^"s^^l i ^pEWYORKBpTANICALGABPi •ALIS VOLAT PRUPRIIS." EIGHTH BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE Board of Horticulture OF THE State of Oregon TO THE TWENTY-THIRD LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY [ REGULAR SESSION ] 1905 Lll'.k'ARY NBVV NORK BOTANICAL GARDBN SAI.EM, OREGON J. R. whitne:y, state printer 1905 v'.S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. REPORT OF PRESIDENT OF BOARD AND COMMISSIONER AT LARGE. To the Honorable, the Legislative Assembly of Oregon— Gentlemen : In conformity with the provisions of section 12, horticultural law of 1895, I respectfully submit the eighth bien- nial report of the State Board of Horticulture, embracing the years 1903 and 1904. E. L. Smith, : President of the Board. TO THE FRUIT GROWER. This report is sent to yon Avith the compliments of the board, trusting you may find something of personal interest to yon. For further information, kindly address the commissioner of your district, who will cheerfully answer all communications ap- pertaining to horticultural matters, and who will also visit you, and neighbors, if you so desire. The commissioner of your district will deem it a special favor if you will inform him of any orchards in your neighborhood which are infected, that the owners thereof may be counseled with, in order to cleanse and eradicate any insects on their premises. In order to avoid confusion and simplify matters, we have given only such sprays as we have found by personal experiments to be of any value and yet cover all insects and fungous diseases known to exist in Oregon. OFFICERS OF THE BOARD. E.L.SMITH, ...---------- President W. K. NEWELL, ._.-.------- Treasurer GEO. H. LAMBERSON, _...------- Secretary Office: Portland, Oregon. BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS. state at large, E. L. SMITH, ...---------- Hood River first district, W. K. NEWELL, ..----_------ Dilley SECOND DISTRICT, CHAS. A. PARK, .___.-------- Salem THIRD DISTRICT, A. H. CARSON, ...._------- Grants Pass FOURTH DISTRICT, R. H. WEBER, ....-------- The Dalles FIFTH DISTRICT, JUDD GEER, ..._---------- C't>VE DISTRICT BOUNDARIES. FIRST DISTRICT, Multnomah, Clackamas, Yamhill, Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook Counties. SECOND DISTRICT, Lincoln, Marion, Polk, Benton, Linn, and Lane Counties. THIRD DISTRICT, Douglas, Jackson, Klamath, Josephine, Coos, Curry, and Lake Counties. FOURTH DISTRICT, Morrow, Wasco, Gilliam, Crook, and Sherman Counties. FIFTH DISTRICT, Umatilla, Union, Baker, Wallowa, Malheur, Grant, and Harney Counties. REPORT. I, I I - r. ■ \ r\ Y Ni:vv vokK bOlAMCAL UAUUliN In order to arrive at a better understanding as to the constitu- tion of the Board of Horticulture, I beg leave to incorporate in this report section 1 of the amendatory act of 1895: "Section 1. There is hereby created a Board of Horticulture, to consist of six members, who shall be appointed by board, consisting of the Governor, Sec- retary of State, and State Treasurer. One member of the said Board of Hor- ticulture shall represent the State at large and shall be the president and ex- ecutive officer of the Board, and one member shall be appointed to represent each of the five districts as hereby created, to-wit: (1) The First District, which shall comprise the counties of Multnomah, Clackamas, Yam- hill. Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook; (2) the Sec- ond District, Avhich shall comprise the counties of Marion. Polk, Benton, Lincoln, Linn, and Lane; (3) the Third District, which shall comprise the counties of Douglas, Jackson, Klamath, Jose- phine, Coos, Curry, and Lake; (4) the Fourth District, which shall comprise the counties of Wasco, Sherman, Morrow, Gilliam, and Crook; (5) the Fifth District, which shall comprise the coun- ties of Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Baker, Malheur, Harney and Grant." In order to understand the territoiy to be covered by the Com- missioners, I note the size, approximately, of their respective dis- tricts : The area of the First District exceeds 6,000 square miles. The area of the Second District exceeds 10,000 square miles. The area of the Third District exceeds 26,000 square miles. The area of the Fourth District exceeds 14,500 square miles. The area of the Fifth District exceeds 36,000 scinare miles. To illustrate : 8 Report of State Board of Horticulture. Commissioner Newell's district is about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island. Commissioner Park's district about equals in area Maine and Delaware. Commissioner Carson of the Third District has a very respectable district as to area, corresponding to that of Connecticut, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Delaware. Commissioner Weber's Fourth District is about the size of Con- necticut, New Jersey, and Delaware. Commissioner Geer of the Fifth District has a nice, roomy dis- trict, equal to the combined area of Connecticut, Vermont, Mas- sachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Delaware. Our horticultural law requires that the Commissioner at Large shall visit each of these districts at least once a year, and that he shall personally inspect most of the orchards (presumably of the State) during the fruit-growing season. Your Commissioner can- didly confesses his inability to comply with this last provision, un- less your honorable body amend the act by very considerably lengthening the fruit-growing season. GENERAL CONDITIONS. For a better understanding as to the physical character of the fruit-growing sections of the State, the condition of this industry at the present time, and the detailed operations of the Board, you are respectfully refeiTcd to the reports of the Commissioners sub- mitted herewith. I beg leave, however, to briefly summarize: First District, Wilbur K. Neivell, C(ynimissioner . ]Mr. Newell finds the acreage, number of trees, and value of crop in the First District to be as follows: Apple Cht^Ty Peur Poach Prime I Plum j Grapes Strawberries . Blackberries. Currants CTOOsoberries Raspberries - Other Jruit. ... Nuts 6,437 870 921 289 7,775 189 683 296 72 60 200 Total value of crop for 1901 . No. of Ti-ees 77.5, HI S7,248 101,162 28,rj38 788,304 Value of Crop f90i 26,.577 14,116 90,000 00 30,000 00 20,000 00 20,000 00 40,000 00 .3.5,000 00 90,000 00 30,000 00 6,000 00 6.000 00 8,000 00 10,000 0(J $ 385,000 00 o> CO Report of Prf:sident and Commissioner at Large. 9 The prune is more largely cultivated in this district than any other fruit, and Commissioner Newell estimates the shortage for 190-4 as not less than 75 per cent. Orchards situated in the hilly sections of the district bore fairly well, while on the lower levels the crop was practically a failure. In a paper read before the Farmers' Congress at Salem on June iK 1902, the writer took occasion to say: "I often cast my eyes longingly to the foothills and to the timbered mountain slopes and benches that inclose this valley, and it requires no gift of prophecy to say that eventually your most valuable apple orchards will be found 500, 1,000, 2,000 feet above the valley, and from these higher elevations your longest-keeping apples will come." Upon other occasions we have emphasized the importance of water and cold air drainage, as both seek lowest levels, in selecting a site for an orchard. Mr. Newell notes the commendable enterprise of the fruitgrowers of Yamhill County, who have organized and built a cannery at Springbrook to utilize their surplus. There should be more of these factories manufacturing various commercial fruit products, as there is nothing that concerns the grower more than the dispo- sition of fruits that the market will not take at living prices. The commissioner gives a good account of the physical character of his district, and on the whole reports the fruit industry in a promising condition. Second District, Charles A. Park, Commissioner. This district includes the larger part of the Willamette Valley, and we regret that his report is so brief. In this district prunes and hops are the great horticultural products, the product of dried fruit in 1903 amounting to 10,000.000 pounds. The nursery interest is also largest in this district, growing an- nually more than 6,000,000 trees. Commissioner Park reports that Salem is the largest primary hop market in the world, and that during the year 1904 there were planted 16,050 acres. Connnissioner Park is manager of the well-known AVallace or- chard, situated in Polk County, and described in Conmiissioner Newell's report. We visited this orchard last September just as a shipment of 65 tons of Bartlett pears had been completed, and 10 Report of State Board of Horticulture. ether kinds were being harvested. We particularly admired a block of Spitzenburg apples of 35 acres, every tree laden with large, well- grown fruit. We learn that 10,000 boxes of No. 1 apples were sold from this orchard at $1.25 per box. We trust that the apple- growers of the Willamette Valley will take heart fn;m the splen- did results obtained from this orchard. Third District, A. H. Carson, Commissioner. Commissioner Carson always writes a full and complete report. He enjoys his work, and has had long experience in practical hor- ticulture. Jackson Coiuity, in this district, is the largest apple and peach- growing district in the State. Mr. Carson reports that the apple orchards of the Rogue River A^ alley have paid their owners from $100 to $500 per acre, the smaller amounts going to those who ex- ercised the least care in growing their crops. We note with great pleasure the rapid progress in this district, the value of fruits sold in the previous biennial term being $703,000, Avhile for the current one, 1903 and 1904, this amounted to $1,370,000, an in- crease of over 90 per cent. During the past two years 7,200 acres have been planted in the counties of Jackson, Josephine, and Douglas to young orchards, largely apples and pears. Anthracnose, or "dead spot," as it is more commonly called, has destroyed niunberless orchards in Western and Southern Ore- gon, and it is only within the past three years that we have learned how to combat this dreaded fungus effectively. Commissioner Car- son's description of the Eisman Brothers' orchard in Josephine County and the accompanying photograph, showing the condition of the trees before and after treatment, afford a striking object les- son. We visited this orchard in company with ^li\ Carson in Sep- tember last, and found the trees making a vigorous growth, foliage and bark in healthy condition, the new growth fast growing over the disfiguring wounds made by the anthracnose. The trees were laden with an abundant crop of large, clean, well-colored Spitzen- burg and Newtowns. Seven thousand boxes were sold from this orchard the present season at $1.50 per box, $10,500. and 3,000 boxes remain unsold. The value of Eisman Brothers' apple crop this year, resulting from the treatment given under the superin- Report of President and Commissioner at Large. 11 tendency of CommLssiouer Carson, exceeds in amount the entire cost of the Board of Horticulture for the current biennial period. Your Commissioner at Large cannot leave this subject without acknowledging his great indebtedness and that of the fruitgrowers of Oregon to Prof. A. B. Cordley, of our Experiment Station at Corvallis, for giving us the life history of this destructive fungus, and consequently its vulnerable points of attack. This valuable bulletin was reprinted in the Sixth Biennial Report of this Board. Fourth District, B. H. Weber,, Commissioner. Mr. Weber reports conditions as highly satisfactory in his dis- trict, and large planting of fruit trees during the current biennial period— chiefly apples in the Hood River and Mosier sections, Avhile cherries and peaches predominated in the vicinity of The Dalles. He estimates the value of the fruit harvest in the Hood River Valley for the season of 1904 to be $275,000. The Mosier section is rapidly increasing its fruit production, and the past sea- son shipped 12,000 boxes of apples, 1,000 crates of strawberries, 3,000 crates of cherries, and 280 tons of plums and pnines. The Dalles section produced 1,000 tons of fresh prunes, 150 tons of plums, 50 tons of cherries, 40,000 boxes of apples, and 35,000 boxes of peaches. Quinces, grapes and melons are also largely grown. Not 5 per cent of fruit lands in this district are now in use for that purpose. The approximate value of all fruits grown in the Fourth District in the season of 1904 is $500,000. Fifth District, Jucld Gecr, Commissioner. This district is situated in the eastern part of the State, and consequently is in the arid and semi-arid belt. It is natural, there- fore, that I\rr. Geer should emphasize the great value of irrigation. Lie writes : " It is fo me one of the most astonishing things in na- ture to witness the white, arid, sag-ebrush land, and adjoining it to see fields green with alfalfa, acres of melons and tomatoes, and orchards laden with fruit. ' ' We are glad to know that the General Government proposes to reclaim vast areas of these sagebrush lands in Malheur and Umatilla Counties at no distant date. Mr. Geer estimates that not 1 per cent of lands adapted to fruitgrowing in the Fifth District are in use for that purpose. Cherries do exceedingly well in many portions of the district, 12 Keport of State Board op Horticulture. the favorite varieties being Black Republican, Royal Ann, Bing, and Lambert; and as they ripen after the markets are bare of Cali- fornia stocks, they command a good price. The commissioner calls attention to the proper thinning of fruit and first-class packing in order to realize the highest prices in the markets. walnut-growing. Commissioner Newell, in his report, discusses to some extent the subject of walnut-growing, and in the appendix will be found an interesting paper by Mr. J. B. Pilkington relative to this branch of horticulture. Your Commissioner at Large has also given this industry consid- <.-rable attention. Conditions in Oregon, particularly in the Wil- lamette section, are especially favorable for the growing of English Avalnuts, and that instead of paying out annually several hundred dollars for nuts, we ought in a few years to be exporting them. In a recent ti-ip through Southern California we saw several hundred acres of these beautiful trees, and was informed that no branch of fruitgrowing is more profitable. In some sections, however, it was said that the nuts failed to fill for want of sufficient moisture. The walnut is a great feeder, thrives at times in indifferent soils, but moisture must not be lacking. Trees planted in Oregon 15 and 20 years ago bear nuts of larger size and better quality than the imported ones. A few years ago we all planted prunes ; this year we ai^e running to hops, but next year it will be walnuts. A word of caution may not be amiss. Do not plant walnuts until you have thoroughly in- vestigated the subject, as success will depend largely on the variety and generation of the trees you plant. I believe that it is a well- attested fact that a second generation tree will bear larger nuts than either the first or third or fourth generation. It follows, therefore, that your trees should be budded or grafted from cions or buds taken from a second generation tree. Again, seedlings grown from nuts however excellent in themselves, may prove unsatisfac- tory from the fact that the flowers from which they were grown had been pollenized by an inferior variety growing in the vicinity. Chestnuts also grow well in Oregon, and it is the writer's opinion that improved American varieties like the Paragon are to be pre- ferred to those coming from Europe, Report of President and Commissioner at Large. 13 MARKETS. There were many more apples grown in the United States in 1904 than in 1903, and consequently the demand for the common grades has not been so strong. The bright, high-colored, high-qualitj' product always commands a good price whether at home or abroad. California was short in apples this year, but a low transportation rate brought large quantities from Colorado, and largely supplied the demand. Oregon Spitzenburgs go largely to New York, and Newtowns to Europe, where they have been selling this fall as high as 14 shillings per box. Our growers are beginning to learn that the best prices and the perfect pack can be secured through or- ganization. What to do with our surplus and second grades is the vital ques- tion. Given as low a trans-Pacific rate as obtained in San Fran- cisco the past year, we can unload enormous quantities in Asia, but in the absence of such a rate we must find at least partial relief through fruit-preserving factories. insect pests. No especially dangerous pests have appeared in this State to my knowledge during the past two years. The ravages of the codlin moth can be reduced to about 10 per cent. The San Jose scale con- tinues to enlarge its territory, and as it lives upon the willow, the rose, and the thorn, and other native shrubs, it can never be wholly eradicated by artificial means. If ever exterminated it must be by some insect or parasitic enemy, and the General Government is experimenting in that direction. The orchardist can, however, hold it in check by once, annually, thoroughly spraying with lime and sulphur. Repeated tests demonstrate that salt adds little or nothing to the value of the compound, and can be eliminated from the formula. The larger orchardists, ever alive to their interests, will take care of the pest on their own premises. It is the owner of a few trees, who is not prepared to spray, and does not spray, and as a result this miserable pest is being diffused over the whole country, and even some of our nurseries have become involved. If we would protect our fruit industry, and we have none more prom- ising, we must wage an active and annual campaign against the San Jose scale, and the query arises, Who will do this and who will pay for it ? and this leads to a discussion of our present 14 Report of State Board of Horticulture. horticultural system. The Legislature appropriates $4,500 to pay the annual expenses 01 our State Board of Horticulture, and the financial exhibit of the Secretary of the Board, which accompanies this report, will show lidw the fund is distributed. Out of this fund must be deducted the Secretaiy's salary, $900, and the incidental expenses of his office, the printing of bulletins, transportation, expenses in attending semiannual meetings of the Board, as provided by law, postage, etc., and in alternate years must pay for the half-tone illustrations and the paper on which they are printed, and. in addition, for 2,000 copies of the biennial report, in order that there may be an ade- quate number to supply the fruitgrower, agricultural, and horti- cultural organizations. What is left of the appropriation (about ■what one qualified man ought to receive) is divided among six com- missioners to investigate, to educate, and to police some 96,000 square miles of territory. On a preceding page I have pointed out tlie immense area of our horticultural districts, the smallest as large as an Eastern State, the largest equal in size to a half dozen of them. All that a commissioner can do is to make hurried visits to fruit centers with little time for inspection, and none to see that his notices for disinfection are complied with. Our quarantine laws need but little change; we do, however, need to enforce them, and in order to do this we must enlarge our horticultural system. The want of our fruit industry at the present time is thorough and general inspection and enforcement of our laws made for its protection. In 1902 our State Horticultural Society appointed a committee to go to Salem and present a bill appropriating the modest sum of $1,500 to pay the expenses of a deputy inspector at Portland, and other towns where fruit is sold or shipped, with the result that the Legislature struck out the appropriation, and then. I believe, passed the bill, and as a consequence we still eat trash and demoralize our markets, to the disgust of the man who cares f(;r his orchard and raises clean fruit. I regret to say that Oregon is far behind her neighbors in the protection of the fruit industry. Let us examine their methods. The State of Washington has a eonnnissioner at large whose offi- cial residence is at Tacoma. He is paid a salary of $2,000 per an- num; incidental expenses, $1,000; office rent and printing of bul- Report of President and Commissioner at Large. 15 ietins, $1,000; clerk hire, $700; fruit exhibit at Tacoma, $300. In addition to this, Washington has a county inspector for each county. This inspector is nominated by the county horticultural society, and must have a certificate of qualification from the state commissioner at large, and is appointed by the county commis- sioners and paid $4 a day while in actual service. He may be re- moved by petition of the county horticultural society and the state commissioner for neglect of duty. He reports to the state connnis- sioner, who fixes the value of his services to the paid by the county. TliG State of Calif omia. Up to 1903 California had a state board of horticulture, consisting of nine commissioners, one for each district and one for the state at large. In that year it repealed that law and created in lieu the office of state commissioner of horticul- ture with a salary of $250 per month, $1,500 for traveling expenses, $1,500 for clerk, and $500 for office rent. He may appoint a deputy with a compensation of $200 per month. In addition to the com- missioner at large, California has county boards, consisting of three commissioners each. It is made mandatory for the county supervisors of a county to appoint three commissioners on the pe- tition of 25 resident fruitgrowers. The county board may appoint ti deputy inspector, who receives $2.50 a day for actual service, and the compensation of the commissioners is $4 a day. They may aiso subdivide the county into districts and appoint a deputy for each subdivision. The commissioner at large is ex-offtcio member of county boards, and all reports are made to him. It is made the duty of the state printer to furnish the commissioner at large with all the printed matter that he may require, and of the secretary of state to furnish his office with all necessary stationery. The state of Idaho has a state board of horticultural inspection, consisting of five members, three of whom are appointed by the governor, the other two being the director of the experiment sta- tion, and professor zoology of the State University. The president and secretary shall be selected from members of the board. The state board shall appoint a state horticultural in- spector, and fix his salary. They shall also divide the state into not more than 10 districts, and the state inspector shall appoint, sub- ject to the confirmation of the board, a horticultural inspector for each district. District inspectors must be practical horticulturists. They shall 16 Report of State Board of Horticulture. receive a compensation of $5 per day, and shall be paid out of the general fund of the state in warrants drawn by the state auditor, only after bills presented for service have been audited and ap- proved by the secretary and majority of the members of the state board of horticultural inspection. From the foregoing you will see that Washington and Califor- nia have, in addition to a state commissioner, county inspectors whose compensation is paid by the county, and in this manner they are able to guard their fruit industiy with the greatest vigilance, that under our present system is not and cannot be done. Your Commissioner at Large, after giving this subject serious considera- tion, respectfully but earnestly recommends : That you enact legislation providing for the appointment by the county commissioners of the several counties of our State a county inspector of horticulture ; that said inspector shall be appointed on the petition of not less than 25 actual fruitgrowers in the county where said petition is presented, together with a certificate of quali- fication from the horticultural commissioner of the district in Avhich the county is situated; and fuilher. that the compensation of said inspector shall be a county charge ; and further, that the inspector shall report montlily to said State Commissioner, who shall determine the value of the service rendered, not exceeding per day; and further, that it shall be the duty of the State Commissioner to educate and instruct said inspector as to the laws and quarantine regulations of the State and as to the duties to be performed by him ; and further, that an inspector may be removed for negligence or incompetency, on the petition of a like number of fruitgrowers and the approval of the State District Commis- sioner by the county commissioners after due hearing; and further, ij' any county for any reason fails to appoint an inspector, then the inspector of an adjacent county may perform such service, and his compensation shall be a charge against the county where such service is performed. It is quite immaterial to your Commissioner whether the State Board is abolished and a state commissioner created in lieu thereof. The expense to the State will be about the same, and I am inclined to the opinion that a State District Commissioner would be in nearer touch and could supervise the work f)f the county inspectors more readily than a commissioner at large. Report of President and Commissioner at Large. 17 If it was known that Portland and otlier market towns had an inspector who would not permit diseased, damaged, and infested fruit to be offered for sale, it will stimulate our growers to raise a better quality of fruit and to build preserving factories in our large fruit sections. It will encourage the careful, intelligent fruit- grower, and it will drive the careless, negligent one out of business. This system will clean up the orchards of Oregon and popularize the most intelligent methods. It will multiply orchards, advance land values, build homes, and give our State a yet greater reputa- tion for the superior quality of her fruits. Did we not all rejoice when, at Buffalo, Oregon received the highest award for her ex- hibit, and again a little later at St. Louis, where our fruits were awarded 127 medals'? And, better yet, the only county in the United States receiving a grand prize was an Oregon county. Respectfully submitted, E. L. Smith, President of Board and Commissioner at Large. Hood River, Oregon, December, 1904. HOR. 18 Report of State Board of Horticulture. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER FIRST DISTRICT. I'o the President and Members of the State Board of Hortieulture. I herewith submit my biennial report for the term ending: Sep- tember 30, 1904. The First Horticultural District comprises the counties of INIultnomah, Clackamas, Wash- ington, Yamhill, Columbia, Clatsop, and Til- lamook. The five eonnties first named are splendidly adapted to all kinds of fruit com- monly gTown in the temperate zone, and the other two, though not strictly first-class fruit-growing localities, are still capable of great development in this line, particularly iu the matter of growing small fi'uits, ber- ries, etc. All of these counties are more or less monn- tainons, comprising the northern part of the Willauiette Valley, with the numerous small valleys tributary thereto, and a long; stretch of country along the coast. The soil of the valleys is allu- vial of most all grades that can be classed under that general title, in some places a little gravelly, in others sandy or loamy, in still others a deep black soil locally known as "beaverdam." The foot- hills, and even the highest mountains, save in the few places where rock croi)s (Uit, are a fertile clay loaui. The native trees comprise an innnense number of varieties, but by far the most common and most valuable is the Douglas spruce, connnonly called the Doug- las fir. Many of the valleys have valuable tracts of ash, and the southern part of Clackamas and the larger part of Yamhill coun- ties contain considerabh^ (luantities of oak timber. At the present time the principal commercial orchards are in Yamhillj Washington, Multnomah, western Clackamas, and north- ern Columbia counties, the principal berry and small-fruit farms in ^Multnomah and the eastern parts of Washington and Yamhill counties, and grapes in western Washington, and in ^Multnomah, near Portland. However, there is nothing in climatic or soil con- Report of Commissioner First District. 19 ditions to prevent the extension of the growth of any or all of these fruits over practically the entire district. Not 5 per cent of the available fiiiit land of the district has yet been used for that ]')nrpose. Estimating as nearly as possible, though, of course, it cannot be claimed to be very accurate, the acreage of the different fruits in the different counties is about as follows : Apple Fear Cherry Peach Prune) Plum i Grapes Strawberries Blackberries Currants Gooseberries Raspberries- Clackamas 2,200 275 261 143 2,543 58 140 37 12 8 20 MtiUnamah 845 197 227 29 800 20 400 190 48 26 118 Washington Yamhill 1,305 130 100 31 1,074 100 40 6 3 4 8 1,407 145 193 72 3,01S 9 86 45 4 16 28 Oulumbia 355 56 77 6 260 2 5 4 3 3 15 Clatsop 190 12 8 1 40 Tillamook 135 6 4 1 10 10 7 1 I' The total number of trees of standard and miscellaneous fruits is about as follows : Apple I'herry Peach Pear Prune ) Plum J y people who are engaged exclusively in this bi-anch of horticulture, and the Oregon prune, the way it has been prepared Por the market, has fomid favor with the trade, and it is indeed a beautiful and delicious fruit. The apple responds quickly and profitably to all who give their trees the proper attention. The beautiful red apple of Oregon, that did so much to court favor of the world, was first raised in the Willamette Valley, and we are happy to say that other sections of the State have found that they, too, can grow the blushing beauties. Among the varieties of cherries we would mention as foremost the Royal Ann, Bing. and Lambert as excellent varieties of this fruit. Do we have no pests to destroy and injure our fruit? Yes, as a rule, we have all of them. Without them the horticulturist could rejoice in no victory, and fruit would be of little commercial value. One of the chief pests of the apple is the codlin moth, and I have found in my District that apples grown west of the summit of the Coast Range are free from this pest. Why this territory has not been invaded I cannot say. A great deal of nursery stock is grown in the Second District. In 1903 there was 421 acres planted to nursery stock, upon which was raised 5,500,000 trees. In 1904 there was 475 acres planted to nursery stock and 6.300,000 trees. All of the nurseries are well equipped with facilities for taking care of their nursery stock, and all of the stock is young and clean. I wish to incorporate in my report a few facts concerning the hop industry, which comes under the jurisdiction of this Board. During the present year there has been planted to hops in this District 16,050 acres, which produced approximately 900 pounds per acre. Salem, in Marion County, is the largest primary liop market in the United States. Respectfully yours, Charles A. Park, Commissioner Second District. Report of Commissioner Third District. 27 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER THIRD DISTRICT. To' the Honorable President (uid Members of the State Board of Horticulture — Gentlemen : I respectfully submit the following report for the biennial year ending September 30, 1904, in regard to the horti- cultural industry of the Third Horticultural District : The Third District embraces Coos, Curry, Douglas, Josephine, Jackson, Lake, and Klamath Counties, all southern counties of the State, beginning at the Pacific and run- ning thence east along the northern Califor- nia line to the western boundary of the State of Idaho. All of these counties are mountainous, with large and small valleys, with rolling foothills, with various soils, such as alluvial along the rivers and creek bot- toms, red loam and ashy granite on the foothills. The alluvial soils along the rivers and creeks are of inexhaustible richness, as the winter rains bring down from the highest levels plant food that is constantly renewing these soils, and as a rule they are sub-irrigated, and any kind of a crop planted in them yields bountifully. These were the first soils settled on and im- proved by the pioneers of Oregon. Subsequent settlers took up homesteads on the foothills, and where possible built ditches and conducted the waters of the streams to their farms, and by that means made these foothills very pro- ductive. With water it was found that the foothill lands were as productive as the alluvial soils; that these foothill soils contained rich plant food when the same could be watered. Of the seven counties in the Third District, only three at the present time are engaged in horticultural pursuits in a commercial sense, to wit: Douglas, Josephine and Jackson. "28 Report of State Board of Horticulture. Coos and Curry, both coast counties, are largely engaged in the dairy business. Lake and Klamath Counties, in southeastern Ore- gon, owing to the vast ranges of bunch grass on the mountains, and the .wonderful yield of alfalfa in the valleys, are principally devoted to stockraising. The want of railroad facilities has re- tarded their horticultural development. The soils and climatic conditions of these counties are favorable to horticultural development, and it will be but a short time until the great profits from apple-growing will engage the attention of the people of these four counties, as railroads are now being built into these counties. To describe by counties the value and extent of lands adapted to horticultural pursuits in the Third District I find is impossible. The area of such lands is so vast that an estimate of the acreage and value would be mere guesswork and of little practical value. It is not unreasonable for me to say that at the present not 10 per cent of the lands of the seven counties of the Third District adapted to horticultural pursuits are planted and devoted to the industry. To approximate the value of horticultural land, there are bearing apple orchards in the Rogue River Valley that for the past three years have paid their owners $600 an acre. It must be understood not all bearing apple orchards in the Rogue River Valley during that time have paid their o\^Taers that sum per acre, as there are orchards that have only paid $150 to $200 per acre. These men who derived the less amount per acre from their orchards, so far as soil and age of orchard are concerned, had equal opportunity with the men who made $600 per acre ; but many lit- tle details, such as thinning out their fruit at the proper time, the neglect to spray for the moth, etc., lessened their profits. The profits, greater or less, is purely a question of personality, a love of the business, and to do things, and not drift. That the Third District has greatly improved in horticultural pursuits during the past two years, for comparative purposes I sub- mit the gross value of f imits sold in 1901 and 1902 : Apples, boxes Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds cured Apples, pounds dried Peaches, pounds Small fruits, berries, etc., crates— _ Gross value for the two years. 300,000 ItiO.OOO 8,000,000 200,000 130,000 50,000 S . 703,000 00 Report of Commissioner Third District. 2£^ For 1903 and 1904, the following is a careful estimate for those years : 1903 1904 Apples, boxes Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds cured Peaclies, boxes, 20 pounds each. Small fruits, crates Gross value Apples, boxes Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds cured Peaches, boxes, 20 pounds each- Small fruits, crates Gross value 300,000 120,000 7,000,000 10,000 50,000 100,000 100,000 3,000,000 250,000 75,000 Total gross value for 1903-1901. 040.000 00> 760,000 00 9 1,390,000 OO' By comparing the gross value of the output of 1901 and 1902 with 1903 and 1904, it will be seen that the value has increased in two years $587,000. This, notwithstanding in 1903, our peach crop was nearly a failure, and in 1904 our prune crop was not over 35 per cent of a normal crop. This increase in value the past two years is due to the fact that many new orchards have come into bearing, and growers, by thinning out their fruitj and better culti- vation and spraying, have grown a higher grade of fruit that com- mands better prices in the markets. For the years 1903 and 1904, the several counties of the District produced the following amount of fruit: Jackson County Douglas County Apples, boxes Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds cured Peaches, boxes Sinall fruits, crates Apples, boxes Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds cured Peaches, boxes Small fruits, crates Josephine County— Apples, boxes -.. Pears, boxes Prunes, pounds- Peaches, boxes. Small fruits, crates 500,000- 100,000 1,000,000 150,000 .50,000 125,000 80,000 8,750,000 130,000 50,000 75,000 20,000- 250,000 30,000 25,000- The above estimates are made from careful data gathered through the years 1903-4 for the three counties above tabulated that are engaged in commercial fruitgrowing. From the best data I am able to obtain, Coos, Curry, Lake, and Klamath Counties produce more than enough apples, prunes, and small fruits, such as strawberries, blackberries, etc., for domestic 30 Report of State Board of Horticulture. use; and Coos and Curiy export to California markets about 5,000 boxes of apples annually. From the foregoing estimates it will be observed that the hor- ticultural industry' of the Third District is in a healthy condition and rapidly expandins:. During 1903 and 1904 were planted in Jackson County about 4 000 acres of apples and peai^s. During the same period Douglas County planted 1,500 acres in apples and pears, and Josephine County about 200 acres in apples, making a total of 7,200 acres of new orchards for the two years. From present horticultural production, and only 10 per cent of the land adapted to fruitraising planted in the District, the magni- tude of the industry in a few years Avill be large. The great profits derived from apple and pear-growing is from year to year stimulating the planting of new orchards. I estimate that Jackson County will plant 3,000 acres to apple and pear trees next winter, Douglas County 2,000 acres, and Jo- sephine 500 acres. Irrigation is becoming a factor in successful apple-growing in this District. In all cases where pumping plants have been put in, and apple and pear orchards irrigated, the profits from the orchards have doubled. Gasoline is found to be a cheap and effective power, and will be largely used in one or two years more. Where water for pumping cannot be had from running streams or lakes, wells are dug, and with tunnels to create reservoirs, an abundance of water can be developed on any 40-acre tract to ir- rigate it. At the present, the future of fruitgrowing in the Third District is bright, and promises to become one of the greatest industries o-f Southern Oregon. Climate and soil being congenial to the apple and pear, and the markets of the IMiddle West and Atlantic States, together with the European demand for our Yellow Newtowns, and the Oriental trade that can be had, stimulates men of capital to plant out large orchards as an investment. Our present production of fruits by comparison will look very small to what it will be 10 years hence. Report of Commissioner Third District. 31 field work. Uurinj; the past two years I have visited and inspected 225 orchards, varyino' from one acre to 350 acres in size. I always found the owners glad to welcome me, and all were pleased with the advice and encouragement I suggested as to the best methods of cultivating, pruning, and spraying their orchards. In all cases where I found want of practical knowledge as to in- sect pests and fungus diseases, I taught the owners how to identify the pests or disease, the remedies for the same, and urged their use. Each fall I have inspected eight nurseries within the District, and in all cases found them healthy and free of insect pests. During the winters (jf 1902-3-4, have inspected approximately 250,000 nursery trees iinported from other states. In nearly all cases found these imported trees healthy and free of pests. In only two instances did I have to order disinfection, which was done. Have mailed and distributed 500 volumes of the Seventh Bien- nial Report of the Board to fruitgrowers within the District. Have received and answered 325 letters from fruitgrowers on al- most every' subject pertaining to the fruit industry. Have received and answered 70 letters from residents of Min- nesota, Wisconsin, ^Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska, each de- siring specific information in regard to price of lands in Oregon adapted to fruit-growing, profits, etc. ; also one letter from Auck- land, New Zealand, and one from Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, both asking for information as to fruit lands. During the packing season each fall I have visited and inspected all of the packing houses in the District. In all cases found the packers alive and alert, superintending their help, rejecting dis- eased and infected fruit, and destroying the same. The care of the packers in packing clean fruit has done much for Oregon fruits in giving them a reputation abroad. APPLE TREE ANTHRACNOSE. Through the able investigation and study of this fungus by Prof. A. B. Cordley, of the Oregon Agricultural College at Corvallis, Oregon, whose bulletin covering this subject was published on page 405 of the Sixth Biennial Report of this Board, I am con- 32 Report of State Board of Horticulture. fident this fungus, which so seriously threatened apple-growing: in Western and Southern Oregon the past few years, can he controlled if Prof. Cordley's suggestions and advice given in that bulletin are energetically followed. Prof. Cordley is without doubt the first entomologist to correctly describe the fungus and suggest to the apple-grower a practical remedy. That his investigation and study of the fungus is of practical value to the apple-growers of Southern Oregon. I take pleasure in recording. Eisman Brothers own an apple orchard of 35 acres near Grants Pass, which, in 1901, was so badly diseased with anthracnose that they were about to dig it up. Every tree in the orchard was diseased with the fungus. Nearly half of the tops of the trees were dead or dying. The vitality of the orchard was so low that it did not produce apples enough to pay expenses. The brothers worked faithfully cutting out dead spots and dead wood during early spring months, but the fungus continued to increase. At my suggestion Eisman Brothers began spraying with bor- deaux early in the fall before the leaves were off the trees, as sug- gested in Prof. Cordley's bulletin. The benefits of their first fall spraying were very pronounced. The spring following showed but very little new tissue affected with the fungus. It was evident the early fall spraying had caught the spores of the fungus as they began germinating and destroyed them. Eisman Brothers followed up their spraying in the fall of 1902-3, and today their orchard is very vigorous and free of the fungus. As a reward for the energy and pluck of the brothers, this year (1904) their orchard has produced 10,000 boxes of as fine, clean, healthy four-tier apples as were ever grown in any apple district in the United States. From this crop they sold 7,000 boxes, four-tier. Yellow New- town and Spitzenburg, at $1.50 per box, $10,500 worth of apples, and have 3,000 boxes of Ben Davis and Winesaps left that will bring them from $1 to $1.25 per box. William Hellwell, of Yoncalla, in Douglas County, had the same result with fall spraying for anthracnose as had by Eisman Brothers. - »sttV')?y {■■■ \K > ' V A^ i^\ A . ■' h' 1- .A ■■^~s^ / 0 '^1^5 *- ," *^-*v^-v^<- E o M m o n c T c o « c O c ■n V ■4-> c m a. ■a re o O >> o Report of Commissioner Third District. 33 There can be no question but that early fall spraying with bor- deaux will destroy the fungus anthracnose, known locally as "canker," "dead spot," or "black spot." San Jose scale and other insect pests continue to compel the at- tention of all fruit men. With modern spraying rigs, and knowledge of tried remedies, these pests are now regarded only an incident in the growing of a fruit crop. A. H. Carson, Commissioner Third District. HOR. 3 34 Report of State Board of Horticulture. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER FOURTH DISTRICT. To the Honorable State Board of Horticulture — Gentlemen : Again I appear before you fully prepared to chronicle a most satisfactory and successful condition of the fruit industry in the Fourth District. Though weather conditions were at times very dis- couraging, trying even the mettle of the most seasoned veterans in the business, and though the early prospects were veiled with much uncertainty, the final chapter is, neverthe- less, one of complete success and entire sat- faction. While ours is a rich soil and splendid cli- mate, weather and soil conditions alone will not produce a profitable crop. It is essential that orchardists be ever on the alert; now cultivating, now spray- ing, now pruning and thinning their fruit. Thorough cultivation is, of course, one of the necessities to suc- cess in orcharding, and in our semi-arid climate no system produces better results than shallow plowing in early spring, which should be followed immediately with a thorough harrowing, sufficient to break up all the clods, leaving the surface finely pulverized. After the ground has been thus put in good shape, a common drag har- row run over it at intervals of 10 days to two weeks will create suf- ficient dust mulch to retain moisture as well as to keep the weeds in check. In my orchard work, I confine myself almost entirely to plow and drag harrow, having practically discarded all other kinds of tools. Armed with a copy of the Spray Bulletin issued by this Board for a manual, a first-class spray pump loaded with the proper so- lution, discharged according to directions, the fruitgrower is fully equipped to wage sanguinary and successful war against his nu- merous insect enemies. Report of Commissioner Fourth District. 35 Closer attention must, however, be given by some growers not only to the correct and proper preparation of the different solu- tions recommended, but also to the time of application, as only by following directions carefully can desired results and complete success be obtained. Much less failure to successfully combat insect pests of all kinds would be reported if, instead of the half-hearted and desultory fashion now in vogue with some growers, they would give more at- tention to details, and the prompt and thorough application of the remedies recommended. I deem it needless here to repeat any of the recipes recommended by the Board, as the bulletins containing them are within the easy reach of all interested parties. Some complaint has reached me about the inefficiency of the remedy recommended by the Board for combating the San Jose scale. Upon looking into these cases I find that either the com- plainant's orchard is on a creek bottom, near willows growing along the stream, or in close proximity to an orchard infested with the insects, and whose owner is negligent of his duty. Where the former is true, relief can be had only by removing the brush on which the insects feed and breed, but where orchards are infested, and spraying is neglected by their owners, I make it my duty to have the nuisance abated by a thorough spraying of the infested trees. Settings of new orchards have been very extensive in this District during the last planting season, apples predominating, particu- larly in Hood River and Hosier, while at The Dalles and other sections of the District, cherries and peaches were very largely set out. An idea as to the extent and growth of the fruit industry may be formed from the amount of our exports, which this year will exceed $20,000,000, as against $3,000,000 in 1894 and $2,000,000 in 1884, a gain of over $17,000,000 in 10 years' time. A very healthy growth, indeed. Hood River Valley leads in the production of apples in this Dis- trict, and has at this time about 3,000 acres in apple orchards, which is about 10 per cent of the available land suitable for this fruit in the valley. This year's apple crop amounts to practically 100,000 boxes, and is valued at $125,000. Strawberries yielded 36 Report of State Board of Horticulture. heavier than ever before, and fully 100,000 crates of this luscious fruit were shipped, which brought the growers about $135,000. About 1,200 acres are now devoted to strawberry culture in the valley. Pears do exceptionally well here, though as yet they re- ceive but scant attention ; only about four carloads were put on the market from here this year. I am convinced, however, that pear culture will, in the near future, receive more attention, as par- ticularly the heavier soils are splendidly adapted to the production of high-grade fruit of this variety. Besides the above, cherries and blackberries are quite extensively grown here. The approxi- mate value of the Hood River fruit crop will this year reach the magnificent sum of $275,000. Hosier is also steadily forging ahead as a fruit center, and is fast making a reputation as a shipping point for fancy apples, cherries, prunes, and strawberries. This year about 12,000 boxes of apples, valued at $12,000, will be shipped from here. Further, we find that 1,000 crates of strawberries were marketed at an average price of $2.25 per crate, or $2,250 for the crop ; 3,000 crates of cherries at 60 cents per crate, $1,800 ; 250 tons prunes, $3,750 ; 30 tons plums, $500. There are at present about 300 acres devoted to apples and 10 acres to strawberries, which is about 10 per cent of the available area suitable for fruit culture in the territory com- prising the Hosier country. The fruit crop at The Dalles was exceptionally heavy this year, and all the numerous varieties of fruit grown here yielded abun- dantly. In point of quantity, prunes are in the lead. The yield of these was about 1,000 tons, value $15,000. Fifty carloads of the above have found their way, in the fresh state, to eastern markets, principally New York. Further, we have here 150 tons of plums, value $2,250 ; 40,000 boxes apples, value $30,000. I will state here that the apparent disparity in the value of Hood River apples and those grown at Hosier and The Dalles is attributable to the larger per cent of Yellow Newtown Pippin, and Spitzenburg grown at the former place, which, selling at a higher price than other va- rieties, naturally increases the average. Easily 50 tons of cherries found a ready market at The Dalles canneries at $80 per ton, and fully 35,000 boxes of peaches were disposed of by the gi'owers in this section; value about $15,000. Peaches attain wonderful perfection in the soils of this locality. Report of Commissioner Fourth District. 37 Apricots of large size and excellent flavor are produced in ever- increasing quantities. Quinces, too, are largely produced, while grapes grow luxuriantly on the south and east exposures of our more hilly soils. Not to exceed 5 per cent of the available area suitable to fruit culture tributary to The Dalles is at this time de- voted to this industry. The approximate value of the entire fruit crop of the Fourth District this season is $500,000. Other sections of this District will soon be heard from as pro- ducers of large quantities of various kinds of fruits. Much of the arid land along the south bank of the Columbia River is only awaiting the magic touch of irrigation to be turned from its pres- ent desert state into a broad oasis producing bounteously most luscious peaches, grapes, and other varieties of fruit. Efforts now being made at Trrigon, IMorrow County, are ample evidence that with sufficient moisture, artificially administered, these lands will yield abundantly. Much valuable fruit land in this district now remains unde- veloped from lack of transportation facilities, but the several rail- roads now building, and others contemplated, Avill be a great in- centive to the development of the industry in many favorable sections. In the year 1905, Avhen thousands of our transcontinental cousins will visit our fair State to take a look at the Lewis and Clark Ex- position in Portland, the acknowledged hub of the Pacific North- west, special efforts should be made by the fruitgrowers to produce a crop of unexcelled quality to fully demonstrate to our visitors the superior advantages possessed by Oregon and the Pacific Northwest in the lines of horticulture for the production of the greatest variety of high-grade fruit in the temperate zone. Respectfully submitted, R. H. Weber, Commissioner Fourth District. DO Report of State Board of Horticulture, KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER FIFTH DISTRICT. Cove, Oregon, September 30, 1904. To the President of the State Board of Horticulture— The following is a brief report of the work done in the Fifth District during the biennial term ending September 30, 1904: My district comprises the counties of Uma- tilla, Union, Wallowa, Baker, Grant, ]\Ial- heur, and Harney. For one to give a good and true report of a country so diversified is no easy task. The territory is a difficult one to cover, many parts of it being somewhat isolated and necessitating long drives over a mountainous country. Nor can I always time my visits so as to see a county when inspection ^vill do the most good. Places, like people, are sometimes at their best, and all look fair and bounteous; again, adverse conditions may rule for a time, and one would hardly recognize it as the same place. THE HOME orchard. For convenience, I would divide the orchards in my District into two classes— the home orchard and the commercial orchard. Of course, there are 50 growers of the home orchard to one of the other, and I would gladly give them a greater share of my time, but it is almost impossible for one man with limited means to work so fast. Nevertheless, I wish they were more numerous. It indi- cates a move in the right direction in any community where a gen- eral interest is taken in horticulture as directed in beautifying and improving the homes. It is a fascinating branch of home-building. and I doubt very much if there is a better or truer indication of the life within the home than the one we may read from people's door- yards and gardens. Report of Commissioner Fifth District. 39 There are few commercial fruitgrowers who did not develop a love for the work in some little home orchard. It is a common re- mark among the old settlers wherever I have been in Eastern Ore- gon: "They told me when I set those trees that it was no use. I was wasting time and money. Fruit would never grow in this country." And the eyes of the old settler lights with pride as they lovingly fall on the fruits of his labor. Often they are trees over 30 years old, still sound to the very tops, and bearing their enor- mous burdens of perfect fruit. How much we owe to these pioneer fruitgrowers ! One place after another has been tried by them, and really I have yet to find the place where an honest effort has met with defeat. Early histories of Eastern Oregon describe it as being mostly mountainous and arid wastes of land, but cultivation and irriga- tion are working wonders in many parts which were once considered worthless. It is often difficult to convince the home fruitgrower that time and money are wisely spent buying and using good spray pumps. He argues that he gets what fruit he wants, gives to any of his neighbors that wants it, and then much rots on the ground. He asks no more, and apparently wishes to be let alone. Well, our work is largely one of education with the grower. We can only be just to all. There are some pests which are a menace to the surrounding orchards that must be severely dealt with. The biennial reports have proved a valuable aid to me in my work. It is surprising how many write to me requesting one, or call at my home to obtain one. Let no one underrate the little home orchard. The home-loving instinct has, in nearly every instance, prompted some pioneer to reproduce the favorite varieties grown in his boyhood eastern home, and the wonderful perfection attained, combined with beauty of coloring, firmness of texture and rare keeping qualities unknown in the old home, has induced the keen business man to become the commercial orchardist. THE COMMERCIAL ORCHARD. Here we have a class of growers easy to convince, as a rule. It is not hard to convince a man when it increases the bulk of his poeketbook. The more easy-going, it is true, are found in this 40 Report of State Board of Horticulture. business as well as many others, but the majority are eager to learn everything obtainable in the way of ciilture, varieties, pruning, and packing and shipping commercial fruit. In every instance I have found that the more the business developed in one locality, the more profitable it proved for all interested. For instance, if a given place has 20 carloads of one variety of fruit, the growers can always obtain better prices than a place having only one car- load to market. More buyers are in the field. Their methods of picking, grading, and packing are all on a higher scale. The com- mercial grower does not and need not fear competition in his busi- ness. Even an over-supply for a season or two should not discour- age him, provided his location is good for raising a high grade of fruit. It induces men to build canneries, evaporators and cold storage plants, which greatly benefit, as off years will come in the business, and a small local market can never expect to have such accessories to the business. IRRIGATED LANDS. Umatilla, INIalheur, and Harney Counties contain large tracts of arid lands which are now coming onto the market. Some of it is al- ready covered by large ditches, which furnish water for irrigation. ]\[uch more will be. It is hard to believe the possibilities of this land without having seen results. It is to me one of the most as- tonishing things in nature to witness the white arid sagebrush land, and adjoining it to see fields green with tons of alfalfa, acres of melons, tomatoes, and orchards loaded wnth fruit. The climate is all that could be desired during the growing sea- son. The question of water is under control of the grower. Rains do not interrupt him or miiii liis hay after it is cut or rot or crack his fruit. The Umatilla project contemplates directing water from the Uma- tilla River below the city of Pendleton and taking it westerly to the region of Butter Creek, where a number of shallow depressions can be converted into stronger reservoirs. By building long, low earthen banks of the reservoirs thus made, the water can be con- ducted onto the arid laud. The lands to be irrigated are undulating in character, and are accessible to the markets. INIalheur and the Owyhee Rivers rise in the mountainous regions of the eastern part of Oregon, and flow in generally eastern Report of CoMxMISsioner Fifth District. 41 or northeastern direction, and enter Snake River in the southeast- ern part of Oregon. In the k>wer part of their courses these rivers pass through broad valleys already partly developed, the summer flow being used for irrigation. In order to reclaim additional lands it "will be necessary to store the flood flow in various valleys traversed by these rivers. Such changes as these, it can readily be seen, would have a great bearing in changing j)ortions of East- ern Oregon. No one should get the mistaken idea that water is everything. It cannot take the place of cultivation. After irrigation, cultiva- tion is all the more necessary. An orchard should be cultivated both ways after being thoroughly irrigated. Water will be needed less often, and the fruit will be of better quality; in fact, more naturally developed, than where too much dependence is placed on water alone. Some argue that irrigation produces a fruit of poor flavor. I contend that it is the manner in which the water is applied that af- fects the quality of the fimit. An intelligent application of mois- ture, combined Avith climate and good soil, will produce good fruit. THE APPLE. I The apple is destined to ever head the list of commercial fniits in Eastern Oregon. Nor could we wish for a worthier fruit to be at the head could we have the whole world to choose from. All of the foothills and many of the creek bottoms, as well as numerous prairies, are well adapted to apple culture, and land that produces good wheat will produce good apples. Reall3^ I think barely 1 per cent of the good apple land in my District is in use for that pur- pose. To the amateur orchardist I would say : First, select your loca- tion near a good orchard. Second, don't experiment on a large scale. Try to observe what apples mature to perfection in your im- mediate vicinity. Many of the choicest apples attain perfection only in certain locations, Mobile other varieties equally as good and highly profitable may be grown with most satisfactory results. Study the markets, the demands of the buyers, shipping and cold- storage men in making up your list, and then do not make it too large. A carload of one or two varieties always commands a higher price than one made up of a dozen different varieties, even though 42 Report of State Board of Horticulture. they all be equally as choice. I would suggest for the higher val- leys and foothill lands the Rome Beauty, King of Tompkins Coimty, York Imperial, Rhode Island Greening, and Jonathan, while if I were planting in the lower warmer valleys I would choose Yellow Newtown and Spitzenburg. CHERRIES. Sweet cherries of unusual size and firmness excel in many parts of my District. While they do not mature early enough to catch the first big sale which the California fruit obtains, we still can produce the goods, and if we had canneries to handle them when there is danger of the eastern markets becoming overstocked, I am sure that, as a money-making venture, they would stand sec- ond in the list of commercial fruits. The varieties I would select for a commercial orchard would be Royal Ann, Black Republican, Bing, and Lambert. "While the Black Republican is not as large as many other black cherries, it is the most wonderful keeper known, and has a distinct cherry flavor all its own that so many cherry lovers like, and has proved in the long run one of the best money-makers in the whole cherry family. Our Black Republicans reach an eastern market which is practically bare of California stock, which helps us materially. PEACHES. Where the best shipping varieties of peaches do well, they soon bring good returns to the amateur fruitgrower. A peach is not long lived, and as we have to depend so much on a distant market, I would by no means recommend it as the main dependence. PEARS. So far as I have been able to learn, none of the commercial pear- orchards have yet proved good money-makers with us. Conditions, I think, will change with us somewhat as the coiuitry develops and new markets open up. GRAPES. Grapes do well in many localities, and are sold largely in the local markets and mining camps. Report of Commissioner Fifth District. 43 thinning. No lesson that the fruitgrower has to learn seems so difficult as that of properly thinning the overloaded trees. In spite of every- thing he seems to take a sort of pride in looking at his trees when they are simply loaded with half-grown fruit, and he feels that he is robbing himself and almost committing a sin were he to properly strip the trees of one-half, and perhaps more, of its growing crop. If he has the courage to do so, however, he thereby lessens the cost of picking and packing, and probably raises the fruit from second to first class, and nearly doubles his actual profits, as the expense of putting second grade fruit is the same as first grade, likewise shipping and commission charges. When the market is overstocked, first grade fruit always sells first, which is another advantage. THE MiVEKET. When growers learn to grow first-class fruit, learn to pack it in a first-class manner, putting equally perfect fruit throughout the package, and have a sufficient quantity of the same, buyers will come to them. They will need to hunt no market. The values of the various fruits produced in my District during the years of 1903 and 1904 are as follows: Apples 1 $ 150,000 00 Cherries ! 40,000 00 Peaches 20,000 00 Pears : 25,000 00 Prunes ■ 35,000 00 Strawberries ' Ss.OOO 00 Other fruits j 10,000 00 Totals for the years 1903-1904 j S 318,000 00 i904 170,000 00 (50,000 OO 20,000 00 5,000 OO 30,000 00 40,000 00 10,000 00 i 335,000 00 Respectfully, JuDD Geer, Commissioner Fifth District. 44 Report of State Board of Horticulture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. To the Honorable President and Members of the State Board of Horticidture — Gentlemen: Herewith is submitted my report for the biennial term ending December 31, 1904: All semi-annual meetings of the Board have been attended by the members, each furnishing a \^Titten re- port of conditions in his district, the same being placed on file in the office of the Board. Discussion of the various horticultural prob- lems had at this time, from the standpoint of experience, result in much good to the fruit industry in this State, an excerpt of these meetings being published in the daily and horticultural papers. More interest is being taken in horticultu- ral matters than formerly. Every orchard- ist should become familiar with his insect enemies, as well as approved methods of cul- ture. We find them more alert and observ- ing. If anything new in the form of an insect heretofore unob- served by them has been discovered, it is immediately captured and forwarded to this office or the Experiment Station for identifica- tion, to make sure whether he be friend or foe. The reputation of this office as a bureau of information has been well kept up in the past two years. Not alone from within our own borders do the seekers for information come, but from our sister states as well. There is a growing inquiry from the east for in- formation on the fruit-growing industry in Oregon. All letters receive prompt reply, accompanied with printed matter to cover the subject. The Seventh Biennial Report issued by the Board has been widelv distributed to the fruit-growers in this State and sister Report of the Secretary. 45 states, very many complimentary notices having been received and commending the good wohk the Board has accomplished through its its publication. Many of the half-tones used in the reports have been cheerfully loaned to the horticultural press from the Pacific to the Mississippi Valley, which has done much in advertising the horti- cultural possibilities of Oregon. Frequently eastern papers ask for a write-up on some subject of horticulture, and desire to have the same illustrated with Oregon scenes. The Board is now in a posi- tion to co-operate in this matter, having obtained the necessary ap- paratus to be used in this work. The value to the State of this mode of publicity is certainly very great and far reaching. We are able to trace the work accomplished in this way by the large correspondence coming to this office from citizens of other states seeking a location in a desirable fruit belt. ORCHARD PLANTING. Oregon is coming to the front in the matter of orchard planting, which has been general in all parts of the State. These thousands of fertile acres planted to apple orchards, once in bearing, means that Oregon will be heard from in no uncertain way as one of the great fruit states of this Union. The Willamette Valley, once the home of "the Oregon big, red apple," is again to be reckoned with as a producer of choice fruit. In the Wallace orchard, near Salem, was harvested a large and fine crop of Spitzenburgs— 10,000 boxes, grading first class, and 75 tons for the dryer, 700 boxes of Baldwins, 165 tons of Bartlett pears that went to the cannery, 1,800 boxes of fall pears that were packed and shipped. The 8-year-old apple and pear-orchard of H. C. Bushnell, of Junction City, Lane County, produced 4,500 boxes of Jonathans, and some Baldwins and Spitzenburgs this season. The first crop, when the orchard was four years old, amounted to 1,500 boxes. It goes without saying, however, that these orchards were well kept and cared for. It would appear not to be so much a matter of location as it is in the care and attention bestowed upon the orchard. • GRAPE culture. More attention each year is being paid to the cultivation of the grape. A few years ago our markets were almost AvhoUy supplied 46 Report of State Board of Horticulture. by California. By the cultivation of varieties that mature early in the season, our grapegrowers have nearly shut California out of this market. In the hill section southwest of Forest Grove is a prosperous grape-growing and wine-making community. Nearly all vineyards are being enlarged and new ones being planted. Prof. George C. Husmann, U. S. Viticulturist, who is familiar with grape-growing in Oregon, says there is no reason why Oregon should not produce her own unfermented grape juice, and in the near future be an ex- porter as well. fruit canning. For a country unsurpassed in the production of all the fruits, there is a field for the canner practically unoccupied. Some por- tions of the State are supplied with these very necessary adjuncts to the fruit business, but the State at large is short on this friend and upbuilder of the fruit industry, NURSERY stock SHIPMENTS. Beginning with October 16, 1902, and ending April 1, 1903, a period of five and a half months, there was received into Oregon, by the way of Portland, 68 shipments of nursery stock. These ship- ments consisted of one box or bale to a carload. The greater por- tion were destined for Willamette and Rogue River Valley points. This is not a complete list of the number, for when they come into the eastern part of the State from eastern points, or into the south- ern part of the State from the south. The commissioner who makes the inspection is notified direct by the transportation companies, and no report made to this office. strawberries in DECEMBER. From June 1st to December 1st is a long strawberry season. But there has hardly been a day between those dates but what the markets of Portland have been supplied with this fruit. On December 3d of this year some very fine grapes were on the markets of Portland from the vineyard of A. H. Carson, of Grants Pass, in this State. Report of the Secretary. 47 1903 fruit crop. Apples $ 640,000 Pears 148,500 Prunes 900,000 Peaches 75,000 Cherries 35,000 Grapes 50,000 Small fruits 652,500 $2,501,000 1904 FRUIT CROP. Apples $ 935,000 Prunes 362,500 Pears 245,000 Peaches 186,000 Cherries 125,000 Grapes 100,000 Strawberries 205,000 Small fruits 255,000 $2,413,500 All fruit products for 1904 show a marked increase over 1903, with the exception of the prune, which was only one-third of the previous season, a falling off of over half a million dollars on this crop. From this time on the apple is to be the staple fruit grown in Oregon, and will lead all others. The growth of the apple in dol- lars, for this season over last, is nearly $300,000. "With the large acreage planted to new apple-orchards, now coming into bearing, $1,000,000 is the least we can expect the apple to bring into the State, beginning with 1905, and to even double that before 1910. 48 Report of State Board of Horticulture. FINANCIAL report FOR 1903-190i TO SEPTEMBER 30. Expended by President Expended by Commissioner First District.-. Expended by Commissioner Second District Expended by Commissioner Third District.. Expended by Commissioner Fourth District Expended by Commissioner Fifth District— . Secretary 333 32 515 8.5 384 80 451 39 276 46 480 85 900 00 216 45 354 90 500 10 321 40 217 50 375 90 675 00 Totals $ 3,842 67 8 2,661 25 OFFICE EXPENSES, 1903-1904 TO SEPTEMBER 30. Postage for office and Commissioners Printing Miscellaneous— Freight, expressage, telephone, telegraph, develop- ing and printing pictures, stationery, subscriptions, traveling expenses, etc. Camera and fixtures Total expended from January 1, 1903, to September 30, 1904. Total 549 77 870 75 884 90 772 79 493 96 856 75 1,575 00 « 6,003 92 400 00 79 10 112 98 60 10 S 6.52 18 « 6,003 92 652 18 $ 6,6.56 10 Respect fvilly submitted, George H. Lamberson, Secretary. o CT> 1^ O CO o CO a o o o u V SI 4-' 3 o CO w XI m 4-» CO < (0 (0 0) I V v H Spray Calendar. 49 SPRAY CALENDAR. This calendar has been prepared to answer the question, so often asked, when to spray, what to spray with, hotv to spray, and what to spray for, thus obviating the error to use the wrong spray for any given insect or fungus. All fruit trees should be sprayed in the fall, as soon as all the leaves have dropped, with sulphur, lime, and salt ; if no scale are present, full strength of bordeaux mixture will be found snfficient. SULPHUR, LIME, AND SALT. This is a winter spray, and used for all scale insects, pear-leaf blister mite, green aphis, twig borer, bud moth, and clover mite. HOV^ PREPARED. Ingredients— hime (unslacked), 50 pounds. Sulphur, 50 pounds. Stock salt, 50 pounds. This will make 150 gallons of wash. Directions— ^l&ck 50 pounds of lime, then add the 50 pounds of sulphur, boil it over a brisk fire for one hour, then place all the salt with it in the boiler and boil for 15 minutes more, then add the necessary water to make 150 gallons. This solution should be used at a temperature of at least 100 degrees. Before using, strain it. The utility of this wash depends a great deal upon the strength of the sulphur. It is therefore recommended that those who use this wash have a Beaumes scale for acid. When it shows eight de- grees when cold it is of the proper strength. These scales can be obtained through any druggist at a cost not to exceed 50 cents. This combination is the result of Mr. Emile Schanno's extensive experiments in the Fourth District. FOR SAN JOSE SCALE, GREEDY SCALE, AND TURTLE-BACK SCALE. Sulphur, lime, and salt in the fall as soon as the leaves have dropped, and again in the spring before the buds begin to swell. HoR. 4 50 Report of State Board of Horticulture. for green aphis. First application with sulphur, lime, and salt in the fall after leaves have dropped, followed in the spring with tobacco wash, as they appear on the trees. FOR PEAR-LEAF BLISTER MITE. {PhytopUis Pyri.) Until recently the rough, brown-looking spots seen on the pear trees were passed by as being the fungus that attacks the pear so generally here, but upon closer examination it was found that these spots are the work of this mite. In some localities this pest has gained a strong foothold, and in others it is as yet hardly notice- able. The phyfoptus pyri is a microscopic gall mite. It cannot be seen with the naked eye, except on a piece of clear glass held up to the light, when it appears as a minute speck. It is not nearly as long as the width of a hair. It is found only on the pear, the leaves of which are exclusively its home. It burrows into the pulp of the leaves, making a cave in which it lives and multiplies. A colony will work out an excavation, which becomes a slight puff or dark- colored gall on the leaf, from a speck to an eighth of an inch in size. The mite keeps open a hole on the under side of the leaf for a doorway. The injury to the tree is caused by the leaves becom- ing dry and falling. The mite is supposed to desert the leaves after they have fallen, and seek winter quarters upon the tree. It would be a good plan to burn all fallen leaves from affected trees and spray the trees with sulphur, lime, and salt solution as soon as the leaves have dropped. In the summer the mite can be destroyed with powdered sulphur, but it cannot be expected to rid the tree entirely of the mite by this means, as there are eggs and young in the caves, which the sulphur does not affect. In California they use a seeder on a wagon for throwing the sulphur on the affected trees. 7?\iate of copper, six pounds. Lime, four pounds. Water, 45 gallons. modified bordeaux mixture. Ingredients— ^ull^h-Ate of copper, three pounds. Lime, four pounds. "Water, 45 gallons. Dissolve bluestone in a wooden vessel, slack the lime in another vessel, put both in a barrel and mix thoroughly. FOR APPLE SCAB, PEAR SCAB, AND LEAF BLIGHT. f First applicatio)i— Just as the buds are swelling, with bordeaux mixture. Second application— Just as the fruit buds break open, but be- fore the flowers expand, with bordeaux mixture. Third application— With bordeaux mixture, when the fruit has attained the size of a hazelnut. FOR APPLE CANKER OR DEAD SPOT. Cut out diseased spots clean in the fall when leaves have dropped, and wash with bordeaux mixture; repeat in mid-summer if found necessary. FOR CURL LEAP ON THE PEACH. Prof. Newton B. Pierce says: "Curl leaf on the peach is caused by a parasitic fungus which is known as Taplirina deformans. The fungus lives within the tissues of the leaf, in the tender shoots, and in the buds. Within the past few months I have learned that lime, sulphur, and salt is a satisfactory preventive of this widespread disease. The application of this spray should be made three to five weeks before the buds open in the spring. The treatment should be very thorough ; or spray with bordeaux mixture six weeks, and again three weeks later, before the buds begin to swell." Spray Calendar. 53 FOR CRATER BLIGHT OF PEARS. Prof. C. W. Woodworth, of BerkeleVj California, says: "The nature of the disease is somewhat obscure, but the evidence seems to be that it is caused by an organism, and is very similar to the ^ dreaded eastern pear blight. It is not, however, the same disease. Crater blight first appears as a darkened spot, indistinguishable from any other fonn of blight. Like other blights, it commonly begins at the point on a branch where a twig is given oft', or where one has been. There is this difference, however : The crater blight extends out only below the point of origin, whereas in other blights the disease extends upward as well. The most characteristic fea- ture of this blight is the sharp line of demarcation between the dead and live bark. When a spot has ceased to spread there occurs a breaking in the bark, separating the diseased portion. This soon dries, and the spot appears like a crater. The appeai^ance is most striking when isloated spots are seen on the larger branches. ' ' Treatment — Cut out the dead and diseased tissue, clean and wash with bordeaux mixture; cut off all dead and blackened limbs. Under date of July 27, 1896, Professor Woodworth adds: "We have made some progress in the study of the disease, in that we are very uniformly able to obtain pure cultures of a peculiar bacil- lus. Inoculation experiments have so far given only negative re- sults. The disease occurs on many varieties of pears and only a few apples. The crater blight certainly occurs in Oregon. I have had very typical examples from there, and obtained the usual bac- terial cultures from it. Economically, the crater blight in most lo- calities is unimportant, but in some places it has done an immense amount of injury." FOR PEAR SCAB, CRACKING, AND LEAF BLIGHT. These diseases, caused by two different species of fungi, are suc- <>essfully combatted by one line of treatment. In most sections all three diseases are found associated. Bordeaux mixture has given the best results in this work. The first spraying for these diseases should be made just before the buds swell. In 10 or 12 days the second treatment should be given, followed by a third and fourth at the expiration of two and four weeks, respectively. In the nur- sery, pear blight is often exceedingly troublesome. It may be al- most entirely prevented by spraying five or six times with the bor- 54 Report of State Board of Horticulture. deaux mixture, making the first application when the leaves are about one-third grown, and the others at intervals of 10 or 12 days throughout the season. The leaf blight of the cherry, plum, and quince, which so seriously affects trees, both in the orchard and nurser}^, may be held in check by using bordeaux mixture. FOR PRUNE AND PLUM ROT. Spray with bordeaux mixture as the buds are swelling, and again when the fruit has attained the size of a bean, with modified bor- deaux mixture. FOR GUMMOSIS. Cut out gum pockets; split the outer bark about one-eighth of an inch deep from roots to branches on three sides when sap begins to flow, as all gum-infected trees are barkbound, and wash with bor- deaux mixture ; care must be taken in splitting the bark not to cut through to the wood ; repeat in mid-summer, if necessary, FOR BLACK ROT ON GRAPES. Spray with bordeaux mixture just as the buds are swelling, and again immediately after blooming, with modified bordeaux mixture. LATEST ADVICES ON THE BORDEAUX MIXTURE. The combination of bluestone and lime, known as the bordeaux mixture, is almost indispensable in fruit-growing and gardening. It is almost a sovereign remedy against injurious fungi, and its use is general throughout the world. The best way to make the prepa- ration is, consequently, a matter of the greatest moment. The di- vision of vegetable pathology of the Department of Agriculture has just issued a bulletin on these lines which is very timely. It is four years since there was published, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 7, a summary of the more important methods of combatting some of the destructive diseases of fruit. During this time many im- provements have been made in the work, and for this and other rea- sons, it seems desirable to now bring together, in brief, practical form, our present knowledge on the subject. The question as to whether it will pay to spray has long since been answered in the affirmative, so it is not necessary at this time to enter upon any argument in regard to this phase of the subject. It is, further- Spray Calendar. 55 J more, not necessary to go into details as to the relation of spraj^- ing to hygiene; suffice it to say, that if the work is properly done, no danger whatever to health need be apprehended. Superionty of the hordeaux mixture — During the past four years numerous solutions, powders, etc., have been tested, with a view of determining their value as economicalj effective, and practical pre- ventives of fungous parasites. While a number of these prepara- tions have given promise of value, none have been found which fill so many requirements as bordeaux mixture and the ammoniacal so- lution of copper carbonate. Of the two preparations, bordeaux mixture has long been recognized as possessing the most valuable qualities, and it is probably more generally used today than all other fungicides combined. The chief points in its favor are: (1) Its thorough effectiveness as a fungicide; (2) its cheapness; (3) its safety from a hygienic standpoint; (4) its harmlessness to the sprayed plant; and (5) its beneficial effects on plants other than those resulting from the mere prevention of the attack of parasites. Bordeaux mixture formula — All things considered, it is believed that the best results will be obtained from the use of what is known as the 50-gallon formula of this preparation, as follows : Ingredients — Water, 50 gallons. Copper sulphate, six pounds. Unslacked lime, four pounds. Must he well made — It has been found that the method of com- bining the ingredients has an important bearing on both the chem- ical composition and physical structure of the mixture. For exam- ple, if the copper sulphate is dissolved in a small quantity of water and the lime milk diluted to a limited extent only, there results, when these materials are brought together, a thick mixture, hav- ing strikingly different characters from one made by pouring to- gether weak solutions of lime and copper sulphate. It is true, fur- thermore, that if the copper sulphate solution and lime milk are poured together while the latter, or both, are warm, different effects are obtained than if both solutions are cool at the moment of mixing. Where the mixture has been properly made there is scarcely any settling after an hour, while the improperly made mix- ture has settled more than half. 56 Report of State Board of Horticulture. How to make t"f— Briefly, the best results have been obtained from the nse of the bordeaux mixture, made in accordance with the fol- lowing directions: In a barrel, or other suitable vessel, place 25 gallons of water; weigh out six pounds of copper sulphate, then tie the same in a piece of coarse gunny sack and suspend it just be- neath the surface of the water. By tying the bag to a stick laid across the top of the barrel, no further attention will be required. In another vessel slack four pounds of lime, using care in order to obtain a smooth paste, free from grit and small lumps. To accom- plish this it is best to place the lime in an ordinary water pail and add only a small quantity of water at first, say a quart or a quart and a half. When the lime begins to crack and crumble, and the water to disappear, add another quart or more, exercising care that the lime at no time gets too dry. Toward the last considerable water will be required, but, if added carefully and slowly, a per- fectly smooth paste will be obtained, provided, of course, the lime is of good quality. When the lime is slacked add sufficient water to the paste to bring the whole up to 25 gallons. When the copper sulphate is entirely dissolved and the lime is cool, pour the lime milk and copper sulphate solution slowly together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring. The method described insures good mixing, but to complete this work the barrel of liquid should receive a final stir- ring for at least three minutes with a broad wooden paddle. Testing the mixture — It is now necessary to determine whether the mixture is perfect — that is, if it will be safe to apply it to ten- der foliage. To accomplish this, two simple tests may be used. First, insert th(^ blade cf a penknife in the mixture, allowing it to remain there for at least one minute; if metallic copper forms on the blade, or, in other words, if the polished surface of the steel assumes the cnhu' of copper-plate, the mixture is unsafe and more lime must be added. If, en the other hand, the blade of the knife remains unchanged, it is safe to conclude that the mixture is as perfect as it can be made. As an additional test, however, some of the mixture may be poured into an old plate or saucer, and while held between the eyes and. the light, the breath should be gently blown upon the liquid for at least half a minute. If the mixture is properly made, a thin pellicle, looking like oil on water, will begin -». J- ->■ .i».c Spray Calendar. 57 to fonii on the surface of the liquid. If no pellicle forms, more milk of lime should be added. Frepaiiiig large amounts—The foregoing directions apply to cases where small quantities of the mixture are needed for more or less immediate use. If spraying is to be done upon a large scale, it will be found much more convenient and economical in every way to prepare what is known as stock solutions of both the copper and lime. To prepare a stock solution of copper sulphate, procure a barrel holding 50 gallons; weigh out 100 pounds of copper sulphate, and, after tying it in a sack, suspend it so that it will hang as near the top of the barrel as possible ; fill the barrel with water, and in two or three days the copper will be dissolved ; now remove the sack and add enough water to bring the solution again up to the 50- gallon mark, previously made on the barrel. It will be understood, of course, that this second adding of water is merely to replace the space previously occupied by the sack and the crystals of copper sulphate. Each gallon of the solution thus made will contain two pounds of copper sulphate, and, under all ordinary conditions of temperature, there will be no material crystallization, so that the stock preparation may be kept indefinitely. Stock lime may be prepared in much the same way as the copper sulphate solution. Procure a barrel holding 50 gallons, making a mark to indicate the 50-gallon point; weigh out 100 pounds of fresh lime, place it in the barrel and slack it; when slacked, add sufficient water to bring the whole mass up to 50 gallons. Each gallon of this preparation contains, after thorough stirring, two pounds of lime. When it is desired to make bordeaux mixture of the 50-gallon formula, it is only necessary to measure out three gallons of the stock copper solution, and, after thorough stirring, two gallons of the stock lime; dilute each to 25 gallons, mix, stir, and test as al- ready described. One test will be'sui^cient in this case. In other words, it will not be necessary to test each lot of bordeaux mixture made from the stock preparation, provided the first lot is perfect, and no change is made in the quantities of the material used. Spe- cial care should be taken to see that the lime milk is stirred thor- oughly each, time before applying. As a final precaution, it will be well to keep both the stock copper sulphate and the stock lime tightly covered. 58 Report of State Board of Horticulture. paris green spray — arsenite of lime spray. These sprays are used for codlin moth, larvce, tinges, caterpillars, slugs, and all eating or biting insects. PARIS GREEN SPRAY. Proportions for first application — Paris green, four ounces. Lime, two pounds. Water, 40 gallons. Proportions for later applications — Paris green, four ounces. Lime, one pound. Water, 50 gallons. te^ DirectiansSlack the lime; make a paste of the paris green, mix thoroughly, and then add water to make the required amount : stir thoroughly while using, and should be thrown on the leaves and fruit in a fine spray. Paris green is one of our commercial articles which is shamefully adulterated. The foregoing formula is based upon pure paris green; it is, therefore, of much importance that one be able to de- tect impui'ities. So far as we know but two adulterants are used- gypsum and Glauber 's salts. The method generally given for the de- tection of adulteration is to dissolve a small sample of the paris green in ammonia. If there is any gypsum it will not dissolve, but form a sediment. Glauber's salts cannot be detected by this method, it being equally as soluble as pure paris green ; but if one has a strong microscope at hand the adulterant granules can be easily detected, they being white, while the pure article is green. Ammonia, how- ever, is generally a good test, gypsum being most commonly used as an adulterant. ' the ARSENITE OF LIME SPRAY. Professor Kedzie's formula: Ingredients— CommerGial white arsenic, one pound. Carbonate of soda, four pounds. . Water, two gallons. Use one and one-half pints to 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture. Spray Calendar. 59 Directions— DissolYe one pound of commercial white arsenic and four pounds of carbonate of soda (washing soda) in two gallons of water, and use one and one-half pints to 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture. The easiest way to make the solution is to put both the Avhite arsenic and carbonate of soda in a gallon of boiling water and keep boiling about 15 minutes, or until clear liquid is formed, then dilute to two gallons. One and one-half pints of this solution should be added to each barrel of full-strength bordeaux mixture for earlier sprayings, and modified bordeaux mixture for late spray- ings, Increasing the arsenite solution gradually from one and one- half pints to one quart as the season advances and foliage matures. If used without bordeaux mixture or lime, it is liable to burn the foliage. As there is nearly always fungus to contend with, it is recommended that the two sprays be combined, with the additional advantage of making the poison stick longer. Unless combined with bordeaux mixture, it is very important to use enough freshly slacked lime to insure the complete decomposition of arsenite of soda and formation of arsenite of lime. Use six to eight pounds of quicklime, freshly slacked, to a barrel of water. FOR CODLIN MOTH. Paris green or arsenite of lime. First spraying, 10 days after blossoms have fallen, and then at intervals not exceeding three wrecks, up to within three weeks of harvesting the apples or pears. The arsenite of lime is preferably used with bordeaux mixture, and, as the season advances and foliage matures, increase the arsenite solution gradually from one and one-half pints to one quart to the 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture. FOR TINGIS^, CATERPILLARS, AND SLUGS. Spray as they hatch and appear on the leaves. TOBACCO WASH. Used for green aphis and tingis as they appear on the trees. HOW PREPARED. Ingredients— TohnQco (sheep dip, sulphured tobacco), four pounds. AVhale-oil soap (or good strong soap), four pounds. Water, 20 gallons. 60 Report of State Board of Horticulture. Directions — Soak the tobacco in hot water for several hours; dis- solve the soap in hot water ; strain both ing'redients ; add tog'ether and dilute to 20 grallons. On varieties of trees where the foliage is very tender, tests should be made before applying; extensively. KEROSENE EMULSION. Used for woolly aphis and clover mite. FOR WOOLLY APHIS. Spray with kerosene emulsion diluted seven (7) times. FOR clover mite. Spray with kerosene emulsion diluted eight (8) times. HOW PREPARED — KEROSENE EMULSION (GOVERNMENT FORMULA). Ingredients — Kerosene, two gallons. Water, one gallon. Hard soap, one-half pound. Directions — Make a suds of the soap and water and pour boiling hot into the kerosene ; churn with a force pump or a syringre, pump- ing out of and into a bucket or barrel through a nozzle until com- pletely emulsified. If the mixture is sufficiently hot it will thicken in from five to 10 minutes, and Avill be, when cold, of the con- sistency of butter or of soft soap. Dilute with seven to 12 parts of water to one of emulsion, as occasion requires, and this will kill almost anything in the form of plant lice. FOR CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY WORM. Spray the bushes just before blooming, and again after the fruit has set, with one large tablespoonful of powdered white hellebore, dissolved in two and one-half gallons of water. HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS FOR NURSERY STOCK. Ingredients — C. P. cyanide of potassium, 28 per cent, one ounce. Sulphuric acid, one fluid ounce. Water, two fluid ounces. Direcitons—'F'vc^t place the ves.sel in which the gas is to be gen- erated in a convenient place in the shed, and then put in the cyanide Spray Calendar. 61 of potassium; pour the water over the cyanide, and then add the sulphuric acid very slowly. Close the door and submit the trees to the fumes for about 40 minutes. Open the door and allow the gas to escape before attempting- to remove the trees, as it is poison- ous to inhale. REMEDY FOR APHIS (LICE) ON CABBAGE, CAULIPLO^\^:R, TURNIPS, ETC. Ingredients— Quassia, chips, one pound. Whale-oil soap, one pound. Water, one gallon. Directions— Boil quassia chips for five hours, then add whale-oil soap, while boiling; when dissolved, dilute to 10 gallons of water, and spray warm. PEACH-ROOT BORER. The worst insect pest of the prune and peach trees in the Wil- lamette Valley, and probably over the entire State, is the peach- ' root borer. The moth lays its eggs at the base of the tree in the months of May, June, July, and August. The eggs hatch in about a week, and the worm at once begins to gnaw the bark and bore its way down into the roots. It lives in the root for one year, and comes forth a winged insect the succeeding spring and smnmer, and lays the eggs for the next brood, as stated. The presence of the worm is always betrayed by the copious exudation of gum, which is- sues from he roots at the base of the trunk. Remedies— There are a large number of remedies for this pest which are more or less successful, but where trees are cultivated on a large scale many of the remedies become entirely too expensive. A very popular and successful plan in the peach region of the East is "mounding." Early in the spring, before the moth appears, the earth is drawn about the base of the tree to the height of 12 inches, and removed later in the season, about September 1st in this climate. The use of washes intended to poison the worm have been much used, the following formula being the most successful : Ingredients — Corrosive sublimate (poison), two ounces. Hard soap, five pounds to 10 gallons of water. Alcohol, one pint. Water, sufficient. Directions — Dissolve the sublimate in the spirits; stir it into the 02 Report of State Board of Horticulture. soap solution; add water sufficient to make a g'ood paint; apply Avith stiff brush from three inches below to six inches above ground. This must be done as soon as the first moth appears in the spring. The worm will be poisoned by the corrosive sublimate almost at the first mouthful. Great care should be observed in using this wash, as it is very poisonous and dangerous to have about the house. Of all the remedies we have known none has proven so sure and practical as cutting the grubs out with a knife and preventing their return by WTapping. In the fall of the year remove the earth carefully from the base of the tree, locate the worms and cut them out with a knife. Repeat this in the spring, about April, and at the same time wrap the trunk of the tree with stiff paper or other close material, allowing it to extend six inches above and three inches below the grotind. This will prevent the moth from laying her eggs in the bark, and is the surest way we know of to defeat the ravages of this insect. Raubenleim and dendrolene are used in Europe. The best wash for borers, all considered, that we have seen or tested, is made by the union of all of the above ingredients in the following way: Dissolve as much common washing soda as possi- ble in six gallons of water, then dissolve one gallon of ordinary soft soap in the above and add one pint of crude carbolic acid and thoroughly mix ; slack a quantity of lime in f oiu* gallons of water, so that when it is added to the above the whole will make a thick Avhitewash; add this to the above and mix thoroughly, and finally add one-half pound of paris green or one-fourth pound of powdered white arsenic and mix it thoroughly in the above. — Prof. J. M. Stedman. for nursery stock. Use sulphur, lime, and salt solution as soon as the leaves have dropped ; again in spring, as first leaves appear, with modified bor- deaux mixture ; fumigate all trees and shrubs witli hydrocyanic gas before shipping. recipe for grafting wax. One of the best grafting waxes is made by melting together four parts (by weight) of resin, one part beeswax, one part tallow. When thoroughly melted, pour into cold water; when cool enough, take out and work by molding and pulling until it becomes quite Spray Calendar. 63 stiff. It is necessary to have the hands well greased with tallow while handling this wax. — From the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture. INSECTS Prof. Willis G. Johnson says: "At the present time, spraying is an important part of successful fruit-growing. The regular and systematic application of insecticides and fungicides is one of the most valuable and profitable pieces of Avork done on the farm. The spray pump, properly used, is worth as much to the grower of fruits and vegetables as the policy covering the insurance on his house or barn. In fact, you must 'insure' your crops from destruc- tive insects and fungi by practicing modern methods of spraying. There has been a decided awakening to the truthfulness of the above statement in the past few years, and thousands of growers are now spraying and seeking information, where only a short time ago they Avere counted by hundreds." In order that our readers may understand why one remedy is used for one insect and not for another, it will be necessary for us to make some brief references to the structure and habits of cer- tain types. For example, the great mass of injury to plants by in- sects falls under two heads : First, where the plant itself has been eaten; and, second, where the juices have been sucked out, leaving the tissues. Biting insects— Insects causing injury of the first class are called biting or chewing insects, familiar examples of which are the beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, such as the cabbage worm, anny worm, etc. They have well-developed jaws, fitted for cutting and chewing the plant. Such insects can be destroyed by use of di- rect poisons, such as the arsenicals. When applied to the leaves or other parts of the plant, it is eaten by the insect, causing its death. Sucking insects— On the, other hand, the second type have long lance-like beaks, fitted for sucking. This class includes the scale in- sects, plant lice, squash bug, harlequin, or terrapin bug, etc. They obtain their food simply by inserting their beaks into the tissues of the plants, sucking the juices from within. The external appli- cation of arsenical poisons to plants would have little, if any, effect upon this group of insects, as the poisons do not enter into the cells of the plants. It is necessary, therefore, to employ some other sub- 64 Keport of State Board of Horticulture. stances for their destruction. To this end materials are used which Avill act externally on the bodies of the insects, either as a caustic or to smother or stifle them by closing their breathino: organs. I might say in this place that insects do not breathe through their mouths, as do higher animals, but through small openings on either side of the body, called spiracles. By spraying anything of a caustic or oily nature over the body of an insect, these spiracles are closed and the creature is destroyed. Sometimes the fumes of poisonous gases are employed to suffocate insects, as will be described later on. Insects are sometimes repelled by obnoxious substances. The above remarks apply especially to insects which feed upon the exterior of plants or pass the greater portion of their lives in an exposed condition, where they can be readily reached by one of the methods mentioned. Certain other insects, of both classes, biting and sucking, are subterranean in their habits ; that is, they feed and live upon the roots of plants below the surface of the ground. Among these the white grub and root lice are conunon examples. Still other insects live in stored grain, seeds, and manufactured product of the mill, and even the mill itself. Here again the arsenics and irritants cannot be used, and we nnist resort to various fumes and gases. FUNGI. Prof. Charles 0. Townsend says: WHAT IS A FUNGUS 1 A fungus (plural fungi) is a low form of plant. It has neither green stem nor leaves, and therefore depends for its food upon other plants or upon animals. Sometimes fungi live upon dead plants or animals or upon their products, and sometiines they live upon other living plants or upon living animals. They are very numerous, and differ greatly among themselves in form, structure, and habits of life. All fungi, sooner or later, produce small round or oval bodies, called spores. These spores under favorable condi- tions produce new fungi. They are not destroyed by ordinary weather conditions, and often live over the winter in the fields and orchards. Sometimes they remain alive for several years in the soil and other suitable places, and begin their, growth when the condi- tions are favorable. Many fungi are very small, and can be seen only when greatly magnified. Original Black Republican Cherry Tree— December, 1904 Original Lewelling Cherry Tree, December, 1904 Spray Calendar. 65 WHAT IS THE HOST-PLANT ? The host-plant is the plant upon which, or in which, the fungus lives and from which it draws its food supplies. WHAT IS A FUNGICIDE? A fungicide is ajiy substance which may be used to destroy fungi or their spores, or which will prevent fungi from establishing them- selves upon the host-plants. Fungicides may be either solids, liquids, or gases. The most common forms of fungicide is liquid; the kind of fungicide used, however, must depend upon the nature of the fungus, the nature of the host-plant, and the part of the host- plant attacked by the fungus. WHY SHOULD WE SPRAY ? Liquid fungicides are best applied in the form of a fine mist or spray. This is economy, both in the quantity of material used, and in the time required to apply it. The real object in spraying is to prevent the fungous spores that have lodged upon the foliage, branches or fruit, from germinating and producing fungous growths. Every fungus that grows into a leaf or into a fruit, and thus produces the destruction of the former or the decay of the latter, first lodges on the leaf or on the fruit as a tiny spore. If that spore can be destroyed without injury to the leaf or the fruit, disease may be prevented, and therefore the necessity of spraying. WHY SHOULD W^ SPRAY EARLY? As already stated, fungus spores are sometimes formed in the fall and remain in open fields all winter uninjured. These spores often lodge in the crevices of the bark of trees, or in other conven- ient places on the trunk and branches of trees. When the leaves and fruits appear the spores are blown onto these newly-formed parts and cause them to be diseased. The object in early spraying, even while the trees are still dormant, is to kill the spores that are lodged on the tree and waiting for favorable conditions for development. Again, every spore must remain for a longer or shorter time in a dormant state, even after it reaches the proper place for its devel- opment, just as seeds' remain for a little time under proper condi- tions for germination before they begin their growth. If the leaves HoR. 5 66 Report of State Board of Horticulture. or other plant parts are covered with a fungicide before or imme- diately after the spores are blown onto them, the spores will be de- stroyed, and the plant will remain free from disease. WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO SPRAY MORE THAN ONCE? After a plant has been sprayed new leaves or fruits are often formed, which are not covered with the fungicide. Spores may be lodged on these newly formed parts and develop into fungous growths, causing the parts attacked to be diseased. Or the fungi- cide originally sprayed onto the plant may be washed off by rains, thus leaving the plant unprotected against the spores that are con- stantly carried about in the air, HOW OFTEN IS IT NECESSARY TO SPRAY? No definite rule can be given in regard to the number of times any set of plants should be sprayed in a single season. The num- ber of sprayings must depend to a large extent upon weather con- ditions. Warm, damp weather, or a dry, hot season, followed by rain, are favorable conditions for the development of fungi, hence, if these conditions prevail, it is important that the spraying should be fi-equent enough to keep well protected the parts liable to at- tack. Sometimes it is necessarj^ to spray every day or every two or three daj^s, while at other times 10 days may elapse between sprayings. Spraying, like cultivation, pruning, and other field operations, is largely a matter of judgment, and the more thor- oughly the subject is understood the more effective the work will be. WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO SPRAY EVERY YEAR? It is impossible to exterminate fungi. We may hold them in check, or we may even prevent entirely their growth upon certain plants ; but they are often so small, their habits of life so variable, and tlieir spores so resistant that extermination is out of the ques- tion. It is impossible to know at the beginning of the season whether the conditions will be favorable or unfavorable for the de- velopment of fungi, hence, in order to be on the safe side, it is necessary to begin each season with spraying. It is essential, there- fore, that spraying should be as regularly a part of the fieldwork for successful crop raising as plowing, fertilizing, and the other operations necessary for crop production. Furthermore, the ef- Spray Calendar. 67 fects of spraying are cumulative ; that is, tlie effects of spraying and keeping fruit trees free from disease this year will give a bet- ter crop next year. Even with trucking crops that die down in the fall the danger from disease next year in a particular field will be greatly reduced if the field is kept free from diseases this season. DOES SPRAYING SOMETIMES INJURE FOLIAGE AND FRUIT? If fungicides are not properly made they will burn the foliage and discolor the fruit. It is a well-known fact that the foliage on some plants is much more tender than it is on others, and for this reason it is necessary to suit the strength of the fungicide to the host-plant. Certain fungicides, like bordeaux mixture, cannot be used in spraying fruit that is nearly ripe, since the fruit would be stained by the mixture, and thereby rendered unsalable. WHY DOES SPRAYING SOMETLSIES FAIL TO PREVENT DISEASE ? There are several reasons why spraying sometimes fails to accom- plish the results expected. It may be that the fungicide was not properly made; that the spraying was not done early enough in the season, or that the applications were not thorough or persistent enough. If we wait until we see the disease at work before we be- gin spraying, our efforts will not result in success, for the reason that when we see the disease it is certain that the fungus spores have germinated and the fungus has grown into the affected part of the host-plant. In such cases it is impossible to destroy the fungus without destroying the diseased part of the host. The most that can be hoped for in such cases is that the disease may be prevented from spreading to the healthy plants or plant parts. If the spraying is not thorough, so that all parts of the host are cov- ered, spores may fall upon the unprotected parts and grow as readily as if no fungicide had been used ; or, if the applications are not frequent enough, so that the fungicide is washed off, or new planfparts are developed and left unsprayed, attacks of fungi may take place as readily as if no spraying had been done. It should be remembered that no fungicide will restore any plant part once destroyed or injured, hence the necessity of preventing attacks of fungi, and this can be done by an early, thorough, and persistent use of fungicides. 68 Report of State Board of Horticulture. will spraying prevent all plant diseases? Several plant diseases, of which "peach yellows" is an example, are not, so far as known, produced by organisms, and these diseases can be neither prevented nor controlled by fungicides. Other plant diseases are produced by bacteria that live in the tissues of diseased plants. These minute organisms seldom appear on the surface of the host-plant, and consequently would not usu- ally be reached by spraying. Such a disease is the pear blight. It is often the case that a disease attacks only the underground por- tion of the plant. It is clear that a disease of this nature could not be prevented or controlled by spraying. Potato scab is an example of diseases of this kind. In short, it is only those fungous diseases that originate from spores on the above-ground portions of plants that may be prevented by spraying. VV^ILL IT PAY to SPRAY? AA^hether it w^ill or will not pay to spray must depend upon cir- cumstances. It is of prime importajice to know whether the plants under consideration are subject to diseases that may be prevented by spraying. If so, and the crop is worth raising at all, it is worth bringing to the highest possible state of perfection, and it is now well known that spraying, if properly done, is one of the important factors in perfect crop production. However, unless one makes up his mind to use all possible pains in the preparation of fungicides, to begin spraying early, and to carry it on persistently, the time, labor, and money expended will be lost. On the other hand, if the fungicide is properly prepared, and the work is timely and thor- ough, it is probable that no equal amount of labor and money ex- pended will yield larger returns, taking it year in and year out. This statement has been demonstrated many times by farmers, gardeners, and fruitgrowers in nearly every section of the State. It is true that certain seasons ai-e unfavorable for the development of fungi, but it rarely happens that they do not develop to some extent; hence it will be an advantage to spray even during such seasons. Experience has shown that it pays to spray systematically and thoroughly, year after year, regardless of the season. Spray Formulas. 69 SPRAY FORMULAS. REQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL SPRAYING. Materials of standard streng-th, carefully compounded, applied in thorough manner at regular intervals. Fruit thinned so that the spray liquid can reach every portion of that remaining on the tree. INSECI ICIEES. Used for codlin moth larvre, caterpillars, slugs, and all biting and chewing insects. SPRAY NO. 1 — ARSENITE OF SODA. 1 pound of white arsenic. 2 pounds of sal soda.* 1 gallon of water. Directions — Boil 15 minutes ; add amount of water equal to that evaporated, giving one gallon of arsenite of soda. For 50 gallons of water use one and one-half pints of the arsenite of soda and six pounds of freshly slacked lime. Can be used safely. SPRAY" NO. 2— PARIS GREEN, 1 pound paris green. 1/2 pound quick lime. 200 gallons water. Slack the lime in part of the water, sprinkling in the paris green gradually, then add the rest of the water. For the peach and other tender-leaved plants use 300 gallons of water. Keep well stirred while spraying. SPRAY'^ NO. 3 — ABSENITE OF LIME. 1 pound white arsenic. 2 pounds fresh burned lime. 1 gallon water. *Iii Western Oregon, and moist sections, use three instead of two pounds of sal soda. 70 Report of State Board of Horticulture. Boil together for 45 minutes and keep in a tight vessel. Add one quart of this to a barrel (50 gallons) of water for use. This insecticide has been recommended by a nimiber of experi- ment stations. INSECTS that suck THE JUICES OP FRUITS OR TREES. SPRAY NO. 4 — SULPHUR; LIME, AND SALT. Oregon Formula. 50 pounds unslacked lime. 50 pounds flower of sulphur. 25 pounds common salt.* Slack the lime in enough water to do it thoroughly ; add the sul- phur and boil for an hour at least, adding water if necessary. Then add the salt and boil 15 minutes more. Add water to malce 150 gal- lons and spray hot through a coarse nozzle. SPRxVY NO. 5 — SULPHUR, LIME, AND SALT. Marlatt's Formula {from. Smith). 30 pounds unslacked lime. 30 pounds sulphur. 15 pounds salt. 60 gallons water. Boil with steam for four hours and apply hot. SPRAY NO. 6 — WHALE-OIL SOAP, OR QUASSIA CHIPS. Boil one pound of soap dissolved in four gallons of water ; or boil for two hours one pound of quassia chips ; add water to extract to make four gallons. FUNGICIDES. SPRAY NO. 7 — BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 6 pounds copper sulphate (blue vitrol). 6 pounds lime (unslacked). 50 gallons water. Dissolve the copper in hot or cold water, using a wooden or earthen vessel. Slack the lime in a tub, adding the water cau- * Exhaustive experiments at Illinois station prove that spray No. 4 will be more effective by substituting for the salt one and one-half pounds sulphate of copper for each fifty gallons of water. Spray Formulas. 71 tiously and only in sufficient amount to insure thorough shicking. After thorough shicking, more water can be added and stirred in until it has the consistency of thick cream. When both are cold pmir the lime into the diluted copper solution of required strength, straining it through a fine mesh sieve or gunny cloth, and thor- oughly mix. It is then ready for use. Considerable trouble has frequently been experienced in preparing the bordeaux mixture. Care should be taken that the lime is of good quality and well burned, and has not been air slacked. Where small amounts of lime are slacked it is advisable to use hot water. The lime should not be allowed to be- come dry in slacking, neither should it become entirely submerged in water. Lime slacks best when supplied with just enough water to develop a large amount of heat, which renders the process active. If the amount of lime is insufficient, there is danger of burning tender foliage. In order to obviate this the mixture can be tested with a knife blade or with ferro-cyanide of potassium (one ounce to five or six ounces of water). If the amount of lime is insuffi- cient, copper will be deposited on the knife blade, while a deep brownish-red color will be imparted to the mixture when ferro- cyanide of potassium is added. Lime should be added until neither reaction occurs. A slight excess of lime, however, is desirable. The bordeaux mixture is best when first prepared. Stock solu- tions of lime and copper can be made and mixed when required. SPRAY NO. 8 — BORDEAUX MIXTURE WHEN TREES ARE IN FOLIAGE. 3 pounds of sulphate of copper. 6 pounds of lime. 50 gallons of water. SPRAY NO. 9 — COPPER SULPHATE SOLUTION. (Strong solution for dormant trees.) 1 pound of copper sulphate. 25 gallons of water. SPRAY NO. 10 — COPPER SULPHATE FOR SUMMER SPRAY. 4 ounces of copper sulphate. 50 gallons of water. 72 Report of State Board of Horticulture. SPRAY no. 11 — formalin. (fOR POTATO SCAB.) 8 ounces formalin (40 per cent solution). 15 gallons of water. Immerse seed potaties for two hours. (Not poisonous.) COMBINED FUNGICIDE AND INSECTICIDE SPRAYS. SPRAY NO. 12. 4 ounces of paris green. 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture. SPRAY NO. 13. iy2 pints of arsenite of lime. 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture. {See Formula No. 3.) SPRAY NO. 14. li/o pints of arsenite of soda. 50 gallons of water. (See Formula No. 1.) FOR ROSE MILDEW, RED SPIDER, AND PLANT LICE. 1 pound bar ivory soap. 15 gallons of water. Apply warnij as it thickens after cooling. Oregon Grape {Berberis aqui/olium) Spray Calendar. 73 SPRAY CALENDAR. Apples. Apple scab Bitter rot First application Subsequent applications •Codlin moth Scale - Aphis_ Use spray No. 9 before buds swell This disease may be treated in essen- tially the same \vay as scab. As the bitter-rot fungus often continues its destructive work after the fruit is har- vested, care should be taken in stor- ing to remove all truit showing evi- dence of the disease. U.se No. 1 or No. 2 one week after soms fall. blos- Apple canker or dead spot Collar rot or mush- room disease Cherries. Aphis Cherry slug Use No. 4 or No. 5 when trees are dor- mant. Use No. 6 as soon as eggs hatch Gummosis Pears. Cut all dead and diseased tissue, clean and wash with bordeaux mixture. Dig a trench around the tree, cutling oflf all roots, as the disease is communi- cated from tree to tree through the roots ; destroy all attected trees. When aphis appear use syiray No. 6. When fruit has set, if slug appears, dust leaves M'ith air-slacked lime. Cut out gum pockets, split outer Dark from roots to branches when sap be- gins to How; wash with bordeaux mix- ture. •Scale, codling moth, and scab 1 Use same spra.ys as for apple. Leaf blight ] Use spray No. is. Peaches. Curl leaf Bpray with No. before buds open_ Raspberries, Blackber- ries, Deiuberries. Use No. 8 as buds begin swelling. Rust and anthracnose-l Use either No. 12 or No. 13 just before blossoms open. Use spray No. 8 when buds are swelling. Repeat at intervals of two weeks, up to within three weeks of harvest. Use No. 6 whenever aphis appear on fo- liage. Spray with No. 8 after blossoms fall. Note.— Bordeaux mixture is a sovereign preventive for all fungus growths, using the modified form when trees are in foliage. Note.— Lime should always be fresh slacked and the combined fungicide and insecti- cide sprays should be used soon after making. 74 Report of State Board of Horticulture. PLANTING TABLE. So many mistakes have been made in planting trees too close to- gether that we again give a general table, taking into consideration the strength of soil, variety and nature of the tree, as well as cli- matic conditions : mSTANCEH. Pears Apples Apricots Cherries Peaches Prunes and ])lums Nut-bearing trees -. Feet 24 to 80 "0 to JO 20 to •_'•_' 25 to 30 20 to 25 20 30 to 40 NUMBER OF TREES TO THE ACRE. Ten feet Twelve feet Fourteen feet Sixteen feet Eighteen feet Twenty feet Twenty-two feet. Twenty-four feet- Thirty feet Forty feet Square -136 303 222 170 134 108 76 48 27 Triangular ■h'O 347 255 195 154 126 103 86 56 Quincunx 831 571 415 317 249 193 177 133 S3 APPENDIX. HORTICULTURAL LAW. AS PASSED BY THE LEGISLATURE, FEBRUARY, 1895. An act to amend an act entitled "An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor," approved February 25, 1889, and an act amendatory thereof entitled "An act to amend an act entitled 'An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor,' ap- proved February 25. 1889," approved February 21, 1891, and to protect the horticultural industry in Oregon. Be it enacted hy the Legislative Assembly of the State of Oregon : Section 1. There is hereby created a Board of Horticulture to consist of sis members, who shall be appointed by a board, consisting of the Governor, Secre- tary of State, and State Treasurer. One member of the said Board of Horticul- ture shall represent the State at large, and one member shall be appointed to rep- resent each of the five districts as hereby created, to wit (provided that the com- missioner-at-Iarge shall not receive any pay for his services) : (1) The First District, whicli shall comprise the counties of Multnomah. Clackamas, Yamhill, Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook ; (2) the Second District, which shall comprise the counties of Marion, Polk, Benton, Lincoln, Linn, and Lane ; (3) the Third District, which shall comprise the counties of Douglas, Jackson, Klamath, Josephine, Coos, Curry, and Lake; (4) the Fourth District, which shall comprise the counties of Wasco, Sherman, Morrow, Gilliam, and Crook ; (5) the Fifth District, whicli shall comprise the counties of Umatilla, Union. Wallowa, Baker, Malheur, Harney, and Grant. Section 2. The members shall reside in the districts for wliich they are re- spectively appointed. They shall be selected with reference to their knowledge of and practical experience in horticulture and the industries connected therewith. They shall hold office for the term of four years, and until their successors are appointed and have qualified ; but the members of said Board now in office shall hold office till the expiration of the term for which they were appointed. Section 3. Said Board shall employ from without their number a secretary, who shall exercise the powers and discharge the duties conferred upon him by this act, and whose compensation shall not exceed $75 per month, to be paid in the same manner as other State officers. Said Board shall also elect from their own number a treasurer, who shall give a bond to the Governor of the State of Oregon in the sum of $10,000, conditioned upon the faithful discharge of his du- ties. Before entering upon the discharge of his duties, each member of the Board shall make and subscribe an oath to support the Constitution of the United States and of the State of Oregon, and to diligently, faithfully, and impartially dis- charge the duties of his office, which said oaths shall be filed with the secretary. The secretary shall make and subscribe a like oath, which shall be filed with the treasurer of the Board. Section 4. The Board may receive, manage, use, and hold donations and be- quests of money and property for promoting the objects of its formation. It shall meet on the second Mondays of April and October of each year, and as much oftener as it may deem expedient for consultation and for the adoption of those measures which will best promote the horticultural industries of the State. It may, but without expense to the State, select and appoint competent and qualified persons to lecture in each of the districts named in section 1 of this act, for the 78 ' Appendix. purpose of encouraging and improving practical liorticulture, and of imparting in- struction in tlie best metliods of treating the diseases of fruit and fruit trees, cleansing orchards, and exterminating insect pests. Section 5. The office of the Board shall be located in such place as a ma- jority thereof may determine. It shall be kept open to the public, subject to the rules of the Board, every day excepting Sundays and legal holidays, and shall be in charge of the secretary during the absence of the Board. Section 6. For the purpose of preventing the introduction into the State or spread of contagious diseases, insects, pests, or fungous growths among fruit or fruit trees, and for the prevention, treatment, cure, and extirpation of fruit pests, and diseases of fruit and fruit trees, and for the disinfection of grafts, scions, orchard debris, fruit boxes and packages, and other material or transport- able articles dangerous to orchards, fruit or fruit trees, said Board may make regulations for the quarantining, inspection, and disinfection thereof, which said regulations shall be circulated by the Board in printed form among the fruit- growers and fruitdealers of the State ; shall be published at least four successive times in some daily or weekly paper in each county in the State before the same shall be in force therein, and shall be posted in three conspicuous places in each county in the State, one of which shall be at the county courthouse. Such regu- lations, when so promulgated, shall be held to import notice of their contents to all persons within the State, and shall be binding upon all persons therein. A willful violation of any quarantine or other regulation of said Board, necessary to prevent the introduction into the State, or the shipment, sale or distribution of any article so infected as to be dangerous to the fruit-growing interest of the State, or the spread of dangerous diseases among fruit trees or orchards, shall be deemed a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than $5.00 nor more than .$100 for each offense, or by fine and imprison- ment, not less than five nor more than thirty days. Section 7. It shall be the duty of the several members of the Board, and the all regulations of the Board and all provisions of law to prevent the introduction secretary under their direction, to visit their respetive districts and to see that or spread of fruit pests and diseases of trees or plants injurious to the horticul- tural interests of the State are enforced. Any member of the Board, or secre- tary thereof, shall forthwith, upon the complaint of interested parties, inspect orchards, nurseries and other places suspected to be infested with fruit pests or infected with contagious diseases injurious to the trees, plants or fruits. If, upon report of any member or the secretary, the Board shall be of the opinion that any locality, district, orchard or place is infested with fruit pests, or infected with contagious diseases, or injurious to trees, plants, or fruits, and liable to spread to other orchards or localities to their damage or injury so as to be a public danger, said Board shall, by an order entered upon its minutes, declare such place to be under quarantine, and shall give notice thereof by post- ing a notice in writing in a conspicuous place upon the premises, specifying with convenient certainty what place or premises are under quarantine regulations, and by delivering a copy of such notice to the owner or person in charge of the premises, if he may be found thereon ; and such place shall thereafter be subject to quarantine regulations of the Board, and violation thereof shall be punishable as hereinbefore provided. As soon as, in the opinion of any member of the Board or the secretary thereof, the danger from such quarantine locality shall have ceased, he may suspend the said quarantine, and shall immediately report the fact to the Board, who may confirm such action or may re-establish the said quaran- tine, in which case it shall not be again suspended but by action of the Board. Section 8. The Board, and, in case of necessity during the recess of the Board, the member residing in the quarantined district, or the secretary, may appoint such quarantine guardian as may be needed to carry out the provisions of this act, whose duty it shall be to see that the regulations of the Board and the instructions of the secretary are enforced and carried out. They shall also report to the Board all infractions or violations of said regulations or the Horticultural Law. 79 law in regard to quarautiniug, disinfection, and destruction of pests. The salary of quarantine guardians shall be fixed by the Board at not to exceed §;2.00 per day, and shall be paid by the owners of orchards or other places under quarantine, and they may maintain an action therefor before any justice of the peace in any district in which any quarantined locality is wholly or in part located ; Imt in no case shall they liave any claim upon the State for such services. Section 9. The powers conferred in the two preceding sections of this act shall be exercised only in great and imminent danger to the fruit interests of the State, and with the utmost caution and regard for the rights of individuals af- fected, consistent with the safety and welfare of the fruit interests of the whole State. Section 10. It sliall be the duty of the several members of the Board, and of the secretary, under tlieir direction, whenever they shall deem it necessary, to cause an inspection to be made of any orchard, nurseries, trees, plants, vegetables, vines, or any fruit packing-house, storeroom, salesroom, or any other place within their districts, and if found infested with any pests, diseases or fungous growths injurious to fruits, plants, vegetables, trees, or vines, or with their eggs or larvae, liable to spread to other places or localities, cr such nature as to be a public dan- ger, they shall notify the owner or owners, or person in cliarge of or in pos- session of such articles, things or places, that the same are so infested, and shall require said persons to eradicate or destroy said insects or pests, or their eggs or larvae, or to treat sucli contagious diseases within a certain time, to be speci- fied in said notice. Said notices may be serv*ed upon the person or persons, or any of them, owning, having charge, or liaving possession of such infested place, article, or thing, by any member of the Board, or by tlie secretary tliereof, or by any person deputized by the the said Board for that purpose, or they may be served in the same manner as a summons in an action at law. Sucli notice shall contain directions for the application of some treatment approved by the commis- sioners for the eradication or destruction of said pests, or the eggs or larvae thereof, or the treatment of contagious diseases or fungous growths. Any and all such places, orchards, nurseries, trees, plants, shrubs, vegetables, vines, fruits or articles thus infested are hereby declared to be a public nuisance : and wlienever any such nuisance shall exist at any place in tlie State on the property of any owner or owners upon whom or upon the person in charge or possession of whose property notice has been served as aforesaid, and wlio shall have failed or refused to abate the same within the time specified in such notice, or on the property of any nonresident or any property not in the possession of any person, and the owner or owners of which cannot be found by the resident member of the Board or the secre- tary, after diligent search within the district, it shall be the duty of the Board, or the member thereof in whose district said nuisance shall exist, or the secretary un- der his or their direction, to cause such nuisance to be at once abated, by eradicating or destroying said insects or pests, or their eggs or larvae, or by treating or disinfect- ing the infested or diseased articles. The expense thereof shall be a county charge, and the county court shall allow and pay the same out of tlie general fund of the county. Any and all sums so paid shall be and become a lien upon the property and premises from which said nuisance shall have been removed or abated, in pursuance of this act. and may be recovered by a suit in equity against such property or premises : which suit to foreclose sucli liens shall be brought in tlie circuit court of the county where tlie premises are situated, by the district at- torney, in tlie name and for the benefit of the county making such payments. The proceedings in such cases shall be governed by the same rules, as far as may be applicable, as suits to foreclose mechanics' liens, and the property shall be sold under the order of the court, and the proceeds applied in like manner. The Board is hereby invested with the power to cause such nuisances to be abated in a summary manner. Section 11. It shall be the duty of the secretary to attend all meetings of the Board, and to preserve records of the proceedings, correspondence and actions of the Board, to collect books, pamphlets, periodicals, and other documents, contain- 80 Appendix. ing valuable information relating to horticulture, and to preserve the same ; to collect statistics and general information, showing the actual condition and prog- ress of horticulture in this State and elsewhere ; to correspond with agricultural and horticultural societies, colleges and schools of agriculture and horticulture, and such other persons and bodies as may be directed by the Board, and prepare, as required by the Board, reports for publication. Section 12. The Board shall, biennially, in the month of January, report to the Legisative Assembly a statement of its doings, with a copy of the treas- urer's report for the two years preceding the session thereof. The members shall receive as compensation their actual expenses while engaged upon the work of the Board or the enforcement of the provisions of tliis act, and shall be allowed $3.00 a day for the time actually employed. Section 1.3. The treasurer shall receive all moneys belonging to the Board and pay out the same only for bills approved by it, and shall render annually to the Board a statement in detail of all receipts and disbursements. Section 14. There is hereby appropriated for the uses of the State Board of Horticulture, as set forth in this act, the sum of $4,500 for the year beginning January 1, 1895. and the sum of $4,500 for the year beginning January 1, 1896, out of any moneys in the State Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the Sec- retary of State shall draw his warrant in favor of the treasurer of the Board for said sum upon the State Treasurer. Section 15. That tlie fruit and horticultural interests of this State, being in urgent need of the protection afforded by this act, an emergency exists, and this act shall take effect from and after its approval by the Governor. Passed by the House February 11. 1895. CHARLES B. MOORES, Speaker of the House. JOSEPH SIMON, President of the Senate. WILLIAM P. LORD, Governor. Passed by the Senate February 15, 1895. Approved February 23, 1895. An act to amend an act entitled "An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor, approved February 25. 1889, and an act amendatory thereof, entitled 'An act to amend an act entitled an act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor,' approved February 25. 18S9, approved February 21. 1891. and to protect the horticul- tural industry in Oregon, and an act amendatory thereof, entitled an act to amend an act entitled 'An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor," approved February 25, 1889, and an act amenda- tory thereof, entitled an act to amend an act entitled 'An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and approprhite money therefor, approved Feb- ruary 25. 1889,' approved February 21, 1891, and to protect the horticultural industry in Oregon." approved February 23, 1895. Be it enacted hij the Legislative Assembly of ihc State of Oregon : Section 1. Section 1 of an act entitled "An act to amend an act entitled 'An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor,' ap- . proved February 25, 1889, and an act amendatory thereof, entitled an act to amend an act entitled 'An act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor, approved February 25, 1889,' approved February 21, 1891, and to protect the horticultural industry in Oregon," be and the same is hereby amended so as to read as follows : Sec. 1. There is hereby created a Board of Horticulture, to consist of six members, who shall be appointed by a board, consisting of the Governor, Secre- tary of State, and State Treasurer, One member of the said Board of Horticulture shall represent the State at large, and shall be the president and executive officer 16-Year-Old Peach Orchard of A. L. Walling, Oswego, Oregon Horticultural Law. 81 of the Board, and one member shall be appointed to represent each of the five dis- tricts, as hereby created, to wit: (1) The First District, which shall comprise the counties of Multnomah, Clackamas, Yamhill, Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook; (2) the Second District, which shall comprise the counties of Marion, Polk, Benton, Lincoln, Linn and Lane ; (3) the Third District, wliich shall com- prise the counties of Douglas, Jackson, Klamath, Josephine, Coos, Curry, and Lake ; (4) the Fourth District, which shall comprise the counties of Wasco, Sherman, Morrow, Gilliam and Crook; (5) the Fifth District, which shall comprise the coun- ties of Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Baker, Malheur, Harney, and Grant. Sec. 2. The members shall reside in the districts for which they are re- act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appropriate money therefor, ap- proved February 25, 1889,' and an act amendatory thereof, entitled 'An act to amend an act entitled an act to create a State Board of Horticulture and appro- priate money therefor, approved February 25, 1889,' approved February 21, 1891, and to protect the horticultural industry in Oregon," be and th" same is hereby amended so as to read as follows : Section 2. The members shall reside in the districts for wliich they are re- spectively appointed. They sliall be selected with reference to their knowledge of and practical experience in horticulture and the industries connected therewith, and shall be engaged in practical horticulture during their incumbency of tlie of- fice of commissioner. They shall liold office for the terra of four years, and until their successors are appointed and have qualified, unless removed by the appoint- ing board for failure to perform their duties. It shall be the duty of the president to visit at least once a year every district, and examine the orcliards, nurseries, and work of the district commissioners, and ascertain whether or not tlie law ./ind regulations of the Board are being properly executed. He must personally Inspect most of the orchards during the fruit-growing season, see that the regu- lations of the Boai'd regarding spraying are being faitlifully executed wherever insects, pests or disease injurious to tree or fruit are to be found. He must visit the principal fruit-shipping points during the shipping season, inspect the fruit shipped, and prevent the shipment of insect and pest-infested fruit. He shall give notice through the public press one week in advance of his visit to each county, giving the time and place of his visit, wliere he shall receive complaints of fruit- growers, and distribute to them printed and oral instructions regarding destruc- tion of pests, and other information, including proper methods of handling, pack- ing and shipping fruits. It shall also be his duty to visit, wlien possible, if requested by an association or a number of fruitgrowers, the meetings of such asso- ciations of fruitgrowers, and aid them in the organization of proper asso- ciations beneficial to the growing and marketing of fruits. The president shall preside at all the meetings of tlie Board, and may call special meetings whenever an emergency may require it. He shall make an annual report to the appointing board of the general condition of the fruit interests of the State and success of the commissioners in the work of exterminating pests and executing the law. Section 15. Inasmuch as the provisions of tliis act are of immediate impor- tance to the horticultural interests of this State, this law shall take effect from and after its approval by the Governor. Approved February 17, 1899. An act to protect the fruit and hop industry of Oregon. Be it enacted hy the Legislative Assembly of the State of Oregon : Section 1. It shall hereafter be unlawful for any person, firm, or corpora- tion, owning or operating any nursery, fruit orchard of any kind, hopyards, flower gardens, or ornamental trees, to throw any cuttings or prunings from any fruit trees, nursery stock, ornamental trees, or hop vines into any public road, high- HOR. 6 82 Appendix.' way, lane, field, or other inclosure, or into any water course of any kind ; but shall destroy such cuttings or prunings with fire withiu thirty days from the time such cuttings or prunings are made. Section 2. It shall hereafter he the duty of any person, firm, or corporation owning or operating any such nursery, fruit orchard, hopyard. flower garden, or ornamental trees, and knowing such to be infected with any kind of insects, pests, or disease, to immediately spray or destroy the same in such manner as the fruit commissioner for his district may direct. Section 3. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation doing business in the State of Oregon to sell paris green, arsenic, london purple, sul- phur, or any spray material or compound for spraying purposes in quantities ex- ceeding one pound without providing with each package sold a certificate, duly signed by the seller thereof, guaranteeing the quality and per cent of purity of said materials. Section 4. Any person, firm, or corporation selling any of the above ma- terials which do not conform with the certificate furnished therewith, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be subject to a fine of not less than twenty-five ($2.5) dollars nor more than one hundred ($100) dollars. Section 5. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation to im- port or sell any infested or diseased fruit of any kind in the State of Oregon. Section 0. Kvery person who packs or prepares for shipment to any point without the State, or who delivers or causes to be delivered to any express agent, or railroad agent, or other person, or to any transportation company or corpora- tion for shipment to any point without the State, any fruit or fruits, either fresh, cured or dried, that is infected with insects, pests or diseases injurious to trees, shrubs, plants, fruits or vegetables, is guilty of a misdemeanor. Section 7. Any person, firm, or corporation violating any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be punished by a fine of not less than twenty-five ($25) dollars nor more than one hundred (.$100) dollars. Section 8. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of the State Board of Horticulture of the district in which a violation of this act occurs to present the evidence of the case to the district attorney, whose duty It shall be to prosecute any person guilty of a violation of this act, which prosecution may be brought in any of the justice courts of this State. Section 0. Inasmuch as the horticultural interests of this State demand im- mediate attention, this act shall be in full force and effect from and after its ap- proval by the Governor. Approved by the Governor. Quarantine Regulations. 83 QUARANTINE REGULATIONS. At a special meeting of the Oregon State Board of Horticulture, held in Port- land April 2, 1805, all members present, the following regulations were adopted, in accordance with the laws regulating such matters, and are, therefore, binding upon all persons : Rule 1 — All consignees, agents, or other persons, shall, within twenty-four hours, notify the quarantine officer of the State Board of Horticulture, or a duly commissioned quarantine guardian, of the arrival of any trees, plants, buds, or scions at the quarantine station in the district of final destination. Rule 2 — All trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, Inids, or scions imported or brought into the State from any foreign country, or from any of the States or Territories. are hereby required to be inspected upon arrival at the quarantine station in the district of final destination : and if such nursery stock, trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions are found to be free of insect pests and fungous diseases, the said quarantine officer or duly commissiontd quarantine guardian shall issue a certificate to that effect ; and, furthermore, if any of said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions are found infested with insect pests, fungi, blight, or other diseases injurious to fruit or to fruit trees, or other trees or plants, they shall be disinfected and remain in quarantine until the quarantine officer of the State Board of Horticulture or the duly commissioned quarantine guardian can deter- mine whether the said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions are free from live, injurious insect pests or their eggs, larvse or pupae or fungous diseases before they can be offered for sale. gift, distribution, or transportation. All persons or companies are hereby prohibited from carrying any trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions from without the State to any point within the State beyond the nearest point on its line or course to the quarantine station in the district of ulti- mate destination ; or from any point within the State to any point therein, until such trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions have been duly inspected, and, if required, disinfected as hereinbefore provided ; and all such shipments must be accompanied by the proper certificate of the inspecting officer ; provided, however, that after sucli persons or company have given the proper officer four days' notice, he or they shall not be required to hold such shipments further, without directions from such officer. Rule 3 — All peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, or almond trees, and all other trees budded or grafted upon peach stocks or roots, all peach or other pits, and all peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, or almond cuttings, buds, or scions, raised or grown in a district where the "peach yellows" or the "peach rosette" are known to exist, are hereby prohibited from being imported into or planted or offered for sale, gift, or distribution within the State of Oregon. Rule 4 — All trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, scions, seeds, or pits arriving from any foreign country found infested with insect pests or their eggs, larvae, or pup£e, or with fungi, or other disease or diseases hitherto unknown in this State, are hereby prohibited from landing. Rule 5 — Fruit of any kind grown in any foreign country, or in any of the States or Territories, found infested with any insect or insects, or with any fungi, blight, or other disease or diseases injurious to fruit or fruit trees, or to other trees or plants, is hereby prohibited from being offered for sale, gift or distribu- tion within the State. 84 Appendix. Rule 0. Any boxes, packages, packing material, and the like, infested with insect or insects, or their eggs, larvae or pupte, or by any fungi, blight, or other disease or diseases known to be injurious to fruit or to fruit trees, or to other trees or plants, and liable to spread contagion, are hereljy prohibited from being offered for sale, gift, distribution, or transportation until said material has been disin- fected by dipping it in boiling water and allowing it to remain in said boiling water not less than two minutes : such boiling water used as such disinfectant to contain, in solution, one pound of concentrated potash to each and every ten gal- lons of water. Rule 7 — All trees, plants, grafts, cuttings, buds, or scions may be disinfected by dipping in a solution of three-fourths of a pound of whale-oil soap (eighty per cent) to each and every gallon of water ; said whale-oil soap solution shall be kept at a temperature of 100 to l.")0 degrees. Said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions shall remain in said solution not less than two minutes. After said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions have been disinfected, they shall remain in quarantine fourteen days, unless otherwise directed by the inspecting oflBcer, for subsequent inspection, and if deemed necessary by the quarantine officer of the State Board of Horticulture, or a duly commissioned quarantine guardian, for further disinfection. Rule 8 — All trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions may be disinfected by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas, as follows : Said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions shall be covered, with an air-tight tent or box, and for each and every 100 cubic feet of space therein one ounce of (C. P.) cyanide of potassium (ninety-eight percent), one fluid ounce of sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water shall be used. The cyanide of potassium shall be placed in an earthenware vessel, the water poured over the said cyanide of potassium, afterward adding the sulphuric acid, and the tent or box to be immediately closed tightly, and allowed to remain closed for not less than forty minutes. After said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, or scions have been treated with hydrocyanic acid gas as above directed, they shall remain in quarantine for fourteen days, unless otherwise directed by the inspecting officer, for subsequent inspection, and if deemed necessary by a mem- ber of the State Board of Horticulture, or the quarantine officer of said Board, or a duly commissioned quarantine guardian, for subsequent disinfection. Rule 0 — All trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions imported or brought into the State shall be inspected upon arrival at the quarantine station in the dis- trict of flnal destination, and if found infested with any injurious insects or dis- eases which cannot be destroyed by the remedies required in rules 7 and 8 of these regulations, are hereby prohibited from being planted or offered for sale, gift, or distribution, and shall be proceeded against as a nuisance. Rule II). — If any person or persons having in their possession trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, scions, seeds, or pits infested with an insect or insects, or with any fungi, blight or other disease or diseases injurious to fruit trees, or to any other trees or plants, shall refuse or neglect to disinfect the said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, scions, seeds, or pits as is required by rules 7 and S of these regulations, after having been notified to do so by a member of the State Board of Horticulture, the quarantine officer of said Board, or a duly commissioned quar- antine guardian, the said trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, scions, seeds, or pits shall be declared a public nuisance, and shall be proceeded against as provided by law. Rule 11 — Animals known as flying fox, Australian or English wild rabbits, or other animals or birds detrimental to fruit or fruit trees, plants, etc.. are prohib- ited from being brought or landed in this State, and, if landed, shall be destroyed. Rule 12 — Quarantine stations: For the First District, ccjraprising the counties of Multnomah, Clackamas, Yamhill. Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tilla- mook, shall be Portland. W. K. Newell, quarantine officer, or any member of the Board or the secretary thei-eof. For the Second District, comprising the counties of Marion. Polk, Benton, Linn, Ijincoln, and liane, shall be Salem. L. T. Rey- nolds, quarantine officer, or any member of the Board or the secretary thereof.. Horticultural Law. 85 For the Third District, comprising tlie counties of Josephine, Coos, Curry, Doug- las. .Taclvson, Lalte. and Klamntli, shall be Asliland. A. II. Carson, quarantine officer, or any member of the Board or the secretary thereof. For tlie Fourtli I>istrict, comprising tlie counties of Morrow, Wasco, Gilliam, Crook, and Sherman, shall be The Dalles. Emile Schanno, quarantine officer, or any member of the Board or the secretary thereof. For the Fiftli District, comprising tlie counties of Uma- tilla. Union, Baker, Wallowa, Malheur, Grant, and Harney, shall be Milton and Pendleton. Judd Geer, quarantine officer, or any member of the Board or the sec- retary thereof. At all stations such other quarantine officers as may be from time to time appointed by the Board, notice whereof will be given, and complete lists of wiiom may be obtained from the secretary or any member of the Board. Rule 13 — Importers or owners of nursery stock, trees or cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions, desiring to have such nursery stock, trees, plants, cuttings, grafts, buds, or scions inspected at points other than regular quarantine stations, may have such inspection done where required ; provided, however, that such importers shall pay all charges of inspection ; such charges and expenses to be paid before a cer- tificate is granted. Transportation companies or persons and consignees or agents shall deliver and cause to be detained all nui'sery stock, trees, plants, and fruit at one or the other of the quarantine stations, for inspection, as provided by the rules and regulations of the Board. Rule 14 — The fee for the inspection of apple, pear, plum, peach, nectarine, prune, cherry, apricot, nut-bearing trees, and all other trees, shrubs, or plants, shall be as follows : Thirty cents per liour. including tlie time from leaving home, inspection and return home of tlie inspector, and actual traveling and other ex- penses. On all fruits the fee for inspection shall be $1.00 on any sum up to $.3.j.OO, and .$2.00 on any sum over that amount, and .$5.00 for carload lots. Rule 15 — All persons growing nursery stock, trees, and plants for sale, or to be offered for sale, are hereby required to report to the commissioner of the dis- trict in vvliich said nursery stock, trees, or plants are grown, for inspection during the months of September, October, or November of each and every year : and the commissioner of sucli district, or his duly appointed deputy, shall inspect such nursery stock, trees, or plants prior to shipment and delivery. When said nursery stock, trees, or plants are fo"und by said inspecting officer to be worthy of a certifi- cate setting forth the freedom of such nursery stock, trees, or plants, from live, injurious insect pests, their eggs, larvce, pupte, or fungous disease, the said in- specting officer shall then issue to the owner or owners of said nursery stock, trees, or plants, a certificate of inspection. The condition under which this certificate is granted is, tiiat the party or parties receiving such certificate shall be comjielled to disinfect by fumigation witli hydrocyanic acid gas, as described in rule 8, all pear and apple trees, or otlier stock grown on apple roots, after lifting the same and before delivery to purchaser or carriers ; and, in case such fumigation is neg- lected, said certificate of inspection shall be void and of no effect. Passed at a meeting of the State Board of Horticulture at Portland, Oregon. April 3, 1895, and amended at a regular meeting of the State Board of Horticulture at Salem, Oregon, October 15, A. D., 1895. 86 Appendix. REVISED CATALOGUE OF FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION IN THE VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE BRITISH PROVINCES. BY THE AMERICA?^ POMOLOGICAL SOCIETV. REVISED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE SOCIETY. W. H. Ragan, Chairman. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Division of Pomologj', WAsniNGTON, D. C June 15, 1800. Sill : In my letter of transmittal of August IS. 1807, accompanying the mat- ter embraced in Bulletin No. 6 of tliis division, tlie mutual arrangement ttiat had been entered into between the Department of Agriculture and the American Pomu- logical Society was fully set forth. The relationship thus established still exists, and the bulletin has been carefully revised and compiled for publication under the joint auspices of the society and the division. I now, therefore, have the honor to submit to you this revision, and trust that you may authorize its early publi- cation. As heretofore this revision has been made by a regularly appointed commit- tee of the American Pomological Society, of which Prof. W. H. Ragan is chairman, and Mr. T. T. Lyon, Prof. E. J. AViclvSon. Prof. C. S. Crandall. Mr. Silas Wilson. and Mr. L. A. Breckmans are members. Owing to the varied conditions of soil, climate and elevation of the PacifiG Coast region, it was thought advisable to make special investigation of the pomo- logical conditions in that section, and Prof. E. J. Wickson, of California, was ac- cordingly appointed a special agent of this division for that purpose, and to him special credit is due for his valuable services rendered. While it is manifestly impossible to construct a general fruit list that will constitute an infallible guide to the planter, it i.s hoped and believed that this re- vised catalogue of fruits will be of service to him in the selection of varieties adapted to liis own locality. With the above explanations. I have the honor to recommend the publication of this catalogue as Bulletin No. 8 of this division. Very respectfully. G. B. BRACKETT. Pomologist. Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. In accordance with agreement, publication as recommended is hereby authorized. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 87 INTRODUCTION. The Revised Catalogue of Fruits prepared under the .ioint auspices of the American Pomologieal Society and the division of pomology of the United States Department of Agriculture is herewith suljmitted. In making this revision the chairman of the committee ou revision has availed himself of the experience of his able predecessor, Hon. T. T. Lyon, and, through correspondence, of many practical pomologists. Many sources of information have been sought, and repeated efforts have been made to secure accurate and conserva- tive opinion on the merits of varieties and their adaptability to the several dis- tricts. But notwithstanding these efforts the chairman of your committee is aware that this revision is not without defects. The highest aim and desire of your committee has been to present reliable data concerning the behavior of varieties in various sections of our country. If this desire has not been realized it has been largely due to the difficulties expe- rienced in outlining districts sufficiently homogeneous in soil, climate, and other important features, and in securing responses to the numerous inquiries sent out to practical fruitgrowers. While these difficulties have been quite real, it is yet due the fruitgrowers to say that they are as a class very generous in giving out information gathered through their experience. Actuated by a desire to make the work as reliable as possible, and therefore a safe guide to planters and others seeking such information, the work of this revision has been done at Washington, where easy access could be had to the library and records of the division of pomology, as well as opportunity for fre- quent consultations with the pomologist and his corps of assistants. All imcer- tainties of origin, nomenclature, etc., have been carefully investigated with a view to arriving at correct conclusions. The general plan of the catalogue is based on that of its immediate predeces- sor, which was largely the work of that eminent pomologist, the former chairman of your committee on revision, Hon. T. T. Lyon, of Michigan. The districts have been somewhat changed in boundaries and increased in number, in order, if pos- sible, to conform more closely to practical as well as scientific principles. The map has also been enlarged and the boundaries of the districts made more distinct. In view of the lack of knowledge on the part of any but a resident expert concerning the behavior of varieties and the true status of fruit-growing in that section of our country bordering on the Pacific Coast, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University of California, was appointed by the pomologist to prepare that portion of the catalogue which is embraced in Districts Nos. 15, IG, 17, 18, and 19, and this revision is based almost wholly on his report. The thanks of your committee are extended to Professor Wickson for his valuable services. The list of public-spirited fruitgrowers generously contributing assistance is too large to attempt individual acknowledgment, but on behalf of the society and its committee, I feel bound to refer especially to the invaluable aid of Colonel Brackett and his able assistant, Mr. William A. Taylor. Respectfully submitted, W. II. RAGAN, Chairman. PLAX OF THE CATALOGUE. This catalogue embraces species and varieties of fruits and nuts recommendetl for cultivation in the United States and the British American I'rovinces. These are arranged alphabetically in three divisions, as follows : 88 Appendix. Division 1. Species and varieties mainly adapted to culture in the Northern and Middle States of the Union and in adjacent portions of the British Provinces. Division 2. More southern, tropical, and subtropical species and varieties. Division 3. Species indigenous and introduced, not included in the foregoing, which have not deviated under cultivation so far from their original types as to have deserved varietal names. The entire territory represented is divided into nineteen pomological districts, with little regard to state or provincial boundaries, but with primary reference to the influence of latitude, elevation, prevailing winds, and oceanic and lacustrine exposures upon their adaption to pomological pursuits. (See map.) Size and quality, as usually expressed in pomological phraseology, are stated in the tabulation of varieties upon the scale of 1 to 10, as follows : SCALE OF SIZE AND QUALITY. Size Scale Qualiti/ Very small - - _ _ . 1 2-3 3-4 5-6 7-S 8-9 10 Very poor. Poor. Small - -_ - _ _. . . Small to medium Poor to good. Medium _- _ . ... . __ Good to very good. Verv good. Medium to large - . - _ _ . ._ _ Ijarge _ - Very good to best. Best. Verv large- - District No. 1 — !Maine above five hundred feet elevation ; New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York north of latitude fourty-four degrees ; Ontario north of Lake Simcoe and east of longitude eighty degrees ; Quebec. New Brunswick, and I'rince Edward's Island. The dominant natural feature of this district is the St. Lawrence Valley. :Many of the hardier fruits flourish within its borders. District No 2 — Nova Scotia ; Maine below five hundred feet elevation ; New Hampshire and Vermont south of latitude forty-four degrees ; Massachusetts ; Rhode Island ; Connecticut ; New York south of latitude forty-four degrees, except Long Island ; northern New .Jersey above five hundred feet elevation ; Pennsylvania east of the Susquehanna Kiver and above five hundred feet elevation, north of latitude forty-one degrees west of the Allegheny River, and all of that portion of the state lying north of the Ohio River ; Oliio and Indiana north of latitude forty degrees, ;ind the lower peninsula of Michigan. The Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, the North Atlantic Coast, the lake region of western New York, Ohio, and Michigan, and the Hudson River Valley are the leading features of District No. 2. This may be considered the northern grape, peach, and winter apple district. District No. 3 — Long Island : New .Jersey, except a small portion north ; east- ern Pennsylvania below five liundred feet elevation ; Delaware ; and Maryland and Virginia below five hundred feet elevation. This is the Delaware and Chesapeake Bay District. Though a small district, its productive capacity is great of the fruits that succeed within its borders. District No. 4 — Pennsylvania alxive five hundred feet elevation and soutli of latitude forty-one degrees ; ^Maryland. Virginia. North Carolina, South Carolina, (Jeorgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, above five hundred feet elevation ; West Vir- ginia ; Tennesse and Kentucky ; Ohio and Indiana south of latitude forty degrees ; soutliern Illinois below the general elevation of five hundred feet, from the Wabasii to the Missis.sippi ; Missouri soutli of a line from near Si. Louis and along the elcA'ation of one tliousand feet to the southeast corner of Kansas ; Oklahoma below two thousand feet elevation ; Indian Territory ; and Arkansas north of lati- tude thirty-five degrees, also south of it wherever the elevation exceeds five hun- dred feet. The Allegheny and the Ozark Mountains and the valleys of the Ohio, the Tennessee, and the Cumberland, and portions of the Wabasli, the Mississippi, and the Arkansas Rivers are embraced within this district. Portions of it are noted fruit regions, while throughout its vast territory the hardier deciduous \ ^4. Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 89 I'ruits flourish. JNIany of the varieties recommended succeed best in certain locali- ties within the district. An exception to the general character of the district occurs in those portions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and southeastern Mis- souri lying near the Mississippi River, where varieties adapted to culture in Dis- tricts 5 and 7 generally succeed. District No. 5 — Eastern North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia below five hundred feet elevation ; and Florida north of latitude thirty degrees east of the Chattahoochee River and above one hundred feet elevation. This district embraces the southern Atlantic seaboard, with its many frith-like indentations and valleys. The climate is generally mild, and within its borders many of the more tender deciduous fruits flourish. District No. 6 — Florida south of latitude thirty degrees, and the remaining portions of the state with elevations below one hundred feet, and those portions of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas, lying below the one hundred feet contour line as it skirts the coast from Florida to the Rio Grande. This is the Southern Peninsula and the Gulf Coast District. The successful cul- ture of citrus and other subtropical fruits and nuts is restricted to the peninsula portion of Florida and to the delta of the Mississippi. Tropical species are only recommended for that portion of Florida lying south of latitude twenty-seven de- grees, and are indicated by the letter "S" in connection with the starring. District No. 7 — Florida west of the Chattahoochee River and above one hun- dred feet elevation : Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas above one hundred and below five hundred feet elevation ; and Texas south of Red River and above one hundred and below one thousand feet elevation. This may be denomi- nated the Valley District. It embraces portions of the Chattahoochee, Alabama, Pearl, Mississippi, Arkansas. Red, Sabine, Colorado, and Rio Grande Valleys. The climate in the eastern and larger portion is warm and moist, in the extreme west more dry and tending toward aridity. A wide range of the more tender varieties and species is adapted to culture in the district. District No. 8 — Illinois north of the five hundred-foot contour line as it crosses the state between thirty-eight degrees and thirty-nine degrees latitude ; a small portion of southwest Wisconsin ; Iowa south of about latitude forty-two degrees, thirty minutes ; the Missouri River Valley portion of southeastern South Da- kota : Nebraska and Kansas below two thousand feet elevation ; and Missouri north of a line drawn from near St. Louis and along the elevation of one thou- sand feet to the southeast corner of Kansas. The Missouri and Mississippi Valley sections of the district are its dominant features. The hardy deciduous fruits suc- ceed in most portions, and commercial fruit-growing is a rapidly developing industry. District No. 0 — Wisconsin except the southwest corner ; Minnesota ; upper Michigan ; Iowa north of about latitude forty-two degrees thirty minutes ; North aud South Dakota east of longitude ninety-nine degrees ; and the British Provinces west of longitude eighty degrees and east of longitude ninety-nine degrees. This district embraces the upper lakes, including Winnipeg, the Upper Mississippi, and the Red River Valleys. Only the hardier fruits succeed, but fair progress has been made in recent years in developing varieties adapted to this region. District No. 10 — Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma above two thousand feet elevation ; Texas above two thousand feet elevation and north of Red River and latitude thirty-flve degrees ; also Colorado below five thousand feet. This is the central plain and foothill district. It lies on the eastern slope of the Continental Divide. There are small sections, especially in eastern Colorado, where the apple and other hardy fruits are very successfully grown. District No. 11 — Texas above one thousand feet and south of Red River and latitude thirty-flve degrees ; and east of longitude one hundred and three degrees and the Pecos and Rio Grande Rivers. This may be accepted as an extension southward of District No. 10, with very similar conditions, but a warmer and more southern climate. District No. 12 — Texas west of longitude one hundred and three degrees and the Pecos River, and New Mexico south of latitude thirty-flve degrees. The Pecos 90 Appendix. and Rio Grande Valleys are the characteristic features of this district. Consider- able effort at growing fruit, especiallj' the apple and the hardier vinifera grapes, is being made in many localities. District No. 13 — New Mexico and Arizona north of latitude thirty-five degrees : Utah : and Colorado above five thousand feet elevation. This district embraces the Continental Divide and the Great Salt Lake, and it also embraces the valley and canyon of the Colorado and the sources of tlie important streams south of the Missouri and Yellowstone. It affords a great diversity of soils and climatic con- ditions, and hence a wide range of fruit growing. Tlie species successfully grown within the boundaries of this district range from the vinifera grapes to the hardy ironclad apples. District No. 14 — The Dakotas west of longitude ninety-nine degrees ; Wyo- ming : Montana east of longitude one hundred and eleven degrees ; and the Britisli Provinces lying between longitude ninety-nine and one hundred and eleven de- grees. The I^pper Missouri and Yellowstone Valleys are the distinctive features of the district. There is perhaps no section of the district in which fruit-growing has reached a very high state of development. Leading causes of this condition may be found in the comparatively undeveloped, or unsettled, state of the country and its great elevation. District No. 1~> — British America west of longitude one hundred and eleven degrees and east of longitude one hundred and twenty-two degrees ; Montana west of longitude one hundred and eleven degrees ; Idaho ; Nevada : and Washington, Oregon, and California east of the general coast contour line of one thousand feet elevation, crimmenciug at the r)ritish boundary near longitude one hundred and twenty-two degrees and southward on said elevation to its intersection of the Southern Pacific Railway in the Upper Willamette Valley, thencealong the line of said railway to the Sacramento Valley, thence east and south on the eastern rim of said valley and that of the San Joaquin at an elevation of one thousand feet to latitude thirty-flve degrees, thence east on said latitude to the Colorado River. The characteristic features of this district are the Uupper Columbia Valley and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. An exception to the general recommendation will appear in certain portions of Snake River Valley, where the vinifera grapes and other tender fruits succeed. District No. Ifi — the coast section of British America west of longitude one hundred and twenty-two degrees, and of AVashington, Oregon, and California north of about latitude thirty-nine degrees thirty minutes, and bounded on the east by Districts Nos. 15 and 17. This district embraces tlie highly developed fruit- growing sections on Puget Sound, the I^ower Columl)ia. and the Willamette. District No. 17 — The Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, bounded on the east by District No. 15. and on the west by the western rim of this great interior basin. The diversified fruit and nut products of this district are marvelous. There are localities in which the semi-tropical species and others in which the apple, pear, and other hardy fruits and nuts are grown to the highest perfection. District No. 18 — The coast section of California lying between latitude thirty- five degrees and about thirt.v-nine degrees thirty minutes, and bounded on the east by District No. 17. Its characteristic features are the Coast range of mountains, the Russian River, the Sonoma, the Santa Clara, and the Pajaro Valleys. District No. 19 — California and Arizona south of latitude thirty-five degrees. The dominant characteristics are the valleys of the Gila, the Colorado, the San Gabriel, and the Santa Ana and the Sierra Madre Mountains. It includes the celebrated fruit districts of Santa Ana. Riverside, .Santa Barbara, the Salt River Valley, San Diego, and many others. Districts 16. 17. 18, and 10 are peculiarly adapted to fruit and nut culture. Perhaps no portion of the earth's surface is more highly favored in climate an-6 6-7 6-7 5-6 8 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 8-4 7-8 5-6 3-4 5-6 6-8 4-5 8 9-10 7-8 7-8 8-9 7-9 5-6 5-6 5-6 7-8 7-8 3-4 8 6-7 7-8 4-5 7-8 5-6 5-6 7-8 4-5 I 5-6 ' 4-6 6-7 6-8 8-9 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-7 6-8 3-4 2-4 3 5-7 4-5 5-6 6-8 8 4-5 7-8 7-8 8-9 4-5 7-8 oc roi ro o r roi oc obc roc obc re rob i o r roc r ro ro oc re ro re re obc o re re roi oic r roc ro ro oc roc o rov o oi roc oc re re Ob rob ov ro ro roc oi oi ri roc roe oe re oc re r obc r ro ro o o r rov ro roc oc yrs gr yr s y yrs yrs yrs yr yr yr y r gyr wrg m m m m m m m ! m in s yr yr yr yw yrs yr y yrs yru r yrs yr ygr yr yr yr yr yr yrs yrs rs m s wyr rs yr yrs yrs grs y y r ry ys yru y yr yr gy gr gr y gyr gyr r yr rgy rs y yrs yrs s yrs yrs yrs yrs yru yr m m m ma m m m m m m m m m na m ma m m m m m m m in m m m a ma c m s m ma m ma s m m m a a s s m m m m m m 6-7 4 7 7 7 4 4 6-7 4 6 4 .5-6 7-8 5 4-5 9-10 5 9 8-9 4-5 3-4 6-7 .5-6 10 .5-6 4-5 6 4-5 3_4 3-4 9 8-9 8-9 .5-6 .5-6 4 4-5 7-8 7-8 5-6 10 8-9 4 5 6-7 4-5 4 .5-6 .5-6 5-6 8-9 7-8 8-9 6-7 9-10 4-6 6 6-7 6-7 2 3-5 5-6 8-4 .5-6 8 3-4 4-5 8_9 8 7-8 6-7 vl 1 1 1 e m 1 em m m 1 1 1 1 me me 1 em e ve e e 6 e vl 1 1 1 1 in m in m ni ni em e e vl ml ml ml e 1 e e 1 vl me vl e m em 1 vl 1 1 em e ml 1 m m e 1 1 e 1 e 1 ml 1 1 km m dm m d m m d k km m km dm m dkm dk d m dk d km dm dm m d d k m dk m k dk d dm d m dm m dkm dm m d dkm k k km kc km dm dk dk dkm km dkm k d km mk d mk c km d m km km m mc dm dkc d dm Ind. N. Y. Conn. Ark. Am. ? N. J. Pa. Ohio Rus. N. C. Mass. Vt. N. Y. Vt. Tex. Holl. Fr. ? Am. Am. N. Y. Am. Pa. M. Y. (?) N. Y. Pa. Pa. Pa. Mass. Conn. Mass. Am. Am. Fr. ? Ga. Pa. Va. Ohio Mass. 111. Tenn.? Mass. Ga. N. J. Minn. Tenn. Va. Rus. Eng. Conn. Am. Ger. Tenn. N. Y. .Mass. Va. Mo. Am. N. C. Ga. Va. Rus. Mass. N. C. s. c. Mo. Ga. N. C. Mass. Mass. Mo. Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 93 APPLES— Continued. Ingram Irish Peach Isham Sweet Jacobs Sweet Jefferis Jersey Sweet Jewett Red {Nodhead) Jonathan Jiidson Julian July, Fourth of •lunaUiskee Kaump _- Kent Honut}! Kernodle _-! Keswick Kinnard Klrkbridge Krauser Ivady Lady Sweet Lanlil'ord Ijansingburg Late Strawberry Lawver Lehigh Greening Lilly of Kent Limbertwig Longtield Louise, Princess Lowe Lowell Lowland Raspberry McAfee ___ McCuller Mcintosh McLellan McMahon Magog Red Streak Maiden Blush Malinda Mangum ( Galley) Mann Margaret, Early Red Mason Stranger Maryland Maiden Blush Mattiim uskeet Maverack Melon, Norton Millboy Milwaukee Minister Minkler Missouri Pippin Monmouth (Red Cheek Pippin)- Moore Sweet Mother Munson Nanseniond Nero Newell Newton Spitzenburg Nickajack Northern Spy Northfleld Northwestern Greening Nottingham Brown Noyes, Doctor Oconee Ogle (Winter Snow) Ohio Nonpareil Description Size I 6 7-8 7-8 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 7-8 6-7 4-5 5-6 6-7 8-9 7-8 6-7 5-6 ■1-5 5-(i 1-2 7-8 7-8 5-6 5-6 7-8 6-7 7-8 6-7 5-6 Form 8-9 8-9 6 7-8 7-8 6-7 5-7 8-9 7-8 5-6 ti-7 5-6 6-7 5-6 5-6 4-6 5-6 7-8 6-7 6-7 7-8 7-8 6-7 5-6 7-8 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 7-8 5-6 8-9 8-9 5-6 8-9 8 6-7 8-9 5-6 7-8 o c rob r oc roc ro re c re roc ro r ro rob ei oci obi o rob re ro re ro ore roc re ro ob Ob r ro ro ro roe ro rob o re oe ro ro o re roc ro roc re ro oe re re oc ro re o roc ro rob oc oe roc ro re Ob ro ro ro r Color Flavor ywr r yr yrs yrs grs yr grs wrs wyr y y gyr ys gyr yr yro rs yr ygr grc yr wrs r y g gyr y we y y ys ygr r nyr yrs yr yrs yr yr yrs I yg yr yr yr yr yr yrs r yrs yrs gyr yrs yr r yr yr yrs r yrs yrs yrs yrs rys gy yr ry yr r yr s ni s m m m m a m m m s m m m m m m m m m m m m ra m m m ni s m m m m m s m s m m m m m m Qual'y Season 9 7_8 5-6 7-8 8-9 8 6-7 8-9 4 4-6 8-4 4-6 7 3-4 7-8 5-fa 5-6 3-4 6 6-7 6-8 7-8 3-4 5-0 5-6 6-7 7-9 ' 3-6 i 4-5 5-6 ' 6-7 7-8 4-5 5-7 i 6-7 5-6 5-6 4-5 7-8 5-6 5-6 6-8 4-5 5-6 5-6 7-8 3-4 4-6 7-8 6-7 5-6 5-6 6-8 3-4 6-8 5-6 8-9 5-6 4-5 .5-6 5-6 7-8 4-5 8-9 G-8 6 8 8 4-5 7-8 5-0 e me 1 1 e em 1 1 me e ve 1 1 m vl era 1 e vl 1 1 1 vl m vl vl e vl e 1 e e e 1 1 ml m ra 1 e vl m vl 6 1 ml 1 1 1 me 1 ml 1 1 1 1 ml ml 1 1 1 1 1 ml nie 1 1 e m vl m Use j Origin dm km km dm d dk d dkm km d cm d km k dm I k dk km dk ! dm dk , dm ! m d dm dkm dm m / k d km I km ' km 1 m } dm I dm ! d dm j dkm i km dkm 1 "^ mk I d ; d mk ' k mk dm d ! km dm m I m dm i ^ I d ' dk km km d m dkm dkm km d k rn mdk dk d k m dm Mo. Wis. Mass. Pa. N.J. N. H. N. Y. Minn. N. C. Ger. N. C. Wis. Eng. N. C. Eng. Tenn. Am. Pa. Fr. N. Y. Md. N. Y. N. Y. Mo. Pa. Del. N. C. Rus. Ont. Am. Am. Rus. Ky. N. C. Ont. Conn. Wis. Vt. N.J. Vt. Ala. N. Y. Eng. Va. Md. N. C. S. C. N. Y. W. Va Wis. Mass. Pa. Mo. N.J. Am. Mass. Mass. Va. N. J. ? Wis. N. Y. Ga. N. Y. Vt. Wis. Pa. Am. Ga. 111. Ohio. 94 Appendix, APPLES— Continued. Name Ohio Pippin {Shannon) Oliabena Oldenburg, Duchess of Oliver (Senator-) " Ontario Ortley Paragon Patten Greening Peach of Montreal Pease, Walter Peck Pleasant Peerless Perfection Perry Russett Peter Pewaukee Plumb Cider Pomrne Gris Porter Primate Pryor Red Pumpkin Sweet [Pound Sweet)- Quince, Cole Ralls Genet {Janet, Neverfail)-— Rarabo 1 Ramsdell Sweet Raspberry Red Astrakhan Red Canada Red June, Carolina Red Stripe Repka Malenka Rhode Island Greening Ribston Ridge Pippin Rolfe (Macomber) Romanite, South Roman Stem Rome Beauty Roxbury Russell Russian Baldwin Salome Saint Johnsbury Saint Lawrence Scott M^inter Shiawassee Shockley Smith Cider Smokehouse Sops of Wine Stark Starkey Stayman Winesap Stephenson Sterling {American Beauty) Summer King Pearmain Queen Rose Summer Summer Summer Sutton Swaar Swazy Pomme Gris Sweet Winesap Switzer Taunton Terry Winter Tetofski Titovka Tolman Sweet-— Tompkins King- Description Size Form Color Flavor Qual'y Season Use Origin 8-9 5 5-6 7 5 7-8 7-8 8-9 5-6 8-9 7-8 5 7-8 5-6 7-8 8-9 5-6 3-4 7-8 5-6 5-6 8-9 7-8 5-6 5-6 7-8 3-4 7-8 5-6 3-4 5-6 3-4 8-9 5-6 7-8 7-8 3-4 5-6 8-9 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-6 5 5-6 3-4 6-7 6-7 5-6 8-9 7-8 8-9 5-6 8-9 7-8 5-6 6_7 4-5 6-7 7-S 2-4 5-6 5-6 7-8 2-3 5-6 7-8 5-6 8-9 ro rob o ob rob re r re rob ro or r re r ro re ro obc re oi r ro oc o obc obi re oc ovc obc re ro r rei o re r re ro rov or rob < r oc re o re roc ro r robe, ocr re rob re ro re re r roc ro ro oc r oc re roc oci ro roc yr a rs yrs a r wyr a gyr m yr m y yrs m rys yr m s yrs yru gy yrs yrs yrur yr yr gyr gw y yrs wvr rgy yr rs wrs rs gy yr yru yrs yr wyr yrs yru yr grs yr yrs yrs rs wrs yr yrs yr yr yrs ys r yrs yr yrs rru yrs yrs yrs gy or r wr yrs yr yrs yrs y yrs m m m m m m ni m s a m m s a m m m m a a m m m ni m m s m a m m m m m m m m m m m a ni m m am s m a a m s m 6-6 4-6 4-5 7-8 6 7-8 8 5-6 5-6 7-8 7-8 5-6 5-6 5-6 6-7 4-5 5-6 8-9 8-9 9 7-9 5-6 5-6 6-7 7-8 6-7 6-7 5-6 8-9 6-7 5-6 5 7-8 7-8 5-6 8 6-7 8-9 6-7 6-7 7-9 7-8 7-8 7-8 6-7 5-7 7-8 5-6 5-6 6-7 5-6 5-6 8 8-9 5-6 7-8 6-7 9-10 5-6 6-7 7-8 7-8 8-9 6-7 6-7 ;5-6 5-6 4-5 5-6 6-7 8-9 leason Use ml km me km 6 km ml m e m ml dm 1 dm ml km 1 dm me dk 1 dkm 1 m me km ml dk m km 1 km m dm ml d em dm e d 1 dk ml k e k vl m m dk m km me km e km 1 dm ve dm e km Im k 1 dkm 1 dk 1 m ra dkm 1 d 1 dk ml dkm 1 km e d 1 dkm vl dkm 1 dkm m dm 1 km m dkm 1 dm 1 km ml k e d 1 m ml dkm 1 mdk 1 dm 1 d e dk em d e km ve d 1 dm 1 d 1 dm 1 dk e k m k 1 dm e m m km 1 km 1 dm Ohio. Mi'in. Rus. Ark. Ont. N.J. Tenn. Iowa. Fr. Conn. R.I. Minn. Iowa. N. Y. Minn. Wis. Wis. Eur. ? Mass. N. Y. Va. Conn. Me. Fr. Pa. Am. Rus. Rus. Am. N. C. Ind. Rus. R. I. Eng. Pa.? Me. Am.? N.J. Ohio. Mass. Am. Rus. 111. Vt. Am. Vt. Mich. Ga. Pa. Pa. Eur.? Ohio. Me. Kan. Miss. Mass. N. C. Am. Am. N.J. Mass. N. Y. Can. Pa. Rus. (Ala.? I Ga.? Ga. Rus. Rus. R.I. N.J. Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 95 APPLES— Concluded. DeBcription Size Form Color Flavor Qual'y Season Use Origin Townsend 5 Trenton Early ti Twenty-Ounce {Cayiir/a Hedstreak) 9. letter I 7 Vandevere i 5 Van hoy j 8 Virginia Greening 8 Wagener 6 AValbridge {Edgar Rcdsireak) 5 Washington Strawberry 8 M'atson Carolina 8 Wealthy 6 Westfield 8eck-no-further 5 Wetmore 5 Whinery 6 AVhite Juneating ( Yellow May) 4 White Pearmain {W. W. Pearmain) 6 White Pigeon 5 White Pippin 7 Williams Favorite 5 Willow Twio 6 Windsor 5 Wine Hays 7 Winesap 5 Winter St. Lawrence 5 Wistal 7 Wolf River 9_ Wythe 5 Yates 2 Yellow Bellflower 8 Yellow June 3 Yellow Newtown (Albemarle) 7 Yellow Transparent 6 Yopp York Imperial (Johnson's Fine Winter). ze Form _6 OC _7 ci 10 r _8 r -6 O -9 ro -9 o -7 ro -() OC -9 OC .9 OC -7 ro .6 re _6 r -7 re _5 r _(i robe -6 re -8 ro -6 robe -7 roc -6 r .8 ro -6 rob _6 r _8 r 10 ro ! _t^ OC .8 OC _9 obc _4 ro -8 ro -7 re -9 re -8 oi yrs yg yrs yr yrs yrs gyr yrs yrs yrs grs yrs gr r rs yr yr ruy wyr r yr yr yr yr rs y wrs wrs yrs yr y yr wy gyr yrs m m in m m m m m ra m m m s m m m m m a m m m a a a a m m 6__7 7_8 (3-7 6-7 5-6 6-7 5-G 7-8 5_6 7^8 5-6 6-7 8-9 7-8 5-6 6-7 8-9 6-7 8-9 6-7 5.6 6 6-7 7-8 7-8 7-8 5-6 5-6 5-6 8-9 5-6 9-10 5.6 5-6 6-7 1 e ml m ml 1 1 1 1 e e ni ml 1 1 e 1 me 1 e vl ml 1 vl 1 me nx 1 vl 1 e vl e m 1 dm km km dm Ivin dm Pa. Am. Conn. Am. Del. N.C. m Am. dm N.Y. m 111. dm N.Y. d Am. dkm Minn. dm Conn. dk Tenn. km Ohio. d dm Am. dk Rus. dm Am. dm Mass. m Va. ? m Wis. dm Del. dkm N.J. d Eng. km Tex. km Wis. dk 111. m Ga. dkm N.J. dk Am. dkm N.Y. km Rus. dk Ga. dm Pa. BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES. [liuhus.) BLACKBERRIES. {R. VJLLOSUS.) [Key.— Size: Scale 1 to 10; 1, very small; 10, very large. Form : c, conical; o, oblong; ov, oval; r, round. Color: b. black. Quality: Scale 1 to 10; 1, very poor; 10, best. Season: e, early; m, medium; 1, late; v, very. Use: d, dessert; k, kitchen; m, market. Abbrevia- tions of names of places of origin : Am., America.] Name Description Size Form Color Qual'y Season Um Origin Agawam - _ _ - _ - - - - 7-8 7-8 5-6 5-6 ro oc oov o b b b b 8.9 9-10 9-lb e ve m e ve m e e m ml m m em ml 1 1 1 e m dm dm m dm dkm dm dkm m d m dm km dm d d d d m Am. Allen Pa. Briton, Ancient- -- - - _ _ Wis. Brunton - „ - .- _ - - -_ Am. C'randall . - Tex. ? Dallas - .. 7-8 4-5 7-9 8-9 7-9 8-9 9 7-8 6-7 5 6-7 5-6 5 8-9 ro o rov ro ov ov ro o ro ro oov oov oov b b b b b b b b b b b b b b 7-8 7-8 7-9 5 7-8 7-8 6 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 6 7 7-8 Tex. Early Harvest 111. Eldorado-. - - -- Ohio. Erie . Pa. Klttatlnny - _-_.- --„-- N.J. Lawton -. _ - - - - N. Y. Minnewaska - -- -- - N.Y. Robison - - -- -- - -. Tex. Snyder _ - - . Ind. Stone -- _- ------ Wis. Taylor Ind. Triumph, Western - - -_ - Am. Wachusett- - ------- Mass. Wilson - N.J. 96 Appendix. DEWBERRIES. {R. CANADENSIS.) Name Description Size Form Color QuaVy Season Use Origin Lucretia Mayes (Austin)^ . __ _ ._ - - 9-10 9-10 OOV cov b b 6 5-6 e dk ve ' dm W.Va Tex. CHERRIES [Cevasus). HEARTS AND BIGARREAIIS. {C. AVIUM.) [Key.— Size, scale 1 to 10: 1, very small ; 10, very large. Form: e, compressed ; b, lieart shaped ; o, oblate ; r, round. Color: a, ainber; b, black; p, purple; r, red ; y, yel- low, equality, scale 1 to 10: l.verypoor; 10, best. Season: e.early; m, medium; l.late; V, very. Use: d, dessert; k, kitchen; in, market. Abbreviations of names of places of origin: Am., America; Eng., England ; Eur., Europe; Fr., France; Ger., Germany; Ont., Ontario; Rus., Russia.] Name Description Size Bing 7_8 Black Heart ! 6-7 Centennial 9.10 Coe Transparent 5-6 Downer 5.6 Eagle, Black 6-7 Early Purple Guigne 3-4 Elkhorn 8-9 Elton 9-10 8-9 9-10 8-9 9-10 8-9 7-8 8-9 8-9 9-10 9-10 8 7-8 Hoskins Knight Early Lambert Lewelling Mezel Napoleon {Royal Ann). Oxheart Republican, lilack Rockport Spanish, Yellow Tartarian, Black Windsor Wood, Governor Form. Color QuaVy Season Use b 8-9 1 dm he b 5-7 ve dm Oh yr 8-9 dm r yi' 10 e d rh r 8-9 m dm oh b 6-7 m dm rh pb 6-7 ve d h b 7-8 1 dm h yi" 9 e dm rh pr 7-8 Im dm oh b 7-8 e d h pr 8-9 ml dm rh b 8-9 dm oh rb 7-8 m d h yr 5-6 m m oh r 5-6 m dm b vl dm oh ra 8-9 m dm oh yr 9-10 em d h b 9-10 em dm h yr 7-8 1 dm rh yr 7-8 em dm Origin Or eg Eur. ? Cal. Conn. Mass. Eng. (?) Eng. Oreg. Eng. Oreg. Oreg. Eur. Eur. Oreg. Ohio Eur. Rus. Ont. Ohio Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 97 NECTARINES AND PEACHES. (Persica vulgaris ) NECTARINES. (P. VULGARIS var. L.1SVIS.) [Key.— Size: scale 1 to 10; 1, very small; 10, very large. Form: c, conipresspd; o, oblulc; ov, oval; r, round. Color: c, creamy; g, green; r, red; w, white; y, yellow. Adiiesiou: e, cling; f, free: s, senii-cllng. (Quality, scale 1 to 10; 1, very poor; K), b'^si. Season: e, early; m, medinm; 1, lale; v, very. Use: d, dessest; k, kitchen; in, market. Abbreviations'of naines of places of origin: Am., America; Belg., Belginm; Eng., Eng- land: Eur., Europe; Fr., France.] Same Size Boston ■- 7-8 Downlon 7-8 Early Newlngton ! 7-8 Early Violet \ 7-8 Elruge 5-G New White | 6-7 Stan wick i 6-7 Description Form rov rov rov r rov r rov Color Skin gr yr gr w gr Flesh y gr gwr wr g w w Adhe- sion t f C f f f f Qual'if iSeason 5-6 5-6 9-10 7-8 7-8 6-7 4-5 ni ve e ve 1 1 Use d d d d d dm d OriQitb Mas.s. Eng. Eng. Fr. Eng. Eng. PEACHES. {P. VULGARIS.) Albright Ale.\ander Allen October Amelia .\rneliaberta Angel Benner Beers Sni'ick Bequett fling Bequett Free Bi rgen Yelkrw Bidwell Early Bidwell Late Bilyen Bishop Early Blood Cling Blood Free Brandywine '— - Brigdon (Garfield) Cabler Indian Chairs Choice Champion Chili, Hills Chinese Cling Columbia Connelt Southern Early- Cox Cling Crosby Curtis Early Barnard Early Cliina Early Crawford Early Toledo Early York Eaton Elberta Emma Family Favorite Fitzgerald Foriester Foster Fox Seedling Galveston Georgia, Belle of Globe Golden Cling Greensboro 7-8 5-6 7-8 7-8 6 7-8 7-S 8 7-8 8-9 4-5 5-6 7-8 7 8-9 8-9 8-9 5-6 8-9 7-8 7-8 5-6 9-10 7-8 8 7-8 6-7 ov roi rol ov ov r r rov rov roi rov r r r ovc re r Ob r r w wr yr wr y wr yr gwr gwr yr wr wr gw w y y ygr vr r yr or yr cwr w w gw yr cw yr w y gw c s f f f f 5-6 5 7-8 7-8 yr y gw gw w yr yr yr yr w yr wr y 5-6 6-7 6-7 8-9 5-6 7-8 6-7 8 5-6 5-6 6 7-8 4-5 6-7 7-8 5-6 7-8 5-6 7-8 7-8 7-8 1 dm ve I dm 1 dm e dm dm 1 me me m ve 1 vl ml vl vl me m m ni em me m ml m m 1 km j mk m d I dk i dk |dkm m k k m ; dm ; k km dm ' rn j km I 1" I m dm m N. C. 111. Mo. N. C. Ga. FJa. N.J. Te-x. Tex. Am. Fla. Fla. Md. Cal. Am. Am. Del. N. Y. Tex. Md. 111. N. Y. Am. Ga. N. C. Tex. Mass. 5-6 5-6 8-9 7-8 5-6 6-7 8-9 8-9 7-8 7-8 8-9 9-10 7 4-5 7 8-9 8-9 7-8 r ov rov r rov r re re ro ov r r r ro rob rov ovc r yr w yr wr wr yr yr yr gw ry yr yr w yg wr yr yr r y w y w w y y g yr f f f f f c f f s f y cw yg w y y w 6-7 7-8 8-9 7-8 8-9 5-6 7-8 8-9 7-8 8-9 8-9 9-10 7-8 6-7 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 m ve m e e m ml ml e me m m 1 1 e m 1 e m dm dm dm dm dm m m dm dm dm dm m d km m km m 111. Tex. N.J. Ohio Eng. N. C. Ga. Ga. Tex. Can. Ga. Mass. N.J. Tex. Ga. Pa. Cal. N. C. HOR. 98 Appendix. PE AC H ES— Concluded. Name Hale Heath Cliag Henrietta Honey Hynes, ^Surprise Ingold, Lady Kaiin zoo Kerr, JfK.sic Keyport Large York Ijate Admii'able Tiiite Crawford Jjate Rarei'ipe Lee. Gcnrral Ijemoii Cling Lemon Free Lewis Louise Lolo, Miss Lovell Mamie Ross Mary C/i''7pe Morris White Mountain Rose Muir McDevitt Oldmixon Cling <)ldmix(jn Free. Onderdonk i^range Cling Pallas Parham Peeii to Peninsula Phillips Cling Piequet Prize Red Cheek Melocolon. Reeves' Favorite Richmond Rivers Roval (jeorge Russell Salway Smock Sneed Snow Stevens Rareripe St. John Stonewall Jackson Strawberry Stum]) Susquehanna Texas Thiirljer Tillotson Tippecanoe Triutnph Troth Tuskena Wager AV^ildo Walker Var. Free Ward Late Waterloo Wheatland Yellow Rareripe JJesr^ription Color Size Furm, Adhe- Qiiaiy Seaso/ Use r Skin Flesh sion, 4-5 gwr gw S 5-6 e m «-K rov \vr w c 9.10 vl km 6-7 ro yi' yr c 6-8 1 ink 4-5 ov cr wr f 8-9 dk 4-5 r r cr s 7 1 dm (>-7 r yr yr f 8 me dm 7-S ov ry yr f 8-9 me idkni 7-8 ov wr w f 5-6 ve m 7-8 rov \vr w f 4.5 1 m C-7 r wr \v f 7-8 e dm 8-9 rov gr w f 8.9 iri d S-!) r yr y f 8.9 1 dm 7-K rov y w f 8.9 in dm 8-9 ro R g c 8 6 m 8-9 rov yr y c 8.9 m dm 8-9 Ob y y f 8.9 1 dm (i-7 r rw cr f 7-8 1 dkm 5-ti r r w f 7-8 e dm (i-7 !• rw cr f 8 e dm o-(i re yr y f 7-8 1 km H-8 ro w y c 7.8 e dm 8-9 r yr yr f 8-9 1 in 7-8 ov cw w f 5.6 m km C-7 r wr w t 8-9 em dm 8-9 w y y f 8-9 rn dkm 8-9 obc yr yr c 7-8 m km 7-8 rov c w c 7-8 m km 7-8 rov c w f 8.9 in dm 7-8 ov w w f 7-8 m dm 7-8 r y y c 5-6 m km 7-8 ov w w f 6.7 e dm 5-(i r yw wr f 5-6 1 mk 4-5 f w w c 7 8 e d 8 o y y f 7-8 ml m 7-8 oc y y c 7-8 ml dm 7-8 r yr y f 0.6 1 d 7 ob y yr f 8 1 m 7-8 rov yr y f fi.7 m dm 8-9 rov yr y f 7.8 in m 8-9 r yr y f 6-7 m m (}-7 rt! ow w f 7-8 e dm 5-H r wr w f 10 m d 7-8 r wr w f 7-8 e dkm 7-8 rov yr y f 5-6 1 m 7-8 ov yr y f 5.6 1 m 6-7 ov gw w c 4.5 ve m 7-8 r w w f 6-7 m dm 0-7 rov cw w f 7-8 ml 111 7-8 r yr y f 7.8 e m 7_8 ro gy g c 6 7 e km 5_0 ov r w f 7-8 em dm 8.9 rov wr w f 6.7 ml m 9J0 r yr y f 9-10 m dk 4_5 ro ys g sc 5-6 1 d 6_7 rov wr w f 7.8 e d 5J) r wr w f 7-8 e d 8_9 r yr y c 6-7 1 dm 5 6 r yr yr s 8-9 6 dm 8-4 r wgr wr f 5 me in 8_9 oc y yr c 7.8 e dkm 5_6 ov y y f 4-5 n\ m 4.5 ov w w f 6.7 e dm 8 o wr wr f 7.8 1 dm 7-8 rov wr w f 7-8 vl dk 5_(i r wr gw R 5-6 ve dm 9_10 r yr y f 6.7 m dm 7-8 r yr y f 7.8 m dm Origin Ohio Md. D. C. N. Y. Ky. N C. Mich. Md. Am. Eng. Pr. N.J. Am. Am. S. C. Ohio xMich. Eng. Tex. Cal. Tex. Md. Am. N.J. Cal. Cal. Am. Am. Tex. GaT Am. Ga. Md. Cal. Ga. Am. N. J. N. J. Eng. Eur. Nebr. Eng. N.J. Tenn. Am. N.J. Am. Tex. N.J. N. Y. Pa. Tex. Ga. N. Y. Pa. Ga. N.J South N. Y. Fla. Del. Am. N. Y. N. Y. Am. ' The distinctive peculiarities of the familiesor strains of peaches known as Chinese, Persian, and Spanish being- more or less ill-defined and obscured by crossing or h.ybridi- zation, a correct classification of varieties under these heads is not deemed practicable Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 99 PEARS. {PYBC'S COMMUNIS AND SINEXSIS.) [Key.— Size : scale 1 to 10; 1, very small; 10, very large. P'orin : i, irregular; «, oblate; <>b. oblong; ob:), obovate; obt, obtuse; ov, ovate; p, pyriforin ; r, round: t, turbinate. <"olor: b. brown ; c, ciinisou ; g, green ; r, red ; ru, russet; y, yellow. Texture: b, but- tery; f, firm; g, granular; m, melting; 1, tender. Flavor: a, aeid; us, astringent; J, juicy; s, sweet : v, vinus; p, perfumed, t-iuality, scale 1 to 10: 1. very pooi-; 10, best. Season: ■e, early; m, niedium; 1, late; v, very. Use: d, dessert; k. kitelicn; in, market. Abbrevi- ations of names of plaei's of origin: Am., America; Hf^lg., Belgium; Eng., England; Eur., Europe; Flem., Flemish Provinces; Fr., F'rance; Hoi., Hi 4-5 e m Rus. bm sp 6-7 e d N. Y.? t j'^ 6-7 1 m Fr. nib p 8_9 m dm Belg. bm .IP 6-8 m m Belg. m .lop 6-7 e m Pa. b sv 6.7 m km R.I. gf s 4-5 ve d Md.? bg jSP 4-5 1 m Fr. bm Jsv .5-6 em 111 Mass. m JSP 6-7 1 m N. Y. mb .isp 8.9 ml dm Fr. in .ISP 9-10 1 d Mass. gb sv 5-6 m d Belg. t sp .5-6 1 in Fr. bm .IS 5-6 vl d Eur. m .isp 6.7 e d Belg. m ,)sp 6-7 em dm Belg. m ,ivp 5.6 m dm Mass. fg ,ia 8-4 ml km Pa. b j rich 4-5 ni d Belg. m .|vp 7.8 e dm Fr. bm srich 6.9 1 d Flem. mg svp 5.6 in dm Me. m s 7 me dm Vt. btii rich 8-9 m d Fr. bm .iv 6..S m m Eur.? m svp 8.9 ml d Belg. ni .IV .5.6 m dm Conn. m sv 8-9 m dm Idaho gni .IS 3-5 ml ink Pa. m j«p 7.8 e d Ohio. mg V 3.4 1 d Eng. m sp 7.8 1 dm N. Y. m s 3-4 m m Am. fg s 3-4 e m N. Y. bm s 7.8 m dm 111. m J ,5.6 in dm Fr. m s 7.9 m dm Flem. m jvp 4-5 1 dk Me. m sp 6.7 e d Fr. ni 5 e mk Ga. m .I^'P 7-8 i dm Belg. bm J^p 5-6 e d Fr bin jvas 5.6 ml dk Belg. gm .ivp 4.5 m dm Mass. gm .jvp 5.6 ml dm Mass. m JS 5.6 ml km Belg. bmg .1v 6-7 nil km Conn. m Jsp 5-6 ve dm N Y. m sp 4-5 e dm Pa. gm jvp 5-6 m dk Belg. • fg V 2-3 vl k Eur. 100 Appendix. PEARS— Continued. Name Rostiezel Rutter Secke Sbeldou Smith Souyenir da Congress Sterling Stevens Summer Doyenne (Doyenne d Ete) Superflne Tyson Urbauiste Vermont Beauty Vicar of Winkficld Washington - White Doyenne Wilder Early Winter Neli.s Description Size Form Color 3-4 6-7 3-4 6.8 7-8 7-9 5-6 2.3 6-7 4-5 obop rp I obo I robo rov obobtp yrb syru bgrur gyrub IT y rop yriic 1" y robo rp P otiop obob P ovobo ■ obo obobbr robo , y ycru yruc yru yru yb yr y yr ygru Text- Flavor ure mb svp gm sv bm .JP m jsvp ! t vas i bt jvp m Js b 1 sp m js bm V m Jsp bm JP t s b .is m JS bm JSV t sv bm Jsp (Quality 8-9 5-6 9.10 7-8 3-4 5-6 4-5 4-5 6-7 6.7 8-9 7.8 8-9 4-5 5-6 8-10 7-8 8-9 Season e ml ml ml m em 6 e ve m m ml 1 1 e ml e 1 Use d dm d km dm m dm d d kni dm djn dm km d dm dm dm Origin Eur. Pa. Pa. N. Y. South Fr. N. Y. N. Y. Belg. Fr. Pa. Belg. Vt. Fr. Del. Fr. N. Y. Belg. PLUMS. (Primus. ) (P. AMERICANA.) [Key.— Size: scale 1 to 10; 1, very small; 10, very large. Form: c, compressed; f, flattened; o, oval; ob, obovate; obi, oblong; r, round. Color: b, black; br, brown; g. green; p, purple; r, red: v, violet; w, white; y, yellow. Quality, scale, 1 to 10; 1, very poor; 10, best. Season: e. early: m, medium; 1, late; v, very. Use: d, dessert; k, kitchen; m, market; c, curing. Abbreviations of names of places of origin: Am., Atnerich; Belg., Belgium; Eng., England; Eur., Europe; Kr., France; Ger., Germany; Jap., Japin; Out., Ontario; Rus., Russia. Name Description Size Form Color (Quality Season Use Origin Aitkin - - - . 8 6-7 8 8 8 5-6 5-6 8 5-6 6 9-10 6 7 8 .5-6 6-7 8-9 7-8 5-6 6-7 4-5 o ro ro r ro ro r ro r ro ro ro r ro ro ro r o oc ro ro r r r r ry yr r ry r r yr ry r ry yr r r dr r r yr 6 5 h 5 7 5-6 5 7 6-7 5 7 « 8 8-9 6-7 5 9-10 5-6 6-7 5-6 me me ml 1 me m em 1 ml ml 1 ml 1 6 m m me m m m m dkm m dkm dkm km km k dk km m dk dk dk dk d dk m dm km km k Minn. American Eagle Black Hawk - - - - -.. — . Mo. Iowa. Comfort Cottrell - . . - - Iowa. Minn. Df Soto Wi.s. Forest G rden - . . Iowa. Gaylord . . .... . . . Iowa. Hawkeve _ . - . Iowa. Ijouisa - . _. _ _ Mo. New Ulm ... . . - _. . Minn. Ocheeda Piper - .... Minn. Minn. Quaker 9 Rockforcl Iowa. Rollingsione _ _ - _ - Minn. Stoddard Iowa. Surprise Minn. Weaver ._ - . . . . Iowa. Wolf Wyant Iowa. Iowa. Revised Catalogue of Fruits. 101 PLUMS.--P. ANGUSTIFOLIA. Niinie Oaddo Chief. <;iuck- Desc-iplion Size Form Color Quality Season Use Origin 0.6 5 3 5 Ijone St r 2. Munson Newman i 5. Pottawu ttaniie ' 5. Texas Belle (Paria Belle) 5. 'i'ellow Transparent 7. o ro o ro o r r o r r r r r r r y 6 5 3 5 3_4 3-4 5-0 ve me nt me m ml m e dm m k m km km km 1 Include.s supposed hybrids. La. Tex. Tex. Tex. Ky. Tenn. Tex. Tex. P. CERASIFERA.^ De Caradeuc -- . ' o 6 r r dr r 3-4 2-4 e k 1 km S. C. Marianna.. . . _ ._ 5 6 Tex. THE SOCIETY'S RULES FOR EXHIBITING AND NAMING FRUITS. The rules of the American Pomological Society for exhibiting and naming fruits are as follows : SECTION I. NAIIING AND DESCRIBIXG NEW FKUITS. Itule 1 — The originator or introducer (in the order named) has the prior right to bestow a name upon a new or unnamed fruit. Knle 2 — The society reserves the right, in case of long, inappropriate, or other- wise objectionable names, to shorten, modify, or wholly change the same, when they shall occur in its discussions or reports ; and also to recommend such changes for general adoption. Kule .3 — The name of a fruit should preferably express, as far as practicable hy a single word, a characteristic of the variety, the name of the originator, or the place of its origin. Under no ordinary circumstances should more than a single word be employed. Rule 4 — Should the question of priority arise between different names for the same variety of fruit, other circumstances being equal, the name lirst publicly bestowed will be given precedence. Rule 5 — To entitle a new fruit to the award or commendation of the society it must possess (at least for the locality for which it is recommended) some valu- able or desirable quality, or combination of qualities, in a higlier degree than any previously known variety of its class and season. Rule 6 — A variety of fruit having been once exhibited, examined, and reported upon as a new fruit by a committee of the society will not thereafter be recog- nized as such, so far as subsequent reports are concerned. SECTION II. COMPETITIVE EXHIBITS OF FRUITS. Rule 1 — A plate of fruit must contain six specimens, no more, no less, ex- cept in the case of single varieties not included in collections. 102 Appendix. Rule 2 — To insure examination by the proper committees all fruits must be correctly and distinctly labeled and placed upon tlie tables during the first day of the exhibition. Rule M — The duplication of A'arieties in a collection will not be permitted. Rule 4 — In all cases of fruits intended to l)e examined and reported by com- mittees the name of tlie exliibitor. togetlier with a complete list of the varieties exhibited by him, must be delivered to the secretary of the society on or before the first day of the exhibition. Rule .') — The exhibitor will receive from the secretary an entry card, whicli must l)e placed with the exliibit, wlien arranged for exliibition, for tlie guidance of committees. Rule (i — All articles placed upon the tables for exliibition must remain in charge of the society till the close of tlie exhibition, to be removed sooner only upon express permission of the person or persons in charge. Rule 7 — Fruits or other articles intended for testing, or to be given away to visitors, spectatoi-s, or otliers, will lie .assigned a separate hall, room, or tent. in which they may be dispensed, at the pleasure of tlie exhibitoi'. who will not. however, lie i)ermitted to sell and deliver articles tlierein. nor to call attention to them in n boisterous or disorderly manner. SECTION in. CninnTTEE OS NU.MKNl'LATritE. Rule 1 — It shall be the duty of the president, at the first session of the so- ciety, on the first day of an exhibition of fruits, to appoint a committee of five expert pomologists, whcse duty it sliall be to supervise the nomenclature of fruits on exliibition, and in case of error to correct the same. Rule 2 — In making the necessary corrections tliey shall, for the convenience of the examining and awarding committees, do the same at as early a period as practicable, and In making such corrections they shall use cards readily distin- guishable from tliose used as labels by exhibitors, appending a mark of doubtful- ness in case of uncertainty. SECTION IV. EX.VJIINIXG AND AWARDING COMMITTEES. Rule ] — In estimating the comparative values of collections of fruits, commit- tees are instructed to base such estimates strictly upon the varieties in such col- lections which shall have been correctly named by the exhibitor prior to action thereon by the committee on nomenclatui'e. Rule 2 — In instituting sucli comparison of values committees are instructed to consider : First, the values of the varieties for the purposes to which they may be adapted ; second, tlie color, size, and evenness of the specimens ; third, their freedom from the marks of insects, and otlier blemishes ; fourth, the appar- ent carefulness in handling, and the taste displayed in the arrangement of the exhibit. Henderson Luelling and Seth Lewelling. 103 HENDERSON LUELLING AND SETH LEWELLING, PIONEERS OF HORTICULTURE IN OREGON. Henderson Luelling and Ills brother. Seth, were the worthy descendants of honorable ancestors of the best type of American pioneers. Their father, Meshic Lewelling, was of Welsh ancestry. Tlieir mother's maiden name w;is Brookshire, and she was either a native of England or of English descent. Both were "Friends," or Quakers, as the members of that denomination are commonly called. Meshic Lewelling was, during the period of time in wliich his sons, Henderson and Seth, were born, a resident of Randolph County, North Carolina. He wa.s a physician, a plantation owner, a nurseryman and fruitgrower, and a slaveholder. He was one, however, of that noble band of southern prac- tical abolitionists who showed tlieir belief by their works in the early part of the Nineteenth Century: left their pleasant liomes in tlie well-developed communi- ties in North and South Carolina, and other southern states, and transported themselves, their families, household effects, and negroes hundreds of miles over execrable mountain roads or trails to Ohio or Indiana in order that from them- selves and tlieir children might be lifted the burden of wrong-doing Inseparable from slave-holding, and that those who had been their slaves might be free in free states. Thus did Meshic Lewelling move from his home in Kandolph County, North Carolina, in 1S25 with his family, and with those who were in North Car- olina his slaves to the free state of Indiana, where he established a new home at Greensboro, near Newcastle. There he not only practiced his profession, but, as was the custom with pioneer ministers and doctors, also engaged in farming, and made a specialty of fruit-raising. Henderson Luelling, the second sou of Dr. Lewelling. was born April 23, 1S09, and was 16 years old when the family crossed from North Carolina to Indiana. On December .30, 1830, he married Miss Elizabeth Pressness. who had also come from North Carolina to Indiana, and was also a member of the denomination of Friends. In 1836, in copartnership with his brother, John, he was engaged in the nursery business in the vicinity of Newcastle, Indiana. In l,s.".7 lie and John decided to move to Iowa, and in 1838, Henderson, John, and their older brother, William, all secured land near Salem, Henry County, Iowa. At this place was born William's son, Lorenzo D. Lewelling, who was a few years ago governor of the state of Kansas. Henderson and John carried on at Salem the nursery busi- ness begun in Indiana, until 1841, when Henderson became sole proprietor of the nursery. In 1845 the pioneering tendency caused Henderson to look to Oregon a.? his future home, and the inspiration camo to him to transport by wagon a nursery stock to this distant land, then becoming the mecca of the cream of American pioneers. It was a bold conception characteristic of the imaginative foresight of the broad-minded pioneer. At the time when Henderson Luelling formed his re- solve there were less than 5.000 white people in all the Oregon country. Those who had come across the plains reached their journey's end almost destitute of the property with which they started. The son of Dr. Meshic Lewelling was not the man to be discouraged by prospective obstacles and hardships. He proceeded with his preparations for the journey. He made two boxes, which, together, just fitted into an ordinary wagon box. These boxes were filled with carefully-prepared soil, and in this soil he planted about TOO grafted or budded trees, shrubs, and vines, including a large number of standard varieties of apples and pears, and a 104 Appendix. few vainetles of plums, quinces, cherries, and flowering plants, one Isabella grape- vine, one gooseberry bush, and a few currant bushes. Among the cherries was one Napoleon Bigarreau. which for some reason was called the Royal Ann, and the effect of the bringing of that one tree may be inferred from the fact that to this day the Napoleon Bigarreau cherry is everywhere on the Pacific Coast known as the Royal Ann. Most of the trees were propagated by Mr. I^uelling himself, but to complete his assortment he bought a few from Avery"s nursery at Denmark, Iowa. On April 17, 1847, Henderson Luelling started from Salem, Iowa, on the long journey across the plains with his traveling nursery, hauled by oxen. On May 17th, he crossed the Missouri River. He arrived at The Dalle.s, Oregon, in November, and from that point took the water route to Milwaukie. where he settled. The great amount of work and painstaking care involved in keeping those trees alive and growing through that trip can hardly be imagined by one who has not had experience in traveling by wagon across our arid, interior plains and over rugged mountains where a trail was a substitute for a road. Many of those who started with lighter leads, but handled their teams with less care and judgment, were compelled to throw away a greater part of their loads. The croaker wa.s in the party who frequently assured Mr. Luelling that he was under- taking a task which could not be accomplished. A well-meaning minister of nar- row vision urged Mr. Luelling to unload his trees and replace them with the household effects of those whose teams were giving out. Fortunately for Oregon, Mr. Luelling was not moved by this well-meant but shortsighted advice. During the long and arduous trip, Mr. Luelling was ably assisted by his son Alfred, then a youth of l."». William Meek, wlio was a frequent visitor at the home of Mr. Luelling in Iowa, and subsequently became bis son-in-law, followed his future father-in-law's example, and also prepared a few grafted trees for the trip. He started at the same time as Mr. Luelling, and brought his trees safely through to Oregon. In the spring of 1S4S, Mr. ;Meek joined Mr. Liu^lling at Milwaukie, and they entered into partnership under the firm name of Luelling & Meek, to carr.v on the nursery business. The firm showed great energy and enterprise in the development of the business. They were fortunate in finding some seedling trees here, and in being able to buy apple and pear seed from others who had brouglit them across the plains. They also used native trees as stock. In 1850 the sales of trees by the firm are said to have amounted to 18,000 trees, for which prices ranged from ui) cents to $3.00 per tree — .$1.00 to $1..50 being tlie most common figures. In the fall of IS.'iO Seth Lewelling arrived from Indiana with a supply of apple and pear seed, and soon afterward lie became a member of the firm. The AVestern Star, published at Milwaukie, Oregon, said in its issue of April n. 1851, that lAielling & Meek's peach trees were in full bloom March 25th; that the nursery then liad on hand about 10,000 trees and over 100,000 scions. In the winter of 1851-2. Henderson Luelling went cast by way of the Panama route, and secured from leading nurseries an additional assortment cf standard varieties of ti'ees. which greatly strengthened the nursery at Milwaukie. The business of the nursery was at that time pushed with great vigor. In 1.S53 the fii'm had four branch nurseries in operation in Oregon, and was doing a most nourishing business in selling trees, while it had also a considerable income from the sale of fruit. Mr. Henderson Luelling had, however, been sorely af- flicted during his residence at Milwaukie by the death of his wife, and of his daughter, 'Siva. William Meek, and b.v almost continual sicknes.s in his family. His brother. .lohn. iuid settled in California, and influenced, probably, by him, Henderson Luelling disposed of his interest in the Oregon nurser.v business to his partners in 1854 and went to California, v,here he lived during the remainder of his life. He settled in Alameda County, where his son, Alfred, joined him. They engaged in the niu'sery and fruit-growing business. Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Luelling applied the name Fruitvale to the beautiful locality which is now a popu- lar residence suburb of the city of Oakland. Henderson Luelling was one of the Seth Lewelling Original Bing Cherry Tree, December 1904 Henderson Luelling and Beth Lewelling. 105 ^ubstalltia!. proraiuent aud honored citizens of Alameda County. He died at bis home in Oakland r)ecember 28, 1879. The sei'vices i-endei'ed to Oregon by Henderson Luelling in bringing his trav- t'ling nursery across the plains in 1847 have never been overrated. It is often said of the man who has performed an act of great service to his country that if he had not done it some one else would have rendered the service. This saying is far more often false than true. There are no grounds to justify a belief that cither grafted trees or scions would have reached Oregon before 1852 if it had not been for Henderson Luelling. There were others who conceived the plan of bringing trees across the plains in wagons, but the only person who actually brought live trees to Oregon, aside from Mr. Luelling, was Mr. Meel\, and Mr. Meek would not have come across with his trees if Mr. Luelling and his family had remained in Iowa. There was not at that time any practical method of bringing trees to Oregon except the one adopted by Mr. Luelling. The great rush of gold hunters to California a few years later led to the establishment of regu- lar transportation routes by way of the Isthmus of Panama, but the first fruit trees which came to Oregon by that route did not come until 1852. The five years gained by Oregon by reason of the arrival of Henderson Luelling's stock in 1847 gave Oregon a prestige in the nursery business, and as a producer of apples of the best (juality which it has never lost. Who can measure by dollars and cents the pleasure and satisfaction it gave the settlers of Oregon, after a number of years of abstinence, to pick and eat from their own trees the favorite varieties of fruits grown at their old homes, and to tind that these old favorites, grown in Oregon, were of surpassing quality and iieauty V The financial aspect of the case was a large one. The gold miners of Cali- fornia were hungry for fruit and careless as to prices. The first shipment of grafted apples from Oregon to California was made in 1853, and the fruit sold in San Francisco for .$2.00 per pound. The volume of shipments increased rapidly until 1800. when the supply of California-grown apples had become sufficiently large to affect the demand for Oregon apples. Prior to 1860, however, the farm- I'rs of Oregon had found in California a market for a great amount of fruit at prices far higher relatively than those of other farm productions. During the time when the Oregon farmer was selling his grafted apples at from ,$5.00 to .$10.00 per box he was getting from $1.00 to $1.50 a bushel for his wheat; 30 to 50 cents a p('uud for butter ; 20 to 40 cents per dozen for eggs, and from 75 cents TO $1.50 a bushel for potatoes. That he en.ioyed the benefit of one high-priced, as well as abundant, crop was due to tlie work of Henderson Luelling. Seth Lewelling was born March 6th, 1820. ^Yhen his brothers, ^Yilliam, Henderson, and John, moved to Iowa he remained in Indiana. Prior to 1850 he was for a number of years engaged in the boot and shoe business at Greensboro, Indiana. In the fall (.f 1850 he came to Oregon and engaged in the nursery busi- ness established by his brother and Meek. In partnership with others or alone he continued the nursery business at Milwaukie until his death, which occurred on February 21st, 1806. Seth Lcwelling"s great work for the fruit-growing industry was in originating new varieties. He commenced the work by planting in 1851 the seeds of Isabella grapes, the only variety then grown in Oregon. From this planting he secured one variety named the Lewelling. which yielded fruit of high quality aud twice the size of the Isabella. lOncouraged by this success he grew during the next twenty years a great numl)er of trees from the seeds of apples, pears, plums, prunes, cherries, small fruits, etc. Of the great number of seedling apples and pears he deemed none worthy of propagation. In 1860 the original Black He- publican tree grew from the seed of a Black Eagle cherry. In 1875 the Golden prune tree grew from the seed of an Italian prune, and the Bing cherry tree from the seed of a Black Republican cherry. In 1872 the true Lewelling cherry tree grew from the seed of a Black Tartarian cherry, and the cherries grown from 106 Appendix. this tree made a sensation at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876. The Black Kepubllcan cherry proved- to be the best shipping cherry grown on the Pacific Toast, and has been of immense value commercially. The Bing was not introduced systematically, and it has taken a long time for its merits to become known. It is now fast supplanting its parent, the Black Republican, being supe- rior to it in both size and quality. It is without a question one of the largest and best cherries grown, and the commercial fruit-growers of the Pacific North- west owe a large debt of gratitude to Seth Lewelling for originating this cherry. The Golden prune, had it been well advertised, would have attracted great at- tention. The fruit, whether considered as a prune for drying or as a plum for canning, or eating out of hand, is, in my opinion, superior to any one of the re- markable prunes originated by the great California wizard of horticulture, Burbank. The fruit is large, and the variety has never received the attention and thorough testing which the intrinsic merit of the fruit justifies. In addition to the varieties mentioned. Mr. Lewelling found among his seed- lings a numljer of other cherries which he deemed of greater value than most of the standard varieties known. A gooseberry and a variety of pieplant originated during which the standards are growing wood. Others of our leading orchardists contend tliat better results follow the growing of herbaceous crops, as potatoes, beets, tomatoes, and even corn. The tendency of most people to leave trees, when planted as fillers, until they encroach upon the space and food supply of the regular plantation, leads one to accept the latter view as being the better for the average planter to follow. There is a greater probability that annual crops would be discontinued before their culture would in any way detract from the care and food supply required by the permanent plantation. Some of the thriftiest, cleanest, best-cared-for small young orchards in this State are to be found at May I'ark, a suburb of I..a (Jrande. Figs. 7a. 7b, 8a, and 8b show the character of the secondary crops grown in this section — corn, toma- toes, potatoes, melons, beets, carrots, strawberries, and others of the like. There are no cases of double planting with these later orchards, though some of the earlier plantations at a nearby orchard section were put out upon this plan. In this district thirty feet is considered ample space for an apple tree. As grown here, the tree is headed low (See Fig. 15), branches are shortened in, the grow- ing season is one of normal length, or even a little short, and tlie resting period somewhat severe ; hence the vegetative vigor of the tree is somewhat reduced, and thus the trees of the varieties grown find quite space enough in thirty feet. Plan, of Phinthif/ — There are two general styles of orchard plantings, the hexagonal and the square. Fig. 12 represents a plat planted on the hexagonal plan. The rows are twenty-eight and one-half feet apart three ways, while the trees are thirty-three feet apart. Fig. 13 represents a plat planted on the square plan. The rows are thirty-two feet apart at right angles. Even at the closer distance in this latter plan there are less trees to the acre. With rows farther apart, there would be about the same relative difference between the numbers of trees per acre on the separate plans. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Fig. 12. 52 trees. 33 feet apart. 120 Appendix. PLAN OF planting-Continued. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X s X X X X X X X s X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Fig. 13. 49 trees, 32 feet apart. lu the loriiiei- stylo each tree is equally distant from the six ad.jacent trees surrounding it : or, in other words, all ad.iacent trees are equally distant, while in the latter style each tree is equally distant from only four adjacent trees. Thus it will be seen that by adapting the hexagonal plan the land space is more economically used ; the trees are more evenly distributed over the land. To lay out a piece of land on the square plan it is necessary to establish two liase lines at right angles, whicli may be done by sighting along the long and short arms of an ordinary carpenter's square, set upon three stakes driven at the corner of the proposed plantation, and setting two rows of stakes in lines coutiniied from the arms. Put the stakes as far apart as the rows are to be, :ind when the stakes liave been set, in lines at right angle to each other, to the limit of the piece of land to be planted, move the square to the corner diagonall.y opposite the first used and run lines of stakes along the other two sides of the piece. Then by using a few long stakes, two men can "line-in" the stakes for the body of the plantation. The outside rows of trees ought to be at least one rod inside of the fence line. If carefully done this sight staking is as good as a surveyor's work for orcliard purposes. If the plan adojited is the hexagonal, then a somewhat more different course is to be followed in the first part. Establish one base line for the first row of trees. Let this I'ow be from one rod to twenty feet from the fence line. (See Figs. lOa-lOb. ) Firmly drive small, one-inch square stakes wliere each tree of this row is to be set. Procure a wire. No. 10 or 12 is about right weight, make a fixed loop in both ends so that the distance between the extreme ends of tlie loops is one inch more than the distance at which the trees are to be planted. Then let A put one loop over stake one ; let B put a stake through the other loop, step off toward the center of the field ; when the wire is taut, he shall describe a short arc in the earth with the point of tlie stake. Let A then step to stake two, row one, over which he places the loop in his end of the wire ; when the wire is again drawn taut, anotlier short arc is made. Where the two arcs in- tercept a stake should be driven for the first tree in row two. While A remains at stake two, row one, B passes to a point at which he estimates the next stake for row two should be placed, another short arc is described, and A passes to stake three, row one. A second intercepting arc is made, and B places stake two of row two, and so on till the row is complete. From this point other stakes may be sighted in, as the two base rows will afford a good foundation. If the site is rolling, the st.-ikes of these first two rows ought to be four to six feet long. Fig. 19. Ferns as weeds in Western Oregon orchards Fig. 20. A sprawling top (See Fig. 21) pilllW I I'll iilii I |l|ll« |ilMHIIt"j Fig. 21 breaks when laden with a good crop Fig. 22 A high head in Western Oregon "'P^l^ Fig. 23. Low heads with horizontal training Fig. 24. Low heads with vertical training Fig. 25. This fruit is so located as to make spraying easy Fig. 26. Higli winds little affect these low heads Fig. 27. Good care, but poor training Fig. 28. Young trees with leader rennoved Fig. 29. A good example of care also of poorly formed heads The Apple in Oregon : Part I. 121 After the plat is well staked it is ready for plauting. and lierein probably lies the most difBcult part for the beginner, as he too often finds it impracticable to get the trees planted in as good lines as the stakes were. A little device for keeping the tree exactly in the place occupied by the stake is illustrated in Fig. 14. ■\Vhen about to plant a tree, place the notch A over the stake which has been set in place for a tree, then drive a stake through each of the holes B B ; in this way the guide is fastened in such position that the notch is over the spot in which a tree is to be set. Now remove the guide, leaving the three stakes in position. I'ull out the center stake, dig the hole for the tree, place the guide in position, with holes B B over the two outside stakes ; put the tree in position, so that it occupies the notch A. Cover the roots with earth, firmly pressing it with the feet. When the hole is filled and the tree sets firmly, remove the guide, pull up the two end stakes and repeat with nest tree. If the work is carefully done, the trees should line up as well as the stakes did. Trees having irregular trunks must be so set that the general line of growth will be in position. If there is a like- lihood of strong wind prevailing from a definite quarter during the first few years' growth of the trees, they should l)e so planted as to lean firmly in the direction of the wind. The trees should be so set that when the soil about them fully settles they will still be in the ground as deeply, or, better, two or three inches deeper than before removal from the nursery. The hole into whicli the young tree is transplanted should be made large enough so that all roots may assume a fully extending and spreading position. No roots should be placed in a curled or twisted position. The center of the hole should be higher than the margin. This will allow the roots to assume a natural jjosition. slightly downward and outward. The earth that is placed imme- diately in contact with the roots should be finely pulverized and pressed down firmly. For this purpose the feet may be effectively used, care being exercised that no injury is done the roots by tramping directly upon them. When the hole is about half filled no further pressure is needed, and tlie soil may be thrown in loosely, finishing by heaping it up about the trunk five or six inches above the general surface. In sections where more or less frost accompanies the winter season, fall- planted trees may be rendered good service by the addition of a coarse mulch to the surface of the soil, but under no conditions allow the mulch to surround the trees closely, otherwise rodents may infest it and "bark" the tree. If it is spread upon the ground, and then a small mound of earth, as before stated, surrounds the tree, thus preventing the mulch material from coming in contact with it. damage from the small gnawing animals may be fully prevented. 122 Appendix. THE APPLE IN OREGON. PART II. Totdcs DinciisKid — ^'(n•i(■1if■s far Umiic Uxe — Pollination — Tilhissess a strong personal equation in favor of some varieties is quite likely doomed to disappointment in the cultiva- tion of the apple, as In other fields of industry. Coupled with this personal factor favoring certain varieties must be a full consideration of the fitness of the variety to the soil, and climatic conditions of the site in view. In all but the newest sections of the country, this information of suitability of varietes may be obtaued from local growers, except, possibly, when some new variety is under considtra- tion, and such an one is hardly what should be iilnnted to any considerable extent until after full local trial. Though it is (juite impossible to have fresh apples of good (luality tlie y-ar i-ound without recoui-se to the cellar, storehouse, or cold storage room, yet it is ]>racticable, through judicious plantings and such care in storage as every home of average means is able to jjrovide, to have fresh fruit of the apple seven or eight months of each year. On a basis of a family of five, and for an average Western Oregon farm home, the following was suggested in 10(11 for the purpDse of enlisting discussion and comment : Two trees Transparent, one Oldenburg, two Gravenstein. one King, one Spitzenburgh, one Grimes" Golden, one York Im- perial, one Kaldwin or Spy. one Waxen, one Ilyslop (crab). The following comments were made by our leading growers in the varinus districts of the State : List all right, quantity and ([uality, except put two ti-ces of .lonathan in jilace of one King and one Transparent. .Jonathan is vastly bettei- than King anywhere, at any time. — 11'. A', ycirell. Washington County. Can suggest no Improvement upon the list submitted for the h(]me orchard R. H. ^^'ch('r, Wasco County. I should select the following for the above pur])ose : One tree each of ICnd Astrachan, (iravenstein. King, N. Spy, Baldwin, Roxbury Kusset, Waxen, Y. N. I'ippin, Ilyslop. — F. A. Sleifjltt, Clackamas County. My list for this purpose would be: One tree each of (Y) Transparent. Old- enburg, Gravenstein, Dutch Mignonne, King. (Jrimes" Golden (I'ippin), Waxen, Baldwin, (E) Si)itzenburgli. — ./. //. ,Sennett. — S. L. licnuctt, Jackson County. The list submitted Is good : I should add one tree of Seek-no-Further. and one Fall Beauty. This latter I consider better than Waxen. It is an excellent table apple, and fine for cooking. A Yellow Newtown ought to be added for those sections suited to its growth. — iJ. I). Evans. Douglas County. We think your list as complete as it is possible to make one in covering so large a territory. For this locality we should plant no Si)itzenl)urgh. as it is a poor tree here. We should add one tree of Maiden's Blush. This tree thrives here, bears regularly, and we regard it as a very fine cooking apple. — F. IS. Vluifn-. Lane County. I think half the number of well-fed trees would be sufBcient. I have one Oravenstein, and no family of ten can use the yield. I would reject the Waxen, also the Baldwin, liecause it has too m.-iny dark spots inside — (si)ot rot) (dead spot) (dry rot). I know nothing of the Transparent, Oldenburg, (Jrimes" Golden or York Imperial. — .Ji:hn Heiirji, Washington County. I think the list a good one, but would select Jonathan in place of Spltzen- burgh, and also tliink the Wealthy should be included, as it comes between Grav- stein and King; or. possibly, I should dr(jp the King and put Wealthy in its place, if I Thought tlie list too long. Our soil is particularly adaptedto Bald- win. Jonathan and Northern Spy. — l.so HohuUni. Columbia County. I suggest the substitution of one tree of (Red (."heek Pippin) Monmouth Pippin for one Transparent, because of the excellence of the fruit, and one tree of i?en Davis In place of one (Jravenstein tor use in late spring, and one tree of Winesap in place of Spltzenburgh. Winesaps were a favorite in chilliood. and we cling to them from "blessed memory." — L. M. GiUxrt, Marlon County. I shotdd amend the list to read : One tree of Transi)arent ; one Oldenburg, one Waxen, two (iravenstein, two Spltzenburgh, two Yellow Newtown. I should not attemi)t to grow either the King or Baldwin in this locality, as both varie- ties are subject to Ijitter rot. The Yellow Newtown is a late keeper of best qual- ity, both for cooking and dessert. — -1. H. Curi^oii. Josephine County, For a family orchard I should plant as follows : One tree Transparent, one Ilawley (superior to Trans|)arent i . two (Jravenstein, one King, one Spltzenburgh. (me (Jrimes' (Jolden, one York Imperial, one Baldwin, one Rhode Island (Jreening, one Bailey Sweet, one Transcendent. I consider the quantity rather small for ,t family of five until the trees reach quite an age, — Jttdil Gar. I'nlon County. For the home orchard I should substitute the Early Goodwin for the Trans- parent. I believe the Early (xoodwin the best apple on earth for this season. I should plant Rome Beauty Instead of York Imperial. Transcendent should take the place of llyslop. as it Is altogether better. Then I should add the Jonathan to the list, and from my point of view the selection would be excellent. — G. A.. Hohh.'i. Umatilla County. For an Hood River home orchard I should name this as a list : One tree of Yellow Transi)arent. (me Oldenburg, one King, two (iravenstein, one Jonathan, one ({rimes' (Jolden, one York Imperial, one Winesap. one Rome Beauty, one Spo- kane Beauty, one Ti'anscendent (crali). Sjutzenburgh. Baldwin, Northern Spy. and llyslop do not thrive in this locality. Spokane Beauty is the best all-around family apple for cooking that I know. — .s'. A. Milhr, I'matilla County. For an Hood River farm orchard I should name this as a list: One tree of Red Astrachan, two Transparent, two (Jravenstein, two Jonathan, two Baldwin, two Wagener or Ortley. two Spltzenburgh, two Yellow Newtown, one \Yhltney or Transcendent. King water-cores badly : York Imi>erlal lacks quality of t.iste : Whitney is the largest crab. I believe it is well to plant two trees of each variety, as one is liable to injury or premature decay. — 7v'. L. Siiiifh. Wasco County. 124 Appendix. I should advise for home use one tree of Transparent, one Gravenstein, one King, one Delicious, one Ortley, one Lady, one Hyslop, two Spitzenburgh, two Yellow Newtown. I know this list would suit my desires and this locality better than the one submitted. The Waxen is too sour and nonmarketable, should one chance to have more than could be used at liome. I should want plenty of Spitz- enburgh and Yellov/ Newtown. I should plant no tree to dig up in future ; too much labor lost. — A. I. Mason, Wasco County. It is difficult to improve the list submitted for general home purpose, but for <^iur use we prefer the following : One tree of Transparent, two of Gravenstein for f^arly use. two King, very fine for fall use ; two Waxen, best for cooking and sauce, and everybody likes it ; two Baldwin, old reliable ; one Spitzenburg, and one North- ern Spy, or one Yellow Newtown for winter's Iveeping ; one of a longer keeper like American Pippin could be substituted for one Baldwin or King. Some people do not care for crabs, and so I leave them off my list. — George Armstrono, Benton <-'ounty. Referring to your list for a family orchard. I wish to say that I do not know the Transparent. Tlie Spitzenburgh is not a liealthy tree with us. The King, Ben Davis (Gloria Mundi), Monstrous Pippin, Twenty Ounce, and some others I do not consider family fruits, as they are grown more for show and display than for use. As you know, much depends upon soil, climate, and soil moisture, and I name the following varieties, as they do well with us. the trees being particularly healthy and vigorous : One tree each of Red June, Rambo, Gravenstein, Waxen, Transcendent (crab), and two each of Baldwin and N. Spy. — Chauncey Ball, Mult- nomah County. For my own use I should want a sweet apple in the list, but I do not know of one that is fully satisfactory. I should .nlso wish a very late keeper, even if I had to take Ben Davis or some other of that type. I think I should prefer a lar.ge number of trees to start with, for it takes so long for them to come into full bearing. It would be an easy matter to grub out a few of the most unde- sirable ones if fruit became too plentiful. My list would be about as follows : Your list, plus one more eneli of King and Baldwin, the late keeper and sweet one. as noted above. As the Spitzenburgh does not tlirive well in this section, I should be disposed to leave it out of tlie list. — Dr. A. Mills, Y'amhill County. Our list for the home would be : One tree of Early Harvest, one Astrachan. 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' ' ' .' be ' ' 1 0 1. 1 1 0 1 ' 1 ' E_ ' 1 1 1 1 S Autumn Sweet- American Abmm Arkansas Baldwin Bailey Sweet „_ 0; 1 : iy= ; 1 ■: \ i~2^ i S'P 'SO CM ''^ t - -^ ■- ^ r-i i i'anada Wweet-. Canada Ueinett Cliarlotteiilhale (.'alvert Canada Red Commeree JHitch Mignonn Delaware Red_- l>ominie Karly Harvest.. Ewalt Karly Htrawberi Fall Pippin ^all Wine Fallawater Fall Jennetting Fameuse Gano 2 0 0 X 5 1 1 O-C 0 a: > 0) y: = S — z>.z c >. m Fig. 7a , ... r^: Fig. 7b M & 1^ is«r Fig. 8a £.:', r '*^^'>i^ ^:..i . (i-fV,: Fig. 8b Fig. 9a Fig. 9b .*•: Fig. 10a Fig. 10b Av«i-.'*;*i^»ira-i Fig. 11a Fig. lib The Apple in Oregon : Part II. 129 ooooooooo o ^ lO 1/5 iC t^ »0 tO lO lO ^ CO ooo© o iCiCO-^ lO ^^ ^* ^^ 'O^ ^^ 00 00 IC 1M_ M 00 -hOS 5S ooooo o ooooo GO OGQ r- C^l *^ *M ■M iC :C Tji CO —- f1 ic Tf! lo ic lO o ic lO lo id ^ CO r^ ?J !M rl C1 oooooooooo o lO O lO TP lO lO >0 iC -^ lO »o ^JH ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ lOOOO o oo I ^ -^ Til Tjl •}< -^ -^ ioco IC ■OTjilO ?S li::; S IS iCtt o ooooooo ■-f CO ^1 ■>) -M :M C^ id -1^ id ■^ id »d id Tp ^^ '^T' ^ *I1 ^ ^ A1 m be a a o ft I ; ft 1^ 3 O . a I o a C a 0) ■a cs o 0) Si- >>ft^ .2^r«M^Ec =« 2- -I c-2 «s§: HOR. 9 130 Appendix. ;^. o o o o o o OO lO 1 lO OO lOOO 1 CC t^ I 1 1 ?o 2Q — , -t*_ TO t: ■^t iC c-i -t; 1 o i ; ri '*. ~; ' ^ "''. ^ C5 iC "^ lO [ o 1 ! u': »C iC [ iC tCO rC 1^ 'M o ^- l*- ! C5 ' I c^ I H ' X) X) O ^ »0 -1^ ■^ lO -^ CO c^^cq j^ ; j^i C3Cq l^.^.^l ■^ -rfi Tjl t Tfi I 1 -r T ^rt' ' ^P ^' ''^ 1 1 1 1 1 1— 1 1 1 1 1 t) i i 1 i i 1 1 1 1 I lC 1 1 1 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 05 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <^ i 1 i i i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 OCO-M — ■MO to ^ o o o jo 0£ •o c^'-:-:-:^!-: — TI -H I-- '>J — ' -M — ' ^H 'CO-^ — ' lO i^ iC »0 lO iCiC lOio -r lo-'f 1 iC lO lO lO 1 -^cc '^ •^'^'-O o o lo 1 o 1 ■N •>! -; ^ CO -^ '-0 I'M?! 1 -t; c: CO — CO s; -r TT -r o rr lo Lt" 1 -r i.-j I lO* lC lO i-O o , :iC -M o :c -J v: --T^ O O O 1- — * i c: ■>! 1 1 1 --0 Ol -1 M ! 1 ~: "1 "^i ^\ "^1 TT" ^ -f -T -P V lo T" -t t' -r -T" -t -f^ 1 -p -^ 1 ^ lO TT -fH* t^ CO GO 1 1 1 lOOa lO CI ri ■>! 1 1 1 — - 1 ■>* T-l 1 CO O -H CO Ol ] Lt' T -r 1 1 ,0 1 -f-p 1 "f i-T' iC O ,o ; ^ cc ci — ! I If? o ! ' I-t* !l.'^o ' — 0-. r: oi -H i ^ CQ-.-.". ' ■ rr -p -r 1 1 ^- — ->; I ; 1 ri — n ' Ol Ol Ol 01 *i 1 '^ lC rr-n 1 1 '-f' i -p -p i -Tl TJ^ Tf -p -p 'C ; 1 "^ 11!^ 1 _ "^ ' lO COi-O •rr -h '^ 1 ' -^ -r- Cl [ j ] — ^ :d— • X CO — -H '-' ^ '(^ -li 1 1 l-^ i^-t! [ -rh -r -^ 'p 'ji OOOO [O O Ci O O 1 O O O OOO j ooooo OS O — cc I Oi 1 en lO ■^ lO [ 'T' CO OTM^l I'lJ'M^ i-O ■>» zo l-rpOCO.Ot-; S ») iC -r ■T lO ' uO iCiC L'^n^lC j iC iC uO lO lO r- oc lO ! ic ■M COMOi 'ro — iC 1^ -o x> 1 -x; Ol Ol I- 1 o ^ri-^^-i }- '^l - j 1 1 f t OOO j O j OO OO ]0 O \oi \ \ 1 O ■:© —» 1 -f I O C50 !ci =o ^ ^^ !-• ! i 1 r J T^i t-J 1 OJ 1 CO^I Ol 04 jOl r; 1 5j { -T^ -ti -r j Tji ] LO-j! TjlTtl j •'T' ■* ^ 1^ i i 1 lo — ' cc ' "- ! c: 1^ -*< Ol ' r^- eo j ^. "^1 ■". I ^1 ! TJ -H oi Ol : Ol ■^. 1 -rr'-^-rr^ I -TjJ 1 ■^ -^ ■Tji'^ 1 -Ti ^ O 1 |°° 1 OOO [ [ ] 1 1 O |00 o 1 lo I ^ 11! 1 1 -* ' _, ei ( oi CO CO 1 t ! 1 1 ^. ''--.^. -^ * j t'io'ic 1 ! ] 1 1 1 1 1 -r [icio [ui 1 liOiO 1 :ooio ! 1 ! 1 1 ■^ !SS i* 1 1'-^ t 1 ^^OlOJ } j j [ j [ — ; O^ 0^ 1*^ Tfi'TTTi; ] 1 1 1 1 1 rr 1 ■'ii ■n^ liO Si i i i ! i j 1 1 1 1 111' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 t 1 fiillL 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 < r > 1 ) lilt 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t t I lit! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I "^ci M 1 S 1 1 1 aldwin Ben Davis Canada Reinette Delaware Red Early Harvest Esopus iSpitzenburg. Oravenstein (Jrinies Golden Jonathan INIissouri Pippin Red Astraehan Red Rnssian Salome Stark Swaar Tran.scendent (crab). Wagner Winesap Yellow Transparent- Yellow Newtown N. Spy Full hloitsom 1903 May 4 4 10 12 Observations upon the blossoming of apple trees in Grand Ronde Valley, 1903, by Karl J. Stackland. Variety Arkansas. Baldwin _. First hlossom May Ben Davis 5 Early Harvest April 20 Esopus Spitzenburg i May 10 Oano 5 5 1 5 10 20 Jonathan King Northern Spy ( Udenburg Oregon Red Astrachan Rhode Island Greening- Rome Beauty Winesap Yellow Newtown York Imperial April May 5 5 April 20 May 15 10 15 Full hlossom May 21 16 20 5 25 20 20 16 20 25 9 20 20 7 30 25 30 132 Appendix. TILLAGE. Modern soil tillage has in view two chief ends, namely, to improve the mechanical condition, and to Increase chemical and biological activities or changes. In the growing of shallow rooted crops, tillage aims to serve both purposes equally, but in the growth of the orchard crop the chief aim is the latter purpose, that is, to induce vigorous chemical and biological changes. The roots of the orchard crop feed so deeply in the soil that tillage operations- can not be expected to greatly modify the physical conditions, except upon the surface. This is one of the leading reasons why a deep, porous, well drained soil primarily should be selected for an orchard site. Plowing, subsoiling, har- rowing and cultivating break up the soil to a depth suitable for the root systems of the cereal, root and forage crops, but such operations only serve to help the orchard crop for the first few years of its growth. By the time the tree comes into bearing its principal roots should be feeding in the soil far beneath the reach of the plow and cultivator, and besides havoc would be wrought if tillage tools were to reach among the roots for the purpose of putting the soil in better physical conditions. This phase of the subject need receive no further consideration here save this observation : The importance of the first preparation of the soil for the reception of the trees is not to be underrated. Deep, thorough tillage of a well broken and subdued soil is an essential to success in the first steps of orcharding. When the young tree is transplanted it undergoes a severe check to its vegetative functionings. Too much cannot be done by way of putting the soil in a fit condition to favor rapid and un- obstructed root growth. A point always to be kept in mind when one is dealing with the problems of tree life is that a living working tree requires a more or less definite amount of energy to produce new wood and leaf-growth and a crop of fruit. Any object that obstructs in any way the freedom of growth, or checks the supply of available food materials reauces the tree's supply of energy, and thus retards its growth or croppage. Clods, rocks, puddled earth particles, coarse vegetable matter and other materials may offer obstructions- to the course of growth of the roots, or render the food supply more difficult to obtain ; all these conditions are hindrances to the plant's best development. So much of the plant's energy, best efforts, vigor, is used in overcoming these obstacles that frequently the young tree fails to survive the shock of being^ transplanted. Every time a young root turns out of a quite direct course in its growth there is lost plant effort ; every time an absorbing rootlet is obliged to encompass a elod instead of penetrating between fine particles, more plant energy is wasted ; every time the roots of plants are surrounded with clods, lumps and soil masses so large that the water of the soil cannot be conserved against evaporation during periods of dry. warm weather, the root system re- ceives a check which too often results disastrously to the young tree ; if there is too much half-rotted vegetable matter in the so when the young roots begin to push out the heat of this during the process of further decay may rise so high as to kill the tender young roots ; or, it may drive off the soil water to such an extent that not enough remains to make the mineral plant food of the soil available. For the use of most plants mineral substances must be in very weak solutions, as one part of mineral matter to ten thousand parts of water or even as weak as one, in fifteen thousand parts of water. All these conditions, so unfavorable to tree growth, are eliminated by such thorough tillage as should be given the soil for at least one year, and preferably two or three years preparatory to the planting out of the young trees. A thoroughly subdued, deep, fertile friable soil worked fine is an ideal place in wnich to transplant a young tree, and under such conditions there is little danger of its not enduring the change. Tillage, for the purpose of inducing chemical and biological changes in the soil, is all important to the orchardist, or other soil tiller for that matter. It has been long known to students of soils that there are two classes of The Apple in Oregon : Part II, 13 o <'lianges constantly going on in ordinary agricultural soils Independent of tillage operations, but both of whicli may be greatly augmented by judicious tillage, {'hemical changes in the soil result more or less directly in the release of mineral substances needed by the plant. These changes are hastened and increased by the presence in the soil of water, heat and air in suflScient quan- tities and by i.ie stirring and consequent changing of position of the soil particles. Tnese requirements, or rather desirable conditions, are fully induced by proper tillage operations. By pulverizing the soil, air is admitted ; this warms the soil : the water of the soil during the dryer part of the season, by this same operation, is kept from passing off in the form of vapor as readily as it oherwise would, and while the position of the soil particles is greatly changed, their size is also reduced. The biological changes taking place in the soil and which are likewise greatly facilitated by good tillage, are various and quite imperfectly understood. A few of the more important ones like nitrification, have received much atten- tion in recent years and results of much moment to the soil tiller are being reached through the biological investigations of the soil now being carried on in nearly every scientific center. CULTIVATION. Tillage operations generally discussed as cultivation are as variable as the individuals that are engaged in orcharding. Some rely chiefly upon the old- time plow, but more count the modern disc-harrow the staple tool. These latter followed by clod-crushers, acme harrows, and scarifiers do most effective work under the usual soil conditions to be found in Oregon orchards. One plowing in alternate years is held to be suflBcient for all the mellow soils, though some find that disking alone is all sufficient. Upon the clayey soils most cultivators deem one plowing a year desirable and in this practice the two operations of contiguous years are at right angles, 4. c, one year l)low east and west : next year, north and south. Plowing or disking are usually followed by clod crusher or pulverizing harrow. The first operation is usually just after the blossoms fall.* Then at intervals of two or three weeks the ♦Recently some discussion has been provoked by the statement that the first plowing should precede blossoming. The reason assigned for this is that the stirring of the soil at that time induces a more vigorous root activity thus enabling the tree through this stimulus to set more fruit than it otherwise would. The issue is debatable at least, and the position, probably erroneous. No experimental evidence of unquestioned character has been produced ; and it is not yet credited by the known principles of vegetable physiology : Sap pressure does not indicate the extent to which elaborated food is present, such as young buds or blossoms require. What a bud needs at the time of opening is a good supply of digestible food material. This food material is prepared the year before. It would seem that if a bud is low in vitality it could hardly be ex- pected that the overcharging of it with water and crude "mineral matter would increase its vitality, i. e. make it do more work by way of fertilization of flowers. It is a generally accepted view that the pollen grain is normally rich in proteid matters, i. c. substances rich in nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, and that for the growth that takes place at the time of fertilization elaborated carbon foods are chiefly required. This carbon food material is only developed in the presence of green leaves, ;". c. the year preceding. Thus it appears that early tillage operations have no direct bearing upon the fertilization of the blos- soms. Tillage indirectly, however, might be beneficial to tlie tree at this early period through the aeration of the soil whereby it would become warmer and thus more suitable for root activity. This induced root activity would cause an increased sap pressure and this in its turn would have a measurable influence upon the jjeriod of cell activity in the region of the blossoms, but it is very doubtful if it could add anthing to the vitality or vigor of the blossoms and especially the organs of fertilization, stamens and pistils. If a crop of fruit is wanted next year preparation for it must be made this year while the tree is growing and particularly while it is storing food during the latter part of the vegetable period. Feed the tree well this year ; keep it clean and free from pests, and other conditions, as climatic, being afvorable next year, the tree will yield a crop in return for your judicious care. 134 Appendix. pulverizing harrow follows until the middle of July or first of August. By this time or even by the middle of Jiine. tlie surface soil from two to three inches deep is a perfect dust, the so-called "dust mulch" or "earth-blanket" a mrst important factor in the conservation of soil moisture. Where ferns or some other deep rooted perennial plants persist in playing the part of weeds ( See Fig. 19» it is often necessary to go over the grouu'l at intervals of ten days with a tool known as a scarifier. By removing the tops at frequent intervals the roots finally become exhausted, and as there is left no other means for the plant to propogate itself it disappears. It fretiuently requires from tliree to four years to rid a piece of land of a well established crop of ferns. Occasionally one hears that trees should not be planted on a fern ridge he- cause the plant is such a pest in the orchard. In truth fern ridges when once subdued are the very best of sites for orchard purposes. Ferns only grow abundantly on well drained soil. The ramifications of their underground stems and the ultimate death and decay of these very materially aid in oxidizing and aerating the soil, to the depth of two feet, or even more This oxidization and aeration are liighly important processes in the biological functionings of the soil, and most useful factors in rendering the plant food of the soil available for tree growth. COVER ("KOrS. This is a pliase of orchard management that has received little atteutiim as yet. Speaking more particularly of Western Oregon it may be said : Thus far our orchards that are thoroughly tilled have shown no especial need of service in the directions in wliich a cover crop would aid tliem, but the time is approaching when such conditions will no longer exist. 1'horough tillage increases oxidation in the soil. The liumus burns away as it were and need for material to replace the original supply will Ije manifest, in a dryer, harsher soil, sometimes lieavier : sometimes ligliter : in a soil that will be cloddy and in- tractable, generally throughout Western Oregon. Tliis material can be obtained at least expense by means of cover crops, as oats, wheat, rye, vetch, clover, mustai'd, and the like. As to the funcrions of a cover crop altogether, it may be well to quote from bulletin No. y recent analyses* it is made evident that certain jjlants. cowliorn tur- nips and rape, are rich in potash. It tlius appears that such crops used for cover purposes miglit put the potasli supplies of the soil witliin easier reach of the tree. If the soil of an orchard is rich in humus and nitrogen, a cover crop of potash-gathering plants, if from such knowledge as- we have of them, we may call them such, would be the logical one to use. In this connection it may be well to note the fact that Scotch kale, a plant closely related to the turnip, has been giving some remarkable yields in Western Oregon, as a forage plant for dairy purposes. It seems probable that this plant would do efficient service as a cover crop on soils in good tilth and well supplied with humus. And since potash tends to hasten the maturity of a crop, increase the sugar content, and heighten the color, indirectly, at least as a consequence of earlier maturity, its importance to the fruit-grower in the moisture sections of our state becomes evident, and any secondary or catch crop that will render the potash of the soil more readily available for the trees is to be held as a useful factor in or- charding. But, as before stated, only practical tests upon the site will deter- mine the course to be followed in each instance. The crops, rotation or tillage, will depend upon the local conditions and the successful orchardist will be the intelligent experimenter in these matters. A rotation of cover crops is as important as a rot;ition of general farm crops. The constant use of a leguminous crop would tend to make the soil very rich in available nitrogenous materials. This v/ould induce excessive wood and foliage growth at tlie expense of flowers and fruit. To offset this crops, as often as the trees appear to be growing too vigorously at the expense of fruit production. Then we must not lose sight of the fact that tlimigh a cover crop may not, of itself, use the free nitrogen of the air, it wiU -avaW itself of such nilro- *I>elaware station. 136 Appendix. gen material as Is obtainable In the soil during its period of growth, and, as this is at a time when the dormant tree could make no use of such nitrogen material, which, if not used, soon escapes as a waste by leaching from the soil, it is seen that the cover crop thus becomes a saver of nitrogen as well as other substances and thus performs a work as important as that of a nitrogen gatherer under the circumstances. In Western Oregon orchards in particular, not a foot of soil should remain uncovered or bare of plant growth from the time the crop is fully grown to the time when the fruit begins to form the folowing spring. The warm winter temperature, together with the rainfall, results in a set of conditions quite suita- ble for the growth of many hardy plants. Under the same conditions biological and chemical changes in the soil are setting free much soluble plant food material. This material, if not used by active plants on the ground, will be wasted very largely by surface washing or leaching through the drainage system. An active crop saves this waste ; puts it in such form as can be more readily used by the trees when they become active in the spring. And thus, while saving that would otherwise be lost to the soil tiller, the cover crop performs a preliminary or preparatory work for the trees, getting ready for their use early in the spring a quantity of predigested breakfast food as it were. And, as with the human, the more substantial the breakfast the better the start in the season's work. While the list of plants that may be grown for cover purposes is quite long, each locality, and each grower, will lind that local conditions and personal re- quirements will render some more suitable than others for his purpose. So far as reports .lave been made the vetch — Vicia sativa — appears to give the best results in Western Oregon. L. T. Reynolds says :* "Our first test of cover crops was in 181)0, when we sowed crimson clover. It did not prove suitable for our climate. The common vetch lias been found to meet all requirements. It can be sown later than crimso clover: is nearly always a good stand; makes a good growth auring the wirter, and pushes forward rapidly in the spring, so that one can have a growth of two to three feet in lieight to turn under by May the first. As such luxuriant growth renders it somewhat diflScult to plow in, we have found it convenient to sow the seed only one way between the trees, leaving about tliree feet in the tree row unsown. Sown in this way it requires about fifty pounds of seed per acre, and it can be readily plowed under."** "In an orchard of young trees making vigorous growtli the vetch can be sown in February and plowed imder in June, but under such conditions I should hardly consider a cover crop necessary." In 'bulletin Ko. 40 (1896) of this Station the following statements are found : Speaking of a twenty-five acre tract, in a large prune orchard, that had become covered with a rank growth of wild mustard, the author said : "The soil of this mustard strip remained moist and friable all summer tlirough, and with one-third the tillage it presented a more favorable condition for tree growtli. as shown by the vigor of the trees, than any other part of the orchard imder otlierwise similar treatment." If the supply of nitrogen in the soil is quite sufficient there are some ad- vantages in a mustard crop not found in otliers. The crop may be pastured in the winter, and if not plowed under too early in the spring, ample seed ♦Oregon report 1903. **In a letter to the writer dated December 24, 1903, Mr. Reynolds speaks further of the vetch as a cover crop. "In ordinary years, I would say the vetch should not be sown later than December 1st. I prefer to sow it in Sep- tember and October as it then gets a good start and makes a rapid growth as soon as warm weather comes in the spring and enables one to turn under a good crop by the early part of May. It then rots ((uickly and assists in preserving osil moisture together with its other functions. If a heavy growth is turned under in .Tune, the soil moisture is usually too low to permit of ready decay and thus the vetch not only does not yield plant food, but it renders tlie soil dryer and In this way works an injury to tlie orchard crop." ( Pi/riis rivillrn-ix) Oregon Crab Apple Fruit of Pj/rus rivularix Native Oregon Crab The Apple in Oregon : Part II. 137 will be farmed to renew the crop the following year. The seed, after lying dormant during the summer and being thoroughly mixed with the soil through the tillage operations, will germinate with the first fall rains and one year with another the plant makes a good stand before cold weather sets in. With a small orchard, and on a soil moderately supplied with humus and nitrogen, vetches for silage purposes might be grown with a double effect. By cutting the crop about the first of May, putting it in the silo and plowing under the stubble the double benefits of a cover crop and a forage crop might be obtained three years out of five in Western Oregon. Some seasons of mod- erate rainfall a drawback to this practice would be encountered in the excessive dryness of the surface soil induced by the growing cover crop. This condition would render plowing and pulverizing the soil more difficult and expensive. In such instances the whole crop could be turned under while the soil is still mellow. For early spring pasturage or for humus, other plants may be used, as •wheat, winter oats, rye and kale. Even though the soil may not need the humus of a cover crop, such a crop on the soil during the resting period of the trees is an advantage to the orchard and the orchardist. A crop growing on the soil during our warm, wet winters, gathers for its use a ' quantity of food material that otherwise would escape through the leaching or surface washing. This crop can be pastured in the early spring months and such pasturage would be net gain less the cost of putting in the crop. Orchard lands that are suf- ficiently supplied with humus and as well drained as they should be for such purposes, would in no wise suffer by being pastured with sheep or swine during the early spring months. Other stock is liable to do more or less damage to the tops of the trees, especially in the young orchard, and accordingly shoudi not be allowed in the orchard. Care must be exercised in pasturing young orchards with sheep or swine, for in the event of shortage of the food crop, they will attack the trees and may do much damage by girdling. PRUNING. ■'Pruning is commonly resorted to only for the purpose of increasing the vigor of feeble trees, or to regulate or improve the form of healthy and luxuriant trees." — Doicning. "The course to follow in pruning will depend upon which of the two lead- ing objects, vigor of growth or fruitfulness, is in view. Pruning at one season will produce one result, while pruning at another will yield a different result, hence prune in winter for wood and summer for fruit." — Warder. Bad pruning of the apple is disposed to give an alternate production of fruit." — Passy. (See Figs. 20 anu 21.) Pruning and training should go hand in hand in orchard-making. To prune is to remove surplus or undesirable wood ; to train is to evolve an ideal or correct form as a result of the pruning, but it should be remembered that the form will vary not only with the several kinds of trees but also with the different varieties of the same kind, as is well illustrated, for example, by the Northern Spy and Grimes Golden. The pruner must have the ideal form in mind and then prune accordingly. A brief discussion of the philosophy of tree growth may serve to aid the beginner in getting a better idea of how to proceed in the work of pruning. In the first place it must be kept well in mind that the tree is a community organization. Each bud is measurably independent — it is an individual. Every individual is struggling to make the most of its opportunities. Every bud that is enabled to develop into a branch becomes an important factor in the plant's economy, and its importance will depend upon the magnitude of its growth, and this depends very largely upon position and period of formai- tion. Every tree is endowed with an impulse to grow upward and outward. This impulse is governed very largely by the influences surrounding the tree as light, heat, moisture, wind, food supplies and room. One of the chief influences determining the form of the top is light. Every bud, every shoot, every branch, 138 Appendix. for its best develcpment. needs ample li,a;ht, other conditions being favoi-;ible. tliat bud or bi'ancli tliat lias the best light I'elation will make the best growth. The best light relation normally is to tie found al)out the top and outside of I he ti-^e's head. As a result of this better light relation growth begins earlier in tlie spring and continues later in the fall. The terniina! Inids are tlie last to g.) into the resting stage: the lateral ones, and especially those well in toward (he center, start last and stop first. The growth impulse gi'adually weakens in these inner twigs and shoots and many of them yield to their fellow lu'ancbes on the outside. This process even goes to such an extent that many l)uds upon tlie inner and lower branches fail to develop into shoots at all. and still fui'tlier. the lower buds ui)on a thrifty growing outside shoot often remain dormant. Thus it is. that, practically, only the later formed buds of a season are the ones that develop into new parts. Another of the active influences in the tree's growth is the water and mineral matter supplied by the roots. This supply as it is forced cr drawn upward through the tissues of the stems and branches, endeavors to follow the lines of least resistance. T'sually a straigiir line offers the best course, hence, we commonly see the erect, straight liranches or shoots growing fastest, and we come to think of tlie chief growth of si tree as being upward and outward. If the tree is crowded l)y its fellows, its l.-itcral light relations will be poor, and accordingly growth will l)e chiefly upward. A.11 this results in wluit amounts to being a struggle for existence. Every l)ud and liranch is using its best effort to get the best light and food supply. Some must yield liy either becoming dormant or dying after a brief existence. Tliis is nature's way of pruning. We see splendid examplis of the process in thickets of young firs, and in tlu' dense tops of old maples or evergreens. The lessons that nature would have us learn from these examples are that ijruning should be such ;is to remove those shoots which are not in position to do the best ulti- mate service ; that the removal of some branches is necessary to the best de- velopment of others : that thinning of the wood growth is necessary because more buds are formed and more twigs are started thay can find light and space for successful development ; that the .iudicious removal of undesirable or po(u-ly located sh(,ots in their earliest stages of growth, is econ.jmy (.f lal)or and material (plant energy.) Hence, reUK.ve undesirable wood, as far as pcssible, while it is small, 'this does not imply that large branches may not be taken off whenever found to be undesirable, but it does imply that such removal means a greater loss of the l)lanfs ener;jy. 'J'bis view of pruning and training calls for a full knowledge of the individual types of trees, their characteristic forms of growth and a comprehensive understanding of the requirements of economic plant culture. If a young apple tree has been received from the nursery as a "switch" (U- "stick" one year old, there will be little pruning to l)e done at the time of planting out, save cutting back the top to correspond with the loss of root system made necessary by removal from the nursery row. and the trimming of wounded roots. Should the tree to be planted be of two or m<.re years, as is too frequently recommended by nurserymen and dealers, then the whole top should be removed to such ;in extent as will correspond with the .imount at' roots cut away. The writer recommends only one-year-old trees for general t ransplating. A one-year-old tree is small : it does not suffer so severe a check upon removal from the nursery as an older tree. Leas cutting back, relatively, is necessary at setting cut. The wounds made are smaller and accordingly heal over more readily, allowing less opportunity for alt.ick by injurious fungi. As an evidence of the importance of this point, the size of the wounds, it may be stated tiiat "ommon olservation throughout the W'illaiuelte Valley during the past few ye.-irs has pointed out the great loss that has occurred among plantations of prunes, in particular, through injudicious pruning at setting out time, or, pos- sibly, to the lack of care in attending to the wounds made at the time of cut- ting back. At the time of setting out. usually late fall or early v>'inter. the young The Apple in Oregon : Part II. 139 prune tree is cut back to a mere stub, leaving, ordinarily, a raw wound from one-half to three-fourtlis of an inch in diameter exposed to the weather. The fall or winter planting of prune trees malces it almost imperative that tlie cutting- back to be done at tlie time, otherwise much damage may be done the planta- tion by winter winds swaying the trees back and forth, for tlie prune "switch." as commonly planted, exposes a consideralile length of stem, from six to eight or more feet. If these wounds were painted at the time made with some tenacious material like white lead, in which has been dissolved a little sul- phate of copper, injury from exposure to the air would be prevented. These observations apply almost equally well to the apple, though the young apple tree, as a rule, is smaller and thus exposes less surface to the action of the wind. The common practice in the more liumid sections of the state is to head the tree at three to four feet from the ground (See Fig. '22). while in the dryer portions the trees are headed as low as one foot, and on an average not more than two feet. This neecssitates training the lowe.^-it branches to a somewhat erect position for at least two years, otherwise they will interfere with the operations of tillage. See Figs. 23 and 24. In later years though these branches, while laden with fruit may almost touch the ground, no serious dis- advantage will be felt during tillage, and the position of the fruit will be a decided gain in the work of spraying See Fig. 25. In fact all operations save tillage are benefited by the formation of low heads. As the growers of Eastern Oregon remark : "\Ye like to work on the ground floor, for it facilitates the work of picking and thinning ;" wliile in sections wliere heavy winds prevail much less loss of fruit occurs in orchards of low headed trees, and the trees themselves are of l)etter form, thus re- quiring less attention and labor in pruning. (See Fig. 2(). ) It is true that in parts of Western Oregon and along the coast the fruit on low headed trees is often of indifferent color while that on trees of medium to high heads is of fair to high color. This fact makes it desirable that trees of late fall and winter varieties be headed or trained high in these sections while trees of sum- mer and early fall varieties may be headed low if desired. As to the manner in which the head may be formed there are several im- portant points to keep in view. And first, perhaps as to whether a central leader shall be left, or all main branches trained to develop uniformly. The latter has been tlie common practice in later years, but recently some of the leading orcliardists have been advocating a return to our earlier practices of leaving a central leader. The contention is that many trees are lost as a result of close or cramped forking at the origin of the head, while with a leader no such loss occurs. With a central leader there are so many Inids that remain latent that .space sufHcient for good branch unions is always present, whereas, the forced development of all buds at the top in the case of the young tree cut back, and the lack of ample forethought in the removal of the excess of branches, which, when young are not clearly evident as such, allows opportunity for too many faulty heads. As yet there are no well defined examples of superior young orchards grown with central leaders, but a comparison of our younger orchards with those planted years ago would seem to give considerable weight to the view that leaders ought to be retained in general planting, thougli the specialist may adopt such style of head formation as he deems best suited to his taste, for in such cases ample attention will be given to the numerous minor mat- ters that pertain to efBcient pruning. (Compare Figs. 3 and 27.) 'inen. after this question of form is settled there comes the question of branches or laterals. Not more than four, and usually three are quite enough for this purpose, especially if a central leader is left. Too many branches make a bushy close top, while too few would leave a top too open or ill shapen. In cases without a central leader the buds which are to form the chief branches of the head should be left not closer than eight inches apart. Wlien the tree has grown to full size there will then be no more open space between them than is necessary to maintain a good strong union, a point that is too often over- 140 Appendix. looked in the formation of the heads of all kinds of fruit trees. (See Figs. 28 and 20.) When the few topmost buds of the young tree are left to form the head thpy are usually so close together that in a few years the forks of all are united and the result is a weakened union. There is not sufficient distance upon the main stem for the several branches, as they increase in size, to make a close union with it. At the end of the first season's growth the young branches that are destined to form the top should be cut back about one-half. From these stubs the next year two chief secondary branches should be allowed to form upon each. The following winter the young growth should again be cut back about one-half. The third and fourth years the tree should receive similar treatment. The fifth year, such branches as interlace should be removed ; irregular, diseased, and malformed shoots should be cut back or taken out as the case may demand. If the trees are planted upon deep, heavy, well- watered soil and continue to make excessive wood growth it may be necessary to give them a summer pruning which operation tends to check wood growth and induce the formation of fruit buds. In the warmer, dryer sections, and where the soil contains considerable sand, trees will begin to bear at five years or even earlier, but in those sections where the climate is cool and moist and the soil heavy and deep, trees may show a disposition to devote all their effort to the production of wood until they are seven, eight or even nine years old. In such cases the check given by summer pruning is often desirable, though it may be a question as to whether trees ought not to be allowed to make their full growth before being forced into fruit production. Still, there is an ad- vantage in hastening the time at which the trees are brought into bearing, and, if not allowed to overbear the first years of fruiting, they may complete their full growth without disadvantage to size or vigor, though the final growth will be made more slowly than would be the case if the trees had not been hastened into bearing The need for future pruning of the orchard will be variable. Each variety has a characteristic habit of growth. The pruning necessary to make the growth conform to our chosen type will depend upon how far apart are the "type" and the "habit." If the grower at the outset has adopted the plan of studying the habits of the different varieties, and has pruned for the purpose of getting the best results with the natural form of the variety rather than for the purpose of making all the trees conform to a common artificial ideal, then the work of pruning will be greatly simplified and reduced. The cutting back of excessive growths : the cutting out of interlacing, crossing, chafing, rubbing and diseased branches ; and the shortening in, as an offset against winds, will be the chief points to keep in view in all subsequent pruning operations. In the past, too little attention has been given to the study of the individual habits of growth. Pruning has been indiscriminate. Not principles, but practices have prevailed in the direction of the work, until we can find trees of Western Oregon cast in the same mould as those of California or Southern and Eastern Oregon. I'ears. apples, plums and cherries have been treated alike as to cutting back, form of head and style of branching ! The practice followed with a species in a particular section, giving good results, has often been heralded as the ideal form for all fruit trees in, at least, the same cultural zone. That such a course is most ill-advised can be readily seen if one will but observe the trees growing in any well-kept home orchard, and it may be said .iust here that the beginner in this work of growing an orchard would be well repaid by making a study of some of the best kept local orchards. Noth- ing can give one so good an idea of the traits of character of the different fruit trees as a study of the real plants as they develop under the hand of a good orchardist. Management of Orchard Soils. 141 MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARD SOILS. Prof. L. B. Judson, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho. Read at Northwest Fruit Growers' Meeting, Portland, January, 1904. We pride ourselves that we live in a progressive era, that as fruit growers we have so far distanced the men of a generation or two ago that they seem to belong to a past age, as they do in fact to a past century ; and it is true that we no longer hopelessly stand by and wring our hands while the festive worm defoliates our trees, or leisurely eats his way through the tender pulp of the fruit ; that we do not allow an insignificant little plant called scab to blacken and distort our choicest fruit while we know nothing to do but pray the Almighty to deliver at least some part of the crop from the Philistines ; nay, that we no longer allow our orchard to grow up to rank grass and weeds in whose grateful shade the hogs may luxuriate. In fact, we have become too scientific to resort to such crude practices, and are not nearly so ready as formerly to pooh-pooh "college" or "paper" farming and "theories" about agri- culture by men who perhaps never grasped a plow handle. Yet there lie ahead far larger and richer fields than any that have yet been conquered, improvements and devices that we yet dream not of, and in the subduing of these science must still be our leader and almost sole dependence. Do you fully realize that in the last fifty years farming has advanced more than in the preceding five thousand? And what is the reason of this? That the search- light of science, the piercing rays from brains quickened by careful scientific training, have been turned upon this field, lighting up its dark corners and obscure places, justifying many practices with sound reasons, condemning others, and suggesting many new and vastly improved ones. It has given us new and better varieties of all kinds of produce — think of the marvelous work of Luther Burbank alone — enlightened us as to the requirements of plant life and the management of soils, found remedies for the destructive pests that have threatened to scourge us like the plagues of Egypt, and for every perplexed question has had ready an answer more true and satisfying than any ever rendered by oracle of old at Dodona or Delphi. And just recently scientific horticulture made a marked advance when the Society for Horticultural Science was founded at Boston last September, having for its object the advancement of the more purely scientific side of horticulture, and including in its membership most of the prominent horticul- turists in the country. This ought to systematize and put on a firmer basis many of the ideas and practices now popularly adhered to, or show sound reasons for discarding them. At the holiday meeting of this Society — the first since its organization — the chief topic of discussion was the very one we are now considering, namely, "the principles underlying the practice of tillage, together with the use of cover crops in orchards," showing the prominence of the subject in the thoughts of horticultural workers at this time. Not many years ago it was the fashion to let the orchard, after giving it a good start, take care of itself , and grow a crop of weeds and grass just as it good start, take care of itself, and grow a crop of weeds and grass just as it much care of the soil as corn or potatoes, if not more, and a diversity of theories and practices have sprung up in the attempt to find the best treatment. 142 Appendix. One man is sure clean culture is Ijest. another srows a crop of hay and figures he is so many dollars ahead of the first, another has unbounded faitli in cover crops, a fourth uses the grass mulch, while perhaps a fifth finds it more satis- factory to combine two or more of them. Here is considerable diversity, and if my discussion shall enable you to choose more discriminatingly among tliem, I shall not feel that I owe any apologies for taking up your time. All management of orchard soils has two chief ends in view, to maintain moisture and fertility. It would be convenient, if practicable, to consider separately the means of attaining each, l)ut such separation could be carried only a little ways before the two would liegin to overlap. Thus adding com- mercial fertilizer to the ground will not lielp the moisture, but barnyard manure will: and on the otlier hand shallow cultivation will not only conserve moisture, but actually enrich the soil by allowing more air to enter and break up the mineral particles which contain potash and phosphates. So let us remember in what follows that most of the things we do to secure moisture increase fertility, and vice versa. We should remember at the outset tliat fertility means more than mere richness in the elements necessary to plant growth ; much more than tliis, it means suitable physical condition cf the soil. Tlie cliemist's analysis may sliow a certain soil to contain plenty of nitrates, phosphates and potash, or you may add them liberally in the form of commercial fertilizers, yet if the soil happens to be a clay, puddled and caked so that notliing will grow on it. it is really not fertile at all. In perhaps nine cases out of ten infertility is due to poor mechanical conditions rather than lack of any chemical elements. If any of these elements are deficient, nitrogen is most apt to be the one, iis its salts are most soluble in water, and hence leacli away most readily. Tlie only otlier elements at all apt to be lacking are potasli and phosphorus, but these are much more (irmly held by the soil, so it is far less often necessary to supply them than nitrogen. ITnfortunately for us, the latter is tlie most expensive of the three, costing in the form of nitrates about 12 cents a pound wholesale, while potash costs 8 cents and phosphorus only 3 cents. When I s;)eak of nitrogen I do not of course refer to the gas, but to its solid salts called nitrates (whicli much resemble impure rock salt in appearance) ; the relation between tlie two forms of it being in some respects similar to tliat between steam and ice, wliere the same substance appears in one case as a gas and in tlie otlier as a solid. Nitrogen in tlie gaseous form is exceedingly abundant in the air, forming over four-fifths of it, but in this form is not useful to plants. If you find it necessary to supply nitrogen (where trees lack it their leaves are a paler green, and the wood growth is less tlian it sliould be) tliere is a cheaper and better way of getting it than to buy nitrate of soda, dried blood, or tanliage. and that is by growing cover crops of legumes. Tlie term cover crop is sometimes misunderstood, so I may say in passing that it is a crop grown exclusively for tlie benefit of tlie soil, allowed to I'emain on or in the ground instead of being liarvested. Tlie legumes, such as clover, vetcli, alfalfa, peas and beans, serve, as you well know, as liosts for certain bacteria which live on their roots, causing little swellings or nudules wliich often reacli tlie size of a bucksliot. Now these minute organisms, while tliey doubtless do some injury to tlie plant by causing these abnormal bunches and feeding on tlie plant juices, much more than offset it by furnishing nitrogen, which they give off as a waste product, to the plant, for tliey have the power denied to the plant of appropriating atmospheric nitrogen. Tlius this group of plants is able through indirect means to take advantage of tlie great stores of nitrogen in the air, and by growing crops of them and turning them under we can add their ■•iccumulation to tlie soil. It must not be supposed, however, that all the nitrogen they contain represents a clear gain from tlie atmosphere, for crops other than the legumes or "nitrogen-gatherers," such as oats, show in analysis very con- siderable quantities of nitrogen, which was of course derived entirely from the soil. Management of Orchard Soils. 143 But if you are going to make use of a cover crop to supply nitrogen, you mv;st, in order to manage it intelligently and with continuously good results, understand the changes that take place in a green manure before it becomes useful as plant food. For present purposes, the nitrogen in plants may be said to exist in the form of protein, a complex substance found in all plants and animals. Under certain circumstances protein is capable of nourishing the plant directly without undergoing change, as where a seed stored with protein nourishes the young plant which springs from it ; but this only when the con- nection is closer than that between the roots and the soil. Most of its life the plant must depend upon its roots for nitrogen, and to these protein as such is absolutely useless. To become available the protein must go through a process of decomposition or breaking down into simpler substances until the nitrogen is converted into the soluble salt known as nitrate, and this is accom- plished by the activity of bacteria which are present in vast numbers in all fertile soils. Several species of these bacteria are necessary to produce nitrates from organic matter, or proteids (that is, protein and substances like it), for no v.ne species can convert the one directly into the other. One species lives upon prctein, and forms as a by-product ammonia. Now another common bacterium in the soil can live upon nothing but ammonia, so as soon as this is formed by the first sort it is promptly seized upon and consumed by this second sort. The ammonia feeders also produce a by-product, i. c, nitrites, salts different from nitrates only in having a little less oxygen in them, but neverthless useless to plants. Finally, there Is a group of bacteria that feed only upon nitrites, and their important by-product is nitrates, the food so highly useful to all plants. From this description you might think the conversion of proteids Into nitrates a long and tedious operation, but really, after the first change has been made, the others follow rapidly, so that little time Intervenes between the formation of ammonia and its transformation into nitrates. Ammonia Itself is readily soluble in water, and may be tised by plants without further change, though as a matter of fact but little is so used : nitrates seem by far a more acceptable form. As we are so absolutely dependent upon these tiny organisms — it wotild take a thousand or more laid end to end to reach across the head of a pin — it naturally liehooves us to know something of their mode of life, or at least under what conditions they thrive best. Three things are essential for the activity of these bacteria — moisture, warmth, and air. The absence of any of these, or excess of the first two. means suspension of all functions, and in extreme cases, death. They have the same need of air, or oxygen, that we have, namely, for respiration ; and just as a person grows drowsy and inactive in an air exhausted of oxygen, or is smothered to death when completely deprived of it, so these organisms grow more and more sluggish as the supply of oxygen diminshes, and perish if it is wholly withheld. The effect of lack of oxygen is most strikingly seen in peat bogs and wet marshes, where the continual presence of standing water h;is excluded the air to such an extent that the decomposition of the vegetable remains has been almost comijletely suspended, and the black, sodden mass of moss, leaves, weeds and other plant remains may lie there for centuries in a state of preservation, finally passing to the permanent condition of coal. It is the first chapter of the same story when you turn a cover crop under on a heavy soil, leaving it to settle down into an air-excluding cover ; there will be enough change to turn the material black. l>ut at that stage it will remain, in a sort of mummified condition, adding no more richness to the soil than if It were stone. So see to it that the bacteria who work for you have air enough when you engage in green-manuring. Heat, too, they must have. Their activity ceases at the freezing point, and is only barely perceptible at 40 degrees, but from this point increases with the rise of temperature up to 100 degrees, from which it diminishes to 130 degrees, where it again ceases. The optimum temperature, or point at which they work most actively, is seldom or never reached in this latitude, but the 144 Appendix. usual summer temperatures are very favorable, and it is a matter of common observation how rapidly vegetable remains in the soil disappear during the hot months. Well drained, porous soils are always the warmest. The third requirement I spoke of is moisture. Too much, indeed, as in the case of the peat bog, is injurious by cutting off oxygen ; but the entire lack of it is just as fatal, for no bacteria are active without the presence of moisture. Keeping an abundance of humus in the soil is one of the best ways of insuring the proper amount of moisture (indeed, this is the most valuable feature of humus — more important than any fertility it adds to the soil) which is also further increased by mulching. The amount of moisture most favor- able to the growth of trees and crops is in a general way most suitable for the bacteria. Before leaving this subject I ought also to mention the chemical composi- tion of the soil as one of the tilings influencing bacterial welfare. A soil witli much free acid in it is decidedly unhealthy for these organisms ; thus a sour muck bed, even when properly drained, often refuses to decompose into good loam until its acidity is neutralized by the application of lime. Of course fresh lime actively attacks and breaks down vegetable matter, but' it soon becomes slacked when added to the soil, and its active caustic properties dis- appear. If added in excess it hinders or destroys bacterial action, and also sets free nitrogen in the form of ammonia so rapidly that it is apt to escape into the air and be lost. Its action after slacking becomes similar to that of laud plaster, which has long been known as beneficial, though no one has been able to assign just the reason ; but we may now set it down as more than likely th.it its eSiciency has been due to its pronounced effects in aiding nitrification. A slightly alkaline soil is most favorable for the process, and in soils derived from limestone, we rarely find nitrates deficient. When we turn a cover crop under, then, to supply nitrogen to our land, we consign it to the care of the nitrifying bacteria, different groups of which convert the protein in it suc- cessively into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates ; and to enable them to do this effectively for us, we must manage the land so that they will have the proper amount of air. warmth and moisture, together with a siutable chemical condi- tion of the soil. Besides nitrogen, the legumes and other cover crops also contain potash and phosphorus, but the last two are never added to the soil when the crop is turned under, as the nitrogen of the legumes was, but are simply returned. In spite of this, the soil is benefitted by the process, for the salts have been worked over — digested, if you please — by the crop, and made more available while its roots have penetrated several feet into the ground and pumped up to the surface much nourishing material, which on the death of the plant is set free in the surface foot of the soil, just where the trees can reach it most easily. Certain crops, as turnips and rape, are particularly rich in potash salts, and may be termed the "potash-gatherers," just as legumes are known as "nitrogen-gatherers." This is generally a better and always a cheaper way of applying potash than buying it, in the form of kainit or muriate of potash. Other kinds of crops, such as oats, barley, rye or millet, contain no one element in excess, but may be considered simply all-around fertilizers. If, then, you have a soil requiring nitrogen, the legumes will serve you ; or if rich enough in that, but lacking potash, turnips or rape ; and if you especially need neither, but still seek the advantage of a cover crop, oats or rye. And what are these advantages? The cover crop provides plenty of humus, which pro- motes nitrification by making the ground more porous and airy, retaining moisture in dry weather and helping drainage in wet ; takes up the nitrates and other soluble foods which would leach away in late summer and fall after the trees have stopped growing ; checks the growth of the trees in the fall and causes them to ripen their wood, by using up the moitsure, (and to a less extent, the food) ; covers the ground in the winter so as to prevent deep Fruit House at Beulah Land orchards, Hood River o n Ll. «> > •a o o I E CO LU c o I Si ■a c O E o ns o 73 C re 3 V CQ E o V T3 C re > c n u u O X Adaptability for Fruit Growing. 145 freezing, and to keep snow drifting away and rain from running off and freezing, and to lieep snow from drifting away and rain from running off and causes it to warm up sooner in the spring. Tlie practice of clean culture means the giving up of most of these advantages ; you do indeed conserve moisture by shallow cultivation, and you may urge that you would lose it by growing a crop, which evaporates large quantities of water and dries out the ground ; and It is true that for the first season, or perhaps two, it will make the ground dryer than if you had simply kept an earth mulch on it, but after that the humus you have added will retain moisture so effectively that you can go on growing crops without scrimp- ing the trees in the least, and all the additional advantages of the humus will accrue to you gratis. Now inasmuch as the cover crop has a tendency to dry out the soil for the first season or two, I believe in clean cultivation for that space of time in newly set orchards, as younger trees can scarcely grow too vigorously the' first two years, and such growth requires a liberal supply of water. By stopping cultivation about the first of August you will encourage the trees to ripen their wood. For the next half dozen years, or until the shade is getting pretty broad and dense, the cover crop can be used most effectively. Put it in after the trees have made most of the growth for the season — . early in July will be late enough — and plow or disc it under next spring, then keep the ground well cultivated until sowing time comes again. I would use a leguminous crop like soy beans, crimson clover or field peas once in three or four years whether the soil seemed lacking in nitrates or not- — perhaps in combination with turnips or rape. If grain is used, it should never be allowed to form heads, as it then dries the soil very rapidly, oats being especially bad in this respect. It is important that this cover cropping should begin while the orchard is young, as increasing shading of the ground makes it more difllcult each year to grow a satisfactory crop under the trees, and the ground should be thoroughly stored with humus while it is still possible to grow heavy crops. When cover cropping becomes somewhat difficult, I would seed down the orchard permanently to crimson clover or some good grass, and at harvest time mow it and let it lie where it falls as a mulch. If your trees are so broad topped and close together that you cannot secure even a moderate stand, you can still do better than to leave the ground bare, by spreading well-rotted manure evenly over the surface, which will gradually add to the humus of the soil, and help to maintain both moisture and fertility. ADAPTABILITY FOR FRUIT GROWING. By Hon. E. L. Smith, President Oregon State Board of Horticulture. Read before the Northwest Fruit Orowers, Portland, January, 1904. Adaptability, or the suitableness of conditions, is a significant word in the vocabulary of the commercial fruit grower. In the few minutes allotted to me I can only briefly discuss some of the essential points of a comprehensive subject, and am confident that your criticisms will develop facts of greater value than any I have to offer. I think we will all concede that locality is a matter of prime importance to the prospective fruit grower, and that one of the essentials of a proper location is adequate transportation facilities. But little dependence can be HOR. 10 14G Appendix. placed on local demand, and a location is enviable and secure in proportion to the number of the best markets of the world that it can command through direct and rapid transit. The day of competing railroads is a matter of the past, and competition has been succeeded by uniformity of tariffs, to the ad- vantage of the stockholder if not tlie shipper. Now, while there may be no competition in freights, yet we recognize the fact that each of our great railway systems is a collector and distributor over a large and separate territory, and he is most happily situated who is in easy touch with more than one of them. From the Atlantic terminals of these trunk roads you will connect with steamship lines which carried to Europe during the past season more than 250,000 barrels of apples in a single week. From Pacific terminals you will command coastwise steamers which will transport no inconsiderable portion of your harvest south to California or north to Alaska, that land of immense possibilities, or with trans-Paciflc liners, the pioneers as it were of that unlim- ited commerce yet to be developed with Eastern Asia. Transportation facilities being satisfactory, your next concern will be to secure a tract of land adapted for the growing of your orchard, and here have a. care, for success or failure depends largely upon the wisdom of your selection. In my humble .iudgment, a parcel of land is suitable for fruit growing which possesses a deep, porous soil, with perfect water and cold air drainage, for hoth follow the same law and seek lowest levels. A soil should be fairly rich in those valuable salts that enter most largely into the composition of both tree and fruit. It should have a natural shelter against prevailing winds — a hill or a belt of timber — and, if these are lacking, an artificial windbreak should be grown. All soils impoverished by long cultivation, underlaid by a stratum impervious to water a few feet below the surface, or where an orchard has previously been grown, should certainly be avoided. In all this country you will find the deepest soil and the largest forest growth on northerly slopes. In sections where spring frosts are imminent, or where the annual precipitation is less than twenty-rtve inches, these northern exposures are to be preferred, as the moisture is constant and the blossoming retarded over a critical period. I pass over many minor details, such as preparation of the soil, etc., and come at once to the most perplexing question that ever confused the mind of a fruit grower — the selection of nursery trees and the adaptation of varieties. I have in mind the planting of an apple orchard. 1 believe that there is con- siderable nonsense as to the superior merits of a nursery tree, whether grown on a whole seedling, a whole root, or a piece root. I care not a farthing by which process it has lieen grown, provided the tree itself conforms to my standard elcellence. Given a stocky body of proper height for its age, with large well-balanced roots, and I waive all objections to its earlier history. I would, however, like to know that the bud or scion was cut from a tree that had established its individuality for health, vigor and fruitfulness, and I can make a pretty close guess what variety it will prove to be when it comes into bearing from the label it bears. This opens up the question of varieties. The adaptability of a variety is governed largely by local conditions of moisture, temperature, sunshine, etc. I feel confident, however, in advising the selection of varieties of the highest quality that can be grown in any given locality. But what do we understand by the word quality V Not simply quality as to taste, but quality of color, season of ripening, etc. I should always place quality of flavor or taste first, but if you can with this combine quality of color or of late keeping, or both, you have a fruit of highest excellence. One section may grow Newtowns and j^pitzenburghs to perfection, while the King, Jonathan, Winesap, and Gravenstein, are equally at home elsewhere — all varieties of high flavor, attractive color, and always welcomed in the markets both foreign and domestic. This is, indeed, an era of the multiplying of orchards. In the year 1890 there were in the orchards of the United States 120,152.795 apple trees. In 1900 that number had increased to 201,794,769 trees. In the states embraced Adaptability for Fruit Growing. 147 in this' Northwest Fruit Growers' Association we find in 1900 Oregon credited with 2,825.898, Washington 2,73.5,824. and Idaho 982,.349 ; a grand total of (■>,.">44,071 apple trees in orchard form. Since 1900, tree planting in some sections lias become almost a mania. Great syndicates liave l)een formed and single corporations have planted orchards of not only one thousand but of many thousands of acres. I am aware that the consumption of apples is rapidly increasing and new markets are opening to us, but not so rapidly as production. Other varieties of fruit are also increasing at a tremendous ratio ; the State of Georgia alone boasts her 18,000,000 peach trees. I see no safety for the orchardist except in the production of varieties of liighest excellence and placed on tlie markets in most attractive form ; but when these millions of young trees come into full bearing, I fear that tliere is disappointment in store for the producer of the more common grades. I have not the time to dwell on the pruning of trees, a most important sub.iect. Tlie argument seems to be largely in favor of low heading. Tlie low headed tree offers less wind leverage, less exposure of trunk to extremes of lieat and cold, less labor and greater thoroughness in spraying, and no little saving of time in harvesting the crop. Pruning is governed to a considerable extent hy the varied forms of growtli of different varieties. Our trees should be open- lieaded to secure color, and limbs shortened back to induce a stocky growtli that will support the fruit or winter snow, and resist such tempests as prevailed all over the Northwest country on the night of the 11th of November last. Finally, brethren, the essential points that I have touched upon are of scarcely more importance tlian the adaptability of the orcliardist liimself. Con- trary to the general view, I believe that there are two types of successful fruit growers, the materialist and tlie sentimentalist. The materialist is in the busi- ness simply for coin. There is nothing so beautiful to him as a silver dollar, except a coin of liigher value. His trees are to him simply as so many cash- carriers, and he would just as soon raise cockle-burrs as golden fruits, provided the results were equally as golden. He is absolutely destitute of esthetic senti- ment, but so great is liis desire to accumulate tliat he will not neglect the slightest detail necessary to insure profitable returns. The sentimentalist, on the other hand, is inspired witli liigh ideals of form and beauty and with all standards of excellence. He fashions his trees with the care of a sculptor chiseling his marble, that from the rude block may come forth a thing of beauty. A lover of Nature, she opens wide to him the .doors of all of her secret chambers ; shows how from her abundant stores, treasured in mother earth, she draws forth and apportions the daily food that nourislies growing trees ; reveals to him the secrets of stamen and stigma, or points out her exquisite tracery on tlie painted petals of that loveliest of flowers, tlie apple blossom. Even the life history of his foes in the insect world is fv.ll of interest and wonder. His heart is in his work, and he views with eager delight the' opening of the lirst fruit buds of liis young trees, fair prophecy of harvests yet to come, and all the changing growth of leaf and bud, of blossom and fruit, seem to him like some grand idyllic poem. A double compensation conies to the lover of this most beautiful and interesting of all rural pursuits, where Nature is ever present to delight and tliereby sliare the toil. 148 Appendix. PLANT-FOOD AND USE OF FERTILIZERS. By A. L. Kniseia', Chemist Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station. Judging from the correspondence received by the Station Chemist, there is a great desire on the part of the people throughout the state to know about soils, plant-foods and fertilizers, which goes to show that the farmer is seeking- information along these lines. Many of the letters ask straightforward questions, but it is impossible to answer them satisfactorily. The following extract is a fair sample of many letters received : Oregon Experiment Station. CorvalUs, Oregon : Dear Sirs : — I send you this day, under separate cover, a sample of soil. Will you please analyze and tell me what it will produce in paying quantities in this climate, or if there is any chemical lacking which could be supplied at a reasonable cost to make it first-class land, etc The object of this bulletin is to furnish popular information concerning such questions as those asked in the foregoing letter. Questions relating to the fertility of the soil are very hard to answer and many times definite satisfactory answers cannot be given. Soils are Very Complex. — The soils of no two farms are alike — neither are the soils of two fields on the same farm exactly alike. The total plant-food in one field differs from that of the adjoining field ; the amount of decaying organic matter (humus) differs in different fields; the degree of coarseness or fineness of the soil particles varies greatly : the moisture conditions of no two fields are identical ; neither are other physical conditions, nor texture of the soil exactly alike in two different fields — and so on with an almost infinite num- ber of conditions, each having more or less infiuence upon the fertility or pro- ductivity of the soil, each having its infiuence upon plant growth. Law of the Minimum. — Since so many conditions surround and influence the growth of a plant it is important to find out which ones affect the growth of the plant most. It has been found by experimentation that it is not the most favorable conditions but the most tinfarorable ones which have the greatest influ- ence upon the growth of a plant. There may be one hundred conditions favorable for plant growth, and five or even one. only, which is unfavorable. It is not the many favorable conditions but the few unfavorable ones which influence the growth of the plant, or crop. If a field is unproductive on account of poor drainage or because of a lack of humus, it would not be made more productive by adding commercial fertilizer. On the other hand, if a field is unproductive, due to a lack of avail- able plant-food, then the addition of fertilizers will Increase its productivity. The essential conditions of a field uhich are the poorest or at the lowest ebb must be sought out and improved before the fertility of the field is increased^ It happens many times that poor yields are not due at all to a lack of plant-food, but are due to essential conditions other than those of plant-food. Plant-food. — There are known to exist and the scientist recognizes about seventy-seven or seventy-eight different elements or simple substances. These elements are not all necessary, but a certain few are indispensable to plant growth. The elements which are necessary and without which plants cannot flourish are known as the plant-food elements. Authorities differ as to the number of ele- ments which are essential for plant growth — some give nine or ten, others- Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 149 twelve and even fourteen. At the very outside, of all the elements known to •exist, only twelve or fourteen are necessary for plant growth. The plant food elements are as follows : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, clorine, potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium, silicon, sodium manganese. Some authorities question the necessity of manganese and sodium. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen make up the largest part of the woody struc- ture of the plant, the carbohydrates and organic acids. ^litrogen. Sulphur and also Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are necessary for the development of the proteid compounds in the plant. Phosphorus. — This element in the plant exists in the form of phosphates and is found in all parts of the plant. It seems to have something to do with the •development of the proteid substances in plants. Much phosphorus seems to be necessary and it accumulates in the seed of plants. Chlorine. — The exact function of this element in plants is not definitely Icnown. It is supposed by some authorities to have something to do with the translocation of starch from the leaf to other parts of the plant. Potassium. — Compounds of this element are quite widely distributed in the various parts of the plant. They seem to be necessary for the formation and translocation of starch in the plant. Potash is always found in large quantities in the ash of plants. Calcium. — This element in some form is found in all parts of the plant. It always exists in large quantities in the ash of plants. Calcium seems to be necessary for the growth of the cell structure, that is, for the formation of cellulose out of starch which has been formed in the leaves. Iron. — Experiments have proved that iron in some form is absolutely nec- essary for the deve.opment of chlorophyl, which is the green coloring matter in the leaves of plants. In the absence of iron the leaves become yellow and even die, due to the non-development of the chlorophyl grains. Magnesium. — This element seems to take part in the development of chlorophyl in plants, and also has something to do with the translocation of prot 'd bodies in the plant. Silicon. — It is still a mooted question as to whether this element is neces- sary for plant growth or not. At one time it was supposed that this element gave stiffness and strength to the stems of the plants, but this belief is being discarded. It is believed by some that silicon helps in the development and formation of seeds. Sodium and Manganese. — These elements are not supposed to perform any nec- essary function in the growth of plants, even though they have generally been classed with the plant-food elements. Manganese is many times and sodium always, found present in the ash of plants. Sodium is very much cheaper than potassium, and there has been much •discussion as to the use of sodium instead of potassium compounds for plants. ScKlium cannot be used instead of, or to replace, any of that potash which is required for the normal development of the plant. Of all the foregoing elements of plant-food, only three or four are included when the subject of fertilizers is considered. These are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and sometimes lime (calcium oxide.) The remaining plant-food elements are usually present iu such abundance that they are not even discussed. Poor Crops. — When a farmer writes that his soil is unproductive and that he harvested only one-quarter of a crop, and wants to know wherein the trouble lies, a very difficult problem is presented. The poor yield may be due to a lack of available nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash or lime, or it may be due to the poor character, or low ebb, of one or more of the many other essential conditions which surround and influence the growth of the crop. Questioning the Soil. — The farmer may question the chemist, or he may ques- 150 Appendix. tion the soil. I l)elieve it is usually more satisfactory to ask the soil questions providing it can be done in an intelligent, systematic manner. The chemist may analyze the soil carefully and tell to the thousandth part of one per cent just how much nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime the soil contains, but he cannot tell absolutely by present methods how much of this plant-food is available for plant growth. Even though the chemist cannot determine accurately the avail- able plant-food, still it is of much value and interest to know the total amount con- tained in the soil. Analysis may show U.2u per cent, or approximately 7.000 pounds nitrogen (N) ; 0.30 per cent, or approximately 10,500 pounds phosphoric acid (P2 Oo) ; 0.50 per cent, or approximately 17.500 pounds, total potash (K20) in the surface foot per acre. Much of this plant-food may or may not be available for a growing crop. If an old rusty safe, with doors locked, fell into the hands of a farmer and if he knew that this safe contained .$10,000, it would be a great incentive to try to unlock the safe and utilize the money. So also if a farmer has his soil analyzed and finds that it contains ."lO.OOO to 40,000 pounds of plant-food per acre, even if not available, tWs fact should be worth much to the farmer because it should give him a strong incentive to try and farm in such a way as to gradually make available for his crops this vast amount of plant-food which is locked up in his soil. This plant-food in the soil is the farmer's capital, or money just as much as the $10,000 in the old, rusty safe. A farmer can tell if his crops are due to a lack of available plant-food by questioning the soil in the following manner : Suppose the farmer plans ti> grow a cultivated crop in a ten-acre field. In the spring lay out several experimental plats on a typical part of the field. Let each plat be one rod wide and eight rods long, that is, one-twentieth of an acre. Apply the dif- ferent plant-foods to these plats and study the effects. The simplest set of fertilizer experiments would be the following : 8 Rods Long. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 15 pounds nitrate of soda. 30 pounds acid phosphate. 15 pounds muriate of potash. Blank ; no fertilizer. 15 pounds nitrate of soda. 30 pounds acid phosphate. 15 pounds muriate of potash. 1/2 ton barnyard manure. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers, 151 These applications of fertilizers are heavy, but in experimental work it is best to use liberal amounts so that their effects upon the crop can be more easily studied. The fertilizers should all be applied broadcast upon the plowed ground and cultivated into the soil. The acid phosphate and muriate of potash should be applied to their respective plats as early in the spring as the ground can be prepared for the crop. The nitrate of soda is very soluble and should not be applied until all the heavy rains are over, or until the beginning of the growing' season. It would be best to apply only a portion of the nitrate of soda at the first application and the remainder three or four weeks later. It is advisable to leave a three-foot strip between each two plats as this will prevent the crop growing on one plat from feeding upon the fertilizer ap- plied to the adjoining plat. If this is done the crop on the whole plat may be harvested and this yield multiplied by twenty would give the yiipld per acre. On the other hand, if no strip is left between each two plats, then the crop growing on the borders of the plats may be getting the effects of the fertil- izers from the two plats. In such cases, harvest the crop on a strip one-half rod wide, lengthwise through the center of each plat ; the yield thus obtained multiplied by forty would give the yield per acre. Experimental plats similar to the foregoing might be tried with any cul- tivated crop like corn, or potatoes or with a sowed crop, like wheat or oats ; also upon small fruits or tree fruits or hop vineyards. If a farmer conducts such a set of experiments and studies it carefully through the growing season and at harvest time carefully estimates the yield per acre for each plat, he may learn much concerning that particular field in which the experiments were tried. A more elaborate set of experiments than the foregoing and one that con- tains all the possible combinations of plant-food may be illustrated by the fol- lowing : 8 Rods Long. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide . 15 pounds uitr ite 1 of soda. 30 pounds acid V losphate. 15 pounds muriate of potash. 15 30 pounds pounds nitr; acid 1 1 ite of soda. phosphate. 152 Appendix. 8 Rods Long. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. 1 rod wide. Bla nk ; no fertilizer. 15 15 pounds nitrate of soda, pounds muriate of potash. 30 15 pounds acid pliospliate. pounds muriate of potasli. 15 30 15 pounds nitrate of soda, pounds acid pliospliate. pounds muriate of potash. 1 ton barnyard manure. A set of fertilizer experiments like this last might be made a little more extensive by adding another plat and applying land-plaster or lime. Another plan would be to sow land-plaster or lime upon half of each small experimental plat. In so doing we could ascertain the effects upon the crop of the fertilizers with and without land-plaster or lime. If. after the crop has been harvested in the fall, the farmer finds that the yield on the blank plat is about as large as upon the plats that were fertilized then it would be folly to buy fertilizers and apply them to that field. On the other hand, it might be that the plats receiving the nitrate of soda give the largest yield, then the probability is that the field lacks available nitrogen. If the plat receiving barnyard manure gives results far better than any of the commer- cial fertilizer plats, then in all probability the physical condition of the soil needs repairing. The soil needs loosening — needs more decaying oi-ganic matter or humus. Many times these fertilizer experiments will answer the questions of the far- mer much better than can a chemist who makes a chemical analysis of the soil. A farmer after having determined to his satisfaction which elements of plant-food are beneficial, must next ascertain what quantities can be used most profitably. The fact that the effects of applications of phosphoric acid and potash compounds may extend over more than one year must be taken into account when the value of these fertilizers is considered. Their effects may in some cases be seen upon the following crops for several years. When nitrogen in the form of nitrate is applied most of the effect must be obtained the same year, because any nitrate not used by the crop will in most cases leach out of the soil before the succeeding crop is grown. Soils Make Plant-Food Insoluble. — When fertilizers are applied to the soil, oven though they contain much water-soluble plant-food, there is but little danger Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 153 of loss by leaching from the soil. Soils with but few exceptions contain those ele- ments which are necessary for the fixation of plant-food. Exeecdingly sandy soils do not have the power of fixing or making insoluble the plant-food which is applied in fertilizers. Most soils, however, contain enough of those materials such as lime, iron, aluminum, zeolites and organic matter, which combine with the soluble plant-food applied in fertilizers and make it insoluble so that it does not leach from the soil. Even though it is rendered insoluble in water and hence leaches from the soil only in very small quantities, it is still available to the feeding rootlets of the growing crop. Generally speaking, all forms of phosphoric acid and potash are fixed in the soil; nitrogen (with the exception of nitrates), which is contained in stable manure and other organic substances, and also nitrogen in the form of ammonia compounds is fixed in the soil. The fixation of the potash and ammonia compounds is brought about by the so-called zeolites in the soil. The phosphoric acid compounds are fixed in the soil by compounds of lime, iron, aluminum and possibly magnesium. The excep- tions to the above are, first, that all forms of soluble plant-food tend to leach out of very sandy soils ; second, that nitrogen in the form of nitrate tends to leach out of all kinds of soils. FERTILIZERS. Fertilizers may be complete or incomplete ; direct or indirect. A Complete Fertiliser is one that contains each of the three elements of plant- food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. An Incomplete Fertiliser is one that contains only one or two of the three elements, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. A Direct Fertiliser is one that contains any or all of the three plant-food ele- ments, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. A direct fertilizer is used for the plant-food which it contains. An Indirect Fertiliser is one that does not contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash. An indirect fertilizer is not applied for the purpose of adding plant- food to the soil, but in order to make some of the plant food already in the soil more available. The chief indirect fertilizers are land-plaster, lime and common salt. I^and-plaster, gypsum of calcium sulphate. These are different names for the same compound. Gypsum or land-plaster is nothing more than the sul- phate of lime rock which has been ground exceedingly fine. Quicklime and calcium carbonate. When limestone is burned the resulting product is calcium oxide or quicklime, sometimes called stone-lime. When exposed to the air it becomes air-slaked and is then calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime. SOURCES OF FERTILIZING MATERIALS. NITROGEN SUPPLY. The following materials are used in this country as sources of nitrogen supply. Soine of them, of course, are used much more than others : 154 Appendix. Ammonite (azotine) Castor bean pomice Cotton-seed meal Dried blood, high-grade- Dried blood, low-grade. _ Guano Dried fish Horn and hoof waste Leather scraps and meal Meat scraps Nitrate of potash Nitrate of soda Oleomargarine refuse Sulphate of ammonia.— Tankage Tobacco stems Wool waste (untreated). Average per cent Nitrogen 10 to 5 to 6 to 12 to (j to (i to 7 to 10 to 7 to 10 to 18 to 15 to 10 to 19 to 6 to 2 to 5 to 14 (i 7 15 12 8 8 15 10 13 14 16 12 20 12 3 6 Pounds of Nit.roge7) in one ton of material 200 to 280 100 to 120 120 to 140 240 to 300 120 to 240 120 to KiO 140 to KiO 200 to 300 140 to 200 200 to 260 2(i0 to 2S0 300 to 320 200 to 240 380 to 400 120 to 210 40 to 60 100 to 120 Becomes available Quickly Moderately fast Moderately fast Quickly Gradually Quickly Hlowly Very slowly Quickly Immediately Immediately Gradually Very quickly Quickly Gradually Very slowly Ammonite, Azotine as it is sometimes called. Dried Blood, Horn and Hoof Waste, Leather and Meat ^crap. Oleomargarine licfuse. Tankage and Wool Waste are all by-products coming from packing houses and rendering establishments. Castor Bean Pomace is the residue left after separating castor oil from the bean. Cotton-Seed Meal is the dried residue left after separating the oil from the cotton seed. Dried Fish is the dried and ground refuse from iish-oil works. Guano is a rich nitrogenous manure obtained from rainless regions. The supply is nearly exhausted. \itrate of Soda (Chili saltpeter) is a mineral substance obtained along the western coast of South America. The world's supply of nitrate of soda comes from this region. Potassium yitrate or true saltpeter comes largely from India. This material is so valuable that little or none of it is used as fertilizer. Tobacco Stems, as the name indicates, is refuse and waste material from tobacco and cigar factories. Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product obtained during the manufacture of illuminating gas and coke, also during the manufacture of bone-black. PHOSrHORIC ACID SUPPLY. Phosphoric acid in the agricultural sense may be classed as soluble, re- verted and insoluble also as available, not available and total. Soiuhle rhosphoric Acid is often called mono-calcium phosphate, acid phos- phate, or superphosphate. These are all readily soluble in water and easily available for plant growth. Reverted Phosphoric Acid, also called citrate-soluble phosphoric acid, in- cludes that phosphoric acid which is not soluble in water but which is soluble in ammonium citrate solution. It is called reverted because at one time it was water-soluble but has since changed back or reverted into an insoluble form. Reverted phosphoric acid is often called di-cnlcium phosphate. This form of phosphoric acid even though insoluble in water is still easily available for plant growth. There is found in Thomas slag a form of phosphoric acid known as tetra- calcium phosphate. This, in many respects, is similar to ordinary reverted or di- calcium phosphate. It is insoluble in water, but much more easily soluble than tri-calcium phosphate and is largely available for plant growth. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. -I r' K loo II >> >: >2 1 •omes liable (DO) 0) .5 .5 .2 >>>>>r^>,%>^>^>,i^>.>-.'>.'%>. sj r; 'SfeiS'iai'SI'^'?'^ ?£■? ooososoooocccco m^-JiT^iny^m'Ji-JivrJi^r.my^-ji S l« 88?S88SSSgSSS8SS fe » QOi^^j.-Tiirp'T''rio-T'i-j-S'S^cc'-T' iililiiliiiiiii i a, i^'S' g 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 r 1 1 e o ^ ^ fl^ •2 5^ OLO-JDlq(^X>'MO 1 c 1 i lO^« -i>coM — ■ ririiiiii ^ S 4> isa^-^s^s:^ i 1 i i-s o . 2S SJ-B"^^ Pounds availabl phos. act in a ton c materia, 1 |S| is 1 j 1 |§ 1 i s°i § i ! |§^ V ""^ 1 1 10000-* 100 f 1 1 1 i;Dt~ rO •8 5 i i i^^jl i-i i i i '; iSc^ ■pA *c* U •e B s> o '^ r 1 1 1 M t^ n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■<♦< 1^ 1) 1 1 1 1 J 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :i?! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! rC 8 1 1 1— (CO-H 1 1 1 1 1 1 i-HCO a, ^ g «; u ^ 1 1 1 IC — ■ ?^ ■Ml ^ ^*j s •o 1 i I'i's'^"'" 1 i 1 1 ! 1 i7 1 fli s 1 1 1 :5? 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 111—' O lOli ^ 1 1 1 1 1 ! ; -T" i : ' ' i 5" ' ^ cr S 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 rsi^ iiiiiii-eiiis*^oi : ; 1 i::r2 i i i c =! « i 1 IX I>cm -500;^ 1 1 ig^o-^^ 1 i«g£2 1 1 1 iKfeWojfi 1 lO 1 1 i-c tss u i; a- 1 Q.E c s 1 ! 1 '■--'-b^t^r-'^^ ;=;=;::«) ,tite- e ash e blac e blac e mea e mea e mea e mea e tanl ■ida ro •ida so th Car th Car th Car mas s; 0"0oooooooi;,2ooo-a 156 Appendix. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid is the ordinary tri-calcium pliosphate. Tliis form is very insoluble in water and is but very slowly available for plant growth. Available Phosphoric Acid consists of the water-soluble and reverted taken together. Unavailable Phosphoric Acid consists of tri-calcium phosphate, or that portion not included in water-soluble or reverted. Total Phosphoric Acid is the sum of the available and unavailable phosphoric acid. Apatite. Considerable apatite has been mined in Canada. It is not very uniform in composition and not so desirable as some other forms of phosphoric acid. Bone Ash is the residue left after burning bones. Some of this is imported from South America. Bone-Black or Bone-Charcoal is obtained from sugar refining establish- ments where it has been used in purifying syrups and sugars. Bone-Black (dissolved) is similar to ordinary bone-black, except that it has been treated with sulphuric acid so that the phosphoric acid is made more easily available. Bone Meal consists of ground bones from packing establishments and glue works. Generally the finei- the meal the more easily the phosphoric acid becomes available. Bone Meal (dissolved) consists of bone meal which has been treated with sulphuric acid. Florida and South Carolina Rock, sometimes called rock phosphates, are mined in large quantities in South Carolina and Florida. The availability of The phosphoric acid contained in these materials depends somewhat upon the degree of fineness to which the substance is ground. Dissolved Rock, Acid Phosphate or Superphosphate is prepared by treating the ground rock with sulphuric acid. This treatment makes the phosphoric acid much more easily available. The action of the sulphuric acid is to change most of the tri-calcium phosphate contained in the rock to mono-calcium phosphate. During this chemical change much calcium sulphate (gypsum) is formed, so that dissolved rock or acid phosphate always contains about 50 per cent gypsum. Thomas Slag is a waste product obtained during the manufacture of Bessemer .steel. The slag which accumulates while the steel is being made is rich in phos- phoric acid. This slag when finely ground is used, especially in Europe, in large quantities as a fertilizer. POTASH SUPPLY. There are many materials which contain quite large quantities of potash. In the agricultural sense, that potash is considered of most value which is solu- ble in distilled water. At the present time the main part of the world's supply of potash comes from the mines in Germany. Potash is usually aplied either in the form of muriates, sulphate or carbonate. The muriate is probably most often used as it is generally somewhat cheaper than other forms. Sometimes for certain crops it is preferable to use the sul- phate. In a very few instances the carbonate is used in preference to either muriate or sulphate. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 157 SOURCES OF POTASH. Ashes (cotton-seed hull) Ashes (wood, leached) Ashes (wood, unleached) Carnallite Kainlte Krugite Muriate of potash Nitrate of potash Sulphate of potash (low-grade)_-. •Sulphate of potash (high-grade).. Sulphate of potash and magnesia Sylvinlte Tobacco waste Per cent pot- ash (KoO) 15 to 25 1 to 3 4 to 10 12 to 14 12 to 1« 8 to 10 48 to 52 43 to 45 25 to 30 48 to 53 25 to 30 15 to 20 5 to 8 Pounds potash in one ton of material 300 to 20 to 80 to 240 to 240 to IfiO to 960 to 1020 8()0 to 900 500 to fiOO 9(» to lom 500 to (iOO 300 to 400 100 to 160 500 60 200 280 320 200 Becomes available Immediatelv Gradually Cotton-seed Hull Ashes are obtained in some of the Southern States where the cotton-seed hulls are used as fuel in some of the mills These ashes, which con- tain little or no chloride when obtainable, are especially desirable for such crops as tobacco. Wood Ashes are obtainable wherever wood is burned in large quantities. The potash contained in them is water-soluble and easily leaches out. Wood ashes are excellent as fertilizer and none should be allowed to go to waste. Carnallite is obtained from the potash mines of Germany. It consists largely of chlorides of potash and magnesium. The crude material also contains small quantities of the sulphates of potash and magnesium. Kainite is also obtained from Germany. It is rather complex, consisting largely of sulphates and chlorides of potash and magnesium. It usually contains common salt and gypsum. Krugite comes from Germany. The crude material consists largely of sul- phates of potash, magnesium and calcium. Muriate of Pota^sh as obtained commercially is one of the products of the German potash mines which has been partially purified. It is used very exten- sively as a fertilizer. Nitrate of Potash. — The natural source of this material is lidia. It is very valuable as a fertilizer, but the demands for it in manufacturing operations almost preclude its use in agriculture. Sulphate of Potash. — Both high and low grades are sold in large quantities as fertilizer. Potash in the form of sulphate usually costs more than when bought in the form of muriate. These sulphates of potash are obtained from Germany. Sulphates of Potash and Magnesia, sometimes called double potash salts, as the name indicates, consists largely of sulphates of potash and magnesia. These double salts are obtained in Germany and are used in considerable quantities as fertilizers. Sylvinite. — This is rather a low grade of potash coming from Germany. The potash in this substance exists mostly as sulphate and chloride. It also con- tains large quantities of sodium chloride and some compounds of magnesium. Tobacco Waste is obtained from certain factories and when ground fur- nishes a small amount of fertilizer material. The ash from tobacco waste is ex- ceedingly rich in potash, often containing 50 per cent — it is, however, unwise to burn the waste, for in so doing its nitrogen and insecticidal value is destroyed. FARM MANURES, ASHES AND STRAW. Many of the Oregon farmers little realize the value of the waste materials which accumulate on the farm. All the waste materials upon the farm contain one or more of the essential elements of plant-food. These plant-foods have certain commercial values which have been adopted by many of the leading experi- 158 Appendix. ment stations of the country (See page — ). In reality the trade values of most of the plant-foods in Oregon are somewhat higher than in some of the centrally located Eastern States ; notwithstanding this fact, if we assign the Eastern trade values to the plant-food contained in Oregon farm waste products, we And that they have approximately the following values per ton : Material Horse manure (liquid). Horse manure (solid) __ Cow manure (liquid).— Cow manure (solid) Sheep manure (liquid). .Sheep manure (solid) — Pig manure (liquid) Pig manure (solid) Fowls Mixed stable manure.. Straw, wheat Htraw, rye •Straw, oat .Straw, barley Ashes, wood-^ Nitrogen(N) per cent 1..5.J .51 .81 .36 1.9-5 .74 .43 .52 1.19 .50 .53 .45 .55 .83 Phoxphoric acid {PiOi) per cent .22 .15 .01 .27 .07 .30 1.16 .25 .17 .26 .25 .23 1.70 Potash(KoO) per cent 1 50 44 .92 .07 2.26 .41 .83 .36 .76 .50 .57 .83 1.35 1.41 6.00 Value jyer ton 8 6 15 2 19 3 35 1 30 8 12 2 90 2 19 3 54 5 49 2 25 2 3:^ 2 44 3 25 4 13 7 70 According to carefully conducted scientific experiments, the excrement, liquid and solid, from one animal for a year has approximately the following values : Horse. $22.00 to .$27.00 ; cow, .$28.00 to .$35.00 ; sheep, if 2.00 to $2.50 ; pig, $1.00 to $3.00. Enormous losses occur annually due to bad handling of the farm wastes. One of the best methods of caring for farm manures is to haul them out shortly after they have been made and spread them broadcast upon the land. If manure is thrown in piles it many times heats and becomes "fire-fanged." This slow burning of the manure destroys much of its value. The odor of ammonia about the manure heap, indicating a loss of nitrogen, shows that the method of caring for the manure is poor. The liquid portion of the manure is most valuable and should be saved, and yet the general practice is to pay little or no attention to this portion. It pays to use straw, litter, dry earth, muck or peat as an absorbant for this valuable liquid portion of the manure. Manure should never be piled under the eaves trough. Do not burn the straw pile. — It is the custom in many sections of the State to burn the straw in order to get rid of it. By so doing all the nitro-* gen and organic matter contained in the straw are destroyed and lost to the farmer. These losses represent many thousands of dollars annually. It is far better to use a straw as litter and as an absorbent about the barn and sheds as mulching and as a rendezvous for stock where they can pick it over and tramp it to pieces, so that it can be more easily handled and worked into the soil. ^yood Ashes. — Every pound of wood ashes which is made on the farm is valuable and should be carefully saved. Do not let it accumulate in open boxes or barrels exposed to the rains, because its valuable constituent, potash, is easily leached out. Keep the ashes dry until ready for use. It is a bad practice to mix wood ashes with any of the farm manures because the action of the lye in the ashes is to decompose the ammonia compounds of the manure and thus liberate the most valuable plant food element, nitrogen, in the form of ammonia gas. Trade Values of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash. — The commercial values of the materials which are used as fertilizers, depend upon several conditions, such as cost of production, supply and demand, etc. It is the cus- Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 159 torn for the leading experiment stations of the East, to annually adopt a schedule of trade values for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash ; these prices being governed by the prevailing wholesale prices of the standard materials as shown by the market reports of the commercial centers. SCHEDULE OF TRADE VALUES ADOPTED BY EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Cents per lb. 1903. Nitrogen in Nitrates ■ 15.0 Nitrogen in Ammonia Salts 17.5 Organic Nitrogen in dried and tine-ground fish, meat and blood, and in mixed fertilizers 17.0 Organic Nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage 16.5 Organic Nitrogen in coarst bone and tankage 12.0 Phosphoric Acid, soluble in water 4.5 Phosphoric Acid, soluble in ammonium citrate 4.0 Phosphoric Acid, insoluble in fine bone and tankage 4.0 Phosphoric Acid, insoluble in coarse bone and tankage 3.0 Phosphoric Acid, insoluble mixed fertilizers 2.0 PhosDhoric Acid, soluble in fine-ground fish, cotton-seed meal, castor pomace and wood ashes 4.0 I'otash as Muriate 4.25 Potash as Sulphate, and in forms free from muriates (or chlorids) 5.0 Owing to distance from Eastern markets, transportation rates and to the amounts of material used, fertilizers in Oregon at the present time cost ap- proximately one-fifth to one-half more than they do in the East. In Oregon according to the present prices and available material, the probability is that nitrogen can best be bought as nitrate of soda or as fisji guano ; phosphoric acid in the form of ground bone, acid phosphate, double superphosphate, or Thomas slag ; potash as muriate or sulphate of potash. At the present time potash and nitrogen do not cost very much more than they do in the Eastern markets, while phosphoric acid costs much more and in some cases twice as much. AYHEN AND HOW TO APPLY COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS, FARM MANURE AND ASHES. There is much uncertainly among farmers as to the manner of applying fertilizers. Generally they should be sown broadcast and cultivated into the soil. The feeding rootlets are not at the base of a tree or plant, but usually are found some distance from the plant where they form a perfect network of rootlets in the soil. If fertilizers are applied just at the base of the plant they do but little good and many times much harm. yitrogoi in the form of nitrate should not be applied until the beginning of the growing season. If applied too early much may be lost by leaching out of the soil before the crop assimilates it. It is many times best to apply the nitrate in two or three partial applications, say one-third at be- ginning of the growing season, one-third three weeks later and the {ast third two weeks later. Other forms of nitrogen may be applied earlier in the spring. Phosphoric Acid and Potash compounds may be applied early in the spring, or even during the fall and winter without danger or loss by leaching out of the soil (except on very sandy soils). It is best to apply those phosphates that contain much water-soluble phos- phoric acid early in the spring, for if applied in the fall the phosphoric acid tends to revert and become insoluble. Many times when potash is ap- plied it tends to become fixed near the surface of the soil ; it is better, there- fore, to apply it early in the spring and as soon as the ground is dry enough to work thoroughly cultivate it into the soil. Farm Manures may be applied any time during the fall, winter or early spring broadcast upon the land. The time and manner of application is gov- erned largely by the crop or plants for which it is used. 160 Appendix. Wood Ashes may be applied any time during fall or winter. They are especially valuable for bushes, small fruits and tree fruits about the garden. Do not apply at base of plants but spread broadcast about the plants. The ashes work into the soil very slowly, so it is very helpful many times to spade them into the ground. Land- PI aster when used upon land should be sown broadcast very early in spring or during the winter because it works into the soil very slowly. Good success is obtained in Oregon by using 50 to 100 pounds of plaster per acre. Better results are usually obtained by using plaster upon deep rooted leguminous plants rather than upon shallow rooted non-leguminous plants. EFFECT OF FERTILIZER. In the use of fertilizing materials, nitrogen tends to stimulate leaf growth. An abundance of nitrogen in the soil is indicated by rank, luxuriant growth and dark green foliage. Too much nitrogen on vines, shrubs and trees cause a too rapid growth of wood. The wood thus formed is rather tender, soft and does not ripen properly and is often injured by tlie winter weather. An excessive use of nitrogen stimulates leaf and wood growth at the expense of fruit. Phosphoric pcid and potash have more to do with the development of fruit buds, fruit and seed ; they also produce a more normal development of the parts of the plant, the parts are firmer, the wood ripens better and is more hardy. FERTILIZERS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS. In the following pages are given approximately, the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash which it seems advisable to use on various farm crops. Many times, depending upon local conditions, the amounts of plant- food indicated may be profitably diminish or increased. The intelligent farmer should always satisfy himself that he can buy and use fertilizers profitably before he invests very largely. In the following pages only a few materials are indicated as furnishing plant-food. If other materials can be obtained more cheaply then use them instead. ALFALFA. Relative proportions available plant- Pounds material for one acre, food. Pounds per acre, f 60 to 120 nitrate of soda ; or J .50 to lOo sulphate of ammonia : or Nitrogen 10 to 20 > 1.50 to .300 fish guano : or I 2,000 to 4.000 stable manure. C 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or Phosphoric acid 30 to 60-^ 7.5 to 1.5o double superphosphate ; or ( WO to 000 ground bone. I 150 to .300 muriate of potash: or Potash 75 to 150.' 1">0 to aoo sulphate of potash: or I 000 to 1.20(1 kainite : or ' 1,500 to 3,000 wood ashes. Alfalfa is a leguminous plant and under certain conditions has the power of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen and. m.my times, application of nitrogen may be dispensed with. Land-plaster at the rate of 50 to 100 pounds per acre is usually followed by very beneficial results. This crop requires con- siderable lime and many times this material may be applied profitably not only because it furnishes lime to the plant, but because it destroys the acidity of the soil which is injurious to leguminous plants Examine the alfalfa roots : if nodules are growing upon them, then use very little nitrogen ; if no nodules are found, the application of nitrogt^n ' ■''* »» Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 161 should be increased considerably, also inoculate the field with soil from an alfalfa patch which has an abundance of nodules on the roots. Stable manure is probably the best fertilizer to use owing to its beneficial efTect upon the physical condition and bacterial activity of the soil. APPLES. — (Trees Over Ten Years Old.) Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 8 to 16 I'hosphoric acid 30 to 60- I>otash 50 to 100 . Pounds material for one acre. 50 to 100 nitrate of soda ; or 40 to 80 sulphate of ammonia ; or 120 to 240 fish guano ; or 1,600 to 3,200 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate : or 300 to 600 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainlte ; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Do not apply at base of tree but sow broadcast. Generally slow-acting forms of fertilizers are cheaper and desirable to use. Wood ashes are excel- lent for apple trees. Care should be taken not to use an excess of nitrogen. The cheapest and best way to add nitrogen to the orchard soil is to grow leguminous crops such as vetch, crimson clover, or peas and plow under when they attain medium height. In this way both nitrogen and humus are added to the soil and its texture improved. APRICOTS. — (Trees Over Five Years Old.) Nitrogen 10 to 20 food. Pounds per acre, f Relative proportions available plant- j I'hosphoric acid 30 to 60^ I'otash 45 to 90 j I Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia ; or l.^O to 300 fish guano; or 2 000 to 4,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate ; or 300 to 600 ground bone. 90 to 180 muriate of potash ; or 90 to 180 sulphate of potash ; or 360 to 720 kainite ; or 900 to 1,800 wood ashes. Sow broadcast in all cases. If trees are making vigorous growth and foliage is dark and luxuriant, the amount of nitrogen should be diminished. It is advisable to use some leguminous cover crop as a means of adding nitrogen and humus to the soil. ARTICHOKES.— (JerMsaiew.) Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 15 to 30 " r Phosphoric acid 36 to 72 r I'otash 50 to 100 j Pounds material for one acre. 90 to 180 nitrate of soda ; or 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; or 225 to 450 fish guano ; or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 290 to 580 acid phosphate ; or 90 to 180 double superphosphate ; or 360 to 720 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Artichokes are hardy, rank growers and since their period of growth extends over several months, the cheaper, less active form of plant-food may be profitably used. HOR. 11 162 Appendix. ASPARAGUS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 45 to 90 i Phosphoric acid 35 to 70- Potash 50 to 100 J Pounds material for one acre. 270 to 540 nitrate of soda ; or 225 to 450 sulphate of ammonia ; or 675 to 1,350 fish guano : or 0,000 to 1,8000 stable manure. 280 to 560 acid phosphate ; or 85 to 170 double superphosphate ; or 350 to 700 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kninite ; or 1,000 to 2.000 wood ashes. It is a good plan to apply part of the plant-food early in the spring in im- mediately available forms such as nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate of potash. Apply the remander in more slowly available forms such as fish guano, ground bone and kainite. Stable manure applied in fall or winter gives excellent results. BARLEY. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. ( Nitrogen 12 to 24 | L Phosphoric acid _. . 20 to 40. Potash 25 to 50 . Pounds material for one acre. 75 to 150 nitrate of soda ; or 60 to 120 sulphate of ammonia; or 180 to 360 fish guano ; or 2,400 to 4,800 stable manure. 160 to 320 acid phosphate ; or 50 to 100 double superphosphate ; or 200 to 400 ground bone. 50 to 100 muriate of potash ; or 50 to 1 00 sulphate of potash ; or 200 to 400 kainite ; or I 500 to 1,000 wood ashes. BEANS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 10 to 20 j Phosphoric acid 40 to 80 Potash 50 to 100 Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia ; or 150 to 300 fish guano ; or 2,000 to 4,000 stable manure. 320 to 640 acid phosphate ; or 100 to 200 double superphosphate ; or 400 to 800 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or 1.000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Beans are leguminous plants. If the nitrogen-gathering bacteria (indicated by nodules on the roots) are present in the soil, then the application of nitro- gen may be greatly reduced, or dispensed with entirely. If grown as string beans, the quantity of nitrogen used may sometimes be profitably increased. BEETS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 30 to 60 Phosphoric acid 60 to 120 rotash 75 to 150 I I Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia ; or 450 to i'oO fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12,000 stable manure. 480 to 960 acid phosphate ; or 150 to 300 double superphosphate ; or 600 to 1,200 ground bone. 150 to 300 muriate of potash ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of potash ; or 600 to 1,200 kainite; or 1,500 to 3,000 wood ashes. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 163 It is advisable to apply the nitrate of soda in two or three partial applica- tions. Some authorities advise using potash in form of sulphate, especially when the beets are grown for sugar. BLACKBERRIES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 15 to 30 | L f Phosphoric acid 25 to 50-! r Potash 50 to 100- Pounds material for one acre. 90 to ISO nitrate of soda ; or 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; 225 to 450 fish guano ; or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 200 to 400 acid phosphate ; or 65 to 130 double superphosphate 250 to 500 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or or or I- 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. broccoli. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 40 to SO | Phosphoric acid 70 to 140 \ Potash 90 to 180 . I Pounds material for one acre. 240 to 480 nitrate of soda ; or 200 to 400 sulphate of ammonia ; or 600 to 1.200 fish guano; or 8,000 to 16,000 stable manure. 560 to 1,120 acid phosphate ; or 175 to 350 double superphosphate ; or 700 to 1,400 ground bone. 180 to 360 muriate of potash ; or 180 to 360 sulphate of potash ; or 720 to 1,440 kainite ; or 1,800 to 3,600 wood ashes. Best results are obtained by applying a portion of the fertilizers in imme- diately available forms and the remainder in forms which gradually become available during the growing season. Brussels Sprouts. — Fertilizers same as for broccoli. BUCKWHEAT. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 12 to 24 j Phosphoric acid 25 to 50- Potash 30 to 60 Pounds material for one acre. 75 to 150 nitrate of soda ; or 60 to 120 sulphate of ammonia; or 180 to 360 fish guano ; or 2,400 to 4,800 stable manure. 200 to 400 acid phosphate ; or 65 to 130 double superphosphate : or 250 to 500 grotind bone. 60 to 120 muriate of potash ; or 60 to 120 sulphate of potash ; or 240 to 480 kainite ; or L 600 to 1,200 wood ashes. Cabbage. — Fertilizers same as for broccoli. Carrots. — Fertilizers same as for beets. CASTOR BEAN. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 8 to 16 ] Phosphoric acid 32 to 64 ( Potash 32 to 64 Pounds material for one acre. 50 to 100 nitrate of soda ; or 40 to 80 sulphate of ammonia ; or 120 to 240 fish guano ; or 1.600 to 3,2U0 stable manure. 250 to 500 acid phosphate : or 80 to 160 double superphosphate ; or 320 to 040 ground bone. 65 to 130 muriate of potash ; or 65 to 130 sulphate of potash ; or 250 to 500 kainite ; or 650 to 1,300 wood ashes. 164 Appendix. Caulifloiver. — Fertilizers same as for broccoli. CELERY. Relative proportions available plant- Pounds material for one acre, food. Pounds per acre, f 360 to 720 nitrate of soda ; or ) 300 to 600 sulphate of ammonia ; or Nitrogen 60 to 120 l 12,000 to 24,000 stable manure. I 900 to 1,800 flsh guano ; or ( 960 to 1,920 acid phosphate; or Phosphoric acid 120 to 240^ 300 to 600 double superphosphate ; or I 1,200 to 2,400 ground bone. I 300 to 600 muriate of potash ; or Potash 150 to 300 J 300 to 600 sulphate of potash ; or I 1,200 to 2.400 kainite : or L 3,000 to 6,000 wood ashes. Celery thrives best in soil rich in decaying organic matter such as muck or beaver-dam. Many of the Oregon beaver-dam and swamp soils are exce^d- ingly rich in nitrogen ; therefore when celery is grown upon such soils the amount of nitrogen to be applied may be greatly reduced. Cherries. — Fertilizers same as for apricots, except that the addition of a few hundred pounds of lime either in the form of air-slacked lime or wood ashes is very beneficial. CHICORY. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 30 to 60 ■! Phosphoric acid 60 to 120 Potash 50 to 100 . Pounds material for one acre. 1 80 to 360 nitrate of soda ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia ; or 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12,000 stable manure. 480 to 960 acid phosphate ; or 150 to 300 double superphosphate ; or 600 to 1,200 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Clover. — Fertilizers same as for alfalfa. CORN. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 15 to 30 ' Phosphoric acid 30 to 60- Potash 40 to 80 . Pounds material for one acre. 90 to 100 nitrate of soda ; or 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; or 225 to 450 fish guano ; or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate ; or 300 to 600 ground bone. 80 to 160 muriate of potash ; or 80 to 160 sulphate of potash : or 320 to 640 kainite; or 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. Nitrogen applied in the form of stable manure is especially beneficial as a dressing for corn ground. If corn is grown for fodder or for eating and canning Iiurposes, the amount of stable manure, or nitrogenous fertilizer applied may be increased. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 165 CRANBERRIES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f I Nitrogen 10 to 20 ' I Phosphoric acid 30 to 60 r Potash 50 to 100 . Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda ; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia; or 150 to 300 fish guano ; or 2,000 to 4,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate ; or 300 to 600 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Cranberries grow best on low swamps, or bog-lands rich in decaying organic matter. These lands usually are excessively rich in nitrogen, but poorer in phosphoric acid and potash so that fertilizers should be applied accordingly. Many times, applications of nitrogenous materials are entirely unnecessary. CUCUMBERS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. \ Nitrogen 30 to 60 j I Phosphoric acid 45 to 90- r Potash 65 to 130 ^ I Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia; or 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12,000 stable manure. 360 to 720 acid phosphate ; or 110 to 220 double superphosphate ; or 450 to 900 ground bone. 130 to 260 muriate of potash ; or 130 to 260 sulphate of potash ; or 520 to 1,040 kainite ; or 1,300 to 2.600 wood ashes. Well decomposed stable manure is especially beneficial, also nitrogen in form of fish guano. If cucumbers are grown for pickling purposes and if a quick growth is desired, then apply most of the nitrogen in form of nitrate of soda, in several partial applications. CURRANTS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f 1 Nitrogen 10 to 20 i I Phosphoric acid 30 to 60 Potash 50 to 100 . Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda ; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia ; or 150 to 300 fish guano ; or 2,000 to 4,0000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate ; or 300 to 600 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or l^ 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Too much nitrogen produces rapid growth of foliage and the plants be- come more easily susceptible to disease and mildew. Nitrogen applied in some slow-acting form is usually best. 166 Appendix. EGG-PLANT. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 40 to 80 I'hosphoric acid 60 to 120- Potash 75 to 1(50 Pounds material for one acre. 240 to 480 nitrate of soda ; or 200 to 400 sulphate of ammonia : or 600 to 1,200 fish guano ; or 8,000 to 16.000 stable manure. 480 to 960 acid phosphate ; or 150 to 300 double superphospha te : or 600 to 1,200 ground bone. 1.50 to 300 muriate of potash; or 150 to 300 sulphate of potash ; or 600 to 1,200 kainite; or 1,500 to 3,000 wood ashes. Emmer. (Spelt) — Fertilizers same as for barley. £ndit/"e.— Fertilizers same as for chicory. FLAX. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 12 to 24 ^i Phosphoric acid . 35 to 70^ r Potash 40 to 80 -i Pounds material for one acre. 75 to 150 nitrate of soda ; or 60 to 120 sulphate of ammonia ; or 180 to 360 fish guano; or 2.400 to 4,800 stable manure. 280 to 560 acid phosphate ; or 85 to 170 double superphosphate ; or 350 to 700 ground bone. 80 to 160 muriate of potash; or 80 to 160 sulphate of potash; or 320 to 640 kainite ; or 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. Flowers in Garden. — See last page for general instructions in preparing and using fertilizers in the garden. Flowers in Pots.- — At times it becomes desirable to stimulate the growth of plants in pots. Besides using small applications of the water-extract of l)aru- yard manure, the following soluiion may be prepared and used to advantage. These materials may be obtained at any drug store; 1 ounce sodium nitrate. 4 ounces sodium phosphate. 2 ounces potasium sulphate. 1 gallon water. Keep this solution in glass jars or bottles. Two or three times each week when watering the plants, apply from one teaspoonful to one tablespoonful to each plant, the amount used of course, depending upon the size of the pot and plant. Oooseberrics. — Fertilizers same as for currants. GRAPES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 25 to 50 Phosphoric acid 50 to 100 J i r Potash 100 to 200 J I I Pounds material for one acre. 150 to 300 nitrate of soda ; or 125 to 250 sulphate of ammonia : or 375 to 750 fish guano ; or 5,000 to 10,000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 double superphosphate ; or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 200 to 400 muriate of potash ; or 200 to 400 sulphate of potash ; or 800 to 1,600 kainite; or 2,000 to 4.000 wood ashes. Grapes require large quantities of mineral plant-food. Wood ashes are especially valuable as a source of potash and lime. If wood ashes cannot be Plant-Food and Use ob' Fertilizers. 10' obtained, several hundred pounds of lime may be applied to advantage every four or five years. Instead of applying nitrogenous fertiliers, it is the practice in many places to grow crimson clover or other leguminous crops during the fall and spring and plow under. This practice is to be commended since it adds both nitrogen and humus to the soil. GRASS FOR LAWNS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 20 to 40 - Phosphoric acid 40 to 80- Potash 40 to 80 - Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia : or 300 to 600 fish guano; or 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. 320 to 640 acid phosphate ; or 100 to 200 double superphosphate : or 400 to 800 ground bone. 80 to 160 muriate of potash ; or 80 to 160 sulphate of potash ; or 320 to 640 kainite ; or 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. In preparing soil for a lawn use the slow-acting forms of plant-food. After the lawn has become established, use small applications of the more easily avail- able forms of plant-food. Excellent results are obtained by applying 50 to <">i> pounds of nitrate of soda two or three times during the growing season. Lawns that are overrun with moss may be greatly helped by applying, dur- ing winter or early spring, heavy coatings of wood ashes. This kills the moss and at the same time stimulates the growth of the grass. Too great an appli- cation of potash may also stimulate the growth of clover and so it frequently hap- pens that the application of wood ashes is followed by a heavy growth of clover, providing there are any clover seeds or small plants in the lawn. GRASS FOR MEADOWS AND PASTURES. Relative proportions available plant- Pounds material for one acre, food. Pounds per acre, f 120 -to 240 nitrSte of soda ; or .... f^^ , ^,^ I 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia : or Nitrogen 20 to 40-i 300 to CUO fish guano ; or I 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. ( 160 to 320 acid phosphate ; or Phosphoric acid 20 to 40-^ 50 to 100 double superphosphate ; or ( 200 to 400 ground bone. r 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or Potash 50 to 100 --' 100 to 200 sulphate of potash: or I 400 to 800 kainiie ; or 1^ 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. It is uggested to apply about half the fertilizer in spring and the remainder after cutting the hay crop. If the field is used for pasture, the amount of nitro- gen applied should be diminished and the potash increased. HEMP. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. ( Nitrogen 30 to 60 -i I Phosphoric acid 40 to 80 -| r Potash 60 to 120 J I I Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia : or 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12.000 stable manure. 320 to 640 acid phosphate ; or 100 to 200 double superphosphate : or 400 to 800 ground bone. 120 to 240 muriate of potash : or 120 to 240 sulphate of potash; or 480 to 960 kainite : or 1,200 to 2,400 wood ashes. 168 Appendix. HOPS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. ( Nitrogen 20 to 40 i I. Phosphoric acid 50 to 100- Potash 100 to 200 . ( Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia ; or 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. 300 to 600 flsh guano ; or 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 double superphosphate ; or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 200 to 400 muriate of potash ; or 200 to 400 sulphate of potash ; or 800 to 1,600 kainite; or 2,000 to 4,000 wood ashes. Too much nitrogen may produce a rank growth of foliage at the expense of the hops unless it is properly balanced with phosphoric acid and potash. Hops are exceedingly heavy feeders of potash. Many hop vineyards are becoming less productive and this is in part due to a decrease in the humus of the soil. If some leguminous crop could be sown, as soon as the hops are picked, on a nar- row strip between each two rows and then plowed under in the spring it would add both humus and nitrogen to the soil and thus keep up the texture. HOKSE-RADISH. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 20 to 40 Phosphoric acid 25 to Potash 50 to 1 00 •! Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia ; or 300 to 600 flsh guano ; or 4.000 to 8,000 stable manure. 200 to 400 acid phosphate : or 60 to 120 double superphosphate ; or 250 to 500 ground bone. 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or I- 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. Kale. — Fertilizers same as for broccoli. LETTUCE. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 35 to ro. . Phosphoric acid 50 to 100-' Potash 75 to ]\>''* I Pounds material for one acre. 210 to 420 nitrate of soda : or 175 to 350 sulphate of ammonia : or 525 to 1,050 fish guano ; or 7,000 to 14,000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 doublesuperuhosphate ;or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 150 to 300 muriate of potash ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of potash ; or 600 to 1.200 kainite : or 1,500 to 3,000 wood ashes. j^ucerne. (Alfalfa) — Fertilizers same as for alfalfa. Mangel-Wurzcls. — Fertilizers same as for beets. CAUTION. — Question the soil tli or o uglily as suggrsted on page sijB before adopting the wholesale use of fertilizers. Much money is unicisely spent in buying and using commercial fertilizers. c o > o V) u (0 CD CL ■D c 3 o O c o V c V o C/5 Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 109 MILLET. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. ( Nitrogen 20 to 40 -{' Phosphoric acid 20 to 40- I Potash 40 to 80 J Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia ; or 300 to 600 fish guano ; or 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. 160 to 320 acid phosphate ; or 50 to 100 double superphosphate ; or 200 to 400 ground bone. 80 to 160 muriate of potash ; or 80 to 160 sulphate of potash ; or 320 to 640 kainite ; or i. 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. • Since this is a quick growing, shallow rooted crop, best results are obtained when all the plant-food is applied in immediately available forms. Muskmelons. — Fertilizers same as for cucumbers. MUSTARD. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. | Nitrogen 10 to 20 i I J Phosphoric acid 15 to 30 r Potash 25 to 50 J Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda ; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia ; or 150 to 300 fish guano ; or 2,000 to 4,000 stable manure. 120 to 240 acid phosphate ; or 35 to 70 double superphosphate ; or 150 to 300 ground bone. 50 to 100 muriate of potash ; or 50 to 100 sulphate of potash ; or 200 to 400 kainite : or I- 500 to 1,000 wood ashes. NURSERY STOCK. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 15 to 30-1 Phosphoric acid 30 to 60 Potash 40 to 80 . Pounds material for one acre. 90 to 180 nitrate of soda; or j 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; or 225 to 450 fish guano ; or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate ; or I 300 to 600 ground bone. ! 80 to 160 muriate of potash ; or 80 to 160 sulphate of potash ; or 320 to 640 kainite ; or f t 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. OATS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 10 to 20 ' f Phosphoric acid 20 tc 40 Potash 30 to 60 . Pounds material for one acre. 60 to 120 nitrate of soda; or 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia ; cr 150 to 300 fish guano ; or 2,000 to 4,000 stable manure. 160 to 320 acid phosphate ; or 50 to 100 double superphosphate ; or 200 to 400 ground bone. 60 to 120 muriate of potash ; or 60 to 120 sulphate of potash; or 240 to 480 kainite ; or I- 600 to 1,200 wood ashes. Quick acting forms of plant-food generally give best results. 170 Appendix. ONIONS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, r Nitrogen 40 to 80 •{ L Phosphoric acid 50 to 100 J r Potash 90 to 180 <;' Pounds material for one acre. 240 to 480 nitrate of soda : or 200 to 400 sulphate of ammonia ; or 600 to 1,200 flsh guano; or 8,000 to 16,000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 double superphosphate : or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 180 to 360 muriate of potash : or 180 to .360 sulphate of potash ; or 720 to 1,440 kainite ; or 1,800 to 3,600 wood ashes. When onions are grown upon beaver-dam, or rich black soil, the application of nitrogen may be greatly diminished or dispensed with entirely because these soils are many times exceedingly rich in nitrogen. PARSNIPS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds Der acre, f Nitrogen 30 to 60 -I i Phosphoric acid 50 to 100- Potash SO to 160 .{ I Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia ; or 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12.000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate : or 125 to 250 double superphosphate : or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 160 to 320 muriate of potash: or 160 to 320 sulphate of potash : or 640 to 1,280 kainite; or 1,600 to 3,200 wood ashes. Peaches. — Fertilizers same as for apricots. Pears. — Fertilizers same as for apples. Peas. — Fertili::crs same as for beans. PEPPERS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. ( Nitrogen 30 to 00 i Phosphoric acid 30 to 60- r Potash 50 to 100 Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia ; 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 6,000 to 12.000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate : 300 to 600 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; oi- 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. or Best results are obtained when the nitrogen as nitrate of soda is applied in two or three partial applications. Plants in Pots. — Fertilizers same as for flowers in pots. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. 171 PIEPLANT. — (Rhubarb.) Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, r Nitrogen 50 to 100 ] Phosphoric acid 75 to 150 r Potash 100 to 200 .j I Pounds material for one acre. 300 to 600 nitrate of soda ; or 250 to 500 sulphate of ammonia ; 750 to 1,500 fish guano ; or 10,000 to 20.000 stable manure. 600 to 1,200 acid phosphate ; or 180 to 360 double superphosphate : 750 to 1,500 ground bone. 200 to 400 muriate of potash : or 200 to 400 sulphate of potash ; or 800 to 1,600 kainite; or 2,000 to 4,000 wood ashes. or or Well decomposed stable manure worlced into the soil gives excellent re- sults. Parts of Oregon have considerable rain in the spring, so that if all the nitrogen is applied early in the season as nitrate of soda, much of it may be lost. Plums. — Fertilizers same as for apricots. POTATOES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, r Nitrogen 30 to 60-^ Phosphoric acid 60 to 120 Potash 75 to 150^ Pounds material for one acre. 180 to 360 nitrate of soda ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of ammonia : or 450 to 900 fish guano ; or 480 to 960 acid phosphate ; or 150 to 300 double superphosphate ; or 600 to 1,200 ground bone. 150 to 300 muriate of potash ; or 150 to 800 sulphate of potash ; or 600 to 1,200 kainite. For early potatoes quick-acting forms of plant-food should be used. For late potatoes the amounts of fertilizers used may be diminished some- what. The nitrogen may be applied in a slow-acting organic form. Avoid the use of stable manure or wood ashes immediately before a crop of potatoes is grown. They promote the growth of potato scab. Some advise the use of sulphate rather than the muriate of potash. Prunes. — Fertilizers same as for apricots. Pumpkins. — Fertilizers same as for cucumbers. Quinces. — Fertilizers same as for apples. RADISHES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 20 to 40 -i Phosphoric acid 40 to 80- Potash 50 to 100. Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia ; or 300 to 600 fish guano ; or 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. 320 to 040 acid phosphate ; or 100 to 200 double superphosphate : or 400 to 800 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. 172 Appendix. RAPE. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 20 to 40 -i Phosphoric acid 40 to 80- I Potash 40 to 80 J Pounds material for one acre. 120 to 240 nitrate of soda ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of ammonia ; or 300 to 600 fish guano ; or 4,000 to 8,000 stable manure. .320 to 640 acid phosphate ; or 200 double superphosphate ; 800 ground bone. 160 muriate of potash ; or 160 sulphate of potash; or 640 kainite ; or 100 to 400 to 80 to 80 to 320 to or 800 to 1,600 wood ashes. Raspberries. — Fertilizers same as for blackberries. Rhuharh.- — See pieplant. Ruta-bagas. — Fertilizers same as for beets, except that upon this crop, some »)f the cheaper less available forms of phosphoric acid may be used with good results. Rye. — Fertilizers same as for oats. isainfoin. — Fertilizers same as for alfalfa. Salsify (VegetabJe oyster). — Fertilizers same as for beets. SORGHUM.— (For Svgar.) Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 15 to 30 Phosphoric acid 30 to 60 i Potash 50 to 100 . 1 Pounds material for one acre. 00 to ISO nitrate of soda ; or 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; or 225 to 450 fish guano : or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate : or 300 to 600 ground bone. 100 to 200 muriate of potash ; or 100 to 200 sulphate of potash ; or 400 to 800 kainite ; or t 1,000 to 2,000 wood ashes. When grown for forage the application of nitrogen may be profitably in- reased. When grown for sugar the use of too much nitrogen is to be avoided. Spinach. — Fertilizers same as for lettuce. Spelt (Emmer). Fertilizers same as for barley. Squashes. — Fertilizers same as for cucumbers. STRAWBERRIES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f I Nitrogen 25 to 50 -', Phosphoric acid 50 to 100-^ Potash 75 to 150 .' Pounds material for one acre. 150 to 300 nitrate of soda ; or 125 to 250 sulphate of ammonia ; or 375 to 750 fish guano ; or 5,000 to 10.000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 double superphosphate : or 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 150 to 300 muriate of potash ; or 150 to 300 sulphate of potash ; or 600 to 1,200 kainite ; or 1,500 to 3,000 wood ashes. Sugar Beets. — Fertilizers same as for beets. Plant-Food and Use of Fertilizers. J I K> SUNFLOWERS. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre, f Nitrogen 15 to 30 ■{ Phosphoric acid 30 to 60- Potash 25 to 50 . Pounds material for one acre. 90 to 180 nitrate of soda : or 75 to 150 sulphate of ammonia ; or 240 to 480 acid phosphate ; or 3,000 to 6,000 stable manure. 240 to 480 acid phosprate ; or 75 to 150 double superphosphate : or 300 to 600 ground bone. 50 to 100 muriate of potash ; or 50 to 100 sulphate of potash ; or 200 to 400 kainite ; or 500 to 1,000 wood ashes. tobacco. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 100 to 200 Phosphoric acid 75 to 150. Potash 150 to 300 Pounds material for one acre. 600 to 1,200 nitrate of soda ; or 500 to 1,000 sulphate of ammonia : u 1,500 to 3,000 flsh guano ; or 20.000 to 40,000 stable manure. 600 to 1,200 acid phosphate ; or 180 to 360 double superphosphate :o 750 to 1,500 ground bone. 300 to 600 sulphate of potash ; or 3,000 to 6,000 wood ashes. Avoid the use of such potash compounds as muriate of potash and kainite which contain chlorine. The sulphate of potash and also the carbonate which is contained in wood ashes are very desirable as sources of potash for the fertili- zation of tobacco soils. TOMATOES. Relative proportions available plant- food. Pounds per acre. Nitrogen 25 to 50 Phosphoric acid 50 to 100 r Potash 100 to 200 J Pounds material for one acre. 150 to 300 nitrate of soda ; or 125 to 250 sulphate of ammonia : 375 to 750 fish guano ; or 5,000 to 10,000 stable manure. 400 to 800 acid phosphate ; or 125 to 250 double superphosphate ; 500 to 1,000 ground bone. 200 to 400 muriate of potash ; or 200 to 400 sulphate of potash ; or 800 to 1.600 kainite ; or 2,000 to 4,000 wood ashes. or For early tomatoes, quick-acting forms of plant-food should be used. Many times it is best apply the nitrate of soda in two or three partial applications. For late tomatoes, slow-acting forms of plant-food may be used with good results. Turnips. — Fertilizers same as for rape. Vetch.- — Fertilizers same as for beans. Watermelons. — Fertilizers same as for cucumbers. 174 Appendix. WHEAT. Relative proportions available plant- Pounds material for one acre, food. Pounds per acre, f 60 to 120 nitrate of soda; or -,.^ ,^ ^ ^,1, 50 to 100 sulphate of ammonia; or Nitrogen 10 to 20 ■, ^g,-, ^^ g^Q ggj^ guano ; or [ 2,000 to 4,000 stable manure. f 160 to .320 acid phosphate ; or Phosphoric acid 20 to 40-^^ 50 to 100 double superphosphate ; or t 200 to 400 ground bone. [ 30 to 60 muriate of potash ; or Potash 15 to 30 .1 30 to 60 sulphate of potash ; or '] 120 to 240 kainite ; or I- 300 to 600 wood ashes. Do not apply large quantities of nitrate of soda in the fall as it will leach out of the soil and be lost, but apply most of it in the spring as a top dressing for the wheat. FERTILIZER FOR GENERAL USE ABOUT THE YARD AND GARDEN, Although there is no such thing as an all-round fertilizer which will give equally good results on all crops, nevertheless, it many times happens that we wish to use a little fertilizer or stimulant about some of the plants in the door- yard or garden. Light applications of wood ashes, never piled at the base, but spread broad- ciist about the plant and spaded into the soil are very beneficial, especially if they are followed by a light coating of chicken manure, or well decomposed stable manure. A desirable mixture of commercial fertilizers consists of 1 part nitrate of soda, 2 parts fish guano. 6 parts acid phosphate, 6 parts ground bone, 3 parts muriate of potash. Apply this mixture at rate of 2 to .'5 pounds for each 100 square feet, and if convenient, work into the soil. Applications every two or three weeks of smaller or larger amounts may be beneficial. Deep green, luxuriant foliage indicates plenty of nitrogen. Poor growth and yellow foliage indicates either lack of nitrogen or t^lsc a poor physical condition of the soil. CAUTION. — Question the soil thoronyMy as siiggested on page six before adopting the wholesale use of fertilisers. Much money is unwisely spent in biiy- iiiii and using commercial fertilizers. Sketch of Fruit-Growing in Pacific Northwest. 175 A SKETCH OF FRUIT-GROWING IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. Peofessoe S. W. Fletciiee, Ithaca, N. Y. Commercial fruit-growing in the Pacific Northwest is mainly the development of a quarter century. Dr. J. K. Cardwell, one of the pioneers, relates that in 1853 a few peach plums were sold in the streets of Portland, then a mere village, to a clammoring and hungry crowd at five for a quarter, the smallest coin current in those days. This was one of the first sales of home grown fruit in the Northwest. It had been supposed that improved varieties could not be grown there. A little later a few venturesome spirits planted prunes, and were surprised with large yields and fine fruit. Some of these prunes sold in the early days for 25 to 30 cents a pound ; the growers now content themselves with 5 cents a pound. Prune-growing in the Northwest has since become an industry of many thousand acres, and other fruits have increased in like proportion. In scarcely a quarter century the fruit area of Oregon has grown to 80,000 acres, and of Washington to 100,000 acres. By far the majority of these orchards are still under fifteen years of age, and the orchard area is increasing from 10 to 20 per cent annually. In 1901 it was etimated that 2,730,000 fruit trees had been planted in the State of Washington alone, during the years 1889-1901. Men are the makers of history in horticulture as well as in nations. The whole history of northwestern fruit-growing is a record of obstacles overcome, ancient prejudices set at naught, and success won by daring and energetic men. Orchards now thrive where the "old-timers" said fruit could never be grown. The lowlands of the Coast Region, the wind-swept uplands of the Inland prairie, and the sagebrush deserts of the river basins, — all now pay tribute to the pluck and energy of the northwestern fruit-grower. We in the East already know something of this aggressive spirit. Already eastern markets have felt the compe- tition of northwestern fruit, and the pocketbooks of eastern fruit-growers have felt the impact of northwestern push. This is but the beginning of a long cam- paign. These hustling northwesterners will keep right on pushing their fruits into our eastern markets. They will make us look to our laurels, and to our orchards. If they can force our eastern fruit-growers to adopt better culture, better packing, better varieties and a ore aggressive spirit, in order to keep their local markets, the competition which many eastern growers now complain of so bitterly will be a help rather than a hardship. I have recently spent two years in examining northwestern fruit-growing, particularly the fruit-growing of Wash- ington, and shall try to give a summary of its most striking features, as seen from the point of view of an eastern man. By the Pacific Northwest is meant the states of Oregon, Washington, and lower British Columbia. The horticultural conditions in Idaho are quite similar to those in Eastern Washington and Eastern Oregon, and the fruit interests of that state are rapidly assuming large proportions, but they cannot be considered here. Even without Idaho the area of the Pacific Northwest is still immense. Oregon, with 05,274 square miles is nearly twice as large as the State of New York ; Washington, with 89,180 square miles is larger than all of the New England states together, and British Columbia is a vast stretch of 400,000 square 176 Appendix. miles of verdant forest and plain, just beginning to be quicltened into fruitfulness by the touch of man. The Northwest can fill the fruit cellars of a nation. One of the first impressions of an eastern man who travels in the Northwest is the remarkable diversity of its horticulture. It is divided into a great many "Countries ;" as the "Palouse Country," the "Big Bend Country," and the "Puget Sound Country." A "Country" is a district having approximately uniform climate and soil conditions. Some of these Countries are as large as the State of Massachusetts ; others are merely narrow river valleys. The horticulture of each of these Countries is distinctive and unique, and often very unlike that of the adjoining Country. For example, the deep valley of the "Snake River Country" has an almost subtropical climate, and grows fine vinifera grapes : while the surrounding "Palouse Country" has such a short summer and bleak winter that only the earliest and hardest of native grapes can be ripened. When fruit growers from all these diverse Countries gather at the meeting of the North- west Horticultural Society one would expect the discussions to be permeated with a fierce controverval spirit, because of these local differences in experience and practice. It seemed remarkable to me, therefore, to observe how clearly these northwestern fruitgrowers distinguish between what is general and what is local in fruit-growing ; between principles and practice. Many of our eastern horticultural meetings would be freer from profitless controversies over minor details of practice — due mainly to differences in conditions — if this broad recog- nition of principles were more common. Although there are these many local indifferences, the Northwest may be broadly divided into three great horticultural regions : — The Coast Region, west of the Cascade Mountains, having a heavy annual rainfall and a very even tempera- ture throughout the year; The Inland Valleys, east of the Cascade Mountains, having an altitude of from 300 to 1,000 feet, and a rainfall of from 4 to 10 inches, so that irrigation is usually necessary for crop production ; The Inland Uplands, east of the Cascade Mountains, having an altitude of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and a rainfall of from 12 to 25 inches ; not irrigated. The horticulture of each of these three regions will be discussed separately. I. THE HORTICULTURE OF THE COAST REGION. The Coast Region includes all parts of Oregon, Washington and Lower Brit- ish Columbia, west of the Cascades. It is characterized by a rather heavy rain- fall and a very even temperature throughout the year. The snow-capped peaks of the Cascades, which have an average elevation of 8,000 feet, form an effectual barrier to the inland sweep of sea winds, and cause them to precipitate their moisture on the coast plain below. The people who live in this region are some- times called "web-footers" by inland scoffers, it being alleged that after living a few years in that wet climate their feet become like those of a duck ; but as a matter of fact the rainfall in the greater part of this region is but 25 to 60 inches, no more than that of the Ohio Valley. In a very few places it Is as high as 90 inches a year. Most of the precipitation is between the months of November and April, the so-called wet season. The winters are very mild and equable. The ground rarely freezes. Pastures are green the year around. The summer months are clear and cool. In short the Coast region has a marine climate, very similar to that of England and Denmark. The natural result of the even temperature and the heavy rainfall of the Coast Region is a very luxuriant vegetation. All trees make a very rapid growth. Brakes stand head high in the woods and forest trees attain an immense size. Firs 15 feet in diameter and 250 feet high are common. Trees and fences are hung with lichens. Who has not heard of Washington and Oregon timber? Nearly half of the Coast Region timber has been cut, or has been swept away by relent- less forest fires. Deforested areas very quickly become covered with trees again, and these attain marketable size in a very short time. The climate and vegetation of the Coast Region are certainly unique. ■?> k''*V':-< ..*^ 2''%f'i ..V" ♦■ '"^-•ii'-f^" ■^«<^^' -sy ^ '.^ 1 '^>^^- •it.-*. •s* ^." Niagara Grape Vine in Vineyard of W. K. Newell, Dllley, Washington County, Or, Sketch of Fkuit-Growing in Pacific Northwest. 177 The horticulture of the Coast Region has five sriking features, — the growing of prunes, cherries, small fruits, bulbs and seeds. Each of these will be con- sidered briefly. Bulbs and seeds, while not pomological subjects, are such interest- ing features of Coast Region horticulture that I shall call attention to them here. 1. Prunes. There are now about thirty thousand acres of prunes in Wash- ington, and thirty thousand acres in Oregon. The output of dried prunes from the Northwest in 1001 was 24,000,000 pounds, which returned over $1,000,000 to the growers. The acreage of prunes is still increasing. About half of the prune area of the Northwest is in the Coast Region, and half in the Inland Valleys, but by far the greater part of the dried product comes from Coast Region orchards. The inland growers market most of their prunes as fresh fruit. As in California, prunes generally do best near the coast or along the river valleys, where the warm ocean fogs reach inland. The valleys of the Columbia and its tributaries, also of the Rogue and Umpqua Rivers are the chief prune districts of the Northwest. It is a crop which requires special care in selecting a site for the orchard. The Italian is the chief variety of prune grown in the Northwest. French, Silver and Hungarian are grown to a slight and decreasing extent for drying, but the latter two are more popular for shipping green. The French or Agen, which is- the chief variety in California orchards, is here almost worthless for drying. Un- less the trees are heavily thinned, which is too expensive an operation at present prices, French prunes are of very small size. The Italian has several advantages over other varieties. Under fair culture it is of large size. It never over-loads' and very rarely requires propping or thinning. It is also a tart prune, and there are many who prefer the tart, appetizing flavor of an Italian to the rather insipid sweetness of the California French prune. It is the larger size and superior qual- ity of northwestern prunes which enable them to compete with California prunes, which can be put on the market more cheaply because they are mostly dried in the sun ; not in expensive evaporators, as in the Northwest. The Italian prune, however, has several disadvantages. It has numerous constitutional and fungous troubles. It is also an early bloomer, and the blossoms are often cut off by the frost. The making of smudges for protecting fruit blossoms from frost has been practiced by northwestern fruit-growers with considerable success. Wet straw, or strawy manure is the material chiefly used. The tem- perature in an orchard is often raised six degrees on a frosty night by rolling a dense cloud of wet smoke from the smudge piles over it. Smudging is successful only on comparatively level land. On slopes the smoke drifts away too quickly. It is altogether probable that very soon the prune-grcwers in many parts of the Northwest will be organized for co-operative smudging, and that whole districts will be enveloped in the protecting cloud on frosty nights. Many northwestern prune-growers are now confident that the Sugar prune, originated by Luther Bur- bank, will meet their need of a prune which ripens several weeks earlier than Italian, so that the drying season may be extended. Like every other industry in the Northwest, prune growing has had its boom days, but those are over. Eastern men who went there some years ago with dreams of .$1,000 per acre profits, are now as wise as those who went to California expecting to reap a fortune from a few acres of lemons. There is no fortune in prune-growing when prunes return the grower 3 to 5 cents a pound ; but there is a good income in it for the man who knows the business. An eight-year old tree should bear 30 pounds of dried fruit, and it costs H/^ cents a pound to handle it. The grower should get at least from $40 to $50 net profit per acre, and the average is somewhat higher. There are many eastern fruitgrowers who average $150 per acre from their apple orchards. I believe that the opportunities for making money in fruit-growing are greater in the East than in the Northwest, providing the same degree of intelligence and energy is shown in both cases. The prevailing low prices of prunes have driven some growers out of the business, and have set the rest hustling for broader markets at home, in Europe HOR. 12 178 Appendix. and in the Orient. The rate on cured fruits from the Pacific Coast to Europe via New Yorlc is from $1.10 to $1.35 per liundred pounds. A brisk demand for Pacific Coast Italian prunes is being created in Europe at 15 to 18 cents a pound. One of the chief causes contributing to the dissatisfaction of prun ; growers is the dif- ference between the first and tlie last selling price. Prunes sold in the Northwest for 4 cents a pound retail in eastern cities for 15 cents a pound. Various prune- growers" organizations have attempted to correct this evil, but with Indifferent suc- cess. Prune men have gone at the problem of broadening the market for prunes and securing better prices in a systematic way. One of the large Oregon orchard com- panies has put up its product in dust-proof, air-tight and moisture-proof packages. Their prunes are cured artificially and with cleanliness, which cannot be said of <'allfornia prunes, and these facts are kept constantly before the public. Improved methods of cooking prunes are demonstrated in many large department and grocery stores, and with each package is a little pamphlet, giving the new and right way of cooking, which is given to the purchaser. He finds, on following direc- tions, that he never has known what a prune is ; it is so much superior to the old article that he Is delighted and liuys more. 2. Cherries. The second striking feature of the Coast Region horticulture is its cherry-growing. Those who have attended any of the great expositions well remember the wonderful sweet cherries exhibited by the Northwestern states. Tile Coast Region excels in the growing of Heart and Bigarreau varieties, but sour cherries do better inland. The Coast Region soil is quite variable, but much of it is a deep, moist loam, very ruch in humus. On these soils sweet cherry trees grow to an immense size, and produce an almost unbelievable quantity of high grade fruit. I have heard of one Napoleon tree, 25 years old, which is 7 feet in circumference, and bears 1,000 pounds of fruit some seasons. These cherry trees are almost always in sod. They grow so vigorously that tillage would often he a disadvantage. Napoleon, Black Tartarian, Black Republican and Bing are the'chief commercial varieties. Gumosis, which is very serious on cherries in this region, has been effectually prevented by some growers by grafting on Mazzard stock, about :'> feet from the ground. Northwestern cherries are now shipped in refrigerator cars as far east as New York City. An increasing per cent of the cherry crop, especially of the light-colored varieties, is being canned and evap- orated. ?,. SinaV Fruits. The even moist climate and deep, humus-laden soil of the Coast Region is very favorable for small fruit growing. One of the most famous small fruit regions in the country is the Puyallup Valley of Western "Washington. The raspberry and blackberry growers of this valley are organized into an associ- ation for co-operative shipping, which is one of the most successful enterprises of this kind in the West In 1000, 28,000 cases of berries of 24 quarts each were shipped from this point, under the supervision of the organization. A few years ago the limit of profitable shipment without refrigeration was 1,000 miles. Few Puyallup berries then went east of Butte, Montana. In 1897 the Bohn refrigerator oar was introduced, and now I'uyallup Valley berries are shipped to Chicago and to the Atlantic cities. Puyallu]) and Sumner are interesting places to visit in the height of the berry season. The long line of spring wagons driving to the shipping point with ber- ries reminds one of a wheat harvesting scene in the Inland Region. The berries are never picked when wet. They are usually picked in the cool of the morning, and delivered at the shipping point by 5 a. m. When they are to be shipped jiuch long sditances, great care in handling is necessary. The association now makes car load shipments of berries to eastern points; $1,127 was received this year for a single car load of berries shipped to Butte, Montana. The growers And that they get better returns through the association than they could get individually, and support the organization loyally. The acreage of raspberries and blackberries in the Puyallup Valley is increas- ing yearly. Many hop yards are being replanted to berries. Washington and Oregon are two of the leading hop-growing states in the Union, but the price of Sketch of Fruit-Gro'.ving in Pacific Northwest. 170 hops has been so low and uncertain of late that many hop-growers are going out of the business Hop-growers have taken 7 cents a pound for their hops some years, and refused $1.00 other years. Berries are a surer crop under present con- ditions. The red varieties chiefly grown are Red Antwerp and Marllwro. The latter variety often bears 1,'JOO pounds per acre, and has a picking season of about 34 days. The most profitable blackberries are Kittitinny, Snyder and Law- ton. One of the interesting points in Coast Region berry-growing is the remark- able growth of canes. Cane 10 to 12 feet long are the rule, not the exception. Pinching back the growing shoots when knee-high does not make a stocky branch- ing cane, as in some sections. The canes are commonly trained between two rows of split rails, and are bent over to facilitate picking. The size and quality of Coast Region berries is proverbial in eastern markets. The Ever-bearing, or Evergreen Blackberry, which has found little favor in the East, is one of the remarkable sights of the Coast Region. There it is trained to a trellis like a grape vine, with four or six canes often 30 to 40 feet long. From two to four crates of berries are often picked from a single plant. These berries are of good quality, they carry well and sell well. The Logan-berry is also quite profitable. Another noted small fruit section of the Northwest is the Hood Kiver Valley of Oregon. Here the strawberry growers are organized into a very successful TTnion for co-operative shipping. Ninety thousand crates of strawberries were shipped from the Hood River Valley in 1903. Many of these go to far eastern markets in refrigerator cars. The principal variety grown is called the Hood River, a local seedling. The Hood River Valley is also a famous apple section. These are a few illustrations of what the Northwest is doing in small fruit culture. Other sections are equall.y successful. English gooseberries grow to an immense size here, and are equally free from mildew. The iWillamette Valley of ■<">regon is noted for its strawberries as well as for its tree fruits. Many of the islands which dot the wide expanse of Ruget Sound are becoming extensive berry shippers. Mr. R. Heiberg of Vashon Island picked 1.200 crates of straw- berries in 1903 from two and three-fourths acres. Most all of the small fruits raised in the Northwest are marketed in Montana and British (^olumbia mining camps, but a yearly increasing amount finds its way to eastern cities. Considerable attention is now being directed to the canning, preserving and -evaporating of small fruits for Alaskan and Oriental trades. The Puyallup and Sumnej" Berry Growers' Association puts up many thousand jars of raspberry and blackberry jam yearly. J. O. B. Scoby of Olympia put up about 100,000 quarts of strawberry jam in 1900. Jams, preserves and evaporated fruit find a waiting market in Alaska, China and the Philippines. I believe that the canning, pre- serving and evaporating of fruits and vegetables for this trade will soon become one of the most important industries of the Northwest. Soft fruits cannot be shipped fresh to China and the I'hilippines, but all sorts of preserves can be sent •safely, and there is an almost unlimited market for tbem there. 4. Seed-Grotcinfj. There is a bright outlook for seed-growing in the Coast Region, especially for the growing of cauliflower, cabbage, celery, pea and other seeds which love a cool and moist climate. Most of the cauliflower seed used in the United States comes from Denmark, which appears to have very favorable conditions for this industry. It will be remembered that the Coast Region cli- mate is much like the Danish climate. Cauliflower seed from I>enmark is very apt to be of low vitality, and of an inferior strain. Cauliflower seed grown in the I'uget Sound Country has been found superior to the general run of Danish seed for commercial planting. I have grown plants from Danish and from Washing- ton seed side by side and have always found a difference in favor of the latter. Pea seed from the Coast Region is superior to eastern grown seed. Two of the largest seed growers in the Northwest are A. G. Tillinghast of aL Conner, Wash- largest seed growers in the Northwest are A. G. Tillinghast of La Conner, Wash- yet an infant industry, but it does not want for prophets to predict for it a bright firture. 180 Appendix. 5. Btilb-Grounng. Another unique feature of the Coast Region horticulture is its bulb-growing industry We pay Dutch gardeners alone half a million dollars a year for bulbs, and pay another half million to the bulb-growers of other countries. Most of these bulbs can be produced equally well in the Coast Region of the Pacific Northwest. There is no industry of the Northwest in the success of wliich I have greater confidence than in bulb-growing. Tlie Coast Region, particularly the Puget Sound country, excels in bulb-growing, chiefly by reason of its climate, which is quite similar to that of Holland, the greatest bulb- growing country of the world. Bulbs need a cool, even and moist climate for ten months of the year, and two months of dry, clear weather in summer to ripen them. These conditions are supplied perfectly in the Puget Sound Country. There are now several bulb gardens in Washington and Oregon of which tliose of George Gibbs and C. T. Canfleld at W'hatcom are the largest. There are many thousand acres of fine bulb land in Washington alone. Puget Sound bulbs, es- pecially hyacinths, tulips, crocuses, gladioli and lilies have been tested by many American florists and pronounced superior to the best Holland grown stock. Several large eastern florists liave become interested in northwestern bulb-growing, and we may expect it to develop rapidly on a commercial scale witliin the next few years. Mention should be made in passing of the nut industry of the Coast Region. Persian walnuts are rapidly becoming an important crop west of the Cascades,, particularly in the valleys of the Columbia and its tributaries. Filberts, chest- nuts, and other nuts are grown very successfully here also, but the most hopeful outlook is undoubtedly with the Persian walnut. The chief lines of development in the liorticulture of tlie Coast Region will probably be in the growing of prunes, sweet cherries, small fruits, seeds and bulbs. There will never be as many large commercial orchards of apples, pears and peaches here as in the inland region. Tlie cost of clearing land is often from .$100 to .$17.5 per acre. General market varieties grown on this high priced land cannot successfully compete with fruit grown on the sage brush land of the- eastern valleys, which can often be bought for from $20 to $25 per acre, and can be cleared for from $10 to 12 an acre. There is too much lost in tied-up capital. Furthermore, the humid climate of the Coast Region is very favorable to the- development of many fungous enemies, and spraying for these is expensive. The fruit-growers of the Coast Region will probably find it more profitable to grow high quality varieties for local markets, rather than standard varieties for the general markets. II. THE FEUIT-GROWING OF THE INLAND VALLEYS. Crossing the mighty Cascades, we come to an entirely different country from that which has .iust been described It is a part of what the geographies of fifty years ago called the Great American Desert. The luxuriant vegetation of the Coast Region is gone. A few trees and shrubs fringe the streams and cluster in the hollows, but for the most part it is a prairie country. This inland section of the Northwest, embracing all of Oregon, Washington and a part of British Col- umbia east of the Cascade Mountains, may be roughly described as a vast, rolling plateau, cut here and there by the deep valleys of the Columbia and its tribu- taries. It has what might be called a continental climate, as compared with the marine climate of the Coast Region. The uplands are a grazing and wheat rais- ing country, and are not irrigated. Tlie valleys are a fruit and stock country, and are usually irrigated. Witliin a few miles of each other one may see here the horticulture cf Georgia and the horticulture of Maine, so abrupt is the change from the wind-swept table lands to the almost sub-tropical valleys. It reminds one of Southern California, where oranges and lemons may be seen against a back- ground of snow-capped mountains. In this Inland Region all farming is on an extensive scale. On account of the difficulties in clearing land, the farms of the Coast Region are mostly small, — 20, 30 or 40 acres being the areas commonly under cultivation on any one farm. It is. Sketch of Fruit-Growing in Pacific Northwest. 181 a land of small holdings and intensive culture, where an increasing amount of attention will be given to catering to local markets and to the culture of special crops. The Inland Region, on the other hand, is a land of large holdings and extensive culture: IGO to 1.000 acre farms predominate. Staple crops and general purpose varieties replace the special crops and more local varieties of the Coast Region. Land is cheap and the soil is very rich and easy to clear for crop- ping. The commercial idea rules. The Inland Valleys are now and probably always will be the chief commer- cial peach district of the Northwest, and one of its most important apple and pear districts. They have an elevation of 300 to 1,000 feet, and a rainfall of from 4 to lo inches. The summer days are often quite hot, but the nights are always fool. The winters are sometimes bleak, but never very cold. Most of the country is naturally a sage brush desert, but the soil is very rich and needs only the addition of water by irrigation to become transformed into a garden. Yields of over ■eight tons of alfalfa per acre are common, and oats often run 80 bushels per acre. Most of the irrigated land in the Northwest is in the valleys of the Columbia and its tributaries. The area under ditcli is increasing very rapidly, and will increase still more rapidly when the government's plan for constructing irrigation reservoirs is put into operation. There are 3,000,000 acres of arid land in Washington alone, 2,000,000 of which can be irrigated successfully. The soil of the irrigated districts is mostly a loose, deep, volcanic ash, which is very easily worked. Most of the irrigation at present is from canals, which are taken out of a river at some distance above the land to be irrigated. Some of these canals are extensive enterprises. The Sunnyside canal in Wasliington is 114 miles long and irrigates 285,000 acres of land. The special factors which give the Iniand valleys pre-eminence in commercial orcharding are the low cost of producing fruit, and the excellence of the fruit. Equally good fruit can be raised here on land costing from $20 to .$30 an acre as west of the mountains on land costing $100 per acre. The low humidity of these valleys gives a very large per cent of clear days, the average being about 200 perfectly clear days in a year. The summers are ractically cloudless. This gives fruit of very high color, which is the chief item in the commercial value of fruit. Fungous diseases do not thrive in this dry climate. l)ut insect pests, espe- cially the peach twig borer and the codling moth, are often very serious. North Yakima, which shipped 1.000, car loads of fruit in 1902. Wenatchee which shipped 225 car loads in the same year, and Walla Walla, which shipped 500 car loads, are illustrations of the extent to which fruit-growing has become the leading industry in certain sections. Yakima County alone shipped ii!750,000 worth of fruit in 1001. This county was a sage brush desert twenty-five years ago. Peaches are now picked in the Inland Valleys when fully mature, put in Bohn refrigerator cars and shipped to New York City. The temperature of these cars is about 36 degrees at the floor and 42 degrees at the top, and does not vary over one degree during transit. After a two-weeks' trip these peaches come out in fine condition, and are sold in New York City at good prices. The probable lines of development in the Pomology of the Inland Valleys will be in the growing of peaches, apples, prunes, apricots and pears. Tlie Inland Valley fruit growers are a keen class of men. They are fruit specialists and know their business. There are few regions where commercial orcharding has had a higher development and wliere the growers are so uniformly business-like in their methods. III. THE FItL'IT-GEOWIXG OF THE IXLAXD DrL.\NDS. This is the great wheat-growing and grazing section of the Northwest. It has an altitude of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and an annual rainfall of from 12 to 25 inches. The summers are short and never excessively hot. The nights are always ■cool. In winter this region is rather bleak, but extremely cold weather and heavy snowfalls are rare. A large part of this region is a succession of low, rolling hills, and very ricli. Local Indian tribes explain how this came to be. According to 182 Appendix. and very rich. local Indian tribes explain how this came to be. According to their tradition, this whole country was once a vast level plain, with soil of mar- velous fertility. Never were such crops produced in the whole world as here. It was the Beulah land of the red man. When the Indians heard that the white man was coming westward and would surely find and claim their garden spot, they were very sad. Finally they went busily to work and scraped all of the precious, fertile soil into huge heaps preparatory to carrying it away where the white man could not find it. But the white man came before they could do this, and the soil has been in piles ever since. The more matter-of-fact geolog'st claims that these hills were mostly formed by the wind ; liut be that as it may, their re- markable richness is beyond dispute. The soil is mostly a basaltic ash unmixed with sand or gravel. It holds water very tenaciously. Practically no rain falls be- tween .Tuly .-md October, yet the soil holds enough moisture from the rainfall of winter and spring to ripen crops perfectly. In the famous wheat section of the Palouse Country, yields of 50 to 60 bushels of wheat per acre on unfertilized land are common. The virgin soil is covered with native "bunch-grass," growing in little clumps, which makes excellent pasturage. The Inland Uplands are distinctively a grain and grazing country. There is a growing tendency, however, to supplement grain and cattle with orcharding. The immense wheat farms, sometimes of several thousand acres, .-ire beginning ti> be diversified with dairying and fruit. Although the yield of wheat per acre is; very large compared with other wheat sections, the prices are often very unsat- isfactory and the farmers find it profitable to have other interests beside wheat. It should be understood, however, that the commercial fruit-growing of the Inland TTplands is, for the most part, but one spoke in the wheel of diversified farming, and is not usually the chief industry of a whole district, as in the Inland Valleys. The commercial fruit-growing of this region is confined mainly to the grow- ing of winter apples and pears. Peaches and sweet cherries are not hardy here except in favored spots, and the season is too short to ripen prunes and grapes satisfactorily, except in a few places. Plums do finely, but there is little demand for them since prunes carry to market so much better. Sour cherries are a won- der, particularly Ostheime. which is far superior to Morello and Montmorency here. I believe that one of the horticultural developments of this region will be the growing of sour cherries to can and evaporate for Oriental and Alaskan trade. The culture of winter applies will, however, predominate. Early apples grow equally well, but there is little market for them at present. The rather scanty rainfall, the short season and the high percentage of bright weather in summer, gives the apples of this region a color, flavor and keeping quality which is equaled in few other parts of the country. Scab, codling moth and other troubles are not serious here, and probably never will be very serious, on account of the peculiar climatic conditions. On these uplands, fruit trees come into bearing very early. With most varieties a full crop of apples is usually expected four years from planting. While this upland fruit is not as large and sometimes has not the vivid color of the Inland Valley fruit, it keeps better and is usually con- sidered of somewhat superior quality. This applies to peai's also, but pear blight has wrought such havoc of late years that interest in pear-growing is at low ebb. It may be said in review that the chief line of development In the horticulture of the Inland Uplands will probably be the culture of winter apples and winter pears, and that fruit-growing in this region will be associated usually with grain and stock farming. IV. A COMPAEISOX OF Cl'LTrUAI- PROBLEMS IN NORTHWESTERN FKC IT-GROWING. (1.) Tillaoe. In the Coast Region, where the rainfall is heavy and the soils unusually rich in humus, there is less need of tilling orchards for the conservation of moisture than in the dryer inland sections. Sweet cherries are usually left in sod, and a large proportion of the smaller apple orchards are in sod. Prunes are commonly tilled. Even under these conditions, which are especially favorable lor the neglect of tillage, it is usually found that tilled orchards are far more prof- Sketch of Fruit-Grovving in Pacific Northwest. IS r> itable than sod orchards, especially when the latter are pastured. In some sec- tions of the Coast Region, however, there is a growing tendency to adopt xhe mulching system, especially for apples. I believe that this will become a standard system of orchard management on the lowlands of the Coast Region. Some ad- vocate seeding the orchard to clover, which is cut two or three years before the sod is plowed under, and the orchard is then tilled one or two seasons before being thorough tillage is as necessary as in any parts of the East, particularly on the lighter prune soils, but I am sure that some modification of the mulching system will often be found satisfactory with apples, pears and sweet cherries. Almost all of the irrigated orchards in the Inland Valleys have clean tilla.ue. In the early days it was thought that tillage could be neglected if the trees were only irrigated often enough. This was soon found to be a great mistake. There is a growing tendency to reduce the number of irrigations, and to increase the number of cultivations. Over-irrigation gives soft, watery, poorly-flavored and poorly-colored fruit, which does not keep or carry well. Some of the best orchard- ists in the Inland Valleys, who used to irrigate four or five times a year, now irrigate but once or twice, and keep up horse-leg irrigation the rest of the sum- mer. I have seen a profitable orchard where there was but eight inches of rain- fall and no irrigation ; but the ground was covered five inches deep with a dust mulch. With the possible exception of California, there are no better tilled or- chards on the Pacific Coast than in these Inland Valleys. In both the Inland Uplands and the Inland Valleys, the question of cover crops for orchards is now attracting attention. Almost all of the orchard soils in both of these regions are deficient in humus, and constant, clean tillage dur- ing the hot. dry summers tends to burn out of the orchard soils what little humus they have naturally. In the Inland Valley orchards the cover crop problem is not so difficult as in the upland orchards, because moisture for the germina- tion of cover crop seeds can be supplied at any time by irrigation. On the up- lands, however, practically no rain falls between the first of .Inly and October. It is absolutely essential that the orchard be tilled early in the season ; so that no cover crop can be sown all over the ground in spring. When tillage has ceased in late July or August, the soil is so dry that even field peas will not germinate unless drilled in deeply. Other seeds simply lie in the soil without germinatin.i;- until the fall rains come in October. There are two ways of getting a cover crop in the orchard on the Inland ITplands. Some crop must be found which can be sown in early fall, and will make growth enough before winter to protect the ground. No more satisfactory crop for this purpose than field peas has yet been found. Or the orchard may be divided into alternate strips of cultivated and seeded land about 20 feet wide. A cover crop is sown on every other strip in the spring, and grown throughout the season ; the other strip is tilled through- out the season. The next spring the cover crop strip is turned under and is tilled that season, while the strip cultivated the previous year is seeded. Some such method as this must be adopted where it is not possible to give up all the orchard to the growth of a cover crop even for one season. Northwestern orchards are, as a whole, better tilled than the orchards of the Atlantic States. We must admit that many of our eastern orchards are shamefully neglected in this respect. I believe that the neglect of proper tillage causes more loss to our fruit-growers than all the bugs and all the diseases put together. We may well learn a lesson from the Northwest on this point. (2.) PruniiKj. The methods of pruning orchards in the Coast Region are very different from the methods prevailing in the Inland Regions. In fact, they are exactly opposite. The climatic and soil conditions of the Coast Region tend to produce a very rapid growth of wood. Fruit trees come into bearing several years later than in the interior. They are often made unfruitful by this luxuriant growth, and have to be checked in order to throw them into bearing. It is advisa- ble to winter-prune some orchards on the heavier soils, but a large proportion of Coast Region orchards, especially apple orchards on the lowlands, should be pruned in summer or spring. Many orchards are pruned when in full blossom. 184 Appendix. I have seen as much as one-half of the entire tree prnned off at this time — mucli as a greenhouse gardener trims off the ranlv foliage of his tomatoes under glass. The effect of this treatment is to check tlie exuberant growth and induce fruitfulness. Root-pruning is also practiced to a limited extent. On the other hand, fruit trees in the drier inland regions come into bearing very early, and run to fruit instead of wood. They often bear themselves to death unless properly managed. The aim of the inland orchardist is not to reduce wood growth by summer pruning, but to increase wood growth by winter pruning. Practically all the pruning of this region is done in winter or early spring. There is a similar difference of practice in the training of fruit trees on the two sides of the Cascades. On the west side, fruit trees are headed 4 to 5 feet high, as in the old fruit sections of the eastern seaboard. Every effort is made to elevate the tree into the air, and to keep its top well thinned, so that the fruit may color and ripen well. In Western British Columbia the fruit-growers do not cut back the leader at the time of planting, or at any other time. Some claim that the ideal apple tree for that climate is one which does not have a spreading top, but has a tall, strong, central leader, reaching high into the air, with many small limbs distributed evenly along it. somewhat after the fashion of onr eastern shagbark hickory. It is the "two-story" tree of Proiesor Bailey, ex- tended. Of course many varieties do not lend themselves to this method of train- ing ; but the aim in all cases is to get a high, thin-topped tree, so that the fruit may receive as much of the color-giving sunshine as is possible in that land of cloudy weather. On tlie eastern side of tlie Cascades, however, fruit trees .nre headed low. because of the high winds prevailing in that region and because of the danger of Injury from sun scald. The two extremes are 1 and 21A feet, and 18 inches is the most common height for heading apple trees. The tops of the inland trees are kept much thicker than those in the Coast Region and in the Atlantic States. A very diffuse and spreading habit of growth is desired from the beginning. Every effort is made to keep the trees close to the ground, and to shade the trunk. One can easily trace a connection between this system and that so common in the orchards of California where very similar, but intensified, conditions prevail. The greater difficulty in tilling orchards of such low-headed trees is considered not at all commensurate with tlie advantages gained in freedom from sun scald, less liability of injury from high winds, and in the increased facility of harvesting and spraying. It is rare that once can find within a few hundred miles of each other such utterly dissimilar methods of horticultural practice as exist in north- western fruit-growing. (.3.) Inscctm and Disraftc^. Like most otlier newly settled countries, the Northwest was at first quite free from serious insect pests and diseases. On the strength of this experience many of the early fruit-growers based the hopeful pre- diction that fruit pests would never be serious in the Northwest, and called to the aid of the argument certain peculiarities of climate which were supposed to lie unfavorable to their development. In the hope that the Northwest could be kept free from all the orchard pests so troublesome to eastern growers, stringent Saws, which aim to exclude all diseased and infested nursery stock and fruit have lieen passed. All nursery stock grown in the Northwest and all that is shipped into the Northwest is supposed to be carefully inspected for injurious insects and diseases before being planted. Since over two-thirds of all the nursery stock planted in the Northwest comes from eastern nurserymen, the efforts of inspec- tion forces have been directed thus far chiefly toward preventing infested eastern stock from being planted. It should be said that many eastern nurserymen, who have unblemished reputations for square dealing with their eastern patrons, some- times ship very disreputable stock to their patrons in the far-away Northwest. In "Wasliington. no firm is allowed to sell stock in the state without a license from the Horticultural Commisioner. Every nurseryman who consigns stock to this state must notify the Commissioner where it is going and when it will arrive. The Commissioner then sends an inspector to examine the stock before it is Southern Oregon Fruits Sketch of Fruit-Growing in Pacific Northwest. 185 1)1 anted. If it is infested with dangerous insects or diseases, it is destroyed or disinfected by tlie inspector, and tlie " cost of tliis operation is charged to the nurserymen. If lie refuses to pay this, his license is revoked. The working out of this law has not been entirely satisfactory. A great deal of nursery stock, infested with San Jose scale, woolly aphis, crown gall, peach horer, pear blight and other troubles, has come into the Northwest from the East, and mtich of this stock has been planted. A few lots of infested stock have been condemned and destroyed, but undoubtedly a very small proportion of the infested stock received has been detected No doubt this nursery stock inspection has done much to prevent the introduction of orchard pests here and there, but it has not and could not keep the Northwest free from them. Practically all of the common insects and diseases of eastern orchards are now found in the North- west. Stringent laws have failed to keep them out. The responsibility for their control now falls on the shoulders of the individual growers themselves ; and this is where it always does fall, in spite of mandatory statutes. Unless they are enough alive to their own interests to take every measure necessary to protect themselves from loss, stringent laws avail little. As would be naturally expected, the humid climate of the Coast Region is favorable for the growth of fungous diseases. Apple and pear scab and brown- rot are serious. Bitter-rot is just appearing. Careful spraying keeps these dis- eases in check, but the frequent rains in the early part of the season make spray- ing less efficient and more expensive than in inland orchards. The russeting of fruit from spraying is also very common in this wet climate. A root-rot, due to the mushroom Agaricus mellcus has caused considerable damage to the fruit trees in the Coast Region, particularly to prunes. The New York apple-canker is found in old and neglected orchards ; also a somewhat similar disease, known only in the Northwest, called the dead spot apple-canker. This appears as small sunken areas of dead bark, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, which are often so nu- merous as to girdle the trunks or scaffold limbs of young trees. Painting with Bor- deaux paint, wrapping the trunks with building paper or burlap, and top-working on the more resistant varieties, are the most satisfactory methods of controlling it. The Coast Region is peculiarly affected with fungous diseases, of which these are but a few of the most serious. This will always be a serious hindrance to commercial orcharding west of the Cascade Mountains. Coast Region orchards are not seriously infested with insects. The codling moth is easily controlled. The San Jose Scale is common, and is easily kept down with the lime-sulphur-salt spray. During all of these years, when it has been claimed that this spray could not be as effective in the East as in California because of the wetter climate, these Coast Region fruit-growers have been using it with invariable success, in spite of their 30 to 60 inches of rainfall. At first the tendency there, as it now appears to be in the East, was to give this spray pleni- potentiary powers against all the insect pests and disease of fruit trees. The Washington State Board of Horticulture even recommended that all orchards be sprayed with it every year from the time of planting, whether they had the scale in them or not, simply as an insurance and general tonic. Of course this was soon found to be impracticable, and the lime-sulphur-salt spray has nov,- fallen into its proper place as a specific for the San Jose scale and for that only — not as a general cure-all. The Inland Valley fruit-growers have practically no trouble with fungous dis- eases because of their very dry climate, but are greviously tormented with insects, especially the codling moth and peach tree borer. During the past few years the codling moth has wrought havoc in these valleys. But a few years ago there were no wormy apples in the Inland Valleys. Now, at least 90 per cent of the orchards in this region have codling moth in them. There are several broods each season, and the broods overlap, so that it is a continuous fight between the fruitgrower and the codling moth from the fall of the blossoms until the last of August. In the Northwest, at least, the codling moth is a far more serious orchard pest than the San Jose scale. Some of the best growers are able to save 186 Appendix. from 80 per cent to 90 per cent of their crop by giving from five to six sprayings each season, at intervals of from two to* tliree weeks, the first spraying being given immediately after the blosoms have fallen, as in the East. This one spray- ing is not sufficient, however, for it is the later broods which do the most damage. Arsenite of soda, in several formulas, is the material most commonly used. Spraying Is usually supplemented by banding the trees. One large grower reports that he has trapped 4,000 codling moths in one season under the bands of 750 trees. Many growers now thin their apples so that no two fruits touch each other. When the fruits touch, the spray does not get in, but the moth does. The thinning of apples is coming to be recognized as a profitable orchard practice in the Northwest, and it is one which many eastern growers might follow to advantage. All through the inland region pear blight has been a terrible scourge. A conservative estimate is that 7o per cent of all the pear trees in this region have been ruined by blight within the past six years. I'ear growers are greati.v discouraged at the outlook. The probability is, however, that the disease ha.s now exhausted Its pristine virulence, and will not again be so uncontrollable. This seems to be the history of a great many insects and diseases in all parts of the country. The orchards of the inland uplands are favored with comijarative freedom from injurious insects and diseases, excei)t pear blight. Apple scab, codling moth, and San .lose scale are present to a limited extent. The dry summers are nijt favorable for the growth of fungous diseases, and the cool nights and sh>.irt seasons are supposed to limit insect development. Although the upland orchard- ists cannot expect complete immunity from insects and diseases, as many have hopefully predicted, it is quite certain that they will not be as seriously troubled with them as the fruitgrowers in other sections of the Northwest. (4.) Vavirtic.^. In the selection of varieties the Coast Region and the Inland Regions are again in marked contrast. This is practically true of the apple, which is practically the only fruit grown commercially in all sections of the Northwest : peaches, pears, prunes and cherries are of more restricted and local culture. The varieties of apples most commonly found in Coast Region orchards are Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Esopus Spitzenburgh, Northern Spy, Wintsap, Newton, Pippin, Grimes" Golden. Bellflower and Ben Davis. Except for tlie last named variety, we at once recognize these as tlie old-time favorites which we find in the orchards of the northei'n and middle Atlantic States. They seem to be peculiarly adapted to seaboard conditions. Itarely are they equally suc- cessful in inland orchards. In the orchards of both the Inland Valleys and Inland Tplands, the varieties most commonly found are Ben Davis, avis ; whereas they formerly accepted carloads which were 7.') per cent Ben Davis. It is now recommended that not over a fourth of tlie total orchard area be Ben Davis, and that this variety be re- stricted to two uses : first, for late winter and early spring use, when most of the higher quality varieties are gone ; second, for shipping to distant niarets and to countries with trying climates, where few other varieties will keep. It is felt that this variety should not be brought into competition with earlier and better quality varieties. It may be said that northwestern Ben Davis are not quite as good to eat as Ozark Ben Davis. However they have the same "delightful sawdust flavor."* The Northwest has brought forth several varieties of more than local value. Among these may be mentioned the Bing, Olympia, I^amliert. Black Republican and Iloskins cliei-ries ; the Palouse, Whitman, Yakima, Spokane and Coos River Sketch of Fruit-Growing in Pacific Northwest. 187 apples ; the Golden Drop. Tennant and Pacilic prunes ; the Walla Walla and Win- ter Bartlett pear, and the Early Charlotte peach. IV. THK MARKETS FOR NdliTHWIOSTEKN FRUIT. The cities of Portland, Seattle, Tacoma. Spokane, Vancouver, and Victoria are all excellent and growing markets, but they cannot consume a fiftieth part of the fruit raised in the Northwest. At the rate homeseekers are now pouring into the Northwest, this per cent will be materially increased within the next few years. The chief markets for Noi-thwestern fruit at present are the mining- camps of Washington. Oregon. British Columbia. Montana, and the cities of the Dakotas and Minnesota. It is well known that mining camps are much better markets for fruits and vegetables, in proportion to the population, than manufac- turing towns. Butte. Montana, is the center of an extensive mining district, and is one of th largest distributing centers for northwestern fruit ; but Montana now has a million fruit trees coming into bearing, and these will soon claim a share of _this trade. The local towns and mining camps of the Northwest will always be import- ant markets for northwestern fruit, but I am convinced that the great opportunity of northwestern fruitgrowers is in developing a market in Alaska and the Orient. The Northwest occupies a strategic position with reference to Oriental trade. Through the wonderful inland harbor of Puget Sound will pour most of the vast volume of trade which is bound to pass between the T'nited States ana .Japan. China, the Philippines and other Asiatic countries. These peoples are just begin- ning to feel the pulse of Amerfcan industrial activtiy. Northwestern fruit- growers have been asking themselves, "If there are markets in the Orient for American machinery and American manufactures, why not for American fruit V" They have found that good markets for American fruit do already exist in the Orient, and that these markets can be immeasurably developed and broadened. That there has long been a waiting market in the Orient for the fresh and pre- served fruits of other countries is shown by the fact that in 1899 the exportations of fruit from various sources, chiefly American, to Oriental markets were valued at about .ttTOO.flOO. There is a steadily increasing demand among the natives of Oriental countries for canned, dried and preserved fruits. The white population of tjjese countries depend upon the imported fruits almost entirely to supply their tables. The tinned fruits found in the Orient, come mostly from America, but the preserved fruits come mostly from Europe. All dried fruits shipped to the Orient should be put up in tins or glass bottles, else they will mildew. Within the past few years a good market for northwestern apples has been opened up in Siberia. Each year many apples are shipped from the Northwest to Australia, the Winesap being a special favorite for this trade. Several thousand boxes of apples, princi- pally Ben Davis, are annually shipped to China, and invariably reach there in good condition Here are markets which must be developed, especially for apples, prunes and dried, preserved and canned fruits. There is every reason for believing that the next quarter century will witness the building up of a large Oriental trade in American fruits and fruit products. Undoubtedly a large proportion of this fruit will come from the Northwest. In 1900. 150,000 boxes of Pacific Coast apples were exported to Europe via New York. Northwestern fruit marketed in the East and in Europe has had to contend with what most fruitgrowers believe to be excessive freight rates. The transportation problem Is uppermost at all horticultui-al meetings in the North- west. When the freight rates are 62 per cent of the selling price, as has been the case with fresh prunes shipped from the inland valleys to Eastern markets, north- western fruitgrowers believe they are justified in compl.nining. In 1900 the freight tariff on carload lots of apples from Pacific ocean terminals and intermediate points to Missouri and Mississippi Uiver points, and to the Atlantic seaboard cities, was .$1 per 100 pounds for apples and prunes -in boxes. The railroad men explain this one way or another, but most unbiased observers agree that as a rule the fright rates on northwestern fruits are exorbitant. 188 Appendix. The apple barrel of the East is almost entirely replaced here with the bushel box. The "Standard" box is 18x11 i^xlOi/j inches. To accommodate certain .sizes of fruit, there is a "Special" apple box which is 20x11x1014 inches. These are inside measurements with end pieces seven-eieght inches thick. These boxes cost about $9.00 per 100 knocked down. All filled boxes are supposed to weigh 50 pounds and contain one bushel of fruit. I'ears, peaches and the choicest apples, particularly the yellow skinned varieties, are commonly wrapped before packing. The packing of fruit in tiers in these boxes gives a uniformity which is almost impossible to secure in barrel packing. Barrels are sometimes used for shipping apples across the sea, as the salt air injures some varieties when packed in boxes ; but these constitute a very small proportion of the fruit marketed. VI. THE DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF NOETHWESTFRN FRUIT-GROWING. It seems to me that there are five distinctive features of northwestern fruit- growing. Eastern fruitgrowers may consider each of these with profit. (1.) It places emphasis on high culture. I believe that northwestern orchards are, as a rule, tilled better, pruned better, and sprayed more thoroughly than most of the orchards in the Atlantic States. There is a special reason for this. The markets of northwestern fruitgrowers are mostly distant, not near by, as in the East. They have found by dear experience that it will pay to ship long dis- tances only the best fruit ; and the best fruit can be grown only under the best culture. Poor fruit, or even medium grade fruit, will not pay the freight. (2.) It emphasizes the importance of careful grading and tasty packing. When freight rates are GO per cent of the selling price there is little use in ship- ping poorly packed fruit. Northwestern fruitgrowers have found that the way their fruit is graded and packed is fully as important as its quality. Hence they pay especial attention to securing neat packages, attractive labels, fancy wrapping paper, and aim to have absolute uniformity in the size and quality of the fruit in each package. Many of our eastern fruitgrowers are distressingly lax on this vital point of attractive, uniform and conscientious packing. Northwestern fruitgrowers pack well because it pays well to do so ; eastern fruitgrowers can reap the same liberal reward if they choose. f3.) It emphasizes sectional horticulture. The difference in horticultural methods between the various regions of the Northwest is so marked that the fruit grower very quickly recognizes the impossibility of having uniformity in orchard practice. He learns to consider his own farm as unique, and tries to work out a system of his own. To a greater or less extent this is true of every fruit-growing region. There is special need that the fact of the individuality of farms be more generally recognized in the East as well as in the West. (4.) It is reaching out for the markets of the world. Northwestern fruit- growers are selling their fine Italian prunes in Europe right under the noses of unwilling Frenchmen, who have prunes of their own to sell. They are shipping apples to Hamburg and to Hong Kong. They are bidding for the fruit trade of the 400 million Chinese, the 40 million .Tapanese and the 11 million Filipinos. This broad outlook on the markets of the world is one of the most striking features of northwestern fruit-growing. (a.) It is full of enthusiasm and aggressiveness. The special difficulties and uncertainties in marketing their fruit has made northwestern fruitgrowers keen liusiness men as well as skillful cultivators. Lack of business acumen in market- ing is fully as often responsible for unsuccessful fruit-growing a lack of skill in culture. The horticulture meetings of the Northwest are full of snap and vim ; every man seems to have a lot of questions which he wants answered right away. The agerness of these men to learn, to find a better way than the old, is very apparent. Generally speaking, this broad outlook, this aggressiveness and constant reaching out for the new, are the most striking features of northwestern fruit- growing. Certainly these are the things which make the deepest impression on one who has received most of his horticultural training in the more conservative Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 189 East. Eastern fruitgrowers have their own special difficulties. They have mer- its as well as shortcomings which western fruitgrowers have not. Perhaps it is not fair to compare the two classes. It is no captious or critical spirit which leads me to wish that our Atlantic Coast fruit-growing might catch a little more of the enthusiasm, the aggressiveness and the open mind which characterizes the fruit-growing of the Pacific Northwest. It is but the unbiased comment of one who has observed both, and who believes that each can learn from the other. ORCHARD COVER CROPS IN DELAWARE. By Peof. C. p. Close, Delaware College Agricultural E.xperiinent Station, Newark, Delaware. Although the question of orchard cover crops has been agitated for several years throughout Delaware, the practice of using them is not as widespread as it should be. A few of the leading fruitgrowers have been us' g cover crops annually for from ten to fifteen years with most excellent scuccess. The gen- eral farmers of the State are, no doubt, covering larger areas with these crops than are the fruitgrowers, since It is a common practice to sow the cover crop seed ui corn fields at their last cultivation. It Is not difficult, as a rule, to convince a man that cover crops will im- prove his orchard in many ways, but it may be extremely difficult to get him to actually put them in. It takes times for a movement in progressive agciculture to permeate a neighborhood ; the surprising part is that so many farmers joyously ignore the fact they cannot afford not to be progressive. So long as the orchard is treated like a forest, just that long will unsatisfactory results in fruit pro- duction, continue. There is a movement now in many sections toward better horticultural practices, and one which the Experiment Station is advancing is the use of cover crops in orchards. WHAT AN ORCHARD COVER CROP IS. An orchard cover crop is a crop sown to cover the ground during that por- tion of the year when very little or not any growth is being made by fruit trees. If man makes no effort to cover the ground with economic plants, then nature steps in and starts weeds and grass in the endeavor to protect the soli. WHAT DOES A COVER CROP DO? (1.) If sown at the proper time, about August 1 if weather conditions are favorable, it competes with the trees for soil moisture and plant-food. The supply of moisture and food to the trees is lessened and their growth is checked. This is desirable, because at that time the trees should stop growing and ripen up their wood for the winter. (2) It catches soluble nitrates late In the fall when root action of the trees has nearly or quite ceased, thus much plant food is saved rather than allowed to escape in drainage. (3) It prevents erosion of the surface soil by catching the rains as they descend and by conducting them into the soil. This is in contrast to streams of water flowing over the bare surface and cutting channels for the escape of the surplus water. It also holds the snow of winter which adds to the efficiency of the protection. (4) It protects the ground from frost to a certain extent, that is, actual tests* have proven that ground protected by live cover crop plants during the winter did not freeze so deep as *Craig; Page 101, Bull. 198. Cornell Expt. Sta. li*0 ArPENDix. difl bare bare ground. (5) In the spring it catclaes soluble nitrates that might leach out of the soil before active root action of the trees begins. (6) It pumps the surplus water out of the soil early in the spring so that the ground warms up and may be plowed earlier than if no cover crop were used. (7) When plowed under these crops add enormous amounts of vegetable matter or humus to the soil. The humus improves the mechanical conditif.n of the ground by loosening up the soil particles ; it increases the water-holding power of the soil, provides a favorable home for soil bacteria, furnishes elements cf plant food in available form, and assists in breaking up chemical compounds of plant food which would otherwise remain unavailable. (S) Experience has shown that the continued use of cover crops will, to a certain extent, make heavy land lighter and light land heavier. This is of immense advantage in practical orchard operations PLANTS TO USE. The plants used for cover crop purposes may be placed in three classes, namely, the nitrogen gatherers, the potash plants, the ordinary ones used without special reference to the addition of plant food to the soil, as rye, oats, buckwheat, and perhaps weeds. The nitrogen gatherers are so named because they are associated with spe- cial forms of bacteria of the soil which extract free nitrogen from the air and store it up in the tubercles on the roots. The nitrogen so stored is in an organic form and after the death of the plants soon becomes available food for other plants. These are also called leguminous crops, and are the cow peas, soy beans, clovers, vetches, alfalfa, Canada peas and velvet bean. They store up varying amounts of nitrogen, potash and phosiihoric acid, the amounts being influenced by climatic and soil conditions. This class of plants can be used to great ad- vantage to improve soil more or less poor in humus and the nitrogen compounds. The term "potash plants" may be a misapplication of the term, but there seems to be much justification in its use from the large amount of potash found in these plants as will be shown later on in this report. Under this head come the turnips and rape. They are especially useful on soils that are abund- antly supplied with nitrogen and humus. I. EXPERIMENTS IN 1901-2. In 1001 the Experiment Station began a comparative test of cover crop pl.'ints in three localities of the State. The soil conditions of each place were quite different from those of either of the others. At the Experiment Station the test was on a heavy clay loam which partially represents much of the land of New Castle Coimty At F. M. Soper's, Magnolia, the soil is a sandy loam that has had but little of cover crops or manure turned under for fifteen years. The third place, that of S. H. Derby. Woodside, was similar to the soil just men- tioned, but has been much Improved by having crimson clover plowed under an- nually for al)out fourteen years. These experiments were planned by Professor G. Harold Powell, then Horti- culturist of the Experiment Station. Professor Powell accepted a position with the I'nited States government soon after the seed for these crops was sown and the experiment came under the charge of the writer late in Octobei". It was co- operative work with the Bureau of Plant Industry furnished the seed and the ment of Agriculture. The Bureau of Plant Industry furnished the seed and the F^xperiment Station did the work of conducting the tests. The object was to de- termine which crops would succeed best under various soil conditions. TESTS AT THE JIXPEUIMKNT STATION. Since the Station has a very limited area of land the plots for each crop or combination of crops were necessarily small. They will, however, serve as an in- dication of what may be expected in Northern Delaware. These cover crops were grown in an orchard containing peaches, plums, cherries and pears. The ma- Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 191 .iority of the trees are two years old. Imt a few of tlie plums and pears are from eight to ten years old. Ihe soil, a heavy clay loam, was in excellent condi- tion when the seed was sown on July 22. and, as weather conditions were favor- able for plant growth, tlie experiment started off most satisfactorily. The amount of seed used was in many instances in excess of requirements. The following discussion is a resume of the notes taken during the season. A part of each plot was left unplowed in the spi-ing of ]0(i2. so as to get compara- tive records of soil moisture on ground witli the cover crop turned under in the Spring and on that with the cover crop growing until August. The chemical analyses of the cover crop plants and the soil moisture de- terminations of the different plots were all made by Professor I'enny, chemist of the Experiment Station. By Jul.v 20 the alfalfa and the red, mammoth, Egyptian and crimson clovers were all up, the latter malcing the best showing. The rape was as good as the crimson clover and the cowhorn turnips were better than the rape. The plants of rye, soy bean and cow pea were two inches high. The hairy vetch and velvet beans were not sprouted, except an occasional plant of the latter. Rye {Secalc cereal e, L.) — The seeding of this was very heavy, 130 pounds to the acre. By the first of September a fine mat of plants covered the ground. Two months later there was a growth of one foot : it was somewhat uneven with lower leaves mostly killed by rust, but was still a good cover. The rye formed an excellent winter protection to the ground and by April ] had made a new growth of (j inches. It was from 114 to 314 feet high May 14 and a week later it was mowed and spread over the ground as a mulch. The yield of the green crop was at the rate of 7,(511 pounds per acre. Rye is not especially rich in any of the elements of plant food, but does add a large amount of veg- etable matter to the soil. Chemical analysis by Professor Penny, see table I, .vhows that in the 7,6] 1 pounds of green matter there were 24.7 pounds of ni- trogen. 39 pounds of potash and 11.4 pounds of phosphoric acid. There is also some fertilizing value in the roots and stubble of the rye. From 1 bushel to li-o bushels of seed per acre will be sufficient for cover crop purposes. Cowhorn tuniii) {Brassica Rapa, L.) — This is a variety of the ordinary turnip, but is long instead of flat and grows half or more out of the ground. By seedsmen it is often called the "long white." Eleven and one-half pounds of seed were used per acre ; this is ten times the amount required as 2 pounds of seed per acre is a most liberal allowance and in most instances 1 pound is sufficient. The seed is so small that there is difficulty in spreading it uniformly so the practice of mixing it witli fine dry soil was adopted and the whole lot sown broadcast. The plants were so crowded that they thinned themselves considerably. By September 1 they were from 2 to 12 inches high. Very little growth was made after this date in the foliage and the fleshy roots could not develop much because of the immense numbers struggling for existence. The.v do not survive the winter and afford practically no protection to the ground after midwinter. For cleaning up a piece of ground foul with weeds, etc., the turnips heavily seeded, perhaps 2 pounds per acre, are most excellent. They will smother out any other plant growth that we have seen competing with them. COMBINATK^NS WITH COWHORN TCRNII'S. Cowhorn turnips, crimson clorcr and hairy vetch. The cowhorn turnips were used in combination witli other cover plants and where heavily seeded it was with disastrous results to the other plants, except in the case of dwarf Essex rape. At the following rate per acre the crops were sown, crimson clover IG pounds, hairy vetch 90 pounds, and cowhorn turnips 41/, pounds. The turnips not only choked out the clover and vetch, except at one end of the plot, but also thinned out each otlier. A very little clover and vetch survived, but not enough to afford much winter protection. To grow these plants together suc- cessfully less seed must be used ; about 20 pounds of vetch, 8 pounds of clover, and 8 ounces of turnips per acre ought to give good results. 192 Appendix. Coichorn turnips crimson clover and rye seeded at 41^ pounds, 14 pounds, and 90 pounds per acre, respectively, were tested together. The clover and rye were killed out by the turnips and the record of the crop is about the same as that mentioned above in the first combination. This combination would succeed better by using less seed, about 8 ounces of turnips. 8 pounds of clover and 20 pounds of rye per acre. Cotchorn turnips, dwarf Essex rape and crimson clover. These were seeded as follows, turnips 31^ pounds, rape 31/^ pounds, clover 11 1/, pounds to the acre. Although the turnips and rape had an even start, tlie turnips were soon van- quished by the ranker growing rape. The clover did not even attempt to com- pete with its rivals. The rape had made a heavy growth of 1 to li^ feet by September 1. About 6 inches more growth was made before winter. This made a good protection until past midwinter. In the spring a few plants started growth and sent up seed stalks, but there were not enough to make a fair covering. It is not desirable to use the turnips and rape together. Coichorn turnips and crimson clover. — These were used together at the rate of 5% pounds of turnip seed and I814 pounds of clover seed per acre. Here is the same story of the turnips choking out the clover. The turnips were so crowded that they made unsatisfactory growth. Some of the foliage was 1 foot high, but the fleshy roots were small and stunted. This combination is ideal on ground that is pretty well supplied with humus and nitrogen, and probably noth- ing better could be remembered. About 12 ounces of turnip seed and 10 pounds of clover seed per acre will be sufficient. COWHOKN TURNIP .\S A SOIL IMPROVER. This turnip may well be called a potash plant from the large amount of potash it contains. The yield is something astounding, being 11.297 pounds of tops and 20,522 pounds of roots, a total of 31,819 pounds, or 15% tons of veg- etable matter per acre. As shown in table I, this material contained 109.5 pounds of nitrogen, 142.6 pounds of potash and 26 pounds of phosphoric acid. Coin- pared with crimson clover the turnips contain 03 per cent more potash tlian does, the clover, although it contains less nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The leaves are twice as rich in potash pound for pound as are the roots. The objection to turnips is that the plants do not survive the winter. The foliage is killed by hard frosts early in the winter and soon decomposes. The roots decay rapidly, except the skeleton of tough fibrous mater. It is quite probable that part of the plant food of this crop escapes from the bare soil when no other crop is put in with the turnips. It is economy as well as good management to use some winter- surviving crop like clover or vetch with them. If it is desired to use part of the roots for stock food, this may be done without Impoverishing the land, if the stable manure is applied to the part from which the turnips are taken. Dwarf Essex rape (Brassica Napus, L) .■ — Seed sown at the rate of 11 V-: pounds per acre gave a good stand. It had attained a height of from 2 to 2i/> feet by November 1. The rape is a vigorous grower and will stand considerable frost without much injury. During December the plants "go down" and soon decay, except the roots, many of which live over winter. After midwinter, the rape does not protect tlie ground mucli ; it disintegrates and disappears. The old roots start growth early in the spring and where enough of them sur- vive the winter, will aid in taking up the surplus moisture from the soil early in the spring. They usually go to seed in April. About 9 to 10 pounds of seed are sufficient for an acre. Chemical analysis of rape shows it to be richer in total amount of plant food than crimson clover. It has nearly as much nitrogen, almost twice as much potnsh and more than two-thirds as mucli pho.s- phoric acid as lias the clover. Compared witli cowhorn turnips, it has 18 per cent more nitrogen, 13 per cent more potash and 80 per cent more phosphoric acid (see table I). Its total yield per acre was 20,020 pounds of green tops and 804 pounds of air-dry roots. c o O) c 3 o O E (0 > z (S V c (0 4> C 3 O < (0 ■a t) ■a 3 I o a> Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 193 Crimson clover {Trifoliiim incarnatum, L.) was heavily seeded at the rate of 37 pounds per acre and gave a good stand except in spots where heavy rains washed out or covered up the young plants. On this account the stand was uneven. The growth was excellent ; 9 inches by November 1. making a splendid protection to the soil. Tlie w'nter was severe and most of the clover killed one before spring. This winter-killing of crimson clover was quite common through.- out the northern part of the State in 1901-2. New growth started the last of April, but there were not enough plants left for a successful spring cover. The few which remained were from 6 to 18 inches high and in bloom May l.j. Crimson clover is the great soil enricher and is often used as the standard with which to compare other crops for this purpose. The following rec'U-ds were made from the crop just mentioned. The seed was sown July 22 iiud the samples were taken November 20. The four months' growth of green t^ps per acre weighed 18,800 pounds, nearly 91^ tons; the roots to a depth of 12 inches weighed 413 pounds, air-dry weight (see table I). In the tops and roots were 131 pounds of nitrogen. 88 pounds of potash and oi pounds of phosphoric acid. To purchase these amounts of plant food in commercial fertilizers per acre of soil would entail a greater expense than the fruitgrower would care to incur. Besides this plant-food, the addit on of such a large amount of veg- etable matter, or humus, to the soil is most beneficial. Crimson clover was first grown in Delaware by Mr. J. G. Brown, Sr., near Wyoming, in 1885 or 1886*. Mr. Brown grew large areas of clover in his or- cliards for ensilage and for seed. He soon noticed that the production of clover seed injured the orchards, and this practice was abandoned. About ISSS. a few other fruitgrowers began using the clover as an orchard cover crop and have continued to use It with excellent results up to the present time. Red clover and mnmmotli clover. — These were seeded at the same rate as the crimson clover, namely, 37 pounds per acre. About 15 pounds of seed per acre is the usual amount used for these three clovers. The red and mam- moth clovers were side by side and did equally well, so they will be considered together. The stand was good, but growth was unequal ; it made a good mat from 3 to 10 inches thick by November 1. Both clovers came through the winter in good condition, and in this respect eclipsed the crimson clover. By the end of March they had made a new growth of 2 inches and G weeks later a heavy matted growth of 12 to -8 inches. The results were most satisfactory and encouraging, and were as good as could be desired. (See Plate IV. A. red clover). The fall growth of tops of the red clover was not so heavy as that of the crimson clover, being only 6,909 pounds in 4 months, against 18.800 pounds of the crimson. The root growth in the same time was three times as much for the red as for the crimson clover, namely, 1,212 pounds, air-dry weight. In total weight of tops and air-dry roots the crimson clover yielded a little more than 2 1-3 times as much as the red clover. (See table I). The red clover seems to be richer than crimson clover pound for pound in nitrogen and potash, for with less than haif the total weight of plants it yielded more than three-fourths as mtich nitrogen and more than three-fifths as much potash. Egyptian Clover (Trifolium alexandrimum, L.) — This was tried, but was most unsatisfactory. Although heavily seeded, 37 pounds per acre, there was a very thin stand from the start. The few plants alive November 1 were from 6 to 15 inches high ; they were killed by heavy frosts a little later. It i.s not hardy enough for cover crop purposes here. Alfalfa (..ledicago sativa, L.) — On the heavy clay at the Experiment tSation, alfalfa does exceedingly weil. In six weeks from sowing the seed. 37 pounds per acre, the plants were from 6 to 12 inches tall and the stand was gootl. By November 1 much of the growth was 18 inches high. It made an excellent cover and survived the winter in fine condition. Fall sowing of alfalfa is no ♦Information kindly furnished by Mr. and Mrs. F. M. Soper, Magnolia. HOR. 13 194 Appendix. doubt preferable to spring sowing because the little plants do not have the weeds, drought and hot weather to contend with. On clay ground here, there has been no difficully in getting a good stand with fall sowed seed. Alfalfa begins growth early in the spring, 4 inches of new growth was made by April 1. By May 15 there was a fine growth 10 to 15 inches high. (See Plate IV, c). This plant is especially noted for its deep rooting tendency and usually the roots extend downward several feet. Knowing this to be the case it was a great surprise to tind only 8 pounds of roots per acre in the soil between 8 and 12 inches in depth as compared with 1,972 pounds in the surface 8 inches. This was from plants four months old. The tops at this time were not quite as heavy as those of red clover, there being 5,430 pounds of them. The total yield of green tops and air-dry roots per acres was 7.410 pounds containing 95 pounds of nitrogen, 41 pounds of potash and 21 pounds of phosphoric acid. Crimson clover yielded more than 23^ times as much weight of plants as did nlfalfa, but pound for pound, it is a little richer in phosphoric acid, not quite so rich in potash and only a little more than one-half as rich in nitrogen as is alfalfa (see Table I). This is a splendid showing for alfalfa as a nitrogen gatherer. About 30 pounds of seed per acre will give satisfactory results. Hair]) or sand vetch (Vicia villosa. Roth.) — This plant is often called "winter vetch," but the writer could find only one authority for it, namely, Bailey in the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, page 1928. According to Smith.* the winter vetch is Lathyrus Mrsutus. The seed of this was sown at the rate of 130 pounds per acre which is a very heavy seeding : about 40 pounds is ample for cover crop purposes. The use of vetch is ruled out of extensive cover crop operations because the seed is so expensive ; the usual price is about $6.00 per bushel. The vetch is so satisfactory as a soil improver that it would be good policy for the fruitgrower to set aside a plot of ground especially for growing the seed. If it is used in a one-year old orchard and a strip of ground 6 or 8 feet wide on each side of the tree rows is cultivated the remaining portion between th rows may be al- lowed to go to seed. This will occur during the second season's growth of the orchard. When the crop is gathered enough seed will shell out to reseed the ground and it should be plowed under shallow at once. This practice is not recommended for orchards older than two years. There is no satisfactory way so far as we know of threshing small lots of seed, it being usually threshed with a flail. The vetch is a sprawling grower and when young it extends along flat on the ground. The stand was good, but a little uneven on account of exceedingly heavy rains washing the soil soon after the seed was sown. By November 1 there was a good green mat of plants from 2 to 15 inches thick ; when straightened out the growth was from 2 to 21^ feet high. Ordinarily the vetch stands the win- ter all right, but in this instance it suffered as did the crimson clover. Perhaps half of the plants were winterkilled ; the others started into growth the latter part of March, and six weeks later were 21^ feet high and were beginning to bloom. This plant affords an immense amount of vegetable matter for plowing under. The weiglit per acre of the crop four months old, 13,150 pounds of green-top and 600 pounds of air-dry roots, is a little more than two-thirds as much as that of crimson clover (see Table 1). The roots were taken to a depth of 12 inches, nearly all being in the first 8 inches of soil. That it is richer in nitrogen and potasli than the clover is evidenced by the fact that with a little more than two-thirds the weight of plants it gave very nearly as much nitrogen and potash as did the clover. The vetch might reasonably be called a potash plant or "nitrogen-potash plant," because, pound for pound, it is a little richer in potash than is the rape, and is more than one-third richer in potash than is the cowhorn turnip. It contains a little more phosphoric acid than do the ♦Smith, J. G., Circular No. 6 (Agros. 25), page 5, Div. of Agros., U. S. Dept. of Agr. Orchard Cover Crcps ik Delaware. 195 rnpe and turnips, but considerably less tlian tlie clover. The vetcli is especially desirable for soils varying from a light clay loam to heavy clay. Its behavior on sandy loam will be discussed later Hairy vetch and cow peas. — Tliese were sown together at the rate of G4i^ pounds of seed each. The cow peas were such vigorous growers that they smothered out the vetch ; a few spindling sickly vetch plants managed to keep alive until November. Sown at tlie rate of 40 pounds of cow peas and 20 pounds of vetch per acre the results ought to be satisfactory. The cow peas would make the fall protection, and the vetch the winter and spring protection to the soil. Cowpeas (Vifjno Catjavff. Wulp.) ^yhippl/on(^iU rariciy. — The seeding of •cowpeas was rather lieavy, 130 pounds per acre. About 90 pounds sown broad- cast will give good results. There was an excellent stand, and a rank, heavy growth, which choked out all grass and weeds. The plants continued growing until the latter part of October when they were killed by frost. They then were a mass of vegetable matter 2 feet or more high. (See Plate III, .4. and B.). After being frozen the leaves dropped to tlie ground and the stalks soon broke over and held them fairly well ; thus most of the material was retained where grown. This cccui's only in case of a heavy crop : with a light crop the leaves could easily he blown away. The cowpea is grown considerably in Delaware as a general farm crop botli for seed and for stock food. As yet it is not mucli used in orchards as a cover erby. The ground is a sandy loam upon which crimson clover had been grown as a cover crop for perhaps fourteen years. From this long use of clover it would seem that the soil ought to be amply supplied with nitrogen. The amount of seed sown per acre cannot be given. The plots covered a trifle over one-tenth of an acre each and the seed was sown July 25, 1001. Since crimson clover had been used so much in this orchard previous to this experiment, there was a volunteer crop of it in most of the plots. In general these crops were better than those at Magnolia. Red and mammoth clovers. — These were side by side and were equally good. They made a good fall growth, formed a fine covering for the ground during the winter, and started into growth the last of March. A month later they were from 3 to 7 inches high and the stand was good. They were perfectly suc- ■cessful as cover crops. Crimson clover. — There was one plot sown to crimson clover alone, but it was present in nearly all of the others as a volunteer crop. It was a little bet- fer than the red and mammoth clovers and gave most satisfactory results. Having grown so much of this plant the ground was especially adapted for its best development. Hairy vetch. — This was much poorer than tlie vetch either at Magnolia or Newark. The stand was thin and the growth small. The plants lived over v.-inter, but did not make much growth in the spring. It was not a success here. This result is surprising, for in ground so well supplied with humus the vetch ought to make an exceptionally fine deevlopment. Alfalfa. — The alfalfa did not make a good cover. The growth was from 12 to 15 inches high October 15. but there were not enough plants. In the spring it seemed to be even more scattering and was from 5 to 0 inches high the last of April. Soy bean. — The soy bean did very well and made a good, thick covering from 20 to 24 inches high October 10. They were, of course, killed by frost, but the dead stalks remained standing until the following May. Many of the plants set pods from wiiich the beans shelled out in April. Dwarf Essex rape. — There was an excellent stand and the growth was fairly good : better than at Magnolia, but not nearly as good as the rape at Newark. A large proportion of the plants survived the winter and were going to seed in April. Considerable volunteer crimson clover came up with the rape and togetlier they formed a pretty good spring cover. A plot was seeded to rape and clover and part of the clover was smothered out, but enough remained to cover one-third of the ground in April and on the 25th of that month was from 3 to 6 inches high. With the rank growth of rape at Newark the clover would liave been entirely smothered out. Cowhorn turnips. — The turnips did well considering that they were stand- ing so thick upon the ground. The seeding was A'ery heavy ; had less seed been used the fleshy roots would have become very large. Where they had room to develop they were from 12 to 15 inches long. This seems to be a most desirable plant to use with crimson clover or to use where there is an abundance of humus in the soil. A few turnips survived the winter, but their value as a cover practically ends the last of December. 198 Appendix. One plot was sown with turnips and crimson clover but the turnips were so thick they choked out much of the clover so that in the spring it was only fairly good. Rye. — This made a good growth, but not so good as that sown with crimson clover. With such a heavy fall growth there is an excessive development of rust on the leaves ; this was true with all of the tests with rye. The spring- growth was not so robust as that at Newark ; it was 2 feet high and heading out April 2.5. Rye and crimson clover. — These made the best and most satisfactory cover crop in the test at Woodside The rye stood thicker on this plot than on any other and with the clover made a dense mat of vegetable matter. The clover did better with the rye than when used alone. It seemed to start growth earlier in the spring than when alone or with other crops, and was from G to 8 inches high on April 4. Soil with rye and crimson clover for a cover may be plowed very early in the spring, for this immense mass of vegetation will pump the surplus moisture out of the ground in a short time. II. EXPERIMENTS IN 1902-3. With the exception of the small plots used at the Experiment Station in 1901-2, the plots in 1902-3 were very much larger than had been used before. Aside from the Station orchard there were 4(5 half-acre plots in the experiment. It was desired to make the test as comprehensive and practical as possible. In addition to the orchards of F. M. Soper, at Magnolia, and S. H. Derby, at Wood- side, another was used, the five-year old peach orchard of Levi Cooch, on Iron Hill, near Newark. The soil here is a rather heavy red clay loam, which is very susceptible to washing during heavy rains The orchard had not previously had a cover crop, but the year preceding, a late growth of weeds and grass after the last cultivation made a fairly good protection, but did not stop washing. The experiments were co-operative again with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Depatment of Agriculture. As before, the seetl was fur- nished by the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Experiment Station did all work incident to growing the crops. Advantage was taken of the results of the previous year and it was hoped to improve upon them, but unfavorable weather conditions made a portion of the work a failure. EXPEKIMEXT WITH LEVI COOCH IX 1902-3. This test was an utter disappointment, probably due to the drought of the summer. The ground did not contain much moisture, but was pretty well fitted, and the seed was sown August 12 and 13 after a good rain. The ground soon became dry again ; no rain followed for several weeks, and most of the seed failed to germinate. The plants which did grow were too scattering and poor to report on here, although notes were taken on them during the entire season. There were seventeen half-acre plots seeded with crops that were ex- pected to give good results on that soil. EXPERIMENTS AT THE EXPEKIMEXT ST.^TIOX IX 1902-3. The orchard used last year was used again this year ; it contains one aud one-quarter acres and was divided into eighteen plots. Eleven of the plots were sown with a single crop each ; the remainder with a combination of two kinds together. The ground was fitted up in splendid condition and the seed wa.s sown August 11, except on one plot seeded on the 12th. A very heavy rain storm came just after the seeding was finished and packed the surface soil hard. This part dried out and baked so that much of the seed could not germinate and get a foothold in the soil. It was hoped that a rain would soon follow to soak up the surface, but none of any consequence came for four weeks. Long before Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 199 this time the injury was done and the poor stand in many plots is thus ex- plained. A part of each plot was plowed the first week in May ; the remainder was left unplowed to study the development of the cover crop, and to determine what influence the crops had in removing soil moisture, as compared with the moisture of plowed ground. The following notes were taken during the season : Canada peas {Pisum arvense, L.) 2 bushels per acre. — Two weeks after sowing there was a fairly good stand 2 to 4 inches high. They made a slow growth ; some were 15 inches high the last of September. The weather seemed to be uncongenial for them ; they began to dwindle and die, so that by the end of October there were few plants alive. There were a good many pea aphids on the vines, but not enough to destroy them. The Canada peas were a failure in all of the tests. Canada t^cas 2 bushels, and rye y., bushel per acre. — The peas, made the same record as that mentioned above. The rye, naturally, from such a thin seeding gave a thin stand. The plants grew well ; were 6 inches high the last of September. They wintered well and made a good but uneven growth in the spring, and by April 6 some plants were 15 inches high. It was from 4 to G feet high and heading out by the middle of May. Even this small amount of rye made pretty good cover. On May 22 it was cut to be used as a mulch for the) plot and gave a yield at the rate of 7,293 pounds of green tops per acre. Hairy vetch 40 pounds and rye 30 pounds per acre. — At first the vetch seemed to be rather thin on the ground, but it improved rapidly. Early in its life it is a slow spreading grower. It formed a gocd, thick carpet for a winter covering and came through the winter in good shape. The new spring growth was from 4 to 12 inches by the first part of April. It began climbing ui» on the rye for support and together they made a wonderfully fine tangled mass of vegetation, the vetch being from 2 to 4 feet high and the rye 6 feet high May 20 when the vetch was just coming nicely into bloom (see Plate I, A). They form an extra good cover crop and are a decided success. Of course in orchanl operations it is not in the least desirable, nor is it .recommended to let these crops attain such enormous growth. A part of this plot was allowed to grow for experimental purposes. On the heavy clay at this Station it could safely grow until the last of April without injury to the trees. A part of the plot was mowed April .30 and gave a yield of 10,068 pounds of green matter per acre. or 3,682 pounds of air-dry material. On May 22 the balance of the plot was mowed. The weight of green tops was at the rate of 18,480 pounds per acre, an increase of 2.412 pounds since April 30, or an increase of 110 pounds of green matter per acre per day for that time. By taking the weight of the green rye cut from the last plot, 7,203 pounds, and deducting this from 18.4S(» pounds, the combined weight of rye and vetch, a rough estimate is obtained for the weight of the vetch of this plot, namely, 11,187 pounds. The writer does not recommend the practice of cutting the rye and vetch for stock food, yet this could be done if it is absolutely necessary. Probably no better soiling crop could be grown for early feeding. The orchardist should not make the mistake of letting a cover crop continue growth after the ground is in condition to plow While it will of course add more vegetable matter to the soil to do so, there is danger of injury to the trees by drying out the soil too much. However, weather conditions will largely control this feature ; if there is plenty of rain the crop may naturally be al- lowed to grow longer before plowing under. The rye developed about the same as that mentioned above which was sown with Canada peas. The combination of hairy vetch 40 pounds and rye 30 pounds per acre is recommended as one of the best orchard cover crops that can possibly be used. Hairy vetch 20 pounds and Canada peas 1 bushel per acre— The vetch did not do as well on this plot as it did on most of the others. The fall growth was pretty good, but uneven. It made a fairly good covering during the winter, but came out in poor condition in the spring. The few plants left made a good spring growth and were in full bloom May 20. 200 Appendix. The Canada peas were as unsatisfactory as those mentioned above. Hairy vetch 20 pounds and coicpeas 45 pounds per acre. — On one-half of the plot the vetch did exceedingly well ; it liad made a growth of IS inches by the last of September and one month later a growth of 2 feet or more. This was a good mulch for winter protection to the soil. The spring growth was from 4 to 12 inches April 6. This rapid development continued to a length of 3 to 31/, feet May 18, making a green live mat of from 12 to 20 inches thick. The cowpeas were very scattering and small and added nothing of conse- quence to the crop. Hairy retell 40 pounds per acre. — The stand was good except in a few places where it was scattering. The plants made their naturally slow growth at first, but later on improved rapidly. The crop on this plot was not quite as good as the vetch with cowpeas on the adjoining plot until the period of blooming came on when they seemed to be equally good. At this time, May 18, there was a heavy mat of vegetation 12 to 20 inches thicK, and when straight- ened out the growth was from 3 to 31^ feet long. The photograph of these two plots taken May 21 (see Plate I, B), shows the matted growth to be 2 feet thick where the measuring rod stands. Such a vast amount of material plowed under is of immense value to any of the Delaware soils. A portion of these plots will be saved for seed. Cowpeas, Whippuriiill variety, 00 pounds per acre. — The seed did not ger- minate well and one-half of the plot was a failure from the start. The other half had a fair stand of moderate growth, being 8 to 12 inches high the last of iSeptember. On October 22 they were killed by frost so did not amount to much as a cover crop this year. Last year they gave ten times better results than they gave this year. The dead plants were too few to form any winter protection to the ground. Soy hcan On pounds per acre. — The stand of soy beans was much better than thai of cowpeas, but was not what it should have been. Last year the soy beans were four times as good as they were this year. At the end of September the plants were from 8 to 12 inches high and made very little growth after that. One month later they were badly injured by frost. This short growth made scarcely any winter cover for the soil Soy heuns 4."i pounds and Canada peas 1 bushel per acre. — The soy l)eans gave a better stand in this plot than in the one just mentioned. The growth was about the same, 1 foot, which was not half of wnat it should have been. It is very probable that had the soy beans and cowpeas been sown net later than July 22, as they were the year before, they might have done better. Tliree weeks of that warm weather would have benefited them materially. The Canada pe.is were very poor and a failure. Crimson chirer l."i pounds per acre. — The hard surface crust prevented a free germination, so the catch was rather poor although the growth was good. It came through the winter in good condition and grew well in the spring, but w:is somewhat bunched and uneven. It was S to 10 inches high April 22. The plot improved rapidly and by Slay 18 there v.'as a heavy crop 1 to 2 feet high and in full bloom. I'late 5, C. shows this crop May 21. tl was cut May 22 and yielded at the rate of 18,744 pounds of green tops per acre. This is ,1 little heavier than the yield of tops of the rye and vetch together. Crimson clover 7 pounds and Canada peas 1 bushel per acre. — The clover ■was very scattering, due to poor germination ; the growtn was fairly good. The peas were very poor also. This was not a success. Crimson clover ~\(, pounds and cowhorn turnips (> ounces per acre. — The clover was like that with Canada peas above. The turnips gave a poor catch, except in patches, but the plants were good ; some were lo inches high the last of October. A dry surface crust which formed in consequence of a heavy vain immediately after seeding, was no doubt the cause of such poor germi- nation of the see., and the failure of the crop. Red clover and mamninth clover. — There was a plot of each of these seeded < k ki JK ^5-^>^S:^t^'^^jN' \>^^ . ^ wP^^SHIP nMh^^li^ ^r ^S^^^^B^ iMr^BBBPpH^HE^^Ii^BWIJMBB^ ^ii ^^^^^^ *' ^^S[EBT^BffliK5sHaiSBil|i^' r - V ' ~j^l9B^^^^Hi 11 ^r^^ ^d^immBS9^^3B^^mS^S^KI^- f^'''^ ^^- ■ ^■:S'>;^- -.^-^^ ■ wm mi^^^i^^y^-^::"?P'^ ■:*:^.:. IM n^^M^^LV'^^aj^^^^^KQ^^iL'^i^l^SBl^H ] LI' . '.^ .V ..^^' .'-rfii^j'?:^^: v; ^-^y -. V ^ . ^ -r :^^^H life^."^ r?".^*^ l#«|-^'":,r^-^' _■: ■ -^ ^^-4^H ^a ^ * • %'■' ^ .;^' '■ *^- ■.■**"' ^" , ■ ' . ""^^^ di J .>^^''* i;^! ^ ' 1? . 1 ■r ^Hfl^^^^HP' 4Stv«i^^^^* pounds and hairy retch 20 pounds per acre. — The cowpeas were like those in the last plot, but there were only half as many plants be- cause only ha'.f as much seed was used. There was a good stand of vetch with good spreading growth, so the ground was fairly well covered even though the seeding was light. It lived through the winter and started off well in the spring, but did not make as much growth as did the vetcli with the soy beans. It seemed to thin out some- what as spring advanced. The growth April 24 was 4 to 12 inches. Mammoth clover 15 pounds per acre. — This was by far the best cover crop used at Magnolia. The stand was perfect. It made an extra good, thick, heavy mat of plants, 3 to 0 inches high the last of October. It protected the ground satisfactorily and came through the winter in fine condition. It did as well in the spring as it did the previous fall. There was an excellent thick growth of 4 to 8 inches April 24. The writer has never seen a better stand of mam- moth clover than was in this plot. The six plots alre.ndy mentioned have had no inanure added to them for years. They did have, however, a crop of crimson clover plowed under in l!)(.»() and anotlirr in lOdl. If the soil had contained more humus there certainly wotild have been a better development of plant growth on the first five plots. The following ten plots had a fairly good crop of cowpeas turned under in 1898 and poor crops of crimson clover in 1901 and 1902. The last two only had an application of manure in 1901. In all of these plots there was a rapid falling oft" in the crops after growth began in the spring. The two manured plots made the best showing, but finally they deteriorated also. None of the results from these ten plots are satisfactory. Clovers, each 15 pounds of seed per acre. — The mammoth clover was very poor on this plot, the seed did not germinate well and the plants which grew were very small. About half of the plot of crimson clover was fairly good in stand, but un- even in size. When plowed under. Ajjril 25, the plants were from 2 to 8 inches high. The red clover was about like the crimson clover. The value of a cover crop to prevent the fruit tree leaves from blowing away was nicely illustrated here. Although small the clover caught and held the leaves which about doubled the amount of vegetable matter to plow under. Alfalfa 30 pounds per acre. — Tlie seed germinated well and there was a pretty good stand until the end of October when the plants began to thin out. They were then spindling and from 2 to 10 inches high. It came through the winter in poor shape and was very poor in the spring. More humus in the soil certainly would have benefitted this crop a great deal. Alfalfa 15 pounds, and red clover 7 pounds of seed per acre. — The benefit of manure was well marked here. A portion of the plot was manured in 1901 and on that portion the crops were excellent early in October, while on the unmanured part they were very poor. The alfalfa was very much better Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 203 than the clover. On the manured part they stood the winter well and started off in pretty good shape in the spring, but came to a standstill and then be- came poorer in April. Hairy vetch 20 pounds and crimson clover 71/, pounds per acre. — Both the vetch and clover germinated very well and gave an early promise of success, but they deteriorated in October and very little was left by spring. In a few spots there was a spring growth of clover from 2 to 8 inches and of vetch from 4 to 10 inches April 24. Hairy vetch 40 pounds and rye 30 pounds per acre. — There was a gi>od start of both crops and a good promise of each until January. They came through the winter in very poor condition and were worthless in the spring. Tlie plot was manured in 1901 and although its influence was apparent in the fall. as compared with unmauured plots, no further benefit seemed to follow. Canada peas 1 bushel and red clover 7 pounds per acre. — The Canada peas were like those grown at the Experiment Station, of no consequence whatever. The pea aphids were much worse here than at the Experiment Station aud no doubt killed many of the plants. The clover was very good the first week in October, but by the end of the month it was poor. A portion wintered all right and the spring growth on one-half of the plot was fairly good March 25. A month later the crop was very poor except in a few spots. Canada peas 2 bushels and rye y.^ bushel per acre. — The Canada peas were like those mentioned above. The rye made a brave beginning, but soon began to fail so that only scat- tering plants were left the first of November. A little lived over winter, but formed no protection to the ground. Cowhorn turnips li/, pounds per acre. — There was a thin stand to ijegin with and a very poor growth so that the crop was an entire failure. Had the turnips been tried on one of the first six plots they no doubt would have done very well. EXPERIMENTS AT WOODSIDE IN 1902-3. A portion of the plum orchard used this year was in the experiment last year. There were 5 half-acre plots in this orchard and 8 half-acre plots in a young peach orchard. The soil is a sandy loam well supplied with humus from plowing under crimson clover for a number of years. For this reason either rape, rye or turnips was used in nearly every plot in combination witli a legu- minous crop, since it was desired to have a good cover, but still not necessarily add too much nitrogen to the soil. The ground was fitted up in good shape and the seed for these crops was sown August 9, 1902. The first 8 plots which follow in the discussion were in the peach orchard ; the last 5 were in the plum orchard. Alfalfa 15 pounds and hairy vetch 8 pounds per acre. — Tlie alfalfa made a fine showing; there was an excellent stand and a growth of 6 to 12 inches October 23. It was injured somewhat by the winter, and the stand was not very good in the spring. The plants were 6 to 8 inches high April 23. In this plot the vetch was also good and made satisfactory development. The two crops made a most excellent cover for the ground, aud were the best of any of the crops in this portion of the experiment. The vetch was more hardy than the alfalfa and by April 24 it had made a growth of G to 8 inches. This is a splendid combination for cover crop purposes. Alfalfa 15 pounds and mammoth clover ly.^ pounds per acre. — On this plot the alfalfa did not do so well as on the one just mentioned. The growth was just the same, but the stand was not quite so good. This was true during the entire season. There was a pretty good stand of clover, but not much growth was made in the fall. In the spring it was uneven, in some places it was bunched aud in other places there was none. The bunched portion formed a thick cover ; 204 Appendix. there was, however, considerable bare ground. Had there been a more even stand this would have been a most satisfactory cover crop. CoirJioni turnips 12 ounces and Canada peas 1 bushel per acre. — The seed- ing was uneven on this plot so there was some bare ground. There was an ex- cellent rank growth of plants 15 to 20 inches high in the best places October ■-'3. It was a satisfactory fall and early winter cover wherever there were plants to form it. There was no late winter or spring protection to the ground. The Canada peas made the same record noted elsewhere in this report. They were scattering and the early growth was fair, but they died out during the first part of October. Cowhorn turnips 12 ounces and soy teams 40 pounds per acre. — The stand of turnips was better and more even than In the plot above and the healthy vigorous growth was just as good, so this gave considerably the better result. There was the same small growth of soy beans here as noted at Magnolia. The stand was good, but the plants were only 12 to 14 inches high when in- .iured by frost October 22. This plot was well protected by the crop until January. Coichorn turnips 12 ounces, cowpeas 40 pounds and rye 20 pounds per acre. — This combination made a better cover than the two mentioned above in which turnips were used. There was a better catch of turnips and the growth was .iust as free. The cowpeas were more robust than were the soy beans in the last plot. The stand was good for a light seeding. They grew very little after October 10 and were frosted October 22. There was a good catch of rye and a good fall growth. With the dead material from the turnips and soy beans the rye formed a good winter cover, and alone made a fairly good spring cover. The growth was from 8 to 22 inclipn April 24. <'oahoin turnips 10 ounces and .strap-leaf turnips 5 ounces per acre. — On this i>lot the seed was sown unevenly, some portions receiving none. There was a good thick stand and a fine rank development of plants making a splendid cover. I'.oth kinds did well and made equally good growth. Coichorn turnips 12 ounces and hairy vetch 20 pounds per cere— The turnips were like those in the other plots. The vetch made a remarkable fine showing at first and on October 10 this was the best vetch on any of the experimental plots at any place. Some of the growth had then reached a length of 12 inches. It did not fulfill its early promise of excellence, but remained good until in the spring when the plants were scattering and mostly small. As a covering during the winter these two crops were satisfactory. ('owhorn turnips 12 ounces and crimson clover 714 pounds per acre. — This <'ombination was perhaps as satisfactory as anything used at Woodside under the soil conditions which prevail there. Since the special object was to provide a covering for the ground rather than to add nitrogen to it, the turnips were used to form the principal part of the cover and the rye, vetch or clover to live over winter to be the spring cover. In this case the turnips were better than those of any of the other turnip plots. The clover was partially smothered out. but enough scattering plants remained to make a pretty good spring cover. Thus a cover for the entire cover crop season was provided. The clover im- proved and made a rapid growth during the spring ; it was 3 to inches high Ai)ril 24. Dwarf Essex rape 4 pounds, soy hrans 40 pounds and rye 20 pounds per acre. — These three crops together made an excellent cover throughout most of the season. The rape made a poor catch and small growth so was not of much value. The plants lived over winter and made a new growth of 2 to 6 inches by March 20. There was a good catch and good growth of rye. It wintered well and was .satisfactory. Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 205 The soy beans did well until October 10 ; they were then 12 to 15 inches high and there was a good stand. Ten days later they were badly frosted. Dwarf Essex rape 4 pounds and cowpeas 40 pounds per acre. — The rape was better than that in the last plot, but was not good except in spots. It wintered well and made a pretty good winter cover. The spring growth was good. This combination of rape and cowpeas made an excellent fall cover. The cowpeas were 12 to 15 inches high October 10. They were better than the soy beans and were frosted at the same time. Dwarf Essex rape 4 pounds, Canada peas 24 pounds and nje 1 bushel per acre. — The rape was very poor until early in the spring wheu it improved consid- erably. However, it was too scattering to add much to the cover. On March 2tj the rape and rye made a fine cover ; the new growth was 4 to S inches. After that the rape did not amount to much. With the Canada peas the result was a failure as it was with this crop throughout the entire experiment. The rye was excellent in stand and growth and formed almost the entire cover. It was from 6 to 12 inches high October 1<). The late spring growth was short and there was not much stooling out of the plants, but even then it made a fine cover. Canada peas 2 husliels and rye i/, hu.shrl per acre. — The peas here were the best of any at Woodside, but were a failure. The rye was also the best at Woodside and made an excellent thick cover all alone. The growth was like that in the last plot, but the plants were more numerous and better stooled. It was a satisfactory cover crop. Dwarf Essex rape 9 pounds per acre. — There was a most excellent catch of rape, but the growth was decidedly small. It made a short, thick cover during the fall, but a poor one during the winter and was useless as a cover in the* spring. The fall growth should have been from 2 to .3 times as much as it was. CHEMIC.VL ANALYSIS OF COVER CKOFS. Mention was made of the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which the various crops contained and it is desirable to bring the figures to- gether so they can be readily compared. The following table was made up from tables I and II in Bulletin 60, by Prof. Penny, and shows the date of seeding. date of taking samples for analysis, the yield of tops and roots per acre, and the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid contained in the various crops. The roots were taken to a depth of 12 inches and were necessarily dried before being weighed ; the tops were weighed gi-een. In comparing the amount of fertilizing ingredients of the different crops the reader must not forget to take into consideration the differences of the total yields. 206 Affendix. Table I, Compiled from Tables I and II, Bulletin 60. Chemical analyses of cover crop plants. Shows date of seeding and taking samples, j'ield of green tops and air-dry roots per acre, and amounts of nitro- gen, potash and phosphoric acid in the different crops. CuwUoryi turnips .Seed sown .Sample taken - Lbs. green tops, Ijbs. of air-dry j roots , Total yield Lbs. nitrogen • In tops ; In roots ' Total Lbs. potash ! In tops In roots Total Lbs. phos. acid In tops In roots Total July 22 Nov. 1") 11,297 *20,522 31,819 64.4 45.1 lOiJ.5 80.3 62.3 142.6 14.3 11.7 26.0 Rape July 22 Nov. 16 26,620 864 27,484 116.2 13.2 161.3 148.2 13.1 161.3 41.8 5.1 46.9 Crimnon clover July 22 Nov. 22 18,800 413 19,213 128.2 6.2 134.4 84.0 4.2 88.2 59.2 2.0 61.2 Red clorer Alfalfa July 22 I July 22 Nov. 22 I Nov. 20 6,909 t 5,430 Hairy vetch 1,212 8,121 69.8 33.2 103.0 46.5 9.9 56.4 18.9 10.1 2V).0 1,980 7,410 54.8 40.4 95.2 32.2 9.5 41.7 13.1 8.5 21.6 July 22 Nov. 19 13,150 600 13,750 108.0 13.2 121.2 78.4 7.1 85.5 22.5 4.7 27.2 Cotvpeas July 22 Nov. 7 5,933 394 6,327 65.2 4.3 69.5 47.4 2.4 49.8 16.6 2.3 18.9 Soy beans July 22 Nov. 11 10,952 756 11,708 130.9 9.3 140.2 46.2 1.8 48.0 37.8 2.4 40.2 *The turnip roots were weighed in their natural state just after being dug ; this is, therefore, not air-dry weight. The results shown in this table are most interesting and instructive and were discussed in the first part of this bulletin in the remarks on the various cover crop plants. Table II, Compiled fhom Table II, Bulletin 60. Shows the dates of seeding and digging the roots, the air-dry weight of roots in the surface 8 inches, the air-dry weight in the next 4 inches, and the total air-dry weight of roots to a depth of 12 inches. Seed sown July 22 ! July 22 July 22 Roots digged Nov.20 Nov. 22 Nov. 22 Crimson ; j^^j cluver ', Al/aira clover I Lbs. of roots in surface 8 inches__i libs, of roots in next 4 inches i Total roots in 12 inches 1 381 32 413 1,186 27 1,212 1,972 8 1,980 Na >ry vetch Coicpeas July 22 July 22 July 22 Nov. 19 Nov. 7 Nov. 11 Soy heana 584 301 16 93 600 f 394 71/ 756 The great majority of the roots were in the first 8 inches of soil ; it was sup- posed that a larger proportion would be in the 4 inches next below the first 8 inches. Consulting this table alone it would appear that the cowpeas are the deepest rooted, since they have only a little more than three times as much root in the surface 8 inches, as in the next 4 inches below. The crimson clover follows with twelve times as much, soy beans eighteen times as much, hairy vetch with thirty-six and one-half times as much, and red clover with forty-four times as much root in the surface 8 inches as in the next 4 inches. With the alfalfa only a small portion of the roots were found between 8 and 12 inches in depth. The alfalfa is noted as being a remarkably deep-rooted plant, and it cer- tainly is so in many places, but these results show it to be shallow-rooted at this Station. In a limited amount of digging here it was found that a very Orchard Cover Crops in Delaware. 207 large proportion of the roots were within 8 inches of the surface. The tap root was more or less branched, the branches going downward also, but at a depth of about 3 feet the roots were dead and partially decayed. There was a sur- prisingly small amount of tubercles on the roots ; a good many small ones but few large ones. This was true of the hairy vetch and crimson clover also. The opinion prevails among several members of the Station staff that the limited amount of tubercle formation is due to the presence of an abundance of nitrogen compounds in the soil, and that there is little necessity for the plants getting nitrogen from the atmosphere by the aid of bacteria. The crimson clover was very shallow-rooted, the tap root usually extended downward about one foot. The vetch was about as deep-rooted as the alfalfa. The observations by Craig, mentioned in Cornell Bulletin 108, that vetch rootlets follow the burrows of earth worms was noticed here with both vetch and alfalfa. SOIL MOISTURE IN PLOWED GROUND VERSUS UNPLOWED GROUND WITH DEAD OR LIVE COVER CROP ON. A full discussion of this question is given by Prof. Penny in Bulletin 60, so only a brief mention of the subject will be made here. The cover crop plots at the Experiment Station were long and narrow. A portion of the orchard was plowed crossways of the long way of the plots May 15, 1902, and the remainder was left unplowed so the cover crop might grow all summer. Each plot was thus about two-thirds plowed and one-third unplowed. The soil samples for the determination of the moisture content were taken from the plowed and un- plowed portions at the same time at intervals of one week from May 19 to July 29. The portion plowed was kept well cultivated throughout the season. During May and the first 20 days of June there was a small amount of rainfall and there was considerable difference in the percentages of moisture in the tilled and unfilled soil. On the 21st, 26th and 29th of June heavy rains fell and the difference diminished considerably. There was a heavy rainfall in July and hy the end of the month there was slightly more moisture in unfilled portions which had dead covers as rape, turnips, cowpeas and soy beans, than there was in the tilled portions. Where there were live covers there was less moisture in the uncultivated than in the cultivated portions July 29. Hairy vetch plot. — On May 19 there was a difference of 5 per cent of soil moisture in favor of the tilled portion. From that date there was a steady gain in moitsure in the cultivated ground until June 16, when there was a difference of 10 per cent in its favor. Copious rains a few days later made the amount of moisture about the same throughout the plot until July 29. Alfalfa plot. — There was a difference here in favor of the tilled part of from 31^ to 814 per cent of soil moisture for a month following May 19. Then for two weeks the unfilled part pained in moisture ; during the next two weeks it lost and then gained a little again the following two weeks. By the end of July tlie tilled portion had 4 per cent more soil moisture than had the portion upon which the crop was still growing. Crimson clover plot. — The cultivated portion contained from 41/, to 8 per cent more moisture than the uncultivated portion from May 19 until the mid- dle of June. After that there was little difference because of abundant rains. Red clover plot. — The difference in moisture in this plot between tilled and unfilled portions varied from 41/4 per cent May 19 to 9% per cent June 16 in favor of the tilled portion. The variation then decreased to 1 per cent June 30 ; then it increased to 714 per cent July 21, and fell rapidly to 1 per cent a week later. Mammoth clover plot. — The record for this is similar to that of red clover, but with less sudden fluctuations in the per cent of moisture in favor of the tilled part. Rye plot. — There is less difference in favor of the tilled part than there is in any of the other plots mentioned above. The differencs were 3 per cent 208 Appendix. May 19, % per cent June 2, 6 per cent June 16, no difference June 23. and' little variation from that date until July 29. The unplowed portions of the plots which had crops that did not survive the winter, were more or less covered with grass and weeds during the sum- mer. This growth was mowed occasionally and it served in part the purpose of a cover. There was a great variation in per cents of soil moisture between tilled and untilled parts, being from 11 per cent in favor of the former to 2X:, per centin favor of the latter. This variation is discussed in details by Prof. Penny in Bulletin 60, and will not be repeated here. KECOMMENDATIOXS. Weather conditions play such an important part in the success or failure of clover crops that the amount of seed recommended per acre must be subject to great elasticity. In 1901-2 the weather was most favorable and excellent results followed. In 1902-3 there was unfavorable weather and the results were poorer because of it. The amounts of seed per acre mentioned below are abundant to give satisfaction, providing the soil is at least fairly good and the weather fairly favorable. If the fruitgrower wishes to err on the right side he may sow more seed ; with some crops this will add materially to the expense of the crop, but with others it will not. The amounts of seed per acre and crop or combination of crops which are desirable to use are as follows : Rye 1 to li^ bushels ; cowhorn turnips 1 to 2 pounds ; dwarf Essex rape 8 to 10 pounds ; red, mammoth or crimson clover 15 to 20 pounds ; cowpea 90 pounds ; soy bean 90 pounds ; hairy vetch 40 to 50 pounds : alfalfa 30 pounds : hairy votch 40 pounds and rye 30 pounds ; hairy vetch 20 pounds and cowpeas or soy beans 45 pounds ; hairy vetch 20 pounds and tur- nips 12 ounces ; hairy vetch 20 pounds, crimson clover S pounds and turnips S ounces ; hairy vetch 20 pounds and red, mammoth or crimson clover 8 pounds ; turnips 8 ounces, rye 20 pounds and red, mammoth or crimson clover 4 pounds : turnips 12 ounces and crimson clover 8 pounds; turnips 12 ounces and soy beans of cowpeas 40 pounds ; dwarf Essex rape 4 pounds and rye 1 bushel ; rape 4 pounds, soy beans or cowpeas 40 pounds and rye 20 pounds ; alfalfa 15 pounds and red, mammoth or crimson clover 7i/^ pounds. Many other combinations may be used successfully. The object should be to use such a mixture of crops that a part at least shall live over winter. A few of the combinations above contain all fall crops and for that reason are not so desirable as though they contained a part of those that live through the winter and grow in the spring. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The writer takes pleasure in acknowledging the assistance and advice of his predecessor, Prof. G. Harold I'owell. who planned and started the experi- ment of 1001-2 ; to Prof. W. II. Bishop for taking notes on the crops before the writer arrived at the Station ; to Prof. E. Dwight Sanderson for assistance in taking notes. Also to Messrs. Soper, Derby and Cooch for their courtesy in permitting the work to be conducted in their orchards. .'«. 'M- m 4>J**^« ^•«% '■*^J i<£>j.- .-:\' •?-v.->. 'k-'V a^; ^=;!^ ■■'^^'^i.^- '«>ft J^J ■*-*; ••'.V • L^g^ Fruits, Their Food Value and Use in Disease. 209 FRUITS, THEIR FOOD VALUE AND USE IN DISEASE. KY FREDEEICK M. EOSSITEE^ M. D., AUTHOE OF "THE STOEY OF A LIVIXG TEMPLE." Anatomically man is a frugivorous animal, and when foods are botanicallj' considered it is noted that fruits exceed in variety and value all other foods. However, by habit man has become omnivorous, and often largely partakes of food substances that poorly serve the requirements of the vital economy. Strictly speaking, cereals and nuts are fruits as well as apples and peaches, also melons and tomatoes, but for the present purposes only those fruits pop- ularly accepted as such will be considered. As to the variety of fruits, Nature has supplied man most generously, there I)eing more than 1,100 varieties of apples alone. As to delicacy of flavor and aroma, no other class of foods can compare with fruits. IMoreover, no food comes to the table so free from disease and impurities. Every ripe apple, plum. peach, cherry and grape is canned and hermetically sealed by Nature. It con- tains food and water of the purest quality, and a richness of flavor that appeals to the most capricious taste. The consumption of fruit has very greatly increased during the past few years owing largely to the increased transportation facilities This makes it possible to have many varieties of fresh fruits the year round. The improved methods of canning fruits enable every household to lay in a supply of fruit for the winter and spring, thus spanning the intervals between the fruit seasons. Beginning with the strawberry in May and .Tune, there is a continuous pro- cession of fruits through .July, August and September, ending with the cran- berry at Christmas. Then through the winter apples are in season and are most appreciated. Oranges, lemons and bananas are perennial. The abundant supply of fresh fruits during the hot months of summer, to my mind, is a strong indication that fruits should more largely enter into our daily diet than they do. The food value of fruit not being appreciated by the laity and too little emphasized by the profession, fruits come in principally as dessert, and for this reason, though generally not understood, fruits are held responsible for many intesti- nal disorders during the hot months. Pitchforking all sorts of food indiscriminately into the stomach and then topping off with one or more varieties of fruit buried in sugar and possibly covered with cream is a strong temptation to dis- ease, but the fruit should not receive the blame if trouble results, for in this case it is not responsible. FRUITS AEE NATURAL FOODS. Fruits are ntaural foods, and after several years of careful observation I am convinced that when they are properly selected, properly eaten and the right combinations are made, they are productive only of good, and supply indispensa- ble elements toward enabling the body to maintain the highest degree of resist- ance to the inroads of disease. A study of the chemistry of fruits throws much light upon their value as a food, and in furnishing essential salts to the vital economy, also upon the combinations that should be made when eating fruit. HOR. 14 "210 Appendix. It is generally considered that fruits are mostly water, and hence serve an insignificant role in maintaining the nutrition of the body. It must be admitted that with few exceptions fruits have a large percentage of water, yet this water possesses an important food value. Milk is regarded as an important food, and is universally adopted as a diet in fevers, yet it has a higher percentage of water than apples, pears, peaches, grapes, cherries or strawberries, while apples, cher- ries and pears possess almost the food value of whole milk as estimated in heat calorics. On the other hand, one pound of cherries contains as much albu- men as one egg, so does one pound of the best grapes or two pounds of straw- berries. It is obvious from this comparison that, while so large a proportion of fruits consists of water, yet even the most succulent fruits possess a greater food value than is generally known. The food value of grapes per pound is 4.50 heat calorics, pears 380, apples 290, bananas 460-600. These figures compare favorably with those giving the food value of fish, and the food value of most cuts of lean beef is only about double this estimate. The writer would not be understood as advocating an exclusive fruit diet, but only as emphasizing the food value of fruits and that fruits should be eaten more extensively as a food, and not simply as dessert. ItlCII IN ORGANIC ACIDS. The analysis of fruits shows that they are especially rich in organic acids, mineral salts, sugar, pectin and essential oils. In fact, the value and great de- mand for fruit is due, principally, to the craving of the bodily system for these ■elements. The acids and salts of fruit are the best, most satisfactory, the safest and most absolutely harmless "blood purifiers" that have been given to man. They are not nauseating draughts nor highly tinctured with alcohol, and are within the reach of all. According to Presenius, the flavor of fruits depends, first, on the ratio in which acids stand to sugar, gum and other carbohydrates ; second, on the pres- ence and delicacy of the aroma due to essential oils ; third, on the proportion between soluble and insoluble substance and water ; fourth, on cultivation, which aims at increasing the proportion of sugar ; fifth, on favorable seasons and on the soil. The predominating acids of fruits are citric, malic and tartaric acids. Citric acid is the principal acid found in lemons, oranges, limes and grape fruit. Malic acid is tlie chief acid in apples, peaches, pears, cherries and currants. Tartaric acid, in grapes. In ripe fruits there is no starch excepting a trace in certain bananas and in the bread fruit. In green fruit starch abounds, but in the process of ripening under the actinic rays of the sun, the starch is entirely converted into fruit sugar or lev- nlose and dextrose, the sweetness of which compares with that of money. Among fresh fruits, red pears contain the most sugar, the proportion of acid to sugar being 1.95. Next comes flrapes with 24 per cent, sweet cherries with about 17 per cent, and apples with 12 to 20 per cent. The strawberry has more than 6 per cent of sugar. In dried fruit the sugar is much more abundant. For in- stance, dried figs contain 50 per cent of fruit sugar ; dried apples 43 per cent ; dried cherries 32 per cent, and raisins 54 per cent. Hence it can be seen that these fruits possess a high food value. The sugar of fruits, when oxidized, fur- nishes about one-half the energy of the same amount of starch. Fruit sugar being already predigested by the actinic rays of the sun, and being absorbed more quickly than water because of the presence of the combined acids and salts, is easily and readily oxidized and furnishes no small amount of energy to the body. German investigator has shown that fruit sugar, when oxodized, has a special tonic effect upon involuntary muscle. For these reasons fruits and fruit juices furnish us wth an ideal food for acute fevers. Then again, fruits are valuable because of the rich supply of organic salts Fruits, Their Food Value and Use in Disease. 211 which they contain such as citrates, malates. tarti'ates, pliosphates, sulphates, sodium, potassium, magnesia and organic iron. First and foremost among fruits is the strawberry. A popular estimation of this toothsome fruit is reflected in tlie saying, "Doubtless God could have made a better berry than the strawberry, but doubtless he never did." An English writer has said this of tlie strawberry : "Its virtues are legion, and it has not a single defect. The blackberry, like the rose, must be plucked from among tliorns ; the raspberry soon brings a sense of satiety, you may crush your teeth upon a grape-stone or cherry-pit, and the biggest and sweetest apple lias a core. But the strawberry is one unalloyed and unimpaired mouthful of de- liciousness, it has neither rind nor stone to mar the perfect pleasure of the palate — and it is so healthful that you can eat it until you are tired."' The ratio of sugar to acid in tlie strawberry is from 2 to 1 to 7 to 3. The strawberry is richer than most of the fruits in potassium, sodium and magnesium, salts and iron. For tliis reason the strawberry is especially wholesome in rheumatism and gout. The strawberry crop annually liarvested in the United States amounts to nearly .$100,000,000. The apple is rich in sugar and malic acid, tlie latter giving the apple its laxative properties. Apple juice made from washed and sorted apples is a most wholesome drink, and it possesses marked germicidal properties. Being .1 firm fruit the apple may be easily kept on into the following summer. The npple harvest in this country is annually more than 210,000,000 barrels. Excepting dates, grapes exceed all other fruits in the amount of sugar present. The ratio of sugar to acid is 29 to 1. The tartaric acid of grapes is combined freely with potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesia. Recent experiments have demonstrated tliat grape juice posseses high germ- icidal powers. Experiments made by the Cliicago Board of Health show that the typhoid and the colon bacillus are effectually destroyed by 1 per cent to .^> per cent of grape juice. Grape juice is highly nourishing and sustaining, and supplies us with one of the most delicious drinks in fevers. Oranges, lemons and grape fruit have an abundance of free citric acid. Lemons contain from 35 to 40 grains of citric acid to the ounce, and in addition there is malic acid, sugar and organic salts. It is for this reason that the juice of the lemon is so eagerly sought to allay thirst, and as a drink in hot weather and in fevers. AS A DISINFECTANT. Dr. Ferguson, of London, in 1902. reported that lemon juice in the propor- tion of one teaspoonful to half a glass of typhoid infected water, in sufficient to destroy the vitality of the germs. These results have been many times con- firmed by other bacteriologists. Kitasato, the eminent .Tapanese bacteriologist, and Von Ermengen, liave shown that the citric acid of the lemon is less than one-half per cent or 1-200, is capable of killing cholera germs in one-half hour. Acid of the same strength will kill the typhoid fever germ, but several hours exposure is required. Pure lemon juice, however, is absolutely destructive to all germs. These facts are also confirmed by Sternberg. Boiled fru.c juice, while less active than tlie fresh juice, is still an efficient germicide. As to the digestibility of fruit and fruit juices, it may be said that they are much more easily digested than starch or sugar. In fact, the juice is all ready to be absorbed, being predigested. and practically little effort is required on the part of the digestive organs. Furthermore, experiment has shown tliat citric, malic and tartaric acids are entirely consumed within the body. It is very common to hear people say that fruits do not agree witli them. Considering the combinations usually made and the manner in which the fruit is served and eaten, tliis may be true. But I feel prepared to say that if care is exercised, tnere are but few people who cannot eat most fruits and be the better for it. There are very few cond'"^ions in which fruits are contra- indicted, namely, gastric ulcer, hyperchloridia, gastric catarrh with excessive mu- cous formation and acute gastritis. 212 Appendix. AS A DIET. A consideration of the composition of fruits gives us some idea of the com- bination best suited to a fruit diet. In the first place fruits are rich in acids and contain no starch. Acid destroys the ptyaline of the saliva, and delays the digestion of starch, or in fact prevents the continuation of starch digestion in the stomach, hence if acid fruits and a rich carbohydrate diet for starch foods are to be eaten at the same meal the fruits should be eaten at the close of the meal, thus interfering with the digestion of starch as little as possible. Second, fruits contain but little of the nitrogenous food elements, and experience- shows that as a rule acid fruits combine poorly with nitrogenous foods, such as- flesh foods, eggs, cheese, etc. Fruits that contain a digestive ferment, such as. the pineapple, pawpaw and cranberry, seem to be an exception to this rule. Third, fruits, with the exception of the olive, contain very little fat. Acids and fats are .iust as incompatible as oil and water. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that fruits should be eaten largely alone, and that they are most digestible and cause practically no disturbance when taken on an empty stomach. Hence the meal at which fruit is eaten should be made up largely of fruit. Careful observation and the study for several years convinces me that this i.s correct, and I believe I am supported by the experience of those who have investigated this mtaer carefully. The fact that fruit disagrees with so many people is due largely to eating it at the end of a long meal of several courses, and then to loading it with sugar, fane sugar is not digested at all in the stomach, and in the presence of fruit .iuices it is a prolific source of fermentation. Even in the small intestines the digestion of cane sugar is slow, while that of fruit sugar is rapid, and hence delays the absorption of the latter. The old adage that fruits are "golden for breakfast, silver for dinner and lead for supper," is an error. If combined properly, fruits are golden at any meal. If after eating there is any disturbance, it is due to the combination and not to the fruit. As a rule fruits and vege- tables are a poor combination. In fact, an important dietic rule is that foods that are slowly digested should not be combined with those that are quickly digested and different in character. If eaten alone fruits are digested in less^ than an hour. WHEN FRUIT DISAGREES WITH SOME. When a patient tells me that he cannot eat fruit, after inquiring into his diet, in nine cases out of ten, I can tell him why. Canned fruits heavily sweetened with cane sugar are a prolific source of gastric and intestinal dis- orders, and should not be used in fevers. Fruits and fruit juices canned without sugar are very serviceable, but the unsweetened fresh fruits and juices are the best. The laxative fruits are apples, oranges, prunes, figs, mulberries, dates, nec- tarines, tamarinds, plums and strawberries. The astringent fruits are blackberries, cranberries, whortleberries, black raspberries, prickly pears and black currants. This is more true with the fruit juices than the fruit itself. All fruit juices are diuretic, or act favoi-alily on the kidneys, especially lemons, oranges and melons. The best stomachics or apetizers are oranges, apples, lemons, limes and grape-fruit, and should be eaten one-half hour before meals. In the dietetic treatment of disease fruits deserve a much larger consid- eration than they have hitherto been given. While the United States is the greatest fruit country in the world, the American profession is behind its European brothers in prescribing fruits in disease. It is quite a general notion that fruits are a common cause of stomach and intestinal trouble. It is important to emphasize that over-ripe or under-ripe fruits should Fruits, Their Food Value and Use in Disease. 213 never be eaten. But I am strongly of the opinion that when properly eaten, instead of causing diseases, fruits have a most beneficial effect upon the entire alimentary canal, and decrease the susceptibility to intestinal diseases. Most of the fresh fruit juices are absolutely destructive to the bacteria that inhabit the alimentary canal. Stomach fluids that contain several million bac- teria to the cubic centimeter, or 151^ drops, can be entirely freed of germs in about four days, if a patient will live upon nothing but fruits without sugar. This same process will clean up a heavily coated tongue far better than calomel. Billiousness and auto-intoxication will respond more readily to an exclusive fruit diet than to pills and powders. No one class of foods tends to keep the bowels ■more regular than fruits. In typhoid fever, per sc, I do not know of a more ideal diet than fresh un- sweetened fruit juices such as strained orange and lemon juice diluted, pure grape juice, grape pulp, ripe peaches, apple pulp, and, baked apples, avoiding seeds and skins. The principal reason why fruits have come into disfavor as a food in typhoid fever is because of sweetening with cane sugar or because of giving a milk diet at the same time. Milk is a most suitable medium for the prolification of bacteria and the elaboration of ptomaines, but not so with fruits nor their juices, both being inimical to the growth of bacteria. IX SICKNESS. In any intestinal disorder, acute or chronic, no fruits with seeds, skins or pits or fibrinous plup should be allowed. In my experience with typhoid fever I never gave but one patient milk, never had a case with diarrhoea and prac- tically no tympanites. In acute fever there is no diet that compares with fresh fruit without sugar, nor a diet that the patient craves more or takes to more kindly. Fruit juices tax the digestive organs little and go a long way toward keeping up the strength, at the same time furnishing no fuel to feed the fever, and no media on which bacteria can thrive : at the same time, also, they act favorably on the liver and kidneys, and they assist in the oxidation and elimination of bac- terial poisons. Aseptic foods furnish us with the most rational and scientific intestinal antisepsis that can be practiced, and one that does not tax the vital resistance of the patient to recover from later. Strawberries and lemons are especially valuable in uric acid diseases, be- cause they not only contain a large amount of free acid, but are rich in potas- sium, sodium and magnesium salts. The fruit acids and acids in combination with salts, in the process of absorption and in the liver are oxodized, setting free large quantities of alkaline salts, increasing the alkalinity of the blood. :iud so supplying a most excellent solvent for uric and urates. Hence it can be easily seen that fruit acids increase the alkalinity of the blood, fostering a perfectly normal condition and being a normal food. The greater the alkalinity of the blood the greater is its power to counteract disease. FOR URIC ACID DISEASES. The lemon cure for rheumatism is quite popular in different parts of Eu- rope. Two of the most prolific sources of uric acid formation and retention in the system are flesh foods and alcoholic drinks. Fresh fruits and their juices will not only largely correct the disorders due to excessive meat eating, but fur- nish a most excellent substitute for alcoholic drinks and lessen the desire for these beverages. After eating fresh fruit or drinking fruit juice alcoholic drinks lose much of thir charm. I venture to say that if fruit juices were more largely used as a beverage in the home the consumption of fermented and dis- tilled drinks would be greatly diminished. Emperor William of Germany on his recent Mediterranean trip abstained from spirituous liquors and substituted carbonated water and raspberry juice. He improved so much that since his return he has practically become a 214 Appendix. teetotaler and Is strongly advocating fruit juices. This is of scientific import- ance, for similar results have been obtained in thousands of other cases, and the improvement made is founded upon a natural and rational basis. The vast majority of people would be greatly benefited by making one of their meals largely of fruit without cream or milk and with sugar in modera- tion. If such were the case there would be but little call for "blood purifiers" and spring tonics, and most women would be relieved of the anxiety incident to a bad complexion. A fruit diet is especially adapted to hot weather. If on a warm morning, instead of eating freely of ham and fried eggs, liot biscuit, pancakes or fried potatoes, with one or more cups of hot coffee, fruits and dextrinized cereals con- stituted the breakfast, a much more comfortable day would be spent. A piece of lemon in the mouth or a little lemon juice will often check the nausea in pregnancy and seasickness, and quite surprising results may be obtained in treating a felon by putting the finger into a fresh lemon and cov- ering with a cold compress. I have seen the most gratifying results follow the administration of fruit juice in rickets and tetany, as well as in constipated children. In malarial fever, lemons, grape-fruit and apple juice are the most valuable. In dysentery and enteritis fresh or unsweetened blackberry juice is the best. THE FRUIT BUSINESS FROM A COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT. By Me. W. H. Chapin, with Glafke Co., Portland, Oregon. Address delivered at Northwest Fruitgrowers' Meeting, Portland, January, 1904. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : Some weeks ago, when ISIr. Lamberson asked me to talk to the fruitgrowers. I thought I would have time to pick up something to say. but. like a man with a note in bank coming due, time goes on very fast, hours develop into minutes, days into hours, weeks into days, months into weeks, and so on, and it seems only two or three days ago that lie spoke to me aliout it. On Sunday I said to my wife, "I wonder what I am going to talk to the fruitgrowers about?" and she said, "The best tiling is for you to get up and say you don't know anything about it. and they will applaud you for a brief speech," and that reminds me of tlie story of an Italian who went to San Francisco, and was finally nominated for alderman on the Democratic ticket, not because he was particularly fitted for it but because they wanted to control the Italian vote. The day before election they had a big mass meeting in the opera house, and they told the Italian he would have to make a speech. He told them that he could not make a speech, but they insisted tliat he would have to. When the night came the opera house was crowded full of people. It came time for the Italian to speak ; lie was pushed forward, and he said : "Ladies anda gentleman, I no canna speak a very well de language, but my hearta beata lika hell for the Democratic party." That is the way with me, my heart beats hard for the Fruitgrowers Association. I think of fruit and dream of fruit all the time, though I do not pretend to be a talker on the subject. The commercial side of fruit growing, and the fruit industry, are the things that come to us every day, and are what we are familiar with, so naturally we think everybody else is familiar with it, and that they know all about it. For that reason, I The Fruit Business from a Commercial Standpoint. 215 presume, it does not seem interesting to us, and that there is nothing about the business that we can tell the fruitgrowers. They all know how fruit is shipped to the commission men, taken in by them and disposed of by them to the best advantage, the returns made out and the check, or the red figures, sent to the consignor ; how he kicks — always, no matter what he may get for it — he always complains. But those details, I suppose, have all been gone over by different speakers before the Association who are old in the business, and it has been dwelt upon by speakers more capable of giving you a lucid idea of the way the fruit is marketed, than I can. But speaking of the shippers finding fault with the returns, I am inclined to think the shippers are more to blame than the commission man ; he takes the fruit and disposes of it for what it will bring. Sometimes we have a false idea of the value of fruit and we place too high a price on it. It looks nice, and we think it should bring a high price, but it stays on the sidewalk for awhile, until we think something is wrong. Evidently the price is too high, so we are compelled to drop the price : by this time it has gotten soft, we have to call in the peddlers and it goes for anything they have a mind to offer us for it. That is one of the peculiarities in marketing fruit in a small way by the commission man. He should have gotten a good deal better price, but perhaps because the conditions are a little wrong, the market overstocked, or his idea of the values too high, the result is he does not get the price he should get. If he put the price where it ought to have been he would have sold it more readily. That is one of the reasons why returns do not come up to the consignor's expectation. In regard to packing fruit. Too much cannot be said about the quality and the way fruit should be packed. That is the most important thing in the whole business. Now, you see tlaose apples over there from llood River, and it does not take a salesman to sell them ; they sell themselves ; they are beautiful apples, of uniform size, and all you have to do is to open up the box and a man comes along and asks, "What are those apples worth?" and you tell him. "Two dollars," and he buys them right off, and is glad to get them, but take the same quality of apple and put them into a box. one a great big one and another little one, put them in promiscuously, and it takes hard talking to get a man to pay a dollar a box, though it may be just as perfect an apple and just as bright and sound, yet. a man will not pay as much as for a uniform grade and uniform pack. All the fruitgrowers are packing their apples now with a great deal more care than they used to. They formerly put them in any old box and sent them in and thought the commission man ought to get fancy prices for that fruit. Even the small growers now know that they have to pack their fruit more carefully to market it satisfactorily. There are some that have come to realize that ; others think that an occasional wormy apple in a box does not make much difference, that no one will notice it, but it is a peculiar thing, that with one wormy apple in a box, in a Ittle while the whole box will be wormy. It is much better for that man to throw away his wormy apples than to take them to market and slide them in, thinking he is doing something cute to slide in a few wormy ones. The man who puts his name upon a box of fruit of any kind, and puts up a good, honest pack, will get a reputation for his pack in a very short time, and all you have to do is to quote that brand of ap- ples, or that brand of fruit, whatever it may be, and tlie people, everywhere. know what it is, and it sells on the strength of the packer's name. That is a well-known fact, and it is well illustrated by an example that we have here in the onion business. This, of course, is not tlie fruit business, but you take Fanno Bros., they are large producers, here, of onions. Fanno believes in using a brand, they put their name on every sack and the date the onions are sacked, that is all stencilled on each sack. The stock in the center of he sack is just as good as the top, bottom or sides — it is uniform throughout, there is no stove-piping, as is very often the case with unprincipled shippers. The result is that Fanno Bros, get more for their onions than any other shipper anywhere In this Northwest, not because their onions are better, but because every one 216 Appendix. knows what their onions are, and that they are the same from one end of the sack to the other. That should apply to all kinds of fruit. If any house should buy a carload of fruit for shipment to the East, or South, or to any other market, we would have to send a ma- to the railroad station, or wherever the fruit was loaded, to inspect that car in order that we might know it was all right. We would not dare send it forward until it had been inspected. There is no reason for that, no reason why a man or an asso- ciation should not put up fruit so we could take their word for it ; know that the fruit could be shipped wherever we might direct, and that it would be in condition to pass muster at its destination. The commission man, or broker, should not be called upon to inspect that fruit, and if the fruit associ- ations being organized tliroughout the state would see to it that the fruit is reliably packed, and that it could be depended upon, the marketing of the fruit would be much easier, and there would be fewer rejections and less trouble, and if would be more profitable for everybody. The fruit business would be profitable were it not for these rejections, and that is the thing we have to contend with more than anything else. Our ideas of fancy fruit and the ideas of tlie man at the other end, as to what he considers fancy fruit, may differ. I do not suppose there was ever a car, or box, of fruit packed but what there could be some objection taken to the quality, excepting some of those apples over there (pointing to the Hood River display), and I presume if a man were disposed to find fault with those he could do so if the price did not exactly suit him, or the market had declined. As to the quality of the fruit grown here, there is no doubt but it is superior to the fruit grown anywliere else in the United States. At the Pan-American I'^xposition — I happened to be there for a couple of days — I thought New York State, that being my native state, produced the finest apples grown out of doors. The horticultural displays of New York and Oregon were close to- gether, and 1 had cjpportunity to compare the apples from New York State with the apples from Oregon, but the New York State apples were not in the same class as those from Oregon. They did not look as large, and red, and juicy as they used to to me when I was a boy, but I suppose I had forgotten how they did look : anyhow, they looked small and knotty and were very inferior to our own. We would not thinli of packing that kind of fruit. Tliey raise great quantities of it, too, and New York State's apples are considered as fine as anything grown except, perhaps, Oregon apples, and ours are not well enough known to offer any competition. ..^s I said before, they raise great quantities of them and sell them very cheap. This year I believe tlie growers were getti.ng something like ^\ or .$1.50 a barrel for apples, and furnishing the barrel. Now, you know an Oregon farmer would drop dead if he were offered any such price as that. You know it takes three boxes of apples to maKe a barrel. If we can produce our apples a little cheaper, and get them on the New York market so they will not be as expensive as now. there is no st profitable fruits for that locality. The ft-uits grown there, on ac- count of the high elevation and climatic influences, have peculiar keeping qual- ities ; the cherries, owing to the absence of rain in the ripening season, do not crack open, ana by reason of so much sunshine color highly, come into market late and consequently always bring remunerative prices. The Hood River valley and foothills have become especially famous for their apples and strawberries, and many acres are gradually planted into orchards. The soil of this valley seems peculiarly adapted to the production of large, sound, highly-colored apples of fine flavor and long keeping qualities. It is the boast of the applegrowers of that district to produce nothing but first-class fruit, by thorough care of trees and fruit, and succeeding in this, they receive the highest prices for their fruit. The Hood River apple crop for 1903 amounted to 50,000 boxes of 40 pounds per box. which sold at an average price of $1.2.5 per box ; while last fall the whole crop of Spitzenburgh apples was sold under contract at $2, and Yellow Newtown Pippin apples at $1.80 per box,, f. o. b. at picking time. It is es- timated that not one-tenth of the available ground adapted to apple growing is planted. The Hood River strawberry yield for 1903 was about ninety thou- sand 24-pound crates, and sold at $150,000 in i-ound figures. The average yield per acre is from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty crates, while frequently some especially favorably located plantation produces from three hundred to even five hundred crates per acre. These strawberries are shipped in refrigerator cars and find a market in ^Montana, Wyoming. Kansas. Nebraska. Iowa, the Dakotas, and Manitoba, while the apples are generally shipped to England, France and Germany. Southern Oregon, with its decomposed granite soils, as found in the Rogue River and I'mpqua Valeys, offers the same advantages for horticulture, and at no distant day will be a veritable paradise for the fruitgrower. Its soils are naturally very rcih in all the plant foods necessary to produce excellent fruit. Horticulture in Oregon. 221 combined with a climate unsurpassed anywhere in this fair land of ours. The vast mining districts of this section, which are fast assuming large proportions, will furnish a very good local market for the small grower, while most commer- cial growers will prefer to ship their products to the East, England. Ger- many, and France, where these fruits have found a vei-y profitable market. To illustrate : several years ago I was shown a letter by one of our commission houses at Portland, which had shipped the fruit for the grower, from the II(;n. William G. Grinnell, American Consul at Manchester, England, stating in a lot of apples received from Oregon, and on sale at that city, placards were found on which was printed "Rogue River Apples, from the orchard of C. Kleinham- mer. Phoenix, Oregon," saying that finer fruit had never been exhibited in that market, and the dealers wanted to secure the output for another year. Thus showing what these valleys can produce, and which opened another and unlimited market for the wide-awake fruitgrower. Intelligent endeavor, hon- e.st packing, brains, and application of business principles, which hereafter must be adopted in order to be successful in horticultural pursuits, has its own reward. Peaches, apples, pears, prunes, walnuts, almonds, chestnuts, fil- berts, grapes, and wtaermelons grow in great abundance. The Rogue River Valley, which is. in respect to soil and climate, like the famous Burgundy Val- ley of France, is the place par excellence for the growing of wine grapes. There is no good reason why the hillsides of that productive valley should not be covered with vineyards. (irapes of as good quality as those grown in Cali- fornia, France or Germany can be produced in that valley. The great and beautiful Willamette Valley does, and always did, grow fine fruits, and is the oldest settled part of Oregon. True, these fruits have not the keeping qualities, owing to its humid climate, of those raised in the more dry localities and higher altitudes, but for size, color, and flavor are not ex- celled anywhere, besides having the advantage of nearness to the large local markets of our cities, as well as cheaper railroad and ocean transportation to the markets of the world. Here flourish the apple, pear, prune, cherry, peach, apricot, walnut, almond, chestnut, all the small bush fruits in great abundance, and grapes galore. That grapes do well in Oregon is evidenced by the fact that there are small vineyards in every part of the State, but I know of only a few commercial vineyards in Oregon, which are located on the red hills in Washington County some twenty-five miles from Portland. These vineyards com- prise a total of eighty-four acres. Every year these vines are loaded down with large bunches of the choicest grapes — each vine or stalk yielding from fifty to one hundred pounds. These sell from $25 to .?-10 per ton. When the owners of these vineyards came to Oregon, not many years ago, they were in very modest circumstances. They had to clear the land and plant it to grapes, and now are all well to do. I have been in the vineyards of Germany, France. and California, but have never seen such an abundance of grapes as these Forest Grove vines bear from year to year, nor have I tasted grapes of finer quality. The principal varieties grown for table use are Moore's Diamond. Niagara, Worden, Sweetwater, lone, Delaware, and Hamburg, and for wine-mak- ing or unfermented grape juice the Riesling, Gut-Edel, Burgundy, Muscat, and Zinfandell. In this connection it may be stated that at the various great expositions held in America we have exhibited the various kinds of wine- These wines came into direct competition with similar brands from other States. Much to my surprise, the jury awarded us the highest medal and di- ploma for excellence, fineness, aroma or bouquet, as it is generally called, smooth- ness, and for the absence of that pungent and alcoholic taste so pronounced in wines grown elsewhere, notably in Zinfandell. I said it was a surprise to me, and yet it should not have been, for I know that our soil and climate condi- tions, especially of the foothills on both sides of the Willamette Valley, are identical to those of that part of the Rhine in Germany where the finest of wines are produced. Upon further investigation I learned from the growers that it is owing to our humidity and cool nights which makes the skin thinner 222 Appendix. and has a general tendency to produce the good effects spoken of above. In another very essential respect our wines resemble the fine Rhine wines, that they improve with age ; the older they get the better they are and finer the bouquet. The beautiful and fertile little valleys along our coast line are all more or less adapted to fruitgrowing, especially the apple. One progressive experi- menter has even now fruiting acres of the tender olive. A little enterprise and energy will accomplish wonders in horticulture and viticulture in Oregon. However, there is one enterprise which does not have the attention it de- serves, and that is the growing of nut-bearing trees. I have been advocating- the planting of nut-bearing trees, more particularly the English walnut, or more correctly speaking, the French walnut, as the other is simply a commer- cial term, for many years. While a number of small plantings have been made, there is only one on a commercial scale, consisting of forty acres of walnuts and chestnuts, hence there is practically an unoccupied field, which promises as good returns as any other kind of fruit by way of intensive and diversified farming. This is now well recognized and understood in the East, since the wild nut-bearing trees, which grew so plentifully, have been cut down waste- fully and used for posts, fences, and firewood. The scarcity has become so marked that attention has been called to it by the trade, and many new plant- ings are now being made. When I first planted my own, in order to thor- oughly satisfy myself as to the adaptability of our soils and various climatic conditions, I gave away over two hundred yearling trees of my own growing. I sent tliem to friends in various parts of this State — to Eastern Oregon, Southern Oregon, the coast counties, the Willamette Valley, and even to the Sound counties of Washington — and the reports received have been most grati- fying. Some of the trees have in eight years' time grown to twenty feet in height, with a spreading top of fourteen feet, and measured eleven inches in diameter four feet from the ground. They have proven most indifferent as to location or soil, wliether on clay, loam, or gravel, and even on rocky ground, provided there is a loose subsoil for the taproot to go down. It is perfectly useless to plant nut-bearing trees where there is hardpan subsoil. These eight year old trees averaged twenty pounds of fine walnuts, which sold at 10 cents per pound, bringing $2 to the tree. Here is a line of fruit growing which offers good inducements, and now that it has been proven that nuts of excellent quality not only grow, but mature well in this State, more plantings should be made, so Oregon may become an exporter, instead of importer, of all kinds of nuts. They begin to bear when six years old, and from that time on they are a source of revenue. They seldom fail to bear enough fruit to pay for the labor and expense of taking care of them and gathering the crop. Growers should be careful to plant only such varieties as are known to be suited to our climatic conditions. The varieties of walnuts recommended are the B''ranquette and Mayette, which is known to the trade as Grenoble ; of chestnuts, the Spanish, Italian, Numbo, and Paragon ; almonds, Grosse Tendre, or Languedoc, for Northwestern and Eastern Oregon, and the I. X. L., Princess, and Nonpariel for Southern Oregon. Filberts, do exceedingly well here — the Duchally, Aveline, and English cobnut are best. Reynolds, the great horticulturist, writes : "The farm is a good place on which to be born, on which to live through one's primie work, on which to die." Sometimes it happens that one who has spent his boyhood on a farm may, when he comes to struggle for himself, stray away to town and engage in one of the numerous avocations which men there must pursue for a live- lihood. However successful he may prove in business in town, there comes a time, as old age approaches, when his thoughts turn back to his earlier life in the country, its independence, its calm, healthful enjoyments amid scenes and products of nature, and he feels a strong, overmastering desire to spend his later years and die in the country, on the bosom of the great mother of us all, generous, teeming earth. Horticulture iij Oregon. 223 When President Jefferson warned us that America would degenerate as soon as it ceased to be an agricultural and horticultural nation, he touched the keynote, for he foresaw the coming greed for money ; that fearful fight for political power, which seems to have reached its height just now ; that getting something for nothing, and that struggle for social position and prominence. It is said that John Ruskin "somewhere marveled at the wonderful con- ception of God's mind, when he first thought of a tree." There could have been no paradise for man without trees. He caused to grow those trees that were pleasant to the eye as well as good for fruit. Just fancy what this world would be without trees. There is an inseparable companionship between trees and man not readily accounted for, and there are few men who lack the desire to plant and surround themselves with trees. I can not conceive a perfect home devoid of trees. What is more beautiful to the eye than a well laid out and perfectly kept orchard? Horticulture is no longer an experiment in Oregon. The incessant drudg- ery, the numerous and keen disappointments which are peculiar to all new enterprises, and which horticulture in Oregon did not escape, are things of the past. We have reached the era of scientific management of the orchard, and of remunerative prices for the product. Fruit-growing is not only a healthy and pleasant occupation, but a profitable one. It has been proven, year after year, that those who have fruit to sell, whether it was raised alone or in connection with other crops, always have money to meet their obligations. It is stated on reliable authority (Bradstreefs Commercial Agency) that throughout the United States there are fewer failures among those engaged in horticultural pursuits than any other branch of farming, and then the question jP asked, "Is it owing to the business, or the men that engage in it?" I think it is both, especially the latter, for it requires brains to be a successful horticulturist. Horticulture is an art of the highest order. The planter must keep abreast of the times ; he must study and keep posted on the latest improved appliances. Though fruit has been grown in Oregon for fifty years, it is only recently that horticulture was reduced to a scientific basis. The backwardness, which was the ruling condition until a short time ago, was due to a lack of knowl- edge about tree planting and fruit-growing. Very few growers were thorough- ly equipped for the business in which they had invested their capital, and were it not for the fact "that crops in Oregon never fail," many more disap- pointments would have to be reocrded. The State took horticulture in hand, and now supplies an abundance of practical information to all who care to ask for it. This information is distributed through the members of the State Board of Horticulture, of which body I had the honor to be a member for twelve years past, and the faculty of the Agricultural College. There now exists no reason for failure because of the absence of useful information about soils, stock selection, tree planting, cultivation, pruning, and the science of pollination. Progressive horticulture does wonders. It makes the old trees bear fruit ngnin. nnd gives the young ones a good start from the time they are set out. Horticulture, as we understand it, is no longer the problem it was, thanks to the scientific investigations of the professors of the experiment stations throughout the world, and to practical, up-to-date fruitgrowers. We know the soils best adapted for various fruits, the best varieties to plant for family use and commercial purpose, and know how to evaporate them. We also know what varieties to plant together for pollinating purposes. We know the diseases and insects infecting trees and fruit, and how to combat them. Failure and discouragement in horticulture often result from too much real estate booming. Glowing accounts of this or that locality are published, fruits <>t abnormal size are exhibited, ridiculous results are given, all of which creates theimpression that horticulture, in certain localities, is a veritable gold mine. Credulous persons, tempted by these stories and exhibits, give up occu- 224 Appendix. pations in which they are experienced, and take to fruit-raising, of which they know nothing. With them failure is only a matter of time, unless they have a large bank account. Horticulture is a special work and applied science. In it expectations are never realized without painstaking work and trying pa- tience. No one should think of going into it when the main inducement is an enormous profit figured out on paper. There are growers in Oregon who have made very large profits in a single year. In some years all have done exceedingly well, but, generally speaking, it is not safe to count on a net profit of more than $1.50 per acre in ordinary years for an orchard in full bearing. This result, small as it may seem to the uninitiated, will come only to those who go into the business understandingly, give it their best thoughts and care, manage tlie fruit farm as they would any other business venture, and keep abreast of the times. The failure of those who had no adequate knowledge of fruit-growing, and who under the same circumstances would have failed in any other enterprise, need not discourage any who intend to embark in hor- ticulture. The number who have failed is very small in comparison to the number who have succeeded. No State offers such excellent advantages as Oregon does. There need be no fear of overproduction. The consumption of fruits increases every year, and there is ready sale for all first-class fruits put on the market. The enlarged use of fruit is due to two important factors : First — For several years past our fresh and evaporated fruits liave reached the mining and manufacturing centers never reaclieu before, and within the homes of families which, where exorbitant prices were the rule, could not afford to buy fruit, and in extent an almost unlimited foreign market, especially for our superior apples. It is well known tliat the ap-Ve is to the fruits what the potato is to the vegetable line. — wlierever once iirtiOduced it is there to stay. Second — The doctors, aided by the medical press, are strongly advocating the consumption of fruits to promote health, not only in America, but abroad. Doctor Bentzer, of Germany, the noted specialist, and Dr. Sophie Lepper. tlie great I^^nglish food specialist, give their emphatic indorsement of fruit as hygienic agents. Doctor Bentzer dwells particularly on the apple, and de- clares that an apple eaten immediately before bedtime will promote general healtli ; its dietical as well as alimentary substances are of tlie highest order : it contains more phosphoric acid in an easily digestible combination than any other vegetable product. While Dr. Sophie Lepper says : "Apples supply the higher nerve and muscle food, but do not give stay : prunes afford the higliest nerve and brain food, supply heat and waste, but are not muscle feeding ; wal- nuts give nerve and brain food, muscle, heat, and waste." What a happy com- bination, apples, prunes and walnuts. The era of higli, exorbitant prices has past, and we do not want it to re- turn, for when prices advance consumption decreases, which is not desirable. It has been demonstrated time and again that prunes at 4 cents and apples and pears at 75 cents a box of forty pounds, the lowest price ever paid for merchantable fruit, will net the grower $100 to .$1.50 an acre for an orchard in full bearing : while we know that good choice marketable apples and pears for export trade sell from $1 to $2 per box. It could stand a considerable reduction from the first figures named and still leave horticulture more profitable than other agricultural pursuits. While waiting for his orchard to bear, which usually takes from five to eight years, the orchardist lias an avenue of profit opened to him in the grow- ing and marketing of small fruits. The demand for strawberries, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries for home consumption, for export, and for canning establishments is very large, and is seldom met by the supply. Many carloads cf these fruits, especially strawberries, as stated heretofore, are shipped every year to the mining and stock-raising districts of Idaho. Montana, North and Soutii Dakota, and Wyoming. Shipments of these berries are often made to St. Paul and Omaha ; yes, even to Chicago, yielding most Horticulture in Oregon. 225 gratifying results. If the small fruits are given proper care and sent to the market in good condition, they bring in sufficient money to meet the family expenses. Even after the orchard begins to bear there is noth'ng to prevent the orchardist from having two crops — berries in the spring and early summer. and tree fruit in the fall ; thus dividing the labor and at the same time doubling the profit. In some parts of Oregon orchardists plant beans between the rows of young trees. This crop yields a net profit of from $20 to $30 per acre. Horticulture on a large scale offers exceptionally fine opportunities. An orchard conducted on this plan is termed a commercial orchard, of which we have a number in Southern and Eastern Oregon, principally growing apples, and but few growing exclusively pears. One commercial apple orchard shipped eighty car loads of Yellow Newtown and Jonathan apples to Europe alone. Prune orchards vary from five to twenty acres, and are to be found in alt parts of the State. A noted agriculturist said that "most farmers who have been raised on. a farm know how to do good farming. They know how to save and apply manure ; how to mellow the stubborn soil with plow, harrow, and cultivator : know the value of good seed, the proper time to sow, and the quantity required. They understand the necessary drainage ; the rotation of crops, and green manuring. Most farmers know how to do good farming, but they do not farm so well as they know how. Why don't they farm as well as they know how? They lack the proper pride. They have too little ambition." What has- been said here of farming in general applies with equal force to horticulture. Ambition is the vital force which prompts great deeds and moves the world. How to excite this enthusiasm and put this power into action is a question tO' be considered and solved by the progressive orchardist. In tliese days of push and advancement one of the principal essentials to success is the ability to do the right thing at the right time. This ability is absolutely necessary for the success of every one. It manifests 'tself in the individual by keen per- ception, sound judgment, practical knowledge of business, enthusiasm, and a determination to profit by every opportunity that presents itself. Lord Beacons- field said, "The great secret of success in life is to be ready when the oppor- tunity comes." I have said that fruit-growing is not only healthful, but more profitable than any other agricultural pursuit, and while it is conceded that all the various fruits can be grown to perfection in Oregon, the liighest success can only be ob- tained by the intelligent, painstaking orchardist. The man who thinks that all that is necessary, even in this favored State, is to scratch the ground, throw in his trees in a haphazard way, with an occasional plowing or harrowing, and let it go at that, will soon find himself very much undeceived. Brains are as essential on the farm and in the orchard as in the office or counting room. When Meissonier, the great French artist, was asked how he succeeded in paint- ing such beautiful pictures, replied : "I mix my colors with brains." The way lies through intelligent investigation of markets and methods, the application of brains to the agricultural and horticultural problems. We must study to please the tastes and notions of the world's consumers, and must avail ourselves of the researches of the biologist, the bacteriologist, the entomologist, and the investi- gations of the expert in crops and market conditions. Uninformed and unen- lightened labor is at a great disadvantage these days of sharp trading and scientific adaptation of means to ends. ESTIMATED COST OF AN ORCHARD. For some years past a great demand has been made by parties who contem- plate planting orchards for information as to the cost of planting an orchard and getting it into bearing condition, and the income to be expected during that period. I had taken steps to obtain as much reliable information as pos- sible on the subject. Many of our oldest, conservative and most reliable fruit- HOR. 15 226 Appendix. growers were asked to give the cost and product of their orchards up to the eighth year. It will be seen from the estimates given that the cost and product varies considerably. This is accounted for by the fact that the price of land varies according to location and its condition when bought, and in some cases there is additional expense caused by subsoiling, more thorough preparation of the soil before planting, more careful selection of trees, more thorough cultiva- tion and spraying, while some allow a certain percentage of loss of trees and an occasional off year. Yet, by malting due allowance for drawbacks, exer- cising the proper judgment in the selection of soil for the varieties to be plant- ed, and giving the proper treatment to the orchard from the time it is planted, it will be seen that an orchard is a safe and profitable investment. Careless- ness in any branch will not pay in orchard work. Business principles must be employed in every department. The following estimates include the cost up to the seventh year, or when the trees have six years' bearing wood, and are from various sections of Oregon': COST OF A PEACH ORCHARD NEAR ASHLAND. By Max Pracht^ Ashland, Southern Oregon. As regards the cost and care to the age of seven years, I beg to say that my own experience as to the cost is not a true criterion, f om the fact that for live years after setting out, my orchard was cared for by persons employed by me, but working under my orders, while I was engaged in other occupations. I will give, however, a very nearly accurate estimate of the cost of a peach ■orchard, taking the ground in the brush and until it comes to profitable bearing, which, by my method of cutting back is not until the fifth year after setting out, or, say six years from the bud. Good peach soil is light, porous, snarly, warm and easily cultivated land, neither springy nor boggy, such as our de- composed granite, and must be on a sloping hillside, with an exposure to any point of the compass, except due west, or proportionately such as near west from north to south. The best range is from northwest to south, at least such is my experience here. Having selected the location, choosing — I.,and, per acre $100 00 Cost of cleaning and grubbing, per acre 30 00 Cost of plowing and subsoiling, per acre 5 00 Cost of laying out and digging holes, per acre 8 00 < 'ost of trees and setting out 20 00 Cost of pruning and shaping first year 1 00 Cost of fencing orchard must be added, varying with the style of fence, size and shape of orchard, estimiated at 16 00 Total cost at end of first year $180 00 SECOND YEAK. Amount forward $180 00 IMovving, cultivating, and pruning, per acre 10 00 Replacing sickly or ill-shapen trees, per acre 2 00 I>igging for and exterminating borers, per acre 1 00 Interest at 10 per cent on $180 18 00 Total cost end of second year $211 00 THIRD YEAR. Amount forward $211 00 Plowing, cultivating, and pruning, per acre 10 00 Replacing sickly trees, per acre 1 00 I )igging borers 1 00 Interest at 10 per cent on $211 21 00 Total cost end of third year $244 00 Horticulture in Oregon. 221 FOURTH YEAR. Amount forward i $244 00 Plowning, cultivating and pruning, per acre 10 00 Digging borers 1 00 Interest at 10 per cent on $244 24 40 Total cost end of fourth year $279 40 FIFTH YEAR. Amount forward $279 40 Plowing, cultivating, and pruning, per acre 10 0(i Digging borers and slack liming 5 00 Hand thinning fruit 1 00 Interest on $279 27 90 Total cost end of fifth year $323 30 We now have as the cost per acre of an orchard of not less than ten acres and in perfect condition, at the end of the fifth year, the first year of market bearing, $323.30. These trees should produce each an average of twenty pounds of marketable fruit, worth not less than 21^ cents per pound and up to 41/, cents, say 50 cents per tree, one hundred and sixty to the acre. $80 ; culls and scrubs for home consumption, $10 : total revenue at the end of first year, age or orchard five years, $90. From this time on the annual increase of productive capacity may be rated at one box or twenty pounds per tree to the eighth year, when an orchard in prime condition should mature an average of eighty pounds or four boxes per tree ; and with trees one rod apart, properly dwarfed, this output should not be exceeded, so as to conserve the vigor and life of the tree ; by which method in this locality a peach tree is good for twenty years of profitable life, and will bring at least two dollars per year. From these estimates of cost, any one can figure out the progressive cost of maintaining the orchard, figuring out the net profit at the end of each season. I have purposely left out the items of taxes, as they vary so much, but are not high. During the fourth year, tlirough no income from sale of fruit is shown, there will be enough peaches, which may be safely left on the trees, for home consumption. The cost of picking, packing, and marketing is not shown in the estimate, because the price named, i. e., 2i^ cents per pound, is a price at whicli prime fruit is always salable on the tree to first-class buyers who will harvest and market on their own account. COST OF AN APPLE ORCHARD OUT NEAR GRANTS PASS. By A. H. Carson, Grants Pass, Southern Oregon. We have found in fifteen years' experience the following to be the cost of planting and caring for an orchard up to the seventh year. Apples — one acre : DR. To plowing and preparing ground $ 3 00 To 69 trees two years old at 121/? cents each. 25x25 feet apart 8 63 To one day's work work planting and laying off ground 2 00 To cultivating and pruning seven years at $6 42 00 Total cost on one acre to seventh year $55 63 CR. By 69 boxes of apples at 50 cents up to seventh year 34 40 Net cost per acre $21 23 It is seen from tlie foregoing, the profits of an apple orchard up to the seventh year are on tlie wrong side of the account, but we now liave 't at the age when it will begin to pay. The eighth year, if the trees are in good ground. 228 Appendix. they should produce four boxes of apples to the tree. As the orchard increases in age the expense of cultivation, spraying, and pruning increases : but if the orchard is cared for each year tlie maximum cost for cultivation, spraying, and pruning, will not be greater any year than $10 per acre. Then the maximum production of the orchard each year is hard to estimate, but after an apple orchard is nine years old, one year with another, the average pro- duction would not be less than ten boxes per tree, or six hundred and ninety- boxes to the acre. (A box of apples contains one bushel.) COST OF A PRUNE ORCHARD IN POLK COUNTY. By James R. Sheppaed, Zena, Willamette Valley, West Side. I estimate the cost of ten acres planted to prunes, twenty feet apart, under ordinary conditions, as follows : DR. Eleven hundred yearling trees (110 per acre) at 6 cents $ G6 00 Preparation of land — plowing and cultivation 20 <•«) Setting out 1,100 trees at 1 cent each 11 i>'> Cultivation and care, first year* Cultivation and care, second year* Cultivation and care, third year (no other crop) 30 Oo Cultivation and care fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh years 120 00 Total cost ) . . ) $247 OO CR. Fourth year, one-third bushel of prunes per tree at 60 cents per bushel. . . .$220 00 Fifth year, one-half bushel of prunes per tree at 60 cents per bushel 330 on Which gradually increases until the eighth year, when the trees are in full bearing and will yield from two to three bushels of prunes per tree. In some instances these figures will be doubled, in others reduced. It will be observed my estimates are very conservative, and no one need do worse, provided he uses ordinary care and Judgment ; but very much depends on lo- cation, soil, etc. I think a net profit — after seven years of age — of $100 per acre is not at all an extravagant estimate at present prices, say 5 cents per pound, evaporated prunes. An occasional off year must be reckoned, say one in four for Italian prunes, and one in eight for Petites, or French prunes. Esti- mates of $300 to $500 per acre are misleading. I think, though, much better has occasionally been done under very high prices and favorable condifons. My estimate presupposes proper pruning. Where land is well cultivated, but no pruning is done, a bushel per tree the fourth year may be cancelled,, but the tree is injured thereby. COST OF A PRUNE ORCHARD NEAR SALEM. By R. D. Allex, Silverton, Willamette Valley, East Side. FIRST YEAR. Cost of trees, per acre $10 00 Planting same 3 Oo I'lowing ground, one foot deep, and subsoiling eight inches 4 Oo Harrowing and cultivating, eight times 2 40 Hoeing around trees 60 Total cost first year $20 OO *No charge for cultivation and care first and second years, as it is more than offset by potato or bean crops raised between the rows in those years. Horticulture in Oregon. 229 SECOND YEAR. Interest on land at $50 per acre at 10 per cent $ 5 00 Interest on previous year's expenses, at 10 per cent 2 00 Plowing 3 00 Harrowing and cultivating, eiglit times 2 40 Hoeing around trees 60 Pruning and removing borers 1 00 Total cost second year $14 00 THIRD YEAR. Interest on land $ 5 00 Interest on expenses .3 40 Plowing 3 00 Harrowing and cultivating, ei? Jt times 2 40 Hoeing around trees 1 OO Pruning and removing boers 1 50 Pruning and removing boers 1 50 FOURTH YEAR. Interest on land $ 5 00 Interest on expenses 5 00 Plowing 3 00 Harrowing and cultivating, eiglit times 2 40 Hoeing around trees 1 00 Pruning and removing borers 2 00 Total cost fourtli year $180 40 FIFTH YEAR. Interest on land .'. $ 5 00 Interest on expenses 6 87 Plowing 3 00 Harrowing and cultivating, eight times 2 40 Hoeing around trees l 1 00 Pruning and removing boers 2 00 Total cost for five years $88 97 Total cast for five years $88 97 The above is without first cost of land, and taxes being included. COST OF AN ORCHARD NEAR NBWBERG. By C. E. HosKiNS^ Springbrook, Tualatin Plains. Much depends on the location, quality of soil, and tools used in planting, cultivating, etc.. of orchards as handled in Oregon. The difference between the owner and hired help would in many cases be 25 per cent. EXPENSE BILL PER ACRE. Plowing, subsoiling, cultivating, etc $ 7 50 Trees, planting, cultivating, etc 16 00 Second year, cultivating 5 00 Third year, cultivation, trimming trees, etc 6 00 Fourth year, cultivation, trimming trees, etc 7 00 Fifth year, cultivation, trimming, etc 8 00 Sixth year, cultivation, trimming, etc 8 00 Seventh year, cultivation, trimming, etc 8 00 Eightli year, cultivation, trimming, etc 8 00 Total $73 50 230 Appendix. AMOUNT OF FRUIT FROM ONE HUNDRED TREES. APPLES, PEARS, ETC. Fifth year 1,500 pounds Sixth vear 3,000 pounds Seventh year 6.000 to 9,000 pounds Eighth year 12,000 to 15,000 pounds PRUNES, PLUMS, ETC. Fourth year 1.000 pounds Fifth year .S.OOO pounds Sixth year 6,000 pounds Seventh year 9.000 pounds Eighth year 12,000 pounds The above is without the original cost of land, interest, taxes, loss of trees, etc. COST OF AN ORCHARD IN GRAND RONDE VALLEY. By James Hendershott, Cove, Eastern Oregon. I can only approximate the cost, as I have never kept an expense bill. After planting, 5 cents per tree will cover all expenses up to four years old. After trees are four years old, they will yield a profit to the grower. My prune trees are now twelve years old. They averaged this year 280 pounds. Peach plums, same age, averaged 326 pounds. Apples, same age, averaged 490 pounds. The man who asserts his prunes produce 1,000 pounds to the tree exagger- ates for what money there is in it. If apples can be kept sound, they will pay 100 per cent more than prunes. COST OF AN APPLE ORCHARD IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. By E. L. Smith, President State Board of Horticulture, Hood River, Eastern Oregon. I believe the following is a close approximation for an orchai'd of ten acres : Four hundred and eighty trees planted in squares 30x30 feet, at 10 cents each $48 00 Digging holes and planting 480 trees, at 6 cents each 28 80 Cultivating with spring-tooth harrow three times each way, one year, eight days, at .^3.50 .$28 00 Cultivating with weed exterminator, twice each way, one year, four days, at $3.50 14 00 Pruning, average per year 20 00 Hoeing about base of trees 10 00 Resetting trees, etc 5 00 Total for one year $77 00 Cost for four years 308 00 Add plowing and cultivating second and third year 40 00 Grand total to five years $424 80 This estimate on the supposition that the ground was plowed, harrowed, and ready for planting. No estimate is made for spraying, as it is believed that the fruit the fourth year will fully cover that expense. I have not made an allowance for interest on value of land or for taxes, as no general rule can be followed, both varying greatly. The fifth year the orchard will pay expenses and usually leave a margin of profit. Last year, 1903, a young seven year old orchard of fifteen acres, paid me a profit of $100 per acre, not deducting irterest and taxes. Horticulture in Oregon, 231 V ESTIMATED COST OP A VINEYARD— WILLAMETTE VALLEY. By WiLBER K. Newell, DiUey, West Side. The expense of starting a vineyard is large, and sliould be well consid- ered before planting. Land per acre .$50 On Plowing, good and deep 2 5o Harrowing : 1 0<» Digging holes 15 00 Stakes S 00 Planting 12 oo Eight hundred vines, at 4 cents each 32 0(^ Cultivating first season, eight times 8 00 Hoeing twice 3 00 Tieing to stakes and pinching back laterals 4 00 Total $135 00 SECOND YEAR. Pruning in winter if 2 50 Plowing, cultivating, hoeing, and for season 20 00 22 50 Total $158 00 THIRD YEAR TRELLIS WILL COST : Wire $ 5 00 Posts 22 50 Setting posts and stretching wire 15 00 .$42 00 Pruning, cultivation, etc., for season 25 00 G7 00 Grand total $225 00 These figures are certainly as low as good work can be done for. It is generally considered that an acre of grapes in full beaing has cost very nearly $500 ; but as the crop should pay its own way after the third year, I do not count the expense beyond that time. Grapes should be in full bearing at eight or nine years, and with proper care continue for fifty and 100 years, so there is ample compensation for the heavy expense of getting started. A fair, average yield per acre would be about four tons. If it falls below three tons there is something seriously wrong with the grower or his vineyard. It is hard to find more delightful work than the care of a vineyard, and where there is a family it is an ideal occupation. All the foregoing estimates are by actual fruitgrowers, who make their living by growing fruits, and are not mere theorists, to which I may add my own testimony, that the net profits from my prune orchard ranged from $100 to $200 per acre, according to the price for the evaporated product. My pear orchard never netted me less than $110 per acre, my apple and cherry trees doing much better than either, possibly because they are older. Before leaving this subject I want to say a few words about berries and their culture. Every orchardist should grow berries by way of diversified fruit- growing, or as a by-product, so to speak. The labor and harvest coming before- the larger fruits come into market and require all the fruitgrower's attention. They come into market when the farmer has little else to sell and bring in ready cash at a time when the exchequer is liable to be pretty low. The demand for berries has never been fully supplied, especially of rasp- berries, blackberries, and currants, followed by the strawberry, for shipping to the distant markets. All berries do well here, as is evidenced by the fact that wild berries grow to perfection and in great abundance and variety in Oregon. We might name as profitable berries the currant, gooseberry, blackberry, rasp- berry, Lucretia dewberry, mulberry, cranberry, strawberry. Loganberry in the various varieties. It is not necessary to enter into the detail of soil, care. 232 Appendix. planting, and varieties most profitable, as this information can be liad to tlie minutest detail from the fifth, sixth, and seventh reports of the State Board of Horticulture. First of all, farmers everywhere should grow berries for family use. Farmers must grow berries or do without. No one can grow them so cheaply as he. He gets them at first cost, fresh from the vine, and to the extent of his own family, has the best market in the world — a home market. He can select the best land location on his own farm, and is sure of a profit with half a crop. The growing of berries for family use is easily done. The growing of berries on a large scale and for market, either for city use, shipment, or cannei-y establishments, requires more care, skill, and business tact. The grow- ing of berries offers a special field for women who are dependant upon their own efforts for support of self and possibly a family. Our large cities, adjacent mining regions, and canning establishments offer excellent markets for berries at remunerative prices. MARKETS. The natural question following, and perhaps the first one to be asked by the intending orchardist and intell.gent investor is, "Where will you find a market for all this fruit?"' a very pertinent question to ask, and one which requires an honest reply. For some years past, as a member of the State Board of Horticulture, I have been convinced that this board should enlarge its scope of usefulness by reach- ing out to seeK reliable information regarding the fruit crops in other States likely to come into competition with out own fruits in the world's markets, as well as to seek new fields for our own choice fruits. With this object in view. I entered into correspondence with the experiment stations. State boards of horticulture, -lorticultural scoieties, and the principal fruitgrowers and dealers throughout the I'nited States, as well as the American consuls in all the various fruit-growing districts in Germany, France, England. Russia. Austria, Hungary. Turkey, Italy. Belgium, Sweden, Holland. Chinese Empire, and Japan. The subject of markets is perhaps the most serious problem confronting the fruit-grower, and when we look over the large area that has been planted to fruit, and is still being planted throughout the fruit districts of tlie United States and Canada, we can not help speculating what to do with all these fruits, especially in a good fruit year. There is perhaps no fruit which is miore universally planted than the apple, owing to the fact that the apple is par excellence the commercial fruit of the world, and if it were not for the further fact that winter apples and apples which stand ocean transportation are grown comparatively in few localities, we would soon become overstocked. Oregon is especially favored in this respect, as the apples grown in this State have not only excellent keeping qualities, but are well adapted for ocean transportation. By reason of these investigations Eastern dealers became familiar with our fruits, which now are to be found in all the larger cities of America and €anada, but my main efforts were directed to foreign markets, being a larger sind more profitable field, and in which we have succeeded admirably, as will be seen by market quotations and sales given later on. My attention was first drawn to this matter when the Chamber of Com- merce of Portland honored me as a delegate to the Nicaragua Canal Convention, which was held in New Orleans in November, 1892, and there in conversation with representatives from South American Republics. I learned that these Avould be a good market for northern grown fruits, if freight rates could be arranged. Again my attention was called to it in a letter I received from the American Consul in Manchester, England, stating that a lot of Rogue River apples had found their way there, and that finer apples were never seen, and buyers wanted to contract for the entire output of this man's crop, which was 4,000 boxes in 1808, and all were shipped to that point. In this connection the New York Journal of Commerce says : "A large increase in the shipment Horticulture in Oregon. 233 of Pacific Coast apples abroad by way of New Yorli is a noteworthy feature of the friut trade, and is exciting no little interest ; large quantities of New- town Pippins in boxes weighing fifty pounds net, grown on the Pacific Coast, principally in Oregon, have been sent to this city of late, in carload lots, and from New York have been sent directly abroad." But it is not England alone, there is a growing market in Germany and France for our fruit. My advices from consuls and clerks are very enthusiastic and encouraging. Mr. Cunningham. Consul in Chemnatz, Germany, a large manufacturing center, writes to me : "I wish I had time to detail to you the desires of the people here for our fruits. Germans hunger for our fruits — apples before all others, etc." In France we have a promising market for our Oregon (Italian) prunes and for apple "chops." Mr. Joseph I. Brittain, Consul at Nantes, France, writes to me : "There is a large demand for evaporated apples, known as 'chops.' These apples, which are the lowest grade of windfalls, are sliced thin and dried, in- cluding skins, seeds and core. They are packed in plain barrels. The poorer classes use large quantities of these apples for making an apple wine, known as 'piquette.' Last season one firm imported 12,000 barrels of apple chops, at a cost of 7 cents per pound." Mr. Albion W. Tourgee, Consul at Bordeaux, France, says in this connection, that two years ago thirty-five million gallons of this piquette were used, which increased to fifty million gallons last year ; and as it takes one pound of chops to one gallon of piquette, it means fifty million pounds of apple chops, or 2,.'j00 car loads. And so are all other reports of foreign States, many stating that instead of exporting as heretofore, they were now importing more and more each season. 1'here is also a market for our French prunes, Petite d'Agen. Shortly after my return from Japan last fall, Mr Martineau, representing the firm of A. E. Mouling, Bordeaux, France, called on me regarding the purchase of prunes, and in our conversation I learned that he wanted the French prune as grown here, saying that he could not use the California French prune, as they were sundried. He preferred our "evaporated" French prune.s as being more like their own ; in fact were sold in France as the French product. Latest advices from Berlin, Germany, say : "In view of the circular sent by the German government to the chambers of commerce and other bodies, inquiring as to the desirability of a duty on fruit, the Society of Hamburg Fruit Dealers, has adopted a resolution declaring emphatically that American fruit is indispensable there, and protesting energetically against a duty." To illustrate how this European market has developed, I may state that in the season 1890-1000, the Pacific Coast — principally Oregon — shipped via New York 149,515 boxes of apples, distributed among foreign ports as follows : To Liverpool 58,022 boxes To London 70,724 boxes To Glasgow 13,118 boxes To Hamburg 4,826 boxes To Hull 1,925 boxes These apples brought in the English markets an average price of 11 shillings per box, according to variety and condition, and in the German markets 12 marks — being about .f3 per box. This demand increased from year to year, until it has I'eached shipments over four hundred and fifty thousand boxes to Europe the past season. The entire output for the year 1903 in Oregon was : Apples .? 640,000 Pears 148.500 Prunes 900,000 Peaches 75,000 Cherries 35.000 Grapes 50.000 Strawberries and other small fruits 652,500 Grand total $2,501,000 234 Appendix. In addition to tliese markets, we have the Orient, not only our new acqui- sitions of Hawaai and Philippine Islands, but Japan, China, and Russian pos- sessions. Hon. W. II. Seward, in a speech delivered in the United States Senate as far back as 1852, said: '"The Pacific Ocean, its shores, its islands, and the vast region beyond, will become the chief theater of events in the world's great hereafter." This hereafter is here right now, perhaps much sooner than this great statesman anticipated, but he did not know then that he was standing at the threshold of an electrical age, where events pass with lightning rapidity, and what is new to-day is old to-morrow. The new fields opened out to us offer an exceptional opportunity for the promoter. The first authentic statistics we have showing the exportation of fresh fruits to Oriental markets is the year 1898, and were as follows : British East India. $12,340; British Australia, $260,611; other Asiatic possessions and Oceanic, $147,151; Hong Kong, $67,718; others parts of China. $23,761: Japan, 22,713. These exports have more than quadrupled since. In conver- sation with the various American consuls, especially in Japan, they assured me repeatedly that the demand and consumption for our fruits was increasing steadily. While at Yokohama I saw five-tier apples sold at $5 and $6 per box ; at Kobe an inferior lot in damaged condition brought $3.50 per box. so eager were those people for our fresh apples, and yet these latter boxes of apples would not have sold for 50 cents here. All these are markets of great importance, which should and must be cultivated, and as we have little or no competition, they are practically our own. I am firmly convinced that in these districts alone there is a field for operation that will absorb all the sur- plus fruit raised in the Pacific Northwest. But in reaching out for these foreign markets, we must concentrate our strength, ship only flrst-class fruits, honestly graded, honestly packed, and honestly labeled. To do otherwise, is commercial suicide. In a recent address at a fruitgrowers' convention the President of the State Horticultural Society of Oregon said : "Looking over the whole State, then, may we not summarize and add that among the varied resources of the great commonwealth of Oregon, potent in its capacity for contributing to the national development of the State to its proper position as one of the foremost States in the Union, it is not at all too much to say that fruit-growing, if not destined to take the first rank, is certainly capable of being expanded into the equal of any. Neither Oregon's forests, its mines, its fisheries, its farms, dairies, cattle ranges, sheep walks, nor its manufactories will, in their future growth, be entitled to outrank its orchards if proper methods are adopted by the horti- culturists of the State." "Here, under the peculiar climatic conditions by which we are surrounded, blessed as we are by fertile and responsive soil, is, as has been fully demon- strated, the natural habitat of the apple, the pear, the quince, the plum and the prune, in all its varieties. Here, in select localities, flourish the peach, the apricot, the almond and walnut. Here, under intelligently considered con- ditions, the grape, the fig, the pomegranate, the medlar pear, the Japanese persimmon grow to maturity, ripen and become useful and agreeable adjuncts of the farm and home. Melons and berries are at home here ; and in sh(n-t, it may be said that, excepting the citrus and semi-tropical fruits, Oregon offers to the fruitgrower an exceptionally attractive field for the exercise of all his faculties in this important and most attractive branch of business of the tiller of the soil." I am firmly of the opinion that with our new acquisitions in the Orient, the markets of Japan and China now fairly opened to us, and that as soon as the I'anama canal is finished, in the construction and completion of which we here in Oregon are particularly interested, it will bring about great results for the Oregon farmer and fruitgrower. Meats have been transported in cold- Insecticides and Fungicides. 235 storage steamers through all climes and to every land, and so will our fresh fruits. Tramp steamers which are now traversing our seas in every direction, seeking cargoes from everywhere to anywhere, will crowd our docks, eager to carry our fresh fruits to the markets of the world, and competition will make freights low enough to allow a good margin to the grower. Those having orchards, or who are now planting, or contemplate planting, will certainly be largely benefited when this great canal, this missing link, this national maritime highway, which is an imperative necessity for the Pacific Northwest, opening to the Mexican Gulf, to the entire Mississippi Valley and the States on the Atlantic seaboard, not only the reciprocal interchange among ourselves, but the whole commercial world, shall be completed, the practica- bility of which is conceded by all who have given the question any thought. A properly planted out apple orchard, considering the best marketable varieties, and all other essential elements entering into it to make it a success, yes, even a prune orchard as a good second, offers today a better field for in- vestment of money and brains than any other commercial enterprise, with the additional advantage of living close to nature, as our Creator intended for us to live, with its outdoor, healthful, live-giving exercise and ideal existence. Oregon offers all these advantages and is capable of furnishing happy and contented homes in regions of beautiful and majestic landscape, and unsur- passed climate for millions of people, and which in our just estimation will be the richest operating field of the brain and sinew of the rising generation, the yeomen of our national supremacy. Let it be remembered that a happy and prosperous citizenship is the controlling force and the reserve power of our government, and all that contributes to the general welfare and happiness of the citizens, strengthens the bulwarks of our enduring nationality. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. By Prof. A B. CoedleYj Entomologist, Oregan Agricultural Experiment Station. Brief directions for their preparation and use, including spraying, dusting, fumigating, etc. INTRODUCTION. None of the crops of orchard, garden or field ; none of our domestic animals ; practically none of our food product, household effects or wearing apparel but are subject to the ravages of insects or fungi, or both. Even man, himself, is subject to great personal annoyance and even disease by these ever present agencies. The financial losses caused by such ravages are enormous. Sonie years ago. Dr. C. V. Riley, at that time the greatest authority on economic entomology, estimated the average annual loss in the United States from the ravages of in- sects alone at not less than 10 per cent of the total value of all crops grown — a tax upon agriculture much greater than the combined levies for the support of schools and the maintenance of our municipal, county, state and national governments. The estimate is none too high. I have observed that a tax levied by insects or fungi which does not greatly exceed 10 per cent of the value of the crop rarely attracts attention. A loss of 25, 50 or 75 per cent is necessary to awaken us to a realization of the fact that something is wrong. Much of this loss can be prevented — the tax levy can be reduced — some of it by proper agricultural practices, some by the selection of resistant varieties of the crops to be grown, some by the intelligent use of insecticides and fungi- cides. 236 Appendix. It is the purpose of this bulletin to give brief directions for the preparation of the most important insecticides and fungicides that have been tested by ex- periment station w^orkers and found useful, prefacing these directions by such ref- ♦^rences to the nature of insects and fungi as may be necessary to an under- standing of the general principles which underlie the successful use of the various compounds mentioned. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES. To understand the general principle which underlies the selection of the proper remedy to be used for any particular insect, one has only to know that practically all insects may be divided into two great groups. Group I. — This includes all Insects that have biting mouth parts — mandibu- late insects — and which actually chew and swallow the tissues of the plant or other substance upon which they feed. Grasshoppers, caterpillars, flea-beetles, striped cucumber-beetles, codling moth larvae, etc., are good examples of this group. Group II.- — This includes all insects with beak-like sucking mouth parts — haustellate insects — which pierce the plant or animal upon which they feed and suck up its juices or blood but neither chew nor swallow any of the structural tissues. The apple-tingis, woolly-aphis, hop-louse, green apple-aphis, black cherry- aphis, San Jose scale, etc., are good example of this group. In general, insects which belong to group I may be poisoned by sprinkling or dusting the surface of the plant upon which they feed with some poisonous substance ; but insects which belong to group II cannot be so poisoned since they securetheir food from beneath the surface and cannot be made to eat the poison. They must be destroyed by gases, washes, or other substances which act externally upon their bodies. All insecticide substances may therefore be arranged into two general groups. Group I — Food Poisons. — This group includes, principally, the various arsen- icals, such as Paris green, London purple, Scheele's green, arsenite of soda, ar- senate of lead. etc. These poisons are all valuable against insects which belong to group I and feed exposed upon the surface of plants but are practically value- less against those of group II. Group II — Contact Insecticides. — This group includes a great variety of sub- stances which act externally upon the bodies of insects either as mechanical irirtants or caustics, or to smother them by closing their breathing pores, or to fill the air about them with poisonous gases, or simply as repellants. Soap, sul- phur, tobacco, insect powder, hellebore, kerosene, kerosene emulsions, crude pe- troleum, the lime-sulphur-salt wash, resin washes, hydrocyanic acid gas, and car- bon bisulphide are some of the most valuable insecticides of this group. These are used successfully not only against sucking insects but many of them are also used against biting insects when for any reason it is undesirable to use poisons ; or when it is impossible to apply poisons directly to the food supply, as in the case of insects which work beneath the surface of the soil, or as borers or miners in wood, leaf or fruit, or in stored products, or as animal parasites, or household pests. FUNGI AND FUNGICIDES. A fungus is a plant as truly as is the apple tree, the prune tree, the wheat plant or any other plant upon which it may be growing. It differs from the common plants essentially in being much more simple in structure and in being devoid of chlorophyll — the green coloring matter of plants. Its seeds, which are called spores, are more simple and very much smaller than the smallest seeds of our common plants and are produced in almost inconceivably great numbers. The vegetative portion of the fungus, the part which, in a sense, corresponds to the roots, stems and leaves of ordinary plants, the part which absorbs the food materials and eventually produces the spores, consists of a mass of more or less branched, white or colorless, and very minute threads and is called the mycelium. Insecticides and Fungicides. 237 Being so small and light, the spores are readily carried long distancef? by the wind, are washed about by the rains, and are also carried by birds and in- sects and probably by other agencies. These agencies are thus largely responsible for the spread of fungous diseases from leaf to leaf, plant to plant, or orchard to orchard. Over greater distances the spores may be carried on shipments of in- fested nursery stock, fresh fruits, vegetables, seeds, etc. Should a spore fall upon suitable soil, such as the surface of leaf or fruit, and the conditions of heat and moisture be favorable, it will germinate — push our a delicate, slender germ-tube. In the case of most parasitic fungi this germ- tube soon penetrates the apidermis of the leaf or fruit and the mycelium de- velops in the underlying tissues entirely beyond the reach of fungicides. In some cases, however, the mycelium spreads over the surface of the plant. In other words, fungi, like insects, may be divided into two groups, as follows : Group I — Internal Fungi. — This includes those fungi in which the germ-tube penetrates the skin of leaf, fruit, branch or root and the mycelium develops entirely within the tissues of the host plant. Apple-tree anthracnose, brown- rot, the grain-smuts and rusts, the downy-mildews, for all practical purposes apple-scab, and many others may be included in this group. The philosophy of spraying for this group of fungus diseases is based upon the fact that they cannot be cured, but can be prevented. The germ-tube must be destroyed be- fore it penetrates the epidermis and to do this the surface of the host must be thoroughly protected by the fungicide during the entire time the spores are germinating. Group II — External Ftivgi. — This includes those fungi in which the mycelium spreads over the surface of the host. This group includes but comparatively few serious pests. Perhaps the one that has attracted most attention in this State is the powdery-mildew of gooseberries. The powdery-mildews of the grape and of the rose also belong to this group. These diseases may be prevented by proper fungicidal treatment the same as diseases of group I and in addition they may also be cured by such treatment. The mycelium being exposed upon the surface of the host may be reached and killed by the proper fungicides. INSECTICIDES. GROUP I — FOOD POISONS. 1. PARIS GREEN. This is used more extensively than any other poison. It has largely sup- planted London purple but is, in turn, being supplanted by various other com- pounds of arsenic. Pure, it is among the mose reliable of insecticides, but has the disadvantage that it is a rather coarse crystalline substance which settles rapidly to the bottom of the spray-tank unless the contents are kept thoroughly stirred. For codling moth, bud moth, tent caterpillars and many other insects of group I it is generally used as a spray in the following proportions : Paris green 1 pound Quick lime 2 pounds Water 160-200 gallons Slake the lime, stir the poison into a thin paste with a little water, then strain the mixture through a sieve into a tank containing the required amount of water. If it is desired to spray for both fungi and insects, Bordeaux mixture (22 or 2.3) may be used in place of the water in the above formula. For peach or other tender foliage 300 gallons of water or Bordeaux should be used. It is necessary to keep this mixture well stirred while spraijiini. Owing to the excessive cost of Paris green and the difficulty of keeping it in suspension in the liquid, various other compounds of white arsenc — arsenious acid — are now extensively used in its place. In solution, arsenic is extremely injurious to foliage. It is, therefore, necessary that it be combined with other 238 Appendix. substances which will pi'event the injury. Of these combinations. I have had the best results with the lime-arsenic-soda or Kedzie mixture which was first recommended by Dr. R. C. Kedzie of the Michigan Experiment Station. It is prepared as follows : 2. Arsenite of Soda. White arsenic 1 pound Sal soda 4 to 5 pounds Water 2 gallons Boil together 15 minutes, or until a clear solution is formed. This stock solution may be placed in jars, labeled poison, and kept indefinitely. Use from 1 to IU2 quarts of this stock solution and 4 to 6 pounds of freshly slaked lime to each 50 galloi 3 of water. Bordeaux mixture (22 or 23) may be used to ad- vantage in place of the water whenever it is desired to use a combined insecticide and fungicide. Another method of using white arsenic is as follows : 3. Arsenite of Lime. White arsenic 1 pound Quick lime 2 pounds Water 2 gallons Slake the lime and then boil the ingredients together for an hour. For use, dilute with 300-400 gallons of Bordeaux mixture (22 or 23). I have used this formula sucessfuUy but find that in this climate injury to the foliage is very likely to occur unless great care be exercised in its preparation. 4. Arsenate of Lead. Arsenate of soda 4 ounces Acetate of lead 11 ounces Water 25 to 50 gallons Dissolve the arsenate of soda in two quarts and the acetate of lead in four quarts of warm water. When dissolved add them to the 150 gallons of water. This formula is especially valuable for spraying very delicate foliage or for use against insects which are killed only by large amounts of poison, since it can be used upon plants in much stronger solutions than the other food poisons with- out injury to the foliage. DUSTING OR DUST SPRAYIN^j. It is often convenient to apply poisons by dusting. Dry Paris green may be so applied either pure or adulterated with various substances. If used pure it should be dusted from a cloth sack of suitable texture and only the faintest trace of the poison should appear upon the plants treated. One or two pounds should be sufficient to treat an acre of any low-growing crop. To avoid using excessive and dangerous amounts of tlie poison it is usual to adulterate it as follows : 5. Paris Green. (For Dusting.) Paris green 1 pound Wheat flour or finely slaked quick lime 25-50 pounds Mix theingredients thoroughly and dust until the plants show a faint trace of white. For dusting only a few plants use a perforated tin can or other sifter. To cover a large acreage use one of the "dust sprayers" which are on the mar- ket. The so-called "dust spray" for orchard trees is prepared as follows : 6. Paris Green. (For Dust Spraying.) Paris green 1 pound Quick lime 10 pounds Water 3 quarts Insecticides and Fungicides. 239 Use the water to slake the lime into a very fine dry powder. Add the poison and mix thoroughly. This dust is blown into the air in a cloud by the use of "dust sprayers ' and settles upon foliage and fruit. Dust spraying is much cheaper than spraying with liquids, but results so far obtained indicate that it is less effective for most purposes. All dusting should be done early in the morning while the foliage is yet wet with dew. POISONED BAITS. Grasshoppers, cut-worms and a few other pests may be destroyed by poisoned baits. These are prepared in various ways. Small bundles of green, succulent vegetation, dipped in a strong solution of any of the above poisons and scattered about the infested field or garden will prove exceedingly tempting to cut-worms particularly if the field was plowed in early spring and is free from vegetation. Such baits are most effective if used in spring just before the crop to be pro- tected comes up. Poisoned slices of potato or some similar vegetable are used to poison sowbugs and wire-worms. Cultivated trees and vines may be successfully protected against the ravages of grasshoppers by use of the so-called bran- arsenic-mash, whlcli is made as follows : 7. Bran-Aesbnic-Mash. White arsenic 1 pound Brown sugar 1 to 2 pounds Bran 6 pounds Mix ingredients thoroughly, then add enough water to make a wet wash. A spoonful should be placed at the base of each tree or vine. For cut-worms a still better bait may be prepared by mixing thoroughly Paris green, bran and middlings as follows : 8. Paris Green. (Dry Bait.) Paris green 1 pound Middlings 15 pounds Bran 15 pounds This may be sown broadcast upon the vegetation about the borders of cul- tivated fields or gardens ; or by use of a seed drill it may be sown along the rows of plants to be protected. So used it has been found especially valuable for destroying cut-worms in onion fields. 9. Green Arsenoid. Green arsenoid is very similar to Paris green, both in appearance and in insecticide properties. It has the valuable properties of Paris green and is cheaper and more finely divided, tl is, therefore, more easily prevented from settling to the bottom of the spray-tank and is more easily distributed as a dust sjiray. It can be substituted for Paris green in any of the above formulas in which the latter is used. GROUP II— CONTACT INSECTICIDES. 10. Lime, Sulphur and Salt. The lime, sulphur and salt wash is one of the most satisfactory sprays for San Jose scale and is also of value as a fungicide. It is primarily a winter spray but when much reduced in strength has been used to advantage as a sum- mer spray for San Jose scale. Several methods of preparing it are recommend- ed but the following, known as the Oregon formula, is probably the most satisfactory in this climate: Quick lime 50 pounds Sulphur 50 pounds Salt 50 pounds Water 150 gallons 240 Appendix. Slake the lime thoroughly, add the sulphur, cover with water, and boil briskly for at least an hour. Then add the salt and boil 15 or 20 minutes longer. Add water to make 150 gallons. Apply with considerable force through a coarse nozzle while still warm. The results of a number of experiments indi- cate that the salt adds nothing to the efficiency of this spray. 11. Lime, Sulphur and Copper Sulphate. Copper sulphate is sometimes used in place of the salt in the formula, which is then as follows : I^ime ^^ pounds Sulphur 50 pounds Copper sulphate 8 to 10 pounds Water 150 gallons This is prepared in tlie same manner as No. 10, is equally effective as a remedy for San Jose scale, and may be slightly more efficient as a fungicide. Further experiments are necessary to determine whether the salt or the copper sulphate add anything to the efficiency of tlie sprays. 12. Whale-Oil Soap and Quassia. Strong soap suds made from any good soap are useful for destroying soft- bodied insects like plant-lice. It is usual, however, to employ for this purpose special soaps made with fish-oils and sold as whale-oil soaps. These vary con- siderably in composition, some being made witli soda, others with potash lye. The latter are much superior and buyers should insist on having potash soaps. For scale-insects, whale-oil soap is sometimes used in as concentrated a solution as two pounds of soap to one gallon of water, but only upon dormant plants. As a remedy for the various plant-lice one pound of soap to eight or ten gallons of water is usually sufficient. Hopgrowers are inclined to believe tliat better results are obtained, when spraying for hop-lice, by adding some quassia decoction to the soap solution, as follows : Whale-oil soap 1^ pounds Quassia 5 pounds Water 100 gallons Place the quassia chips in a sack, cover with eight or ten gallons of water and soak twelve to twenty-four hours. Then bring to a boil, remove the chips, add the soap and boil until it is dissolved. Add water to make one hundred gallons. If preferred the grower may prepare his own whale-oil soap after the following formula : Potash lye 1 pound Fish-oil 3 pints Water 2 gallons Dissolve the lye in the water. When boiling hot add the oil and boil about two hours. Add water to make two gallons. Each pound of the soap thus made should be dissolved in eight or ten gallons of water. It will be found a satisfactory remedy for hop-lice and other soft-bodied insects. 13 Kerosene Emulsion. Kerosene oil, or coal oil, is a powerful insecticide. The undiluted oil is. however, liable to seriously injure plants to which it is applied. This dif- ficulty is overcome by using one of the special spray pumps which have been devised for the purpose of mixing the oil with water in any desired proportion : or by forming an emulsion with some substance that may be readily diluted with water. Soap is most commonly used for this purpose, as follows : Kerosene oil 2 gallons Hard soap (preferably whale-oil ) ¥> pound Water 1 gallon Insecticides and Fungicides. 241 Dissolve the soap in the water by boiling. Add the suds, boiling hot, to the oil Churn the mixtures violently with a spray pump until it becomes a thick creamy mass. If perfectly emulsified, the oil will not rise to the surface even after standing an indefinite time. Such an emulsion may be used immedi- ately or may be kept as a stock mixture. Before using, dilute one part of the stock emulsion with eight or ten parts of water. This will be found to be an efficient remedy for green-aphis, woolly-aphis, red-spider, mealy-bugs, and certain scale-insects. 14. Resin Wash. This is a favorite spray in California for several of the scales infesting citrus fruits. In this State its chief value is as a spray for the various kinds of plant-lice. For this purpose. It may be used as a substitute for kerosene emul- sion or whale-oil soap with good results, particularly in the dry summer months. It can also be used as a summer spray for San Jose scale, but we do not advise such use since summer sprays for this pest are less efficient than the winter spray of lime, sulphur and salt. The resin wash may be made as follows : Resin 20 pounds Concentrated lye 4 pounds Fish-oil 2i/> pints Water 100 gallons Place the resin, lye and oil in a kettle with sufficient water to cover them to a depth of three or four inches. Boil about two hours, making occas- ional additions of water, or until the compound resembles very strong black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, or with cold water added slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture which must be diluted to the full amount of one hundred gallons when ready for use. One gallon of resin wash to each three gallons of Paris green spray No. 1. or Bordeaux mixture No. 22. may be used advantageously to cause the latter to adhere better to smooth leaves. 15. Carbolic Acid Emulsion. Carbolic acid emulsion is used to destroy the eggs and the young maggots which infest radishes, onions and similar garden crops ; and occasionally for other insects : Crude carbolic acid 1 pint Hard soap 1 pound Water 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in boiling water ; add the acid and churn as for kerosene emulsion. Use one part of emulsion to thirty parts of water. 16. Tobacco. The tobacco waste from cigar factories is of considerable value as an in- secticide. In greenhouses, it may be used to destroy plant-lice by simply spreading the waste two or three inches deep over the pipes under the benches. or by burning about one-half pound of moist waste to each five hundred square feet of glass. Worked into the soil about young apple trees in the orchard or nursery, it is one of the best remedies for the root form of woolly-aphis. A strong decoction, made by a prolonged steeping of a quantity of stems in enough water to cover them and diluting the liquid to the color of strong tea, is often used as a spray for plant-lice. A still better method is as follows : Hard soap (preferably whale-oil) 1 pound Water 8 to 10 gallons Strong tobacco decoction 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in boiling water, add the tobacco decoction and dilute to eight or ten gallons. HOR. 16 242 Appendix. 17. Hellebore. Powdered helebore, If fresh, is of value for poisoning insects wliicli are injuring small fruits or vegetables which are nearly ready for market and on which it is undesirable to use the arsenical poisons. It may be dusted over the plants when they are moist with dew, or may be used as a spray in the fol- lowing proportions : llelleboi-e 1 ounce Water 2 gallons 18. Pyketiirum or Insect Powder. Fresh pyrethrum powder is a valuable remedy for flies, mosquitoes, roaches, ants, fleas and other household pests. It is destructive to insects but not poi- sonous to the higher animals or to man. It should be kept in an air tight receptacle. The dry powder may be dusted over the floors, or in the hair of dogs infested with fleas, or about their sleeping quarters ; or in other places -where noxious insects congregate. It may also be used as a spray in conserva- tories or on a few plants in the garden, in the following proportion : Pyretlirum 1 ounce Water 2 gallons It is also stated that the flies and mosquitoes in a room may be destroyed by burning a little pyrethrum powder upon some live coals. 19. Bisulphide of Carbon. Bisulphide of carbon is a colorless liquid with a very disagreeable odor. It is very volatile and its fumes are poisonous to animal and plant life. When mixed with air in the proper proportion they are also very explosive. As an insecticide, it is valuable mainly as a remedy for subterranean insects, borers, or insects infesting stored grains, seeds, etc, and for fumigating build- ings which are infested with noxious insects. It is also used extensively for destroying various burrowing animals whose burrows incline downward into the earth. For this purpose pour two or three ounces of the liquid upon a ball of rags, or other absorbant, place this well down into the burrow and close the opening. Thus used it is an effective remedy for "digger squirrels" and '•prairie dogs," but is not effective against moles and pocket gophers which con- struct long, horizontal burrows. Troublesome ants' nests may be destroyed by making a hole in the center of each nest and pouring into it two or three ounces of the liquid, after which the hole should be tightly closed. For de- stroying the root form of woolly-aphis of the apple, it is common to make several holes each six to twelve inches deep about the tree and pour one or two ounces of the liquid into each hole, which should be immediately closed. Borers in the roots of peach or prune trees may be destroyed by simply pouring from one to three ounces of the liquid, according to the size of the tree, about the base of the tree. If the soil is wet or compact, it is best, first, to excavate a shallow trough about the tree and fill this with loose soil before applying the chemical. For fumigating grains, seeds, storehouses and other buildings, including houses, for the destruction of insects, one pint of the liquid is used for each ton of grain or 1000 cubic feet of space. The building, bin or other receptacle should be tightly closed and kept closed 24 to 36 hours. During this time no person ishould attempt to enter the building, nor should any light he allowed inside, until it has been thoroughly ventilated, since the fumes arc both poison- ous and explosive. 20. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. This is an extremely poisonous gas which is used in this State principally to fumigate nursery stock. In California it is used to fiunigate i citrus trees Insecticides and Fungicides. 243 which are infested with scale insects. It has also been used in the East to fumigate scale-infested deciduous fruit trees. Although very efficient the pro- cess is so much more expensive than spraying tliat I do not recommend its use in this State. Many nurseries now have specially prepared houses, or fumigatoriums. in ,which to fumigate infested stock. For dormant stock the chemicals are used in the following proportions, for each 100 cubic feet of space inclosed: Cyanide of potassium (OS per cent) 1 ounce Sulphuric acid 1 ounce Water 2 ounces Place the water in an earthenware or wooden receptacle, add the acid and when all is ready drop in the cyanide of potassium, close the door and keep it closed for at least forty minutes. Do not attempt to re-enter the house until it has been thoroughly ventilated. Greenhouses may be fumigated to destroy plant-lice, mealy-bugs, slugs. millipedes, etc., by using the above formula for each three and fifty cubic feet of space, and keeping the house tightly closed for fifteen or twenty minutes. Previous arrangements should be made for opening the ventilators from the outside. fungicides. 21. Bordeaux Mixtuee for Dorm.\nt Pl.\nts. Bordeaux mixture is perhaps the most generally useful of all spraying com- pounds. It is the principal remedy for fungus diseases, is of some value as an insecticide, has a beneficial effect upon plants independent of its effect xipon their insect and fungus parasites and may be vised for most purposes in place of water in the preparation of the arsenical sprays Xos. 1 to 4. Bordeaux for winter use may be made as follows : Copper sulphate fi pounds ■Quick lime 6 pounds Water .50 gallons This is known as the 6-6-50 formula. It should be used only upon dormant trees. 22. Bordeaux Mixture for Plants in Foliage. When the trees are in leaf the following 4-6-50 formula is used : Copper sulphate 4 pounds Quick lime 6 pounds Water 50 gallons 23. Bordeaux ISIixtuee for Peach and Other Tender Plants. For spraying peach foilage it is best to use the still weaker .'i-e-SO formula : Copper sulphate .3 pounds Quick lime 0 pounds Water 50 gallons To prepare Bordeaux mixture dissolve the copper sulphate in hot or cold water in a wooden or earthern vessel. Slake the lime, using only sufficient water to insure slaking. The lime should not be allowed to become dry while slaking nor should it be submerged in water. After the lime is slaked add water and stir until the "milk of lime" is of the consistency of cream. The best results are obtained by diluting the milk of lime and the copper sulphate solution each to 25 gallons and then pouring these two dilute solutions together. The lime solution should always be strained through a sieve to exclude particles that might clog the nozzles. A brass wire sieve, 20 mesh, large enough to fit the head of a barrel or the opening into the spray-tank will prove a great con- venience. 244 Appendix. When large quantities of Bordeaux are required, it is most convenient to make stock solutions pf lime and of copper sulphate of known strength. A con- venient stock solution of copper sulphate is made by dissolving one hundred' pounds in fifty gallons of water ; one of lime, by slaking cue hundred pounds and diluting with water to fifty gallons. Each gallon of the stock solution will then contain two pounds of lime or of copper sulphate and the amount to be used in preparing any quantity of Bordeaux according to the above formulas can be readily computed. If sufficient lime has not been used, or if that used was of an inferior quality the Bordeaux may injure the foliage or may cause a "russetting" of the fruit. It is, therefore, always best to determine whether enough lime has been used by testing the mixture. Testing Bordeaux. There are three simple tests which may be used. First, hold a clean, bright knife blade in the Bordeaux for at least one minute. If it becomes copper- plated more lime should be used. Second, pour some of the Bordeaux into a shallow dish and holding it up to the light blow gently across its surface. If properly made a thin pellicle will form on the surface of the liquid. If this does not form more lime should be added. Third, dissolve one ounce of fer- rocyanide of potassium in five or six ounces of water. Pour some of the Bordeaux into a white dish and add to it a few drops of the ferrocyanide solution. If suflicient lime has been used no change will be noticed. If a brownish-red discoloration takes place more lime should be added. One gallon of resin wasli No. 14 to three gallons of Bordeaux is said tO' make the mixture more adhesive. 24. Copper Sulphate Solution. A simple solution of copper sulphate is used as a remedy for grain smut& and sometimes as a spray in place of Bordeaux. For dormant trees use. Copper sulphate 1 pound Water 25 gallons For trees in foliage use Copper sulphate 1 pound Water 250 gallons For smut of wheat or oats, soak the seed for ten or twelve hours in a solution of one pound of blue vitrol to twenty-five gallons of water, then put the seed for five or ten minutes into lime water made by slaking one pound of lime and diluting it with ten gallons of water. The treatment with lime water tends to prevent the copper sulphate solu- tion from injuring the seed, but many farmers omit that part of the treat- ment. Bordeaux mixture has the disadvantage that it produces an unsightly de- posit upon foliage, blossoms and fruit, and hence can not well be used upon florists' plants or upon fruits nearly ready for market. For use under such con- ditions the ammoniacal copper carbonate, the simpler copper carbonate mixture or the copper acetate solution is recommended. 25. Ammoniacal Coppek Carbonate. Copper carbonate 5 ounces Strong ammonia 3 pints Water - .., 50 gallons Mix the copper carbonate into a paste with a little water, add the ammonia and when the copper carbonate is completely dissolved pour the resulting deep' blue liquid into the water. Insecticides and Fungicides. 245 26. Copper Carbonate Mixture. Copper carbonate 1 pound "Water 50 gallons Mix the copper carbonate into a paste with a little water before attempt- ing to add it to the fifty gallons. 27. Copper Acetate Solution. Dibasic acetate of copper 6 ' ounces Water 50 gallons Use finely powdered acetate of copper, mix it into a paste with a little water, then dilute with the full amount of water. 28. Potassium Sulphide Solution. Potassium sulphide 1 ounce Water 2 to 3 gallons Dissolve the potassium sulphide in the water. Valuable as a spray for mildews. 29. Corrosive Sublimate. Corrosive sublimate 1 ounce Water 7 to 8 gallons This is valuable as a preventive of potato scab. In a wooden vessel, dis- solve the poison in one gallon of water, then dilute to the full amount. Place the scabby seed potatoes in a sack, immerse them in tlie solution and allow them to soak one to two hours. The solution and the treated potatoes are ex- tremely poisonous. 30. Formalin. Formalin, a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas in water, is being used extensively as a preventive of potato-scab and of the grain-smuts, and gives most excellent results. It is cheap, efficient and non-poisonous. For po- tato-scab, soak the seed two hours in the following solution : Formalin i/i pint Water 15 gallons For grain-smuts soak the seed for one to two hours in the following : Formalin 1 pint Water 50 gallons METHODS OF TREATMENT FOR INSECT PESTS AND PLANT DISEASES. Apple. — For apple-scab, spray with 22; first, when fruit buds are swelling; second, when blossoms are unfolding: third, after petals fall; and thereafter every 10 days or two weeks as long as wet weather persists. For codling moth. add Paris green or one of the arsenic sprays to the Bordeaux for the third and subsequent applications ; then begin late in June and spray every two weeks with 1 or 2 until three weeks before the fruit is to be picked. If trees are in- fested with San Jose scale spray with 10 or 11 when trees are dormant. For green-aphis, use 13. as soon as leaf buds start and repeat whenever the aphis Tjecomes abundant on the foliage. For woolly-aphis, branch-form, use 13 ; for root-form, use 16 or 19. For tingis, spray with 13 when eggs are hatching and practice clean ciilture. For apple-tree anthracnose, spray as soon as possible after crop is gathered with 21 and repeat in two weeks ; write for bulletin No. 60. Barley. — To prevent smut use 30. BeoM. — For anthracnose, soak seed in 30 ; when plants are two or three inches liigh spray with 22 and repeat two or three times at intervals of 10 or 12 days. For weevil, fumigate seed with 19. 246 Appendix. Beet. — See under Sugai- Beet. Bluckherry. — For antliracnose, leaf spot and rust spray with 21. before leaves start ; when leaves are half grown use 22 ; repeat in two weeks. Gabhaye and Cauliflower. — For club-root, rotate crops : destroy all stunips and other waste in fall : apply lime at rate of 80 to 100 bushels per acre and work into soil. For worms, use 1 or o when first observed. After plants head, 17 or 18 may be used if preferred. For aphis, use 12 or 1."'). Carnations. — For rust and other fungus diseases, spray with 22. when dis- ease first appears and repeat at intervals of two weeks. For red spider or aphis use 12 or l.S. Celery. — For leaf-spot or leaf-blight use 22 upon young seedlings and re- peat two or three times at intervals of two weeks. Cherry. — For brown-rot and leaf-spot, spray with 22 when blossoms are opening and again when petals fall ; after fruit begins to color use 25, 26 or 27. For slugs, use 1 when slugs first appear, or if fruit is ripening dust with air- slaked lime or fine dry dust. For aphis, use 12 or 13. For gummosis, cut out gum pockets, slit outer bark from branches to ground and wash or spray with 21. For San .Jose scale use 10 or 11 when trees are dormant. Chrysanthemum. — For leaf-spot spray with 22 and repeat once or twice at intervals of two weeks if necessary. Cucvmhcr. — For striped cucumber-beetle, dust the plants witli .">. or spray with 22. Plant some early squash as trap plants and when the beetles are feed- ing on them dust them with pure Paris green. For fungus diseases, sprny with 22 when vines begin to form and repeat three or four times at intervals of two weeks. Currant. — For mildew, spray with 28, when buds begin to open and repeat at intervals of 10 to 15 days until fruit is nearly ripe. For worms on leaves, use 1 or 17. For fruit worms, destroy infested fruit : allow the poultry the- run of the bushes when imested fruit is falling. Gooseherry. — Same as currant. Grape. — For mildews, rot and antliracnose, spray with 22 when buds are swelling, when leaves are half grown, just before blossoming, when fruit has set, and repeat once or twice at intervals of two weeks. If later applications are required use 25. Hop. — For hop-lice, spray with 12 irhen lice flr.^t appear and i-epeat as necessary. Household Pests. — For fleas, flies, mosquitoes, roaches, etc., use 18. (rar- ments infested with clothes moths may be inclosed in tight bo.x and fumigated with 19. If house is badly infested with any insect pest fumigate with 19. Muskmelon. — For striped cucumber-beetle, see under cucumber. For anthrac- nose, mildew and leaf-ljlight, use 22 when vines begin to form and i-epeat two or three times at intervals of two weeks. Nursery tst a thick foliage is often an advantage in protecting the fruit from the sun and thus avoiding sunburn. The dead branches and stuos should be cut away and burned. It is highly important that tlie cut ends be smooth and dressed with shellac varnish or grafting wax. All of the rough bark should be scraped from the trunks and larger branches. The holes in the tree should be filled with plaster or cement, thus confining all larvae that are in them and preventing others from -entering later in the season. If proper attention is given an orchard when it is young, no such work will ever be necessary. MEASURES FOE USE IN YOUNG OECHAItDS. If a young orchard is to be planted in a badly infested locality, this insect must be considered from the very first if any degree of success is to be achieved. The question of varieties is largely a question of climate, soil, and the demands of the market. The Winesap and Lawver varieties are always resistant to this insect, and the Ortley and Pewaukee are always badly infested. Late winter varieties are usually less infested than the fall varieties, and in some sections of the country the early apples are harvested before the second generation of the insect attacks the fruit. The trees should never be planted nearer together than 30 by 30 feet in order that a spraying machine and wagon may have plenty of space between the rows. They should lean toward the southwest, so that the tops will shade the trunks, thus in a measure avoiding sun scald, the effects of which furnish secure places in which the codling moth larvae can spin their cocoons. The pruning of a tree when it is young is of the utmost importance. If the tree grows too high it is difiicult to spray when it is full grown ; if too low the branches lie on the ground and the same difficulty occurs. It is expensive to pick the fruit from high trees, and when the lower branches are on the ground the fruit upon them will be uncolored. A good average between the high and the low trees is to be desired. If only two or three main branches grow out from the trunk they will nearly always split apart under the weght of a full load of fruit. When such a branch is put in place and held either by a bolt or a wire, the crack made by the splitting is an attractive place for the insects, in many orchards it has been observed that trees thus injured always have a higher percentage of wormy fruit than those which are uninjured. This splitting may be prevented by pruning, so as to cause many branches to form the body of the tree, and cutting back about half of each year's growth, so as to make the tree stocky and able to bear the excessive weight ; by thinning the fruit : or by propping the limbs. By planting clover in an orchard, not only is the soil benefited, but the ground is kept moist ; and because they dislike moisture the larvae will not spin cocoons in the ground around or near the tree. 254 Appendix. Thinning fruit. — In the Pacific Northwest the thinning of apples is a prac- tice that is badly neglected. As a result, much of tlie fruit is small, uncolored. and consequently inferior in value. The advantages of tliinning in producing better fruit are too well Icnown to need discussion. All of the terminal clusters should be tliinned to one fruit and fruits should not be allowed to grow closer to- gether than six inches. The thinning sliould be done when most of the cod- ling moth larvae of the first generation are in the fruit. In the Pacific North- west thinning should be done between .Tune 15 and .Tuly 1. In other localities this work may be done earlier or later, but observation can determine the time with reasonable accuracy. In , thinning, special care should be taken that as many of the wormy apples be picked as is consistent with the rapidity of the work. The wormy fruit thus removed from the trees should be buried, being covered with at least six inches of earth. It has often been recommended that the windfalls be gathered every few days and destroyed. In a small orchard this is practicable, but in a large commercial orchard it would be far too ex- pensive. Packing fruit. — The place of packing the fruit is of the greatest importance when the codling moth is considered. The best plan, and the one which is being generally adopted among the best Western orchardists, is to have the packing done in the orchard. A moveable packing table is made upon runners and this is drawn through the orchard. As the apples from two rows of trees on either side are picked, they are carried to the table by the pickers. By this method the apples are not moved any considerable distance until packed, and the danger of bruising the fruit is thus reduced to a minimum. If infested fruit is taken into a packing house, the larvae crawl out of the fruit and spin their cocoons in the cracks and angles of the building. In the spring the moths emerge and fly to the orchards. By packing in the orchard the wormy fruit is piled up. and the larvae for tlie most part spin cocoons among the apples. Many apple growers make the mistake of selling or trying to sell wormy apples as first-class fruit. It is a difficult thing to pack a box or barrel of apples and not put in a single imperfect apple, but the ideal of perfect fruit should be the growers' guide. Second-class apples should be packed and shipped as quickly as possible. The culls and windfalls should be promptly made into cider for vinegar or disposed of in some otlier way, thus preventing the escape .)f the larvae. If they are not so used, they should be buried. Experiments in burying culls and windfalls have shown that when the larvae leave the fruit they spin their cocoons on or between the apples and rarely try to reach the surface of the ground. If the larvae survive, the moths which emerge die, as tliey can not reach tlie surface of the ground. Storing fruit. — It is a great mistake to store infested fruit near an orchard. as when the moths emerge in the spring they fly to the orchard, and in many cases a large percentage of the fruit near the storehouse is infested. The writer lias studied several cases where this was true, and in each case the resulting loss could have been averted. If the fruit must be stored, the house in which it is stored should have no cracks or holes through which the moths can escape. A tight house can be fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas or with sulphur. A simpler way is to crush the moths when they have gathered on a window or on a screen : or, if left in the storeroom, they will die in a week or so. REMEDIAL MEASURES. Remedial measures against the codling moth are those from which little or no benefit is derived, except that of saving the fruit from attacks of the insect. REMEDIES OF LITTLE OR NO VALUE. It is sometimes as well to know what not to use against an insect as it is to know what to use. The following remedies liave been at various times sug- The Control of the Codling Moth. 255 gested and have been found to be of little or no value : Moth balls hung in the trees and supposed to keep moths away ; smudging orchards with ill-smelling com- pounds : plugging the trees with sulphur : plugging the roots with calomel ; band- ing trees with tarred paper to keep the larvae from crawling up the tree ; trap lanterns ; baiting the moths with mixture of vinegar and molasses ; spraying with ill-smelling compounds ; spraying with water : and electric lights as a repellant of the moth. These so-called remedies have been tried so often that a fruit- grower is simply wasting his time and money when he uses them. Sl'R.W'ING WITH AKSEXICAL INSECTICIDES. The efficiency of sprays against tliis insect was discovered in spraying for canker worms, wliich feed upon the leaves of the apple. Since that time the machinery and the solutions used in spraying have been greatly improved, and now this method is well known to be the best and most efficient. Many farmers have a deeply rooted objection to spraying on general princi- ples. They have never sprayed, and many of them are proud of the fact that they do not spray their orchards, even if they lose the larger part of their fruit which otherwise might have been saved. The more progressive and busi- ness-like apple growers are the staunchest advocates of spraying, and their efforts are uniformly successful. Experience gained by several years of spraying always brings about greater efficiency and a reduction of expenses. A fruitgrower who wishes to begin spraying can well afford to study the spraying operations in other orchards and familiarize himself with the general methods. SPRAYING MACHINERY. The kind of spraying outfit depends upon many factors, the principal one being the number and size of the trees. Hand-power outfits. — For an orchard of 1,000 trees or less the writer would advise the use of a hand-power outfit. The capacity and cost of this machine should depend upon the size of the orchard. There are many excellent makes of spray pumps upon the market, and a pump can be easily chosen to suit the con- ditions in various orchards. The working parts of the better and more ex- pensive pumps are made of brass or bronze. It is desirable that a pressure gauge be attached to the pump, in order that the man pumping may keep up a constant pressure. More than two lines of hose result in confusion and cause loss of time in an orchard. Bamboo or iron extensions should be used in order to reach the tops of the taller trees. There are two types of nozzle, either of which may be used for this work — il) those which give a fan-shaped spray and (2) those which produce a cone-shaped spray. The former is better adapted to long-range work and the latter to close-range work. As many as three or four of these nozzles may be used to advantage on one line of hose, but two is the usual number. It is a great advantage to have the nozzles set at an angle from the axis of the extension, as by simply turning the extension the spra.v can be thrown in all directions among the branches. The spray must be ap- plied with great force (60 to 100 pounds or more) in order that the stream be broken into a fine mist. The tank may vary from a 50-gallon barrel to a tank of 250 gallons ca- pacity, which may be mounted on an ordinary wagon ; a barrel may be hauled on a sled. The tanks should be solidly built and held together with iron rods. If the trees are tall, it will be found to be of great advantage to have a plat- form erected on the wagon upon which the men can stand. The capacity of the hand-power outfit depends upon many factors, as distance of water sup- ply, size of trees, and number of men and nozzzles. Three men with a 200-gallon ply, size of trees, and number of men and nozzles. Three men with a 200-gallon average sized trees per day. Gasoline-power sprayers. — If an orchard of more than 1,000 trees is to be sprayed, it will be found advisable to use a gasoline-power outfit. Many 256 Appendix. dealers in spraying apparatus have placed machines of this kind upon the market. A majority of these are well adapted to the work for which they are intended, but many valuable improvements can yet be made which will in- crease the efficiency of these machines with but little cost. .In general, the size of engine to be preferred is one horsepower. The cooling tanks used with the engines are intended to be used when the water can not be renewed frequently, and are about one foot in diameter. In spraying, the water can be renewed often and the weight can be reduced considerably by making these tanks of a much smaller diameter. Purchasers are always given full directions in regard to the care and running of the engine, so that ordinarily but little difficulty is met. The engine is best placed at the rear end of the wagon frame and the pump as near to it as possible. There are several types of pump which can be used in this connection. Brass working parts which can be easily re- moved are preferable. A pressure gauge and a large air chamber are necessities. For filling the tank another pump of the "low-down" type can be used ad- vantageously when the water supply is to be drawn from a stream or irrigating ditch. This extra pump and necessary connections can be purchased for about $20, and in a season will pay for itself many times over by the saving of time and labor. The gasoline engines are usually fitted up for running such a pump by means of a connecting rod which can be attached to the piston of the pump. While filling the tank the spray pump can be disconnected or. more easily, the suction hose can be taken out of the tank. The tank may be made of wood or of galvanized iron. It shoxild be thoroughly braced and should never be made to hold over 1.50 gallons. It should be placed nearest the horses, because of its great weight when full of the spraying solution. The best agitator is a paddle wheel, with paddles placed at an angle on a vertical shaft. By means of bevel gearing and a belt, power is obtained from the engine. The engines, pumps, and tank are mounted on a solid frame, which is placed upon a low wagon. The low steel-wheeled wagons are highly preferable, as the tires, which should never be less than six inches wide, prevent the machine from sinking into the soft earth. Platforms can be built on the sides, upon which the operator can stand. With a bamboo extension and long-range nozzles set at an angle every part of the trees can be easily sprayed. Only two men are needed to operate this outfit : One drives, the othr starts and stops the en- gine, and both spray. With this machine 700 eight-year-old trees can easily be sprayed in one day ; by rushing more may be done. It takes from four to five minutes to fill the 150-gallon tank and from thirty to forty minutes to spray out the same amount on from sixty to eighty trees, using about two and one- half gallons per tree. In an irrigated orchard care must be taken to let the ground become dry before spraying is done, because if the ground is soft the machine may mire down, especially when the tank is full. The cost of these machines varies with the cost of the engines and pumps. The machine with which the writer is most familiar cost .$320, including a .$4i> wagon. With good care and proper repairs these machines ought to last many years. In a working day of ten hours a one-horsepower engine consumes about a gallon of gasoline. The engine can be made to pay for itself by other uses which may be made of it, such as running the cider press, the feed cutter, the cream separator, or the wood saw, turning the grindstone, and doing numerous other things. The wagon can be used for other purposes when not needed for spraying. SPRAYING MATERIALS FOR USE AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH. Coniact insecticides. — The insecticides which kill by touching the insects, such as kerosene emulsion and whale-oil soap, applied frequently, have in a few experiments been found effl ;cient against this insect. O account of the expense and the. necessity for frequent application they have never been used to any extent. Arsenical sprays. — The arsenical sprays contain arsenic as the poisonous in- The Control of the Codling Moth. 257 gredient. There are several of the spraying compounds upon the market and many others which the fruitgrower can prepare himself. Paris green is probably the best known of these arsenicals. It is a definite chemical compound of arsenic, copper, and acetic acid, and should have a uniform composition. It is a rather coarse powder and has the fault of settling rapidly. In the East it costs 20 cents a pound, while in the West the cost is 25 cents. Paris green may be prepared for spraying as follows : Paris green 1 pound Lime 1 to 2 pounds Water 100 to 250 gallons The lime should be fresh and should be slaked in quantities as needed. Mix the Paris green with a little water until a paste is formed, and then add this to the required amount of water, to which the lime has been added. A good average strength to use is one pound to 150 gallons, but it must be weaker on trees with deLcate foliage, such as peach. Many fruitgrowers are using it ort apple trees as strong as one pound to 100 gallons. Schrele's green is similar to Paris green, but differs from it in lacking the acetic acid. It is a much finer powder than Paris green and more easny kept in suspension, and it costs only about half as much. London purple is a waste product in the manufacture of aniline dyes and contains a number of substances, the principal ones being arsenic and lime. It is variable in composition, is not so effective as the other poisons, and is now but little used for spraying. Scheele's green and London purple are prepared for spraying in the same way as Paris green. White arsenic compounds, made by combining other chemicals with white arsenic, form a class of excellent spraying materials. Arsenic used alone seriously burns the foliage. AESENITE OF LIMB. White arsenic 1 pound Lime 2 pounds Water 1 gallon These ingredients are boiled together for not less than half an hour, as it Is quite difficult to make the lime and arsenic combine. Pour in water enough to replace that lost by evaporation. To every 40 or 50 gallons of water use one pint of this stock solution. It is advisable to add more lime to the spraying solution, in order that there will be less danger of burning the foliage. AESENITE OP LIME WITH SODA. White arsenic 1 pound Sal soda (crystal) 4 pounds Water 1 gallon The above ingredients are boiled until dissolved, which will be a very few minutes, and the water lost by evaporation is then replaced. To 40 or 50 gallons of water a pint of this stock solution and two to four pounds of freshly slaked lime are added. This excess of lime is always desired by fruitgrowers, as they can then see by the amount and distribution of the lime on the foliage how well the spraying has been done. This formula has been thoroughly tested by the writer and others and has been found not only as efficient as the other solutions, but far cheaper. AESENITE OF LEAD. Arsenate of soda 10 ounces Acetate of lead 24 ounces Water 150-200 gallons These ingredients should be dissolved separately and then poured into the tank containing the water for spraying. They unite readily, forming the floo- culent white precipitate of lead arsenite. This is easily kept 'n suspension and can be used in excessive strengths on delicate plants without the addition of HOR. 17 258 Appendix. lime. There .are several preparations of lead arsenite on th marljet which are excellent, some being in a wet state and others in dry, powdered form. The wet preparations are preferable, as the dried arsenite does not give such a filmy sind adhering coat to the foliage. At all times the greatest care should be taken to prevent accident with these compounds, which are of the most poisonous nature.* All packages, boxes, or bottles containing these materials should be plainly labeled and kept in some place that can be securely locked. The utensils in which the mixtures are prepared should be thoroughly cleansed. When it is desired to use a fungicide with any of these solutions the arsen- ites are added to the Bordeaux mixture in the same proportion as it would be added to water. CCIST OF SPE.^YING MATERIAL. The cost of . le different arsenical compounds varies in different sections of the country in accordance with the freight rates and the quantity purchased. The cost of fiOO gallons of the different spraying solutions just described is, in the far West, as follows : J'arin green : Paris green, 4 pounds at 2.5 cents .$1 . 00 T.irae, 8 pounds 04 Total 104 Hcheele'f! fnecn : Scheele's green, 4 pounds at 12l/> cents 50 Lime, 8 pounds 04 Total -54 Lend arxenitr : White arsenic, IV, pounds at 10 cents 15_ I>ime, ;> pounds 01 5 Additional lime, 12 pounds 06 Total • 225 Liinr arsenite irith snda : White arsenite. 1 1/, pounds at 10 cents 15 Sal soda, worms produced. In the Pajaro Valley this does not occur, however, until about picking time, except in the latest varieties. In some parts of this region there is not sufficient advantage in spraying for the first generation of worms to make it desirable to go to that trouble. Allien spraying is necessary, the time may be determined by gathering a quantity of winter worms in their cocoons and placing them in a breeding cage. This may consist of a fruit jar with a piece of cheese-cloth tied over the mouth. This jar should be placed in the orchard where the sun will not shine upon it, or rain wet the contents, but where the other conditions are the same as though the cocoons were on the tree. By examining this jar weekly and removing moths that emerge one may determine very accurately the time when spraying should begin and whether more than one treatment is necessary to cotrol the worms of the first generation. Most recent writers upon the codling moth have insisted upon the necessity of placing the poison in the calyx cup before it closes. Our observations indicate the soundness of this practice where the entrance is made at this point, but it will not amount to as much in the Pajaro Valley as in some other regions, since a very small per cent actually enter the fruit at this point, possibly on account of the comparatively late emergence of the first generation of moths. The blossoming time also extends with us over a long period, so that more than one spraying is necessary to fill every cup and the first spraying must be made while the trees are in full bloom. In most regions these first sprayings are probably profitable, though in the region under observation such a small percentage of the worms entered at the calyx end as to make this somewhat doubtful. Our spraying experiments did not cover this point as fully as could be desired and it will be gone into more fully next year. As a result of these studies our positive recommendations in the matter of time of application for the codling moth is an annual program as follows : Ii-'ii-j5t. — Spray as soon as the oldest blossoms have dropped their petals and repeat once or twice if necessary to reach every blossom cup. Second. — Spray as soon as spring brood of moths begin to fly. as determined by breeding jars, and repeat if the hatching period extends over three weeks. Third. — Spray as soon as worms appear under the bands and continue about every three weeks until the winter worms that do nut pupate replace the summer form. In some regions the first, or first and second, set of sprayings can be omitted. Whether this can be safely done in any particular orchard can be determined by leaving a row unsprayed and keeping a careful band record, and if there is an appreciable larger number of worms under the bands on the unsprayed trees these sprayings are necessary. The above described rational spraying program ought to replace the present rather empirical system. THE CODLING MOTH. By Prof. Clarke, University of California. Address delivered before the North- west Fruitgrowers' Association, Portland. January, 1UU4. jl/r. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : I have had the pleasure of presenting this paper by Prof. Woodworth, anJ I will say for myself that I came here with the hope of learning something and not to teach you people of the Pacific Northwest. In regard to the work that we have done in the Pajara Valley during the past season, I would say that we have experimented over a territory some sixty- five miles north and south. We have had all the varying climate conditions 264 Appendix. possible in that circumscribed locality in Central California. Where the work was properly done we have been able to control, in large measure, the codling moth and consider our experiments extremely successful. As I stated, the object of my visit here is more to find out than to teach. We know that you, here in Oregon, have some extremely successful orchardists, that you have been able in many cases to control the codling moth, and your experience will be of assistance to us in California. We hope that we may be able, also, to help you. While I was listening yesterday I heard a great deal of the beau- lies of the Northwest and its wonderful production of fruit, and have noted one fact that has been gratifying to hear, and that is, that you always com- pare with California, you always use California as a criterion. That is very gratifying to me, and I believe that is as it should be ; Oregon is all right, and I look upon the States of the Pacific Northwest as beautiful gems in the crown of California, the queen of the Pacific. We certainly shall learn of you all that we can in the matter of insect control. We have found in the South that we do not always get satisfactory results from the use of Paris green, because of the injury to the foliage. We find that we frequently get better results in this respect from the arsenite of lime in the Kedzie formula, or arsenite of lead, than from Paris green. We explain this in this way : Paris green is generally considered to be insoluble in water, but. under certain conditions, appears to be slowly soluble. In the Pajaro Valley we spray the Paris green on the trees, and over night it is moistened by the fog, and we thus get conditions which seem to place the material in solution. Now, while we may not get the characteristic burning, that is, the browning or scorching of the leaves, we may get a chronic arsenical poisoning where the leaves absorb the free arsenic in solution, so that in some cases we have had the leaves of affected trees fall some two months ahead of time, which has been somewhat disastrous. Taking the Kedzie formula of the lead arsenite we nave not had that effect. We have also found that in the com- parison between the Kedzie formula and the lead arsenicals, the lead arsenicals while being as efficacious as poisons, are superior, when used properly, to the lime, inasmuch as from them we get no discoloration of the fruit and little danger of destroying foliage. We have carried our series of spraying experi- ments on tender foliaged plants, such as the bean. Where we have used the Paris green, alone or with lime, bean foliage v.'as destroyed. Where we have used the lead arsenical or Paris green with a slight admixture of crude oil (petroleum) we have not burned eA'en this tender foliage. If we take an analysis of certain of the brands of the commercial lead arsenite we will find that it contains a certain percentage of asphaltum. The use of the oil may be an important addition to the home-made material. By this method we cover each grain of the material we are using with a slight film of oil which keeps the arsenical from direct contact with the moisture on the leaf, and the con- sequence is we got no burning. From our California experience we look upon the Paris green today as a desirable compound where the nights are dry, and that is a condition throughout most of California, but where there is considerable atmospheric humidity we may find it advisable to switch off from the use of Paris green and choose either between the lime arsenite or the lead arsenite, or add the oils as indicated above. We must also bear in mind the facts presented in Prof. Woodworth's paper, that the time to spray is dependent almost entirely upon the condi- tion of the moth or worm, and not altogether upon the condition of the tree or the fruit. You will understand that in California, at least, the rational Ijrogram Prof. Woodworth presents is a possibility of much more effective work than usually obtains. I note from conversations I have had witli some of the entomologists present at this meeting that much stress is laid upon getting the poison into the calyx cup. I do not want to say it is not desirable, because under some conditions it is extremely desirable, but the experience in California, as pointed The Codling Moth. 265 out in Prof. Woodworth's paper, is that there are certain sections where it is not as vitally necessary as in the North. In counting many apples we found that 72 per cent of the worms entered at points other than the calyx and 28 per cent entered at that point, and you can see how much less necessity there is of spraying at that time in this section. Again the question has come up here as regards the use of lime in this spray. We, in California, do not, of course, regard the lime as a poison, but use it as a neutralizer of the possible free arsenic in solution in the spray. We find that the eggs are not placed on either the leaves or the fruit where there is fuzz or any roughness. They are laid upon the smooth leaves, and if we roughen up these leaves possibly the female moth may not be tempted to place her eggs upon them. This may be one reason in favor of the use of lime to some extent. Again, our experiments in California have brought out another interesting fact. It has been with the California Station, and I believe with all entomol- ogists, a question as to how the worms get the arsenical poison that kills. If you will go to one of the sprayed orchards and take an apple from that orchard and examine it carefully, if it has been sprayed with Paris green you will be able to detect the particles of that material on the apple. You will find that the area that is not protected by tlae poison is much larger than the area that is so protected. It would seem as if the codling worm must go out of its way to get the poison. We made several interesting observations along that line in our work this season. We have been able to follow the worm in numerous cases from the egg until it was out of sight in the fruit. We have followed the hatching process completely in the laboratory, and. not alone there, but many times in the orchard. I will try and detail a typical case which may show why and how the worm gets the poison. When examining several sprayed trees we found an apple that liad just one drop of spray material and on this apple was an egg with the worm about to hatch out. It is always desirable when an observer gets a condition of this kind to follow it out, so we remained and watclied operations. The worm hatched out and passed up over the surface of the apple as thougli going to the blossom and , in making this passage over the face of the apple it found the drop of spray material, the only spot on the whole apple. It stopped continuing to spin out its silk, using the lime spot as a point of mooring. I went through this process for a short time and then seemed to decide that this was not a satisfactory place for its purpose. The worm then passed up to the blossom end of the apple and immediately went through the same tactics and then again decided tliat that was not the point where it wanted to make an entry. It then crowled up to the stem of the apple, and from the stem back again, after having gone lialf way out, and wandering about with no apparent object upon the face of the apple, it again found the lime spot, and went through the same procedure of spinning out silk threads. Very soon the worm began to bite into the fruit just beside the spot, and was out of sight underneath the skin of the apple in just one hour and thirty-five minutes after the first observation. We kept up our observation of that apple and found tiie worm forty-eight liours afterwards dead at the edge of tlie burrow with all indications of arsenical poisoning. Everything would seem to point to the fact that it had actually hunted up the poison and taken it, unconsciously, of course. Now. this helps us to understand the reason for the value of spraying. We think that though we do not completely cover the apple, but put those spots around freely enough, we may get the worm in the end. We have i^andled from 100,000 to 200,000 trees, ranging in age from five to twenty-three years, everyyhere with reduced losses from tliis insect, and on 25,000 of these trees, in various parts of the valley, we have so reduced the loss that we were able to send 95 per cent of the fruit free from worms to the shipping house. Following the rational program, as outlined in Prof. Woodworth's paper, we feel satisfied that another season's work will result in better control, as greater areas of orchard will be properly sprayed. 206 Appendix. APPLE SCAB AND ITS TREATMENT. By I'noF. A. B. Coedley, Entomologist Oregon Agricultural College, C'orvalli;^. Address delivered before the Northwest P"'ruit (Jrowers" Convention, I'ortland. January, 1904. I think I should apologize for occupying the attention of this audience by talking upon apple scab, a subject that comes up at every fruit growers' meeting on this Coast, and one with which you are no doubt familiar. However, apple scab, not even excepting the codling moth, is the most serious pest of the apple in Western Oregon and Washington. You will remember that at the last meeting of the Oregon State Horticultural Society held here one year ago, in a very vigorous discussion which took place at that time, the A'alue of the ordinary methods of spraying for this disease was seriously questioned, and you will remember that I was asked to make some tests during the tlien coming season and report the results. Therefore, if any apology for my sub.ieet is due, it is from the State Horticultural Society. The work I planned should be considered more as a demonstration exercise than as an experiment, because I tried no new methods. I simpfy wished to test those methods which, in conjunction with other experiment stations, we have been recommending for years past, and to report the results. In justice to those who had charge of the work at the college before myself, as well as to myself, I wish to say that the college orchard has for the past ten or twelve years been sprayed for apple scab, but I believe no detailed records suitable for publication have ever been kept of the results. The past season I determine, in carrying out m.v i)laus. to make the test as severe as possible, and therefore selected for the work a block of 40o >s'ewtown Pippin trees growing in an orchard near the college. This particular l)lock of trees was selected, first, because, as most of you know, the Newtown I'ippin is on of the varieties most susceptible to apple scab in the Willamette Valley : second, because the orchard has for years been neglected. It is now twlve years old, has never been thoroughly cultivated, and during tliat time it has been spra.yed but two seasons, during one of wliich it received hut one application. The applications were made with the college spraying outfit, wliich consists of a small hand pump that was donated to the college some eight years ago and is now mounted on a 2.")0-gallon tank. The orchard was sprayed five times during tlie season, with the 4-450 Bordeaux, viz : on April 30th. May 14th to 19th, .Tune 1st to 3d, .Tuly 1st to 3d, and August ir)th, the last two sprayings' being made more particularly on account of the codling moth, the poison being applied at that time only. These last two applications no doubt liad but little to do in controlling the scab, only the first three being of any benefit. You will notice that the second application was made May l.jth to 19th, whicli was due to the fact that at that time we were blessed with almost continu(nis showers. Thus the application which should have done more good than any •other was applied under adverse circumstances, being made between showers or even when it was raining. In the middle of this block of trees, eleven trees were left unsprayed, aud at picking time four trees were selected, two that had been sprayed and two that had not, which stood near together and were as nearly alike as it was possible to select them. The fruit from each tree was carefidly gathered and tlivided into three grades. The first consisted of fruit entirely free from scab : the second, that wliich was slightly scabby, that is, fruit that had one or two Apple Scab and its Treatment. 267 slight specks or scabs, and, third, fruit that was badly scabby. It is not neces- sary to bore you by going into details and I will only say that the two trees that were sprayed bore 1002 apples, of which there were, free of scab 1334. slightly scabby 351, and badly scabby 217 ; the two trees that were not sprayed bore 2117 apples, of which there were only ini free from scab, 32ii slightly scabby, and 1646 badly scabby. To summarize the results, the two trees that were not sprayed bore 215 apples more than the others, but the trees that were sprayed bore nearly nine times as much fruit free from scab as the trees that were not sprayed. To put it upon a percentage basis, on the trees that were not sprayed, 7 per cent of the fruit was free from scab, and on tliose that were sprayed. 70 per cent were free from scab — not a high percentage, by the way. but quite satisfactory considering the severity of the test. There was one other result that I observed from this spi'ayiug that interested me much more than the effect upon the scab, and is in line with a suggestion made by Mr. Walden. that is its effect upon the size of the fruit. Tlits was so noticeable that I determined the increase in size by two methods : first, by taking measurements, and second, by weighing the fruit. To measure the fruit, in order to leave out all personal bias, I obtained a pair of callipers, set the points 21^ inches apart, and every apple that passed through without touching the callipers was placed among the culls and the others were placed by them- selves. On the two trees sprayed, of the 1902 apples, 1147 measured over 2i/.j inches, and 755 measured less than that. On the trees that were not sprayed, although there were some two hundred more apples than on the sprayed trees, only 054 were over 2i/(, inches in diameter and 1463 were less than that. A consideration of the figures reveals the fact that the fruit on all these trees was small, wliich was to be expected from the fact that the orchard lias never been properly cared for, and this year received only the most .cursory cultivation. Of some 2,000 or perhaps 2,500 boxes of fruit borne upon the 400 trees, there were not over 600 boxes that would grade from 4 to 41/0 tier, or possibly 5 tier. The small size was not due to the spraying, the figures showing that this spraying increased tlie size of the fruit to a very marked extent. There was upon the two trees sprayed practically twice as much fruit of a marketable size as on tlie trees that were not sprayed, as well as nearly nine times as much free from scab. This was only a demonstration exercise. Nevertheless we may learn some- thing from it. I wish also at this time to make some suggestions upon apple scab based more upon theory than upon experiment : I have not the data to support them. Apple scab as we see it upon the fruit and leaves is an imperfect form of fungus. Most fungi have two forms, a summer or imperfect form, and the winter or perfect form. Until recently botanists have been unable to connect the summer form of apple scab with its winter form. It was inferred that the summer form wintered upon fallen leaves and upon the twigs about the buds, etc., and. consequently, we liave had the advice constantly given to spray before the buds start. Recently, however, it lias been demonstrated that apple scab has a permanent winter form which occurs upon the fallen leaves. We have no proof, whatever, that it winters anywliere else than upon the fallen leaves. Hence all infestation of leaves and fruit in spring must come from the winter spores upon the fallen leaves. It has also been demonstrated that apple seal) has two periods of development, a spring growth and a fall growth. Hitherto we have sprayed only in spring for apple scab and have neglected the fall ap- plication which may yet prove to be of the utmost value. For if it is true that the fungus winters only upon fallen leaves, it is evident that fall applica- tions which would prevent the development of the disease upon the leaves in fall would thereby prevent the development of winter spores which are the only source of infestation of fruit and leaf in spring. And if some means could be taken to dispose of the fallen leaves before spring, by raking them up and burning them, or by plowing them under, it might prove of the utmost value and save much of the expensive operation of spraying for apple scab. 268 Appendix. SAN JOSE SCALE. By E. R. Bennett, Assistant Horticulturist Storrs Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Storrs, Connnecticut. The increasing prevalence of San Jose scale in this State may warrant an- other discussion of its treatment by farmers and fruit growers despite the ex- tent to which the subject has already been discussed. The question now is not so much what treatment will kill the scale, as what treatment may be used to kill it at the least cost and at the same time not in- jure the trees. Kerosene oil, crude petroleum, whale-oil soap, hydrocyanic acid gas, and sulphur, lime, and salt solution have all been used with success. Of these remedies the sulphur, lime, and salt solution has recently become the most popular, because of its ability to destroy the scale without injuring the trees. In investigating this subject during the past season we had an opportunity to assist in the spraying of 11,000 peach and plum trees on the farm of Mr. J. II. Hale at South Glastonbury, Connecticut. Work was begun in the field on March 10, 1903. The equipment included one 20-horse power steam boiler with steam pipes leading from the boiler into six barrels. Four of these were used for boiling the sulphur, lime, and salt, and two for heating water. A near-by hydrant supplied water for filling the boiler and making the solution. Two pumps mounted on 50-gallon barrels were used, each pump having two lines of hose fitted with double Vermorel nozzles. Later a third pump was added to the equipment to avoid loss of time from the pumps getting out of order. Other nozzles were tried, but none gave as good satisfaction as the medium or Bordeaux size aperture of the Vermorel. Three men and a horse were used for each pump. Two men made the solution, and when the trees to be sprayed were far away from the boiler, a man with a horse and wagon hauled the solution to the pumps. In all, the force con- sisted of nine men and three horses. Power sprayers were not used, because, since more than two lines of hose could not be operated to advantage, and the driver could easily furnish sufficient pressure at the pump, the additional cost of purchasing and running a power sprayer was not advisable. DETAILS OP MAKING THE MIXTURE. The mixture was made in several different ways : First. — Thirty pounds of lime was slaked with boiling water and reduced to a pasty mass. Then thirty pounds of sulphur was added and thoroughly mixed, after which enough water was added to thin the material, and the steam was turned on. After boiling about one hour, fifteen pounds of salt was added, and the whole mass was boiled fifteen minutes more. Then the barrel was filled with hot water and drawn off into the pump barrel, from which it was applied to the trees. This formula made a good solution, but was expensive and so thick that the pumps clogged somewhat. Second. — A formula of twenty pounds of lime, twenty pounds of sulphur, and fifteen pounds of salt to fifty gallons of water, was next tried. This appeared to work better with the pumps and made a good coat on the trees, but a considerable residue of sulphur was left in each barrel, indicating that not enough lime was used to dissolve all the sulphur. San Jose Scale. 269 Third.- — By adding five pounds of lime to the preceding formula, all the sul- phur was used, and a more perfect combination obtained. This formula, twenty- five pounds of lime, twenty pounds of sulphur, and fifteen pounds of salt to fifty gallons of water, was used on the greater part of the orchard. Prom the amount of sulphur left undissolved when equal quantities of sulphur and lime were used, it is evident that more lime than sulphur should be used, what- ever the formula may be. TIME OP COOKING. The chief objection to the use of sulphur, lime, and salt has been the expense of cooking. The first formulas used in the West called for four hours' time in cooking. Later investigations have shown this length of time to be unneces- sary. In the work here described the time taken at first was one hour before the salt was added and fifteen minutes afterward. Experience soon showed, however, that after the materials were boiled from thirty to forty-five minutes, the sulphur was all dissolved, after which time no beneficial change took place. No difference could be detected in the time required for cooking or in the nature of the solution, whether the lime was slaked and the sulphur added afterward or all three ingredients were put together in the barrel, water added, and steam turned on. Still later investigations have shown a more economical way of boiling the mixture. Lime in slaking generates a large amount of heat. If the lime and sulphur are put together in the cooking tank, and hot water is added to slake the lime, the heat generated goes a long way toward dissolving the mixture. An old blanket thrown over the barrel helps to hold the heat in. Long continued boiling causes the solution to form a thick, black precipitate, that sometimes gives trouble by clogging the strainer and nozzles. EPPECT OP SOLUTION ON MEN. Sulphur and lime solution has had a reputation of producing a bad effect on the operators using it. To avoid this trouble the men were provided with oilskin jackets, trousers, and hats, and rubber gloves. Even with these pre- cautions more or less of the solution came in contact with the hands and faces of the men ; but in no case did any injury result. The material is disagreeable and is ruinous to clothes, especially leather, so the use of oilskins and rubber is advisable. RECORD OF WORK. One of the principal objects in taking on this work was to determine the effect of the sulphur, lime, and salt solution on the scale and trees when applied under different weather conditions. The work of applying the mixture extended over a period from March 10th to April 14th. During this time several heavy rains occurred, some of them following very closely the application of tne solu- tion. These rains did no apparent damage to the solution that had become dry on the trees. It was found not to be advisable to apply the solution when the trees were wet, as it would not stick sauisfactorily. THE OREGON PORMULA. In Oregon, copper sulphate has been used in addition to the sulphur, lime. and salt for the purpose of making it a fungicide as well as an insecticide, hence the sulphur, lime, and salt, plus the copper sulphate, is known as the Oregon solution, or Oregon formula. In preparing this formula the same amounts of materials were used as before (twenty-five pounds of lime, twenty pounds of sulphur, and fifteen pounds of salt), with four pounds of copper sul- phate added. When the copper sulphate was added in a concentrated solution to the other ingredients, a heavy black precipitate like coffee grounds was formed, which caused trouble in straining. A more dilute solution of the sul- 270 Appendix. ]ihate (lid not give tliis trouble. In applying the two solutions no difference was noticeable, except that the Oregon solution was somewhat thicker ; and their effects, so far as we could ascertain, were the same. It is quite probable that the addition of the copper sulphate to the sulphur and lime does no harm what- ever ; but that it improves the solution in anj' way our experiments have not yet demonsti;ated. THOROUGHNESS OP APPLICATION NECESSARY FOR SUCCESS. In doing this work care was exercised that every part of the trees should be covered with the solution. Yet it was found that, even when such care was taken, many spots on the trees were left untouched. These places are not easily seen while the trees are wet, but after a day or two the coating of solution turns a yellowish white, making all unsprayed spots very conspicuous. After all the trees had been sprayed, a day and a half was spent in going over the or- chard a second time and in touching up all places that were missed at the first application. The time of this work was short as compared with the time of The first application, which took twenty-one full days. This retouching is very important, as a small place left unsprayed on a tree may hold enough insects to re-establish the pest in a year or two. The trees had been thoroughly pruned previous to the spraying, without which pruning thorough spraying would have been very difficult. TIME SOLUTION REMAINS ON THE TREES. At the end of one month the trees were as white as wlien first sprayed. Three months from the time of spraying a good coating remained on the trees, and at the end of nine months many trees showed considerable spray. COST OF SPRAYING. Cost of treatment is always an important factor in deciding what remedy shall be used for theinfested trees. In this instance care was taken not to cut down the cost of the operation at the expense of good work. The best appliances and material that could be procured were used, and yet the cost was not such as to debar their use when compared with kerosene, whale-oil soap, (\v hydrocyanic acid gas. The total cost of the materials and appliances, including the wear of tools, amounted to .$355.00, and the cost of time of men and horses was $321.60; making a total cost of application of $677.50. This amount divided by the number of trees sprayed, or 11.170, gives a cost of six and six-hundredths cents per tree. These trees were all peach or plum and from three to twelve years old. A large part of the trees were full grown. RESULTS OF SPRAYING. Most of the trees sprayed were not badly infested with the scale, though nearly all had some scale, and a few were considerably crusted. ^Yithin a short time after application, examination of the infested trees showed that the in- sects under tne scale had a shriveled appearance. AYhen pressed with the point nf a knife they were found to be only a shriveled, dry skin, while those on the unsprayed trees were plump. On May 20th. several trees examined showed more than 95 per cent of the scales killed. .lune 20th, the sprayed trees were found practicall.v free from young scale, while unsprayed trees near by showed from twenty-five to two hundred young scale per square inch. At this time some of the old. female scales were found alive on the sprayed trees, but these had not produced young, probably owing to the absence of living, adult, male, scale insects. This would indicate that the female is more resistant to spraying solution than is the male. On November 11th. a careful examination of the sprayed orchard was made. A part of the orchard located contiguous to a badly-infested and unsprayed orchard was re-infested so as to make necessary San Jose Scale. 271 spraying again this winter. The remainder of the orchard, tlioiigli having some scale, was not infested sufficiently to make spraying again this year advisable. EFFECT OF SOLUTION ON TREES. The claim has been made that trees sprayed in early spring with sulphur. lime, and salt solution were slower in starting out blossoms and leaves than were the trees not sprayed. Observations in this orchard seemed to verify this state- ment. The growth on some varieties was. as near as could be determined, from a day or two to a week later than on the unsprayed trees of the same varieties. This was undoubtedly caused by the white trees absorbing less heat than did those unsprayed. In no case did any of the trees show any signs of injury from the solution. That sulphur and lime have considerable value as a fungi- cide has been believed by many experimenters for some time. Some facts noticed in connection with this work have tended to confirm this belief. Peach leaf curl was quite prevalent this season in many orchards, but while leaf curl was to be found on Elberta trees in plots of trees near the sprayed orchard, none could be found on the sprayed trees of Elberta or any other variety. That the solution has a beneficial effect on the fungous growths on the bark of trees is certain : for trees sprayed in this work and in other places show a much cleaner, smoother surface than do trees which have not been sprayed. In regard to this subject. Prof. L. R. Taft, Inspector of Orchards and Nurseries for Michigan, says : "There can be no question but what the sulphur, lime, and salt solution is a very efllcient fungicide. It surpasses anything 1 know of for cleaning up the trunks of trees, and it has a very marked ^'ffect upon the freedom from scab of both fruit and foliage. Quite a number of orchardists who sprayed a portion of their trees for the scale last year are so well pleased with its effect as a fungicide that they will now spray all of their trees whether infested with scale or not." WHEN TO SPRAY. Sulphur, lime, and salt solution may be applied at any time when the leaves are off the trees ; that is. from November to April. A very good plan, where there is a possibility of eradicating the pest, is to make one application in the fall and then repeat the following spring to make sure of touching all parts of the tree with the material. A very weak solution of sulphur, lime, and salt has been used on trees in foliage, but there Is little advantage to be gained by at- tempting to do the work in summer, for while some of the scale are more easily killed then, they are much harder to reach with the spray, more solution is required, and the foliage of most trees will l)e burned by a solution strong enough to kill the insects. WHAT TO SPRAY. Apple, pear, peach, plum, sweet cherry, and mountain ash trees, rose bushes. grape vines, currant and gooseberry bushes, lilac bushes, and several other orna- mental trees, shrubs, and vines are liable to Infestation from this pest. All of these may be treated at any time when dormant. Trees that have been infested with the scale until they have become in- crusted or have begun to die at the top had best be cut and burned. All trees should be severely pruned out and cut back before spraying, as much labor and material is saved by so doing, and much more thorough work can be done. If the trees are large, all loose bark should be scraped from the tree with a hoe. as this bark is of no use to the tree and may protect the scale from the spraying .solution. In spraying an orchard do not stop with the trees that are known to be infested. If one tree in the orchard has scale, the others are almost sure to have scale also, although much care is often necessary to find them. It is better to spray a few trees which do not have scale than to take the chances of leaving trees that are infested. 272 Appendix. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM THE WORK. That sulphur, lime, and salt solution is a practical remedy for scale insect pests in the East as well as the West has been demonstrated beyond question. In comparing tue cost of it with the 20 per cent kerosene and water spray, we found the cost of materials for the sulphur, lime, and salt solution less than for the kerosene spray. On the other hand, owing to the difference in consist- ency of the two mixtures, much more material is required to cover a tree of given size with the sulphur-lime solution than with kerosene and water. Kerosene as a spray necessitates the use of a special pump and can be applied with safety only in clear, windy, dry weather. We do not wish to discourage the use of kerosene as an insecticide, but during the past season so many trees have been killed or injured by it that we would recommend that it be used with great care. SOME HINTS ABOUT SPRAYING. The 2.5-20-15-50 formula used in this work gave perfect satisfaction. Cor- respondence with people in different places where the sulphur, lime, and salt remedy was used the past season shows that a weaker solution gave equally good results. In Michigan, the formula used the past season was twenty-five pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of sulphur, and eight pounds of salt to fifty gallons of water. In reply to inquiries on this subject, Prof. P. J. Parrot, of the Ohio Experiment Station, says : "Of the formulae used the one employing fifteen pounds of sulphur, fifteen pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of salt to fifty gallons of water gave the most satisfactory results." He further says : "I have used the lime-sulphur-salt wash with varying proportions of ingredients, a d I can not see that any advantage is gained by using the salt or large quantities of lime." The relative quantities of lime and sulphur used must largely depend upon the quality of the lime, as samples of lime from different parts of the country vary greatly in their composition. The more caustic the lime, the less is needed to dissolve and combine with the sulphur. Air-slaked lime should never be used for this purpose. A considerable amount of solution has been used this season without salt. The use of salt in the mixture is principally to add to the adhesive qualities of the spray. Using the mixture without salt reduces the cost considerably, but further investigation is needed before it can be safely recommended in all places. Forty-one thousand peach trees were recently sprayed with the sulphur and lime in the orchard of Mr. J. H. Hale in Georgia at the cost of one and six-tenths cents per tree. The formula used in this work was twenty-five pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of sulphur, to fifty gallons of water. In making and applying sulphur-lime solution a few precautions should be ob- served. Use best caustic lime, sublimed flowers of sulphur (sulphur flower may be used, but does not dissolve so readily). Add the sulphur to the lime, then turn on enough hot water to thoroughly slake the lime. If possible, cover the receptacle with a blanket while the lime is slaking, to retain heat. Boil by steam or fire till the mixture becomes a dark amber color. If boiling is done by steam, the pipes may be so arranged in the receptacle that the steam will do all the necessary stirring. If not, the solution must be stirred by hand to prevent the forming of lumps in the undissolved sulphur After the material is dissolved, add hot water to make up the desired formula, then strain through a twenty or thirty-mesh sieve into pump barrels. Any spray pump that will furnish suffi- cient power for two lines of hose will answer the purpose. The solution is best applied hot, as it adheres better than when cold. It should also be used the same day that it is made, because insoluble crystals of sulphur form within a few hours, that clog the pumps badly. No copper appliances should be used for handling the solution, as copper is very quickly affected by the mixture. All appliances used should be thoroughly cleaned every night before leaving them. o Si o o o c" o at >> J) 75 > 0) E m m Li. 0) o re re re O re 0. Bordeaux Spraying for Melon Blight. 273 otherwise much trouble will occur from the clogging of pumps, hose, nozzles, etc. The cost of treating San Jose scale with the lime-sulphur mixture will de- pend largely upon the number of trees to be sprayed. Where only a few trees are to be treated, the mixture may be made in a large iron kettle ; but in any case a good spray pump, rubber hose connections, and nozzles are essential to good work. In a community where several small infested places are close together, much expense may be saved by co-operation, one boiling and spraying apparatus being sufficient for several places. BORDEAUX SPRAYING FOR MELON BLIGHT. By E. R. Benxbtt, Assistant Horticulturist Storrs Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Storrs, Connecticut. Cucumber and melon growing have been practically driven from this State by the diesease known as melon blight {Plasmopara ctibcnsis). Another disease of melons and cucumbers, the bacterial wilt, has done some damage in different parts of the State, but, as compared with the bliglit. it is at present of little consequence. These two diseases are frequently confused, tliough the appearance of each is distinctive. When the bacterial wilt attacks a vine, the leaves wilt as though the vine had been severed from the root. The leaves nearest the root wilt first, then the disease quickly follows along to the tip of the vine, and the plant dies. Melon blight first appears as irregular yellow or greenish spots that soon become dry. These appear on the older leaves first, but do not cause the leaf to wilt. The bacterial wilt is caused by a bacterium and is supposed to get started in the plant from inoculation by insects. All vines attacked in this way should be immediately removed and burned. WHAT THE MELON BLIGHT IS. This disease is caused by a parasitic fungus. It is transferred from one plant to another by spores, minute seed-like bodies, that are blown about by the wind like dust. These settle on the leaves of the host plant, germinate, and send out a root-like thread, that enters through the pores of the skin into the tissue of the leaf. When the fungus has reached a certain stage of development in the leaf, it sends out fruit organs on the under side of the leaf, giving the spot the downy appearance from which the disease takes its name (downy mildew). This fact, that the disease starts from the upper surface of the leaf, gives us a suggestion as to its proper treatment. BORDEAUX AS A REMEDY FOR MELON BLIGHT. An experiment to determine the effect of Bordeaux mixture as a remedy for the disease was made during the past season. Two plots of cucumbers of twenty-four hills each were planted June 18th. Owing to the extreme wet, cold weather which followed, most of the seeds of this planting rotted in the ground. Re-planting was done June 29th. From the second planting a good stand of plants was secured. Striped beetles attacked the plants as soon as they were out of the ground, but were held in check by a liberal use of ground tobacco stems. Clean cultivation was given the plants throughout the season. Bol)^ plots were thinned to four plants to each hill as soon as the danger from insects had passed. HOR. 18 274 Appendix. The Bordeaux used for this work was of the formula four pounds of copper sulphate, four pounds of lime, to forty gallons of water. Tests were made with ferrocyanlde of potassium before each application, to make sure that the Bordeaux was not acid. Spraying was begun on one plot as soon as the first leaves ap- peared and continued as follows: First spraying, July 10; second spraying. July '2i ; third spraying. August .3 : fourth spraying, August 8 ;■ fifth spraying, August 21 : sixth spraying, August 27 ; seventh spraying, September 7. The other plot was not sprayed. At the early stage of growth the plots did equally well so far as appearances went, but as the following table shows, the sprayed plot tended toward a higher yield before the blight made its ap- pearance. A few plants in each plot were attacked by the bacterial wilt. Theee were pulled up and removed. The variety used in this experiment was the Improved Long Green. Fruits were picked on both plots when they had reached a proper size for pickles (2 to 21/^ inches). September 12th. blight began to appear on the unsprayed plot. Septem- ber 21st, growth on the unsprayed plot had stopped, so that no new leaves or blossoms were developed. By September 2.jth the unsprayed plants had all turned yellow or dry and worthless, while the sprayed plot was in good con- dition. October ."ith, the plants of the sprayed plot were still in good condition and were setting blossoms and fruit, while the plants of the imsprayed plot were entirely dead. October 12th, cold weather destroyed all vines. Tlie yield of cucumbers was as follows : Unsprayed August 22 August 27 August 31 September 3 September 7 September 12 September 11 September 17 September 21 September 23 September 25 September 28 October 2 October 5 _.. October 7-_- October 10 — October 13 ___ Total Three plots of muskmellons were planted, two of which were sprayed, the third being left unsprayed. Owing to the cold season, none of the melons ma- tured fruits. The result of spraying was practically the same with the melons as with the cucumbers. Traces of blight could be seen on the sprayed foliage, but they were not sufficiently abundant to do any liarm. The unsprayed plants succumbed to the disease even before the cucumbers did. WHEN AND HOW TO SPRAY. In this climate downy mildew makes its appearance about August 1st, there- fore spraying must begin some time previous to that date. Failures in the past to control the disease have generally been directly attributable to neglect- ing to spray until the disease liad made its appearance. At this time spraying 3s of very little value ; for after the mycelium of the fungus once gets into the tissues of the leaf, the Bordeaux cannot act upon it. Bordeaux must always be used as a preventive of disease rather than as a cure. For the first two or The Pernicious Scale Insect in New Hampshire. 275 three applications of Bordeaux, the use of a knapsack sprayer may be found ad- visable. After the vines have become grown, a barrel pump, two lines of hose, and double Vermorel nozzles are necessary to do thorough work. It may be found convenient to leave every -sixth or seventh row vacant when planting, to make a roadway for tlie spraying apparatus during the season. This may lie done to suit the convenience of tlie grower, but liowever the spraying is man- aged, thorough work must be done in order to secure f.ood results. Weather conditions may have something to do with determining the number of applications, but in any case a thorough spraying should be given the plants at least once in two weeks, as long as tliere is danger from blight. BOKDEAT'X MIXTURE— rROPEK WAY OF MAKIXCx. Preparation of this mixture has a great deal to do with its ease of applica- tion and its efficiency. The wrong way to make Bordeaux mixture is to pour a strong solution of copper sulphate dissolved in water into a strong solution of milk of lime, and subsequently adding sufficient water to make up the desired formula. The action of tlie copper sulphate and lime when mixed in a concen- trated form is such that a heavy precipitate is formed, which r.-ipidly settles to the bottom, leaving clear water on top. The right way to make Bordeaux mixture is to dilute both the copper sulphate and lime solution with the full amount of water before being mixed. Two samples of the mixture, containing the same ingredients, but mixed in the different ways noted, if placed in jars side by side will show the difCerence. At the end of the five hours the one containing the wrongly compounded mixture will show a heavy white precipitate at the bottom, while the jar witli the properly made mixture will hardly commence settling. The precipitate of the compound of lime and copper sulphate is held in suspension in the water, and the length of time before the precipitate settles to the bottom indicates the fineness of the precipitate. To do the best work with Bordeaux mixture a fine spray must be obtained. To obtain this the precipitate of the mixture must be fine, or a small aperture nozzle or fine strainer can not be used without trouble from clogging : hence the importance of proper preperation of the mixture. Another important detail in the use of Bordeaux mixture is the testing before using, to make sure that the mixture is not acid. Much trouble is fre- quently experienced from the burning of foliage because of the acidity of the mixture. This can be easily avoided. A few cents" worth of ferrocyanide of jiotassium dissolved in water makes a sure test, that is easily applied. After the Bordeaux mixture is made and thoroughly stirred up, dip out a small amount in a cup. To this add a few drops of the test solution. If the mixture is acid, a dark brown coloration will immediately appear. In that case add more lime water till no coloration comes from the addition of the test solution. Iti all cases Bordeaux mixture should be used within a few hours after being made, as it rapidly deteriorates in value from standing. THE PERNICIOUS SCALE INSECT IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. By Clakence M. Weed, New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station. The San Jose or pernicious scale has attracted more attention from Ameri- can fruitgrowers during the last ten years than any other insect It has been recognized as a most dangerous pest which was likely to be introduced Into any community through the sale of young trees. It was apparently first introduced into New Hampshire at Manchester about ten years ago, but it has 276 Appendix. been repeatedly introduced since on trees brouglit from nurseries in other states. It is now Isnown to be present in tlie following New Hampshire citiea and towns, and probably is found in several others : Dover, Durham, Epping, Intervale, Manchester, Rollinsford, Seabrook. The presence of the pernicious scale is difficult to detect until it becomes sufficiently abundant to injure or kill the infested tree. It then appears as a curious scaly crust on the bark. When only a few are present it is difficult to find them, as they are simply small round spots of much the same color as the bark, to be seen plainly only through a magnifying glass. Their presence gen- erally is not discovered for two or three seasons after they first appear, by which time they have usually spread to surrounding trees. ez. Fig. 2— Appearance of scale on bark: n, infested twig, natural size; b, bark as it appears under band lens showing .scales in various stages of development and young larvse. (Original). The individual scale is a small round object closely attached to the bark, not more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter and having a darker raised point near the center. At first these round scales are likely to be scattered here and there over the bark, but as they increase in numbers they are nearer together, touching or overlapping one another, and perhaps finally making a thick, scurfy layer of a grayish color that obscures the natural color of the bark, and is easily rubbed off with the finger. The presence of such a layer indi- cates that the sap from the bark is being sucked out by millions of the insects and that the health of the tree is being seriously impaired. The Pernicious Scale Insect in New Hampshire. 277 The scales that are found through the winter develop in early spring into mature insects that give birth to many young scale lice. These are tiny whitish or yellowish white creatures that crawl about over the bark for about thirty hours before they finally fasten themselves to it, inserting their curious beaks to suck the sap. They then begin to secrete the scale which is so characteristic of this family of insects. Certain definite stages have been observed in the formation of this scale. At first there is a white or fluffy stage due to the se- cretion of cottony threads ; then a tufted stage due to waxy threads ; then a hiack stage during which the scale becomes thicker, and finally passes into the mature form. These are the periods of the female scales. The male scales finally develop into minute two-winged creatures which are able to fly about. When the San Jose scale occurs upon older trees it is most likely to be found o. the twigs and smaller limbs, but upon young trees it may occur over the whole surface. But it does not confine its attacks to the bark, for the leaves and fruit are often infested ; upon the young bark and the leaves and fruit there is a very characteristic purplish ring around each scale. When the leaves are infested the insects are likely to be found along the midrib. This pest is most likely to bei ntroduced into new localities upon nursery stock imported from infested regions. This is believed to be the way in which it was first brought to the Eastern States. It is also likely to be carried upon ■apples and pears sent to market, but this species never occurs upon oranges or lemons. infestation in new HAMPSHIRE. A few years ago there seemed some reason for hoping that this pest would not thrive so far north as New Hampshire, but this hope must be abandoned in the face of the facts now known about its presence in our State. That it can develop even as far north as our White Mountain region to an extent where it is seriously destructive is beyond further question. Theinfestation first found was in the eastern part of Manchester, where a young mixed orchard of about forty trees was very severely attacked by this scale. The trees consisted of apples, peaches, pears, plums, cultivated cherries and wild cherries, with gooseberry bushes planted between. All of these, except the cultivated cherry, were very badly infested when we first visited the place one year ago. The gooseberries were so seriously attacked that they were burned, along with a large number of branches pruned from the other trees. The wild cherries were badly infested, a discouraging indication of future trouble when we think how generally these trees are distributed throughout the State. In a •neighboring orchard of sixteen young apple trees two were practically dying from scale attack and others were more or less infested. Larger apple- trees in the neighborhood also showed occasional scales. The trees originally infested were sprayed in March, 1903, with undiluted ■kerosene, which was then believed to be one of the best remedies for this insect. The results obtained, however, were not satisfactory, only part of the insects being killed, so that by last autumn the infestation was still seri( us, requiring treatment this winter with a more effective insecticide. The next region of infestation of which we learned was at Dover Point, where some peach, pear, and plum trees were very seriously attacked, and neighboring apple trees less seriously. The pest had doubtless been introduced through nursery stock, and had been developing for some years. The owner promptly sprayed these trees with the lime, sulphur, and salt wash, with the result that the nine worst infested trees were killed, though the lightly infested •apple trees were not injured. I do not know just why this result should have happened. Another infestation was found at Intervale, New Hampshire, where a row of pears along the south side of a wall were badly infested. These were thor- oughly treated with Calcothion, a trade mixture of the lime, sulphur, and salt wash made by the Adler Color & Chemical Company, New York. This treatment apparently eradicated the scale without Injury to the trees. 278 Appendix. I^ater in the spring infestations were found in nurseries at Dover, Epping. and Seabroolv, and in trees from tliese nurseries in Rollinsford, Lee. and Durham. The proprietors of these nurseries have sliown an evident desire to prevent the spread of the pest, and have destroyed or treated tlie infested trees. At least one of them is planning to fumigate all his trees, which will render them safe for planting, safer in fact than ordinary trees which have been inspected but not fumigated. Fumigation. — It is generally conceded that the fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas of nursery trees while in their dormant winter condition is one of the most satisfactory methods of controlling the pest. :Many of the largest nurseries now fumigate all their stock, and it is probable that the practice will become more general as the years go by. For this purpose a special air-tight room is. set apart or built in which the young trees are placed while the deadly gas kills the insects. Anyone intending to treat nursery stock in this way will find full directions in Johnson's book on Fumigation Methods, published by the Orange Judd Company, New York. f^iilphuU' of Potash and Lime. — An easy winter wash to apply has been tested and recommended by Prof. W. E. Britton of the Connecticut Experiment Station. It consists of : Sulphide of potash '. 10 pounds Lime 10 pounds Water 20 gallons The sulphide of potash, commonly called liver of sulphur, is dissolved in warm water, and the solution thus made is used to slake the lime, which should he of good qualit.v. After thorough mixing, the rest of the twenty gallons of water is added. This wash is more expensive than the lime, sulphur, and salt, as the sulphide of potash costs 22 cents a pound, but it is so much easier to make that for a small amount of spraying it may be preferable. I'se a good quality of finishing lime. Lime. Siili)liiir, and Salt Wash. — The experience of orchardists throughout the Eastern States indicates that the most effective remedy for the pernicious scale is the lime, sulphur, and salt wash. This is applied to the dormant trees in winter or early spring before the buds start, and is very efficient in destroy- ing and checking the increase of theinsects. It is a troublesome remedy to appul.r on a small scale, and is best attempted by commercial growers or by those who make a business of spraying. Its preparation necessitates large iron kettels- or else a steam boiling oufit. After studying the practical experience of many Ohio orchardists. the Ohio Experiment Station recommends the following formula and directions : Lump lime 25 pounds *Salt 25 pounds Sulphur 25 pounds Water 75 gallons "Place the full amount of lime in the kettle or vat. or whatever the re- ceptacle may be, and start it to slake with hot water, using enough to prevent the lime from lieing air slaked, but not enough to drown it. During the slaking^ process add the sulphur, all lumps having been first pulverized, and the salt ; stir both of them in thoroughly, and add water gradually to reduce the mix- ture to a thin paste. If the mixture is not already boiling, bring it to this point and allow it to boil for one hour. If the wash is prepared in an iron kettle it will be necessary to add a bucket of water now and then to replace that lost in the boiling process, and to stir the mixture frequently to prevent burning and caking of materials upon the sides of the vessel. After one hour's, boiling enough hot water should be added to make the required amount of mix- ture, or if cold water is used the proper proportion should be added and the *It has been demonstrated by repeated experiments that the salt can be left out of lime and sulphur formulas without lessening its efficiency. Fire Blight. 279 wash again brought to the boiling point. The wash is now ready for use. It should then be emptied into the spraying barrel, being strained through common wire screening, and if possible applied while hot to the trees. "To prepare the wash satisfactorily it is necessary to have a suitable outfit. In making plans for such, one should remember that the kind of plant, with reference to the use of kettle or steam to prepare the wash, location in regard to an abundant supply of water, and the number of handy contrivances for hand- ling water, and the wash, have much to do with the ease and cost with which this spray can be made and applied. If possible, use steam to prepare the wash. The outlay for a suitable plant need not be large, espec ally if the orchardist possesses mechanical ingenuity, for by using parts of old spraying apparatus and second-hand machinery, one may provide a very satisfactory outfit with comparatively little expense. The following brief descriptions will serve as a guide for the erection of an outfit adapted to individual circumstances. "Two iron caldrons of sixty gallons capacity will make an outfit at a smsill outlay. It is not the most convenient arrangement but will answer very well the purpose of the owner of a small orchard, who would hardly find it profitable to erect a more elaborate plant. With such an outfit one can prepare in a day from three to four hundred gallons of wash, which will be sufficient to treat about two hundred and fifty trees of the size of seven-year old peach trees, employing one man to prepare the wash, one to hold the nozzle, and another to operate the pump. The cost for caldrons, spray pump, and barrel will be from twenty to thirty dollars." Calcothion. — This is a ready prepared lime, salt, and sulphur wash, made and sold by the Adler Color & Chemical Works, New York, N. Y. We used it on small trees where it was applied by brushes with excellent results. It is likely to be rather lumpy for spraying purposes. These lime-sulphur combinations burn the skin, and so should be sprayed with gloves on the operator. "An application of vaseline to exposed parts will neutralize stray spatterings.' FIRE BLIGHT. By Jj. F. IlENDERSox, Botanist, University of Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station. A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF THE PEAK AND THE APPLE. Spring is now upon us. — the time when the careful horticulturist must be preparing to combat those many ills incident to fruit culture, whether of an insect or of a fungous nature. Of all these probably the fire blight is the worst and most to be dreaded. The name "fire blight" Is the proper one to use : it should not be called "pear blight" for two reasons. In the first place it is liable to be confused with the pear-leaf blight, a disease which attacks the leaf of the pear, and inci- dentally injures the fruit. In the next place this disease is not limited to the- pear ; it is fast becoming too common on the apple as well, in our State. Nay. in many states it attacks all of the pomaceous fruits, such as pear, apple, quince, crab and hawthorn. Three years ago this disease was unknown to the writer in the southern part of the State : today, there is hardly an orchard in certain districts which does not show some blight, and in many it is very serious. In Northern Idaho it has been in our pear orchards for over ten years, but luckily it has hardly ever attacked the apple. From the devastation this disease is causing in the Southern Idaho apple orchards, we cannot expect that the north- ern portions of the State will be long exempt. 280 Appendix. HISTORICAL. Though this trouble has been known as working havoc in orchards for a century or more, it is only in comparatively recent times that its true nature has been well understood. For a long period of years the discussions of this trouble were of such a theoretic nature, that many horticultural societies forbade its being brought up in their meetings, unless some one had something of absolute knowledge to offer about it. Various causes were ascribed for its presence, such as "sour sap," "atmospheric conditions," "soil conditions," and "effects of various fungi." In 1878, however, Prof. Burrill, of Illinois, discovered the true cause and announced his discovery to the world. This was found to be a bacterial disease, due to the presence of myriads of little germs in the inner bark and cambium. The germ was called by Prof. Burrill Micrococcus amylovoriis from the eagerness with which studies of Arthur at the Geneva Statoin in New York, and of Waite in the United States Department of Agriculture, we know how this germ or bacterium lives, re- produces itself and is carried from tree to tree. APPEARANCE OF BLIGHT. Luckily the disease is a very conspicuous one, which renders its presence in an orchard the more inexcusable when well known. It affects twigs, leaves, young fruit, and even the branches or trunks. From the experiments of Waite, it has been found that it cannot attack the plant through the uninjured bark or leaf. It can, however, gain entrance througla any injured place on trunk, limb or even leaf. Its most common points of entrance are natural ones. These are the young growing tips of the branch, the stigma of the flower, or the glands which secrete nectar. Therefore the "flower-blight," the "twig-blight," and the "branch or trunk-blight" are all forms of this disease. In the first, the young twig, especially if it be growing rapidly, turns black in both leaf and stem, and whenever tlie leaves are blighted, they remain black and dead through the ensuing winter. This black, piratical flag is the surest evidence of its presence. In the "flower-blight" a whole bunch of flow^ers, or frequently every bunch upon the tree will be affected, and dying back to the beginning of the spur, hold the blackened flowers and young fruit also through the entire year. This is the most common form on the apple. Frequently an entire limb or even the trunk will be affected for only a short distance, while the top w^lll still be entirely free from the disease, and this can only be understood when we speak of how the disease is spread. More frequently upon the pear several limbs and even the whole trunk will be affected, and when this is the case the tree should be cut out root and branch. MEANS OF DISSEMINATION. If the young shoots of a tree affected with blight be examined, small drops of sticliy. thick fluid will be found exuding from the edge of the diseased area. If one of these drops be examined with a higli power of a microscope, myriads of little oblong bodies will be seen, some separate, some in short chains. These are bacteria. Arthur proved that these bodies, innoculated into a sound tree by a needle, would produce the disease ; Waits proved to us beyond dispute that in- sects, especially bees are the main instruments in their dissemination They are Jittacted by the viscid sap. such up part or all of the drop, and then carry thou- sands of tliese germs with them to innoculate flowers, shoots, or wounded places in the bark. Undoubtedly heavy currents of wind assist in spreading the disease and probably account for the commonness of "twig-blight." The question comes right here : Sliall I keep bees if I have an orchard ? Certainly, and for two reasons. First, the honey, and the revenue derived from it, are often no small object to the farmer. Second, the bees are absolutely needed to assist in proper cross-fertilization or pollination of the flowers. This leads us to the sub- ject of remedies, for preventives there are none. Fire Blight. 281 REMEDIES. As soon as the bacteria are carried to young flower or wound, they effect entrance, and living upon the sap and starch, multiply rapidly. If they gain entrance along a limb or trunk, they live in the inner bark and cambium- layer, — that layer which adds yearly to the growth of both bark and wood. It can readily be seen from this that they are well covered, and consequently spraying does no good. The only remedy thus far found has been and is the care- ful and continuous use of the saw and pruning knife. All diseased shoots and limbs should be cut off at from six inches to one foot below the place of evident infection or injury, as the bacteria has always gone down deeper into the limb than seems to be the case from the outside. Many pruners have the habit of splitting down the bark to see how far the disease has proceeded, but this practice is to be condemned, as they never can see how far the disease has proceeded, and the incision of the knife may carry the bacteria from diseased to healthy tissues. If the blight is bad in either the pear or apple-orchard, the knife or saw should be sterilised each time it is used, by either passing it through a flame or dipping it into weak carbolic acid-water, or into kerosene. The pruned limbs or fragments should be collected and burned and both pruning and burning should be done mainly in the dormant season, before the sap has started, the bacteria have awakened, and the bees are visiting the orchard. This is the best time for pruning and burning, but not the only one; it should be done whenever the disease makes its appearance. All large wounds should be painted over with paint as soon as the tree is trimmed, to prevent the re-innoculation through the exposed tis- sues. Where the blight is bad, even young shoots of water-sprouts should have their cut bases painted, for it has been shown time and again that the limbs and even trunks have been innoculated through these cut stubs. The pear is much more easily pruned for this disease than is the apple. On the former it commonly manifests itself in dead or dying shoots, limbs, or trunks, which can readily be cut away below the progress of the disease. On the apple, however, it is commonly the shoots all over the tree, and especially the fruit spurs and their clusters of flowers, which are most affected. Pruning here be- comes a much more difficult and even serious undertaking. Where only a few shoots and fruit spurs are affected these can be cut away close to the tree, and the wound immediately covered with paint. Where, however, almost all of the fruit spurs on the whole tree have died, the best way is to cut off entire and large limbs, cover the wounds with paint, and stimulate the production of new shoots and subsequent fruit spurs. Many such trees are to be found in and around Boise, New Plymouth and many other places. In the former place my attention was called by Inspector McPherson to a very interesting though sad evidence of the efficacy of bees in spreading the disease. All the splendid large apple trees near the hives were without exception seriously injured by blight, while as we proceeded on radii from the hives the blight grew less and less, and almost dis- appeared on the edge of the orchard farthest from the hives. OTHER HELPS. It has been often noticed that rapidly growing trees are more subject to blight than slower growers, and that those in low ground or "swales" are more subject than those on drier ground. Orchards should therefore be plainted on well drained land, and should not be stimulated by too much water or too much fertilizer. Though all of the varieties of the pomaceous fruits are subject to this disease, as said before, some varieties have been found more subject to the attacks of blight than others. Of the apples, the crabs of all kinds have been found very prone to blight. Amongst the pear, in most places, the Anjou, Angouleme and Seckel are most resistant ; Bartlet and Flemish Beauty are less so, while the Idaho, Clapp and Winter Nellis are very subject to blight. 282 Appendix. SPRAYING WITH LIME-SALT-SULPHUR SPRAY IN FALL- The (Jeneva. (X. Y. ) Station has been conducting some experiments along this line, and has just published the results of the work in Bulletin No. 254. This bulletin refers to the fact that the early spraying with the sulphur mix- tures were always made in spring, before growth started, but owing to the spread (if the San Jose scale, and the great number of trees to be sprayed it had been found that the process of spraying must either be simplified and shortened, or longer time must be given to the work. Accordingly, the experiments were un- dertaken to see if the fall spraying will be as effective as the spring spraying. Before these experiments were undertaken, says the bulletin, it was uncertain what effect the fall application of sulphur washes would have upon the trees or ui)on the insects. We quote from the bulletin as follows, for the benefit of Fruit-Grower readers who are troubled with San Jose scale, or who may be troubled : "In preliminary tests with the fall spraying with lime-salt-sulphur mixture, by Mr. Parrott. who was then entomologist of the Ohio Station, it was found that the fall treatment was as effective against the scale as the spring treatment, and was not in.juri