and depth, round and nicely turned; 
long, smooth, well filled out hind parts; and a set of well- 
muscled, smooth-boned legs, and first class feet. Good 
form in this type should show some length and smoothness 
. of outline. Coach horses are valued for their ability to 
walk or trot with a strong, high-acting gait. Horses of this 
type should weigh 1250 pounds, though many excellent 
ones weigh more and some less. 

The light harness or speed horse type is well represented 
in a medium-sized trotting horse. He shows a small, neat- 
looking head; rather thin, moderately long neck; a narrow- 
ness above the shoulders; the body narrow on top, though it 
should be of good depth; the hind end rather muscular; and 
the legs small and neat, without much flesh. The entire 
form shows a muscular development and lightness of limb 


ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 117 


that suggests speed. There is much difference in the size 
of horses of this type, and weights of 900 to 1100 pounds 
are common. 

The pony type is really that of a small-sized horse. A 
pony must not stand over 58 inches high. If he does, he 
is placed in the horse class. There are a number of different 
kinds of ponies, and among these may be found types 
corresponding to those of horses already described. 

Beef cattle type is rather comparable to the draft type 
in horses. Cattle of this kind have short, thick necks; 
very broad backs; deep bodies; long, wide, thick hind parts; 
and short legs. The breast is wide, the body thick and deep, 
and the entire form is compact and smoothly covered with 
flesh, and well filled out before and behind. Meat production 
is easily seen to be a feature of this type. 

_ Dairy cattle type is the opposite of the beef sort. The head 
is placed on a long and muscular neck; the body is narrow 
over the shoulders; the back is not wide but the body has 
depth; the hind parts are lean, long, and lacking in flesh; 
and the legs are small and thinly muscular. Considerable 
length and narrowness of body; a distinct lack of flesh, 
-making for angularity of form; and a well-developed udder 
on the female, are special features of this type. 

The dual or general-purpose cattle type has certain 
features between the beef and dairy types. The entire body 
should be less thick and beefy than the beef form, but yet 
with a fair amount of thickness. The fact is, if a beef cow 
has a large, fine, shapely udder, and milks well, she may be 
classed as a dual-purpose animal, because she combines 
important features of the other two types. Comparing the 
males, the dual-purpose type is usually longer and narrower 
of body and more muscular, and not so thick of outline in 
front or behind, as is the beef bull. 


118 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The mutton sheep type may be compared to the draft 
horse and beef cattle types. It is short and thick of neck; 
wide and level of back; broad and full at chest and at the 
hind end, and with short, fine-boned legs. A mutton sheep, when 
fat, is smooth and plump of body, although this smoothness 
is not usually seen, the body being covered with wool. 

The fine-wool sheep or Merino type has been com- 
pared to the light harness horse and the dairy cow. Its 


Fig. 62. A dual-purpose cow. Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 


principal purpose is to produce wool. Therefore, we expect 
to find the body narrow throughout, especially along over 
the top of the shoulders. This type is muscular, and is 
rather narrow in front and behind, with thin thighs, lacking 
the meaty form of the mutton sheep. A fine fleece of wool 
covered on the outside with more or less dirty brown grease, 
is seen on this type during much of the year. There 


ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 119 


‘are some fine-wooled sheep that might properly be classed 


as dual-purpose in type, only not much attempt-is being made 
to establish such a class. _ 

The lard hog type is the one most familiar to Americans. 
In fair condition of flesh, this hog is noticeable for his com- 
pact form, width of back, depth of body, and thickness from 
breast to hams. Fattened heavily, these hogs sometimes 
cause one to wonder how such a weight and wealth of flesh 
can be supported on four small legs. From this broad, 
smooth, deeply-covered back may be taken thick layers 
of fat, from which lard is made. ‘This feature of heavy fat 
production explains why this is called the lard type. 

The bacon hog type impresses one as having considerable 
length of body, with a narrowness all through, quite in con- 
trast with the lardy sort. This type should have a long, 
smooth, deep side to the body, for it is from this part that 
bacon is obtained. As this hog does not fatten so heavily as 
the lard type, it produces the best kind of meat for bacon, 
hence is called the bacon type. 

The grouping of live stock on the market into classes, was 
the final result of the development of the modern live-stock 
trade. As the population grew, the demand for variety and 
for special purposes increased as never before. ‘There were 
new uses for horses, and meat animals were sold for 
a much greater variety of needs than used to be thought 
possible. So today, we find in the big markets that all types 
of live stock are grouped into different commercial classes, 
and then each class is graded according to its merit. For 
example, here we have the beef type, and within this a num- 
ber of different classes. One class, known in the larger stock 
yards as beef cattle, is considered fattened and finished for 
the butcher, being ready for killing. Another class, known 
as stockers and feeders, is sold to go back to the farms for 


120 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


further feeding and fattening. Another class, called bwtcher 
stock, consists of fat cows and heifers. Then there are 
various other classes of stock, such as calves, butcher hogs, 
Western lambs, feeding sheep, etc., all of which are included 
in the different types described. 

The market grades of live stock are also important. Each 
class is divided into different grades. Beginning with the 


Fig. 63. A type of beef cattle. King Ellsworth, grand-champion steer, 
1909 International Live Stock Exposition. Photograph by courtesy The 
Farmer. 


best and grading toward the poorest, these grades with meat 
stock in general, in each class, are as follows: prime, choice, 
good, medium, common, inferior. Some other terms are 
often used, such as extra prime, good to medium, etc. These 
words or terms of course are used to express the relative 
values of animals of the same general class. <A prime steer, 
for example, is one with the largest amount of high-priced 
meat that the butcher thinks will cut out to the best advan- 


i 


ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 121 


tage. So in the prime animal the buyer looks for a wide 
back, deep body, thick, meaty hind quarters, and a frame 
entirely covered with a smooth, thick layer of flesh that will 
cut up well with as little offal as possible. To ensure small 
waste, an animal must be what we call well-fattened, and 
have no coarseness or heaviness of bone. As one goes down 
the line of grades, each of these desirable features is less to be 
seen. Thus an inferior steer would show a small percentage 


Fig. 64. Feeder calves of William George, of Illinois... Photograph by courtesy 
The Farmer. 


of high-priced cuts, would lack in condition and quality of 
flesh, and show much waste at slaughter. These grades 
have the same relative importance in live stock as similar 
terms have in grading corn or wheat. For comparison, we 
have dent corn for one type and sugar corn for another. 
Dent corn we classify into white and yellow, and then grade 
each of these as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc., the best being No. 1, 
comparable to the term prime in live stock. Put in the form 


122 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of a simple diagram, the relation of classes and grades may 
be shown as follows: 


CLASSES— GRADES— 
Prime 
Choice 
(Beef cattle: .u sags eie ate es ce {Good 
Brer Type 4 Butcher stock | Medium 
Stockers and feeders Hives 
Inferior 


All markets do not have exactly the same classes and 
grades of stock. The larger a market, the more the dealers 
divide animals into classes and grades, for the widest demand 
for different kinds here exist. In the small market not so 
much attention is paid to the details of class; but the dealers 
are quick to recognize the merits of a grade. In 
some markets we find the people more interested 
in one kind of stock than another. St. Louis is a noted 
horse market, Buffalo has long been famous for sheep, and 
Chicago is the great hog center. ‘These large markets, to a 
certain extent, require other markets, through a live-stock 
exchange, to classify and grade animals so that selling values 
are fairly comparable. In small towns without regular 
markets, merit in an animal is easily seen by men who buy 
if they have a fair knowledge of type and its meaning. 


A knowledge of animal type is necessary if one wishes to 
understand why some animals serve one purpose and some 
another. There is a distinct relation of the form of the 
animal to its special use. The race horse is light of body, 
narrow but deep of chest, has splendid lung capacity, has 
slender but strong legs, is very muscular, and is built for 
speed. The Arab horse, the British Thoroughbred, and the 
American trotter, each has these features well marked, if he 
is a good specimen of the type. The less he has of these 


ANIMAL TYPE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 123 


qualities, the poorer he is as a race horse. A Merino sheep 


of the A type is rather narrow of back, long of rib, has 
short, fine legs, is very _ 
muscular, and its entire 
body, including head 
and legs, is heavily cov- 
ered in folds with a 
fine, oily fleece. This 
type of sheep is formed 
to produce wool, and 
it has very little value 
for meat. The Merino 7 

sheep of Spain, of Aus- by S Blamer & Sou of Ohio.” Photosraph 
tralia, or Ohio, if of Soh vee 

the A type, are all much the same kind, and each _pro- 
duces wool of the finest sort. The more the inclination to 
mutton development, the less fine and heavy is the 
fleece. The hog best suited to lard production has a 
short neck, wide back, deep sides, large hams, and _ short 
legs; and when well fattened, his body is covered with 
a thick layer of fat. 
This type of hog has 
been bred in America to 
produce fat in the ex- 
treme. The narrower his 
back, the longer his head, 
neck, and legs, the less 


fat meat will he produce. 
The race horse, the Me- 


rino, and the lard type 


Fig. 66. The fat hog type. 


hog, each has been bred 
to serve its special purpose. The intelligent stockman 
can tell at a glance whether the animal he is looking at 


124 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


with the thought of purchase is of a desirable type, whether 
it will command a high place in the market for value, or if 
its merits are such as to attract no special interest. The 
animals which most nearly represent the type are fewest in 
numbers, and bring the highest prices. One reason why we 
do not have more animals of the better kind, is because 
farmers and stockmen themselves do not know the impor- 
tance of type. Before one is capable of becoming a high- 
class breeder or feeder of live stock, he must understand this 
subject. He must know the relation of animal form to the 
purpose it will best serve. 


AMONG OTHER THINGS, KEEP IN MIND 


. How they shipped cattle to market in early days. 
. The reason for studying animal form. 
. The meaning of the word ‘‘type.”’ 

. The type of a draft horse. 

. For what coach horses are especially valued. 

. The important features of dairy cattle type. 

. The contrast in lard and bacon type. 

The meaning of commercial classes of stock. 

. The relative importance of the grades of stock. 

. The relationship of form to purpose. } 


SCOMNADA PWN 


pi 


SUPPOSE YOU MAKE THESE OBSERVATIONS 


11. What types of horses do you find on the streets about town? 

12. Compare the horses on the farm with which you are best 
acquainted. 

13. What type of horse is most in demand near your home? 

14. Learn if horses are shipped to the distant markets from your 
locality, the prices they bring, and the relation of type to value. 

15. Which is the more popular, beef or dairy type in your county, 
and why? 

16. Are there any feeders of stock within your acquaintance, and 
if so, what type or types are they feeding? 

17. Who is the best live-stock dealer with whom you are 
acquainted, and why is he the best? 


CHAPTER VII 
REASONS AND METHODS IN JUDGING LIVE STOCK 


The study of the relationship of the form of an animal 
to purpose or function, is a most important duty of the 
live-stock student who would know farm animals. The 
word conformation is used in a general reference to the ar- 
rangement of the parts of the form to one another. When 
one says an animal has a good conformation, he simply 
means that the different parts are well balanced and in 
harmony with one another. Scientific study has shown 
that all animals, no matter how odd they may seem, have 
conformations best suited to their needs and conditions 
of life. The giraffe, with excessively long neck, feeds on 
the twigs and leaves of the trees overhead; the lion, with 
cat-like form, slyly creeps up and springs upon its prey, and 
tears and cuts away its flesh by means of its powerful Jaws 
and teeth; the deer, light and most graceful of form, grazes 
on the grass and tender twigs, and bounds away to safety 
like a flash, when an enemy appears. Form, size and 
color, all have their special purposes. Our domestic animals 
have developed under artificial conditions, over which man 
has had large control, and this has resulted in our horses, 
cattle, sheep, and swine becoming creatures of special pur- 
pose to a very unusual degree. The great speed of the 
Thoroughbred, the massive size of the Shire, the excessive 
milk development of the Holstein-Friesian, and the heavy 
fleece of the Merino, are all fine examples of this special- 
purpose development. 

The most efficient judge is a student of animal form 
who at all times can see and understand clearly this re- 


126 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


lationship of form to purpose. The qualified judge ob- 
tains his knowledge in two ways: first, by environment 
or his home surroundings; and second, by education. The 
average English farmer is a great lover of animals, and is 
usually a good judge of a beast, and his children inherit the 
same characteristics. It is second nature for him to meas- 
ure up in a logical way the weak and strong points in an 
animal and judge their values. Yet one may become a cap- 
able, efficient judge by combination of a natural admiration 
for animals, with systematic training in judging conformation. 


a e 


+ ef 


Fig. 67. Giraffes in the New York Zoological Park. Notice one in the door- 
way. Photograph by the author. 


The judge at all times should be able to compare the animal 
before him with what he knows to be the ideal or perfect 
one. The ability to compare differs in degree. Beginners 
are not supposed to be as proficient as experienced men, 
yet time and experience add to one’s qualifications. Even 
if one lacks to some extent the desirable qualities to be 
found in a successful judge, he yet may be qualified to pass — 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 127 


in judgment on many occasions where the responsibilities 


are not the greatest. 7 

The judgment of the farmer or stockman should enable 
him to buy, and to develop his own herd with intelligence. 
No man is qualified to manage any business at the present 
day who does not know the difference in the values of the 
goods he handles. Then why should not the man who owns 
stock on the farm be capable of judging relative values among 
his animals? A large number of herds of dairy cattle in the 
United States have been shown to be unprofitable. This is 
not as a rule due to the kind and amount of food given, but 
rather to the kind of animals kept. The man who knows 
how to select the right kind of dairy cows to build up a herd, 
will find his knowledge a source of profit rather than loss, if 
he makes good. use of the same. Without doubt, hundreds 
of thousands of dairy cows are unprofitable to their owners. 
This in itself is a good reason why one should study the rela- 
tion of form to production. 

Some animals have important defects that will be noticed 
only by men who are capable judges. The man who knows 
nothing of a horse and desires to purchase, if he depends on 


his own judgment, is liable to buy something he does not 


want. A side bone or a spavin may be a little thing to see, 
but its presence on the horse is a distinct imperfection, as 
one will quickly learn if he tries to sell such an animal. A 
good judge will discover these imperfections and let another 
be the purchaser. On every hand men who have given 
no serious study to qualify themselves for this work are 
engaged in buying live stock. 

Some experts make a specialty of buying immature or 
green animals that give promise of great development. 
Such men are keen students of animal form. It is not 
difficult to pass on the merits of a mature horse that stands 


128 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


before one in perfect condition, ready for the show ring. It is 
not so easy a matter, however, to go into the pasture and 
select the best prospect from a bunch of thin yearlings that 
have had no special care during the warm, dry summer 
days. The man who goes to the stock-yards to buy a lot of 
steers for feeding is at the mercy of the dealers there, unless 
he has the necessary Judgment, not only to know what kind 
of cattle he wants, but how to sort them out. The ability 
to select wisely the green, untrained colt or promising 
heifer has enabled more than one man to find what we 
sometimes call ‘‘a diamond in the rough.” 

The greater the number of qualified judges in a com- 
munity, the better will be the general average of the animals 
there, and the more valuable from a commercial standpoint. 
An example of this is seen in England, where good judges of 
stock are comparatively common. It is interesting to 
observe, not only that the flocks and herds of that country 
are much superior to those of any other country, but that 
the people of the rest of the world for generations have 
been sending their gold to England to exchange for superior 
stock. Most of our improved breeds come from Great 
Britain, and we sent there for them because their merit was 
seen and appreciated. Suppose the people of Minnesota, 
for example, were to give special attention to the improve- 
ment of their live stock, and the study of animal form became 
popular, what would result? Would there not be a great 
improvement in the live stock of the state, and would not the 
wealth of Minnesota be thereby greatly increased? It 
most certainly would. 

A natural interest in farm animals and a love for them 
are also good reasons for making a careful study of them. 
The greater the intelligence with which one can look an 
animal over, the more pleasure he will find in the occupa- 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 129 


tion. No business that offers no incentive to greater effort 
profits a man much. The production of beautiful and use- 
ful animals can not but bring out the best there is in a man’s 
character; while at the same time he is rendering a service 
to his fellow man by producing something that adds to the 
wealth of the community. We call a man a great artist 
who paints on canvas a beautiful picture of a magnificent 
horse, but what shall we say of the man who bred and raised 
this horse to his perfect state? Is he not the greater artist 
of the two? 

The use of the scale of points, or score card, as it is often 
_ called, is a first step in the systematic education of the person 
who desires to learn how to judge live stock. The scale of 
points was first originated in 1834, on the Island of Jersey, 
as has been stated in the Jersey section of the chapter on 
cattle. Some of the people on the island felt that something 
should be done to improve their cattle. So they selected 
two cows, one of which they thought had the nearest perfect 
form in the front half of the body, while the other was con- 
sidered to have a perfect rear half. Then they placed a 
numerical valueon each of these best halves of the body, using 
these two cows to furnish a standard or model with which 
to judge other cows. They also selected two bulls, and made 
a score card for the males by the same process. As a result 
of this unique method, ‘‘A scale of points for Jersey cows,” 
as it was called, gave the cows 27 points; and another scale 
gave the bulls, and the heifers not in milk, 25 points. The 
people on Jersey made a practical application of the use of 
the scale by comparing their cattle with these standards. 
The people derived much benefit from this method of judg- 
ing, and their cattle were gradually improved. ‘They revised 
this scale on several occasions, and among other things finally 
adopted a uniform standard of 100 points for each sex. 


130 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Since that time score cards have been much used by men 
interested in other kinds of stock, and scales of points have 
been adopted for many of our improved breeds. Not only 
that, but score cards that apply only to types of stock, such 
as the draft horse, etc., are commonly used in agricultural 
schools and colleges. The following is a copy of a score card 
for Dorset Horn sheep, that was adopted many years ago. 
It is given here on account of its concise form and simplicity 


of expression. 
Tue Dorset Horn SHEEP SCALE OF POINTS 


Score 
Perfect of 


Points scored score 


animal 
1. GENERAL APPEARANCE. Head well up, eyes bright and 
alert:-and standing square on lees... . oc so sci. ee 20 
2. Heap. Small, face white, nostrils well expanded, nose and 
ling pink tn G0ler 16 ec bot ietl: Be cet, A ete eee 5 
3. Horn. Neat, curving forward, and lightincolor......... 10 
4. Fore Tor. Good, and well covered on belly and legs.... 10 
5. Neck. Short and round, set well on shoulders.......... 5 
6. Cuest. Broad, full, brisket well forward............... 10 
7. Back. Broad, straight, with well sprung ribs........... 15 
8. QUARTERS. Heavy, square, set on short, straight legs, well 
NEGRI Behe o'e nl ow eee AE I re ea ns eas ee ete & eral: Cale 10 
9. Lees. White, with small, light colored hoof............ - 
10. Woot. Medium quality and good weight, presenting an 
even, smooth, white SUreee 2... dn bs coe oink ee 10 
AE OGM Sa Sos ae ce ee oe el i ee 100 


An example of the use of a scale of points is necessary, 
and this of the Dorset will serve our purpose. Under 
‘“‘Points scored,” it will be seen that there are ten things to 
which attention is directed. Each of these ten is given a 
brief description and a number, which represents what the 
stockman calls “points.’”?’ The number 20 in the column 
named “Perfect score” means that a Dorset sheep that 
would exactly answer to the description of general appear- 
ance there given would score 20, or would be perfect in this: 
one respect. If in scoring a sheep, one found that in his 
opinion each part was perfect, then he should give the full . 
value in the blank space for “‘score of animal.” In such a 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 131 


ease the sheep would score 100, and hence by the scale of 
points would be perfect. But we have no such animal. It 
is rarely that one will score 90 points or above, and but few 
grade as high even as 80. Suppose you were scoring a Dor- 
set ram. As you examine the animal, you are sure to find 
him inferior to perfection in some points. He may carry 
his head perfectly, the eye may be above criticism, but you 
may find good reason to criticise the way he stands on his 
feet. He may not be bad in this respect; so you give him 
17 points for general appearance instead of 20. Narrow 
chests are very common, and our Dorset may show by the 
close way his front legs are placed together, that he lacks a 
broad, full chest; so after consideration you give him 7.5 
points for this part, which you think is all the credit he should 
receive. Thus one goes through the list of points and 
examines the animal systematically and critically, putting 
down the score from part to part, finally adding the column 
made, and so getting the total points scored for comparison 
with the perfect Dorset. 

The value of the score card lesson is seen in several ways. 
It trains the student to examine the animal systematically, 
and impresses on the mind the things that should be 
considered in studying form and character. Attention is 
first called to the animal as a whole, when character is con- 
sidered, as it can be studied at no better time, and then the 
different parts in proper order are carefully examined and 
rated. So one learns to make first a general examination, 
to get the balance of parts, the breed character, the size, 
quality, and condition, and thus measure up the entire animal 
from the standpoint of appearance. Then comes the detailed 
study of the head, next the neck, then the breast, and so on. 
The relationship of each part to the other must be considered 
so as to get a fair idea of the strong and weak points in the 


132 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


conformation. Thus systematic study becomes a feature 
in the use of score cards. 


The relative value of the parts is also shown in the use 
of the score card. When a specimen of a breed is being 
studied, we must remember that we are using a scale of 
points that has probably been adopted, after much careful 
study and comparison, by a committee of experienced men 
most familiar with that breed. Thus we get the best measure 
possible of this breed, and in the scale we learn what 
parts are most highly regarded, and which least. If we 
are using a score card such as relates to a fat hog, where 
breed is not considered, such as is in common use in the ag- 
ricultural schools, then we find that experts have made 
this up so as to give the proper values to the different 
parts of the body. No matter what kind of score card 
we are using, we may be quite sure that it will give a recog- 
nized place and value to each part or group of parts. The 
various breeds of live stock of much the same type have 
scales of points that place similar values on what may be 
called their most important characters. For example, all 
the dairy cattle score cards give many points to udder, etc., 
while those of beef cattle give special credit for breadth and 
thickness of back. 

In the use of figures in scoring, it is not well to wie 
any part in too fine a degree. Suppose the ear is given one 
point. When so small a number is used to indicate per- 
fection, grades of .25 or .50 or .75 may be used to express the 
score for that part, and .25 of one per cent is small enough 
to enable one to express reasonably accurate valuation of the 
ear. In any event, decimals should be used, and the person 
scoring should have his column of figures properly arranged, 
with the decimal points in line. When common fractions 


en Yih ta 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 133 


are used, the column of figures do not stand out so clearly 


in contrast as when decimal fractions are used. 

The number of points cut is an expression sometimes used 
when referring to the number of points deducted from per- 
fection. If a part in the perfect score is credited with 10, 
and one gives the animal in question 7 points, then we say 
it has been cut 3 points. Some young judges often write 
the 3 on the card, instead of the 7. This is wrong. The 
points cut should not be written down. 


The value of the score of an animal should not be regarded 
too highly. The chief importance of the score card lies in 
the first lessons in judging, in which the different parts of the 
animal, their location and relative value are impressed on the 
mind. However, it is difficult to score an animal satisfac- 
torily under the varying conditions of living flesh. Today 
we may score an animal 75, and tomorrow perhaps 71. The 
horse we scored yesterday may show more character and 
style today than he did 24 hours ago. We do not know how 
to express in cold figures these things we see in the beast 
before us. We can tell what we see, and if we have two or 
more animals before us for judgment, it may be an easy 
thing to place them in their relative order of merit, and with 
good reasons. Yet these reasons can not be so clearly 
shown by a column of figures on a score card. On various 
occasions efforts have been made to judge animals on the 
basis of the scale of points, and to make show-ring awards 
accordingly. This plan has been carefully tried by many of 
our best judges, and has very generally proved unsatis- 
factory, and for the reason given. ‘Today the scoring method 
is generally discarded, except at poultry shows, and here it 
has given such dissatisfaction that it has been abolished in 
many cases. In spite of this criticism, we must not lose 


134 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


sight of the value of the scale of points as a standard, and 
what it may teach. 

Judging by comparison is the next step to be taken after 
a few lessons with the score card. This means keeping in 
one’s mind the essential features of the scale of points, and 
then studying one or more animals of a, kind and placing 
mental values on the subject or subjects examined. A per- 
son should make himself familiar with the different types or 
breeds that he is interested in, and at every opportunity give 
personal study to individual animals. In a matter of com- 
parison, it is necessary to keep in mind the important 
features to be considered, and then judgethe animals as intelli- 
gently as possible. In judging by comparison, it is custom- 
ary to line up the horses or cattle or sheep side by side, so 
that they will face in the same direction. Hogs are usually 
examined in small groups, being kept together with the help 
of hurdles.* The front feet should stand slightly higher 
than the hind feet, and there should be space enough for the 
judge to pass easily between the animals to make his inspec- 
tion. ‘Thecenter of an open space, with a firm, clean floor, 
is most desirable. 

When the heads are lined up, the other parts are in the 
best positions for inspection. The judge then begins his 
comparison, first walking around the line of animals and 
noting from different points of view the general comparison 
of one with another. The judge must necessarily place first 
in rank the animal that shows the most breed or type char- 
acter, that has the most complete balance of parts, the most 
perfection in various details, and the least number of faults. 


Emphasis, however, must be placed on the special purpose © 


of the animal under consideration, as weight in heavy draft 


*A hurdle is similar to a small section of a light panel fence. Some hurdles - 


weigh only 3 or 4 pounds and are easily handled. Others may be longer and heavier, 
requiring two men to handle, : 


basi. Pi 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 135 


horses, udder development with dairy cows, or character 
of fleece with Merino sheep. For example, most of the 
scales of points of the breeds of dairy cattle devote about 
14 of the total scale, emphasizing the size, form, etc., of 
the udder, teats, milk veins, and wells. Such special fea- 
tures must be kept in mind. 

In placing the animals, it becomes a question of prompt 
decision in sorting out and getting the individuals in one, 
two, three order of relative merit. In large rings at live 


Fig. 68. Students judging a ring of horses by comparison. Photograph by 
author. 


stock shows, judges often divide the animals into two groups, 
those that they consider worthy candidates for the prize 
list, and those that are not. The former group is frequently 
referred to as “‘the short leet,’”’ a British expression for the 
choicer individuals. After the short leet is selected, the 
other group is usually sent to the stalls. In most compara- 
tive rings, itis not difficult to find quickly the best animal; 
but as one deals with the stock farther down the line, 


136 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


it becomes necessary to decide on the relative demerits 
rather than the merits of each, and to place highest those 
that show the fewest undesirable features, a matter in which 
judges sometimes differ quite a bit. Naturally we do not 
all see things alike; and so the judge who does his work care- 
fully and comes to a decision independently of the views of 
others, is assuming his responsibility in the right way. 

Keeping notes on animals under comparison is a very good 
plan. It is customary in classes of stock judged by students, 
to give each animal a number or letter. These marks may 
be written on common gummed paper labels, and stuck on 
the rump. Then on a small card or folded slip of paper, 
one may give space to each animal under its number, and 
make brief notes of certain features of importance. These 
notes are often instructive and suggestive, and aid the young 
judge in keeping things in mind. In the student’s judging 
contests of today, the boys are allowed to take notes in this 
way, and use them for reference up to the time of appearing 
before the judges to give their reasons. 

In discussing an animal being judged, it is desirable to do 
so briefly and clearly, emphasizing the important things, 
such as character, general conformation, quality, back, body 
capacity, chest development, or hind quarters. Much, 
of course, will depend on the special case in hand. Then 
if one is describing an animal, or is comparing two or more, 
the frequent use of such expressions as “‘he has a good back,” 
or ‘‘she has the best quality,” are to be discouraged. The 
words good or best in these cases really convey no specific 
information. Instead, if one says, ‘‘He has a long, wide, 
muscular back;” or ‘‘She excels the other in quality, as seen © 
in a fine, silky coat of hair and a mellow, elastic skin,’”’ then 
the reasons given will be clearer and convey more meaning 
than simply ‘‘good”’ and “best.” 


THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 137 


The decision of the judge is always open to criticism. 
Being- only human, we see things from different points of 
view; so why should we not differ? The courts do not all 
agree; as is often seen, one court reversing the decision of 
another. Two things, however, on the part of a judge are 
most important, one is honesty; the other is knowledge of 
his business. If one has these qualifications, and then 
comes to his decisions with independence, regardless of what 
anyone else thinks, his work as a judge will as a rule be satis- 
factory and his judgments will command respect. 


BY THE WAY, DO YOU RECALL 


1. The meaning of the word conformation? 
2. Why one man is a good judge and another is not? 
3. The advantage that has come to England from having many 
good judges of live stock? 
4. The condition under which the scale of points originated? 
5. The general application of the scale of points? 
6. How figures should be used in scoring? 
7. The chief importance of the score card? 
8. What is meant by judging by comparison? 
9. What to emphasize in judging dairy cattle? 
0. The most desirable method of discussing animal form? 
1. Some desirable qualifications for a judge? 


WOULD IT NOT INTEREST YOU TO KNOW 


12. Who are the most intelligent judges in your county? 

13. Who some of the judges were at your State Fair? 

14. Who judges grade and cross-bred fat cattle at the International 
Live Stock Exposition? 

15. On what basis men are selected as judges, especially at county 
fairs? 


CHAPTER VIII 
THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 


The exterior parts of the horse are referred to by horse- 
men, in terms not familiar to all. In order to judge intelli- 
gently and to use the score card, one should know the loca- 
tion and importance of these special parts. The accompany- 
ing illustration makes the location of many of these clear. 
Without going into too much detail, the following is given 
regarding some of the points least understood. 

The ears should be fine and not large for the animal, and 
be moderately close together. ‘They should be carried in an 
alert, pleasing manner, indicating good disposition. 

The poll is the top of the skull just back of the ears. 

The forehead is the space below the ears and above the 
eyes. A prominent forehead indicates intelligence. 


The cheek is the large flat side of the lower jaw. 


The nose is the more prominent part between eyes and 
nostrils. A wide nose goes with full breathing capacity. 


The muzzle includes the nostrils and mouth. Good 
feeders and animals of strong constitution usually have 
comparatively large muzzles. 


The lower jaw should be wide and strong. <A narrow jaw 
bespeaks a weak conformation and inferior feeding character. 


The crest is the curved line of the neck from the poll to 
the withers. Males should show some crest, but on the 
females this feature is not prominent. Stallions frequently 
have a thick, muscular neck, with a strong crest. This is a 
sign of masculinity, and is objectionable on mares. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 


139 


The throat latch is the part where the head and neck 
join .on the lower side. 
objectionable, indicating lack of freedom in breathing. 


Fullness and heaviness here are 


The shoulders extend from the side of the breast, sloping 
nearly to the top of the back. The upper portion of the 


10, 


CHNAO ONE 


. Mouth. 
. Nostril. 
. Chin. 


Nose. 
Face. 


. Forehead. 


Kye. 
ar, 


. Lower jaw: 
Throat latch, 
. Windpipe, 


Crest. 


. Withers, 


Fig. 69. 


Tue Pornts or THE Horse, 


. Shoulders. 
. Breast. 

. Arm. 

. Elbow. 


Forearm. 
Knee. 


. Cannon. 

. Fetlock joint. 
. Pastern, 

. Foot. 


24. Foreflank. 


. Heart girth. 
. Coupling. 


. Back, 


Loin. 


. Rear flank. 

. Belly. 

. Hip. 

. Croup or rump. 


ail. 


. Buttocks. 


35. Quarters. 


1. Thigh. 
. Stifle 

38. 
39. 


Gaskin, 


Hock. 


140 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


shoulder blade is wide and flat, and should be smoothly laid 
into the body. Muscles are attached to the shoulder blades 
and play an important part in ease of motion. A long, slop- 
ing, well laid-in shoulder gives the easiest and fastest motion. 

The withers, the crested, bony prominence between the 
shoulder tops, is the name given to the spine at this point. 

The arm is the wider, more muscular part just below the 
shoulder. The width and covering of muscle indicate its 


strength. 


Fig. 70. The position of the skeleton of the horse within the body. Repro- 
duced from “* Diseases of the Horse,’’ U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


The forearm lies just below the arm and extends to the 
knee, and should be long and broadly muscular. A thin, 
narrow forearm is a weak conformation. 


The knee should be broad in front, straight in position 
as viewed from in front, should have a good depth, and be 


well supported below. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 141 


The cannon bone reaches to the joint above the foot, and 
consists of a round-fronted bone, with two small bones back 
of it. There are two tendons lying between the front and 
rear bones. The correct shape for the cannon bone is short 
and somewhat flat, an important feature of a strong confor- 
mation. It is especially desirable that the bone below the 
knee be wide, furnishing a strong support for the knee. 

The fetlock joint, connects with the lower end of the 
cannon bone. This joint should be straight, deep through, 
and smooth. 

The pastern is in the main a combination of two short 
bones, and should stand at an incline, because it plays an 
important part in breaking the concussion which takes place 
when the horse is in motion. The shorter and more upright 
the pastern the more liable is the horse to have bone diseases 
and a hard gait. Carriage horses should have the pastern 
show a slope of about 45 degrees. Drafters are usually 
steeper of pastern than the light horse. The pastern is 
sometimes too long, and lacks the strength to support the 
body correctly. 

The foot consists of several parts. ‘The hoof proper is a 
~very tough, horny bone, and in form should be rather round, 
although the hind foot is never as round as is the one in 
front. The top of the hoof should not be narrow and small, 
but should have some fullness compared with the lower part. 
The back part of the hoof makes a sudden turn forward 
underneath, forming a V-shaped portion known as the frog. 
This frog is somewhat elastic, and acts as a buffer on the sur- 
face of the ground, which under natural conditions it should 
just touch. The frog should never be pared by the black- 
smith, excepting to remove tag ends or parts grown out of 
shape. A good frog saves the foot hard punishment on the 
road. The sole of the foot is the part between the outer 


142 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


wall of the hoof and the frog. This part is slightly concave 
or arched. The entire back part of the hoof is called the 
heel, and this should be neither low nor high, having only 


Fig. 71. THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
A: (a) Nail properly driven; (b) improperly 
en. 


2. A sound foot. 

3. A section across 2 at X. 

4. A contracted foot. 

4a. A section across 4 at X. 

5. A section across 7 at X. 

6. A sound but flat hoof. 

7. A badly contracted foot. 
Reproduced from Special Report on ‘‘ Diseases 
of the Horse.’’ U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
Plate 34, 1890. 


enough height above the 
ground to give the foot 
strength and _ protection. 
The heel should have 
about the same slope. as 
the front part of the hoof, 
which is about 45 to 50 
degrees. The hoof should 
be free of cracks and not 
be brittle, defects that are 
all too common. Most 
people prefer a dark-col- 
ored hoof, believing it 
tougher and less liable to 
break than a white one. 
The heart girth or 
chest is the circumference 
of the body just back of 
the shoulders. A deep, 
full chest indicates vigor 
and constitution. A de- 
pression back of the 
shoulders shows lack of 
room for those vital or- 
gans, the heart and lungs. 
The back should be 
straight and short, with 
the ribs widely arched. 


A considerable depression or sag of the back is a sign 


of weakness. The back extends from the lower end of the 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 143 


withers to a wide, somewhat level part called the loin. 

The loin is the broadest and flattest part of the back, 
and lies between the last rib and the point of the hips. The 
strength of back lies in the loin, which should be short, wide, 
and heavily muscled. A long, narrow loin is a sign of weak- 
ness and inability to stand up under severe work. 

The coupling is the space between the point of hip and 
the last rib. A short coupling indicates endurance. 

The hip is seen as a point more or less prominent on each 
side, just back of the coupling. The hips on mature females 
are usually more prominent than on the males. Symmetry 
of form calls for the hip to be nicely laid in, with a smooth 
covering of flesh. There are other good reasons for not 
having a wide placing of the points of the hips, which need 
not be discussed here. 

The croup, or rump, is the long, muscular development 
from the point of the hips to the setting on of tail. Great 
power and strength exist here, and so it is important that 
this part be long, wide, and fairly level. A steep rump is 
unsightly, and a narrow one has less muscle than a wide one 
equally long. Length here is also desirable as affecting 
‘speed. 

The thigh extends from the rump down to the large joint 
below, known as the hock. This part should be very mus- 
cular, and wide from the lower side of the croup to a joint 
below, called the stifle. The upper part of the thigh is wide, 
while the lower portion, often termed the gaskin, is long, 
narrow, and very muscular. From the point of the hip to 
the hock one should look for considerable length. 

The stifle joint is located in the front part of the thigh 
close to the body. This is comparable to the knee in the 
human skeleton. Some of the strongest muscles of the upper 
thigh are connected with this joint by means of tendons. 


144 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The flanks refer to the parts where the legs join with the 
body. The front flank is just back of the arm, while the hind 
flank is the high part of the side above and beyond the stifle. 
A low, full flank goes with large body capacity and constitu- 
tional vigor. Horses high in the flanks usually appear long 
of leg. 

The hock is the large joint about half way down the hind 
leg. ‘This is a very important part, and should be wide in 
front, deep through from front to rear, and should be lean: 
rather than fleshy. Large, heavy horses tend to have what 
are known as thick, meaty hocks. There are small bones in 
this joint, and they are most important in reducing the con- 
cussion which comes from the severe use thrown on the hind 
legs when in action. 


The general features of the cannon, fetlock joint, pastern, 
and foot in the front legs are essentially the same as those 
behind. However, the rear cannon bone is flatter and deeper 
from front to rear, and usually shows somewhat more length. 
The hind pasterns also are usually less sloping than those in 
front. 7 


The position of the horse at rest should show the feet 
squarely placed, and the legs as perpendicular as possible, as 
indicated by the position of the cannon bones. Horses’ 
legs may take a variety of positions. Sometimes they toe 
in, or perhaps toe out Insuch cases the legs are not straight. 
If the hocks nearly touch, then the hind feet usually point 
out; while if there is considerable width between the hocks, 
then the toes point in. A wide or bowed hock shows a 
very weak conformation, worse than one that is too close. 
Horsemen prefer the hocks to come close together rather 
than to be spread wide apart, for the closer position gives a 
better hock action. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 145 


The horse at the walk should follow a straight line on 
being led, not swinging the body to one side. The feet 
should be raised with snap, and carried forward and upward, 
and the knee and hock flexed, as it is termed. In this flexing 
movement, the foot describes a half circle before it strikes 
the ground. Heavy horses tend to swing the feet to one 
side, or paddle or wing, as it is sometimes called. When 


Fig. 72. A good attitude, and correct position of legs. Photograph by 
courtesy The Farmer. 


the feet in motion come too close together, the horse is said 
to “interfere,” that is, the hoof of one foot will strike the 
ankle of another and may cause lameness. As:the foot is 
raised, a person standing behind a horse in motion should be 


able to see the glisten of the shoe and note the carriage of the 
foot. 


146 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The movement of the feet in the trot is such that diago- 
nally opposite ones are moved in the same direction; that is, 
the front right and left hind feet move forward together. 
The trot is known as a diagonal gait. 

The movement of the feet in the pace shows the two legs 
on one aide of the body in like motion at the same time. The 
pace is a side gait, and pacing horses are sometimes called 
‘“‘side-wheelers.”’ 

The action of the horse is highly valued. A heavy draft 
horse that has a rapid and true walk will accomplish much 
more work than will the horse of slow movement. A fast 
trot is not necessary with the heavy horse; but when moving 


faster than a walk, a horse should carry his legs with spirit — 


and ease. A premium is always placed on the action of the 
carriage horse for the city coach trade, high knee and hock 
action being especially valued. The roadster or trotter of 
first class must have a long, active, true stride, such as always 
goes with superior speed. 

Quality in the horse is shown in the hair, the skin and 


bone, and in the general appearance. A fine, silky coat of . 


hair; a thin, mellow skin; and fineness of bone, are features 
that show refinement, or quality. Coarseness of head; 
large ears for the size of the body; wiry, heavy hair; and 
coarseness of bone, indicate lack of endurance and weakness 
of constitution. A large, coarse bone is more porous and 
less strong in proportion than one that is finer and smaller. 
Fineness and softness of skin is an indication of good secre- 
tions and healthy internal organs. If ample quality occurs, 
we get the most durability and stamina, or power of endur- 
ance. 

The disposition of the horse is usually seen in the promi- 
nence and character of the eye and the carriage of the ears. 
If the eye is prominent and the whites clear, and the expres- 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 147 


sion pleasant, the disposition will probably be good. A 
small, sunken eye indicates a bad temper. Ears that are 
carried erect or that point forward rather than backward 
show a good temper. If the ears lop about, there is evidence 
of laziness. 

The height of the horse is usually expressed in ‘‘ hands,” 
a hand being equal to 4 inches. The height is measured in 
a vertical line from the ground to the top of the withers. 
A horse 16 hands high would stand 64 inches from the ground. 

The weight of the horse, in a degree, indicates to what 
class he belongs. A mature horse weighing 2000 pounds 
would naturally be a heavy 
draft animal. If weighing 1000 
pounds, it might be one of sev- 
eral types. In Europe, the 
height of the horse rather than 
his weight is looked upon as of 
the most importance. Fie. 73. 


Age of the horse as 


: . shown by the teeth. 1% years 
The age of the horse 1s esti- old. Figs. 73-80 reproduced from 


. e he 2 h . a ” 
mated by an examination of BP ie eilungslehre des Pferdes 


the teeth. It requires some ex- 
perience to be quick in recognizing the age, which may be 
determined with fair accuracy up to eight years, after 
which it becomes a matter of 
guess work. The following items 
are the important guides to age. 
The colt’s teeth. Seven or 
eight days after birth, two in- 
cisor teeth appear at the front 
and middle of both upper and 
lower jaws. In the course of 
five or six weeks, two more teeth appear in each jaw, one 
tooth coming in on either side of the two already present. 


148 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Some time between the sixth 
and ninth month, two more ap- 
pear, one by the side of each 
outer tooth. ‘These six pairs are 
called nippers. ‘They are the 


milk teeth, and are only tem- 


Fig. 75. 314 years old. 


porary. They are not all equally 


level with one another at first, but in the course of 12 
months or so they become uniform on the surface. The 
outside of the tooth is a very hard, white enamel. This 


covers. a hard, ivory-like bone, 
while at the center is a soft, 
bony substance which more 
easily wears away, but is con- 
stantly renewed. The ends of 
the teeth have a ridged cutting 
surface, forming at the centers 
small depressions, or ‘‘cups,” 
marks by which the age is deter- 
mined. The cups in the central 
pair of nippers at first are 
dark of center; in the second 


Fig. 76. 4 years old. 


year they begin to wear light in color, and these cups 
become smaller than those of the other four. Similar 


Fig. 77. 5 years old. 


changes follow in order in the 
other pairs. : 

At three years of age, per- 
manent incisors or nippers be- 
gin to appear. These teeth are 
larger than the first ones, which 
were small but suited to the 
mouth of the colt. The first or 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 149 


central pair of temporary teeth 
is pushed out or aside by a pair 
of larger permanent ones. 

At four years, the second 
pair of nippers in each jaw of 
the colt gives way to two larger, 
permanent teeth. 

At five years, the last pair of 
colt’s teeth in each jaw is re- 
placed by permanent teeth. At this age, what are called 
tusks appear in the mouth of the male. These teeth have 
roundish points, and there are two in each jaw, one on a 
side, a short distance back of 
the front teeth. After the fifth 
year the age of the horse is de- 
termined by the appearance of 
the wearing surface of the teeth, 
each tooth having its age sur- 
face. 

At six years, the cups of the 

Fig. 79. 7 years old. two central teeth are worn off. 

At seven, the second pair shows the worn surface; and 

At eight, all the teeth have been worn about level, and 
the mouth mark loses its value. 

The six permanent teeth in 
each jaw at first meet each other 
in much the same position, the 
ends of the teeth coming full 
head on. As age increases, the 
teeth gradually take a more in- 
clined or slanting-out position in 
each jaw, so that they come to- 
gether at a sharper angle. The a Fie te wh = 


Fig. 78. 6 years old. 


150 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


older teeth are also more worn off at the surface, and are 
longer than the younger teeth. In horses from 12 to 16 
years of age, the ends of the teeth become somewhat three- 
sided. The following unique poem may assist some in 
keeping clear in mind the changes which take place in the 
mouth, by which the age of the horse may be decided. 


THe AGE OF THE HORSE IN VERSE.* 


Two middle nippers you behold 

Before the colt is two weeks old; 

Before eight weeks two more will come; 
Eight months, the “corners” cut the gum. 


The outside grooves will disappear 
From middle two in just one year; 
In two years, from the second pair; 
In three, the ‘“‘corners,”’ too, are bare. 


At two, the middle nippers drop; 

At three, the second pair can’t stop; 
When four years old the third pair goes; 
At five, a full new set he shows. 


The deep black spots will pass from view, 
At six years, from the middle two; 
The second pair at seven years; 

At eight, the spots each ‘“‘corner’ 


) 


clears. 


From middle nippers, upper jaw, 

At nine the black spots will withdraw; 
The second pair at ten are white; 
Eleven finds the ‘‘corners”’ light. 


*Biggle’s Horse Book, 1894, p. 115. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 151 


As time goes on the horsemen know 
The oval teeth three-sided grow; 
They longer get, project before 

Till twenty, when we know no more. 


The soundness of the horse is regarded as very important. 
Many unsound horses are bought by men who think them 
sound. Then when these men attempt to sell, these horses 
often show a great loss on the purchase price. Therefore, if 
one is to be a capable judge, he must be able to distinguish 
cases of unsoundness. This is not always easily done. 
Some forms are not clearly apparent until well established. 
If the respiration is not good, this is brought out in some form 
of work, such as trotting, hauling a load, ete. In the sale 
markets, horses are hitched to wagons with brakes, so that 
they may be required to make quite an exertion in moving 
along. 


Heaves is an unsoundness or trouble of the lungs which is 
brought on through dusty feed, bad ventilation, or indiges- 
tion. Broken wind or asthma is apparently much the same 
thing. When the horse expels wind from the chest, he lacks 
the muscular contraction of the lungs that attains with the 
sound animal, and makes a wheezing noise, which is some- 
times very loud. 


Roaring is another disease in which the horse makes a 
loud noise during breathing. The larynx is affected, but 
not the lungs. This is a paralysis of the nerves and muscles 
of the parts, which results in the noise in breathing. Roar- 
ing is manifested during exertion, yet a horse may be a 
roarer and be driven some distance without making much if 
any noise. The disease is one of progression, and gradually 
becomes worse. Roaring has always been considered incur- 

able until recently. Dr. Williams of Cornell University 


oe a a. 


152 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Fig. 81. The upper pic- 
ture shows a sound hock 
joint; the lower, one with a 
spavin. Reproduced from 
‘Diseases of the Horse,”’ 
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 


discovered a method of operating by 
which the roaring may be cured, and 
what is known as the Williams’ opera- 
tion is now performed with success in 
America and Europe. 

Spavin, also frequently called bone 
spavin, is usually found at the lower 
part of the hock joint, on the inside of 


| the leg. It is caused by a strain or 


injury, and consists of an accumulation 
of bony matter at the joint. This is 
shown in a more or less thickening of 
the part, as compared with the sound 
hock. The occurrence of the spavin 
is most easily seen by standing directly 
back of the horse, and viewing the parts 
from the rear. The spavin causes lame- 
ness and a stiff gait, and is regarded as 
a serious unsoundness. It greatly dam- 
ages the sale value and is more com- 
mon on light than on heavy horses. 


Curb is also an unsoundness of the 
hock. When sound, the back of the 
hock, slightly below the point, has rather 
a perpendicular or straight edge. If a 
curb exists, there is a bulging or out- 
ward curve a short distance below the 
point, that may be seen by standing 
opposite the hind leg. Hocks that do 
not have curbs, yet that tend to round 
out at this part of the leg, are said 
to have a curby conformation. Curbs 


| 
aa 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 153 


are due to strains, and while an unsoundness, are not of 
the more serious kind. | 

Bog spavin is a small, round form of tumor, located 
in the front and inner side of the hock. If pressed, it may 
appear on the outside and rear part of the hock. 

Thoroughpin is a swelling in the rear part of the hock 
at its thinnest point. Here, 
under ordinary conditions, the 
hock is curved to form grace- 
ful outlines with a pronounced 
depression. If thoroughpin 
occurs, a swelling will be no- 
ticeable on each side of the 
hock at this point. Bog spav- 
ins, thoroughpins, or a puffed 
condition about the hocks, are 
seen most frequently on large, 
heavy horses that have what 
are called thick, meaty hocks. 
Horse dealers are inclined to 
refer to these as. little puffs 
that will disappear with work, 
and so minimize their import- 


‘ Fig. 82. The hock from one side, 
ance. It is true that heavy showing bog spavin in front and curb 

. behind. Reproduced from ‘‘The Dis- 
horses that stand in the stable, eases of the Horse,” U. S. Dept. of 


frequently swell in the lower Agriculture. 


half of the legs, a condition that exercise removes, but bogs 
and thoroughpins are distinct unsoundnesses that exercise 
will not drive away, and that injure the sale value of the 
horse. 

Sidebone is found in the rear part of the front foot on 
the coffin bone at the crown or top of the hoof. It is due 
to the hardening of cartilages, whereby they take on a bony 


ore 


154 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


character, which causes lameness. In well-defined cases, 
the sidebones appear as hard projections just beneath the 
skin, and can be plainly seen or felt. In their early stages, 
sidebones are not so easily discovered, and one may buy a 
horse that cgay sound, yet in a short time the trouble will 
become noticeable. Sidebones 
are most common on draft 
horses, and on those used on 
hard roads or pavements. 
This unsoundness is severely 
~ discriminated against and 
shrewd men will not buy 
horses that have sidebones. 


Fig. 83. Sidebone shown at A on 


bone in the foot of a horse. Repro- . : 
duced from ‘‘ Diseases of the Horse,’’ Ring bone IS a bony de- 


Oye: Dep a posit which in the form of a 
ring encircles the upper part of the foot or the pastern. On 
old horses this bony enlargement sometimes becomes very 
conspicuous. It may be due to hard labor, strains, bruises, 
etc., and if well developed, causes serious lameness. 


Fig. 84. Ring bone above foot, as indicated, and spavin at lower part of 
ere near point of arrow. Reproduced from Circular 29, Purdue Experiment 
ation. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 155 


Splint is a bony projection or roughness usually found 


_on the inside of the splint bone, which lies close in with the 


cannon bone of the front leg, and is commonly regarded as 
the cannon. This is not considered a distinct unsoundness, 
although very common and referred to quite frequently. 
Splints sometimes appear on young horses and then disappear 
with the mature development of the animals. Splints may 
be easily seen while standing in front and looking at the inside 
of the legs. 

Quarter-crack is a splitting or cracking of the bony 


part of the hoof, usually of the front foot. This crack may 
extend the entire length of 


the hoof, and be so bad as to 
require fastening the parts 
with metal clamps or nails to 
keep the cracks from extend- 
ing or widening. Horses with 
brittle or soft hoofs are most 
affected with this trouble. 
Quarter-crack may develop so 


85. Quarter crack. Repro- 


far as to break through the decd from ‘‘ Diseases of the Horse,’’ 


. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
lower part of the foot and 


cause serious injury and _ lameness. 


Toe-crack is similar to quarter-crack, but is usually on 
the hind foot, in the front part, and often extends the length 
of the hoof. 

Founder, or laminitis, as the veterinarian calls it, is an 
unsoundness of the feet. It is due to an inflammation of the 
delicate tissues within the hoof, and is usually found in the 
front feet. It is caused by a variety of conditions, such as 
overwork, overfeeding, exposure, ete. If well established it 
is incurable and causes the horse much suffering. The 
common symptom of this trouble is lameness, which is 


156 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


often very severe. When standing, the horse as a rule 
reaches the feet somewhat forward, resting the weight upon 
the heel. The hind feet, which carry most of the weight, 
are placed well under the body. The more perfect the 
foot, the less liable the horse is to suffer from founder. 
A very flat foot, or one with very high hoof walls, or a 
foot that is quite contracted, is liable to be affected with 
this trouble. 


Navicular disease is an inflammation that also occurs 
in the foot, affecting the sesamoid sheath and the navicular 
bone. This occurs most commonly with race horses, and 
those having great knee action. Usually but one forefoot 
suffers from the disease, which is caused by concussion and 
shock to the affected parts. The early stages of the disease 
are not commonly noticed. Attention is first directed to 
the “pointing” of the foot, which is extended forward, the 
weight resting on the toe, and as the trouble develops, lame- 
ness is noticed, which increases with use of the horse. 
But few cases of navicular disease recover. 

Cocked ankle, or knuckling, is a partial dislocation of 
the pastern or fetlock joint, in which case the pastern becomes 
more perpendicular than usual, throwing the joint forward 
out of natural position. This is not always an unsoundness, 
but is a defect, in that it causes stumbling and clumsy action. 


There are some other forms of unsoundness that 
are not especially common. There are also some diseases 
that become chronic as external features, such as fistula and 
poll evil. These two are manifested by swellings and finally 
running sores at the withers or poll, as the case may be. The 
unsoundnesses described, however, are those of common 
occurrence, and are most likely to attract attention. 


THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 157 


IN DISCUSSING THE POINTS OF THE HORSE 


. Where is the muzzle, and why should it be of good size? 
. What kind of shoulder is most desirable? 

. Locate and describe the cannon bone. 

. Explain why the pastern should be sloping. 

. Describe the frog and its use. 

. Discuss good and bad croup conformation. 

. Locate the hock, and discuss its form. 

. Explain the movement of the leg. 

. Discuss differences of action of coach horse and roadster. 
10. What is meant by a “‘hand?”’ 

11. Explain the meaning of milk teeth, and their occurrence. 
12. What are the cups”: F 


CONDO r WN FE 


A FEW OBSERVATIONS WORTH MAKING 


13. Compare ‘‘points” on the home farm horses. 

14. Compare horses on the town streets. 

15. Examine feet when at rest. 

16. Observe movements of the feet of horses driven on the road. 

17. Inquire of blacksmiths if they shoe to affect the action. 

18. Examine the teeth of colts and older horses, and obtain practice 
in judging age. 


CHAPTER IX 
JUDGING THE HORSE 


The judging of carriage or light harness horses is done 
on the basis that they are valued for speed and the drawing 
of carriages and lighter vehicles. As stated in Chapter VI, 
this type of horse is comparatively light of weight, is long 
and narrow rather than short and thick, yet has a muscular 
appearance. In this class we find somewhat striking dif- 
ferences in type, as is seen by comparing a high-class Hackney 


Fig. 86. A saddle horse type. Rex Chief A. Owned by Thomas Bass, of 
Missouri, Photograph by courtesy The Farmer, 


JUDGING THE HORSE 159 


with a light type of trotter. The American Saddle horse is 
also in this class, for he has many of the characteristics of 
form of the carriage horse. In order to cause no confusion, 
a score card for carriage horses is given on page 160. There 
will be no difficulty in most communities in finding horses 
of this type which may be used for score-card practice. This 
score card is the style commonly in use, containing a blank 
column in which the student as judge may write his own 
score, with another column in which the score of the 
instructor may be written for comparison. 

The height of the carriage horse may vary, but 16 
hands is a good standard, with 1100 to 1200 pounds for 
weight. . 

The general appearance of the carriage horse can best 

be studied by standing off some distance, such as ten feet 
or more, and making an inspection which will take in the 
entire form, the quality, and disposition. One should not be 
too close to the animal for this first examination. At a 
distance one also gets an impression of character, as shown 
by the head and neck, that cannot be so easily noticed 
otherwise. 
_« The head and neck of the carriage horse should show 
plenty of intelligence, style, and alertness. Refinement of 
head and ears is important, and the neck should have length 
and not be coarse. A straight line along the top of the neck, 
or a slight crest with the males, is looked upon with favor. 
A thin, ewe neck, one that is depressed on top, is undesirable, 
and is unpopular among buyers. 

The fore quarters of the carriage horse should show a 
smooth, well laid-in, yet muscular shoulder. While great 
strength is not essential, a wide, strong, muscular arm, and 
long, wide-topped forearm are favored. What is called a 
clean, smooth, flat bone is a very important feature. Clean- 


160 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


CARRIAGE Horse Score Carp 


Raq ST Oe 
Stu- Cor- 
Perfect! gent’s | rected 


Seale of Points. 
score | score | score 


—— 


GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
Nore BRiGaT AnD WHIGHET 6.2 :ts te eae 


on 


bone and joints; disposition active and pleasant... 
HEAD AND NECK: 

Heap, well defined; forehead broad; eyes bright and 
prominent; muzzle fine, with large nostrils and! 
thin lips; ears of medium size, andalert.......... 

Neck, somewhat long and refined.................. 

FORE QUARTERS: 


> 
b=] 
iS 
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D 
= 
Oo 
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ct 
is] 
p 
Qu 
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DM 
lo) 
= 
ie) 
me 
Lom] 
fe) 
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iq?) 
be] 
= 
— 
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=) 
09 
~ bwhddbd wlr 


FEET, medium size, slope like pastern; horn dense; 

bees (ore Reel with... iter oot. Mar crate 

LeGs, properly placed, and not too close together.... 
BODY: 


tye eee eee ee Oe, 


REO Soe. wpe es ye eae ee 
iror large: heal wales)... oo, wee eee 
LrGs, properly placed for rapid speed, not too close 
COCR? Ses Shs Win ok Le ee eee 
ACTION: 
WatLK, elastic, quick, balanced.:.................). 
Trot, rapid, straight, with long stride.............. 1 


OC fF Ww Wad WwW nwo eo whe BWA 
e 


ne ee ee ee ee ree 


os 


JUDGING THE HORSE | 161 


ness and lightness of limb are much valued by buyers of this 
class of horses. Strength and quality go with legs of this 
kind. 

The body of the carriage horse will appear deep but not 
thick, and will at its best have a sleek, well-rounded appear- 
ance. By standing off at one side, the judge will get a better 
view of proportions, and the fullness of chest, and depth of 
both front and hind flanks will be easily seen. A view from 
squarely in front will show the prominence of breast, and the 
thickness and depth of body below the placing of neck, 
which should be smoothly blended into the body. There 
is quite a good deal of variation in the withers of driving 
horses. They should not be very sharp, but fairly well 
muscled and not appear too prominent. Notice if the back 
is strong and well carried, with the loins broad and not much 
depressed below the level of the croup. The well-turned 
carriage horse will show a fullness of body from various 
points of view. The greater speed he is capable of making, 
the more muscular and angular he will appear. This is 
illustrated by comparing a carriage horse and a working 
trotter, each being about the same size, but used for a dif- 
ferent purpose. 

The hind quarters of the carriage horse show power. 
As one stands at one side, the length of croup, and its posi- 
tion is easily seen. A long, strong, high rather than low 
croup is desired, with the tail having a free, easy, and some- 
what high carriage. The length from the hips to the point 
of the hocks should be considerable. 

The distance from the hind flank diagonally across to the 
setting on of the tail also should be comparatively long. As 
one stands behind, he should be able to observe some thick- 
ness below the tail, where the hind legs merge together into 
the thick, muscular quarters. A driving horse is not likely 


162 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


to be too thick in the quarters. As one views the horse from 
behind, the legs should reach back, with the hocks separated 
about four inches, and the lower thighs showing a strong 
muscular development from both rear and side views. At 
the stifle jomt, where the upper and lower thigh connect, 
fullness rather than depression should occur. The hocks 
should be inspected from the front, at one side, and from 
behind. It is important that they be clean, well-turned, and 
straight. Careful examination should be made of this part, 
for the hocks require much study. ‘The occurrence of bone 
and bog spavins here, and often a puffy condition that 
is objectionable, may escape notice. 

The legs of the horse must be inspected from in front and 
from one side. A true carriage, in any event, is important. 
Standing in front enables one to see the straightness of limb, 
and in a way that shows the relation of each leg to its mate. 
From this view we judge whether the ankles will interfere 
when the horse is in motion, or whether or not a true gait is 
possible. From one side we note the position of the legs, to 
determine balance of action. If front and hind legs are 
tucked too much beneath the body, they are liable to come 
in contact with each other when in rapid action. If there is 
too much stretch and separation between the limbs in front 
and behind, then the action will lack power. In a natural 
pose at rest, the front legs will incline very slightly under 
the body, with the hind legs correspondingly extended behind. 
The picture on page 145, although of a draft horse, il- 
lustrates this position. 

A foot inspection of the horse begins with the foot at 
rest and in a natural position. Thus one is able to note the 
form, the placing on the ground, shape of heel, and the upper 
condition of foot, with its relation to the pastern and to the 
fetlock joint. The foot, however, should be examined on its 


JUDGING THE HORSE 163 


under side, and so must be raised for inspection. The fore 


foot is usually started easily by running the hand nearest 
the horse down the shoulder and arm to the back of the 
cannon, and pressing on the tendons with the ends of the 
fingers, raising the leg at the same time, using the other 
hand to catch hold of the hoof as it is raised by the horse. 
With one hand the hoof may be easily held, while with the 


Fig. 87. Examining the front foot of horse, showing method of holding. 
Photograph by the author. 


other, any accumulated material under the foot may be 
removed by the use of a small pick of some sort. One may 
then easily examine the lower part of the foot. The hind foot 
is examined somewhat differently. If wishing to inspect the 
left hind foot, the left hand is placed on the croup and quictly 
slipped down over the thigh to the muscle just above the 
hock, where a firm pressure with the fingers is given. At the 
same time the right hand is placed upon the pastern, and the 


164 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


~ foot and leg firmly but quietly raised upward and backward, 
reaching away from the body. This brings the hoof in 
front of the examiner, with its lower surface facing to the 
rear, and at about knee height. No great effort should be 
made in raising the feet, for the horse will easily support him- 
self on his three other limbs. Young horses require more 
patience than old ones 
in foot examination, but 
after a few shoeings, 
with horses of good dis- 
position no trouble may 
be expected. It is wise 
to move with care about 
the hind legs, especially 
directly in the rear, to 
avoid the chance of being 
kicked. 

The study of action . 
is most important with 
the driving horse. How 
high a valuation should 
be given to the gait will 

Fig. 88. Showing correct position for depend upon the use of 
pier ae eRe the hind foot. Photo- the horse, and the kind 

of shoes he has on his 
feet. All carriage horses, and race horses in particular, 
are so shod as to regulate their action, if used by men 
who know the relation of form and weight of shoe to foot 
and leg movement. A fancy driver should.show a snappy, 
stylish action, with the knees and hocks carried rather high - 
and strong. A roadster will show a longer, more powerful, 
yet plainer gait, with not so high or short movement. W hen 
action is being inspected, the horse should first be led at a — 


JUDGING THE HORSE 165 


walk in a_ direct line toward and then away from the 
judge, who should carefully note the trueness of 
movement of the limbs and the way the feet are carried. 
Next, the horse should pass by at a walk, so that the inspec- 
tion may be made from one side, to observe the freedom of 


Fig. 89. Queen Pandora, an example of knee action. Owned by Mrs. C. C. 
Fillers. Photograph by courtesy of Bit and Spur. 


Fig. 90. An example of a long, powerful stride in case of a light harness horse, 
Notice but one foot is touching the ground, 


166 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Fig. 91. Study the action as the horse comes toward you standing directly 
in front. 


Fig. 92. Study the action as the horse leaves you, standing directly behind. 


Fig. 93. As the horse goes by at one side, note the knee and hock action. 
Photographs by courtesy of Purdue University School of Agriculture, 


JUDGING THE HORSE 167 


: movement, and flexing of knees and hocks. The next step 


will be to require the horse to go and come at a gait faster 
than a walk, the judge assuming the same positions as 
before while the walking gait was being studied. Seeing the 
horse at the walk and trot, or other rapid movement, will 
enable him to draw a conclusion as to the merits of the gait. 
As 20 points are credited to the action of the carriage horse 
on the score card, it may be seen that this feature is highly 
valued. Persons differ in their appreciation of action, and 
some are naturally much better judges than others. How- 
ever, if one will study the action from the three points of view 
mentioned, «one willsoon begin to see how horses differ in this 
regard. 


The judging of the draft horse is conducted in the same 
manner, in many respects, as with the carriage horse. The 
general methods of study are the same. The purposes of 
the drafter, however, are different, and one must have in 
mind at all times draft size and conformation. The follow- 
ing score card on page 168 is arranged for a study of the 
horse of draft type. 


In the study of draft conformation, emphasis must be 


placed on two features, weight and conformation. The size 


must be large and massive, and the nearer the weight to 
1800 or 2000 pounds, the truer will be the draft form. An 
examination from any point of view will show this horse to 
be deep and thick, both at the ends and in the middle, witha 
compact, powerful body set on rather short legs. ‘There are 
some details the student should keep in mind in this exami- 
nation. 


The head and neck will show considerable size, without 
the delicate chiseling of head of the lighter horse. ‘The neck 
will be heavily muscled and moderately short. 


168 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Drart Horse Score Carp 


Seale of points 


GENERAL APPEARANCE: 

NOTE HEIGHT...... weight...... 1600 lbs, or more 

Form, low set, massive in proportion............... 

Qua.ity, showing refinement in head, clean bone and 

Solita, fine Ban AE der. nas se ee ee 
HEAD AND NECK: 

Heap, lean, medium size; forehead broad; eyes bright 
and prominent; nostrils large; lips even; muzzle 
fine; ears medium size and well carried; disposi- 
tion active and pleasant: occ. coi se no eee 

NEckK, strongly muscled, carried high, not thick at 
threat “late 2s i. eh soe eee. wae ee 

FORE QUARTERS: 

SHOULDERS, sloping, smooth, well setin back......... 

ARMS, short and wide; forearm, long, widely muscular 

KNEES, wide in front, ‘straight, deep through........ 

CANNONS, short, inclined to be flat, lean............ 

FETLOCKS, wide, straight; pasterns oblique, strong .. 

Fret, large, round, uniform; horn dense; frog large; 
heel wige ti. oe eee ee ee 


BODY: 
Crear geen, wiee, Taw. cy Sovak coe eee 
Back, broad, short, level; ribs long, well sprung; loin 
Wie: Abrams 2555 SR eed w cc ee ee 
WAWpERLINE,  NABES IAW so oa... 6 sg wee a ne AR ee 
HIND QUARTERS: 
RISER, SHIGOON IGGL ois a on 6 CR OO ee 
Crovp, long, level, wide; tail attached high.......... 
TuicHs, long, muscular; quarters heavily muscled; 
lower thighs wide, strong. . 
Hocks, wide, deep, clean cut, straight, well supported 
CANNONS, short, wide, strong.. 
FETLOCKS, wide, straight; pasterns ‘oblique, ‘strong. . 
Feet, large, round, uniform; horn dense; frog large: 
BEE WIE oo. ar ee seo alot in cde Came se a eee 
Lzes, short, carried in good form...............+.+: 
ACTION: 
Ware ire. “elacshic, eels. oie: «sy» 6ccie eee 
‘T not, active for weight, rerular $3.2. JS eS e 


Toval. seere 2 82... bet ws oe ee eee 


IN AMERS Ch Ne eo oS ce oc ee he ee eR BREED..... 
CP WIT cS ko eb ko ewe go Dw bs pam b Sm alle ele leig mo 6 ei: ae veel ne 
Seetbaieies W e oe, cl Os Oe a os a Sawer kee ee DATE. 2... oe ces cee 


Perfect d 


score 


PO UN WNOD FPN FORD WH FO WNHNWNH NW CO 


Stu- 


score 


Cor- 


ent’s | rected 


score 


_ JUDGING THE HORSE 169 


The shoulders of the draft horse are usually less sloping 
than those of the lighter type, and are not laid back in quite 
as smoothly. The slower, more moderate draft action is 
associated with this upright form of shoulder. 

The cannons of the drafter incline to be somewhat thick 
and round, especially in front. There is no danger of their 
being too flat or too short, and 
emphasis should be placed on 
this. 

The pasterns of the draft 
horse often appear short and 
rather erect. ‘To give the easiest 
movement, they should have fair 
length, and a slope of about 45 
degrees. Some draft breeds have 
a longer pastern than do others, 
as for example the Clydesdale, 
which is noted for length and 
springy character in this respect. 
A short, stubby pastern is very 
undesirable, and goes with a 
hard gait that punishes the feet 
and causes trouble. Win 94. Kk diets. bottle 

The feet of the draft horse  ¢y°ellent position from, the front, 

must show considerable size. 
The forefeet in particular should not look too small in pro- 
portion to the rest of the body, and it is well to emphasize 
the quality of the hoof. The feet of horses of this type, 
especially those in front, are subject to severe strains, due 
to the great weight placed on them and the hard work on the 
road. This part should be most carefully examined. ‘The 
old English saying, ‘‘No feet, no horse,’ has no greater 
application than with the drafter. 


170 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The hind quarters of the draft horse especially signify 
power. ‘Therefore great length and breadth of the croup 
provide for thick powerful muscles. As one looks at this 
part, he should be impressed with the power there available. 
A common feature of the draft horse at this point is steepness 
of croup. This is easily seen whether one stands at one side 
or looks from behind. We do not have much information 
on the difference in power be- 
tween horses with steep croups 
and those having them more 
level, but it is generally agreed 
that the most beautiful confor- 
mation goes with the more level 
condition. The greater the 
length and the more heavily the 
muscling from the hips to the 
hock, the more powerful will be 
the croup conformation. 

The legs of the drafter should 
not appear too wide apart at 
either hock or knee. Too much 
spread is a greater indication of 
weakness than is closeness. The 


Fig. 95. A draft horse from : : 
the rear, with the legs too wide limbs should come down In a 


apart. Photograph by theauthor.  ell_nlaced position, 40. Siam 


under somewhat at each corner of the body, as it were. 
In viewing the horse from in front, one is inclined to look 
for too great width, such as goes with a stiff or clumsy gait. 

The action of the draft horse is studied in the same way 
as with the driver. More value, however, is in this case 
given to the walk than to a faster gait. A heavy draft horse 
is rarely required to move faster than a walk. However, he 
should have a quick walk, and be able to move four miles an 


ary 
: : 


JUDGING THE HORSE 171 


hour in a free, easy manner. Many heavy horses tend to carry 
the feet to one side somewhat when in motion. This is in 
a measure due to the straight, open-topped shoulder. When 
watching the horse in action, look for a strong, only moder- 
ately high knee and hock movement, but do not look for 
much speed. The heavy horse, however, inclines to drag 


his feet, and this should 
be watched for. As one 
stands behind, he should 
easily see the glisten of 
the shoe as each foot is 
raised. There are just 
as wide extremes in ac- 
tion among draft horses 
as among carriage horses, 
but not so much should 
be expected from the 
former as the latter. 
Opportunities to study 
horses are frequent, eith- 
er in the country or in 
town. If one is observ- 
ant of the horses that 
are constantly passing, 
much information of val- 
ue will reward the effort. 
Comparisons may be 
repeatedly made, for 


Fig. 96. Powerful draft horse confor- 
mation from behind. The camera being nea- 
rer the hind legs than the front ones, the for- 
mer appear much too long and out of propor- 
tion. Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 


two-horse teams always provide such an opportunity, while 
in many public places two or more horses are frequently 
standing side by side, interesting subjects for comparison. 


172 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


AS A JUDGE OF HORSES, WHAT 


. Features are given the most credit in the carriage horse score 
card 
. Kind of head and neck should the carriage horse have? 

. Is the best method of inspecting the legs? 

. Manner of front foot examination is desirable? 

Kind of action will be shown by a fancy driver? 

Important differences exist in carriage and draft-horse score 


Orr wn Ye 


mM 
~<a 


cards? 
Size is desirable in the draft horse? 

Slope should the pastern of the draft horse have, and why? 
Description can you give of the croup of the draft horse? 
Importance should be given draft horse action? 


—_ 
Peele ees 


FOR OUTSIDE OBSERVATION AND STUDY 


11. Make or get some score cards, and score a few of the horses at 
home or of the neighbors. 

12. Get up a small horse show among the neighbors and have a 
judging contest. Interest the local horsemen. 

13. Learn, if possible, who owns the best type of stallion in the 
community. Why is he best? 

14. Report on the horse judging at some fair, if you have oppor- 
tunity. 


CHAPTER X 
THE JUDGING OF CATTLE 


As has already been indicated in the discussion in Chap- 
ter VI, our domestic cattle may be sorted into different types 
and classes, according to their uses. However, it is not 
important that we go into detailed study in this large field. 
Special attention will be given to two types, such as are 


Fig. 97. Victor, grand champion steer at the 1911 International Live Stock 
Exposition. Shown by the Iowa State College. Photograph by courtesy 
The Farmer. 


most common over the country, namely, beef cattle and 
dairy cattle. If one has a clear understanding of these, he 
will have but little difficulty in becoming acquainted with 
the variations to be found outside of these two  well- 
established forms. 


174 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 


The form of the beef animal, as indicated by the score 
card which follows, should show breadth, depth, and com- 
pactness. Then if this includes an excellent degree of fat- 
ness over the body, known as condition, the butcher will 
obtain from such a carcass the greatest percentage of the 
most valuable cuts. Some writers on live stock have com- 
pared the body of fat cattle to a rectangle, when viewed from 
one side. The body of the animal, excepting the head, neck, 
and legs, would very well fill a rectangular form. Viewed 
from either the front or 
the rear, the body should 
fill a square. Long ago 
English writers made 
use of this illustration of 
correct beef cattle form, 
and judges of today 
very generally approve 
of the same description. 
Fig. 98. Diagram showing the way the If we examine a body 


carcass of fat cattle cuts into wholesale = Hl 
pieces, and comparative values. By courtesy that is described as 


The Farmer. 


“blocky,”’ it will — be 
noticed that those parts containing the highest priced 
meats are well developed. The part from the hips 
forward to the last rib comprises the loin. The highest 
priced meat is found here, and makes up about 17 per 
cent of the carcass. The section of the back and ribs 
from the loin up to the sixth rib, known as the rib or 
prime-of-rib cut, makes up about 9 per cent of the carcass, 
and is worth two or three cents less a pound than the loin. 
The rib part of the back at the shoulders makes up about 26 
per cent of the carcass, and is still cheaper than the prime- 


JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 175 


of-ribs. If we view the steer from behind, the rump and 
quarters fill out into one of the heaviest and meatiest parts, 
comprising 23 per cent of the carcass, and ranking third in 
value of the different cuts. Thus we see that the more com- 
pletely the frame of the animal is developed in these parts, 
and covered with a thick, smooth, uniform layer of good 
meat, the greater its value will be for beef. The head, 


Fig. 99. Feeling for thickness of flank of beef animal. Photograph by the 
author, , 


neck, belly part, and legs are rated as cheap meat, and there- 
fore these parts need not be heavily developed. The ani- 
mal with big paunch and long leg is discriminated against 
by buyers, who realize that in killing, considerable waste is 
sure to result. High-class fat cattle will kill out as much as 
70 per cent, or even more, carcass to offal, while a common 
or inferior animal of leggy conformation will dress around 50 


, \ 


176 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


per cent. Thus the butcher usually prefers to buy the better 
class of animals, which dress out 60 per cent or more. 

The condition of a beef animal refers to the covering of 
flesh or degree of fatness. ‘Thin animals are spoken of as in 
thin condition, while fat ones are in fat condition. ‘The con- 
dition is determined mainly by the eye of the judge. The 
well-fattened animal shows plumpness of body. His more 
exposed portions, like the hips and shoulder points, are 


Fig. 100. Feeling along the back of a steer to study depth of covering of flesh. 
Photograph by the author. 


covered with flesh. When a fat steer moves, the flesh about 
his breast and in his flanks shows more movement than is 
seen in a thin-fleshed animal. The hand may also assist the 
eye in inspecting fat cattle. When using the hand, the ends 
of the fingers are kept together, and are pressed along the © 
middle of the back and on the sides over the ribs. The 
thickness and firmness of covering is easily determined by the 
touch. A mellow, yet firm resistance to the hand pressure 


JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 177 


should be felt. A common custom among buyers of fat 
cattle.is also to feel the covering of the end of the rump and 
the point of the shoulder, and to grasp in the hand the hind 
flank, which should be low and full in a well-finished beast. 
A thin, hard covering at these points shows that the ainmal 
lacks in covering of flesh. | 

The indications of quality in beef cattle are fineness of 
bone; a silky, heavy coat of hair; a mellow, elastic skin; and 


Fig. 101. Handling the hide to study thickness and quality. Photograph by 
author, 


refinement, as seen in the head in particular, and in the entire 
form in general. Large ears, heavy bones and joints, a hard 
thick skin, and coarse wiry hair are all evidences of a poor 
digestive capacity and lack of quality. In the case of beef 
cattle, smoothness and uniformity of covering are also indi- 
cations of quality. In the carcass, fineness of grain of flesh 
and a good distribution of fat particles among the fibers, are 
measures of the quality of the meat. If the ribs and back 


178 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


have lumps or rolls of fat, and the rump is also rough, then 
the quality of carcass will be of inferior grade. Such a con- 
dition should be easily observable. 

A scale of points for fat cattle is here given. This is made 
somewhat brief, but covers the important features. 


A Score Carp For Fat CatTriLe 


‘ Stu- Cor- 
Scale of points Perfect | gont’s | rested 


score 
score score 


GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
S1zE AND WEIGHT, score according to age. Example: 
12 mos., 850 lbs.: 30. mos., 1500 Ibst:s 2c se 6 
Form, top and underline straight; broad, deep, com- 
pact, lowsset,’ notopaunmehy. . oc). 10 
Qua ity, refined, as shown by fine bone; mellow, elas- 
tic hide; soft, silky hair; clean cut lige: 205 oo 10 
CONDITION, deep, even covering of firm, mellow flesh, 
free from patches and Trolls... oo oy bake ea 10 
HEAD AND NECK: 
Mvzz.eE, broad; nostrils large; face short............ 
Eyes, large and placid; forehead broad.............. 
‘Ears, of medium size and not coarse................ 
Neck, thick and short, neat at throat......... 
FORE QUARTERS: 
SHOULDERS, well placed, smoothly covered, nicely 
Stted ‘to: necie: a Sou. coe: ha ce eee be. baie 
BRISKET, wide showing full breast, not much dewlap 
Lees, straight, short, wide apart, shank fine ........ 
BOL ; 
Cunst, deep, wide: pitth Taree. oo Se 
Back, broad, straight, thick and smoothly fleshed... 
or, thick: broads 0005. 5 ois oe eee ee eee 
Riss, long, well sprung, thickly and smoothly covered 
PEAGER: OL... i SRR ewe wee eee ce ae eee ee eee 
HIND QUARTERS: 
Hips, well set in, and smooth................% 
Rump, long, wide, not droopy, nor patchy; idl head 
SPT Ry so 5 ks eu ere ne cs woe Scie eer eee 
Tsicgus, thick and full- twist plump. 55. ....... = eee 
Legs, well placed, short, straight; shanks fine........ 


— 
Noe bo bo 


moomoo NWhWo 


wom 


jokes! potas coa te oes Per cores cee 100 


In judging fat cattle, either by the score card or other- 
wise, the general appearance should be first considered. As 
one walks about the animal, he compares the size with what 
he thinks it should be for the age, and notes the general form, 
condition, and quality,—features that have already been 


JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 179 


discussed. Having made this inspection, the next thing will 
be to consider the detailed features of conformation. Begin- 
ning with the head, we seek for evidences of the good feeder 
and a pleasant disposition. A broad muzzle, with shortness 
from this point to the eyes, usually indicates constitution 
and feeding capacity. A clear, prominent eye denotes a 
pleasant disposition; and the broad, full forehead, a com- 


Fig. 102. Examining the covering of flesh over the shoulder. Photograph by 
the author. 


paratively high degree of intelligence. The eye is an impor- 
tant guide to the disposition, and should be carefully con- 
sidered. The ears are a guide to quality, for if large and 
thick, and heavy at the base, they indicate coarseness. ‘The 
reason for desiring a short neck, is to reduce the amount of 
cheap meat. The short, thick neck is also an evidence of 
constitutional vigor, for it is connected with a wide, full 
breast. Back of this should be a capacious chest, with 


180 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


ample room for the vital organs. A strong, vigorous con- 
stitution is very important with all kinds of stock. One 
must see the character of neck from the side and top, and may 
easily note the way it joins both head and shoulders. From 
the side, one notes the placing of shoulders, their slope and 
smoothness of covering, the blending of the neck with the 
shoulder at the so-called ‘‘shoulder vein,” and the spread 
between the blades at the 
top. The wide spread 
shoulder top is not desired 
because it means lack of 
covering of flesh and indi- 
cates a narrow floor of 
the chest. From in front, 
the fullness of breast, the 
carriage of brisket, and 
length of leg are easily 
seen. The brisket, being 
the portion that extends 
forward between the fore- 
legs, is the sternum proper, 
and with the best of fat 
cattle is usually thick and 
Fig. 103. Inspecting the rump_ and prominent. Beginning at 
ee ee note condition. the brisket, extending up- 
ward from the front of the 

neck, is a thin fold of skin known as the dewlap, which is 
undesirable to have in any great amount. As a rule, the 
dewlap is not prominent on beef cattle, being more in evidence 
on lighter-fleshed stock, and in certain breeds. ‘The front 
legs should be short, and the feet stand squarely on 
the ground, the toes pointing straight ahead. The bone 
just below the knee, known as the shank, which is termed 


JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 181 


the cannon bone with the horse, should be reasonably fine 
and short, an important indication of quality. When the 
front legs stand well apart, we usually find plenty of chest 
capacity. The body of the beef animal requires large size 
and capacity, the wide back giving room for the valuable cuts 
already described. Fullness and depth of body also go with 
the digestive capacity sought for in a good feeder. A study 
of the body capacity and value should be made from one side 
and from above the animal, to observe the thickness and 
spring of rib. Emphasis may be placed on this last feature, 
for a well-sprung, long rib means thickness and depth of 
body. Shortness of coupling from the hip to the nearest 
rib is also-important, if we are to have compactness of form. 
An examination of the hind quarter is made from a point 
opposite the thigh, and from directly behind. Good length 
from the hips to the end 
of the body near the tail, 
to what are called the pin- 
bones, is important; for 
here we find large, heavy 
muscles of very good qual- 
ity for meat. The longer, 
broader, and fuller this 
part, the more flesh one 
should expect to find. The 
thighs, which extend to the 
hocks, should show length | 
and thickness. From a’ _, Fig. 104. Roan James, reserve grand 


champion steer, 1910 International Pc 
j 1 iets » tion. Shown by Jas. Leask, of Canada. 
side view, the distance Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 


from the point of hip to 

the hock should be great, with the hind flank appear- 
ing low down. From the rear, the thighs should appear 
thick, and straight of edge on the outer part, with 


182 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the space between filled in full and low. Between, where the 
thick lower part of the upper thigh meets the lower thigh, is 
located the twist. On high-class fat cattle, the twist has a 
very short, wide curve. ‘The poorer the hind quarter from a 
beef standpoint, the less noticeable the twist. The hind 
legs, from behind, should appear straight, with the points 
of the hocks well separat- 
ed and the toes directed 
straight ahead. If the 
hocks touch at the points, 
and the toes turn out, the 
animal is called “ cow 
hocked.” ‘This bad posi- 
tion throws the thighs 
close together and pre- 

vents the desired thick- 
snonTit 105;q front view of Reet cade, ness, Tt is also important 
COmIREDS ee eae that the shank bones, from 
a side view, stand nearly vertical, thereby supporting the 
parts above so as to provide the best conformation. 

In judging breeding beef cattle, certain essentials should 
be kept in mind. Masculine character of head and neck are 
important with the males, and feminine features with the 
females. The head of the bull is usually large, is rougher 
haired at the forehead and poll, and carries a strong horn, if 
of the horned sort. The neck is also thicker and more 
crested than with the steer, and the shoulders usually are 
somewhat prominent, though not necessarily so. The cows 
have refined heads, with light horns, and the neck is of but 
medium thickness and length. The udder, also, should show 
plenty of capacity. In general form of body, breeding cattle 
should possess the important features already described, but 
should lack in flesh as compared with fat stock. 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 183 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

The size of the dairy animal is not material, unless in the 
case of a breed that has certain size requirements. Among 
grade animals may be found valuable producers at wide 
ranges of size. There are large producers in each breed, from 
the little Dexter, weighing 500 pounds, up to the Holstein, 
weighing 1800. For this reason, size is of minor importance, 
if producing capacity and proper conformation exist. 


Fig. 106. Daisy Grace DeKol, a famous Holstein-Friesian cow, that shows 
dairy type. Photograph from the owners, Dimmick Bros., of Ohio. 


The general form of the dairy cow should be somewhat 
wedge-shaped, often referred to as the “triple wedge.’’ ‘This 
shape really means a narrowness in front and heaviness 
behind. As one looks at a typical dairy cow from one 
side, the front part seems less deep than that behind. 
If a stick of ample length were laid along the back, 
and another were placed in a similar position against the 


184 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


under side of the body, they would meet at a common point 
in front, if sufficiently extended. Thus we see one of the 
wedge features. If one stands in front and looks towards the 
rear of the animal it will be noticed that the thickness through 
the front quarter at the shoulder is less than that of the hind 
quarter at the hips or just below. This gives a second wedge 
conformation. The third wedge is seen by standing at the 
shoulder and looking down over the withers and ribs. From 
the withers the ribs gradually widen out to form a noticeable 
wedge in the upper half of the body. Thus we may see 
the three wedges in the conformation of the dairy cow. 

The general form of the dairy bull shows much less of 
the wedge shape than the cow. However, the best bulls 
have a certain amount of thinness at the withers, and the 
body is long and muscular. The depth at the hind quarter 
is much the same as at the fore quarter, although the males 
are frequently somewhat 
high at the rear flanks. 
While the thighs, from a 
side view, appear muscu- 
lar, as is the case with the 
cow, from the rear they 
should be thin and widely 
and highly separated. A 
beefy appearance of the 
thigh in this type is most 

Fig. 107. Sir Beets Cornucopia Nether- 1 
and A Hobtdnnfrcsag boll sugwing “Ot im dairy cattle 
graph by courtesy The Farmer. . ‘ 

has certain features in 


common with the beef type,such as fineness of hair and bone 


and mellownessof skin. Thechief difference is in the thickness 
and length of the coat of hair, which is usually much shorter 
and thinner on dairy than on beef cattle. The dairy ani- 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 185 


mal, as a rule, has the thinner and more elastic hide of the 
two. Those cattle that are of Jersey or Guernsey blood, have 
very mellow, most elastic hides, that sometimes resemble a 
mole skin in their soft, pliable nature. Yellow color in the 
ears, skin and horns, is regarded as evidence of quality, and 
indicates the production of milk rich in color. The Guernsey 
cattle club places such a high value on the color of the secre- 


_ Fig. 108.__ Dairy bull type, showing the muscular form and thin thighs, 
This is Lord Yeksa, a Guernsey bull. Photograph from the owner, J. H. Beirne, 
of Wisconsin. 


tions, that 15 points are allowed this feature in their scale of 
points. 

The temperament of the dairy animal should show plenty 
of nervous force. This does not mean an excitable dispo- 
sition, but lively rather than phlegmatic. Dairy bulls 
usually show plenty of nervous force, as compared with 
beef stock. The cow is constituted to produce milk, which 
requires a large amount of vitality and nervous energy. 


186 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
Indications of the temperament are easily seen in the prom- 
inence and character of expression of the eye. Some claims 
have been made that prominence of the spine indicates a 
large spinal cord and active brain, being a further indication 
of nervous force. There is very little information on this 
subject, however, that will justify drawing conclusions. 

In judging dairy cattle, beyond what has already been 
stated, there are certain things to be considered that espe- 


cially apply to this type, as set forth in the fot score 


card: 
A Score Carp For Datry Cows 


Stu- Cor- 
Seale of points Perfect | gont’s rected 
score | score | score 
GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
Sah, bree, media orsniall |) 355) bh eae 
ForM, wedge shape from front, side, and top; mus- 
CURE Be a clk oaks the eas a oS ee 8 
bn Sa hair fine, silky; skin mellow, loose; bone 
SRE ees a nere as os woe ws Eide Mee ae wy ae ie ee -8 
TEMPERAMENT, active, showing nervous force....... 2 
HEAD AND NECK: 
MuzzLe, broac* face Jean, shapely... 0.2... ..<. 2%4 2 
EYEs, prominent, bright; forehead broad...... 3 
Ears, medium size, not coarse ....................- 1 
NEcK, somewhat long, not thick, well placed; clean at 
Ghee teenie Gewian hot. ao: 5d aS Roepe F 
FORE QUARTERS: 
SHOULDERS, light, oblique; withers lean;............. 3 
bees, biraight, short: anak fine: oros sc se eess ew 2 
BODY: 
CHEST, deep, girth large; crops not much depressed. . 7 
Back, lean, strong, well defined; ribs long, well sprung 5 
Diet. Dees THRE level oy onl 22. ood. oe oe ee 4 
BARREL, deep, large capacity, with low flanks... 5 
HIND QUART ERS: 
Eisve, wide sare, mee meeny. «o.oo teen 3 
Rump, broad, long, not droopy; pin bones wide apart 4 
Tatts (0B Fae POOR RATEBE 2 .0 88s ee oe ee eee 1 
‘Pmiaus, thin, lone, wide apart 2: .. 1)...) J) 00% 522 3246 4 
Lees, straight, short, wide apart; shanks fine........ 2 
MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT: cia by 
Upper, large, carried well in front along the belly, and 
high up behind, thick, mellow; quarters even and 
not much grooved Leteee. . > ~. oe. 3 22 
Treats, 3 to 4 inches long, well placed; an easy milker 4 
MILK VEsNS, large, long, tortuous or winding, entering 
large wells ass ete watcha aus ees els kee ee oe 8 


Total qaiinies be oh ed cien , abe oe blr ee 100 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 187 


The head should be lean and shapely. In general, the 
wide muzzle, short face, strong jaw, prominent eye, and 
broad forehead are desired. In most cases, a ‘‘dished”’ face 
is popular. This feature is a slight depression of the head at 
the lower part of the forehead and between the eyes. Yet 
all breeds do not have it. The dish-face is very character- 
istic of the Jersey, but is not so pronounced in the Holstein- 
Friesian. A broad muzzle, short face, and strong, wide 
jaw, indicate a vigorous feeder. The eye should be prominent 
yet show a mild disposi- 
tion, as indicated by clear- 
ness of the whites and 
quietness of expression. 
Dairy bulls often have 
eyes that indicate very 
clearly their character. 
The ears should be medi- 
um of size and thin of 
texture, and be neatly 
attached to the head. A 
yellow or orange color 
within the ear is desirable. 
The horns, when present, Fig. 109. A type of head of dairy eow— 
should show refinement, Courtesy of CM Winslow, Pe 
and not be large and 
heavy at the union with the head. A small horn its 
preferred on the females, and some of the best known 
dairy sires have had rather small horns. A thin, mus- 
cular, somewhat long neck on the cow, and a strong, 
heavily muscled, rather crested neck onthe males, are desir- 
able. When the neck blends well with the head, there is 
no unnatural fullness at the throat. The union of the neck 
with the shoulders should also be smooth. Dairy animals 


188 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


sometimes have a heavy dewlap, which is rather objec- 
tionable. 

The shoulders of the dairy animal incline to be somewhat 
prominent and are often rough. This is in most cases due 
to the lack of covering of flesh. The smoothness of the 
shoulder found in the beef animal is not to be expected with 
the dairy type, but the blades should extend well into the 
back and not be coarse. The withers above the shoulders 
should be lean and somewhat sharp. In fact, dairy cattle 
judges place a premium on 
thin, sharp withers. Many 
ereat producing cows, how- 
ever, have some thickness or 
fleshiness at this point. Oc- 
casionally, one will find dairy © 
cows with the shoulder points 
| noticeably separated from the 
body. This is what is called 
a spread shoulder, and shows 
a weakening of the muscular 
attachment. Such a cow has 

Fig. 110. The withers of the dairy @N undesirable appearance, 
COW oe notostaph by courtesy of but otherwise is not seriously 
affected. 

The body of the dairy cow should be deep at the chest, 
yet not thick. As one views the animal from one side, the 
depth from the top of withers to bottom of the chest should 
be much greater than the length of leg. From a front view, 
the chest appears somewhat narrow. Not much depression 
back of the shoulders below the withers, at the point known 
as the ‘‘crops,” is desired, for this indicates weakness in 
heart girth. The same criticism will apply at the fore flank. 
The back should be well and strongly carried, with the spine 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 189 


easily seen above and beyond the shoulders. A _ strong- 
ly arched rib will give a wide back and a muscular loin, 
which are most desirable, while plenty of additional length of 
rib will mean ample digestive capacity. In examining the 
body with the hands, one should be able to place two fingers 
held side by side easily between the last ribs of mature dairy 


Fig. 111. Looking along the top of body to note conformation. Photograph 
by th: author. 


‘“ Pd 
vy, 


Z 


ef 


Fig. 112. Two Jersey cows, one showing constitution and depth of body, 
the other a short rib and poor feeding capacity. Photograph by the author, 


190 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


cattle. The opinion prevails, that with dairy animals 
there should be length of body with the ribs less closely 
placed together than is the case with beef cattle. Conse- 
quently, a body of considerable length meets with favor. 
Some judges prefer the hind flank to be somewhat high, but 
this is associated with lack of depth of body, Hehe a 
deficient digestive capacity. 

The hind quarters of the dairy animal have been the cause 
of much discussion. The hips of the cows should be some- 
what prominent andlean. With the males, less prominence 
of hip is desired. In the case 
of each sex, much length and 
breadth, with level carriage 
of rump, is wanted. Below 
this part, the thighs, as viewed 
from one side, should appear 
muscular and long. From the 
rear view, the thighs should 
seem thin, and placed wide 
apart, giving ample room be- 
tween for a large udder. We 
sometimes say that the thighs 


Fig.113. Showing length of rump 7 i 
of the dairy cow. Photograph by are incurving, which means 


courtesy Vhe Farmer. 


that from the point of the rump 
or pin bone, each thigh curves slightly for a distance towards 
the body, before curving outward to form the top of the hock. 
The tail should have a neat placing on the body, and its 
fleshy part should hang in a perpendicular position to the 
hocks, showing considerable space between it and the thigh 
as viewed from one side. A beefy character of any part of 
the hind quarter is very undesirable. The tendency is to 
show fleshiness at the top of the rump over the hips and 
pin bones, and on the thighs. A straight, wide carriage of 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 191 


the legs is most essential, as has already been explained and 
as will be brought out further on. 

The mammary development of the cow includes the udder, 
teats, and milk veins and wells. It is necessary to examine 
this part carefully with both eye and hand. | 

The udder consists of two large glands, suspended between 
the legs. One gland is the right half of the udder, and the 


Fig. 114. A beautiful udder on a great show cow of dairy type—Bosnian's 
Anna, Jersey champion for 1910.. C.I. Hudson, of New York, owner. Photo- 
graph by courtesy Prof. F. R. Marshall. 


other the left. Each gland is also divided into two halves, 
known as quarters. As we view the udder at one side, we 
see the front and hind quarters of the gland. The form of 
udder that is most approved follows the line of a circle in 
part, although we look for the rear portion to be carried up 
high beyond the line of the circle, and the fore part to extend 


| Po aia) 


192 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


well along under the belly, on a uniform level. Therefore 
these udder lines above and below prolong beyond the circle. 
Viewed from the rear, the udder should appear thick, and 
should occupy completely the space between the thighs, 
and extend up high along the thigh. Examination with 
the hand should show no deep separation or division 
between the glands or quarters, but only slight grooves. As 
a rule, the hind udder is somewhat narrower than the fore 
udder, due to the limited space between the thighs. Thus 


Fig. 115. Four hind-end presentations, showing good and bad placings of legs. 
Photograph by the author. 


one may see the importance of having the thighs widely 
separated to provide room for the udder. ‘The teats should 
be of convenient size for grasping by the average-sized hand, 
and a length of three to four inches is satisfactory. They 
should be placed at a fair distance apart, such as will permit 
of easy milking, without the hands being in the way of each 
other. The judge should examine each teat carefully, and 
see that it milks without difficulty, and is all right. The 
form of the udder is rather variable. The most common 
weakness is an inferior front development, with the teats of 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 193 


this part placed much higher than those behind. The smaller 
the fore udder in comparison with the hind part, the less its 
producing capacity. With age, the udder frequentiy 
becomes pendant; that is, hangs —___ 
lowdown. This is a special feature . 
of those cows that become heavy 
milk-producers. In acting as a 
judge in the show ring, one may 
find it desirable to request that 
certain cows be milked. Some 
cows have meaty udders of quite 
limited capacity, and to make a 
fair study of this gland, one 
should see it both full and empty. oe TI Nest IY rat poe 
When empty, the glands should fore-quarters. Photograph by the 
be considerably shrunken, and 

when pressed by the hands, should feel uniformly mel- 
low and smooth to the touch. The judge should take it in 


' ne A > . oie Wy : , 
Bed. A ey Su Ft a 
Tm an vs ‘ ptt bon > 5 faa, 
_ . a oy ive 4 7» Ok 
' Se a Ga wiAa. 
" : . > ~~ S ’ > . 
t ome ’ a {4 . " *"¥, 
ig a iN ~ ited ‘ ua’ 
NS tes oie So Ae 


Fig. 117. Notice the elastic hind udder held by the man, Photograph by the 
author, 


194 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


his hands and press it between the palms, and examine it 
generally as to its condition, noting whether smooth of tissue, 
or if lumps or knots occur. Again, examination may show 
imperfect quarters or defective teats. 

The milk veins are located along on the belly from the udder 
forward. Usually there is one vein on each side, and some- 
times a shorter one between. Through these veins the blood 
passes from the udder to the heart. A side view of the cow 
shows something of the vein on that side. On young cows 
it is smaller and less prominent than on old ones. It varies 
in size, length, and form. To examine it carefully, it is 
necessary to bend over enough 
to look up beneath the body 
and see the whole milk-vein 
system. Usually the vein is 
about five-eighths of an inch 
wide, and after extending along 
the belly half way or so from 
udder to fore legs, disappears 
through a hole in the belly 

wall, known as the “milk well.” 
Pig 118. The milk well at end of Sometimes the veins are very 

large and long, and have a 
more or less tortuous, or serpentine course. ‘The larger and 
longer the veins, the greater the cow as a milker. Sometimes 
we find the belly immediately in front of the udder covered 
with small veins, and occasionally they also occur on the 
udder. All these small veins are indications that the cow is 
more than an average milk producer. The milk wells vary 
in size, from those so small that they axe not at once dis- 
covered, to those so large that the end of the finger can easily 
be placed therein. We really know nothing about the value 
of the veins or wells, from a scientific point of view, as indi- 


JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 195 


vating milk production, but practical experience has rated 
them as important according to their size and development. 
Small wells are associated with similarly small veins, and 
together they limit the supply of blood passing through the 
udder and thus affect milk production. 


SUPPOSE SOME ONE SHOULD ASK YOU 


. What is meant by a “‘blocky”’ body? 
. How you could tell whether a beef animal was fat or not? 
. To give the indications of quality? 
How much a beef animal should weigh at 30 months old? 
To describe condition? 
. What position the front legs should take, and why? 
. How the head and 
neck of the bull differ from 
those of the cow? 

8. Todescribe the triple- 
wedge form? 

9. The meaning of tem- 
perament in dairy cattle? 

10. To give the most 
important features of the 
dairy cow score card? 

11. What kind of rib de- 
velopment should be looked 
for in the dairy cow? 

12. Todescribe the most 


SIO oR & we 


; a Fig. 119. The kind of cow one should not 
desirable form of udder‘ own. Photograph by the author. 


SOME INTERESTING THINGS TO DO 


13. Scoring your own or a neighbor’s beef animals, 

14. Picking out the best individuals among cattle in a feed lot. 

15. Comparing the best and poorest dairy cows in the herd. Why 
is one best and the other poorest? 

16. If you have a dairy herd at home, make a few group studies 
cf four animals in each. 

17. Organize a local beef or dairy cattle show. 


CHAPTER XI 
THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 


The catching and holding of a sheep for inspection is 
usually a simple matter if correctly done. To catch the 
sheep, seize a hind leg at the hock or flank, and gently pull 
him to the location desired. 
Never grasp and pull the wool, 
for the more the fleece is pull- 
ed the harder the sheep will 
struggle to escape. Next place 
the left hand below the jaw, 
palm up, and quietly hold 
the head and throat, and then 
reach back to the right hind 
quarter with the right hand and 
pull the sheep squarely in front 
Rig. 120,, Baamining the Jes of of one’s legs and close to the 

body. If it is desired to move 
the sheep forward, it will only be necessary to press gently 
forward with the right hand. If that is not enough, then 
place the finger tips at and beneath the root of the tail, and 
the sheep will move forward without trouble. Sheep that 
are accustomed to handling, as a rule, may easily be held by 
placing the left hand under the lower jaw, and _ holding 
the back of the head or neck with the right hand. In 
judging-work at a school, a small rope halter will be found 
useful in simplifying the matter of holding and the use of 
attendants. | 

To examine the under side of the sheep, it is desirable 
sometimes to place the animal on its rump. To do this, one 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 197 


should pass the left hand under the neck, and grasp the right 
forearm. ‘Then reach forward and under the sheep with the 
right hand and grasp the right hind leg at the hock; by a 
slight pull of the right hand, and a push of the body against 
the sheep, the animal will naturally swing down upon its 
rump. When in this position, the sheep is held with the left 
hand, with the sheep’s back resting against the holder’s 
knees. This operation becomes easy with a little practice. 

How to study the sheep. During much of the year, 
except for a short time after shearing, perhaps, the bodies 
of sheep are covered with wool. This varies greatly in 
length, but is frequently 314 to 4 inches long. With this 
covering of wool, it is impossible to judge the merits of the 
animal, except with the assistance of the hands; for the fleece 
covers defects that may be felt, but not so readily seen. Men 
who exhibit sheep usually trim the wool, or block it out, as it 
is termed, so as to make the animal look very symmetrical 
and attractive. While one 
should survey the general 
appearance of the sheep, as 
in the case of other animals, 
the use of the hands is an 
added necessity. While ex- 
amining a mutton — sheep, 
one should keep the fingers 
of each hand close together, 
and then press them flat 
on the wool, not allowing 


7 ss es Fig. 121. Studying the thickness 
single fingers to stick into of flesh over the back. Photograph 


the fleece. It is important to by the author. 


prevent the entrance of dirt, not to open the fleece, except 
at places where it naturally parts or breaks between two 
locks. The back wool, especially, should be kept closed. 


198 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


With the fingers one may press the wool firmly enough to 
feel the flesh below, to determine the extent and uniformity 
of fattening or covering over the frame, and whether the wool 
hides defects of conformation, such as narrow back, droopy 
rump, etc. Practice, of course, enables one in time to use 
the hands with much freedom, without detriment to the 
fleece, but inexperienced persons should be very careful not 
to disturb the wool. The skin of a sheep should be of a 
healthy pink color. It is assumed that this indicates the 
animal to be in fine physical condition. However, some 
breeds that are noted feeders, like the Shropshire and Oxford, 
have dark-colored skins often times, and so it may be said 
that we do not know the real significance of skin color. 
Yet the skin in any case should look clean and ie and 
not pale and bloodless. 

The age of the sheep is easily determined up to four or 
five years. A short time after birth, the lamb has in the 
front of the lower jaw, eight small, narrow teeth, which are 
commonly called the milk teeth. The front part of the upper 
jaw has no teeth, but simply a tough, fleshy pad. When 
about 12 months old, the two middle milk teeth drop out, 
and two larger, permanent teeth occupy the place. At 
about 24 months, two more teeth push out two milk teeth, 
one on each side of the two that came in at 12 months. At 
36 months two more come in, and at 48 months the corner 
teeth are replaced by larger permanent ones. It is easy to 
tell the age up to four years. After that one must do some 
guessing. It is to be noted, however, that with age the teeth 
usually wear down or break away in the middle first; old 
teeth also slant forward more than do those of less age. It 
is a good plan always to examine the teeth when judging or 
buying; for they are a guide to age, and indicate the condi- 
tion for feeding and future usefulness. 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 199 


A systematic inspection of the mutton sheep should take 


place 


after the following manner. So far as conformation 


is concerned, look for the same blocky, fullness of form that 
would be expected in a fat steer. 


ic 


2. 


. With the right hand 


Survey for general appearances in the usual manner as 
previously described with horses and cattle. 


Rest the lower jaw of the sheep in the left hand, and 
place the right about the back of the head or upper 
part of neck. Then raise the point of the jaw some- 
what, and part the lips gently by use of the forefinger 
and thumb of the left 
hand. This enables one 
to inspect the front 
teeth, which are found 
in the lower jaw only. 
Inspect muzzle, face, 
eyes, forehead, and ears. 
View the breast and 
position of fore legs 
while standing in front. 


~ < aay ' 
» Sone ey 
? Har Meee . =o 


Fig. 122. Feeling for covering of 
et asp the neck and feel flesh about the tail-head. Photo- 


for its size and attach- graph by the author. 
ment at the head. 


. Notice the union of neck to shoulders, the covering of 


the latter and the position: of the blades. 


. Place the right hand on the back, just behind the 


withers, and the left hand between the legs, on the 
floor of the chest. This gives one an estimate of the 
depth of body. 

Press the hands on the crops and front flanks, to 
determine thickness of chest. 


200 


9. 


10. 


‘i. 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Press firmly along the back with one hand, the fingers 
pointing in the direction of the neck, to determine the 
covering of flesh. With both hands get the breadth 
and covering of back and loin. 

Place the fingers of the hands over the hips and note 

their covering and distance apart. 

After examining the hips, draw the hands down on to 

the rump, and feel its length, breadth, position, and 

covering of flesh. With the right hand, grasp the 
point of rump and note 
the width, position, and 
covering of root of tail. 

. Grasp the thigh, usually 
termed leg of mutton, 
with the hands, the left 
hand with open thumb 
taking in one side of the 
leg, and the right hand 
and open thumb grasping 
the other side. Thus by 


Fig. 123. Examining the width of freely moving the hands 


loin. 


is. 


14. 


» 16. 


Photograph by the author. 
about the leg, one may 


determine fullness of hind flank, the thickness of 
muscle, fullness of twist, and size of leg. 

Place the left hand on the rump at tail and nght hand 
between the thighs at the twist, and estimate the 
depth of hind quarters. 

With the palms of the hands facing each other, press 
against the outer thigh, to determine thickness of 
hind parts. 


. Step back a few feet and notice position of hocks and 


placing of hind legs and feet. 
From one side, view position of legs and feet. 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 201 


In the examination of fat mutton sheep, no great emphasis 
is placed on the covering and kind of wool. The butcher 
values the wool, but in buying, it receives slight attention. 
In the show ring, most mutton judges examine the wool of 
fat sheep scarcely at all. If judging breeds, then the wool 
must be examined as well as the frame and covering of flesh. 
Seven points are allowed wool in the following score card for 
fat sheep. 


ScorRE CARD FOR FaT SHEEP OF MuTTON TYPE 


Stu- Cor- 
Scale of points Perfect dent’s rected 
score | score | score 
0 LS are Number of permanent front teeth. 
GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
WEIGHT, score according to age; 50 lbs. at 6 mos; 
emit tamos. ee ee ee 6 
Pau, iow set, compact, brOad .....60.8. vem ee eee es 8 
mmenrer pone ana wool fine.... 2.6.2 sue i cee we 8 
CONDITION, deep, even covering of firm flesh. Note 
especially loin, back, Tis, TOOU Gr tall. .<.. 2s. 10 
HEAD AND NECK 
MvzZZLE, fine; mouth of good size; face short. 2 
EYEs, full, bright; forehead broad: ears fine, well car- 
RPP e ee PR Ne SEM Po tN wera, saan i oegah Shoe a. a 8 3 
muon, thick, shert; throat smooth... ... 0.66.6... 65. 2 


FORE QUARTERS. 
BREAST AND BRISKET, broad, carried well forward. 3 
SHOULDERS, smooth, well covered, epigneet on es i 4 
CHEST, wide, deep; large girth. . Ae Ges S 
LEGs, straight, short, set wide apart, fine. 2 
BODY: 
Back, level, wide, well fleshed; loin broad, thickly 
IS Le MM ie Ae ee re hk a) ies as Sa ad gh aes ow 1 
Riss, well arched, long, smoothly covered........... 
FLanks, low, thick 
HIND QUARTERS: 
Hips, well placed, smooth; rump, long, level, wie 
smoothly fleshed. oF 6 
THIGHS, wide and thick; ‘tw ist, ‘plump and me aty. 8 
Lu@s, straight, short, strong; shank fine. eee aie 
WOOL: 
QUALITY, fine, soft, uniform over body.............. 3 
QUANTITY, dense, even, of fair length for age......... 0 
ConpiITIoN, bright, clean, soft, fair amount of oil eae i. 


bo = Or 


Total SES ES 100 | 


The study of the wool or the fleece on the body of the 
sheep makes it necessary to know something of the differ- 


202 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


ences in this product. Wool is a fiber, much like common 
hair, and grows in the same manner. On the outside of each 
wool fiber is a covering of transparent, slightly overlapping 
scales. Their position has often been compared to the lap- 
ping of shingles on the roof of a house. The center of the 
fiber is either hollow or has a porous core. When the wool 
is dyed, the dye gets under the scales and inside the tube and 
is absorbed. True hair does not easily take adye. Frequently 
hair is found in fleece and is called kemp. Kempy wool is 
very inferior and cannot be dyed. Wools differ much in 
length and diameter of fiber. The Merino has the finest 
wool, and usually the larger the sheep and the more of a mut- 
ton type, the coarser the fiber. The fine wool is more com- 
pact over the body than the coarse, long wool. The more 
dense the fleece, other things being equal, the more it will 
weigh. A compact fleece also keeps out rain, snow, and dirt 
better than an open one. The best and longest wool on the 
body is found over the shoulder and ribs. The back and 
neck wool also ranks high. That on the belly is very fair 
but short, while that on the thighs is the poorest. The 
finest wools are the shortest; and the coarsest, the longest. 
The fine wool of the Merino is used in making choice dress 
goods; the fleece of the medium sort, such as the Shropshire 
produces, makes fine dress goods also; while the coarse, long, 
or braid wools are used in making horse blankets, carpets, 
etc. Wool should be of uniform quality over all the body. 
Quality is shown in its fineness, softness, uniformity, and 
color. A clear white, with a shading of creamy color, and 
with considerable of what is called crimp, is most valued. 
The crimp in wool is a wavy form like the edge of a very fine- | 
toothed saw, that gives elastic strength to the fiber. The 
choicest fine and medium wools show more or less of this 
quality, but in the long, coarse wools, the crimp is long and. 


S fF 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 203 


wavy and often entirely lacking. There is considerable 
oil in and on the wool. Most of this comes from little oil 
sacs, or glands, in the skin at the base of the wool fibers. 
The oil comes from the glands 
and gradually works up to the end 
of the wool fiber. On some kinds 
of sheep, like the Merino, the oil 
accumulates dust and dirt until 
it appears black and dirty on 
the outside of the fleece. This 
oil adds to the quality of the oe ee 
wool, but it is not desirable to fig. 124. A Class A Merino ram. 
have it in large amounts, be- 

cause it Increases the shrinkage when the fleece is scoured; 
that is, when the oil and dirt are removed. Some Merino 
fleeces lose 65 per cent or more in scouring, while a Shrop- 
shire may lose but 45 per cent, a very important difference, 
since buyers pay for wool on the basis of its weight after 
scouring. 


SOME FEATURES OF THE FINE-WOOL SHEEP 


Three distinct classes or types of fine-wool sheep are 
recognized today in the United States. These are as follows: 
Cuass A, with heavy folds on the neck, breast, sides, 
rump, and thighs, and sometimes over the back. 
Cuiass B, with a few folds on the neck, shoulder, and 
thighs. 
Cuiass C, with no folds, except in a slight way at the 
brisket. 
The present tendency is to breed sheep of either B or C 
class. The Delaine Merino and Rambouillet belong to 
these two classes, with the large majority of individuals in 


204 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Class C. The sheep in Class A have the shortest, finest, 
oiliest, heaviest fleece; while in the C class we find a much 


in 


pa ee ee 
aie ae eee ee ee 


Fig. 125. Three types of Merinos; A on right, C on left, B in center. 
Photograph by the author. 


longer fiber and decidedly less oil, and but little black grease 
on the surface. A mutton form is also a feature of the Class 
C sheep. 

The method of judging fine-wool sheep is somewhat dif- 
ferent from that of the mutton type. In the case of classes 


Fig. 126. Examining character of Fig. 127. Inspecting open locks on 
wool of thigh. Photograph by the back of Merino. Photograph by the 
author. author. 


look for a_ light-colored oil 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 205 


A and B, the hands are scarcely used, excepting to part and 
inspect the wool on different parts of the body. In other 
words, the hand serves only in studying the fleece. In 
examining this, the locks should be separated on the shoulder, 


back, and thigh, and compared in length, quantity, and 


quality. With the hands one may feel to determine the 
softness and density of covering. Density may also be seen 
with the eye, as shown in the covering of the head, the belly, 
and legs, as well as in the general appearance of the outside 
of the fleece. When wool production is of special importance, 
examinations of the bare spots on the belly next to the legs, 
and the general under cover- 
ing, are essential. This re- 
quires placing the sheep on 
the rump. ‘This position al- 
lows not only the wool cov- 
ering to be studied, but the 
fullness of breast and the 
condition of the feet may 
also be noted. In the exam- 
ination of the fine-wool fleece, 


that should be evenly diss ™ jsagtish ty the Mthon 
tributed throughout the fleece. 
Quite often the oil accumulates in spots or streaks, 
giving an uneven character to oil distribution. ‘This 
feature is most likely to happen with fleeces containing a 
large amount of oil. 

The score card for the Delaine or Class C Merino is here- 
with given, and contains the scale of points that can be most 
commonly used with fine-wool sheep. 


206 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
Score CARD FOR DELAINE OR CLASS C MERINO SHEEP 


St 
Seale of points Perfect | dent's | rected 


AGE............Numberof permanent front teeth...... 
GENERAL APPEARANGES, o)c. set ota cote) 
WEIGHT, according to age: 30 lbs. six mos.; 60 lbs., 
twelve mos.. d oe Krewe 
Form, low, compact, symmetrical. . a eS EE 
QUALITY, bone and wool fine, hair silky. Aa a tery ee 
HEAD AND NECK: 
Mvzz ge, fine, of good size; face medium length....... 
Eyes, bright, easily seen; forehead broad............ 
agus medium size, set well apart, coated with fine 
Bi. Fo ak eee ee ee ele se es 
NeEcK, short on top, deep, neatly blending head ae 
shaders... 5 fae nea tgs Phlatwie'x @ kone Samieee oh oe 
FORE QUARTERS: 
SHOULDERS, well placed; chest deep, medium thick . 
BRISKET, carried well forward, with some breadth and 
fold... or Snran 5 dese ees GS. re oe os oe es 
LeGs, straight, short, strong; feet good............. 
BODY: 
Back, straight, medium wide; loin wide............. 
Riss, well sprung, long; flanks low................. | 


— 


PO PN © W Ww WH COM 


HIND QUARTERS 

Hips, smooth; rump, long, level, wide.............. | 

THIGHS, ranging from muscular to plump........... 

Leas, straight, short; stifle full; feet good........... 
WOOL: 
Ousres, nc. halt, Geesevee:. 6s x. eo te ee ee 
DEnsITy, compact all over body................... 
LENGTH, uniform, at least 24% in. for12mos.......... 
Ort, light colored, evenly distributed............... 


_— 
BROOD HW 


Wotel- paar | eS oe ee et es oe es ES 100 


Much has already been said regarding the features of 
sheep involved in the use of this score card. In judging this 
type one must consider the form as approaching very closely 
to that of the ideal mutton sheep. The fact is, the C type 
is a general-purpose Merino, with mutton an important 
feature. Yet one need not expect to find as much thickness 
of chest, breadth of back, fullness of quarter, or covering of 
flesh, as with a Southdown or other more highly developed 
mutton breed. 

Things to emphasize in a study of the Class C type. 

1. The head should be short and broad at forehead, with 

a slight dish of face in the ewes, and a fullness of nose 


es ee 


THE JUDGING OF SHEEP 207 


with the rams. Slight wrinkles often occur over the 
-nose, which should be covered with fine, silky hair. 
_ The ears also should have a covering of fine hair. Ex- 
cepting the muzzle, nose, and ears, the head should 
be well covered with wool. Bareness of the face is 
objectionable. 


2. Favor shortness of top of neck, with no heavy folds 
below. 
3. The tendency is towards narrowness at the withers and 
- fore ribs. Thickness is desirable here, with not too 
prominent a shoulder. 


4. A peaked, droopy rump is a common Merino charac- 
teristic, but is very ep eengnanle, and should be 
severely scored. 


5. Look for a thick leg of mutton. 


6. See that the hocks are straight, and that the sheep 
stands well on all four legs. Defective position is 
frequent here. 

7. Merino sheep have poorer feet iifan any other breed, 
and require careful attention. The toes frequently 
grow to one side or are too long, and the horn grows 
under so as to give the foot a bad position. 

In judging breeding sheep of any class, the same essential 

features must be considered that have already been dis- 
cussed. 


A heavy condition of flesh is objectionable, a muscular 
animal in good health being most; desirable. Sex affects the 
character of head and neck. With ewes, some length and 
refinement of these parts must prevail, while rams must 
show a larger, heavier, bolder type of face and eye than the 
ewes, and a thick, muscular neck. ‘The Merino rams, as a 
rule, have heavy horns at maturity, while the females are 


208 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


hornless. With Dorset sheep, the ewes have a slender, one- 
curve horn; while the rams have a heavier, different type of 
horn, of spiral form. Hardly as much compactness is sought 
with breeding sheep as with those for fattening purposes. 


“Io Or B & 


IN MAKING A STUDY OF SHEEP 


. How should the animal be caught and held? 

. What is the correct method of examining the fleece? 

. How do you use the hands in determining covering of flesh? 
. Describe the method of inspecting a leg of mutton. 

. Where on the body are the different grades of wool found? 
. Describe classes A, B, and C. 

. How should the fine-wool type be examined? 

8. 


How do the scales of points of mutton and fine-wool sheep 


especially differ? 


is 
10. 


What kind of defects of the feet may occur with the Merino? 
How do breeding sheep differ from others in character? 


SHEEP ARE INTERESTING ANIMALS TO STUDY 


11. Use the score card at home if you have sheep. 
12. Compare several animals on the following points: 


(a) The sex character shown in head and neck. 
(b) Amount and quality of wool. 

(c) Covering of flesh. 

(d) Thickness of chest. 

(e) Character of rump and hind legs. 


13. In shearing season, judge one or more animals before, and 
again after shearing. 


CHAPTER XII 
THE JUDGING OF SWINE 


Two distinct market types of hogs exist in America, the 
lard and the bacon. The lard type prevails in all those sec- 
tions of North America where corn is an important farm 
crop. In fact, the bacon type is produced in but a small way 
in this country, and comparatively few are found in the mar- 
ket. Therefore the study of the lard type should receive 
most attention. There are, however, with each type or 
breed of hogs, certain things in common to be especially 
desired. Some of these are the following. 

Quality in hogs, as in all other animals, is of great impor- 
tance. This is shown in the condition of the hair, the size 
of bone, and the develop- _ 
ment of the head. There} — 
should be a plentiful coat 
of hair that is neither very 
fine nor very coarse. If too . 
fine, lack of constitutional | 
vigor is indicated; but if 
the reverse, with heavy 
bristles along the back, 


Fig. 129. A Chester White boar, 
then a coarse-grained, low- showing quality. Photograph by the 


author. 


grade of killing hog may be 
expected. The quality of the hair is an index to the quality 
of bone. Coarse hair naturally goes with coarse bone. Among 
experienced swine breeders, a bone of fair size, yet not coarse, 
is especially desired. The well-fattened hog requires strong 
bones to support the heavy body weight. A common criti- 
cism today is that of too small a bone and poor support of 


210 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the body. For this reason, many breeders and feeders are 
looking for a hog that has plenty of size and bone, without 
coarseness. In passing judgment on animals of this class, 
one must be mindful to secure as much size as possible, con- 
sistent with quality. A 
large head for the body, 
with coarse, thick ears, 
also indicates inferior 
quality. Many young 
hogs are too small and 
refined for their age, and 
never mature into ani- 
mals of enough feeding 
soKE 10D. ft Cheetos, White beer showite or - breeding) Aaa 
author. Therefore excess of re- 
finement is to be avoided. 

The weight and size of the hog depend naturally on the 
age and breeding. In the general market, animals that 
weigh about 250 pounds are most satisfactory for slaughter. 
The average weight of the millions of hogs sold in Chicago 
stock yards is about 225 pounds. However, the market 
demands different hogs for different uses, so that all market 
hogs are sorted somewhat on the basis of weight, condition, 
and purpose. For this reason, a criticism regarding weight 
should take into consideration the special purpose involved. 
At 12 months of age, when fairly well fed, a fat hog should 
weigh from 300 to 350 pounds. 

The condition of the hog refers to its covering of flesh. 
This should be uniform and smooth, no matter what the pur- 
pose of the animal. One common defect, more especially of 
the lard type, is the prevalence of seams, or creases, on the 
body. These are particularly noticeable about the neck and 
the fleshy part under the jaws, known as the jowl, and 


wal | 


THE JUDGING OF SWINE 211 


along the shoulders and sides. These creases contain more 
or less hair that is hard to remove after scalding. In the 
larger hog killing houses, the hair is removed by automatic 
scrapers. It can easily be seen that the more creases there 
are on the body, the more difficult it will be to remove the 
hair from them. In such cases hand work is necessary to 
finish the job. These seams are also an indication of uneven 
fleshing. | 

The pasterns of the hog are 
often very weak and sloping. 
At the back of the leg, just 
above the pasterns, are two 
small toes that are known as 
dew claws. When the pas- 
terns are too sloping, these Mig. 181,_ A Berkshire uarras: show. 
dew claws often touch the 
ground, showing a weakness of leg. In the days when hogs 
were driven overland to market, it was very important that 
the legs should be strong, capable of endurance, and weak 
pasterns were then very objectionable. While we do not 
drive hogs much today, it is still necessary in many locali- 
ties; and whether driven or not, the hog should stand up 
strong on its toes on short pasterns, as an evidence of 
ability to carry its weight well. If it cannot do this, then 
the pasterns are weak. 

The toes of the hog should be close together, and point 
directly forward. Sometimes they are weak and spread 
apart and do not have a strong position. Such feet are an 
indication of lack of bone and too much forced growth of the 
young pig. 

A score card for the fat hog follows, which may be used 
with either the grade or pure-bred animal. 


212 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


ScorRE Carp FOR Fat Hocs. LArp TYPE 


Stu- Cor- 
Perfect dent’s | rected 


Seale of points 
Score | score | score 


ee ee a 


GENERAL APPEARANCE: 


WerieuT: Score according to age: 2... 6c. ene Seas 4 
Form, deep, broad, low, symmetrical................ 10 
QUALITY, bone strong, hair fine, skin healthy........ 10 


ConDITION, deep, firm, even covering of flesh........ 10 
HEAD AND NECK: 
SnNouT, not coarse, medium long; face wide between 
eyes; cheeks full without wrinkles ............. 2 
Eyes, mild, good size, not hidden by fat; ears fine, of 
medium size, neatly attached.........+....... 2 
JOWL, smooth, broad; neck, thick, short............ 3 
FORE QUARTERS: 
SHOULDER, broad, deep, full, smooth; breast wide, 
LOOM ER 5 ate tal eee Dae De es Ae eee 8 
Lees, straight, short, strong, wide apart; pasterns 
short.” strone: agent Fo. OE A Vo Sea eee 4 
BODY: 2 


Crear deep, wide; laree 2irth os 2 oe A ee ee 
Back, slightly arched, very broad, thickly and evenly 
fleshed; lou Widevtmick |... ios fas kai ieee 15 
SIDEs, deep, not too long, ana. Oat ee. Sete eee 6 
Belly, srachti-: wide: Hank full. os: acts eee 6 
HIND QUARTERS: 
Rump, same width as back, long, level; hams heavily 
fleshed, very deep, wide, and thick. 4 can ot 12 
LEGs, straight, short, strong, wide apart; pasterns 
short, strong, straight, upright ae rember meer, ie, 


——— 


ORAL RC OTE ies ae Be hice eed oii ong a ae 100 


The general form of the hog may bestudied from different 
points of view. A short cane or stick is useful to change the 
position of an animal in order to observe it to the best advan- 
tage. Hogs tend to keep the head close to the ground, and 
rarely stand with the four legs in good position beneath the 
body. For these reasons it is well to keep animals of this 
class more or less in motion while judging. Width of back 
and depth of rib should be noted from over-head or from one 
side, while a fullness of both front and hind parts should be 
easily seen from front and rear. In this inspection compact- 
ness of form, and quality, should be manifest. One may 
easily determine the quality by eye examination, but a feel 
of the hair will reveal marked differences in quality, that 
along the neck and front part of the spine being always the 


THE JUDGING OF SWINE 213 


coarsest. While condition may be easily seen and esti- 
mated. by the eye, if one will press with the ends of the 
fingers along on the back and sides, a better idea will be 
had of the depth and evenness of covering, and condition of 
skin. In the case of aged boars, there will be noted a very. 
thick, coarse development of skin over the shoulders, known 
as the ‘‘shields.”? This is an 
inheritance from the wild 
ancestors, and really serves as 
a shield; for, when fighting, 
pigs strike with their heads 
against the shoulders of the 
opponent. The tusks of the 
boar cannot easily tear through 
this shield. Yet this thick, 
heavy covering of hide is very 
objectionable, and the best 
show animals do not have it. 
Symmetry of form is impor- 
tant; and if the front part of 
the body is thick and heavy, 
and the hind part narrow, the 


: . Fig. 132. A study of the width of back. 
form certainly will not be well Photograph by the author. 


balanced. 


The head of the hog varies so in size and form, aceording 
to breed, that it seems best to emphasize only certain fea- 
tures that should be common to all breeds and grades. ‘The 
large, coarse head is an evidence of waste, hence buyers pre- 
fer a short type of head, indicating smaller loss in this portion 
in killing. Even with the long headed breeds, refinement is 
considered important, as indicated by length and coarseness 
of snout. The eyes should always be easily seen, and pref- 
erably the whites of the eyes to some extent. The eyes of 


214 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


the hog of the lard type tend to become surrounded by 
excessive fat, so that the sight is very poor. ‘The ears are 
good indicators of quality. They should be easily carried, 


Fig: 133. Pointing at the 
pasterns. Photograph by the 
author. 


Fig. 134. Pointing at the 
neck. Photograph by the 
author. 


Fig. 135. Pointing at the 
shoulder. Photograph by the 
author. 


and not be heavy and coarse 
where attached to the head. 
None of the lard-type breeds 
naturally have coarse ears. 

The neck of the hog should be 
reasonably short and broad on top, 
and blend smoothly into the 
shoulders. A common fault is a 
thin neck, fitting roughly in the 
shoulders which stand out in a 
prominent manner at the shoulder 
vein. 

The jowl of the hog is the 
thick, fleshy part of the lower jaw 
and throat. Sometimes it is very 
large and round, and is a great 
mass of fat. Often deep, hairy 
creases occur here. The jowl can- 
not be studied to advantage unless 
it is both seen and felt. If the 
animal keeps its head close to the 
eround, the jowl cannot be thor- 
oughly examined. The best form 
is short, smooth, free of creases, 
and reasonably firm to the touch. 

The shoulders of the hog vary 
considerably. The tendency is for - 
them to be heavy or coarse, and 


openon top, the blades not lying back in close. The shoulders 
are valuable for meat, and the more they are covered with 


THE JUDGING OF SWINE 215 


flesh, the better they are. If wide on top, the chest below will 
no doubt appear narrow. By examining from over-head, 
and then from in front, kneeling somewhat, the relationship 
of width of chest to position of shoulders may be seen. While 
the breast of the hog does not appear as prominent as with 
other animals, on account of the low carriage of the head, if 
the shoulders are placed right, the breast will be wide and full 
and the front legs will come down in good form. By means 
of the hand one can feel the end of the breast bone, which 
should extend at least beyond the legs. Such a breast 
development shows good constitution. 

The back of the hog is one of the most valuable parts, 
for here the butcher secures chops, roasts, and lard. The 
wider and better condition of 
back and loin, the more high-class 
cuts the butcher will be able to 
obtain from the carcass. In the 
older and larger fat hogs, the lay- 
er of fat over the back is very 
thick, ranging from two to three , 
inches. Such animals are fre- Wie 186 Feeline for Back 
quently referred to in the market COvprims:  Photostaph by the 
as “‘fat backs,’’ and long strips of 
the fat are cut from this part and rendered into lard. A 
wide back is an indication not only of the condition of flesh, 
but also. of the capacity below for the vital organs and the 
digestive system. Generally, a long rib and large chest ca- 
pacity go with width on top. In inspecting the back, as 
viewed from one side, emphasize a strong carriage, with 
a slight arching. Young pigs frequently have a depression 
behind the shoulders, which fills up on fattening. A full, 
strong development here is desirable. 

The sides of the hog should be fairly deep and smooth, 


216 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


and uniformly so from the front to hind flank. ,This part 
furnishes the bacon cuts, hence a smooth, uniform con- 
dition of flesh is important. Creases very commonly occur 
along the upper part of the sides and give a bad appearance to 
the body. Often one may easily insert the fingers in these 
creases. The lard type 
7 _| does not have a long side, 
Seeee| as a rule; neither is it quite 
=*.| flat, as viewed from one 
4es.| side. The form tends to 

= be somewhat oval, espe- 

= cially with hogs with Po- 
=| land-China, Duroc-Jersey, 
——~—| or Chester White blood, 
consequently the upper 


Fig. 137. Quality as shown in the - 
smooth side of the pig. Photograph by part of the side projects 


courtesy of The Farmer. 


some beyond the lower 
portion. Emphasize also smoothness of fleshing, and quality 
of skin. 

The belly of the hog should suggest as little waste as 
possible. A paunchy condition, that is, a round, sleek form, 
indicates excess Offal. A clean, straight line, as viewed from 
one side, with full flanks, is what is wanted. Where an 
excess of belly occurs, as inthe case of old sows, buyers throw 
off a certain amount of weight, or as they say in the market, 
“dock” the animals. 

The hind quarters of the hog are very important, because 
they include the hams. The hams represent a high-priced 
and heavy-weighing part, so that a thick, full development is 
here sought. Standing behind the hog, one should note that 
the width is carried full, from the hips back to the end of the 
body. The thighs should be wide spread on the outside, and 
very thickly muscled between, with the twist extending low 


a 


THE JUDGING OF SWINE 217 


-down toward the hocks. The tail attachment should not be 
set low. Great depth of hams from behind is most desirable. 

From one.-side, the rump should be long on top, level 
rather than steep, and long also from hip to hock. <A very 
steep rump is often seen, with the legs carried under the body, 
thus furnishing a weak support. ‘The steep rump does not 
allow a good position of legs. Side or rear view should 
show a very meaty ham, somewhat bulging in its lower part. 
Smoothness of covering of ham is important, as wrinkles and 
uneven condition injure the value in the meat trade. 

The legs of the hog, as viewed in front, at one side, and 
from behind, should be short and straight, and not coarse 
ot bone. The front legs sometimes nearly touch at the knees, 
giving what is termed a buck-kneed effect. This usually 
accompanies the narrow chest. The hind legs frequently are 
close together at the hocks with the feet widely spread below 
the body. Such a position usually goes with a narrow thigh, 
or ham. Pasterns and feet have already been discussed in 
this chapter, and need not be referred to again, except to 
emphasize the correct position of these parts as most impor- 
tant in supporting a heavy body weight. 

In judging breeding stock of the lard type, the same 
general features are to be considered, making exceptions for 
sex character, and a leaner condition. The mature male 
requires a head showing great vigor and masculinity, with 
a strong jaw, prominent tusks, breadth of forehead, a strong 
neck, and some thickness of shoulder. Most breeders also 
prefer breeding stock which have very good length, and are not 
too short and compact. More bone is looked for in the boar 
than in the sow or fat hog. In fact, breeders rarely criticise 
a boar for having too heavy bone. ‘The brood sow should 
show good size and length, yet have a strong, well-supported 
back. Depth and length are most valued qualities in her 


218 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


case, as these indicate large reproductive capacity. Sows 
frequently are too light in bone for their weight, and this 
defect should be noted. The sow should be quiet, yet active, 


but not nervous and excitable. An irritable sow is almost 


sure to make a bad mother. 
THE BACON TYPE OF HOG 

The bacon type of hog is produced in comparatively 
small numbers in the United States; but owing to the 
increased demand for bacon, no doubt more hogs of this sort 
will be bred in the future. 

A score card for the bacon hog gives a very good idea of 
the special features emphasized in this type. 


ScorE CARD FOR Bacon Hoas. 


tu- Cor- 
nt’s | rected 
score | score 


8 
Perfect is 


Scale of points 
score 


nn ns i rs rs es | | eS | 


GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
WeiGcuHT, market hogs should weigh 160-220 lbs. 5 
Form, long, smooth, level back,'belly neat.......... 10 
Quauity, hair fine; skin smooth and free of wrinkles; 
bone strong but not coars2; flesh firm........... 10 
ConpliTION, well covered with firm flesh, especially on 
Me te ts ae Ca eg. ee ee) ae eMeR mL N Tap aR L Ay 
HEAD AND NECK: 
Snout, medium long; face, broad ateyes........... 
xyes, good size, bright; ears, medium size, not coarse 
JOWL, not very wide, muscular, smooth; neck, med- 


Nonwo N 


PUSREE- MOM UMURESTUEAY 2 gk a Sake wit wx kts oe ae CO 4 
FORE QUARTERS: 
SHOULDERS, smooth, well laid in; breast, full......... 9 
Leas, medium long, straight, well placed, not coarse; 
pasterns erect ant straight. ..:.:. 025 eee he 3 
BODY: 
Back, medium width, slight arch neck to tail; loin 
BO. eae eres, LUE oes 6 x wes KA baa hee 10 
Riss, well sprung, long; side, long, smooth, medium 2 
RLS FN rite a cing PER Nig! Ate cide Rhee deca ee Soi 12 
CueEst, full, even with shoulder; flanks full and low... 7 
BELLY, firm, trim, thick, not flabby or shrunken...... 3 
HIND QUARTERS: 
Rump, same width as back, long, level.............. 5 
Hams, full, not flabby; thigh tapering toward hock, 
ggdetecthrg aor 3) We. ako ur Sc: han ce cee Aaa ete 7 
Leas, medium long, hocks well set apart, straight, 
DONG O00, NASUOTMM CrOtts asc che dkiss i UA dea + 


Total BCOPO. vier ec eee eee rete ne deees | 100 


THE JUDGING OF SWINE 219 


Judging the bacon hog requires keeping in mind certain 
important features wherein this type differs from the lard 
hog. Bacon is the first consideration. This comes from the 
sides; therefore the side that is longest and smoothest, with 
fair depth, is the most valuable. But bacon must not be 
heavy in fat, hence the condition of the body must show only 
a moderate amount of flesh. For these reasons, the bacon 
hog shows a comparatively narrow back, but considerable 
length of body. Over the back of the bacon hog, a uniform 
depth of about one inch of fat is ample, for a muscular car- 
cass with a reasonable amount of fat is what is desired. 

The shoulder of the bacon hog 
should be smooth, and not heavy 
like the lard type, but should 
nicely blend into the body. The 
thickness between the shoulders 
is not great, and a front view Te eee eee 
shows a relatively narrower neck P22toeraph by the author. 
and chest and longer leg, compared with the lard type. 

The ham of the bacon hog lacks in thickness, yet should 
be long on top, and taper off into a lean type, with no great 
amount of fat. From a side view, the ham cuts away more 
on its under part; while from behind, the thighs are thin and 
are well split up between, with rather a shallow twist. 

The belly of the bacon hog should show just as little full- 
ness as possible, consistent with being a good feeder. Any 
evidence of paunchiness or thickness here is objectionable. 
The lower part of the body line should be smooth and trim, 
and give evidence of the least amount of offal. 

The general appearance of the bacon type is that of a 
narrow, long-bodied, smooth-sided, long-legged hog, not 
too fat in any portion. The excessive length of leg, 
which often prevails, is to be criticised; otherwise these 


220 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


features of conformation are very desirable and should 
be maintained. 


—_ 
SOON AAP WD 


— 
— 


hogs. 


el a 
Or ee W bo 


herd. 


foam 
or) 


AMONG OTHER THINGS, THINK ABOUT 


. Quality as an important feature of the hog. 

. The occurrence of seams, or creases, and why objectionable. 
. The pasterns, past and present. 

. The five features most highly rated in the scale of points. 


The ‘‘shield”’ and its significance. 
The relation of breast to shoulder and constitution. 


. Where the most important ‘‘cuts”’ are found in the carcass. 
. Differences between breeding stock and that for the butcher: 
. The meaning of bacon type. 

. Relation of bacon form to offal. 


SOME NEIGHBORHOOD INVESTIGATIONS 


. Place on a township map the locations of market feeders of 


.) 
. Do feeders breed or purchase the stock fed? 
. What attention is given to quality by men buying hogs? 
. Does the lard or the bacon type prevail in your locality? 
. Bring to class a score-card record of some animal in the home 


. Organize a local swine-judging contest. 


CHAPTER XIII 
HEREDITY: ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE 


The word heredity has long been used by scientific men 
when discussing the important subject of breeding animals 
and plants. As commonly defined, it means the reproduction 
in the offspring of the characteristics of the parents. How- 
ever, it means more than that, because the parentage of an 
animal or plant extends farther back than one generation. 

The degree or extent that characteristics may be inherited 
from parents, grandparents, and more distant generations, 
cannot be absolutely determined. Yet, that animals and 
plants do inherit from other generations than the parents, 
is a matter of common knowledge. In fact, everything found 
in the animal, whether physical or mental, excepting cer- 
tain diseases, has been transmitted through previous genera- 
tions. We know that under average conditions there is a 
certain degree of resemblance between an animal and its 
various ancestors. Yet there are conditions which greatly 
affect heredity. Writing on “the complex nature of hered- 
ity,’ Davenport says:* ‘The most disconcerting principle 
in all improvement operations lies back of the obvious fact 
that the offspring is not like the parent. Having two parents, 
he could not of course be like them both. The fact is, how- 
ever, that for the most part he is not like either one of them, 
nor yet is he like the two combined. The most that can be 
said is that the offspring resembles his parents, and that all 
his characters are to be found somewhere in his parentage.’ 

The persistence of heredity is a most important factor 
in its influence on the offspring. The older and _ better 


*Domesticated Animals and Plants, 1910, p. 154. 


222 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


established the family, the more uniform and certain is the 
transmission. We say that an animal, family, breed, or 
race that transmits its special characteristics with much 
certainty, is prepotent. ‘This word suggests power, and 
really means superior influence. Wild animals and birds 
represent the purest and most prepotent breeding. They 
live and develop under conditions that are most natural and 
uniform, thus resulting in the least change. One wild fox 
differs but little from other wild foxes of the same kind, in 
form, color, and mental traits. In the opinion of most men 
they must have had these characters for a great length of 
time. The same thing applies to any other one species, the 
product of wild conditions. 

The most prepotent domestic animals are those that have 
been bred pure for long generations. A breed like Short- 


Fig. 139. A fine type of a breeding bull, showing masculinity and character. 
Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 


HEREDITY; ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE 223 


horn cattle, the pedigrees of which can be traced back for a 
hundred ‘years, represents a comparatively well-established 
type and character. In a herd of these cattle we should 
expect to find the typical horn and head, the general body 
form, and the red, white, or roan color so universally known. 
We have examples, however, of old breeds that have not 


Fig. 140. The Holstein-Friesian cow Prilly 40082 at 13 years old, on the 

left, and her three daughters, Beauty Pietertje, Cleopatra Gelsches, and Eliza 

, aati. all great producers. Photograph by courtesy of H. A. Moyer, owner 
of the cows. 


been developed by master breeders, and consequently a lack 
of individual excellence among a great number of the ani- 
mals is found. 

The importance of heredity in stock breeding has long 
been recognized. The men who have been most noted in the 
development of each of the great breeds have agreed that the 
saying, ‘‘like produces like,” contains much truth. In fact, in 
breeding operations they have placed a premium on pre- 
potency and uniformity of character. Bates, the great Short- 
horn breeder, was a stickler for type and character. The 
Same may be said of any other man who has been really 


a , 
pe 


224 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


successful as a breeder. If a man wishes to produce race 
horses, he must use race-horse blood,in which speed has been 
the important feature. Great records are being made among 
dairy cattle today, and certain families are noted producers. 
In studying the history of the development of the modern 
dairy cow, one will find that the inheritance of producing 
capacity is a great, prepotent feature. Anyone who attempts 
to establish and develop a herd without being guided by such 
information will certainly fail in his purpose. 

The importance of an ideal in breeding cannot be over- 
estimated. Men who have done much to: assist in develop- 
ing breeds, and have become famous in this work, are com- 
monly called ‘‘master breeders.”” In the upbuilding of the 
Shorthorn, the Colling Brothers, Bates, the Booths, and 
Cruickshank were all known as great constructive breeders. 
These men had their ideals or standards, and bred up to 
them as closely as possible. Two men start out with herds 
of cattle of equal merit. One man has ideals of what he 
should do. He carefully studies his cattle and the laws of 
heredity, and seeks constantly to improve his herd. At the 
end of 25 years he has a fine herd, that is a marked improve- 
ment over his foundation stock, and from which he derives 
much praise-worthy fame and substantial profit. The other 
man has no ideals or policy. He is satisfied with things as 
he receives them, he does not study his business, and as 
might have been expected, his stock becomes inferior and 
unprofitable, he gets in debt, and ends possibly in bank- 
ruptcy. One man is a benefit to his community, the other is 
not, yet each had an equal chance at the start. 


Certain useful and valuable forms of inheritance exist © 


among the improved types and breeds of farm animals, and 
the perpetuation of these qualities is most important, if one 
is to make a success of breeding. Some of these forms that 


HEREDITY: ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE 225 


directly concern the stockman are the following: (a) Color 
markings. One of the most important features of breed 


identification is the color. Some breeds possess a solid, 
uniform color, as the red of the Red Polled cattle, the black 
of the Aberdeen Angus, the white of the Chester White and 
Large Yorkshire pigs, and the red of the Duroc-Jersey. 
Each breed has its standard color or colors, and anything 
varying from this, as a rule, causes disqualification. (b) 
Milk production. The Holstem-Friesian breed is noted for 


Fie. 141. A good example of fecundity. A Duroc-Jersey sow and litter of 14 
pigs. Photograph by courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station. 

the large milk flow of the cows. No other breed of cows 
equal these in heavy flow of milk, and no feature does more 
to make the Holstein-Friesian famous than that of milk 
production. (c) Fecundity is especially a hereditary char- 
acter. Shropshire sheep have been noted for many years for 
the large percentage of twins dropped by the ewes. ‘The 
Large Yorkshire and the Tamworth breeds of hogs are famous 
for the large litters farrowed by the sows, while of the lard- 
type breeds, the Duroc-Jersey is prominent in this respect. 
(d) Temperament. As a rule, animals of a heavy, fleshy 


226 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


type are more phlegmatic and less nervous than those of more 
muscular build. Draft horses, beef cattle, mutton sheep, 
and lard hogs all show to a certain extent this relationship 
of form to temperament. (e) Speed is a striking feature of the 
horse of light and muscular conformation. A study of the 
pedigrees of running horses prominent today will in many 
cases show lines of descent from the Darley Arabian, with 
long lists of celebrated racers in between, covering the period 
of over acentury. In the same way, the record of inherited 
speed of the American trotter may be traced in a most inter- 
esting way, from the present back some 75 years to old 
imported Bellfounder, the sire of the dam of Hambletonian 
10, the most noted speed sire in the history of America. 
Peculiar or interesting characters are also transmitted 
from one generation to another. We are usually most 
impressed with the commonest things in animal inheritance, 
yet there are remarkable characteristics that are well worth 
attention, and such as demand consideration from the 
thoughtful stockman. Usually these are valued as breed 
features, yet in themselves they have no useful attributes. 
Some examples of these are the following: The solid hoof in 
the hog is a rare occurrence, except with one breed, the Mule 
Foot. This characteristic is of no special value, but it has 
been made the subject of much publicity, and many persons 
from curiosity have purchased specimens of Mule Foot hogs. 
A pug-nosed, dished face is a distinct feature of the Small 
Yorkshire breed of swine. Often these pigs are bred so that 
the lower jaw projects with an upward curve beyond the 
short, dished upper jaw, seriously affecting ease of eating. 
Berkshire breeders in America in late years have also had a 
tendency to breed these very short, turned-up faces. Such 
heads are monstrosities, in the same class with those of bull 
dogs and Boston terriers. Five toes on each foot are found 


. 


HEREDITY; ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE 227 


on the Houdan breed of chickens. This number of toes com- 
monly occurs on all good specimens of this variety of French 
fowls, although four is the usual number with most other 
breeds. 

Latent hereditary characters exist in all animal life. By 
this is meant characteristics that are not visible in any form 
in one or more generations, yet have occurred in the past, and 
may again appear at some time in future. During the past, 
students of heredity have called such occurrences “‘atavism,”’ 
while stockmen have been in the habit of referring to them as 
“throwing back,” or ‘“‘breeding back.’ For example, we 
have a case of a family of Aberdeen Angus cattle, which is a 
black breed. Very unexpectedly a red calf is dropped in a 
herd where not a red animal has been known. Yet a care- 
ful study of the history of this herd will show that at a pre- 
vious period there was a red ancestor. This red color 
was really hereditary, but lay dormant, or latent, as it is 
termed, for some generations, and then cropped out. The 
stockman now calls this a “‘sport.’”? Some scientists speak 
of it as “‘mutation.”’ ‘The important point, however, is that 
this character really was inherited from generation to gen- 
eration, but did not appear until certain conditions were 
favorable. Many similar cases might be cited that have 
caused much comment among stockmen. In this connec- 
tion, it may be noted that mutation occurs less frequently with 
old, well-established breeds than with those not so old, and 
less under natural than under artificial conditions. It is also 
important to remember that sometimes mutation results in 
valuable variations from the parent type. Instances have oc- 
curred where intelligent breeders have recognized the value of 
such a “sport,’’ and have succeeded in reproducing it through 
successive generations, until it became a fixed breed feature. 
More than one hornless breed of cattle and sheep have been 


228 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


founded by a polled animal unexpectedly appearing in a 
horned herd. This applies especially to Polled Jersey, 
Polled Hereford, and Polled Durham cattle. 

Variation in animal character is to be seen on every hand. 
No two animals are exactly alike. In a family of the same 
parentage we find striking differences. Within our intimate 


Fig. 142. Polled Durham bull, The Confessor 284217. owned by J. H. Miller 
& Sons, of Indiana. Photograph from the owners. 


acquaintance, we are often impressed with the striking dif- 
ferences between members of the same family. Among our 
domestic animals differences also exist in no small degree, 
although our attention may not be attracted by them in the 
same manner as in the human family. Yet variation is a 
common occurrence in all life.. It is due to this very fact 
that man has been able to improve and develop our farm 
animals to their present stage of perfection. Animal life 


rf 


HEREDITY; ITS MEANING AND INFLUENCE 229 


is plastic and more or less susceptible to the influence of 
artificial conditions which man more or less controls. Food, 
habits, surroundings, the care of man, all of these affect the 
development of the dumb beast in a notable manner. It 
should be the business of the stockman to study these con- 
ditions and make use of them to the material improvement 
of his own herd. 


IF YOU INHERIT A GOOD MEMORY, YOU SHOULD KNOW 


. The meaning of the word heredity. 

. Under what conditions prepotency is best seen. 

. Why a knowledge of heredity is important in stock breeding. 
. What is meant by master breeders. 

. The value of color markings in breed inheritance. 

. The relation of conformation and inherited speed. 

. Some peculiar forms of heredity. 

. The possible value of mutation. 

. What conditions influence variation. 


FIND EXAMPLES OF INTERESTING CASES OF HEREDITY 


CONMHNhWNe 


10. Report on the best examples of heredity extending over at 
least two generations, in which very similar characters appear. 

11. What is the most prepotent animal in the neighborhood, and 
why? 

12. Report on any herd showing high ideals of the owner. 

13. Interesting cases of fecundity among brood sows are not diffi- 
cult to find. Look some up and report upon them. 

14. What is the most interesting and peculiar case of heredity 
within your knowledge? 

15. Find a case of atavism worth reporting. 


CHAPTER XIV 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 


The principle of selection involves some method by which 
one or more animals are selected for specific purposes. The 
scientist recognizes two great classes of selection, one, 
natural; the other, artificial. 


Natural selection is the process in operation among wild 
animals by which individuals choose or select their mates. 
Force is an important medium under such circumstances. 
A good example of the application of natural selection is 
found with the deer. The males fight among themselves 
to determine which shall be master of the herd, and the 
strongest, most masterful secures the leadership. This is 
what is sometimes termed ‘“‘the survival of the fittest.” 
Among all wild animals a similar method of selection exists 
to a more or less degree. This system weeds out the weakly, 
inferior animals and promotes the vitality of the race. Refer- 
ring to this subject, Henry Drummond states:* ‘The 
object of the survival of the fittest is to produce fitness, and 
it does so, both negatively and positively. In the first place 
it produces fitness by killing off the unfit. Without the 
rigorous weeding out of the imperfect the progress of the 
world had not been possible. If fit and unfit indiscriminately 
had been allowed to live and reproduce their kind, every 
improvement which any individual might acquire would be 
degraded to the common level in the course of a few genera- 


tions. Progress can only start by one or two individuals — 


shooting ahead of their species, and their life gain can only 


*The Ascent of Man. 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 231 


be conserved by their being shut off from their species, or 
by their species being shut off from them.’’ Again he says: 
“Tf a given number must die, that number must be singled 
out upon some principle, and we cannot quarrel with the 
principle in physical nature which condemns to death the 
worst.”’ Natural selection therefore represents a progressive 
development, with each succeeding generation somewhat 
_ stronger and better bred for meeting the requirements of 
existence. An especially interesting phase of natural © 
selection is, that through it the species is developed so as to be 
best adapted to its purpose and condition of living. 
Artificial selection involves the introduction of man. He 
controls the matter of selection, and thereby is able to cause 
the animal to vary more or less from the parent type. In 
the earliest times, no doubt man exercised some control over 
the animals that he found useful, and caused changes in 
their development. Thus man’s ability to affect the pur- 
pose and value of dumb animals must have appeared evident 
to him long ago. The famous sculptures of Egypt and 
Nineveh, dating back thousands of years, show that domestic 
animals at that time must have been improved by man 
through the practice of selection. The Bible has been 
repeatedly quoted by writers on heredity, to show that the 
influence of selection was recognized prior to the time of 
Christ, as expressed in Genesis. Early writers like Plato, 
Pliny, and Columella, all refer to the improvement of live 
stock by selection. All through the intervening centuries 
up to the present time, interesting references occur in history 
of animal improvement being sought through selection. 
Methodical selection is a term used by Darwin to express 
the more systematic artificial process. In his most interest- 
ing work on ‘Animals and Plants Under Domestication,” 
he presents much evidence to show the practical application 


232 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of selection, and especially, how by a methodical, carefully- 
planned system, remarkable results have been secured. 
Referring to this method, Darwin says: ‘Few persons, 
except breeders, are aware of the systematic care taken in 
selecting animals, and of the necessity of having a clear and 
almost prophetic vision into futurity. Lord Spencer’s skill 
and judgment were well known; and he writes: ‘It is there- 
fore very desirable, before any man commences to breed — 
either cattle or sheep, that he should make up hismind to the 
shape and qualities he wishes to obtain, and steadily pursue 
this object.’ Lord Somerville, in speaking of the marvelous 


Fig. 143. The first prize herd of Shorthorns, Ringmaster at head, the result of 
a policy in selection. Photograph by courtesy The Farmer. 


improvement of the New Leicester sheep, effected by Bake- 
well and his successors, says: ‘It would seem as if they had 
drawn a perfect form, and then given it life.’ ”’ 

In connection with the practice of selection, it is important 
that the breeder keep in view certain necessary things, if he 
is to be successful in accomplishing his purpose. 

A policy in selection is essential. Whether one is to breed 
one kind of live stock or another, he should not only have — 
carefully considered plans, but should hold to them. One of 
the great reasons for non-success on the part of many breeders 
is the lack of a definite, well-founded policy. A man starts 


rf 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 233 


to breeding beef cattle, and after a time concludes he pre- 
fers a dairy breed; so he disposes of his beef stock. Thus 
years of effort may be upset in a few days. More than one 
man in a vainglorious way has stated that he has tried all 
the breeds of this or that kind of stock, and that he knows all 
about them. Such a statement is ample evidence of super- 
ficial knowledge and policy. 

Intelligent selection requires severe culling of the herd. 
Men improve the average of the herd through the removal of 
the more undesirable animals. Some persons, however, find 
it difficult to do this, on the plea that they cannot afford it, 
or that the misfits will do for the present. Yet the more 
uniform the excellence of the animals in a group, the more 
profitable the results to be secured. George A. Brown 
refers* to a practice followed in many parts of Australia, 
of employing an expert to cull and select the breeders in 
Merino stud flocks. Comment is made that, when the 
expert really understands his business, this plan has its 
advantages. A young stockman, by closely watching the 
methods of the expert, will gain a better insight into the busi- 
ness of selection for stud breeding, than he could by any 
other means. 

Selection as a means of securing desirable characters is 
one of the most easily applied practices. It is common to 
find certain recognized weaknesses or defects within a herd. 
It may be shown, for example, in a heavy, plain shoulder, 
or a weak, narrow back or an inferior hind quarter. ‘The 
necessary thing to do under such circumstances is first, to 
secure a sire that is especially strong where the females are 
weak; and secondly, to dispose as rapidly as possible of the 
- animals that possess these deficiencies in the most striking 
degree. In the most progressive live-stock communities, 


*Studies in Stock Breeding, 1902, page 354. 


234 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


high-class breeding stock is greatly valued. In fact, we have 
no way of accurately measuring the value of a great, pre- 
potent sire. It is understood by those familiar with many 
British flocks and herds that the best breeding animals cannot 
be purchased; they are not for sale. It is an old story that 
Edwin Hammond refused an enormous sum for the famous 
Merino ram Gold Drop, his reason being that he could not af- 
ford to sell his bestramat anyprice. Brown statesthat onone 


Fig. 144. These cows were the result of selection for butter-fat production. 
Photograph by the author. 


occasion a wealthy Tasmanian sheep breeder offered one of 
the most skillful island stud owners $500 each for the pick of 
a score of ewes from his stud, and the offer was refused. 
These animals transmitted most valuable qualities to future 
generations, In no uncertain manner, the perpetuation of 
which qualities was of vital importance to the owner. At the 
present time great interest is shown in dairy cattle, and the 
marked improvement in producing capacity in many herds 
is evident through the use of sires that come from dams and 


rT 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 235 


families notable for milk or butter-fat records. Suppose a 
man desires to purchase a bull. Would it not be a fine invest- 
ment to secure one from ancestry that would result in a herd 
of cows that would yield 400 pounds of butter-fat, each, per 
_ year, as compared with a sire producing cows giving only 200 
pounds of butter-fat? Think of the difference in the final 
gain to the man and to the breed! One thing should be kept 
in mind in the effort to secure and hold desirable qualities, 
and that is not to breed with a narrow, one-sided policy, 
remembering that the greatest general perfection of form 
and function should always be the final object of the breeder. 

Selection and environment have much in common. By 
environment is meant the conditions of climate, soil, shelter, 
etc. In very recent years the word ‘genetics’ has come 
into use, and will no doubt become more common in the 
future. It refers to breeding scientifically, depending upon 
hereditary transmission, without regard to environment. 
When starting in the business of breeding, it is very generally 
considered important that animals be selected that are suited 
to the special conditions under which they must live. While 

it is true that domestic animals are adaptable, the different 
breeds are not equally so. Some, as for example, the Short- 
horn, seem to thrive under a wide range of conditions. Others 
are much less suited to change. Large, heavy animals are 
better adapted to the lower lying lands and richer pastures; 
while the lighter, smaller type thrives in the hill country, 
where herbage is not so abundant. There are cases where 
men have persistently held to a breed under adverse condi- 
tions, and have selected until an adjustment was reached 
between the animal and the climate and the breeder. Brown 
states that one of the greatest triumphs achieved by the hus- 
bandman, with the aid of selection, has been in stocking the 
“oreat thirst land of central Australia”? with Merino sheep. 


236 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


When first taken to that country, they deteriorated greatly. 
The wool was reduced to less than half the original length, 
and became dry, very brittle, and open. Many sheep 
farmers gave up the attempt to produce the Merino as hope- 
less, but others persevered, and finally succeeded in produc- 
ing sheep with fine frames and splendid fleeces. If one will 
carefully study breed distribution in America, he will find 
that in some localities certain breeds are selected in preference 
to all others. For illustration, in the southern states Jersey 
cattle and Berkshire hogs are kept in preference to all other 
breeds. In warm climates a dark-skinned animal suffers 
from the heat less, and consequently hogs and cattle with 
dark skins prevail. Wisdom would justify no other policy 
of selection. Feeding is also an important factor in hered- 
itary transmission. It is amply demonstrated that animals — 
transferred from conditions of food scarcity to an environ- 
ment of abundance, through successive generations take on 
an increase in size. The Shetland pony on its native isles, 
subject to cold and more or less starvation, is a smaller, 
more inferior animal than that of the same ancestry, but 
which has passed through several generations in the prairie 
country of America, where food is most abundant. Men 
may buy fine animals for their herds, but unless properly 
fed and cared for, depreciation is sure to follow from genera- 
tion to generation. 

Uniformity in type of foundation stock should be most 
carefully considered. It is a common method for young men 
starting herds, to buy females without regard to uniformity 
of type. The result is that herds thus begun do not attain 
the standing they should, because of variation in the off- 
spring, due to the lack of methodical selection at the start. 
One might far better begin with three females of uniform type 
and excellence, than with a much larger number of no uni- 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 237 


formity. The final outcome with the three would certainly 
encourage observers to pursue a similar method. 

A knowledge of breed character is requisite if one is to 
become an intelligent breeder. All of our farm animals 
may be grouped into breeds, crosses, grades, or scrubs. 
Any improvement made must come through the breed, or 
pure-bred line. Our breeds are the outcome of systematic 
selection and improvement. Present-day standards are 
undoubtedly higher than ever, and breeders demand more 
and more merit in breed representatives. This being so, it is 
highly important that the stockman should be quite familiar 
with the scale of points, moulding all the desirable qualities 
into an ideal worthy of the breed, and then endeavor to 
produce animals that 
come nearest to that 
ideal. Such knowledge 
also calls for a keen dis-— 
crimination in selecting 
the breeding stock by 
which the herd is main- 
tained. 

Fig. 145. Shropshire sheep heavily cov- aa el hes ae a ag 
ered with wool over the head. Photograph & thing greatly to be 
by the author. . 

desired on the part of 
breeders. Too many persons are influenced in their se- 
lection by passing fads. In the past, men have insisted 
on maintaining herds of red Shorthorns, or solid-colored 
Jerseys, allowing these fancy points to obscure more impor- 
tant ones. Hogs have been bred with such extreme dish of 
head as to make it impossible for them to eat in a natural 
way. Sheep have been bred with such heavy coverings of 
wool over the face as to prevent the use of the eyes. ‘These 
features should never obscure the vision of the breeder. 


238 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Rational selection requires putting a premium on consti- 
tutional vigor, size, and quality, and then wisely giving 
fancy characteristics of color, head, or covering of wool 
secondary consideration. It is not meant that these fea- 
tures should be ignored. In fact, they serve in part as 
factors in breed identity, but so also do other things. 
Nothing is so essential as vigorous constitution, and rational 
selection would naturally place a premium on this. One 
may strike the happy medium on fancy points without detri- 
ment to his herd, and at the same time preserve the desirable 
qualities, thereby attracting buyers. But what could be 
more unwise than to neglect constitution in order to maintain 
some special color character? Yet more than one breeder 
has been guilty of this. 


The selection of the pedigree. One cannot practice 
selection and ignore pedigree. Persons familiar with lines 
of family breeding recognize that more merit exists in some 
than in others. The men who have been most successful as 
breeders have always refrained from purchasing animals the 
pedigrees of which showed undesirable ancestry. Auction 
sales of live stock bring out various interesting features, 
chief among which is the relatively higher price paid for 
animals of recognizéd satisfactory pedigree. While it is 
true that in the past many animals have sold at high prices, 
largely on the basis of pedigree and without merit otherwise, 
the fact remains that as a general rule, a combination of 
individual excellence and meritorious pedigree brings the 
highest price. The man who combines the capable judge 
and wise interpreter of pedigree is qualified to select to the 
best advantage. | 


SELECTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE 239 


A SAMPLE SELECTION OF QUESTIONS ON SELECTION 


. What is natural selection? 

. What did Darwin say about methodical selection? 

. What is the Australian method of culling and selecting sheep? 
. How have great sires been valued by their owners? 

What is the relation of animal development to soil and climate? 
Why aim for uniformity of type in founding a herd? 

. What is rational selection? Illustrate. 

. How important is constitution? 

. What part should pedigree play in buying breeding animals? 


SUGGESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATIONS IN SELECTION 


DOONAAPRWN He 


10. Make a report on Charles Darwin as a student of selection. 

11. What breeders that you know practice methodical selection? 

12. Are there any sires in your county highly valued by their 
owners? If so, what are they, their value, and why so valued? 

13. Give local examples of dairy cows having official records of 
-milk or butter-fat production. Are these the result of careful selection? 


CHAPTER XV 


PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 


The pedigree of an animal shows the consecutive rela- 
tionship of an animal to its ancestors. Of some animals we 
say that they are pure-breds, while others are known as 
scrubs or mongrels. The pure-bred has a known pedigree, 
while the scrub has not. Men have developed herds of 
animals of similar character and ancestry from which they 
uniformly reproduce the parent type, and have kept 
careful records of the breeding. Such animals form a 
breed. To be pure-bred, an animal must show in its pedi- 
eree that it traces back wholly within the blood lines 
from which the stock originated. If an animal is not pure 
bred, it may combine in its pedigree widely differing blood 
lines that are more or less out of harmony with one another, 

A cross-bred animal has a pedigree that on the sire’s side 
is of one breed, and of another on the dam’s side. As a rule, 
cross breeding is very undesirable, and should be carried only 
one generation, and then for the production of feeding-stock 
only. 

A grade animal, in the large majority of cases, has a pure- 
bred sire, but is out of a dam that is not pure-bred. One 
often hears the expression high grade, which means that the 
animal referred to is by a pure-bred sire, and out of a dam 
that contains much pure blood stock. <A high grade herd of 
Herefords would consist of a collection of animals that 
started with just common or scrub breeding stock, but in 
which for some generations none but pure-bred males were 
used as sires. Thus a systematic improvement of the herd 


PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 241 


would be made. The degree of improvement may be 
expressed as follows: 


Ist generation = Pure sire, scrub dam. The offspring == 1% blood 
2nd si = “ %“ —Yblood dam. “ Z- = 4% 
3rd (a9 == (<9 6¢ 34 ce ce ‘c 6é — KZ 4 
4th (a9 — as (as iK% 6c ce cc 6e ona 154 ¢ sé 
5th a mee fs 66 146 66 66 6“ 66 —— 3145 6 
6th a eer A te 66 3145 a a 66 66 =: 6364 é6 


Fig. 146. A herd of grade feeder cattle at the Ohio Experiment Station. 
Photograph by courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 


Thus it can be seen that in time a herd may become practi- 
cally pure-bred, although one will not be able to register this 
high grade stock in most breed registry associations. Yet all 
pedigrees really start from grade ancestry. 


The bracket form of constructing a pedigree shows the 
family relationship by means of a series of brackets, after the 
following manner. This is the most common form in use. 


; {Orion 4901 
3539, Pani 
Duroc-Jersry Boar, pam te O80 \Ohio Anna 10068 


Orion Chief 13333 { Longfellow 6815 
Ne x] OOF 2 : 
Mabel 22518 \ Agnes X 15250 


242 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


In making this form of pedigree, the names of the males 
are at the top of each bracket, and the females at the bottom. 
This style may be extended from generation to generation, 
the number of ancestors doubling each remove to the right. 
This pedigree shows that Orion Chief, a noted Duroc-Jersey, 
had Orion II for sire and Mabel for dam. Going back 
another generation, it will be noted that in the line of male 
descent, his grandsire was Orion and his grandam, Ohio Anna. 
On the dam’s side, Longfellow is his grandsire and Agnes X, 
the grandam. If we now go back another generation we 
have four great-grandsires and four great-grandams. This 
form of pedigree shows the entire direct ancestry, and is the 
only one generally used by stockmen to show the breeding 
of an animal. 


The line of female descent pedigree is another method 
of showing ancestry. This may be illustrated by the follow- 
ing Shorthorn pedigree: 


Imp. VILLAGER 295884. 


Roan; calved March 1, 1906. Bred by C. H. Jolliffe, Darlington, England. 


Dams BREEDERS OF DAMS SIRES BREEDERS OF SIRES 
Village Beau 295883 Wm. Duthie 

Rosy Cloud (Vol. 50E) C. H. Jolliffe Chorister 295882 Wm. Duthie 
Rosy Dawn. S..2c.6. : . C. H. Jolliffe Misty Morning 153603 Wm. Duthie 
Rose Blossom......... S. Campbell Clan Alpine 130852 Messrs. Nelson 
BER 68 ich ns ae S. Campbell Gravesend 98361 A. Cruickshank 
HRoevemary i. so. .:c0 S. Campbell Banner Bearer 96034 © Wm. Duthie 
Roan Rosebud........ S. Campbell Borough Member 64872 J. Bowman 
Ranchi 30). un. pee S. Campbell Sir Christopher (22895) R. Booth 
Resebud. Int. 2 0.) ssn ee S. Campbell Dipthong (17681) A. Cruickshank 
Rosebud /~ 2a. eek Sl S. Campbell Scarlet Velvet (16916) A. Cruickshank © 


This pedigree shows the bull Villager to be sired by Vil- 
lage Beau, a bull bred by William Duthie, a noted Scotch 


PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 243 


breeder. Villager’s dam is Rosy Cloud. She was bred by 
C.H. Jolliffe, and her sire was Chorister, also bred by William 
Duthie. The grandam of Villager was Rosy Dawn; his 
great-grandam, Rose Blossom; his great-great-grandam, 
Roselinty; etc. This pedigree goes back ten generations, 
showing only the ancestry of Villager on his mother’s side, 
with the sire of each female in this breeding. Except for 
the sire, the ancestry on that side of the pedigree is entirely 
left out, while only a part of the breeding en the dam’s 
side is given. While it is true that the dam’s pedigree is 
thus carried out much farther than in the bracket form, what 
one should know most about is the near relationship all 
through, at least four generations. A Shorthorn pedigree of 
this form shows the tribe or family to which the animal 
belongs, which in this case is the Rosebud, which started in 
the herd of 8. Campbell, a famous breeder of Kinellar, Scot- 
land. In reference to this pedigree, after the name of each 
male a number is given. This indicates his registry number 
in the Shorthorn herd-book. When written in parenthesis, 
it is the English Shorthorn Herd-Book number. Formerly 
only the herd-book volume and page was given for Short- 
horn cows, but now the females registered in America are 
given numbers, as is customary with all other breeds. The 
line of female descent pedigree is not desirable, and breeders 
generally should use the bracket form. 

The amount of ancestry shown in a pedigree naturally 
depends upon its extent. The following tabular state- 
ment is given by Davenport,* which shows in a rather 
striking way, the percentages of blood in a pedigree at dif- 
ferent points for ten generations. 


*Principles of Breeding. IE. Davenport, 1907, page 595. 


244 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Relative intensity of blood lines and approximately relative influence 
of different generations and individuals for ten generations backwards. 


Generation Number of Influence of generation| Influence of each 
individual. 
backwards ancestors Per cent Per cent 
1 2 50.00 25.00 
pi 4 25.00 6.25 
3 8 5 1.56+ 
4 16 625 0.39-+ 
5 of a. 425 0.10— 
6 64 1.5625 0.024+ 
7 128 0.78125 0.005+ 
8 256 ~ 0.390625 0.001 + 
9 512 0.1953125 0.0004— 
10 1024 0.09765625 0.0001— 
Total | 2046 99.90234375 


The statement set forth by this table shows how little 
influence is derived from one individual in the ancestry ten 
generations back. Yet the value of blood lines depends also 
on the character of the breeding. If the ancestry is pure, 
and contains the names of animals of distinction within the 
same family lines, then it will mean much more to the breeder 
who understands pedigrees, than it will if the imheritance 
shows no family names of value. 

The merit value of a pedigree is receiving more and more 
attention. By merit value is meant the number of animals 
in the pedigree that show producing records Fal some kind. 


Sarpedon 030 
Pedro 3187 ... Ant arse or Darlington 2459 . 
Sire of 47— Ibs. ‘oz. sir f.— E 
(7 days) a.) Beauty of Darlington 3736 
Pedro's Happy Maid ..26 % Bete of Briarcliffe. SS ee 
pages Royal Prin- lia of Briarcliffe .i7 6% 
Scie ..24 14 Rioter 2d 469 
Golightiy ive, te eas See eon of— Ibs. oz. 
TOs, Mame _oo.0.- 19 12 Euretta ‘2454 ...0 3255 ones. otas .. .(7 da.) 22 7 
Pedros Pansy ie CU Test 22 Ibs. 7 oz. In 7 — Fortrida a] -.17 6% 
— Pedro's Minette . ....19 6 Test 778 Ibs. 1 oz in 1 ye 
Pedro's Gay Duke 42842 Pedro's Marjoram ....19 6 Dam of the great Peds uropa 176. 
a “gieth dro’s Rosaline, 8 Pedro's Lady .... ...18 12 
mm 5 Pedro's France rears. Fair” Mar- Stoke Pogis 5th 5987. 
Ne. 14 ‘tbs. 6 oz. a jo im Ewe co fe Rar Cie S- ence Sister of as ey, 24 
e a retty aggie.18 9 Ss. OZ.; scilla Pogis, 
Pedro's Pretty Belle..18 8 Prospect’s Rioter 9189 ...... Ibs. 5 ary of 
Sire of Marjoram’s Matilda,| Prospect, 19 Ibs. 1S ° 
Ib 6 o Rio perm lida 4 1 
Primrose, 18 lbs. 15 oz. Test 21 lbs. 8% oz 


Pedro’s Pretty Duchess 885584 dro’s Pretty Gem, 18 Ibs. % 
est 11 oz Pedro 3187. : 
Sire of 47 in lst 


bg 16 Ibs. 
Pedro's Duchess — Pe fe 
Test 18 Ibs. 7% o Great Happiness 18205. 


Fig. 147. The pedigree of a son of the noted Jersey bull Pedro, showing merit 
in three generations on both sides. From a sale catalogue. 


PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 245 


If one studies the pedigree of a race horse, he should find 
therein the names of many animals with speed records to 
their credit. In the case of a dairy breed of cattle, then milk 
or butter-fat records may be given, as well as the records 
of offspring of sires and dams. With some breeds, a state- 
ment is affixed showing prizes won in the show ring. In 
cases of animals selling at high prices, these facts are also 
sometimes inserted in the pedigree. The important thing 
is to show at different points in the ancestry the richness of 
the pedigree in production. At the present day, one should 
have no difficulty in securing the pedigrees of pure-bred 
animals that will give more or less specific information 
regarding performance on the part of individuals in the 
pedigree. The richer the ancestry in_ record-making 
achievement, the higher the price one must usually pay 
for the animal purchased. 

A pedigree score card suggesting the relative importance 
of near and remote ancestors has been proposed by Prof. 
F’. R. Marshall.* In this score card, 24 points are given the 
sire (12 for siring good stock, and 12 for individual merit), 
and 24 points are given the dam (10 for her record as a pro- 
ducer, and 14 for individual merit), with 4 points on similarity 
of type of sire and dam. The grandparents are given a total 
of 24 points, ranging from four to two points each for records 
as producers, and individual merit. The great-grandparents 
are accorded one point each on production, individuality, 
and ancestry. This is an interesting score card, that may 
come into considerable use. 

The accuracy of the pedigree is of first importance. It 
may not be accurate for two reasons; first, because of 
errors in writing it, due to carelessness or otherwise; 
and second, from dishonesty. Mistakes will occur among the 


*Breeding Farm Animals, 1911, page 110. 


oo 


- 246 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


most careful and conscientious. The published herd-books 
of registry associations have in the past contained many 
errors, although conditions now are greatly improved. Then 
honest men have copied from sale catalogues pedigrees that 
contained mistakes, and have republished these errors. The 
most unfortunate pedigree is the ‘‘doctored,”’ or crooked, 
one. Fraudulent pedigrees exist, and men have on more 
than one occasion been prohibited from doing business 
with registry associations on account of fraud. If guilty, 
the penitentiary is what they deserve. Integrity is the 
foundation on which the pure-bred live-stock business is 
based, and all known cases of fraud should be regarded as 
of criminal character, and be punished accordingly. 

A study of the pedigree is a necessity, if one is to become a 
successful breeder of pure-bred stock. There are several 
ways by which one may become familiar with pedigrees. 
Suppose one is to breed Jersey cattle. Then, if in the busi- 
ness in a serious way, he should try and secure the herd- 
books published by the American Jersey Cattle Club. These 
are the original source from which all Jersey pedigrees are 
made up in the United States. Having these books, one 
may at any time trace the pedigrees of registered animals. 
Sale catalogues should be saved by the breeder, for they will 
often be found valuable for reference, even though some of 
them are carelessly prepared. The register of merit should 
also be kept for reference, so that information may be at hand 
regarding official records of production. One also should 
read the current literature regarding the breed. Some of 
the more important breeds are represented by special 
journals, which contain a large amount of information 
concerning animals of distinction. By these various methods 
one may accumulate much knowledge regarding pedigrees of 
animals. 


ee | 


PEDIGREES AND THEIR VALUE 247 


IN MAKING A STUDY OF THE PEDIGREE 


What does it show? 
. What is a grade or high grade? 
. Explain the bracket form and its value. 
. What is meant by line of female descent? 
. How many ancestors does one have in the fifth generation back? 
. How important is the blood influence of an animal ten genera- 
tions back? 

7. What is merit value of pedigree? 

8. Describe a pedigree score card. 

9. Give two causes of inaccurate pedigrees? 

10. How can one become familiar with pedigrees? 


CAN YOU BRING TO THE CLASS 


On P wd 


11. The pedigree of an animal with which you are acquainted? 
12. An example of a bracketed pedigree? 
13. A sample of a Shorthorn pedigree? 
14. Pedigree showing merit, or performance, of 
(a) Dairy cattle? 
(b) Race horses? 
15. A sale catalogue showing prices paid for animals? 
16. A pedigree containing an error? 


CHAPTER XVI 
SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 


A knowledge of the principles of breeding is desirable for 
breeders generally. This knowledge is important, no matter 
what kind of stock one wishes to produce, for only by intelli- 
gent application may one become best qualified as a breeder. 
Therefore the student should keep in mind that no matter 
in what kind of stock he is interested these pages are intended 
to serve as a help in the development of the herd. In this 
connection, there are certain things that may well be empha- 
sized in starting out in this work. 

Breed for a special purpose. ‘The successful breeders of 
the world have always been specialists. The first thing to 
be considered is the purpose for which the animals are to 
be produced. One may have in mind meat, milk, speed, or 
draft, but he should recognize that whether dealing with 
breed or type, the final aim is some form of production. A 
multitude of examples illustrating the policies of successful 
stockmen might be given to show the results secured through 
breeding for special purpose. 


Stick to a well laid out policy. The breeders who have 
made the most out of their efforts have been persistent, and — 
have staid by the kind of stock with which they began. The 
one who endeavors to keep only a class of stock that is selling 
at high prices, unloading at times of depression of values, 
rarely succeeds. Every business, including the live-stock 7 
business, goes through periods of prosperity and of low values. 
Take sheep for example. They fluctuate in a wide range of 
values, and some men dispose of their entire flocks when 


i 
¥ 
< 
‘ 
“ 
= 
=I 


SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 249 


sheep are very low in price. Investigation, however, will 
show that the man who has staid by his sheep through the 
years, irrespective of values, has made a good profit on his 
long-time investment. 


Keep a few good animals, rather than many common 
ones. One may perhaps make money breeding common 
individuals, but the right kind of reputation comes to a 
breeder through his best animals. <A buyer, as a rule, will 


Fig. 148. ‘‘ Keep a few good ones.’’ Photograph by Prof. John W. Decker. 


try to purchase the choicest stock. If the breeder sells 
these, he will follow the worst possible policy. As has been 
suggested elsewhere, he would better cull out the undesir- 
able animals and rely on a smaller number of good ones to 
build up his herd. A group of uniformly good animals, 
whether grade or pure-bred, is always an attractive sight, 
and serves as an advertisement of the best kind. A motley 
herd, lacking character, is not attractive, and hurts the repu- 
tation of the breeder. 


, 


250 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Pay a premium on merit when purchasing animals for the 
herd. ‘Too many breeders buy inferior animals because they 
are cheap. From a breeding point of view, one should select 
animals that combine individual merit and pedigree. If 
there is anything in the laws of breeding that has been help- 
ful in the past, it is the knowledge that like produces like. 
Each year in the history of a herd should mark improvement, 
and this cannot be the case if one purchases beasts of an 
inferior character. The influence of a new animal in the 
herd is far-reaching, be it good or bad. One should care- 
fully consider this, and be governed accordingly. Some of 
the most profitable breeding animals in history cost a high 
price. The Berkshire boar, Masterpiece, was purchased 
by Mr. Corsa for $2500, and proved to be a very profitable 
animal at that record-breaking price. 

Try to become a judge. If one is to be a breeder, he 
should be familiar with the relation of form to purpose, and 
should be judge enough to select intelligently his own breed- 
ing stock. There are courses of instruction whereby system- 
atic training in judging may be secured. Good judgment 
in culling out the undesirable animals from the herd, and 
in the purchasing of new stock, is highly essential, whether 
for breeding or feeding purposes. Some practical feeders 
have the reputation of shipping only good fat-stock to the 
market, and buyers are always on the lookout for animals 
fed by them, for which they pay the top price of the day. 

Feed your animals well. One cannot purchase high- 
class stock and keep them in good form and state of de- 
velopment, unless properly fed. Many persons buy animals 
in good condition, but neglect them after the animals come 
into their possession. Where men must buy feed, they too 
frequently neglect to give their new purchases enough to 
keep them in thrifty, healthy condition. Food is essential 


e 


SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 251 


to maintain life and produce growth and vigor. It is a 
serious mistake to be niggardly in the use of feed. Further- 
more, no herd can do other than go backward, if the animals 
are not fed wisely. Young growing stock, starved and 
neglected, become inferior in development, and in dueseason 
naturally reproduce inferior offspring. A true stockman 
always enjoys seeing his animals eat, and realizes that some- 
thing is wrong if they do not show a hearty appetite. 

Do not be led astray by fads. Develop a herd that com- 
bines the useful and beautiful in the highest possible degree, 
for these two important features naturally go together. 
Leave out of consideration pedigrees that do not stand for 
merit. Remember that peculiarities of form often are of 
little real value, and that it is not wise to go to extremes in 
these things. Do not make color a vital thing with those 
breeds in which variation in this respect occurs. Whether 
an Ayrshire cow is one-fourth or three-fourths white, is a 
very superficial matter. Her general conformation, con- 
stitution, and producing capacity, are the important sub- 
jects to consider, rather than the color fad. 

Study your local environment, and learn what class of 
stock you will be most likely to succeed with on the land and 
under the conditions which surround you. As a rule, it is 
best to keep the sort of live stock that is most common in 
the community. If in any one county in a state there was 
but a single breed of hogs, for example, with many herds 
represented, it would result in more buyers coming into that 
section for this special breed, than would come otherwise. 
They would visit this locality because the greatest selection 
of individuals for sale would be at hand within a limited terri- 
tory. This would save the buyer time and money. It would 
also be a fine thing for the sellers, because of the number of 
men coming in to inspect their stock. 


252 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Become acquainted with the families or strains of the 
breed in which you are interested. It is important to know 
something of these. Those breeds that are represented by 
a large number of animals, include families of varying degrees 
of merit. These family traits may be regarded of much 
importance, and may greatly affect values. Prepotency, 
special forms of production, adaptability to certain condi- 
tions, temperament, etc., are features, one or more of which 
are stronger in some families than in others. Old experienced 
breeders who are regarded as successful, consider carefully 
matters of this sort, and act accordingly. 

Cultivate the acquaintance of breeders. The man who 
would succeed in his business, must gather information from 
every legitimate source. Knowledge is a matter of accu- 
mulation. We accumulate through observation and per- 
sonal contact. We get inspiration from those who succeed. 
It is a fine thing to enjoy the friendship of men who are 
leaders in the line of business in which we ourselves are 
interested. Darwin, one of the greatest scientists, gathered 
a fund of most valuable information from the English stock- 
man and farmer, in whose acquaintance he took great 
pleasure. Thomas Bates, the noted English Shorthorn 
breeder, received much inspiration from his acquaintance 
with the Colling Brothers, men who were doing much for 
these cattle while Bates was yet young. Furthermore, 
co-operate with your brother breeders in a generous way 
for the promotion and uplift of live-stock interests, whereby 
all will be benefited. 

A private herd record should be kept by every stockman 
owning a breeding herd. Such a record should contain a list 
of the animals in the herd, giving their correct names and 
registry numbers, dates of birth, names of sires and dams, 
and of the men who bred them. A record should also be 


= aan 2 & 
ae 


SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 253 


kept of all animals produced on the farm, with facts of their 
parentage. There are private herd-books — especially 
arranged, providing blank spaces for the various facts of 
importance, that can be purchased at .a reasonable price. 
If desired, one can prepare his own style of private herd- 
book. ‘The records which go in such a book are-most impor- 
tant, and all men engaged in breeding should feel it a duty to 
keep them with care. 

Methods of doing business with registry associations 
should be considered by the breeder. Each breed is. repre- 
sented by an association of men who prescribe the methods 
of registry and transfer of animals of that breed. It is the 
business of the secretary to furnish breeders with blank forms 
which they may fill out and file with the association, whereby 
they may register their stock from time to time. ‘The secre- 
tary also furnishes the necessary rules and regulations for 
doing business with the association. It is not-necessary for 
a person to be a member of an association for promoting and 
registering a breed, but it is desirable that he should be. As 
a rule, members of registry associations do business with it 
for about half the cost to outsiders; and if one registers many 
animals, he would soon 
cover the cost of mem- 
bership, which varies 
with the breeds, from 
$9 to $100. 

The identification of breeding stock on the farm is 
important. For this reason various methods are used to 
mark animals so that they can be identified. Metal ear 
tags, on which is stenciled the name or initials of the owner, 
with a number, is in common use. Such a tag is fastened in 
the ear, a hole being punched through which to pass a part 
of the tag. These tags are often torn out and lost, and so are 


© JOHN SMITH,’ 
GAN, IOWA. 


| if ' | 
Wilt Patti 
MU PUI! 


Fig. 149. The Dana ear tag. 


254 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


not altogether popular. The tatooing of numbers within 
the ear, by means of a special needle and an indelible fluid, 
is also used to some extent. 
Hogs and sheep are com- 
monly identified by notch- 
es cut in the thinner edge 
of the ear, although metal 
tags are also frequently 
used with these animals. 
The hoofs of horses are 
also stenciled with num- 

bers, especially in case of 
gate an) perma! Sane ee hool. importation. Sometimes 

the horns of cattle are 
marked in a similar way. On the ranges, cattle and 
horses are branded, and sheep are given marks with 
paint, by which ownership may be identified. Some of our 
breeds of dairy cattle, especially those of different body 
colors, are identified by the location of color marks on the 


Fig. 151. Southdown rams at Babraham, England, showing method of marking. 
Photograph by the author. 


SUGGESTIONS TO YOUNG BREEDERS 255 


body. For example, when applying for registry of a Hol- 


stein-Friesian, it is necessary to trace on a diagram showing 
the outline of body form, the shape or outline of each black 
spot, or marking. A copy of these outlines is made on the 
certificate of registry, so that identification is made easy. 
Every breeder, as a matter of good policy, should have a 
system of individual identification of the animals in his herd. 


The use of literature relating to the breeds is to be highly 
commended. Periodicals are published exclusively in the 
interests of certain breeds, and most of these deserve support. 
Real live-stock students will make it a point to obtain books 
on breeding and on the breeds, and each will secure such infor- 
mation as can be obtained regarding the development of his 
favorite stock. The herd-books issued by the breed asso- 
ciations should also be on the book shelves of the stockman, 
for they are invaluable in tracing up blood lines and in study- 
ing pedigrees. 


AS A MATTER OF GOOD BUSINESS 


. What reasons can you give for an established policy? 

. Give an example of paying a premium on merit. 

. Has feed much to do with herd improvement? 

. Explain the meaning of a live stock “fad.” 

. Why cultivate the acquaintance of breeders? 

. What advantage is there in the private herd-book? 

. Why be a member of a live-stock registry association? 

. Specify three kinds of identification marks for live stock. 


cmon oanr WN = 


. What forms of literature are available for the stockman? 


FIVE INTERESTING THINGS TO DO 


10. Locate the man who has dealt in some one kind of live stock 
longer than anyone else in your section, and report on his methods, 
after making him a visit. 


alee ile silane cal eta al 


256 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


11. Report on the most uniform herd within five miles of lial 
giving facts of interest. 
12. Make a sample page for a private herd record and brig to 
class. ns 
13. Secure and bring to class samples of blanks for registering and — 
transferring animals of some one breed. 
14. Report on methods of identifying stock used by ee stock . 
men in your community. eS 


CHAPTER XVII 
THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 


The plant as a source of food is of great interest to feeders 
of live stock. All our farm animals eat green plants with 
relish, just as aman enjoys celery. When plants are properly 
dried and cured as hay, their value for feed is not thereby 
affected. All of our grains are products of plants; and from 
these directly, or indirectly by milling, do we obtain some of 
our most valuable feeds for farm animals. So the facts are 
that the plant, in one form or another, really furnishes our 
horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry with about all of 
their food. 


The material of which plants are made is taken from both 
soil and air, but largely from the soil. Like animals, plants 
must have food. ‘The chemist tells us that all matter is 
composed of elements, about 13 of which provide food for 
the plants. The names of some of these are common, such 
as iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. ‘There are four others: 


Carbon Oxygen 
| Hydrogen Nitrogen 
that are also important. Besiaes these, the plant needs 
potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesia, chlorin, and silica. 
Most of these elements are found in different combinations in 
the soil, more or less dissolved in the water. By means of its 
roots, the plant takes up the water and so carries this food 
through all its various parts. As this water or sap 
moves through the structure of the plant cells, the food in 
solution is used to promote growth. Carbon, oxygen, 
hydrogen, and nitrogen are gases in the air. The first two 


258 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of these unite to form carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas, 
which the plant breathes in through the pores of the leaves. 
This gas in the plant goes through a change, and the oxygen 
is breathed out, and the carbon is left to be made up into the 
solid part of the plant. 

Nitrogen in the form of a compound is taken up by the 
plant through its roots; but plants of the legume group, such 
as the clovers aided by certain bacteria, have the power of 
using the nitrogen in the soil atmosphere. Nitrogen is a 
highly valued plant food, and the farmer often purchases it 
in fertilizer at a good price. These different elements unite 
with one or more others in the plant, and form combinations 
which are familiar to us under various names. Of these, the 
following are important when we come to consider the plant 
as food. 

Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is 
found in all plants, and even in very dry hay. To get the 
water entirely out of the plant, it must be driven out with 
artificial heat. The amount of water in plants differs greatly. 
Common timothy hay and red clover contain about 15 per 
cent, and ordinary corn meal has a similar amount. About 
80 per cent of green pasture grass 1s water, and some of our 
roots, like the turnip, have 90 per cent. After the water is 
driven from the plant by heat, what is left is dry matter. 
The water in the plant is worth no more than any other water, 
its chief value being to carry food in solution through the 
plant. 

Ash, or mineral matter of plants, we see in the ashes left 
from burned wood. When we burn a plant, we destroy its 
form, and all that which burns and disappears we call | 
organic matter. That which is left is ash, or inorganic 
matter. There is much difference in the amount of ash in 
plants. Green or very young plants contain the least, and 


, | 


COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 259 


old ones the most. Common corn fodder contains about 
3 per cent of ash, alfalfa about 10 per cent, and some of the 
roots 1 per cent. The ash in plants is of value for food, if not 
too abundant. Hogs raised on feeds containing but little 
mineral matter, such as corn, for example, do not have as 
good bone or do not feed so well as when the corn is supple- 
mented with other feeds containing more ash. 


Protein in the plant is a combination in which nitrogen, 
especially, plays a very important part, and is combined with 
earbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulphur. There are dif- 
ferent forms of protein, but we do not need to concern our- 
selves about that here. This substance is not usually abun- 
dant all through the plant. Rough stalks contain but little. 
Prairie grass hay has about 6 per cent, red clover 12 per cent, 
and cotton seed 181% per cent. The growing plant usually 
has its greatest amount of protein when in bloom. Seeds 
are richest in this substance, for as the plant matures it 
shifts the protein to some extent from stalk to seed. In some 
of our mills where seeds are crushed or otherwise treated 
and the hulls removed, by-products, very rich in protein, 
are produced. Cottonseed meal is agood example. Protein, 
whether used to feed plants or animals, is the highest priced 
food constituent the farmer can buy, when we consider the 
price he must pay on the market. This is because it contains 
so much of the valuable element, nitrogen. 

The carbohydrates are combinations of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, and contain no nitrogen. These are the most 
abundant of our food substances in plants. ‘There are two 
kinds of carbohydrates, one known as nitrogen-free extract, 
consisting mostly of sugar, starch, and gums; the other called 
fiber or crude fiber, making up the woody part of the plant. 
Most of the fiber is cellulose, the material composing the 


260 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


walls of plant cells. The chemist may dissolve out the 
starch and the sugar from the plant cells; what is left is the 
fiber. The starch, sugar, and fiber are all carbohydrates, 
but the first two are much better for food, as they are very 
much more easily digested than the fiber. In general we see 
carbohydrates all about us in plants and plant products. 
The most of the stalk of corn, or any growing plant, consists 
of carbohydrates. Common rice and potatoes are rich in 
this substance. Many of our hays contain from 60 to 70 
per cent; therefore this is the cheapest as well as the most 
common constituent of animal feeds. Animals cannot sub- 
sist on carbohydrates alone, although they are very valuable 
as a source of heat and energy. However, the farmer must 
depend largely on materials rich in these substances to supply 
the great bulk of the feed for his stock. 

The fat in the plant is composed of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen in different combinations from which we find them 
in the carbohydrates. Fat, or ether extract, as it is also 
called, is not usually abundant in plants. One to 3 per cent 
is the usual amount with many plants. ‘The seeds ordinarily 
contain the most, some of these like cottonseed and flax 
having large quantities, so that it is extracted for commercial 
purposes, and the by-product rich in protein is sold as cake 
or meal. Fat is of special value in the food, as it furnishes 
the animal both heat and energy. 

The words roughage and concentrate are commonly used 
today by persons referring to feeding stuffs. When a farmer 
speaks of roughage, he means hay, corn fodder, or some coarse 
feed of that kind. By a concentrate, he means seeds that 
may be fed, or products made from them, such as bran, corn — 
meal, oil meal, ete. Any form of feed for farm animals 
that contains much protein is usually considered a con- 
centrate. 


a 


COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 261 


The following arrangement will show how the parts of 


the plant are related to one another: 


All feeding stuffs consist of 


| 


Water and Dry Matter 
Ash, or Organic Matter 


Inorganic Matter 


Protein Carbohydrates Fat, or 
Saat ee Se Ether Extract. 
Nitrogen-Free Fiber 
Extract 


The material of which the animal is made is very similar 
to that used in building plant tissue. To begin with, the 
body of the animal is made up of water and dry matter. If 
we remove the water, dry matter is left. If this is burned 
entirely so that even the charcoal is destroyed, the organic 
part disappears and only ash is left. The organic matter, 
while made of chemical substances similar to those found in 
plants, consists mostly of protein and fat, with but little of 
the carbohydrates. The composition of the animal body may 
well be studied a little more in detail. 

Water in the animal body is found in the blood, and in the 
fleshy and bony parts. The amount of water in the animal 
depends upon age and condition. Young animals have 
rather watery bodies. The older an animal becomes, or the 


262 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


fatter he gets, the less water is found in the body. For 
example, a calf a week old may consist of 60 per cent water, 
_while a fat cow four years old may be but 45 per cent water. 
It will be fairly accurate to say that about 50 per cent of the 
body of an animal under usual conditions is water. 

The mineral matter, or ash, in the animal is more or less 
abundant, according to age and condition. Old animals 
always contain more than do young ones, and fat less than 
lean ones. Usually we find a little over three pounds of ash 
for each 100 pounds of body weight. A fat, corn-fed hog, 
however, may be so short of ash in the body that the bone will 
hardly be strong enough to support its weight. The ash in 
the animal is made of the same substances as that found 
in plants. 

The protein of the body is to be seen in the form of 
muscles, tendons, blood, nerves, the internal organs, hide, 
hair, horns, etc. Lean meat with no fat on it is protein, or 
nitrogenous material. The fatter the animal, the less the 
percentage of protein in the body. In the entire body of a 
farm animal under usual conditions we find about 13 or 14 
per cent protein. In the dressed carcass, ready to be sold 
for meat, we find about 17 per cent. 

The fat of the animal body is composed of carbon, hydro- 
gen, and oxygen, or of the same chemical substances as the 
fat of plants, but differing in combination. The amount 
of fat in the body depends much on how an animal has 
been fed. If we take a young growing pig, the body may 
contain only 25 per cent fat, or even less, but a hog that 
has been well fattened and is ready for the butcher may 
contain over 40 per cent. Not often do we find less than 
6 per cent fat in the body, or over 35 per cent. In the carcass 
ready for cutting up in the shop, we find about 20 per cent 
fat, under usual conditions. 


COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 263 


Carbohydrates in the animal body are but contained in it, 
not a part of it, and so this substance cannot be considered a 
constituent of animal flesh. However, carbohydrates exist 
in the body in two forms; one, glycogen, similar to starch 
in composition, found in the liver and muscles; and the 
other lactose, or the sugar of milk, found in milk. Dex- 
trose is also found to a slight extent in the blood and tissues. 

Comparing plants and animals, we see that the plant 
obtains its food from the air and from the mineral matter in 
the soil, from which it develops a form made up of cells that 
are largely carbohydrates. The farm animal obtains its 
nutriment from the plant, from which is created a body form, 
also composed of cells, but in this case, of nitrogenous mate- 
rial. During the day the plant sucks in carbon dioxide from. 
the air through its leaves, and holds the carbon, and gives 
off the oxygen. The animal on the contrary, draws the air 
into the lungs, uses the oxygen from it, and then breathes 
out carbon dioxide. Thus we see that these two great 
eroups of living matter, the plants and animals, are of vital 
importance to each other, and have much in common. 
Without the plant or its products the animal could not live; 
while by feeding on it, the beast converts the vegetable sub- 
stance into a yet more concentrated and more valuable 
material. 


REAL FOUNDATION QUESTIONS 


1. Name ten elements, tell where they occur and how taken up 
by plants. 


2. How abundant and useful is water in the plant? 

. Discuss protein and its occurrence. 

. What two kinds of carbohydrates are there? Illustrate. 
. Where in the plant is the fat most abundant? 

. What is a concentrate? Give three examples. 

. How much water is found in the animal body? 


I> CrP & 


264 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


. Of what use is the mineral matter in the animal? . 
. What percentages of protein and fat are found in animals? 
. Where are the carbohydrates found in the animal? 


THINGS EASILY FOUND. LOOK FOR THEM 


. Specimens of elements. 

. Organic and inorganic matter. 

. Ashes of different kinds. | 

. The protein of plants and also of animals. 
. Five kinds of fat. 

. Roughage and concentrates. 


CHAPTER XVIII 
THE INFLUENCE OF FOODS ON THE BODY 


In order to understand the influence of food on the body, 
it will be necessary to consider briefly the simpler features of 
digestion. 


The process of digestion begins with the mouth, where the 
food is broken up and softened. The fluid called saliva flows 
from small glands at the base of the tongue, and the mixing 
of this with the food in the mouth is ealled insalivation. 
This fluid contains substances which act on the starch in 
the food and help change it to sugar, so that it may be 
absorbed more readily. In swallowing, the food passes from 
the mouth through the aesophagus, or gullet, into the stom- 
ach. ‘The horse and hog have but one stomach, but cattle, 
sheep, and other animals that chew the cud, have four. 
The process of digestion, however, is similar in all stomachs. 
The cow chews a mouthful of grass very imperfectly at first 
and swallows it into the paunch, which is the largest of the 
four stomachs. From here, after more or less mixing, the 
food is forced into a second and smaller stomach, called the 
honeycomb. After it has been churned about and softened 
in these two stomachs, the animal forces back into the mouth 
as frequently as desired, a small amount of food called 
the ‘‘cud,” for further chewing. The cattle-man calls 
this operation ‘‘chewing the cud.” After a bit this is re- 
turned, and by a special movement, passes into the 
manyplies, or small third stomach, from which it passes on 
into the fourth, or true stomach. While in the true 
stomach the food is churned about and mixed with 


BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


ie 
Ps 


a: 
2 
ae 
x 
: 
- 
en 


Fig. 152. The stomach of cattle. The lower figure 
shows (a) the first stomach, (b) the second, (c) the third, and 
(d) the fourth. The upper figure shows by the dotted lines 
the direction of movement through the four stomachs. 
Figures reproduced from ‘‘Cattle and their Diseases,’’ U. S 
Dept. of Agriculture. 


THE INFLUENCE OF FOODS ON THE BODY 267 


gastric juice, which contains a little acid. These 


juices act on the food, dissolving and changing it so that 
it can pass through the walls of the digestive tract and 
be used in the body. From the stomach, by a peculiar 
wave-like motion, the food is forced on into the small intes- 
tines, where it is mixed with other fluids that aid digestion. 


_ The liver and pancreas glands both pour juices over the food 


as it moves along the way in the small intestine. Thus the 
food from the time it is taken into the mouth is constantly 
acted on and changed for use in the body. The material 


_ not absorbed from the small intestine is passed on into the 


large one, where the last changes take place. During this 
trip in the body the protein, carbohydrates, and fat are 
broken up into different smaller and simpler particles. When 
ready to be absorbed, they are taken into the circulation by 
the blood and lymph, and carried all through the body. 
Left in the cells, these particles of protein, etc., which are 
called nutrients, serve their final purpose of building up the 
body or producing milk or energy. This process of digestion 
and absorption is rather complicated, and includes many 
changes that need not be mentioned here. 

The size and capacity of the digestive organs are much 
greater than many suppose. The following figures make this 
clear: 


Capacity of stomach and intestines of Length of intestines 
ee 224 quarts .. Mp es er oa Sem 
The ox.. I EN re oe eae * | tea he Reade 
The sheep. . Pee ee Os ey oS. OP heat 
I eT oy 2D Rea eas Thine singe ie eee 


It is to be noticed that the ox has a very great capacity in 
its four stomachs, the full contents of which will fill a large 
barrel. 

The food in the body is for the purpose of maintaining 
life, for producing growth or energy, or certain substances, 


an 
ia 
wv «& 


268 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of which milk is an example. On this account people who 
feed live stock must regulate the food in amount and kind if 
they wish to obtain the best results. 

The protein in the food during digestion is acted on by 
what are called digestive ferments. One of these, pepsin, 
attacks the protein in the stomach, and hydrochloric acid 
also takes a part here. These break up the protein into 
simpler forms, making them suitable for use in the body. 
After the protein gets into the intestines, two other ferments 
attack it, and make such changes in it that it is easily dis- 
solved and absorbed, and distributed through the tissues 
of the body. The animal cannot take the protein in the 
plant and use it at once as body protein, but it must go 
through these changes in the digestive organs before it can 
be used. The protein in the food is changed to body pro- 
tein, of which lean meat is the best example. To some 
extent it may also be changed into fat. Animals that 
depend entirely upon flesh for food, can live on protein alone 
if necessary. During starvation, the body loses a small but 
rather constant amount of protein. So we consider this 
substance especially valuable for building up the muscles, 
the hair, wool, internal organs, blood, and similar tissues. 

The carbohydrates in the food are largely changed into 
sugar during digestion. Thus they are more easily absorbed 
into the body. There are different kinds of sugars, but that 
in the food is converted into glucose. This sugar is then 
taken up by the circulation and carried to the liver, where it 
is again changed somewhat, and from here is distributed 
over the body as needed. The carbohydrates are largely 
used in the system to furnish the energy necessary in work, - 
and to make fat. Interesting experiments with animals, 
show that more fat is stored in the body than can be sup- 
plied by the protein and fat in the food. Dr. Jordan of the 


- 


ems 4 


THE INFLUENCE OF FOODS ON THE BODY 269 


New York experiment station has clearly proved that carbo- 
hydrates are used to form part of the fat in the milk of the 
cow. If animals are fed enough foods rich in digestible car- 
bohydrates, the fat in the body will not tend to diminish in 
amount. In other words, such foods protect or conserve 
the body fat. The carbohydrates are also regarded as great 
sources of heat and energy. This will be explained a little 
further on. Feeds containing plenty of carbohydrates 
cost less for the dry matter in them than do any other feeds, 
and are valuable for filling the stomach. Sheep and oxen 
must be fed a quantity of roughage, as a filler, if they are to 
do well. 

The fat of the food when in the small intestine, is changed 
into soap and glycerin. It is finally taken up in the circula- 
tion, in a changed form, and then stored as a part of the body 
fat. The fat of the body is usually made from the fat and 
the carbohydrates of the feed, though it may be produced to 
a small extent from protein. There is usually but little fat 
in the roughages fed to stock. , 

The mineral matter in the food is taken up in the small 
intestine, and goes through no special digestive changes as 
with the other food substances. Mineral substances are 
regarded as of great importance in building up the body. 
Those foods that contain but little ash give poor results in 
‘feeding, unless the necessary material is supplied. Years 
ago Professor W. A. Henry showed that hogs fed only corn, 
had bone just about half as strong as hogs fed bone meal or 
hard-wood ashes with the corn. Farmers give hogs ashes or 
coal because these animals make a better development when 
so fed. Without the ash, the body is not given proper nutri- 
tion. Corn lacks ash. A hundred pounds of corn meal con- 
tains but a pound and a half of ash, while a hundred pounds 
_ of oats has more than twice that amount. All stockmen rate 


270 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


oats highly for producing hard, strong bone in growing 
animals. 

All food has a heat value, just as coal has. If burned, 
coal gives off heat; so does food. All heat comes from the 
sun, and is stored up in the plant, ready to be set free. 
The word calorie represents a measure of heat given off by 


food. One calorie equals the amount of heat required 


to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4° F. The 
word therm is now being adopted as more convenient for use 
in referring to stock feeding. A therm equals 1000 calories. 
If we raise 1000 pounds of water 4° F, that measures a therm. 
While food is being digested in the body, heat is produced 
by the process. Some foods contain more heat than others. 
The difference will depend largely on the amount of fat con- 
tained. Scientific men consider that the heat values of pro- 
tein and carbohydrates are about alike, but that the heat 
value of fat is 214 times as great as either of these. This 
partly explains why the Eskimos in the cold north eat somuch 
food that is nearly all fat, as the blubber of the whale. 
Corn contains more fat that any of our common grains, 
which accounts in part for its use as a winter feed for 
horses, and also is a reason why it should not be fed heavily 
to stock in summer in the warm season. 

Food has an energy value. When a substance is burned, 
the resulting energy furnishes power to do work. So it is 
understood that what we call a therm represents the energy 
or work necessary to raise 1530 tons to a height of one foot. 
Part of the energy of the food, to be sure, is lost in the process 
of digestion, partly because not all the food is digested. But 
much of it is saved, and this is used to keep the engine of the 
body going. The horse that pulls the plow or hauls a load 
of hay gets his power from the stored-up energy in the 
food, which is set free in the body during oxidation. 


a 


THE INFLUENCE OF FOODS ON THE BODY 271 


The heat and energy value of food has been worked out 
by scientific men, by means of a calorimeter. This is a very 
strong, round, hollow steel tube. A sample of a food is 
placed in this and burned, and the amount of heat given off 
is measured. Another instrument, called the respiration 
calorimeter, also is used, in which a live animal is placed. 
With this the investigator can study the value of foods, and 
can make a complete record of just what becomes of all the 
energy produced. By means of the calorimeter, one 
measures the heat or energy used in labor, or thrown off from 
the body, or passed off as breath through the mouth. The 
application of this knowledge will be found in the next 
chapter. At the Pennsylvania experiment station there is a 
respiration calorimeter made to hold animals as large as 
cattle. In this there have been conducted very interesting 
experiments on the energy value of foods as fed to cattle 
under different conditions. 

The palatability or taste of food is considered very impor- 
tant in feeding animals. If the food is pleasing to the taste, 
the animal will digest it better, because the fluids used in 
digestion will flow more freely, and thus act more completely 
on the food. Nice sweet hay is greatly relished, while that 


which is somewhat mouldy, or has not been properly ripened, 


or cured, will be poorly eaten or entirely refused. The 
animal that feeds best has a good appetite, and eats plenti- 
fully. A great Russian experimenter, who studied the effects 
of the appetite on the forming of the digestive fluids in dogs, 
learned that digestion, appetite, and palatability all go 
together. 

The use of water by the animal is very important. 
Water may keep the entire body in a healthy condition. 
The digestive fluids and blood need given amounts of water 
to do their work right, and water is needed to keep the 


272 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


intestines open and active, and to regulate body temperature. 
Experiments have shown that farm animals need a certain 
amount of water for every pound of dry matter eaten. For 
example, a horse or sheep needs from two to three pounds of 
water for each pound of dry matter consumed. With some 
foods more water is required than with others. The cow 
that eats silage will drink but little water compared with the 
one fed dry corn fodder. 


The nutritive ratio is frequently referred to in discussing 
the use of rations in practical feeding. This term is used to 
express the ratio of the digestible protein to the digestible 
non-protein substances in the food, or the combined car- 
bohydrates and fat to the protein. In order to compare 
these substances on an equal basis, they are reduced to the 
same heat valuation. Protein and the carbohydrates do have 
the same heat value, but a pound of fat is equivalent to 
about 214 pounds of either one of these. Consequently the 
chemist, in order to place them on an equal footing in heat 
value, multiplies the digestible fat by 244. The nutritive 
ratio is found by adding this to the amount of the carbo- 
hydrates, and then dividing the sum by the digestible pro- 
tein content. The following example will illustrate the 
method of finding the nutritive ratio: | 

Oats contain 10.7 pounds of digestible protein, 50.3 
pounds carbohydrates, and 3.8 pounds fat. Then the ratio 
is worked out in this manner. 3.8 pounds fat x 2144 = 8.55 
= the carbohydrate equivalent of the fat. 

80.3+8.55 =58.85 
10.7 ) 58.85 (5.5 
03.0 


535 
535 


Nutritive ratio, 1:5.5 


THE INFLUENCE OF FOODS ON THE BODY 2 


~ 
Cw 


The nutritive ratio is obtained in the same way for an 
entire ration, dividing the total amount of the digestible 
carbohydrates and fat by the total digestible protein. A 
ratio of 1:5.5 means that for each pound of digestible protein 
in the ration there are 5.5 pounds of carbohydrates or its 
equivalent. 

A narrow nutritive ratio, is one in which the amount 
of carbohydrates and fat is not large in proportion to protein, 
such as 1:3, or 1:5; a moderate amount would be 1:8; while 
a wide ratio would be 1:12. Highly concentrated foods 
usually have narrow ratios; while coarse foods, such as 
roughages, have wide ratios. 


DIGEST THESE QUESTIONS 


. What is meant by ‘‘chewing the cud?” 

. How is food taken into the circulation? 

. What is the capacity of the stomach of the = 

. What digestive fluids are present in the stomach? 

. How are the carbohydrates changed in digestion? 
. What is a “‘calorie”’? a ‘therm’? 

. How can the energy value of food be shown? 

. Describe the calorimeter. 

. What has palatability of food to do with digestion? 
. Explain the term ‘“‘nutritive ratio.” 


TAKE NOTE OF THESE THINGS 


DO ONOUhwWHH 


a 


11. How often does a cow chew the cud? Watch and see. 

12. If an opportunity occurs, measure the intestines of an animal 
that may be killed on the farm. Report. 

13. Get samples of what you consider palatable and unpalatable 
foods for stock. 

14. Figure out the nutritive ratio of three plants or other feed 
materials, 


CHAPTER XIX 
FEEDING STANDARDS: THEIR ORIGIN AND USE 


The chemical composition of a feeding stuff is easily 
learned by a chemist. He takes a fair sample of the feed and 
grinds it in a mill to a powder as fine as flour. He then takes 
a small sample of this and analyzes it in the laboratory. He 
dries a weighed portion in an oven and finds just how much 
water it contains, and what the percentage of dry matter. 
Then with ether he dissolves out the fat, (ether extract) 
and weighs this. With other chemicals he also separates out 
the protein, the nitrogen-free extract, and the fiber. Another 
sample of the feed he burns to learn how much ash or mineral 
matter remains. Thus the chemist is able to determine just 
how many pounds of each of these substances there are in a 
given amount of feed. This is the first step taken by the 
chemist in studying the value of foods for animals. 


The amount of digestible nutrients in a food, the simple 
chemical analysis, however, did not show. This led to another 
step forward by the chemist, whereby he learned just how 
much of the total protein, carbohydrates, and fat in a given 
food an animaldigested. After analyzing a sampleof the feed, 
as much of it was fed as the animal would eat in a given time. 
During the experiment, all the solid and liquid excrement 
passed off by the animal was collected, and samples of these 
were also analyzed. Having learned how much protein, 
carbohydrates, and fat were lost in the manure, the chemist 
deducted these amounts from the total amounts consumed 
in the feed, and the difference was considered the amount 
digested by the animal. This method was not perfect, but 


FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 275 


it was a great step in advance. It enabled chemists to figure 
out the amount of each nutrient digested under different 
conditions, so that in time they were able to prepare for the 
use of farmers what is called ‘‘a table of digestible nutri- 
ents.”” This table showed the total amount of dry matter 
in 100 pounds of different kinds of feed, and also the number 
of pounds of digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat in 
every 100 pounds. In this table, for convenient reference, 
foods of similar sorts are grouped by themselves. For 
example, roughage is all classed together, and this is divided 
into three groups: as dried roughage, fresh green roughage, 
and roots and tubers. Then the concentrates are arranged 
by themselves, and these are also divided into groups. The 
following is taken from a table of digestible nutrients, * 
and is used here to illustrate what has just been explained. 
No attempt, however, is made to group these feeds. 


Name of feed. matter in Ghee 

100 lbs Protein tee Fat 
SS 85.0 6.1 64.3 3.5 
Meena. >..,,-.......- 88.1 11.9 42.0 2.5 
MI a 89.6 8.8 49 2 4.3 
Suranseed meal............ 93.0 37.6 21.4 9.6 
Timothy hay... aie’ Cae 2.8 42.4 ie: 
Kentucky blue grass hay. hits 86.0 4.4 40.2 0.7 
Wheat straw.. Sch y “SO 0.8 35.2 0.4 
Red clover—green. . Siam jelly Be 2.9 13.6 0.7 
Alfalfa—green.............. 28.2 3.6 12.1 0.4 


This little table, which is made from a much longer one 
giving the digestible nutrients in about all the different 
kinds of food the American farmer is likely to feed, shows that 
100 pounds of corn meal contains 85 pounds of dry matter. 
In this 85 pounds, of the digestible material of use to an 


*Feeds and Feeding. W. A. Henry, 1912. 


276 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


animal, we find 6.7 pounds of protein, 64.3 pounds of carbo- 
hydrates, and 3.5 pounds of fat. Let us now look back and 
learn how figures like these have a practical value to the 
farmer. 

The kind and amount of food required by an animal 
very naturally depends on the class to which it belongs, its 
age, and use. No one would expect to feed a calf the same as 
a horse, or a sheep like a milch cow. Each must be fed so as 
to supply its needs as completely as possible. As might be 
expected, scientists were a long time getting the necessary 
information to enable men to es how to — SO as 
to get the best results. 

What we know as feeding standards, in the beginning 
were very simple and did not have any real value. The 
working out of useful standards began in Germany, and 
German chemists have done more than any one else to furnish 
us knowledge on this subject. The first plan attempted was 
to give meadow hay a fixed value, and then measure up other 
feeds with that as the standard. That plan originated about 
1810. Some fifty years later, another German chemist 
suggested that animals be fed special amounts of protein, 
carbohydrates, and fat, according to certain conditions. 
However, his plan was not good, because he did not take into 
account the digestibility of the food. He was able to analyze 
a food, but he knew nothing of how much of each nutrient 
the animal digested. At that time there was quite a deal 
of information of the chemical composition of feeding stuffs, 
but the digestibility of the foods had not been figured out. 
Then about 1864, another German chemist, by the name of 
Wolff, proposed that animals be fed daily certain amounts of © 
digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat, such as were actu- 
ally required by the animals. Wolff was able to propose 
this because he had conducted many feeding tests with dif- 


FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 277 


ferent animals, and had learned much of the digestibility 
of feeds. His studies resulted in what are now known as 
The Wolff feeding standards for farm animals. Two 
things were shown by this great scientist. One was the 
digestibility of the nutrients in different feeding stuffs, and 
the other was the amount of each of these required by farm 
animals under certain conditions. Wolff found that ani- 
mals that were doing no labor, that were not being fattened, 
neither gaining nor losing in weight, required only sufficient 
food to keep the body and the internal organs healthy and 
vigorous. Such an animal required what he called a main- 
tenance ration. A young animal needed a growing ration, 
and cattle intended for meat required a fattening ration. 
A cow producing a large amount of milk must be fed, first 
to supply the ordinary needs of the body, such as might be 
found in a maintenance ration, and besides this, she must be 
fed still more to enable her to produce the milk of which the 
food is the source. The dry cow may be satisfied on a 
maintenance ration consisting of some form of roughage 
only, such as clover hay for example; but if she is yielding a 
good supply of milk, then rich concentrates must be fed, if 
the increased demands of milk production are to be met. 
Since Wolff first made known this most important. dis- 
covery, many other chemists have experimented in the same 
field. Both European and American agricultural chemists 
have studied the science of feeding, so that now we know 
much more than did the student or farmer in the days of 
Wolff. Animals have been carefully studied, and the inven- 
tion of the respiration calorimeter has resulted in some 
wonderful investigations in the fields of chemistry and 
animal nutrition. The work of Wolff was that of a pioneer. 
For many years Americans relied on analyses of German 
feeds, and made use of the standards that came to us from 


278 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Europe. Today we are able to use a table of digestible 
nutrients, which is based on the composition of American 
feeds, as studied by chemists of our own country. Wolff’s 
feeding standards in improved form, are, however, very gen- 
erally used by American feeders as the best yet available. 
Wolff used 1000 pounds as the standard of weight for ani- 
mals, and assumed that a certain amount of dry matter, 
and of digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat, were 
needed for that weight under given conditions. The ani- 
mals were classified in groups, as oxen, fattening cattle, 
milch cows, sheep, horses, etc. Then those in a group were 
classified according to their purpose; as for example, horses 
into light, medium, and heavy work; and dairy cows in four 
classes, according to the amount of milk made per day. 
The following figures, taken from Wolff’s feeding standard, 
illustrate its arrangement: 


Pounds required daily for each 1000 lbs. live weight. 


— 


Digestible nutrients 


Kind of animal Dry eee 
eka Protein | Carbohy- Fat — 
drates 
Horses, light work. ... 20 5 9.5 0.4 28 
Horses, medium work . 24 2.0 11.0 0.6 1:6.2 
Horses, heavy work... 26 2.0 13.3 0.8 1: 6.0 


This table means, for instance, that a horse at light work 
weighing. 1000 pounds requires 20 pounds of dry matter 
daily, containing 1144 pound of protein, 94% pounds of e¢ar- 
bohydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, the ration having a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1:7. | 

The practical application of Wolff’s feeding standards 
has been recognized on thousands of farms in America, and 
to the great profit of those adopting them. Probably no 
class of people has studied the standard more carefully than 


FEEDING STANDARDS: ORIGIN AND USE 279 


_ feeders of dairy cattle, and it is among herds of this kind that 
we find Wolff’s standards most commonly used. It must be 
understood that one may not be able to feed his stock so as 
to follow the standard perfectly, but there is no trouble in 
using it in a practical way as a guide. One may feed a little 
less or a little more protein than the standard recommends. 
When the animal is fed about right, according to the 
standard, then a balanced ration is being used; or one which, 
without waste, most perfectly meets the needs of the body. 
Many experiments have shown that the balanced ration can 
be relied upon for giving the best results. 

Energy value feeding standards have recently attracted 
attention. Kellner, a German, and Dr. H. P. Armsby, a 
noted American investigator of feeding animals, about 1908 
proposed that the feeding value of foods be measured by 
their energy content, as shown by the therms of net energy 
they supply. These men accounted for the loss of a part of 
the food energy by the animal in the mastication of its food, 
and in the operations of the internal organs, etc. The energy 
left after digestion they called the net energy and this was 
used by the animal for supplying special needs. Armsby has 
published a set of figures showing the dry matter, digestible 
protein, and net energy value in therms in some of the most 
common feeding stuffs. He has also prepared a maintenance 
ration standard, and one for growing cattle and sheep. ‘The 
following is made up from the latter, to show how this energy 
standard is arranged. 


CATTLE 
Age Live weight Digestible protein Net energy value 
3 mos. 275 lbs. 1.10 lb. 5.0 therms 
12 mos. 650 Ibs. 1.65 Ib. 7.0 therms 
24 mos. 1000 lbs. 1. 7& Ip. 8.0 therms 
This table shows that a calf three months old, and weigh- 


ing about 275 pounds requires 1.1 pound of digestible pro- 


280 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


tein per day, and that the total net energy in the ration will 
equal five therms. This new standard has hardly been 
long enough before the public to be well known, and has 
been used but little in practice. 


QUESTIONS ON KNOTTY THINGS 


. How does a chemist analyze a feeding stuff? 
. What is meant by digestible nutrients? 
. How are feeding tables arranged? 
Trace the history of the feeding standards. 
Explain meaning of a maintenance ration. 
6. What standard of weight is used in feeding tables? Suppose 
an animal weighs more or less? 
7. Discuss the practical use of Wolff standards. 
8. What are the energy value feeding standards? 


wm ON 


On 


CHAPTER XX 
HOW TO CALCULATE A RATION 


The method of calculating a ration is very simple, and 
can easily be put in practice by anyone who knows how to 
add, multiply, and subtract. There is nothing complicated 
about it. The fact that many farmers with only common 
school training figure out the rations for their stock, is evi- 
dence enough to support this statement. Many men feeding 
dairy cows study carefully the composition and cost of feeds, 
and then figure out the best rations available, that will 
agree as nearly as possible with the standard. 

The first step in calculating a ration is to find out the 
amounts of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, and fat in 
the ration one is feeding, or is planning to feed. In 
this chapter, only the most common feeds used over 
much of the United States will be considered. We will 
figure out the ration for a dairy cow weighing 1000 
pounds and making about 22 pounds of milk a day. Let us 

plan to feed this cow a daily ration say of 10 pounds red 
clover hay, 30 pounds corn silage, 5 pounds corn-and-cob 
meal, and 3 pounds bran. To use a good system in the 
starting of the work, we will arrange the different parts in 
proper order for study, which is as follows: 


Kation for 1000 pound dairy cow producing 22 pounds of milk a day. 


Digestible nutrients ae 
5 ene sds Nutmuve 
Carbohy- ratio 


Dry Si > 2 ena ecaaenee 
Protein drates Fat 


Feeds matter 


Td vac lowed cosvccleanccsfesccceucs 
CE HS Ce Pe, Sr 
merm-and-cob meal,Slbs|........|.......[.......006]: oe fae 
Bran, 3 lbs 


282 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The second step in calculating the ration will be to find 
out how much dry matter, and digestible protein, carbo- 
hydrates, and fat, occur in each of the amounts of the dif- 
ferent feeds, and write these figures in the proper blank 
places in the table. Turning now to page 387, in the back of 
the book, you will find Table A, showing the amount of 
dry matter and digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of a 
number of different feeding stuffs. The composition of each 
of those to be fed this cow can be easily found. Let us take 
red clover hay for our first calculation. 


Red Clover Hay 


DRY MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES FatT 
100 lbs. contain 84.7 lbs. 7.1 Ibs. 37.8 Ibs. 1.8 lb. 
Then 10 ]1bs. contain 8.47 lbs. 0.71 lbs. 3.78 Ibs. 0.18 lb. 


Taking corn silage next, we find that 


Dry MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES FaT 
100 lbs. contain 26.4 lbs. 1.4 lbs. 14.2 lbs. 0.7 lb. 
Then 30 lbs. contain 7.92 lbs. 0.42 Ibs. 4.26 lbs. 0.21 lb. 


Corn and Cob Meal 


DRY MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat 
100 lbs. contain 84.9lbs. 4.4 Ibs. 60. Ibs. 2.9 lbs. 
Then 5 lbs. contain 4.24 lbs. 0.22 lbs. 3.0 lbs. 0.145 lb. 


Coming last to bran, we find that 


Dry MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat 
100 lbs. contain 88.1lbs. 11.9 lbs. 42.0 lbs. 2.5 Ibs. 
Then 3lbs.contain 2.64lbs. 0.36 lbs. 1.26 Ibs. 0.075 lb. 


If we have copied these figures as soon as worked out, 
into the blank places fixed for them in the table on page 281, 
then we shall have the following, after we have added 
up the totals: | 


| 


HOW TO CALCULATE A RATION 283 


Ration for 1000 pound dairy cow producing 22 pounds of milk a day. 


Digestive nutrients 


- Feeds ary. | | ie iave 
matter pprarenn pir die Fat ratio 
Red clover hay, 10 lbs..| 8.47 0.71 aie? | OAS 
Corn silage, 30 lbs. . 7.92 0.42 4.26 | 0.21 
eco meal, 65h. : 
lbs. Bee ae 4.24. 0.22 a00” "OPS 
Bran 3 lbs... ee ee ee 2.64 0.36 $26 = (4075 
| U2 i an ay Meg ae ier GS 12250 0.61 1:8 
Wolt standard....... 29.00 2.50 13.00 | 0.50 aT 
A shortage of...... 5a 0.79 .70 LET 


tExcess. 


If we look in Table B, on page 388, in the back of this 
book, we will find the Wolff feeding standards for some of the 
different farm animals, with 1000 pounds live weight as 


* a basis. In looking over this, we notice that a 1000-pound 


dairy cow producing 22 pounds of milk a day requires daily 
29 pounds dry matter, 2.5 pounds protein, 13 pounds carbo- 
hydrates, 0.5 pound fat, with a nutritive ratio of 1:5.7. 


A comparison of this standard with the ration fed, shows 
that our proposed ration is short of dry matter by 5.73 


pounds; or protein, by 0.79 pound; of carbohydrates, by 


0.70 pound; but has an excess of 0.11 pound fat. The 
nutritive ratio of 1:8 is also too wide. 

The third step in computing the ration will be to correct 
or improve it so that it will compare more favorably with the 
required standard. If we can add some home-grown con- 
centrate that is strong in protein, but lacking carbohydrates, 
it may balance things. It does not make so much dif- 
ference about the amount of dry matter, so long as we do 
not greatly exceed that of the standard. Neither is it likely 
that the ration will contain too much fat. However, it is 


284 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


desirable to adjust the protein and carbohydrates fairly 
closely in amounts to those in the standard. We might use 
cotton-seed meal, or oil meal, as a trial, to balance up this 
ration, but to use a home-grown product that is getting more 
and more common, we will use soy beans, though they must 
be fed cracked or ground. Let us then add 3 pounds of the 
soy beans to the rest of the ration. Turning to the table of 
the composition of feeding stuffs, on page 387, we find that: 


Soy Beans 
DRY MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES FatT 
100 Ibs. contains 88.3 lbs. 29.1 lbs. 23.3 Ibs. 14.6 lbs. 


Then 3lbs.contains 2.65lbs. 0.87 lbs. 0.7 lbs. 0.44 lb. 
Adding this to the total in the original ration, we have the 
following: 
DRY MATTER PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat 


Tetal-original |: ...-': 23:27 the. *- Ei tbs. 12.30 lbs. 0.61 lb. 
3 lbs. soy beans... 2.65 lbs. 0.87 lbs. 0.70 lbs. 044]b. © 
Total........... 25.92lbs. 2.58lbs. 13.00lbs. _1.05 Mb. 
The standard......«. 29.00 lbs. 2.50 lbs. 13.00 Ibs. 0.50 Ib. 
Excess or deficit —3.08 lbs. -+.08 lbs. Correct +.55 Ib. 


Nutritive ratio, 1:5.9. Standard, 1:5.7. 


This ration shows a shortage in dry matter of 3 pounds, 
a very slight increase of protein, and quite an increase in 
fat. These differences, however, are not important. The 
nutritive ratio agrees fairly well with the standard. There- 
fore we may consider this ration properly calculated and cor- 
rected to suit the animal’s needs. 


The adjustment of rations to the standard is not usually 
difficult. An increase in dry matter and carbohydrates is 
easily secured with the hays or most of our common feed 
stuffs. If a ration needs most attention in the protein, then 
some concentrate such as soy beans, cotton-seed meal, 
linseed oil meal, or tankage may be selected. The cost of the 


{ 
al 
as 

@ 


HOW TO CALCULATE A RATION 285 


feed is an important matter, and should be carefully con- 
sidered. Some feeding stuffs, like cotton-seed meal, oil 
meal, or tankage, that are not common in some localities, 
are easily purchased and shipped in by freight, and may often 
_be used with much advantage and profit. These are high- 
class concentrates, and are extensively purchased by feeders 
of stock in countries where but a comparatively small amount 
of feed is grown, as in England and Holland, for example. 

The regulation of the ration to the animal’s weight is 
not difficult. If this cow had weighed 750 pounds instead 
of 1000, then the total amount of dry matter and of each 
nutrient, would need to be decreased about one fourth, 
or 25 per cent. If the ration was for a cow weighing 1250 
pounds, then this would require an increase in the ration of 
about one fourth. One does not change the proportions in 
the feeding combination. It is simply a proportionate 
increase or decrease in amount fed, to meet the needs of the 
animal. 

Are the Wolff standards reliable? is a question quite 
likely to be asked. Years ago, when the German tables 
were first introduced to America, they were criticised by some 
of our students of feeding. Several persons showed by 
experiments that where animals were fed the maintenance 
rations proposed by Wolff, that they would gain in weight. 
Of course an animal should neither lose nor gain on such a 
ration. Professor Haecker of Minnesota, and other experi- 
menters, showed that Wolff proposed to feed more dry matter 
and protein than was needed by the dairy cow, under certain 
conditions. Haecker also considered that dairy cows should 
be fed according to both the amount and quality of the milk. 
In general, investigations in America have shown that less 
protein is required for dairy animals than is given in the Ger- 
man standards. Probably two pounds of protein, or very 


286 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


slightly over, are required, as compared with 24% recom- 
mended in the Wolff table. These standards, however, are 
a guide to intelligent feeding. One is not expected to 
measure out to each animal an exact amount of dry matter 
and nutrients to just agree with the standards, but rather 
to so combine the feeds, that they will furnish the balanced 
ration reasonably well. 

Other feeding standards than Wolff’s have been pro- 
posed. Kellner, anoted German student of animal nutrition, 
has proposed a standard in which starch is the unit of value. 
Armsby, a leading American investigator, has offered a 
standard which is based on the energy or heat value of food 
referred to in the preceding chapter. He has prepared a 
table showing the values of certain feeds in protein and net 
digestible energy, expressing the energy value in therms. 
He has also prepared other tables showing what is required 
as a maintenance standard for horses, cattle, and sheep, 
and also for growing cattle and sheep. The important 
feature of the work of the more recent investigators, is that 
they figure that each animal requires a certain amount of 
nutriment for maintenance, after making allowances for 
losses of energy in digestion and assimilation. ‘They then 
add to the nutrients of maintenance enough more to meet the 
special body needs, to produce growth, milk, wool, or energy 
for external work. These changed views on standards have 
been made possible by the use of the digestion calorimeter 
in which animals as large as full-grown cattle are placed. 
With this apparatus, the experimenter can measure up the 
losses from the body through respiration and through heat 
and moisture from the body surface. Such information as 
this was not available at the time Wolff introduced his feed- 
ing standards. Thus far, but little practical application of 
the energy standard of value has been made by feeders. 


HOW TO CALCULATE A RATION 287 


This subject, however, is being carefully studied, and later 
these standards, or revised ones, may come into general use. 


SOME RATION PROBLEMS 


1. Given a 1000-pound horse at medium work. He is fed 10 
pounds oats, 10 pounds timothy hay, and 10 pounds ear corn a day. 
How does this agree with Wolff’s standard? 

2. A steer weighing 1500 pounds, nearly fattened, consumes daily 
20 pounds clover hay, 18 pounds corn-and-cob meal, and 5 pounds 
cotton-seed meal. ds this satisfactory? 

3. Make up a ration for a 500-pound brood sow, and figure out how 
it compares with the standard. 

4, Feed 2 pounds alfalfa hay a day to a fattening sheep weighing 
100 pounds. How much and what kind of grain will you feed to adjust 
the ration to standard? 


CHAPTER XXI 
COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 


The coarse feeds include the grasses and clovers of dif- 
ferent kinds, the cereals (as forage), straws, silage, roots, 
rape, cabbage, or any similar feeds, whether green or dried 
as hay. Anything of a bulky nature, of which an animal 
must eat considerable to obtain much nutriment, is a coarse 
feed. In the dried form, like hay or corn stover, the western 
farmer has been accustomed to refer to them as fodder, or 
roughage. In some sections of our country, farmers have 
certain feeds that are more common than in other parts of 
the country. Farmers in the North, for example, look to red 
clover or timothy hay for standard roughage; in Alabama, 
cow pea hay, or Japanese clover is common; while in Kansas 
and Colorado, alfalfa is a standard. Some plants, however, 
are more commonly grown than others, and so will receive 
special attention in a brief way in this chapter. 


PASTURES, GREEN GRASSES, AND HAYS — 


The value of the grasses depends upon their development. 
When grass is young and very green, especially in spring, it 
contains a large percentage of water, and is greatly relished 
by stock. As it matures, the amount of protein and total 
nutriment increases. Usually we find the food constituents, 
especially protein, most digestible when the plant is in full 
bloom. After that period the stalk and leaves grow more | 
woody and less nutritious; and if left todevelop for long after 
- blooming, neither the pasture nor the hay is eaten with the 
oreatest relish. 


| COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 289 


~ Kentucky blue grass, or June grass, is one of the most 
nutritious and best pasture grasses. It grows extensively 
in the United States east of the Mississippi, though sparsely 
in the Gulf states. No other grass is more relished for spring 
pasture by grazing animals. The roots spread out near the 
surface of the ground and form a beautiful sod. In moist 
weather and under fair conditions, the grass furnishes an 
abundance of fine leaves, supplying splendid pasture. Dur- 
ing the summer, many pastures dry up and look as though 


Fig. 153. Onan Ohio blue grass pasture. Photograph by the author. 


dead, but fall rains revive them, and they again become green 
and vigorous. In some sections, stock is pastured on the 
dead blue grass of winter, not much other feed being given, 
and with very good satisfaction. Kentucky blue grass is 
not usually valued for hay, but is known universally as a 
valuable pasture grass. 

Timothy is a standard grass commonly grown on the 
heavier soils of the North. It is frequently used for pasture, 
and makes a highly valued hay for horses. As a pasture 
grass, timothy is not the best. It does not stand trampling 


290 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


as well as some others, having small bulbs at the ground, with 
fine roots just beneath them, which are injured by heavy 
pasturing. ‘This grass is generally somewhat coarse, but if 
it is thickly seeded, more plants grow to the acre, and as a 
result they are finer and more palatable. Timothy cut and 
cured immediately after the pollen falls from the blossom 
makes the best hay. Under usual conditions, this is an 
excellent hay for horses, but not so well suited to cattle and 
sheep. Care should be 
taken to see that tim- 
othy hay is bright and 
free from dust. 

Red top is a fine grass 
in appearance, and makes 
an excellent pasture. It 
is quite common in cer- 
tain sections North and 
South, but is not gener- 


Fig. 154. A good cover for the stack é 
of hay. Photograph by courtesy Prof.A.G. ally abundant in the 


McCall. 
cooler grass-growing sec- 


tions, probably doing better on the damper lowlands 
than elsewhere. It makes a very palatable and nu- 
tritious hay. 

Orchard grass is common in some sections in the north- 
eastern parts of the United States. It grows in tussocks, 
or bunches, so that the turf from this plant is somewhat 
uneven, hence is not liked so well as some other grasses for 
pasture. It starts up early in spring, and has a strong, rather 
coarse growth, with hardly as smooth a stem as timothy. It 
is not quite as nutritious as timothy, ranking just below it. 
It may be grown to advantage with red clover, and often 
is, in the Middle West. It is best suited for horses and cattle, 
though should be cut as hay before getting very ripe. | 


a 


COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 291 


Millet is grown in a number of varieties. Hungarian 
grass is the smallest form, and reaches a height usually of 
about two feet, with a single, small, bristly head. This 
makes very fair hay. German Millet is somewhat larger 
and coarser than Hungarian, and has a larger head, though 
of the same type. Both of these millets may be sown in 
early summer, and often they make a very rapid growth and 
furnish an abundant hay crop in a short season. Millets are 
not generally used in pastures. When heavily seeded they 
make very good hay for cattle and sheep. Caution should 
be used in feeding this hay to horses, as it is thought by some 
to cause kidney trouble if fed very heavily. The millets 
may be grown over much of the country. 


Brome grass has been cultivated some in the Northwest, 
where it has been used as pasture and for hay. At the North 
Dakota station it is used for permanent pasture, and is 
ranked as much richer in protein than timothy. It also 
yields about the same quantity of feed per acre as timothy. 


Bermuda grass in the South is a standard pasture. This 
plant grows a perfect network of roots near the surface, and 
covers the ground as with a mat. It is a very nutritious 
pasture plant, and has a most valuable place in Southern 
agriculture. It will stand heavy pasturing, and may be 
used from March to November. If grown on rich soil, very 
heavy cuttings of hay may be expected. Bermuda grass 
contains over 6 per cent protein and about 45 per cent car- 
bohydrates, excelling in protein any other common grass. 


Mixed grasses are frequently sown for pasture in the 
Northern states, timothy, red top, orchard grass, and clover 
forming the usual combination. Prairie grass is usually a 
mixture, and somewhat resembles timothy in feeding value. 


292 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


THE CEREALS AS FORAGE 


Indian corn is perhaps the most common plant grown on 
the American continent. Except in the arid lands, it thrives 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf to Canada. 
It isthe universal crop of the Mississippi Valley, and furnishes 
more food from an acre of ground than any other common 
crop. Itis keenly relished by horses, cattle, and sheep, both 
in the green state and as dried roughage. No other plant in 
summer furnishes so much succulent feed as Indian corn. 
Grown somewhat thickly, the stalks are finer than common, 


Fig. 155. Cutting the corn crop with a corn harvester, which ties the corn 
in bundles. Photograph by courtesy Minn. Agr. Exp. Station. 


and give a large yield of either green fodder or dried forage 
that is quite completely eaten by cattle and horses. In the 
North, corn produces a smaller plant than in the South, and 
gives a smaller yield of forage. Very large, heavy stalks, 
such as are frequently seen in the corn belt, are not so 
desirable for feeding as those of more moderate size. About 
one-third of the digestible food is found in the stalk, and two- 
thirds in the ear. The complete cured plant and ear is com- 
monly known as corn fodder, and after the ear is removed 
it is called corn stover. The dry stover, with the help of a 


| i 


COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 293 


little grain, is valuable for roughing stock through the winter, 
if much fattening is not desired. It is a bulky feed, and 
should not be fed heavily to animals from which much is 
expected. The plant contains the largest amount of nutri- 
ment when the kernels on the ear are beginning to glaze or 
harden, but it may be cut for feeding at any time from the 
appearance of the silk to final ripening. Fodder left out 
in the shock during the winter is injured more or less in 
feeding value, losing in nutriment through mould and 
weathering. 

Oats do best in the cooler sections of the North, but so- 
called winter oats do well in the South. This crop may be 
pastured or may be cut and fed green when of sufficient 
maturity. In New England many farmers grow oats to 
cut and cure as hay when the grain is in the milk. Oat 
straw is one of the best, both in nutritive value and in being 
relished by stock. A combination of oats and Canada field 
peas, from equal amounts of seed sowed early in spring, 
makes a very desirable green crop for feeding in June and 
~ July. 

Rye has been much used both as fall and spring pasture. 
It mats up into a thick growth, and can be grazed with 
advantage to the grain yield if not pastured too long or too 
heavily, or it may be cut green and fed in the stable or feed 
lot. Many people grow rye and turn stock on it to harvest 
it entirely. Hogs are frequently turned in, and they con- 
sume both stalk and grain. Dairy cattle should not be fed 
rye, except soon after milking, otherwise a strong and 
unpleasant odor in the plant will be likely to give a bad 
flavor to the milk. Rye straw is a very poor feed, having 
less than one per cent protein and a great deal of fiber. 

Wheat and barley may be used after the same manner 
as rye, and have much the same value, though they are not 


294 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


pastured as advantageously as the rye. Barley makes a 
nice soft hay, and is relished by stock of all kinds. Of the 
cereal straws, barley ranks close to oats as one of the best. 


THE LEGUMES FOR FORAGE AND HAY 


Legumes, which include the clovers, alfalfa, beans, peas, 
etc., grow easily over much of the United States. They 
are valuable chiefly because of the large percentage of pro- 
tein they contain, and from the fact that they are highly 
relished by live stock. The lime in the legumes is also a 
valuable feature of these plants, for it is needed in building 
up the animal frame. The legumes have an extensive root 
development, and have the power of fixing the nitrogen of 
the air in the soil, through the agency of a kind of bacteria 
that are found especially in knots or nodules lecated on the 
roots. These nodules are rich in nitrogen, and where legumes 
are grown, the land is increased in fertility and improved in 
texture. 

Red Clover is extremely common in the Miuississippi 
Valley. One hundred pounds of the dried hay contain 
about 7 pounds of digestible protein and 38 of carbohy- 
drates. As a feed for cattle and sheep, it is considered ex- 
cellent. As a pasture it ranks high; and in the corn belt, 
a combination of clover pasture in the late summer and fall, 
supplemented with ear corn, is a favorite ration for hogs. 
Brood sows and sheep do well on clover pasture. A large 
crop of green feed may be cut from a good stand of clover 
during the season, and this makes splendid feed for all 
kinds of farm stock. At the Wisconsin station, as much 
as 26 tons of green feed were obtained in 3 cuttings from — 
an acre of red clover. If to be used for hay, red clover should 
be cut when the blossoms are in full development, at which 
time it contains the most nutriment. Clover should be 


a 


- 


COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 295 


cured carefully and protected from the wet as much as pos- 
sible after cutting. When clover hay is well cured and 
reasonably free from dust, it may be fed to horses with advan- 
tage. 

Alfalfa is rapidly becoming a very popular plant in 
America. In the irrigated sections of the West it has long 
been a leading crop. In recent years, its cultivation has 
been greatly extended, so that now it is grown with success 
over much of the United States, north and south, and also 


-Fig. 156. In a field of red clover in Indiana. Photograph by the author. 


in some parts of Canada. From two to five crops a year 
may be harvested. At the New Jersey experiment station, 
5 cuttings yielded 261% tons of green forage, equivalent to 
almost 6 tons of dry matter per acre. Alfalfa is a plant that 
is rich in protein, and the dried hay is often compared with 
wheat bran in composition and feeding value. The fact 1s, 
alfalfa is so close to bran in protein and carbohydrate con- 
tent that in some sections of the West it is ground and fed 
in a meal-like form. Large quantities of special feed stuffs 
are made of this alfalfa meal, and are sold in nearly all parts 


296 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of the country. Alfalfa makes fine pasturage, especially for 
sheep and hogs, but it is not generally used for this purpose. 
It is undesirable to pasture it much, as heavy trampling 
injures the crowns of the roots. Neither should it be pas- 
tured very closely. A combination of alfalfa pasture and 
corn makes a splendid ration. When sheep or hogs are 
turned on this pasture, they should first have a good fill of 
hay, and should be kept constantly on the green feed from 
then on, by which method, bloat will be prevented. When 
made into hay, the plants should be cut at about the time 


Fig. 157. A field of alfalfa hay at ae State University. Photograph by the 
author. 


new shoots begin to appear about the crown of the root, and 
when the buds are beginning to open. The plant should be 
cured so as to hold as much bright green leaf as possible. 
As hay, this plant is unsurpassed. It is suited to horses, 
cattle, sheep, and hogs. All these animals like it, and do 
well on it. Corn is one of the best feeds to give with it. In 
the West, large numbers of sheep are fattened on corn and 
alfalfa. Brood sows do well on alfalfa hay and a little corn. 
This plant is one of the most valuable feeds used today on 
the stock farm. 


ak 


COARSH FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 297 


The soy bean thrives over a wide extent of territory, and 
is meeting with considerable favor as a forage crop, and also 
for its seed. This plant is rich in protein, and combines 
unusually well with corn. Hogs have done well when pas- 
tured upon soy beans. It is also grown to some extent with 
corn, for the purpose of har- — : 
vesting the two plants as one 
crop for the silo. Under some |. 
conditions this combination | 
gives very nearly a balanced 
ration. 

The cow pea is mostly 
grown in the South. It is 
planted to some extent in the 
middle Mississippi Valley, | 
although it does not usually | 
ripen seed in the North. It 
produces a great amount of 
forage, which is much valued 
for. grazing and for plowing and “Soy beans at Ohio State Uni 
See the peas are rich in So, Eotograph by courtesy 
protein, and the yield is very 
satisfactory. ‘This is one of the most valuable plants grown 
in the South, for grazing, for hay, and for seed. The hay 


may be used to some extent as a substitute for bran. 


Canada field peas in the northern part of the country, 
make a valuable green crop for soiling, especially if planted 
with oats early in spring. A seeding of oats, followed imme- 
diately by one of peas on the same land, using about one and 
a-half bushel of each seed to the acre, gives one of the very 
best green feeds for early and middle summer use. ‘This com- 
bination may be safely fed to farm animals generally, and 


298 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


they all like it. If desired, it can easily be cured into a very 
good grade of hay. 
SILAGE 


Silage is a feed more or less green and succulent, pre- 
served in what is called a silo. Green feed is cut and stored 
in the silo, where it goes through a process of fermentation, 
with slight loss of its protein and carbohydrates. Under 
fair management this loss need not be over ten per cent. 


Fig. 159. A cement silo on a dairy farm. Photograph by courtesy of The 
Farmer. f 


The silo is one of the most valuable things on the stock 
farm, for in it feed can be stored more economically than in 
any other way. 

Silage may be made from a variety of plants, but at the 
present time corn is used nearly altogether. That is because 
it combines the largest yield of the most easily stored forage 
of all crops generally relished by stock. Sorghum, clover, 
cow peas, soy beans, and alfalfa are sometimes used. With 
the exception of sorghum, these plants are not always stored 
in the silo with satisfaction, as they may heat badly and sus- 


COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 299 


tain considerable loss in food value, unless well handled. 
For this reason, corn silage only will be discussed here. 
Sorghum and kaffir corn may be preserved in the silo equally 
well with corn. 

The chief value of silage lies in the fact that it enables 
the stockman to give his cattle and sheep, especially, a suc- 
culent feed during the months of the year when the pastures 
are dead and no green feed is obtainable. If one has plenty 
of silage, then he is quite independent of summer drouth. 
In fact, many owners of dairy cattle feed silage the year 
round. Because of its tender, succulent nature and the con- 
venience of handling, it is well adapted to all seasons. 

The corn crop is usually harvested when the kernels 
are turning into the glaze. It then is run through a forage 
cutter and cut into pieces about half an inch long. In this 
condition it is spread about in the silo and allowed to settle. 
As usually made, it contains about 11% per cent protein. 
The dry matter in silage is worth no more than that in corn 
fodder, chemically considered, but cattle especially seem to 
respond to this feed, with increase of milk flow and a better 
condition of body, than when on dry fodder. Many feeding 
experiments have shown that corn silage is most desirable 
for dairy cows, and very favorable reports are being made on 
its use in beef production. Itis well suited to sheep. Horses 
will do well on it when fed with moderation. For hogs, 
however, silage is too bulky and unsatisfactory and is rarely 
fed to them, and then with little benefit in most cases. In 
general, hay and some grain should be fed with silage. For 
cattle, from 25 to 35 pounds a day is a common ration 
while for sheep from 3 to 5 pounds daily is ample. 

Rape is a plant that belongs to the same family as the 
turnip and radish, and is grown for its succulent leaves. It 
is used exclusively for pasturage for sheep and hogs and is 


a i 


300 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


well suited to the cooler sections of the country or to cool 
seasons. In Canada and the northern United States rape 
is an extremely popular pasture plant among sheep breeders. 
Three or four pounds of seed per acre will do for a seeding, 
and stock may be turned on the field after the leaves have 
become large and succulent. Rape will stand considerable 
frost without damage. At the Michigan station, 15 acres 
of rape pastured 128 lambs for 714 weeks, during which time 
they gained 2890 pounds. From this trial it was established 
that one acre of rape pastured nine lambs seven weeks, pro- 
ducing 203 pounds of increase. For sheep and hogs, rape 
furnishes a most valuable late summer and fall pasture. It 
may also be sown in early spring, so that we may secure the 
pasture during the entire growing season. 


ROOT CROPS 


Although all farm animals relish roots, these crops can- 
not usually be grown with profit in America, on account of 
the high cost of labor. In Canada and northern United 
States, roots may be grown with great success on fertile 
soils, but south of latitude 40, as a rule they do not yield so 
well. 

The mangold or mangel-wurzel, a large, coarse beet, is 
the most easily and cheaply grown of the roots used for stock 
feeding. The roots consist of about 90 per cent water, and 
of the dry matter, only 1 per cent or even less is protein. 
A yield of 10 tons per acre is not uncommon. The chief 
virtue of the roots is that they are succulent and are most 
palatable, and keep the digestive organs of the animal in a 
healthy, open condition. They are usually fed after being 
run through a pulping or slicing machine, which puts the 
root in nice shape for feeding. Many feeders in England 
and Scotland, where roots are extensively used, mix the 


COARSE FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 301 


sliced root with chaffed hay or straw and grain, which makes 
a fine ration. One may feed cattle as high as 100 pounds of 
roots a day, but as a rule about 40 or 50 pounds is best. 
Sheep do especially well on roots, and in Great Britain and 
Canada they are commonly fed to these animals, from 5 to 
7 pounds per day. 


Carrots are slightly more nutritious than mangels, but 
are more difficult to grow, and do not yield so large a crop. 
They are raised especially for horses, and are fed to them with 
more success than other roots. 


Swede turnips, flat turnips, and rutabagas are all good 
for stock and have much the same wholesome effect as 
mangels and carrots. 


CAN YOU TELL 
1. Why the feeding value of a grass depends on its stage of develop- 


2. Why timothy is a standard grass for horses? 
3. Why, in the opinion of some, millet should be fed with caution? 
4. Where and why Bermuda grass is popular? 
5. Why Indian corn is so valuable to the farmer? 
6. How the legumes add to soil fertility? 
7. Something about alfalfa? 
8. Wherein lies the special value of silage? 
9. Why roots are not grown more for stock in America? 
10. How many pounds of roots a day should be fed the different 
kinds of farm animals? 


SUGGESTIONS 


11. Bring in small samples of different kinds of roughage used on 
the farm on which you live. 


12. Bring to the class about a half-pound sample of average hay 
such as you are commonly using on the farm. Compare with the other 
class samples. 


302 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


13. Find the nitrogen-carrying nodules on legume roots. 

14. Feed some green rye to a milch cow three hours before milking. 
How did this affect the milk? 

15. Learn who puts up the best hay in your neighborhood, study 
his methods and report on them. 

16. How many silos are there in your township or section, and te 
what animals is the silage fed? 


CHAPTER XXII 
CONCENTRATED FEEDS AND THEIR VALUE 


A concentrated feeding stuff is, as one would naturally 


- suppose, just the opposite of roughage. The two most com- 


mon forms are seen in the grains of cereals and some other 
agricultural plants, and in the by-products of mills, where the 
cereals are converted into flour, breakfast foods, starch, ete. 
There are some other concentrates, that are products of such 
large manufacturing industries as the linseed and cotton-seed 
oil mills, and the packing houses. These are all called con- 
centrates, because as a rule they lack in coarse, fibrous 
structure, and contain larger percentages of protein and 
starchy matter than do forage plants. For example, the 
grain of corn is a concentrate, one hundred pounds of which 
contains fully three times as much digestible protein and 
twice as much digestible carbohydrates, as are found in corn 
fodder. Using another illustration, gluten feed, which is 
made as a by-product in the manufacturing of starch from 
corn, contains three times as much protein as does the same 
weight of corn. 

The cost of concentrated feeds is always much greater 
than that of roughages. In fact, the cost of most feeds sold 
on the market increases as the amount of protein in them 
increases. Feeds like cotton-seed meal and tankage, con- 
taining large amounts of this nutrient, are very high-priced, 
although that does not mean that they are expensive feeds 
to use. Sometimes the price of a certain concentrate is low 
on account of a glutted market, or high because the supply is 
exhausted. If, for example, the flax-seed crop of Russia and 
America is very poor, then linseed oil meal is apt to be high- 


304 | BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


priced, and perhaps would cost more than it is really worth. 
There is no special rule, however, about that matter, and 
sometimes business combinations control the prices of such 
feeds, so that one must pay without regard to the actual sup- 
ply on the market. The following concentrates are quite 
commonly used, and are those which one should know some- 
thing about. 


CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 


Indian corn is our most common grain. It is a food rich 
in carbohydrates and fat, and is especially valued for fatten- 
ing animals. It is often called a heating food, on account of 
its heat or energy value. It is greatly relished by all farm 
animals, and may be fed on the ear, shelled, or milled into 
pure meal, or the entire ear may be ground into what we call 
corn-and-cob meal. While corn is rich in fattening material, 
it lacks in ash, or mineral matters, so that when fed alone it 
furnishes a rather one-sided ration. Except during the last 
part of the fattening period, it should be fed along with some 
feed rich in protein and ash, such as bran, middlings, ete. 

There are different races of corn. In the more northern 
parts of the country, asin New England, a small to medium- 
sized plant, with a somewhat slender ear, covered with hard, 
flinty kernels, is grown. This is called flint corn. Over 
most of the country a larger plant, with thicker ears, covered 
with longer kernels, dented at the outer end, is grown. This 
is known as dent corn, and makes up most of the corn crop of 
the United States. Besides these two, we: have sugar, or 
sweet corn, which has a rough-surfaced ear that may be very 
small or of medium size, covered with kernels that when dry ~ 
are somewhat shrivelled and tough. This sweet corn con- 
tains some glucose sugar, which accounts for the pleasant 
taste of the grain. ; 


CONCENTRATED FEEDS | 305 


Corn meal is the ground grain without the cob. The 
usual run of such meal on the farm is rather coarse and is 
often: cracked or crushed rather than finely ground. In 
some sections, the farmer calls it “corn chop.” Ordinarily, 
it does not pay to grind the grain, although it is more com- 
pletely digested than is the whole kernel, but the expense 
of grinding usually offsets any advantage, except for some 
special purpose. 

Corn-and-cob meal is the kernel and cob ground up 
together. If the cob is not too coarse, such feed is excellent 
for cattle and sheep. Feeding experiments have shown that 
100 pounds of corn-and-cob meal fed to these animals will 
give returns equal to 100 pounds of pure corn meal. The 
reason given for this is that the ground cob makes the meal 
more porous, allowing the juices of the stomach in digesting 
the food, to mix more easily with the corn and porous cob 
meal, than with the pure meal, which is inclined to become 
heavy and soggy. This feed is not good for hogs, unless 
ground very fine, as it contains too much woody fiber. It is 
better for cattle. 

Gluten feed is a product of factories where starch is made 
from corn. It consists of what is left of the grain after the 
starch and germ have been removed, and is quite rich in 
digestible protein, containing about 20 per cent. Cattle 
and sheep are fond of it, and it is a mill product of much value 
in balancing a ration for these animals. Gluten meal, 
another product of the starch factory, richer in protein than 
gluten feed, was formerly sold separately. At present it is 
usually ground in with the gluten feed. 

Hominy feed is a by-product of the hominy mill. It 
resembles a fine whitish corn meal when made from white 
corn, and consists of the hulls and other parts of the corn 
grain ground up together. Its feeding value is quite the 


306 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


same as corn meal, and it is excellent for cattle, sheep, and 
hogs, all eating it with a relish. 


Wheat is not usually fed to animals, unless it is very low 
in price. It becomes somewhat pasty when ground in the 
mouth, as everyone knows who has lived in a wheat country. 
It contains about 10 per cent digestible protein, and belongs 
in the class of feeds fairly rich in this substance. All animals 
are fond of wheat, but it should be crushed or cracked before 
feeding to horses, cattle, or hogs. This is not necessary with 
sheep. Wheat tends to make animals muscular or lean and 
hence its feeding value is greatly improved by the addition 
of an equal amount of corn. 

Wheat bran is the outer covering of the kernel. In the 
big flour mills, the kernel is crushed to obtain the flour, and 
the thin outer fibrous covering is removed as bran. This 
contains about 12 per cent protein, and is a standard con- 
centrate for feeding horses, cattle, and sheep. We say that 
bran is a laxative, and keeps the digestive system cool and 
open, a very necessary thing with farm animals. Stockmen 
have always regarded bran as especially valuable. It has 
recently been found by chemists to contain an acid substance 
called phytin, which causes beneficial effects on the digestion. 
Wheat bran is well suited to mix with corn or oats, or may 
be fed alone to stock. Many horsemen feed it in the form 
of a thick, wet, warm slop, called ‘‘bran mash.” Bran is 
even more of a muscle and bone making food than wheat, 
and most students of feeding use it for young, growing 
animals. There are brans made from spring wheat, such 
as is grown in the Northwest, and from winter wheat. 
There is not much difference between them, but the bran — 
from winter wheat usually contains somewhat more flour 
than that from spring wheat. 


CONCENTRATED FEEDS 307 


‘Wheat middlings and shorts are also by-products from 
flour mills. Middlings are much finer than shorts, and 
contain more flour. Shorts is sometimes bran re-ground, 
hence is finer than bran. Bran, middlings, and shorts are 
much alike in digestible protein content, containing around 
12 per cent. Middlings and shorts contain rather more 
carbohydrates than does bran. Middlings are especially 
valuable as a hog feed, being used with corn or corn meal. 
Good results have been secured by feeding hogs a mixture of 
half corn meal and half middlings. On the market, middlings 
usually sell for about two dollars more a ton than bran. If 
one can buy bran or middlings, he will not need shorts, which 
are too fine for bran and too coarse for middlings. 

Wheat screenings usually consist of shrunken, broken 
grains of wheat, mixed with weed seeds, pieces of straw, 
etc. The value of screenings depends upon the amount of 
grain in it. It has been very extensively fed to fattening 
sheep in America, especially in the Northwest, near the flour 
mills. Sheep do well on screenings, and if one can buy at a 
cheap enough price, it is a good feed to use. 

Oats are a standard feed for farm animals in all agri- 
cultural countries. They contain about 101% per cent 
digestible protein, as compared with about 81% in wheat, but 
have less carbohydrates and more fat than the wheat. It 
has often been thought that oats contained some substance 
that gave life and snap to animals beyond that furnished by 
any other grain, but chemists have not been able to find this 
mystical something. Still, it is generally agreed that oats 
do produce a most excellent effect on the horse, far better 
than any other grain. Some oats are more chaffy than 
others. Northern grown oats are plumper and weigh more 
than Southern oats. In fact, oats do better in the cooler 
sections of our country, and yield far larger crops. For 


308 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


horses no other food is so widely used in America or Europe. 
It is not likely to cause indigestion, and is a safe feed. It is 
best suited to cattle and hogs when crushed or ground, while 
sheep will do equally well on it in any form. For young, 
growing animals it 1s one of the best feeds we have; for like 
bran, it helps to build up a strong, muscular frame. Often 
oats are very expensive, and their purchase should depend 
considerably on the cost and the purpose for which they are 
intended. 

Oat hulls are very poor as a feed stuff, for they contain 
but little nutriment, and are too largely fiber. They are fre- 
quently mixed with commercial feed stuffs to act as a“‘filler.” 

Barley is a very hard small grain, that as commonly 
grown, is covered with a strong husk. It is rich in earbo- 
hydrates, and has slightly more protein than corn. It is 
not commonly fed to farm animals in America, but is very 
popular in northern Europe. Horses will do well on barley, 
while barley meal as a feed for swine ranks very high in 
Canada and Europe. Experiments have shown that pigs 
fed barley make a superior quality of bacon. It should be 
crushed or ground before feeding. 

Brewers’ grains are a by-product in the manufacture of 
beer. Barley is put through a process of sprouting, after 
which it is dried and the sprouts rubbed off. The remaining 
mass of barley kernels is malted barley. This is then soaked 
in tanks, and the sugar or malt, formed in the kernel by the 
sprouting, is extracted, and is fermented to make lager beer. 
What is left is wet brewers’ grains. These in the wet form 
contain about 75 per cent water and 5 per cent digestible 
protein. They are relished by cattle, and are much fed in 
the vicinity of cities where breweries are located. In sum- — 
mer they become sour and putrid, unless eaten a few days 
after making. Dried brewers’ grains are made by removing 


CONCENTRATED FEEDS 309 


the moisture in big steel drums. This leaves a dry grain, 
with about 20 per cent digestible protein and 30 per cent car- 
bohydrates, which makes a valuable feed for horses, cattle, 
and sheep. It has been used with success as a substitute for 
oats as a feed for horses, when oats were high in price. 

Rye is quite similar to wheat in composition.. It makes a 
_good feed for the same purposes that wheat is used. It has 
a somewhat stronger flavor than other grains, and when fed 
to dairy cows, tends to give an objectionable taste to milk. 
If fed, it should be given right after milking. 

Linseed oil meal is the product of flax seed. This seed 
contains about 30 per cent oil. ‘The manufacturers of linseed 
oil grind the seed, and extract the oil by pressure, leaving 
long, brown, board-like cakes, as a by-product. This is 
broken up, or ground, and fed as linseed oil cake or linseed 
oil meal. It contains about 30 per cent digestible protein, 
and slightly more of carbohydrates. All farm animals are 
most fond of this product, and it is used to some extent by 
many feeders. It softens the skin of animals and gives a 
silky lustre to the hair. It is often used in so-called con- 
dition powders, to make up much of the bulk of them. It 
should form from one-tenth to one-fifth of the ration, accord- 
ing as the need exists for a highly concentrated feed to 
balance the ration. 

Cotton-seed meal is a by-product of the cotton-seed oil 
mills. About one-fifth of the seed is oil. “The usual custom 
is to remove the hard covering or hull of the seed, and then 
press a dark brownish oil from the meats, which, when re- 
fined, becomes an attractive golden yellow. The by-product 
remains as long, yellow, board-like cakes, that contain almost 
40 per cent digestible protein. It is one of the most con- 
centrated and valuable feeds that we have. Small particles 
of hulls are to be found in the cake, and the greater the 


310 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


amount of hulls, the poorer the grade in protein of the cake. 
It is best suited to cattle above ca!f age, and for sheep. Com- 
bined with corn silage or stover, and with some shelled or ear 
corn, it makes an excellent balanced ration. Cotton-seed 
meal is not a safe feed for pigs or calves, as it has a poisonous 
effect, which may result in serious sickness and death. Cot- 
ton-seed mealis often one of the most economical protein foods . 
that the cattle feeder can buy, considering the character of the 
nutriment it contains. It is fed to some extent in the South, 
along with the hulls, which largely consist of woody fiber, 
and fair gains in steer feeding have come from this combina- 
tion. Milk from cows fed cotton-seed meal produces a 
harder butter than when corn is used. The fat of steers that 
have been fed cotton-seed meal is also harder than that of 
steers fed corn meal. One can easily see that in warm sec- 
tions of the country, as a result of the use of this feed, butter 
_ will ship better than it might if some other feed were used. 

Distillers’ grains are a product of the manufacture of 
alcoholic liquor, for which rye, corn, barley, and sometimes 
oats, are used. The grain is mashed in water, and the starch 
is changed into sugar, and later into alcohol through the 
influence of yeast. The mashed grain left is very watery; 
but if the water 1s removed by heat, a dried, brown, chaffy 
product, rich in protein and fat, results. This is known under 
various names as dried distillers’ grains, Ajax flakes, Atlas 
meal, Biles’ grains, etc. Grains made from rye are inferior 
to those from corn. There is quite a difference in the pro- 
tein values of these grains. They are especially popular with 
feeders of dairy cattle in making up a mixed grain ration. 
They have a strong odor that reminds one of the smell of 
hops, and some animals dislike it on account of this peculiar 
smell. As yet this feed has been but little fed in America, 
except to cattle. 


CONCENTRATED FEEDS 311 


Tankage or meat meal is a product of the beef packing 
house. It is made from inferior pieces of meat and the trim- 
mings, and from diseased carcasses. This meat is dried, and 
sterilized in air-tight tanks, and is then ground to a meal. 
It is very rich in protein, containing usually from 50 to 60 
per cent, and 11 or 12 per cent fat. It is especially relished 
by hogs, and since 1900 has been much used in the West 
along with corn to balance up the ration. A mixture of one 
part tankage and 6 to 10 of corn gives excellent results in 
hog feeding. While this feed is high-priced, it is no doubt one 


Fig. 160. Two lots of hogs fed at the Ohio Experiment Station. The 
smaller were fed corn alone in dry lot, and the others corn and tankage. Photo- 
graph by courtesy Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 


of the most important additions to the rations of swine. The 
glossy coat of hair and hearty appetite of the tankage-fed 
hog are evidences of the value of this feed. 


Milk is not strictly a concentrated food, but will be 
briefly referred to here. As drawn from the cow it contains 
about 8714 per cent water and 121% per cent solid material. 
Of the’solids, about 31% to 4 per cent is usually fat and 4 to 5 
per cent milk sugar. Milk is a most important food for all 
young animals during the earlier stages of growth. If new 
milk is fed, the young animals lay on flesh easily, and may 


. a 
a 
Bf . 


312 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


take on a strong, muscular development. If the fat is taken 
from the milk, and skim milk is fed, a good frame may 
develop, but the animal will not look so well fed; the skin 
will not be so mellow, nor the hair so glossy. Pigs of any 
age will do well on a combination of milk and a grain rich in 
carbohydrates, which ration makes a very high-class pork. 
Buttermilk has much the same feeding value as skim milk, 
there being almost no fat in either. One should be careful 
to feed only clean milk, produced under healthful conditions. 
One should not feed skim milk from a creamery, unless it is 
first pasteurized, so that disease germs may be more or less 
completely destroyed. 


SOME CONCENTRATED QUESTIONS 


. What are concentrates? 

. Why is corn so valuable? 

. Which is better for cattle,—corn meal or corn-and-cob meal? 
Why? : 
. What special value has bran? 

. How do oats rank as feed for horses? 

. How are brewers’ grains made? 

. Why recommend linseed oil meal? 

. What can you say about cotton-seed meal? 
. Why feed tankage? 

. What is the average composition of milk? 


HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS 


11. Collect samples of concentrates fed in your neighborhood, and 
label with name, composition, and price. 
12. Make up a sample ration, specifying on a card,— 
(a) Pounds of each concentrate used. 
(b) Cost of each concentrate. 
(c) Nutritive ratio. 
(d) Kind of stock for which prepared. 
13. Learn what your neighbors are feeding for Gontveninsaae cost 
and how used. Can you suggest improvements? 
14. Who feeds tankage, under what conditions, and with what 
results? 


COON GS OF > a 89 Nye 


— 


CHAPTER XXIII 
THE CARE OF FARM ANIMALS 


The intelligent care of farm animals is the key t0 suc- 
cessful management and profitable results. This includes 
dealing with all sorts of conditions and problems, such as the 
practical stockman repeatedly meets with; injuries, sickness, 
and disease and methods of treatment. It is not desirable 
to discuss these in detail. There are, however, various 


important things connected with the care of animals that 


may fittingly be brought to the attention of the student and 
stockman. } 

Personal attention to the care of animals on the part of 
the owner or responsible manager, 1s highly important. Too 


many men leave the care of the stock to hired help who are 


often indifferent or careless. This always results unsatis- 
factorily. That kind of management often results in over or 
under feeding, losses from disease or injury that might have 
been prevented, poor physical condition of the stock, ete. 
One of the most successful handlers of cattle in America, 
aman with an international reputation, gives a most careful 
personal supervision to his animals, from early morning until 
night. In his annual sales the physical condition of his 
animals and the ease with which they are handled, cause 
much favorable comment. This is very largely due to the 
personal attention he gives his cattle from day to day. 


The feeding and watering of animals at regular periods 
when not on pasture, is of the first importance. It is cus- 
tomary to feed most kinds of stock twice each day, morning 
and evening. Horses, however, are usually fed three times. 


314 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


A common custom is to feed grain and roughage to cattle 
morning and evening, with roughage at noon. The more 
painstaking, thoughtful feeders often feed more than twice, 
being careful as to the amount fed. A general policy should 
be followed of feeding as much as an animal will eat up clean, 
with good appetite, and the hunger then satisfied. The 
hours of feeding depend upon special conditions. Many 
persons begin feeding about 5 a. M., and give the evening 
feed about twelve hours later. No rule, however, can be 
made on this point. It is a good plan to have water avail- 


Fig. 161. Steers eating roughage at the Ohio Station. Photograph by courtesy 
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 


able to stock, of which they can drink as often as desired. 
Horses are usually watered either before or after feeding, 
three times a day. The frequency of watering will depend 
on the weather. Cattle, sheep, and hogs should be watered 
twice daily in the cooler weather, and in summer it is well 
to have available in stall or yard plenty of water in pail or 
trough. 

The grooming of live stock becomes almost necessary — 
under the more restricted conditions of stabling. Horses 
and cattle kept in stable and exposed to dirt and manure, 
become more or less filthy. Dust and dirt on the skin tend 


CARE OF FARM ANIMALS 315 


to close up the pores, which to a certain extent affects the 
disposition and health of the animal. As a matter of per- 
sonal pride the high-class owner of stock desires to have 
his animals look clean. If he is a good horseman, he knows 
that a well-groomed horse looks and feels better than one 
that is not clean. One of the most unpleasant sights to be 
seen in winter and spring in many barns is the cattle with 
thighs and flanks covered with a hard coat of manure, that 
does not disappear until the hair is shed. This of course 
means that no grooming is done or little effort made to keep 
the stock clean. It is surprising what excellent results will 
come from the use of a brush and curry comb for a very short 
time, even a minute a day per head. Grooming is not always 
practicable; neither is it necessary, as for example, in the 
West in the open feed lot, where cattle that have never been 
even halter broken are cared for in large numbers by a few 
men. 

The sanitation of the stable, or the health conditions 
about live stock, are receiving much attention these days. 
Men can no longer sell milk in most towns and cities unless it 
comes from stables that are approved as sanitary by milk 
inspectors, representing the consumers’ interests. This 
means that the stables must be properly furnished with fresh 
air and that the buildings and yards must be kept clean and 
free from filth. Where the stable is sanitary, it is provided 
with a reasonable amount of light and pure air, and the walls 
are whitewashed or are kept clean and attractive by some 
other good method. One of the best methods for making 
the stable interior sweet and clean at least expense is to spray 
whitewash on the ceilings and walls once or twice each 
season. In stables producing what is called certified milk, 
the floors are daily washed clean. In all cases, the manure 
should be removed from the stable every day. The next 


316 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


best thing is to use plenty of litter, or bedding, to absorb 
the liquid manure. Great care should be taken to keep hogs 
under clean conditions. The losses from hog cholera would 
be far less if the pig 
quarters were kept rea- 
sonably clean. Floors for 
stock to stand upon should 
be tightly made, whether 
of planks or other mate- 
rial. Cement is at present 
very popular, though not 
entirely satisfactory, ow- 

ing to its cold, hard, and 
Hie. 102. otograph by the author” «Often damp surineesssaE 

liberal use of land plaster 
or slaked lime in the stable is excellent, for these absorb 
bad odors and sweeten the air. 


The value of shelter for live stock has been much dis- 
cussed, and in the past many stockmen have thought it 
necessary to keep stock in buildings well protected from cold. 
The most recent views are that close, warm shelter is unde- 
sirable. Captain Hayes,a noted authority on horses, writing 


Fig. 163. The exterior of a modern stock barn, with first-class arrangements 
“i — and light. Photograph by courtesy of Oakleigh Thorne, of 
New York. 


CARE OF FARM ANIMALS o17 


on the subject of the temperature of the stable, says:* “I 
have had many opportunities in Russia of comparing the 
relative healthiness, during very cold weather, of hot stables 
and of those kept at a natural temperature. In large towns 
in Russia the practice throughout the winter is to have 
stables at a temperature of from 50 to 60 degrees Fahren- 
heit, the difference between the temperature inside and out- 
side being not infrequently over 80 degrees Fahrenheit. 


Fig. 164. A sheltered feed lot. Photograph by the author. 


Consequently, influenza, inflammation of the eyes, and 
diseases of the organs of breathing, especially roaring among 
big horses, are common in these abodes. In the Russian 
cavalry remount depots an entirely different course is pur- 
sued; for the stables at these places are immensely roomy, 
very lofty, and are ventilated so freely and kept so clean, 
that even in the early mornings before the horses are taken 
out, the air inside is free from any suspicion of closeness. 


a 


*Stable Management and Exercise, 1900, p. 199. 


318 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


It is instructive to note that the horses kept in them maintain 
their health during the extremely cold winter in the same 
excellent manner as they do in summer.” 


Steers fed under sheds open to the south, with yards into 
which they can freely go, have given better results in growth 
and fattening than those kept im stalls in warm barns. 
President Waters, while at the Missouri station, found 
that steers fed in open sheds made an average daily gain of 
1.9 pound, while those fed in the barn gained 1.7 pound. 


Fig. 165. The interior of a model sheep barn owned by Oakleigh Thorne, of 
New York. Photograph by courtesy of the owner. 


Those fed in the open shed required less feed for a pound of 
gain than did the barn-fed cattle. It has been found that 
the more farm animals have access to open air, and the less 
they are confined in stables, the healthier they will be, and 
the better use they will make of their feed. This especially 
applies to horses, beef cattle, sheep, and hogs, that are above 
weaning age. 


CARE OF FARM ANIMALS 319 


Shelter under good sheds, open to the south, with free- 
dom from drafts, are the essential features of protection. 
Dairy cows are more sensitive to cold, and need more pro- 
tection; consequently, the comfortable, well-lighted and venti- 
lated stable is all right for these animals. Young animals 
should be given protection not only from severe cold, but 
also from excessive heat. | 

Ventilation of the stable is in these days receiving much 
attention. Many barns built in recent years in all parts of 
the country are constructed so as to have fresh air come in 
at the windows or the ceiling, with the bad air drawn out 

by flues in the wall, open- 
ings being near the floor. 
The King system, advo- 
cated by the late Professor 
F. H. King, of Wisconsin, 
has been extensively used. 


The important idea is 
to keep the stable aw 
Fig. 166. An unsanitary, badly lighted barn. g 
Photograph by the author. as fresh as possible. If 
the stable is too close, 
carbonic acid gas, breathed out by the animals, accu- 
mulates. Ordinary air contains from .02 to .06 per cent of 
this gas. If more than this prevails, breathing is more rapid, 
the heart beats more slowly, and diseases of the respiratory 
organs are likely to develop. Under the winter conditions 
of the North, a stable temperature of 40 to 45 degrees in 
freezing weather is preferable to one that is above that. 


The stalls for the live stock naturally vary according 
to the size and kind of animal. Dr. Mayo recommends * 
stalls for horses to be 51% to 6 feet wide, and 9!% feet. long; 


*The Care of Animals, 1903, pp. 18-19. 


320 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


and for cattle, from 38 to 45 inches wide and from 56 to 72 
inches from the manger to the manure trench, according to 
size of animal. Captain Hayes advocates stalls for horses 
6 feet wide, 10 feet long and 10 high. Box stalls, or loose 
boxes as some call them, should be about 10 by 12 feet in 
size for horses and cattle; for the larger horses 12 by 12 feet 
is better. For hogs and sheep, stalls are not made for indi- 
vidual animals, but instead pens are built to hold several 
head. The size of pens is a matter of choice. For hogs, 
6 by 8 feet is about as small as they should be made. It is 
better to have pens too large rather than too small. -The 
most popular flooring now in use is concrete, with a rough 
surface. Plenty of bedding will keep such a floor dry and 
comfortable. Two-inch planks, closely laid with a slight 
fall toward the gutter, make excellent floors. 

Exercise for the breeding stock is very essential. This 
promotes vigor and a good appetite. In fact, exercise is 
essential for the best health of any animal. The driver of a 
trotter looks after systematic, daily exercise, to keep his 
horse in the right condition. So does the caretaker of a 
heavy draft stallion see that his charge is exercised daily 
with a walk of several miles. Professor Henry, discussing 
exercise, says:* ‘‘The highly-fed colt should be out of 
doors from 8 to 10 hours a day, and should move several 
miles each day, either in the field, or on the track, or both. 
A mature horse should be in the open air not less than 4 or 
5 hours a day, and should travel from 10 to 15 miles daily — 
to maintain health.”’ Captain Hayes recommends for a 
sound horse three hours of exercise daily, or what would be 
better, four, divided into two and one-half hours in the morn- 
ing and one and one-half in the afternoon. Bulls are often 


*Feeds and Feeding, 1910, p. 298. 


CARE OF FARM ANIMALS 321 


turned into small lots or yards,where they usually keep more 
or less in action, thus getting the necessary exercise. Where 
animals are turned into fields or paddocks, as is usually the 
case where land is abundant, sufficient exercise is secured. 
One rule should always be applied in feeding work horses, 
and that is, if the amount of work or exercise is reduced, 
there should be some reduction in the amount of feed given. 


Fig. 167. A bull yard or paddock for exercise. Photograph by the author. 


The amount of food required by an animal naturally 
depends upon circumstances, such as age, size, kind, season 
of year, work, etc. As regards feeding hay, the common cus- 
tom is to give an animal as much as it will eat. Grain is fed 
in widely different amounts. A hard-working horse on the 
farm will easily eat from 12 to 20 pounds of grain a day, 
depending on his size and the work done. About 2 pounds 
of hay and grain for each 100 pounds of live weight is regarded 
as a fair amount of feed for the hard-worked horse. From 
8 to 10 quarts of oats a day for the carriage horse are recom- 
mended. Professor Henry gives the following amounts of 


322 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


grain for colts, as measured in oats, covering three periods of 
development. * 

Up to 1 year of age, from 2 to 3 lbs. 

From 1 to 2 years of age, 4 to 5 lbs. 

From 2 to 3 years of age, 7 to 8 lbs. 

Cattle are fed under a wide range of conditions, from 
those that receive no grain, to those on heavy feed. Beef 
cattle often receive a pound of grain for each 100 pounds of 
live weight, while undergoing fattening, though much more 
than this is fed when finishing them off. A common grain 
ration for dairy cows is 1 pound for every 3 pounds of 
milk produced. Sheep are not usually fed grain heavily, 
especially Merinos and breeding stock. Fattening sheep 
are given from 14 pound to 2 pounds of grain per day, with 
1 pound as a fairly good feed for medium-sized sheep. 
Growing pigs should be fed what they will eat up clean, yet 
not enough to be fattening. During fattening, one may 
figure on about 5 pounds of grain for each pound of gain in 
live weight. A feed of 7 pounds per day for a 200-pound 
hog is a very good-sized ration. Pasture of clover or alfalfa, 


or even blue grass, is very desirable for young pigs and ~ 


‘breeding stock, and where available for feed much is 
saved on the grain bill. 

Animals of the same age and kind should be kept together 
under conditions suitable for their best development. It is 


customary among the better class of stockmen to keep in — 


groups by themselves, the nursing calves, the yearling 


and two-year-old heifers, the dry cows, and the producing - 


cows. Bull calves, after two or three months old, should be 
separated from the rest. Foals must be handled as indi- 
viduals, and are valuable enough for separate stalls when not 
in the open lot or pasture. Fattening cattle, sheep, and hogs 


*Feeds and Feeding, 1910, page 291. 


a 


CARE OF FARM ANIMALS 323 


should be sorted out and each kind fed in its own group. 
Animals thus separated, according to their several needs, 
will get the best individual care, will be fed most nearly 
right, and will develop more satisfactorily than would be 
the case otherwise. 


The care of the feet of animals is often neglected. One 
of the most common defects is seen in too great a length of 
hoof. When the hoof grows too long, the toe becomes ele- 
vated and the heel depressed, giving a bad position. This 
does not occur so often with horses, as the blacksmith looks 
after the foot of this animal, but the feet of stabled cattle 
that are not exercised, frequently become very long. So 
also do the hoofs of sheep that are not running on fields with 
plenty of gravel or grit. The hoofs of cattle may be trimmed 
back with the aid of a good chisel and a farrier’s rasp and 
knife. The thin hoofs of the sheep may be easily trimmed 
with a sharp pocket knife. Care should be taken not to 
cut into the tender part, or “quick.’”’ The floor of the hoof 
should be level and the foot carried in a natural position. 
The feet of colts and young animals should be watched and 
trimmed as seems necessary. 


SUPPOSING YOURSELF IN CHARGE OF SOME LIVE STOCK 


1. Why should your personal attention be necessary? 

2. How frequently would you feed and water? 

3. What arguments would you have in behalf of grooming? 

4. What would be necessary to secure a sanitary barn? 

5. Under what conditions would you furnish shelter, and why? 
6. Describe the ideal condition of ventilation. 

7. What size of stalls would you provide? 


8. How much feed would the horses and cattle require per head 
daily? 
9. In what way would you group your animals and why? 


10. Describe the development and care of the feet. 


324 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


MAKE THE FOLLOWING NEIGHBORHOOD OBSERVATIONS 


11. A comparison of the best and poorest cared-for herds. 

12. Records of hours of feeding of different kinds of stock by ten 
stockmen of your acquaintance. 

13. If possible, visit and describe a sanitary stable. . 

14. Compare methods of exercising horses as seen about your 
home. 

15. If living on the farm, measure, or better, weigh, the amount 
of grain eaten daily per head by some of the animals and compare with 
their live weight. 


CHAPTER XXIV 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF POULTRY 


A classification of domestic poultry includes a number of 
different kinds, each consisting of a group with its types and 
breeds. The following is a classification commonly used. 


1. Fowls and chickens. 5. Pheasants. 
2. Turkeys. 6. Ducks. 
3. Guineas. 7. Geese. 
4, Peafowls. 8. Swans. 


The types of domestic fowls (using the word fowls as 
referring to chickens) are six in number,* as follows: 


1. Game. 2. Keg. 3. Meat. 
4. General purpose. 5. Deformed. 6. Bantam. 


For some time poultry students have discussed these 
types, but more especially three, which from a practical point 
of view are the only ones of interest to the farmer. These 
three are the laying, the meat, and the general-purpose fowls. 
Good examples of each of these types are common all over 
the country. The other three types are rarely raised on 
the farm, being the product of the fancier, who oftentimes 
has his poultry outfit on a town lot. The breeds are also 
sometimes divided into two classes, sitters and non-sitters, 
according as to whether or not the hens have the desire to 
sit on and hatch a nest of eggs. 

The egg type of fowl is somewhat slender of body, and 
has been compared to the racing horse, the dairy cow, and 
fine-wooled sheep. It is light of form, has a sprightly, 


*Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture. John H. Robinson, Ginn & 
Co., 1912, p. 611, figs. 570. 


326 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


active carriage of head and neck, is somewhat narrow in 
body, and has fairly slender legs and feet. Fowls of this 
type vary somewhat in size and weight, as well as in flesh- 
producing capacity. The Leghorns are small and do not 
produce much meat on the body, while the Minoreas are 
larger and may carry a good amount of flesh when in best 
condition. The fowls of this type are of European ancestry 


Fig. 168. The egg type of fowls. Photograph by courtesy the Poultry Herald. 


and are usually known as the Mediterranean breeds. Some 
breeds, like the Leghorns, are small, the hens weighing around 
3 pounds, while Minorca females may weigh 614 pounds. 
The meat type of fowl is said to be comparable to the 
draft horse, beef cattle, mutton sheep, and the fat hog. It : 
is squarely built, compact, thickly fleshed, wide of back and F 
breast, and heavy of limb. Fowls of this type when fat __ 
have a carcass thickly covered with meat, and are especially j 
valued for roasting. The hens, as a rule, are of sluggish 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 327 


disposition and are inferior egg-producers. The meat-type 


fowls sometimes weigh 10 
to 12 pounds. They are 
of Asiatic origin, and are 
represented by the Brah- 
ma, Cochin, and Lang- 
shan breeds. 

The general-purpose 
type of fowl, as might be 
supposed, is valued for 
both egg and meat pro- 
duction. This type is 
medium in size, has con- 
siderable fullness of breast 
and width of back, and 
fattens to advantage. In 
egg production some gen- 
eral-purpose breeds have 
excellent records. Stand- 
ard weights vary, but 7 
pounds for the hens and 
9 for the cocks are satis- 
factory. Fowls of the 
general-purpose type, as a 
rule, belong to the Amer- 
ican breeds, of which the 
Plymouth Rock, Wyan- 
dotte, and Rhode Island 
Red are the most common 
examples. 

The breeds and va- 
rieties of fowls include 
a large number, of wide 


Fig. 169. The meat type. This is a Cochin. 
Photograph by courtesy of the Poultry Herald. 


Fig. 170. The general-purpose type. A 
Plymouth Rock. Photograph by courtesy 
of the Poultry Jerald, 


328 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


difference, ranging from the tiny Bantam to the large 
and heavy Brahma. The breed characters of form, as 
applied to head, body, and legs, are rather distinct in each 
case. The variety characteristics are usually shown in 
color of feathers, though there may be other special features, 
such as single or rose comb. The Plymouth Rock, for 
example, includes six varieties; namely, (1) barred, (2) 
white, (3) buff, (4) silver penciled, (5) partridge, and (6) 
Columbian. The follow- 
ing very brief descriptions 
of some of the leading 
breeds in America, include 
the more important repre- 
sentatives of each. 

The Plymouth Rock 
originated in America, and 
is of medium size. The 
head is surmounted by a 
single, upright red comb, 
and the ear lobes and 
wattles are alsored. The 
neck is broad, breast full 
and wide, back broad, and 
jad Tyg Darel Plymouth Bock cock: body. compact Deaaiaa™ 
by courtesy the Poultry Herald. toes, and skin should be 
yellow in color. This breed is hardy and matures early, fur- 
nishing excellent broilers when eight to twelve weeks old. The 
hens are moderate layers, the eggs being of a brown color. 
This is a sitting breed, and the hens make excellent mothers. 
The mature males weigh 914, and the females 7144 pounds. — 
Varieties of this breed differ only in color of feathers. The 
Barred Plymouth Rock has been very popular in the past, 
though the whites are now meeting with much favor. 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 329 


The Wyandotte originated in America, and is of medium 
size, with a form very similar to the Plymouth Rock. These 
two breeds look very much alike when fowls of the same color 
are compared. The Wyandotte, however, should have an 
outline of form somewhat more curved in its lines than the 
Plymouth Rock. This breed has a rose comb instead 
of a single form, and 
red ear lobes and -wat- 
tles. The legs are yellow. 
Wyandottes are excellent 
layers, and their eggs 
are of small size, brown 
in color. These fowls 
are valued for broiling 
and roasting, for their 
flesh is of fine grain and 
quality. The mature 
males have a_ standard 
weight of 814 pounds and 
the females 614 pounds. 
Wyandottes are extreme- 
ly popular. 

The Rhode Island Red 


ae : Fig. 172. A White Wyandotte cockerel, 
originated In Rhode _Is- a lst prize winner, owned by Mrs. E, W. 


; Brooker. Photograph b tes f 
land. The American Polity Giese. 4 A oe pe Oe 


Standard of Perfection 


states that ‘“‘their chief characteristics are: red color, 
oblong shape, compact form, and smooth surface plum- 
age.’ This is a medium-sized breed, mature males 
weighing 814, and the females 614 pounds. ‘The comb 
is either single or rose in form, and of medium size. 
The shank and feet should be yellow or reddish horn in 
color. This breed has become quite popular on account 


330 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Of merit as a table fowl, and for excellence in egg pro- 
duction. 

The Orpington was first developed in the town of Orping- 
ton, England, from which it receives its name. There is no 
ereat difference between this and the general-purpose Ameri- 
can breeds, except that the Orpington is somewhat heavier, 
and has gray or whitish skin and black or flesh-colored legs. 
The comb may be of the single or rose form. The ear lobes 
are red. ‘There are three varieties, white, black, and buff. 
The mature males weigh 
10 and the females 8 
pounds. The Orpington in 
recent years has become 
very popular, ranking high 
for table use and for egg 
production. 

The Light Brahma is 
of Asiatic origin, and has 
been known in America 
for many years. It is 
strictly of the meat type, 
and is the largest breed of 
Fig. 173. A White Orpington hen. By 

courtesy of the Poultry Herald. fowls, the mature males 
weighing 12 pounds and 

the females 9144 pounds. The head is of medium size, 
with a small pea comb, medium sized, red wattles, and 
large red ear lobes. The breast is very broad and full, 
the back wide, the legs, toes, and skin yellow, and 
the shanks feathered. The neck, tail, and large wing 
feathers are black, and white striped with black, the 
other feathers being white. This breed is valued for roast- 
ing, but does not rate high in egg production. There is 
another variety called the Dark Brahma, but neither is 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 331 


longer popular, and but few flocks are now kept, although 
they once were common. : 

The Cochin is also an Asiatic breed, large in size, like 
the Brahma, a standard weight for males being 11 pounds 
and for females 914 pounds. This is a deep-bodied, massive 
fowl, having a loose plumage with much downy fiber under- 
neath, which gives the entire 
body a fluffy appearance. The 
legs are heavily feathered. These 
fowls are valued for roasters_ 
rather than for egg production. 
‘There are four varieties of Coch- 
ins, buff, black, white, and part- 
— ridge. 

- The Langshan is a single- 
combed Asiatic breed, somewhat 
smaller and more active than 
the Brahma or Cochin, and 
much more popular, both for 
meat and for egg production. 

There are two varieties, the Late’ Vv! fret ee Chem ot 
Meeiand the white. The males  b2cvoe ph. gy courtesy the 
weigh 914 pounds and the fe- 

males 7144 pounds, at maturity. There is much fullness 
of breast, and the form is compact. The legs of the black 
variety are bluish colored, and slightly feathered. ‘The 
comb, face, wattles, and ear lobes are bright red in color. 

The Leghorn is a breed of European origin, getting its 
name from Leghorn, Italy. This is distinctly an egg-laying 
breed. The features of importance are, large, single, or rose 
comb, the single comb on the hens drooping to one side. ‘The 
head is small, the eye of good size, ear lobes white, comb 
and wattles red, and beak, legs, and skin yellow. ‘The breast 


332 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


is prominent, though not very wide; the back of medium 
width and length, the feathers snugly laid to the body, and 


Fig. 175. Three hens owned by the Cyphers Incubator Co. The White 
Leghorn laid 251 eggs, the Barred Plymouth Rock 236, and the White Wyan- 
dotte 237, each within a year. By courtesy The Cyphers Incubator Company. 


the tail carried erect. The Leghorn is very hardy and one 
of the most active breeds of fowl, rather small of size, and 
famous for egg production. The females are non-sitters. 
There is no standard of 
weight at maturity, but 
males weigh about 4 and 
females 3 pounds. There 
are several varieties of 
Leghorns, of which the 
white, brown, and 
buff are most common. 
This is one of the most 
common breeds kept on 
the American farm. 


The Minorca is an egg- 
laying, non-sitting breed, 
originating on the island — 
of Minorca, in the Medi- 
terranean Sea. The fol- 


Fig. 176. A White Leghorn cockerel. ° ° 
fare by courtesy of Poultry Success. lowing 1s quoted from the 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 333 


_ American Standard of Perfection: “They are distinguished 
by long bodies, very large combs, long and full wattles, 
large white ear lobes, dark-colored legs, and pinkish-white 
or flesh-colored skin. The Minorca head is carried rather 
high; the back is long and sloping; the tail is spread some 
degrees from the horizontal. Their legs are firm, muscular, 
and set squarely under the long, powerful-looking bodies.” 
There are both single and rose _ 
comb strains of this breed. As | 
egg producers the Minorcas rank 
very high, the egg being very large 
and white. 

There are a number of other 
breeds of fowls, but these are 
usually kept only in a small way 
by poultry fanciers, and do not 
require attention here. 

The bantam may be a dwarf 
of some of the larger breeds or a 
distinct breed. Bantams are kept iy uns omy ae bret a 
for ornamental purposes, and 
-have no practical value. The weights naturally vary 
somewhat, but 26 ounces for mature males, and 22 ounces 
for the females are standards. The Cochin and Brahma 
bantams weigh slightly more, 30 ounces for the male and 26 
for the female. The bantams make very interesting pets 
for children. 


| THE TURKEY 
The turkey is a native of America and was unknown 
in Europe previous to 1624. The present domesticated 
turkey originated from the wild stock which once was 
found in large numbers in this country, and is yet found to 
a small extent in certain parts of Pennsylvania and the 


334 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Southern states. We have really but one breed of turkey, 
all variations in color and size being simply differences in 
varieties. According to the Standard of Perfection of the 
American Poultry Association, the frame should be large, 
the body deep, ‘‘with a broad, round, full breast that varies 
in prominence according to the variety.”’ The head should 
be of good size, and the eyes bright and alert. The leg and 
shank bones should be 
large, straight, and well 
set. The carriage should 
be proud and erect. 

The Bronze turkey 
is very large, and the 
feathers are bronze or 
brown black, with shad- 
ings of color. The stand- 
ard weight for an adult 
male is 36 pounds, and 
for the hen, 20 pounds. 
This is the most common 
variety raised. 

- The Narragansett 
nee ee a Pe eee PF turkey is of a metallic 
black color, with shad- 
ings to steel gray or approaching white. The White Hol- 
land, as its name indicates, has a white plumage. ‘There 
are also black, buff, and slate varieties, each having a 
standard weight of 27 pounds for the mature male and 12 
pounds for the hen. 


THE DUCK 


The Mallard or common wild duck is regarded as the 
parent stock, or ancestor, of all domestic ducks. The duck 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 335 


has a broad flat bill, small eye, good-sized head, long neck, 
full breast, long body, short tail, and short web-footed legs. 
The body has a dense covering of downy feathers, over which 
lies the feathery plumage. The thickness of plumage, which 
is slightly oiled by natural secretion, prevents water from 
penetrating among the feathers. 

Three types of ducks are recognized, meat, egg-laying, 
and ornamental. Those 
which best supply the a) 
needs of the table formeat ~ 
are most in demand. 

The Pekin duck was 
brought to England from 
Pekin, China, in 1874. It 
is white in color and of 
large size, weighing 7 to 9 
pounds, and is the most 
popular duck for table use. IN 
The bill is orange-yellow ~@ 
in color, while the shanks // 
and toes are reddish or- 


ange. FM ea Fa JS 

The Aylesbury duck is vee ae = 

° Fig. 179. A pair of Pekin ducks. Repro- 
white and much resem- duced from the ‘Poultry Manual.” 


bles the Pekin. The bill 
is flesh-colored, and the legs and feet are pale orange. 
These ducks are more popular in England, where they 
have been bred many years, than they are in America. 
The Rouen duck is a breed that takes its name from a 
city in northern France, where it has long been bred. It is 
grayish in color, with dark shadings or black on head, neck, 
wings, and back. The bill is of greenish-yellow color, and 
the legs and feet orange with a green or brown shade. 


/ 


336 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The Cayuga duck originated in Cayuga County, New 
York. It is greenish-black in color, except some of the large 


Fig. 180. *‘Rapid growth’’ Pekin ducks 
produced on Cyphers Company Poultry 
Farm. Age, 8 weeks. Note their 
weights. Photograph by courtesy 
Cvohers Ineubator Co. 


wing feathers, which are brown.. 


The bill is black, and the 
legs preferably black, though 
slate color occurs. 

The Muscovy duck is a 
native of South America. In 
size it is very large, adult 
drakes weighing 10 pounds 
and females 7 pounds. ‘The 


body is long and broad, and is 


carried nearly horizontally. 


The head is rather long, and . 


large with the male, and has 
large crest-like feathers, which 
the duck often raises when 
excited. The head is partly 
bare of feathers, and the sides 
and top above the bill have 
rough wart-like coverings 


_known as caruncles, which are 


red of color and rather con- 
spicuous. The bill is pink or 
flesh-colored. Colored mus- 
covys have yellow to dark lead- 
colored legs, while those of 
the white variety are yellow. 
The plumage varies in color, 
but white or black-and-white 
are the favorite varieties. 
Ducks of this breed fly much 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 337 


/ 


more than do others, and sometimes perch onelevated places. 

The Indian Runner duck is supposed to have originated 
in India. It is rather small, a standard weight being about 
4 pounds at maturity. The body, which is long and narrow, 
is carried somewhat erect, after the style of the wild penguin. 
The popular color is fawn or gray and white. The claim is 
made that the young ducks at 6 weeks of age dress into 


Fig. 181. Indian Runner ducks, called the Leghorn of the duck family. 
Reproduced from the ‘‘Poultry Manual.” 

broilers weighing 244 to 3 pounds. This duck, however, 

is valued chiefly for egg production, a female occasionally 

laying as many as 200 eggs in a year. 


THE GOOSE 


The domesticated breeds of geese have been developed 
from the wild breeds. The common wild goose of America 
is often domesticated and kept in confinement. ‘There are 
several breeds of importance. 


Fe 
> 
1 ~~ ’ 


308 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


A 


Fig. 182. An Embden goose. Photograph 
by courtesy the Poultry Herald. 


Fig. 183. Toulouse geese. By courtesy the 
Poultry Herald. 


The Embden goose is of 
European origin. It is of 
medium size, adult gan- 
ders weighing about 20 
pounds. The bill and 
legs are orange in color, 
and the plumage is white. 
This is a@ very popular 
breed. 


The Toulouse goose 
gets its name from a city 
of that name in France. 
It is of large size, adults 
weighing about 25 pounds. 
The bill is pale orange 
and the legs a deep shade 
of that color. The plum- 
age is gray, with dark 
shadings about the neck, 
back, wings, and breast. 

Most of our domestic 
flocks consist of these two 
breeds. 


SUGGESTIONS FOR 
REFLECTION 


1. What makes the six 
types of domestic fowls? 

2. Describe the egg-laying 
type of hen. 

3. What is the difference 
between a breed and a variety? 

4. Compare the Plymouth 
Rock and the Wyandotte. 


POULTRY TYPES AND BREEDS 339 


. Compare the Light Brahma and the Leghorn. 

. Name the place of origin of each of five breeds of fowls. 

. Discuss the origin of the turkey. 

. What are common features of different breeds of ducks? 

. Compare the Pekin and Rouen ducks. 

. What are some of the most striking characteristics of the Mus- 
covy duck? 


DO ANAH 


paaek 


DO YOU THINK YOU COULD 


11. Give the names of five men keeping pure-bred poultry in your 
neighborhood, and the breeds they keep? 

12. Bring a small collection of eggs of different breeds to school? 

13. Interest local poultrymen to arrange a small poultry show for 
the benefit of the school? 

14. Weigh some specimens of live poultry of different breeds and 
report on the age and weight of each? 

15. Bring to school specimens of feathers showing breed colors? 


CHAPTER XXV 
JUDGING POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS 


The poultry judge who understands his work, must be 
familiar with many details. There is in this country an 
organization known as the American Poultry Association. 
This devotes much attention to the establishment of stand- 
ards of perfection for the various breeds and varieties of 
fowls, and provides rules and methods for judging fowls. 
A book published by the association, known as the ‘“‘Standard 
of Perfection,” is the American authority for judges and stu- 
dents to follow. No poultry show could be properly con- 
ducted without the judge being guided by this standard. 
No breed of fowls can be considered established until offi- 
cially recognized and described by the American Poultry 
Association. 


The parts of the fowl passed on by the judge have certain 
outlines, colors, and other markings as applied to each 
breed. The feathers differ in size and form in a striking way, 
according to their location on the body. The illustration 
of a male bird on page 341 shows, through a numbering 
system, the location of the parts and feathers. 


The head of the fowl is one of the striking breed features. 
It is topped with a comb, which is larger on the cocks than 
on the hens. A very common form is single, upright or 
lopped, the top being serrated, or separated into points sug- 
gesting the teeth of a saw. Leghorn and Plymouth Rock 
varieties have this form. The rose comb is wide and low, 
consisting of many knobs crowded together, the rear part 
tapering more or less to a smooth point. This comb occurs 


a 


: 
J 
: 
a 

e 
” 
j 


hl et ae ot ah a 


JUDGING POULTRY AND EGGS 341 


\\ 

b Fh ie ee” 
V1 Ay 
¥| 


i a 

iyiy, ey Lai yh) 
Wap My HA 
prea /pr iz 


154 
Dive 
ne 


\\ \Y 


By 
U 
= ox 


17 


=a 


Fig. 184. The exterior of the fowl. Drawing by courtesy of Poultry 


Success, 

Comb. ~ 10. Sickle feathers. 17. Primaries or flight 
Face. 11. Lesser sickle feathers. feathers. 
Wattles. 12. Tail coverts. 18, Flight coverts. 
Ear lobe. 13. Main tail feathers. 19. Fluff. 
Hackle feathers, 14. Wing bone feathers. 20. Body feathers. 
Breast. 15. Wing coverts, forming 21. Thigh. 
Back. wing bar. 22. Knee joint. 
Saddle. 16. Secondary feathers, 23. Shank, 
Saddle feathers. wing bay. 24, Spur. 

25. Toe or claw. 


342 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


on Wyandottes, Minorcas, and other varieties. The pea 
comb is very small, and resembles three single combs dwarfed 
in size and crowded side by side, with the central one some- 
what larger than the others. There are also V-shaped and 
strawberry combs, but these are not common. The ear 
lobes are usually small, and vary in color from red to white 
or bluish, according to breed. The wattles are usually red, 
and on the cock often hang below the bill in a conspicuous 
manner. The bill does not show the striking differences 


Fig. 185. The serrated, single 
comb of the Leghorn. Repro- 
duced from the ‘‘Poultry Manual.”’ Fig. 186. A rose comb. 


seen in the comb and wattles. Some breeds, like the Houdan 
and Polish, have crests, or clusters of feathers, which some- 
times largely hide the head proper from view and also often 
affect the sight. 


The feathers of the fowl differ in a remarkable way in 
size, form, and color. Even with varieties of one color, as 
for example white, the shades of this hue are made a subject 
of discussion by poultry experts. ‘This also applies to other 
solid colors. In the case of fowls having more than one color- 
marking to the feather, there are barred feathers, as with the 
Plymouth Rock; penciled feathers, as with the Silver Pen- 


JUDGING POULTRY AND EGGS 343 


ciled Wyandotte; laced ? : 
feathers, as with the YS wile 

, fave / ae: Ci % 
Golden Wyandotte; and Pp Gh: y % { 
still other markings, as RG | 
striped, spangled, edged, 
etc. The color-markings ‘Yi 

YW 
1 WAY hg 
of some birds are very \“\COZZ. 
beautiful. The correct So 

Fig. 189. Striped feathers of Partridge 

color and form of the Co gee from the ‘‘ Poultry 
feather are of most inter- ~“""*" 


aN \ 


A\\ 


est to the fancier; yet the practi- 
cal poultryman little interested in 
this feature, has been able to se- 
cure his favorite breed through 
patient breeding, development, 
and improvement by the so-called 
fancier. 


Fig. 188. Laced feathers from 
Laced Wyandotte. Reproduced 
‘from the ‘Poultry Manual.’’ 


Methods of judging. 
There are two methods 
of judging fowls, by 
score card and by com- 
parison. The score- 
card method has been Fig. 187. Barred Plymouth Rock feather. 
generally used at poul- Reproduced from the ‘‘Poultry Manual. 
try shows for many years. Its use, however, is not so 
common now as formerly. Poultry judges using the 
score card put down the number of points or fraction 


344 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


of a point cut, and adding these, deduct from 100, 
which gives the total score. In cutting for defects, 
from 1% to 3 points are recommended for certain deficiencies, 
and these are specified in the standard for the benefit of 
official judges. Judging by comparison is becoming common, 
and is more satisfactory than by score card, for the reasons 
already given in Chapter VII. 

The official score card of the American Poultry Associ- 
ation is here given: 


(Date, month, days and year show is held) 
OFFICIAL SCORE CARD OF THE AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION 
}isarmrroe: .. .. se Pe ae a Oi ee eee 
W ARIETY +o SL ek. Ae, . eee SEX . ce 


Barra Nak. fo See GAWD. 0 -:.... 2k WEIGHY. =. 


Shape | Color. Remarks. 


Symmetry... . 25... eae ee ee 2 oye 


esewecvesnpse wm aeweafnacraeseatecsmeeaastisnsen nn 8 2 6 8 2 8 & Oe eee 
Beseareese ses £ on @ Bw a eh tee a os ofa ew ww ef ew ht 2 8 ee & 6 See eee 
smanonecareseeevneece ate eee aecefocesanewafanan ec eGvuacnw es « = 0 0oe © a me ee eee 
eaenenvcesce siesniesen Se ew seneicfaeanaweativ eae ashes « b 8 29 «18.8 © © Se ey eee 


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Wattles and ear lobes 


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Body and fluff 
Less and (06S... 2... 02 20|ecns fa|nc-aes]acnca™ 2s = 5 ue 
*Crest and beard. .... 2.4. .5.)0..49.|o.0). b 
*Shortness of feather 


on CH On ioe... ie re Score 


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es esse eenefeueeeeeaeffeeseeneeefaneveneese 6 2 8 2) 8 BRS Be eee 


tApplies to crested breeds. *Applies to games and game bantams. 


€ 
Pia 


JUDGING POULTRY AND EGGS 845 


This score card is intended for use in connection with the 
Standard of Perfection, which contains a detailed description 
of each variety of fowl. 


Instructions for judges of poultry include various points. 
Among these, weight receives considerable attention, and 
two points are usually deducted for each pound that the fowl 
falls short of the standard weight. Other things being equal, 


the one nearest standard weight is awarded the prize. To 


receive a first prize, a specimen must score 90 or more.points, 
except cocks in parti-colored varieties, which are allowed 
88 points as a minimum. When young and old birds are in 
competition, other things being equal, the older ones are to 
be awarded the prizes. ‘Ties often result in judging. When 
this occurs, if the tie cannot be broken by other rules, then 
the specimen receiving the smallest total sum of cuts for 
shape shall be awarded the prize. 

Disqualification in judging poultry is allowed for various 
reasons. The occurrence of feathers on the legs of what 
should be a smooth-legged breed; or of smooth legs when 
feathers should occur; improper color of ear lobes and legs; 
excessive number of toes, or too few toes; absence of crest in 


‘erested varieties; etc., are examples of conditions which 


justify disqualification. 

Judging poultry products, such as dressed poultry and 
eggs, is becoming more and more necessary. ‘The score card 
is not specially recommended for this purpose, the compara- 
tive method being best. Referring to this point, one author- 
ity says:* ‘‘In judging dressed poultry and eggs, the num- 
ber of qualities or points to be considered is small; slight dif- 
ferences in quality do not make great differences in value, as 
in high-class birds, and degrees of quality are more readily 


*John H. Robinson: Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, 1911. 


346 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


appreciated. While score cards are sometimes used for judg- 
ing dressed poultry and eggs, the number of sections into 
which a card may appropriately be divided is so small that 
there is little if any advantage in scoring, and if, to develop 
a system of scoring, many sections are made, the process of 
judging is complicated when it should remain simple. The 
points to be considered are so few, and the values so apparent, 
that judgment of all is practically instantaneous. * * * 
The rational method of judging dressed poultry and eggs is 
to grade them according to market quality and value.” 


The judging of eggs by score card has been attempted to 
some extent. An egg show, in which eggs were’scored by the 
students, has been held annually at Purdue University. 
Two classes of eggs were provided, ‘‘fancy”’ and ‘“‘commer- 
cial.” The following score card and explanation of its use - 
are well worth consideration: 


ComMMERCIAL Eca Score Carp 


Exaipirer Oi. Batre th. Dages SS iS holes 191- 

ADBBNES: Oschotea f Bibs te ee Conon. 3h. 2 , 

Entry No....... CUEMSSeey | Sire. Were... 05 i ace Ozs. 

, Perfec- : 

Features considered oes Cuts Remarxs 
A eee ee he me caatey oR Ss 8 7A; a ne ene 
EN 9. an eee re 
Uniformity of color......... 8 [fp tuk ls. 4 ea 
Uniformity of size and shape BF |. dcx ind = Gerdes Gam lle een 
Shell texture. 2c... sal. fe ri eee POE 
Condition of shells.......... Aloo. ol AS eee 
Quality (by testing) | 

(a) Size aireell..../....)-. 26 1.20 sow. toe 1 

(b) OQpaqueness......... 25. Le OO ee 

Total DOs a... oe A 100-10 os a 

Pec tan Va ae Seer NG eat Ba JUDGE 


JUDGING POULTRY AND EGGS 347 


EXPLANATION OF COMMERCIAL EGG SCORE CARD 


Size: Extras, 26 to 28 ounces. Firsts, 24 to 26 ounces. 
One point cut for each ounce over or under required weight 
in either class. 


Shape: 1 point allowed for each egg. 

Uniformity of color: If white, eggs should be all pure 
white and of the same shade. If brown, the color may be 
any shade, but the dozen should be uniformly the same color; 
24 point allowed for each egg. 

Uniformity of size and shape: All eggs must be of 
same size and shape. 14 point allowed for each egg. 

Shell texture: Free from wrinkles, spots, cracks, and 
rough places; 14 point for each egg. 


Condition of shell: Free from dirt or stain, unwashed. 


Quality: Test with candles. (a) Air cell very small, 
about size of a dime, indicating freshness. (b) Egg must 
appear opaque, the yolk free from dark color, white thick, 
yolk barely visible. Large air cell, floating yolks or air cells 
are defects. Eggs must be fresh and sweet. 


Disqualification: Cracked, broken, spots, musty rots, 


and germs or blood rings in any one egg will disqualify the 
dozen. 


Fig. 190, An egg show. Photograph by courtesy the Poultry Herald, 


348 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


COULD YOU TELL 


. The purpose and value of the Standard of Perfection? 

. How the combs of fowls differ in form? 

. In what way feathers differ in coloring? 

. The method of making cuts in scoring poultry? 

. How weight and size are graded by the judge? 

. Two conditions that might cause disqualifications? 

. Why the score card is not used more in judging poultry products? 
. The features of a commercial score card? 


EASY THINGS TO DO 


CON OD OR & DH 


9. Holding Saturday afternoon poultry judging contests. 
10. Collecting an exhibit of one breed for comparison at school. 
11. Getting up a prize egg show, and judging by score card. 
12. Sorting over and studying a case of eggs loaned by the egg- 
dealer or grocer. 


CHAPTER XXVI 
EGGS AND INCUBATION 


The egg is an object of much interest, for not only is it 
the source of the chicken itself, but it is also a most important 
source of income to the poultryman. If one is to handle the 
egg intelligently, he must know something of its composition, 
of how the chick is developed within the shell, and of com- 
mercial differences and values. 

The parts of the egg of special interest are five. These 
are the following: 

a. The shell, composed mostly of lime, and hard enough 
to enclose and protect the softer interior. 

b. Two tough membranes lying next within the shell. 


‘These separate at the large end, forming a small air sac, 


which is easily seen in hard-boiled eggs. 

c. The albumen, or as it is commonly called, the white of 
the egg. This forms about 57 per cent of the egg and con- 
sists of much nitrogenous matter of a liquid, sticky, trans- 
parent character. Boiling hardens or coagulates the white 
into a firm, white structure. 


d. The yolk, comprising about 33 per cent of the egg, is 
a round yellow sac, surrounded by the white. ‘This is used 
for nourishing the young chick just before and after leaving 
the shell. The yolk is suspended midway in the white and 
kept in proper position by two albuminous cords. 

e. The germ, in the fresh-laid egg is seen as a white speck 
about one-eighth of an inch in diameter on the upper side 
of the yolk. The germ is the true egg and source of the chick 
in incubation. | 


300 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The fertile egg is one that will produce a chick under 
proper conditions of what is called incubation. The infertile 
or sterile egg cannot be hatched, and so has no value in repro- 
duction, although for food it has equal value with the fertile 
one. The fertility of the egg cannot be determined except 
by incubation. After the egg has been under the hen for 
five to seven days, ordinarily one may easily tell whether it is 
fertile or infertile. If the latter, it will appear clear and show 
none of the changes described in the following. 

The testing or candling of eggs is a simple process of 
looking through the egg with the aid of special light. One 
may take a piece of common cardboard, one side of which is 
black, in which is cut an oval hole not quite as large as an 
egg. If the cardboard is held before a lighted lamp in a 
dark room, blackened side towards one, and an egg is held 
in the hole, those that contain chicks will appear dark and 
opaque except at the larger end, while sterile eggs will be 
clear and show light. In the trade, where all eggs are 
examined before a light, this process is known as candling. 
Black lamp chimneys with holes in them are made for use in 
a small way, but in the larger commercial trade, eggs are 
candled over sets of lights arranged for this purpose. 

The incubation of the egg of the hen occupies a period 
of 21 days. The following are some of the more important 
changes that take place during incubation. During the 
first twenty-four hours the germ enlarges to about a half ineh 
in size, within which the first stages of head and some other 
parts appear. During the second day the heart begins to 
beat and the blood to flow. By the end of the third day the 
veins and arteries are considerably developed, and the young 
chick turns on its left side. On the fourth day the wing 
folds, and the folds forming the legs appear. The beak 
begins to form on the eighth day, and shows its horny shape 


j EGGS AND INCUBATION 351 
on the twelfth. The entire shell except the air cell is occu- 
pied by the chick by the twelfth day. The feathers appear 
first on the eighth day, and by the thirteenth cover the body 
to the length of one-fourth inch. At this time the nails of 
the feet appear. On the fourteenth day the chick changes 
its position and extends lengthwise, the beak reaching the 
inner shell membrane. The air cell has been gradually 
increasing in size, and by this time is much larger. From now 
on, the chick increases in development to the twenty-first 
day. The following interesting description of the hatching 
process is given by Professor Lewis :* 

‘When ready to come out, the chick raises its head and 
pierces the inner shell membrane, and immediately starts 
breathing the air in the chamber, which causes the pulmonary 
circulation to become active and the embryonic circulation 
to cease. The head is next raised into the air chambef, and 
the chick deals blows upon the shell, which when often 
repeated in the same place result in fracturing it. This 
process is repeated until the shell is broken around about 
one-third of the way from the large end. The chick then 
presses its head against the large end and its feet against the 
small end, and then by pushing is able to throw off the shell 
lid and make its exit.” 

_ The temperature of the egg during incubation should be 
about 103 degrees. The usual temperature of the body of 
the hen is 106 degrees, and her eggs from 102 to 104 degrees. 
The egg must be kept close to this temperature, and serious 
variation from this will kill the chick in the egg. During 
the first week a temperature of 102 is best, but this may 
increase to 103 degrees the last part of incubation. After 
the third or fourth day the eggs being incubated should be 
turned once or twice daily. 


*Poultry Laboratory Guide, 1910, p. 47. 


352 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The need of moisture during incubation is commonly 
recognized. The egg contains from 60 to 65 per cent water 
and during incubation some of this is lost. In experiments 
it has been shown that eggs lose from 11 to 17 per cent of 
their original weight by evaporation. Professor Atwood, 
of the West Virginia experiment station, has estimated that 
100 fertile eggs will lose about 814 ounces of moisture during 
the first five days, about 12 ounces during the following seven 
days, and slightly more during the next seven days. Thus 
it can be seen that moisture must be provided to some extent 
during incubation. 

The need of ventilation during incubation is also well 
understood. The movement of air about the eggs must. be 
somewhat free, the air being neither too dry or too moist. 
The hen shifts her position from time to time, and so brings 
fresh air in contact with the eggs 
and her body. In artificial incu- 
bation, proper ventilation is so 
provided that the pure air and 
right moisture conditions go to- 
gether. 

The incubator is a box-like 
device containing a space in which 
eggs may be incubated by means 
of artificial heat. The hatching 
lane Bl tone ee arte Of eggs by artificial imeubation 
i a i Ohio State has been in operation for thou- 

sands of years, especially in Egypt 
and China. There are various designs of incubators made, 
ranging in size from those to contain but a few eggs, up to 
those with a capacity for thousands. Incubators in use 
at the present time are heated by hot air from a kerosene 
lamp, or by a hot water system. ‘The hot air type is the one 


a 


EGGS AND INCUBATION 353 


in more common use. The eggs, one layer deep, are placed 
in moveable, wire-bottomed trays. The temperature of the 
incubator is regulated by the automatic action of an instru- 
ment called a thermostat, which is sensitive to heat changes. 
This instrument is set so as to reduce or increase automatic- 
ally the amount of incoming pure air. A thermometer 
within may be read through the glass front. Incubators 
should stand level, and a popular location in which to operate 
them is a dry cellar that holds a uniform temperature. 


Fig. 192. A home-made brooder and incubator. Photograph by courtesy 
Ohio State University College of Agriculture. 


A brooder is a device used in connection with the incu- 
bator, and is in a sense an artificial mother. The general 
plan of the brooder is that of a warm box or room, heated by 
a lamp or hot-water plant. A circular plate about two feet 
in diameter is placed about ten inches above the floor. A 
rim extending downward about four inches is attached to 
this, below which is fastened a heavy cloth curtain extending 
to the floor. Pieces of cloth are also dropped from different 
parts of the under side of the cover to the floor. Here and 


304 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


there the cloth is slit so that the chicks may freely pass 
through and find a warm protection among the strips of 
cloth, comparable to being under the mother’s wings. This 
special arrangement within the brooder is called a hover. 


‘Fig. 193, A cheap brooder house, with brood. Photograph by courtesy the 
Poultry Herald. 
The small brooder house usually has one hover, but large 
brooder houses have series of them, each of which is heated 
by a hot water pipe system. 

Eggs for incubation should be from vigorous, well-mated 
fowls, and not from what might be called mongrel stock. 
These eggs should be kept in a dry, cool atmosphere until — 
placed under the hen or in the incubator. A place having 
a temperature of from 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit is con- 
sidered best. The eggs should be carefully handled, not 
being severely shaken or cracked. It is a good plan to mark 
on each egg the date laid, and no eggs over 21 days old should 
be set. In making up settings, it is desirable to use those of 


. 


of seven different breeds showed 


. EGGS AND INCUBATION 300 


uniform size and condition. Hatchings will be likely to be 
more uniform if the eggs are of much the same age and con- 
dition of keep previous to setting. 

The size and weight of eggs vary more than many sup- 
pose. Professor Lewis gives* some interesting figures about 
the size and weight of eggs of dif- 
ferent breeds of fowls. The eggs 


an average large circumference > 
of 6.19 inches, a small circumfer- 

ence of 5.27 inches, and an aver- 

age weight of 1 pound, 8.05 ounces. 

The eggs from the hens were 

slightly larger and weighed a trifle 

more than those from the pullets. 

A dozen Plymouth Rock eggs 

weighed 1 pound, 11.2 ounces; 

the Leghorns ranking second at 1 

pound, 10.3 ounces. In a bulletin 

published by the Ohio State Uni- 

versity,} it was shown that in 

sorting over a case of eggs, a doz- 

en of the largest ones weighed ieried Motlda ‘the dite 

3014 ounces, the medium sized 2614 Freee ee oe tcey Olno 

@ences; and: the small ones 2134  iate University College ot 

ounces. On this basis it was fig- 

ured that a case of 30 dozens of large eggs would weigh 
57 pounds, 3 ounces, while the small ones would weigh 
but 40 pounds, 12 ounces, an astonishing difference. The 
Leghorn naturally produces small eggs, and the Minorca 


2 


‘large ones, and figures in the bulletin referred to give a 


*Poultry Laboratory Guide, 1910, p. 16. 
{The Marketing of Eggs, April, L911, p. 16. 


356 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


weight of 22 ounces for a dozen of the former, and 2714 
ounces for the latter. The fact is, for the same price, a 
dozen large eggs furnish more 
actual nutrition than a dozen 
small ones. 

The color of the egg is due to 
a pigment, or coloring substance 
developed in the shell during the 
process of formation in the body 
of the hen. The color is either 
white or brown. Leghorn and 
Minorcas produce white eggs, and 
Brahmas and Plymouth Rocks, 
brown ones. Some buyers prefer 
the white color, and others the 
brown. This is merely a matter 
Fig. 195. Clean vs. dirty of fancy, because there is no dif- 

eggs. Photograph by cour- : 
ae Se Ppa eta ference in the food value. When 
fresh laid, the egg has a clear shell 
of a beautiful dull glaze, but with age and handling it 
becomes somewhat glossy or polished and often is soiled. 

The degree of freshness of the 
ege has much to do with its value | 
on the common market. Prime 
fresh eggs, such as producers sup- 
ply to private consumers, bring 
the highest price. In a commer- 
cial way, eggs are gathered from 
farmers by hucksters, or are Fig. 196. A case of eggs. 

Photograph by courtesy Ohio 
sold to country grocers by the State University College of 
4 Agriculture. 
producers. These are placed in 
wooden cases holding 30 dozens, and are shipped to the 
city dealers, where they are graded, and then placed on 


EGGS AND INCUBATION 357 


the market. Often the eggs are very poor, especially 


during the summer season. Eggs 
nests, from held over-stock, etc., 
find their way into the same case, 
and form a motley collection. 
The careful dealer sorts these 
over, candles them and tries to 
grade them before placing them 
on the market. 


. The grades of eggs on the 
market differ to a considerable 
extent, and in some places more 
than in others. Large markets 
like New York or Boston handle 
the most grades. Professor Phil- 
ips gives the following as an 
ideal way to grade eggs:* 


from stolen nests, dirty 


Fig. 197. Sorted vs. un- 
sorted eggs. Photograph by 
courtesy Ohio State Univ- 
ersity College of Agriculture. 


Extras: Weigh 28-26 ozs. naturally and absolutely clean; fresh 


and sound. 


No. 1. ‘Weigh 26-24 ozs., sound, fresh, and reasonably clean. 
No. 2. Shrunken or stale, washed, small, stained and dirty. 
No. 8. Checks—cracked, but not leaking. 

No. 4. Rots. Incubator and decomposed eggs. 


A Chicago trade paper gave the following grades in July, 


1912. 


Extras, candled for city trade....... 
Firsts, graded 70 per cent fresh...... 
TEI ic cic en een eee nats 
Miscellaneous lots, cases included. . . 
Pe CPPCC so 6690's be cen ds de 
ee, ik paid bd os ke ER ne 


Diraetars 8 gieke 15c. to 16c. 


ey Pee 14c. to 14M%c. 
eae ae 12\éc. to 18e. 


*Bulletin No. 162, Kansas experiment station, p. 251. 


. 358 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Ot 


The preservation of eggs during low prices, to sell when 
they are high, is a common practice. The egg easily spoils 
under a hot sun or In warm moist weather. Germs of rot 
develop rapidly in the egg at 55 degrees or higher, con- 
sequently it is desirable to keep them below this temperature 
until they can be used. In cold pula a temperature of 
34 degrees is maintained. 

The Storrs experiment station recommends the use of 
water glass (sodium silicate) for preserving eggs. This is a 
liquid that sells at about $1.25 a gallon. The preserving 
fluid is made by thoroughly mixing one quart of the water 
glass in nine quarts of water that has been boiled and cooled. 
Stone crocks or barrels make good receptacles for preserva- 
tion. These should be well scalded before using, and then 
kept in a place where the temperature does not rise above 60 
degrees. The best eggs for preservation are those laid in 
April, May, and early June. 


SPECIAL TOPICS FOR STUDY 


1. Compare different parts of the egg. 
2. Explain the method of testing eggs. 
3. Describe the stage of incubation on the second, eighth, and 
twelfth days. 
4. Describe the methods by which the chick gets out of the egg. 
. Why is moisture necessary during incubation? 
. Describe the incubator. 
. How should the egg for incubation be selected and cared for? 
. Compare eggs for size and weight. 
. Describe Professor Philips’ ideal of market grades. 
10. Give method for preservation. 


i OO s] CG tr 


EGGS AND INCUBATION 359 


SOME THINGS YOU MIGHT DO 


11. Boil an egg hard for three minutes, and when cold separate 
into four parts—shell, membrane, white, and yolk. 

12. Test some eggs by candling, either from an efg case or from 
those being incubated. 

13. Prepare plans of a brooder, and make one from the plans. 

14. Go to a grocery and inspect a quantity of eggs, and report on 
what you saw as to size, shape, color, and condition. 

15. Find market grades and quotations on eggs in at least three 
markets. Make comparisons. 

16. Bring a sample dozen of your home eggs to school for inspec- 
tion. 


CHAPTER XXVII 
THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 


The organs of digestion of the fowl perform their work 
and have the same influence on the food, as do the stomach 
and intestines of animals. The form of these organs, how- 
ever, is peculiar to birds. They may be briefly described as 
follows: 

1. The beak, a hard, horny part for breaking, tearing, 
pulling or picking up food. | 

2. The mouth and tongue, within and back of the beak. 

3. The gullet, a tube which extends to 

4. The crop, which lies in front and at the base of the 
neck. Here the food accumulates and is somewhat softened 
by digestive fluids. 

5. The stomach, where food from the crop is mixed with 
the gastric juice. 

6. The gizzard, a tough muscular organ containing small 
particles of stone. Here the food is ground to a pulp, 
mixed with digestive fluid, and then moves on to 

7. The intestines, where the last stage of digestion 
takes place. 

The foods suitable for fowls vary widely in kind and 
character. In fact, farm poultry will eat almost anything 
that has any nutritive value. So adaptable are fowls to local 
conditions, that as a rule they are fed the cheapest and most 
common foods grown in the region in which they are kept. 
Very naturally, in America corn is most commonly fed, with 
wheat or its by-products next in favor. In Japan, rice is 
the food generally used. The kind of food, however, should 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 361 


vary according to the age and condition of the birds, and the 
purpose for which they are kept. If for fattening, then a 
carbonaceous food is best; but if for eggs, then that of a 
protein nature should be used. Asa rule, where grains are 
fed, those rich in protein are best, for the reason that the fowl 
applies its food mainly to flesh and egg production, both of 
which products contain much protein. | 

_ The appetite of fowls for different kinds of food is well 
worth observing. They eat grain or concentrated feed with 
great relish, and when in confinement this is the kind most 
used at regular feeding times. However, they are extremely 
fond of meat, table scraps, tender herbs and grass, the clo- 
vers, either green or cured as hay, and of insects, worms, etc. 
In fact no one class of food seems most relished, and poultry- 
men generally agree that variety in the diet usually gives the 
best results, from both the health and the producing point of 
view. 

The special preparation of feed for fowls naturally 
depends upon conditions. Small particles are usually pref- 
erable to large ones. Wheat and other small grains are 
very satisfactory: Large grains like corn are best cracked 
or broken. Ground or pulverized feeds, singly or in mixture, 
are known as mashes. Where no water is used, this food is 
called dry mash; with water, a wet mash. Clover or alfalfa 
hay is often thrown into the yard, the fowls readily eating 
the leaves and delicate parts. The hay also may be cut 
and mixed with the mash. Young chicks require fine, 
easily digested food, like oatmeal, cracked wheat, finely- 
granulated corn, chopped vegetables, etc. Skim milk also 
is a valuable food for growing chickens. 

Green food for fowls causes them to respond very rapidly 
in increased growth or egg production. Coarse vegetables 
are often sliced or chopped into small pieces before feeding, 


362 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


although entire cabbages or roots may be hung in the house 
or fastened to nails on the walls, from which points they will 


Ril 


Pat 


af be picked to pieces. In 
é b> recent years sprouted oats 
vy vl Wi have been extensively 


made use of for feed, es- 
pecially for young chicks. 
The common plan is to 
~, Make a wooden rack-like 


Stee series of shallow pans. 
Big, 208 in gus eating eabbaae suspended The desired amount of 
ee eo oats are taken and put 
into a vessel and covered with warm 
water and let stand over night. 
The surplus water is then drained 
off and the oats are spread over the 
pans to a depth of one-half to three- 
fourths of an inch. The oats should 
then be placed in a room, preferably 
a basement or cellar, having a tem- 
perature of 60 to 65 degrees. The 
oats should be sprinkled daily with 
tepid water, and to provide drain- 
age, the bottom of the pans should 
be perforated with small holes. In 
about ten days the sprouts will be 
ready to feed to the chickens, and 


should be used sparingly at the start. 
The amount of food necessary : 
for fowls depends entirely upon pig 199, Rack for sprout- : 


: ing oats. B t Cy- 
circumstances, such as the age and _ jhers Incubator Company. | 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 362 


kind of fowl, conditions of keep, etc. The best way is 
to prepare the desired food in given proportions, and then 
feed as much as will be 
eaten with a good appe- 
tite. 

Regularity in feeding 
fowls is essential. On 
many farms the poultry |Im@ 
must forage for them- | 


selves, but under proper 


ie : . Fig. 200. Sprouted oats in pan. By 
conditions, special feeding courtesy Cyphers Incubator Company. 


takes place morning and 
evening. The common custom is to feed early in the 
morning, about noon, and just before they go to roost. 
Regularity of feeding also brings the fowls into intimate 
touch with the poultryman, and enables him to handle 
them and watch their condition to the best advantage. 
Frequency of feeding fowls 
depends upon the age, condition, 
and purpose for which they are 
kept. Young chicks should be fed 
four or five times daily. The feed- 
ing of mature fowls varies among 
poultrymen, some feeding twice 
and others three times a day. If 
one has time to look after the 
stock in detail, three feeds a day 
for fowls in limited yards will give 
“ig. 201. A feed hopper use¢at Detter results than will two. 
Of eo tate University Colleee Some use what are called “hop- 
ee erst: pers” or ‘“‘self feeders.” This 
is a box-like arrangement containing more or less feed, and 
from which the fowls can eat freely at any time. Hop- 


364 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


pers are in common use among poultry specialists, and are 
regarded with favor. Scattering grain in cut straw or floor 
litter is a good plan, for it keeps the fowls busy and en- 
sures slow eating, both of which habits are desirable. 
Some feed a mash in the middle of the day, grain being 
used morning and night. Some prefer one method and 
some another. The dry mash is a favorite in some places 
and the wet in others. 

The effect of food on the quality of the egg is very notice- 
able in some cases. Foods of strong odor, such as onions, 
impart objectionable flavor to eggs. Corn gives a rich 
| yellow yolk, while most 
other grains produce less 
color. Green food and 
clover or alfalfa hay, 
also furnish good color 
to the egg. 

Forced feeding of 
fowls may be done in 
two ways, one when the 
Fis, 202,_ Forced feeding in England. By feeder simply gigi 

birds more feed than they 
need or would eat under natural conditions; the other being 
a special artificial feeding process known as cramming, 
wherein the crop is filled with food by the use of a machine, 
and the fowl fattened as rapidly as possible. Of course 
what would be a forced feeding of one fowl might not be 
of another, because of difference in capacity. 

Referring to this subject of forced feeding, Robinson 
says:* ‘Forced feeding is almost universal among poultry- 
men. All regular, good feeding is in a sense forced feeding. 
Even under natural conditions, with opportunity to balance 


*Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 1911, page 213. 


; 4 
’ 
: ° 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 365 


their own rations, full-fed poultry develop faster and better 
| individually, but at the cost of shorter life,and reduction of 
. vitality in the offspring. The poultryman’s object is to get 
as much as possible out of the birds in the shortest possible 
time; that is, to market as soon as possible those destined 
primarily for the table, and to keep laying and breeding 
poultry only as long as they are highly productive. He 
forces by feeding, but not (intentionally) to the danger 
point, just as a careful horseman often drives his horse much 
faster and farther than the horse would go of its own accord, 

yet avoids over-driving.”’ 

The use of mineral foods by fowls is even more important 
than with farm animals. Growth in proportion, is really 
much greater with the fed fowl than the four-footed animal, 
while the production of eggs requires a considerable amount 
of mineral matter. The common supply of food does not 
always furnish enough of the mineral substances, and espe- 
cially lime, to meet the needs of the fowl. This is particu- 
larly true of the laying hen. Consequently some other 
material must be added, and green ground or broken burned 
bone, granulated dry bone, and finely broken stone are 
commonly used to serve this need. Ground or finely broken 
oyster shells have always been popular for laying hens. As 
to the exact needs of the body for mineral food, we do not 
know, but it may be assumed, as based on practice and the 
result secured with farm animals, that the mineral substances 
play a part in nutrition. Robinson, however, believes that 
in “‘good feeding of mixed rations,’ under range conditions 
young birds get all the mineral elements they require, and 
adult birds all they need, except for producing egg shells. 
He does not think grit is necessary, and since 1902 has fed 
none to poultry, except in the first feeds of young ducks and 


/ 


366 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


geese. Granulated charcoal is frequently used, being 
regarded as valuable for sour stomach and indigestion and 
as a blood purifier. 

Water for fowls should be clean and pure. Drinking 
fountains in which clean water may always be found are 
commendable. Fowls are rather frequent drinkers, and 
should always have plenty of clean water available. In 
winter, care should be 
taken to see that water 
and not ice or snow is 
supphed. A flock of fifty 
hens will use from four to 
six quarts of water a day. 

Feeding rations for 
fowls naturally vary, some 


Fig. 203. Two cheaply made drinking Persons preferring One Faq. 


fountains. These are jars filled with water ,;: 
and tured with mouths down.on pans of tlOn and Sonia 


we cata hRateth oe? Ste Univ Most of these here given 

are easily secured or may 
be readily prepared, as the foods used in the combinations — 
are grown over a wide extent of country. The rations 
given are quoted from reports, and so differ in total 
amounts and in statement of weights or parts. However, 
the common method is to mix up a quantity of feed, and 
then use as much as the flock requires. 

Rations for young chicks in brooders, used at the Maine 
axperiment station: 

Feed for first three days infertile eggs, boiled for one-half . 
hour and then ground up, shell and all, in a meat chopper, 
and mixed with six times their bulk of rolled oats. Feed with 
chick grit on the brooder floor. Feed at about 9 A. M. and 
at 4.30 p. M. for the first 21 days. 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 267 


On the third or fourth day, in addition, commence about 
daylight and at noon, and for five or six weeks feed the 
following: 


Pa teem WHEE... 11, ro o)0 fos pa ees 15 parts by weight 

PPtemeat TCA  h eek ee a 1 ea chaime Cs 

BierretsemedrCOrl.. rs. hates oe Ne aes GS AGtS 

PeeeremaC wed PEAS. 44. tes kd ee wed 2, ae OPO 
ECOL gC Sa ee peanarry se De Ae ee Bi tee 

© EES RTE TNR Os Ae a cela A ae sae Ati ae oe 

imeramareg@al ys. ke ai PSs eal we aie hose 


At about three weeks of age, substitute the following wet 
mash for the egg-and-oat mixture: 


Piers brain (clean). 8... 0. ees... 2 parts by weight 
Pines ety Oe hee eg eS, ae RG aoe 
hihddlines or red-dog flour. ............. yas aul 


MCMC cere te fo Shits fw ceag cyte Das 
eC Ge ei Ae tetany eke + PM aa es, 


Rations for chicks from birth to maturity, recommended 
by Professor F.S. Jacoby, Ohio State University. 


GRAINS MasHes (Dry) 
No. 1. From 1st day to 6th week No. 3. From 1st to 21st day 
, 2 lbs. fine cracked corn 4 lbs. rolled oats 
3 lbs. cracked wheat 3 lbs. cornmeal 
No. 2. From 6th week to maturity 2 3 lbs. wheat middlings 
2 lbs. cracked corn 6 Ibs. bran 
2 lbs. whole wheat 4 lbs. sifted meat scraps 
Green foods 1 lb. alfalfa meal 
Chopped beets ly |b. bone meal 
Cut clover or alfalfa 14 |b. fine charcoal 
Lettuce leaves No. 4. From 21st day to muturity 
Grits P 1 lb. rolled oats 
Chick grit 1 lb. corn meal 
- Chick bone 1 lb. wheat middlings 
Fine charcoal 2 Ibs. bran 


1 lb. sifted meat scraps 
16 |b. alfalfa meal 
2 oz. fine charcoal 
Feed No. 1 ration in litter of cut straw or hay, twice a 
day, at 7 A4.mM.and5p.m. Feed what the chicks will eat up 
clean in 15 minutes in the morning, and all they need at 
night. 


368 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


Feed No. 2 ration in open hoppers from the sixth week 
until the birds are brought into the laying pens in the fall. 

Feed No. 3 ration as a crumbly mash, by mixing skimmed 
milk or buttermilk, three times a day, 9 A.m., 11:30 A. M., 
and 2:30 p.M. From the first to the third day add chopped, 
infertile eggs (hard cooked) to the mash in the proportion 
of 1 part egg to 3 parts mash, also a small quantity of 
chopped onions, cabbage, or lettuce. After the third day 
the eggs may be discontinued, and the quantity of vegetables 
slightly increased. Feed in shallow trays 30 inches long, 6 


Fig. 204. Ration for mixing. Photograph from Ohio State University College 
of Agriculture. 


inches wide and 2 inches deep. A small quantity of chick grit 
and granulated bone should be fed in the mash for a few days 
until the chicks become accustomed to it, after which they 
can be fed in open hoppers. After the fourteenth day, the 
noon feeding of crumbly mash may be discontinued, and a 
tray of dry mash left before the chicks at all times. As 
the chicks become accustomed to the dry mash, the morning 
and then the afternoon feeding of crumbly mash may be 
discontinued. Feed green food once a day. 

Feed No. 4 ration dry in open hoppers until the birds are 
brought to the laying pens in the fall. 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 369 


Green food is fed in the crumbly mash twice a day during 
the first two weeks, and thereafter once a day in the litter. 

Chick grit and bone are fed sparingly in the crumbly 
mash until the chicks become used to it, after which it can be 
fed in open hoppers. 

Charcoal is fed sparingly in the mash at first, and can 
later be fed in hoppers, providing vee chicks do not over eat 
of it. 

These rations are in some detail, but they are based on 
careful, practical study and feeding and give very satis- 
factory results. Only careful feeding gives the best results 
in raising chickens. __ 

Rations for laying hens used in different sections of the 
United States, quoted from various authorities. 


(In New York State. G. Arthur Bell, in Farmers’ Bulletin 287, 
United States Department of Agriculture.) 


200 lbs. cracked corn 
360 Ibs. wheat Fed dry in the litter twice daily. 
130 lbs. oats } 


Also the following dry mash in a hopper: 


32 parts corn meal 

30 parts meat meal 

30 parts ground alfalfa 
2 parts oyster shell 
1 part grit 
1 part charcoal. 


(In Maine, Bulletin 130, Maine station, page 125.) 


Karly in the morning, for each 100 hens, four quarts of 
screened cracked corn are scattered on the litter, which is 
six or eight inches deep. This is not mixed in the litter, the 
birds doing this themselves, as they commence scratching it 
at once. At 10 A. m. they are fed in the same way two 
quarts each of wheat and oats. Along one side of the room 


370 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


is a feed trough with slatted front. In it is kept the following 
supply of dry meals thoroughly mixed together: 


200 Ibs. clean wheat bran 

100 lbs. corn meal 

100 lbs. middlings 

100 lbs. gluten meal or brewer’s grains 
100 Ibs. linseed meal 

100 lbs. beef scrap 


(In Ohio, at Ohio State University.) 


FoR GRAIN Dry MASH 
15 lbs. cracked corn 4 lbs. corn meal 
10 lbs. wheat 6 lbs. wheat middlings 
5 lbs. heavy oats 4 lbs. bran 
Green food, grits and oyster 4 lbs. meat scraps 
shells 1 lb. linseed oil meal 


1 lb. alfalfa meal 
14 lb. granulated charcoal 
Tablespoonful salt 
Feed the grain mixture morning and afternoon in a deep 
litter of straw. Feed sparingly in the morning, but give 
the hens all they will eat in the afternoon. Feed the dry 
mash in a hopper, which is open at all times. Keep grit and 
shell in open hoppers. Feed green food once a day. 


(In Minnesota, Bulletin 119, Minnesota station, page 153.) 


A mash consisting of equal parts of finely ground 
corn, oats, or shorts, mixed with about 10 per cent of cooked - 
meat, green eut bone, or beef scraps are mixed together dry. 
Then thoroughly mix with about one-third this bulk of 
steeped clover leaves or finely cut clover, which has pre- 
viously been scalded. Another mixture, to be only slightly 
moistened with water, is the following: 


2 parts bran 

1 part wheat shorts 

1 part ground corn 

1 part ground oats 

1 part beef scraps 
149 part charcoal 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 371 


(In North Carolina, Bulletin 211, North Carolina station, page 54.) 


In an experiment extending from December to May, 
different rations were fed to pens of 10 hens each. The 
largest production of eggs and the least cost occurred in pens 
14 and 15, fed the following: 


4 parts corn meal 
4 parts wheat bran 
2 parts meat meal 
2 parts bone meal 


Cotton-seed meal was used in three cases. Pens 20 and 
22, fed four parts each of corn meal, wheat bran, and cotton 
seed meal, did very unequal work, one pen laying 225 eggs 
and the other 378. 


(In Kansas, Bulletin 164, Kansas station, page 290.) 


The following laying ration has been a success in feeding 
White Leghorns and White Plymouth Rocks. Between 
February 1 and November 1, 1909, one White Plymouth 
Rock produced 201 eggs and another 196, at a cost for feed 
of 90 cents each. The Leghorns averaged 166.1 eggs for 
the same nine months, at a slightly less cost. Following are 
the rations: 


GRAIN MasH 
10 parts wheat 6 parts wheat shorts 
10 parts corn 3 parts bran 
5 parts oats 6 parts corn meal 


5 parts beef scrap 
1 part alfalfa meal 


Fattening ration for fowls. Fowls to be fattened should 
be kept in a limited enclosure and given but little exercise, 
and fed a fattening ration. Specialists place chickens in 
crates and fatten them rapidly for three or four weeks. 
Professor Jackson of the Pennsylvania station, reporting on 
fattening in Bulletin No. 107, says: ‘‘The common ration 
of corn meal is rarely as satisfactory as a combination of 
grains. An excellent mixture is equal parts of finely ground 


372 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


corn meal, buckwheat, and oats with the hulls removed. 
A ration of one to two parts corn meal, one part middlings 
and five per cent meat scrap may be used if it is not possible 
to secure the other grains. It is important, whatever grains 
are used, that they be finely ground. If this ration is mixed 
with sour milk, no animal food will be needed.” 

It will be noticed that in all the above rations, corn, 
wheat, oats, and wheat bran or middlings are the standard 
foods used. Meat meal or beef scrap, skimmed milk, and 
clover or alfalfa, are always desirable. In the far West, 
Kaffir corn or millet seed may be used to advantage. Where 
barley is commonly grown, this is to be recommended as a 
feed, and may be used in place of corn if desired. 


A REVIEW OF THE SITUATION 


1. Compare the crop and the gizzard. 

2. What kind of diet should be given a fow.? 

3. How often should poultry be fed? 

4, Explain the meaning of forced feeding, and when it is prac- 


5. Why is mineral matter fed, and under what conditions? 

6. Under what conditions should water be supplied? 

7. Give the method of feeding young chicks in brooders as used at 
the Maine station. 

8. Give two rations for laying hens used in different states, and the 
method of feeding. 

9, Name the five most common feeding stuffs used. 


SOME LITTLE EXPERIMENTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE 


10. Carefully examine the crop and digestive organs of a chicken. 
(a) When taken from a freshly-killed fowl. 
(b) Freeze a fowl solid in winter, and with a saw, cut it 
in two lengthwise and somewhat on one side, to show 
the digestive organs in place. 


11. Make up two pens of hens, equal in number. Feed one lot 


a carbonaceous food, like corn; the other a protein food, such as wheat. 


= ee = ee 


THE FEEDING OF POULTRY 373 


Give some green food, oyster shells, and grits. Keep a record of egg 
production, and after some weeks report to the school. 

12. Make up two pens of hens. Feed alike, except to give one pen 
oyster shells, and allow none to the other. Keep a record of the num- 
ber and condition of the eggs, and report. 

13. Prepare what you believe to be a good ration of home-grown 
feeds for growing chickens, and bring a sample to school for inspection 
and criticism. | ; 

14. Report on the rations fed by any two or more poultrymen in 
the community in which you live. 


eae 
— 


CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE POULTRY HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 


The need of housing or shelter for fowls varies with the 
section of the country and the local conditions under which 
they are kept. While close housing is no longer needed to 
the extent formerly thought necessary, naturally more pro- 
tection is required in the colder sections than in the warmer. 
In winter, in New England, where the ground is usually 
covered with snow, shelter is a necessity; while in Texas, 
where snow rarely falls, less protection is required. 


The forms and styles of poultry houses differ widely, and 
no one kind is regarded as the best. <A collection of photo- 
eraphs or views of one thousand houses will show a very 
interesting variety of style and construction. Years ago 
buildings were often made of brick or stone, at great expense, 
and were very warm and almost air tight in winter. In 
recent years the construction is less expensive, and fresh air 
properly supplied is an important feature. 


Several types of poultry houses, each for a special purpose, 
are more or less in use in this country. These may be placed 
in the following classes: (a) Laying pen house, (b) fattening 
house, (ce) brooder house, (d) colony house, (e) shelter coop. 
While plans and details of construction cannot be given in 
the limited space of this volume, some suggestions of interest 
and value may be given that are well worth study. 


The laying pen house is designed for the purpose of keep- 
ing fowls in confinement, in groups suitable for the best 
results. Yards or runs limit the range of the hens. These 
houses are permanent of location and as a rule are substantial 


POULTRY HOUSES 375 


of construction. Formerly they were made with tight walls, 
had glass windows, and in winter the air within was kept at 
as comfortable a temperature as possible. Sometimes these 
houses were lathed and plastered. Not much attention was 
given to ventilation. Houses of this sort are not built as 
much as formerly; and if they are, cloth screens on the 
front or south side replace most of the glass, pure air being 


Fig. 205. A continuous house for winter layers. Reproduced from ‘ Poultry 
Houses.’’ 


regarded as a necessity. In many cases, these houses have 
open front windows, except in the coldest winter weather, 
when the cloth screens are dropped. Laying pen houses are 
of different styles, a common one having a simple single 
pitch shed roof, with a height of 6 or 7 feet at the south, and 
4or 5 feet at the rear. It is best to have the house of a depth 
that will allow sunshine to reach as near to the back wall as 
possible. A depth of 14 feet and a width of 12 to 14 feet for 


376 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


each pen is a satisfactory size. One should allow 5 square 
feet for each bird in such a house. In a house of this sort 


_Fig. 206. Arrangement of interior of poultry house shown in Fig. 205. 


the floor should be made of concrete in order to make it rat 
proof and to keep it dry. This floor may be covered with cut 
straw or chaff, and be used in cold weather as a scratching 
shed. The walls ae be tight enough to prevent drafts. 
The roosts may be placed 
just above a low platform 
at the rear or on one 
side, below which are the 
nests. In front, plenty of 
window space should be 
provided, which should be 
covered with poultry wire 


Fig. 207. cheap laying oes Photo- netting, and also have 
graph by courtesy the Poultry Herald.’ - eotton eloth seneeueaan 


dropped during very cold weather. Doors of standard 
size are usually placed at one or both ends of the house, 


POULTRY HOUSES 377 


with wire doors in the partitions, to allow passage through 
the various pens. In houses containing many pens, doors 
are sometimes provided to give entrance from the pens 
into the yards. 

The fattening house is a small structure containing crates 
in which fowls are fattened, arranged along each side of a 
passage way. The house is simple of construction, and has 
superior ventilation with inferior light, as fowls are best 
fattened under conditions of subdued light. Fattening 
crates are in tiers, with feeding trays in front of each, 
which with other conditions, provide for the least amount 
of labor in caring for the 
birds. Houses of this 
kind are not common on 
American farms, but are 
used especially by men 
who make a business of 
fattening fowls for market. 

The brooder, house is 
for the purpose of shelter- 
ing young chickens under Tig. vrnph by courtesy Prot F. 5. Jacoby. 
conditions of uniform heat, — 
giving them protection under what are called “hovers,” 
comparable with the shelter under the mother’s wing. 
A brooder house may be a simple box-like affair of one 
room 6 by 8 feet in size, with the hover in the back 
and a door and window in front. The hover is round, 
about 3 feet in diameter, and resembles a pan turned 
upside down, except that its sides are made of cloth, 
which is slashed at the edges. Warm air is conducted into 
the hover, and here the young chicks gather, as under a 
mother’s wing. The small brooder house has either a kero- 
sene or gasoline lamp attachment, by which the necessary 


378 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


warm air is supplied. On large poultry farms, the brooder 
house may be of considerable size, containing a series of pens, 
in the end of each of which is a 
hover, warm air being supplied 
by a hot water heating plant 
located in one end of the build- 
ing. Brooder houses should be 
well lighted, warm and dry, and 
rat proof. 


The colony house is a small, 
single-room building containing 
roosts and nests, and located in 
pcEit 200, A portable, colony & Yare Or Held it is “sunpe 
The Cyphers Tacdluveeacnneae and cheap of construction, and 

is usually portable, so as to be 
easily moved from place to place. ‘There is no one 
style of house; and structures are made of all kinds of 
material, ranging from piano boxes, at a total cost of 3 or 4 


dollars, up to those made with care by a carpenter, costing 


Fig. 210. <A cheap, open-front colony house. Photograph by courtesy the 
Poultry Herald. 


POULTRY HOUSES — 379 
$35 or $40. A fairly good type of colony house has both a 
door and window in front, the latter being covered with wire 
screening, and with a curtain to be used for cold weather pro- 
tection. A small window in one end, for both ventilation and 
| light, and a wooden floor are also desirable features. Poul- 
3 trymen, having houses differing widely in style of construc- 
tion and lighting, seem to get equally good results from their 
fowls. ‘Two strong arguments in behalf of the colony house 


Fig. 211. <A large colony house ee Photograph by courtesy the Poultry 
Herald. 


are, a flock of about the right size may be kept in a yard of 

suitable area; also the house may be shifted from time to 
time to new and clean soil conditions, thus providing good, 
permanent sanitation. Colony houses may be hauled into 
erain fields after the harvest, where the fowls secure uncom- 
monly good forage of grain and insects. 

The shelter coop is usually built for a hen and a 
brood of chickens. It varies much in construction. Com- 
mon boxes 2 or 3 feet square, with slat or wire front; 
empty barrels, with a slat attachment at one end; and 
shelters of tent or A shape, are frequently seen. ‘These coops 


380 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


should be made so as to enable the chicks to pass freely in and 
out, to give the hens dry and comfortable shelter, and to 
protect the chicks at night from rats and other vermin. 


Fig. 212. Shelter coops. Photograph by courtesy the Poultry Herald. 


Fig. 213. An A-shaped shelter coop. Photograph by courtesy Ohio State 
University College of Agriculture. 


i 
; 
. 


POULTRY HOUSES 381 


The location and construction of the poultry house 
require careful thought, if the most satisfactory results are 
to be secured. Therefore a few suggestions, rather general 
of application, are here given. 


The site of the poultry building should be where drainage 
is good and the soil naturally dry. Further, the elevation 
should be sufficient for a good circulation of air. Under 
damp conditions throat or lung trouble is very likely to 
occur. In damp soil of a clayey or loamy nature, intestinal 


op 
Y 


7 
4 


= seeseebemcns 
a —o ae tats 
Te SEP yar ESE IE 
ae ra <a 
7 ae Seer} SOT ¢ oe, 
LE AYATR AR RRR 


ess 


SS 


é si 
% 


Bests 


OS 


re 


4» 


g 


“AS 
een 


4 


Se 


ayy. 


. 
ay 


i 


Fig. 214. A brood coop and yards. Reproduced from ‘*Poultry Houses.’’ 


and other parasites that affect poultry breed more freely 
than elsewhere. A dry location promotes clean bodies and 
feet, which mean the production of clean eggs. 


The size of the poultry house should depend upon the 
number of fowls one wishes to keep. On most farms large 
flocks do not give as satisfactory returns as small ones. With 
a flock of 50, each bird should be allowed 5 square feet of 
room. With larger flocks not quite so much space per fowl 
will be required. One can obtain satisfactory returns with 
100 fowls of the smaller breeds in a house 20 by 20 feet floor 
space. If fowls are crowded, good results in egg production 
can not be expected. 


382 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


The width of the poultry house depends upon size of the 
flock. Under most conditions, a house 14 or 16 feet wide 


gives an ample depth for each pen. One should plan to use 


standard lengths of timber, so that as little waste as possible 
will occur in sawing. 


The foundation of the poultry house should be of con- . 


crete or stone, if intended for a permanent laying house. 
This foundation should be deep enough in the ground not to 
be affected by the action of frost, and should rise 6 to 12 
inches above the surface. The thickness of wall will depend 
on local conditions, ranging from 8 to 12 inches. Portable 
colony houses may be built on 4x4 runners. Halpin and 
Ocock, of Wisconsin University, recommend the use of 
“two small trees of some durable wood which may be 
flattened off on top and tapered off at both ends so as to make 
a satisfactory runner.”’ 

The walls of the poultry houses are built of wood, brick, 
concrete, or stone. The most common method is to use 2x4 
studs nailed to 2x6 sills. On the outside of the studs is 
fastened a layer of strong tarred paper, over which matched 
siding is nailed horizontally. When well put together 
this makes a wall free from drafts and very satisfactory. If 
rough boards are used, battens or strips should be tacked over 
any cracks. It is not desirable to place siding over the studs 
on the inside, for in that case rats and mice will find a place 


for hiding. A wooden wall in winter is most satisfac- 


tory, as solid concrete or stone may be moist or frosty 
under some conditions. Concrete or brick walls that are 
partly hollow are preferable to the solid wall. 

The roof of the poultry house should be strong, simple and 
comparatively inexpensive. A straight lean-to or one-slant 


roof is most common and ean be built with least cost. Ifthe | 


— sail 


house is over 14 feet wide, the usual 2x4 rafters should be 4 


POULTRY HOUSES 383 


‘supported. A combination roof has a double pitch, having 


a short pitch in front and a long one behind. This type of 
roof is well suited to buildings wider than 14 feet, and gives 
a strong construction. A two-pitch or gable-roof house, 
usually has rafters of the same length, coming to a ridge in 
the center. This gives a high center to the pen, hence a loss 
of heat, so that in winter the house is liable to be cold. A 
ceiling is sometimes built in such a house, and attic storage 
room thus provided. What is called the monitor roof, has 


Fig. 215. A continuous poultry house with raised alley. Photograph by courtesy 
the Poultry Herald. 


what resembles a continuous cupola along its whole length, 
with adjustable windows in the south side, by which sun- 
light may reach the rear inside. A semi-monitor roof has 
one long sweep of rafter for perhaps two-thirds the width 
of the house. Below the high point of rafter a vertical wall 
is dropped sufficiently to allow a line of windows. From the 
bottom of the window sill, a shorter length of rafter gives the 
necessary front pitch to the roof. There are also houses 
with the fronts slanting to the ground, and others of wood that 


384 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


have roofs of the tent form, with no side walls in front 
or behind. A roof covering of rough boards and asphalt 
or tarred composition paper of some sort, gives good satis- 
faction. Wooden shingles in most localities are too expen- 
sive, and in the colder sections shingle roofs are too drafty 
and cold in winter. 

The floor of the poultry house should be of concrete in the 
permanent house; but in the colony house, one of matched 


WN (1 
Sail Seek ———— 


wy tans 


Fig. 216. A slant-roof colony house. Reproduced from ‘Poultry Houses.’ 


flooring is best. Every effort should be made to keep the 
floor dry, and to prevent the harboring of rats or other ver- 
min. 

Partition material in the poultry house should usually be 
of wire netting. If the house is long, a close wooden parti- 
tion at intervals is desirable, in order to strengthen the build- 
ing, and also to prevent drafts. A house having six pens 
might have one solid central partition, and the others of wire. 

The windows of the poultry house should be adjusted to 
local conditions. In the Southern states, glass should be 


POULTRY HOUSES 385 


unnecessary. In the colder North, an arrangement by which 
one sliding glass window can be arranged in connection with 
cloth-screened openings, will give the best satisfaction. The 
windows should have a covering of wire screening, with cur- 
tains that are to be used only in severe weather. Some men, 
in fact, keep permanent open fronts in their houses, never 
using glass or cloth screen, and do not consider that their 
birds suffer from cold at any time. 

Perches should be in the warmer part of the pen, free 
from drafts, and not high above the floor. The perches 
should be 12 inches apart, and not nearer the wall than 15 
inches. ‘They should be fastened together in a frame and 
hinged to the wall, being supported level with standards, or 
legs. Itis a good plan to have a board platform a few inches 
below the perch, on which the droppings may be caught. 
The perches may be raised as desired, and the droppings 
removed. Perches of 2x4 pieces, on edge, with rounded 
corners are recommended. 

The nests should be against the wall, and be 12 or 14 
inches square, according to the size of fowl. Nests are some- 
times placed below the dropping board, the hens entering 
from the back and the eggs being removed from the front 
by means of a hinged door. These nests are rather dark, 
which is an advantage, for hens under such conditions rarely 
eat their eggs. Open nests may be fastened to the side of 
the pen if desired, a common method. Trap nests are used 
in many houses today. The principle of this nest is that 
when the hen enters, she springs a trap door, and so is con- 
fined until released by the poultryman. Thus he knows 
just what hens lay each day, and makes a record of the same. 
Hens laying in trap nests usually are numbered with a 
metal leg band. 


386 BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 


A dust bath in the poultry house is most important. The 
process of dusting is the method by which the bird keeps 
herself free from lice and similar pests. Many poultrymen 
have a corner of the pen arranged so that road dust, sifted 
coal ashes, or dry sand may be put there for dusting. A 
depth of 3 or 4 inches is sufficient. 


IF YOU HAD THE “CHICKEN FEVER,’ COULD YOU 


. Describe the important features of the laying house? 
. Explain the purpose of the fattening house? 
. Describe a hover and its use? 
. Tell of the construction and value of the colony house? 
Compare a good and a bad site for poultry buildings? 
. Figure out the size of house you might need, and tell why? 
. Compare the single- and the double-pitch roof? 
. Discuss the subject of window covering? 
. Instruct in the essentials of perch construction? 
10. Tell where to place the nests and the size they should be 
made? 


SOME INTERESTING THINGS TO BRING TO SCHOOL 


11. A picture of the poultry yard at home, showing buildings. 

12. A picture of the best poultry building you know of in the 
vicinity. 

13. A drawing showing cross-section construction of some poultry 
house of which you know. 

14. A report on the roost arrangement in five different poultry 
buildings. 

15. A report on the location of a few poultry yards on different 
farms. 

16. A statement of the number of farmers in the vicinity who keep 
chickens but have no special poultry houses for them. 


S eat dAd * 454s—. AG A 


i 


APPENDIX 


TABLE A 


Dry matter and digestible nutrients in some common feeding stuffs. 
(Total pounds in 100 of feed.) 


Kind of feed. Dry matter. Protein. ppb beta’ e Fat 
MR ey ke 89.4 7.8 66.8 4.3 
Corn-and-cob dh 84.9 4.4 60.0 2.9 
1s eerie 89.6 8.8 49.2 4.3 
OMENS... oyna 88.3 29.1 23.3 14.6 
Sten feed......0..... 90.8 24.3 52.8 2.9 
meat Bran........°. 88.1 11.9 42.0 2.5 
Cotton-seed meal...... 93.0 37.6 21.4 9.6 
Linseed meal.......... 90.2 30.2 32.0 6.9 
Corn fodder, green..... 20.7 1.0 11.9 0.4 
Corn stover, field cured. 59.5 1.4 o1.2 0.7 
mere pilage............ 26.4 1.4 14.2 0.7 
Alfalfa, green......... 28.2 3.6 12.1 0.4 
femothy hay...:..... 86.8 2.8 42.4 1.3 
Red clover hay........ ia 7.1 37.8 1.8 
mata hay........... 91.9 10.5 40.5 0.9 
Cow pea hay.......... 89.5 9.2 39.3 1.3 
mereips (fat)........,. 9.9 0.9 6.4 0.1 
Mangel-wurzel ....... 9.1 1.0 5.5 0.2 
Tankage. 93.0 50.1 0.0 11.6 
Skim pul (separator) 9.4 2.9 5.3 0.3 


Note: The above table is compiled from ‘‘Feeds and Feeding,” by Professor 
W. A. Henry, 1912 edition. This volume contains analyses of all feeding stuff in 
use in an important degree on American farms. 

A TABLE OF FEEDING STANDARDS 

The following are a number of standards that have been 
arranged from Wolff’s feeding tables, and are given simply 
for the purpose of enabling the pupil to work out a few easy 
problems in feeding. Suppose you know of some one having 
a cow that is producing about 22 pounds of milk a day. If 
the owner is using feeds that are given in Table A, then 
with the aid of that table and this, you should be able to 
figure out whether or not the cow is being fed right. In 
these standards, each 1000 pounds of the animal’s weight 


388 APPENDIX 


requires daily the amount of dry matter and digestible nutri- 
ents specified. These standards are not for growing, young 
animals, but for the more mature, or those being fattened. 
Wolff, however, does give standards for the different kinds 
of young growing animals. In using this table add or deduct 
the dry matter and nutrients necessary, according to the 
weight of animal. 
TABLE B 
Total dry matter and digestible nutrients required per day per 1000 lbs. 


Digestible nutrients 


Animal and purpose ei Garboh Nee 
matter Protein pre rag Fat ratio 
Horse at medium work 24 2.0 11.0 0.6 1:6.2 
Horse at heavy work 26 2.5 13.3 0.8 1:6.0 
Cattle, partly fattened 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 1:5.4 
Cattle, nearly fattened 26 2.7 15.0 0.7 16.2 
Milch cow, (daily yield, 

11 Ibs. milk).. 25 1.6 10.0 0.3 1:6.7 
Milch cow, (daily yield, 

22 Ibs.anilk).......: 29 2.5 13.0 0.5 1:5.7 
Ewes, with lambs. .... 25 2.9 15.0 0.5 1:5.6 
Sheep, fattening, last 

part of period.. .. 28 3.5 14.5 0.6 1:4.5 
Brood sows........... 22 2.5 15.5 0.4 1:6.6 
Hogs, fattening, first 

part of period.. 36 4.5 25.0 0.7 1:5.9 
Hogs fattening in last 

part of period.. RAN 2.7 18.0 0.4 1:7.0 


INDEX 


Aberdeen Angus cattle, 55; 
characteristics of, 57; early 
breeders of, 56; importation 
into America, 56; origin, 56. 

eo study of in horses, 164, 
170. 

Age, of horses, 147; sheep, 198. 

Alfalfa, 295. 

American Saddle Horse, 28. 

American Trotter or Pacer, 30, 
226; famous records, 31; 
famous trotters and pacers, 
32; origin of the, 30. 

Angora goat, 95. 

Animal husbandry, importance 
Gti. 

Animals, care of, 313; com- 
pared with plants, 263; com- 
position of, 257; food require- 


ments of, 276, 321; market 
classes and grades, 119; 
types, 114. 


Armsby feeding standards, 279, 
286. 

Arab horse, 26. 

Ash, in plants and animals, 258, 
262; in food, 269. 

Ass, 43. 

Atavism, 227. 


Ayrshire cattle, 68; character- 
istics, 69; distribution, 70; 
origin, 68; records, 70. 


Bacon hog type, 119, 218. 

Bantam fowls, 333. 

Bakewell, Robert, 90, 232. 

Balanced ration, defined, 279; 
how to calculate, 281. 

Barley, 293, 308. 

Bates, Thomas, 48, 223, 224. 

Beef, cuts of, 174; production, 
10. 


Beef animal, condition of the, 
176; form of the, 174; qual- 
ity in the, 177. 

Beef cattle, breeds, 47; judging, 
174; score card for, 178; 
type, 117, 122. 

Belgian horse, 41. 

Bellfounder, 226. 

Bermuda grass, 291. 

Berkshire pig, characteristics, 
101; distribution, 102; origin, 
100. 

Black Faced Highland sheep, 
94. 

Booth, William, 49, 224. 

Brahma fowls, 330. 

Bran, 306. 

Branding, 254. 

sige eta young, suggestions to, 

48. 

Breeding, chapters on, 221; 
exercise of breeding stock, 
320; importance of heredity 
in, 223; judging breeding ani- 
mals, 182, 207, 217. 

Brewers’ grains, 308. 

Brome grass, 291. 

Brooder, 358. 

Brooder house, 377. 

Brown Swiss cattle, 71. 

Bull, care of, 321; dairy, form 
of the, 184. 

Byerly Turk, 27. 


Calorie, 270. 

Calorimeter, 271. 

Canada field pea, 297. 

Carbohydrates, 259, 263, 268. 

Care of farm animals, 313. 

Carriage horse, breeds, 33; 
judging, 158; score card for, 
160; type, 116. 


390 INDEX 


Carrot, 301. 

Cattle, breeds of, 46; food re- 
quired by, 279, 322; judging, 
125, 178; market classes and 
grades, 119; stomach of, 265; 
origin, 46; type, 117. 

Cereals, as forage, 292; as con- 
centrated feeds, 304. 

Channel Islands, 58, 66, 129. 

Cheshire pig, 111. 

Chester White pig, 106; char- 
acteristics, 107; origin, 106. 

Cheviot sheep, 87. 

Clover, 294. 

Clydesdale horse, 39; 
39; distribution, 40. 

Coach horse type, 116. 

Coarse feeds, 288. 

Cochin fowls, 331. 

Cocked ankle, 156. 

Colling Bros., 48, 224. 

Colony houses for poultry, 378. 

Color, in inheritance, 225. 

Comparison, judging by, 134. 

Composition of plants and ani- 
mals, 257. 

Concentrate, defined, 260. 

Concentrated feeds, 303. 

Conformation, definition of, 125. 

Coops for poultry, 379. 

Corn, 292, 304. 

Cotswold sheep, 91. 

Cottonseed-meal, 309. 

Cow pea, 297. 

Cross-bred animal, defined, 240. 

Cruickshank, Amos, 49, 224. 

Curb, 152. 


merits, 


Dairy bull, form of the, 184, 
quality in the, 184; tempera- 
ment, 185. 

Dairy cattle, breeds of, 58; 
judging, 183; points of, 187; 
score card, 186; type, 117. 

Dairy cow, form, 183; quality 

' in the, 184; size of the, 183; 
temperament, 185. 
Darley Arabian, 27. 


Delaine Merino, 77, 203; score 
card for, 205. 

Denmark, 29. 

Devon cattle, 70. 

Dexter cattle, 72. 

Digestible nutrients, amounts 
in food, 274; tables of, 287. 

Digestion, process of, 265. 

Digestive organs, capacity of, 
267. 

Distillers’ grains, 310. 

Dorset Horn sheep, 86; score 
card for, 130. 
Draft horse, breeds of, 36; 
judging of, 167; score card, 
168; type, 116. 

Dual-purpose cattle type, 117. 

Ducks, breeds of, 334. 

Duroc-Jersey pig, 104, merits of 
the, 105. 

Dutch Belted cattle, 72. 


Eclipse, 27. 

Eggs, color of, 356; effect of 
food on, 364; freshness of, 
356; grades, 357; incubation, 
300; judging, 346; parts of, 
349; preservation of, 358; 
size and weight of, 355; test- 
ing, 350. 

Ellman, John, 79. 

Environment and 
235. 

Hssex pig, 112. 

Exercise, need of for farm ani- 
mals, 320. 


Farm Animals, care of, 313; 
food required by, 321; im- 
portance of, 11; judging of, 
125, 173; market classes and 
grades, 119; types of, 114; 
uses of, 14. 

Fat, in animals, 262; in food, 
269; in plants, 260. 

Fecundity, 225. 

Feeding standards, 274; Wolff’s, 
277; Armsby’s, 279; Haeck- 
er’s, 285. 


selection, 


me 


INDEX 


Feeding tables, 287, 288. 
Feeds, coarse, 288; concen- 
trated, 303. 


Feet, care of, of farm animals, 


323; inspection of, 162. 
Food constituents, 260, 268. 
Foods, heat value of, 270; in- 
fluence of a body, 265; re- 
quired by animals, 321, 276. 
Forage, 288. 
Founder, 155. 
French Canadian cattle, 72. 
French Coach horse, 35. 


Gaits of horses, 29, 34, 146, 164. 
Galliers, Wm., 53. 

Galloway cattle, 57. 

Geese, breeds of, 337. 
Genetics, 235. 

German Coach horse, 36. 
Gluten feed, 305. 

Goats, 95. ; 

Godolphin Barb, 27. 

Grade animal, defined, 240. 
Grasses, kinds and values for 


feed, 288. 

Guernsey cattle, 66; character- 
istics, 66; distribution, 68, 
origin, 66; records, 6/7. 


Hackney horse, 33. 

Heaecker’s feeding standards, 
285. 

Hambletonian 10, 30, 226. 

Hampshire Down sheep, 85. 

Hampshire pig, 109. 


Heaves, 151. 

Heredity, defined, 221; latent 
characters, 227. 

Hereford cattle, 52; early 
breeders of, 53; importation 


into America, 53. 
Herd records, 252. 
Herod, 27. 

Hewer, John, 53. 
Hogs, (See Swine). 


391 


Holstein-Friesian cattle, 62; 
breed characteristics, 62; dis- 
tribution, 64; origin, 62; rec- 
ords, 64; types, 65. 

Hominy feed, 305. 

Horses, age of, 147; breeds of, 
28; development of breeds, 
26; domestication of, 25; 
food required by, 278, 321; 
judging, 125, 158; origin of, 

23; points of, 1388; types of, 
116; unsoundnesses, 151. 


Incubation, 349. 

Indian corn, 292, 304. 

Inheritance, forms of, 224 (See 
Heredity). 

Irish Grazier pig, 102. 


Jacoba, Irene, 61. 

Jersey cattle, 58; 
acteristics, 60; distribution, 
59; origin, 58; records, 60. 

Judge, description of a good, 
P23: 

Judging, reasons and methods, 
125; horses, 158; cattle, 173; 


breed char- 


poultry, 340; sheep, 196; 
eges, 345; swine, 209; pedi 
gree, 245. 


Kentucky blue grass, 289. 
Kerry cattle, 72. 


Langshan fowls, 331. 

Large Yorkshire pig, 108. 

Leghorn fowls, 331. 

Legumes, 294. 

Leicester sheep, 90. 

Lincoln sheep, 98. 

Linseed oil meal, 309. 

Live stock, importance of, 11; 
market classes and grades 
119; principal markets, 122; 
shelter for, 316; stalls for 
319. 


392 


Maintenance ration, 277. 

Maltese goat, 96. 

Mangel, 300. 

Manures, 19. 

Market grades, 
eggs, 357. 

Marking of animals, 253. 

Matchem, 27. 

Meat meal, 311. 

Merino sheep, 75, 235. 

Merino type, 118, 123, 208. 

‘Messenger, 30. 

Middlings, 307. 

Milk, 311. 

Milk production, in inheritance, 
225. 

Milk veins, 194. 

Milch goats, 96. 

Millet, 291. 

Minorca fowls, 332. 

Mohair, 95. 

Mule, 44. 

Mule Foot hog, 226. 

Mutation, 227. 


cattle, 119; 


Natural selection, 230. 
Navicular disease, 156. 
Nutritive ratio, 272. 


Oats, 293, 307. 

O. I. C. pig, 106. 

Oil meal, 309. 

“Old Grannie,” 56. 
Orchard grass, 290. 
Orpington fowls, 330. 
Oxford Down sheep, 83. 


Palatability, 271. 


Pedigrees, ancestry in, 243; 
chapter on, 240; bracket 
form of, 241; line of female 


descent pedigree, 242; merit 
value of, 244; score card for, 
245; selection of, 238. 

Pig (See Swine). 

Plants, composition of, 258; 
compare with animals, 263. 

Plymouth Rock fowls, 328. 


INDEX 


Poland-China pig, 102. 

Pony, wild, 25; Shetland, 43; 
type, 117. 

Poultry, dust bath for, 
eggs and incubation, 3852; 
feeding, 360; houses and 
equipment, 374; judging, 
340; organs of digestion of, 
360; types and breeds, 325. 

Prepotency, 222. 

Price, John, 53. 


386; 


Protein, animal, 262; 
268; in plants, 259. 


in food, 


Quarter-crack, 155. 


Rambouillet sheep, 78, 203. 

Rape, 299. 

Ratio, nutritive, 272. 

Rations, balanced, 279;  cal- 
culating, 281; maintenance, 
277; poultry, 366. 

Red clover, 294. 

Red Polled cattle, 70. 

Red top, 290. 

Registration of animals, 253. 

Rhode Island Red fowls, 329. 

Ringbone, 154. 

Roaring, 151. ; 

Romney Marsh sheep, 94. 

Root crops, 300. 

Rothamsted Experiment Sta- 
tion, 20. 

Roughage, 260, 288. 

Rye, 2938, 309. 


Saanan goat, 97. 

Salvator, 28. 

Sanitation of stables, 315. 

Score card, for beef cattle, 178; 
carriage horse, 160; dairy 
cows, 186; draft horse, 168; 
eggs, 346; origin of, 129; 
pedigree, 245; poultry, 344; 
sheep, 201, 205; swine, 212; 
use of, 129. 


INDEX 


Selection, 230; artificial, 231; 
environment and, 235; meth- 
odical, 231; natural, 230; pol- 
icy in, 230; to secure desir- 
able characters by, 233; ra- 
tional selection, 237. 

Self-feeders, poultry, 363. 

Shetland pony, 43. 

Shorthorn cattle, 47; char- 
acteristics of, 51; distribu- 
tion, 50; improvement of, 48. 

Sheep, age, 198; breeds of, 74; 
classes of, 74;-. food require- 
ments, 322; handling, 196; 
judging, 196; origin of, 74; 
pens for, 320; score card, 201, 
205; types of, 118, 203. 

Shire horse, 40. 

Short leet, 135. 

Shorts, 307. 

Shropshire sheep, 82. 

Side bone, 158. 

Silage, 298. 

Small Yorkshire pig, 112. 

Soil fertility, relation of farm 
animals to, 18. 

Southdown sheep, 79. 

Soy bean, 297. 

Spavin, 152, 153. 

Speed, inheritance of, 226. 

Splint, 155. 

Stables, 315. 

Standard Bred trotters, 30. 

Standard of Perfection, 340. 

Steers, open shed feeding, 318. 

Stock farming, 21. 

Suffolk sheep, 89. 


393 


Swine, bacon, 218; breeds of, 
99; food requirements, 322; 
judging, 210; origin of, 99; 
pens for, 320; score card: 
fat hog, 212; types, 119, 123, 
209, 218. 


Tamworth pig, 110. 


Tankage, 311. 


Temperament in animals, 225. 

Therm, 270. 

Thoroughbred horse, 27. 

Thoroughpin, 153. 

Timothy, 289. 

Toe-crack, 155. 

Toggenburg goat, 96. 

Tomkins family, 53. 

Tunis sheep, 89. 

Turkeys, breeds of, 333. 

Turnip, 301. 

Type, animal, and its import- 
ance, 114, 122; uniformity in, 
236. 


Union Stock Yards, 13. 


Variation in animals, 228. 
Ventilation of stables, 319. 
Victoria pig, 111. 


Water, in animal body, 261; in 
plants, 258; use of by ani- 
mals, 271. 

Watson, Hugh, 56. 

Webb, Jonas, 80. 

Wheat, 293, 306. 

Wheat bran, 306. 

Wild boar, 99. 

Wild White cattle, 46. 

Wolff, 276; feeding standards, 
276, 285. 

Wool, 201. 

Wyandotte fowls, 329. 


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