s eI'^ state JOCUMINIS THE MONTANA STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY n FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT 1913-1914 HELENA, MONTANA DECEMBER. 1914 Montana State Librarv lilllliliilii 3 0864 1005 9495 4 THE MONTANA STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT 1913-1914 MONTANA STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY. W. F. COGSWELL, W. D.. Secretary State Board oi Health. Chairman ---------- Helena. Montana W. J. BLH^LER, D. V. S., State Veterinary Surgeon, Member ----- ----- Helena, Montana R. A. COOLEY. B. Sc. State Entomologist, Secretary ------- - - - Bozeman. AJontana LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. BozemaPx, Alontana, Dec. 15, 1914. To His Excellemcy. Governor Samuel V. Stewart, Helena, Montana. ]\Iy dear Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you the First Biennial Report of the Montana State Board of Entomology. Tliis Board is charged with the control of insec/ts which are carriers of disease of man and domestic animals. Two lines of work have been undertaken up to t'he present time, namely, the control of the Rocky Mountain Spotted fever tick and a preliminary study of the house fly and of other flies of similar habits. Tt is belie^'ed tliat this Board has a very important place to fill in the State's service and its labors have been well begun. Very respectfully, R. A. COO LEY, Secretary. Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from IVIontana State Library http://www.archive.org/details/biennialre19131914mont First Biennial Report of the Montana State Board of Entomology. By R. A. Cooley. The Montana State Board of Entomology was created by the passage of the act which follows : Chapter 120, "An Act to Create tlie State Board of Entomology. To Define its Powers and Duties and Appropriate Money Therefor." Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the State of Mon- tana : Section i. There is hereby created the Montana State Board of Entomology, which shall be composed of the State Entomologist, the Secretary of the State Board of Health and the State Veterinarian. Sec. 2. The Secretary of the State Board of Health shall be Chairman of said Board and the State Entomologist shall be Secretary. Sec. 3. None of the members of said board shall receive any co^mpensation other than that already allowed by law. ex- cept that the actual- expenses of members v/hile engaged in the duties incident to the Avork of said board shall be paid out of the appropriation made to carr)^ on the Avork of said board. Sec. 4. It sliall be the duty of said board to investig»ate and study the dissemination by insects of diseases among per- sons and animals, said invest ig'atibn haiving for its purpose the eradication and prevention of such diseases. Sec. 5. Said Board shall take steps to eradicate and prevent the spread of Rocky Mountain tick fever, Infantile Par- alysis and all other infections of communicable diseases that may be transmitted or carried by insects. Sec. 6. .Said Board shall have authority to make and prescribe rules and regulations, including the right of quar- antine O'A^er persons and animals in any district of infection, and shall haA^e the right to designate and prescribe the treat- ment for domestic animals to prevent the spread of such dis- eases; but said board shall not have the right to- prescribe or regulate the treatment giA^en to any person suffering from any infections or comnmnicnble disease. 6 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY. Sec. 7. All rules and reg'nlations of the State Beard of Entomology shall be subject to approval by the State Board of Health. Sec. 8. The B'oard shall publish in printed form all rules and reg'ulations which shall be adopted by said Board for the eradication and control of diseases O'f any kind and such rules and regulations shall be circulated among the residents of every district affected thereby. Seic 9. Any person who shall violate any of the rules or regulati'O'iis of the .State Board of Entomology shall be deemed g'uilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be fined in any sum not in excess of one hundred ($100.00) dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail for any period not exceeding thirty (30) days or by both such fine and imprisonment. Sec. 10. There is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in the State Treasury not otherwise appropriated the sum of five thousand (v$5,ooo.oo) dollars, or so much tihereof as may be necessary to carry on the work of the State Board of En- tomology for the year 1913, and the sum of five thousand ($5,000.00) dollars or so much thereof as may be necessary to carry on the work of said board for the year 1914. Said money to be expended under the direction and approval of the State Board of Examiners. Sec. II. All Acts and parts of Acts in conflict with this Act are hereby repealed. Sec. 12. This Act shall take effect from and after its pas- sage and approval. Approved March 18, 1913. FIELD OF USEFULNESS OF THIS BOARD. The existeuice of the spotted fever tick and the disease "Which it carries in certain parts of Montana, was undoubtedly the immediate occasion for the passage of this law^. There ex- isted no service or Board in the State which was clothed with all the legal authority needed to prescribe and enforce the necessary rules and regulations for the eradication of this tick. The progress made in recent years in the medical, veter- inary and entomological sciences has emphasized the impor- tance of insects in the transnnssion of iTuman and animal dis- REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 7 eases and it was only natural and wise that Montana should provide for the investigation of disease-bearing insects within her boundaries and for the eradication or control of any which threaten the health of the people or menace the interests of the stock growers. In view of the remiarkable progress in our knowledge of such matters in recent years and the various sur- prises thait we have had, we may reasonably expect new and unforseen demands for the services of this Board. In fact there are already a number of new problems which call for attention. SOME INSECT BORNE DISEASES. A brief review of some of the facts concerning the part played by insects in the transmission of a few of the best known diseases will s'ill further indicate the field of service to the State which this Board occupies. Texas Cattle Fever and Ticks. Among animal diseases may be mentioned Texas cattle fever which in 1893 Smith and Kilborne demonstrated to be transmitted by the cattle tick. The same investigators showed that this disease is conveyed only by this tick, there being no other means of infection of cattle. This disease is of great imiportance to the cattle growers of the south. It has resulted in enormous losses and large sums of m.oney have been ex- pended from the federal and various state treasuries m fighting it. Smith and Kilborne's work pointed out the practical method of control or eradication and excellent progress has been made during recent years by desitroying the ticks. Malaria and Mosquitoes. In 1895 Rc^ss watched the development of the Malarial par- asite in mosquitoes that had been allowed tO' bite malarial patients. He also determined that this parasite can develop only in individuals of one genus of mosquitoes (Anopheles). Three years later he transmitted bird malaria from one bird to another by means of mosquitoes. Other important experiments were performed on men and it was shown that this disease is transmitted by mosquitoes and, based on good evidence, it is known that mosquitoes are the only source of infection. It is not clear that we have had any malaria in Montana, ex- cepting now and then a case brought in from outside, but dur- 8 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY ing recent years the State Entomolog'ist has found malarial mO'squitoes in several widely separated parts of the state which indicates the possibility of malaria being transmitted within the State. Typhoid Fever and Flies. It is well known that house flies, and other species of similar habits, not only breed in filth, but visit privy vaults where infected fecal matter occurs and also commonly visit public and private kitchens and eating places, thereby fur- nishing every opportunit}' for depiositing germs of this dis- ease on foods and in other situations where the germ of typhoid mav find their way to the human mouth. R is not believed tliat flies aire the only or even the prinicipal source of infection with typhoid fever, but it is plainly indicated that under cer- tain classes of circumstances, these insects may be of very great importance. Tn a State like Montana where are found manv small towns which have no sewers and where open privy vaults are commonly used, the opportunities for infection by flies are greater than in older settled regions. Tick Paralysis and the Tick. Quite recently a new disease has become known in the Northwest, for whicli the spotted fever tick is also respon- sible. This disease is known as tick paralysis and both man and certain domestic animals are affected. The disease has at- tracted some attention in British Columbia and in Oreg'on Where a iconsiderable number of cases in man have occurred. In British Columbia sheep have also been affected. In this disease the presence of the tick attached to the body usually on the base of the head or along the spine, results in a paralysis which progresses upward, and, if the tick is not found and removed, the ending is fatal. Other animals are sometimes affected. While no cases of tick paralysis have been officially report- ed, there is some evi'dence indicative that this disease occurs in Montana. Some indefiniteness has surrounded this disease. The earlier reports were rather vague, but the records published by Dr. I. U. Temple, of Pendleton. Oregon, and by Dr. J- L- Todd, of McGill University, IMontreal, and especially by the experi- REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 9 mental work of Dr. Seymour Hadwin, Medical Research Labor- atory, Agassiz, Canada, in which he has been able to repro- duce the disease throu^gh the ag-ency of ticks, have put this new disease on a more definite basis and Dr. G. H. F. Nuttall, of England, one of the world's foremost authorities, has recently declared, '"'Since we have been able to reproduce tick paralysis experimentally there can be no longer any doubt as to the ex- istence of this disease." (Parasitology, Vol. VII. No. i, 1914, p. 102.) Many other diseases might be m.entioned in which insects play a more or less prominent part as infective agenicies and ■this subject is looked upon as being of great importance in the prevention of disease. SPOTTED FEVER AND THE TICK. An abundance of evidence has shown that the common tick, called the wood-tick, is the means by which man contracts this disease. So convincing is the evidence that has been pro- duced that it now passes as an established fact among scien- tists that this tick is the agency and the only one by which man becomes infected. The water transmission theory and the other theories which have had some currency are not sup- ported by the results of investigations by scientists. Importance of the Tick Problem in Montana. Spotted fever is a disease of human beings and a high per- centage of cases in Montana prove fatal. In laboratory experi- ment ground squirrels and some other rodents have been found to be susceptible to spotted fever and there are other indications that the ground sc[uirrel at least may have the disease in nature. There can be little doubt that spotted fever germs are transmitted back and forth between ticks and some wild animals, perhaps more than one, in nature. Man contracts the disease by being bitten by one of the ticks. Until the source of infection in the tick became definitely known the disease was surrounded with an air of mystery which still couitinues to some extent, and which, together with the fact that the fever is so highly fatal, has lead to a somewhat general feeling of alarm. There can be no doubt that the pres- ence of spotted fever has worked a hardship on the residents of the Bitter Root region, affecting not only the owners of property in the immediate districts, but the townspeople as well. 10 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY It is general]}^ known throughou't the United States that this disease is found in parts of IMontana, but it's nature and cause are not well understood and in many instances exag'geraited ideas of its prevalence and seriousness are held. It will be greatly to Montana's advantage if the actual facts may be generallv made known, so that the misapprehensions may be cleared up. In recent 3^ears the number of deaths from this disease has been around eight to twelve per year. ERADICATION BEGUN. In the spring of 1913. the Board of Entomology proceeded to take up the work of eradicating tihe spotted fever tick in the Bitter Root Valley. It was learned that both the United States Public Health Service and the Bureau of Entomology were willing to devote funds to this work and to send experts to prosecute it. In view of the magnitude of the undertaking and the limitation of the State funds at our command, it wa;^ considered wise to accept the federal aid and thus the more rapidly do away with the tick and the sooner relieve the .State of this menace which costs some lives every year and injuriously affects property values in some localities. The Bitter Root Valley, where the tick problem in Alon- tana centers, was divided into two districts and the Public Ke'alth Service was invited to operate in the southern portion and the Bureau of Entomology in the northern portion. These two federal services went into the field at once and have both pushed the work vigorously for the past two sea- sons. The State Entomologist, who serves as a member and secre- tary of the State Board of Entomology, was asked by the Federal Bureau of Entomology, to take local charge of the work for them in Montana. The laws of Montana direct that the Ento- mologisit of the Experiment Station at Bozemen shall be the State Entomologist. Accordingly permission to take charge of this tick work w^as secured from the Director of the Experi- ment Station and the new duty was undertaken. This organi- zation, however, did not relieve the Entomologist from his duties at the Experim.ent Station. Dir. L. D. Fricks was detailed from the United States Public HealtJi Service to take charge for them and he estab- lished headquarters at Victor in the southern district. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 11 The work was carried forward under this org-anization dur- ing- the season of 1913. It was necessary for the State Ento- molog"ist to spend a pan of each week in Bozeman and a part in the northern tick district two hundred and thirty miles awa}', and after one year of service in this double capacity, it was decided that it was not practicable to longer perform both services. According^ly on the opening of the season of 1914, the Kureau of Entomology placed a man in the field to devote his entire time to the work. 'Sir. \\ . V. King, a graduate in Entomology from the Montana Agricultural Colleg'^. and now in the employ of the Federal Bureau of Entomology, was placed in charge. Dbctor Pricks returned to take charge for the Pub- lic Health Service for the second season. It is believed that both of these federal services will con- tinue in this work in the future and 'that the State will coTt- tmue to hRVQ the benefit of their assistance. The Board of Entomology' is working in co-operation with these Federal departments. The law passed b}^ the last legislature gave authority to prescribe and enforce such rules and regulations as are neces- sary in tlie prosecution of the work of eradication. The dip- ping of livestock is included in the control program and it was found necessary to place certain restrictions on the move- ment of anim.als. and the Board made and j^ublished regulations as follows : 12 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY REGULATIONS OF THE MONTANA STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY. WHEREAS, It has been demonstrated that the common so-called wood ti'ok of the Northwestern states, scientifically known as Dermacentor venustus, is the means of man's infec- tion with the disease known as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, and, WHEREAS. It is commonly known that both this tick and this disease occur on the west side of the Bitter Root Val- ley in the counties of Ravalli and Missoula, State of Montana, and, W^hereas, It has been shown that of the four stages in the development of this tick, the last, Oir adult stage, commonly occurs, and is fed on horses, mules, asses, cows and dogs. THEREFO'RE, Be it resolved that the following brders and regulations he spread upon the minutes of the Montana State Board of Entomology, and communicated to the public. Section i. The following tick-control districts are described and declared : (i) The Florence Diistrict. Bounded on the east by the main channel of the Bitter Root river; on the north by the boundary between the 2nd and 3rd tiers of sections northward from the dividing line of Missoula and Ravalli counties, and extending from the river westward to and into the mountains as far as human habitations do or may go, or as far as domes- tic animals may w^ander; on the west by an imaginary line run- ning north and south along the mountains as far back from the valley as himian habitations do or may occur, or as far as do- mestic animals do or may Avander; and on the south by the boundary line between townships nine and ten north, known as the O'Hare lane, and extending from above described imagin- ary line on the west, eastward to t1ie main channel of the Bitter Root river. (2) . The Stcvensville District. Bounded on the east by the main channel of the Bitter Root river; on the norTch by the boundary line between townships nine and ten north, extending from the main channel of the Bitter Root river to and into the mountains as far as human habitations do or may go. or do- REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 13 mestic animals do or may wander; on the west by an imagin- ary line running north and south along the mountains as far back from the valley as human habitations dO' or may oiccur, and as far as domestic animals do or may wander; on tdie south by a certain stream of water commonly known as Big Creek, extending from the mountains to the Bitter Root river. (3) The Victor District. Bounded on the east by the ntain channel of the Bitter Root river, on the north by a certain stream of water known as Big Creek, extending from the Bit- ter Root river to and intO' the mountains; on the west by an imaginary line runnmg north and south along the mountains, as far back from the valley as human habitations do or may go, or domestic animals do or may wander; on the south by the high- way locally known as the Bourne lane and on the east and west extension of the same, extending from the main channel of the Bitter Root river to and into the mountains. Section II. At a convenient point in each tick-control district shall be ooinstructed a dipping vat and yards, for use in dipping domes- tic animals, and all cows, horses, mules, asses and dogs shall be periodically dipped or otherwise freed and kept free of ticks, by spraying, carding or hand-picking, at such times and in such manner as the officers in charge of the work may prescribe. AMENDMENT TO SECTION II. The rules and regu- lations of the Montana State Board of Entomology, respecting the dipping of domestic animals for the destruction of the Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever tick are hereby amended; and on and after May 20th, 1913. or until otherwise notified, dairy cows which are giving milk are exempt from dipping, pro- vided the owners keep them free of ticks by hand-picking or spraying with an arsenic-pine-tar soluvJon, containing .22 per cent of arsenic trioxide. Section III. O'wners of domestic animal? in tick-control districts shall be allowed to dip their animals in the State dipping vats with- out charge, but the responsibility of delivering the animals for dipping' and of passing them through the vats, or otherwise freeing them of ticks, as prescribed by the men in charge of the vats, is placed upon the owners. 14 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY Section IV. A close quarantine of all domestic animals, including driv- ing horses, mules and oxen, shall be placed upon animals and premises of all ]:iersons who refuse or fail to bring their ani- mals to 'the vats for dipping. ^Montana State Board of Entomology, R. A. COOLEY, Secretary. April 5, Y0I4- The rules and regulations of the ^Montana State Board of EntonTology with respect to the eradication of the Rocky Alountain Spotted Fever tick are hereby extended and amend- ed by the addition of the following section: Section V. On and after April i, IQ14. domestic animals, including cows, horses, asses, mules, sheep, goats and hogs, may be re- moved from the tick control districts between March first and July fifteen of each year on.h' on written ])ermits of the Secre- tary of the Board of Entomology or duly authorized represen- tatives of the IJni'ed States Bureau of Entomology or the United States Public Health Service. Montana State Board of Entomology, R. A. COOLEY. Secretary. April 5, 1914. Section j of the rules ^n.d regulations of the ^Montana State Board of Entomology with respect to the eradication of the Rocky ATountain Spotted Fever tick are hereby extended and amended hv the addition of the following tick control districts : (4") The Hamilton District. Bounded on the east by the main channel of the Bitter Root river; on the north b^' B>ourne lane and on the east and west extensio^n of the same ; on the west by an imaginary line running nortli and south along the mountains, as far from the valley as human habitations do or may go and domestic animals do or may wander; on the south by a certain stream of water commonly known as Canvon creek, extending from the mountains to the Bitter Root river. (5) The Gold Creek District. Bounded on the east by the main channel of the Bitter Root river; on the north bv a cer- tain stream of water commonly known as Canytin creek, extend- ing from the mountains to tb.e Bitter Root river; on the west REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 15 by an imaginary line running north and south along- the moun- tains, as far from the valley as human habitations do or may go and domestic animals do or may wander; and on the south by Lost Horse Canyon and creek and east and wesrc extensions of the same. ?\lontana State Board of Entoiiiology, R. A. COOLEY, Secretary. Helena, Montana, April 5, 1914. TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN: Notice is hereby given that Doctor L. D. Fricks, Victor, of the U. S. Public Health Service and Mr. W. V. King, Florence, of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, are authorized to issue per- mits for the removal of domestic animals from tick control districts. By authoritv of the ]Montana vState Board of Entomology. R. A. COOLEY, Secretary. The Bureau of Entomology and the Public Health Serv- ice have sul)mittcd reports as follows : 16 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY WORK OF BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AGAINST SPOTTED FEVER TICK IN CO-OPERATION WITH BOARD. By W. V. King. Organization of Work. The spotted fever area in the Bitter Root Valley, con- sisting in general of the territory on the west side of the Bitter Root river and extending from south of D'arby to O'Brien creek a little southwest of Missoula, a distance of some 60 or 70 miles and includi'ngi Lo Lo Canyon, was, by agreement in 1913 bdtween the State Board of Entomology, the State Board of Health, the U. S. Public Health Service and the Bureau of Entomology, divided into two control districts with Big Creek, southwest of Stevensville, the dividing line. The control work in the south end of the valley was to be under the direction of the Public Health Service and that In the north end. in- cluding Lo Lo Canyon, under the Bureau of Entomology. In the Bureau's territory three control districts were estab- lished, for the season of 1914, the Stevensville, Elorence and AVoodman districts. In the Stevensville district a vat had already been constructed an'd in the other two, vats were erect- ed this season. In each district a man was placed in charge of the vat, H. G. Cow^an in Stevensville; G. W. Shaffer in Flor- ence ; and M. ]. Stanley in Woodman ; the first t\vo of which were local men. An additional inspector was employed in the Stevensville district for part of the season. Mr. H. P. Wood conducted the more technical part of the work, preparation of dips, and determination of effect of the solutions on animals and ticks. In addition he carried on some tick biology studies and an experiment with sheep. Co-operation with Forest Service. In the spring of 1914, Mr. W. W. White of the Forest Service, assigned several assistants to the task of making a type map of the west side of the valley, the determination of the proportion of the different types of land and an estimation of ithe cost of clearing the brush and pine lands. Maps show- ing in color eleven classified types of land and coming undcf the heads of "cultivated," "cultivable" and "non-cultivable." REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 17 were prepared and I have been supplied with copies covering the west side fro-m Hamilton to the Missoula-Ravalli County line. These have proven especially useful. In this report he shows that in the area between the Bitter Root river and 'the forest boundary and between the forks of the Bitter Root above Darby and Lo Lo, totaling' 134.077 aicres, 43.6 per cent is under cultivation, an additional 31.2 per cent is cultivable and 25.2 per cent is non-cultivable. Season's Work. Three general classes of work were followed during the season: :(i) Educational, (2) Actual control, and (3) Biologi- cal and experimental studies. One of the most important phases of a successful control program was, early in the work, decided to be the instruction of the ranchers and residents in the life history and nature of -the tick, the proof that the tick is the conveyor of the dis- ease, the reasons for tick destruction, the logical and scientific method of eradicating the ticks and the arguments ag'ainst other methods. It was thought that the holding of public meet- ings in the school houses and other central points in the va- rious districts would be the best means of disseminating this information, but upon studying various local circumstances such meetings did not seem to me to be indicated and it was hoped to accomplish the same results with the distribution of circulars, personal interviews, demonstrations at the dipping plants, etc. In the entire area there are not so many people, but that all could be seen and talked to in person by some one of ^he men engaged on the work and a stronger individual appeal could be made in this way than in a mass meeting. There are in each locality a few leaders who influence the attitude and sentiment of the others and the first work was to determine who these were and to make special efforts to arouse their in- terest and gain their co-operation. The main points seemed to be to gain the friendship and confidence of the residents, to avoid inju'"y t(j stock and other occurrences which would stir up mtagonism, and lo con- stantly emphasize the first importance of the destruction of adult ticks. In the Stevensville and Florence districts the public alti- tude has been so changed that it is now seldom necessarv to 18 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY arj^ne the question as to whether ticks are or are not the trans- mit-. inc;« agent and less frequently still to urge the desirability of tick extermination. TJie practicalnlity of accomplishing such an end and the means of doin^g so are now the del)ata])le points and ])resent the real difficulties in the educational side of the work. In Lo Lo canyon the atti'.ude is different and here the task arises of persuading the settlers that tick destruction is desir- able and that the results would repay the effort. Ir is hard to realize that it is necessary to argue such questions with the people most interested while every one in nearby Ir)calities considers them self-e^■^dent, and eiven harder to realize that persons unfamiliar except in t'he most superficial way with tlie habits of the tick will originate or accept ideas which liave no support in theory or fact. Control Work. The "control program" may be outlined as follows: 1. Destruction of adult ticks on domestic animals. Based upon our findings in 1910 and 191 1 the fever tick can l)e eradi- cated from the valley by pre^•enting the eng'orgement of the female on domestic animals and this or.e metli(t-'l was origin- ally recommended. Should the practical difficulties of such a pro'g'ram be overcome, it is -^till thought that it would effect 'Control ; that is, reduce the number of ticks to such an extent that it would no longer be dangerous to live and work in the valley after which the cultivable land could be developed and would produce such conditions that reinfestation would not occur. It is reasonable also 10 suppose that even if complete eradication were not brought about that the infection itself could not be maintain.ed. a circumstance analagous to what occurs in yellow fever when the dens'ity of mosquitoes falls below a certain limit. 2. Destruction of native rodents. 1 consider tliis an im- portant secon(lar\- means of combating the tick. 3. Burning, Clearing and Development of Land. Un- doubtedly the culti\-ation of land is of tlic greatest im])ortance in bringing about a ]iermanent tick-free area. Ihit unfm'tunate- ly the burning over of uncleared land as a means of destroying ticks is practised with more enthusiasm by many of t'he resi- dents than any otlier meth'u!. At tlie reriuest of the Forest REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 19 Service and because residents are apt to neglect otlier precau- tions in favor of this we have combated the idea of burning- by attempting to show the impractkability and futility of it. unless it is employed preparatory to development. Construction of Vats. In the S'tevensville district a con- crete vat v/hich was constructed in 1913 was ready for opera- tion. Three galvanized iron vats were built this spring by E. L. Metcalf in Missoula at a cost of $720.00 and were ready for delivery on April 13. One was installed on the Townsend ranch a mile south of Florence and onc-fourtJh mile east of the main road, and holding and drippingi pens for the stock were con- structed at a cost of $392.36. It was ready for use by April 25. A second one was installed on the Lachman property, a short distance west of Woodman postoffrce on the county road. The pens, etc., \vere completed by ]\Iay 19 and total cost of in- stallation was ^$32I.09. Methods and Records. In March a complete census of all domestic stock in the Stevensville, Florence and Carlton dis- tricts was taken and information recorded as to the conditions under which the animals were to be kept during the tick season, whether in stable or pasture, whether in unfenced or fenced pas- tures, and whether cleared or uncleared, low or hiigh land. Although tick activity began the first week in March, the stock was not generally turned on to the pastures until the last of April, being kept on the meadows and hay fields which are as a rule not infested. During April a man was employed to keep a watch on the stock and to determine wiben they were turned out and v.'hen they began picking up ticks and only a few herds were found which needed treatment before the first of Alay. About this time the turning out became general and soon afterward a circular notice was sent out to the stoick own- ers setting a date for the dipping of their stock. In the major- ity of cases the owners, in the Stevensville district, either broiigiht their stock or sent notice tihat they were pdcking ticks by hand. If the stock was not brought to the vat the inspector visited the ranch, examined the animals and if ticks were found another dipping date w^as set and the owner urg^ed to comply. A second card form for reporting to me the animals dipped and a third form for reporting on inspected animals were sup- plled to the vat tenders and inspectors. During the season 20 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY an examination of part of all of the stock on nearly every place was made and a record kept of the ticks fovmd. Those animals which Avere not dipped and which were in tick country were frequently inspected. In addition, the presence of ticks on pasture lands was determined by dragg-ing- cloth flags around and stock on such lands were considered infested. ]\Iilk cows and work horses were exempted from dipping as long as no ticks were found developing o^n them and for the most part this class of animals caused little trouble. Our system of exenipting work horses and milk cows and other animals which the ovv^ner preferred to pick by hand or which he thought bore no ticks increased the expense of the operation, still I believe it a necessary provision and resulted beneficially in the work. A measure requiring that all animals be presented at the vat for dipping or inspection seems unwar- ranted toi those who have few stock or few ticks and the diffi- culties which Avould prevent the absolute enforcement of such a measure would result in less effectiveness than does the pres- ent method whereby we can determine the relative importance of different groups of animals and concentrate our efforts ac- cordingly. The dip decided upon for use this season is an arsenic solution, knov/n as the "Laboratory Dip," the mixture and strength of which had been worked out by Lieut. -Colonel Wat- kins-Pitchford in the Union of South Africa. The formula for this consists of: 8 or 8Vo poiunds of arsenite of soda (80% arsenious aciid) ; 5I/. pounds soft soap; 2 gallons parrafin (kero- sene) ; 400 (Imp.) gallons of water (480 U. S. gal.). Stevensville District. This district consists of the area between Big Creek on the south and the O'Hare lane on the north, approximately 15,000 acres of w!hi/ch about one-half is uimcleared land. The domiestic animals in this district consist of 295 horses and 1,038 cattle classified as: Work horses, 188; young and range horses, 107 ; milk cows, 302 ; young and range cattle. 735. There are 56 stock owners. This gives an average of 23.8 total stock and 3.3 work horses, 1.7 others, 5.4 milk cows and 13. i range caitle per ranch. But three men own 412 range cattle or over half of the total and excepting them leaves an average of only 6 range cattle with an average of 17.3 horses and cattle per owner. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 21 The first dipping of the stock occurred April 5. when 9 head of range cattle were dipped, but general dipping did not commence until after the first of ^Tay. During the season 56 horses and 1,282 cattle v/ere dipped. The usual number of dip- pings was three times and while tlie dippingi interval was set for 10 days it actually ranged from 11 to 19 or 20 days. When the interval exceeded 15 days, the owner usually examined his animals between dippings. Florence District. This district consists of the territory between the O'Hare lane on the south to the Missoula-Ravalli county line on the north or all of township 10. The inhabitable area is approxi- mately 13.000 acres and not over half of this is under culti- vation. The census in March showed 274 horses and 746 cattle owned by 63 farmers and classified as : Work horses, 206 ; other horses, 68; milk cows. 342; and range cattle, 404. Several small stock owners were missed in taking the census and t^Vo refused to give the number of stock. One of these was later obtained and the number owned by the other was estimated. From these numbers it is seen that the total number of stock in the district is 1,040, giving an a\^erage for each ranch of 16.1. The other averages are: Work borses, 3.2; other horses, i.; milk cows, 5.4; and range cattle, 6.4. Two hundred thirty, or over half of the range cattle are owned by 7 ranchers in herds over a dozen. The rest of the animals included under this head, averaging about 3 per ranch, are young animals and are for the most part kept v;ith the milk herd. At the beginning of the season the sentiment against dip- ping was such that most of the stock owners preferred con- trolling their herds in some other way than by dipping. The herd of 100 cattle were kept in the tick free bottom land until late in the season when 30 of them were turned out in tick country. One herd of 25 was taken across the river. Three herds v/ere kept by the owners on tick free areas until after tick season. All of these animals had in previous 3^ears been pas- tured in the worst of the tick countrv. The first dipping of animals took place on May 7 and the last on June to. Twenty-three horses and 137 cattle were dip- ped during tlie season. 22 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY AVhen seen in the early part of the season the stock own- ers while showing- a disinclination to dip seemed for the most part willing- to take steps ag-ainst the tick by either hand- picking- ov hy keeping the animals out of tick country. Until the first of May very little inspection work was done, but after this date it was carried on systematically and I believe from that time on ver}'- few ticks escaped, except possibly in one lo- cality where the attitude of the residents, who are foreigners, was very unsatisfactory. Several bunches of stock were turned out during March and early April and we were unable to keep track of these until the vat had been completed, and at that time of year a large number of ticks were picked up. John Jacobson had his herd of 28 milk cows and others running on the unfenced hills north of Bass creek from March on. Lena Hendrickson had her 8 milk cows, and Chas. Miles had 10 range cattle turned out on the hills near the old camp during April and part of March. Chas. Miles stock were hand-picked once in April and over 100 ticks were removed. It is probable that these two areas be- came stocked with engorged females. Carlton District. In the early part of the season this district, lying north of the Missoula-Ravalli count}- line, was looked over with a view to establishing a control district. A census covering the ranches north to IMcClain creek, an area of about 2,800 acres, gave the following statistics: 22 ranches, 379 horses and cattle, an average of 17.2 per ranch, which were classified as : Work horses, 90, average, 4 ; other horses, 23, average i ; 98 inilk cows, average 4.4; and 168 range cattle, average 7.6. One 'hundred range cattle are owned by 3 men and these would have composed most of the animals which would have been dipped. The feeling toward dipping aroused in the Florence dis- trict last season was reflected in this locality and in looking for a suitable vat location it was found that almost no one was willing to- have it erected on his property. The chief reasons advanced for this were that ticks would be brought to tiieir land by the stock and that the neighbors would object to having it located there. It was finall}^ decided not to install a vat here for the followinig reasons ; the number of animals is small, the amount of tick-infested territor}^ was thought to be quite REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 23 limited, lack of spotted fever cases indicate that infection is not present and hearty co-operation could not be looked for. To determine the extent of tick infestation an examination of the stock in this territory was made during May and June and the following records made: 99 horses with 279 ticks and I2>6 cattle with 31 ticks. These include one bunch of horses from the hills north of McClain creek and this observation showed that ticks were more widely distributed between Carlton and Lo Lo than had been previously suspected. The amount of territory and number of stock which would be included in a Carlton control district is considerably increased. The ex- aminations took place at a time when cattle are very slightly infested. Woodman District. This district is thought of as including that part of Lo Lo canyon lying between Tom Magee's place, 5 miles east of Woodman and Grave creek, 10 miles west of Woodman. A censius made by Mr. A. E. Seamans in 1913 shows that in this district there are lO ranches containing a total of 125 horses and 224 cattle. To tliese numbers should be added the Ras- mussen place with 31 cattle. This region is in many places very heavily infected with ticks in the valley as well as on the hills on the north side of the canyon and extending back at least to the first ridge at elevations from 5,000 to 6,000 feet. Grave creek. Bear creek, and Woodman creek are often spoken of as foci of heavy infestations and it was found that the stock on the Rasmussen place on Bear creek and the Lachman place on Woodman creek were heavily in- fested. The residents frequently speak of the killing of stock by the ticks in early spring and it seems probable that in past years the total loss from this source has been quite heavy. They speak of finding the cattle "down with ticks," and when the ticks are removed from along the back and neck the animals quickly recover, but if left, the animal, being unable to stand, will finally die. This result is due, I believe, not to loss of blood as the ticks are never abundant, except on the back and neck, but to some effect on the nervous sys.'lem owing tO' the site of attachment. On April 23, three yearling cattle which had been dead about two weeks were found on the Rassmussen place and their death was attributed to ticks. A large number were found still on the carcasses. 24 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY The residents all speak of the scarcity of ticks on the south side of the creek, in the bottom and on the hills, and this is proibably the case foir the most part. This condition is appar- ently due to the fact that this side is heavily timbered and con- sequently affords less favorable conditions for rodents and pasturage for range stock. The A^at was not ready for use until May i8, and it was not our intention to do any general dipping of stock in this dis- trict a^nd Avhat was done was in the way of demonstration. Several of Lachman's horses and cattle were dipped and the attention of other residents called to the fact that no injury re- sulted. Tlie exaggerated reports -which have reached here of the injury to stock last year caused the people to think that harm was certain to result from the dipping. The question of how to solve the tick question in this lo- cality is a very difficult one. The residents are for the most part slow to accept new ideas and still do not believe that the tick is the infective agent. Also it seems natural with them to oppose any solution that may be suggiested. With hearty co- operation a dipping program could be conducted without much trouble, but there are circumstances which make it questionable whether such a program could be carried out so as to be suc- cessful. Tlie mountains and canyons are steep, rough and un- feuced, hv{ afford pasturage for several miles back from the \'alley. Many of the horses and cattle are allowed to roam at will from the opening of spring to fall and they wander back into the mountains and are not seen for weeks at a time. This is especially true of the horses Avhich have a tendency to feed higher than do cattle. The residents feel that it would be im- possible to find them and drive them in frequently for dipping If eaich one took an active interest in the work, the icontrol of of the domestic animals could be accomplished, but it seems evident that they will not. Another point is that the stock commence picking up ticks as soon as tick activity begins, in ATarch and sometimes the last of February. It has still to be determined whether they can be dipped at this season of year without detriment. In this locality we arc not prepared to assert that the dip- ping of domestic animals alone will effect eradication of the tick. Bears are fairly numerous and coyotes quite so and they are undoubtecllv resyjonsible for a considerable number of REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 25 eng'orged ticks. These animals are always killed when seen by the residents and T doubt, if the offer of a bounty, unless of considerable size, won id hasten tbeir destruction. Tshe work of tick eradication will have to cover not only the valley, but also for some distance back into tb'^' mountains. It was decided to test the practicability of using- sheep as tick collectors on the moimtain sides and a band of 300 were herded near Woodman for several weeks in May and June. This experiment was preliminary in nature and gave indefinite re- sults. Rodent Destruction. It was decided to do some preliminary work in the destruc- tion of rod en's b}^ the wholesale distribution of poisoned grain. Air. R. W. We'lls was employed to carr}'- on this work and arrived in Florence the last of Alarch. The first squirrels of the season were noted on March 21. By the last of the month squirrels had emerged quite abund- antly in the warmer parts of the valley along the main road and toward the river, and Air. Wells began testing the effect- iveness of different poison formulae. Commencinig April 6, two small crews of men were engaged upon the distribu'tion of poisoned grain, the method being) to place one bait at the entrance of each burrow. On April 24 it was noticed that the poison put out the day previously had hardly been touched by the squirrels and it was concluded that they had ceased taking it, preferring in- stead the green grass which had now gotten a g-ood start. However, this explanation was hardly satisfactory, as earlier in the month the animals had taken the grain, even where green grass abounded and all of the animals which had been found dead from the poison had been opened and in each ca^e the stomach was full of grass. I believe that the sudden cessalion of feeding had some connection with the rutting season. The distribution of grain was dis*continued on this date, approxim.ately one-third of the total area having been covered. This area was confined to the uncleared brush-covered foot-hills which are used as pasture lands and where tick infes- tation is heavy. Sorne poisoned grain was given out among the farmers and they used it on their own places. In addition to the above work an area of about 800 acres northwest of Florence was selected as an experiment tract and 26 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY poison, trapping and fumigation with carbon bisulplilde were all used in reducing the number of ground squirrels. It was proposed to allow horses and cattle to develop ticks in iJie normal way without control and to determine what effect on tiiclc abundance couid be brouglit about by the destruction of rodents alone. About May 20 a bunch of 20 cattle were turned in this field, but they kept wandering from here to the \nr\n road and back and as some of the neighbors made ol'jections to this they were called to the vat and dipped on May 27. It is unlikely that any engorged ticks dropped from domestic nnirnals in this field this season. Coyotes may have been responsible for a few. Between April 22 and 24 a total of seven days labor was spent poisoning this area and approximately 320 acres were covered. The poison was taken quite well until the last day and even this grain was found to have been taken, in going o\rr the land some time later. Between A.pril 30 and May 22 a total of 14 days labor was spent in trapping over this area with steel traps. The numbers of animals caught were as follows : Ground squirrels 135 Weasels 2 Pine squirrels 3 Chipmunks 3 Mice :', After completing this Mr. Wells estimated that 40 or 50 grcvand squirrels remained in the entire tract. Considering the squirrels taken from the traps oy coyotes and badgers, those killed by poison and those actually shot and trapped, a very low estimate of ihe number destroyed ui this area would be 250. (The number killed by poison alone was certainly more than double this nimiber, for the number of baits put out ran into tbe thousands). The data collected in 1910 and 191 1 showed that an average of about 75 nyn\])bi.s en- larged on each ground squirrel during the season. According to this we prevented the development of some 18,750 ticks in this one area. To test the attraction for squirrels of poisoned grain late in the season, Mr. Stanley in Woodman and Mr. Wells in j'lor- ence, distributed several hundred baits in selec':ed areas. We were surprised and much pleased at the success of this treat- \ REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 27 ment as it was estimated that around 70 per cent of the squir- rels were destroyed. It w^as conchided that poisoning at this time of the 3''ear was quite effective, but not so much so as immedliately after the squirrels emerg^e in the spring, at which time there are fewer squirrels, fewer holes to find and less dense vegetation to hide the holes. Probably also a higher proportion of the squirrels v/ill take the grain. The success of the rodent work this year and the rather striking theoretical results upon the ticks, have led me to feel that it is of great importance to continue this part of the work on a larjrer scale next vear. 28 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY A REVIEW OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER ERADICATIVE WORK CONDUCTED BY THE UNIT- ED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE IN THE BITTER ROOT VALLEY, MONTANA. By L. D. Fricks. The United States Public Health Service has carried on in- vestigiaitions of Rocky Mountain spotted fever in the Bitter Root valley since 1902, but it was not nnti'l 191 1 that the Serv- ice began acti\'e eradicative work in the valley at the request of and in co-o'peration with the Board of Health of the State of Montana. The eradicative measures inaugurated by Dr. AlcCIintic for the Public Health Service in igii followed the recommendations made by Dr. Ricketts as a result of his brilliant investigations of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. They comprise the dipping of the domestic animals known to harbor ticks and the killing of small wild mamn'als. This work was begun in the infected territory west of Victor, Montana, and has been continued there along the same lines up to the present time. In 1913 at the request of the State Board of Entomology, the eradicative work in the valley was divided between the Public PJealth Service and the Bureau of Entomology. Two additional dipping vats were installed in the southern half of the valley read}^ for operation at the beg»inning of the season of 1914. There are then at present three dipping vats in the south- ern half of the valley located as follows: One west of Victor, erected in 191 1, one west of Hamilton, erected in 1913, and one on Gold rreek erected in 1913. The entire territory south of Big creek is divided into three districts corresponding to the three vats, and all domes- tic animals ranging in these districts are within easy driving distance of their respective dipping vat. Under present condi- tions, therefore, no additional vats are needed in the southern half of the valley. The following brief record of operations at the different vats dnriu'g the season of 1914 is given: REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 29 Victor Vat: Filled April 4th; dipping began April 15, having been delayed by cold weather, and continued until June 15th. All horses and cattle ranging over tick infested terri- tory were regularly dipped at inter\'als of ten days, except at the end of the season when frequent inspections showed" that they were picking up no more ticks. Total number ot dipping, horses 97, cattle 417. goats 21, sheep 1.191. Hamilton Vat: Dipping began April 15th and continued until June ist at intervals of from ten days t,o two weeks, so long as animals were found to harbor ticks. Total number of animals dipped, horses 7. cattle 127, sheep 500. Gold Creek Vat; Dipping was begun late— April 22— because the owners claimed that they had not turned their stock out, and Avas continued until June i. Total number of animals dipped, horses 8, cattle 247. This was the first season of operation in the Gold Creek district and some objections were raised by the owners to the dipping of their animals. It is expected that they will co-oper- ate more willingly hereafter and with this end in view drastic measures vrere not pushed the first year. The destruc-cion of small wild mammals has been continued in the Victor district since 191 1, by shooting, trapping, poison- ing and the use of carbon bisulphide. For the past two sea- sons, carbon bisulphide pumps have been employed in co- op'eration with the land owners in the three districts. In -the Victor district, where the killing of small mammals and the dipping of domestic live stock has been carried on for four years, there has been a noticeable diminution in the num- ber of ticks fonnd and in the cases of Rocky Mountain spotted fever reported. In that part of the district south of Bear Creek, where the live stock has been dipped but no small ani- mals killed there has been no appreciable diminunition in the number of tirks to be found. The following conclusions, based on the eradicative meas- ure employed in the southern part of the Bitter Root Valley during the past four seasons, appear to be Avarranted: The dipping of domestic animals is necessary when these anmials are allowed to range over tick infested territory and it should reduce the tick infestation in the vicinity of the ranches. 30 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY The dipiMiig- of donie&tic animals alone will not eradicate Rocky Mountain spotted fever from the Bitter Roct Valley. Man}^ wood ticks, Dermacentor Andersoni, attach them- selves around the ears and horns of cattle and are not de- stroyed b}^ the ordinary dipping process. Dipping- in April, after the tick season has opened, is frequently interrupted by cold weather. The dipping solutoins used should be heated by steam, as is done for sheep, or the owners should be required by regulations to keep their live stock up until the season is well advanced. The killing of small wild animals has not been employed as extensively as its value as a tick eradicative measure warrants. With a view to extending our campaign against the wood ticks of the Bitter Root Valley, investigation cf and experiments with sheep grazing as a tick eradicative measure were begun early in 1913, and were outlined at that time to- the State Board of Entomology. Later the results were published in the Pub- lic Health Reports. These experiments were continued in 1914, by securing two bands of dry sheep and grazing them over tick infested territory in the Victor and Hamilton districts from April 15th to July 15th. One band of 1,000 sheep was secured from Dr. G. T. ^Tc- Culloug»h, Missoula, and the other of 500 sheep through Mr. L. E. Wolgamuth, of Hamilton. The sheep were searched frequently for ticks, and at the conclusion of the experiment were sheared, dipped and return- ed to the east side of the valley. Some live ticks were found at the beginning of the ex- periment, but practicall}^ none at the time of shearing. It was impossible to tell how many ticks had been engorg- ed and fertilized on the sheep except as indicated by former ex- periments, bull it was established that twienty-five thousand adult ticks died in the sheep's wool. Upon the investigations and experiments so far conducted in sheep grazing as a tick eradicative measure in the Bitter Rodt Valley, the following conclusions have been reached : Wood ticks, Dermacentor Andersoni, have been eradicated from parts of the east side of the Bitter Root Valley by sheep grazing alone. The fact that they are not so eradicated from sheep ranges which differ in topography and animal distribution from the REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 31 Bitter Root vallc}'- has no bearing on our problems in the valley. There is a zone of heavy tick and small animal infestation jnst outside the cultivated fields from one to two miles wide and extending practically the entire leng^th of the west side of the Bitter Root Valley, while, generally speaking, there is a scarcity of ticks and small animals found above this belt. Started at the base, a sufficient number of sheep can be profitably grazed over this territory to pick up practically all of the ticks and from 85 to 90 per cent of these ticks will be killed by the wool of the sheep. By driving the sheep straight back into the mountains before the engorged fertilized females are ready to drop off for egg laying, the larvae when hatched will find few hosts for attachment and hence die. It is believed that this procedure offers the most feasible method for the establishment in a shoTt time — two to three years — of a tick free zone along the west side foot hills and will eliminate Rocky Mountai'n spotted fever from the valley proper. The grazing operations can be extended into the moun- tains as the conditions warrant. Under the methods of eradication previously employed the problem of Rockv Mountain spotted fever extinction prom- ises to drag along for years, with a considerable expenditure, thus delaying the development of the valley and demanding each season its small but certain toll of lives. It is therefore recom.mended that the Montana State Board of Entomology take steps to secure the co-operation of the Forest Service and the sheep owners in and near the Bitter Root valley, and the land owners of the west side, with a view to promoting on the mosit extensive scale practicable, and under proper supervision, the sheep grazing industry on the west side of the Bitter Root valley. (i) McClintic, T. B. — Investigations of and tick eradica- tion in Roeky jNTountain spotted fever. Pub. Health Rep., U. S. Public Health and Mar.-H'ealth Serv., Wash. Govt. Print. Office, 1912, XXVII, 732-760. (2) Fricks, I^. D. — Roicky Mountain spotted fever. Pub. Health Rep., U. S. Pub. Health and Mar. -Health Serv., Wash. Govt. Print. Qiffice, August 8, 1913, XXVIII. Fricks, L. D. — Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Reprint No, 169, from the Pub. Health Reports, February 20, 1914. 32 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY THE HOUSE FLY. In a newly settled state like Montana, where many new towns are springinc^ np and where much construction work is under wa}^, entailing the maintenance of camps for the housing and feeding of laborers and work animals, conditions are natur ally such as to make the fly problem a particularly important and difficult one. The great majoirity of the towns have no sewer system and it would be unreasonal^le to require them to establish sewers in most of them. In such towns flies abound, and, on the other hand, the conditions are such as to afford many opportunities for flies to visit both contaminated ma- terials and human habitations. It is Avell known that the dis- charges from the bodies of typhoid patients carry the germs of this disease. The flies may retain the living germs for a sur- prisinigly long time. Levy and Kayser found them to persist in a cemented privy vault up to five momths, and one author (Delaphine) states that they will survive in a privy vault for a year. A certain per cent of recovered cases of typhoid fever become clironic carriers and deposit living orpanisms with the feces. There are also large numbers of mild unrecognized cases of this disease which are a source of infection, and finally^ many convalescents carry and deposit the organisms for some weeks. The danger from the liouse fly and from other flies of sim- ilar iiabits arises from the fact that they very commonly visit human feces, entangling the infective materials on the feet and on the body and ingesting them also into the intestinal tract and then pass to our kitchens, dining rooms, restaurants, grocery stores and markets and cra\yl over and apply the moutli parts to the food supplies. Opportunity is thus afforded for the transfer of the germs of typhoid fever and of other disorders, such as diarrhea and dysentery, directly tO' the places where tihey are most in be feared. That flies are an important factor in the spread of tliese diseases cannot be doul^ted. In the light of what is said above, anyone who is familiar with the condition that prevails in small towns is aware that tlie public is exposed to grave dangers. The following description is made at random and does not apply to any particular town or railroad. The main street is at right angles to the railway and the business part of town is REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 33 along, the main street, where a few grocery stores, markets, soft drink fountains, saloons and restaurants occur. On this street also are one or -two livery stables, with vast accumulations of horse manure in the rear. Along the parallel streets and cross streets are numerous home barns with manure piles close bv in the alley. Along- these alleys also are privies and the houses are often poorly screened. Around the hotels and saloons the conditions are particularly noticeable. In the small hotels, such as are found in these small towns, a kitchen, a dinmg- room and g-enerally a saloon are found and in the rear is a privy. Screen doors are usually present and conform to the law, but the doors are opened many times a day, and the flies gain entrance. The proprietor of tlie ho«te.l. the saloon keeper, the owner of the restaurant and the residents of the town are fig-hting an unequal battle against the flies. Science has not yet pointed out a reasonable practical way to get rid of them. They breed principally in fermenting horse manure and it is no wonder that they swarm in these small towns. The usual "swat the fly" campaign has not amounted to much and we still have flies spreading disease and reducing the earning capacity of the peo- ple and often leading to death. House Fly Work Undertaken. On March 24, T914, the Board of Entomology adopted the following resolutions : Whereas, It is scientifically established and g*enerally accepted that the house fly or typhoid fly, scientifically known as Musca domestica, is a carrier of typhoid fever, tuberculosis, infantile diarrhea and other diseases of human beings, and Whereas, It is known that both these diseases and the house fly are found within the State of Montana, and Whereas, We believe that much may be accomplished to- ward a mitigation of the above named human diseases by con- trolling oir eradicating the house fly, therefore, be it Resolved, (i) That the Montana State Board of Entomology take steps to investigate and control or eradicate the house fly in Montana. 34 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY FLY INSPECTION SERVICE. Recognizing' that flies have much to do with the spread of diseases, especially those of the intestinal type, a special inspector was employed during 1914 by the Board to visit places in the State where foods are sold, stored or handled and de- termine their sanitary status especially with reference to the abundance of flies and the conditions which favor their multi- plication. Where conditions were found to be unsanitary a clean up was ordered and subsequent visits were made to see b'hat directions had been carried out. Following is a detailed list of the inspections made: Dairies 12 Hotels and Restaurants 178 Confectioneries and Bake Shops 14 Meat Markets and Slaughter Houses 74 Other Places 78 Construction Camps iii Total 467 HOUSE FLY INVESTIGATIONS. In accordamce with the foregoing resolutions, the Secre- tary proceeded to secure the services of an entomologist to undertake the necessary investigations. Through D'r. H. T. Fernald of the Department of Fntomology, of the Massachu- setts Agricultural College, we engaged Mr. Ralph R. Parker, a graduate of the College and at present a post-graduate student, who arrived in Montana during June and continued Into Sep- tember, When he returned tO' his studies in Massachusetts. His report on the work in Montana was completed after his return to Amherst. It is believed that excellent progress was made during the one season's work. Mr. Parker is particularly well qualified for such an investigation and a large mass of information was secured as a result of his diligence. He submitted an extensive report giving in detail the results of his studies which is too voluminous to be here printed. In its place a summary is pre- sen(ted as follows : REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 35 SUMMARY OF "REPORT TO THE MONTANA STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY CONCERNING FLY INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED IN THE YELLOW- STONE VALLEY DURING THE SUMMER OF 1914." Ralph R. Parker, M. _Sc. This summary is a brief statement of the more important results obtained during preliminary observations and experi- mental research undertaken for the following- purposes as set forth by Trof. R, A. Cooler, Secretary of the State Board of Entomolog}'. 1. ]_)etermine the i)rincina] lireecHng places of liouse flies under the conditicins wliicli ])revail in the smaller towns in Montana. 2. Determine wliat flies, other than Musca domestica are commonly found in such towns at such places as sewer oiitlets on the river banks. ]:)rivy vaults, barns, residences and public eating houses. 3. Determine the seasonal history of M. domestica in Montana, answerir.g such questio'us as, (i) When the adults first appear in the s])ring o-r early summer, (2) The dates through which flies may fairly be said to be abundant, (3) When the maximum alnuidance occurs, (4) When the fly sea- son closes. 4. Get all the information possil^le on the extent or degree of danger of flies visiting both human extreta and human foods under conditions prevailing in Montana. 5. ^lake preliminarv tests of substances which have else- where been found useful as destroyers of fly larvae. 6. Make observations of conditions in Montana wdiich would be useful in outlining a detailed program of fly control, covering such points as means and methods of destroying waste organic matter of all sorts aroamd residences, public eatings places, markets, liverv stal)les, and other places wdiere oTganic matter accumulates. 7. Secure photograpihic records of existing conditions where^xr possible. 36 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 8. Make complete and detailed notes of all work done and of conditions ias found. 9. Preserve alcoholic and pinned speciments for future study. Since an invesitigation of the latitude outlined above is a matter of several years v/ork the specific objects of the summer field work were as now designated. a. To determine the principal breeding- places of Musca domestica L. and its life history under Montana iconditions, as- certaining such points as during what portion of the season it is abundant and when it is present in greatest abundance; also to collect incidental data concerning individual history, habits, and natural enemies. b. To determine what other flies than Musca domestica L., because of their habits, may be considered to be of actual or potential importance as causative agents of disease or as conveyors of icommunicable intestinal diseases; also to collect data concerning their life 'history and habits. €. To determine those conditions in Montana wbich wrill be useful in outlining a program of fly control — that is, con- di'itions which are favorable to the breeding and miultiplication of flies on the one hand, and on the other, conditions which will either enhance or limit the effectiveness of control measures. d. To conduct control experiments. The town of Laurel was selected as headquarters for all intensive v/ork. An old store, conveniently situated in relation to other buildings, ^vas selected as a laboratory and fitted with apparatus from the State College at Bozeman. Facilities and equipment were not such, however, as to permit bacteriological work. A temporary breeding house and an experimental ma- nure container for house fly work were constructed in the rear of the laboratory and late in the summer an experimentally combined maggot trap and manure box. Some phases of the work were carried on under rather unsatisfactory conditions during the first part of the summer due to the fact that 'certain equipment ordered from Bo^ston and other eastern points was very late in arriving. From time to time visits were made to other towns and ^cities in the Yellowstone Valley — Billings, Hluntley, Worden, Forsyth, Miles City, Park City, Joilet and Red Lodge. For information of a local character health offi- cers were freelv consulted. The actual field work was con- REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLGY 37 ducted between July i and September i with the aid of Mr. T. J. Kinsella, a student from the State College. The records were put into shape and the final report written after the writer's return to pursue his work at the Entomological Labora- Itiory of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. At the conclusion of active operations in the field the pinned and alcoholic bpecimens which constituted an important part of the records of the summer inves,tigation were deposited with Prof. R. A. Cooley. Due to the wide range covered by the investigation and the comparatively short time that could be devoted to any one phase certain of the resuks should be considered as indicatiive rather than positive. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY STATEMENT OF EXPERIMENTS, METHODS AND RESULTS. (a) To determine the principal breeding places of Musca do- mestica L., (and incidentally of other flies) and its seasonal history under Montana conditions, ascertaining such points* as when it may be said to be abundant and when it is present iri greatest abundance ; also to collect incidental data concerning individual history, habits and natural enemies. To determine tlic breeding- places of the house fly (and other flies) various substances Avere collected and flies bred therefrom. Exhaustive investigiations were impossible but a suf- ficient number of experiments were carried thnougb and obser- vat'i'ons made to indicate that so far as this particular question Avas concerned, Montana conditions were essentially the same as in otlier sections where no work has been done. The mater- ials used for breedinig were human ex-crement and that of various domestic animals, garbag'c and other waste substances. For collecting' these, pint and quart liquid-tight pasteboard con- tainers were used and were found both sanitary and econo- mical. At the laboratory the materials were placed vn wooden breeding boxes which were insect and odor proof. A total of 39 experimeuts were performed and an accurate record kept of the number of flies of each species bred and the dates of emergence. Due to the late date at whicli field operations were started and tlicir earlv conclusion no personal observations were pos- sible to indicate wh.en this fly appears in the spri*ng and "dis- appears" in the fall. At best, no arbitrary limits could have been set. To ascertain its abundance during the summer months five "stations" representing" different conditions were selected and a FTodge trap placed at each five days of each week. The same bait was used throughout, collections made at the same time each day, and conditions kept as nearly the same as possible at all times. A daily record was kept not only of the meml^ers of the house fly but also of all other species captured between July 7 and August 28 and of temperature and weather conditions. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 39 In order to determine the individual history of the house fly and to make observations on the migirating- habits of the larvae a specially constructed manure -cage of small mesh chicken wire was used. This was covered by a fly tight box of larger size so built as to permit access to the cage and manure within. Two ex])eriments were conducted. Fresh manure was obtained in sufficient quantites at a local livery stable. In the first experiment the manure cage was merely blocked up from the ground, but in the second a galvanized iron maggot trap was used and observations made on natural enemies wOthin the manure and migration habits were more closely watched. During the last few days of the w^ork several observations were made on the fligfht of flies. Tliey were permitted to feed naturally on colored syrup placed at a privy and when after- wards captured identified by the colored oontents of the ab- domen. The marking of flies in this manner has certain ad- vantages over spraiing them. Results. Breeding Experiments. A total of 13,353 ^^i^s were bred, representing 11 fan.vilies and more than 40 species. From ex- periments with iiuman excrement collected in privies and out of doors, 3,862 were reared. In one instance 970 flies were bred from a single stool exposed one day in a back alley. As far as the house fly was concerned except for one specimen bred from decomposing fish and one from human excrement, all the records were from horse manure. Seasonal History Experiments. The total catch of flies for an eig'ht week period was 96.114. representing some 25 species; 88,245 were house flies. The other species present in greatest alDundance were Muscina stabulans (Fall.) -3473. Lucilla seri- cata I Me'.g. )-T45r'. and Fannia sps 2294 (including F. scalaris ( I'abr. ) F. canicularis (L.) and F. sp.) Other families repre- sen>ted were the Sarcophagidae (so called flesh-flies), Ortalidae, Culicidae ( mosquitoes) and Sapromyzidae. Tabulated results indicated that house fies may be con- sidered to be abundant until a.t least the first of September. They are present in greatest numbers throughout the month of August and in greatest abundance during the first week, thoiig^h it is probable that there should have been but little ntnuerical difference fluring the first three weeks. Their decrease was 40 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY coincident with a decrease in the weekly average temperature, but it is probable that the temperature factor was of no great value due to the manner in which the records had to be made. No relaition was noted between the number captured and the kind of day. Manure Cage Experiments. From these it was found that the minimum time required from the deposition of the egg to the emergence of the adult was lo days. It was noted that all the larvae left the manure to pupate and were captured in the maggot trap beneath the cage (in the second experiment.). This is due in part to natural mig-ratory habits and in part to artificial conditions. Certain beetles and beetle larvae were foaind associated with the hiotise fly larvae and pupae and in one instance nearly 50 per cent of the puparia examined were found to 'have been destroyed by some natural enemy. Larvae were also killed in large numbers. Experiments showed, that in all probability Staphylinid beetles were the destroyers and ithait perhaps they play a more important part in the economy of the manure pile than has been realized. Indeed, I feel con- vinced that the number of adults that emerged was by no means commensurate with the great numbers of eggs laid on the manure and that larval (sometimes pupae) mortality, from predaceous enemies and undetermined causes, is high. Un- fortunately it seems unlikely that these factors can be con- trolled. Dispersion Experiment. While the experiment to trace the flight of flies was conducted but 3 days at the conclusion of the field work, still flies were recovered at a meat market 300 yards from the bait and at several residences at shorter dis- tances. Life History of Musca Domestica L. From the results noted and from other sources and experiments the probable life history of the house fly in Montana can be briefly outlined. Breeding probably begins sometime in June, possibly earlier or later, depending on the season and location within the State. The females then deposit their eggs, maiinly in fres'h horse manure, but sometimes in other fermenting materials and waste. As. at least 95 per cent breed in horse manure we are mainly ro'u'cerned with the life history of the fly in this material. The eggs are either deposited in the manure pile down to a depth of several inches or else upon the freshly dropped material within REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 41 the stable, which is later thrown out. Under summer condi- tions these hatch in 24 hours or less and the larvae live a more or less migratory existence in the outer portion of the manure avoiding both the light at the surface and the ihighly heated portions of the manure within. In from three tO' five days they are ready to pupate and internal stimuli cause them to seek a dry place which, as a rule, is either at the periphery of the pile or even in the ground or elsewhere beyond its limits. There are perhaps several factors determining the place of pu- pation as brought out in the preceeding discussion. After be- tween four and six days spent in the puparia the adult? emerge and the females are fertilized probably within a short time. Several batches of eggs are deposited at intervals (400 to 600 are estimated totals). From deposition of the eggs to em,ergence of adults requires at least 10 days, rarely a shorter time, and probably a day or twO' longer in many cases. Allow- ing several days more before the females deposit their eggs, two^ weeks should be a conservative estimate of the time re- quired for a sing^le generation. It would probably more oflten be longer than shorter. This, however, is under favorable summer conditions, and the further we go toward spring or fall the longer the developmental periods. To attempt to give the possible number of generations a season would be mere guess work. The adults are most abundant during August. They begin to disappear in the fall with the advent of cold weather, ithough stragglers are often seen late in the season and even on warm days during the winter. It is quite generally believed that the flies hibernate as adults, but it is possible that somie pass the winter as pupae. (b) To determine what other flies than Musca domestica L., because of their habits, may be considered to be of actual or potential importance as transmitting agents of communicable intestinal diseases; also to collect data concerning their life' history, habits, etc. In the experiments involved in the previous section certain data beloinging under this head were collected. In the experi- ments to determine the seasonal abundance of the house fly, a record v/as kept for all species captured thus indicating what other flies migihit be found in abundance under the same condi- 42 REPORT OF-" STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY tioiis. From the breeding- experiments those species wliich breed in human e.xcrement were noted. ()ther ex]:)erimeniLS and collections made solely for the al)ove stated purpose were made. T/he most interesting of these was a "privy trap experiment" designed to determine what spe- cies of flies frequented excreta in privies, an important ques- tion due to the very unsatisfactory type of privy in general use. A specially constructed trap was fitted to the back of a privy having an open vault. Flies were then obliged to enter the pri'vv by means of the open door and uncovered seats. After ^•isii;ing llie excreta a certain proportion attempting to leave l:)y the o]iening in the rear, were captured in the trap; others, of course could leave l)y the same means they entered. In another series of experiments flies were trapped in the ojjen with human excrement as a bai't to learn what species fre- c|uented excrement under outdoor conditions. A record was also kept of flies frequenting- g-arbage and of those captured in houses, stores, etc. From these records and the above it was possible to learn which species of Montana flies '.hat frequent or breed in excreta and other waste also fre- (jucnt residences, soin"ces of food su]:)plies and human foods. Results. Excluding Culicidae at least 50 species of flies were found whicli l^red in oir frequented Jniman excrement in the open or in ]^ri^■ics some almost entirely, others in greater or less abund- ance. Of these same species 25 were either captured in resi- dences or were known to freciuent them. Of 42 d&termined species and others captured on garbage, 26 also were captured or bred from human excrement and 18 kno'Wii tO' frequent both human excrement and residences. Records made of flies occuring in public eatimg hocuses, provision stores and saloons were made principally from ex- amination of flies captured on sticky fly paper but to some ex- tent irnm observation and traps. These were necessarily far less comi:)lete than the records given above. In public eating houses 10 speci'es were noted, all of which frequented excreta and g-arbage, and 9 at least were found in houses ; on s'.icky fly paper in saloons 7 species and others which could not lie determined, all also occurred on garbage and human excrement and 6 in houses; in prcnision stores 13 species and others un- determined, of which 10 Avere known to frequent human ex- REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 43 crement. 9 o-a.rbage and 7 houses. The records are presented in this fasliion to show that many of the same species are found in houses and proAnsion stores, and on garbage and ex- crement, thus indicating that control measures against adults must extend beyond tlie limits of the houses and stores to ma- terials which attract flies outside. Of flies captured on g;arbage the house fly probably consti- tuted 90 per cent ; of those captured in the "privy trap experi- ment," 8.94 per cent ; of those taken in the open with human excrement as a bait. 21.81 per cent. Ravinia communis R. Pkr., Ravania peniculata R. Pkr., and Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis Meig. (Sancophagidae) were bred very abundantly from human excrement and the first two species also breed in horse, cow and pig dung. They are probably primary breeders in fecal matter and while usually occurring but occasionally in houses under some condition will undoubtedly be rather plentiful. Certain writers have stated that species of this family com- monly occur on human foods. As regards excreta in surface privies and in the open they may perhaps be of some service at least as far as tlie results of the field work indicated. Ovi- parous species fthe members of this family are viviparous) which are more commonly found in houses and on food, are prevented from maturing by these flies. Oiwing to the great attractiveness of beer for various spe- cies of excreta-frequenting; flies, their presence in saloons may perhaps be of im.portance. Flies of the genera Leptocera and Scatopse seem to be worthy of further investigation. Flies of certain species of both these genera, especiall}^ the former breed in and fre- quent human excrement in great abundance and also occur in houses. A species of Scatopse was found quite abundantly in houses and on several occasions noted on human foods. The only research with Avhich the v/riter is acquainted dealing with flies of the genus Leptocera indicated that they will fly con- siderable distances for water and flies captured in houses were found to have their abdomens distended with fecal matter. Where water is stored in carelessly covered barrels out-of-doors it might well be infected by these flies. They are very small and screens afford no protection against them. They also breed in horse manure and other animal excrement 44 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY very abundantly. As far as horse manure is concerned if properly treated for house fly control these species would prob- ably be controlled also. Oither species which seemed of notential importance were Muscina stabulans (Fall.). Lucilia sericata (Meig.), Lucilia cae- sar (L.), Phormia regina (Meig.), Caliphora erythrocephala Meig.). C. coloradensis Hough, C.latifrons Hough. Fannia seal- aris (Fabr.), F. canicularis (L.), Drosophila ampelophila L., Piophila casei (L.) and others of less interest. Among the diseases which it dias been shown Oir suggested that the house fly and other Montana flies may transmit are summer diarrhoea, typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera and other intestinal infections, smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, and other exanthematous diseases, erysipelas, anthrax, glanders, and other skin infections, also gonorrheal opthalmia, diphtheria, tuberculosis, leprosy and certain diseases that are localized in certain parts of the world. At least 12 of the species dealt with have been found in various kinds of myiasis. Flies are also con- cerned as transmitters or causitive agents of various diseases of cattle, horses, etc. (c) To determine those conditions in Montana which will be useful in outlining a program of fly control — that is, conditions which are favorable to the breeding and multiplication of flies on the one hand, and on the other, conditions which w^ill either enhance or limit the effectiveness of control measures. Local conditions were studied as closely as possible and visits made to ot'hcr towns and cities referred to in the intro- duction. The subject can best be treated by a consideration of factors concerned from the standpoint of town and city condi- tioiis. Privies. From the point of view of this investigation we are con- cerned with the accessibility of excreta to flies. Privies per- mitted this from two causes — faulty construction and careless- ness of persons using them. In the strict sense of the word few privies v,-ere fly proof, nearly all permitting the entrance of flies with greater or less freedom. Privy seait covers were apparently a rarity — they were noted in but few instances — and in a fair proportion of cases there was only a crosspiece. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 45 This, coupled with the fact that nearly one-half of privy doors are left wide open more or less ihabitually, gives flies praidti- cally unobstructed access to the excreta. Certain railroad priv- ies and sometimes those at hotels in small towns were among' the worst instances noted, though conditions at many ranches were no better. The conditions at saloon privies were frequent- ly especially bad, an important consideration when we under- stand how abundantly flies are attracted to such vicinities by empty 'cases, barrels, etc. Reference has already been made to the fajct that in the privy trap experiment, 9,776 were capitusred at a privv in one month, representing only a part of the visitors. The importance of the adoption of a sanitary and fly-proof type of privv cannot be questioned. Excreta in the Open. This refers to feical matter within or near town limits. In an experiment fully described .in my detailed repoirt, 970 flies were bred from a single stool deposited in a back alley: this does not consider the number which crawl over it during 24 hours exposure. Defecations in suich places are as likely as not to com^e from a typhoid carrier capable of expelling bac- teria in the urine or feces and are always a menace. For the same reason the common practice of urinating in the rear of saloons is dangerous. Garbage. As flv control is a question of several factors, the problem of the care and disposal of all substances ^v^hich attract flies is one of practical importance. Unprotected garbage attracts flies in great num'bers to the vicinity of markets, public eating houses and residenices. While I found, among the local healt'h officers, a general appreciation of the necessity for the proper care of such materials, yet conditions were generally bad. Even in cities where garbage was collected at the public expense it was left uncovered for days at a time in receptacles scarcely worthy of the name. In some instances efforts were being made to correct these conditions. Refuse. By this term I refer to waste matter other than garbage, such as ashes, rubbish, street filth, etc. Horse manure properly comes under this head but is discussed separately. Suffice it to sav that accumulations of this character were common in all 46 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY towns and cities and not only attracted flies but sometimes fur- nished breeding places. They are unsightly and encourage un- cleanliness. and fly control concerns not only cleanliness within the house but environmental cleanliness as well. Horse Manure. -As the principal breeding ground of the house fly (other flies also breed in it abundantly) horse manure deserves spe- cial attention. When we consider the thousands of flies that m.ay breed even in a fevv^ pounds of manure, and allowing a daily average production of 15 to 25 pounds per horse, the immense number which must be breeding out daily in cities and towns where the manure is in piles and uncared for can scarcely be imagined. The city of Billings was the only place visited where any systematic attempt was made to keep flies from manure and prevent their breeding. Here a type of manure box was in use in certain parts of the city and while inefiPicient in some respects, yet did a certain amiount of good. In some towns livery stables were required to remove their manure at short interA^als but in other cases it accumulated for weeks at a time. In stables from which the manure was not cleaned out daily flies were always found breeding in the manure and around the stalls. In spite of some opinions to the contrary many corrals afforded suitable conditions for fly breeding. In many in- stances the presence of manure serves to attract flies to locali- ties where the}^ will frequent substances such as excreta in privies to a greater extent than v/ould otherwise be the case. Sewer Outlets. Sewer outlets become important when the discharge is not sufficiently distant from the town limits. :d) Control. Efforts to control the house fly must be directed along several lines which are designated in order of their importance. 1. To control or eliminate breeding places. 2. To keep covered and effectively dispose of substances which attract these flies such as human excrement, garbage, manure and refuse. 3. To prevent the entrance of flics into buildings. 4. To pirevent the contamination of food. REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 47 5. Finally to trap, poison, or O'therwise dispose of such flies as do g-ain admission to buildings in spite of other measures of control. I have previous]}' mentioned the fact that as our food sup- plies come to a large extent from rural or semi-rural districts, fly control outside the cities and towns is an important ques- tion. It has, however, been but little dealt with and offers distinct problems from city control. Its importance in Mon- tana must be appreciated when we realize that there are but few sizable cities and many of the small towns approach rural conditions ; its discussion in this connection, however, must await direct investigation. Furthermore, this report points out certain conditions to be controlled and results to be attained, rather than to tell how ; and some of the factors to be dealt with are not for the entomologist alone. (t) To control or Eliminate Breeding Places. Control in Horse Manure. As probably 95 per cent of house flies breed in horse manure this becomes the firstt consideration in control. Absolutely effective measures demand that it be kept in proper receptacles while within town or city limits and its removal from the town or city at frequent intervals (at least during the fly season). Two important nuestions are, how fre- quent removals should be and what its ultimate disposal. As far as removal is concerned, efficiency of results demands at least twice a week at certain seasons and daily when large accumulations such as are found at livery stables are concerned. It may be possible, however, to lengthen the intervals if proper measures are taken for caring for the manure. If manure is merely to be taken a given distance from the city and dumped, this distance will depend on several factors — the treatment of the manure before removal, environmental conditions outside the city, etc. Economically it is best that the manure be put to proper use and control measures should aim to pre- serve its fertilizing value. In many instances Montana con- ditions probably prevent the sale of manure as commonly practiced in some sections of the country. Control in Human Excrement. The importance of prevent- ing flies from breeding in excreta and from contaminating them- selves with fecal bacteria is prol)a]>ly universally recognized. This result must be attained by the interest of the individual in the public welfare and by properly constructed privies where 48 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY sewer connections are impossible as they will be in some sec- tions. Some types of sanitary privies that ihave been advo- cated are not fly proof. Control in Garbage and Refuse. By keeping garbage in closed receptacles of a proper nature and its periodical re- moval the breeding of flies in such material may be almost eliminated. Refuse of various kinds must also be cared for. (2) Protection of Materials Which Attract Flies. Under this heading- I refer particularly to materials which are out-of-doors — manure, garbag-e and excrement in privies. Access of flies to these materials should be prevented and the odors which draw^ them confined as much as possible. Proper care and control of substances in which flies breed largely ac- complish this purpose. (3) To Prevent the Entrance of Flies. This is accomplished by screening, in the main ; its prac- tical benefits are well know^ and need not be further dis- cussed. Repellents are sometimes used about doors, etc. (4) To Prevent the Contamination of Food. Even in the best kept residences flies will gain admission and exposed foods should be protected. The question of pro- tection, however, extends beyond the home to sources of food supply and food during its transportation. Fruit and provision stores are attractive enough to flies without baiting them with accumulatio-ns of garbagte and refuse. (5) Trapping and Killing Adults. .Scientifically, perhaps this would seem to be the least im- portant of fly control measures, but while scientific methods will go far to eliminate the "swat-the-fly" campaign, still there will alwa3^s be flies that need personal attention. Trapping, poisoning, and "swatting" may be applied as fancy or exigency dictate. In a screened house fly baits seem unsatisfactory for the most part. Difficulties to Be Met With in Control Work. The most important contributing factor to the ultimate suc- cess of control is the individual, for although some measures must be communual. their complete success requires the as- sistance of the individual. Such interest can only be cieated by an educational campaign to make each person appreciate that REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY 49 not only are the best interests of the community involved, but that his personal well being- is also concerned. Another factor of serious import is the varied conditions to be met. Measiires adapted to cities may become a burden to smaller communities and rural conditions are still another prob- lem. Control must be upon an elastic basis such that the greatest efficiency possible will be everywhere attained and yet local condition must not be lost sig'ht of. Disposal of manure and garbage is a question for further investigation. Montana conditions do not seem to be adapted at present for their profitable use in most instances. Another very pertinent question concerns the loical health officers. However earnest and well intentioned they may be, how can they intellig^ently and efficiently carry on that part of their work which has to do Avith control measures unless familiar with the ins and outs of the fly problem? An Experimental Manure Box. The idea of destroying migrating larvae was incorporated into the construction of a manure box for experimental purposes in the hope that its use would suggest alterations and improve- ments eventually leading to something of practical usefulness. The results were very satisfactory as far as the work was carried A manure box of this type possesses certain advantages over the simple box ordinarily used. It results in the self-destruction of nearly all larvae, it prevents possible larval migration from the box to hatch elsewhere as adults ; it permits the advanta- g»eous use of larvicidal substances; and renders the collection of manure more than once a week unnecessary. A structure incorporating the idea of the maggot trap could well be built within the stable structure itself insuring greater protection against flies and removing the necessity for unsightly receptacles outside. The more one considers the great adapta- bility of the maggot trap idea the greater seems its pos- sibilities. A Few General Conclusions. I. As far as the summer's Work may be taken as an indi- cation, the possibilities for a state-wide campaign seems favor- able. Tt will, of cource, be necessary to start at the root of the fly evil (ignorance, uncleanliness, and accumulations of 50 REPORT OF STATE BOARD OF ENTOMOLOGY waste) and build up gradually. City and town conditions are easiest dealt with and their control could be initiated during further investigations to^ ascertain rural problems and methods applicable to them, yet even for the former, further experimental work and a more thorough understanding of economic condi- tions are necessary before actual results can be attained. 2. Fly control measures are essentially sanitary measures for communal cleanliness and the public health and welfare. They are measures compelling simple cleanliness and call for no effo'rts on the part of the individual or community but those which comirion decenc}^ self-interest and civic pride should dictate. 3. An adequate and com.prehensive system for the control of the house fly will go far toward controlling other flies of actual or potential interest mentioned in the detailed report. 4. Control m.easures cannot be safely initiated on a larg>a scale without a thorough appreciation of varying conditions in different communities and an elastic basis on which tO' work. 5. Control wathin the city and larger towns in communal to a greater extent than in the small town. As we go from the well organized city first to the larger town, then to the small, and finalh^ to rural conditions control becomes less and less intensive from the community standpoint and more and more so from the standpoint of the individual.