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Vol. V. Parts I and: II. October 1906

: BIOME TRIKA.

7

A JOURNAL FOR THE STATISTICAL STUDY OF
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

FOUNDED BY
~ W. F. R, WELDON, FRANCIS GALTON anp KARL PEARSON

EDITED
‘IN CONSULTATION WITH FRANCIS GALTON
AND, IN COLLABORATION WITH
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W. PALIN ELDERTON - RAYMOND PEARL
tee .
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——

VoLUME V OCTOBER, 1906 No. 1

BIOMETRIKA.

WALTER FRANK RAPHAEL WELDON. 1860—1906.*

I. Apologia.

Ir is difficult to express adequately the great loss to science, the terrible blow
to biometry, which results from the sudden death during the Easter vacation of the
joint founder and co-editor of this journal. The difficulty of adequate expression
is the greater, because so much of Weldon’s influence and work were of a personal
character, which only those who have enjoyed his close friendship can estimate, and
which will only to some extent be understood should it ever be possible to publish
his scientific correspondence. That correspondence is not only the most complete
record of the development of the biometric conceptions, but the amplest witness
to Weldon’s width of knowledge, keenness of intellectual activity, and intense love
of truth. It is marked by an extreme generosity to both friend and foe, which is
not in the least incompatible with the use of frankly—perhaps it would be better
to say playfully—strong language whenever the writer suspected unfair dealing,
self-advertisement, or slipshod reasoning masquerading as science. Any form of
publicity was very distasteful to Weldon; in particular he had a strong dislike
for all forms of personal biography. The knowledge of this makes the writing
of the present notice a peculiarly hard task. Yet Weldon’s influence and activity
must always be associated with the early history of biometry ; if there be anything
which can effectively aid younger workers in this field, it must be to realise
that at least one man of marked ability and of the keenest scientific enthusiasm
has devoted the most fertile years of his life to this new branch of science.
Weldon’s history is not written in a long series of published memoirs; much of his
best work was unfinished at his death, and we can only trust that it will eventually
be completed as the truest memorial-to his life. But science, no less than theology
or philosophy, is the field for personal influence, for the creation of enthusiasm, and
for the establishment of ideals of self-discipline and self-development. No man
becomes great in science from the mere force of intellect, unguided and unaccom-
panied by what really amounts to moral force. Behind the intellectual capacity

* [have gratefully to acknowledge much aid from Mr A, E. Shipley in the preparation of certain
parts of this memoir. K. P.

Biometrika v 1

2 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. _

there is the devotion to truth, the deep sympathy with nature, and the determina-
tion to sacrifice all minor matters to one great end. What after all helps us is not
that “he settled Hoti’s business”...

“Properly based Own—
Gave us the doctrine of the enclitic De,”

but that the Grammarian had the strength of will which enabled him “not to Live
but Know.”

If there is to be a constant stream of men, who serve science from love as men
in great religious epochs have served the Church, then we must have scientific
ideals of character, and these do involve some knowledge of personal life and
development. It is the abuse of the personal so prevalent in modern life, the mere
satisfaction of a passing curiosity, which we have to condemn. But the personal
which enables us to see the force of character behind the merely intellectual, is of
value, because it moulds our working ideals. We see the environment—imposed
and self-created—which favours scientific development, and we can with accumu-
lating experience balance environment against heritage in the production of the
highest type of scientific mind. From the standpoint that no man works
effectively without a creed of life, that for width of character and healthy
development there must ever be a proper balance of the emotional and the
intellectual, it would be a distinct loss if the personal were removed from what we
know of the lives of Charles Darwin and James Clerk-Maxwell. Science, like most
forms of human activity, is occasionally liable to lose sight of its ultimate ends
under a flood of controversy, the strugglings of personal ambition, or the fight for
pecuniary rewards or less physical honours. The safety of science lies in the
inculcation of high ideals among its younger votaries. A certain amount of purely
human hero-worship is not to be condemned, and yet this is impossible without
some knowledge of the personal. Weldon himself was no more free from hero-
worship than the best of his contemporaries. Of the men whose influence tended
most to mould his life and career—F. M. Balfour, T. H. Huxley, Francis Galton—the
personal side was not the smaller element. There was enthusiasm, hero-worship
in its best sense, unregarding self-sacrifice in the defence of the man who had
become for Weldon not only an ideal thinker, but an ideal character. In the
defence of hero or friend, Weldon belonged to a past age, he was out with his
rapier, before considering the cause; it was enough for him to know that one he
loved or admired was attacked. A criticism of Huxley was to the end inadmissible ;
if at any point apparently correet, this appearance of correctness was due solely
to the inadequate manner in which the facts of his life had been reported by
biographers,—the class who pandered to the public love of the petty. It was in
this spirit that Weldon received with delight the request to write for the Dictionary
of National Biography, a scientific appreciation of Huxley’s work. From Weldon’s
standpoint that appreciation should have formed the “Life.” It is a fine piece of
work and it was a labour of love, but those who have ever watched the younger
man with the old, will know that the Huxley of the appreciation was not all that

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 3

Huxley meant to Weldon; the feeling of affectionate reverence did not spring
from intellectual appreciation. It had far more its source in the influence of a
strong character on a sympathetic character. And when we turn to Weldon him-
self, his relation to his friends and pupils was not purely that of a keen strong
intellect; his best and greatest influence arose from the strength of character, that
subtle combination of force and tenderness, which led from respect for the master,
to keenest affection for the man.

If then we are to realise his life, it cannot be by a strict adherence to an
appreciation of his published work. Some account of his stock, his early environ-
ment, and his temperament becomes needful, and the value of such an account lies
in the help with which any life spent in single-eyed devotion to the pursuit of truth
provides us, when we have ourselves to form our creed of life, and to grasp that
science is something more than one of the many avenues to a competency. It
must be in this spirit, therefore, that Weldon’s dislike to the biographical is in a
certain sense, not forgotten, but frankly disregarded in these pages.

II. Stock and Boyhood.

It would be impossible in a journal like Biometrika, devoted to the considera-
tion of the effects of inheritance and environment, to pass by the striking
resemblance of Raphael Weldon to his father Walter Weldon. The facts of Walter
Weldon’s life are given in the Dictionary of National Biography. It appears to
have been a resemblance not only in intellectual bent, but also in many respects
in emotional character. Raphael Weldon’s paternal grandparents Reuben Weldon
and his wife Esther Fowke, belonged to the manufacturing middle class. Their
son Walter Weldon was born at Loughborough, October 31, 1832. Of his child-
hood we know little, he was as reticent as his son about both his childhood and
his home surroundings; there is reason to suppose they were not wholly happy,
and that shadows from these early years may have cast themselves not only over
the father, but in a lesser extent have moulded the thought and life of the son.
Walter Weldon married Anne Cotton at Belper, March 14, 1854, and shortly after-
wards, leaving his father’s business, came to London, starting as a journalist, writing
for the Dial and Morning Star. Here he first made the acquaintance of William
and Mary Howitt, who proved long and intimate friends of the family. From 1860
to 1864 he edited Weldon’s Register of Facts and Occurrences relating to Literature,
the Sciences and the Arts, and had as contributors a number of men afterwards well
known in the world of letters. Thus while Walter Weldon’s real name was to be
made in science, his first interests were in literature and art. The steps by which
Weldon regenerated the manganese peroxide used in the manufacture of chlorine,
and the extensions he made of his chlorine process up to his death have been well
described by Dr Ludwig Mond in his address in 1896 to the Chemical Section of
the British Association. They brought Weldon comparative wealth, though
nothing compared with the three-quarters of a million pounds his process saved
this country annually. They also brought him scientific reputation; a vice-

1—2

4 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

presidency of the Chemical Society, and in 1882 the fellowship of the Royal
Society. But for our present purposes the main point is this: that Walter Weldon
made his discovery while totally unacquainted with the methods of quantitative
chemical analysis and possibly because of this ignorance. He was accustomed to
attribute the discovery to a peculiar source, but those who knew well the immense
facility of his son for closely observing phenomena out of his own field of research,
and rapidly studying their interaction, always probing things, whether in the
physical universe, or in mechanism, to their basis in simple laws of nature, will at
once realise the source of the father’s inspiration, and the heritage to the son*.

If Walter Weldon’s discovery brought him wealth, he was generous to a fault.
Like his son he appears to have scarcely known the value of money, except as a
means of giving pleasure to his friends. His early death in September, 1885, two
years after his son’s marriage, cut off a career far from completed. But his life had
been lived to the full, each instant crowded with physical, intellectual, or emotional
activity. It is impossible to regard Walter Weldon’s character without seeing
whence Raphael Weldon drew much of his nature. The intense activity, the keen
sympathy and generosity, the reticence, the creative power in many channels, the
artistic appreciationt, were common to father and son. Nay, perhaps to give

* Raphael Weldon delighted during his many voyages in spending days in the engine-room; he
made a study of the various types of engines, and his knowledge in this respect was not without service
to the Marine Biological Association. He even studied the use of indicator diagrams. His first plan
with a new bicycle was to take it part from part, so that he could fully understand its working and the
nature of possible repairs. The microscope was not merely an instrument to work with, but a familiar
illustration of optical laws, so that he knew at once how to modify each detail to suit special needs.
Over and over again, talking over physical problems he would say: ‘Well, I don’t know what you
people think, but it has always seemed to me that ’’—and then would come some luminous suggestion
or apt criticism of a proposed investigation in a field wholly outside the biological. A striking instance
of this occurred only in the autumn of last year. Many friends had already gone to see the eclipse,
most people were talking about it, and Weldon was left in sultry Oxford, fighting out a theory of
determinantal inheritance. It was settled that a holiday should be taken, the determinants put on
one side and a continuous photographic record made of the eclipse. Neither Weldon nor his colleague
knew anything about sun-photography, and miserable were their first attempts. But gradually the
objective, the telephoto lens and the focal shutter were worked out; a camera which had done yeoman
service in photographing snail habitats became a wonderful structure, and a whole series of colour
screens prepared from biological sources were tested and criticised. It was Weldon who obtained the
first clean cut photograph showing sun spots clearly and admitting of definite enlargement. But what
is more, each developmental stage of his sun camera had been thought out physically, and he knew
why he took it. The trained physical astronomer would have found the stages already made, and a
posteriori each would have been obvious, but this was the case of a biologist with insight into other
fields and a striking power of making things work.

+ An interesting illustration of the relationship is given in Mary Howitt, an Autobiography, 1889
(p. 184). The child Raphael, then 10 years, had gone with his father and the Howitts to visit the
Wiertz Gallery at Brussels. William Howitt writes: ‘‘On our first entrance I was quite startled, I
did not think I should at all like the paintings, they appeared so huge, so wild and so fantastic. But
by degrees I began to see a great mind and purpose in them....... Little Raphael came and took my
hand as we left the gallery, and said: ‘Mr Howitt, I think Wiertz could not be a good man.’
I asked him why. He answered, ‘I think he could not be a good man, or he would not have painted
some things there.’ I told him he might naturally think so, but that a vast deal was to be allowed
for his education. No doubt Wiertz thought all was right, and that many of his pictures contained

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 5

expression to a paradox, their volume of life was too great to be compatible with its
normal length. There are men—not the least favoured of the Gods—who live so
widely and so deeply, that they cannot live long. Discussions on the inheritance
of longevity now come back to the memory, wherein Weldon referred to stocks of
short-lived but intense life, and the personal experience and its moulding effect on
character are now clear, where at the time the mind of the listener ran solely on a
correlation coefficient.

In one respect Raphael Weldon differed widely from his father. Walter
Weldon turned naturally to the mystical to satisfy his spiritual cravings; he was
a Swedenborgian, and ipso facto a believer in intercourse with another world.
Whether owing to a difference of training or of temperament, these things were to
Raphael Weldon uncongenial. He was through the many years the present writer
knew him, like his hero Huxley, a confirmed Agnostic. Sympathetic as every
cultured mind must be with the great creations of religious faith; knowing more
than many men of religious art—painting, sculpture, and music—he yet fully
realised that these things had for him only emotional, no longer intellectual value*.
It may be that the difference of training made this distinction between father and
son, for the latter’s mind was keenly alive to spiritual influences. A solitary fort-
night with the beloved Dante was not solely pleasure ; the re-perusal of the Jnferno
left its sombre influence on Weldon’s thoughts for long after, testifying not only to
its author’s supremacy, but to the spiritual impressibility of the reader’s nature.

It may be that the difference was due to heritage from the mother’s side. Of
Anne Cotton we know little, she died in 1881, when Raphael Weldon had just
taken his degree. She appears to have exercised a rather stern discipline, which
had greater influence on Raphael, than on his brother Dante. She was a devoted
companion to Walter Weldon, and a resourceful helpmate in his early struggling
days+. A daughter Clara born in 1855 died in 1861. Of his childhood Weldon rarely
spoke. He was born in the Highgate district, and shortly after his birth his
parents removed to a three-gabled house on the West Hill still standing. Here
we get occasional peeps of a solitary child who would retire for hours under the
dining-room table with his Shakespere, learning whole acts by heart. At six years
old he appears in Mary Howitt’s letters as staying at Claygate near Esher.

great and useful lessons. His father came up and added that when Raphael was older he would see
those lessons more clearly than he could now.”

The prophecy was fulfilled, in perhaps rather a different way. The little Raphael became a big
Raphael who did not look to art ‘‘for great and useful lessons,” and who refused to study Ibsen
because undiscerning critics made current the idea that his art was subservient to inculcating a lesson.

* The “fulness of life’ admitted, nay demanded, many a visit to cathedral service, especially in
Italy. Even a study of Gregorian music was entered upon, and the writer recollects many a summer’s
afternoon spent in visiting the churches of Oxfordshire and Berkshire,—the cycle ride, the keen eye
on surrounding nature, not only from the standpoint of the biologist, but of the artist; then the break
to the religious past, the ‘biometric tea” at the village inn; the return journey towards evening
and the discussion which touched many things, from Draba verna to the Norsemen in Sicily. The
“volume of life” was there, as it was in the midnight talks in Wimpole Street or in the discussions in
the study at Merton Lea.

+ See R. S. Proc. Vol. xxvt. ‘‘ Obituary Notice of Walter Weldon,” p. xrx. et seq.

6 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

“We find little Raphael Weldon one of the best of children. Secker is mowing
the grass at this moment, and he harnessed like a pony is drawing the machine.
The Pater calls him ‘ Young Meritorious.” And again:

“[TAgnes] and Raphael are the best of friends, and their ringing laughter comes
to us in the garden through the open window, as they sit in the dining-room
painting the Stars and Stripes and the Union Jack for each other’s amusement...
Agnes is a little free-spoken American full of fun and dash. Raphael more silent
and contemplative. They sit painting pictures together for hours at a time.
I feel quite proud of them both.”*

In 1870 comes the flying visit to Brussels; in 1872 a still more memorable first
visit to Paris, where the destruction caused by the Commune to the Tuileries and
other buildings much impressed the boy. The Weldons had moved meanwhile to
The Cedars, Putney, and shortly afterwards went to the Abbey Lodge, Merton, near
Wimbledon. The visits and the changes give one the impression of a rather
broken education. We have no record of what school Raphael Weldon attended,
if any, at Highgate. At Putney he had as tutor a neighbouring clergyman. In
1873 he was sent to a boarding-school at Caversham, and from this time onwards
the educational career is more definite.

Even before 1870, however, we find in the boy the father of the man. His
great pleasure was to organise lectures for his children friends, and the adult
population, if it could be procured. The seats were formally arranged, tickets
provided, and the boy would discourse on slug or beetle procured in the garden,
observation and the scanty literature available providing the material. According
to a surviving auditor the lectures were carefully prepared and good so far as they
extended.

Of the school at Caversham we have some detailed information. Mr W. Watson,
its headmaster, had been a private ‘coach’ in London to University College students.
In 1865 he opened a school at Reading, which was transferred to the hill out of
Caversham in 1873+. Mr Watson’s daughter Ellen Watson had a brief but
brilliant career as a mathematician and pupil of W. K. Clifford’s. Her life has
been written by Miss Buckland. It is possible that she first stirred Weldon’s
mathematical tastes, as he spoke with admiration of her powers; she does not,
however, appear to have taught in the school. The pupils were chiefly sons
of Nonconformists of some eminence. Among the earlier scholars were Viriamu
Jones, Alfred Martin, and E. B. Poulton, and among the later pupils Owen
Seaman, F. W. Andrewes, P. Jacomb-Hood, and W. F. R. Weldon; names
afterwards distinguished in literature, science, or art. The headmaster appears
to have been a clever man of wide knowledge and sympathy, but there was little
to specially encourage biological tastes in the school. It is reported of one under-

* Loc. cit. p. 162 et seq.
+ As an illustration of Weldon’s reticence I may state that we had passed this house several times
together, before he mentioned it as his old school.

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Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. i

master that he protested against the study of insects, asking: “ How do you think
that such pursuits will put a leg of mutton on your table?” and the ability that
proceeded from the school has been attributed by one of its former pupils to the
special class from which it drew its chief material.

III. Lehrjahre.

Weldon did not remain fully three years at this school. It was followed by
some months of private study and he matriculated at 16 (1876) in the University
of London. In October of ’76 we find him at University College taking classes in
Greek, English, Latin, and French, with two courses of pure mathematics. In the
summer term of 1877 physics and applied mechanics were studied. During this
whole session he also attended Daniel Oliver’s general lectures on botany and
Ray Lankester’s on zoology. He used to come up to town for Oliver’s 8 o’clock
lectures, getting his breakfast at a bun-house on the way*. Of his education at
University College he especially praised in after years Olaus Henrici’s lectures
on mathematics. They were he held most excellent, and he considered Henrici
the first born teacher under whom he came. Later in the Christmas vacation of
1879, after he had gone up to Cambridge, he researched for some weeks under Ray
Lankester, who set him to work out the structure of the gills of the mollusc
Trigonia. This completes Weldon’s relations as a student to University College.

The difficulty of access, or possibly Walter Weldon’s strong views, led Raphael
Weldon in the autumn of 1877 to transfer himself to King’s College. Here he
stayed for two terms attending classes in chemistry, mathematics, physics, and
mechanics, beside the zoology course of A. H. Garrod and the biology of G. F. Yeo.
Divinity under Barry, at that time I believe compulsory, was also taken. At this
time Weldon had the medical profession in view. He was only entered on the
Register of Medical Students on July 6, 1878, but there can be no question that
his course on the whole was directed towards the Preliminary Scientific Examination
of the London M.B. This examination he took in December, 1878, after he had
gone up to Cambridge ; he was coached for it by T. W. Bridge, now Professor of
Zoology in Birmingham, but he had already completed the bulk of the work in his
London courses. With the Preliminary Scientific, Weldon’s relation to London
ceased. His student career there was not of quite two years’ duration and it dealt
with a variety of subjects, dictated as much by Weldon’s catholic tastes, as by the
discursiveness of the London examination schedule. But in his case, as in that of
others, the grounding he received in physics and mathematics became a valuable
asset, and the taste for languages, afterwards so emphasised, was to some extent
trained and coordinated with literary knowledge. Yet Weldon’s earlier instinct
to study biology was not substantially modified either by the choice of medicine as
a profession or by the diversity of his London studies. In 1877 he attended the
Plymouth Meeting of the British Association, and there he was generally to be
found in Section D.

* Weldon states in his applications for the Jodrell and the Linacre Chairs that he commenced the
study of zoology under Lankester in 1877.

8 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

The presence of a life-long friend, who had already gone to Cambridge, was at
least one of the causes which led to Weldon’s entering himself as a bye-term student
at Cambridge, and probably his choice of St John’s College was due to Garrod’s
influence. He was admitted on April 6, 1878, as a pupil of S. Parkinson’s. In the
record his father is given as a “Journalist,” although the chlorine process had now
become a success, and his reference is to the Professor of Mathematics at King’s
College, then W. H. Drew*.

At Cambridge Weldon soon found his work more specialised and he rapidly
came under new and marked influences. His first May term and Christmas term
were devoted to his preparation for Little-Go and the London Preliminary Scientific.
For the classical part of the former he seems to have worked by himself. After
these examinations were over reading for the Tripos was begun and, under the
influence of Balfour, Weldon’s thoughts turned more and more to zoology, and the
medical profession became less and less attractive. During the years 1879 and
1880 Weldon worked steadily for his Tripos; in the first year he was given an
exhibition at St John’s, and almost the only break in his work was the York Meeting
of the British Association. In the second year a little original investigation on
beetles was started; in May he took, for a month, Adam Sedgwick’s place and
demonstrated for Balfour. Overwork led to a serious breakdown, and resulted in
insomnia and other ills, which occasionally troubled him again in later life. At the
annual British Association holiday, this year in Swansea, Weldon saw for the first
time Francis Galton, but an actual friendship was not begun till some years later.

The Tripos work was continued in spite of ill-health, till the Easter of 1881,
when Weldon was unable to enter for the college scholarship examinations. By the
influence of Francis Balfour, however, Weldon’s real ability was recognised and a
scholarship was awarded to him. <A three months’ holiday had become necessary,
and Weldon went to the south of France, returning only shortly before his Tripos
examination. At the very start of this, in itself all-sufficient, mental strain,
Dante Weldon, who had joined Peterhouse, died suddenly of apoplexy. It
says much for Weldon’s self-control that the terrible shock of his brother’s
death, though it greatly affected him, did not interfere with his place in
the first class of the Natural Sciences Tripos. The distress he had felt at his
brother’s death was redoubled a few weeks later when his mother passed away.
She had never recovered from the blow resulting from the tragic death of her
younger son. Of these things Weldon did not speak, but they undoubtedly
influenced immensely his deeply emotional nature. Balfour’s untimely death in
the following year, and the early death of Weldon’s father a few years later, left
also their indelible impresses, a certain tinge of melancholy, a doubt whether he
too would live to finish his work, and a tendency to take the joy and fulness of life
while it was there. Few who saw the almost boyish delight in work and in play,
the energy which spent itself for hours at a problem, or cycled eighty or a hundred

* There are errors in the entries in the Register, Weldon’s mother’s maiden name is erroneously
given as Chester, not Cotton. Weldon was actually born at Suffolk Villa, Highgate.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 9

miles in the day, the activity in debate, the vigour in lecture, the flow of thought
and talk to the midnight hours, realised that the man was not of iron physique,
and had indeed but small reserves of strength. To see Weldon keen over a piece
of work was to believe him robust and ready for any fray; but looking back on
the past one can see what each piece of work cost him, and the strain on a highly
nervous temperament began in even those early Cambridge days.

oe LV. Wanderjahre.

With the Tripos Weldon’s Lehrjahre closed and, as his nature directed, the
Wanderjahre began without any interval of rest. Immediately after his Tripos,
Weldon started for Naples to work at the Zoological Station. We have seen that
at Cambridge he had been a pupil of F. M. Balfour’s, whose death from an Alpine
accident in the July of 1882 was the greatest loss British zoology had sustained
for years. The charm of Balfour’s personality had aroused the affection of all who
attended his classes, and had awakened a keen desire to follow, even if but a
long way behind, in his footsteps. In those days the stimulus given by Darwin’s
writings to morphological and embryological researches was still the dominating
factor amongst zoologists, and Weldon threw himself at first with ardour into the
effort to advance our knowledge by morphological methods. In Naples he began
his first published work, a“Note on the early Development of Lacerta muralis” (1),
but at the same time did much miscellaneous work on marine organisms. The
lizard paper was finished in the winter at Cambridge, Weldon gratefully acknow-
ledging the help of Adam Sedgwick, in whose laboratory he was then working.
Anticipation in the publication of some of the results by C. K. Hoffmann, who
_ had been working at the same points, caused a not unnatural disappointment.

In September Weldon was back in England at the Southampton meeting of the
British Association. Here Adam Sedgwick, who had succeeded to the teaching
work of Francis Balfour, invited Weldon to demonstrate for him. Thus the
winter found Weldon in Cambridge again, and from Sedgwick’s laboratory was
issued the next piece of work: “On the Head-Kidney of Bdellostoma, with a
suggestion as to the Origin of the Suprarenal Bodies” (2). Weldon hoped to
show that “at all events in Reptiles and Mammals, the connection between the
Wolffian body and the suprarenal is much more intimate than has generally been
supposed,” and he followed the matter up in the next year by publishing his paper
“On the Suprarenal Bodies of Vertebrates” (3).

Meanwhile a great change had come over Weldon’s personal life. On March 14,
1883, the anniversary of his parents’ wedding-day, he was married to Miss Florence
Tebb, the eldest daughter of William Tebb, now of Rede Hall, Burstow, Surrey,
which formerly, after he left Merton, had been the house of Walter Weldon. The
Weldons and Tebbs had been intimate friends for many years, and Miss Tebb had
been at Girton while Raphael Weldon was at St John’s. At Cambridge the new
Statutes had just come into force, marriage was the order of the day, and houses
were even difficult to procure. The Weldons on their return from a tour in France

Biometrika v 2

10 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

took Henry Fawcett’s furnished house and settled down in Cambridge for the
May term. Raphael Weldon still had his scholarship, and he was demonstrating for
Sedgwick. He was now compelled to undertake “ coaching,”—work which he gave
up as soon as his means would allow of it, for his whole heart was then as
afterwards in research. Still this coaching work brought him in touch with many
men who afterwards distinguished themselves in biological or other fields.

After the death, on the 14th January, 1883, of Forbes, a fellow Johnian, Weldon
for four months—June 15 to October 15—acted as locum tenens for the Prosector
at the Zoological Gardens, London, and during that time he read the following
papers before the Zoological Society: “On some points in the Anatomy of
Phoenicopterus and its Allies” (4); a “Note on the Placentation of Tetraceros
quadricornis” (5), and “ Notes on Callithrix gigot” (6). Weldon did not succeed
Forbes—it was rumoured that some of the electors doubted the fitness of his
physique for the work and considered that the post was not without danger. But
the temporary work into which he threw his usual energy gave him increased
insight into vertebrate anatomy and had the further advantage of making him
personally known to the active workers in zoology of the metropolis.

In the following year (1884) the paper above referred to on the development
of the suprarenal bodies was published in the R. S. Proceedings. Weldon was
now demonstrating in comparative anatomy at Cambridge, and the holidays
were devoted to collection. At Easter Banyuls was visited, and the summer
vacation found Weldon in Naples again for three months preparing his fellowship
dissertation. In Naples the cholera had broken out, and the Weldons experienced
not only difficulty in getting the precious dissertation back to England, but in
returning themselves. This was done by an Orient liner, the last allowed to call.
Thus began the long series of holidays in Italy with the sea passage to or fro.
The summer heat of Naples seemed to suit Weldon, and he could work and think
under circumstances which only allow mere existence to an ordinary Englishman.
On returning to Cambridge, Weldon was elected to a fellowship at St John’s
College on November 3rd, and was shortly afterwards appointed University
Lecturer in Invertebrate Morphology. About this time the Weldons took a
permanent home at No. 14, Brookside, which soon became a centre for Cambridge
workers in biology*. The Weldons’ home, whether in Cambridge, London, or
Oxford, was always a centre, where not only the right people met, but whence
actual profit came by the right people interchanging ideas and planning work.

On his return to Cambridge in November 1884 Weldon had taken up again
his invertebrate work. His next memoir “On Dinophilus gigas” (7) dealt with
the anatomy and affinities of Dinophilus, at that time a very little known Annelid.
A. E. Shipley had been fortunate enough to collect a number of these minute
worms at Mounts Bay, Penzance, and had handed them over to Weldon for

* «The house in Brookside in which he lived after his marriage until he left Cambridge was a

delightful and hospitable centre, where all sorts of subjects were discussed, attacked and defended until
all sorts of hours in the morning.” A. E. S.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 1

description. The latter gave a full account of their anatomy and added a careful
discussion on the affinities of the genus, expressing his belief that while it is
“related on the one hand to Archiannelida, it retains on the other many features
characteristic of the ancestor common to those groups (especially Chaetopods,
Gephyreans, Mollusca, Rotifers and Crustacea) which possess a more or less
modified trochosphere larva.”

The next few years of Weldon’s life were—if it be possible to make any com-
parative where all were intense—more active than ever. He had now given up
coaching, and as he only needed to be in Cambridge two terms of the year, travel
and research could occupy the time from the beginning of June to January. On
May 8, 1885, Weldon gave his first Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution
on “ Adaptation to surroundings as a factor in Animal Development.” No report
is published in the Proceedings of this lecture, but there are those who still
remember the impression caused by the youthful lecturer of 25 years of age. And
here may be a fitting place to say something of Weldon’s lecturing power. There
are two distinct sides to lecture work; the instruction of small or large classes of
students and the public oration. Success in the one field does not necessarily
connote success in the other. In the former case the eye must be kept on the
average student, the lecturer must realise what the individual auditor is feeling,
he must expand his exposition or must contract it to meet the carefully observed
needs of his audience, for he knows that he can take up the subject again on the
next occasion exactly where he has left off. In this form of lecturing Weldon
was an adept, it brought out all his force and enthusiasm as a teacher. As a
writer in the Times (April 18, 1906), says:

“Seldom is it given to a man to teach as Weldon taught. He lectured
almost as one inspired. His extreme earnestness was only equalled by his lucidity.
He awoke enthusiasm even in the dullest, and he had the divine gift of compelling
interest.”

In public lecturing on the other hand, with a time limit and an unknown
audience, the personal touch with individuals is impossible. There is no time to
elaborate points, the whole matter must be a priori fitted to the time, and if the
audience is not grasping an idea, then the lecturer must put both explanation and
disappointment on one side; he must make his audience jump gladly, and trust
to better luck in his exposition of the next stage of his thesis. Shortly, he
must feel his audience with him as a whole and pay no regard to the individual.

Weldon’s own intense thoroughness made him only too conscious when a
portion of his audience were not following him; his highly nervous temperament
made it a necessity that he should have a sympathetic grip on the individual.
This made for success in his lectures to students; but it brought also a factor of
uncertainty into his public lectures. The most carefully prepared discourse, and
no man gave more time and energy than Weldon to preparation*, might be

* Drafts and re-drafts were written, elaborate diagrams painted, or lantern slides made and
coloured by Weldon himself.

2—2

12 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—-1906.

spoiled by Weldon’s consciousness that certain members of the audience were not
following him. He would then turn his exposition into explanation of minor
points, so that the lecture would not be completed, or he would settle down to
speak to the few he realised to be following him, and neglect the audience as a
whole. If a portion of his audience were hostile or actively unsympathetic, this
always prevented Weldon from reaching his best; it formed a strain on the
lecturer's nervous temperament, which could only be realised by those of lke
fibre, and in some cases left its permanent mark. Thus it came about that the
success of a public lecture by Weldon could not a priort be measured ; it depended
far too much on the audience. Individual lectures at the British Association,
the London Institution, at University College or elsewhere were brilliant achieve-
ments, but at the same places on other occasions, Weldon was not so successful,
for no man was ever more responsive to immediate environment than he was. To
do his best and to be at his best he needed essentially a sympathetic environment.
Weldon has been spoken of as an eager, ready and dramatic debater, keen to see
a weak joint in his opponent’s armour and quick in putting his own case with
telling effectiveness. This is undoubtedly true, but it needs the qualification
that this intellectual readiness when in full action meant a high pressure; it was
a strain the less oft repeated the better. A torpedo-boat destroyer is associated
with a 26 knot speed, and such speed differentiates it from other vessels of war ;
but the less it is run at this rate, the longer undoubtedly it will last. Controversy
was not an atmosphere in which Weldon rejoiced*; it came to him because he
felt bound to criticise what he held to be error, because he must defend a friend,
but it was—running the destroyer at 26 knots!

This digression may be justified on the ground that we have reached the
period when Weldon began to exercise a personal influence over his students at
Cambridge, and the sources of that influence are to be found first in the lecture-
room and then in strong personal sympathy. In the lecture-room he always im-
pressed his hearers with the importance of his topic. You could not listen to
him lecturing on a flame-cell or on the variations in the carapace of Pandalus
annulicornis without sharing his intense conviction of the importance of the matter
in hand. He aroused a consciousness in his students that things were worth
studying for their own sake, apart from their examination value.

The summer months of 1885 were spent in Guernsey, and the death of
Walter Weldon in the September of this year kept Raphael Weldon at other
things than research. Christmas, however, found the Weldons at Rome. The
Lent and May terms (1886) were spent in Cambridge as usual. In June came
a visit to the south of France on Chlorine business, but in July came freedom, the
crossing to America and the visit to the Bahamas in August to collect. From his

* Actual experimental work which upset another man’s views, Weldon declined to publish. ‘‘ Yes,
I know he is wrong, but I don’t want merely to controvert him, I want to get at the truth of these
things for myself.” And when he had satisfied himself he would pass on to a new point of investigation
and never publish at all.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 13

headquarters in the Bahamas Weldon went with two friends to North Bimini
in the Gulf stream and enjoyed immensely his first experience of tropical or at.
least semi-tropical seas. He made considerable collections, but his published
results were confined to “Haplodiscus piger; a new Pelagic organism from the
Bahamas” (8), and a “Preliminary Note on a Balanoglossus Larva from the
Bahamas” (9). Haplodiscus was netted near the Island of New Providence. It
is a member of the Acoela, the most simplified of the class Turbellaria, and
for some time Weldon’s account was one of the most complete we had of any
member of this group. Working at the Balanoglossus material in 1887, Weldon
found that his results differed from those reached by Professor Sprengel. He
accordingly went to Giessen at Kaster,—his second visit to Germany, the first
having been at Christmas, 1886—and finally handed over to Professor Sprengel
the whole of the Balanoglossus material he had collected in the Bahamas.
During the Lent and May terms Weldon came up from Cambridge and gave a
course on Economic Entomology to the forestry students at the Royal Engineering
College, Cooper’s Hill. The summer and autumn of this year involved a meeting
of the British Association at Manchester, a visit on Chlorine business to France, and
later, collecting and working in Guernsey. The Christmas was spent at Plymouth.

In 1888 the buildings of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Plymouth were
nearly completed, and the visits to Plymouth now replaced those to Guernsey. To
the Marine Biological Association Weldon gave both time and sympathy during
the rest of his life. His annual visits of inspection to Lowestoft during the last
few years were always a great pleasure to him, and he was preparing for and
talking of this year’s visit only a few days before his death. Lent and May terms,
1888, were spent as usual in Cambridge, but June to December were given up
to Plymouth, with a brief Christmas holiday in Munich. And here we must
note the beginning of a new phase in Weldon’s ideas. His thoughts were dis-
tinctly turning from morphology to problems in variation and correlation, He
has left on record the nature of the problems he was proposing to himself at this
time and they are summed up as follows:

(1) The establishment of a new set of adult characters leading to the
evolution of a new family has always been accompanied by the evolution of a new
set of larval characters leading to the formation of a larval type peculiar to the
newly established family; the two sets of characters having as yet no demonstrable
connection one with the other.

(2) The evolution of the adult and that of the larval characters peculiar to a
group advance pari passu one with the other, so that a given degree of specialisa-
tion of adult characters on the part of a given species implies the possession of a
larva having a corresponding degree of specialisation and vice versa.

The next year was to place in Weldon’s hands a book—Francis Galton’s
Natural Inheritance, by which one avenue to the solution of such problems, one
quantitative method of attacking organic correlation, was opened out to Weldon ;

14 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

and from this book as source spring two of the friendships and the whole of the
biometric movement, which so changed the course of his life and work. In 1889,
the year of the issue of this book, another change also came. Weldon found that
his dredging and collecting work separated him from his books for half his time.
Accordingly, he applied for a year’s leave from Cambridge, and the Weldons settled
down in a house of their own at Plymouth. This period of hard work lasted through
1890, and was broken only by flying visits to Dresden in September and at
Christmas, 1889, and an autumn visit in 1890 to Chartres and Bourges. The
intellectual development and the experience and knowledge gained in this period
were far more important than the mere published work would indicate. In 1889,
Weldon investigated the nature of the curious enlargement of the bladder |
associated with the green, or excretory, glands in certain Decapod Crustacea,
and published in October of the same year his paper on “The Coelom and
Nephridia of Palaemon servatus” (10). The result of his investigation was to
confirm “the comparison so often made (by Claus, Grobben, and others) between
the glomerulus of the vertebrate kidney and the end-sac of the Crustacean green
gland.” A little later, June 1891, Weldon published the results of more extended
researches in this field in what proved to be his last strictly morphological paper.
It was entitled: “The Renal Organs of certain Decapod Crustacea” (11). In
this he showed that in many Decapods spacious nephro-peritoneal sacs “should
be regarded rather as enlarged portions of the tubular system...than as
persistent remnants of a ‘coelomic’ body cavity into which the tubular nephridia
open.”

One further paper of a year later may be best referred to here, Weldon’s only
piece of work on invertebrate embryology, “The Formation of the Germ Layers in
Crangon vulgaris” (12). This contains a clear account of the early stages of
segmentation and the building up of the layers of the shrimp, illustrated by
excellent figures. And here it may be mentioned that Weldon’s power with the
pencil was not that of the mere draughtsman, accurate in detail, but too often
lifeless. Weldon was an artist by instinct, and he had the keenest pleasure in
drawing for its own sake. His brilliant blackboard drawings will be remembered
by all his students; some correspondents will remember elaborately beautiful
sketches sent merely to illustrate a passing question, where a rough diagram would
have sufficed ; a delicately pencilled shell to please a child friend; carefully copied
architectural details to gratify himself and made to be destroyed ;—all signs of a
real artistic power of creation. And the sense he enjoyed in himself, he
appreciated in others. Nothing refreshed him so much as a visit to the National
Gallery, or to a lesser extent the sight of more modern art. Weldon, smiling
before one of his own pictures, unconscious of his environment, was good to
behold, and made one realise how for him pictures were still differentiated from
furniture. In the last two years of his life, when he had become an ardent
photographer, the artistic feeling came to play a prominent part as the difficulties
of the craft were one by one mastered. -

Biometrika.

Vol. V. Parts | and Il.

en =

oat u 4 ; I a
ae Wn Vices Se aa i a
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f. ¢ f Va
iN ily AY Laws
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sot shi ENE CNR i Re

(a) “L’ Apparition: Le Café Orleans.”

(6) H. Hortensis, from a letter.

Plate Ill.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860-—1906. 15

December, 1890, closed the Cambridge work* and concluded the Wanderjahre.
Weldon now succeeded Ray Lankester in the Jodrell Professorship at University
College. In June he had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society largely on
the basis of his first two biometric papers, which will be considered more in detail
in the next section.

It will be seen that the years between Weldon’s degree and his first pro-
fessoriate were years of intense activity. He was teaching many things, studying
many things, planning many things. His travels perfected his linguistic powers,
and his fluency in French, Italian and German was soon remarkable. But while
this added immensely to his delight in travel, it opened to him also those stores of
literature, which appealed so strongly to his artistic temperament. From the
mediaeval epics to Balzac he was equally at home in French literature ; and the
Italian historians were read and carefully abstracted, that he might understand
Dante without the aid of a commentator, and appreciate Italian towns without the
help of a guide-book. In German he had a less wide knowledge of the earher
literature and history, but he spoke the language with an accent and correctness
remarkable in an Englishman. In later years he had commenced the study of
Spanish, the Romance tongues and literatures being always more sympathetic to
him than the Scandinavian or Teutonic. His remarkable thoroughness in science
reappeared as a form of scholarly instinct when he approached history and
literature, and the present writer remembers Weldon’s keen pleasure and exacti-
tude in following up more than one historical enquiry. His delight in knowing
spread far beyond the limits of natural science.

V. London and the First Professoriate, 1891-1899.

A word must here be said as to the transition which took place during the
Wanderjahre in Weldon’s ideas. He had started, as most of the younger men of
that day, with an intense enthusiasm for the Darwinian theory of evolution ; it
threw open to him, as to them, a wholly new view of life with its possibility of
seeing things as a connected whole. Weldon realised to the full that the great
scheme of Darwin was only a working hypothesis, and that it was left to his
disciples to complete the proofs, of which the master had only sketched the

* A note may be added as to the general influence of Weldon at Cambridge. At the time
Weldon began lecturing there were a considerable number of students largely attracted to Cambridge
by Balfour’s fame and remaining there to mourn his loss. Mr W. Bateson of St John’s, Dr Harmer
of King’s, Professor Sherrington of Caius, Professors D’Arcy Thompson and J. Reynolds Green of
Trinity, Professor Adami and Mr A. E. Shipley of Christ’s, graduated in 1883 and 1884, and all, to some
extent, came under his influence, For six years (1884-1890) he gave advanced lectures to the
candidates for Part II of the Natural Sciences Tripos. During these few years the number of men in
his class who have since done much to advance science was considerable. The following is by
no means a complete list. Among botanists, F. W. Oliver, C. A. Barber, W. B. Bottomley; among
geologists, T, T. Groom, P. Lake, S. H. Reynolds, H. Kynaston and H. Woods; among physiologists,
pathologists and medical men, A. E. Durham, H. E. Durham, J. S. Edkins, W. B. Hardy, A. P. Beddard,
E, H. Hankin, H. Head; and among zoologists, H. Bury, G. P. Bidder, W. F. H. Blandford,
R. Assheton, F. V. Theobald, T. H. Riches, E. W. MacBride, H. H. Brindley, A. T. Masterman,
C. Warburton, and Malcolm Laurie.

16 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

outline. Naturally he turned first to those methods of proof, morphological and
embryological, which were being pursued by the biological leaders of the period,
and it was only with time that he came to the conclusion that no great progress
could be attained by the old methods. We have already seen that even before the
appearance of Natural Inheritance, Weldon’s thoughts. were turning on the
distribution of variations and the correlation of organic characters. He was being
led in the direction of statistical inquiry. The full expression of his ideas is well
given in the first part of the “ Editorial” with which Biometrika* started :

“The starting point of Darwin’s theory of evolution is precisely the existence of those
differences between individual members of a race or species which morphologists for the most
part rightly neglect. The first condition necessary, in order that any process of Natural
Selection may begin among a race, or species, is the existence of differences among its members ;
and the first step in an enquiry into the possible effect of a selective process upon any character
of a race must be an estimate of the frequency with which individuals, exhibiting any degree of
abnormality with respect to that character, occur. The unit, with which such an enquiry must
deal, is not an individual but a race, or a statistically representative sample of a race; and the
result must take the form of a numerical statement, showing the relative frequency with which
various kinds of individuals composing the race occur.”

It was Francis Galton’s Natural Inheritance that first indicated to Weldon the
manner in which the frequency of deviations from the type could be measured. A
mere catalogue of exceptional deviations seemed to him of little value for the
study of Natural Selection. But this description of frequency was only the first
stage. How did selection leave the distribution? and How was the intensity
of selection to be measured? naturally arose as the next problems. These
problems led at once to the even greater question of the influence of selection on
correlation. What is the relation between organs in the same individual, and how
is this changed, if at all, by the differentiation of species, or at least by the
establishment of local races? Nor could the problem of evolution be complete
without ascertaining the manner in which deviations were inherited. The modern
biometric methods of discussing these problems, if very far from fully developed,
were at least suggested in Galton’s great work, and that book came as a revelation
not only to Weldon, but to others who were preparing to work on similar linesf.

In Plymouth, 1890, Weldon started his elaborate measurements on the
Decapod Crustacea and soon succeeded in showing that the distribution of varia-
tions was closely like that which Quetelet and Galton had found in the case of man.
So far as the present author is aware, the paper “The Variations occurring in certain
Decapod Crustacea I. Crangon vulgaris” (13) was the first to apply the methods
of Galton to other zoological types than man{. In this paper Weldon shows that
different measurements made on several local races of shrimps give frequency
distributions closely following the normal or Gaussian law. In his next paper,

* Vol. 1. p. 1.
+ The present writer’s first lecture on inheritance was given on March 11, 1889, and consisted of an
exposition and amplification of Galton’s theory.

+ Galton had dealt with the weights of sweet pea seeds, Merrifield with the sizes of moths, but they
had not published fitted frequency distributions.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 17

“On certain correlated Variations in Crangon vulgaris” (14), Weldon calculated the
first coefficients of organic correlation, i.e. the numerical measures of the degree of
interrelation between two organs or characters in the same individual. It is quite
true that the complete modern methods were not adopted in either of these
papers, but we have for the first time organic correlation coefficients—although
not yet called by that name—tabled for four local races. These two papers are
epoch-making in the history of the science, afterwards called biometry.

It is right to state that Weldon’s mathematical knowledge at this period was
far more limited than it afterwards became. The first paper was sent to Francis
Galton as referee, and was the commencement of a life-long friendship between
the two men. With Galton’s aid the statistical treatment was remodelled, and
considerable modifications made in the conclusions. But the credit of making
the vast system of measurements, of carrying out the necessary calculations (now
with the aid of his wife, who was for years to assist in this part of the work), of
seeing a priori the bearing of his results on the great problems of evolution, must
be given to Weldon. Nor must we forget the rich suggestiveness of these papers.
Weldon was on the look-out for a numerical measure of species. He was seeking
for something constant for all local races, and although his suggestion that the
correlation coefficient was a constant for local races has not been substantiated—
the “selection constant,” the quantity uninfluenced by racial differentiation,
being of a much more complex nature—yet his suggestion directly led up to the
investigation of correlation in man, animals and plants, and has given us immensely
clearer ideas on the inter-relationship of organic characters. And Weldon realised
this also:

“A large series of such specific constants would give an altogether new kind of knowledge of
the physiological connexion between the various organs of animals; while a study of those
relations which remain constant through large groups of species would give an idea, attainable
in no other way, of the functional correlations between various organs which have led to the
establishment of the great sub-divisions of the animal kingdom*.”

The defect in mathematical grasp, which Weldon had realised in his first
paper, led him at once to seek to eliminate it. He sought first to ‘enthuse’ a
mathematician with his project of demonstrating Darwinian evolution by statistical
enquiries. <A visit was paid to Cambridge with this end in view, but it did not
lead to the required result. Weldon then set about increasing his mathematical
knowledge by a thorough study of the great French writers on the calculus of
probability. He did not turn to elementary text-books but with his characteristic
thoroughness went to the fountain head. Turning over his papers now, it is
astonishing to notice the completeness of his studies as evidenced by his notes
and abstracts. He thus attained to a very great power of following mathematical
reasoning and this power developed with the years. He never reached a high
wrangler’s readiness in applying analysis to the solution of new questions, possibly
this requires years of training in problem papers; but he was able to follow and

* R. S. Proc. Vol. wu. p. 11.
Biometrika v 8

18 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

criticise extremely complicated algebraical investigations, and to reproduce and
often simplify them for the use of his own students. He had, however, a touch
with observation and experiment rare in mathematicians. In problems of
probability he would start experimentally and often reach results of great com-
plexity by induction. Thus he was able to find out a number of problems
relating to the correlation between a throw of n dice, and the result obtained
when a re-throw of m out of the number n was made, and others relating to the
mixture of n packs of cards and the throwing out of random portions*. In
all these cases Weldon was illustrating by a game of chance a definite biological
process.

From 1890 onwards, Weldon’s knowledge, theoretical and experimental, of the
theory of chance increased by bounds. Weldon and the present writer both
lectured from 1 to 2, and the lunch table, between 12 and 1, was the scene of
many a friendly battle, the time when problems were suggested, solutions brought,
and even worked out on the back of the menw or by aid of pellets of bread.
Weldon, always luminous, full of suggestions, teeming with vigour and apparent
health, gave such an impression to the onlookers of the urgency and importance
of his topic that he was rarely, if ever, reprimanded for talking ‘shop.’

It is difficult now, after fifteen years of common work and continuous inter-
change of ideas, to distinguish where one or other idea had its source, but of this
the writer feels sure, that his earliest contributions to biometry were the direct
results of Weldon’s suggestions and would never have been carried out without
his inspiration and enthusiasm. Both were drawn independently by Galton’s
Natural Inheritance to these problems, but the papers on variation and correlation
in shrimps—which in rough outline are types of all later biometry—were published
before their friendship had begun.

Weldon’s work at University College commenced in 1891. The house in Wimpole
Street was taken and, if possible, life became more intense. Easter was spent at
Chartres. In the summer came the annual visit to Plymouth, where work on
crabs was now to replace that on shrimps. September gave some rest with a sea
trip to Malta. In October came the college inaugural lecture for the session,
Weldon taking as his subject the statistical treatment of variation. At Christmas
there was a break for opera in Munich and Dresden. This year and the next
were strenuous years in calculating. The Bruusviga was yet unknown to the
youthful biometric school; the card system of correlating variables was still un-
developed, we trusted for multiplication to logarithms and Crelle, and computors
trained to biometric work had to be created. The Weldons toiled away at masses
of figures, doing all in duplicate. At Easter, 1892, they went to Malta and Naples,
and the summer was spent over crab-measurements at the zoological station in the

* In the summer of 1905 a great deal of work was done by the present writer in conjunction with
Weldon on mixtures of card packs, the main features of the work having been already outlined by
Weldon. The results are summed up in a theory of determinantal inheritance which, it is hoped,
will be eventually published.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 19

latter city, and the first biometric crab paper “On certain correlated Variations in
Carcinus moenas” (15) was issued in this year. In this paper Weldon confirms on
the shore crab his results for the common shrimp. The distributions of characters
are closely Gaussian with the exception of the relative frontal breadth, which
Weldon considered dimorphic in Naples, a problem which led to the present writer's
first paper in the Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution. It is right
to say that Weldon had reached a moderately accurate solution by trial and error
before he proposed the problem to his colleague. He does not refer to this fact
in his memoir. As for shrimps the correlations again came out closely alike for
the Plymouth and Naples races. Weldon was not dogmatic on the point; he
considered the constancy as at least an “empirical working rule” and this it has
certainly proved.

“The question whether this empirical rule is rigidly true will have to be determined by fuller
investigation on larger samples ; but the value of a merely empirical expression for the relation
between abnormality of one organ and that of another is very great. It cannot be too strongly
urged that the problem of animal evolution is essentially a statistical problem: that before we
can properly estimate the changes at present going on in a race or species we must know
accurately (a) the percentage of animals which exhibit a given amount of abnormality with
regard to a particular character ; (6) the degree of abnormality of other organs which accompanies
a given abnormality of one; (c) the difference between the death rate per cent. in animals of
different degrees of abnormality with respect to any organ ; (d) the abnormality of offspring
in terms of the abnormality of parents and vice versé. These are all questions of arithmetic ;
and when we know the numerical answers to these questions for a number of species we
shall know the deviation and the rate of change in these species at the present day—a
knowledge which is the only legitimate basis for speculations as to their past history, and
future fate.”

These concluding words were surely epoch-making; they formulated the
fundamental principles of biometry. We may criticise the memoir in that the
index measurements selected by Weldon overlooked the question of spurious
correlation, or because the growth law of the indices had not been previously
determined. But these are minor matters compared with the general ideas
involved in the memoir. It is a paper which biometricians will always regard as
a classic of their subject. It first formulated the view that the method of the
Registrar-General is the method by which the fundamental problems of natural
selection must be attacked, and that is the essential feature of biometry.

Besides biometry a new bond drew Weldon and the present writer together.
Since 1884, a strong movement for the reform of the University of London had
been in progress, association followed on association, royal commission on royal com-
mission. Few people had distinct ideas of what they themselves wanted, scarcely
any one had a notion of what a real university must connote. At University
College, after severe crises, the teaching staff had won direct representation on
the governing body, and was beginning to insist upon being heard in the question
of university reform. One of the most vigorous protagonists in this matter was
Lankester, and his removal to Oxford threatened the little group who had definite
notions of academic reform with complete defeat. Luckily Weldon joined us

3—2

20 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

and his energy and enthusiasm were of immense service. We had to fight our
own College authorities as well as outside influences. It is not now the fitting
occasion to tell the complete history. A joint letter to the Times roused the
authorities, there were rumours of dismissal from chairs, and of wiser counsels
prevailing solely at the instance of a distinguished Liberal statesman then on the
College Council. The authorities were supporting a scheme which would have
united King’s and University Colleges in a second-rate and duplicate London
University to be termed the Albert University, and rebellion had to go to extremes,
if this project was to be defeated. Weldon with the help of one or two colleagues
circularised every member of the College, and the night before the discussion
of the charter a widely signed petition against it was in the hands of every
member of the House of Commons; the Albert charter was dead, and the College
Council hopelessly defeated.

The destructive attitude was now dropt; at a meeting in Wimpole Street,
Weldon, G. Carey-Foster and the present writer drafted the scheme, afterwards
accepted with smail modifications, of an “ Association for Promoting a Professorial
University for London.” The idea was to bring all the London teachers into one
camp, to get them to accept a common ideal, and to enlist support for it among
thinking men outside. The ideal was the foundation of a university in which
teaching should be done by the university professors only, who should largely
control the university; the separate colleges were to be absorbed. The aim was
thus expressed :

“The creation of a homogeneous academic body with power to absorb, not to federate existing
institutions of academic rank, seems the real solution of the problem. An academic body of
this character might well be organised so far as teaching is concerned on the broad lines of a
Scottish University. Such a corporation may be conveniently spoken of as a professorial
university to distinguish it from a collegiate or federal university.”

The Association met a real need, the London teachers to our surprise and joy
joined readily. We got the support of great names in literature and science. We
produced a distinct effect on public opinion and by our witnesses even on the
Royal Commission. But we considered that we ought to have a leader of great
name, and we asked Huxley to be president. Huxley accepted, and came to us
with views diverging to some extent from those of the initiators of the Association.
Instead of holding up an ideal of academic reform, his plan was to find the
minimum which would be accepted by various opposed interests and compromise
on the basis of this. The alternatives were a long campaign to impress the powers
that be with true notions of academic life, or the immediate acceptance of a
teaching university, which should be an omniwm gatherum of all the teaching
institutions in London. The present writer resigned the secretaryship of the
Association, and was succeeded by Weldon. It was only after very anxious con-
sideration that the open letter of the former to Professor Huxley of December 8,
1892, was sent to the Zimes*. It was a course which Weldon strongly condemned.

* Personal requests to join the Association had been made to many on the basis of a circular con-
taining the words cited above, the spirit of which was directly repudiated by Huxley.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 21

At a general meeting of the Association held on December 21, 1892, the report of
the Executive Committee was received, and after a strong speech from Huxley,
adopted. It was then moved by Pearson, and seconded by Unwin: “That the
Association trusts that its Executive Committee will persevere in its efforts to
establish as far as possibly may be a professorial as distinguished from a federal
university.” This was carried. At the meeting of the Executive Committee on
January 24, 1893, the President presented his own scheme for a teaching University
for London; a vague motion to prepare a scheme to be submitted to the Associa-
tion was, at the instance of Pearson, seconded by Lankester, amended as follows :
“That the Committee prepare a scheme to be submitted to the Association in
general accordance with the proposals adopted by the Association.” This was
carried. On January 25, 1893, Huxley wrote withdrawing his scheme on the
ground that the amendment moved by Pearson and seconded by Lankester was
“incompatible with any progress towards attainable ends.” At the following
meeting of the Committee in February, Professors Carey-Foster, Riicker, and
Pearson were asked to prepare a scheme embodying the principles of the “ pro-
posals” of the Association as a basis for the charter of the proposed university.
Mr Dickens and Professor Weldon were added to this committee. The scheme was
actually prepared and Weldon aided with yeoman service in the drafting of it*.
But the influence of the Association was dead; it never recovered from the divisions
thus manifested in its executive. The spirit of compromise and the fatal easiness
of federation dominated the situation and the present University emerged out of
the chaos. No one felt more bitterly than Weldon the contrast between the
original ideal and the result achieved. In fact, it is not too much to say that the
greatest hopes for the University, and its most progressive steps since its incorpora-
tion, lie in the endeavours made to carry out in part the ideal of a homogeneous
professorial university, as it was originally developed one Sunday evening in the
house in Wimpole Street, and later substantially reproduced in the proposals of
the Association.

This account of one movement, however, with which Weldon was closely
concerned would not be justified here, did it not illustrate strongly a marked
characteristic of the man. He found his great leader attacked, as he and some
others believed, unwarrantably. He wrote one very strong private letter on the
point, and never referred to the matter again; not the slightest breach was caused
in his friendship, and the biometric talks, the common work and plans for work
were resumed a day or two afterwards as if no source of friction had for a moment
arisen. Yet Weldon always felt deeply, and felt this attack on Huxley more than
many men would feel a direct personal attack on themselves,

With the death of Huxley in 1895, the Association practically came to an end.
Weldon succeeded his hero in 1896 as Crown nominee on the Senate of the
University ; here, as on the Board of Zoological Studies of the later reconstituted

* The scheme was printed and adopted by the Association, March 23, 1893.

22 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

University, he continued to work and fight for truer ideals of academic adminis-
tration.

As an administrator and committeeman Weldon combined geniality with
strong convictions; he saw at once through flimsy pretexts, and expressed clearly and
concisely his own point of view,—“ An impulsive loveable man going to the heart

of any subject immediately, and always speaking up with great feeling for what he

thought right,” is how one of his former colleagues aptly describes him. But
he lacked several of the essentials which go to make the completely effective
committeeman. He was always full of the current piece of research and he
grudged all time taken from it; to carry through his own projects he did not adopt
the manner of the bull and crush down all opposition; some few men can do
this, but it needs not only physique, but its combination with very dominant
intellectual power ; nor had he the persistency of the corncrake, to wear down his
colleagues by continual nagging; nor silent in committee would he molelike be
active underneath, “lobbying” his men, and thus more effectually work his will.
These types I have known and each was less loved, but more successful than
Weldon. He “played the game,” threw firmly and well the lance for the cause he
thought right, and went his way. He remained to the end the public school or
varsity lad, whom the idea of “ good form” controlled; but unfortunately the type
is not so persistent in practical life that it dominates scientific or academic politics.
From this standpoint Weldon’s death removed from the field a healthy adminis-
trator, who acted as a tonic upon weaker colleagues. It was in this sense that he
did excellent work, not only on various bodies connected with University College
and the University of London, but on the Council of the Royal Society (1896-8),
and on its Government Grant and Sectional Committees.

To the biometrician, perhaps, the most interesting committee with which
Weldon was associated in these years was that which came later to be called the
Royal Society Evolution (Animals and Plants) Committee. It is somewhat
difficult to give the full history at present, but some attempt at a sketch of
Weldon’s connection with it must be made here. Weldon’s papers on variation
and correlation in shrimps and crabs had brought him closely in touch with
Francis Galton, and both were keenly interested in the discovery of further
dimorphic forms such as had been suggested by the frontal breadths of the Naples
crabs. Weldon was full also of other ideas ripe for investigation. He had started
his great attempt at the measurement of a selective death-rate in the crabs of
Plymouth Sound; experiments on repeated selection of infusoria were going on in
his laboratory ; he was gathering an ardent band of workers about him, and much
seemed possible with proper assistance and that friendly sympathy which was ever
essential to him.

The idea that a group of men can achieve more than a single investigator, if
true in some forms of social work, is rarely applicable to scientific committees; but
such committees have often been tried in the past, and will no doubt be again
attempted in the future. If used as instruments of research, the work done is too

ss

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 23

often a compromise between different methods and divergent personalities; if
merely administrative they are successful or not, according to the width of view of
some dominating temperament. If run in the interests of one school, still more
of one individual, a committee may no doubt do good work, but it is likely, at the
same time, seriously to damage the reputation of any larger body in whose name
it works, by too markedly connecting it with one aspect of a problem or one side of
an unsettled controversy. These difficulties of the situation seem only by degrees
to have come home to the founders of the Evolution Committee.

The project was first discussed informally by R. Meldola, Francis Galton, and
Weldon, at a meeting held on the 9th of December, 1893, at the Savile Club.
Francis Darwin, A. Macalister, and E. B. Poulton had expressed themselves
willing to assist such a project. It was settled that a proposal should be made to
the Royal Society for the formation of a committee “For the purpose of conducting
Statistical Enquiry into the Variability of Organisms,” the members suggested
being F. Darwin, F. Galton, A. Macalister, R. Meldola, E. B. Poulton, and W. F. R.
Weldon, to whom “it may afterwards be desirable to add a statistician.” It was
- resolved further to ask for a grant of money to obtain material and assistance in
measurement and computation.

A Committee* consisting of these members was finally constituted by the
Council of the Royal Society, with Francis Galton as chairman and Weldon as
secretary, the Committee being entitled: “Committee for conducting Statistical
Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals.” The use of
the words statistical and measurable, somewhat narrowly, but accurately, defined
the proposed researches of the Committee. It went on until 1897, with these
members, the same title and scope. Then in the early part of that year its scope
was much extended by adding to its objects the “accurate investigation of
Variation, Heredity, Selection, and other phenomena relating to Evolution,” and
W. Bateson, S. H. Burbury, F. D. Godman, W. Heape, E. R. Lankester, M. Masters,
Karl Pearson, O. Salvin and Thiselton-Dyer were added to its number. But at
present our account must deal with the earlier biometric period of the Committee.
Looking back on the matter now, one realises how much Weldon’s work was
hampered by this Committee. It is generally best that a man’s work should be
published on his own responsibility, and when he is a man of well-known ability
and established reputation, grants in aid can always be procured. In this case
Weldon had a sympathetic committee, but the members were naturally anxious on
the one hand for the prestige of the Society with whose name they were associated,
and secondly, they were desirous of showing that they were achieving something fF.
Both conditions were incompatible with tentative researches such as biometry then

* First meeting, January 25, 1894.

+ ‘* Of course these considerations only make the problem more interesting than it was before: and
I very much want to solve it, But the committee may say that it requires a problem which is
reasonably certain to yield an adequate solution in a fairly short time, and that so risky an attempt as

this is not suitable for its present work.” Letter of Nov. 13, 1894, relating to the secretion of a specific
poison by Daphnia,

24 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. -1860—1906.

demanded. ‘Trial and experiment were peculiarly needful in 1893; the statistical
calculus itself was not then even partially completed ; biometric computations were
not reduced to routine methods, and the mere work of collecting, observing, ex-
perimenting, and measuring was more than enough for one man. Weldon with his
“volume of life” was eager to do all these things, and run a laboratory with perhaps
sixty students as well. He was impatient because the probable errors of biometric
constants, on which tests of significant differences depend, were not at once forth-
coming; he wanted the whole mathematical theory of selection, the due allowances
for time and growth, the treatment of selective death-rates and the tests of
heterogeneity and dimorphism settled in an afternoon’s sitting. The Committee
did not possess a mathematician to put on the brake, and Weldon attempted too
much in too short a time. Each week Weldon had new and exciting problems, he
thrust them upon his friends, demanded solutions, propounded solutions, and was
never discouraged when difficulties were pointed out and time asked for.

One of the first subjects to be taken up by the new Committee was to test
whether the method of resolution into two Gaussian curves, which suggested
dimorphism in the Naples crabs, would be helpful in confirming a similar
dimorphism said to exist in the herring. Several thousand herrings arrived at
University College, a measurer was trained to deal with them, and the variability
of a wide series of characters determined. The distributions came out skew, and
Weldon was intensely hopeful that statistical evidence of dimorphism would be
forthcoming. Instead of this, the analysis showed dimorphic Gaussian components
to be impossible. This result was a great disappointment to him, and, I believe,
to the Committee. JI could never understand why. A most extensive and
valuable series of measurements had been made, which in themselves were well
worth publishing. It had been shown that simple dimorphism of a Gaussian kind
certainly did not hold for these herrings; in all probability it was a typical
case of skew frequency, which would have been most valuable as adding to the
known instances, and aiding statisticians eventually to classify such occurrences.
But Weldon, and, I presume, the Committee were disheartened, they had been
searching for dimorphism and had not found it. The herring data were put on one
side by Weldon, and as far as I know have never been published. It is much
to be hoped that they may some day be resuscitated from the archives of the
Committee (16).

The next point that I personally became aware of in relation to the Evolution
Committee was Weldon’s attempt to solve the problem of subraces in the case of
the ray florets of ox-eyed daisies. I am unaware who brought the material before
the Committee, but it was obviously heterogeneous in the highest degree. There
was no evidence at all that any attempt had been made to allow for seasonal and
environmental effects, and whatever truth there may be in a tendency of the
modes to fall into Fibonacci groups, we now know that varying season and period
will produce within a certain range almost any mode in this flower*. To break

* Biometrika, Vol. 1. pp. 305, 309 et seq.

lie

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 25

up such a heterogeneity even into Gaussian components was a problem not then
solved, and one which has not since been solved. It was cruel fate that thrust such
a problem on Weldon, and kept him over it for weeks. He was struggling with
most highly complex mathematical difficulties, and actually beginning with a
problem which a more highly trained mathematician would certainly have put
on one side in the then state of statistical analysis*.

The next portion of the Committee’s work was far more successful—the
“ Attempt to Measure the Death-rate due to the Selective Destruction of Carcinus
moenas, with respect to a Particular Dimension” (17). This formed the first report
of the Committee, and was presented to the Royal Society in November, 1894.
Weldon’s general project in this case was, I believe, absolutely novel at the time,
and embraces, I consider, the best manner still of testing the truth of the Darwinian
theory. It consists in determining whether the death-rate is correlated with
measurable characters of the organism, or, as he himself put it, “in comparing the
frequency of abnormalities in young individuals at various stages of growth with
the frequency of the same abnormalities in adult life, so as to determine whether
any evidence of selective destruction during growth could be discovered or not.”

Thus stated the problem might appear an easy one, but it is the very reverse.
How is the ‘abnormality, i.e. what we should now term the deviation from type, to
be measured at each stage of growth? What is to determine ‘adult’ life? What
measure is there of the time during which the individual adult life has been
exposed to the selective destruction? Weldon undoubtedly chose the crab because
of the facilities it offers for measurement. But its age then becomes an apprecia-
tion based merely on the obviously close, but probably imperfect correlation
between age and size. Further, the law of growth, complicated rather than simpli-
fied by the moults, and the question as to how far the variability of the characters
dealt with is atfected by growth combine, in the case of crabs, to form an exceedingly
difficult problem. It is practically impossible to keep a sufficiently large series
of crabs through the whole period of adolescence, and if it were possible, it is
far from certain that the claustral environment necessary would not sensibly affect
their law of growth.

Looking back now on Weldon’s paper of 1894, one realises its great merits ; it
formulates the whole range of problems which must be dealt with biometrically
before the principle of selection can be raised from hypothesis to law. Almost each
step of it suggests a mathematical problem of vital importance in evolution, which
has since been developed at length, or still awaits the labour of the ardent
biometrician. On the whole, I think, Weldon came very near to demonstrating
his point, but whether he did or did not scarcely affects the suggestiveness of
the papert.

* We now know that some of the most skew distributions are given by the parts of flowers, and the
problem propounded to Weldon was to resolve into a number, probably five or six, of such skew com-

ponents a strikingly irregular frequency distribution for ray florets !
+ Reading through the criticisms I communicated to him at the time, criticisms written purely from

Biometrika v a

26 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

Unfortunately the paper, as well as the suggestive “ Remarks on Variation in
Animals and Plants” (18), with its memorable words :—“ The questions raised by
the Darwinian hypothesis are purely statistical, and the statistical method is the
only one at present obvious by which that hypothesis can be experimentally
checked ”—fell on very barren soil. The paper produced a mass of criticism—
folios were written to the Chairman of the Committee, showing how this, that
or the other vitiated entirely the results. The very notion that the Darwinian
theory might after all be capable of statistical demonstration seemed to excite all
sorts and conditions of men to hostility. Weldon, instead of being allowed to do his
own work in his own way, had to be constantly replying to letters, some even
eighteen sheets long, addressed to the Chairman of the Committee. These letters
were not sympathetic and suggestive, but mostly purely controversial. The
need for further investigation of the law of growth had been frankly admitted by
Weldon in the “ Remarks” issued at the discussion on the “ Report,” but the
critics declined to wait for answers till further results were published. This
attack lasted for the next three years, during which further researches on the
selective death-rate and growth of crabs were carried out, and it formed a serious
impediment to calm progressive investigation. A further instructive report (19)
on the growth at two moults of a considerable number of crabs was made to
the Committee in 1897, but I believe has never been published. Later, an
account of work on Natural Selection in crabs was given by Weldon in his
“Presidential Address to the Zoological Section of the British Association,”
Bristol, 1898 (20).

In this paper Weldon returns to the problem of whether frontal breadth
in crabs is correlated with a selective death-rate, but he now deals with type and
not variability. He first approaches the problem from the consideration of
whether for this character the crabs in Plymouth Sound are remaining stable, and
he shows from measurements made by Sir Herbert Thompson and himself during
the years 1892 to 1896, that the population is unstable. He next seeks a cause
for this secular change, and he finds it in the turbid state of the water in
Plymouth Sound, due to the continual carriage into it of large amounts of china
clay and sewage. Direct experiments were then made on the selective death-rate
of crabs kept in water with suspended china clay and on another occasion in foul
water. In all cases the survivors were found to have a smaller frontal breadth
relatively to their carapace length. Confirmatory experiments showed that after
the first shock of confinement was passed this selection did not occur among crabs
kept in pure sea water. A reasonable explanation of this selective action was
provided in the character of a crab’s breathing apparatus. Thus, after several
the mathematical standpoint, I still think them valid, but I realise also how much of my own work
flowed directly from the suggestiveness of this paper. In fact it was the starting-point of the whole of
the work on the influence of selection on the correlation and variability of organs. The sequel to that
work, the influence of selection during growth, flows equally from Weldon’s paper, but although we

know much more than we did ten years ago as to the laws of growth, no sufficiently general formula of
growth can yet be applied to allow of the completion of Weldon’s work in this direction.

Biometrika. Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate IV.

A “Crabbery” at Plymouth.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 27

years of discouragement and much hard labour, Weldon succeeded in demonstrating
that natural selection was really at work, and further that it was at work at a very
sensible rate*. The labour involved was excessive. One “crabbery” consisted of
500 wide-mouthed bottles, each with two syphons for a constant flow of sea water,
and each crab had to be fed daily and its bottle cleaned. During the summer of
1897 Weldon spent the whole of his days at the aquarium, and his wife hardly left
him except to fetch the needful chop. The sewage experiment was “horrible from
the great quantity of decaying matter necessary to kill a healthy crab.’ In 1898
the china clay experiments were continued at Plymouth. But in the autumn a rest
came. The Address was written and Weldon thoroughly enjoyed his presidency of
Section D of the British Association at Bristol.

It may not be out of place here to note the great aid Weldon’s artistic instinct
and literary training gave to his scientific expression. His papers are models of
clear exposition, his facts are well marshalled, his phraseology is apt, his argu-
ments are concise, and his conclusions tersely and definitely expressed. The result,
however, was not reached without much labour. I do not mean that it was an
effort to him to write well and clearly, but that his standard was so high, that
having written a memoir, he would to please his own sense of the fitting rewrite
the whole of it and possibly redraw all the diagrams. Nor was the remodelled
memoir necessarily in its final form. A third or fourth reconstruction might follow
to satisfy his own standard of right expression. To him a paper was a literary
whole, which had not only to convey new facts, but to play its part on the scientific
stage,—and he was not satisfied until it was in his judgment artistically complete.
There was never any artificial brilliancy introduced in the process; rhetoric in the
service of science was intolerable to Weldon. It was simply an attempt to choose
the suitable form and the right words for a given purpose. It was comparable
with Weldon’s sense of sound, with his extraordinary gift of appreciating and
reproducing the exact intonation of a foreign tongue. Both were the result of
observation and experiment—not manifest in the final product—guided by a
trained artistic sense.

Considerable changes were soon to take place in Weldon’s environment and
scheme of work. Lankester had been appointed director to the British Museum
(Natural History), and in February, 1899, Weldon succeeded him in the Linacre
Professorship at Oxford. In the February of 1897 the Royal Society Evolution
Committee received a large increase of membership; it ceased henceforth to
“conduct statistical inquiries into the measurable characteristics of plants and
animals.” It became transformed into an Evolution (Plants and Animals) Com-
mittee. At first there were great hopes of achievement, there was a possibility of
securing Charles Darwin’s house as a centre for breeding experiments, and a
considerable sum of money was promised in aid. Francis Galton struggled bravely
for a great idea. He wanted to see the numerous bodies engaged in horticulture

* The 60,000,000 years or so, which the physicist then allowed the evolutionist, were at that time
a little more of an incubus than they are now !
4-2

28 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

and zoology coordinated in at least one aspect of their work, and that research of
a scientific kind should be introduced into the proceedings of each of them. He
strove to make two schools, widely diverse in method and aim, understand each
other. He wanted to keep individuals and societies up to their work, and prevent
overlappings. But it was not to be. The members were pulling in opposite
directions, there was too much friction, and too little compromise. A false anti-
thesis was raised between what was termed “natural history” and any sort of
statistical inquiry leading to numerical results. The biometric members ceased to
attend regularly and finally resigned towards the end of 1899. Thiselton-Dyer
and Meldola also left the Committee, which became from that date confined to one
special school and one limited form of investigation. From beginning to end the
Committee has, in the opinion of the present writer, been a mistake; not only
because at first 1t distinctly forced the pace and hampered Weldon’s work, but
because experience shows that such a committee can only work effectually in the
interests of one school of ideas, and this, whatever safeguards may be taken, has at
least the appearance of destroying the impartiality of the parent body, a matter of
very grave importance.

During the eight years of Weldon’s London professoriate his development was
great; he became step by step a sound mathematician, and gained largely in his
power of clear and luminous exposition. His laboratory was always full of
enthusiastic workers, and over forty memoirs were published by his students, who
included E. J. Allen, E. T. Browne, F. Buchanan, G. H. Fowler, E. 8. Goodrich,
H. Thompson, E. Warren, and others of known name. The following lines, pro-
vided by a friend, graphically recall Weldon in his early London days :—

“In so vivid a personality it is hard to point to the period of greatest mental activity, but of
the nineteen years in which I knew him I should select the first few years of his Professorship
at University College, London. Fresh from contemplative research at the Plymouth Laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association, and with his mind full of the new problems to which the
study of marine life had introduced him, he threw himself into teaching with renewed zest. The
effect on his students was amazing ; most of them began a zoological course as a compulsory but
annoying preliminary to a degree ; Weldon soon changed that. Without ever forgetting the
requirements of examinations, he made the subject alive and absorbing ; his advanced classes
soon filled up ; and while on the one hand, the scholarships at London University were always
claimed by his students, on the other the output of original investigation published by his
department was one of which no university need have felt ashamed. Besides all this his
students loved him; he was so intensely human....Into the question of remodelling the
University and the defence of his College, Weldon threw himself as if unencumbered with
arduous teaching and research ; his notably lofty ideals and vigorous championship were far
from being wasted ; but his removal to Oxford at the time of the birth of the new University
was a severe loss to the cause of real education in London. Gentle with ignorance, he was
fiercely intolerant of educational shams and cants.”

As the present writer has indicated, the stress during these London years was
very great—the struggle with new mathematical processes, the wear of incessant
calculation, the worry of unending controversy to a man fully occupied with
research and teaching, all told on Weldon. The holidays were more limited in

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 29

extent, but were very varied in character. In 1893, Easter was spent in the
Sieben Gebirge; the Weldons were up at six, calculating till one, and starting a
great tramp at two, from which they returned at eight. The autumn they spent
in Venice, going by sea, and the Christmas at Brussels, with opera each night and
walks to Waterloo most days. In 1894 it was Siena for the Palio, with a knapsack
tour from Stresa to Alagna by Orta and Varallo. In 1895 Easter found them
fossil-collecting in the Eiffel, and, after the hard summer at Plymouth, in the
Apennines, winding up in Florence. Bicycling was the rule in 1896, even cycling
from Wimpole Street to Plymouth, and the only holiday a cycling tour in
Normandy. In 1897 there was an Easter visit with architectural sketching to the
cathedrals of North-East France, and after the specially hard summer at Plymouth
a trip to Perugia and a return from Genoa by sea. The last year in London
included a butterfly and moth collecting expedition to Ravenna at Easter, but no
summer holiday abroad; the British Association, followed by a study of Wells
Cathedral, occupied its place. The restlessness of work seemed to have overflowed
into the holidays, and Weldon’s friends knew that it was telling upon him, and
trusted that Oxford life might be quieter than the London life had been,

VI. Oxford and the Second Professoriate, 1900—1906.

The removal of Weldon from the London field of work, while an incalculable
loss to his colleagues, was not without compensation to his nearest friends. They
knew that the life of the last few years had been one of great tension, that
Weldon’s time had been too much encroached upon by committee work, that the
separation between the locus of his teaching and of his research work was very
undesirable, that even the social life of London involved too much expense of
energy. Oxford, in some respects, would present a narrower field of administrative
duties; it would provide a roomy and amply equipped laboratory, where
experiments hitherto shared between Plymouth and Gower Street could be carried
out, and remain under control while ordinary teaching work was going forward.
Even the social life in Oxford had more regular hours and was less over-stimulating.
It is true that Weldon occasionally regretted the contact with many minds working
on kindred topics, and even the stimulus of keen men working on quite different
subjects, which is characteristic of the metropolis. He would speak with great
affection of “dear old Gower Street, where everybody was working and everybody
wanted to work”—and he would be vexed that so many of “these nice Oxford
boys” had no res angusta domi to force them from the river and the playing field
into the laboratory and the lecture room. “They are so nice, they come to my
lectures because they think it would be rude to leave me alone.” The lad who
would not make a sacrifice to his love of sclence—accept an Asiatic appointment of
the merest bread and butter value, or take passage in a tramp steamer to collect in
South America—was anathema to him. He wanted everywhere an infant Huxley,
realising the value of tropical or semi-tropical observation and experience and
anxious to seize the opportunity of it at any slight personal inconvenience.
Weldon did not grasp that it was largely his own personality which had created

30 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

the band of earnest workers round him in London, and that with time it would
be effective in more conservative Oxford. He did not realise that the over-
stimulus of the London period, with its midnight hours and incessant interchange
of ideas, would be better replaced by the more leisurely intellectual and more
regulated social life of Oxford.

There is another point which emphasises the value of this change. Weldon’s
taste, his whole emotional nature, made him essentially a field naturalist. It was
no innate taste for figures or symbols, no pleasure in arm-chair work, which drew
him to statistical research. Nor was it the influence of any personality. On the
contrary, he was impelled to it by the feeling that no further progress with Darwinism
could be made until demonstration from the statistical side was forthcoming. His
biometric friendships arose from the direction he felt his work must take. He
distrusted mathematicians as much as any good Mendelian might do; they were
persons who neither observed nor experimented, who had “a true horror of a real
measurement.” Acceptance of each stage of biometric theory could only be won
from Weldon by a tough battle; it had first to justify its necessity, and next to
justify its mathematical correctness. He was not drawn into actuarial work by his
sympathies or his friendships, he was driven into it by the looseness he discerned ~
in much biological reasoning ; he felt an impasse, which could only be surmounted
by the stringency of mathematical logic. Those who have known Weldon
collecting on the shore, dredging at sea, or in later days sampling ponds and wells
for his Crustacea book, photographing snail environments in Sicily, or hunting for
Clausilia in the woods at Risborough or Plén, realise that he was in the first place
the open-air naturalist. If further evidence be indeed wanting, let the following
words provide it:

[April, 1903.]

“Just back, and have just read your letter. I will play with the spanner and talk of it
to-morrow.

I did not telegraph because our office was shut. It was a great disappointment to miss you ;
but the ride was the one thing I enjoyed out of the last three weeks. I have felt nothing like it
since the old days when I used to lie in a fishing boat dodging the squalls off Rame Head or the
Deadman, when we were all young and arithmetic was not yet. That is all gone. The good old
man I used to sail with went to haul lobster pots in one of the March gales, and his boat was
found bottom upwards.

He was a good soul. ‘Yes, my dear,’ he used to say in a breeze ; ‘we'll shake out all them
reefs if you like. You'll get wet, but I’m only a fisherman and wet don’t hurt me.’ Then he
would sing Devonshire songs while the water came over the gunwale, till you went on your knees
to him to ask for at least one reef back again.

Really, even Basingstoke railway station looked good with the squalls climbing round it.
Ride home. It will do you no end of good. Go by Farnham, Basingstoke, not by Guildford.
Sandro and I rode home to-day. We had no snow, and no rain, and not half the fun of Monday.
A sober, middle-aged ride on a good road in good weather.

Nevertheless, my head is so full of chalk-downs and clouds, and things, I can’t write biometry
to-night. Always, when I have been with the country, the feeling breaks out that the other folk
have the best of it. The other way you live with the country and become part of it ; and you

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 31

dredge, or fish, or shoot something wonderful, and you describe it, and everyone sees that it is
wonderful, and you all enjoy the wonder. And there is no solution, and if there were, it would
not be worth the shadow of a shower flying across the country.

And this is all wicked nonsense, and I am going to bed. Yours affectionately,

W. F. R. WELDON.”

Weldon was a child of the open air and the breezes, and we hoped that he
might have more of them, if not in lowland Oxford, at least on the hills around.
There was space and air too for the experimental work that had been so cramped
in Gower Street. The Daphnia studies, which had occupied so much energy
under unfavourable conditions in London, were at once resumed on broader lines in
the ponds and ditches round Oxford. Weldon, with a basket of bottles attached to
his cycle handle, and a fishing creel, filled with more bottles, on his back, might be
met even as far as the Chilterns, collecting not only Daphnia, but samples of the
water in which they lived. His University College work had shown him how
widely Daphnia are modified by their chemical and physical environment, and how
this modification is largely due to selection. There exist elaborate drawings of the
Daphnia from the Oxfordshire ponds, indicating their differentiation into local
races, and notes on the peculiarity of their habitat and the chemical constitution of
the water :

“Tn the meantime I have been led into a non-statistical work for the moment. Get out of the
library and read Klebs : Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung bei einigen Algen und Pilzen.

By tricks of nutrition, light, etc., Klebs can make simple algae reproduce either a-sexually or
sexually, or parthenogenetically, as he pleases. In cases where every textbook tells you that a

regular alternation of sexual and a-sexual generation is the rule, he can make ezther form recur
as often as he likes.

If one can by similar tricks throw Daphnia into this condition, then the measuring machine
can again come into play, and one can compare parthenogenetic inheritance with sexual
inheritance as often as one pleases.

That is a Nebensache.—The Hauptsache here is the great variation in the chemical com-
position (pardon the phrase) of the water in the little rivers. Their percentage of dissolved salts
varies enormously, and I hope to go about as I have begun, with a large fisherman’s creel tied to
the handle-bar of my bicycle, learning the correlation between the salts in the waters and the
fauna.—Then again comes the measurement, and the attempt to derive one local form from the
other under controlled conditions by direct selective destruction due to the conditions.”

This was precisely the same problem which a study of Kobelt’s Studien zur
Zoogeographie, 1897-9, led him later to take up with regard to land snails. What
is the meaning of the slight but perfectly sensible differences in type to be found
in shells from adjacent valleys, or even from different heights of the same
mountain? Weldon attacked the problem in his usual manner; he spent two
Christmas vacations collecting Sicilian snails of the same species from habitats
extending over a wide area, the local environments were described, and the snails
often photographed with their immediate surroundings. Innumerable shells were
brought back to Oxford, and Weldon delighted to discourse on the significant
differences in local type, and yet the gradual change of type to type from one spot

32 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

to another. No rapidly made measurement on the outside of the shell would
satisfy Weldon; the shell must be carefully ground down through the axis, and
measurements made on the section thus exposed. Perhaps four or five snail shells
could be ground and measured in a day, and at the time of his death, not more
than a few hundred of the Sicilian thousands had even been ground. Like the
Daphnia, the Sicilian snails remain as an indication of the way—the path of
absolute thoroughness—the master would have us follow. “Life is not long
enough for biometry,’ murmurs the superficial critic. But the man of deeper
insight replies:
That low man goes on adding one to one,
His hundred’s soon hit:
This high man, aiming at a million,
Misses an unit.

But these attempts to get to the kernel of selection in its action on local races
were far from occupying the whole of Weldon’s thoughts in these early days. In
conjunction with his assistant, Dr E. Warren, he had commenced at University
College his first big experimental investigation into heredity.

“The Oxford rivers have had to rest during the last few weeks, because of the pedigree moths.

These are apparently going on very well indeed. There are at present about 3500 caterpillars,
belonging to thirty-eight families forming the third domesticated generation.”

The characters to be dealt with consisted of the number of scales in particular
colour patches, and the work of counting these was very laborious. A little later
(16 July, 1899) Weldon writes:

“The caterpillars are hatching by hundreds and I hope the clean air will help them to do better
here than in London. From egg to moth, poor Warren, in spite of magnificent efforts, had
a death-rate of over eighty per cent. ; and that seems to me a rather serious thing... because one
cannot be sure that the death-rate was not partly selective with respect to things in the
caterpillar which are correlated with colour in the moth. The influence of climate is shown by
the fertility of the eggs—Warren got forty per cent. of fertilised eggs from his pairing and
an average of over one hundred eggs per batch. Nearly all my pairs lay fertile eggs and those I
have counted give an average of one hundred and sixty-five eggs per batch.”

And again, on the 14th August of the same year:

“JT want to come and talk to you, especially about death; but I cannot come till my
caterpillars are safely turned into pupae. For the sake of these caterpillars I have, at the risk
of personal liberty and reputation, stolen from the roadside one hundred square feet of clover
turf, the property of the Lords of various Manors in this neighbourhood. The little ruffians
have now eaten all this clover and for the last day or two of their existence have to be fed
by hand.—Therefore I have to pluck fresh clover (which is not stealing if you do not do it in an
enclosed pasture) every day.—My bicycle is nearly worn out from carrying extra weight. Riding
down a steep hill, with your brake smashed, and with five or six feet of heavy turf on your back
is like playing at Attwood’s machine. You get very near to the theoretical acceleration too !”

In the course of three years many hundreds of pedigree moths were dealt with
and the observations were reduced. But no definite inheritance at all of the
character selected for consideration was discovered. Weldon, I believe, thought
that there had been some fatal mistake in the selection of pairings, and undoubtedly

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 33

in some cases parents of opposite deviation had been mated, so that a rather
influential negative assortative mating resulted. But from other series of pedigree
moth data that I have since seen, it seems to me probable that there is some
special feature in heredity in moths, or possibly in those that breed twice in the
year, and that the vast piece of work which Weldon and Warren undertook in
1898—1901, may still have its lesson to teach us. At the time it formed another
link in that chain of apparent failures which for a time, but only for a time,
disheartened Weldon.

In these three first years at Oxford, Weldon’s intellectual activity was intense.
The letters to the present writer, which in 1899 averaged one a week, in 1900 and
1901 reached an average of two, and in some weeks there were almost daily
letters. These letters not only teem with fruitful criticism and suggestion with
regard to the recipient’s own work, but contain veritable treatises—drawings,
tables, calculations—on the writer's own experiments and observations. To the
pedigree moth experiments was added in the summer of 1900 an elaborate series
of Shirley Poppy growings, 1250 pedigree individuals being grown and tended in
separate pots; Weldon’s records were the most perfect of those of any of the
cooperators, and his energy and suggestions gave a new impetus to the whole
investigation. They were ultimately published in Biometrika under the title,
Cooperative Investigations on Plants, I. On Inheritance in the Shirley Poppy (22).
As Weldon himself expressed it, the moths and poppies meant “a solid eight hours
daily of stable-boy work through the whole summer, and through the Easter
vacation, with decent statistical work between.” The autumn of 1899 provided no
proper holiday, but Christmas found the Weldons in Rome. After the Shirley
Poppies were out of hand in the summer of 1900, the Weldons went to Hamburg
and thence to Plon. The object of this visit was to collect Clausilia at Plon and
Gremsmiihlen for comparison with the race at Risborough. The same aim—the
comparison of local races—led Weldon at Christmas to collect land snails in
Madeira. Thus he slowly built up a magnificent biometric collection of snail
shells—i.e. one sufficiently large to show in the case of many local races of a
number of species the type and variability by statistically ample samples. Of
this part of Weldon’s work only two fragments have been published, “A First
Study of Natural Selection in Clausilia laminata (Montagu) ” (23), and “ Note on
a Race of Clausilia itala (von Martens)” (24). In the first of these memoirs
Weldon shows that two races of C. lanunata exist, in localities so widely separated
as Gremsmiihlen and Risborough, with sensibly identical spirals, although no
crossing between their ancestors can have existed for an immense period of time,
and although there are comparatively few common environmental conditions. At
the same time, while no differential secular selection of the spiral appears to have
taken place during this period, there yet seems to be a periodic selection of the
younger individuals in each generation, the variability of the spirals of the young
shells being sensibly greater than that of the corresponding whorls of adults. In
other words stability to the type is preserved by selection in each new generation.

Biometrika v 5

34 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

In the second memoir Weldon sought for demonstration of a like periodic selection
in the (. itala he had collected from the public walks round the Citadel of Brescia.
He failed, however, to trace it, and was forced to conclude that C. itala is either
not now subject to selective elimination for this character, or is multiplying at
present under specially favourable conditions at Brescia, or again, as both young
and old were gathered in early spring, after their winter sleep, that elimination
takes place largely during the winter, and “that individuals of the same length,
collected in the autumn, at the close of their period of growth, might be more
variable than those which survive the winter.”

Quite apart from the results reached, Weldon’s papers are of the highest
suggestiveness. Does selection take place between birth and the adult or repro-
ductive stage? This is the problem which everyone interested in Darwinism
desires to see answered. But to answer it we need to compare the characters of
the organisms at the same stage of growth, for these characters are modified by
growth. How is it possible to compare a sample of the race at an early stage,
with its adult sample? The problem of growth, to be studied only under
conditions of captivity, possibly modifying the natural growth immensely, had
made the crab investigation an extremely complex one. Weldon solved the
difficulty by the brilliant idea that the snail carries with it practically a record of
its youth. If the wear and tear of the outside of the shell to some extent
confuses the record there, a carefully ground axial section will reveal by the lower
whorls the infancy of the organism. Hence the days given to experimental
grinding, the training in manipulation and the final success, and then the steady
work, grinding and measuring a few specimens a day, till the necessary hundreds
were put together; the laborious calculations not in the least indicated in the
papers—the arithmetical slips with bad days of depression, and the completed
result: the illustration of how shells may be used—by those who will give the
needful toil—to test the truth of the Darwinian theory.

The summer of 1899 found the present writer at Great Hampden on the
Chilterns, working at poppies and developing a theory of homotyposis, namely, the
quantitative degree of resemblance to be found on the average between the like
parts of organisms. Weldon, who came over from Oxford to dredge the ponds and
to discover Clausilia by the White Cross at Monks Risborough, provided the
criticism, suggestion, and encouragement, in which he never failed* :

“You have got hold,” he wrote, after returning to Oxford, “of the big problem which all poor
biologers have been trying for ever so long. I wish you good luck with it.”

The collection and reduction of material were on a larger scale than had been
previously attempted, and the memoir was not presented to the Royal Society
until the October of the following year (1900). It was soon evident that the
attitude of the Society with regard to biometry was undergoing considerable
change. The meeting of November 15 and the discussion that took place on the

* His aid in the second part—Homotyposis in the Animal Kingdom, shortly to be published,—was
even more substantial.

i
a

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 35

homotyposis paper was the immediate cause of the proposal to found this Journal.
A little later a detailed criticism of the paper by one of the referees was actually
printed by the Secretaries and issued to Fellows at a meeting, before the fate of the
criticised paper itself had been notified, and before the paper itself was in the
hands of those present. his confirmed the biometric school in their determination
to start and run a journal of their own.

On November 16 Weldon wrote:

“The contention ‘that numbers mean nothing and do not exist in Nature’ is a very serious
thing, which will have to be fought. Most other people have got beyond it, but most biologists
have not.

Do you think it would be too hopelessly expensive to start a journal of some kind ?......

If one printed five hundred copies of a royal 8vo. once a quarter, sternly repressing anything
by way of illustration except process drawings and curves, what would the annual loss be, taking
any practical price per number?,,. If no English publisher would undertake it at a cheap rate,
the cost of going to Fischer of Jena, or even Engelmann, would not be very great.”

This was the first definite suggestion of the establishment of Biometrika. On
November 29, the draft circular, corresponding fairly closely to the first editorial of
the first number (25), reached me from Oxford with the words: “Get a better title
for this would-be journal than I can think of!” The circular went back to Oxford
with the suggestion that the science in future should be called Biometry and its
official organ be Biometrika. And on December 2nd, 1900, Weldon wrote :

“T did not see your letter yesterday until it was too late for you to have an answer last night.
I like Biometrika and the subtitle. Certainly we ought to state that articles will be printed in
German, French, or Italian. One may hope for stuff from anthropologers, and for instance,
ought to be allowed to use his own tongue.”

Thus was this Journal born and christened. The reply to circulars issued
during December was sufficiently favourable to warrant our proceeding further. A
guarantee fund sufficing to carry on the Journal for a number of years was raised
at once ; good friends vf Biometry coming forward to aid the editors. By June of
1901 its publication through the Cambridge University Press had been arranged
for, and the sympathetic help of the Syndics and the care given by the University
Printers enabled us to start well and surmount many difficulties peculiar to a new
branch of science*. Those of us who believe that Biometrika came to stay and to
fulfil a definite function in the world of science hope that the name of the man
who first formulated a definite proposal for a biometric organ may always continue
to be associated with our title-page. During the years in which Weldon was
editor he contributed much, directly and indirectly, to its pages. He was referee
for all essentially biological papers; and his judgment in this matter was of the
utmost value. He revised and almost rewrote special articles. He was ever ready
with encouragement and aid when real difficulties arose. For the mechanical labour

* A special feature has been of course the masses of tabulated numbers. It deserves to be put
on record that on more than one occasion 15 or 20 pages of figures have been set up without a single
printer’s error.

5—2

36 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

of editing, for proof-reading, for preparation of manuscripts and drawings for the
press, or for interviews with engravers, he had little taste or time. He was too full
of his current problem to undertake work of this kind regularly; proofs might
remain for weeks unopened, until the number was printed off, and manuscript
might disappear into a drawer, when the co-editor imagined it was safely on
its way back to the author! But Weldon was always delightful when such “laches”
were discovered ; to meet Weldon when he was in an apologetic frame of mind
meant that you must apologise to him yourself for the very thought of scolding
him! It was all over before he had shaken hands, sat down, and lighted the
inevitable cigarette; you were not talking of proofs, but of Kobelt, Mendel,
Maeterlinck, the Kritik der reinen Vernunft,—anything and everything but dull
editorial matters. And you felt a freshness and a tonic, and a sense of the healthy
joy and pleasure of life, and you wondered how it was possible to do anything but
love this man and rejoice in the clearness of his vision and the suggestiveness of
his thought.

Starting on October 16, 1900, and extending throughout the early Biometrika
letters, runs a flood of information with regard to Mendel and his hypothesis.

“ About pleasanter things, I have heard of and read a paper by one, Mendel, on the results of
crossing peas, which I think you would like to read. It is in the Abhandlungen des natur-
forschenden Vereines in Briinn for 1865. I have the R.S. copy here, but I will send it to you if
you want it.” [October 16, 1900.]

Then follows a resumé of the first of Mendel’s memoirs, and for months the
letters—always treatises—are equally devoted to snails, Mendelism and the basal
things of life. It is almost impossible to give an idea by sampling of the crush of
keen and vital interest these letters represent. Some attempt must, however,
be made:

“Have you ever been up here? It is not at all a bad little country when you are tired.—We
started simply to see the architecture at Liibeck, because neither of us knew the North German
brick and wood church work. That was very interesting, then we came here for fresh air and
quiet—and we found sNAILs.

I have rather more than 5000 snails all properly pickled, with localities recorded....... There
are so many points about snails, if one could only measure and breed them !... Also I have been
greatly impressed with the way in which they are dependent upon conditions of environment, so
that one quickly learned to know almost exactly what species one would find in any place one
passed through. I think that by going from here, which is almost the eastern limit of several
species, to a very different country, such as Oxford, one might almost hope to make a good shot
at some of the essential conditions which determine the distribution of some of the species....
It is ridiculous that such abundant material as snails afford everywhere (except at Danby End ?)
should be left useless because one cannot see how to take advantage of it. Send me some “tips”
for trials. (To Oxford,—we go home to-day).” [Plon, 5/9/90.]

“You ought to see Liibeck some day. You know so much about German art that I suppose

You can’t get a beautiful art in a climate where people must wear clothes. Just as the
northern idea of a portrait is a round face stuck on top of a heap of fine clothes, so the northern
idea of a building is a thing with all its good simple lines disguised by silly excrescences. If you

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 37

want to see really majestic brickwork go to Siena or Pistoja, where you can see naked men and
women in the streets on a summer’s day. Liibeck is very earnest, and very interesting, and so
on and so on, but it is not beautiful !... I am sending you a parcel of snails that you may see the
sort of thing.

In one beech wood, on the trunks of the trees, we collected rather more than 3000 snails,
most of them Clausilia biplicata and C. laminata (see the parcel), but some Helix lapidicida.
There are certainly one thousand each of the two Clausilia species from this locality, and four or
five hundred of each from another wood.”

Then follow pages of minute description of each type of shell in the parcel and
discussion as to the possibility, by grinding or by taking a melted paraffin cast of
the inside, of measuring biometrically this or that character.

“T fancy want of moisture must have more to do with the absence of snails about you than
want of chalk. What are youon? Surely you have nearly the same Oolites and Lias that we
have here ?...... Have you committed the sin of digging up a bit of your moor, and looking
among roots ?” [Oxford, 13/9/1900. ]

“A happy New Year to you! I send in another envelope specimens of the problematic snail,
which has been found in sufficient numbers already. The pattern cannot, I think, be treated as
due to lines of growth, and I hope it will be possible to find some way of estimating its
variability.— It occurs more or less in a whole series of species here, and here only ; and the hills
here are so separated by deep valleys, with great climatic differences at different elevations, that
there are well isolated local races.

It is rather hard for me to collect many races, because I have to look after my sick laboratory
boy, and to teach him sea work, which takes time and produces only isolated examples of pretty
museum things, which are a joy to see, although they teach one very little*. To do this and also
to find time for a 2000 or 3000 feet climb after snails makes a very good day, and one goes to bed
very fit, and full of beautiful remembrances. As one walks up hill, the impression is very
absurd. Here the garden is full of bananas and sugar canes ; in an hour’s climb one gets into a
wood of pine trees and heather, and looks down on to all this tropical valley. The contrast
is very curious, and I have not got accustomed to it.

It seems rather a bad year for land beasts. The normal rainfall in December and January is
said to be about thirty inches ; and this year practically no rain has fallen since the spring. I
suppose as a result of this every live thing gets under the biggest block of basalt it can find.
This makes snail hunting rather exciting, because when you get to the top of a kopje where the
beasts are you find the sides so steep that any stone you disturb rolls down, unless you take
great care. My first day’s hunt resulted in such a roll. A stone which I could only just lift
rolled down into a sugar cane bed some three or four hundred feet below. I have never felt so
ill as I felt until I found that stone and made sure that it had not smashed up an innocent
Portuguese peasant !

* One of the blows to Weldon, which resulted from his biometric view of life, was that his biological
friends could not appreciate his new enthusiasms. They could not understand how the Museum
‘“specimen”’ was in the future to be replaced by the ‘‘sample” of 500 to 1000 individuals, not to
be looked at through a glass, but to be handled, used, and if necessary used up. They warned his
pupils solemnly to give up this sort of fooling and take to the real business of the ‘‘ biologer,” if they
wished for success. ‘‘I told —— about these snails,” Weldon wrote on Oct. 11, 1900, ‘‘and he wrote me
an earnest letter, urging me to return to the pleasant way of describing beasts for the delight of the
faithful. That is the real thing if you want to be popular. Go to sea, and have a good time, and
bring back a jelly fish which is bright blue.”

There is much missionary work yet to be done by biometricians, and Weldon’s loss will make it
still harder !

38 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

if one knew anything about natural history one might do a great service to these people.
The whole place is covered with the tracks of a little black ant, introduced with some South
American sugar canes five or six years ago. The ant cultivates a number of aphides, which
produce serious diseases on all the fruit trees; also it attacks the newly hatched birds and
all beasts which shelter under stones. Under a big stone, where some dozen snails have
sheltered, about half the shells (which look quite fresh) are eaten empty by ants; so it is with
the beetles, grasshoppers, and other things. The only good thing they have done is to eat the
cockroaches. Every kitchen is now full of ants, and contains no cockroaches at all.

How snails make their shells here is hard to understand ; there is not a scrap of limestone
in the place : all basalt and beds of gorgeously coloured volcanic sands. Yet when one finds the
right place, one finds that snails swarm and their shells are rather harder than usual !

I should very much like to know whether the habit of hiding under stones is as general in
all seasons as it is now. You know Wallace points out that most of the beetles here have lost
their wings ; and he regards it as probable that flying beetles would be blown out to sea in
storms. Now first of all there are practically no storms, and secondly, if there were, the valleys
are so deep and their sides so precipitous, that there is abundant shelter against winds. But the
loss of wings might well be correlated with the habit of walking under stones to get out of the
sun. You find a patch of bare hot sand, so steep that you can hardly stand on it, with a stone
here and there, and no sign of any living thing. If you turn over a stone you find a number of
snails, a lizard, twenty or thirty beetles, a grasshopper or two, and armies of millipedes.......
The man we see most of in this inn is a splendid creature. A captain in the Canadian frontier
police, who volunteered for service in South Africa, and is recovering from a bullet through his
right lung. Because he has a colonial accent, cannot see any merit in him....... It is only
another sample of the difficulty I feel every day at Oxford. The boys there are so occupied with

silly superficial things that one can never bring them to think of fundamental matters.”
[Funchal, 29/12/00.]

“Tam glad you are disgusted with the Life. I was afraid you were not.—You cannot judge
the man from the bits of his letters. Ido not think one ought to try to have an opinion about
a man’s conduct towards his wife, or indeed about his ethical value at all. One cannot possibly
get hold of evidence enough, and the little bits of bad journalism which people give one are only
sufficient to disturb one’s mind. Take the old man as one knows him by his work, without
troubling to guess at his motives, and there is not much the matter with him. I quite agree
with you in loving Darwin and more ; but a man may be a great deal lower than these two,
and yet be high enough for reverence.” [Oxford, 2/12/00.]

The earlier part of 1901 was chiefly occupied by snails, but a new factor had
come into Weldon’s many-sided occupations. It was settled that Biometrika
should have in an early number a critical bibliography of papers dealing with
statistical biology. Weldon undertook this task as his study of Mendel had led
him to a very great number of such papers dealing with inheritance, and the
section on Heredity was to be published first. Like all Weldon’s projects, it was
to be done in so thorough and comprehensive a manner that years were required
for its completion. A very full list of titles was formed, especially in the Inherit-
ance section, and many of the papers therein were thoroughly studied and abstracted
(26). But such study meant with Weldon not only grasping the writer’s conclusions,
but testing his arithmetic and weighing his logic. Thus Weldon’s Note on “Change
in Organic Correlation of Ficaria ranunculoides during the Flowering Season” (27)
arose from this bibliographical work and the erroneous manner in which he found
Verschaftelt and MacLeod dealing with correlation. A further result of this work

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 39

was that his confidence in the generality of the Mendelian hypotheses was much
shaken. He found that Mendel’s views were not consonant with the results
formulated in a number of papers he had been led to abstract, and that the
definite categories used by some Mendelian writers did not correspond to really
well-defined classes in the characters themselves. It was a certain looseness of
logic, a want of clear definition and scale, an absence of any insight into how far
the numbers reached really prove what they are stated to prove, that moved
Weldon when he came to deal with Mendelian work. And his attitude has been
largely justified. The simplicity of Mendel’s Mendelism has been gradually replaced
by a complexity as great as that of any description hitherto suggested of hereditary
relationships. This complexity allows of far greater elasticity in the deduction of
statistical ratios, but the man in the street can no longer express a judgment
upon whether the theory really accounts for the facts, and the actual statistical
testing of the numbers obtained, as well as the logical development of the theory,
will soon be feasible only to mathematical power of a high order. The old categories
are, as Weldon indicated, being found insufficient, narrower classifications are being
taken, and irregular dominance, imperfect recessiveness, the correlation of attributes,
the latency of ancestral characters, and more complex determinantal theories are
becoming the order of the day. If Weldon’s papers “ Mendel’s Laws of Alternative
Inheritance in Peas” (28), ‘On the Ambiguity of Mendel’s Categories ” (29), and
“ Mr Bateson’s Revisions of Mendel’s Theory of Heredity ” (30), be read with a due
regard to the dates of their appearance, it will be seen that they served, and that
they continue to serve, a very useful] purpose: they enforce the need for more
cautious statement, for more careful classification, and for greater acquaintance
with the nature of the inferences which are logically, i.e. mathematically, justifiable
on the basis of given statistical data. The need will become the more urgent if the
complexity of Mendelian formulae increases at the present rate.

To those who accept the biometric standpoint, that in the main evolution has
not taken place by leaps, but by continuous selection of the favourable variation
from the distribution of the offspring round the ancestrally fixed type, each
selection modifying pro rata that type, there must be a manifest want in
Mendelian theories of inheritance. Reproduction from this standpoint can only
shake the kaleidoscope of existing alternatives; it can bring nothing new into the
field. To complete a Mendelian theory we must apparently associate it for the
purposes of evolution with some hypothesis of “ mutations.” The chief upholder of
such an hypothesis has been de Vries, and Weldon’s article on “ Professor de Vries
on the Origin of Species” (32) was the outcome of his consideration of this matter.
During the years 1902 to 1903 an elaborate attempt was made to grow the
numerous sub-races of Draba verna, with the idea that they might throw light on
mutations. The project failed, largely owing to difficulties in the artificial cultivation
of some of the species. But for a time all other interests paled before Draba verna.

“Where are you going at Easter? Stone wall country is very good, and if you find a place
with delightful old stone villages and pretty churches, Draba verna will be there! Come into

40 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

this region, with the bike, and learn to know and love the dear Dog !* Also explain to me how
without thrashing to teach that same animal that lambs are not made to be eaten by puppies.
There must be a way. I have taught him to walk at heel past the most tempting of other dogs,
and even past chickens, and I have not yet beaten him at all. Cows and sheep will I suppose
make one or two beatings necessary ?” [Oxford, 7/2/02.]

And a little later comes a letter which shall be cited because it may induce
another to take up a form of biometric work, which must some day be pushed to
a successful issue ; in the fifteen years of letters there are many problems like this
of Draba verna, which are discussed month after month with specimens, drawings,
and tables, some merely schemed, but in surprising detail, others reaching the
experimental stage, some in part solved, others but records of failure, one and all
suggestive.

“ Draba verna, or its earliest race is in full flower. I have four model types from a certain
wall.

Now can you and Mrs Pearson give us the week end, so that your eyes may see the glory of
this plant ?

If you can turn up on Friday (I finish lecturing at 6) we can go for a tramp on Saturday, and
see Draba at home on its walls. A gentle 7 or 8 miles all told, in a decently pretty country,
with a variable plant in the middle and a really Perfect Dog all the way makes a very good
combination ;—only bring some knickerbockers, because Oxford Clay goes over one’s ankles
in places just now.

We can bring home our spoil, and discuss the very difficult question of descriptive units.

I think it a good and important thing to try. All the problems of treating mixed races
come in; and above all I am curious to see what comes of statistical treatment applied to
characters which have been chosen by “naturalists.” They all say we choose anything which is
easy to measure, and neglect the real points of “biological” importance ; and there is a little
truth in this reproach.

For Draba we want units of “habit,” of shape and colour of leaves, of hairiness, of shape and
colour of petals, sepals and fruit. We want to treat leaves which are very distinctly differen-
tiated according to their relative time of appearance, and I think having tabulated all
these characters, we waut to break up the plants on a wall which you shall see on Saturday
into about four races.

Do come if you possibly can. I saw one plant yesterday with all its seed capsules ripe and
open ; so that the first lot of little races will very soon be out of flower.

* The great Borzoi Sandro, henceforward to be a marked feature of the Weldon household, at home
and away from home. Sandro pursuing sheep over the Yorkshire moors, Sandro pursuing game in the
Buckinghamshire beechwoods, Weldon pursuing Sandro with every tone of affectionate persuasion, on
the track the stacked cycles and the co-editor pursuing the deserted biometric problems in solitude,
Weldon returning with the unchastised dog, after any interval of from 10 to 40 minutes, the chase being
fully completed, the apologies for the Borzoi, his sustentation on chocolate and the human need for
cigarettes, the return to the cycles, to the experiment that was to be crucial, to the colour and the
sunset, these are all memories, the like of which others will have shared, which helped to form the
atmosphere about the man. Sandro achieved his purpose, he kept his master out in the air—such wolf
hounds can follow a cycle for miles—and to exercise him was held up as a moral duty. But his limited
intelligence led to his own disablement and he had to become a partaker only in biometric ‘‘ at homes.”
For two years, however, he was a great feature of our joint expeditions.

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 41

As Nebensachen, there are the mice and I very much want you to group the snails* in your
own way—to see how far your grouping will bring them into a better form for the curve !

But Draba verna ought to be an example of the whole bearing of statistical methods upon
systematic problems. I think it is rather important to begin this spring by collecting material
for an analysis of the races round here, and a comparison of these with the types recognised
by systematists. Learning these and their variability in this neighbourhood this spring, we can
learn cotyledon characters and the characters of the first formed leaves in the Autumn—basing
upon these a first set of hereditary correlations,

Again, the statement that each of Jordan’s species can be recognised at any stage in the life-
history of the plant makes it necessary to work correlations between cotyledon characters,
autumn leaf characters, and spring characters. All this is work for lots of folk, and it is most
important to get it properly planned now. Therefore, and for lots of other reasons try to
come on Friday !

The Dog shall be washed for you !” [Oxford, 22/2/02.]

The reference in this letter to the mice indicates that that great piece of
experimental work in heredity was now started. A study of the work of von
Guaita had convinced Weldon early in 1901 that the cross between the European
albino mouse and the Japanese waltzing mouse was not one which admitted
of simple Mendelian description. In May, 1901, his letters contain inquiries
as to Japanese mice dealers. During the summer and autumn the collection
of Japanese mice was in progress. These mice were to be bred to test the purity
of the stock; during December about forty does had litters, and pure breeding
went on until the autumn of 1902, when hybridisation commenced. The work on
these mice was for two years entrusted to Mr A. D. Darbishire, but the whole plan
of the experiments, the preparation of the correlation tables, and the elaborate
calculations were in the main due to Weldon. On Mr Darbishire’s leaving Oxford,
Weldon again resumed personal control of the actual breeding arrangements, and
from second hybrid matings carried on the work to the sixth hybrids’ offspring.
The work was nearing completion at his death, and through the energy of
Mr Frank Sherlock the skins of the 600 pedigree mice forming the stud at
that time have been dressed and added to those of the earlier generations. The
reduction and publication of this material will, it is hoped, be not long delayed (33).
Weldon had this work much at heart, and his letters during 1904 and 1905 give
many indications of the points he considered demonstrated. The experimental
part of the work would have been nearly completed had not his whole thought and
energy been directed from November, 1905, into another channel.

From 1901 it is harder for the present writer to give a detailed account
of Weldon’s life, the co-editorship of Biometrika and common work brought them
so continually into contact. In the early part of the summer there had been
a hurried visit to Gremsmiihlen for young Clawsilia ; Weldon on his return visited
his co-editor at Througham in Gloucestershire bringing his Brunsvigat, and there

* H. nemoralis and H. hortensis of which many hundreds had now been collected from various parts
of England by Weldon and his helpers.

+ The familiar mechanical calculator of the biometrician, the grinding sound of which (emphasised
by the want of oiling in Weldon’s case!) is the music which tells him how much his labours can be
lightened.

Biometrika v 6

42 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

was calculation and reduction of Clausilia data. Later there was a hurried visit
to the Tegernsee and to Munich for opera. At Easter, 1902, there was a noble
missionary effort (with the Brunsviga) to Parma; the missionary carried a memou,
which he had spent some weeks in rewriting in biometric form, but his efforts to
show that a science of statistics exists were unavailing. In the summer Biometrika
was edited from Bainbridge in Wensleydale, and accompanied by Sandro, the
co-editors cycled to the churchyards of the Yorkshire dales, collecting material
for their joint paper “On Assortative Mating in Man” (34). From Bainbridge the
Weldons went to the British Association meeting at Belfast, where an evening lecture
on Inheritance was given. At Christmas came one of the above-mentioned visits to
Palermo to collect Sicilian snails. An event of this year (1902) was the publication
of Mr Bateson’s Mendel’s Principles of Heredity. The origin of Weldon’s first paper
on Mendel has been described in this memoir ; it was an expansion of a part of the
promised bibliography for this Journal, and was written without any arriére pensée
or knowledge of Mr Bateson’s not then published experimental work. It is
impossible for one who has been and again may be a combatant in this field to say
more than that the tone of Mr Bateson’s defence deeply pained Weldon, and
rendered it difficult for a finely strung temperament to maintain—as it did
maintain to the end—the impersonal tone of scientific controversy.

In the spring of 1903 Weldon was busy, as were the whole available members
of the biometric school, in studying the influence of environment and of period of
season on the variation and correlation of the floral parts of Lesser Celandine.

“Give my love to the Brethren who are cooperating in the matter of Celandines, and beseech
them to make a better map of their country than the enclosed.” (Oxford, 23/2/03.]

Weldon threw his whole energy and love of minute exactitude into the task,
and his letters are filled with an account of the almost daily changes in the type
and variability of the Celandine flowers from his selected stations. The result of
this enquiry was the collection of an immense amount of data showing that
environment and period in the flowering season affected the flower characters to an
extent comparable with the differences attributed to local races. The reduction of
the material has gone on progressively, if intermittently since, and it is hoped that
a memoir, which will be a sequel to that issued in Biometrika*, may be published
shortly (35). The wider standpoint of this second memoir will be chiefly due to
Weldon’s initiative and critical mind. At Easter of 1903 a series of mishaps pre-
vented the common holiday, but this was more than compensated for by the summer
vacation. The Weldons started with a sea trip to Marseilles and back. They then
returned to Oxford, that work on the article Crustacea for the Cambridge Natural
History might be carried on, and an eye kept on the mice. But a biometric camp
was formed at Peppard on the Chilterns; here the “ Consulting Editor” and one of
the co-editors had established themselves, and the Weldons took a week-end cottage.
The three Oxford members of the party arrived partly on cycles and partly on four

* Vol. 1. pp. 145—164, Cooperative Investigations on Plants. II. Variation and Correlation in
Lesser Celandine from Divers Localities. :

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 43

feet, and were often met en route by the residents in the uplands, the numbers
being swelled by the addition of biometricians from the London or Oxford schools.
Hence arose a series of Friday “biometric teas,” for the discussion of the week’s
work and plans for the next two days. Saturday and Sunday morning were given
to steady calculating and reducing work, and much was got through. The data on
assortative mating in man collected in the previous year were reduced and a joint
paper sent to press; the immense amount of calculation and reduction involved in
the mouse-paper was got through; a joint criticism of Johannsen’s Ueber Erblichheit
in Populationen und in reinen Linien was written by the co-éditors under the title
“Tnheritance in Phaseolus vulgaris” (36); the Huxley Lecture was written with
yeoman help from the Oxford contingent, and lastly, a joint study was made,
at Weldon’s suggestion, of the relationship between Mendelian formulae and the
theory of ancestral heredity. It was shown that there was no essential antagonism
between the two methods of approaching the subject, and the results were
published ultimately as Part xu of the Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of
Evolution, Weldon persistently declining to allow it to appear as a joint memoir,
because he had taken no part in certain portions of the more complicated algebraic
analysis. Christmas found two-thirds of the party reunited in Palermo, and Weldon
on the snail quest. His letters thence to his co-editor teem with the freshness of
the sky and the joy of open-air work :

“Out between five and six, in the dark, without any breakfast, sunrise up in the hills, a day’s
tramp on a piece of bread and a handful of olives, and home at seven, laden with snails. Then
after dinner to clean the beasts. That is not work, and it makes one very fit, but one gets tired
enough to sleep when the snails are cleaned !

The camera works all right, and I think there is a very marked correlation between
the general character of the limestones and the character of the shells; but developing in one’s
bedroom does not make for negatives which will “process”! Also it involves heavy subsidies
to such chambermaids as do not understand what new form of madness this particular foreigner
has developed !

I have repeated all last year’s collections, and have tried hard to get a series of forms, such as
Kobelt describes, intermediate between the rounded and the flat keeled forms, but I cannot at
present find these. They ought (according to him) to live in a certain wilderness of beautiful
mountains twenty miles away. I have several times tramped without any result. I hope to try
again. I feel sure something worth having will come out of these shells ; they illustrate local
races and the general problem of what is a species splendidly. But the question of their
markings comes in also ; and you, or Galton, or someone, will have to make a scale of patterns
for me, I expect. They will be the most perfectly hopeless things to draw !

It is, of course, just conceivable that the intermediate, slightly keeled forms described in
1879 by Kobelt have been exterminated since his time? He is very precise in his localities, and
everywhere except in his transitional region I find ewactly what he describes, but in this region I
find so far only rounded forms.

The only difficulties about tramping in this country are the carabinier’. Every high road is
patrolled by groups of two or three, so that even in a desolate place, so long as you keep to the
road, you are rarely out of rifle shot ; but these men come and solemnly warn you that the
people round are ruffians, who would cheerfully cut your throat for a soldo; and if you simply
grin, they make a great pretence of falling in behind you and guarding you.... Now collecting
snails with an armed guard becomes ridiculous after 1 time and there is no danger at all; the

6—2

44 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

men only want tips. When one gets off the road into the hills the goatherds and other ruffians
are most friendly. They want to see one’s camera, and one’s knife, and of course they want half
one’s bread, but they never ask for tips, and my throat is still uncut.

We have so far had two wet days; to-day, and one other.—We have had several inches
to-day, and shall have some more ; but between we have had the most glorious sun. I look as
if I washed in strong coffee every morning.” [Palermo, 31/12/1903.]

At the beginning of 1904 the work on the Brescia Clausilia was in progress,
the mice were multiplying after their kind and Weldon’s thoughts were turning
more and more to a determinantal theory of inheritance, which should give simple
Mendelism at one end of the range and blended inheritance at the other. Easter
was spent in common, one editor at Rotherfield Greys and the other at Peppard,
with the usual flow of suggestion on Weldon’s part and the bi-weekly cyclings to
Oxford to look after the mice. Now and then the fear would strike Weldon’s
friends that life was being lived at too fast a pace, but the constant intellectual
and physical activity was so characteristic of the man that there was no means of
calling halt, and to many when Weldon was most active he seemed most fit
and well. The summer found the Pearsons twelve miles from Oxford, at Cogges,
near Witney, and the Galtons twenty miles further, at Bibury; there was much
cycling too and fro, and the plan of a new book by Weldon on Inheritance was
drafted, and some of the early chapters written. The vacation was broken by the
visit to Cambridge—Weldon cycling in one day from Oxford—for the British
Association. The Presidential Address in the Zoological Section was chiefly an
attack upon biometric work and methods, and the discussion which followed cul-
minated in the President dramatically holding aloft the volumes of this Journal
as patent evidence of the folly of the school, and refusing the offer of a truce
to this time-wasting controversy. The excitement of the meeting, as earlier
contests at the Zoological and Linnean Societies, seemed. to brace Weldon to
greater intellectual activity and wider plans, but the torpedo boat was being
run at full speed.

The book on Inheritance occupied most of the remainder of the year, and to
aid it forward and help those of us who were not biologists to clearer notions, I
suggested to Weldon a course of lectures in London to my own little group of
biometric workers. The project grew, other departments of the College desired
to attend, and ultimately the lectures were thrown open to all members of the
University and even to the outside public. Weldon had a good audience of more
than a hundred, and enjoyed the return to his old environment. But it may be
doubted whether his vitality responded as quickly as of old to the additional
stress ; there were special elements of difficulty, and I believe now that it would
have been kinder and more helpful had we limited the audience to my own
small body of sympathetic students.

“It will be a great pleasure to me to come and talk, and to feel that you cared to ask me; the

lectures will do far more good to me than to anyone else... and I owe U. C. L. a bigger effort
than this anyhow.” [Oxford, 16/10/04. ]

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 45

And again:

“Tt makes me more than ever glad I am coming back to Gower Street where there are live
people to talk to! Surely thirty people* is a great many. Try talking for five years to
an audience of from three to nine, and see how the thought of thirty will cheer you! And none
of these excellent folk are sent by their tutors !” [Oxford, 7/11/04. ]

The letters of Weldon to both Francis Galton and myself during the years
1904 and 1905 are full of inheritance work, the details of the great mice-breeding
experiment, the statement and the solution, or it might be the suggested solution,
of nuclear problems leading to determinantal theories of inheritance. Occasionally
there would be a touch of conscience, and the drawings for the Crustacea would
be pressed forward :

“TI ought to give my whole time to the Cambridge Natural History for a while. They have

been very good to me, and I have treated them more than a little badly. I am rather anxious to
get them off my conscience.” (Oxford, 15/2/05. ]

But only the chapter on Phyllopods got completed, figures and all, and set up.
Many figures were prepared for other parts; beautiful things, which gave Weldon
not only scientific but artistic pleasure, he had made, but the text remains the
veriest fragment. In the same way but little was absolutely completed of the
article on Heliozoa for Lankester’s Natural History. It was not Weldon’s
biometric friends that kept him from these tasks, it was solely his own intense keen-
ness in the pursuit of new knowledge. It was occasionally with a feeling of great
responsibility that the present writer would propound to him an unsolved problem
with which he might himself be struggling. There was absolute certainty that if
the problem was at all an exciting one, Weldon would leave his scent and follow
the new trail with his whole keenness and at full speed. All else would be put on
one side, and he could only be recalled to natural history or biometrics by an
appeal to his conscience. Like Sandro, the chase must be completed before he
returned to the humdrum trot behind a cycle on the highway.

The fascination of inheritance problems kept Weldon, however, for months at a
time at the Heredity Book. At Easter, 1905, he went to Ferrarat, because that
place had a university, and as such must have a library, where work could be done.
The contents of the library were perfectly mediaeval, a characteristic appropriate
in the castle, but hardly helpful in heredity. Still, portions of the manuscript
came to England for comment and criticism, and we were hopeful that the end of
the year would see the book completed.

* The number I already knew would certainly attend.

+ ‘The town is worth a lot, and the fields are full of a little speedwell, which varies most delightfully.
I have so far resisted the temptation to chuck the wretched book and tabulate the variations of its
flowers, and I hope I shall do to the end, But it is a temptation...... I feel out of the world, an
absolute blank, with only a slight interest in newts’ tails and an even slighter in a statue of Savonarola
which looks at me all day through the window.” [Ferrara, 3/4/05.]

+ From Ferrara came back if not the speedwells, masses of silkworms’ eggs of different local races,
but providentially they failed to hatch out in sufficient numbers owing to the May frosts and no
new scent took Weldon off the book and the mice during the summer.

46 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

It must not be thought for a moment that Weldon was desultory in his work.
As KE. R. Lankester says in a letter to the writer: “His absolute thoroughness and
unstinting devotion to any work he took up were leading features in his character.”
He pursued science, however, for sheer love of it, and he would have continued to
do so had he been Alexander Selkirk on the island with no opportunity for
publication and nobody to communicate his results to. He never slackened in the
total energy he gave to scientific work, but having satisfied himself in one quest,
he did not stay to fill in the page for others to read; his keen eye found a new
problem where the ordinary man saw a cow-pasture, or a dusty hedgerow, and he
started again with unremitted ardour to what had for himself the greater interest.
The publication of his researches will show that it is not we who are the losers,
because he went forward, regardless of publication and finality of form. The true
function of such a man is not to write text-books or publish treatises, it les in
directing and inspiring a school, which will be trained by completing the work and
carrying out the suggestions of its master. The curse of the English educational
system is that it leaves such men to solitude, and throngs the chambers of those
who cram all nature into the limits of the examination room.

In the summer the present writer was at East Ilsley, some seventeen miles
from Oxford, and there was cycling out several times a week; the writer’s chief
work was on other than biometric lines and broken by other claims on his time,
but there was steady joint work on the determinantal theory of inheritance
as outlined by Weldon, and it is hoped that it is sufficiently advanced to be
completed and published (87). Weldon had in August, 1905, given to the
Summer Meeting of the University Extension in Oxford a lecture on Inheritance
in Animals and Plants (38), and this had taken up some of his energy during the
summer vacation. On the whole, however, he worked persistently at the Inheri-
tance Book. It is too early yet to say definitely how far it can be considered ready
for press, but a considerable number of chapters are completely ready, and there
are drafts for several others. We can only hope that this, the work he was
in many respects best fitted for both by direct experiment and by study of the
labours of others, will be issued in his name and show the full measure of his
activities during these last few years.

It cannot be denied that those who were often with Weldon during the last
two years were occasionally anxious—the pace had been too great—but at no time
had one definitely realised that there was an immediate anxiety. His intellectual
activity was never apparently diminished, and his long cycling rides were main-
tained to the end. It was an occasional, but never long persistent, lack of the old
joyousness in life which was noticeable. At East Ilsley he was full of keenness
over his photographic work; he enjoyed an antiquarian investigation into the
probable final locus of the bones of St Birinus with a view to testing a local legend ;
we examined carefully a human skeleton dug up from under a sheepfold, the
authorities having determined that no inquest was needful, the bones being those
of an old man who died “hundreds of years ago.” “And you think?” said

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serene b Sey ae

Plate V.

CPR AL gress tog rege
Pr DIE Freith woe ~2 dap Qrovg
~ 2 rare egies ry wernt ny mmrgrs yor>oyfen woh
veda 9 7D er ee wh aby ong Coon yrapn
: ang we ayy at sh ortn dnd wprmruryang yoy “ro
hog 4 ern) a tamer we Mode prod fs Soy ~roy Sree 6 pas ven
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Respro on wey Fes og, na @ dbeory op Con yomgp you
Bm yt ep Ny Tey Fes “Wp Porpag rape ay Omdbeod
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er haeen oe te ee bem & bee oy arephony
28 Wf De va 9 rong wo cay amony Seago Wry edwry
gt Pag =o ram penn wee 9 yn Egy yy
ref eny wy7p we Say yr? § IQ we 9 Ey Yoon
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ty wy we Baek mm yoy os hom rye ay edemry way orvoe
Ore retas gy yg bey "YW 9 PCD wey rherge ap ~wh Spy

CO De TN nd
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~My ae formas 70 I POD ae Cappy yin wy lb yr
wy S pememd 2 yprge buon wrest ey copy
I I 97 we dmg tha,
tab cme on oy pean gow Liew) oOD YP yy
ED EP ~0 fay yorger yrory ZY wml ry rere Llongry
wee ey Moen poy os t vendo ‘shay nye yoo ‘prety
WF Freq ye my Chewy ye a fs je op ve Oy yoryn
Brig Pay See ae erg eye) Seve < wryreeep wWeIE co
pred S07 e7* Ye yom ery wy 20g sp Gmevb py les ah
Te mee Seg oh pred verry ny 9 Ute ewe pple Seno Lae
wered & vapors wo ory og Fly Ore ony OM IE ww coy

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 47

Weldon on our homeward way. “ Having no anatomical training I think they are
those of ”’ “A young woman, who has not been buried so very long,” he
interrupted, with a responsive twinkle in his eye. “Let us have a smoke and

consider the scientific education of the English medical profession.” His sense of
humour was always keen, whether with word or pencil, and it remained with him
to the end. The joy of life which in the early days led him to dance and sing on
the completion of a heavy bit of work, made him in later manhood ripple over with
quiet humour in talk and letter when problems were going well.

Thus to Francis Galton:

“‘T enclose the best I can do with one of the negatives you were kind enough to let me make.
Please forgive me for caricaturing you in this way.—You know enough about the lower forms of
man to know that respect and affection show themselves in strange ways :—look upon this as
one of them and pardon it.” (Oxford, 27/7/05. ]

Nor did he spare a quiet joke at a friend:

“Your work on dams has filled the Italian papers with horror. They say you threaten the
safety of all existing dams, however long they have stood.” [Ferrara, 7/4/05. ]

In November, 1905, Weldon was unfortunately taken off from the work on his
inheritance book by the presentation to the Royal Society of a paper by Captain
C. C. Hurst: On the Inheritance of Coat-Colour in Horses. He had had no proper
summer holiday, but he threw himself nine hours a day into the study of The
General Studbook*.

“T can do nothing else until I have found out what it means....The question between Mendel

and Galton’s theory of Reversion ought to be answered out of these. Thank God, I have not
finished that book. There must be a chapter on Race Horses!”

Weldon felt himself in a difficult position; as Chairman of the Zoological
Committee, he had at once directed the printing of Hurst’s paper. But the subject
being one in which he personally was keenly interested, he had immediately attacked
the original material and to his surprise came to views definitely opposite to those
of Hurst. He felt bound to report this result at once to the Society, and he did
so on December 7, when the original paper was read. His results were provisional,
as could only be the case considering the short period of preparation that had been
possible. He promised to communicate a note to the Society involving more
details of his inquiry. This was done on January 18, 1906 in a “Note on the
Offspring of Thoroughbred Chestnut Mares” (39).

* T cannot resist citing a last illustration of Weldon’s humour: ‘‘What volumes of Weatherby have
you? Ihave found in Bodley 17—20. To show you what Bodley is, I looked in the catalogue vainly
under: Weatherby (found here and not under Racing, Racing Calendar), Jockey Club (found here
pamphlets about the J. C. but not its own publications), Horses, Race Horses, Racing, Studbooks (found
here only Clydesdale Studbook, Pigeon Studbooks, and Dog Studbooks), Turf, Sport, Race, all suggested
by assistants in the Library. For a whole day I raged, and came back despairing. Next day I raged
worse, and captured a man who knew something. He smiled and said: ‘Oh, Yes, The General
Studbook is entered under General of course.’ I said, ‘Why not under The?’ and he thought that
unseemly! ”

48 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

“The object of the present note is partly to fulfil my promise and partly to call attention
to certain facts which must be considered in the attempt to apply any Mendelian formula
whatever to the inheritance of coat-colour in race-horses.”

It is impossible at present to say more on this point, for the whole subject
is likely to be matter for further controversy. Even one authenticated case of a
non-chestnut offspring to chestnut parents is sufficient to upset the theory of the
‘pure gamete,’ but if studbooks are to be taken as providing the data, the whole
question must turn on whether one in sixty of the entries of the offspring of
chestnut parents can be reasonably considered as a misprint or an error in
record.

Here it can only be said that Weldon took up the subject with his usual vigour
and thoroughness. But he was overworked and overwrought and a holiday was
absolutely needful. He went to Rome, but the volumes of the Studbook went
with him:

“Will you think me a brute, if I take the Studbook to Rome? I really want a holiday, but
I cannot leave this thing unsettled.”

And then from Rome:

“T think it will be worth while to deal for once with a whole population, not with a small
random sample. Only I could find it in my heart to wish one need not do it in Rome! To sit
here eight hours a day or so, doing mere clerk’s work, seems rather waste of life ?”

And again:

“T have really been working too hard to write, or to do anything else. I have seen nothing of
Rome....I want to know what these horses will lead to, but it would not interest me at all
to know that my paper on them would or would not be printed. More important is the enor-
mous time these horses will take. It seems clear that one ought to carry these arrays back to
another generation of ancestors—and that means a very long job. I wish I had a pupil!
A mere clerk would be no good, but a pupil, such as one had in good old Gower Street, would
help with the drudgery, and then he might stick his name all over the paper, if he liked.”

[February, 1906.]

The letters are filled with Studbook detail till Easter, there is hardly a
reference to anything else. Re-reading them now one sees how this drudgery
with no proper holiday told on Weldon. Hundreds of pedigrees were formed and
a vast amount of material reduced. At Easter the Weldons went to the little inn
at Woolstone, at the foot of the White Horse Hill, and his co-editor came down
later to Longcot, a mile away, for the joint vacation. Weldon was still hard
at work on the Studbooks, but he was intellectually as keenly active as of old;
he was planning the lines of his big memoir on coat-colour in horses (40) and
showing how they illustrated the points he had already found in the mice. He
was photographing the White Horse, and rubbing mediaeval idlers’ scrawlings
on the church pillars. He projected the despoiling of a barrow, and planned
future work and rides.

On Sunday, April 8, he rode into Oxford to develop photographs, and the
present writer rode some miles of the way with him; the joint ride terminated

with the smoke by the roadside and Weldon’s propounding the problem which

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 49

was to be brought solved for him on Tuesday. On Tuesday I found him in bed, with
what appeared to be an attack of influenza. He had expressed himself tired after
his ride on Sunday, an almost unique admission. But on Monday he went a long
walk over the Downs, getting home late. He came down to breakfast on Tuesday
but had to return to bed. In the afternoon when I came he insisted on smoking
and wanted the solution of the problem, saying he was better. I begged him, as
one still closer did, to stay in bed on the morrow and give up a projected journey
to Town. But there was a dentist to be seen, preparations for a visit to the
M.B.A. Laboratory at Lowestoft to be made, and a wonderful picture-gallery to be
visited to free him from the atmosphere of the Studbooks. His will was indomi-
table; he went up to Town and went to the pictures on Wednesday, he went to
the dentist on Thursday, but from the dentist’s chair he had to be taken to
a doctor’s, and thence to a nursing home. The summoning telegram reached his
wife on the same afternoon, and he died of pneumonia on Good Friday, April 13.
So passed away, shall I say not unfitly—for it was without any long disabling
illness and in full intellectual vigour—a man of unusual personality, one of the
most inspiring and loveable of teachers, the least self-regarding and the most
helpful of friends, and the most generous of opponents.

As for his life, I think it was to him what he would have wished it. There
were moments of discouragement and depression, he felt occasionally a want of
sympathy for his life-work in some of his former colleagues, and while he was born
to be the centre of an enthusiastic school, he found at times somewhat scanty
material for its maintenance in pleasure-loving Oxford. But every stone he lifted
from the way became gold in his hands; each problem he touched became a joy
which absorbed his whole being. The artist in his nature was so intense that he
found keen pleasure in most men and in all things. Only meanness or superficiality
fired him, and then, considering how the world is built, sometimes to almost an
excess of wrath. But he had no personal hate; he could make the graceful
amend, and had he ever a foe, that foe, I veritably believe, could have won
Weldon’s heart in the smoking of a cigarette.

If we pass from himself to those whose fortune brought them in close contact
with him—to his friends and pupils—their loss can only be outlined, it is too
intimate and personal for full expression. There was a transition from respect to
reverence, a growth from affection to love ; to such a tenderness as some bear for a
more delicate spiritual nature, to even such feeling as the Sikh is reputed to
hold for the white man’s child in his charge.

And lastly as to science, what will his place be? The time to judge is not
yet. Much of his work has still to be published, and this is not the occasion to
indicate what biometry has already achieved. The movement he aided in starting
is but in its infancy. It has to fight not for this theory or that, but for a new method
and a greater standard of logical exactness in the science of life. To those who
condemn it out of hand, or emphasise its slightest slp, we can boldly reply,
You simply cannot judge, for you have not the requisite knowledge. To the

Biometrika v 7

50 Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

biometrician, Weldon will remain as the first biologist who, able to make his name
by following the old tracks, chose to strike out a new path—and one which carried
him far away from his earlier colleagues. It is scarcely to be wondered at if those
he joined should wish to see some monument to his memory; for he fell, the
volume of life exhausted, fighting for the new learning.

Is what he gave science small? That depends on how it is measured. He
was by nature a poet, and these give the best to science, for they give ideas.
They follow no men, but give that which another generation may study from and
be inspired by. He was the enthusiast, but the enthusiasm was that of the study,
trained to its task; and when the time comes that we shall know, or that those
who come after us shall know, whether Darwinism is the basal rule of life or merely
a golden dream which has led us onwards to greater intellectual insight, then the
knowledge, so biometricians have held and still hold, will be won by those actuarial
methods which he first applied to the selection of living forms. If there be aught
else to be said, let another say it.

Step to a tune, square chests, erect each head,
’Ware the beholders !

This is our master, famous, calm and dead,
Borne on our shoulders,

Description of Plates.

PlateI. W. F. R. Weldon.
Plate II. Raphael Weldon, aged 10.

Plate III. (a) Rapid pencil caricature by W.F.R. W. ‘‘ Apparition: Le Café Orleans.”

(b) Sample of Illustration to letters. Description of bands of H. hortensis in letter to a
lady collector. ‘‘Has it occurred to you that a lady of artistic ability, and so enlightened that she likes
snails, would have great joy and do great service by drawing them? There is a good inexorable severity
about their lines which one would enjoy, I should think, if it were not so unattainable (to me!) on
paper. And it would be nearly as good fun as real engraving to get all their lights and shadows put in
with curved lines which also indicate the growth lines on the shell? Think how Bewick liked it.”

Plate IV. A “‘crabbery”’ at Plymouth.

Plate V. Contribution to a manuscript magazine run by a youthful friend.

(1)
(2)

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Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906. 51

LIST OF MEMOIRS, eEtc., BY W. F. R. WELDON.

Note on the early Development of Lacerta muralis. Q. Jour. Mic. Sct. Vol. Xxitt,
pp. 1384—144, 1883.

On the Head-Kidney of Bdellostoma, with a suggestion as to the Origin of the Suprarenal
Bodies. Q. Jour. Mic. Sci. Vol. xxiv, pp. 171—182, 1884.

On the Suprarenal Bodies of Vertebrates. @Q. Jour. Mic. Sci. Vol. xxv, pp. 187—150, 1885.

On some points in the Anatomy of Phoenicopterus and its Allies. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
1883, pp. 688-- 652, 1883.

Note on the Placentation of Tetraceros quadricornis. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1884,
pp. 2—6, 1884.

Notes on Callithrix gigot. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1884, pp. 6—9, 1884.

On Dinophilus gigas. Q. Jour. Mic. Sci. Vol. xxvu1, pp. 109—121, 1886.

Haplodiscus piger; a new Pelagic organism from the Bahamas. Q. Jour. Mic. Set.
Vol. xxrx, pp. 1—8, 1888.

Preliminary Note on a Balanoglossus Larva from the Bahamas. &. 8. Proc. Vol. xu,
pp. 146—150, 1887.

The Coelom and Nephridia of Palaemon serratus. Journal Marine Biol. Assoc. Vol. 1,
pp. 162—168, 1889.

(10) bis Note on the Function of the Spines of the Crustacean Zooea. Journal Marine Biol.

(11)
(12)
(13)

(14)
(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)
(19)

(20)

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(22)

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(25)

Assoc. Vol. 1, pp. 169—170, 1889.

The Renal Organs of certain Decapod Crustacea. @. Jour. Mic. Sct. Vol. Xxxtt,
pp. 279—291, 1891.

The Formation of the Germ Layers in Crangon vulgaris. Q. Jour. Mic. Sci. Vol. Xxxitt,
pp. 343—363, 1892.

The Variations occurring in certain Decapod Crustacea. I. Crangon vulgaris. R. S. Proc.
Vol. XLVII, pp. 445—453, 1890.

Certain correlated Variations in Crangon vulgaris. R. S. Proc. Vol. ul, pp. 2—21, 1892.

On certain correlated Variations in Carcinus moenas. R. S. Proc. Vol. Liv, pp. 318—329,
1893.

[On Variation in the Herring. Unpublished measurements and reductions presented to
the Evolution Committee. ]

Attempt to measure the Death-rate due to the Selective Destruction of Carcinus moenas
with respect to a Particular Dimension. Report of the Committee...for conducting
Statistical Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals.
hk. S. Proc. Vol. tv, pp. 360—379, 1895.

Remarks on Variation in Animals and Plants. &. S. Proc. Vol. Lv, pp. 879—382, 1895.

[Report to the Evolution Committee on the Growth of Carcinus moenas at successive
moults. 1897. Unpublished. ]

Presidential Address to the Zoological Section of the British Association. B. A. Trans-
actions, Bristol, 1898, pp. 887—-902.

[Researches on Pedigree Moths, 1899-1901. Unpublished. ]

Cooperative Investigations on Plants. I. On Inheritance in the Shirley Poppy.
Biometrika, Vol. 11, pp. 56—100, 1902. [A joint paper with others. ]

A First Study of Natural Selection in Clausilia laminata (Montagu). Biometrika, Vol. 1,
pp. 109—124, 1901.

Note on a Race of Clausilia itala (von Martens). Biometrika, Vol. 111, pp. 299—307, 1903.

The Scope of Biometrika, Editorial. Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 1, 2, 1901.

1—2

Walter Frank Raphael Weldon. 1860—1906.

[Critical Bibliography of Memoirs on Inheritance. Unpublished.]

Change in Organic Correlation of Micaria ranunculoides during the Flowering Season.
Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 125—8, 1901.

Mendel’s Laws of Alternative Inheritance in Peas. Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 228—254, 1902.

On the Ambiguity of Mendel’s Categories. Biometrika, Vol. u, pp. 44—55, 1902.

Mr Bateson’s Revisions of Mendel’s Theory of Heredity. Biometrika, Vol. 11, pp. 286—298,
1903.

(30) bts ~Mendelism and Mice. Wature, Vol. txvu, pp. 512, 610, Vol. Lxvitt, p. 34, 1903.

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Albinism in Sicily and Mendel’s Laws. Biometrika, Vol. 111, pp. 107—109, 1904.

Professor de Vries on the Origin of Species. Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 365—374, 1902.

[On the Results of Crossing Japanese Waltzing with Albino Mice. Unpublished.]

On Assortative Mating in Man. Biometrika, Vol. u, pp. 481—498. A joint memoir, 1903.

[Measurements and observations on Lesser Celandine. Unpublished.]

Inheritance in Phaseolus vulgaris. Biometrika, Vol. u, pp. 499—503. Joint review, 1903.

[A Determinantal Theory of Inheritance. Unpublished.]

Inheritance in Animals and Plants. Lectures on the Method of Science. Edited by
T. B. Strong, Oxford, 1906.

Note on the Offspring of Thoroughbred Chestnut Mares. &. S. Proc. Vol. '77B, pp. 394-398,
1906.

[Material for an extensive memoir on the Inheritance of Coat-colour in Thoroughbred
Horses. Unpublished. ]

Article on Crustacea for the Cambridge Natural History—fragmentary, except for a
chapter on the Phyllopods already set up.

[A Treatise on Inheritance, largely completed. ]

A portion of an account of the Heliozoa for the Oxford Natural History.

Account of Kélliker’s scientific work. ature, Vol. tv11, pp. 1—4, 1898.

(44) b’s Dreyer’s Peneroplis, eine Studie zur biologischen Morphologie und zur Speciesfrage.

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(A review.) ature, Vol. LIx, pp. 364—5, 1899.

Account of Huxley’s scientific work for the Supplement to the Dictionary of National
Biography, 1900.

Article on Variation in the “ Times” Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

VARIATION IN CHILOMONAS UNDER FAVOURABLE
AND UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS.

By RAYMOND PEARL.

For some time past it has seemed to the writer that much of value for the
elucidation of the problems of morphogenesis might be gained by quantitative
investigations which should give more precise information than we now have of the
effects of different environmental conditions on the formative activities of proto-
plasm. It is, of course, well known that in general the form of an organism
is directly influenced by the environment in which it lives. Further the brilliant
investigations of such experimental morphologists as Driesch, Herbst, and Morgan,
for example, have shown for individual organisms the particular qualitative change
which follows a given definite change in the environment. Such investigations can
only be regarded as of the highest value and importance, and the field they open
up is likely to be one of the most fruitful in biology. Furthermore it seems to me
to be a field in which much of fundamental significance may be brought out by the
application of the methods of biometry. It is not the place here to enter upon a
general discussion of the grounds for this opinion. The time for such a discussion
is after a respectable body of objective results have been gleaned by biometric
investigations in the field of experimental morphology. It will not, however, be
out of place to outline very briefly the nature of some of the problems of morpho-
genesis which seem especially to need biometric treatment, as in this way the
standpoint from which the writer’s work in biometry is being done may most
easily be made clear. One such problem is this: to what extent and in what
manner is the relative constancy of form production capable of modification ?
Thus, to take a concrete instance, are “lithium” sea-urchin larvae reared under
uniform conditions relatively more or less constant (or, if one pleases, less or more
variable) in form than are normal larvae reared under uniform conditions? Driesch
has strongly emphasized that one of the most fundamental problems which biology
presents is that, to use his own term, of the “ Lokalization morphogenetischer
Vorginge.” His own work has served the admirable purpose of very sharply and
clearly defining the nature of this problem. For its solution, however, he has
turned to a teleological principle the “entelechy” of the system. But before
taking such a radical step it seems not undesirable to investigate more thoroughly
than has been done the nature and laws of this “ Lokalization.” After all, how
precise is it? Driesch has frequently cited as one of the most striking of the
phenomena which led him to adopt a vitalistic hypothesis, the proportionate
division by constriction of the intestine of a sea-urchin larva into three parts.

54 Variation in Chilomonas

Whether the larva develops from a normal egg, a half-blastomere, or a quarter-
blastomere, the proportionality of the three regions of the intestine so marked off is
said to be constant. But how constant is it? Is there really as great precision in
the relative localisation of the constrictions in the embryo from a half-blastomere
as there is in the embryo from the normal egg? For Driesch’s point of view
an affirmative answer to this question seems to me to be vitally important.
But clearly it is a question which cannot be answered by general inspection of
individuals, nor by the measurement of a comparatively few isolated cases. Its
answer must depend on the accurate determination of the probable errors of what
must in the nature of the case be absolutely very small differences*. To answer
satisfactorily such a question we must, it seems to me, turn to the biometric
method of attack. It is, then, in connection with such problems of morphogenesis
as these outlined that I believe much is to be gained by the application of the
methods of biometry.

From this general orientation we may turn to the specific problem in connection
with which the present work was done. During the past three years I have been
engaged on an investigation (in connection with some of the students in biology
at the University of Michigan) of the effect of environmental conditions on the
form of the body in the Protozoa, An experimental study of certain phases of the
problem has been made on Paramecium, of which a preliminary report has been
published (Pearl and Dunbar, 1905). The results of that work made it seem
desirable to get similar data for some other protozoan, where the environmental
differences should be such as appear in the course of the normal life of the organism,
rather than those experimentally induced. It was desirable to compare the vari-
ability and correlation shown by a population living under the most favourable
natural conditions with the same characteristics of a population living under
extremely unfavourable natural conditions. To present the results of such a
comparison for the flagellate infusorian Chilomonas is the purpose of this paper.
It has seemed best to publish these results in advance of the complete paper on
Paramecium, as it is likely to be some time before that appears and the present
results lend themselves readily to separate treatment.

The particular protozoan chosen for the work, Chilomonas paramecium, seems
especially well adapted for biometrical studies. It has a definite and constant
form; its protoplasm is relatively dense, and hence little affected by osmotic
changes in the surrounding medium, a point of practical importance in quantitative
work on Protozoa; and it can be had everywhere in abundance. It may perhaps
be well to recall very briefly some of the facts regarding the biology of the form.
Chilomonas is a very minute infusorian, which commonly appears in great numbers
in cultures containing decaying plant material. The body forms an elongated ovoid
with an asymmetrically situated depression or notch near the anterior end. From

* Of course in the particular case cited of the proportional division of the intestine the practical
difficulties in the way of measuring may be insuperable, but this in no way affects the point of

principle that in this and similar cases quantitative treatment of the problems of morphogenesis is
necessary if real advance is to be made.

Raymond PEARL 55

the base of this notch spring two flagella (cf. Fig. 1, p. 56). Its nutrition is sapro-
phytic and the usual method of reproduction is by longitudinal fission, An
excellent account (with figures) of this organism has been given by Biitschli (1878).

Material and Methods.

The material on which this study is based was taken from two cultures set in
the ordinary way for rearing Protozoa with pond-water and decaying plant material.
One of the cultures was made with dry hay and pond-water (Culture B), and the
other (Culture A) with dead and decaying water-plants from the same source as
the water itself. The source of the water in both cultures was the same. Both of
these cultures ran the ordinary course, rising to a maximum of animal and plant
life and then gradually falling off. Both passed through a stage in which Chilomonas
was especially abundant. The associated organisms were in general the same in
both cultures, the most abundant forms, in point of numbers, being Paramecium
caudatum and a large Spirillwm. In the hay culture Chilomonas was extremely
abundant and very evidently in a flourishing condition when the samples were
taken for measurement. Judged by the standards of (a) abundance, (0) size of
individuals, (c) appearance of the protoplasm, and (d) activity, it could only be
concluded that the environmental conditions in Culture B at the time the samples
were taken were at an optimum for Chilomonas. The series taken from this
culture, which will be designated throughout the paper as Series B, may, then, be
considered to represent the prevailing condition (for this particular race, of course)
of Chilomonas growing under favourable circumstances.

On the other hand, when the samples were taken for measurement from
Culture A the conditions were very different. This culture had at that time passed
the optimum for infusorian life, and all the organisms were rapidly disappearing.
All the Paramecia, which had previously been abundant in the culture, had dis-
appeared, and the numbers of individuals of Chilomonas and Spirillum were being
rapidly reduced. Some notion of the rapidity with which this reduction was going
on may be gathered from the fact that on the day following that on which the
samples were taken one could only with difficulty find specimens of Chilomonas,
while on the second day after the sampling careful search failed to obtain any
specimens. The culture had apparently completely “run out” as far as infusorian
forms were concerned. The series taken from this culture (Series A) may be con-
sidered to represent the character of the local race of Chilomonas when living
under the most wnfavourable environmental conditions which the individuals were
capable of withstanding in the active state. It will thus be seen that the
individuals of Series A were in a sense practically the ultimate “survivors” of the
progressively worsening conditions of the culture. But it must be understood that
this does not mean that they were survivors in any process of destruction of the
race. Chilomonas, in common with most other infusoria, encysts when the environ-
mental conditions become so unfavourable that it is unable to withstand them any
longer in the active condition. The cysts of Chilomonas have been figured by

56 Variation in Chilomonas

Biitschli (1883-87, Taf. XIV, Fig. 9c). When the infusorian life begins to disappear
from a culture it usually means that the organisms are encysting rather than dying.
That this is the case is clearly shown by the fact that by appropriately changing
the culture medium they may be induced to reappear again in the active condition.
This fact is, of course, well known to all who have worked to any extent with
Protozoa.

For the present purpose it is not of immediate consequence to know what the
optimum conditions for infusorian life are, or, on the other hand, in what manner
the cultural conditions become so unfavourable as to lead to the encystment of
these organisms. It is of course a well-known phenomenon that laboratory
cultures usually and normally pass through both these stages. The important
investigation of Peters (1904) in this field indicates clearly that the basis of. the
matter lies in the changing chemical constitution of the culture medium. From
the present standpoint it is sufficient to note that the “ favourable” conditions of
Culture B and the “ unfavourable” conditions of Culture A were in no way
artificially or experimentally induced, but appeared in a normal way in the
undisturbed cultures.

With reference to the technique used in the collecting and measuring the
following may be said. Samples were taken from each of the cultures with a clean
pipette quite at random. These samples were then killed with Worcester’s
formol-sublimate fluid (Pearl, 1903). This fluid has been used by the writer in a
number of biometric studies on Protozoa, and has proved very satisfactory for the
purpose. With Chilomonas it is possible to prove that killing with this fluid when
properly performed produces no measurable distortion of the organism. After
killing, the specimens were measured by the camera lucida method which has been
used by the writer and his students in other similar studies. (Cf. for description
of methods, Pearl and Dunbar, 1903, and Pearl, 1906.) The magnification used in
the present instance was such that 1 mm. on the cards on which the dimensions
were pricked with a needle point corresponded to 1:45 mikrons (= x 689°7 linear).
The measurements are given in mikrons.

The characters measured were length (C—D) and greatest breadth (A—B) of the
body as shown in Figure 1. An attempt was made to measure the flagella, which

A

B
Fic. 1. Outline of Chilomonas to show measurements taken.

appear with perfect distinctness in specimens killed with the formol-sublimate
fluid, but it was not feasible on account of the too frequent curvature of a flagellum
either up or down in the line of sight. In addition to the absolute length and

Raymonp PEARL 57

breadth dimensions, the variation in the length-breadth index has also been
studied.

Series A included 201 individuals and Series B 175 individuals. Larger
numbers would have been measured but for the fact that the work on Chilomonas
was interrupted by other work which had to be carried on while the material was
available. With the degree of variation exhibited by Chilomonas, however, these
numbers lead to reasonably small values for the probable errors of the constants
and hence we are able to reach definite conclusions.

In the calculation of the constants the ordinary biometrical methods were
followed. Sheppard’s corrections for the moments were used in all cases.

The work was done in the Zoologisches Institut at Leipzig, and it is a pleasure
to express my thanks to Professor Carl Chun and Professor Otto zur Strassen for
so kindly placing the facilities of that laboratory at my disposal. I am also
greatly indebted to the Carnegie Institution for a grant, during the tenure of
which this investigation was carried out.

Results.

The data for the length and breadth of the individuals measured are exhibited
in Tables I and II. Table I gives the data for Series A, that is, the individuals
living under unfavourable conditions, while Series B including the individuals living
under favourable conditions is given in Table II.

TABLE I.

Length and Breadth of 201 Individuals of Chilomonas paramecium. Series A.
Unfavourable conditions.

Breadth in mikrons.

Soe Sees fs Os | SP [i S3o)) Ss | oy)

© co co ice) i) on) on) S S mn an RN

| ~ =| ~ ™~ ~
Poel eee ea eeet Nt iNale telesales islet bopals

Wlolslol (s/s) »e | ols o/s is

a) Ny ~ | & | a o> i) =) | RX

| | = ~ ial al
wg | 14:0—14-9 = 1
S| 15-0—15°9 = =
= | 16-0—16:9 1 | | iT
ne Oe Oba te tL ee) eh) 4
S| is0—189]—|2|1| 4) 3] 2] 1 13
Oe ee ee cea ee ee 12
“= | 20-:0—20-9] 1-|-2 | 4 | 8] 8|10| 3] 2}—j|—/—|— 33
S| 27-0—21:9] —|— |} 1] 3] 8] 5] 5} 1/—]/—|]—|— 23
Bneoe aoe Ot = | a 6 | 8) Fey De a 26
Seo es 9 Wee a onl 2701 | O° 8 —| 29
Se e0= oo | | BL Bt 8 | 8 | 4] | 18
25:0—25°9 Tee |e c6s|| souls Seleeonl 2) oT 18
DG 2620 Mea a ee OL! BalpeASo spe 3. 15
SpA Rae ig te pee salen | ee me cseseag 1 Tea) I CVS 5
28-0—28°9 1 3
Totals 201

Biometrika v 8

Length in mikrons.

58

Variation in Chilomonas

TABLE II.

Length and Breadth of 175 Individuals of Chilomonas
Favourable conditions.

Breadth in mikrons.

paramecium.

Series B.

17°0—17°9
18°0—18°9
19:°0—19°9
20°0—20°9
21:0—21°9

ae
N
il
2
~
ms

Lp5—14-9

22-0—22°9
23-0 —23°9
2h-0—24°9

| — po bo bo | et
Sr hoeaoomien eine | |

29-0—29°9

bt
— | ww awa: | |

30°0—30'9

| NN oOoW | bw !

31°0—31°9

w

1

3

3 2
1 4
Pell sil
4 |.—1
1 1
2 2

82°0—82'9

Totals

i

28 | 17 | 15

We may first consider the variation in length and breadth for the two series

from the analytical standpoint.
constants of the distributions.

1 mikron for the lengths, and of °5 mikron for the breadths.

In Table III are given the chief analytical
The moment-coefficients are given in units of

TABLE III.
Analytical Constants for Variation in Chilomonas.
Series A. Series B.
Constant —
Length Breadth Length Breadth
Be 6°9137 4°4534 6°4739 5°5237
B3 — 0494 3113 2°9056 5°5862
B4 122°6396 62°1412 133°9061 118°4789
By “000007 ‘0011 ‘0311 *1852
By ‘0027 ‘0331 ‘1763 “4303
By 2°5657 3°1332 3°1950 3°8831
B,-3 — °4343 + °1332 +:°1950 +°8831
ky — ‘8685 *2632 *2966 1°2107
Ko — ‘000006 0022 + °0793 *1209
Skewness — ‘00198 +:0153 +0805 +1592
d — ‘0052 mikrons ‘0161 mikrons + 2048 mikrons +1870 mikrons

ee | Se ee ee

Raymonp PEARL 59

This table brings out a number of points of interest, but before considering it
in detail it is necessary to have before us the values of the probable errors of
certain of the constants, on the assumption that all the distributions obey the
normal or Gaussian law. The formulae for these probable errors have been given
by Pearson (1905 and elsewhere), and it is unnecessary to repeat them here. In
Table IV are given the values of the probable errors of the four constants which
are of the most importance in testing whether a distribution significantly differs
from the normal law, viz., /8,, 82, skewness, and the “ modal divergence,” d.

TABLE IV.
Probable Errors of Constants for Normal Distribution.
Constant Series A, N=201 Series B. N=175
Bi +1165 +1249
Bo +2331 + +2498
Skewness +°0583 + 0624
d Length +°1532 mikrons +'1589 mikrons
d Breadth +0615 +0734,

Examining the values given in Table II in connection with those for the
probable errors in Table IV we see at once a number of differences between
Series A and Series B. Considering first the question of the symmetry of the
distributions, it is evident, from the values of ./8, and of the skewness, that for
Series A the distributions of both length and breadth are symmetrical within the
limits of the errors of random sampling. In both distributions the skewness and
/B, differ from their theoretical value (if the distribution be truly symmetrical)
of zero, by only small fractions of their probable errors. With Series B the case
is different: here both the length and breadth distributions give values for /P,
and skewness which differ from zero by more than their probable errors. In the
case of the breadths this deviation rises to more than twice the value of the
probable error. It is probable that we have to do with real skewness here, and
not simply with an effect of random sampling. An examination of the “modal
divergence” leads to the same result: namely, in both the length and breadth
distribution of Series A the mode does not significantly differ from the mean,
while in Series B the value of d is for both distributions greater than its probable
error. For the breadths this divergence of d from zero is about 2°6 times its
probable error. The skewness is positive in both of the Series B distributions,
or the mean is greater than the mode.

Turning to the kurtosis (cf. Pearson, 1905, p. 173) measured by the quantity
n = B.—3, it is seen that for the lengths in Series A it has a value of —°4343,
with a probable error (if the distribution were truly mesokurtic) of +°2331. We
conclude then that the distribution is probably significantly leptokurtic (..e. is
less flat-topped than the normal curve), and that we shall get better results if we

8—2

60 Variation in Chilomonas

graduate with some curve, which, while still remaining symmetrical about the
mean, has a sharper peak than does the normal curve. The breadth distribution
for Series A is sensibly mesokurtic, with a value of 7 ='1332 and a probable error
of +°2331. The same is true for the length distribution of Series B, though in
this case the value of 7» is somewhat larger. The breadths in Series B give a
value for » of +°8834 with a probable error of +°'2498; the distribution is
significantly platykurtic.

Putting all the results together we conclude that the individuals of Series A
vary symmetrically about their type condition, while those of Series B exhibit
skew variation. For the character length this skewness is slight and taken by
itself could not be considered significant, but considering that the length and
breadth distributions of this series (B) exhibit deviations from normality in the
same direction with respect to all constants we may safely conclude, I think,
that we are dealing with a case of real skewness. This conclusion is of interest
when it is recalled that Series A represents the extreme of unfavourable
environmental conditions, and Series B the optimum environment. This point
will be more fully discussed farther on in the paper.

From the values of «, and «,, 8, and £,, it is clear that the length distribution
of Series A calls for a curve of Type IL; the breadth distribution of Series A for
a normal curve; while both length and breadth distributions of Series B demand
curves of Type IV.

The frequency distributions and their fitted curves are shown graphically in
Figures 2 and 3. The equations to the curves are:

Series A, Length.
Type IL. y=285889 (1

x 4°4084
~ Sears
Origin at mode = 22°555 mikrons.
Series A, Breadth.
Normal. y=87:9978 e—#1@
Origin at mode = 9°479 mikrons.
Series B, Length.
Type IV. y= 41007 (cos ¢) Pe cesta?
«= 159676 tan @
Origin at 19973 mikrons.
Series B, Breadth.
Type IV. y=14'5990 (cos 6)18370s #95046
t= (-1o02 ane
Origin at 9375 mikrons.

Considering the small number of observations these curves give very good
graduations. The skewness of the Series B distributions is very apparent in these

Raymonp PEARL 61

diagrams. They also show clearly to what a marked degree the type of the
individuals in favourable conditions differs from that of the individuals living
under unfavourable conditions. The exact amount of this difference is however
more directly brought out by a comparison of the chief physical constants of the
distributions, to which we may now turn.

In Table V are given the means, standard deviations, and coefficients of
variation, for the characters length, breadth, and index, in the two series. In
order to facilitate comparison I have also tabulated the absolute differences (with
their probable errors) between the corresponding constants of the two series. The
differences are given the plus sign when the Series B constant is the greater and
the minus sign in the opposite case.

TABLE V.

Comparison of Type and Variability of Chilomonas Living under Favourable and
Unfavourable Conditions.

Character Series Mean Standard Deviation Sr reiclen ues
Length B, Favourable conditions | 24°660+°130 mikrons | 2°544+ 092 mikrons | 10°318+ °376
45 A, Unfavourable ,, 22°555+°125 oy, 2°629+°088 _,, 11°658 + °397
A Difference +2°105+°180 __,, —'085+°128 _—,, —1°'340 +4 °547
Breadth | B, Favourable conditions| 10°813+:060 mikrons | 1°175+:°042 mikrons| 10°868 + °396
' A, Unfavourable _,, 9°479+°050 sg, 1:055+°035 __,, 117132 + 379
4 Difference 4+1:3344°078 41204 +055, — 264 +548
Index B, Favourable conditions | 44:060 + ‘203 °/, 3°972 + 143 °/,
0 A, Unfavourable _,, 42°137+4 7191 °/, 4-006 + °135 °/,
Mf Difference | +1°923 +4 :279 — 034+ °197

It is seen at once that the differences between the two series in respect
to type are large. The individuals living under favourable conditions are longer
and broader both absolutely and in proportion to their length than are those
living under unfavourable conditions. There can be no doubt that these
differences between the means are significant in comparison with their probable
errors. This result shows clearly that even in such a form as Chilomonas the
conditions of existence which are favourable to rapid multiplication are also
favourable to large size of body. Such a relation is, of course, to be expected in
an organism reproducing sexually, but it is not so obviously necessary @ priore
in an organism reproducing by fission. In fact, it might on general grounds
be maintained that when the conditions were such as to lead to very rapid
reproduction by fission, the average size of the individuals would diminish, on
account of fission taking place before the maximum growth possible had occurred.
The present data show that such is not the case, however.

‘(suOT}IpuoD sTqvINoAR) G saIIagG=O---—O *(SMOT}IPpuOD sTqVINoABjU_) YW selag=e
“SUOTPIPUOD [VIUSMUOIIAUA J[QBAINOABJUN PUB ITQBINOABT JapuN sYyuUowopYD JO YASUE, UL UONVIABA SUIMOYS WBIsVIG °Z “Ol
9-E€ 9-ZE gle $-0€ 9-62 S-8% SLB 99% 9.9% S-7% G-£% 9-22 SZ 3-0 o-61 3-81

oL

03

oe

sé

Ov

‘(SUOTJIPUOD aIqBINoAB]) { satIeg =O---o ‘(SMOTJIPMOD sTqBINOAVJU) YW soelIag = e e
‘SUOTHIPUOD [VITOMIUOIIAUD J[YVINOALJUN PUB J[GVINOALT JopUN spuOWoL2YH JO TIpPVeIq UI VOMVUVA SUIMOYS WRISVIG “E ‘DIT
7 Ges O-SI Spd O-rl gel O-€1 QSL O-al S-tl O-LL S-OL 0-0 S-6 0-6 3-8 0-8 S-L O-L 9-9

64 Variation in Chilomonas

In view of the striking difference in type between the two series it 1s some-
what surprising to find them so nearly alike in variability. For none of the
characters can the differences in the variation constants be said to be significant.
It is worth noticing, however, that, with a single exception (the absolute variation
in breadth) the differences between the variation constants, both absolute and
relative, are negative. That is to say, the individuals of Series A, living under
unfavourable conditions, are slightly more variable than those of Series B, living
under favourable conditions. The differences are so small in comparison with
their probable errors, however, that no particular stress is to be laid upon this
fact. The conclusion to which we must come from the present data is that there
is no marked difference in variability between individuals living under conditions
which in the one case were very favourable and in the other case very un-
favourable to the continued existence of the race in the active condition. What
slight preponderance exists is in favour of greater variation under unfavourable
conditions.

We may next examine the correlation between length and breadth of body for
the two series. The raw material is given in Tables I and II, whence, calculating

the coefficient of correlation by the usual formula r = Dy we get:
Noy,
Series A (Unfavourable conditions) r = 683 + °025
Series B (Favourable conditions) r= 617 + 032

Difference = ‘066 +041

These values of the coefficients are high, indicating a closer relationship
between length and breadth of body in this simple protozoan than would have
been predicted, I think. Just as in the case of the simple variation, however,
there is no certainly significant difference between the two series in respect to
degree of correlation. What difference there is is in favour of higher correlation
under unfavourable conditions, but no great stress is to be laid on the difference.

Since biometric investigations on Protozoa are as yet not especially numerous,
it seems desirable to examine the regression for these two characters, length and
breadth, to determine whether it is linear or not. The equations to the regression
coefficients are as follows :

Series A, Length on breadth.

2°6294

Series A, Breadth on length.

_ 10552

oe 2°6294

xX 6832 = +2742.

RAYMOND PEARL 65

Series B, Length on breadth.

2°5444
PU751

i x 6168 = 13355.

Series B, Breadth on length.
C75
From these values we easily obtain the following characteristic equations,
in which LZ signifies “length of body” in mikrons, and 6 “breadth of body” in
mikrons.
Probable Z=1:7024B+ 6-418

merges ene B= 2742L+ 3295

SnD Probable Z=1:3355 B+ 10219
Probable B= °2849 2+ 3°787

The means of the arrays and the fitted regression lines are shown in Figures
4 and 5.

20

Length in mikrons.
Nn
N

mean| Breadth

Breadth in mikrons.

Fic. 4. Regression lines for Series A (Unfavourable conditions). e =Regression of length
on breadth. o--—-—o = Regression of breadth on length.

It is evident that the regressions are very closely linear. This result is in
accord with what has been found for the other Protozoa for which this point has

been determined, namely Arcella (Pearl and Dunbar, 1903) and Paramecium (Pearl,
Biometrika v 9

66 Variation in Chilomeonas

24 %
— NS
mean Length a

WN
26 AS

Length in mikrons.

30 tt Ps -
S
a
+

=)

8-0 9-0 10-0 TO 12-0 13-0 14-0 15-0
Breadth in mikrons.

Fic. 5. Regression lines for Series B (Favourable conditions). e e=Regression of length
on breadth. o-—--o=Regression of breadth on length.

1906). It seems to me to be a result of considerable significance that in organisms
representing three of the important types of protozoan structure (namely the
Rhizopoda, Flagellata, and Ciliata) the regression between size characters is
substantially linear. Biometric work on a variety of multicellular organisms has
shown that in such forms linear regression between size characters in the fully
developed (i.e. adult) organism is practically the universal rule. To find the same
thing true of Protozoa seems to me to be definite quantitative evidence that the
factors concerned in regularity of form production, if not the same, at least operate
in fundamentally similar ways in unicellular and multicellular organisms.

We may next examine the index correlations. It is of considerable theoretical
interest to know what degree of correlation exists between the length-breadth
index and each of the characters entering into it. We shall then have a measure
of the extent to which size of body and shape of body are associated in their
variations. These correlations may be determined from formulae which are readily
deduced from the fundamental theorems regarding the variation and correlation
of indices given by Pearson (1897). The particular formulae used in the special
case with which we have to do here are given in another paper by the present
writer (1906), and need not be repeated. The values found for the index
correlations of Chilomonas are given in Table VI.

“H

RAYMOND PEARL 67

TABLE VI.

Index Correlations in Chilomonas.

Series Characters Gross (p) Spurious* (py) | Net* (p— py)
A (Poor conditions) | Index and Length — 446+ °038 | —°7234+:°023 | +°277+ 044
Good! 5° (we ay ty — 389+ -043 | —-6894-027 +-299+-046
A(Por , )| 4, 4, Breadth | +:407+-040 | +-723+-023 | — 3174-043
B(Good 4, ) fe Be ys +:426 + 042 | +-689+-027 | —-263+ -047

In this table the column headed “Gross” gives the observed correlations
between the designated characters; the column headed “Spurious” gives the
value which this correlation would take if the organic correlation between length
and breadth did not exist; and finally the column headed “ Net” gives the portion
of the “gross” coefficient which is due to the existence of an organic correlation
between the index and the particular character under consideration.

From the values in Table VI we see that:

(a) The net organic correlation between the length-breadth index and length
is positive, while the correlation between the index and breadth is negative.
Thus the net correlations are opposite in sign to what the gross correlations are.
The sign of the gross coefficients is in each case what we should expect it to be
for arithmetical reasons, because the length is the denominator and the breadth
the numerator of the index fraction.

(b) The net coefficients are of considerable magnitude, and represent clearly
a sensible real correlation between the index and the absolute dimensions. They
show that there is a definite correlation in this form between shape and size of
body. The theoretical bearing of this result will be discussed farther on in the
paper.

(c) The index correlations are of sensibly the same magnitude in both series,
as are the correlations for absolute size characters (cf. supra, p. 64).

(d) The index is correlated more closely with breadth than with length in
Series A, where the environment was unfavourable, while the opposite relation
prevails in Series B, with a favourable environment. The differences are small,
however, and no great stress is to be laid on them.

Without at this time entering upon any discussion of the matter, I should like
merely to call attention to the fact that the values for the variation and correlation
constants for Chilomonas agree very well with what we have found for similar
characters in other Protozoa. From Table V we see that the coefficients of

* The probable errors in the “spurious ” and ‘‘net” columns are calculated from the usual formula
ape
for the probable error of a correlation coefficient, P. E. r=°67449 oF . This assumes that the probable
error of these constants is the same as it would be if they had been determined from the product
moment. The error involved in this assumption is probably insignificant.

9—2

68 Variation in Chilomonas

variation for length and breadth in Chilomonas have values ranging roughly
between 10°5 and 11°5. There is no sensible difference in relative variability
between length and breadth of body. For Arcella we have for the diameter of
the shell a coefficient of variability of 10°27, and for the diameter of the “mouth”
opening a coefficient of 13°66 (cf. Pearl and Dunbar, loc. cit.). The mean value
of the coefficient of variation in length of body for a series of Paramecia reared
under various environmental conditions and including all told 4900 individuals
is 8°45 (cf. Pearl, loc. cit.). All these values cluster well together, and point to a
value of roughly 10 per cent. for the coefficient of variation in size characters of
this kind in Protozoa.

Discussion of Results.

It now remains to consider the meaning of the facts set forth in the preceding
sections. These facts may be summarily stated as follows: comparing two popu-
lations of the same local race of the flagellate Infusorian Chilomonas paramecium,
one of which populations was living under the most favourable of environmental
conditions and the other under the least favourable conditions, we find:

(1) That in respect to absolute length and breadth of body and in shape of
body as measured by the length-breadth index, the types of the two populations
are significantly different. Those living in the least favourable conditions are
smaller and relatively slenderer than the individuals in an optimum environment.

(2) In respect to the characters dealt with, both populations are equally
variable, and have their parts correlated to an equally high degree. There is a
slight tendency for the individuals living in the unfavourable environment to be
more variable and more highly correlated, but in view of the probable errors the
differences cannot be said to be certainly significant.

(3) The individuals living under unfavourable conditions vary symmetrically
about their typical condition, while the group from the optimum environment
exhibit an unsymmetrical or skew variation about the type.

(4) There is a sensible correlation between the absolute size of the body and
its shape as measured by the length-breadth index.

The first of these results is exactly what we should expect to find, on general
grounds. There can be little doubt that one of the chief factors which induce
saprophytes like Chilomonas to disappear from a culture is that the medium no
longer furnishes proper food (either in amount or kind, or both). The Series A
individuals are in all probability to be regarded as “starved.” We should in
consequence expect them to be smaller than the flourishing individuals of
Series B. Similar cases of diminution in size in organisms living in unfavourable
environments have recently been described by Dimon (1902) for Nassa, and by
Warren (1902) for Hyalopterus.

It is of more interest to find that in spite of the great change in the type
between the two populations there is no marked difference in the amount of

RAYMOND PEARL 69

variation. That is to say, relatively equal degrees of aberration from the typical
condition are, on the whole, produced with equal frequency in the two populations.
Thus there is apparently nothing like a selective process in the encystment of
this form. The last individuals to “survive” in the active condition are as
variable as the general population.

The third result appears to be worthy of notice. For both length and breadth
there is a positive skewness in the variation of the individuals in the optimum
environment. That is to say, the mean falls to the right of the mode, or the
curve tends to “tail out” more on the side of large individuals than in the
opposite direction. This indicates that the conditions which are favourable to the
production of large size of body in the population as a whole, are also more
favourable to the production of exceptionally large than of exceptionally small
individuals. In other words, the direction of the skewness is the same as the
direction in which the type is changing. May not this relation be generally true
when a change of type is brought about by direct environmental action rather
than by selection, the distribution finally becoming symmetrical when the possible
limit of direct modification of the type is reached? The results from both series
of Chilomonas are in accord with such a view, but of course are altogether
too meagre to base more than a suggestion upon. The question will be more
definitely tested on Paramecium material collected ad_ hoc.

The result that shape of body as measured by the length-breadth index is
sensibly correlated with absolute size seems to me to have such important
theoretical significance that it appears desirable to discuss the matter in some
detail. At the outstart I may say that the results from Chilomonas on this
point are by no means an isolated case. I have elsewhere shown (1906) on material
comprising a number of fairly long series that the same thing is true for
Paramecium, with, of course, differences of detail in the values of the constants.
The following table gives the values of the net organic correlations between
index and length and breadth of body in three lots of Paramecium, comprising
altogether 544 individuals. Other data are given in the paper referred to, but
these will be sufficient for comparison in the present instance.

TABLE VII.

Correlation of Index with Absolute Dimensions in Paramecium.

|
Series* Characters Net Correlation (p — py)
A Length and Index °4134 + :0386
< Breadth ,, is — 2246 + 0442
C Length ,, % 3692 + 0410
9 Breadth ,, 5 — 2497 + 0445
E Length _,, 5 3556 + 0513
. Breadth ,, 4 — 2964 + 0535
|

* The letters designating the series are those used in the original paper.

70 Variation in Chilomonas

Comparing these values with those for Chilomonas in Table VI above, we see
that the signs of the correlations are the same in the two cases: the index is
positively correlated with length and negatively with breadth. In Paramecium
the correlation is distinctly higher between length and index than between
breadth and index, a relation which apparently does not exist in Chalomonas.
These differences are, however, not of importance for our present purpose. The
essential fact is that in these two unicellular organisms there is a significant
correlation between shape of body and absolute size.

Now Driesch (1900, 1901 and elsewhere) has stated as one of the most funda-
mental laws of morphogenesis that the proportionality of the parts in a
differentiated system is absolutely independent of the size of the system.
Thus in the case which has already been mentioned (p. 53) he holds that the
proportions of the three regions into which the intestine of a sea-urchin larva is
divided are constant whatever the size of the larva.

The following quotations will make Driesch’s position clear. He says (1900,
p. 397): “Dieses Faktum lehrt uns zugleich die vollstdndige Proportionalitdt
der inneren Ausbildung bei Keimen aus isolirten Blastomeren im Vergleich zu
Normalkeimen kennen: erstere sind durchaus ein verkleinertes Abbild letzterer.
In meinen Betrachtungen iiber die Lokalisation morphogenetischer Vorginge
spielt die Wahrung der Proportionalitiét bei verkleinerten Gebilden bekanntlich
eine grosse Rolle.” Again in his Organischen Regulationen (1901, p. 176): “ Das
aber ergiebt als Schluss:
—— Al.

g

Fiir eine bestimmte Organbildung bleibt also in jedem Experimentalfall das Ver-
haltniss ihres Abstandes vom Ausgangsende der Messung zur Gesammtlange kon-
stant.” Regarding the “constant” A, Driesch says (loc. cit., p. 178): “In dem ‘A’
unserer Formel ist nimlich Dasjenige verkérpert, was seit Alters ‘ Substantialitdt
der Form’ genannt worden ist, was man aber auch, mit aristotelischem Ausdruck,
Entelechie nennen kénnte. Die Formsubstantialitat tritt nun in der Formel e=g.A
als in elementarer Weise massgebend fiir das Geschehen in jedem Falle auf.” And
again (loc. ctt., p. 179): “ Unsere Grosse A wird dem analog, was im Physikalischen
eine Konstante ist. Der Satz: ‘dieses hier vor uns liegende aquipotentielle System
(dieser Keim) hat die Entelechiekonstante A’ heisst: wie gross das System auch
sein mag, das Entwickelungsgeschehen an ihm muss in einer Weise vor sich
gehen, dass eine endliche Konfiguration bestimmter Art und Proportionalitaét an
ihm auftritt. Ebenso bleibt die Konstante eines homogenen Stiickes Metall fiir
elektrische Leitfahigkeit dieselbe, mag das Stiick gross oder klein sein.”

The point may be stated in its most general form in the following way: Let
AB, BC, and CD (Fig. 6) be any three dimensions of an organism. Then accord-

: re oe : F CD :
ing to the position maintained by Driesch the ratios ae a AD’ etc., are

* Where x and g correspond to AB and AD in Fig. 6, below.

Raymond PEARL 71

each a constant regardless of the absolute size of the individual dimensions
themselves. In other words, it is contended that these ratios are not sensibly

A B Cc D
(eee

Fic. 6.

correlated with the absolute size of the system. From this assumed independence
Driesch deduces rather far-reaching generalizations, as the quotations show.
But, as has been brought out above, when the matter is subjected to quan-
titative test it is found that, in the case of two protozoan forms at least, there

is a sensible and definite correlation between such a ratio a (Fig. 7) and the

A

B
Fig. 7.

absolute. size of the system. Now clearly the ratio ae is an index of the pro-

portionality of the two chief dimensions of the body, or, in a word, of the shape
of the body. It seems to me that the facts given demonstrate that in Paramecium
and Chilomonas size and form of body are correlated, and hence, in so far,
experience does not agree with Driesch’s generalization. It is probable that the
same thing will be found to be generally true. It has been demonstrated for the
principal indices of the human skull by Miss Fawcett (1902) and Macdonell (1904).
Unpublished material on other and widely different organisms gives the same
result. Ifit holds generally that the proportionality of the parts and the absolute
size of a differentiated system are sensibly correlated, it seems to me that the
analysis on which Driesch’s first “proof” of the “Autonomie der Lebensvorginge ”
is based will have to be considerably modified.

Summary.

A comparative study of variation and correlation in the flagellate Infusorian
Chilomonas paramecium when living on the one hand under the optimum
environmental conditions, and on the other hand under extremely unfavourable
conditions, has led to the following results.

1. The individuals in the unfavourable environment are markedly smaller
than those in an optimum environment.

2. The individuals under the two sets of conditions are significantly different
in shape, those living under poor conditions being relatively narrower.

3. There is no marked difference in variability or correlation between the two
groups, though there is a slight preponderance for both variability and correlation
in the group living in the unfavourable environment.

2 Variation in Chilomonas

4. The distribution of variation is skew in the case of the individuals from
the optimum cultural condition, and symmetrical in the case of the other group.

5. The skewness is positive, or in other words, the majority of the population
are larger than the modal individuals.

6. There is a considerable degree of correlation between length and breadth
of body in Chilomonas (coefficients >°6). The regressions between these
characters are linear.

7. The values for the coefficients of variation and correlation in Chilomonas
are of the same general order of magnitude as those which have been determined
for other Protozoa.

8. There is a distinct correlation between the shape of the body and its
absolute size in Chilomonas. The bearing of this result on Driesch’s first “ proof’
of the “ Autonomie der Lebensvorgiinge” is discussed.

LITERATURE CITED.

Birscuu, O., 1878. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Flagellaten und verw. Organismen. Zezésch.
f. wiss. Zool. Bd. xxx, pp. 205—281. Taf. x1—xv, 1878.

, 1883—1887. Protozoa. Bronns Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs.
Bd. 1, 1 Abth.

Dinon, A. C., 1902. Quantitative Study of the Effect of the Environment upon the Forms of
Nassa obsoleta and Nassa trivittata from Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Biometrika,
Vol. 1, pp. 24—43, 1902.

Drisscu, H., 1900. Die isolirten Blastomeren des Echinidenkeimes. Eine Nachpriifung und
Erweiterung friiherer Untersuchungen. Arch. f. Entwickelungsmech. Bd. x, pp. 361—410,
1900.

1901. Die Organischen Regulationen. Vorbereitungen zu einer Theorie des
Lebens. Leipzig (Engelmann), 1901, pp. xv and 228.

Fawcett, ©. D., 1902. A Second Study of the Variation and Correlation of the Human Skull,
with Special Reference to the Naqada Crania. Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 108—467, 1902.

Macpone.u, W. R., 1904. A Study of the Variation and Correlation of the Human Skull, with
Special Reference to English Crania. Biometrika, Vol. 111, pp. 191—244, Pl. 1—1, 1904.

PEARL, R., 1903. Worcester’s Formol-Sublimate Killing Fluid. Jour. of Applied Microscopy,
Vol. vi, p. 2451.
— ,1906. A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium. In press. (Abstract)
R. S. Proc. Vol. UXxvul, pp. 377—383.

and Dungar, F. J., 1908. Variation and Correlation in Arcella. Biometrika, Vol. 11,

pp. 821—337, 1903.

, 1905. Some Results of a Study of Variation in Paramecium.
Preliminary Communication. Seventh Report Mich. Acad. Sci. 1905.

Pearson, K., 1897. Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution. On a Form
of Spurious Correlation which may arise when Indices are used in the Measurement of
Organs. &. S. Proc. Vol. Lx, pp. 489—498, 1897.

, 1905. “Das Fehlergesetz und seine Verallgemeinerungen durch Fechner und
Pearson.” A Rejoinder. Biometrika, Vol. tv, pp. 169—219, 1905.
WarreEV, E., 1902. Variation and Inheritance in the Parthenogenetic Generations of the Aphis

“Hyalopterus trirhodus” (Walker). Biometrika, Vol. 1, pp. 129—154, 1902.

THE NON-INHERITANCE OF SEX IN MAN.

By FREDERICK ADAMS WOODS, M.D.

THE appearance of several recent articles summarizing our knowledge con-
cerning sex determination has suggested the possibility of an inheritable influence
in the distribution of the sex of offspring. According to this view there should be
some families in which males predominate, and some in which females appear in
exceptional numbers. Although not presenting satisfactory statistics this belief
was held by Lorenz (2) (p. 364), Lenhossék (1) (p. 56), and Orschansky (5) (pp. 18,
126), who considered sex subject to hereditary influences. Orschansky (p. 126)
states: “Als Hauptresultat unserer Beobachtungen iiber die Entstehung des
Geschlechts beim Kinde: ergiebt sich, dass die Entstehung des einen oder des
anderen Geschlechts in gewissen Grenzen eine erbliche morphologisch-physiologische
Funktion des gesamten Organismus, und hauptsachlich der Sexualorgane der
Eltern ist.”

If it is true that a purely inherited tendency is of any moment whatever in
governing sex distribution, then the parents of “ fraternities” in which there is a
marked departure from the normal proportions, should themselves belong to
“fraternities” which, on the average, show something of the same departure. That
this is not the case and that there is no correlation in sex-producing power between
mother and daughter, or father and son, I believe to be conclusively proved by the
following statistics.

I have used the records contained in Dr K. von Behr’s “Genealogie der in
Europa regierenden Fiirstenhaiuser. Zweite Auflage,” Leipzig, 1870. This large
and authoritative work contains excellent material for such a research. Within its
pages is to be found the full genealogical tree of every reigning house in Europe ;
and the birth and sex of every infant born is recorded with the utmost care. I
have collected a portion of my material from this book, and within certain rigid
limits, have included all the individuals mentioned. Taking one family after
another, I have started with the last generation, the first child of which was born
before the close of the eighteenth century. A count was made of the number of
males and of the number of females in this generation. I then looked up the
record of the mother of these children. She, almost invariably, being also of royal
blood, was to be found recorded somewhere in the book under the heading of the

Biometrika v 10

74 The Non-Inheritance of Sex in Man

house from which she came. The sexes of children which her mother gave birth
to were thus obtained, and were placed in the columns at the right of the columns
containing the figures for the younger generation. Next, the sexes of the children
in the father’s generation were recorded and can be seen in the left-hand columns
just below the children’s (see Table I). This record was repeated for every gene-
ration back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. All the families,
touched upon at all, have been studied completely, and are in general the same
houses the records of which I used in a study “Mental and Moral Heredity in
Royalty.” These families are to be classified among the more famous branches of
royalty, the genealogical and biographical records of which are seldom difficult to
obtain even on the female side. Several families in von Behr’s genealogy have
been entirely unutilized in this research. I have omitted them merely to save
time. They are such families as have made frequent alliances outside the strictly
royal houses, and consequently one could not find the maternal records in von Behr.
This omission should have no effect on the general averages.

In the illustrative table below we see the distribution of sex among the
children of different fraternities for several generations. Thus the figures within
the block for the Hapsburgs (page 208 of “ von Behr”) give us the history of the sex
distribution in that house during two centuries. In the upper left-hand corner we
see the figures 1 and 8. This means one male and three females were born in the
last generation which this family produced prior to 1800 4.D. These children were
Maria Theresa, her one brother and two sisters. Their mother was Elizabeth of
Brunswick who was found to have been one of four sisters. This fact is recorded
in the figures 0 and 4 just to the right of 1 and 3. Their father was Charles VI
of Austria, of a family of three boys and eight girls, which fact is recorded just
below the figures 1 and 3. The ancestry of Charles VI’s fraternity of 3 boys to 8
girls was next taken up and so on back to the parents of the fraternity reading
6 and 9, which was the most ancient studied. In the first three fraternities 1-8 ;
0-4; and 3-8, we see an apparent inherited tendency towards the birth of girls.
Our averages and correlation coefficient show, however, that this is but a meaning-
less accident.

In order to obtain material sufficient to give me a low probable error, I added
to the facts drawn from von Behr, some statistics taken from Burke’s “ Peerage and
Baronetage,” 1895. Here I have utilized the records of the two most recent
generations, taking first the numbers of males and females in the very latest
generations, and compared these fraternities with the fraternities of their fathers
and mothers. I have taken only those families in which the eldest child was born
prior to 1880. I have also left out of consideration those fraternities whose mothers
were not also born in the peerage, because it would be very laborious to look up
the ancestry of such mothers. It is really surprising how many peers of to-day
marry the daughters of commoners, making it often necessary to turn over many
pages of Burke to find a case where the maternal ancestry is recorded in this same
book of the élite.

smeeihicil

75

F. A. Woops

TABLE I.

”?

Sample Table from von Behr’s “ Genealogie.

ise)

feb epee

Seogh alomea | rool awl arat{[ wat] wena | oorra|l tors |

Bees

epee, - + -

Hew oS

pg aS

qu gs af[ton | mow] of ata | oom | arao | tonna| oaron |
ow

ga 2

889 SCNOOGOGH CAMS MH OMOMA GTONH HMMA WOM OAM aM

Bas

cies

aes

aad AAO A AHO ATA AMMA OMA Orwto mMAtTONONt HMATHOT
ow

ag % X X 19 Ne) D> I Sy ~

cog S SD X d 33 S S S

> A, al ~ = al al SX) XR RN

a ee

SCuOEE: aao| ma lato[ an|[ alt] antan]| wocolomont| aol Oc |

= 8°

Beek

‘gu gs

aags

Aes man] walraes|{ mal ola] ormen | orn l[onot|] ar| ono |
oe

ava

889 ACD ATAHOGH Hae OAM AARNE HO ATWSOOMOM ONM OOM
Bad

Bas

AE DIDOOD ADM NOAA MAN BAM BWMHAAANTN ANOMMMDWND Dot Oro
ow

aa % % R Pa 19 ~ 2 > ~
Sos SS ~ RS % % x S X
Pm Aa, S| ™~ ~ nn ny | ™ =I

Sl ee

2ga2 momdtA | tar rato | toOat| won] rowoolar| wma | |
poe

1s Ge =

gas

Baos MIM ACA | HHNGDSOOOG , MAH [ AH | DewMma |; am, aor] oo |

Asa iz

ag

oe MOAMMO CONDDOHMO WAH NNOH MHNBAHOH THADOANA

ao}

Baa

ta aq

Be

Bae VAUOAAH WOMQANONH WNHHMO OHO TANHHAYO organ

Ass

a8 & Ro) & S 19 29 Re)

Sy ey > = 5 ry iS S

em a ~ 4 “ ~ y

2

10

76

The Non-Inheritance of Sex in Man

TABLE II.

Sample Table from Burke’s “ Peerage.” Distribution of the sexes. (Youngest Generations.)

Burke’s Dictbation Distribution | Distribution || Burke’s Dishibaton Distribution | Distribution
Peerage Pace of sex among | of sex among || Peerage f of sex among | of sex among
1895 | Sie children | te mother’s | the father’s || 1895 | °,S°C tiara, | the mother’s | the father’s
page UE Ele fraternity fraternity page eer fraternity fraternity

3 ? ) 4 Ol Ue 3 ? 3 ? 3 e

1 6 2 2 1 6 7 304 1 0) 3 3 2 3

& 3 2 + 3 3 3 308 2 3 0) 1 4 7

Z 5 5 2 4 2 3 308 4 3 2 6 4 7
29 1 5 2 4 3 4 310 1 3 4 1 4 8
30 2 8 5 5 3 4 316 4 3 5 8 2 7
B58 4 6 7 U 1 2 323 3 1 0 1 2 3
51 5 a 4 G 2 1 O37 3 6 2 5 3 2
5s 1 3 2 2 2 3 BAS 4 3 1 6 5 6
if 4 3 a 8 1 0) S44 5 3 3 4 5 1
109 5 3 3 2 1 1 B44 3 5 2 5 3 0
114 5 1 a 3 1 6 BAT 6 3 4 5 1 1
119 5 9 5 6 3 2 356 6 1 2 4 1 6
14h 1 5 4 7 5 4 366 2 0) 10) 1 6 1
154 4 1 2 4 4 4 B84 3 5 4 3 3 2
170 4 2 6 5 3 4 402 4 0) 0) 1 2 4
180 0) 2 4 3 2 3 4038 4 5 7 6 2 1
180 6 2 3 2 2 5 411 8 2 4 4 2 1
181 2 O 2 4 1 0, ALL 6 1 6 3 1 1
182 1 2 4 3 6 4 416 0) 3 2 3 1 2
199 5 2 6 7 4 3 417 6 2 1 4 2 4
217 1 2 8 2 3 4 AB 2 0 4 2 1 7
222 3 4 2 5 5 3 440 4 2 2 4 5 0
232 1 3 2 3 4 6 AAT 2 3 4 1 8 2
237 1 0) 7 5 4 0 Ai 1 5 4 7 1 3
250 6 5 4 6 1 0 Ai 1 0 3 3 3 1 4
270 3 4 I 2 3 4 “sy 1 3 3 7 1 1
27 2 1 3 5 3 2 ASB 4 2 6 2 5 2
27 0) 1 3 2 2 1 513 1 3 0 3 1 0
282 1 3 3 =| 3 3 1 557 8 6 5 6 4 6

Following the tables recording these facts are the records of the distribution of
sex obtained by the same method, for the next to the latest generations, in the
male lines; and parallel to them the records of the distribution of sex in the
fraternities of their fathers and mothers.

I then sought to find a correlation in the distribution of sex in the fraternities
of all the children, and the distribution of sex in the fraternities to which their
parents belonged.

I have divided all the fraternities into two classes, first those with an excess of
males, and second those without an excess of males. By this means I could utilise

those cases which frequently occur, in which the proportion of males and females is
equal.

F. A. Woops rare

The four-fold correlation table shows us at once, that the inheritable influence
in the tendency to produce an excess of males must be very slight. Working
it out carefully we find the coefficient, 7, practically zero, and well within the
probable error.

Parental.

Fraternities showing | Fraternities showing
an excess of males | no excess of males

Totals

& Fraternities showing an excess of males 714
f | Fraternities showing no excess of males 751
SSS [_
Totals 580 ee ae 594 1465
h= 2392224, H=°3876579,
k='0316591, K=3987 424,

This gives the equation :

006628 =7 + 00378772 + '1569873-+... the root of which is 7=‘0066 + ‘0305.

I have also selected those cases in the foregoing tables in which an excess of
males happened on both sides of the house in the ancestral (parental) generations,
and have sought to find if here an excess of males might not be shown among their
children. Instead of an excess of males there were but 334 males against 351
females born in such families. Similarly the families with an excess of females in
both sides of the ancestry produced but 357 female children against 402 males.

Thus we may conclude that the determination of sex, in man at least, can be
shown to be unaffected by hereditary influence. This agrees with the statistical
conclusion of Simon Newcomb (4) obtained by a different method.

Nor does it seem probable that any Mendelian principles control the determin-
ation of sex in man, for then we should expect some correlation in the distribution
of the sexes in successive generations due to the union of dominants with each
other, and also due to the union of recessives with each other.

These statistical proofs which lead us to a definite conclusion of non-inheritance
have an important bearing upon several theories regarding the determination
of sex. If sex is largely determined by agencies acting upon the young and
supposedly indifferent embryo, even if these were largely external (nourishment,
temperature, etc.), the constitutional peculiarity of the mother would have, under
ordinary circumstances, a large share in forming these differences of environment.
As we know that constitutional peculiarities are to a measurable degree in-
herited and capable of giving us a correlation coefficient, and as we here find no
such coefficient, we see an argument in favour of the view that sex is not deter-
mined during gestation.

78 The Non-Inheritance of Sex in Man

There are moreover many other considerations which lead to the belief that sex
is not influenced after impregnation, but is already determined at that time or
before (conf. Lenhossék (1) and Morgan (3)). Many writers who favour this
theory nevertheless believe that parental.organisms have considerable influence on
the proportion of males to females, although this influence is exerted prior to
impregnation. This question is discussed in its many relations in Orschansky
(5). His statistics are, however, far from convincing. On page 122 we find the
following: “ Die Beobachtungen an kranken Familien ergeben die augenscheinlich
paradoxe Thatsache, dass ein Erzeuger mit der schwichsten Konstitution eine
gréssere Neigung als ein gesunder iussert, sein Geschlecht auf seine Kinder zu
iibertragen.”

If it be true that sex is dependent on any constitutional or nutritional influence
exerted during the formation or ripening of the ova or spermatozoa, then like other
constitutional differences it should be inherited. My own figures tend to show
that neither the soma of the father nor the soma of the mother have any influence,
at least in man, in the determination of sex, nor is the proportionate distribution
of sex in any degree subject to hereditary influence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. von Lenuossixk, M. Das Problem der geschlechtsbestimmenden Ursachen. pp. 99. Jena,

1903.
2. Lorenz, O. Lehrbuch der gesammten wissenschaftlichen Genealogie. pp. 489. Berlin,
1898. &

3. Morgan, T. H. Recent Theories in Regard to the Determination of Sex. Popular Science
Monthly, Vol. uxtv. No. 2, Dec. 1903, pp. 97—116.

4. Nerwcomp, Simon. A Statistical Inquiry into the Probability of Causes of the Production of
Sex in Human Offspring. pp. 34. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication
No. 11. Washington, U.S.A., June, 1904,

5. OrscHansky, O. Die Vererbung im gesunden und krankhaften Zustande und die Entstehung
des Geschlechts beim Menschen. pp. 347. Stuttgart, 1903.

ON THE INHERITANCE OF THE SEX-RATIO.

By DAVID HERON, M.A.

Ir has been suggested that the approach to equality in male and female births
is an illustration in some mysterious manner of Mendel’s theory of heredity.
Observers have actually counted the number of males and females born in divers
species with the conception that the approach to equality thus rendered manifest
illustrates in some way Mendelian principles. I am not prepared to say it does
not, because I have failed to grasp the manner in which those principles are
applied to this case. If the demonstration depends, however, on the equality
of the male and female births, their sensible inequality * in the case of man requires
some further explanation ; it is a case wherein environment or a priori, perhaps,
race causes permanent and fairly constant deviations from equality. The aim
of the present paper is to show that, as far as the writer can judge, there is no
inheritance, Mendelian or other, of the sex-ratio. So far it confirms the results of
Dr F. A. Woods stated in the previous paper, but the method of approaching the
problem differs from his. No assumption is made as to the existence of a Gaussian
distribution for the frequency, and the sex-ratio for the family of each individual is
directly calculated and tabled. The paper further deals with the case of horse as
well as man. There is no difficulty in extending the investigations to cattle and
dogs from the herd and studbook returns, but the negative results provided by
two such different species seem sufficient to demonstrate that the non-inheritance
of sex is fairly widespread.

The material is the following :

Gi) Data from a series of schedules on the size of families issued by Professor
K. Pearson. Unfortunately this material proved less ample for this special purpose
than we had anticipated. For although marriages must have existed at least
15 years in both generations for a schedule to be filled in, it happened in a
very large number of the cases that the families in both generations did not
provide the number (four) of children which seemed the least upon which a deter-
mination of sex-ratio could be made. Only 348 cases were taken from this
source.

* See C. J. and J. N. Lewis: Natality and Fecundity, 1906.

80 On the Inheritance of the Sex-ratio

(i) Data drawn from The Whitney Family of Connecticut and its Affiliations
(1649—1878), by S. Whitney Phoenix, 3 vols., Newport, 1878. This work con-
tains a very great deal of genealogical information with regard to American
families connected nearly or remotely with the Quaker Family of Whitney. In
this case no family in both generations of less than four members was used to
determine the sex-ratio. 2197 such families were extracted.

(111) Data drawn from The General Studbook, 20 vols., J. HE. and T. P. Wetherby.
In this case 1000 thoroughbred mares were taken at random and the sex-ratio of
their produce and that of their dam calculated. Both mother and daughter
must have had at least eight foals to be included in the list.

Some word must be said as to what has been understood by sex-ratio in the
course of the work. It has been taken to represent the fraction: number of male
offspring divided by total number of offspring. This point must not be forgotten
in the following investigation. Thus, in dealing with the father’s sibship, there
must always be one male, and, considering the average size of human families, it is
extremely unlikely that the sex-ratio as defined above should fall between ‘00—05,
it would in fact require at least 20 children. Again, in the mother’s sibship there
is always one female, and thus it is unlikely that the sex-ratio should fall between
‘95 and 1:00; this would again require at least 20 children. It will be seen that
in the sex-ratio of the offspring’s sibship we have a tendency for the frequency to
lump up in these terminal groups, although their range is only half that of the
other elementary frequency groups. This is almost entirely due to families in
which there are no males or no females. Undoubtedly certain individuals tend to
produce offspring all of one sex, either per se or because they are mated with a
special type of consort. The latter reason seems the more probable, because, in the
case of thoroughbred horses, where the matings change there appears to be no similar
tendency for produce all of one sex to occur. A special study of cases in man and
other animals in which for the same mating there is constancy of sex would be
very instructive. It is probably due, as the tendency shows no sign in our tables of
inheritance, to some physical characteristic of the individual which remains wholly
dormant until it is affected by a corresponding characteristic in the mate. In work-
ing the moments and products, the frequency has been centered at the middle of the
elementary range. This is probably not true in the case of the extreme elements
in the offsprings’ sibships in Tables I. and II., but the actual centering was found
to have little influence on the correlations, and made no modification in the funda-
mental significance of the results. Sheppard’s corrections were used.

In Tables I. and II. the sex-ratio of a family is correlated with that of the
father’s and mother’s sibships respectively. It may be said: Why not, when
dealing with the latter sibship, leave out father and mother successively in
calculating the sex-ratio? A somewhat similar method has been adopted by
Francis Galton for another purpose, and is justified in his case if we may assume
that the chance of male or female is practically one-half for each family. It does

D. Herron 81
TABLE I.
Correlation of Sibships of Father and Offspring. Whitney Data.
Sex-Ratio of Offspring’s Sibship.
WD vey | D ite} Len] WwW Ld iD i wD S
Spa) 2 | s | st | 8 | Sle | s 1a is
i Pale | | | fi Totals
ral S | WD | wD ID wD ID IS WD Ww iD vey
n S S TA X %D et >) S ro io.) ior)
Pato vo} —|—| — | — | — }-— |
“~ | 05— 15 a fh he oe 1 : 2
oq |°15— @]7—| 1] 4 0-5 5 bib) | = 7-D) loro) —| 2] 31
% | 25— 35] 1 1 6 6°5 16 12°5 55 | 6 75 | — 2 64
Fy | 35— 45 | 2 3 | 14 12 28 39 30 19 11 6 6 | 170
oe 45— 55 | — ine lit 23 31 50 34 27 24 4 3] 215
5 55— 65 | 6 4 | 23°5 | 33° 40 46 41 27 35 3 7] 266
ches! 65— “TS | 4 6 | 15:5] 18 31 40°5 | 31 29°25 | 22°25 | 3 74} 207°5
a 75— “85 | — 1 8 9°5 17 19°5 | 17 10°75 | 6°75 | — vi 96°5
1 85— 95 | 1 1 4°5 75 5 11 12 11°5 2°5 3 2 61
Bale o> 7-004) — |-— | O° | -4%5 a 8 6 65 | 45 | 2] 5] 44
NM —— |
| ] ] |
Totals 14} 19 | 93 115 181 232 185 140°5 | 115°5) 21) 41 fF 1157
TABLE IL.
Correlation of Sibships of Mother and Offspring. Whitney Data.
Sex-Ratio of Offspring’s Sibships.
| oa ns) 9 ro) 9 WD 19 WD 1D 19 i)
siaje | 8 |) 8s | s |e | s isis
| ™~
| ‘l a a . a ii | rl | t | | il Totals
3 S/Sj/r]_e]s }3)/ 8 7) 8 7 ee |e] ea
=
Q | -00— -05 | — 1°5 —
2 | -05— -15| 2 2 2
2 15— °25 | — 9 1 4°5
3 | 25— 35] 4 9°5 2 55
S ‘35— 45 | 10 18°5 6 5
Bas 55) 7 22-5 | 21+ 2 | 9
Oo | 55— 65] 5 15°5 : 1 10
2 | 65— “75 1 3°25 25 15 | 4:5
‘SB | WO a 2°25 25 0°5| O°
ce | 85— 95 | — 0-5 | 15 ey) wes
4 | 95—1-00
Dp
Totals 29 | 6 | 84:5 | 1045 | 149 212 173 | 118°5|108°5| 14 | 41 | 1040

not @ priort seem justified in the present investigation, for one of the points
involved is, admitting the average sex-ratio for the race to be not very far from ‘5,
does this ratio vary significantly from individual family to individual family, as we

should expect if it were inherited ?

Thus, if we leave mother or father out in

calculating the sex-ratio of their sibship, we may be diminishing or emphasising

Biometrika v

11

82 On the Inheritance of the Sex-ratio

the possibly slight tendency of that sibship to femininity or masculinity. The
exclusion of even one individual can produce very sensible effects in the case
of the small families which occur with human beings, although it is of less
significance in the case of horses or many other mammals. It will thus be seen
that the vertical and horizontal means and standard deviations of our Tables I.
and II. could not be expected to be in accordance. To test whether this peculiarity
has any influence on the result, Table III. was formed. This gives the correlation
between sibships in the filial generation and all parental sibships. It would seem
from this table that there really exists a marked difference between the distribu-
tion of the sex-ratio in the two generations, families which tend wholly or largely
to one sex being much under-represented in the mated population.

TABLE III.
General Correlation, Parental and Filial Sibships. Whitney Family.
Sex-Ratio of Filial Sibships.

9 | 9 | 38 9
; S| a] & $5
_- | | | | Totals
a s|s| 3 S
ro |
op) 00 05 eee 1:5 -f G 6
ll -00= 06 5 |.05 | 2 1 1 0:5 |) Ob9t lee 7
Sm 0h— 151 22 4 | 5 5 3 3 BU awe 31
a | -1s— 25]—]1 |13 | 135 | 14° | 235] .195| 12 | 15 [1 | 65) 119%
& | 2— 85] 5/2 | 15° | 18 33:5 | 48:5 | 265 | 24-5 | 225) 2 | 7-5] 205-5
cS | -35— -45]12/6 | 325 | 335 | 67 93 | 74 | 46 | 33) (12 ‘01 Neo
a 651 7/3 |39°5 | 44:5 | 54 Br) Wak 49 -| 47 | 6 lie indon
° 6511114 |39 | 51 69 82 | 73 | 50 | 56 |4 17 | 456
= 751 5 | 65| 18°75 | 27-25 | 47 55:5 | 43 | 40:5 | 26-5 | 4:51 11-5] 286
S 85 | — | 1°5| 10-25 | 13-75 | 23 965 | 22 | 13 | 11°5 | 05! 7-5] 130
pa 95} 1/1°-| 5 9 8 14 | 12 | 135] 95/3 | 2 71
i eS oO ee ee 8 6 65| 45/2 | 5 44
M —EE
Totals | 43 | 25 | 177-5 | 219-5! 330 | 444 | 358 | 259 | 224 | 35 | 82 [2197

In Table IV. another method of investigating the problem is considered, based
also on different data. A sort of mid-parent was used. A joint-parental sibship
was formed by combining mother’s and father’s sibships together and taking the
sex-ratio for the total array. The result is precisely the same as in the previous
cases.

In Table V. we have a wholly different method of approaching the problem.
Here the sex-ratio of the produce of a thoroughbred mare—often reaching 14 to
18 foals—has been determined and correlated with the produce of one of her
fillies selected at random. In this case the produce is usually due to a very
considerable number of sires, or forms a half-sibship, some individuals, however,
being possibly whole siblings. This method enables us to determine whether the
individual has any tendency to produce one or other sex which is inherited by

D. Herron 83

TABLE IV.
Correlation of Joint Parental with Filial Sibships. Schedules.

Sex-Ratio of Filial Sibship.

fe
oy

oe

a Totals
=}

op)

os

~ f=

|

= — — — —_— =

a Ae a0-5) | 05 1 2°5 2 15] 1 oasis 9
Ay es id ie 4 = 8°5 45} 25] 1 Tia 27°5
ce] 2/1] 25 | 65 ae (ala 135] 25] 35 |—| 2 56°5
B 1|/3 | 75 | 95 |; 96/18 17-5 \P16b e105 | et) des
ar 1/2| 45 | 65 15 | 22 16 18 5 2);—] 92
ro 2/1105 | 35 5 | 19 5 3 Bball Vd 34°5
° Seca POs il) ab 3 | 35 15] 2 Ope l= | of 16°5
3 ae . 0°5
a ne =
S Total

D otals 348

TABLE V.

Correlation of Sea-Ratios of Mother and Daughter Mares’ Produce.
Thoroughbred Horses.

Sex-Ratio of Mother’s Produce.

wD WwW iW WwW wW WwW WwW WwW WwW wD O

. S in| ISN] XD > wD os) SS a) > |S

S | TY | Totals
5 ea | | | ah ha al “ar
ce) Soe wD wD 1Q No) eo) LD gil 2. | 39

2 S S | R Sa) > Ke) S SS se) >
=
aw | 00— 05} — | — 0°5 15 1 1 = 4
Bel0s—— 16 | —|— | 0-5 | 1°5 3 6 2 Se | |e 1
| 15— 25} — | 1°5| 6 7 11 8 7 5 | 1] — 46°5
oe | *25— +35 | — | 1:5] 105 | 20°5 23 35 30 12 3/1 = 136°5
= Bb— 5 2 \9 9 25 58 60 41 13 5 |} — |] — 222
QA | 45-- 55 | — |6 19 27 61 72 47 20 5 }—}]— 257
rs 55-— 65 | — \4 12 25 51 52 38 ilgl 6 = 199

5 65-— 75 ¥— | 1 3 14 18 21 19°5 5 3 1 — 85°5
‘a | -75— 85 | — | 1 1 3 6 10 6°5 2 —|— 29°5 |
B | 85— 95 | — | — oo 1 2 2 — il — | | 6
Sos 7-00 a || — | — 1 1 |
a al
| Totals | 2 | 24 | 61-5 | 125-5] 235 | 267 | 191 | 69 | 23/ 2 | —] 1000 |

11—2

84 On the Inheritance of the Sex-ratio

her offspring, and is, perhaps, more satisfactory than the human determination.
Reducing this material, we obtained the following results:

TABLE VI.
Mean and Standard Deviation of Sex-Ratios.

Standard
Group Mean Deviation
1 Father’s Sibship, Man ... ay ise 589 + 004 ‘178 +002
2 | Mother’s Sibship, Man ... aes San ‘456 + 003 167 +002
Bi All Parental Sibships, Man... Sa 526+°003 | °185+:002
4 Filial Sibship, Table I., Man ... ane 522+:004 | -208+:003
5 Filial Sibship, Table II., Man... ae 520+°005 | +218+:003
G | Filial Sibships, Table III, Man a 521+°003 | +210+:002
Wf Filial Sibships, Table IV., Man SA 504+:°007 | +193+-005
8 Joint Parental Sibships, Table IV.; Man 521 +°005 130 + 003
9 Mare’s Produce, Mother. 463 +003 "148 + 002
10 Mare’s Pr oduce, D: vughter ras ia ‘478 + 0038 151 +002

Now, if we examine this table, we cannot in the case of thoroughbred horses
assert that any difference exists in the variability of the sex-ratio for the two
generations. But in the case of man there certainly is a significant difference
in the variability. While there is no significance in the difference of the varia-
bilities denoted by the row numbers 4, 5, and 6, and possibly not in 7, there
is a difference more than six times the probable error of the difference between
these variabilities and that of 3. There is, however, no difference in type between
3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and possibly, but not certainly, 7*. These figures demonstrate the
point referred to above, that in the free mating of man, families with a preponder-
ance of female or male elements are not drawn upon equally with families in
which the sexes are more equally balanced. In the controlled mating of horses
this result is not apparent.

We have already noted that in the sibships which are not selected so as to
have at least one male or one female, the type is fairly constant and gives a sex-
ratio of about °522, which corresponds to 109 male births as compared with 100
female births, a quite good result. We next ask how does this agree with the
values found for sibships which must have at least one male or female? Let be
the average number in a sibship, and s be the sex-ratio. Then if we choose
sibships in which there is at least one male, we might expect the sex-ratio to be

{1+(n—1) s}/n,
and that for sibships with at least one female to be
(1 — 1) s/n.
* The data for 7 include a Cornish fishing village where the sex-ratio is far more nearly one of

equality than elsewhere in this country; owing to the persistence of large families in this district, it
therefore figures disproportionately in the results,

D. Heron 85

Equating these respectively to ‘589 and “456, the sex-ratios for paternal and
maternal sibships, we find:
— i-O2.and S—= 926,

The latter value is precisely the value found for all sibships of the parental
generation. The former should represent the average number in a sibship of
the parental generation. It cannot be very far from its true value, because all
sibships without at least one male (or it may be one female) have been by the
nature of the case excluded, and further, no sibship has been used with fewer
than four members. It will thus be seen that our human data are in good
accordance with each other.

So far as we can judge, in the second generation of thoroughbred horses under
consideration there was a preponderance of mares born, the sex-ratio being ‘478,
and differing from °500 by at least seven times the probable error. In the first
generation, since there must be one filly in the produce at least, we have

(n — 1) s/n = 463,
and if n lie between 10 and 15 as it does, this gives s=°5 within the probable

error. In other words, the sex-ratio between the two generations appears to have
fallen from equality to about ‘48, a substantial alteration.

Turning now to the main portion of the present enquiry, we have :

TABLE VII.

Correlation between Sex-Ratios in Successive Generations.

Nature of Sibships Correlation
Sibships of Father and Offspring, Man ood a 053 + ‘020
Sibships of Mother and Offspring, Man ea aes 001 +021
Sibships of Parent and Offspring, Man.. as ae 021+ °014
Joint Parental Sibship and Offspring, Man... 043 + 036
Produce of Mother and Daughter, Thoroughbred Horse 034 + ‘021

It is true that all these correlations are positive, but not one of them is
definitely significant, having regard to its probable error. Thus on rather wider
data—in horse as well as in man—Dr Woods’ position is confirmed; there is
no inheritance, or at least no sensible inheritance, of sex. The persistent and
sensible differences from ‘5 which occur in various races for the sex-ratio are
therefore not racial in the sense that they are an inherited characteristic of
the race; they must be in some manner associated with environment, nutrition, or
habit. They appear to be a more universal, if less marked, result of such
causes as lead certain species which usually reproduce parthenogenitively to
occasionally reproduce sexually. It is conceivable that the sex-ratio of produce
may not exhaust all the characters associated with an individual which are not
subject to the general rule of inheritance.

A SECOND STUDY OF THE ENGLISH SKULL, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MOORFIELDS CRANIA.

By W. R. MACDONELL, LL.D.

(1) Introductory.

I Now publish the detailed measurements of the series of English (Moorfields)
skulls to which reference was made passim in my paper in Biometrika, Vol. UI.
pp. 191—244. The collection is in the possession of Professor G. D. Thane, of
University College, London, and I have again to thank him very cordially for
granting my fellow-workers and myself every facility for measuring and studying
the skulls. I have also to express my gratitude to him for the great aid he has
given in preparing the description of the anatomical peculiarities of the skulls
provided in the “Remarks” to my Tables of Measurements. The collection is
much smaller than the Whitechapel series, the subject of my former paper; it is
too small, for instance, to allow of a satisfactory determination of coefficients of
correlation, and I have therefore not worked them out except in two or three cases;
but in other respects this series is quite as interesting as the former one. The
preservation of the crania for scientific purposes was due in the first place to the
energy of Mr S. Jacob, at that time working in the Biometric Laboratory at
University College, London. Only an Indian appointment prevented him from
carrying out the biometric investigation of the material, which I then undertook,
starting de novo to avoid the influence of personal equation.

(2) Material and History of the Site.

Professor Karl Pearson and I examined the site together, and compared the old
maps, and he has kindly drawn up for me the following notes. We have to thank
Mr Welch, of the Guildhall Library, Mr Wood-Hill, Engineer of the North London
Railway, and the staff of the Map and Print Departments of the British Museum,
for assisting us in our inquiry.

The problems as to the date and mode of interment of the Moorfields remains
are, as in the case of the Whitechapel bones, rendered very complex by the fact

W. R. MAcpdoneLh 87

that no proper archaeological investigation was made at the time of their discovery.
The remains were found in excavating for a street latrine, since constructed, at the
West End of Liverpool Street, and were already collected into heaps before any
complete investigation could be made of them in situ*. The bones were found
uncoffined and apparently lying in great disorder. In the Report of the Medical
Office of Health (City of London, No. 61, 1908) it is suggested that the very large
number of skeletons which were found when the Broad Street Station of the
North London Railway was built may have been collected and reburied at the
place where the excavations for the underground latrine were made in 1903. This
solution of the problem does not seem to me probable, for the following reasons :
That even if Liverpool Street were broadened at the building of the station, the
bones were discovered in the middle, or south of the middle, of the existing street ;
it is extremely improbable that exhumed bones would have been reinterred under
an existing thoroughfare, or that the permission to place them under the newly
made part of such a thoroughfare would have been given. It is far more probable
that the roadway was carried, whenever it was broadened, across an existing
deposit of human remains. Now we know that Bethlem Burial Ground once
occupied the sites of Broad Street Station and of the station yard. It is so
marked on the large scale modern ordnance map of this part of the City. It would
therefore be reasonable to suppose that the original burial ground extended to the
centre of the present Liverpool Street, and that on widening that street a portion

of the old burial ground was covered by the roadway. Stow remarks, concerning
Bethlem Burial Ground* :

“Tn the yere 1569. Sir Thomas Roe Merchant Taylor Mayor, caused to bee inclosed with a
“ wall of bricke, about one acre of ground, being part of the said Hospitall of Bethelem, to wit, on
“the west, on the bancke of deepe ditch, so called, parting the said hospitall of Bethlem from the
“More field: this he did for burial, in ease of such parishes in London as wanted ground,
“convenient within their parishes. The Ladie his wife was there buried (by whose persuasion
“he inclosed it) but himself borne in London, was buried in the parish church of Hackney.”

Now it might be thought that the exact position and dimensions of a burial
ground of this importance could hardly fail to be known, but unfortunately no
plans or ‘title-deeds seem to exist in the City Archives, and we are thrown back
upon the evidence of the maps of the City and its environs at different dates.
Unfortunately, most of these maps are very diagrammatic in character, few are drawn
even approximately to scale}, and even such an important map as Ogilby’s of 1677
is quite unreliable for this district, as far as giving the accurate dimensions of
streets and intervening plots is concerned. The first map which seems at all
accurately drawn to scale with correct angles and capable by proper reduction of
being fitted fairly closely to the modern ordnance map is Rocque’s of 1746.

* A brief Act of Parliament ought to be passed compelling all building operators to at once summon

a local officer, and a competent archaeologist, before proceeding further, when antiquities of any kind are
reached in excavating.

+ A Survay of London, Octavo Edition, 1599, pp. 127-8.
+ If different pairs of definite base points be taken and two maps reduced to a common scale,
the fit, or want of fit, is often wholly different.

A Second Study of the English Skull

88

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W. R. MacponeEiui 89

In Rocque’s and earlier maps the present Liverpool Street is termed Old
Bethlem, and this street runs from the modern Blomfield Street, then bounding
Moorfields, to the site of the original Bedlam. Now if Rocque’s map and the
Ordnance Survey be reduced to a common scale,—and in doing this we have taken
the north-east corner of St Botolph’s Church and the old Moorfields postern in the
city wall, which are marked on both maps—it will be found, as shown in the
accompanying reproduction, that Old Bethlem coincided with the southern half
of the modern Liverpool Street, and that the site of the latrine excavation was
immediately on the left of the entry into Old Bethlem from Moorfields, If then,
the bones were from interments in Sir Thomas Roe’s Burial Ground, that ground
must originally have extended to the corner where the centre line of the Liverpool
Street of to-day runs into Blomfield Street. The available maps appear to provide
no confirmation of this view. It is true that maps of the 18th century give
most diverse forms to the ground, and there can be little doubt that in the latter
half of that century and the beginning of the next, buildings encroached largely on
the original space*. Not only Rocque, however, but Ogilby of 1677 show a distinct
enclosure or a building, falling exactly in the south-west corner of the plot, the
centre of which is marked Old Bethlem Burial Ground. In Horwood’s map of
1799, this enclosure, separated from the burial ground, still remains of much the
same shape as in Rocque’s. In W. Faden’s map of 1813, the road between
Moorfields and the Burial Ground is termed Brokers’ Row—the modern Blomfield
Street—and the separate enclosure in the south-west corner is called No. 1. This
house stands apart from the others, and I think there is little doubt that No. 1
Brokers’ Row, in 1813, stood almost on the site of the modern latrine, and since it
is marked as a separate enclosure as early as 1677, was not one of the encroach-
ments on the original burial ground to which reference has been made. Strong
confirmation of this view will be found in Morden and Lea’s map of 1690. In this
we find that the space marked churchyard did not extend on the west fully up to
Brokers’ Row, or on the south to the street marked Old Bethlem. There were
at that date strips of intervening land.

To account for this, I think we have only to turn back to the original condition
of affairs. The hospital of St Mary Bethlem was founded by Simon Fitz-Mary in
1246 as a priory of canons with brothers and sisters. | The mayor and commonalty
of London, in the year 1546, purchased the patronage thereof and all the lands and
tenements belonging thereto. In the same year King Henry VIII. gave the hospital
to the city, and the church and chapel were removed in the reign of Elizabeth, and
houses built there by the Governors of Christ’s Hospital. Now if we look at
Aggas’ map of London in the reign of Elizabeth (from 1560), before Roe’s
enclosure, we see that north of St Botolph’s a row of houses stretched along to the
road leading north from the Moorfields postern (i.e. the later Brokers’ Row) and
that the road passed under an archway into some sort of a quadrangle. Within

* This is very clearly indicated in the copy of part of the ‘‘deposited” plan of the North London
Railway, 1861, kindly provided by the Engineer to the Company.

Biometrika v 12

90 A Second Study of the English Skull

this quadrangle was a tower, like a martello tower, with a flag attached to it. This
tower remains after the archway disappears, and serves to identify the quadrangle.
It appears, for example, in Ryther’s map of 1604, and we see that it was in the
centre of the plot, which in maps of somewhat later date is marked as Old
Bethlem Burial Ground. There can be little doubt accordingly, that Sir Thomas
Roe fenced in a portion of the Bethlem quadrangle as the burial ground, and that
this burial ground was originally separated by the buildings terminating in the
archway (over Brokers’ Row as it was called later) from the street afterwards termed
Old Bethlem, which indeed may have partially covered the site of these houses.
Thus from the very founding of the burial ground it is improbable that it ever
covered the south-west corner of the plot. It would be difficult to determine when
these houses disappeared, but they were gone before the middle of the 17th century,
and from this time to Hollar’s map of 1706 we find the western and southern
boundaries of the Bethlem plot are marked as separate enclosures.

The improbability that the bones are directly due to interments in Old
Bethlem Burial Ground is increased by the fact that they were uncoffined. Even
in excavating for Broad Street coffined bones were only found on a portion of the
excavated site*. Such burials are characteristic not of ordinary interment, but of
interment during an epidemic, and the want of any arrangement noted in both
1863 and 1903 tends to confirm the view that on the borders of Sir Thomas Roe’s
ground plague pits were dug at one or another period.

If we turn to Defoe’s Journal of the Plague Year we find that he gives a long
list of plague pits, and there is little doubt that although he was a child at the
time, he was still able as a man to get recent and authentic information. After
enumerating various spots where there were pits, he continues :

“ Besides this, there was a piece of ground in Moorfields, by the going into the
Street which is now called Old Bethlem, which was enlarged much although not
wholly taken in on the same occasion.”

This description seems to fit well the spot where the bones were found, 1.e. the
corner where Old Bethlem ran into Moorfields, and further accounts fully for
the uncoffined mass of bones without arrangement extending from 4 to 8 or 10 ft.
below the surface.

It is not of course possible to assign dogmatically a definite date and character
to these Moorfields crania, but we may hold with a high degree of probability that
they were drawn from the plague pit referred to by Defoe, and accordingly date
from 1665.

Those who incline to believe that they originally came—as in the case of
a clearance pit—from the burial ground, can assign any date from 1569 to about
1750, the ground being probably in most use not very far from the plague pit date.
* See Notes and Queries, August 1, 1863.

+ Morley’s Edition, p. 295. The ‘‘not wholly taken in,” clearly refers to the already existing
Bethlem burial ground alongside.

W. R. MaAcponeELu 91

Accepting this view would only mean somewhat greater scatter in time round
about the same mean date, and we may consider ourselves fortunate, in most cases
of large cranial finds, if it is possible to fix the date of the bulk of the material
with anything like certainty within a hundred years.

(3) Measurements and Methods of Measurement.

All the detailed measurements given in my former paper are given here except
G’, the length of the palate from the base of the spina nasalis posterior, and
the same symbols and methods of measurement were adopted as before. There
were no mandibles in the collection.

Certain additional characters are given, viz. :

(7') Length from nasion to bregma (S;).
(k’) Length from bregma to lambda (S,).
(l’) Length from lambda to opisthion (S;).

These three were measured with the steel tape.

(l’) Length from lambda to opisthion (S,/), measured with the callipers.
S,, S; and S,’ were frequently difficult to measure on account of difficulty in deter-
mining the lambda precisely.

(a) Greatest length of foramen magnum (fml).

(y) Greatest breadth of foramen magnum (fmb).

(v) Foraminal Index (100 Fo)

(7) Ratio of radius of curvature of the cerebellum (from lambda to opisthion)

S: 8.
to S,/ (CC); this measure of cerebellar curvature equals oe very

nearly*, and will be termed the Cerebellar Index. :

The Cerebellar Index, which measures the convexity towards the inion, seems
useful as giving some indication of the capacity of the cerebellum. <A low
Cerebellar Index isa sign of large convexity. The Cerebellar Index of men is lower
and less variable than that of women, to judge from the first investigation of it
now made in this paper.

I have to thank Dr Alice Lee for help in calculating this ratio. I am also
greatly indebted to Miss Winifred Gibson for the foraminal measurements and
also for calculating the angles A, NV, and B on the trigonometer.

* Bertrand, Calc. Diff. p. 552.

92 A Second Study of the English Skull
TABLE I. Cranial Means and Variability.
Comparison of Moorfields English with Whitechapel English.
MALE.
Moorfields English Whitechapel English
Character

and Reference = Gane cuemnns
Letter oefficien oefficien

No. Mean bac of No. Mean Biendem of
eviation Variation eviation | Variation
(a) C 22 | 1473°82419-01 | 132°18+13°44| 8974 92) 72 | 1476-944+9°73 | 122°374+6°88 | 8-28+4°47
(Dyk. 4D 186°88+ 59) 590+ °42| 316+ -22 | 138 | 187:35+ -35| 6174 -25| 3294-13
(ce) Ds. | DA 189'15+ °57| 558+ -40| 295+ -21 | 137 | 189:06+ 386] 627+ -25]| 3:31+°13
(d) L’. 19 | 188°00+ 1:°02| 657+ 72) 350+ 38 | 72 | 187-764 -45) 5644 32] 3:00+°17
(e) B 4G 143°02+ 53) 5314 37] 3-714 26 | 195 | 140674 381) 528+ 22] 3-754-15
(Foo. Ay 9847+ 41] 4:12+ 29] 419+ -29 | 182 | 9802+ 25} 4:20+ -17| 4294-17
(q) 2 34 129°84+ ‘75| G6:45+ °53| 4974 -41 | 122 | 139-044 34] 556+ -24] 4214-18
(hk) OH 4G | 113-78+ -47| 469+ 33] 41294 -29 | 185 | 114594 -25| 428+ -18| 3°73+4°15
(i) LB 35 9854+ 52) 4:57+ 87] 464+ -38 | 119 | 101°60+ -25| 4:13+4 -18] 4:07+-18
(ie 87% | 527-08+ 1:60] 14°45+ 1°13] 2-744 -21 | 1381 | 524-254 -88| 15:02+ -63| 2874-12
(kt) 8S... 40 | 378°50+ 1:28] 12°014 90] 317+ -24 | 181 | 377-11+ ‘81| 13-694 57 | 3-63+°15
(O20 24 382 | 305-414 1°49) 12°54+ 1:06] 4114 °35 | 115 | 307-934 -72| 11-404 -51| 3°70+-16

(7) Sy AA 129°34+ 56) 5:55+ 40) 429+ 31] — — — ==

(kh) So 43 | \28°724 7 T7614 °55) 591+ 43) — — _ ==

(2') 85 40 120°50+ 90] 848+ -64] 704+ 53 | — — — =

Sa: 40 9809+ 63) 5944+ 45] GO5+ 46) — — — =
(n) GH 20 6812+ 62 408+ 43] 599+ 64] 75 TO17+ 30} 3:S6+4 21] 5:50+-30
(0) GB 15 93°37+ ‘77| 4:°454 55] 474+ 58] 55 | 9087+ 45] 507+ -32| 5-58+-36
GOL wee 7 129°00+ 1:19| 4:°65+ °84|) 3604 65 | 43] 130054 °57| 5574 -40| 4:28+°-31
(q) NH 20 5037+ 39 | 260+ +28] 516+ 55 | 79 | 5122+ 20] 2604 14] 5-08+-97
(r) VB 18 24-03B+ 30) 190+ -21| 791+ 89 | 70] 2429+ 17) 216+ 12] 889+°51
(s) OL 20 41-804 23] 151+ °16| 361+ 38] 63] 43:064 15| 181+ -11| 4:204-25
(s’) OR 18 4228+ +22] 142+ +16| 335+ 38] 68] 4299+ 16) 92-024 -12| 4:69+-27
(t) OL 20 32°82+ 32] 212+ +23] 647+ 69 | 67 3346+ 15) 188+ 11 | 561+:33
(t') OR 18 32°83+ "B4] 219+ +24) 6464 73 | 69] 3342+ 18] 9-994 -13| 6-65+°38
(u) Gy tag 4812+ 69} 4:25+ +49] 88441:03 | 69 | 4827+ 22] 2-744 -16| 5684-33
(v) Ge 15 39°73+ 41} 236+ +29] 5944 73] 66 | 36°78+ 24) 2:85+ -17| 7°75+4°46
(w) GL 17 95034 67) 412+ +48] 433+ 50) 73] 9593+ 35) 449+ -25| 468+4-26

(x) fil nee ae 3544+ 32] 286+ -23| 808+ 65 | — = == ae

(y) fib oe | 84 29-744 21) 182+ +15] 610+ 50) — = eu =

(aa) PL 15 84504 69} B 99+ 49 = 3 | 86°O09+ 33) 392+ -24 =

(bb) AL 17 72°35+ 61) 3-714 °48 = 69 | 73°38+ -28]} 341+ -20 _

(ce) eZ ih 66°°56+ 58 354+ ‘41 = 69 | 65° 19+ 29} 352+ -20 =

(dd) Be ike 41°O9+ 44) 2714 31 = 69 | 41°43+ -20| 250+ +14 =

(ee) 0 LU 29°°39+ °53| 294+ 37 = 59 | Q"71+ 22) 53+ -16 ae

(Sf) A Lh 11°64 43] 2-414 °31 = 59 | 12°924 29) 3344 -21 =
(a) 100 B/L’ ...| 18 7508+ 52| 3:°274 °37/ 435+ 49| 69 | TH1T+ 24) 2-974 -17| 3954-23
(8)100 B/L ... 2 7552+ 31] 300+ +22] 397+ 29 | 191 | 7434+ 19] 3264 14] 4384-18
(y) 100 H/L' ...| 17 6824+ ‘S1| B1B+ 36] 459+ 53 | 69 | 70404 22) 267+ 15] 3:80+-22
(8) 100 H/Z ...| 31 6837+ 42 347+ +30) 5-074 °44 | 120 6997+ 20) 322+ 14} 4614-20
(e) 100 H/B ...| 32 90°55+ 56} 467+ °39/ 516+ -44/ 716 | 94314 29) 458+ 20] 4:86+4:21
| (8) 100 G’"H/GB) 14 7279+ ‘86| 4:°77+ 61] 655+ 84] 53 | 7652+ 50} 539+ 35| 7:04+-46
(x) 100 NB/NH | 18 4758+ 66] 4:134+ -46| 868+ 98 | 70] 47°55+ 37] 458+ -26| 9644-55
(A) 100 0,/0;, Z| 20 7852+ 64] 427+ 46] 543+ 58] 63 | 7786+ °32| 3°78+ -23| 4:86-4:29
| (X') 100 02/0,, R| 17 7735+ 69] 416+ 48] 537+ 63 | 68 | 7769+ °38] 466+ -27]| 6:00+-35
(uw) 100 G,/G,...| 13 82°73+ 1:05] 559+ °74| 676+ 90 | 61] 76264 55| 640+ 39 | 8:39+°52

(v) 100 finb/fml | 34 84°20+ “77 664+ 54] 789+ 65 | — — — =

(mr) CC 40 5852+ 23] QV15+ +16| 368+ 28) — = — =

W. R. MaAcpone tn 93
TABLE I—(continued). Cranial Means and Variability.
Comparison of Moorfields English with Whitechapel English.
FEMALE.
Moorfields English Whitechapel English
Character Se ea ee ee : :
and Reference : .
Bs Coefficient , Coefficient
> Hoes No. Mean poeta as of No. Mean Scare of
NAR ates Variation eviaulon | Variation
(a) C. 31 | 1365°31+13°68 | 112°9349°67 | 8:27+°71 SO |1299:87 +8°51 |112°80+6°01 | 8°68 +°47
(O)PE .. 65 182°45+ 52 6°24+ 37] 3:42+°20 | 143 | 180'14+ 36 638+ °25 | 3°54+:°14
(ec) L.. 63 183°364 ‘51 602+ 36] 3:-28+°20 | 140 | 180°36+ °35 622+ 25 | 3°-454+°14
(d) L’.. 23 182°50+ °86 6°14+ ‘61 |) 3°37+4°33 o7 | 18007 “57 638+ °40 | 3:°524+°99
(yi 723, Boe 62 137°60+ ‘45 598+ +32] 3°844+°23 | 140 | 134:68+ 27 477+ 19) 3:°544°14
G)Bo... O4 9516+ 34 “ld Osyae sh) Aiba say |) IY) 9312+ 23 423+ °17 | 455+°18
@) a: Av 123°58+ °46 AQ Soi | oOmate Ay) 1) LZ. 124564 30 4°93+ °21 | 3°964°:17
(h) OH 59 109°38+ +38 439+ :27| 401+°25 | 143 | 109214 25 450+ 18] 4:12+-16
(t) LB 46 95°89+ °43 4°34+ ‘31| 4:53+4°32 | 122 95°34+ -24 S9Ll+ 17) 4:11+°18
(j) U 56 | 512°68+ 1°53} 17°0241°08 | 332+°21 | 136 | 503°84+ °85} 14°70+4 ‘60 | 2:92+°12
(hk) S 53 | 365°58+ 1:26] 13°56+ °89| 3°714°24 | 130 | 362°764 °84| 1416+ ‘59 | 3:90+°16
(2) @.. 2} 993-074 1°16] 11°11+ ‘82) 3°79+°28 | 122 | 293-974 “71] 11°67+ ‘50 | 3:974°:17
GS: 53| 195-754 -57| 617+ -40| 4914-32 | — oes = as
(K') So... 2) 123°60+ ‘68 729+ +48] 5:90+°39 | — —- = —
PN OSB oc 49 116°98+ ‘87 9°01+ ‘61 | 7°70+°53 | — — = =
) S.. 49| 95-914 -59| G-O9+ -41] 6354-43 | — = = =
(rn) GH 27 64°15+ 47 3°66+ 34] 5°714°53 62 65°93 + °40 471+ 28) 7:14+-43
(0) GB 18 86°86+ “79 4°99+ °56) 5°75 4°65 58 84°86+ ‘41 459+ 29) 5:-40+°34
(p) J .. 18 122°00+ ‘69 4°32+ °49| 3°54+°40 33 | 120°97+ 58 497+ “41 ) 4:134+°34
(q) NH 27 | 48-024 -36| 2-764 -25| 5744-53 | GY | 48-684 -22] 270+ 16| 5554-32
(r) NB 26 23°40+ +25 Uae wiliss |) Alar 27/7 OL 2319+ ‘14 164+ ‘10 | 7064-42
(s) OL 22 40°938+ 24 164+ °17] 4:02+°41 SYf 4117+ 113 145+ -09 | 3534-22
(s') OR 2D 40'90+ +23 167+ °16| 4:09+°39 62 40°95+ ‘14 164+ ‘10} 4:00+°24
(t) OL 22 32°84+ °34 2°34+ 24) 711+°73 C4 3359+ ‘12 145+ °09 | 4:31+4-26
(') OnR 25 32°60+ ‘27 2703+ 19] 6:22+°60 64 33°73 + +13 151+ ‘09 | 4:47+4-27
(u) G 20| 45-92+ -43| 9-83+ 30] 615+-66| 57 | 45134 -26| 295+ -19| 6534-41
(v) Gy 22 37°04+ °40 280+ 28) 7554-77 58 35°22+ °24 270+ ‘17| 768+°48
(w) GL 25 92°14+ °76 566+ 54) 614+°59 58 90°42+ °40 447+ 28} 4:95+°31
(a) fml 50 34:°29+ “24 2°49+ °17] 7:°264°49 | -— = — —
(y) fmd 50 | 29-014 -23| 2-434 -16| 8394-57 | — = = a
(aa) PL 19 S457 Ga) | 3b 226+ 25 — 52 87° 13+ 27 2°85+ °19 -—
(bb) Az 26 73°°33+ 30 2229s 2) — 57 73°90 + +29 3381+ 2] —
(ec) Mz 26 66°°65+ 37 2°82+ +26 -- Sif 64°°"70+ +23 2538+ °16 —
(dd) BL 26 40°°02+ 35 267+ 25 — S|) Ales Qite 27 2798+ °19 —
(ee) 0; 19 28°°50+ +33 215+ °24 — 50 | 28° 11+ +24 251+ 17 —
(ff) 0 19| 11°474 37] 2364 26; — 50 | 13°13+ 34| 3604 24) —
(a) 100 B/L’...| 21} 75°38+ -30| 202+ -21| 268+-28| 55] 74624 -27| 301+ 19] 4-03+-26
(B) 100 B/LZ ... | 57 7505+ ‘21 2°36+4 +15} 3:144+°20 | 130 T4734 18 2°98+ 12] 3:99+°17
(y) 100 H/LZ’... | 20 6707+ ‘41 2°75+ °29] 4:10+°44 58 69°05+ °26 291+ “19 ) 4:91 +-97
(8) 100 H/L ...| 44 | 67174 -28]} 2-784 20] 414430] 117 | 69134 18] 2834 12] 4104-18
(ce) 100 A/B... | 44 89'93+ 40 3°96+ 28] 4:'404°32 | 115 92°35+ 24 384+ 17} 4164°18
(6) l00G'H/GB) 18 | 7355+ 64) 4014+ -45| 5464-61 | 94] T7944 57| 6264 ~41 B04 + °52
(x) 100 VB/NH| 26 48°73+ °52 3°96+ 37] 8124-76 O4 47-79+ °33 390+ 23] 816+:49
(X) 100 02/0,, L| 22 80°34+ °84 5°838+ 59] 7264-74 57 81-70+ +38 493+ ‘27 | 5'18+°33
(XN) 1000,/0,,R| 25 | 79°76 "75| 553+ °53/ 6934-66 | 62] 8246+ 37] 4334 26] 525432
(pw) 100 Ge/Gy... | 19 81:°24+ “71 462+ °50] 5°69+'62 oi 7769+ °62 662+ °44] 8:529+°'57
(v) 100 fmb/ fm | 47 84454 60] 612+ °43| 7:25+-°51 | — — = —
(r) CO 49 | 59244 28] 2-904 -20| 4904-33) — = = es

94 A Second Study of the English Skull

(4) Capacity.

Circumstances prevented me from measuring the capacity of the skulls, and
this laborious piece of work was most kindly carried out by Miss M. Radford and
Professor Karl Pearson, by the method of weighing and comparing with Professor
Thane’s standard skulls which I had previously adopted.

After many preliminary trials, they decided to use as their standard the “crine
étalon,” which I called “a”*, and finally determined the constant for reducing to

volume the weight of mustard seed contained in the skulls as

1000,
76833"

1000 '
766565" which agrees

fairly closely with my determination

(5) Mean Value and Variability.

Table I. gives the means, standard deviations and coefficients of variation,
with their probable errors, of the characters, and will enable us to see to what
extent the Moorfields and Whitechapel series agree with each other. If it can be
established that they agree very closely, it will be unnecessary to institute an
elaborate comparison between our present series and other races, such as I made in
the case of the Whitechapel skulls, as the same conclusions will apply to both. I
will therefore confine myself to a somewhat detailed comparison of our two
London series.

TABLE II.
Capacity and Lengths. Means.
Mae FEMALE
Character
Moorfields | Whitechapel | Moorfields | Whitechapel
C 1474 1477 1365 1300
L 189°1 189°1 183°4 180°4
B 1430 140°7 137°6 134°7
B 98°5 98°0 95°2 93°1
H 129°8 132°0 123°6 124°6
OH 113°8 114°6 109°4 109°2
LB 98°5 101°6 95°9 95°3

In males the chief difference is in ZB (length of skull base from nasion to
basion); also in height and maximum breadth the series differ, the Moorfields
being broader but less high; the other characters are closely alike.

The Moorfields female skull is markedly more capacious, being longer, broader,
and higher,

I consider in the second place the circumferences.

* Biometrika, Vol. 11. p. 204.

W. R. MAcdoneELu 95

TABLE III.

Circumferences. Means.
Mae | Frmaue
Character | ]

| Moorfields Whitechapel | Moorfields Whitechapel

| | |

| - | 7 : i era ar
Oi 527°1 524°2 | 512°7 503°8
S 378°5 377°1 365°6 362°8
Q 305°4 307°9 293°1 294°0

The male skulls are strikingly alike, while in the female skulls the larger U
was to be expected in the Moorfields group, owing to their greater length and
breadth.

We next come to characters of which the frequencies in the Moorfields series
are very few, and the comparison is thus less satisfactory.

TABLE IV.
Face Measurements. Means.
Mae FEMALE
Character a
| Moorfields Whitechapel Moorfields Whitechapel
G'H 68°1 70°2 64°1 65°9
GB 93°9 90°9 86°9 84°9
J 129°0 130°0 122°0 120°3
NH 50°4 51:2 48°0 48°7
NB 24°0 24°3 23°4 Z3°2,
OL 41°8 43°1 40°9 41°2
OR Aly) 43°0 40°9 40°9
OoL 32°8 ORO 32°8 33°6
0OnR 32°8 33°4 32°6 33°7

The only important differences are in GH and GH (upper face height and face
breadth) the former of which is shorter, the latter broader in the Moorfields skulls,
both male and female.

As regards the palate, the two series agree in length, but differ considerably in
breadth, in males and females, but breadth of palate I have again found a some-
what unsatisfactory character to measure*,

* Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 202.

96 A Second Study of the English Skull

The two series, in both sexes, agree closely in the angles A, NV, and B of the
triangle whose apices are the nasion, basion, and alveolar point*. The profile
angle, P, is the larger in Whitechapel females.

TABLE V.
Chief Indices. Means.

| Mae FEMALE

Character ; — - =a ores
Moorfields Whitechapel | Moorfields Whitechapel |

100 B/E 75°5 74:3 75°0 74:7

100 H/L 68°4 70°0 67°2 69°1 |

100 H/B 90°5 94°3 89°9 92°3 |

G’H/GB 72°8 76°5 73°5 77°9 |

NB/|NH 47°6 47°5 48°7 47°8

0,/0,, L 78°5 779 80°3 81°7

O0,/0,, R 77°3 777 79°8 82°5

Gy /G4 82°7 76°3 81°2 177

Here, as we should expect, there are differences between the two series where

B, H, G’'H, GB, and G, are involved.

In order to compare the variability of the two collections, I will now give side
by side the standard deviations of the chief characters.

TABLE VI.

Capacity and Lengths. Coefficients of Variation.

Mae FEMALE
Character = = — Sa | =
Moorfields | Whitechapel | Moorfields | Whitechapel
a r
C 8°97 8°28 8°27 8°68
L 2°95 ono | 3°28 3°45
B 3°71 3°75 3°84 3°54
LB 4:19 4°29 4°25 4°55
H 4:97 4°21 3°82 3°96
OH 4°12 3°73 4°01 A412,
LB 4°64 407 4°53 4°11
|

The general agreement is close between the two series.

* Biometrika, Vol. 11. pp. 211 and 213.

W. R. MaAcpbongLi 97
TABLE VII.
Circumferences. Coefficients of Variation.
| MALE FEMALE
Character —
| Moorfields | Whitechapel | Moorfields | Whitechapel
CO 2°74 2°87 3°32 2°92
S 3°17 3°63 3°71 3°90
Q 4-11 3°70 3°79 3°97

Here again the two series agree very well.

The frequencies of the remaining characters are too few in the Moorfields group
to enable us to make a satisfactory comparison ; I give, however, in the following
Table the figures for face measurements.

TABLE VIII.

Face Measurements. Coefficients of Variation.

| |
| MALE FEMALE
Character
Moorfields | Whitechapel | Moorfields | Whitechapel
7 |
G’H 5°99 5°50 | syar(l Tek!
GB 4:74 5°58 5°75 5°40
J 3°60 4°28 3°54 4:13
NH 516 | 5°08 | 5:74 5°55
NB 791 8°89 8:21 7°06
OL 3°61 4:20 4:02 3°53
O,R 3°35 4°69 4:09 4:00
OL 6°47 5°61 711 4°31
O2R 6°46 6°65 6:22 4°47
|

The most important difference is in G’H (upper face height) and in the breadth
of orbit, in females, but the smallness of the Moorfields frequencies has to be kept
in mind.

The coefficients of variation in palate measurements are markedly different in
the two series in males, but in females they are about the same,

The following Table gives the coefficients of variation of those indices, for which
the frequencies are over 30 in the Moorfields series.

Biometrika v 13

98 A Second Study of the English Skull

TABLE IX.
Indices. Coefficients of Variation.
MAE FEMALE
Characters ™ =
Moorfields | Whitechapel | Moorfields | Whitechapel
100 B/L 3°97 4°38 3°14 3°99
100 H/L 5°07 4°61 4-14 4:10
100 H/B 5°16 4°86 4°40 4°16
| |

The agreement is seen to be fairly close.

An examination of these Tables will, I think, establish the conclusion that the
Moorfields and Whitechapel skulls are strikingly similar both as regards means
and variability, and that the peculiar features on which I dwelt when discussing
the Whitechapel crania are present in the Moorfields also. Moorfields females
show even greater average length than Whitechapel, and in spite of their greater
breadth the cephalic index, 75,is much less than that assumed for modern English *.
The above conclusion is confirmed by an examination of the abnormalities of the
present series, which will be given later on.

I add a specification of the Moorfields crania, for purposes of comparison.

TABLE X. Specification of Moorfields Crania.

Class

Character = = — = Remarks

3 ?

100B/L ... ee tee ... | Mesocephaly Mesocephaly Closeon border ofdoli-
chocephaly, sexes
practically alike
100H/L... = oe ... | Chamaecephaly | Chamaecephaly | Sexes nearly alike ;
well within borders
of chamaecephaly

Profile Angle... Bde ... | Mesognathy Mesognathy Sexes alike, tending
towards prognathy
Upper Face Index... ... ... | Narrow faced Narrow faced Sexes nearly alike
Zygomatic Upper Face Index+ | Leptoprosopy Leptoprosopy 3 52°8, 2 52°6
Orbital Index ... doc ... | Chamaeconchy | Chamaeconchy | In both eyes practi-
cally the same in
each sex, but female
rounder
Nasal Index _... ee ... | Mesorrhiny Mesorrhiny Male near leptorrhiny
Palate Index Mesostaphyline | Mesostaphyline | Female tends to lep-
tostaphyline
Alveolar Index t 96°44 96°10 Sexes alike

* Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 209.

+ These indices are the ratios of the means of the characters; the former is 100G’H/J, the latter
100 GL/LB,

W. R. Macnone tn 99

(6) Photographic Study of the Moorfields Skulls*.

A photographic study of the Moorfields crania brings out even more markedly
than the numerical measurements the wide divergence of the English skull of the
Londoner of two centuries ago, and possibly of his successor of to-day, from
the types of our nearest continental neighbours. A magnificent cranium like that
on Plate XVII. is exceptional, although it also shows the very prevalent bathro-
cephaly; crania like those on Plates XIII. to XVI. are far more frequent, and one
recognises at once features of a somewhat primitive or debased type. It seems
urgently necessary that a large series of crania from another part of the kingdom, and
if possible from a rural district, and of about the same period, should be examined.
Is it possible that the contents of plague pits in a city like London only provide us
with a debased sample of the population? Or again, is the Londoner of to-day
really different from this man of two centuries ago? If he be, is the change the
result of selection, immigration, or altered environment ? One must confess to
a certain feeling of unrest, so long as the two largest series of English skulls, of
which we have complete measurements, namely the Whitechapel and Moorfields
series, give the English these not very flattering cranial characters.

The remainder of our photographs have been selected to preserve records of
special abnormalities for future comparison and reference. Plate LX. gives a fine
example of an ossicle of the bregma; Plate VI. completes our English series of
tripartite interparietals, the ossa triangularia being detached and the os pentagonale
fused; compare Biometrika, Vol. 11. p. 220 and Plates XXX VIL— XXXIX. ; Plates
VII. and VIII. illustrate double and triple ossicles of the lambda and should be
compared with Plate XXXIV. of the Whitechapel memoir; Plate X. provides a
striking instance of supernumerary condyle with articulating facet; Plate XII.
shows the post-coronal depression frequently referred to, and is besides an
illustration of the very common receding forehead; and Plate XI. reproduces a
remarkably symmetrical pear-shaped norma verticalis. Such pear-shaped domes—
often curiously regular and smooth in texture—will be familiar to all craniologists
as occurring in a small percentage of cases in most cranial series. An index
to this characteristic might possibly be taken as follows: The skull being
adjusted to the horizontal plane on the craniophor, mark on the sagittal cireum-
ference the points in which the vertical planes through the greatest breadth (B)
and through the minimum forehead breadth (B’) meet this circumference; let the
horizontal distance between these points be D+. Then 100 (B-—B’)/D is the
suggested index. It might perhaps be termed the Pyroid Index. I suggest that
the Pyroid Index will be found to be of some racial and sexual value, and I hope
that a study of it at least in English crania will soon be published.

* T have to thank Professor Karl Pearson very cordially for the great trouble he has taken in
photographing the skulls.
+ Easily measured with the spanner described in Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 415.

13—2

100 A Second Study of the English Skull

(7) Special Crania*.

In the 120 skulls which form the subject of this paper, 264 anatomical
peculiarities were noted, on an average 2°2 for each skull, as against an average of
‘96 for each skull in the Whitechapel seriest. Of the total 120 skulls, 50 were
adjudged male, with 107 peculiarities ; the average number of peculiarities to each
male skull was therefore 2:14, while in the Whitechapel series it was ‘91; the
number considered to be female being 70, with 157 peculiarities, the average
number to each female skull was 2°24, compared with 1:0 in the Whitechapel
collection. In both series it will be observed that the female skull has a somewhat
greater tendency to abnormal variation than the male.

This high frequency of abnormal characters, although some of them, it is true,
are very slight, tends to confirm the general conclusion arrived at from an
examination of the Whitechapel series, that the English skull is probably remark-
able for abnormal variations}. The increase of the percentage in the case of the
Moorfields crania is to some extent, but I think not wholly, due to still closer
examination.

I shall now draw attention to some of the individual cases of abnormality,
adopting the classification used in the Whitechapel paper.

(3) Peculiarities of Form.

Post-coronal constriction occurred in only 2 skulls, 1 male and 1 female. When
localised about the bregma, we have noted this peculiarity as post-coronal
depression, and it occurred in 33 skulls, 17 male and 16 female: in 11 of the 17
males and in 9 of the 16 females, it was noted as slight or faint. The cases
of constriction are remarkably few when compared with those of the Whitechapel
collection, where 19 cases occurred (mostly in female crania) in a total of 292
crania ; but taking constriction and depression together we observe that the cases
are relatively about twice as frequent in the present series, the figures being 35 in
120, as compared with 46 in 292.

Two female skulls showed post-coronal flattening, and 2 others pre-coronal
depression.

Two female skulls present a metopic ridge, associated in one case with a metopic
suture (see below).

Flattening of the obelion was noticed in 7 skulls, 2 male and 5 female,
and depression of the obelion also in 7 cases, 2 male and 5 female. In
4 crania (all female) the obelion is grooved, while 7 others (8 male and 4 female)
show posterior sagittal grooving, and 1 male presents a slight mzd-sagittal groove.
A coronal ridge was found in 1 male skull, and a sagittal ridge in 3 skulls (2 male

* T have again to thank Professor Thane for his unfailing readiness with help and correction.
+ Biometrika, Vol. ut. p. 217.
+ Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 217.

W. R. MAcpdoneLuL 101

and 1 female). Post-parietal flattening is recorded in 8 skulls (2 male and 1 female);
1 female skull is noted as showing parietal bulging; and another shows parietal
expansion with slight right parieto-occipital flattening.

Skulls with protuberant occiput have been specially noted in this series; of these
5 males are recorded as having the occiput prominent or protuberant, and 7 males
as presenting the same condition in a slight degree. For females, the correspond-
ing figures are 11 with prominent, and 8 with slightly prominent occiput.
Bathrocephaly occurs in 13 skulls, 5 male (of which 4 are slightly and 1 markedly
bathrocephalic), and 8 females (of which 6 are slightly and 2 markedly bathro-
cephalic). This shows a percentage twice that of the Whitechapel series. In 2 of
the male and 10 of the female cases of bathrocephaly it is noted that there are no
ossicles in the lambdoid suture, while in two other female cases the lambdoid suture
is obliterated.

Two cases of receding forehead are noted in male skulls, one of which has the
calvaria depressed, while the other is recorded as doubtfully microcephalic. One
female is recorded as having an infantile wpper face. Only 1 male and 1 female
skull are noted as plagiocephalic; and 1 female skull is rather pear-shaped in the
norma verticalis (see Plate XI). In 1 female skull left occipital flattening occurs ;
and in another marked occipital asymmetry.

A marked inion is noted in 5 skulls, 4 male and 1 female. A torus occipitalis
occurs, with varying degrees of prominence, in 28 skulls, 15 male and 13 female ;
the proportion is much higher than in the Whitechapel skulls, in which this
peculiarity was met with in only 13 out of 292.

A linguiform process of the occipital bone is noted in 5 skulls, all female.

In only 2 female skulls were two precondylar eminences noticed, one pair small,
the other minute. In this respect the collection is in marked contrast to the
Whitechapel series, in which 14 skulls with these eminences were recorded.

In 1 female skull a facet is noted on the anterior margin of the foramen
magnum, on another a small articular facet on the left jugular process, and in a
third a right paroccipital process for articulation with the atlas. (See Plate X.)

The following peculiarities are also recorded: 1 case (female) of a median
parietal foramen; 1 (female) of foramen jugulare spurium; 1 of bilateral pterygo-
spinous bridge, also female; 2 cases of a horizontal foramen in the spinous sphenoid,
1 (male) on the left side, the other (female) on both sides; and four instances
of porus crotaphitico-buccinatorius (1 male and 3 female), as compared with only
two in the Whitechapel skulls.

(11) Anomalies of the Sutures.

Eight skulls are metopic, 5 male and 3 female (in one of the females there is
also a metopic ridge, see above). Although the instances are few, it may be
of interest to make up a Table as was done for the Whitechapel skulls, showing

102 A Second Study of the English Skull

how the mean maximum head breadth and minimum forehead breadth of these 8
metopic skulls compare with the means for the whole series.

TABLE XI.
Comparison of Metopic and General Skulls.

Mate SkuLu | FreMALE SKULL
Character ss | a
General | Metopic | General | Metopic
Maximum Head Breadth ... 143-0 144°2 137°6 138°6
Minimum Forehead Breadth 98°5 103°7 95°2 101°0

These figures, so far as they go, show that the conclusion drawn from the
Whitechapel measurements was well within the mark*, viz. that a persistent
frontal suture may allow of a 2 to 3 mm. increase in the minimum forehead
breadth, but probably influences the maximum head breadth only very slightly.

Traces of a transverse occipital suture passing between the upper and lower
inial eminences occurred in one female skull; also vestiges of this suture, on both
sides,in one male skull. A distinct masto-squamosal suture was noticed in a female
skull, and in another female an infraorbital suture on the face.

A fronto-squamosal articulation, by means of a more or less developed frontal
process of the squamous temporal, was met with in 6 skulls, 2 male (bilateral) and
4 female (2 bilateral, 1 right, 1 left).

(ii) Interparietals.

On close examination it has turned out that interparietals are very rare in this
series. In addition to the two instances of vestigial transverse occipital suture
mentioned above, there is only one case of a tripartite interparietal, in which the
os pentagonale is fused with the supraoccipital, while the ossa triangularia, right
and left, are distinct. (See Plate VI.)

(iv) Ossicles and Wormian Bones.

Ossicles of the bregma were noted in 38 cases (2 male and 1 female) ; of the
lambda in 8 (4 male and 4 female) ; of the asterion in 2 female skulls, and of the
pterion in 9 cases (3 male and 6 female). There were 4 cases, all female, of
ossicles, usually triangular, in the parietal notch of right and left temporal.

Ossicles or Wormian bones were recorded in sutwres as follows: 21 cases in the
lambdoid (11 male and 10 female); 2 in the parieto-mastoid, both female; and 1, a
female, in the occipito-mastoid. In all, 36 skulls (17 male and 19 female), or
30 per cent., had anomalous ossicles in one or more of the regions indicated.

* Biometrika, Vol. 11. p. 220.

W. R. Macponeui 103

(v) Teeth.

Teeth were present in only a few skulls, but in these the following peculiarities
were noted, all in female skulls: in one case the left canine has descended behind
the lateral incisor (as in the Whitechapel skull No. 7041); in another, the
premolar and molar ranges were markedly convex downwards; and in a third,
there was a retained and displaced canine.

The result of this examination, I venture to think, is that, in spite of the
paucity of examples of precondylar eminences and interparietals, which were so
remarkable a feature in the Whitechapel skulls, our present series has a peculiar
interest of its own, owing to the great number of abnormalities of one kind or
another which it displays.

(8) Frequency Distributions and Correlation of Cranial Characters.

Owing to the shortness of the Moorfields series I have not calculated the
frequency distributions, and for the same reason a determination of the numerous
correlations which were given in my Whitechapel paper is not attempted here; but
it may be of some interest to show the correlations of head length, breadth, and
height in female skulls, as there are considerably more of them than of males.
These are shown in the following Table:

TABLE XII.

Correlation of Cranial Characters. Female Crania.

Pair of Characters No. | Moorfields English No. Whitechapel English

L and H th 239 + 096 120 | 425 +051
L and B 57 619 + 055 130 | 350-4 ‘052
Band H Ws 293 + 093 115 340 + ‘056

The differences are somewhat considerable, although in the first and last case
within the range indicated by once to twice the probable error. The high
correlation between LZ and B in the case of the Moorfields crania is remarkable,
and exceeds considerably the values hitherto obtained. If not due to some special
disturbing source in the sample, e.g. the preservation of some very small female
skulls, it shows how little weight can be laid on the correlation values obtained
from small series of crania.

(9) General Conclusions.

The general conclusions to which I was led by a detailed study of the
Whitechapel skulls and a partial examination of the Moorfields series were given
in my former paper*, and are confirmed by the fuller investigation contained

* Biometrika, Vol. u1. pp. 206—7, 217, 240—244.

104 A Second Study of the English Skull

in the present memoir, Fortunately we are now in possession of much more
information regarding the Long Barrow Skulls than when I first wrote: I refer to
Mr E. H. J. Schuster’s paper on the Long Barrow and Round Barrow skulls in the
Oxford Museum*. With the aid of his results I am able to construct the
following Comparative Table, which is an enlargement of Table XIX of my
Whitechapel memoir}.

TABLE XIII.
Comparison of Moorfields and Whitechapel with Long Barrow Skulls.
MALE FEMALE
|
Character Moorfields | Whitechapel | Long Barrow} Moorfields | Whitechapel |Long Barrow
No.| Mean | No. | Mean | No.| Mean | No.| Mean | No. | Mean | No.| Mean
LT’ 19 | 188°0 72 | 187°8 & | 191°9 | 23 | 182°5 57 | 180°1 3 | 185°3
L 44 | 1891 | 137 | 189-0 | 16 | 190°6 | 63 | 183-4 | 140 | 180°4 | 13 | 182°6
fF 45 |186°9 | 188 | 187°3 | 17 | 18771 | 65 | 182°4 | 143 | 18071 | 12 | 184°0
B 46 |143°0 | 185 | 140°7 | 18 | 142°4 | 62 | 137°6 | 140 | 134°7 | 12 | 138°6
B 4Y | 98°5 | 182 | 98:0 | 16 | 98:9 | 64 |.95:°2 | 147 | 93:1 | 17 | 94:1
HT 34 | 129°8 22 | 132°0 | 12 | 137°8 | 47 | 123°6 | 124 | 124°6 9 | 135-1
OH 46 | 113°8 | 135 | 114°6 9|120°7 | 59 | 109°4 | 143 | 109:2 3 | 118-0
LB 85 | 98°5 | 119 | 101°6 | 11 | 101°9 | 46 | 95:9 | 122 | 95°3 & | 96°8
fml 36 | 354 | — _ 11) 35°7 | 50} 34:3 | — — 6] 34:5
fmb 34 | 29°7 | — = Dk We PAPO | OL) PASO) | — 6 | 30°2
U 87 | 527-1 | 131 | 524°2 | 16 | 534°9 | 56 | 512°7 | 136 | 503°8 7 | 518°7
S 40 | 378°5 | 131 | 87771 | 13 | 384°8 | 53 | 365°6 | 130 | 362°8 & | 382°0
Q 82 | 305°4 | 115 | 307°9 9 | 321°8 2|293°1 | 122 | 294:0 3 | 312°0
GI 20 | 68:1 75 | 70°2 | 13 | 69°9 | 27 | 64-1 21 65°9 4 | 66°7
GB 15 | 93°9 55 | 90°99 | 12 | 95:9 | 718 | -86°9 58 | 84:9 4) 92°7
J 7 | 129-0 43 | 130-0 3 | 134:0 | 18 | 122°0 38 | 120°3 1 | 132°5
NH 20 | 50°4 79 | 51:2 | 15 | 49:4 | 27 | 48-0 67 | 48°7 7 | 47:0
NB 18 | 24:0 70: | 24:3 | 25 | 24°) |.26 | 23°4 G4 | 2372 Z|) 22:8
GL ile) {8))80) 738 | 95:9 9 | 95°3 | 25 | 92:1 58 | 90°4 4 | 92°6
100 B/L’ 18-| 751 69 | 75:2 8| 74:4 | 21 | 75:4 55 | 74:6 3} 74:3
100 B/L 2) 75-5 | 181_|_ 7423. 16 | 7429) 257 ||| 276-00 208 74°7 | 12] 76:3
100 H/ZL | 3 68°4 | 120 | 70°0 | 11 | 72°7 | 44 | 67:2 | 117 | 691 & | 74:0
100 G'H/GB| 14 | 72:8 538 | 76°5 9 |) 71:4 | 18 | 73°5 b4 | 77:9 1} 81:0
100 VB/NH | 18 | 47°6 70 | 47°56 | 15 | 49:0 | 26 | 48:7 64 | 47°8 6 | 49-1
iP | 15 | 84°5°} 63 | 86:1°} 5 | 83:0°] 19 | 84°8°| 52) 871°; —} —

An examination of this Table and of the other comparative tables given in
this and the former paper amply justifies me, I think, in re-affirming my main
propositions, viz. that the Whitechapel and Moorfields skulls with which we have
been dealing represent the typical London skull of two centuries ago, and that
notwithstanding some differences, especially in height measurements, the type can
be described as approaching that of the Long Barrow men.

* Biometrika, Vol. tv. pp. 351—362.

+ I do not include eye and palate, as Mr Schuster and I have not adopted the same method of
measurement; probably also in measuring Q our methods would lead to somewhat different results.

Biometrika. Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate VI.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Tripartite Interparietal with
os pentagonale fused. Ossa triangularia free.

Ih SS)

to

" oT. ~—

Biometrika. Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate VII.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Double Ossicle
of Lambda.

L. 8. 36.

Biometrika. Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate VIII.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Triple Ossicle
of Lambda.

cS 4
i
amie
’
.
“~s.
j
&
. , r 2 .
= As ee ane og
. *

t
.

Biometrika. Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate IX.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Ossicle
of Bregma.

Biometrika. Vol. V, Parts | and Il, Plate X.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Paroccipital Process articulating
with Atlas.

”

Biometrika, Vol. V. Parts | and Il. Plate Xl,

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Pear-shaped in
Norma Verticalis,

L. 8. 97,

nn

Biometrika. Vol. V, Parts | and Il. Plate XIl.

Moorfields Crania. Special Skull. Showing receding Forehead and
post-coronal Depression.

L. S. 120.

ne

a
P
iT

ie

~~
;
ih
:
?
7

7
a
A an

Biometrika.

Vol. V. Parts | and II.

Plate XIll.

Female.

Typical Moorfields Cranium.

_—

Biometrika.

Vol. V. Parts |

and Il.

Plate XIV.

Male.

Typical Moorfields Cranium.

L. $8. 101.

4

Plate XV.

Vol. V. Parts | and Il.

Biometrika.

‘ayeula4

"UNIUBIQ Spjaydoow) BoldA

Biometrika.

Vol. V. Parts | and Il.

Plate XVI.

Female.

Typical Moorfields Cranium.

L, S. 32.

a:

»

, a”

Plate XVII.

Vol. V. Parts | and II.

Biometrika.

‘hyeydaoouyyeg

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"LUNIUBIQ Spjayuooy

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cal. ad. ossicle of bregma 18x12 mm, 1. ossicle of pterion.
coronal ridge, protuberant occipital. torus occipitalin -

cal. ad. r. zygomatic defect, interparietal pentagonal fased with
supra occipital. r-and |. triangular distinct. post parietal flatten-
ing. faint post coronal depression. marked inion. See Plate VI

cal. old, face very defective. r. ossicle of pterion 43 mm. long,
extending back in squamous suture. flattening of obelion

cal.—f. ad. (? young). Inrge basal and r. lateral defects. tri-
angular ossicle 15% 18mm. in parietal notch of |. temporal.
faint post coronal depression

eal.—{. ad. (? youny) with ethmoidal defect. flattening of obelion

cal, ad. (? young). spheno-ethmoidal defect. protuberant
occipital and marked inion

cal. ad. base fractured. slight post coronal depression. slight
protuberant occiput |

cal. ad. both zygomata defective. trs. fracture of base. slight
depression of obelion. slightly prominent occiput

cal. nd. lure occipital and r. temporal defect. apex of occipital
prolonged (linguiform process). obelion grooved, faint post
coronal depression, two small precondylar eminences

cal. ad. very defective

cal.—f. with left orbit. ad. slight post coronal depression
ossicles in lambdoid suture (horizontal foramen in |. spinous
sphenoid. imperfect porus crotaphitico-buccinatorius), slight

cal. —f. withorbits, ad. (? young) with large basal defect. slight
sagittal ridge and linguiform process on occipital. slightly
protuberant vevipnt

cal-ad. left half of face wanting. faint post coronal depression.

cal. ad. very imperfect—whole base. post coronal flattening on
r. side

dome. old, marked groove of obelion. protuberant oceipat

dome. ? old. occipital torus

cal. ad. left half of face wanting and 1. occipital defect. post-
coronal depression. slight torus occipitatix

eal.—f. ad. large 1. fronto-temporal defeot. metopic. sharp
occipital torus. two ossicles in right extremity of lambdoid suture

cal.—f. ad. very imperfect base, prominent ocsiput. traces of
ossicle of

eal. ad. (? old), r. parietal, 1. temporal and 1. malar defects.
post coronal depression. ossicle of asterion in part fused and
trinngular ossicle 15 x 12 mm. in parietal notch of temporal both
on r. side (roasto-squamosal suture)

cal.—f. ad. with sphonoidal defect. slight post coronal con-

ion, post parietal flattening. slightly protuberant occiput

cal.-f. ad. fronto-sphenoidal defect. slightly protuberant occipital

cal.—f. ad. ossicles in lambdoid suture

dome. ad. old. slight Hattening of obelion. slight torus
occipitalis

cal. -f. child. distinct post coronal depression. numerous ossicles
in lambdoid suture, on r. side one of 12 and one of 16 mm.
triangular ossicle in parietal notch of r. temporal. 1. ossicle of
pterion, imperfect porus crotaphitico-buceinatorius and horizontal
foramen in spinous sphenoid both sides |

ad. with fronto-ethmoidal defect. rather prominent

r. malar, temporal, occipital and 1. zygomatic defects.

distinct post coronal constriction. slight depression of obelion.
flattening of post parietal region, slightly plagiocephalic

cal.—f. old. prominent ceciput. traces of ossicle of \ and
considerable wormian in |. lambdoid suture. shallow groove of
obelion

dome. ad. posterior sagitt. grooving

cal.—f. old. with large fronto-sphenoidal defect. faint post
coronal depression

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MEASUREMENTS OF MOORFIELDS CRANIA, TABLE IL.

Lexorus Cincomrenesc Face Paste Ixpices Axanes Fonauex
:| a = = —s : = = a ——}|—|— = = Rewanks
| | 0 | fu
Sex] co | fF | co] oc | op | Bw | Hn | on my | sy || Ss auicp) y |we|ne| 1 %R| 1% R] G, | co, | oe | aye nel ap | Bj | GnGB Amie 041) OU Gye.) GL] Ne | 4c] Be| & | % | ec | sme | smo ie
| jad) | z |
= i =| SSS ae = eee <I}: | ces jee i ae [es =| Se — es ee
| | | | |
e2] — x82 | — | 184 | 1375] 94 | 123 | 1054 ais | 127 | 114 = | a Sa Si) SS eel a fre 3| eof Ih ee | —/—/]-—-]J—f—/}—}] —| —] — |] — Jase} — | — Jeal.-f. ad. with large defect base and 1. side. metopic ridge. |
| | | | | slight occipital prominence. torus 23 mm, above inion. trace of |
| | | | transverse oceipital sutare between the two eminences |
2 | — Jr | — Ji7s | 1265] 87 yar) 17 | 113 — f=) = | —} =] = Joo | = Jas] — | — | = | = | 223 | 68) | 10633] — = = || = || = — | — | — ]3°s9 | 2-89 | Sos J cal.—f. y.ad. with r. orbit. 1. temporo-sphenoidal defect. pre-
; = - | | coronal depression. See Plate XVI
at] = [383 | — 184 [138 | 100 126 | 129 | — Sy ST a a = |) a Se = IS = = =f Sp Sr S| SY SS = ad. protuberant oceiput |
? — |199 = ||Ir98 150 | 103 138 | 137. | 124 —|-| - = —|- = = — = _ = =))|'95°8) |e PS = = = = — — = _ ad. very defective base. flattening of obelion. pro-
fee aa ee | Sit | el | | | tuberant occipital. slight occipital torue
7 6 | = = = = See = = = = — | — | 3077) — Jeal.-f£ nd. defective base. metopic
2 | 202] 1 1 real aria ites 36 | Al Neat Pea | eee ie | | 744 | 71 | 1048 lee : cal. J. defective bi top
2021174 |173° | 173 seal 94 125 | 1 | 69 | 86 ]}120 | 52 | 24 | 39 | 39 | 325 ]34 | 43 | 35's | 75:7 | 73°4 | 75-7 | 73°4 | 1032) 80-2 ease 89 44° | 86° | 3:09 | 258 | 83-5 J cul. y. ad. gap in 1. temporal fossa, ossicle of A 25x30 mm. |
| | r, ossicle of pterion 35x 10 mm. r. paroccipital process 12 mm. |
| | | | | | | | long articulating with atlas. on 1. jugular process a small
. | | | | | articular facet. tecth present. r. Int, incisive canine. 1. canis
| | | | | tooth descending behind lateral incisor (cf. Whitechapel 7041).
| | | | | | | | Po sagittal groove. re antatly) completa porus crotaphitico-
. 2 |e, | | liptxel | ye - ‘ n ah [eee : | il | 5 | huccinatorius. See Plates VIL and X
2 [aren fizo | 169 170 | 130°5| 92 | 117 | 101 146 | 113, | 114 | 905) 58:3 | 60's | 82 | sn4'5| 435 | ar | at | gees | 325 | 32 [39 | ats | 77-2 | 692 | 76°8 | 688 rr6| 73:8 | 48:3. | 79°3 | 774 | S08 J 865 [67° | 73° | go? | ra | 28 | 85° J 3x3 | 2162 | 85:7 J eal. old. alight post coronal depression. r. foramen jugulare
88 | 18S S 8 “ 30 | "5 | 56-8 | 66: 6 | ere * real Pas aay a | eae eo toe 5 =| | | |e a
@ | tsqe |t 1 189 | 152 | 8 | 1s 1g) | 130 | 115 | 91 5] 56° | 665 | 96 | — | 52's | 28'5 | 40° | at's | 33 | 33'S | — | 415 | 808 | 644 | 80's | 64 | 125°6 3 | 343 | 81°5 | 80-7 | — | 73° | 4rs°) 14° | 27°5°| 87° | 3°56 | 304 S54 . zxgoma defective. frontal process |. temporal.
| | | | | | | | | | | | {age | i phaly. 4 wormians in lambdoid suture, r. ossicle
| | | | of asterion. premolar and molar range markedly convex down-
é 84] 183 | 18. 6 5 | 12 | 5 | 56°8'| 69's : a ‘ , | vate
304] 183/183. | 184 [136 | 95 [129 | 109 tag | 08 | 40 [1115 | 568 | 69's | 99/1225) 50 [2s | 40 | gos | aes a2 far | 37s] 743 | 205 | 739 | 704 qo2 | 50 [82] 79 | 798 J ors Jos? | 705°] 4irs®| t0°s*) 31° yo2 | 2:72 got | cal. ad, small posterior parictal and maxillary defects on 1. side.
pall egy [hes cl) col ecales Ny, ot at a ie Non Le es Blight depression of obelion
5 18 | eel os il reat [ee ary re eal og dlc St See = | SS SS a aa aa eas >} = )]=]/=-/]-P,-]—-]-]-]—-]- — | 3:73 | 3:05 cal.—f, Yold. fronto-ethmoidal defect
7 4 134) 135 | 116 | 95 [Eee | —}-—/]-]-—]—] =] = /75°:s | 686 =~} = |=—{=—] ===] =] = | =] =} = J 32s | su6 cal.—f, nd. spheno-ethmoidal defect, small 1. parietal. post
| | | | | coronal depression. frontal process to temporal on both sides.
| | | | | slight sagittal ridge. traces of transverse occipital sutare on
hI bevel sell) ear aa We (eee aa Peel eh [ | | each side |
| 3 | | | lee == Pai = —/|-!}—-}—-;,-—-]-]-]-] — | — — — Jdome. ?old. slight bathrocephaly. no wormian to be recog-
We | eee [ee aes ee oe |S ee | epee), pe eae | | ed in Iambdoid suture
A = aut = zt Bh 75 |93| — | s6 a Fee SaaS @ = = = = = - oF | z i oa | = eee | = | — = = = = = 3 ons slight bathirovep halves peracid eta closed
| = = 2 2 | So — | rors] 66°5° ep | = = = ud. extensive defect of hinder part and r, side. faint post
By SA | (ial ee | i | | | | ge ozone depression. 1. ossiele of pterion po
3] — — | 181 | = = = an | = = I — |) —-/-;}-/-/;-|]-]= — | — | dome. ad.
a= 181°5 | 181 14 at | = ere eh eA | el eal =| —f—Fo-}—) -—] — |] = bes] — | — | A J eome. ad. alight torus occipitatis |
|| ae 108 | 1/5) | see SE) | a ee | a ee en 2a SC js) f= f=) =] =] =] = lee | = == ality: fd. large occipital aud 1. parietal fractare. slight de- |
Ys =e ih ==) (| ieee Bene | Pec ee Wake =i }—f—f—-}—}]—] —}] —] = |] =) = } = J dome: 2010 [pression of obelion
| = aA Tak S| (ed enna eee [me = = =a }—-}-]J-]=- | — ]348 | 319 | 967 | binder part of cranium. old. sharp occipital torus 35 mm, long
| = 198 s | ee | Sis | 76'9 J=F—]f—] =] =] =} = | = J RH | 300 | = J dome. rota
| | | — 1735.) — _ = | — — = - -- =— | — | — | — J dome. ad. ossicle of bregma (between parietals) 23x10 mm.
179 — {18 = = Ss “s es re ae ex = = = = _ Ne ~ | | | rather sharp occipital torus 35 mm. long
| | | | | | = = |) = | 4 S| — =| =] — | — | — Jaome. ad. ?yonng. post coronal depression. linguiform pro- |
5 1837 | — | 183? Aish 7 ri | en ee Myles at NS Nps ney er | | F eats oe ata slight torus occipitalis
| 2 Sy = he ~ | — | — | = J3%45 | 3:00 $69 J cal.—f. ad. 1 temporal defect and extensive fracture. small
F 10 | — | 193 ted red |e Say een ee |e ee |S Nate lter I cl ee | ossicles in r. lambdoid. faint post coronal depression
2 | — |i | — |183 1081 | 119 || ee fea |e =| Sea SS al = ea Les 1 143: =~ |=) =] =—f-J—}]—)} — | — | =! = J 360] 2:72 | 75:6] cali nd. large r. occipito-parictal defect. slight r. post
é 188°5| — | 191-5 116 k 130 \oq ap Alea | | 73:9 | Wi ae Salles Sh Saal eS She eS dome. ad, [Goronialdepression |
= s ZI a Ze cngeek | em | em ote ee | a 7 = || Ra | | —|-—|= ad. . ‘onal depression
| | | 4 44 3 45°5 | 36'S 773 | | 68°6 449 | 738 | 739 | 802 | — oo > = = —-ji- eal. ad. large occipital and r. temporal defect and defect acca
| | | | | | | | triple ossicle of \ collectively ox 30mm. individually 25 x 20, |
Fi fees as) | i866 | eohees R i | | | Abt er mm. bilateral ossicle 10x12 mm. at outer end |
z 5 6" 9 2¢ i 25 | 127 | 4 93 | 563] 69 | 89} 121 | 48 19°5 | 42 41 | 34 | 36: 67°6 +5 | | ll tees - A of lambdoid. See Plate VII
, | | | 5 345 | 45 | 48 | 365 J 73°7 | 67°6 | 73°5 4oe | S21 | 841 | 76 | 93°5 | 67 cal, nd. traces of ossicles in lambdoid. retained and displaced
2 — J 193 98 | 120°5| righ 140114 | 119 | 95 | 569] - = =) if = = EF |) 2a ie — — | 703 wv | r. canine, slight torus occipitalia
| | | = |) — |} | cal,—f. y. ad. spheno-ethmoidal defect. bathrocephaly. nume-
ef—]—]-—- - =, Siz | — | — | = Ff ee eat emer eee ee eel re | | rous ossicles in Jumbdoid and r. masto-parictal sutures
g | 1308 ]185 | — | 96 | 120?) 106k a AMSA PD cer Ness | a AE Is ee eS ES alias teal! = |= i= PS | Sala dome. y.ad. yery imperfect. post coronal depression |
; | | | 123 | = = |=) =] 4] cal. =f. ad. small spheno-ethmoidal defeot. slightly prominent |
g — }187 | 190 ==a\|\so, - - —, | 124. | 105 | 61-6 | 64°5 | 96 | 133 St 260 | 45 29 29°5 | sos | 41°5 as ~s eo == — | 672 eT 69:9 | he . om | occipat. small torus occipitalis |
21 eae eel Fee | me RD mga faasx| — | — | — J |} = | | | Ss ice (ead ee) Pesala mae | Nee | I 2-2 | 98'5 | 72 | cal. ad. greater part of calvaria wanting |
1531 | 197 | 197°5 | 198 140°5| 94 [121 106 ¥29 | 1332 | 1257] 99 | 565 Joy | 82/125 | 47 | 23 | 4 35. | 32 [48 | 385 J 742 | 6r3 | 7g | Ort | tater | 78 489 | 768 | aseilleg Gl sae dome, y. ad. with small part of base
| | | | 99 | 70 | cal. nd. faint post coronal depression, faint bathrocephaly. small |
ie } a P phaly. |
| | | | | | | | | | | ossicles in lambdoid suture, one 25x15 mm. to left of \. bi- |
| | | | | } | | lateral ossicle in occipito-mastoid suture. 1. porus crotaphiticu-
| | | tuccinatorius, infra orbital suture on face. See Plate XIIT

SL aes

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ele
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2°38 | 65°8
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113 | 68-8
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15°6. | 67-2
6°2 —
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Sy | Os
76°9 | 73°1
ales
14°2 | 69°4
764 | 74°8
14°7 | 69°6
729 | 67°
ie 72
17 | 64°7
769 | 68°7
77°6 | 70°7
4°9 | 67°9
4 63
2°6 —
4 68
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107'2 68°7
DIGESY ss —
|
104.°5 7374
112°4 yaar
107°4| —
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|
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106'8 70°
MO2s0 (0 7'7.;
TOF Bip = 79
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r angles.

MEASUREMENTS OF MOORFIELDS CRANIA, TABLE III.
Lexotns Curcunrenexces Facr Patate Ispices ANODES Foran
= — — = —; - — - Reoanes
= ; = | z - ie | ee = =| aro 0, ; A | ey i 040, | 030 | ei |g | : 5 fl
B L inea|( cay aoe H | on | LB} u Ss Qs; | cc] @H| @p} Js | NH| NB R L R @, | G, | yr’) nyc’| Bye | Hj | Bin \G'H/an\NBiNH\ O71") |G yju,] GL | Nz | de | Be | 0, | Be | put | smh ey
Set at ee mle aS SSS ea ; =a [pez tem exon | ae ewe peal ee lies aL =F Se Dy (all alt | ;
183 [184 184°5 | 137 98 ]126 | arr | 95 J 515 | 375] 302 | 126} 120 | 129 105'5 | s72 | 7s }o3 | 131 | 535 |22 | 40 |4o 35 | 36 [46 | 4x Jas | 68:5 | 74:2 | 683 | 1087] 769 | gua | 87°5 |x | Sor 92 Jos? | 70° | 45° | rg? | gr? 184° [gest | 3:15 | 80-7 J cal. ad. slight occipital projection. large ossicles at apical
| | Peel | | | | | portion of lambdoid suture. bilateral ossicle of pteriun
8y'5| — Jrg25] tag | 965/126 [argh | 97 | 533 | 383] 302 | ro li25 [us | 93 | sos} — | —} — | —} —| —|—)— | —]=]—] —] = Jas) 654 Jas] — — |}=}=—)-—]}—]-— | —] — }] — | — | = 354] 286 | 808 | calf. ad. slight occipital projection. faint post coronal de-
| |° | | | | pression. torus occipitalis 35 mm. long
179M) aB1 9 1437;5131/-95'5] 2! |) —\ || Sar |f540)) 9554 sor zamma ||h 2) | itn (S72) 60a) | 0 | — | Soh ae OU ea ee ea ea a ee | — | — = | = | = ] 38 | 204 | 79°9 J eal.—f, ad, fractured 1, parietal. slight bathrocephaly. largo
| | | | | | fe He || | ossicle of bregma 63% 50 mm. nearly symmetrical, mostly be- |
f | rs eee | |e | | | | | | | | tween parietals. r. ossicle of pterion. See PlateIX
192 | — | 195 | 14675 | 106 — | 15h — | 540 | 383] — 139} 130 | 114 | 95 | Goof — = = = = = = = = = = - = r= — = = 7 = | = = = | = —S = —|— =a = — | dome. ad. slight bathrocepbaly. no ossicles in \. faint foru«
Ip 2 Weel | | A | i | | occipitalis, slight post coronal depression |
185 185 186 143°5 | 96 | 122 | HO 94°5] 524 | 366 | 304 127| ? 2 = — | 126 = — | 4qo5.| — |3s | — — — 177° | 65:9 | 65:6 |riz6| — | — | S64 _ - - — - =| = | — — | 3°37 | 2°93 , $69 | cal.—f. ad. with 1. orbit. bathrocephaly. numerous large
| Hean| : | | F | ossicles in Iambdoid. suggestion of torus occipital
177/179 179 | 135°5 | 87 | 120? | 100 90 | 500 | 352 | 273? ? 2 Fam meet i} 62°51) [877.2 Jizz | 485 | 26 | gr 4V5 | 305 | 32 32'5 | 75:7 | 67 157 | 67 ui2z9q 0 812 536 76°38 | 7771 | $3°5 [63°5° | 745° | 42° | 15°5° | 26°5° | ga 3738 | 3:02 cal. ad. depression of obelion (r. fronto-squam
: | | | | te | «| 1. oasicle of pterion
— - Se eaess 98 — |[srr0? or > _ - _ = Se se 70 | 91 128 | 53°5 | 26°5 \4 43 35 35 47 4t = = |p 769 495 | 85-4 | St-g | 87°2 | 96 65°5° le jars? to’ | 31°5° | 83° 3°60 | 2°97 cal. ad. occipital and bregmatic defects. slight torus occipitalia
184 185 142 945] — | zh — | 519 | 382 | 305 | 130/135 | 117 | 93 | 567 =| afl ty | = Tt aaa tee fh — = = al Sa a sae J |e — | > | = |= | = | = Jdome. ad. faint post coronal depression (anterior half of sagittal
| | | | | | faintly ridged and posterior faintly grooved). trace of occipital
| ; + Peal | | torus
72 | s | 1643 201 |202 | 202 147 10g | 133 117 too [558 408 | 312 135 | 140 | 133 107 57°4 | 67 | o1 132 | 49 28 43 4h5 | 32 32°5 [55°5 | 40? |. 72°8 65°38 1105) 736 | 571 744 | 724 | 97°5 | 68 72°5° | 39°5° | 12°5° | 27 85 345 | 2°95 85°5 | cal. ad. slight temporal defects trilateral. slight occipital promin-
| | | | ence
wt:| — Nee ES mica = |i104 | — = a neal =P NS | sell fo | (Seal ene fas —j}=—]|= - | — dome. ad. with small
F ah I = 7 D 1 | | | : ad. part of base
| PE |e frais | 1865) 186 | 134 95 5 | 108 | 98 113, | 96. | 61°9 120/450 | 235] 41 | 4t | 31 48 67'2 | 107-2) 687 | 522 78 | 75. |95'5:|'69° | 742 137° | 9° | 28 eal. ad. faint pre-coronal depression
| 7 \¢ Zen ee | 139 92) [inrg” || inno‘skit 92 113, | 90 | 568 | = jf = fir= = 6579) ((010;87 aa) = || = ~ =—|- = dome. ad. with occipital. slight occipital prominence, sagittal
I Brau tes ser lers: a) s Re eal es | | | | | | faintly grooved posteriorly
HG sedis 35°53 es os peoarel e —|/-—/-]- — | — — —|-|]-|- - = dome. old. with occipital
| ica) 97° | 196" 1415} 103 | 135°5| 117 a | tag?? | rea? 42°5 | 32°5 | 32°5 [st | 68'S | 1045] 734 | 446 76°5 | So"g | 95°53 [65° | 75°5° 95 cal. nd. . apKomin defective, ossiclo of X 15%13 mm. slight |
NG eae [18 17895 | 13057 {een eas |16 | 92 go. | — [az | — =|) = ast | — | 80 99 | 685° | 75° 9 ai iy {abtei treqras io pnd inalee detect
So all ese lngees I eee tinea naa a lee || 39°5 | 29° | 29°5 | 45°5 27/24 sa | 7477 | 7477 | 85:7 J 90 | 67°5° | 77° 8 cal. ad. suggestion of occipital torus ; marked oceipital asymmetry
| aL | selene Piro] — ast Sis ee os sau ee | dome, ad. slight torus occipitalis
: ; 4 ||) || 707 | — —=}=—]/—-—]/—]=}]- - cal.—f. ad.
82 | 3 = ]11822)| = alle» |IIt49°5 zh? | — — | - ae hs Hh Uratt | * F 5
| pe Sa = | =| 2) = — | | cal.—f. ad. large fronto-sphenoidal defect. slight prominence
| | | | | | | | | | of occiput. faint post coronal depression. traces of ossicle
. = [ease | | : e| | ‘ | 20x 20mm. in r. lambdoid
83 | ¢ 18} | 187 | 187 ror | 97°5 117 | 97 | 59°5 | 63 —|—]«6 |—|—|a — |32 ors | — | 61's | = — =a lie —2 i478) — for Joss j76* 39° | — = | — Jnr | — | — Jal. old. 1, haltfnce parietal and basal defects. shallow posterior
Beats HBS) — A Ue) fr | os] 622] — | —| —] — | —]-—]-—] -] - — | 769 | 73 | 2053) — Se | | 3°56 | 2°74 | 7770 Ai aE SE a Tathrocopbal
| | = = ae = St |e 1 2 7 .—f. |. = te : athrocephaly,
85 |e ial = ‘ ? x 2 SS eee | ee | | | | ; small catia in lambdoid. trace of torus occipitalia Poe
Ls lias fi | salle = fe = | | = 2) —| =. - ome, ad.
ao 2 van uP) 3 18 wee ack ee eee 86 jizz 465 245 38°5 | 30°5 | 3 38°5 69°38 | 74:2 | 6 106'S — 70°9 | 52°77 | | cal. ad. occipital rather prominent
Bee] =| tivo | 168 33 eee leas 35H Urea [ESE 23/50 (teal cease | SE 50 | 75. | 76% | 748 j 1021 773. | 461 eal. ad. bilateral zygomatic defects, slight torus occipitalis
| | | 88° | 65-3 74 | 99 | 40 | 2t | 365 | 365 | 33 35? 69°6 | 74°7 | 696 | 107-3. 79 52°5, | cal. child abont 5 or 6 years; faint post coronul depression
| | | | | | | teeth in situ 7 and 2 temp. molars each side Ist permanent
agilfe Al rast Nixogre'| — i A : rs | | | Zs | | molar and mesial incisor just coming down
441 5 6h | 97 SISMmm 130 Hit26slis3qy 07, fsorgA[— eels emt ee al a a | — | — | — | 729 Jers | 108 = |= —{—)=—]-—]=— 9 = | — | = | = | = J: | 3:30 | 982 | cal.—f ad. small ecthmoidal defect. metopic. slightly promi-
S08 sat) =: Wsese |), = Al = Sia a | | | | nent occiput. faint post coronal depression
| | | 38124 | 119 | 99 | 59 elf ee ee | a | en oc lt — }—);-—}—-]F,—-]—-}-—-]—-—) —! —! =] = | = | = Jaome. ad. slightly prominent occipital. I ossicles in lamb
| | | | | | | | | | | | e. ad. slightly p pital. small ossicles in lamb-
On|ethe fase | = yy la} eal Alle lee oe | | | doid suture
| | | 107 98 360 | 285 | 18 }122 | 120 lez Gro] =" || — -|- = = aes | = | = | = Jaze | 647 jan = — }—}—-!]—]—]J—] —] = | = | = | = Jars | 2%66 | 87-2 | cal.—t. ad. 1, temporo-sphenoidal defect. post coronal de-
92 |e frgr5 [182 (181 | 182 | 140 96 | 125 5 | 514 | 372 | 2 6 | 12 | 58:2 n e on | \hee pression. protuberant occipital
| 5 4 6 |i25 an 95 | 514 | 372] 299 [126 }127 11g | 97 | 582] 62 | — | — | 4g | 22 [ars | — j 325 | — Jas 39 | 77:3 | 654 | 269 | 687 | 112 ~ 4o'4 | 783. | — | 80r4 | 93:5 | 6ors° | 72 845° | 340 | 276 | 81-2 | cal. ad, r. malar defective. faint post coronal depression. ossicle
93 |2 ] — [188 [189 | 1895) 1 rr 3) hoo} keceil Bl ey a ee |e a | | in parietal notch of r. temporal =
5 | 147 7 faq | an 9) ]:535)) 380) esto 134111302) ERA g Si SZ ras stall i — alas eal tse — ]77°8 | 79°9 | 77'6 | 70:7 | 10976) — | =) = Wea | =f} =} = | = | — | = | = | = J lsi22 | 280018679, cal sa (old) with r. orbit. large 1. spheno-temporal defect
94 | a |agrs [184 | 187 | 187 |140 98 | 427 97° | 518 | 373 | | ‘i alle E | Z | | and small 1. frontal defect
} | 5 | | 9 | 127 | tog) 97°75} St | 373 | 290 12y | 126 | 123 | 99 | 57°4 | 74°5 | 103 = |f33 23°5 | 43 4 33 — [sr | 4 749 | 67°99 | 74°9 | 67°9 | 110°2 | 443 | 767) — 80-4 | 101 | 70°5 | 10'5° | 33°5° | 76° J 3°50 | — - cals na 1 Byaomntice § and poral it oemnoral and r. maxillary
| \ | | lefective. bilnteral frontal process of squamous temporal.
95 |? 1506 | 1875) — | 190°5 | 1gt 92°5|120 | 10h “51 530 | "i | | | | prominent inion. slight occipital prominence
[Magill bea] ze=e tbagas lpg” (app |useesiil gz lise | 8 a aieanec4 | ||Paate Fre ESS HSCEzA oth eset er Rear ree bee aa ee | =] =| — |m_|6 urs) — |) a Net lars | ee Seis
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| ze?) 1582 frog | 19g 194 | 14375 | 103 | age | 116, 96 3 | 126 2 5 | 37" Ph | . enfies . let | - (2 microcephalic)
fa ; : 3 $39 | 401 | 307 133 | 121 1 115 | 37°8 | 63 89 121 | 46 225 | 41 4 32°5 | 32 ery 365 J 74 | 68 74 | 68 | 108-7) 708 489 | 793 | 3 82:9 ] 92 |67> | 74° | 39° | 13? | 26° | 87° | 3°33 | 2°68 | Sovs | cal. ae suture and ridge parietal bulging and rather penr-
a firg3g. [x83 4/184. 1185 ).137°5 | 96. 1130 | 110. | 100. [issr'l_365:| gar aalh 126 | 123 5 <| oes 8 F ¥ |. . | bees | shaped in norma verticalis. occipital prominent. Seo Plate XI
| 3 | 511 | 365 [s 1 26/123, | 116 | ro0'5| 64'5 | 66 \49°5 20s} — |39 — | ans | a4s | 32°5 | 74-7 | 206 | 743 | 70°3 | 1058) — 434 | — | 808] 73 [oy | 655°! 75° | 395° | 1° | 285° | 86° | 3-40 | 2°67 | 78:5 | cal-nd. r. temporal and zygomatic 1. malar defects. slight post
| | | | | coronal depression. ossicles in lambdoid (one on 1. 15 x 16 mm.)
| | | | | | | | and . parieto-mastoid suture. fattening of obelion, "faint
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MEASUREMENTS OF MOORFIELDS CRANIA. TABLE IV.

Lesorns CncenveneNces Ixprces Axours Fouares
== —— a! —— ee es = —— Resanks
i ] h
Sor |sx] oC | r |e | po] op | we | a | on ul s | e| s| sy |c.c| GH| Gp | 6, | ae | ayer | aye | aye. | By |earjen| xnjwn| S| 1% | Gyo) ex | xz | az | ue | o | a | ee | sat | pmo | im
isa = _ oe bs EE al poy a3|s — is Eaae® si = = aa i | aie a : =
| | : i | |
99 | ¢ — frg25) — |193 | 148 | 97 | 134 | 119K 544. | gor | — —|—]—! — [ss | 90 I y A sty —|-|- | 267 | 69-4 | 110°5} 761 | 1S | 765 | 75°6 | — ]93 Jo6s" 71° | gorse | — | — | — | 3:42 | 2:65 | 775 | cal. ad. r. temporal absent. coronal ridge. marked bathro-
| | | | | | cophaly. ossicle of \ with series of large ossicles in lambdoid
; | | | j | suture. See Plate XVII
100 Jes | 1212? J785} 177 |177°5] 133 | 92 | 18 | 985 498 | 346 | 268 | 1o1 | 1182] 107?) 87? | s84 [68 | — : | = J 7s | 66:7 | 749 | 665 | urz7] — | 436 | — | 875 | — | 8x oor | 735° | 465°] 13° | 335° 865° | 3°81 | 3-21 | Sy-2 Jeol. nd. 1. malar defective. posterior sagittal groove. pair of
| cA : | : \paaea| | : | minate precondylar eminences
| 101 | Jagas7 ]186 | — Jr90 | 1345] 945] 129 | 113 sv | 376] — [as2]| 128 | 116 | 100 | 638 | 67's. | — | — | — | = | 708} 67-9 | 1043] — | 52 | 905} — | — oz Jr05° | 685° | 41 — | = | — ] 37 | 3-22 | 83:2 | cal. ad. 1.temporal andr. malar defective. slightly grooved obelion. |
| ; lise ’ i | | | | Prominent occipnt. traces of ossicle of pterion. See Plate XIV
102 | o |1526 | 184 [87 188 145 | 96°5| 129 | 108 528 | 375 | 300 |g? | 126 | m7 | or | 558} — | — 775. | 69 | 77 | 86 Juez] — | — — | =f —F—)] =) —) =F = | = Porsi sco | 95°2 -f. ad, with l. malar bone. post coronal depression. slight
| i i | | | ; | | | mid. sagittal groove. slight bathrocephaly. no wormians
| 103 | 2 | 1709 194 | — ]198 [go [sag | 132 | r17-5h 548 | 395 | 314 jase | 132 | 131 | tog | 566 | — - | | — - — | 75'°8 | 66-7 }113%6) — | — =|} — = | —_ ~ — — | 3°88 | 302 | \77'8 | cal.-f. ad. metopic. post coronal depression. slight bathro-
| | | | | | cephaly. two ossicles in outer part of lambdoid r. side.
| A Rye 5 | | | | prominent inion
wos |e} — Juss | — ass-s]rgz | 98 freq | ren 522 | 365 | 303 | 11a | 113. | 133 | 1045! 561 | — | — — | —| — | 792 | 668 nee! = = | Sea | — | — | = | ~ = J 3:79 | 345 | S34 | cal—1. ‘nd. . temporal and spbeno-ethmoidal defects. ossicle of
| 1. lambdoid. lingniform process of occipital
105) }'e J = fig} = I digg | =] ie ||) eee | ||) | ak = ae ee | el | — || — | dome. ‘ad. protuberant occipital. onsich
2 > Hes Malle ‘ ; : | nd. pital. ossicle of X
| 108 | = Ss | — [186 Jraas| 95 | v32 | sos 3 | 295 ng | 95 | 564] — | — | = 2 ava (ese'liss!) S|) = = SS tS 4) t= | 2794 | 85 J cal. —f ad. faint posterior sagittal groove. slight forus occipitulis |
107 |» 181 | 182°5 | 183. | 144°5| 95. | |110° | 365 | 300 121 | 100'5 | 5977 | 64'5 | 90°5 | | 792 | 707 | 79 | 705 |ur2 | 713 | 485 | 720 | 95 [69° |72° |39° | 7° | 32! | 01 | 85-3 J cal. ad. 1. zygomatic defect. . slight coronal ridge. bilateral
. | | | | | | | fronto-temporal junction. protuberant occipital
| 108 | = 183°5| — | 1825] 134 | 94'5| 120 | 108h 280 | ua | 95 | soo] — | — | { | = |f = |) = I73°4- |'66:3 \Jx1077)|' — = =a) = eS] iv yor | $98] calf. Told. ethmosphenoidal defect, prominent inion. slight
P . | lee i ; ' i eed | | | | | | post coronal flattening
) 109 | ¢ Sr | 183, | 184 | 137 g2 | 121 | 104-5 287 v3 — | 65°5 | 89°5 2" x 49°5 | 74°9 | 661 | 74°5 | 65°83 | 113-2) 7372 4or 77°6 S62 | 95°5 | 69's" | 70's” | go" | — — 2°91 | S61 | cal. old. plagiocephalic. 1. occipital flattening. slightly de-
aren lee ae | | | | | | atessel obelion. | (?fronto.temporal junction)
Q —{—|-—]=/]}-]-j}-]-]-|] = Se a) Se = ie aia | omersrnamastective etimetopis
lll | ¢ 16h vis! | EP Oe ne ee ? Saba 2 eel eal) = aioe . | | 5
a | 756 | | amt |7z3} 741 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | = | = Jpcat- na. targe occipital and 1 temporal defect, metopic. torus
See ee es | ie es tees | | | | | | | piceeipitalie.” ossicles in lambdoid. faint post coronal depression
7 = 2 = — - —|— — | 11372 = = = = = 3°68 | 2°92 | 79°3 | hinder part of cranium. ad. facet on anterior margin of foramen
| | | | |
| aa re i magnum
}113 | 2 107 129 |126 | 08 | 84 | 6x 60's | 87°5 75°9 | 66°5 | 75:7 | a4 | 808 | 789 | 841 J 95 3'sq | 3:14 | 88-7 | cal. y. ad. 3rd molar in plane. infantile uppor face. post
| | | | coronal depression. ossicles of \ (between parietals) 13 x 13mm.
tials tek | = pile | | obelion slightly depressed
| | — } 134 | 122 | rors! 59:9 | — | — —-|-|-|- - — | —} — 349 | 295 | 845 | cal--f. ad. large frontal defect. protuberant occipital. slight
re tke lee BLES =| | i torus occipitalis. {aint post coronal depression
2 -|-|- — | — | = | 727 | 67-6 | 1076) — Spal fee || = 315/253) 74 [eal ad. with, othmoidal defect, “faint torus occipitalis.
| f i bs P lattening of obelion
pues ayy 134 | nooisi| [60's || — | —| = | 76 | 70% |sora} — | — | — | —| —] — gor | 288 | 71-8 | cal.=f. ad. large 1: temporo-sphenoidal defect. metopic
| | | 124 | 925) 579 | 6 | 9: 42°5 | 73-7 | 66:3 | 73°5 | 661 |rttt| 69°6 | 54-3 | 6074 | 71-1 | 83°3 | oS 308 | 2°55 | $28 | cal. ad.(? young). small. frontal defect. post coronal depression.
| | | | | | | Parictal expansion. slight r. parieto.oecipital flattening. bi
us |< Tah || a i | an Ite | teral pterygo-spinous bridge
| 519 | 375 | Part | 135 | 10375 55°71 | —]-— - — —|-|]- 3731 | 3101 |)909 dome. ae large iealal defect. depression of obelion. median
ug | 2 a 2 | ae = parietal foramen, linguiform process to occipital 25 » 41 mm.
720 | 3? = ee 35 a i; U8. " ee 38 ie = = - = — = Ss _ = — | — | dome. ad. 1 upper parietal defect [See Plate XII
121 ron 338i Spot aeealnea? | dae aae Bees | eo hea 4s | 737 — | 462 | 841 933 | 3°82 | 2°84 | 743 | od. r. malar defect. post coronal depression, receding forehead.
5 ‘ 94? | 62 2 = 756 | 521 | 72-2 | 711 | 77°9 | 95 322 | 344 975 Jad. (rola). 1. temporo-parietal defect. slight bathrocephaly.
| | sagittal and lambdoid sutures obliterated

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ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF INTELLIGENCE TO SIZE
AND SHAPE OF HEAD, AND TO OTHER PHYSICAL
AND MENTAL CHARACTERS.

By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

(1) Introductory. In two earlier memoirs* my co-workers and I have dealt
with certain of the present problems. The methods then used by us were such as
are suitable for dealing fairly rapidly with large masses of material, and by those
methods the conclusions drawn were :

(a) that there is a slight correlation between size of head and general
intelligence fF,

(b) that this correlation is not sensibly increased by allowing for the size
of the body relative to the size of the headt,

(c) that the correlation is so small that it would be absolutely idle to
endeavour to predict the intellectual ability of an individual from his or her
head measurements§. On the other hand, if a population were divided into those
with large and those with small heads, we should expect to find a very slight
balance of average intelligence in the former group.

The present more precise and extended investigation is based upon the more
elaborate statistical reductions carried out during the last few years in my Bio-
metric Laboratory.

The material dealt with is the same, namely :

(i) The head measurements of upwards of 1000 Cambridge graduates. I have
already expressed my thanks to the Cambridge Anthropometrical Committee for
this material, and to Mr W. H. Macaulay of King’s College, and the University
Registrary for supplementing the measurements with ample particulars of the
examinational standing of each graduate.

* R. S. Proc. Vol. 69, pp. 833—342, 1902; R. S. Proc. Vol. 71, pp. 106—114, 1902.

+ R. S. Proc. Vol. 69, p. 339.

ehaise roc. NOL. (lp. ble,

§ R. S. Proc. Vol. 69, p. 340. See also a series of letters to the British Medical Journal, Jan. 27—
March 17, 1906, and Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 391 et seq.

Biometrika v 14

106 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

(ii) The measurement and observation of considerably more than 5000 school
children. This material was collected by the aid of many teachers, and with
assistance from the Government Grant Committee™*.

The present investigation deals with the girls as well as the boys, who alone
were considered in the earlier papers. Further, it gives the results in as complete
a form as they admit of being tabulated in, and reduces them therefore by a more
ample theory than was previously possible. We have investigated the mean and
variability of each grade of intelligence for each measurable character. From
these means we have deduced the fundamental constant, the correlation ratio ,
which becomes identical with the coefficient of correlation when the regression
is lineart. The value of 7 must of course depend to some extent on the nature
of the intellectual grading, but the results now obtained are: (i) in good agree-
ment with those of the preliminary papers deduced by a totally different statistical
process, (11) in good accordance with each other.

While they largely extend, they yet in every respect confirm our previous
main conclusion that: While there exists a slight but sensible relation between
size of head and intelligence, there is no possibility of using this relation to make
even rough individual predictions.

In the present memoir the full results are for the first time published, and
there will be found some discussion of each character taken in order.

(2) On the Expression of Intelligence by a Quantitative Scale.

In dealing with the Cambridge graduates we classified our material into four
grades only: (1) First Class Honours, (11) Second Class Honours, (iii) Third Class
Honours, and (iv) Pass Degrees.

In the case of the school data we classified into (1) Quick Intelligent, (ii) Intellz-
gent, (1) Slow Intelligent, (iv) Slow, (v) Slow Dull, (vi) Very Dull.

Now, for the purposes of determining the correlation ratio between intelligence
and the physical characters, 1t is unnecessary to make any assumption as to the
extent to which these grades fit into any quantitative scale. But in order to
exhibit the results graphically, it is needful to have some scale of intelligence
to plot our average physical characters to. We have accordingly selected, as the
normal scale of intelligence, that which would be given if the frequency distribu-
tion of intelligence followed the normal or Gaussian curve of errors. Whatever
the true scale may be, it can only be a more or less—probably less—distorted
form of this scale. Such horizontal distortion has no effect on the value of the
correlation ratio for the plotted physical character, and an a priori justification of

“ Fuller particulars as to the schedules and method of collecting will be found in my Huxley
Memorial Lecture: see Biometrika, Vol. ut. pp. 131—190.

t “‘ Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution, XIII, On the Theory of Contingency
and its Relation to Association and Normal Correlation.” Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs,
Dulau and Co.

K. PEARSON 107

the scale may be found in the fact that the plotted points of the regression curves
are for a number of pairs of characters, within the limits of random sampling, on
a straight line when such a scale of intelligence is used. It is convenient to
put the plotted values of the physical character in each case along the centroid
value of the frequency of the corresponding grade.

In the Cambridge graduates the median ability lies fairly closely on the
boundary between third class honours and pass degrees. In the school children
the median division is closely in girls, and less closely but still approximately in
boys, between the intelligent and slow intelligent groups. The following, indeed,
will be found to give roughly the equivalent grading :

School Children Graduates

Quick Intelligent = First Class Honours.

Tali pere -{ Second Class Honours.
5 : Third Class Honours.

Slow Intelligent

Slow

Slow Dull

Very Dull

= Pass Degrees.

This equivalence of grouping is a fairly satisfactory result, but it suggests that,
in future, it would be better to break up the intelligent class into two sub-groups,
and to differentiate further those who take pass degrees. We might then form the
following scale of intelligence :

(a) Specially Able, (8) Capable, (vy) Intelligent, (6) Slow Intelligent, (e) Slow,
(€) Slow Dull, (7) Very Dull and Mentally Defective. The first three groups
would then correspond approximately to first, second, and third class school and
University honours*.

* To the teacher trained by many generations of pupils these divisions will provide almost uncon-
sciously an appreciation of classes. For those who have not this experience it is difficult but necessary
to attempt a verbal description. The following definitioas are based on those provided in the schedules
for the inquiry as to school children, and for a further research on adults in progress.

(a) Specially Able: a mind especially bright and quick both in perception and reasoning about
not only customary but novel facts. Able and accustomed to reason rightly about things on pure self-
initiative.

(8) Capable: a mind less likely than the specially able to originate inquiry, but quick in perception
and in reasoning rightly about the perceived.

(y) Intelligent: a mind ready to grasp and capable of perceiving facts in most fields. Capable of
good reasoning with a moderate effort.

(6) Slow Intelligent: a mind slow generally, although possibly more rapid in certain fields, but
quite sure of knowledge once acquired.

(e) Slow: a mind advancing in general, but very slowly; with time and considerable effort not
incapable of progress.

(9) Slow Dull: a mind capable of perceiving relationship between facts in some few fields with long
and continuous effort, but not generally, or without external aid.

(n) Very Dull: a mind capable of holding only the simplest facts, and incapable of grasping or
reasoning about the relationship between facts; the very dull group covers but extends somewhat further
up than the mentally defective.

14—2

108

Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

If we pass to the quantitative measurement of these groups, we may compare
them either (i) by equivalence of variability, or (11) by equivalence of class.

These two methods of approaching the matter are indicated in Tables I

and IT.

If we take o; the standard deviation of intelligence as unit, we obtain the three
scales given in Table I, and we see that the scale differs somewhat for girls, boys,

and men.

TABLE I.

Relative Scales of Intelligence with the Standard Deviation o; as Unit.

Class

School Girls

School Boys

Graduates

Class

Median Individual

‘0070; below top of
Slow Intelligent

‘1130; below top of
Slow Intelligent

0460, above bottom

Median Individual

downwards Group Group of 3rd Class downwards
ss fos 8530; above bottom | *7330;above bottom | _,. : so
Median Individual | o¢ g}dy Intelligent | of Slow Intelligent 4360; below top of | Median Individual
upwards Giae G 3rd Class upwards
p roup
Range of Slow : :
Intelligent Lote es
Range of Slow 6420; 7220;
z rom Ole, | Range of Pas
Pere Degrees
Range of Slow Dull 6400; 7250;

Range of Very
Dull

From 2°135¢; below
median to «

From 271800; below
median to

Range of Intelligent

1:0330;

11080;

Range of 3rd Class
Range of 2nd Class

Range of Quick
Intelligent

| From 1:040¢; above

median to

From 1:2210; above
median to

From 1:031l¢; above
median to o

Range of 1st Class

The divergence, however, is probably not wholly due to a difference of varia-

bility. The bulk of the girls were observed by woinen-teachers, and of the boys
by men-teachers, while the estimate of the graduates was formed in a wholly
different manner, namely, by examination tests. Apart from this, women and
men are not equally variable in any actually measurable character, and there is
no reason to suppose they are necessarily so in intelligence. I have therefore
rearranged the scales on the assumption that our common unit is the “Intelligent”
group, and that this is the same for boys and girls and equal to the range of the

third and second classes of graduates.

gives the corresponding scales.

K. PEARSON

TABLE II.

109

Table IT exhibits this result, and Fig. 1

Relative Scales of Intelligence with the range of “ Intelligent” taken as Unity.

Class

School Girls

Median Individual
downwards

007 below top of
Slow Intelligent
Group

School Boys

Graduates | Class
|

‘102 below top of
Slow Intelligent
Group

‘043 above bottom | Median Individual

of 3rd Class | downwards

Median Individual

*826 above bottom
of Slow Intelligent

662 above bottom
of Slow Intelligent

‘405 below top of ‘Median Individual

¢ a \| aT ar
upwards Group Group 3rd Class upwards
Range of Slow OK :
Intelligent eon We
Range of Slow 622 652 ,
From :043 from Range of Pass
= median to oo Degrees
Range of Slow Dull 620 654

Range of Very
Dull

From 2:066 below
median to

From 1:967 below
median to

Range of Intelligent

1-000

1:000

Range of 3rd Class
Range of 2nd Class

Range of Quick
Intelligent

From 1:007 above
median to o

From 1°102 above
median to

From °957 above

. Range of 1st Class
median to

Thus, as we might have anticipated, to suppose the intelligent to give unit

range on the intellectual standard provides us with far more concordant results
than estimating the variability to be the same for boys, girls, and graduates. In
fact, an examination of Fig. 1 shows for this sort of enquiry surprisingly close
results. It is clear that the median character is very close to the frontier between
slow intelligence and intelligence, or between honours and pass in the Cambridge
academic standard. There is clearly a little shifting of the boundaries of the
“dull group” between boys and girls, but the mean values of the limits may well
be taken as within the limits of the probable error.

After much consideration, I would tentatively suggest the following scale of
intelligence :

I divide the range of the “Intelligent” into a hundred units, which I propose

to term mentaces. It is clear that we can have no absolute measure of the intelli-

Shape of Head

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K. PEARSON 111

gence of the median individual*, hence intellectual grades will be measured by a
plus or minus number of mentaces above the median. The median individual
must be looked upon as one whom, if a child, an experienced teacher would
hesitate to class in the intelligent or slow intelligent groups, or who would be
considered a doubtful honours candidate at Cambridge. Clearly 100 mentaces is
not far from the standard deviation of intellectual power in man.

The following is the suggested classification :

(i) Geniust, more than +300 mentaces. This corresponds to individuals of
more than three times the standard deviation from the mean.

(ii) Specially Able, +100 to +300 mentaces. This corresponds to quick
intelligent children and first class University honours.

(iii) Capable, +45 to +100 mentaces. This corresponds to second class
University honours.

(iv) Fair Intelligence, +0 to +45 mentaces. This corresponds to third class
University honours. Groups (iii) and (iv) cover the ground occupied by the school
teacher's classification of “intelligent,” and comprise about one-third of the total
population.

(v) Slow Intelligent, — 0 to — 80 mentaces.

(vi) Slow, — 80 to — 144 mentaces.

(vii) Slow Dull, — 144 to — 208 mentaces.

(viii) Very Dull, — 208 to —300 mentaces. This group passes into the
mentally defective. Groups (v) to (vill) occupy the range corresponding to pass
men from the academic standpoint.

(ix) Imbecile, less than — 300 mentaces.

We may look upon the whole scheme from another standpoint, corresponding
more closely to Francis Galton’s decile arrangement, though unfortunately we can

only a posteriori determine our class indices, and cannot make them suitable round
numbers.

Taking 1000 individuals and arranging thei in intellectual order: The first,
one man in a thousand, would be a genius, then follow 157 specially able men, next
168 capable men, then 174 of fair intelligence ; this covers the 50 per cent. above
the average. Below the average we have first 288 of the slow intelligent type,
then 137 slow persons, next 56 slow dull, followed by 18 very dull including
mentally defective individuals, and finishing with one imbecile; thus completing
the 50 per cent. with less than average intelligence.

This scale is represented in the upper part of Fig. 1.

* He can hardly have more than 350 to 400 mentaces, for at a negative position of —350 to — 400
on the scale we have passed through the very dull group into imbecility and complete absence of reason-
ing power. The child whose low grade of intelligence occurs only 3 or 4 times in 100,000 cases, must
be sought in the idiot asylum.

+ The standard deviation of school girls is 96:8 mentaces, of school boys 90:3, and of graduate males
92°9, or an average of 93:3 mentaces. The females thus appear more variable than the males in
intelligence.

This is of course, purely arbitrary, the simple quantitative idea of ‘‘one man in a thousand.”

112 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

Naturally I do not insist on any particular part of this scale. The numbers
are entirely round numbers, and are based on the “normal” distribution of the
frequency of intelligence. Still, it is deduced from three series covering the classi-
fication of between 4000 and 5000 cases, and the three separate results are in general
accord. It will, I think, be possibly useful for other enquirers, and it endeavours
to give quantitative expression to our verbal definitions of the intellectual cate-
gories. One or two points are suggestive. While the specially able men, the
first class in academic judgment, are fewer than either the capable men or the
fairly intelligent men, they cover a range double the extent of that of both these
two classes added together. In other words, the differences among the specially
able are far more marked than in the case of “intelligent” men. This is of course
a universal experience, but it is of interest to see its approximate quantitative
value.

In the same way the Very Dull minds, although only one-third as numerous
as the Slow Dull, and hardly more than one-eighth of the Slow minds, yet occupy
a range 50 per cent. greater than that of either of these groups. Thus we see
again the source of the great differences in mental stupidity. The apparent want
of continuity in the ranges of genius or of imbecility, which must arise when few
individuals are spread over a large range, thus enables us to comprehend how it is
possible to look upon these things as anomalies and mutations*.

(8) On the Relation of Intelligence to Age.

On the hypothesis that intelligence is very sensibly correlated with either
brain-weight or head-size, we might not unnaturally anticipate that growth, which
modifies largely the physical characters, would influence the intellectual+. It seemed
of importance accordingly to enter very fully into the relationship of age to intelli-
gence. Unfortunately the material provided by the Cambridge graduates does
not lend itself to an age investigation. It is true that we have the ages provided,
but the material consists in great bulk of young men measured in their 19th or
20th years. A certain number of resident “dons” are available in the Cambridge
Anthropometric Committee’s material, but this group of older men is a stringently
selected group, only the men of considerable intellectual achievement from the
academic standpoint remaining in residence. Neither in the Cambridge data nor
elsewhere did it seem possible to find the material requisite to settle the problem
of the relationship of intelligence to age in adults. We are forced, therefore,
to confine our attention to the influence of age on general intelligence in

childhood.

* For the actual quantitative treatment of this form of discontinuity, see Biometrika, Vol. 1.
pp. 385—399.

+ When is the intellectual ‘ prime’ in man? His prime in stature is about 27; his prime in head
measurements probably two or three years earlier; his prime in brainweight in the teens and probably
early in the teens. We know how many inches of stature, how many mm. in head diameters and how
many grs. in brainweight he loses yearly after his physical primes. How many mentaces does he lose
each year after his intellectual prime? We have no knowledge at present. Yet these very sensible
changes which follow physically after the different primes are of the same magnitude as those differences
between individuals upon which relations between intelligence and physique are based; they are, how-
ever, tacitly put on one side by writers on this subject.

+ ah

K. PeARSON 113

Table III gives the age and intelligence grade for schoolboys; Table IV the

same characters for girls.

TABLE III.
Age and Intelligence. Boys.

Quick Slow | | |

Age | Intelligent Intelligent Intelligent Slow | Slow Dull | Very Dull | Totals
| | |
4 1 2 1 2 — = 6
5 2 5 5 4 1 — 17
6 6 12 15 4 3 — 40
Uf 19 25 25 4 6 + 83
8 20 60 39 30 7 — 156
9 24 57 60 34°5 [3 || 6 189

10 33 76°59 72°5 35 21 2 240

11 35 96°5 105 425 | 11 5 295

12 39 110 120°5 51 12°5 3 336

13 27 107°5 108°5 57°5 25°5 ii 337

Lh 29 84 70 39°5 16 3°5 242

15 16 66°5 68°5 19 16 2 188

16 14 39 43 28 9 2 135

17 9 24 24 8 4 3 72

18 3 16°5 11°5 8 a — 39

19 2°5 55 2 2 — — 12

20 — 1 il — — — 2

Totals 279°5 788 7715 369 139°5 41°5 2389
|
TABLE IV.
Age and Intelligence. (Girls.

Age Taralligent Intelligent taauicedt Slow | Slow Dull | Very Dull | Totals
3 — 1 = =e =. mer 1
4 1 5 — — — _- 6
5 4 5 9 1 — 19
6 7 13 14 4 3 — 41
tf 16 27 20 6 6 2 77
8 20 40 33 15 4 2 114
9) 20 74 61 22 a 2 186

10 27 91 69 23 o) 3 222

11 38 106°5 90°5 23 | 10 4 272
12 44 106°5 84°5 36 18 5 294
13 38 93 80 40 10 3 264
Lh 32°56 64 60 29°5 13 4 203
15 22 64:5 75 33°5 13 7 215
16 19 48 | 54 27 a 4 159
7 18°5 34°5 | 21 8 8 2 92 |
18 14 20°5 14°5 10 5 1 65
19 2 3 4 3 — — 12 |
20 1 1 3 2 — — G
Totals 324 797°5 692°5 283 113 39 2249

Biometrika v 15

114 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

From these Tables the following constants were calculated :
TABLE V.
Variability and Mean Ages of Mental Groups.

Boys . GIRLS
Group
Mean Age | Standard Deviation | Mean Age | Standard Deviation
|
Quick Intelligent 12°01 2°964 12°67 3°214
Intelligent % 12°48 2°872 > 2°867 12°45 2°978 > 3°059
Slow Intelligent. 12°49 2°766 12°64 2°985
Slow 400 nee 12°46 2°833 13°17 2°970
Slow Dull a 12°52 2°755 > 2°784 13°03 3°077 » 2:975
Very Dull «te 12°50 2°764 13°27 2°878 |
Whole Population 12°43 yrs 2°839 yrs 12°67 yrs 3°028 yrs

Examining the means of each intelligence grade first, and taking the boys to
start with, we note: That if we omit the quick intelligent group, the mean ages
of each intelligence group are essentially the same. With the girls, dullness seems
to increase somewhat with age. If we examine the broken vertical lines Fig. 2,
we can see, I think, a differentiation between boys and girls; the duller girls
have a greater average age. Now the lesser age of the Quick Intelligent boys
is, I think, due to the fact that bright children are allowed to go to school rather
sooner than dull. But the differentiation between boys and girls is most probably
due to the fact that the elder girls, 13 to 15, are commencing a period of life when
physical demands upon them introduce very often a temporary and protective
intellectual inertia. In the case of boys and girls, the influence of age on the
extreme grades of intelligence scarcely amounts to six months at the most; and
if we consider the facts that bright children go early to school, and leave early,
while dull children go late and leave late, and again that the elder girls are
especially apt to feel intellectually the burden of physical development, I think
we may safely assert that there is no substantial change of intelligence with age.

The actual correlation ratios are :
for boys: 7 = 0544014; for girls: 7 = ‘081+ 014;
and these mark a sensible, but extremely slight, decrease of intelligence with age.
This decrease is explicable on the grounds just referred to.

We may consider here whether intelligence or dullness is the more scattered
character. Turning to the columns of standard deviations, we notice: That for
both girls and boys the maximum variability falls to the group of quick intelli-
gence. This is probably due to the fact already noted, that the group is not
so homogeneous as the other groups, containing a larger proportion of very able
children sent young to school.

115

K. PEARSON

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116 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

Taken as a whole, the intelligent group for both sexes appears to be more
variable in age than the dull group; but the differences are too slight to be given
much weight. If we leave out the quick intelligent group, the difference still
appears, but is extremely slight*. We can only say that there possibly exists a
small physical tendency for dullness to be concentrated more than intelligence on
certain years of childhood.

The matter of change of intelligence with age is so important that I have
approached it from another standpoint. I have enquired what is the average
intelligence at each age, instead of what is the average age of each grade of
intelligence. This might seem the more reasonable method of approaching the
problem. But the first method, since age is quantitative, admits of direct deter-
mination of the means of the arrays; in the second method we can only find the
mean intelligence of each age group by assuming the previously discussed
“normal” scale of intelligence. Still the matter is of such interest that it is
worth reconsidering from this standpoint. I have accordingly determined the
mean intelligence of each age group. This was done as follows: The ratio in
which the mean divided the groups Intelligent and Slow Intelligent taken together
was determined for each array on the basis of a normal distribution of intelligence.
This group covers on our scale a range of 180 mentaces. We are thus able to give
the deviation from mediocrity of each age array in mentaces. This is exhibited in
the following table:

TABLE VI.
Influence of Age on Intelligence in School Children.
Boys GIRLS
Age 7 j
Group | Division of Intelligent + Mentaces Division of Intelli- Mentaces
Slow Intelligent Range | from zero of | gent+Slow Intelligent | from zero of
into two parts in ratio | standard scale Range standard scale
| == ee ee Eee: a = =
ee, 50 to 50 =10 46 to 54 417
S— 9 62 to 3 —12 54 to 46 + 3
10—11 59 to 41 - 6 51 to 49 + 8
U2 65 to 35 -17 | 56 to 44 - 1
14—15 62 to 38 -—12 61 to 39 —10
o|\ alt 66 to 34 -19 57 to 43 -— 3
| 18—20 59 to 41 -— 6 55 to 45 + 1
General
: 32 : =
Population 62 to 38 12 55 to 45 eal

Supposing we take 350 to 400 mentaces as the full mental equipment of the
average individual (see foot-note, p. 111), it will be clear that these age variations
are comparatively slight. It will not, however, do to consider them solely as
variations of no account due to the chance deviations of random sampling.

* Boys: Intelligent 2-819, Dull 2-784; Girls: Intelligent 2-982, Dull 2-975.

K. PkARSON 117

Random sampling irregularities obscure the results, but there is a fundamental
resemblance between the variations in boys and girls which does not allow of our
attributing the results wholly to such irregularities. We see that both boys and
girls start with greater ability in infancy; their ability then falls between the ages
8 to 9—a period possibly when teeth troubles are more marked; it rises again
from 10 to 11 in both cases, but only to make a more exaggerated dip from the
ages 12 to 17 during oncoming puberty. After this the tendency is to steadily
rise, probably more steeply in men than in women, although the influence of
oncoming puberty seems more prolonged in boys than girls. Diagrammatically
both sexes combined give a result of the following kind, where the deviations are
measured from the mean of each sex (Fig. 3).

Deviation in Mentaces from Mean.

0 ee: Jee 4nd (oh e'6: 7 8 9) 10-1 12 135 44 15 16 «17 18 19) 20 «21

Fic. 3. Rough Diagrammatic Representation of Change of Intelligence with Age.

Now it must be noted that these variations in intelligence are very slight as
compared with the total mental outfit of the average individual, perhaps 2 p.c. in
boys and 4 p.c. in girls. Generally we must conclude that while there are sensible
slight variations in intelligence with growth, these variations are such that they
do not affect broad statements based on a consideration of the intelligence-classes
of children at different ages, i.e. while the physical characters are rapidly altering
and are so highly correlated with age that it is absolutely necessary to allow for
this change, the mental characters are far more stationary, the changes which take
place in them are by no means always in one direction, and are associated rather
with growth difficulties at various stages than with a uniform development with
age. Of course in any such considerations as these, we must take, as I have
endeavoured to do, a scale of intelligence which is not based on a test of
knowledge or training applied to children of all ages without regard to the length
of their school career.

The points discussed in this section are illustrated graphically in Fig. 2.
The vertical scale is one of intelligence, the horizontal one of age. The upper
part of the diagram gives the results for girls, the lower for boys. The upper
approximately vertical broken line shows that the duller girls are on the average

118 felationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

slightly older; the lower approximately vertical broken line shows that age is very
little dependent on the mental class in boys, when we exclude the very intelligent
group. The approximately horizontal broken lines show the direct influence of age
on intelligence. Their close approach to horizontality indicates how slight is the
relationship ; the variations are extremely small as compared with the whole
mental range. But we see the parallelism of the variations in the two sexes;
the general changes being shown in an exaggerated diagrammatic manner in Fig. 3.

The general results reached in this section, for example, the correlation ratios,
are not dependent on the choice of a normal distribution scale, but that scale
enables us to plot our results in a manner which indicates conveniently their
graphical validity. A further graphical illustration is given in Fig. 4. Here

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the normal curves for the school-boys’ and school-girls’ intelligence distributions
are drawn, the total range of Intelligent + Slow Intelligent is taken as unit and
the boys’ and girls’ distributions placed under each other on this basis. It will be
seen from this standpoint that the girls’ mean is slightly in excess of the boys’,
and if the girls’ curve be now placed on top of the boys’ (dotted curve of upper

K. PEARSON 119

diagram), then it falls at the terminals slightly outside it, or very intelligent
and very dull girls are more frequent than the corresponding boy classes. This
greater relative variability of the girls appears confirmed by a comparison of
Table V, where in each intellectual class there is more variety in the girls’ than
the boys’ ages. To further test this, 1 have drawn up a table of the standard
deviations in intelligence of each age group of boys and girls. These standard
deviations have been calculated in terms of the Intelligent + Slow Intelligent
range as the equivalent of 180 mentaces. Here again the girls appear on the
whole slightly more variable.
TABLE VIL.

Variation of each Age Group in Ability.

Standard Deviation
in Mentaces
Age
Group
Boys Girls
(ay 103 95
8— 9 99 88
10—11 94 83
12—13 90 95
14—15 89 98
16—17 97 100
18—20 84 119
| Mean of eS ‘
7 groups 93°% 96°9

Personally, I should lay no stress whatever on this difference, except to assert
the important point, that no inequality exists between the mental variability
of girls and boys. Boys are not more variable intellectually than girls. I have
tried the fundamental data by all sorts of processes—not here recorded—and
always with the result, that in the mass there is no sensible difference in
intellectual variability between boys and girls. But the age classes do seem to
indicate a difference in the distribution of this variability. While both sexes fall
in variability from the earliest years of life, the girls much more than regain the
lost variability by 20; on the other hand, the boys may possibly regain it—if we
exclude the 18-20 group as not fairly representing boys of this age, many of
whom have left school—yet they do not appear to increase rapidly beyond the
infantile variability, as the girls do. The matter is deserving of a further special
investigation.
(4) On the Relation of Ability to the Size of the Head.

Having shown that to a first approximation the grade of intelligence as
estimated in the school observations is not markedly affected by age, I turn now
to the relation between ability and the size of the head. In the case of the

120 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

school children, all the measurements were reduced to a standard age of 12 by aid
of the average growth curves. The substantial legitimacy of this process is
demonstrated by the close agreement of the results with those for the Cambridge
graduates. In the Appendix Tables XIV—XXIV give the tabulated measurements.
These tables differ from those published in the preliminary papers, in that they no
longer give mere fourfold divisions but contingency classifications showing the
total distributions of head measurements for each mental grade. The method of
reduction used throughout this part of the memoir was that of the correlation
ratio »*.

This ratio 7 is a true measure of the divergence from independence of the
two variables, whatever be the nature of the regression. If the regression be
really linear, 7 passes over into the well-known correlation coefficient. The four-
fold tabulation and the discovery of the correlation coefficientt were adopted
in the preliminary investigations already published.

In the accompanying Table VIII the correlations between shape and size
of head are given, and Fig. 5 shows the same results exhibited in a graphical
form.

TABLE VIII.

Correlation Ratio between Shape and Size of Head and Ability?.

i Yt
Intelligence and Cambridge Graduates setae) poyest EAN Teale eee dixelve

| = : 22a

Cephalic Index... | ae — 061 + 021 hes — 041+ 014 | ee ‘067 + 014
Length of Head... | (O") -111£-020 | (2%) -139-4 “014 a 0844 014
Breadth of Head .... \“""’ 097+ 021 as 109+ 014 | a 113+ 014
Auricular Height ... | = Nae O734°014 | \7 055 + :014

Having regard to the magnitude of the probable errors, it is obvious that :

(a) The correlations are, with the exception of the cephalic index, in every
case uniformly of one sign and sensible.

(b) They are so small that they are in every case of no service for the purposes
of prediction.

(c) Within the limits of the probable error, the results for adults and for
school children are in good agreement. The divergences for each character
within the three populations are practically within the limits assigned by the
probable error of their differences.

These conclusions are based upon a far larger number of measurements than
any hitherto published, and are, I think, convincing as to the small part played by
head size in determining the grade of intelligence. I have shown in another

* Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs, Biometric Series II. Dulau and Co.

+ Phil. Trans. Vol. 195 A, pp. 1—47.
+ The numbers in brackets give populations dealt with.

K. PEARSON 121

paper* that no sensible modification is made in this result if allowance be made
for either weight or stature. I shall now proceed to consider the data more in
detail.

I shall first inquire what amounts of intelligence can on the average be
accounted for by differences in head measurement. The average correlation
between head length or head breadth and intelligence is ‘11; that for auricular
height is distinctly lower, and we may leave it out of consideration. The varia-
bility o; in intelligence for all three classes is somewhat under 100 mentaces.
The variability o in a head measurement is roundly 5 to 6 mms. Hence the
regression coefficient = 1; 0;/¢,, = 2 mentaces per millimetre. Now the intel-
lectual range from the average slow man to the average specially intelligent. is
(see Fig. 1) at least 200 mentaces, or we should require a difference in head
measurement of at least 100 mm. to account for this intellectual difference. Now
in adults there is at most two millimetres difference between the head measure-
ments of the average slow and the average especially able classes. In children, for
some measurements, the average difference between the Quick Intelligent and the
Very Dull may amount to 5, but is more usually 2 to 4. Even if we add together
the result of two or three separate measurements, supposed independent, we shall
not obtain a difference of more effect than 6 to 10 mm., and this depends upon our
neglecting the sensible correlation of head measurements. Thus, at a maximum,
size of head might account for 12 to 20 mentaces out of the 350 which separate
the mean of the specially able group from the mean of the very dull group. The
millimetre which separates the head measurements of the slow boy from that of
the intelligent corresponding to 2 mentaces,—or if supposed additive for several
measurements, to 6 or 10 at most,—is of no effectiveness or value for purposes of
prediction compared with the other causes which lead to an average difference of
120 mentaces. Differences in size of head will not account for at most 74, and
probably not as much as 5, of the observed differences of capacity whether between
adults or between children.

These results are to some extent exhibited graphically in Figs. 5 and 6. In
Fig. 5 we see a drop of about 2 mm. in head length and one of about 1 mm. in
head breadth in the Cambridge graduates as we pass from one end of the scale to
the other. But the mean head measurement of first class honours men has for
length a variability of 5°39 mm., or a quartile of about 4mm. In other words,
while 25 per cent. of able men have head lengths under 191 mm., 25 per cent. of
slow men have head lengths over 197 mm. The average specially able man is
195 mm. and the average slow man 193 mm. Or again, some 44 per cent. of very
able men have heads smaller than the average slow man and some 44 per cent. of
slow men heads larger than the average specially able man. This order of
numerical relationship holds for the whole range of the characters dealt with, and
in view of it we see how idle it is to assert that head measurements can be of any
service in the prediction of intelligence. In the case of Fig. 6, we see that for

* R. 8. Proc. Vol. 71, pp. 106—114.

Biometrika v 16

122 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

both boys and girls the slow increase of intelligence with size of head is quite
sensible, but the variability of each group is such that some 25 per cent. of the
dull have larger heads than the very intelligent, and some 25 per cent. of the very
intelligent have heads smaller than the dull average. It is again impossible under
such conditions to use head size as a basis for judgment as to intelligence. Of
course all this is merely stating in other words what is obvious to the biometrician,
when he finds a low correlation, but possibly, although I am hardly hopeful, it may
help to convince the anatomist and old school anthropologist that head measure-
ments are not of real service as intelligence tests*.

In Table IX are placed the mean and variability of each array of head
measurements corresponding to different intelligence groups in the case of the
Cambridge graduates. In Table X we have the same data for the school children.

— sfead Stze and Inletligence tir Camtridge Graduales

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| :;
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i]
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____| Honours |Honours|

Seale ¥ Lnlelligence
Fia. 5.

* Nurture, exercise and nourishment—shortly environment and class—district or local race, influence
extensively the anthropometric measurements. We cannot compare pauper imbeciles or hospital post-
mortem results with middle class students or professors. Wecannot measure agricultural labourers and
men of science and point triumphantly to great differences in head volumes as marking widely separate
intellectual grades. See the British Medical Journal, March 3, p, 536, and March 17, p. 651, 1906.

)

12

PEARSON

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16—

124 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

TABLE IX.

Cambridge Graduates. Head Measurements.

Head Length Head Breadth Cephalic Index
Grade of Ability us _ ee =e
|
Standard | Standard ; Standard
eo Deviation Mean | Deviation Mean Deviation
Honours, Ist Class 195-07 5890 155°07 4690 | 79°57 2°995
| 93 2nd Class 194°51 6°026 153°73 4°708 79°22 3°129
| rh 3rd Class 194°38 6'214 | 154-66 5°247 79°62 3°019
| Poll Men ... ale 193°33 6113 | 153-95 4-845 79°71 2°827
| | °
| == =
| General Population | 194:00 | 6'121 154°21 | 4°899 | 79°58 2°954
| - | |

The measurements are in mm.

TABLE, xX.

School Children. Head Measurements at Twelve.

Grade of Ability Head Length Head Breadth | Auricular Height) Cephalic Index

a epee - ae
Boys Mean 8. D. | Mean | 8. D.| Mean | 8. D. | Mean | 8. D.

| | |
| Quick Intelligent ... | 185°45 | 6°237 | 146°40 | 5822 | 128-11 | 6-418 | 78:96 | 3:201
Intelligent ... ... | 184°70 | 6°288 | 145°39 | 5°814 | 127°30 | 6-786 | 78-92 | 3-360
Slow Intelligent ... | 184°67 | 6°279 | 145°31 | 5329 | 127-44 | 6519 | 78°83 | 3-125
| Slow Bic ... | 183°93 | 6°804 | 144-45 | 5°835 | 127-76 | 6619 | 78°68 | 3:087
Slow Dull ... ... | 182:25 | 7°463.| 144:23 | 5°810 | 126°66 | 6:467 | 79°12 | 3°325
Very Dull ... ... | 180°19 | 7°048 | 143°36 67023 | 124°84 | 6°924 | 79°48 | 3:145

General Population | 184:44 | 6-514 | 145-23 | 5-700 | 127-43 | 6-630 | 78°88 | 3-222

Girls

ae ; 1 = 5 | =] si | i

Quick Intelligent ... | 180°83 5:988 | 140°97 | 6:069 | 12444 | 6-800 | 78°50 | 3°754
Intelligent ... .. | 180°35 6°202 | 140°86 6°337 | 124°54 | 6505 | 78:43 | 3:927
Slow Intelligent ... | 179°89 6°305 | 140°85 | 6°621 | 12452 | 6777 | 78°57 | 3°861
Slow ats s- | 179°87 | 6°517 | 140°19 | 6-140 | 12440 | 6°847 | 78°46 | 3°800
Slow Dull .. | 178°61 | 5°962 | 138°72 | 6802 | 122°86 G77 |) 77-740 oes
Very Dull ... ... | 178°57 | 6°976 | 136°55 | 9°173 | 123-69 | 7:232 | 76°96 | 4:597

General Population | 180°14 | 6:260 | 140°58 | 6°505 | 124°40 6°699 | 78°43 | 3°885
| |

K. PrARSON 125

It is very difficult to draw any definite and safe conclusions from the very irregular
distribution of variability. Taking tirst the Cambridge graduates, we see that the
probable error of the standard deviation is in round numbers about *2 for the first
three classes and ‘1 for the poll men in head length; about ‘15 to ‘1 for the same
groups for head breadth and about ‘1 for the first three classes and 06 for the
poll men in the case of the cephalic index. It is difficult, on the basis of such
probable errors, to assert any sensible differences in the class variability. Looking
at the series as a whole, we might say with hesitation that possibly 2nd and 3rd
class men are more variable in a very slight degree in their head measurements
than either brilliant honours men or pass men.

Turning to the school children we again see differences in variability which are
often within the probable error of the differences, but occasionally we note con-
siderable divergences. They are difficult to account for, and they do not in any
case ran parallel with those of the Cambridge graduates. But one general result
holds, with two exceptions out of 16 cases, the quick intelligent boys and girls are
less variable, and very dull boys and girls more variable than the general popula-
tion. The exceptions are the very dull boys’ cephalic index and the quick intelli-
gent girls’ auricular height. Even in the latter case the variability of the very dull
girls is sensibly greater than that of the quick intelligent girls. We may therefore
say that with a single exception, and that within probable error limits, the quick
intelligent are less variable than the very dull. Turning to the Cambridge grad-
uates, we see that with the same exception—cephalic index—the Ist class men
are less variable than the poll men. It would accordingly seem probable, that
intellectual brilliancy is a more closely selected class than special dullness. Or,
perhaps, it would be safer to say that intellectual power is more closely associated
with one physical grade than dullness, which is compatible with a wider range of
head measurements.

Generally it will be seen, on looking at Tables IX and X or Figs. 5 and 6, that
the length of head is more closely associated with intelligence than the breadth, and
the breadth than the auricular height. Thus the statement of certain anatomists,
that the auricular height is probably the most important head measurement in
regard to intelligence is seen to be without statistical basis. The fact that the
girls differ from both male children and adults in the nature of the relationship
between intelligence and cephalic index is remarkable. I have tested this result
in several ways, for example by deducing the intelligence and cephalic index
correlations from those of breadth and length with intelligence, but I reach the
same conclusion that there is a real change of sign between this correlation for
the two sexes, although some methods give the correlation in the girls’ case very
small and positive, while for the boys it remains between — ‘04 and — ‘05.

(5) On the Relationship of Ability to other Physical and Mental Characters.

While the relationship of ability to size and shape of the head has been shown
to be very small, it seems worth while to compare it with the values obtained for

126 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

the correlation with other physical and mental characters. My school measure-
ments enable results to be obtained for the following series:

Physical Characters Mental Characters
Athletic Power Temper
Health Popularity
Head Length Self-Consciousness
Head Breadth Shyness
Head Height Conscientiousness
Cephalic Index Quiet Habits
Hair Colour and the psycho-physical character
Eye Colour Handwriting
Curliness of Hair
Age.

But the method by which the relationship between intelligence and these
characters can be best obtained must be varied with the completeness of classification
which it is possible to apply. Thus where one quantity, as in the case of the head
measurements and age, is quantitative the correlation ratio 7 has been deter-
mined. Where no quantitative measurement is available but a fairly numerous
system of classes as in the case of the relation between intelligence and hand-
writing, health and hair colour, the method of mean square contingency has been
adopted*. Even when one of the characters has only a threefold division, as in
the cases of temper, curliness of hair and eye colour, the contingency table gave an
18-fold grouping. In the remaining cases with only two alternatives for one
character, we were perforce thrown back on the fourfold division table. But even
here many tests were made by dividing the intelligence grouping at more than
one point. The chief question is whether the slow intelligent shall in the fourfold
division be classed with the intelligent or dull groups. In the case of the boys
all the fourfold tables were worked out both ways, and the mean taken of the
results, but the labour proved excessive and was abandoned in the case of the
girls, the division being taken as nearly as possible through the median—which
gives the least probable error—ie. the quick intelligent and intelligent were taken
as a single group.

It will be of value to compare some of the results obtained by different
methods.

First, we may take as a comparison of correlation ratio and correlation coefficient
found by a fourfold table method :

: Jorrelation Ratio=*109 +°014.
Boys’ Breadth of Head and Intelligence oe See ae oa

Correlation Coefficient = ‘084 + ‘024.
Next as a comparison of contingency and fourfold method :

f Mean Square Contingency = ‘283.

Boys’ Handwriting : ig : :
oys’ Handwriting and Intelligence | Correlation Coefficient=-312.

A more complete comparison may be taken in the case of temper and intelli-
gence in girls. Here four fourfold tables were worked out; the good-natured

* Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs. Biometric Series I. Dulau and Co.

K. PEARSON 127,

group were put first with the quick and then with the sullen, and the slow intelli-
gent first with the intelligent and then with the slow.
Girls’ temper and intelligence.
Correlation Coefficients (a) 162
(b) °304
(c) +140
(d) -279 |
Mean Square Contingency = ‘192.

Mean :221.

Thus while the variation in the correlation coefficient shows that the distribu-
tion is not normal, the mean of several fourfold tables gives a result of the same
order as, indeed, within the limits of the probable errors, equal to that of mean
square contingency.

This is, however, rather an extreme example of variation. Take the following
as better illustrations of the double grouping of the slow intelligent :

Boys’ Intelligence and Conscientiousness.

Fourfold Table: Correlation Coefficient (a) 464.
(bd) +463.
Boys’ Intelligence and Popularity.

Fourfold Table: Correlation Coefficient (a) *233.
(b) +220.

Thus we have, I think, reached a reasonably close approximation to the
intensity of the relationship between the characters dealt with. It is not con-
tended that the numbers obtained are anything more than a first scale of the
relationship between intelligence and the other mental and physical characters.
But the general accordance between the results for boys and girls is, even so, remark-
able, and the whole series in Table XI may serve as a guide for more complete

TABLE XI.
On the Correlation of Ability with Various Mental and Physical Characters.

Character (Both ees Boys Girls
Conscientiousness ... | 45 46 °43
Handwriting ... ate 29 “28 "B30
Popularity... sos 26 22 "30
Athletic Power Ae D2 20 "24
Temper ABE Be “21 19 "22
Health sae was 18 Aly 19 |
Head Length .. ea ‘ll 14 ‘08
Head Breadth vo: ‘1 “ili ‘11
Hair Colour ... Fe| “10 10 “09
Shyness rae a 10 03 18
Self-Consciousness ... ‘O7 10 03 |
Eye Colour... Bie 07 08 06 |
Head Height... ans 06 O07 05
Age“... te 2% 06 05 ‘08
Quiet Habits as 06 ‘O4 09 |
Hair Set ey ona ‘0G ‘04 ‘09
Cephalic Index wae — — 04 | 07 |

ee ee ee |

128 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

future investigations on special characters. Judging the series as a whole, it seems
impossible to use any of the physical measurements to estimate intelligence from.
Hair colour is practically as good as head length or breadth, and eye colour as good
as auricular height, and even all these are more important than the age influence.
Health and temper have more relation to intelligence than any of the physical
measurements we have made, while the intelligent child is athletic, popular and
above all markedly conscientious. Handwriting is doubly as good a test of in-
telligence as any head measurement. If it be argued that this is merely a school-
master’s measure of intelligence, then the reply must be that this remains to be
proved*, If good handwriting be the schoolmaster’s standard of intelligence, it
appears also to be—as will be shown on another occasion—his standard of health
and popularity. For handwriting, we find, is fairly closely correlated with a
number of mental and physical characters. It is interesting to observe that, as far
as our data go, the handwriting character-readers ought to be able to predict more
closely than the anthropometers not only the amount of intelligence in an indi-
vidual but also his grade in a variety of other mental and moral characters !

Looked at broadly our table seems to justify fully current common-sense
methods of estimating intelligence. Give weight to health, temper, physique,
popularity, handwriting and above all conscientiousness, in seeking friend, assistant
or servant, and in doing this you will most probably obtain intelligence also. If
you wish to take anthropometric characters into account—and they are not worth
much—hair and eye colour will be as valuable as head measurements, and you
need not produce the callipers in order to observe them! I am not denying that
in the future other anthropometric characters may possibly be discovered which will
be found to be more closely correlated with intelligence. By all means let them
be sought for and investigated biometrically ; let all types of head measurements
and indices be taken and correlated with ability and achievement; it is worth
doing even if it leads to purely negative results. But let us hesitate on the
ground of slender, or worse than slender, unscientific evidence to proclaim close
association between intelligence and external physical measurements. So far
there is nothing to encourage belief in such association ; and if we are consistent
and apply any of the dogmatic views currently held to the problem of interracial

* As far as the non-expert can judge, the classification of the handwritings is a fair one. It is
proposed to place the 5000—6000 specimens of handwriting with the ages of the children before an
expert and obtain his classification of the whole material.

{+ Some years ago I was struck by the widespread medical opinion that mentally defective children
have peculiarly shaped palates. I asked an exponent of this view for the statistics bearing upon the
subject, but I could not find that there had ever been a thorough study of the palate in mentally
normal children. In the American Journal of Insanity, Vol. ux1. pp. 687—697 will be found a preliminary
report of Drs Walter Channing and Clark Wissler: ‘‘Comparative Measurements of the Hard Palate in
Normal and Feeble-Minded Individuals.” They show biometrically that ‘“‘the absolute size of the
palate as measured by the three specified dimensions [height, length and breadth from casts] seems to
be the same for feeble-minded and normal individuals,” p. 695. Itis most unfortunate that quantitative
tests so rarely precede the spread and acceptance of very dogmatic opinions in a certain section of the
medical profession.

K. PrARSon 129

intelligence, we are led to very remarkable conclusions! I do not propose to
discuss this point on the present occasion, nor am I urging the view that the
material I now put before the reader for his judgment is to be considered final.
I think, however, that it has far more weight than some recent criticisms would
admit it to have*. Perhaps, only one who was in continual communication with
the collaborators during the measurements and observations can appreciate the
conscientious care given to the task, and he alone can estimate the value of the
preliminary trials and later tests which were made of the categories and measure-
ments.

In regard to the association of mental and physical characters, the correlation
coefficient may in certain cases screen relationships which are more emphasised by
examining the material from other standpoints. I have already pointed out how
the correlation ratio and the coefficient of contingency help us in this matter.
The regression may indeed not be linear, or there may be, as in the case of hair
colour, no scale arrangement beyond criticism. For such cases I have found the old
idea of percentages not without value. In the case of intelligence, I take a normal
scale as my base line and plot up the percentage of the character for each grade of
intelligence along the centroid vertical of the corresponding range, drawing a
horizontal line to represent the mean percentage in the population at large. We
thus obtain a diagram, which I will venture to term an analograph F.

If the percentage increases or decreases continually with intelligence (or with
the base character, whatever it may be), I term the relationship homoclinal; if the
percentage does not reach its maximum with the maximum or minimum of intelli-
gence, I term the diagram heteroclinal. There may of course be more than one
maximum in heteroclinal analographs; the difficulty will be to distinguish
true percentage maxima from the ‘peaks’ due to random sampling. They can,
however, be tested in any particular case by the probable errors of the percentages.
The advantages of this rough percentage method are: (1) that it enables us to see
relationships of a heteroclinal nature, which are screened by a fourfold table
method of finding correlation—especially in those cases where neither a correlation
ratio nor a coefficient of contingency is calculable on the available data, e.g. in the
case of alternative psychical characters, such as noisiness and quietness; and
(ii) that it provides a graphic method—more impressive to some minds than
any numerical representation—available in cases where it is quite impossible to
construct a regression curve.

I propose to deal with the relation of intelligence to other psychical and to
non-measurable physical characters in this manner. ‘The data upon which the
analographs are based have been collected in Table XII for boys and Table XIII
for girls. The small number of children recorded as Very Dull leads to a large
probable error in the percentages of this category. I have accordingly classed the

* A reply to the criticisms of G. U. Yule will shortly be published.

+ dvddoyov + ypddw, the former from Euclid, Book V., and the contraction is tolerable as in
apuopevs.

Biometrika v 17

130 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

TABLE XII. Percentage Changes in Boys’ Characteristics.
Intellectual Grade.

ee lu sre S. S.D. V.D. | Totals
| Kye Colour | ae eee
Light we | 4141 | 40-28 | 36-00 | 36°34 | 45-74 (42°78) 32°91 | 38°59
Medium ... «| 40°27 | 37°28 42°14 42°03 | 29-84 (34-72) 50°63 | 39°76
Dark ea ns 18°32 | 22°44 | 21°86 21°62 | 24:42 (22°55) 16°46 | 21°65
= ee ee | eae |
Hair Set |
Smooth ...... | 82°98 | 83-49 | 85-25 | 82°31 | 84-39 (84-44) 84-62 | 83-89
Wavy tas ae 13°50 | 13°04 | 11:05 14°40 | 12°64 (12°68) 12°82 12°63
Curly oa | 3°52 | 3-47 | 8-70 | 3-29 | 2°97 (2-88) 2°56] 3°48
Health
Robust mF .. | 38°82 | 49°34 41°16 35°90 | 35°48 (30°79) 15:24 | 39°68
Normally Healthy: 44°36 44°66 | 42°65 40°95 | 41°36 (41°81) 43°29 | 43-20
Deheate ... : 16°82 13°00 16°19 23°15 | 23:16 (27°40) 41°47 17-11
Hair Colour |
Red as ate 2°66 3°53 4:74 3°43 1°65 (3°57) 8°51 3°82
Fair ee ... | 39°54 35°79 | 32°50 36°79 | 33°68 (31:40) 25°53 | 34:96
Brown ne 25 |) al56 30712 | 33°94 36°05 | 37°81 (37°95) 38°30 | 33:02
Dark ets ... | 26°24 30°56 | 28°82 23°73 | 26°86 (27:08) 27°66 | 28-20
Conscientiousness
Keen ee ... | 89°90 | 79°67 | 64°15 | 46:41 | 37-79 (86:45) 31°76 | 67-24
Dull ewe | 1010) 20°33 35°85 | 53°59 | 62°21 (63°55) 68°24 | 32-76
2 | = E
Shy ... | 58°52 | 59°19 | 58:48 | 58°72 | 58-86 (59-48) 61°64 | 58°82
Self- Assertive ... | 41°48 40°81 41°52 | 41°28 | 41°14 (40°52) 38°36 | 41:18
= eee | ? |
Self-Conscious ... | 54°42 48°98 50-45 | 45°04 | 33-03 (34°36) 39°44 | 48-27
Unself-Conscious ....) 45°58 | 51:02 49°55 54:96 | 66:97 (65°64) 60°56 | 51°73
| | }
Noisy ate tes 30°82 | 36°32 34:71 37°59 =| 39°34 (88°89) 37°35 35°48
Quiet nis Ae 69°18 | 63°68 35°29 62°41 60°66 (61:11) 62°65 | 64°52
i: eee, | | a5 5 ee
i} | |
Popular... eee | 9365 84°38 | 79°47 75°47 | 61:06 (62°28) 67:27 | 80°51
Unpopular ... eae) LOSS 15°62 20°53 94°53 | 38°94 (37:72) 32°73 | 19-49

Handwriting

Good wae | 6316} 48-32 | 36-20 | 29°74 | 24:41 (21°04) 11°69 | 41-07

Moderate ... ... | 30°89 39°50 44°31 42°00 | 48:12 (48°79) 50°65 | 41°21

Bad Nas oe 5°95 12°18 19°49 28°26 | 27°47 (80°17) 37°66 | 17°72
Temper

Quick : wee EO Wi 20256 19°32 12°39 | 14°89 (15°02) 15°39 | 18-46

Goodnatured 74°38 71°89 67°84 68°59 | 55°75 (53°03) 44°87 | 68°88

Sullen 4°55 7°55 12°84 19°02 | 29°36 (31°95) 39°74 | 12°66
_ —_ 4 |

Athletic ss ... | 77°62 | 72:09 65°47 61°41 45°51 (45:26) 44:44 | 67°21

Non-Athletic spe | ESS} 27°91 34°53 38°59 54°49 (54°74) 55°56 32°79

|
|

|
|
|

K. Prarson 131
TABLE XIII. Percentage Changes in Girls’ Characteristics.
Intellectual Grade.
Q.1 1 shee 8. Ss. D. V.D. | Totals
Eye Colour iar ar eer
Light 36°31 | 34°82 32°04 33°33 36°28 (35°48) 33°33 34:09
Medium 45°96 42°37 | 45:08 42°61 43°36 (42°26) 39°29 | 43°74.
Dark | 17°73 22°81 | 22°88 24°06 20°36 (22°26) 27°38 22°17
Hair Set |
Smooth 62°32 64:25 | 66°77 66°10 | 64°86 (65:10) 65°79 65°01
Wavy 28°26 | 2514-23-25 | 19°89 | 18-02 (17-45) 15-79 23-83
Curly 9°42 10°61 9°98 14:01 | 17°12 (17°45) 18°42 11°16
|
| Health | |
Robust... ... | 49°70 | 36-41 | 32°88 | 31:18 | 27-68 (27°74) 27°91 | 36-04
Normally Healthy 31°72 | 43°70 | 40°86 33°80 | 35°27 (33°87) 30°23 39°17
Delicate ... | 1858 | 19°85 | 26°26 35-02 | 37-05 (38-39) 41:86 24-79
Hair Colour | |
Red 6-14 3°99 3°36 2°15 3°69 (3°99) 4:76 | 3°88
Fair 39°01 34°32 38°09 34°79 | 37°33 (38°37) 41°07 | 36-48
Brown 37°27 39°47 35°34. 41°95 | 36°63 (36°88) 37°50 | 38-02
Dark 17°58 22°22 23°21 2111 | 22°35 (20°76) 16°67 21°62
| Conscientiousness |
Keen 86°15 83°62 68°69 55°21 39°33 (36°05) 28°75 | 72°85
Dull 13°85 | 16°38 31°31 44°79 | 60°67 (63°95) 71°25 | 27°15
Shy a 48°52 | 62-42 | 70-02 | 72°24 | 63°37 (61°35) 56-25 | 64-01
Self-Assertive 51:48 | 37°58 | 29°98 7°76 | 36°33 (38°65) 43°75 | 35:99
Self-Conscious 48°02 48°77 48 62 52°64 | 54°69 (54°48) 53°95 | 49°51
Unself-Conscious ... | 51:98 | 51° 51°38 | 47°36 5°31 (45°52) 46°05 | 50-49
Noisy 38°59 | 32°26 28°10 28°95 | 30°36 (32:04) 36:47 | 31-49
Quiet | 61-41 | 67°74 | 71:90 | 71°05 | 69°64 (67-96) 63°53 | 68-51
= nee |
Popular 90°54 | 84°70 | 79°58 | 67°04 | 59°55 (53°25) 36°76 | 79°59
Unpopular ... 9°46 15°30 20°42 32°96 | 40°45 (46°75) 63°24 | 20°41
Handwriting
Good 59°88 | 51°39 | 39-23 | 26-40 | 23-47 (22-39) 19-44 | 43-50
Moderate 26°22 36°71 44°62 48°28 | 43°88 (42°54) 38°89 | 39°56
Bad 13-90 | 11°89 | 16°15 | 25°32 | 32°65 (35-07) 41°67 16-94
— — _ —-— | —_—
Temper |
Quick 24°01 20°26 15°65 14:14 | 10°93 (11:31) 12°65 L790
Goodnatured 68°21 | 68°78 | 69°68 64:14 | 57°38 (56°23) 54°82 | 67:43
Sullen 7°78 10°96 | 14°67 21°72 | 32°79 (32°46) 32°53 14°67
|
Athletic... 69°21 | 62°10 | 54:06 | 44°57 | 36-78 (37-07) 37:93 | 56-71
Non-Athletic 30°79 37°90 45°94 55°43 | 63:22 (62°93) 62:07 43°29
|

132 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

Slow Dull and Very Dull together and calculated the corresponding percentages 1
the heavy bracketed figures*.

Health and Intelligence. We sce that for both boys and girls we have sensibly
homoclinal systems. The robust children among dull and slow children are much
below the general percentage, and rise above it for the able children, Conversely the
delicate children are below the general percentage on the intelligent side, and rise
much above it on the dull side. There is one peculiarity which, I think, is not an
irregularity of random sampling, but a sexual difference. Among the Quick
Intelligent boys there is a smaller percentage of robust and a larger percentage
of delicate than among the Intelligent boys. Thus, while ability is associated with
health, a certain number of weakly boys are markedly intelligent. With the girls,
on the other hand, the Quick Intelligent have the largest percentage of robust
cases. And this is, perhaps, what one would, from the standpoint of national
efficiency, prefer—i.c. the closest association of strength and intelligence. A
further sexual difference is that the percentage of robust girls is smaller and the
percentage of delicate girls is larger than in the case of boys.

Analograph of Health and Intelligence.

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S Robust: General Kercentage | ‘ ! | | sS
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> s SS —— = Ses >
Soo eel | if ao \ ! ' Va S
201! apt te ae ee SS eee = Soe p= = sehen ee | Pai a ees Q
Delicate Pencral Vercenlouy fo 3} oS | ee
10 ; | \ q | Lio
' | ' 1 1
i ! { 1 | figure7 |.
= = ee = }
of Very Dult Slow Dull [ Slow _|_ Slow Santelli gent Jnteliigent Quick Intelligent
- 260 - 208 -144 -80 ° +100 + 200

Scale of Intelligence in Mentaces.

Pigmentation and Intelligence. Both hair and eye colour clearly provide
heteroclinal systems, but it is difficult to trace any nomic relationship in either
the numbers or the graphs. Thus, while brown-haired boys give a fairly smooth
homoclinal graph, showing decreasing percentages with increasing intelligence,
there is no corresponding feature in brown-haired girls, the deviation from the

* The following are sufficiently closely for practical purposes the mean values of each intellectual
grade:

Mentally Defective - 317 mentaces. Fair Intelligence + 22 mentaces.
Very Dull — 238 3 Capable + 71 os
Slow Dull —170 5 Specially Able +151 a
Slow —108 vs Genius +317 -

Slow Intelligent - 388 5

K. PEARSON 133

general percentage being very irregular, Dark-haired children of both sexes
have a maximum in the Intelligent to Slow Intelligent, there being fewer than the
normal number of both the very able and the very stupid. The analographs
for dark boys and girls run very parallel, and I think there can hardly be a doubt
that the very dark are not up to the average in either extreme ability or extreme
dullness. While the total of brown and dark boys is closely equal to the total
of brown and dark girls, there is a sensibly larger percentage of dark boys than
girls in these records. The total percentages of red-haired children is strikingly
’ alike for the two sexes. There appears, as far as the slender material enables us
to judge, however, a sexual difference in their distribution of intelligence. Dis-
regarding the distinction between Slow Dull and Very Dull, as the numbers are
too scanty to use apart, we find that red-haired boys are most numerous among
the Slow Intelligent, while red-haired girls have a reversed heteroclisy, being most
frequent among the Quick Intelligent or the Very Dull. To some extent these results
are confirmed by the data for eye colour; in the case of both boys and girls
the Quick Intelligent group contains less than the general percentage of dark-eyed
children. he fair children, on the other hand, are in excess in the Quick Intelli-
gent and the total Dull group. Thus light-eyed children have a slight tendency
to the extremes and dark to mediocrity.

As a whole, while I note some traces of relationship of intelligence to pigmen-
tation, there is not enough to justify any sweeping assertions. While not very
hopeful, I think it would be worth while making a much finer classification with
actual eye and hair scales; it would be a laborious piece of work, but there is just
the indication that it might lead to more definite relationships.

Hair Set. Here again we have some rather marked sexual differences.
Curliness in boys decreases as we pass from the intelligent to the dull end of
the scale. In girls it is precisely the opposite; curly-haired girls are three times
as frequent as curly-haired boys, but the percentage of curly dull girls is twice
that of curly and quick intelligent girls. On the other hand, wavy hair, which is
heteroclinal for boys, has a well-marked homoclinal analograph for girls, intelligent
girls having more frequently wavy hair than dull girls. These points are indi-
cated in Figs. 12 and 13.

I now pass to a series of characteristics which are on the borderland between
the psychical and physical—Handwriting, Athletic Power, and Temper—all of
which have well-marked homoclinal analographs.

Handwriting. Figs. 9 and 10 indicate how markedly, for both boys and girls,
good handwriting decreases and bad handwriting increases with the transition
from intelligence to dullness.

Athletic Power. Fig. 11 shows how the percentages of both non-athletic boys
and girls are more than doubled as we pass from the quick intelligent to the dull
groups. The athletic character in children, at any rate, is markedly associated with
intelligence.

134 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

Analographs of Various Characters for each Grade of Intelligence.

Very Dull Slow Dull Slow Slow tnteingent Inteigent Quick Intelngent

Curly Harr |

\ | 1 Figure 13
20 | | |
i

'
Girls mn general oS
Mak GALE be Lid OE i eat = ie l= = = arias 10
\

Boys in gen

204 !
=

]
spe :
= +—— — = _ —s : a = : N
10| Boys in general T I = —+ ; trol
! \

|
Wavy Hair

|

i

Boy$ in general T
| |

1

|

6. ity in genaral

Percentages.
Percentages.

. Bois a general
Girls in gen
|

val

!
Bad Handwriting

| Girls in general

4
BED m general

<=

|

!

le See!

' — |
a
a oe !
Good Handwriting t Figure 9
Very Dull Slow Dull Slow Slow Intelugent Intelhyent Quich Intelligent
-260 - 208 -144 -80 0 +100 +180

Scale of Intelligence in Mentaces. Girls ----. Boys :

Temper. Fig. 18 indicates the great rise in sullen temper when we turn
from intelligence to dullness. If we consider the analographs for Quick Tenvper
(Fig. 19), we see that the ablest children are the most Quick Tempered; but
there is a tendency to a heteroclinal system, more marked in boys than girls,
the dull having again a tendency to quick temper.

In the more purely psychical alternatives of our observations, there are certain
marked relations and certain noteworthy sexual differences.

Conscientiousness. Fig. 14 shows that intelligence is homoclinal to conscien-
tiousness, there being in both sexes a reduction to about a third of the percentage
between the very intelligent and very dull classes.

Shyness. This character seems to have no relation to ability im boys; in girls
it is sensibly related to slowness, the intelligent and the dull being alike wanting
in their due proportion of shyness.

K. PEARSON

Analographs of Various Characters for each Grade of Intelligence.

Very Dull | Stow Dull
pee 4 ah a

Slow

|
| |
20 Boys! ingenenas —_i|

304

Girls \in_gencry)

10
Quick Tempe.

Stow Satethigent _

Intelligent
ae

ese oe me

Quick Intelligent

]
side taes ST
: =

Figure 79

_ La
30

Bous in general

20; tele |
Hea eens = +

|

|

| | |
i . | ee
id NM Gengra: a ae | |
704 E | ' | 70
| | a=
60. | a 60
j atl ' [ie | \
so ' ie si \ | | | ! 50
| wa \ | | { !
- lol 7 | 40
& r | | ! |
= ' | | ! 30
3 He Popularity Figure 17
Ss ;
S 4 | +40
5 fo Boys1a-genarat——_*t___} a —— ; us =—— See
ec ans |e Ss pesos al ae ee ae ee I,
30 Girls, in gengral See de cee ee (enn ee i 30
|
204 al | | Digs b20
“| Norsyness Figure 16
60 ! | rso
Rei eSellee sy =I
Sot_ Girls in general ___ a +50
Boy in genral ag
l4o | | 40
]
8% Seyf!consciobeness Figure 15 °°
)0- 90)
| eal
804 ! | 80
_Girts in general ___| ee eee
704 | | 70
L | Soup i genyral |
Fal 60
! | |
( | | 50
| | |
! | | i
! =F | | | | i
ag 30
! ! | !
Conscrentiousness | f nl fl Figure 14 :
very Dull Slow Dull Slow Slow Intelligent Intelmigent Quick Intelligent
-260 - 208 - 144 -80 O° +100 + 180
Scale of Intelligence in Mentaces, Girls - — - -. Boys ;

Self-consciousness.

Quiet Habits.

dull being noisy and the slow being quiet.

Percentages.

Here there is a marked sexual difference; while self-
consciousness is not closely related to intelligence, still it is the clever boys and
the dull girls who are self-conscious in the higher degree: see Fig. 15.

boys, but the intelligent boys are quieter than the dull boys.

The analograph for the girls is heteroclinal, the able and the
The relationship is less marked in

136 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

Popularity. While the percentage of popular children is almost exactly the
same for both sexes, and the intelligent children are more popular than the dull
ones, yet the relationship is more marked in girls than boys: see Fig. 17.

To sum up, then: While no characters in school children so far dealt with
show very high correlation with intelligence, we may yet say that the intelligent
boy is markedly conscientious, is moderately robust, athletic, and popular; he
tends rather to quick than to sullen temper. He is more self-conscious and
quieter than the dull boy; he has a slightly bigger head, and possibly lighter
pigmentation than those of more mediocre intelligence. His hair has a larger
percentage of curliness.

The intelligent girl also is markedly conscientious, moderately robust, athletic,
and popular. She, too, tends to quick rather than sullen temper. She is less
self-conscious than the dull girl, and noisier than the girl of mediocre intelligence.
It is the slow girl who is quiet and shy. The intelligent girl has a slightly bigger
head than the dull girl, and her hair is more likely to be wavy and much less likely
to be curly.

It may possibly be hinted that these results are of little significance, and, had
they not been so, they could still have been deduced—without elaborate statistics—
from the impressions of a careful and observant teacher. It may be so, but
much of science is the verification or refutation of impressions and opinions, and the
mainly negative conclusions of this paper place at any rate on a sounder quantitative
basis the view that even for the mass, and therefore much more for the individual,
little can be judged as to intelligence from the more obvious anthropometric
measurements and the more easily noted psychical characteristics of children.

The onus of proof that other measurements and. more subtle psychical observa-
tions would lead to more definite results may now, I think, be left to those who
w priort regard such an association as probable. Personally, the result of the
present enquiry has convinced me that there is little relationship between the
external physical, and the psychical characters in man. Future papers from my
laboratory, while showing certain definite relationships, will serve to confirm this
view, as far as the present material is concerned.

In the tables with which this memoir concludes, we have the full classitication
possible of the raw material. The tables for the three diameters and intelligence
in the case of girls are due to my friend Dr M. Greenwood; that for cephalic index
and intelligence in Cambridge graduates is due to Miss A. Barrington. The
remaining 42 tables are due both in construction and reduction to Dr A. Lee.
I have not only to thank her for so much aid, but also to acknowledge heartily
the generosity of the Worshipful Company of Drapers, which has rendered it
possible for my statistical laboratory to retain the services of such an efficient
ecompntator and assistant.

.
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142 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head
TABLE XXV.
Boys Health.
a Very , | Normally | Rather Very
= Robust Robust Healthy Delicate Delicate dictale
ad i}
c | Quick Intelligent... 5 270°5
_ | Intelligent 6 753°5
S | Slow Intelligent 8 735
& | Slow 3 2 337
| Slow Dull ... 2 136
3 Very Dull ... 3 41 |
= |

Intellectual Grade.

Intellectual Grade.

TABGR. XXVi:
Girls’ Health.

Quick Intelligent ...
Intelligent

Slow Intelligent
Slow

Slow Dull ...

Very Dull ...

Totals

Very
Robust

Normally

Robust | Healthy

690°5

Rather
Delicate

Very

Delicate

Intellectual Grade.

TABLE XXVII.
Boys’ Hair Colour.

: Jet :
Red Fair Brown Dark | Binet Totals
Quick Intelligent ... 7 104 83 64 | 5 263
Intelligent 26 263°25 221°5 214°75 10 735°5
Slow Intelligent 35°5 243°25 254 200°25 15°5 748°5
Slow asc 11°5 123°25 120°75 73°5 6 335
Slow Dull 2 40°75 45°75 30°5 2 121
Very Dull 4 12 18 12 1 47
Totals 2250
TABLE XXVIII.
Girls’ Hair Colour.
Red Fair Brown Dark Jet a Totals
Black
(Quick Intelligent ... 20°25 128°75 330
Intelligent 32°5 279°5 321°5 814°5
Slow Intelligent 23°25 263n 70M aap be 692°5
Slow va 6 972254) lt 25 55 279°5
Slow Dull 4 40°5 39°75 PENIS 108°5
Very Dull 2 17°25 7 42

Totals

K. PEARSON

TABLE XXIX.
Boys’ Hair Set.

Intellectual Grade.

Smooth...
Wavy
Curly

Hair Type.

Totals

~ Quick

Intelligent

Intelligent

Slow
Intelligent

TABLE XXX.
Girls’ Hair Set.

Intellectual Grade.

Slow

319°5

1438

Slow Very ete |

Dull | Dut | Totals |
1823

2745 |

75-5 |

|

Quick . Slow aya Slow Very rece
Z Intelligent | Mtelligent | ttentigent | SO" | Dun | Dull | Totals
=e
ey | Smooth... 1345
~ | Wavy 493
‘S| Curly 231
an

Totals
TABLE XXXI.
Boys’ Eye Colour *.
Intellectual Grade.

Quick ° Slow ay. Slow Very Im
ss Intelligent IpentslDS ea Intelligent SH ahead
3 ———
| Light 95°25 127°75 ‘ 867
© | Medium... 105°5 273°25 308°5 147°75 38°5 20 893°5
o | Dark 5 76 7 486°5
= |

Totals 2247

* In this investigation, ‘‘ Light” covered blue of all shades, light grey, very light green, ‘‘ Medium”
included dark grey, green, light chestnut, orange and grey combined, and “Dark” was taken to embrace
dark chestnut, light and dark brown, ‘‘black.’’

144 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

TABLE XXXII.
Girls’ Eye Colour.
Intellectual Grade.

Slow

Quick
Intelligent

Slow
Intelligent

Intelligent

Light 128 284 215 97 6] ~— 4
Medium... 162 345°5 302°5 124 49
Dark 62°5 186 153°5 70 23

Eye Colour.

Totals

TABLE XXXIII.
Boys’ Athletic Power.
Intellectual Grade.

Pa Quick ai: Slow & Slow Very
= Intelligent amelie Intelligent puou! Dull Dull Hose
3 |
| i]
es Athletic... 159°5 421°75 355°5 158°75 40°5 12 1148
‘= | Non-Athletic 46 163°25 187°5 99°75 48°5 15 560
D
= 205°5 | 585 543 2585 | 89 27 1708

TABLE XXXIV.
Girls’ Athletic Power.
Intellectual Grade.

Slow Star Slow Very motels

Quick

o slic

= Intelligent peas Slats oa) Intelligent Dull Dull

Ay

o | Athletic .. 369°5 259°5 32 938
3 Non-Athletic 74°5 225°5 | = 920°5 122°5 55 18 716
oe

— 1654

Totals

TABLE XXXV.
Boys’ Temper.

Intellectual Grade.

Quick Intelligent Slow Slow Slow Very Totals
Intelligent os

Intelligent

| Quick a
Good Nature
Sullen

Temper.

|
|
|
|
|

Totals

K. Prarson 145
z TABLE XXXVI.
Girls’ Temper.
Intellectual Grade.
Quick ei Slow Slow Ver
; Intelligent Pasa Intelligent | a Dull Dull igtalss)|
my
©
2} Quick nos 72°5 136°75 99°75 37°75 12 5°25 364
3 Good Natured 206 464°25 444°25 171°25 63 22°75 | 1371°5
& | Sullen 23°5 74 93°5 ests) 36 13°5 298°5
Totals 302 675 637°5 267 111 41°5 2034
TABLE XXXVII.
Boys’ Handwriting.
Intellectual Grade.
= Quick a Slow a Slow Ver ate
aS) Intelligent edb set Intelligent S10) Dull Dull | Totals
3
~
© | Very Good ... 35 57°5 32°5 14:5 6 = 145°5
ep Good 103 237 | 196°5 il 20 4°5 632
oe Moderate 67°5 240°75 | 280°25 120°75 51°25 19°5 780
‘s | Poor 11 67°25 91 63°5 25°25 9°5 267°5
= | Bad we 2 3 55
iE Very Bad 2 2 13
a. Totals ... 1893
TABLE XXXVIIL
Girls’ Handwriting.
Intellectual Grade.
: Quick - Slow Slow Very ;
x Intelligent pansion: Intelligent Bley Dull Dull Totals
w
mH
© | Very Good ...
on | Good *
a Moderate
‘a | Poor
= | Bad
S | Very Bad
OY
om Totals ..

Biometrika v

146 Relationship of Intelligence to Size and Shape of Head

TABLE XXXIX. Alternative Psychical Characters in Boys.

Intellectual Grade.

Psychical Characters.

Quick : Slow Slow | Very
Intelligent Intelligent Intelligent Slow | Dull | Dull thoes
(a) Keen Conscientiousness 231°5 520°25 451 148-75 48°75 | 11°75 | 1412
Dull 26 132°75 252 171°75 80°25 | 25°25 | 688
Totals 257°5 653 703 320°5 | 129 37 2100
(b) Shy eae anc 142°5 385 415°5 190°25 74°75 | 22°5 | 1230°5
Self-Assertive ... 101 265°5 | 295 133°75 52°25 | 14 861°5
Totals 243°5 650°5 710°5 324 127 36°5 | 2092
(c) Self-Conscious 135°5 312 337°75 1475 | 44°75 | 14 991°5
Unself-Conscious 113°5 325 331°75 180 90°75 | 21°5 | 1062°5
Totals 249 637 669°5 327°5 135°5 | 35°5 | 2054
(d) Noisy 92 265°5 265 131°75 56°25 | 15°5 826
Quiet 206°5 465°5 498°5 218°75 86°75 | 26 1502
Totals 298°5 731 763°5 350°5 143 41°5 | 2328
(e) Popular 216°5 548°5 513°75 222°25 69 18°5 | 1588°5
Unpopular 25 101°5 132°75 72°25 | 44 9 384°5
Totals 241°5 650 6465 =| 2945 | 118 27°5 | 1973

Psychical Characters.

TABLE XL. Alternative Psychical Characters in Girls.

Intellectual Grade.

(a) Keen Conscientiousness

Dull

Slow
Intelligent

Quick

Intelligent neiaany

Slow
Dull

Dull

Very | Totals

Totals

(b) Shy oe 500
Self-Assertive ...

Totals

(ec) Self-Conscious ...
Unself-Conscious

Totals

124-95 | 955-5 186-75 | 82°5| 34
Quiet 197°75 | 536-5 477°75 |202°5| 78 | 27 | 15195
Motals 322 792 664°5 | 285 | 112

(e) Popular : 443°25 | 1505} 53 12°5 | 1409°5
Unpopular 26°5 89°75 113-75 74 36 | 21°5 | 361°5
Totals 280 586-5 | 557 ‘| 224-5 | s9 | 34 1771

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SYMMETRY OF THE
EGG AND THE SYMMETRY OF THE EMBRYO IN THE
FROG (RANA TEMPORARIA).

By J. W. JENKINSON, M.A., D.Sc., Oxford.

PART I.

As every embryologist will be aware, the relation between the first segmenta-
tion furrow of the frog’s egg and the sagittal plane of the frog embryo has been
both the source of a famous theory and the central point of an equally celebrated
controversy. For while the supposed coincidence of the two planes led Roux
directly to the experiment in which one of the first two blastomeres being killed a
half embryo was produced from the survivor and so to the definite formulation of
the preformationist doctrine of “Selbstdifferenzirung” and “ Mosaikarbeit,” the
criticism which this theory called forth was soon directed to a re-examination, and
eventually resulted in a denial of the facts on which the hypothesis was based.

Roux’s own statement as to the relations between the planes in question,
made in 1883, is sufficiently explicit. After describing the difficulties he had
to encounter in obtaining an accurate measurement of the angle between the
two, and giving the magnitudes of such measurements, unfortunately only a
small number, as he was able to get, he concludes as follows: “So ist es wohl
berechtigt wenn ich das hervorspringende Bestreben beider Ebenen zusammen-
fallen zu lassen, als das Gesetzmiissige auffasse, und die gefundenen kleineren und
grosseren Abweichungen nicht auf Abweichungen von dem Gesetz sondern auf die
noch restirenden Fehlerquellen zuriickfuhre und so das Gesetz aufstelle.—Mit
der Ebene der ersten Furchung wird beim Froschei zugleich auch die kiinftige
Medianebene des Individuums bestimmt und zwar fallen beide zusammen” (Roux,
1883, p. 109). Nor is the relation thus established one of mere coincidence, it is
a causal relation, as we read in the Mosackarbeit, published in 1893 (p. 850):
“Das Prinzip der organbildende Keimbezirke beginnt somit erst mit der Fur-
chung eine ‘feste’ Bedeutung zu erhalten; dieselbe ist nicht blos eine topo-
graphische, sondern auch eine causale,” a conception which is of course a necessary

19—2

148 Symmetry of Eqg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

part of the hypothesis of nuclear predetermination elaborated by Weismann out
of Roux’s Mosatktheorte. Like many other of the facts upon which this theory is
built, the universality at least of the coincidence of these two planes has been
denied. Oscar Hertwig has stated—on the strength of observations made on eggs
compressed between horizontal glass plates—that they may make any angle with
one another. Schulze and Kopsch think it probable that they coincide in the
majority of cases.

Not one of these authors has, however, thought it worth while to examine
a large—a statistically intelligible—number of cases, though it would appear that
the magnitude in question is obviously a variable one and preeminently amenable
to such treatment. It is by this method therefore that I have sought for a
solution of the problem.

In the meantime the centre of interest has shifted. The very numerous
experiments that have been made on the behaviour of eggs segmenting under
pressure and on the development of isolated blastomeres, have distinctly negatived
the idea of the preexistence in the fertilized ege-cell of definite nuclear units for
the determination of the inheritable characters of the organism, an idea which has
now been abandoned by Roux himself, and less importance has come to be attached
to segmentation as a mechanism for separating such units; more attention is now
paid to the initial structure of the ovum, and the presence in it—demonstrated
by recent research in some cases—of definite cytoplasmic organ-forming substances
as a cause of differentiation.

In the frog’s egg itself (R. fusca) Schulze has shown that though the symmetry
of the unfertilized ovum is radial about the axis, a bilateral symmetry is acquired
during fertilization by the formation of a crescentic band—at first grey, but after-
wards white and added to the white area on the vegetative side of the egg—along
the border of the pigmented area on one side. The grey crescent arises, according
to Roux, by immigration of the pigment into the interior of the egg. Both Roux
(1903) and Schulze agree that the point of entry of the sperm is in the plane of this
bilateral symmetry, and on the side opposite to that on which the grey crescent
appears; and Roux, following out his earlier idea of the causal connection between
the sperm path and the first furrow, believes that it is the entry of the sperm that
is responsible for the change of symmetry. It is further stated by both authors
that the side of the grey crescent is postero-dorsal, since the dorsal lip of the
blastopore is formed here. The plane of symmetry and the sagittal plane there-
fore tend to coincide.

Normally, according to Schulze, the first furrow also lies in this plane, but
considerable deviations are possible, their frequency increasing with the length of
time that the eggs have remained in the uterus before being laid.

Morgan has investigated the relation between these three planes in R. tempor-
aria and R. palustris ; the first furrow lies in the plane of symmetry in 24 °/, of
the cases in the first species, in 50 °/, im the second, and when this occurs the

J. W. JENKINSON 149

sagittal plane coincides with both. But the first furrow may be at right angles to
the plane of symmetry, and in that case the sagittal plane may coincide with
either or be in between.

A complete treatment of the whole question demands therefore the determina-
tion of the position in each of a large number of eggs of the sperm-path, the plane
of symmetry, the first furrow and the sagittal plane. This is, however, un-
fortunately impossible, since the sperm path disappears long before the appearance
of the sagittal plane. It is possible, however, to determine either the first three
or the last three in one and the same egg; and this I have attempted to do. In
the first part of this paper I can only give the results of the measurement of the
angles between the plane of symmetry, the first furrow and the sagittal plane in a
fairly large number of cases. The relation between the sperm path and the first
furrow involves the cutting of a large number of eggs into series of sections, and
must be left till later.

The angle between the first furrow and the sagittal plane may be measured in
various ways. The eggs may be fastened by the jelly to glass plates coated with
paraffin and the direction of the planes marked, with the aid of a lens, by a needle
on the wax. Or the eggs may be fastened direct to the underside of a glass plate
and the directions marked with a paint-brush. These methods are, however, very
inaccurate, and I have discarded all the measurements made in this and previous
years in this way. They are inaccurate for two reasons. In the first place it is
very difficult to place the marks accurately, and in the second, the sagittal plane
has to be determined by the direction of the medullary folds or plate, a direction
which is probably in many cases not the original direction of the median plane,
for during the closure of the blastopore the eggs rotate not only about a horizontal
axis but about a vertical axis as well, though of course to a less, and to an irregular
extent.

It became necessary therefore to determine the sagittal plane by the position
of the dorsal lip of the blastopore in an early stage before rotation has begun. To
do this the egg must be viewed from the lower side. I made use of the following
apparatus. ‘The microscope was placed with the tube horizontal, and to the stage
was attached a holder which carried a slide on which the eggs were placed, and
below this a mirror at 45°. The eggs were illuminated from below. The slide
was ruled with a diamond with parallel lines, and by means of the micrometer and
goniometer with which the ocular was provided it was a simple matter to read
off the angle between the first furrow and a line on the slide, and later on
to determine the position of the sagittal plane in the same fashion.

The same method was used for the plane of symmetry.

One possible objection to this means of measurement is, I have satisfied
myself, groundless. Between the first and the second measurements the eggs
must be kept in a damp chamber, and it might be thought that in moving them

150 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

to and fro, however carefully, some slight shifting might occur. I measured
the first furrow in a set of eggs, then violently shook the slide and jogged it on the
table, and then measured again. The difference in many cases, nearly half, was
less than 3° and in no case very great*; and the eggs of course were never
ordinarily subjected to such violent treatment. The eggs were always taken
straight from the uterus, placed in rows on the slide, moistened with water,
artificially fertilized, and allowed to remain in water until the jelly had become
well swollen. They were then removed from the water and kept in a damp
chamber till required.

The following are the results of the measurements.

The angle between the first furrow and the sagittal plane was determined
in 889 cases, and in 397 of these the position of the plane of symmetry was also
observed. In 14 other cases the angle between the plane of symmetry and
the first furrow was found, in 112 other cases that between the plane of
symmetry and the sagittal plane. There are thus 509 observations of the angle
between the plane of symmetry and the sagittal plane, 411 observations of that
between the plane of symmetry and the first furrow.

I. First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

Table I. gives the frequencies for groups of 10°.

TABLE I.
First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.
Groups of 10°.

Class Frequency Class Frequency
—90—81 27 + 0—10 111
80—71 26 11—20 86
70—61 24 21—30 84
60—51 32 31—40 43
50—41 30 41—50 45
40—31 42 51—60 34
30—21 53 5 61-—70 31
20—11 69 : 71—80 29
10—O 104 81—90 19
889

M= 2°12°+°914
o =40°39° + 646.

* The actual frequencies of these differences were :
Angle : Can De ae mee C3) Se yet eal iil Taleo itso
Frequency: 6 10 8 5 9 5 2 1 1 4 «1 1 Qed

J. W. JENKINSON 151

Fig. 1 is the corresponding frequency polygon.

120
10

100

70

30,
20
| ;

-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 oO +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 #60 +70 +80 +90

Frequency.

Fie. 1. First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

It will be seen that there is a very decided tendency for the two planes to
coincide. Still all deviations are possible and all occur, and occur pretty equally
in either direction, for the polygon is fairly symmetrical.

This tendency towards coincidence might not unnaturally lead to the supposi-
tion that there is a causal connection between the two. The correlation table
(Table II.) quite negatives this idea.

The table, which was constructed by taking in each egg the angle between the
plane of symmetry and the first furrow and that between the plane of symmetry
and the sagittal plane, shows clearly how small the correlation is; it works out
at p='1388+°'031. Figs. 2 and 3, regression schemes constructed from the
correlation table, emphasize the point. It will be noticed, however, that in
Fig. 2 the regression line is rather sharply bent away from the horizontal on the

152 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

TABLE II.

Correlation between First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
7 Totals Means

9° 2

E
5 =)
5 1 — 4 5 1 8 32 = iho
ey = 1 — 3 3 6 20 - 6
ew —-| — 3 1 = 4 6 23 - —‘ll
a — — _ 2 2 4 eect
z = 1 = 1 7 4 27 + 2
a — — v3} 8 24 8 + 5
x S|
s 1 1 2 3 8 15 63 + ‘1
q — | —f7 — | — 3 6 24 7
q = a 3 5 5 22 + °7
P+tl — — 1 — 1 8 23 + °7
oa — — — 1 1 ‘4 16 + 38
@ == 1 1 4 5 9 45 +°21
3
on
Totals 2 7 10 25 48 99 92 49 29 13 12 11 397
Means — 2°5 | —1°5| —1°6| —°54| +°08| +°04] +°05] +°7 | +°8 | +:26| — 06] —°32
p='138 4031.
Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
90 = ° + 90

3

=

s

a

=

Ss

8

> °

3

=

>

Q

oS +

)

rs

=

q

90
Fic. 2.

J. W. JENKINSON 153

Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

90 = + 90

Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

90
Fries. 2 and 3. Schemes of Regression constructed from Table II.

In Fig. 2 the dots indicate the mean value of the angle between Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow
for each class of angle between Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane, in Fig. 3 the converse.

left-hand side. As we shall see presently, and as indeed may be gathered from
Table IT., this is due to the tendency of the first furrow to lie either in or at right
angles to the plane of symmetry, and Professor Pearson has suggested to me that
if the upper and lower arrays of the table were omitted the value of p would be
still further reduced. This is, as a matter of fact, the case.

Table III. is the correlation table constructed from the six middle arrays
of Table II.; Fig. 4 the corresponding regression scheme. The line of regression
is now practically horizontal, and the value of p—less than the probable error—
practically nal.

TABLE III.

Correlation table constructed from the Middle Strip of Arrays of Table II.
Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

z go = ° + go Totals
g
Pee a ios | ep oe.) yeh ay fa | = |* ay
85 -| — 1 sh lines i 4 5 3 3 3 os ins 27
gk — els} 8 24 21 14 yi 4 = 85
B SS SS fe}
ne 1 1 2 3 8 15 15 11 3 1 1 2 63
Sa |e | 3 6 6 4 4 a 1 24
2 i = = 3 5 5 2 3 1 = 2 1 22
SB 45 eee : = 45
Au go fo} go
Totals 1 2 3 12 33 58 5D 36 18 | 9 4 if 238
Means +°5| —°5 | +'1 | +°08| +°04) +°01 | —°21 | 4°13] 4°11] -°9 | +°7 | +°5 |

p= 009 + 044,

Biometrika v 20

154 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

90 = ° + 90

Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

90
Fic. 4. Regression Scheme constructed from Table III. The dots mark mean values
of the angle between Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

In short, between the first furrow and the sagittal plane in the frog’s egg there.
is no correlation, or—if the correlation table is an expression of that canon of
induction known as the method of concomitant variations—no causal connection.

The two planes coincide in so many cases merely because each, as we shall see,
and particularly the sagittal plane, tends to lie in the plane of symmetry. Beyond
that there is no connection between them. The symmetry of segmentation and
the symmetry of the embryo are independent, and in this case at least the truth
of Driesch’s famous aphorism is vindicated—“ Furchungsmosaik braucht kein
Mosaik der Potenzen zu sein.”

II. Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

‘The number of observations is here not so great, but still great enough to
produce a symmetrical result (Table IV., Fig. 5). It will be seen that the
tendency of these two planes to coincide is more considerable, the standard
deviation being smaller than in the case of the first furrow and the sagittal plane.

TABLE IV. Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
Groups of 10°.

Class Frequency Class Frequency

—90—81 4 + 0—10 91
80—71 6 11—20 52
70—61 3 21—80 42
60—51 8 31—40 27
50—41 14 41—50 15
40—31 23 51—60 i
30—21 29 61—70 11
20—11 60 71—80 6
10—0O 103 81—90 Ls
509

M= 2:23° + °889

o =29°75° + 629.

First Furrow and Plane of Symmetry.

go

+

vo}
fe)

Totals

Means

(10

100

70

60

Frequency.

o

J. W. JENKINSON

p= ‘372+ -025.

=90| -80 =70 =60 =50 -40' =30 =20 —iIo 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60 +70 +80 +90
Fic. 5. Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
TABLE V. Correlation between Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.
- ° + go = Totals

8 — 1 — 1 2 — 2 4 4 4 6 32
aa oar 1 == — 1 = 2 2 3 9 2 20
1 — 2 1 2 1 1 1 5 5 2 2; 23
1 = i 2 5 5 2 — 1 17
= — — 1 — 5 4 7 2 4 4 — Dil,
1 _— il 3 4 20 25 14 9 4 ) 7} 85

fe) ee fe)
2 1 i | 5 9 15 11 13 1 — 2 1 63
— — 1 4 6 of 4 1 — 1 = 24
1 5 3 | 6 1 2 1 2 1 ee =. 22
—- 4 Uf 3 5 -- 3 {| 23
1 6 3 2 1 1 1 - = 1 16
14 4 3 2 1 3 = | 1 — 4 5 8 45

fe} go
29 20 25 27 30 | 58 | 52 48 29 OME 29 23 | oor

| |
—1:0| —3°8| —1-9| -1-7] —-9 | --18| —-03| +-72 | +2-2| +1-6|+ 1°6| +:16|

20—2

156 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

The correlation table (Table V.), constructed by taking the first furrow as
a fixed line and correlating the angles made with it by the sagittal plane and the
plane of symmetry, and the regression scheme (Fig. 6) bring out the result in
another way.

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.
90 SS ‘0 ata 90

First Furrow and Plane of Symmetry.

Fic. 6. Regression Scheme of the mean values of angles between First Furrow and Plane of Symmetry
for each class of angle between First Furrow and Sagittal Plane. Constructed from Table V.

The correlation is obviously spoilt by those cases in which the first furrow is
at right angles to the plane of symmetry ; but by taking the 36 central squares of
the table only (Table VI. and Fig. 7), the value of p may be increased to
‘439 +032. By taking the six middle arrays only, it may be increased still
further to ‘477 + ‘028.

TABLE VI.
Constructed from the 36 Central Squares of Table V.

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

© 45 - 45 Totals
BI

& = — = 13
FOus4 + — 19
& 2 3 4 75
Beg ae

aes 5 9 54
Ee -| 4 6 22
eae 6 1 13
Zz

fy 45 Oo 45

Totals 19 20 50 47 42 18 196
Means —1:0} —°7 | —:06] +°21|+°41|] +°9

p= "439 + 032.

NC ae OE Re

J. W. JENKINSON 157

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

45

First Furrow and Plane of
Symmetry.
°

45
Fic. 7. Regression Scheme constructed from Table VI. The dots have
the same significance as in Fig. 6.

III. Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

As Table VII. shows, the first furrow tends to lie either in or at right angles to
the plane of symmetry, though the former predominates. In Fig. 8 I have
accordingly divided the frequency polygon into two parts, one distributed about

TABLE VII.
Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.
Groups of 10°.

Variation about 0°. Variation about 90°.
Class Frequency Class Frequency
—45— 36 8 +46— 55 4
35— 26 17 56— 65 14
25— 16 21 66— 75 13
15— 6 26 76— 85 17
5—+ 5 98 86— — 86 44
+ 6— 15 26 —85— 76 23
16— 25 16 75— 66 2
296— 35 18 65— 56 15
36— 45 13 55— 46 16
243 168
Variation about 0° Variation about 90°
M= °53°+°853 M=90°17° +1°212
o =18°70° + ‘603 o =93'29°+ ‘857.

rs

0°, the other about 90°. This alternative of two “predilection” directions, to
borrow a phrase of Roux’s, for the first furrow to choose from, completely throws
out the correlation (Table VIII. and Fig. 10); but if the range from — 45° to
+45° only be considered (Table IX.) the value of p rises to ‘271 +°038. In the
“scatter” diagram (Fig. 9), in which each instance is separately recorded, the
coincidence of the two planes is very well shown by the crowding of the dots
along the diagonal.

158

Me}
3°

+

100

90

60

>
=
= 50
3
ima]
=
ca
40
30
20
10
fe)
-45 -35 -25 -15 -5 +5 +15 +25 +35 +45 +55 +65 +75 +65 -85 -75 -65 -55
Fic. 8. Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

TABLE VIII.

-45

Correlation between Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

| |
|
|

AanNnwnre

Symmetry of Lgg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

go

Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.
°

go
Totals 29

Means + °4

20 25

+°18

29

27 30 58 52 48 29 27

—'14| +4 | +°6 | +°32| +°09|] +°5

p= 087 + ‘032.

+°6

go

Totals

397

-3O*

Fie. 9.

-60°

J. W. JENKINSON 159

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.
-30° =O, +.30° + 60°

‘Scatter’ Diagram

of the Correlation between the Plane of Symmetry and the First Furrow.

+ JO°

160 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

-60 -30 fe) +80 +60

Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

Fic, 10. Regression Scheme constructed from Table VIII. The dots are the means of the angles
between Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane for each class of angle between First Furrow
and Sagittal Plane.

TABLE IX.
Constructed from the Central Squares of Table VIII.

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

Ss 45 = ° + 45 Totals
— 4 = 2 i 2 3 12

e a -| 6 8 8 4 2 4 32
aa 5 9 26 10 | 6 3 59
q oH Oo o

bs

es 4 2 9 26 9 5 55

To SOs ee 4 5 2 | 20 5 38
Qn 2 3 = 5 4 5 19

=

Pu 45 ° 45
Totals 23 26 50 | 48 43 25 215

p= ‘271 + 088.

The examination, therefore, of a fairly large number of instances

(1) supports the statement that the first furrow and the sagittal plane tend
to coincide, though deviations of any magnitude are possible ;

(2) but contradicts the supposition that there is any causal nexus between
the two ;
(3) shows that the symmetry of the egg has a marked effect upon the

symmetry of the embryo and upon the symmetry of segmentation. The effect,
however, is not the same in the two cases.

J. W. JENKINSON 161

A question that of course will obviously occur is, to what are the deviations
from coincidence due? They may be the result of internal or external factors, and
of the latter heat and light and gravity at once suggest themselves as possible.
Many years ago Pfliiger showed that, by preventing the jelly from absorbing water,
the egg of the frog could be prevented from rotating inside it and compelled to
remain in any arbitrarily selected position. The first and second furrows were,
however, shown to be vertical, the third horizontal as in the normal egg. The
median plane of the embryo was determined by the plane which included the
original, now tilted, egg-axis and the present vertical axis, a plane afterwards
termed by Born, who examined the internal structure of eggs so placed in
“ Zwangslage,” the “streaming meridian,” since there occurred equally on each
side of it an upward streaming of cytoplasm and pigment, a downward sinking of
the heavy yolk granules. The first furrow, according to Pfliiger, in such inverted
eggs may make any angle with this plane; according to Born, it is generally either
in or at right angles to it, and Roux corroborates this.

It is evident that under the influence of gravity a very marked bilateral
arrangement is conferred upon the constituents of the egg and that this symmetry
impresses itself on segmentation and embryonic development, and it does not
seem impossible that, before the fertilized egg, which is laid with its axis in any
position, is able to rotate inside its jelly membranes, a slight bilateral symmetry
may be conferred upon it under the influence of gravity, and that this may interfere
with the other bilaterality produced by the entrance of the sperm.

I attempted to measure the angle between the original position of the egg
(before rotation), the plane of symmetry and the first furrow; but the measure-
ments are, 1 am afraid, too few and too inconclusive. I give here, however
(Fig. 11), a curve of the angles made by the first furrow with the streaming

40

30

20

Frequency.

QO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fic. 11. The First Furrow and the ‘Gravitation Symmetry Plane.’

meridian (gravitation symmetry plane) of a number of eggs kept in “ Zwangslage.”
If the measurements are not too few (215) to be trusted, the curve brings out the
very interesting point that the first furrow tends to lie either in, or at right angles

Biometrika v 21

162 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

to, or at 45° to the plane of symmetry, as though equally strong attractions were
exerted by the two “predilection” planes, to use Roux’s expression, upon the
nuclear spindles.

I have also made a few experiments (447 eggs) on the influence of heat and
light upon the direction of the sagittal plane. The eggs were placed, as before,
on slides ruled with parallel lines, in a damp chamber lined and covered with
black cloth. They were then exposed continuously to the light and heat of an
incandescent burner placed 15 inches away. As the curve (Fig. 12) shows, there

Frequency.

Fic. 12. Angle between direction of Light and the Sagittal Plane.

seems to be a slight tendency for the sagittal plane to be diverted into either the
direction of the incidence of light or a direction at right angles to it. The obser-
vations are so few, and the tendency so slight, that I cannot lay especial stress
upon the result, and publish it with all reserve. Further experiments with heat
only, or light only, and light of various colours will perhaps make a more positive
conclusion possible.

The curves of Figs. 1, 5 and 8 are not and cannot be reduced to normal
curves. I have drawn the appropriate normal curves on the top of these polygons
and there is a complete absence of fit. The apex of the polygon in each case
projects a good way above the apex of the probability curve, while the ends of
the latter lie outside the ends of the polygon.

The latter is very probably due to the fact that the limitation of the range
of variability to 90° on each side is an artificial one. It is extremely likely that
deviations slightly greater than 90° occur in small numbers, but that these have

J. W. JENKINSON 163

been—in actual observation—included as large deviations on the opposite side of
the curve*.

In the case of the angle between the first furrow and either the sagittal plane
or the plane of symmetry, this is unavoidable, since the two ends of the furrow
are, externally, alike; but it would be possible—I am sorry to say I neglected to
do this—to distinguish between deviations which are 180° apart and of opposite
sign in the case of the plane of symmetry and the sagittal plane, since each of
these is polarized, there being a larger extent of unpigmented yolk at one end
of the plane of symmetry than at the other, and the sagittal plane being marked,
at one end only, by the dorsal lip of the blastopore.

Indirectly, it is true, the two ends of the first furrow might be distinguished
from one another by the position of the furrow on the bilaterally symmetrical
unpigmented yolk area; but at the large deviations in question—about 90°—this

would hardly be practicable.

With regard to the first point of difference between the frequency polygons
and the normal curves, Professor Pearson suggested to me that the discrepancy

might possibly be due

(1) to a tendency of the planes not only to coincide, but to lie at 180° with
one another, the two positions being indistinguishable in observation ;

(2) to the existence of two kinds of eggs, one in which the planes practically
always coincide, another in which they deviate one from another at random.

The first supposition is untenable.

As Schulze and Roux have pointed out, the dorsal lip always appears on one
side of the egg, at one end of the plane of symmetry, namely on the side of the
grey crescent, where the unpigmented area extends most nearly to the equator.
With regard to the first furrow there is, externally, no ditference between its ends ;
the only internal difference is in the position in it of the male and female pronuclei,
which lie a little away from, but on opposite sides of, the axis. One end of the
plane of the first furrow might therefore be termed male, the other female. The
male pronucleus must lie on that side of the egg on which the spermatozoon
has entered, and this is always (Schulze and Roux) on the side opposite to the grey
crescent. This plane could not, therefore, under any circumstances, deviate by both
0° and as much as 180° from either the plane of symmetry or the sagittal plane.

With regard to the second proposed explanation.

In Table X. will be found the parentage of the eggs used in the several
experiments, with the date of each.

* Professor Pearson obtained general formulae for fitting normal curves to the observations, by
supposing the extremities of such normal curves beyond 90° cut off, reversed and added to the frequency
on the opposite side; but even so the observations failed to fit the normal curve modified in this
manner.

21—2

164 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

TABLE X,

Table showing the dates of the Several Experiments and the Parentages
of the eggs used in each.

Experiment Date
A 30 111. 06
B 31 i. on
C ” ”
D ” ”
E eee ”
F 1 iv. 06
G ” ”
H 2 iv. 06
H’ ” ”
K 3 iv. 06
J ” ”
I ” ”
N ey
O ” ”

Parentage
one ¢ one 2
one ¢
one ¢ one @
one ¢

one ¢ one @

one ¢ one 9
one ¢

BU ) one @.

one g

In Tables XI.—XIII. the frequencies in the individual experiments of each
class of angle are set forth.

(a) With regard to the First Furrow and the Sagittal Plane (Table XI.).

It is evident that in some experiments (A, F, G, H, I, N, O) the two planes
tend to coincide, while in the remainder the distribution is almost at random.

This difference is, however, clearly not due to the length of time the eggs
remained in the uterus, for A and O, for example, are respectively at the beginning

TABLE XI.

First Furrow and Sagittal Plane.

Frequencies in the Individual Experiments.

Eee Frequencies
| |

A 2 3 pH el ta os 4 5 8 6715 6 8 | 3 4 1 1 1 | —
B 1 2 3 3 4 3°, 5 | 4 4 5) 4] 5 2 2 3 2 1
C 3 4 5 | 8 3 3 2 2a peli 5 2 3 | 5 2 8 1 4 | —
D 5) 2 2};—|1 ey | | 1 ey) ee By} SS | 2 3
E 1 4 5 | 5 | 4 3 2 4 5 2 2 4 | 4 5 5 9 6 3
F 2 1 ik |) =) 1 3 i CPG IG ees 1 1 |—]—]—
G 1 |) | pe | 6] 5] 4] 3 2};—j|1]—] 2
H 1 As = I |e Bs 219 6715 | 12 3); 4 | 2 2 1 3 1
K 7 4 2/3 | 5 ||) 1 | 6 5 3 3) 2 5) 5 4 3 7
JJ —|—j| 2) 4) 1) 8) 4el Be Sei Sul i) Feat oie eal eet ee
I —/1 1; 1)/—j|—)| 6 3 | 13 3 8; 2} 1);—;];—] 3 1

N 2/;—|1/|2 5 £ a 9 13 7 10 ch ay) 4 4 2 2 3 | —
O ie ett ty el | =) 2) 8 Sy Teas a as 8 ae eee

go 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Io Io 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 go

J. W. JENKINSON 165

and end of the series. Nor is it due to any peculiarity of the ova or spermatozoa.
B,C, D and EL, it is true, were all obtained from the same female, though not all
fertilized by the same male; #’ and G were also produced by the same parents,
and so were V and O, but in J the distribution is a random one: in J it is very
strongly gathered about 0°, though in these two cases ova from one female were
fertilized by spermatozoa from one male.

(8) The Plane of Symmetry and the First Furrow (Table XII.).

In B, C, G, H, I and J the frequency is greatest about 0°; in D and K the
frequency about 90° rather exceeds that about 0°; in # the variation is a random
one.

TABLE XII.
Plane of Symmetry and First Furrow.

Frequencies in the Individual Experiments.

cating Frequencies
B 4 |—]/ 2 4 2 4 1 3 6712) 3 3 3 )/—]1)]—|— 5
C 3 1 |—| 4 2 2 3 3 5712} 2 1 ]—| 2 1 3°) — 3
D 6 1 }/—}|—;—]1}/—]— 1 4 Ih 2 1 | — 6
E 3 2 6 4 | 2 2 3 4 5 5 | 2 3 Bi ie + f 3 3
G ily eae |e 1|/—/1 8 4/1 1 }—);—} 38 | —|]— 3
H 2 3 1|—/1 3 5 3 | 17714] 2 5 2 )—|—|]2 |— 3
K 5 6 2 3 | 2 2 2 5 3 8] 5 3 3 3 4 1 3 | ll
J 2 2 3 }—|—),—] 1 3 | 10 5} 1 3 3 1 2 2 3 2
I 1/—]1);--;—/;|—]—] 3 4 3} 1 PT} —j,1})—/;—|]— i
go 80 7o 60 50 40 30 20 10 ° 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

It is clearly impossible to suppose that these differences are due to any pecu-
liarity in the eggs, or spermatozoa produced by individual parents.

(y) In the case of the Plane of Symmetry and the Sagittal Plane the tendency
towards coincidence is shown in every experiment (Table XIIL.).
TABLE XIII.
Plane of Symmetry and Sagittal Plane.

Frequencies in the Individual Experiments.

| pavell Frequencies
B —}1]—)1 1 5 4 8 W 4 2 2) 3 5 4 2 1 3
C —| 2 —/3 |]—) 3 ] 7 9 9 4 8 i 1 1 —|2|]—
D iD ee ay a 2 10 | 10 | 15 | 12 2); 2 );—;—]1 — | —
E = | 1 Waal 3/4 4 5} 17] 12 4 3 | 3 2 2);— 3
G hae al 2 2 3} 11] 138 4/10] 4 1 }—] 2] —
H —{—}—/1 1 2 | 5 11 | 10 } 21 ef 6) 5 2);—|1 J —-
ciel ie ies. == 6 | 8 7 | Bi a
K 1 1 2 il 1 3 | 5 5 | 15 9} 11 1 3 3 2 Z 1 1
J Teese) GbE eee Meo es. el 1) es} ao a
I 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 Ly}; 2 )—};—}; —/] —]|] —

go 80 7o 60 50 40 30 20 10 fo) 10 20 30 40 50 60 7o 80

go

166 Symmetry of Egg and Symmetry of Embryo in the Frog

Although, therefore, the differences in distribution observed in the different
experiments may, in the case of the first furrow and sagittal plane, and the plane
of symmetry and the first furrow, be possibly applied, as Professor Pearson has
suggested, to the explanation of the discrepancy between the observed polygon
and the corresponding normal curve, such an explanation will hardly hold good in
the case of the plane of symmetry and the sagittal plane.

I may add here that my results do not seem to lend support to Morgan’s
statement that, when the first furrow lies i the plane of symmetry, the sagittal
plane coincides with both.

This position of the first furrow occurs in my experiments B, C, G, H, J and J;
but in G, H and J the distribution of the angle between the first furrow and
the sagittal plane is markedly crowded about 0°, in B, C and J it is random.

Further, in the “scatter” diagram (Fig. 9) of the correlation between the plane
of symmetry and the first furrow, the dots which signify coincidence of the two
are of course those which lie pretty thickly ranged along the diagonal. On
Morgan’s view all these dots should lie in the centre of the table: it is plain
that they do not*.

In conclusion, I have to express my thanks to Mr E. H. J. Schuster for the
generous loan of his calculator, and to Professor Pearson for the suggestions he
has been good enough to make.

* Tt should be pointed out however that the tendency of the sagittal plane to lie in the plane of
symmetry does increase slightly as the angle between the first furrow and the plane of symmetry
diminishes.

Thus the value of the standard deviation for the angle between plane of symmetry and sagittal
plane for all the cases (Table IV.) is

o =29°75° + 63 (n=509, M=2:23°+ :89),
For the 397 cases where the first furrow is also known (Table II.)
o=30°16°£°72 (n=397, M=3-41°+1-02).

But if those cases only are considered in which the angle between first furrow and plane of symmetry
is not greater than 45° (as in Table III.), then

o = 28°41°+ 87 (n=238, M=5°'10° 1°24).

By taking the two middle arrays only of Table III.—those cases in which the said angle is not
greater than 15°—
o=27:94°+1:09 (n=148, M=5:16°+1°55);

while when the range of the difference between first furrow and plane of symmetry is restricted to 5° (by
taking the diagonal strip of Fig. 9),

o =27'46° 41:32 (n=98, M=4:84° 41°87).

J. W. JENKINSON 167

WORKS REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT.

Born, G. Ueber den Einfluss der Schwere auf das Froschei. Arch. f. mikr. Anat, xxiv. 1885,
pp. 475—540.
Hertwic, O. Ueber den Werth der ersten Furchungszellen fiir die Organbildung des Embryo.
Arch. f. mikr, Anat. xutt. 1893, pp. 721, 722.
Korscy, F. Ueber die Verhiltnisse der embryonalen Axen zu den drei ersten Furchungsebenen
beim Frosch. Internat. Monatschr. f. Anat. u. Phys. xvi. 1900, pp. 1—22.
Morean, T. H., and Borine, A. M. The relation of the first plane of cleavage and the gray
crescent to the median plane of the embryo of the Frog. Arch. f. Ent. Mech. xvi. 1903,
pp. 680—690.
Prutcer, KE. Ueber den Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf die Theilung der Zellen. Pfiiger’s Arch,
XXXI. pp. 3811—-318, xxx. pp. 1—77, xxxiv. pp. 607—616.
Roux, W. Ueber die Zeit der Bestimmung der Hauptrichtungen des Froschembryo. Leipzig,
1883. Ges. Abh. XVI. pp. 95—123.
—. Ueber die Bestimmung der Hauptrichtungen des Froschembryo im Ei und iiber
die erste Theilung des Froscheies. Brest. dirtal. Zettschr. 1885. Ges. Abh. Xx. pp. 277—343.
—. Die Bestimmung der Medianebene des Froschembryo durch die Copulationsrichtung
des Hikernes und des Spermakernes. Arch. f. mtkr. Anat. xxix. Ges. Abh. xxi. 1887,
pp. 344—418.
Die Hervorbringung halber Embryonen. Virchows Arch. 1888. Ges. Abh. XXII.
pp. 419—520.
—. Ueber Mosaikarbeit und neuere Entwickelungshypothesen. Anat. Hefte 1893. Gres.
Abh, xxvil. pp. 818—870.
—. Ueber die Ursachen der Bestimmung der Hauptrichtungen des Embryo im Froschei.
Anat. Anz. XXIII. 1903, pp. 65—91, 118—150, 161—183.
Scuuuze, O. Ueber das erste Auftreten der bilateralen Symmetrie im Verlauf der Entwickelung.
Arch. f. mikr. Anat. LV. 1900, pp. 171—200.

MISCELLANEA.

I. A Rejoinder to Professor Kapteyn.
By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

In the Recueil des Travaux botaniques Néerlandais, No. 3, 1905, will be found a reply to my
recent criticism of Professor Kapteyn’s theory of skew curves*.

Professor Kapteyn’s reply consists, as far as I am able to follow it, of two statements
accompanied by a complete ignoration of the criticisms I have made on his treatment of
skew variation.

His statements are

(a) That he has arrived at a more general proof of the equation

We 4. P(g) EO ee (i)

Nir
than Professor Edgeworth had previously done and that I have misrepresented his method
of obtaining this equation.

(b) That I have largely profited by his theory and in fact adopted it as the basis of my
own treatment.

I wish to consider briefly these two points.

(a) ydx is an elementary frequency and Kapteyn’s equation can be written at once:
Pe eh? (P@)- 1)" (F(x)—M)
NE

h

=e 2 dz
7
if z be put for #(«)- I.

Thus whatever Kapteyn’s process of deduction may be, its final result is absolutely no
more than asserting that some quantity z obeys the normal law and x the observed variable
is a function of this “shadow” variable z. The process is completely the same in result as
stretching a normal curve with varying degrees of stretch parallel to its base.

It is- perfectly true that Professor Kapteyn only reaches this result after fifteen pages of
preliminary talk, but the mathematical demonstration of (i) occupies something less than a
page, and it involves nothing more than the assumptions made by Professor Edgeworth
(see Kapteyn, p. 16). The normal curve is actually assumed on p. 16, and the validity of the

* Biometrika, Vol. tv. pp. 199—203.

Miscellanea 169

assumption is just as large or small as the weight we choose to give to the three Gaussian
conditions by which the normal curve is usually supported.

Further, when the assumptions have been made what is the result? Why, we are not
really a bit forwarder than on the simple assumption that the general frequency-curve is :

Y= Pil) Badiiees eeeeaaens seeesandy seb saup bese settee sectaea. (ii),
where ¢ () is perfectly arbitrary. Both (i) and (ii) involve an arbitrary function and therefore
can be made to give the most general frequency distribution which is conceivable! I pointed
this out years ago in criticising Professor Edgeworth’s solution *.

Mathematically Kapteyn and Edgeworth seem to me to follow entirely the same path.
But biologically there is a very serious flaw in Kapteyn’s preliminary reasoning. He asserts
that “the frequency-curve is gencrated under the influence of causes the effect of which is
proportional to Pay’ (p. 16). No causes that we are aware of in biological or indeed
sociological investigations lead to a mathematical relationship of this kind. The relationships,
which actually arise between the characters and between characters and environments, are not
causative, but correlational, and this is a fundamental distinction which Kapteyn entirely
overlooks.

Accordingly I personally am unable to see any real distinction between Kapteyn and
Edgeworth. They both obtain a form of equation which is no more nor less general than
y= (a), but it is put into a form which enables them to prostrate themselves before the
Gaussian fetish.

(b) Professor Kapteyn asserts that in propounding as a general form of frequency-curve
the equation

ldy «+a ae

ee FIC a eae aaa (iil)
I am simply adopting the general differential equation of his curve (i). I am afraid I should
look upon it as nothing more than stating in a convenient form the general result y= (2),
for it contains the perfectly arbitrary function f(v). There is nothing more in it than this,
and I should not value in the least the discovery that (iil) was the general form of frequency-
curve! But if (ili) really embraces Professor Kapteyn’s curve and he wishes to claim priority
for this find, I have only to say that I can give him, if lhe desires it, conclusive evidence that
(iii) has been habitually discussed in my lectures on statistics for at least five or six years,
if not longer !

My custom has been to follow exactly the lines indicated in my memoir on Skew
Correlationt. Namely, to give (iii) and then assume that f(7) could be expanded in the
form f(#)=S(c,7). I then determine the values of the constants ¢, by a finite difference-
equation between the moments.

The Drapers’ Memoir referred to above was only published in 1905, but if Professor Kapteyn
looks at Biometrika, Vol. m1. p. 281, issued in June, 1903, he will see the general formula(e)
for c, in terms of the moments given, and this was at a time anterior to my knowledge of
Professor Kapteyn’s paper.

In the question of an important discovery, priority by the usual scientific courtesy turns
on priority of publication.

Professor Kapteyn’s memoir is dated October, 1903. My formula was published in June,
1903, showing that I was then using the expression:

ldy «+a es
yaa FB) aie Sate SasieSanieduaewcaddaeestveyeenes sitet (iii).
* Phil. Mag., Jan. 1901, p. 111.
+ Drapers’ Research Memoirs, Biometric Series u. Dulau and Co,
Biometrika y 92

170 Miscellanea

In my opinion, however, there is absolutely no important discovery here, Kapteyn’s or
rather Edgeworth’s (i) and my (iii) are in my opinion only convenient analytical ways of
expressing the general relation (ii). My sole object in referring to the matter is to meet
Professor Kapteyn’s charge, that I have largely profited by his paper and the suggestion that
I had invented (iii) as a differential equation to frequency distributions after the appearance
of that paper.

We now, having cleared off Professor Kapteyn’s first two statements, come I think to the
kernel of the matter. Neither (i) nor (iii) is more general than (ii), the whole problem
turns on the proper and suitable choice of /'() in (i) or f(a) in (iii) just as it turns on a
proper choice of (a) in (ii). Up to this point neither party has made any real progress.

Kapteyn selects /'(7)=(7+x«)%, and I selected f(x7)=S (ec, 2”).

The test of the merits of the two selections must depend upon certain points which I
will shortly consider. But first I would meet another remark of Kapteyn’s. He says I stop
at c2, but he does not note why, although the reasons have been stated, Le.

(i) I have given the expressions to deduce any c, whatever, but the higher ¢’s depend
upon the high moments, which I have shown are subject to large percentage probable errors.

(ii) The e¢ series converges in practice rapidly, the reducing factor being of the order of
the skewness and the kurtosis, both of which are usually much smaller than unity. This is
indicated by the general rough approach of most statistics as a first approximation to a
Gaussian curve, and as a second approximation to a point binomial, and as a third approxi-
mation to the hypergeometrical series.

(iii) The sufficiency with which f(v)=c+c,v+¢,2? gives actual frequency distributions.
These are the justifications for my own choice of / (2).

To not one of my criticisms of Professor Kapteyn’s choice of (x) does he make any
reply whatever. I pointed out:

(i) That a good frequency-curve must be a graduation formula, and that Kapteyn by
making his result depend on certain total areas had shown that he failed to realise this
essential condition *.

(ii) That we ought in every frequency distribution to be able to realise the effect of the
unit of grouping, but that Kapteyn’s method wholly ignores this important point.

(iii) That the probable error of every constant involved ought to be ascertainable, and
this is not the case with Kapteyn’s constants ; he finds for one case that his constant g=0
or g=o give both a “pretty close” representation. As the whole range of g must lie between
these arithmetical values, it is clear that it cannot be an important constant which will
enable us to effectively discriminate between two allied distributionst.

* Further: constants deduced from class frequencies are never as accurate as those deduced from
moments. In fact they often are very bad indeed. Thus suppose it necessary to find the standard
deviations (1) by moments, (2) by areas, say from the quartiles. Sheppard (Phil. Trans. Vol. 192, p. 134)
has shown that if the total frequencies are n and n’, the probable errors are ‘747280N n and ‘9190860 //n?
respectively. Or, if » were 1000, n’ would have to be 1513 or 50 p.c. larger to obtain as good a result.
The errors resulting from this source are as serious as the failure of ‘class’ fitting (when only the
same number of classes are taken as constants to be determined) to graduate the observations.

+ Professor Kapteyn’s reply to this criticism is given above and it is, I venture to think, no
reply at all. He says that it only shows ‘how widely different forms may be made to represent with
tolerable precision the same frequency-curves.” This gives the whole theory away. Any frequency
distribution of n classes is absolutely determined by its moment-coefficients m., M3, M4... My The class
frequencies can be expressed in terms of the p’s (Thiele) if enough are taken. Any constant there-
fore of the frequency distribution ought to be uniquely expressible in terms of these constants. After

Miscellanea wal

(iv) That the fundamental physical constants are not ascertainable from Kapteyn’s
constants, and this alone seems to me sufficient to deprive his method of all practical
significance.

(v) That his assumptions would involve the existence of a number of organic variables,
the distribution of which followed a truncated normal curve; no such variables have been
observed in the very wide biometrical experience we have had.

(vi) Further that if they did exist, we ought to discover a number of perfectly correlated
organic characters. Hundreds of correlations between organic characters have now been
investigated, but no case of perfect correlation has yet been discovered.

Professor Kapteyn instead of replying to my criticisms (i) to (vi) states that he has
reached a result more general than Edgeworth’s. This I fail entirely to agree with and
I believe no mathematical logician would agree with it either. He next asserts that I have
in some way purloined his result (i) under a form (iii). My reply is that (i) or (iii) are of no
importance at all until we come to select forms for the arbitrary functions involved, and
that if they were of importance, I am not indebted to Professor Kapteyn for form (iii), for I
used it for years and published it some months before his paper appeared.

I am quite ready to leave the result even of testing the practical value of the two series
of curves as empirical descriptions of frequency to the computator; and this for the simple
reason that Kapteyn’s curves have been tested by a trained computator and fail to fit at all in
certain cases where mine do fit. The source of this failure is shown in my paper; Kapteyn
has not got general skewness and general kurtosis with his formula. But of this more on
another occasion. Kapteyn promises us a general method of determining the analytical form
of his F(x). I shall look forward to his paper with the greatest interest, for it involves
indirectly no less than a revolution in physics. It amounts to the determination of the
arbitrary analytical function which expresses the relation between two physical quantities,
from a graph of their observed relationship. Clearly if we can find /’(z) in (i), it is identical
with the discovery of (x), the functional form of the relation between two physical characters

wand y. The solution will be of the greater value because every observed class z= i i ydx is

vy
subject to the probable error ‘67449 Vz(1—z/V) where W is the total frequency, so that the
form of F(x) has to be determined analytically, not from exact knowledge, but from a
knowledge that y lies with a definite amount of probability within a certain belt of varying
breadth. The gain in power to the poor physicist who is too apt to select y=S(c,#") to
describe his observation curves will be enormous.

this is done the question to be answered is: What is its probable error? Every constant used in
my frequency theory is uniquely and absolutely given as soon as the moment coefficients have been
ascertained and its probable error can then be found. It is accordingly an absolutely significant con-
stant for the frequency distribution quite apart from its relation to any special form of curve. And
it may be compared from one distribution to a second, without any assumption as to the goodness of
fit of curves. For example, just as we can test whether », differs significantly for two distributions,
so we can also test whether any function,
F (Has Pgs +++ Mn)s

differs significantly, and this will be one test of true differentiation in the distributions. Thus we may
test if

y= 2po/u, and p= 4p,3/u,"- 1
are significantly different for two distributions. This is perfectly legitimate whether we take y and p
constants of my curve (Type III) or not; they are unique functions of the w’s. But when Professor
Kapteyn expresses his frequency in terms of a constant which may have values in the same case from
0 to », it must be obvious that he has at once destroyed the fundamental purpose of frequency
investigations, which lies in testing by the theory of probable errors the difference of random samples
of two populations.

22—2

72 Miscellanea

II. On the Curves which are most suitable for describing the
frequency of Random Samples of a Population.

By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

(1) In determining the variability of random samples, or in other words in forming the
probable error of a class frequency, an argument of the following kind is usually adopted: Let
the chance of occurrence of an individual with a character of the given class be p, and g=1- p
be the chance of an individual not of this class occurring, then if a random sample of n indi-
viduals be taken the distribution of J/ such random samples will have frequencies given by the
terms of the binomial J/(p+q)".

The first four moment coefficients of this distribution about its mean* are:

Fis = A010 Renepn nce ae cpcosnnendtonnsoeonaneuondsoncaedboneoava00c6con (i),
[Oy 0} GO —=U))) nena nee sagnos sag nonenpennchoscoaEoscosooococdoec (ii),
pacing (38 (1 —2) PAI) .....secrecceservcsevceerernsaseeens (iii).
These lead to
1 4
ey ee pee
By = p3 | a2 pg jy STs eas ee ee (iv),
1 6
= Dep eae ees
Bo= p4/ m2 aol ngg PRED Core por coe moondonkeocrscaecos (v).

Now if » be indefinitely large,—and neither » nor q¢ be indefinitely small,—there results
B,=0 and B3=3, i.e. no skewness and mesokurtosist. Accordingly, as is well known, the binomial
passes over into the symmetrical (or Gaussian) normal curve of errors, with a standard deviation
NA npq- The great bulk of investigators,—at least of the wiser class who know the importance
of basing inferences on probable errors—are thus accustomed to content themselves with
calculating the probable error of a class frequency from the formula

PIB, = 67449 A/G) vedas auedaces.saseseseseetee eee (vi),

c, the group base, being taken as unity. The odds against the correspondence between an observed
class frequency and its theoretical value are then calculated from tables of the probability
integral. In other words the distribution of random samples of a class frequency is assumed to
follow the normal curve
Yael Ma ae (vil),

where o=/npq.

The validity of this process for practical statistics remains unquestioned, provided zn is fairly
large and neither p nor g approximate to zero{. Historically this is the very problem, for the
solution of which the probability integral and the normal curve were introduced.

But if any frequency distribution be examined, we find class frequencies, which are them-
selves small, for example often small classes towards the extreme values of the character, and it
is not legitimate to put 8,;=0 and 6B,—3=0 and adopt the normal curve in considering the
probable error of such class frequencies; for, although n be fairly large p will be very small and
np, the frequency of the class in the sample, be possibly only a few units. Thus the value of
1/(npq) may easily range from unity downwards. For example, if »=1000 and np=2 or 3 we
cannot possibly consider the skewness represented by 8;='3 to ‘5 or the kurtosis B,—-3='3 to °5
as passably corresponding to a symmetrical, mesokurtic Gaussian curve of errors.

* Pearson: Phil. Trans. Vol, 186 A, p. 347.

+ Biometrika, Vol. tv. p. 173.

+ Thus Mendelian halves and quarters with 100 to several hundred individuals in the series may be
quite effectively tested in this manner.

Miscellanea 173

A similar difficulty arises whatever values we take for p and g (between 0 and 1) if x itself be
small, i.e. if we are dealing with random samples of small size.

To surmount this difficulty we are compelled to return to the original binomial J/(p+q)”.

Now the calculation of any number of the terms of this binomial is very troublesome,
- especially when z is large, but np small. Accordingly we need an integral which will stand as
closely to the sum of the first s terms of this binomial for any values of 2 and p, as the normal
probability integral does to the same sum when 7 is large and p moderate, This expression is
directly and effectively provided by the curve *

y=yoe7™ (1 +e Cee ree Oe) eae (viii),
where m=4 (— - =) dle Racrec tic enveneas s susieuesaaeanc eases ence (ix),
npg n
2 1
See ee eae sheen etna hs diets Coase wena deers ee vesies hele Xa)
Vaan (x)
and YoH—Mla. met te-MIN(m+1) ....... Hana vesnayeatpaeceness ee: (xi).

¢ of course will usually be taken unity and the origin is the mode or maximum frequency. The
areas of this curve give as completely as the probability integral does the odds against any
observed deviation from the modal value.

It will be obvious that to find the odds against any given deviation we require the ratio of an
incomplete to a complete T-function. Numerical tables to assist the calculation of incomplete
C- and incomplete B-functions are nearly finished and will be shortly published.

Thus within these limits a solution is reached for the problem of the probable error of random
sampling when , p, g are anything whatever.

(2) The whole of the preceding investigation is, however, subject to a limitation which
often escapes notice. We have supposed the chance of any individual arising with the character
of a given class to be p, and that this chance remains constant throughout the collection of the
sample. This statement of the problem is however incorrect, when the size of the sample is in
any manner commensurable with the total population from which it is drawn. Such cases are
by no means uncommon in the treatment of vital statistics for the case of man. Further in the
consideration of determinant theories of inheritance, when the character of the individual
depends on the random sampling of a finite number of determinants, the size of the sample not
being small as compared with the number of selectable determinants, we are again excluded from
using either the probability integral or the incomplete T-function for the determination of the
distribution.

For example, if a cell-division leads to the exclusion of 2’ determinants out of V=n+n’
available determinants, where » and »’ are commensurable, it is not possible to approach the
matter as we have done above; for in the cases treated n’ is supposed large as compared with n.
We accordingly reach the following more general problem :

A population consists of V individuals, Vp of which possess a given character and Vq do not,
what will be the distribution of frequency in this character for J random samples of magnitude
n which is commensurable with J ?

The solution is of course the hypergeometrical series

Mu PAN 1)... (PN n+ 1) {itn gN at (n—1) EgVigy 1s
" N(N=1)...(V—1+1) ‘pN-n+1 1.2 (pN—n+1)(pN -7+4+2)
el (n—1)(n—-2) qN (qN -1)(qNV-2) | i
IRO83 (pV —n+1)(pN—n+2)(pN—n+3) 1°" ee)

* Skew-Curve of Type III: see Phil. Trans. Vol. 186 A, p. 373.

174 Miscellanea

Thus the hypergeometrical series, and not the point binomials (or their limits either the
normal curve or Type III skew curve), form the general solution to the problem of random
sampling.

If we wish to consider the odds against any observed deviation from the most probable result
for a class frequency, we must accordingly endeavour to determine the value of the first s terms
of the above hypergeometrical series. But the labour of such an investigation is great and we

are naturally thrown back, as Laplace was, on the discovery of an integral which will replace the
finite difference series.

I have shown* in an earlier paper what are the values of the moments of the hypergeometri-
cal series. In the notation of the present memoir, we have

po=c* npg (1 ~ =) dedeGoncetecseaceaaiescssaesecscecstmedee tere seeeemeere (xiii),
p3= npg (p - q) Q-F5) 0-) sbin decleseine desea cnet neeeteene (xiv),
pa=cinpg ( - 7a) {} - ee (2 - r=)

+3pq (n-2) € 2 = +a 3) oe (xv).

The mean value is at a distance ¢(1+7q) from the left-hand zero start of the series, ie. eng
from the value when the sample consists wholly of individuals with the character, and this is
identical with the mean value calculated on the basis of the binomial (p+q)".

If n and J are both large, but still commensurable, the above results reduce to the simpler
forms :

p2.=C npg (1 - m) susavagu’scodenece soda sdcuougncs cen seeeeseen teceee Sccdonabe (xvi),
7 2n a0

pg =O npg ~-(0 -*) 0-F) AbinCDHanabAbAaTdSAanbadddC sap auavGG0906 (xvii),

py =c'npg ( _ 7) {) +3npq (1 ¥) —6 ¥ (2 - wf actessecene (xviii).

It will thus be clear that when the sample is commensurable with the population from which
it is drawn, the standard deviation of the class frequency must no longer be taken V npg, but
Vapg (NV —n)/(V—1), a result which even if we now use tables of the probability integral will
give us a very different value for the probable error in the class frequency. But it is clear that
we ought not to use such probability integral tables, we ought to replace the sum of the first
s terms of the hypergeometrical by an integral which gives the value of this sum with a degree of
accuracy similar to that with which the probability integral in like case gives the symmetrical
binomial. But such integrals representing the areas of certain curves fitting closely to the
hypergeometrical series were provided by my memoir of 1895+.

: i 1
p lie between $+ es (1 +7) .

the sums of the series are closely given by the areas of the curve

It is there shown that if

___ Yo —7n-v tan“! a/a

* Phil. Mag. Feb. 1899, p. 239.
+ Phil. Trans. loc. cit. p. 361 and seq.

Miscellanea ily es

N (N= 22) (p=9)
V4 (1+ pW) (1+qN)—(N—2n)? |
m= (N+2)
If on the other hand p lies outside the above limits, then the sum of the series is given by the

areas of the curve
w\-va x \va2 ,
Y=Yo (1 -*) (1 aa =) SpA ORNGAGHORGoCHE UO RESOICHGOC (xx1),

where a and ay are the roots of the quadratic equation
2 (n+1)(V—-n+1)(1+9¢¥)(1+py) hd cN (N—2n)(p-q)
(V+2)? 2(V+2) — 7 Ci, (xxii).
and vy =(N+42)/(a,— ay) |
Thus, (xix) which falls under my skew curve Type IV, and (xxii) which is included in my
skew curves of Type I, complete the full solution of the problem of the random sample.

where a=}cn4(1+pN) (1+9qN)—-(W— ‘|
MedscunSeahacenon seeeeuiae« (xx).

The partial integrals of (xix) and (xxi), which can be fairly easily found graphically, fall
under the incomplete G-function*, and the incomplete 8-function.

The incomplete r- and 8-functions can be determined by aid of tables which have just been
calculated and will shortly be published.

Thus we see that the skew curves (vi), (xix) and (xxii) directly arise in the course of our
investigations when we come to deal in full generality with the problem of random sampling.
But what we know so far of cell-division and determinantal theories of inheritance suggests
forcibly that the character of any sub-class of a population is fixed by a random sample of a
number of determinants, the size of the sample being commensurable with the number of deter-
minants. In all such cases the distribution of frequency will approximate to the curves we have
here discussed. They thus cease to be approximations in any other sense than the Gaussian or
normal curve is an approximation when the probability integral is used to determine the
probable error of a random sample.

It is true, indeed, that they contain a good deal more than the general theory of random
samples. Thus the general frequency curve must be of the form

1 dy _u+a
y dx f(x)’
” y a\ 2 a\ 8
If we take Sf (@)=e+% ~ +e (*) +... +6, (“) a cee

then I have given the finite difference equation which determines the successive e’s in terms of
the moments and shown that the convergency ratio of the successive constants is a factor (less
than unity like in general the skewness and kurtosis) which vanishes for the normal curve. It
will, I think, be obvious that to give the general rule for finding as many terms as we please, give
their degree of convergency, and then retain three because they are found to fulfil all practical
requirements is a process more legitimate than to assume every function must be of the form
P(x) =(@ +x),

and give no measure at all of the deviation from this form, and no statistical illustration (such
as that of random sampling) in which such a function habitually and necessarily arises. Yet

such is the course recently adopted by Professor Kapteyn and considered by him “ rational” as
compared with mine.

* I term the complete G-function, G (r, r= [sin de+”? dg. This has been tabled by Dr A. Lee,

ra

B. A, Report, Dover, 1899. The incomplete G-function is G(r, v, a=] sin’ 6c’? d0, and has not yet
0

been dealt with.

176 Miscellanea

III. On certain Points connected with scale Order in the Case of
the Correlation of two characters which for some arrangement
give a Linear Regression Line.

By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

In a recent memoir on contingency*, I have considered the problem of what alterations can
be made in scale order without sensibly modifying the value of the correlation. The problem as
I there state it is as follows: Zo find under what other condition than normal correlation small
changes in the order of grouping will not affect the value of the correlation (p. 19). The wording
requires some explanation. If for any arrangement of the scales of the two variables there be
normal correlation, then my memoir shows that the method of contingency gives the value of the
correlation, even if the order of the scales be any whatever, in fact if the normal correlation order
be absolutely unknown. Of course, if we proceed in any such case by the usual product method
of determining the correlation we shall reach absolutely different results when the scale order of
grouping is largely changed. My object in stating the above problem was to determine, if possi-
ble, whether any and if so what changes in the scale orders would not sensibly modify the
correlation, when we still endeavoured to determine it, not by contingency, but by the method
of products. The conclusion I came to was as follows—that with any distribution with linear
regression “small changes (i.e. such that the sum of their squares may be neglected as compared
with the square of mean or standard deviation) may be made in the order of grouping without
affecting the correlation coefficient” (p. 35). I think this conclusion is quite sound, and deserves
further consideration. Although in the statement of the proposition I have used the word
“small changes” in scale order (p. 19) and in the summary of my memoir (p. 35) stated what is
to be understood by small, in this case, I think, as Mr G. U. Yule points out to me, that the
wording on p. 20 is too unguarded, if the reader has not been sufficiently impressed with the
wording on p. 19, or reached the summary on p. 35. It will not be without value possibly to
give the actual algebraical result on which the statement on p. 35 is based, for it has some
importance for the general philosophical idea of correlation.

Let w and y represent the two variable characters and let ude be the frequency of the
character between w and #+6x; vdy that of the character between y and y+6dy ; u and v being
functions of # and y respectively and the distribution of the frequencies being of any nature.
Now suppose the array v,dy, of frequency between y, and y,+éy, to be bodily interchanged in
position with the array v, dy, between yy and yy+éyy. Let WV be the total frequency, and
suppose the mean 7 to become 7+ dy, the standard deviation o, of the y character to become
oy+éc,. Then we have:

N (y¥+oy)=S (yv dy) — Vg OY! (Ys! — Ya) — Vs OYs (Ys— Ys’)

= Vg OYg — VgOYg :
or S7=(Ys yw) ee V SL ed eee ee vasuereseueeee (i),

N (ay + 80y)P?=8 (yv8y) — Vg dys (Ys = Ys") — Ve8Ys Ys" — Ys”) —W (y + dy)?
= Voy? + (vg dYs" — Vs8Ys) (ys — Ys”) — 2 (Ys— Yat) Ca 8Yar — Ve8Ye)s
N (Soy)? + 2No Soy = (Vy SYy — Vs8Ys) Ys — Ys’) Ys Y¥+Ys —Y)-
* «¢Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution, III. On the Theory of Contingency

and its Relation to Association and Normal Correlation.” Drapers’ Research Memoirs (Dulau and Co,
London).

Wa.

Miscellanea 1707

Hence we see that 50, is small, if the frequencies of interchanged subgroups are small as com-

pared with WV and accordingly :

Vy OYs — Vas (Ys— Ys!) Ya—YAYs —Y
Na ew ae cag

ee NOM een)!

doy/e,=

We now turn to the change in the product-moment.
P+8P=S (maydad8y) — Vy Ya Fa (Ya — Yo) — VBYs Ua (Ys — Ys!) — NZ (¥ + By);
where wdrdy is the total frequency of individuals, with characters between « and «+x and
y and y+6y and %, and Z, are the means of the arrays corresponding to y, and yy. But
P=S8 (way dSxby) — Nzy, hence:
SP= (Yo — Yor) (Wa — B) Vy BYar — (Hp— ©) Vg 5Ys)s
Thus spjpav— 4 ( ma ya aa) | eee GE

Cy ro, WV ro, WN

Now if 7 be the correlation before and 7+67 after a change is made, we have, since
r=P/(Nozro,),

Now we have supposed at present no change to be made in the w’s; thus we may treat do, as
zero, and using (ii) and (i11) we have, rearranging :

Or Ya Ya | Vs Ow fr a 18x D} 0s (— _—_ 10x -7)|
° | Nee ergs ners ieee Gg, We)

1OyOx Ty

(Ya- Yor)” Vy OYe + Vs0Ys ,
a a acne,

: os . — _ 1G: =
Now suppose the regression to be originally linear, then we have wv, —7= - (Y%s—y) not only
y

for s and s’ but for all values of s whatever. In other words the whole series of terms in square
brackets vanishes and summing for all pairs of interchanges:

or oS (Ys— Ys’) (Vg Sa + VadYs) Ga
; DIVGHGne © pine ege eyes :

If we make similar interchanges of wv, and 7, we can show that* :

Br _ _S(Ya— Yo)” Py Bye +V8Ye) _ 8! (yp — yy)? (thy Sy + Up Bit)

r 2No,? — INo2
at Si (Ys = Ys’) (Lp = Ly’) (wy d%p dYs = w2 d2yy OYs cr W3 d2p Oya" +, bx, dys’) = (vi) bis.
Nronoy

Here S denotes a summation or integration for all possible interchanges of the y arrays, i.e. say,
columns of the correlation table; and S’ denotes a like summation for all possible interchanges
of the w-arrays, say the rows of the table. S’” is a summation involving the frequency at all
points where interchanged rows and columns cross. Of course this result assumes that the units
of grouping of both characters are so “fine” that the squares of the ratios of the array frequen-
cies to the total frequency are negligible.

We may now draw some interesting conclusions from (vi). Suppose the material to be such
that the correlation is linear under some arrangement. Then for slight interchanges the squares
and products of the interchanges are negligible and 6, will be zero. Thus, 7 being positive, we

* The reader will find a verification of this formula arising from writing (i) the correlation table
with its columns inverted, then dr/r= —2, and (ii) again in addition with its rows written backwards,
in this case 6r/r=0. In (i) the first term only remains and its numerator =4No,?. In the second case
the numerators of the three terms are respectively 4No,?, 4No,” and 4Nro,cy.

Biometrika v 23

178 Miscellanea

see from (vi) that r is an absolute maximum. Clearly 67/7 is always negative even for inter-
changes between arrays at considerable distances. Or, we conclude that if there be one arrange-
ment of the material for which the regression line is linear, then any interchanges, however
extensive, will reduce the value of the correlation as calculated by the product moment method.
This conception of the linear regression line as giving the arrangement with the maximum
degree of correlation appears of considerable philosophical interest. It amounts practically to
much the same thing as saying that if we have a fine classification, we shall get the maximum of
correlation by arranging the arrays so that the means of the arrays fall as closely as possible on
a line.

Further, if the mean square of the interchanges, i.e. the expression

S Ys = Yu)* (Ue By + MaBys)
2NV ?
be small as compared with the standard deviation squared, i.e. o 2, then the change 4r will not be
sensible. In other words smal/ changes in the scale ordering, not confined to adjacent or even to
two arrays, will not sensibly modify the correlation as found by the product moment method.

Lastly, considering the proof of (vi) we see that no portion of the investigation is dependent
on the whole of the one y-array being interchanged with the whole of another. We may consider
v,6y, and vy dyy as only portions of the total array—-to be taken, however, proportionately from
all its constituents. Now let V,dy, and V,dy, denote the whole of the frequency of the two
arrays, and write the first array V,dy,+$m—4m and the second array V,ydy~y—}m+ 4m. Now
transfer the —4m of the first array to the position of the second and the +4m of the second to
the position of the first, i.e. take v,dy,= —3m and vy dyy= +4m ; it follows that v,dy,+ Vy dy~=0
and the two arrays are

V,oy,+m and V,dy.—m,

i.e. exactly the values they would have had if a portion of the second array drawn at random
from all its sub-groups had been inscribed in the same sub-groups of the first array. But in this
case we see since v,dy7,;+ 0, dy" =0, that (vi) will give us absolutely 67=0, or there will be no
change in the correlation. This result seems of considerable value. Suppose the regression
linear, and one character, w say, easily measured or known; then if a number m of individuals
which ought to fall into a given class of y, be shifted by oversight or error of judgment into a
second erroneous ciass of y, this will not sensibly affect the correlation, if V being the total
frequency, the square of the ratio m/W is negligible, as compared with its first power. Thus
suppose in correlating age with hair tint, the first character being accurately known, an observer
were to place his series of contributory observations of hair tint in the wrong group, say in one
of the brown reds instead of pure browns, this would not sensibly modify the resulting correlation.
The fact that the error would not produce a modification is not in the first place due to the
possible smallness of the misplaced group. The product moment is changed and the standard
deviation is also modified, but the modification of the correlation depends on such manner on the
changes of these two, that they act in opposite senses and cancel the modification, provided the
original regression was strictly linear.

While not desiring to encourage carelessness in observing or tabling or in the formation of
scale orders without due consideration, still the results of this note seem to indicate that in
many cases absolute unanimity of judgment in classifying or great stress on small details of scale
grouping are not needful in order to reach sensibly identical values of the correlation. This
view coincides with my actual and not unique experience, when having been in grave doubt as to
where 30 or 40 individuals were to be placed, I put them first in one category and then in a
second, only to find out that the correlation worked out with the group first in one and then in
the other category was sensibly identical. The theorems developed in this note seem to explain
this stability—when we use not contingency but product moment methods, and suppose the
regression ultimately linear.

Miscellanea 179

IV. On the Classification of Frequency-ratios+.
By D. M. Y. SOMMERVILLE, D.Sc.

In statistical work which deals with integral variates, the data frequently appear in the form
of ratios, or unreduced proper fractions; and to facilitate comparison these are arranged in
classes according to magnitude, all the ratios falling within the same class being considered as
equivalent. The problem then arises to find the best distribution of the fractions so that there
may be approximately the same number in each class; or, if the fractions with various
denominators do not all occur with the same frequency so that it is necessary to assign to them
certain weights, to find the distribution which will make the total weight of each class
approximately the same.

I. Let */p denote any proper fraction with the denominator p, and */$7 the assemblage of
all the proper fractions whose denominators do not exceed x. The following theorem is then
established :

1 2 n-1 n

oi: = oe F 0 1
If the fractions */$n are distributed into 2 classes, — to —, — to =, ... —- to —, and
nen n n n

.

any fraction which falls between two classes is counted $ in each of these two classes, each of
the others being counted 1 in the class in which it occurs, then in each class there will fall
$(n+1) fractions, except in the extremes which contain n+4.

. 0) 1 2 7
[If the fractions at the extremes, D =) Pee os pgeu ~, are also counted

be $(n+1) fractions in the extreme classes also. ]

there will

bole

This is the normal distribution (N.D.).
There are three other “even” distributions :
(1) n—1 classes, $(n+2) in each, extremes n +3.
(2) n+1 classes, $n in each, extremes x.
(3) n+2 classes, 4 (2-1) in each, extremes n,
These are obtained from the n.D. for n—1, n+1, n+2 respectively.

Then by making pairs of classes coalesce, from the second onwards, we get the following
evenest distributions :

(1) mn even: 4n+1 classes, 0 to =, to :, ..+) 2+1 in each, extremes n+.
1 1 3

(2) n.odd: 4(n+8) classes, 0 to ., 2 in each,

n+l’? n+l te n41? °°

The N.D. can be easily written down. To find the classes in which */p occurs, divide
N, Wn, 3n,... by p; let gq, go, Y3, ... be the quotients and f,, fi, fs, ... the remainders. Then if

i, 5 lies in the (¢,+1)th class, but if f,=0, a = and lies $ in the g,th and $ in the

(qe+1)th class, Each class must contain either */p or */n—p, and if any class contains both,

+ Abstract by the Author of a paper ‘‘On the Distribution of the Proper Fractions,” by
D. M. Y. Sommerville, D.Se., Proc. Roy, Soc. Edin. Vol. xxxv1. (1906), pp. 116—129.
23—2

180 Miscellanea

each of them is counted . Writing the classes horizontally with the fractions */p in columns
under their respective denominators, the N.D. for »=12 is represented as follows:

lel, Loe neo a ie: 6 YS 9) TO hie a1
0-0: 0 4070" 1/70 O- <0) 7 Os FOR 00 ace
| il yee Cee Fc ie he,
| TS 0 T FP |
Ti es 2 2.72 283 eas eee

I 2 2 Siero eee

i 2 3 3) 4igde 6 on oe

I 3 | Si \pkae aha s5 ah) Gla

2 3 4 5 6 Gia

a 5 Zs) Ube kG 46 7 eee

3. 4 5 6 i= 8" 9 8

5 627° 8, 9910 oe

ie 19) 22 eae 5 6 8. 69: SLO" I aes

A bar denotes that the fraction is counted $.

II. Giving weights p, to the various denominators and expressing that the normal dis-
tribution is even, we get a series of equations,
-p=PFn—-p»

ie. the frequency-curve for the denominators must be symmetrical.

If we divide the fractions */$n into n+m classes, then we have to divide the fractions
*/$(n+m) normally and consider p,=0 if p>n and therefore also if p<m. Also if pSm,
Hp=Hn+m-—p: Hence if the frequency-curve is symmetrical from m to x (n+m being even), and

if the denominators <m inay be neglected, we may divide the fractions */$x into n+m classes,
and then make pairs of classes from the second onwards coalesce. We have then the distribution

eee! g h of weight >"
<a ? e :
n+m’? n+m i n+m’?*"”? Soe naeneke Paria

into $(n+m-+2) classes, 0 to

The general case where the frequency-curve is skew is not solved, but by considering it as
symmetrical about the mode, e.g., and neglecting the lower denominators, as above, it may
be possible to obtain an approximate solution, provided the mode lies among the higher
denominators.

For other results which are only true when the extreme fractions are counted 4 we may
refer to the complete paper.

The following graphical method of obtaining the first theorem was communicated to me by
Professor Steggall.

Any positive fraction can be represented uniquely in the positive region of the plane by
a point whose coordinates x, y are respectively the numerator and denominator. The lines

y=0, «=y, x=n will then confine all the proper fractions */>n. These are divided into the
classes described above by the lines rv=ny (r=0, 1,..., 2). The number of fractions in the class

Miscellanea 181

r/n to (r+1)/n is then the number of representative points confined between the lines rv=ny,
(r+1)x2=ny, i.e. 3 (r+2)(n4+1)-$ (+1) (n+1)=$(n+1), counting 0/0 as 3. This fraction,
which occurs in each class, disappears when we make the subtraction, and we have the result
stated above.

r+1

V. Note on the Significant or Non-significant character of a
Sub-sample drawn from a Sample.

By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

If two independent samples be drawn from an indefinitely large group or population, and
their means be m and J/’ and their sizes n and N’, and their standard deviations o and 3’, then
the usual test of significant and non-significant difference in type is made by comparing the
difference of mean m—M’ with the probable error of this difference ‘67449 Vo2/n+32/N’. This
process may be considered as legitimate, if the samples are absolutely independent and drawn
from an indefinitely large population.

It has become not unusual to apply this test to cases of the following kind, where its
application has yet to be justified : a population is described by a sample, say JW in size, M in
type and & in variability. This sample is obtained from p localities, or if in one locality by
p methods or instances, or generally there is a p-fold heterogeneity in its collection. One of the
p sub-groups of the sample is defined by , mando. It is frequently assumed that the proper
test for significant or non-significant difference between the sub-sample and the general sample

>
= . This treatment is, I think, erroneous.
To begin with it must be observed that as the sub-sample is made larger and larger, the value of
its mean must approach closer and closer to that of the general sample, and thus the probable

error of the difference ought to be less and less and ultimately vanish. Instead of this it

2
is the relative magnitude of m— M and ‘67449 = +

approaches the finite value 67449 V232/, Clearly the above expression for the probable error
of the difference of types in sub-sample and sample is not correct. We have yet to ascertain
how far it is approximate, when J is large as compared with n.

The sort of problem to which the above doubtful process is applied is of the following kind,
for example: a general sample of the population is found to have q per cent. of its members

182 Miscellanea

affected by a certain disease or associated with a certain characteristic. A sub-sample marking
a Class or locality is found to have q’ of its members thus differentiated. Does the group marked
by the sub-sample differ significantly from the general sample out of which it is drawn? Or,
again, do children of a particular parentage differ in physique from those of the general
population, the test being made on a sample and a sub-sample of the school population ?

I would suggest the following method of approaching the problem. Consider the general
sample (V, M, 3) to consist of two component samples, the sub-sample (n, m, «) and all the
remainder (W’, M’, 3’). Then if the whole sample be homogeneous and random, and the
two components also homogeneous and random, their difference of types m—M’ will have for its
probable error :

ie gS
En - mr) = 87449 W/Z + Hy

The test therefore of the difference being due to random sampling is the relative magnitude of
m—-M' and Ey a1:
But if we consider the general sample we have at once:
N=N'+n, or: W’=N—-n,

n
N-n

M=(N'M'+nm)/N, or: M=M+ (M— my),

N2?=n fo? + (m—M)}+ W324 (MM),

V3? —no2 nN
N-n (N=n)?
N

N-n

33 oly INN 25/32 1 2n\ _ n(M—m/?P
N''n \N=n Ga ey a G=ae

Or we must compare the relative magnitude of :

or: Sa (M—m)?.

Accordingly : m—-M'= (m—M),

~ N(N=n)°

N ; N So? Qn\ .n(M—m)?
Woy (m— MN) and -67449 7 — wh ats (I- 7)
In other words, the probable error of the difference in type of the general sample and. the.
sub-sample, or of m—J/, is:

: 3? ot Qn\ n(M—m)?
oa fat 7A € = a > Wen)"

This expression satisfies the requisite condition of becoming zero as the sub-sample increases
in magnitude up to the value of the general sample.

Now if WV be large as compared with x, clearly the important term in this expression is o?/n
and M-—m will be of the order vo2/n, where v is a small integer, 1, 2 or 3, say. Hence the
order. of the last term in the root is:

vo?/N?,
or, since o will not differ very widely from 3, we may say v?3?/V*. Now the probable error of 3
is 67449 2 and accordingly if we put 5 (1 + a) for = we should not alter significantly
J2N V2N

the first term under the radical ; thus 3?/V may be read :

>? *67449\? > w
= : eb
Ce a) ay fis}.

Miscellanea 183

where w is a small number. But being small the first and last terms give :

bee =F (1-s5* say
iv( -y) 79 JN NWS’
uw being a small number. But w//N will then be very small, Accordingly if n be small, the

last term in the radical is sensibly smaller than the probable error of the first and we may read
for the probable error of m—M the expression :

32-9?
67449 ieee sae

: 20°
Further the probable error of the difference or sum of 3? and o? is of the order of Z

V2n
thus to a first approximation we might put in the smaller terin or first term o?=3%, There
results : . .

and

; a? 3

67449 a NE

In other words, when the number of a sub-sample is very small, the probable error of m— Jf
.

5 7 aS
approaches °67449 i and not °67449 Us = + > Our only excuse for using the latter

form would be the negligibility altogether of the term 3?/N. In which case it would be better

@ priort to adopt the value ‘67449 Jo?/n. It will be clear therefore that the value frequently

adopted is not justified when a sub-sample is tested against a general sample. The proper
Pe fe a o 2-3? n(M—-m)y
method seems to be to compare: m—WM with ‘67449 ee ae Waa)

Now let it be reasonable to suppose a quantity significant when it is 8 times its standard
deviation, or 8/°67449 times its probable error, then we have for significance test :

a 207-32 n(M—m)?
ae vy Nem TE NGNER)

2 2_ 52 nn 27 ue
ca Bg) A) om:

and this is true whatever be the magnitudes of V and n. If it be said that the right-hand side is

always less than 8 eh = + 7 and that accordingly significance cannot have been asserted to

exist, where it is not existent, this is perfectly true. But there is another side to this fact, too
often forgotten. No samples suffice to demonstrate the absolute absence of differentiation ; the
statistician can only say: Relatively to the size of my samples, I find no significant differentia-
tion. It may after all be there and would be demonstrated if the samples were tenfold as large.
The absence of significance relatively to the size of the samples is too often interpreted by the
casual reader as a denial of all differentiation, and this may be disastrous. Hence if the
statistician using too large a value of the probable error errs on the side of safety, when he
asserts significant differentiation for certain cases A, B, C, ..., but that he has not found it for
EL, F, G, ..., this may strengthen his demonstration in the first cases, but it weakens any
influence as to non-significance in the latter cases.

Using the above formula it may be that a considerable number of cases, for which no proof
of significant differentiation has been given,—and which have been taken accordingly as having
no differentiation,—can now be demonstrated to have significant differentiation. And this
appears of some importance.

Several other cases of probable error tests of significance deserve reconsideration, and I hope
to find time to publish my notes on them shortly.

184 Miscellanea

VI. Professor Ziegler and Galton’s Law of Ancestral Inheritance.

In the published account (Jena, 1905) of the lecture on “Die Vererbungslehre in der
Biologie” delivered by Professor Ziegler before the ‘“xxir Congress fiir innere Medizin” the
following footnote occurs:

“Da die grosselterlichen Anteile bei den einzelnen Enkeln nicht gleichmissig sind, so kann
auch das von Galton formulierte Vererbungsgesetz nicht richtig sein. Es lautet so: Die
Veranlagung eines Kindes setzt sich in folgende Weise aus den Vererbungsanlagen seiner
Vorfahren zusammen; von den Eltern 50 prozent, von den Grosseltern 25 prozent, von
den Urgrosseltern 25 prozent u.s.w.

F. Galton, Natural Inheritance, London, Macmillan, 1889.

Ders., The average Contribution of each several Ancestor to the total Heritage of the
Offspring. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. LX1. pp. 401—413, 1897.”

If Professor Ziegler had read with understanding even the title of the second of the two
works that he mentions, he would have seen that the Law of Ancestral Inheritance formulated
by Galton makes no statement whatsoever concerning the relative shares of each several ancestor
in any single case. Thus the question as to whether all the grandchildren of one particular
grandparent receive the same or different contributions from him towards their total heritage
has no bearing whatsoever on this law.

It is unnecessary in the pages of Biometrika to dwell further on this point, but perhaps one
may be permitted to express some surprise that a man of Professor Ziegler’s standing, in
a lecture on heredity, in which space is found to enlarge on unproved and unproveable theories
concerning chromasomes, should relegate to a footnote, and there completely misrepresent, such
an important contribution to the subject as Galton’s Law of Ancestral Inheritance.

EDGAR SCHUSTER.

VII. Variazione ed Omotiposi nelle infiorescenze di Cichorium
Intybus L.

Dat Dr FERNANDO DE HELGUERO, Roma.

Nella presente nota si studia la Vartazione del numero dei fiori nelle infiorescenze di
Cichorium Intybus L. e la Omotzposi, cioé la correlazione esistente fra le infiorescenze della
stessa pianta.

I] materiale consta di 1000 infiorescenze raccolte durante il mese di Agosto 1905 a 8S. Leucio
(Provincia di Caserta, Italia), appartenenti a 624 piante diverse. Questo materiale forma oggetto
di due studi distinti, il primo riguardante la Variazione del carattere in esaine, il secondo la
Omotiposi.

1. Variazione.

Le 1000 infiorescenze sono state divise in tre gruppi a seconda che la pianta che le portava
presentava o no altre infiorescenze. Il primo gruppo riguarda piante con una sola infiorescenza,

VN

V

Miscellanea 185

il secondo comprende le infiorescenze portate da piante con 2 infiorescenze, il terzo le infiorescenze
portate da piante che ne avevano 3 od un numero maggiore :

Infiorescenze

N° dei fiori Totale

1° Gruppo | 2° Gruppo | 3° Gruppo

Totale

Questi gruppi danno i seguenti parametri :

M 6 1000/M
1° Gruppo ... 11931 12262 10°28
2° Gruppo ... 12-070 1°2484 10°34
3° Gruppo ... 12°206 1:3409 10:98

Totale 12°056 1:2716 10°54
|

Si vede dalla tabella che le infiorescenze appartenenti a piante pid vicine al massimo di
fioritura (con pit fiori) hanno una media pit elevata.

Questo é confermato dalle medie parziali dei vari lotti corrispondenti alle diverse raccolte
delle infiorescenze. Le piante furono raccolte in 5 diverse volte durante il mese di Agosto e
percid nel periodo decrescente della fioritura: Ecco le medie parziali :

Medie
1° Lotto 12°235
2° Lotto 12°321
3° Lotto 11°945
4° Lotto 11:905
5° Lotto 11°810.
Studiamo il poligono empirico di frequenza per Vintiero gruppo delle 1000 infiorescenze.
Si trova p2=1°6169, Bi= °01252,
p3= °2300, Bo=3°44728,
j4=9°012, ¢ 4-38) —265= — "857.

E la curva normale sarebbe :
_ (@—12°056)?
Y=313'74e — 328372

Biometrika v 24

186 Miscellanea

Ecco la tabella dei valori calcolati y confrontati cogli empirici 9’ :

x y’ y Ti)
nw a <i ae

iy 4 19 te

9 21 17°5 +:
10 55 84:9 =9
11 259 2293 ALS

m— bo sT Or We OC We DO
BOM DO BRAT O OCR eR

13 | 933 | 9382 | —
is 90 976 | —
15 22, 5 ||
16 5 26 | +
17 1 = ap

L’area racchiusa fra i due poligoni calcolata col metodo di Duncker ¢ del 3°45 oi La rappre-
sentazione ¢ percid soddisfaciente*. La curva é tracciata nella figura 1°

300

250

200

150

100

a
°o

Scala delle ordinate 1 cm.=100 injiorescenze,

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Fic. 1. Variazione del Cichorium Intybus L. (1000 infiorescenze.)

—-— Poligono empirico.
—----- Curva normale.

; _ (@—12'065)2
Equazione y=313-74e = 328872

Riguardo alla Variazione noi poniamo le seguenti conclusioni :

1°, La moda nella Variazione del numero dei fiori nelle infiorescenze di Cichorium Intybus L.
é 12: percid non un numero della serie del Fibonacci.

2°, La Variazione é normale coi parametri
100.
M=12-056, « =1°2716, = =10°54.
[* VB, is 21 and B,—8 is 4:3 times the probable error, the distribution therefore probably differs
significantly from the normal curve. Further, x2=20 about, and P=-02, or the odds are about 50 to 1
against such divergence from normality.. Eps.]

Miscellanea 187

3°. Nelle piante pit vicine al massimo di fioritura la media @ pitt elevata che nelle altre :
riguardo alla variabiliti non possiamo asserir nulla per quanto le cifre esposte nelle tabelle
lascino dei sospetti che anche essa sia maggiore.

2. Omotiposi.

Per lo studio della Omotiposi non si deve che seguire le norme date dal Prof. Pearson nella
memoria: “On the principle of Hlomotyposis etc., Part 1, Homotyposis in the vegetable
Kingdom,” Phil. Trans. of the Rk. Soc. A, Vol. 197, pp. 285-379, memoria del pitt grande valore
biologico e fondamentale in queste ricerche.

Il modo di trattare i dati ¢ del tutto identico a quello della “fraternal inheritance.”

Le nostre 624 piante appaiono cos} distinte a seconda del numero di infiorescenze che
portavano al momento della raccolta :

piante con 1 sola infiorescenza 389

3 2 infiorescenze 150
3 x 50
53 4 +5 20
= 35 5 nd 11
6 " 2
” 7 ” 2

Totale 624

Le coppie di infiorescenze delle piante aventi 2 sole infiorescenze danno la seguente tavola di
correlazione, resa simmetrica :

Tavola di correlazone per le prante aventi 2 infiorescenze.

9 | 10 | 11 | 12| 19 | 14 | 15 | 16 | Totale |
ai
8 1 1 |3
9 a2 \0 35 5 | a
10 ce ay
11 6 | 34 S00 ee
12 2 | 33 98 |.
13 3] 4 76 | is
U 1] 1 16 | &
15 ees 7 |o
16 ———— 3 | 5
Li, 1 | 8
S

Totale | 1 |

Si trova p="5915.

Si sono poi utilizzate le piante aventi pit di due infiorescenze, considerando ogni pianta tante
volte quante sono le coppie che si posson formare colle sue infiorescenze prese due a due. Per

: ; : 7x6 : ae
esempi0, una pianta con 7 infiorescenze figura per oe =21 piante distinte.

188 Miscellanea
In tal modo con tutte le piante aventi pit di una infiorescenza si é fatta la tavola :

Tavola di correlazione per tutte le piante aventi pit dt wna infiorescenza.

8 | 9°! 10)| 22 | 125) 13°) Peis" | 16 | a Dotale
S| 8
46 7
278
337, ae
297 Re)
172 | &
29 | 3
ea
1
3S
Totale | 5 | 33 | 46 | 278 | 337 | 297 | 172 | 29 | 6 | 1 | 1204

Si trova p=°6130.

I risultati concordanti delle due tavole ci permettono di enunciare la conclusione evitando le
obbiezioni che ad esse singolarmente potrebbero farsi: alla prima, di basarsi sopra un numero
troppo scarso di coppie, alla seconda, di dare un’ eccessiva importanza alle piante con molte
infiorescenze.

Dobbiamo ora confrontare la variabilita delle singole piante colla variabilita generale : ma cid
non ci é possibile direttamente per il numero troppo scarso di infiorescenze portate da ciascuna
pianta.

Percid ho seguito invece il metodo del Prof. Pearson calcolando la deviazione normale di cid
{=}
che egli chiama un “array,” un gruppo, limitandomi alle piante portanti 2 sole infiorescenze.

Ho percid raggruppato tutte le piante di cui una infiorescenza ha un numero fisso m di fiori
ed ho calcolato la deviazione normale delle altre infiorescenze di questo gruppo di piante. Ho
calcolato cosi o per m=10, 11, 12, 13 e 14 ed ho fatto la media ponderale di questi valori: ho
ottenuto cosi come variazione normale di un gruppo o ='9258.

I rapporto percentuale di questo valore alla deviazione normale dell’ intiera popolazione mi
da la variazione percentuale: essa ¢ uguale a 72°81.

Enunciamo allora le conclusioni :

1°. L’indice di correlazione per le infiorescenze di Cichoriwm Intybus L. prodotte dalla stessa
pianta é circa °6.

2°, La correlazione ¢ un po’ maggiore per gli individui aventi pili infiorescenze, cioé pit
vicini al massimo di fioritura, che per gli altri.

3°, La variazione percentuale di un gruppo rispetto a tutte le infiorescenze é 72°81.

Si presenterebbe ora il problema della legge di variazione (se normale o no) delle infiorescenze
prodotte dalla stessa pianta. Jo non ho potuto fare ricerche sul Cichorium Intybus per la
scarsita delle infiorescenze che si trovano sopra ogni singola pianta: ho potuto invece studiare
per questo riguardo l’ Aster chinensis L. e per l analogia dell’ argomento credo opportuno dare
qui la statistica di 1326 infiorescenze raccolte sopra un’ wnica pianta colossale verso la meta del
Maggio 1904 a Ferentino (Roma).

Miscellanea

Ecco la statistica di cui il diagramma é tracciato nella Figura 2 :

350

189

300

250

200

150

100

Scala delle ordinate 1 cm.=100 infiorescenze.

Fic. 2. Variazione dell’ Aster chinensis L.

Ne di fiori ligulari.

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Infiorescenze.

13
26
83
167
257
350
404
21

Totale 1326

(1326 infiorescenze.)

La media é a 19°57164. E notevole il massimo a 21 numero della serie del Fibonacci.

La curva é decisamente abnormale, asimmetrica ; in fatti 1 parametri
pg=— 2°28508,
py = +12°82515,

da cui o =1°41706, By = + 64487,

By= +3°18057,

conducono ad una curva del Tipo I colla asimmetria

A='81803.

o +38, — 28y== +1°57347,

190 Miscellanea

VIII. The Calculation of the Probable Errors of Certain Constants
of the Normal Curve.

By RAYMOND PEARL.

Anything which serves to lighten the labour of computation incident to biometric investi-
gations is very welcome. On this account I venture to call attention to a point in which
the “Tables for Facilitating the Computation of Probable Errors,” recently published by
Miss Winifred Gibson* will be found very useful.

It has been shown by Pearsont that in order to determine whether a given frequency
distribution deviates sensibly from the normal or Gaussian law, it is necessary to know the

probable errors for the normal curve of the following constants: the skewness, B81, By-3 the
kurtosis and the “modal divergence.” The formula for the probable error of the skewness,
when 2 is the total number of individuals, is

P.E.g, = "6744898 Rye = :

In a recently published note} I pointed out the fact that, after having calculated the value
of this expression for any given 7, in order to obtain the probable errors of VB, , B2—3 and the
“modal divergence” for the same distribution it was merely necessary to multiply the calculated
value successively by 2, by 4 and by o (i.e. the standard deviation of the distribution). We
have then only to find an easy way of getting the value of the expression

a
6744898 nL ye

in order to make the whole process of testing any distribution for normality very simple indeed.

It is clear that we may write

; Soe : ve 6744898 .,
6744898 ny Sy) OT44898K a / = To K=y,K,

where Ke Rf: ; = 1:2247449 §,

and x; is the x; of Miss Gibson’s Table I.

Therefore to test the approach to normality of any distribution we have merely to perform
the following operations :

(i) Look out yx; for the given x from Miss Gibson’s tables and multiply it by the factor
1°2247449, using as many places of decimals as necessary. This gives the probable error of the
skewness for the normal curve.

(ii) Multiply the result by 2, which gives the probable error of 8; for the normal curve ;
multiply this result again by 2, and so obtain the probable error of B.—3,; finally multiply the
probable error of the skewness by the o of the distribution and obtain in this way the probable
error of the modal divergence.

The relative divergence from zero of the skewness, 61, By —3 and the distance from mean to
mode in comparison with their probable errors, measures the probability that the given
distribution does not follow the normal or Gaussian law.

* Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 385—393.

+ Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 169—212, and. elsewhere.
+ Science, N.S. Vol. xxi. p. 802.

§ From Barlow’s Tables.

Miscellanea 191

IX. On the Probable Error of Mean-Square Contingency.

By JOHN BLAKEMAN anp KARL PEARSON.

Let there be any contingency table and 2, be the total frequency in the pth row, n, in the
gth column, 2,, the frequency of the constituent common to the pth row and gth column,
NV the total frequency dealt with in the table. Then it is known* that the total mean square
contingency ¢? of the table is given by :

1
eae :
p ~N ‘Sar Ny Ng J tte eeeceesccees peed eaccccvssnecas (i)
vr |
the sum being for all values of p and gq.
Let 7, be the contribution to ¢? of the p, g constituent frequency, i.e.
(» - "|
A al pa NN i ng 7 2Mpq MyM (ii)
ales Erni ene eee
iN

Let ¢,? be the contribution to d? from a single row, and ¢,? from a single column, i.e.
Dp ? q c=} P)

: ee, 2S, tng). ro
b= Sib = Sy (Mt) — Savon) +. Fe 8, (0)

Np Nq
7 Teng _9 tm.
a el 25 tH¥
since Sq(Mpq)=M% and Sy (rq) =.
: 5
Thus: py =Sy (#2) = ay |
Ny Ng) A ns
Suigdgnond menuG AanpEAdE ApRSAStdndo (ii)
and similarly : H=/S} Mpa) _ Pa
nd similarly : do’ =Sp Rptta)
It follows that : P—S8, (bi) —Sq (Ge) =Soq (==) mvs Riveneedanttencgecaeutens (iv)
pq
: eng
Let us write Uo peg ae hs cies is gig este af eos alowtdd potngesoelicaacaeures (v)
. Ny Nq
Then : Dp? — Sng (tags) eeeneeeeecesewne en ee ree (v1)

We shall now proceed to find the probable error of w,,.. We state the following preliminary
propositionst, where o denotes the standard deviation of random sampling :

Ong = "0 (1 = | Sr ea ee ee (vil)
On, Ny (1 - 3) ByiRe rescues dadae one seeunmeamen ewes: (vill)
on, =Nq (1 -") Sfeocuteaisice sam stiealiins suicoaeycumonesa ated (ix)
Try Trg Rayng =Nng— = Mele oe otamaniseearsanGulllsvleneaseaemeacassere (x)

* Drapers’ Research Memoirs, Biometric Series, 1. On the Theory of Contingency, etc., p. 6.
Dulau & Co.

+ Drapers’ Research Memoirs, Biometric Series, 1. On the Theory of Skew Correlation, etc.,
pp. 11—17. Dulau & Co.

192 Miscellanea

Fn, Fry Layny = — Wow Pcs Sarno sieraiieteaise oemete CX)

Cg Ong Brg ng = — aes eae ROP tr cs (O58)
Ogg Tigi Demsg tpg = ghee) oct (xiii)
Fring Fring Lng rpg! = — “ee, spanbaspoppsdasnonbocaec sees eteee CXAWV))
pg Mg Rpg rgrg = — Yo aiouaos nes PERE OH anbbciacsed (=o)
Cite Gc lio ee in ei, Prec)
Ong Biggs Riggs MS age 9 deriuesscstsietsosneerern a epee)
Caceres = Mpa = eres te veesee(xvViii)

n
= "q a
ng Fring Rrgrog =Npg (-"") si ea'e bed ote ehalsalvce tee eeeemeee GSEX)
where throughout p and p’ and qg and q’ denote different columns and rows, and £ is a correlation
coefficient between subscript frequencies. Taking logarithmic differentials of (v), i.e. treating
the deviations of random sampling as of differential order as is usually done,
BUpq _ 287%pq _ 8Np 824

ig! vsaiseinn dete iujaie caieeluciieniseennins SOS)
OR 2 A

Then squaring, summing and dividing by the number of random samples :

2 2 2 2 R R R.
o oO o o On, FF CO, oC ley CO,
“pg A nq °p "q "p "q NpXq A pq "py pap 4 "oq a pa s

2 2 2
(ory | Tire! * Wie NpNq NpqgMp NpgNq

Whence using (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xviii) and (xix) we find

P . 4 3 38 , WMp
Ping = v4 SS S55 a: elefeie's erasers =
Rng Np Nq NpNqg

We have next to find the correlation of deviations in w%pq and uw) due to random sampling.
Three cases can occur according as p and g are equal or unequal to p’ and g’ respectively. We
So
have by multiplying (xx) by a similar form :

o R On, o R on. on, 2.
VrOng Unig pq p'q! = “pg Rpg! ~ Nng™p'q! a5 “pg Nyy TN g My
Ung Up'a’ Nnq Np'q' Npq Mp!
Fryg Mg Ranging! _9 Trp Frp/q" Ray rpg’
Mpg Nq! Np Np'q!
on, On, on Tn,
4 Mp Fry Ary Nyy Mp Trg SYiny Ng!
Np Ny Np Ng
R R.
3 Trg Trg! Ng Mp'q! ong Tay Yang np!
Ng Mp'q' Ng Np!

TAO, len vs
oe i OEE eyanorinc Sosnonadodde SranosodtbooosAanndennd e290)

NgNq

Miscellanea 193

Whence using (xiii), (xvi), (xix), (xi), (x) and (xvii) we have :

Nya! Nyy

Pd pq +41
Tu, Fy, Rh 1p Ung Uptgt | PE +t cece cccceeneeees XX
Voge Un ale tngtn dg ae Rts? a (wet wi ) ( )

Taking p=p’ in (xxii) and using (xiv), (xviii), (xvii), (xi), (x) and (xii) we find :

lea Ole ~) ROR CRETE (xxiv)

Ou, Tuna Ry Up at = ng a
Di Pq Pa Pq Np Nq NpNqy Mp

qd

_ n Np! 3
Similarly : Cu Cup, Rerun, = Ung Uptg ( OE — po cee eeccecceeeceees (xxv)
pa “p'q” “pa p'a ling Tiyity Ne

Turning back to (vi) and taking differentials, we have :
WHPdH = Syq (Sepa)
Square, sum and divide by the number of random samples, and we find:
Ap? v= Spq (07x59) + 2 24 (Tung Fun )

+23. (Fung oy

Cu Bug Un'q!

+233 (Tung Fung Runatpq?

hay! Ung Un'q

where 3, denotes a summation for all unlike values of p, p’, g and q’ ; 3» for all like values of q
and unlike of p and p’; 3; for all like values of p, unlike of g and q’.

Substituting from (xxi), (xxiii), (xxiv) and (xxv) we have:

Ada 2— Vf ue 4-35 4m)
TaN RE Nna ns Dp Nai Manley

Npq! Ny!
+23; {0 Up'q (Sar + Zura.)
NpNg Ny Nq
n Np! 3
+239 4 Ung Up'g ( pa 4 Pa _ }
NpNq Ny Nq Ng

+233 {aoa ( ae ee \} eee: (xxvi)

Np Nq Np Ny Np

We will consider the parts of this in order. Let ,, be taken=—, (pe — 78) = contri-

bution from any constituent to the mean contingency. Then

Os = WA agile _spassnoadiodbesosendsnuesoacseonnc (xxvil)
2
Hence P?=N Sq (¢ 2) if Sottu ethic taneses sates ates (xxviii)
Ny Nq
Np Nq\*
jseen Ss Ung S Tog iy ones my)
gain pq (=) Sa (Fes) = pq ene
Wa a9) 1 =
=> 3 A WT) tte tee ener esensene Ald
N38, (eae +3N8p,(¥ 2) + 5 (xxix)

remembering that Sp (Wpq)=0 and Syq(rp)nq)=N% Next consider
Ung UnqUp'q\ _ Sp (Upq) X Sp (na)
Sng (=) +235 Gene = Sy eS Ge Sa ae

Nq

= (909)

Sy () + a + a de ahocsaoesiiitns (xxx)

Biometrika v

194 Miscellanea

(= ) a Sete 2g? ee FP oeaqunne omer (xxxi)

nN

Similarly : Sm (* 2) 4235 es

n p

Lastly: :

Wing 2 n Ny
‘py !pq ‘py pa
Wg (Sesto) + 23, (Ung Up! qd’ ) € es + ea )
pq! pn"

Np

n Np! n Mpa!
‘Pa pq DY + BY
+239 (Ung Up'q) Ge 7 sere - )+23, (Upq pq’) (- Fp. UETo00 )
q pg Dept ae Diae as

= 2S pq (Sy pa’) Sp’ (Upra) Ral nah
= a4 %p sie 70a |
=2W8pq {(4 +5; ) (2+ q) ee
n 4 a0
=28 59 Ce o7- : om +) + a +; FE (xxxii)

Then substituting from (xxix), (xxx), (xxxi) and (xxxii) in (xxvi) we have :

Ap2o,2= ANS yq (Ppq/,2ng2) + 122/044)
4
-35, (se )- 38, (=) _19¢62/N - 6/N
+28 y0(duteh 2) + 42/4 2/.0
Np Nq

= 4G? /N FAN Sq {WP nq/Mp?¢"}
go (b'dd) ay (Pa°\_ o)
+28 pq NV 3S, Nq 38 :

+28, (# be wax, oiiuinian (xxxiii)

Ny,

When the contingencies, mean and mean squared, approach zero, the terms of the third,
fourth and fifth orders may be neglected as compared with that of the second order and we find

ree or ties i
o. —9 aan i i Delelesetacietigeante actese erecta (xxxiv)

But if CO be the coefficient of mean squared contingency :

oe
and accordingly co= $ =(1- o2)3 Tye viceeeeeecereeseeeeseesenens (xxxv)

Hence the probable error of C
= "67449 (1-0) o,,
and in the particular case of no contingency
__ 67449
il
Hence unless a coefficient of mean squared contingency be two or three times this value, we have
no evidence that the quantities under discussion can be considered as contingent on each
other.

by (xxxiv).

The general expression for ¢, in (xxxili) can be dealt with in several ways. It might be

thought that W,, being of changing sign, the cubic terms as well as those of the fifth order
in pq would be small ; but this is not our experience in actual application. Terms will occur
in which n,, is very large as compared with n,n,/N owing to the existence of a few isolated
units in outlying compartments, and it by no means follows that the second term is less than
the first, or the sixth term less than the third. We have not succeeded in getting any

Miscellanea 195

appreciation of “negligible terms” when the contingency is not very small. The whole formula
may be written :

4 4
pro,” =Spq ($n aot ) +9Spq (#2 pa os.) — 35, a) — 45, (S) + +(XXXVi)

NpNq NpNq

If we endeavour to get some idea of the general magnitude of this expression, by evaluating
it for a normal correlation surface we find, for infinitesimal groupings, that the last two terms

become infinite if 7 does not lie between -1/v3 to +1/¥3 and the first term becomes infinite
when 7 does not lie between —1/2 to +1/2. In fact in such cases we seem to reach indefinitely
large probable errors. We doubt, however, the justice of this view and believe it merely signifies
that with indefinitely fine grouping beyond a certain range of values of 7, the assumption that
the errors of random sampling may be treated as differentials is incorrect, and thus our process
of reaching (xxxvi) is no longer legitimate when applied to such normal distributions. The
whole matter, however, deserves careful investigation from the theoretical standpoint. Even
from the practical side the error in any constituent due to random sampling must be at least
unity, and accordingly if the theoretical value of the constituent be only a few units or a
fraction even of a unit d2pq/%pq is not necessarily a small quantity. We ought accordingly to
provide in practice for a contingency grouping which leaves no constituent to consist of but
a few units, if we wish to justify our fundamental assumption in determining the probable error.

In actual practice with fairly coarse grouping and not replacing the summations by inte-
grations, the value for o, will always be finite, for we make no summation where either
Np OY Nq are zero, i.e. we do not as in using the normal surface extend our distribution all over
space. For the cases in which we have tried it (xxxvi) then gives reasonable results, and we will
how indicate how the calculations can be made fairly briefly.

In the accompanying table we have the contingency between Intelligence and Handwriting
in schoolgirls. The columns correspond to grades of intelligence, the rows to grades of hand-
writing. The first number of each constituent group is the actual frequency in the total of
1801 girls with the characteristics of that group. The reciprocal of 1801 is 555,247/10°. This
is put on the calculator and the column of row totals multiplied by it, with the result 7,/V
put under each row total; each one of these is now put on the machine in succession and
multiplied by the series of column totals 2,3; we thus obtain »,7,/N, which is registered as
the second number in each constituent. The difference of the first and second number of each
constituent with due regard to sign is Vp, the constituent contingency. This is registered as
the third number in the constituent. The square of this—taken from Barlow’s tables—and
divided by the second number is V¢2,,, or V times the mean square contingency contribution
of each constituent. This is the fourth number registered in the constituents. The sum
of these fourth numbers for each row gives V@,?, and for each column WVq,2 These are
registered in the column and row beyond “totals.” Adding up this column or row, we have

S, (V,2) =S) (Wo,?) = 17252 = Vp, hence ¢?=:09580 and C=N ?/(1 + 2) = "2957.

This is the coefficient of mean squared contingency between handwriting and intelligence, and
is our standard method of finding C. So far all the work is usual and necessary. Now square
from Barlow the column of V¢,? and the row of V@,?; we obtain the column and row of V,!
and V*o,. Divide these by their respective column and row total frequencies and we have the
numbers given underneath V*d,! and N*¢,', or V°d,'/n, and V2$,"/n, respectively. Adding up
these column numbers and row numbers we find on division by V

2 S (=Pe) = °05758, z S (“e) ='03199,

N Ny N Np
values registered on the table. These are two of the sums needed for (xxxvi). If the distri-
bution were normal and the group ranges infinitesimal these should be equal. They clearly
differ widely. Next divide Vg,? by 1801, i.e. multiply these quantities by the reciprocal, placed

25—2

196 Miscellanea

on the machine. The results are tabled beneath the values of V@,?, or these are p,”. Put each
2 on the calculator and multiply it by the row V¢,?. These products are given as the fifth
figure in each constituent. The sixth figure is Vn,,/(np)7q) or is the result of dividing the first
figure by the second. The seventh figure is the sixth multiplied by the fourth or

= NP? pg X Nrpq/(Mp%q) = Nh? pq Mpql (MpMq)s
and the eighth is the sixth figure ee e the fifth

= hp Np,’ x Ny So = Vh,? bq? Rpq/(Mp2q)-

These are added up for each row and ee as the third and fourth figures in the V *b,*
column: added up for the column and divided by J, they give

Spa { NP raMval(MpMq)} = '2444,586,
Spa (Mbp? be? Mpq/ (MpNq)} ="014,0827,
which determine the first and second sums in the value of $’o,”. But

Spq (NP ng Mpa! (Mp %aq)} = Spa (Png) + Sq (w 2b ng i)

NpyN
= (09580) + V4Si9 (Wg! (p?n,")} :
whence it follows that NPS iq WF pq! (Mp? 2q?)} = "14865/N,
while P/N =S0q (P2nq)/NV ='09580/NV

is Zess in value. Thus the cubic terms in the contingency are more important than the square,
and cannot in this case be neglected compared to them in the present case.

Again Soq {NO rhe? Npql (Mpg =P! + M*Soq Gane by bebe Ves)
q
0140827 — (-09580
whence NS yas? baW pal tp q)) = ert OO PEOY
=00490/N,
while Soa (h,2b,2)/ N= $4 =-00918/N.

Thus the fifth order term is only one-half roughly of the fourth order term and is not in this case
negligible with regard to it. It is clearly the very dull, very bad handwriters whose excess so
emphasises these terms. In this, as in other cases, we cannot accordingly neglect any of the
terms contributory to the ili error and we have by (xxxiii) :

$o,2= xt 24446 + 00704 — 06718} ="
or, o4.°=1'9240/N=:001068, and o, = 0327 *.
But oo=64/(1 oe by (xxxv)
= {Sisaist = -0285.

Hence the probable error of C=:0192.

The probable error of C, if it were found from the coefficient of correlation, would be
67449 (1 —7?)// V=-0139. Thus the coefficient as found by mean squared contingency is rather
more subject to error than the coefficient of correlation, say in the ratio of 4 to 3. The rule
given in Pearson’s memoirt appears, to judge by this case, to err on the side of asserting
no significance, where after all it may exist.

The actual arithmetic of determining the probable error is not so laborious as might have
been anticipated.

The coefficient of mean contingency obtained from the diagram in the memoir just cited is
‘31, so that it differs from C=-30 by less than the probable error.

* Probable Error of ¢?=:67449 x 2po4 = "0042.
+ Drapers’ Research Memoirs: Biometric Series, 1., p. 18. Dulau & Co.

Miscellanea 197
Contingency between Handwriting and Intelligence in Girls.
T
: o| N%bq4, &
Writing cnet Intelligent I ene Slow Blow Nery Totals nq NO7 & o¢ Nags "%q
38 47 30 6 4 1 126 = =
17°88 44-11 38°34 16°30 6:86 2°52 069961 =n,/N eet =
420-12 +2°89 ~8-34 |—10°30 | —2°86 | —1:52 |=WMbpq = =
Very 22°64 19 1°81 6-51 1°19 92 |=No?,, 33:26 1106-23
Good ‘761 "392 153 616 619 645 |= Vh,2,2 018468 8°780
2°125 1066 "782, 368 583 397 |= NV nrpq/rpNq
48:11 20 1°42 2°40 69 37 |= W2q2,¢Mpq/ Np Mq = 53'19=*
1°617 “418 -120 ‘227 361 256 = N%p,2hq? MpqlRpNq = 2999 =+
115 277 185 55°5 19 6 657°5 pe! =
93°28 230°18 200-06 85:06 35°78 13°14 “365075 a =
4+91°72 | 44682 | —15-06 |—29°56 |-16°78 | —7-14 a = =
soe 5-06 9°52 1:13 10:27 7°87 3°88 = 37°73 1423-55
ee 864 “445 174 “700 703 732 = 020966 2-165
1°233 1-203 ‘925 ‘652 531 “457 =
6-24 11°45 1:05 6-70 4:18 1°77 = te 31°39
1-065 ‘535 ‘161 456 373 335 = = 2-925
67 231°5 244°5 112°5 43 14 712°5 = =
101-08 249-43 216-80 92°18 38°77 14:24 395614 se ee
—34:08 | —17°93 | +27°70 |+20°32 | 44:23 — 24 a = =
11:49 1:29 3°54 4:48 4G 00 = 21:26 451-99
Moderate 486 251 098 394 396 412 = 011805 634
663 -928 1°128 1:220 1°109 -983 _ a
7-62 1-20 3-99 5°47 ‘51 00 = aa 18-79
"322 233 ‘1 481 “439 “405 a = 1-991
26°5 62 75°5 48 21 11 244 = =
34°62 85°42 74°24 31°57 13:28 4°88 ‘135480 = =
—812 | —23-42 +126 | +1643 | +7°72 | +612 = - ae
ees 1:90 6:42 02 8°55 4:49 7-68 = 29-06 844-48
665 342 134 539" ‘541 564 a5 ‘016135 3461
765 "726 1-017 1520 1°581 2-254 = = ae
1°45 4°66 02 13-00 7°10 17°31 = = 43°54
“509 248 136 ‘819 “855 1-271 = — 3°838
7 11 9 10 7 1 45 = =
6:38 15°75 13-69 582 2°45 0:90 ‘024986 = =
+62 —4°75 —469 | +4:18 | +4:55 +10 ae = =
Bad 06 1°43 1°61 3-00 8°45 ‘Ol = 14:56 211-99
333 172 067 270 271 282 = “008084 4711
1:097 698 ‘657 1°718 2857 1-111 a ee
07 1:00 1-06 5-15 24°14 ‘O01 = = 31-43
"365 ‘120 044 “885 ‘774 313 = = 2-501
2 2 4 1 4 3 16 a a2
2°30 5:66 4:92 2-09 0:88 0°32 ‘008984. = =
— °30 — 3°66 —92 | —1:09 | 43-12 | +2-°68 = _ as
Very ‘04 2°37 17 57 11:06 22°44 2: 36°65 1343-22
Bad 838 “432 168 679 682 ‘711 = ‘020350 83-951
870 ‘353 ‘813 ‘478 4545 9375 = es
03 84 14 27 50:27 | 210°38 ae = 261:93=t
729 152 137 “325 3100 6666 =a = 11°109=§
255°5 630°5 548 233 98 36 1801 = Ly (Whe!
Totals np ‘555247/108 _ We ny
= 05758
V¢,? 4119 21-22 8:28 33°38 33°52 34-93 172-52 0
N*o,t | 169662 450°29 68°56 |1114-22 |1123°59 |1220-10 || WAN =N¢?| =-2957
N2p,4/n,| 6-640 ‘714 125 | 4-782) 11-465) 33-892 | 19s, (- be) 2=-09580| +0192
‘ 03199 oe

The first four numbers in each constituent are those required in the usual calculation of mean square contingency ;
The actual arithmetical work if we need

the second set of four are those required to determine its probable error.
the coefficient of mean square and its probable error is thus just doubled.

* Sp iN ?p?ngNpq|(IpNg)}-

uf 2 1 [24 Qe
+t Spat papal (Mp Nq) } = N (2444586).

tT Sp {N22 hq? Mpg/(MpNq)}-

$ Spq (hp? Ga? Npgl (NpNq)} =

i
N

(-014083).

198 Miscellanea

x. On a Coefficient of Class Heterogeneity or Divergence.
By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

(1) In considering the sub-groups of a population—especially in dealing with local races in
man, animals or plants—a problem of the following character has not infrequently arisen: It
is found that a sub-class, for example a local sample, differs considerably from the general
population, This divergence may have any magnitude upwards from the probable limits of
random sampling. We require some coefficient which will express by a single number the
relative divergence from the general population of each sub-class or local group. For example,
we take the frequency of alternative characteristics of the local population and find these
are represented by certain percentages in the general population ; we know also the percentages
in the sub-group. We can, of course, take the difference of each individual percentage and
of the general population percentage and find the probable error of this difference, but this gives
us a series of numbers, and not a single measure of the general heterogeneity of the group.
These numbers may also belong to correlated characters, and when one number marks a great
excess in percentage we may expect a great defect in a second percentage for this very reason,
But this makes the weight to be given to such a complex system of numbers extremely difficult
to estimate.

The necessity for some general coefficient of class heterogeneity was impressed upon me,
while discussing with Mr J. F. Tocher his reduction of the Anthropometrical Surveys recently
made of the inmates of Scottish Asylums and of the children in Scottish Schools. It was.
needful to find a single number, which would measure local heterogeneity, or the divergence
from a random sample of the general population in a series of characters of the local population.
The number chosen must be such (i) that allowance is made for the size of the sample, (ii) that
the numbers for different sub-groups or localities are strictly comparable, and (iii) that we have
some idea as to the size of its probable error. Following up a suggestion of Mr Tocher I have
reached what I think is a workable coefficient of divergence, which may be useful in dealing with
local race problems.

Suppose a contingency table formed in which the columns are marked by the alternative
characters under consideration and each row is peculiar to a sub-group or district. Thus
let the characters be a, B, y, 5... and the sub-groups a, 6, ¢, d,e.... We have the table:

a B y 6 € — o Totals
se Noe Nap Nay Nas Nae Nan a: Noes Ne
b Nya | op | Moy | Mos Rye | dy Tee ks Mm
c Nog Nop Ney Nes Nee Non = Nowy n,
d Naa Nap Nay Nas Nae Nan = Nae Na
é Nog Nop Ney Nos Nee Non = Dn Ne
Zz Roa Nop Nay Nas Nse Nan a Ney N,
Totals Ny Np ny Ns n, 2, — n, N

Here the first column gives all the districts or sub-groups which form the total population
The distribution of the alternative characters in the total population is given in the last row,
while the last column gives the total frequency of each sub-group. Any number such as niy

Miscellanea 199

is the frequency of the alternative character y in the sub-group or district 7. For example
_ a, B, y... may be the alternative hair colours in a country of which the different districts are
a, b,c, d@...z. Such tables arise over and over again in anthropometric surveys. If now each
sub-group or district were a random sample of the general population, then the coefficient of
contingency of this table—say the coefficient of mean square contingency—should within the
limits of probable error be zero. We have thus a table of the contingency between geographical
sub-districts and the alternative characteristics. And the greater this contingency the more
markedly are the sub-groups divergent from random samples of the general population. In
other words the population is geographically* heterogeneous. Accordingly if we take the
same or nearly the same set of characters for two populations and about the same number
of sub-groups or districts, such tables as the above give by their coefficients of contingency
a reasonable measure of inter-racial comparison. The population or race with the highest
coefficient of contingency is clearly the most heterogeneous. The relative heterogeneity of
Prussians, Swedes, Italians, Scottish and, perhaps, English could, I think, be now determined in
this manner from published data for at least hair and eye colour.

But we require not only an inter-racial coefficient of heterogeneity, but an intra-racial
coefficient, which will measure the relative heterogeneity of the various groups. To reach this,
pick out any district or sub-class 6 and oppose it to the rest of the population in a table of the
following kind :

TABLE II.
a B y 6 € n — o Totals
b Nog yp Nyy Nos Nye Nin = Nay ny
Rest Ng —NMoq | Mp — Mop | My— Mey | %— Mug | Me Mee | %q— Boy | — | Mabe N-n,
Totals Ny Ng ny Ns n, n,, — n, |

This is also a contingency table, of a very contracted character it is true, but none the less
absolutely valid, if it be only used for relative purposes. Let the coefficient of mean square
contingency of this table be found and be (Cj, then the relative values of C,, C,, Ca, etc. will be
measures of the class and local differences, or what we may call intra-racial differences. I
suggest these C’s as the coefficients we are seeking. We will now investigate the nature of Cy:
Let y;? be the mean square contingency, then:

2 Ti 2
NaN n,(V-n
Ngee Na —Na- * Cui)

a WN ‘a ba WV
a

1 ®
goes
Xo = NaN 2, (NV — 7)
v's N
_ Mat
aoe (se = ee )
TE, NaN N-n
N
NgNy\?
een Nee av
T= Fs = Pape gece care creme tre sete geae as teats (1)
o

* The sub-groups need not of course be ‘geographical’; they might be economically, socially,
or otherwise differentiated.

200 Miscellanea

Now if ¢? be the mean square contingency of Table I. and if ,? be the contribution to it of

the b row we have:
p= bat hr +oe+ the

where
NN \?
Nba —
iL @ (( be v)
ges See ee ee
p V is | POE ae oe (ii)
Or, we have:
ne 2
Xb Vm pe i
But:
ae 2
On = ye = pp ws afalajnialatale’sfeleiaidiats jelelaletelesaratetete (iii)
1+¢y? 1 Ny +e?

Thus we have the following rule:

Start with Table I. and determine the contributions ¢,2, dy”, 2... 62 of each sub-group or
locality to the total mean square contingency of this table. Then C,, CG, ... C, determined as
above are the “coefficients of divergence” of the respective sub-groups or classes or localities
from the general population, and their relative magnitudes measure the relative divergency of
such groups or localities.

(2) If the Class 6 were, for example, merely a random sample of the general population, we
should have q¢,?=0 and C,=0. It becomes accordingly of importance to determine the probable
error of C, on the assumption that Class 6 is a random sample. If C;, differs from zero by
several times its probable error, the divergence of the Class is almost certainly significant. The
general expression for the probable error of a coefficient of mean square contingency has been
dealt with in another paper*. In the notation of that paper

Pos2=Sy ( 2 “ut ) +49 pq (20 Zn) 25, (f) 28, (2). en Gy).

PU aNg Np Nq Np
¢? will now be yx? and we have to perform the summations for the two rowed table, Table IT,
above. The g summation will be from a to » and the p summation for the two rows of
our table. I take the terms in order.
(i) Shq ($n os.) . This in our present notation stands for
pq
wf 49 Na Ny s 9 Ta "a
5 ( 28 ye a N-vm «a Pa 2 (V—m)/’

since 2, for any constituent of the second row is by the line above Equation (i)=

ny
2.
N= Pas

where ¢%,, is the contribution to the mean square contingency from the first row constituent
immediately above. Let us write »»=”/(N—m). Then we have, if we write

o
a= S {Dina bal Malady sersesneocerticeccoeoeetcee neces (v),
n ' j
Sa (re - - yen? (1 = Vp") + vy? ho? /Np Bdddnonarvoccoddcadcanodcqus (vi).
pe"

(ii) $Spq( by? 2m \ For the first line $,2= »? and for the second line =vyq,2._ Hence
Pq q Np Nq q

* «On the Probable Error of Mean Square Contingency,” see Equation (xxxvi), Biometrika, Vol. v.
p. 195.

Miscellanea 201

the value of this, if we remember that $,?= 74+ vera for the a column, is given by

pu? 8 {C140} Be im (1410) Pte g tye

=4$ (1 +) (1 — vp?) dy? ry +4 (1 +5) vy hp? /ny afeinelecaieieieiniele (vil).
4
(iii) ag, (S) - B(L4 nS 3( =e) ee eee eee (gin)
ep a a
@ 4
. : 19 (Piva j
if oit=8 ( “ ) eee tacset io atatenee nv ceoe wes
(iv) 38, ( ) This since the summation is for only two rows is given by
3 po! 2 pr
(= ae va
y 3 S Pa'\ _ 4
or tSa (7 = (UF 52) Derg nde sasciaee veene cucanties Seco sees (x).
qd

Writing (vi), (vii), (viii) and (x) in (iv) we find :
ign 4
8g = Ero? (Let) tn? dal} (LE (Ltn) ge} 8 (tin!) OF + (Lt) al

But by the line above equation (iii) y»?=(1+%) dy”. Hence :

1 y Te T,
Dee ix b Ba es iV 2)
Xp Ny {i rare pr” a ft eee el aes) Phas

Ny w :
aa wy mack) a? + (1+) - ras a nee ses vee XI)3
This involves a knowledge of ¢,?, 7;? and o,%. The first will have been found in determining
the contingency coefficient of the entire table ; the second in determining its probable error, and
the third only has to be specially calculated.

Finally we have*

Or the
Probable Error of (,=-67449 (1— C;2)? ox,

(3) I propose to illustrate this numerically on a table already largely worked out in the
paper referred to above. It has been shown that handwriting is contingent in a certain
degree on grade of intelligence. f propose to investigate which group of handwriters has a
distribution of intelligence most markedly different from that of the general population, 1.e.
which is intellectually most heterogeneous. This is not in itself a problem of any importance
but it will serve to illustrate the application of the above formule, and the numerical work
needful for their evaluation. Turning to the table, p. 197, I extracted the results given in
Table III. The only new quantities to be calculated are the values of

4 il} (Ve? Ne
oy! = Y p ba\ _ ba
Cela area):
Now V¢%,, is the fourth number in each constituent of the table on p. 197. The squares of
these from Barlow’s Tables are the first number in each constituent of Table IV. ; 2, is given

under the total at the foot and immediately above n,, its reciprocal. These reciprocals
placed successively on the calculator and multiplied by the first number in each column

* loc, cit. p. 194,
Biometrika v 26

202 Miscellanea

TABLE IIL.

Handwriting Ny Vy 1+ Wy? dv? Noy N°r,? No, ox C, P.E. of C,

Very Good 126 0752 | 1:0004 | 0185 | 32°26 | 53°19] 2°232 | °0321 | -1395 0210

Handwriting.

Good ... | 657°5 | °5750 | 1°1901 | 0210 | 37°73 | 31°39) 1°749 | -0239 | -1787 0154
Moderate ... | 712°5 | 6546 | 1°2805 | 0118 | 21°26) 18:79 *631 | °0238 | -1384 0156
Poor emieoaa: ‘1567 | 1:0038 | ‘0161 | 29°06 | 43°54] 2:237 | 0296 | -1354 0194
Bad : 45 0256 | 1:0000 | ‘0081 | 14°56] 31°48 ‘776 | ‘0867 | -0907 "0244
Very Bad . 16 “0090 | 10000 | :0204 | 36°65 | 261°93 | 15°246 -0714 | -1418 0467
TABLE IV.
Intelligence.
Quick : Slow Slow Very
Intelligent Intelligent Intelligent Slow Dull Dull Nw!
Very Good 512°57 04 3°28 42°38 1°42 *85
2-006 “000 ‘006 "182 014 024 2°232
Good sie 25°60 90°63 1:28 105°47 61°94 15°05
‘100 144 ‘002 *453 632 ‘418 1749
Moderate 13202 1°66 12°53 20:07 21 ‘00
‘B17 003 023 ‘086 002 ‘000 ‘631
Poor ane 3°61 41:22 ‘00 73°10 20°16 58°98
‘014 ‘065 ‘000 314 206 1°638 2°237
Bad 600 “00 2°04 2°59 9:00 71°40 ‘00
“000 003 ‘005 039 "729 ‘000 “776
Very Bad ‘00 5°62 03 32 122°32 503°55
“000 ‘009 “000 ‘001 1°248 13°988 15°246
Reciprocals | *003914 7001586 *001825 7004292 010204 027778 | °555247/108
Motals™ 22. 255°5 630°5 548 233 98 36 1801

constituent give (V%,,)?/_ which is recorded as the second number in each constituent. The
sum of these for each row gives Vo, recorded to the right and also in Table III., 07x, can
now be found from the form

vagy | (mt gee (=m) LEE tm) ut) (7S pt tem) 28) |.

And again es ake

x po” po”

Ce ie SF a a Waray ee +! from (iii).
yt Po

These values are also recorded in ae III. Then og, was found from (xii) and so the probable
error of C;.

Miscellanea 203

The values of C, show us that the class of “Good” handwriters is most and that of
“ Bad” handwriters least divergent from the general population. The other four classes have
values of C, sensibly equal and equal to ‘14. The “Good” handwriters have -18 and the
“Bad” -09, and the question is whether these are significantly different from ‘14, or from each
other. The probable error of the difference is about ‘03. It would therefore be reasonable to
assume that “Good” and “ Bad” handwriters do differ from each other, though it is less easy
to assert marked difference from the community at large. On the whole it seems reasonable to
suggest that in distribution of intelligence the “Good” handwriters are less like a random
sample of the general girl population than “ Bad” handwriters. In other words heterogeneity
of intelligence is more marked in the class ‘‘ Good” than in the class ‘“ Bad.”

As I have said, the illustration is one of numerical method only and not of interest in itself,
The special purpose of the present note is the suggestion of a coefficient which may be of value
in the many cases in which we wish to compare the deviation of local samples of a population
from the proportions exhibited by a general population.

XI. Inheritance in the Female Line of Size of Litter in Poland
China Sows.

By G. M. ROMMEL, B.S.A., and E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph.D., United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

From the data of the American Poland China Record, the authors determined the inheritance
of the size of litters from mother to daughter, using 6145 litters farrowed in 1902. The methods
were those commonly employed in statistical studies of heredity.

The tabulation of the sizes of litters from mothers and daughters and the determination of
the coefficient of correlation (7) shows that there is an actual correlation between the size
of litters of two successive generations, and the authors feel justified in concluding that size of
litter is a character transmitted from mother to daughter. The coefficient of correlation for the
five years is small (-06) but it is appreciable and consequently it would appear proved that by
judicious selection of sows from large litters, the average for the breed may be increased.

Correlation in size of Litter of Poland China Sows between Mother (M) and
Daughter (D), American Poland China Record.

|
Age of Number | Mean Mean FS Pe A one

Daughters | of Cases | M D om oD eat

I Year ... 2010 | 7°908 6°6451 | 20764 1°7582 “1088 + 0149

2 Years ... 2047 7°6927 | 75598 | 1:9818 1°9415 0885 +0148

3 Years ... 1157 7°5809 7°8799 | 19615 20693 0883 + 0197

4 Years ... 606 | 7°6304 8°2821 | 1:°9856 2°0661 0379 +:0274 |

5 Years ... 325 76738 8:°4031 | 2°1001 2°1571 0032 +:0375 |
|

1—5 Years 6145 | 7°7349 74391 | 20202 2°0312 ‘0601 + ‘0086

The decrease from ‘1088 to practically zero (0032) from the first to the fifth year does
not necessarily mean that the inheritance of fecundity is lost as a sow grows older, but probably
indicates that inheritance from the dam gradually plays relatively less and less of a part in the
determination, while other factors, notably nutrition, play more. The correlation tables are
given over page. This work is being followed with an investigation of the inheritance of

size of litter through the male line and from the ancestors in the female line.
26—2

Size of Litters in which Dams were Farrowed.

204

Miscellanea

CORRELATION TABLES OF SIZE OF LITTERS OF SOWS WITH SIZE
OF LITTERS IN WHICH DAMS WERE FARROWED. AMERICAN
POLAND CHINA RECORD.—LITTERS OF 1902.

Size of Litters in which Dams
were Farrowed.

Size of Litters of Three-Year-Old Sows.

TABLE I. Yearling Sows.
Size of Litters of Yearling Sows.

2 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 9 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | Totals
(Rt tt

°

Fay | | | = — |= | = =

a —|—;—]}] 2] 2} 1] 1y—J;—] 1} —f—-j|— 7

a —}| 4/ 2] 1) 2/ 3) 4| 2) 20) =) een

mB —|—| 3) 5] 22/907) 10.) 4) 6) — "| =") Seo

in — 1 A>) V5 269)98" || 24a is 5 6 1;/—/]— 125

n — 1 3 | 21 | 34 | 65 | 81 | 48 / 18 7 2); — = 275

5 1 4 4 | 27 | 47 | 89 | 89 | 62 | 31 | 12 Q2);—|]— 368

e 1 1 | 10 | 31 | 65 | 67 | 81 | 61 | 34] 12 3 1 1 368

cs = 1 5 D0 537) 760) 87 67 3b 3 14 eos aa 1 371

5S 1 1 414] 16) 38 | 48 | 36 | 23 6 6);—}— 193

“— — 2 2, SHE2ZON QT E22 22 rs 7 4}; —]— 121

‘a — 1 1| 4 TE Mh dksy Ny? 8 | 4 1 2} 1 56

oe — 3 1) —s 23

H = ee 10

s = 1

4 1

° SSS

aS Totals} 3 16 | 41 | 152] 299 | 431 | 463 | 327]172| 70 | 30 | 3 3 | 2010

NM

TABLE II. Two-Year-Old Sows.
Size of Litters of Two-Year-Old Sows.
1 2 (3 5 6 7 8 9 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | Totals

a — | 2) eee eS eae ees
ee ee ee ee ee ete eee ieee | | — 5
3 |—|—|]—| 2! 4/0] 9) 4) 6) 2) —) 2) SS ee
4 1—|—]| 3] 4). 8} 20 |.14)/907 22°) 2) .39) 1) eee
5 |—|—| 3] 6/ 40| 33] 34/| 36| 27 |.6), 6) 2) 232s es
6 1 2 7 |-15 | 26 | 52 | 70 | 68 | 36 | 27 8 4 1);/—|— 317
if — 2, 5 | 10 | 25 | 71 | 86 | 84 | 59 | 32 | 12 2 2, 1 — 391
8 — 7 A159 SER bb 695" ei 64 | 32 | 11 6 4 1 — 408
9 1 2 2 8 | 20. 36 | 61 | 65 | 70 | 33 | 20 4 1 1 — 324
10 —|— 1 DLA | SOR Ess e4o5 | e2on i AaaiD 6 1)/—|— 187
11 — 2 1 2 7 AP OR Nei Sela alis: o Daa | 96
12 -—— | -— oD 1 4 | 10 9 9 2 4 3 j= | — | — 45
19. | — |— | —|— | 1 | 3 | et) 3 aol ae ee
14 See eee fp | eee | pee | ee 3 1 1 1 1|; — 1 — 8

Totals} 2 15 | 28 | 69 | 150 | 306 | 431 | 426 | 319] 168} 87 | 28 | 12 4 2 | 2047

TABLE III. Three-Year-Old Sows.

MWA NAS Co OH

4

LTT LL Lad ecco! o

SUN 9 LOM) MIA 12
1; 1}/—|—|—
4) 5);—/;—]1
9| 7] 6] 2] —
2 16.) ea Se) oe
29 lao.) 140/128 3
48 | 31 | 34/12] 4 |
47 | 38°22) 188} 2
20; eSlle2a ap eO aes
25 | 24/17] 4) —
13 Ga Aui3
1 4} 5|—

ples | 7

| a
Zale deaies2
2 3 | 6
11 | 17 | 15
14 | 27 | 37
19 | 25 | 50
13 | 31 | 40
8/17 | 33
6/11] 16
5| 5/14
—| 9/ 3

13

| weeerol we! | |

Totals

Size of Litters in which Dams were Farrowed.

Miscellanea 205

TABLE IV. Fouwr-Year-Old Sows.
Size of Litters of Four-Year-Old Sows.

‘ i} |
|S |e | 88 || Ir |B. | «8 10 | 11 12
a ae | i eae (ae es
A 2 | ees | | 1 ees ee eo ee
‘ al at | EP | a ent | 3 |
Ss | 4 |= | 1 | 2/5/ 5| 4| 3] 2] 2
Pee | || 2) 8) 8 6) | 8) 7] 2) —
Smee || = |) 2) 6] 7 | Is/18| 8|17| 3] 2
ce fw |) 1 =| 2 | 6 | 13° | 22} 24.) 32116) 4) 9
men) 8 |—|—| 1 | 3] 5| 10] 15 | 23) 26) 24) 6| 6
eee i — | 1 | i) 8) 8) 9 | 18 | 18/15 | 20} 10} 2 |
eee eo. |i 1 | 4} 6] 6) io] 8) 1} 3|—|
eee me —|—|—|.2| 2) 5| 1] 5] 6] 1] 5] 2]
a ae | a) 2) — ) be) 2) 8) Fr) —|
3 ED || Se ee ee pen |
sy ie = aa eee Ee
TD
Totals] — | 2 | 3 | 16 | 36 | 60 | 87 | 118 1 107 | 36 16 | 5
TABLE V. Five-Year-Old Sows.
Size of Litters of Five-Year-Old Sows.
2 Hee NS | Gels | 6 | 8 9 | 10 | 12 | 22 13 | 14 | 15
S —— =
D 1 =|
g 2 - |
S 3 ji he fata Ma
a 4 | See al ieee Sy ee | 1 11
retets 5 See Saul Gili GN ete ei) Bell a= adi O7
‘35 6 |—|1/]1]/1/] 4] 8; 4/10} 6] 8} 7] 1}; 1)]2)—Yf] 54
Peewee? Pe | — 1/ 1] 8]12/10/13/11} 6] 1; 3 |—]|—] 66
ae || Sa) al 3/ 38/11/14/10; 4] 3] 3}/—]—]—f] 838
or 9 |—|2;/—|] 2] 4] 3! 8/11]/12/7 6] 4} 2}—;/—|—] 54
Om a eee Sab 4 | sche8 | 2] 2 pit ee 97
£ isk. | | Ses SR ae | (Sees ee Pe a 13
3 eee ee ae eo ee A | ee | 8
ii mes ese | ae Lo de ay i ae 8
° 14 1}/—|] 2)—}—)— | —} — | =} 2
@
n Potals| Ss (a \e7 | 15 |S | 48 | 64 | 61 | 43 | 28 | 12) 7 | 3 | 1 | 325
TABLE VI. All Litters, 1902.
Size of Litters of Sows One to Five Years Old.
meat ole isile| 7 | 8 | 9 ) 19 | 11| 12113 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 |'Totals
| Thess ee ea 2
2 eae, 2) ool iB) 8 Ot Yelk e | a -| 19
Peis | 4.) 10) 6) 9) 43 |+16| 6) —| 1) a)—|—|—)4 75
ae eG). 10 | 27) 37. 36] 30 32| 18| 7| 3] 2] 1/1 | —|—] 206
Saal 2) 8 | 28 |) 51| 86| 82) 90} 62| 271/14 /' 7| 1) 1) 1 |= |—f) 460
6 | 2 | 5|14| 44| 84/159] 205 | 168 |103| 73| 32} 10/ 3] 3| —| —|—] 905
7 | 2) 71/11] 49 | 98/206] 259 | 228 |166}105] 36 | 9| 7) 2] — — | 1185
8 | 2] 8| 20] 54 | 192/166! 242 | 293 |169| 94] 41/18] 9) 2] 2) 1 | —]1178
Oni) 6 8 | 87 | 93] 141] 207 | 191 1163] 97/62) 10) 7| 6 | — — | 1019
Lomo 1 8-21 | 40) 88| 105 | 191 | 82| 51/31| 8| 3| 3] 1 |—|—] 565
eet es | 16)) 34°36 61) 63 | 48) 81| 21) 7) 2)—'| 1 |-—|—] 327
asl tied | -5)|. 19) 29] 95) 21) 11 12) 11] 2) 7 | 134
OMe be ouled | 6-11) 75 9} 5]. 3] 3/—] 2 | 49
Ly) = | — | — | 1) 8) 7 Sale 4aly oie e— | le | 23
HE. |) |) |) a eS SS ae 1
16 en) a ee hee ee eee 1 - 1
aL ee al meee Nei (ee ewi || ee |) = 1
Totals 40 | 88 (274) 580 | 970 1246 | 1165] 863 | 519 | 249 77
\

NOTICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY.

NOTICES.

1, Epcrworta, F. Y. The Law of Error. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,

1905, Vol. xx. pp. 86—65 and 113-141.

—. The Generalised Law of Error, or Law of Great Numbers. Journal of the Royal

Statistical Society, 1906, Vol. Lx1x. pp. 497—539.

3. CHARLIER, C. V. L. Ueber das Fehlergesetz. Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik,
Vol. 11. Stockholm, 1905.

bo

4, ——. Die zweite Form des Fehlergesetzes. Ibid.
—. Ueber die Darstellung Willkiirlicher Functionen. Ibid.
6. ——. Researches into the Theory of Probability. Meddelanden fran Lunds Astronomiska

Observatorium, Serie 11. No. 4. Lund, 1906.

In (1) Professor Edgeworth, starting from various conditions, some of which he afterwards
shows can be relaxed, gives four methods by which one can reach an “approximate expression
of the frequency with which in the long run different values are assumed by a quantity which is
dependent on a number of variable items or elements.” These conditions are that the elements
assume different values in random fashion and in the long run recur with a proportionate
frequency capable of being represented by a single definite frequency curve; that the variations
are independent of each other*; that the method of aggregation by which the elements are
compounded is summation, etc. ete.

Professor Edgeworth first gives a method which consists of equating the ¢ moment of the
frequency with the same moment of the given locus. He then shows that the same curve
can be reached by working on the lines followed by Professor Morgan Crofton and by the method
originated by Laplace and developed by Poisson. He then gives confirmatory evidence by using
Laplace’s analysis with some of the conditions used by Crofton and inserts the fresh condition
that if there be two or more magnitudes each fluctuating according to the law of error, then the
sum of each must also fluctuate according to that law.

* [The assumptions that the elementary cause-groups are independent and that the aggregate
is obtained by summation have yet to be justified. In particular the first assumption is opposed to the
basis of every determinantal theory of heredity, and accordingly the frequency distributions of characters,
which result from the fusion and throwing out of chromasomes, i.e. characters in living organisms, are
extremely unlikely to comply closely with Professor Edgeworth’s form of frequency. I have repeatedly
urged the necessity for considering contributions to the aggregate as correlated, i.e. the hypergeometrical
as distinguished from the binomial form of series, as the basis of frequency distributions. The skew
curves I have introduced proceed from the basis that the ‘‘ contributory cause-groups” give contributions
to the aggregate which are correlated. See Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 196, 203 et seq. K. P.]

Notices and Bibliography 207

The general form reached is written

Pepagns afd yt 1 (dye Y a
e-“igy (ae) ap ag) ee D! (E+)! (Ga) Ee
J 200
es Ba — Bp?
where ky aR hi 2 ; ete.

If this form be rewritten as
F(x) = Agh (a) + Aspiti (w) + Aghi¥ (vw) + ...
1 2h
where &t)= >. e @-) [er
$ (7) N2r0
it becomes the same as that called Type A by Dr Charlier in (3), (5) and (6) and it is also the
same as that given by Dr Thiele in “Theory of Observations” (London, C. and E. Layton, 1903)
p. 35. Charlier’s method of reaching his form is by following Hagen’s development of Laplace.

The same writer also gives in (4), and considers more minutely in (5) and (6), the form (Type B)

which he writes
F (a) = Bu (x) + By Aw (7) + Bod (v)4+ ...

e*sin we [1 r ”
where VD es E ~ 1!(@—1) +3 '(@—2) °° |

This curve with a range limited in one direction is, we believe, new though Thiele has given a
form very closely allied to it (doc. cit. p. 21).

Charlier uses the method of moments for fitting his curves, but though both Edgeworth
and he do this, and their series finally take the same form, different graduation results will
be reached owing to the index form being used in the one case and not in the other; the difference
may, in some cases, be negligible but in others it becomes of more importance and we shall
therefore refer to it later.

It will be noticed that in all cases it is proposed to use a series to describe the frequency
distribution and there seem to us so many objections to this course in practice that it is well to
take this opportunity of examining it. The objections to it are as follows :

(i) If one of the later coefficients has a large value the neglect of later terms of the series
may involve a considerable error, while their inclusion demands the use of the higher moments
which are untrustworthy owing to their large probable errors.

(ii) In some cases the series lead to negative frequencies, which is objectionable. This
can often occur with Type A and is noticeable with Thiele’s example (loc. czt. p. 50).

(iii) It is necessary to make successive graduations using an increasing number of terms
in order to find how many terms of the series are required to give a satisfactory graduation.

(iv) As we cannot tell at the first how many terms to use, it is necessary to base the
solution of the equations for finding the constants on integrations over the whole series from — 0
to +o and then neglect terms which may or may not be significant, or else to make successive
trials with an increasing number of terms from equations formed from the actual number of
terms used. The latter method would be better if the position of negative terms could be
decided at the outset and if integration could be effected between any limits that might be
indicated. This would however seem to be impossible and Charlier uses the former method ;
the objection does not apply to Edgeworth’s series.

The effect of these objections in the case of Charlier’s work is interesting as it is quite
impossible to reproduce one of his frequency curves (the bi-modal curve, fig. 5 of (6)) statistically
because the negative frequencies play so important a part in the series that if positive frequency
only be taken (which is what would happen in practice) an entirely difterent curve is obtained.
We are by no means satisfied that in such cases the integration for moments from — to +0 is

208 Notices and Bibliography

sound because of the terms which must be omitted in practice, and we think the point deserves
more consideration in the mathematical treatment of (5) than it receives. It will perhaps be
advisable to give the details of the curve given by Charlier to which our objections refer, and
show our failure to reproduce it. The equation to the curve of fig. 5 is

F (x) =N [do (x) - 1 ha (#)],
where dn (v)=0"*1 fh" (x),

and the ordinates corresponding are given in the first row of the following statement in which,
as the curves are symmetrical, the last few terms are omitted.

From Charlier’s fig. 5 of (6)

— 0021 | — 0060 — -0089 |-+ 0095

+0810 |+ 11999 | + 2904 | 4+ °2971 |+°2792 | 4 2971
Above graduated was | — 0012 | — ‘0016 [ 0035 | + °0269 i 0832 | +°1695 | + °2572 | + °3155 |+ °3333 | + °3155

The moments were calculated about the mean from the figures given but the negative frequencies
which Charlier does not give in his diagram and which are meaningless in practical work,
were neglected. The values were as follows:

Second moment =4°7089
Third 9 +=zero
Fourth » =46:987

o =2°1700
and the equation is

F(x) = M' [ho (x) — (036714 (2))-

The resulting ordinates are given and will be seen to be very far from the original figures.
While of course we know we can reproduce the curve in Charlier’s figure by using the negative
frequencies we cannot help thinking that there are strong practical objections to the use of the
curve in the form in which he writes it so long as such results as that just given can be obtained.
If integration had been effected only over the positive area of the curve instead of from —
to +o, the difficulty would not have arisen—but how is such integration to be effected ?

The objections here raised to negative frequencies have been surmounted (as is, we think,
theoretically necessary) in Edgeworth’s work by leaving the equation in the form already given
from which it can be seen that negative frequencies are impossible. There are however other
difficulties that may arise and one of them can be seen in the example given by Edgeworth
on pp. 522 and 523 of (2). This example deals with statistics of fecundity and the total
frequency in the series of observations is 1000 while the totals in the first, second and third
approximations in Table III, p. 523, are 947, 977 and 960 respectively. These differences
between the calculated and observed frequencies are due to the area of part of the curve being
neglected in reading off the graduation figures; in other words the frequency curve (Third
Approximation) gives 40 cases out of 1000 as having less than no members in a family and the
effect of this is that the frequency is on the average understated for the remainder of the curve.
The application of Charlier’s Type A would have given the graduation shown in the following
table aud a comparison of this graduation and Edgeworth’s brings out the difference between
the two methods to which reference has already been made.

For families of from 2 to 9 members, Edgeworth’s graduation is close but both tails in his
graduation and the start in Charlier’s are quite unsatisfactory, while Charlier’s curve gives
a distorted graduation prior to 7 members, from which point however it agrees admirably. It
seems probable however that Charlier would use his Type B for such a distribution and we have
added a graduation by the third of his methods of fitting; the agreement is poor in comparison
with that shown by Pearson’s Type I. An attempt with Charlier’s first method of fitting led to

Notices and Bibliography 209

an unsatisfactory result. In all the graduations we could doubtless improve the agreement by
using a greater number of terms in the series, but we think a considerable increase in the
number would be required to give what we should consider a satisfactory graduation.

Size Edgeworth’s Charlier Type A+ ee :
| of Observations “third | o =2:928 ; rete 1214 chee orig
| family Approximation By="0104 RE Be as
I wei <2 4 7 | a eee
=3 = 1# =) a2 —=
oO — g* 4 | _— —_
Sil as 30* 15 | 12 2
= 64 64 38 64 67
Tha ll 116 102 71 | 104 116
| 2 140 130 108 129 138
| 3 145 135 137 134 139
eee 134 130 148 | 128 128
5 106 1H 135 116 110
6 82 92 108 | 93 89
7 72 73 78 | 73 69
8 49 53 D4 | 53 51
9 37 36 37 36 35
10 25 20 7 25 | 24
11 13 | 10 18 14 15
12 10 | 4 12 10 9
13 5 = i 5 5
14 2 | = 4 2 2
ees “4 | mas 2 1 1
| |
| Totals 1000 1000 1001 1000 1000

* Approximation by help of diagram in Edgeworth (2).
+ Notation of Charlier (6), mid-ordinates, found by Charlier’s tables, being used.
+ “Chances of Death,” Vol. 1. p. 74.

To the actuary, influenced perhaps by professional bias, the justification of a formula for
graduating frequency distributions is its width of application ; to some extent we feel that such
is also the justification of any theoretical conditions from which a curve is evolved. Edgeworth’s
series and Charlier’s Type A will be found to give good graduations provided the distributions
are not markedly skew but they become less satisfactory as the range of the observations takes
a definite limit. Charlier’s Type B on the other hand is certainly capable of graduating some
distributions having a range limited in one direction but, though it can hardly be criticised
fully at present, as the author states in (6) that his work on it is not yet complete, it may be well
to point out that the solutions he gives are approximate and the choice of solution in any
particular case seems somewhat arbitrary. The comparatively poor agreement reached above
may be due to this approximate fitting and not to the failure of the curve itself. A statistical
criterion to show whether Type A or Type B should be used in any particular case is certainly
needed before these types can be used extensively in practice, but even then it would seem
impossible to graduate the U-shaped distributions or those that rise abruptly from the axis of
at both ends.

One or two examples, besides that already mentioned, are given in (2), while there is a plentiful
supply of statistical examples in (6) and most of them show a close agreement between the
theoretical and actual frequencies ; some are less satisfactory and fig. 9 of (6) gives so poor a fit
that the odds against the graduation are more than 50 to one. There are many other points of
interest in (6) beside the main subject, such as a proof, on the basis of Type A, of the relative
positions of the mode, mean and median, a method of checking the numerical calculation of

Biometrika v 27

210 Notices and Bibliography

moments, tables of the areas, ordinates and third and fourth difterential coefficients of the normal
curve, a table of a (2) for Type B and a discussion of the dissection of a frequency distribution
into components in which some approximate results are given and the suggestion of shortening
the solution of the fundamental nonic by means of graphical work is made. :

We have put forward the above criticisms to show the practical diecultions we bars mee in
using the suggested methods ; though these difficulties seem very important to us they do not
blind us to the energy and ingenuity expended on the papers.

WILHELM Furess. Der Ablauf des Lebens. Grundlegung zur exakten Biologie. Leipzig, 1906,
pp. 584+ viil.
As this is hardly the type of statistical work that will appeal to ¢ our readers it is unnecessary

to criticise it.
W. P. E.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Anopers, J. M. & Morean, A. C. Tetanus. A Preliminary Report of a Statistical Study. Jour.
Amer. Med. Assoc. Vol. xLv, pp. 314—322. 1905.

Statistical data on 1201 cases of tetanus.

Bareson, WitttaM. Presidential Address. Rep. 74th Meet. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sc. pp. 574— 589.
1905.

Bateson, W. & Grecory, R. P. On the Inheritance of Heterostylism in Primula. Proc. R. Soe.
London, Vol. 76, B, pp. 581—588. 1905.

Mendelian.

Bateson, W., SaunpErRS, E. R., Punnerr, R. C. & Hurst, C. C. Experimental Studies in the
Physiology of Heredity. 2nd Rep. Evol. Comm. R. Soc. 154 pp. 1905,

Mendelian results on plants and poultry.

Castin, W. E. Heredity of Coat Characters in Guinea-Pigs and Rabbits. Washington.
Published by the Carnegie Institution, 8°, 78 pp., 6 pls. 1905.

Mendelian.

—. Inbreeding, Cross-Breeding and Sterility in Drosophila. Science, N. S., Vol. xx1m,
p. 153. 1906.

Preliminary report of a study dealing mainly with the variation and inheritance of
fertility in Drosophila.

Correns, C. Gregor Mendels Briefe an Carl Nageli 1866-73. Ein Nachtrag zu den veroffent-
lichten Bastardierungsversuchen Mendels. Abh. math. phys. KI. siichs. Ges. Wiss. Bd. xx1x,
No. 3, pp. 187—265, 1 Facsimile. 1905.

Crampton, Henry Epwarp. Ona General Theory of Adaptation and Selection. Journ. exper.
Zool. Vol. 11, pp. 425—430. 1905.

Theoretical.

Daty, R. A. Machine-made Line Drawings for the Illustration of Scientific Papers. Science,
N.S8., Vol. xx11, pp. 91—93. 1905.

Use of Hammond typewriter in making and lettering line diagrams in statistical and
other work.

DanveEno, J. B. The Parachute Effect of Thistle-Down. Science, N. §., Vol. xx, pp. 568—572.
1905.

An attempt to determine quantitatively the weight and surface area of the different
parts of the down of the Canada thistle (Cardwus arvense), with special reference to the
inechanics of seed dispersal.

Davenport, C. B. Evolution without Mutation. Journ. exper. Zool. Vol. 11, pp. 137— 143, 1905.
——. The Origin of Black Sheep in the Flock. Science, N. S., Vol. xxi, pp. 674 & 675. 1905.
Using the data provided in Dr Alex. Graham Bell’s “Sheep Catalogue” the author
comes to the conclusion that “‘black wool colour in sheep behaves like a Mendelian recessive
characteristic.”

Notices and Bibliography 211

DoncastER, L. On the Colour-Variation of the Beetle Gondoctena variabilis. Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1905, Vol. 11, pp. 528—-536. (Published, 1906.)

Notes sexual dimorphism in respect to coloration ; some evidence of assortative mating ;
seasonal polymorphism ; protective coloration. Confirms Bateson’s earlier work on same
form.

——. On the Inheritance of Tortoiseshell and Related Colours in Cats. Proce. Camb. Phil. Soe.
Vol. xi1, pp. 35—38. 1904.

Discusses on Mendelian basis, the origin and inheritance of the “tortoiseshell” coat
in cats.

——. On the Inheritance of Coat Colour in Rats. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. Vol. xin, pp. 216—228,
1905.
Gives records and Mendelian interpretation of a series of rat-breeding experiments.

Fournigr, E. Hérédo-syphilis de seconde génération. Bull. de PAcad, Med. Paris, T. Lx1x,
No. 26. 1905.
Discussion of 116 cases of the inheritance of syphilis through two generations after that
in which it was acquired.
Hatstxp, G. B. Biology and Mathematics. Science, N. 8., Vol. xx11, pp. 161—167. 1905.
Generalities.
Harrer, E. H. Studies in the Inheritance of Colour in Percheron Horses. Biol. Bull. Vol. rx,
pp. 265—280. 1905.
Deals with problem of prepotency on the basis of Percheron stud-book records. Finds
that the longest established colour (grey) is prepotent over black, and that the dam is
prepotent over the sire in the ratio of about 5 to 4.

Heymans, G. & Wiersma, E. Beitriige zur speziellen Psychologie auf Grund einer Massenunter-
suchung. Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie, Bd. x11, 1906, pp. 1—127, and pp. 258—301.
' Contains a great mass of material for the inheritance of psychical characters. The
statistical treatment is very defective. It is now being reduced by biometric methods, but
the value of the observations has yet to be settled.

Horst, C.C. Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits. Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool.
Vo). XXIx, pp. 283—323. 1905,

——. The Mendelian Principles of Heredity. Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool, Vol. Xxrx,
pp. 323 & 324. 1905. -

Konprr, Hans. Siuglingsmortalitit und Auslese im Darwin’schen Sinne. Miinchen. med.
Wochenschr. Jahrg. 52, pp. 1547—1550, 1 fig. 1905.

.KRANICHFELD, H. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Erhaltung und der Kontinuitit giinstiger
Varianten in der kritischen Periode. Biol. Centralbl. Bd. xxv, pp. 657—666. 1905.

LoseL, G. Recherches de statistique sur la descendance des Pigeons voyageurs. C.R. 6™° Congr.
internat. Zool. Berne, pp. 663—672. 1905.

Lossen, H. Die Bluterfamilie Mampel in Kirchheim bei Heidelberg. Deutsche Zeitschr. f.
Chirurgie, Bd. uxxvi, No. 1. 1905.

Inheritance of haemophilia.
Lutz, F. E. Assortative Mating in Man. Science, N.8., Vol. xx, pp. 249 & 250. 1905,
Finds a correlation of ‘764 between the age of husband and wife at marriage. “If this

be compared with that of stature (-280), span ('199), forearm (7198) or longevity (223), it
will make it possible to appreciate more clearly the precise extent of the unconscious
assortative mating.” Data from 2500 marriage records in Chicago license office records.

McCracksn, IsaBeL. <A Study of the Inheritance of Dichromatism in Lina lapponica. Journ.
exper. Zool. Vol. 11, pp. 117—136, 1 pl, 3 figg. 1905.

212 Notices and Bibliography

Morean, T. H. The Assumed Purity of the Germ Cells in Mendelian Results. Science, N. S.,
Vol. xx1I, pp. 877—879. 1905.

An attempt to interpret certain of Cuénot’s recent results on mice. Questions “the
assumption of the so-called purity of the germ cells, by means of which modern writers are
explaining the Mendelian results.”

Mumrorp, F. B. Influence of Size of Parent on Birth-weight. Amer. Breeders’ Assoc. Proc.
Vol. 1, pp. 73—76. 1905.

Abstract of the results of a quantitative investigation on sheep to determine the factors
which influence the size and weight of the young at birth.

Peart, R. A Note on the Calculation of Certain Probable Errors. Science, N. 8., Vol. xxt1,
pp. 802 & 803. 1905.

Notes a simplification in the calculation of the probable errors of the analytical constants
of the normal curve.

Rosiyson, B. Length of the Enteron (Small Intestine). Medical Record, Aug. 12, 1905.

Reports the results of autopsy measurements of the length of the small intestine in
450 males and 150 females. Finds great variation. Mean length 4 feet greater in ¢ thanin@.

Ross, R. The Logical Basis of the Sanitary Policy of Mosquito Reduction. Science, N. S.,
Vol. Xxu, pp. 690—699. 1905.

Discusses the problem of the local geographical distribution of Mosquitos from the

standpoint of the mathematical theory of probability.
SprppMann, W. J. Mendel’s Law in Relation to Animal Breeding. Amer. Breeders’ Assoc.
Proc. Vol. 1, pp. 171--177. 1905.
Discusses the Mendelian inheritance of horned and polled eae in cattle.
Spitpmann, W.G. A Mendelian Character in Cattle. Science, N. S., Vol. xx1ur, pp. 549—551.
1906.

The author presents data regarding the progeny got by polled Hereford bulls crossed
with polled and horned cows. Concludes that it is “highly probable that the polled
character is a dominant Mendelian unit character.”

THORNDIKE, E. L. An Empirical Study of College Entrance Examinations. Science, N. S.,
Vol. xxi, pp. 839—845. 1906.

A study of the correlation between entrance examination marks, and the marks obtained

by the same students in the later college work. The correlations are generally low.
WentwortnH, A. H. A Study of the Metabolism of Atrophic Infants and Children. Journ.
Amer. Med. Assoc. Vol. xiv, pp. 771—779. 1905.

Gives the weight in grams of an infant on each day for a period of three and a half
months.

Wixson, E. B. Mendelian Inheritance and the Purity of the Gametes. Science, N.S., Vol. xxt11,
pp. 112 & 113. 1906.

A critical discussion of Morgan’s (1905) paper.

WIsSLER, C. The Spearman Correlation Formula. Science, N.S., Vol. xxu, pp. 309—811. 1905.

A destructive criticism of Spearman’s method of determining correlations. See
Biometrika, Vol. ut, p. 160.

Wo.rersrorFF, W. Triton blasii und die Mendel’schen Regeln. C.R. 6° Congr. internat.
Zool. Berne, pp. 255—258. 1905.

Yerkes, R. M. & Ursan, F. M. Sex Differences in the Estimation of Time. Science, N. S.,
Vol. xxl, pp. 843 & 844. 1905.

A preliminary report. The authors find that females tend to overestimate time in-
tervals. Females are markedly more variable in time judgments than males.

R. P.

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VoLuME V FEBRUARY, 1907 No. 3

A BIOMETRICAL STUDY OF CONJUGATION
IN PARAMECIUM.

By RAYMOND PEARL, Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. U.S.A.

“**** Tsolation takes rank with Heredity and Variability as one of the most fundamental
principles of organic evolution. For, if these other two principles be granted, the whole theory
of descent resolves itself into an inquiry touching the causes, forms and degrees of Homogamy.”

RomangEs, 1897.

I. Introduction.

& Some time ago it occurred to the writer that it would be of considerable
interest to determine whether there was any tendency towards “assortative
mating” in the conjugation of Protozoa, especially in the case of the Infusoria.
The nuclear phenomena of the process of conjugation in the Infusoria are now
fairly well known, as a result of the fundamental researches in this field of Biitschli
and Balbiani, and in more recent times of those of Richard Hertwig, Maupas, and
Calkins. Briefly the essential facts regarding the process of conjugation are as
follows: at intervals in the cultural history (and in nature) pairs of individuals
firmly unite with one another and remain together for a certain, usually relatively
short, period of time. During this time an exchange of nuclear material takes
place. The nuclear and cytoplasmic changes preceding, accompanying and following
this exchange are very characteristic, and suggest a certain parallelism to the
phenomena connected with the maturation and fertilization of the ovum in
sexually reproducing forms. After this exchange of nuclear material has occurred
the individuals of the conjugating pair separate and begin anew a cycle of repro-
duction by fission. Without going at all into the much disputed questions of
the homologies of the protozoan nucleus or the different phases of the conju-
gation process, it is clear that conjugation presents some interesting analogies,
at least, to sexual processes in higher forms.

The point which I particularly wished to investigate was whether the original
pairing in the conjugation process is entirely at random, or whether there is
a tendency for individuals like one another in certain characters to pair together.
Pearson and his associates have demonstrated that there exists in man a significant
and measurable degree of assortative mating. This assortative mating is of two
kinds, (@) preferential mating, and (b) homogamy. In homogamy there is a
tendency for a class of males having a given character to unite with a class of
females of a generally like character. This results in a positive correlation between

Biometrika v 28

214. A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

the members of mated pairs with reference to the character under consideration.
From his family measurement data Pearson* has found the following values for
the coefficients of correlation measuring homogamy in man. These values measure
the degree of correlation between husband and wife with respect to the characters
enumerated,

Stature ats ae ... °2804
Span ... wise sae ... 1989} 1000 pairs.
Left fore arm he wae, LOTT

Mean ... iG ee 225i

With reference to the character “duration of life” cooperative workt has
shown that the mean correlation between husband and wife is ‘2233. In general,
the intensity of homogamy in man, so far as it has been investigated, may be
considered to be fairly represented by a coefficient of correlation of from ‘22 to ‘23.
This tendency of like to mate with like may be due either to “real conscious
or unconscious assortative mating mm man” or to individuals mating within
local sub-races where, on account of the similarity of the environmental effects
upon all individuals, there is little differentiation. If it be due to this latter
cause, random mating would, of course, give a coefficient of correlation of approxi-
mately the same magnitude as that actually observed. That there is real
assortative mating with reference to the character “duration of life” was demon-
strated by observing that when male and female records were paired together
at random the resulting coefficient of correlation differed from zero by less than
half its probable error. Since, then, the observed positive correlation between
husband and wife is not a mere chance result, the assortative mating thus
demonstrated must be due either to conscious choice or to some unknown non-
conscious factor.

Now it is quite clear that in the pairing of two infusorians in conjugation
conscious choice is not likely to play any important part. Do we find assortative
mating in such a case ?

At the beginning of the fall semester of the academic year 1903—1904 Miss
Mary J. Burr, a student in the University of Michigan, started work on this
problem under my direction. As material she used the series of mounted slides
of conjugating Paramecia which have for some years been used for teaching
purposes in the Zoological Laboratory of that institution. These slides were
prepared in 1895—1896 by the Honourable D. C. Worcester, Commissioner of the
Interior of the Philippine Islands, who at that time was a member of the
zoological staff of the University of Michigan, for the special purpose of serving
as material for a study of the nuclear phenomena of conjugation. In this pre-
liminary work 200 pairs of conjugants were measured by Miss Burr. These
records form the series designated as AA in the present paper. A preliminary
paper{ was published on this work, but it was thought best not to publish the
complete report until it could be checked with additional material.

* Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 373. + Biometrika, Vol. u. pp. 481—498.
+ Siath Annual Report, Michigan Academy of Science, pp. 184, 185.

RayMondD PEARL 215

After repeated failures I finally succeeded during the past summer (1905)
in getting sufficiently abundant material of conjugating Paramecia in the
Zoologisches Institut at Leipzig. This additional material made it possible to
extend considerably the scope of the work beyond what had been planned when
the investigation was begun. As will appear later the Leipzig material fully
confirmed the results gained from the earlier AA series.

The main problems with which the present paper specifically deals may be
stated as follows:

1. Is the portion of the Paramecium population which is in a state of
conjugation at a given time differentiated in respect of type or variability or both,
from the non-conjugating portion of the population living in the same culture at
the same time ?

2. Is there any tendency for like to pair with like (“ assortative mating”) in
the conjugation of Paramecium, and if so, how strong is this tendency ?

At this point I wish to acknowledge gratefully my indebtedness to those who
have in various ways aided me in this work. To the officials of the Carnegie
Institution I am indebted for a grant in aid of this and other biometric work now
in progress. It is a pleasure to express my heartiest thanks for this aid. To
Professors Carl Chun, and Otto Zur Strassen I am indebted for the numerous -
facilities of the Zoologisches Institut at Leipzig, which were so freely and kindly
placed at my disposal during my stay there. The work was brought to completion
in the Biometric Laboratory of University College, London, and it is a pleasure to
acknowledge my great debt to Professor Karl Pearson for helpful advice and
kindly criticism.

II. Material and Methods.

The material on which this paper is based is comprised in eight* series of
measurements including altogether 1894 individual Paramecia. The cultural
history of the different series is as follows:

Series AA, Fy, and F,. The individuals in these series were contained in the
mounted slides in the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Michigan

* Note added Nov. 10. In his before-publication criticism of this paper Mr J. J. Lister (Nature,
Vol. 74, p. 584) suggests that I have mixed and lumped together these different series and that in
consequence all my results are invalid. The reader of my paper will be able to judge of the correctness
of Mr Lister’s suggestion. I shall be very glad to have a specific instance where I have combined two or
more series pointed out. I have always supposed it to be a fundamental axiom regarding the worth of
scientific evidence, that the greater the number of pieces of independent evidence there are leading
to the same conclusion by so much the more certain does that conclusion become. Acting on this
principle I spent a great deal of time getting data from as many independent conditions as possible, and
when, as appears in the paper, they all led to the same result, I began to feel that that result was the
correct one. According to Mr Lister’s new epistemological doctrine this conclusion was wrong and it
would have been far better to have measured only one series of individuals. As a working biologist
I cannot but feel that Mr Lister ought in justice to his colleagues to issue a definite statement as
to whether in his own investigations he follows the principle that the evidence of one witness is more
trustworthy than that of several independent witnesses. R. P.

28—2

216 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

prepared by Professor D. C. Worcester as mentioned above. In series AA pairs
of conjugants were chosen for measurement quite at random. In the F series the
pairs were chosen on the basis of the nuclear condition for a special purpose, and
in a manner which will be fully described later in the paper. Regarding the
cultural history of this material information on some particulars is unfortunately
lacking. The reason for this is that shortly after the material was collected by
Professor Worcester he left the University on an exploring expedition to the
Philippine Islands, and, having been afterwards called to public service there,
the work on Paramecium was never completed. His notes made at the time
the material was collected were misplaced and cannot now be found. The most
essential points regarding the material he was, however, able to furnish me from
memory. For his kindness in this matter I am very grateful. His statement is
as follows:

The material “was obtained originally by collecting decayed cow-lily leaves
from one of the Three Sister Lakes*. The material collected was put into stender
dishes in the laboratory and covered in the usual way....... A little later an
epidemic of conjugation started in one of the dishes. It had not progressed
far when I discovered it, and from that time for three or four days killings were
made at regular intervals, as is usually done with developing embryological
material. I cannot state at this time just what the intervals were, but if the
bottles in which the material was preserved still exist they ought to showf.
The killings were kept up as long as there seemed to be any use in continuing
them in order to get a complete series of specimens. The killing fluid was
four per cent. solution of formaldehyde saturated with bichloride of mercury.
The method pursued was to nearly fill a four-dram homeopathic vial with
the killing fluid and then squirt violently into it a considerable amount of
water containing as many Paramecia as possible. As soon as the Paramecia
had settled to the bottom of the vial the killing fluid was drawn off and the
specimens were shaken up two or three times in distilled water, which was drawn
off in each instance as soon as settling had taken place. They were then stained
for twelve hours in a one per cent. solution of picrocarmine, rinsed in distilled
water, carefully dehydrated, and left in cedar oil, where they seemed to retain
their colour perfectly. Mountings were ultimately made in xylol damar, covering
glasses being supported by capillary glass rods to prevent crushing of the specimens.
I have neglected to state that when the epidemic of conjugation began in this
dish I drew off all available material and placed it in clear water in a smaller dish,
for convenience in killing. In making the above statements I am, of necessity,
trusting entirely to memory, but am very confident that they are correct.”

* Small glacial lakes in the vicinity of Ann Arbor. R. P.

+ This they unfortunately do not. R. P.

+ By a highly ingenious process which made the change to the higher grades of alcohol perfectly
gradual and so avoided distortion from diffusion currents. To the apparatus which he devised for this
purpose Professor Worcester’s success in producing such perfect preparations as these are, was, I believe,
largely due. R. P.

RAayMond PEARL 217

From the above account it will be seen that the conjugation was between
individuals from the same culture. Regarding the general character of this
material, I can only say that the preparations are by far the finest I have ever
seen of fixed and mounted infusoria, in point of giving a true representation of the
condition of the living organisms in respect of shape and size of body. This I may
say has been the comment of all who have seen the slides. Unfortunately the
stain has now faded somewhat, so that the nuclear conditions are not shown as
clearly as was formerly the case.

Series A, C, Dand EF. The individuals included in these series all came from
a single culture in the Zoologisches Institut at Leipzig. This culture was set with
dry hay and pond water in an aquarium jar holding about three litres, July 25th,
1905. In about a week there was an abundance of infusorian forms in the
culture, the dominant species in point of numbers being Chilomonas paramecium,
Paramecium caudatum, and an unidentified species of the common hypotrichan
genus Oxytricha, together with immense numbers of a large form of the bacterium
Spirillum. Very soon the Oxytrichue began to diminish in numbers, while at the
same time the Paramecia rapidly increased until finally there was a very flourishing
culture of this form. At this time I was measuring for another purpose specimens
of Chilomonas from this culture, and on Tuesday, August 15th, I noticed on a slide
which had been mounted during the afternoon of the Saturday before a single pair
of conjugating Paramecia. A careful search through samples taken from the
culture was at once instituted, with the result that during the remainder of that
day I succeeded in finding eight pairs of conjugants. The next day in seven
hours of continuous searching I found 22 pairs, the next day 54 pairs, and from
that time on the numbers continued to increase until the height of the epidemic
was passed. From these facts it will be evident that the epidemic was only just
at its beginning on August 15th. It should be stated that from the time all of the
cultures were started regular routine examinations were made to see whether
conjugation was occurring in any of them. No conjugating individuals were
found before this first pair on August 15th.

The plan which it seemed wisest to follow in handling this material was to take
samples at somewhat widely separated intervals during the course of the conjuga-
tion epidemic. It was deemed best to follow this plan because I had strong
reasons to expect, from an experimental study* on variation in Paramecium
which has been going on for some two years, that there would be a marked cyclic
change in the variation constants during the course of the epidemic, due to
environmental influences. It seemed desirable to detect and measure such a
progressive change if it should occur. Now it is evident that the simplest way
to attain this end would be to make bulk killings of large samples of the culture
at suitable intervals, and then measure the preserved individuals at leisure. This
method, however, I did not dare to adopt for the reason that the conjugants

* For a preliminary report see Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F, J., ‘‘ Some Results of a Statistical Study of
Variation in Paramecium.” Seventh Report, Michigan Academy of Science, pp. 77—86.

218 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

were, throughout the epidemic, present in relatively small numbers. It was
feared that if large enough samples were taken to ensure statistically adequate
numbers of conjugating pairs the culture would either be exhausted, or its balance
so disturbed that the Paramecia would rapidly disappear from it. Accordingly
the plan adopted was to take a single drop of culture fluid on the slide at a time,
search carefully through it, and if a pair of conjugants were found, kill and measure
them in the manner presently to be described. By working in this way as
rapidly as was consistent with accuracy, it was possible to measure a reasonable
sample in two or three working days.

Between each of the different samplings made in this way roughly a week
elapsed. It would, of course, have been possible to have measured, even on this
plan, somewhat larger samples than those actually taken, but it was hardly
practical. After searching and measuring under high pressure for three days
of about eight working hours each, one’s eyes were so fatigued by the strain
that further work without an intervening period of rest was almost an impossi-
bility. The samples taken are, moreover, quite adequate, I think, to show the
prevailing condition in the culture at the time.

The measurements taken, then, fall into time groups, as shown in the following
table.

Number of Number of
Series Dates of Measurement Conjugants | Non-Conjugants
measured measured
A August 15th p.M.—August 18th noon, inclusive | 105 pairs 210
C » tham— , 26th p.m. Fs 101 _,, 202
D » 380th eee ots ee Dae Soo 16 =, 32
E September 6th ess ate ae nee we 132

A word of explanation is needed regarding Series D and £. These series
would have been as large as the others but for the fact that there were but few
individuals in the culture to be measured. By August 30th the epidemic of
conjugation was practically over. The 16 pairs of Series D were all that could
be found after a painstaking search lasting all day, and with two persons working
separately. I was compelled then to do with this very short series. No reason
for the ending of the epidemic was evident, so far as the observable cultural
conditions were concerned.

By September 6th, however, the case was somewhat different. During the
week from August 30th to September 6th blue-green algae had begun to grow
very rapidly in the culture, until at the latter date they had formed a more or
less dense mat over nearly the whole surface of the culture. Concurrently with
this increase in the algae the numbers of Paramecia had steadily and rapidly
diminished, so that there were comparatively few survivors, and it was only with
some difficulty that I got the 132 which were measured. These survivors were

_«<“«-, - =

Raymond PEARL 219

obviously different from what had been the prevailing type of non-conjugants in
Series C and D, the most noticeable fact being that the individuals in Series #
were unusually broad in proportion to their length. All conjugants, of course,
had disappeared long before Series # was taken. After September 6th the
growth of algae rapidly increased, and by September 8th Paramecia had com-
pletely disappeared from the culture so far as I could determine.

We have then, from this single culture, 1020 individuals included in four
samples taken at intervals covering practically the whole course of a conjugation
epidemic.

Series B. This is a very short series, comprising only 12 pairs of conjugants
and 24 non-conjugants. These came from another of my cultures at Leipzig, set
like the one described above, with hay and pond-water and at the same date,
July 25th. It, however, had developed in a somewhat different direction, probably
largely as a result of having been placed in slightly different conditions with
respect to light. The dominant organisms in this culture were algae, various
species of Huglena, hypotrichous infusoria, both large and small, and Para-
mecitum. Conjugating Paramecia were first found in this culture on the morning
of August 22nd, and measurements on them were begun at once, on the same
plan as that adopted in Series A, C, D, and E. During that day only 10 pairs
of conjugants were found. From this it was concluded that an epidemic of
conjugation was just starting; but this was not the fact, for on the next day,
with the most thorough searching, only two pairs of conjugants were found. After
that none were found. It seems likely that in this instance there was no true
conjugation epidemic at all, but that instead the fact was that in a restricted
portion of the culture a limited number of individuals reached the physiological
condition for conjugation at the same time.

We may now discuss the methods used in killing and measuring the material,
and in the calculation of the constants. The method used in killing and mounting
the individuals of Series A.A and F' has already been described (p. 216). The
measuring on these series was done with an ordinary ocular micrometer at a
relatively low magnification, such that in Series AA one division of the micro-
meter was equal to 13 microns, and in the F series to 86 microns. At the time
these measurements were made no filar micrometer ocular was available. The
units of measurement were really a half of 13 microns and 8:6 microns respec-
tively, because at the low magnification it was possible to estimate accurately
with the eye whether the points to be measured fell within the upper or lower
half of a scale division. It was neither practicable nor, considering the objects
in view, worth while to make any closer measurements on these series.

The other series discussed in this paper, viz. A, B, C, D and £, were killed
and measured in a somewhat different way. First as to the killing; whenever, in
examining a drop of culture fluid on a slide a pair of conjugants was seen, all the
individuals on that slide were killed by dropping on it from a pipette eight to
ten times as much killing fluid as there was water. The killing fluid used was

220 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Worcester’s formol-sublimate mixture*, consisting of a saturated solution of cor-
rosive sublimate in 10 per cent. formalin. This fluid, when properly used, kills
Paramecium without visible distortion or shrinkaget. It is the fluid which has
been used in collecting the extensive series of Paramecium material mentioned
above (p. 216). Some time has been spent in an attempt to measure the same
individuals before and after killing, but it has not been possible to find a means
which would keep them quiet enough to measure during life with anything
approaching accuracy, which did not obviously distort them at the same time.
This statement is made after considerable experience with the various substances
which have been suggested for this purpose, such as, for example, thin gelatine
solutions, etc. That whatever of shrinkage and distortion is produced by the
use of the killing fluid is less than the errors of measuring I am certain, though
at present I cannot give figures to prove this. Of course it is not to be under-
stood that absolutely all the individuals so killed will not be distorted. Naturally,
there will always be specimens which the killing fluid reaches only in a diluted
state, but such specimens will be obviously recognizable as distorted, and of
course will not be included in the records.

The individuals were at once measured while still in the killing fluid. By
this procedure any distortion which might arise from the action of diffusion
currents was avoided. The search for conjugant pairs was greatly facilitated by
the use of a mechanical stage. The microscope used was by Bausch and Lomb,
and the actual magnification was that given by a 2 inch objective and a 1 inch
ocular, with a tube length of 160 millimetres. The method of measuring followed
was the same as had been previously used in a study of variation in Arcellat.
By means of a camera lucida the points to be measured were projected on cards,
marked with a fine-pointed pencil, and subsequently measured with a sliding-arm
caliper with a vernier reading to tenths of a millimetre. By multiplying the

* Cf. Pearl, R., Journal of Applied Microscopy, Vol. v1. p. 2451.

+ Note added Nov. 10. In his criticism of this paper, Mr Lister (loc. cit.) says: ‘‘In the first place,
the specimens have been preserved and fixed, a process which every practical biologist knows to be
attended with distortion.” By this statement Mr Lister can only intend to spread abroad as widely as
possible an ex cathedra pronouncement that I am not a ‘‘ practical biologist.” During the last six
years a large part of my time has been spent in the study of living and fixed Paramecia. From
statements made in Mr Lister’s note I am convinced that he has never made any careful or thorough
study of Paramecium (cf. infra, p.221). Yet, so far as I can see, for no other reason than that I happen
to be in a very modest way a worker in biometry, Mr Lister says that I am not a ‘‘ practical biologist,”
and with all the weight of his authority implies that my statement that my material was undistorted is
not true.

I know of no way to answer a criticism which simply denies the existence of a scientific con-
science. Fortunately the innate courtesy of men of science generally makes such criticisms rare. I can
only repeat what is stated in the paper above that the distortion produced by the method of killing
I have used on Paramecium is well within the limits of instrumental error in the measuring, or in other
words that the specimens were not visibly distorted. The truth of this statement I stand ready to
demonstrate directly to anyone interested, by exhibition of living and killed specimens side by side.
In the present state of development of micro-photographic technique it is unfortunately not a thing
which can be demonstrated on paper. R. P.

+ Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J.: Biometrika, Vol. 11. pp. 321—357.

Sp AOS.

Raymond PEARL 221

measurements in millimetres so obtained by the proper reduction factor found
by calibrating with a stage micrometer divided to hundredths of a millimetre,
they were reduced to microns, and so recorded. The arrangement of microscope,
camera and paper, was of course kept the same throughout the measuring.

With reference to the selection of individuals to measure, it may be said that
in Series A, B, C, D and EL specimens were taken entirely at random. Every
pair of conjugants, not obviously distorted, which were found on a slide were
measured. When the dimensions of the conjugant pair had been marked off,
the two undistorted non-conjugants which were nearest to the conjugant pair in
the field of view were measured. By taking the non-conjugants in this way
any sub-conscious tendency to choose with reference to size characters was
avoided. No selection of conjugant pairs on the basis of size was exercised, or was
even possible, because all conjugant pairs seen were measured with the excep-
tion of a very few—less than 15 pairs out of all measured—which were obviously
distorted. In Series AA no non-conjugants were measured. The conjugant pairs
were taken as in the other series, Le., all undistorted conjugants on a slide were
measured. In Series & the conjugants were chosen with reference to nuclear
condition and separated into two groups on this basis. One group—“Series J,
Early ”—consisted of specimens in very early stages of the conjugation process
and included only individuals in which the micronucleus had not yet divided,
and either had not moved out of its notch in the macronucleus, or if it had, was
still lying near and anterior to it. The other group— Series F, Late ”—included
only pairs in which separation was soon to ensue, where namely the exchange
of nuclear material was in process or had already taken place. For two reasons
it was very difficult to get even as many specimens as were obtained in these two
sharply separated stages. In the first place, in the very early and very late stages
of the conjugation process the nuclear changes go on rather rapidly, and as
they are perfectly continuous it is obvious that of any single restricted stage
there will not be a large number of representatives. Furthermore, some were
rejected which should undoubtedly have been included, but in which, on account
of the stain having faded, it was impossible to be certain of the stage. No
non-conjugants were measured in Series F.

The characters measured were the length and greatest breadth of the body,
in all the series except #’, where only the length was measured. In taking
these measurements the length offered no difficulty, nor did the breadth in the
case of the non-conjugants*. In the case of the conjugants, however, the breadth

* Note added Nov. 10. Mr Lister (loc. cit.) says: ‘‘ Paramecium, as is well known, is not a
symmetrical animal. It has been described as ‘slipper-shaped’—not a very good comparison, but
it will serve to bring out the fact that the proportion of length and breadth presented to the observer
will vary according to the aspect from which the individual is viewed.” With all due respect to
Mr Lister’s authority I wish to point out the fact that this statement is entirely erroneous so far as
the maximum breadth dimension of a normal Paramecium is concerned. The maximum breadth falls
at a transverse plane of the body posterior to the oral groove. At the level of the maximum breadth
the outline of a cross-section of the body of Paramecium is circular, and the maximum breadth

Biometrika v 29

222 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

is a difficult character to measure, principally for the reason that the line of union
between the two individuals is in many cases somewhat indistinct, and it thus
becomes difficult to decide at just what point the body of one individual ends
and that of the other begins. Furthermore, the close application of the oral
surfaces of the bodies of the conjugants to each other in all but the earliest
stages of the conjugation process changes somewhat the shape of a cross section
of the body. This change is in the direction of a flattening of the oral (ventral)
side of the body. Since for obvious reasons in the case of the conjugants the
longest dorso-ventral diameter in the sagittal plane had to be taken as the breadth
dimension, it is clear that any tendency towards flattening of the oral contour
will appear directly in the measurements. The result of such a tendency will
be to make the mean breadth lower, relatively to the length, in the conjugants
as compared with the non-conjugants. As will be seen later, this is exactly what
the measurements show. The conjugants are, in proportion to their length,
narrower than the non-conjugants. For the reasons just stated, no special weight
must in the opinion of the writer be laid on the breadth dimensions of the
conjugants. The difficulties in the case were perfectly apparent while the
measurements were being made, and the breadth dimensions for the conjugants
were only included as a matter of routine, and because there was some curiosity
to see how the constants would turn out. As a matter of fact the results are
much better, Le, more regular and consistent from series to series, than was
expected after the appreciation of the difficulties in the case which one gets
from seeing and measuring the actual specimens. It should be kept distinctly
in mind, however, that much weight cannot be laid on the results from the
breadth measurements of conjugants.

In both the conjugant and non-conjugant individuals the point on the long
axis of the body where the line of greatest breadth crossed it had, of necessity,
to be estimated by the eye, but, owing to the shape of the body, this usually
gives no difficulty in practice. In a normal Paramecium the outline of the body
slopes off rather sharply from the region of the greatest breadth to the posterior
end. The region of greatest breadth varies somewhat in relative position in
different individuals and in different samples. It usually falls slightly behind the

dimension is in consequence the same whatever side of the animal happens to be uppermost. This
I take to be a fact known to everyone who has more than the most superficial objective acquaintance
with Paramecium. There are very many ways in which it can be demonstrated. One very simple
way is to bring a living Paramecium which is rotating on its long axis into such position that its
maximum breadth dimension falls between two cross hairs of an ocular micrometer. Another way
is to observe with a Braus-Driiner microscope a living Paramecium standing on end, so that one gets a
direct view of the posterior end. It will then be seen that the outline at the plane of greatest breadth
isacirele. Finally if Mr Lister willlook at an actual cross-section (1 to 5 microns thick) of the body of
a Paramecium he will see that in the region of the greatest breadth the sections are circular in outline.
With his notions of the limitations of technique Mr Lister may doubt the possibility of making these
sections, but I have studied a long series of such sections of Paramecium. It seems a very trivial thing
to say in a technical paper, but apparently it needs to be pointed out to Mr Lister at least that the
asymmetry of Paramecium is the result of the asymmetrical course of the oral groove. Posterior
to the oral groove the animal is entirely symmetrical. R. P.

RAYMOND PEARL 223

mouth, but may be at the level of the mouth. In cases of doubt as to where
the greatest breadth was, a series of transverse diameters were marked off and the
longest diameter by actual measurement on the card taken as the breadth. It
was necessary to do this in but few cases, however.

To prevent any possibility of misunderstanding as to the measurements taken,
the outline drawings in Fig. 1 are introduced.

G

A B

Fic. 1. Diagram to show measurements taken. A, Non-conjugant. 3B, Pair of conjugants. ab and
a’b’=lengths. cd and c’d’=breadths.

Besides the characters length (J) and breadth (B), the length-breadth index
= 100 B/Z, and the difference (in microns) between the lengths of the two indi-
viduals of the conjugant pair (= L4,g—Lgo,4) or of the two individuals of a
random pair of conjugants or non-conjugants were studied. The “difference” was
taken as always positive, or in other words, without reference to whether A or B
was the shorter member of the pair.

The species of Paramecium was, the same in all the series, namely P. cau-
datum. I was in some doubt at the outstart as to whether the Leipzig form
might not be P. aurelia, but a careful examination of stained specimens left no
doubt that this form had but one micronucleus, thus agreeing in this, as in
all the other specific characters, with the form studied at Ann Arbor, namely,
P. caudatum.

Finally, as to the calculation of the biometric constants tabulated, it may be
said that the ordinary methods, now well known, were followed. In all cases,
unless a specific statement to the contrary is made, it will be understood that
Sheppard’s correction of the second moment was used in getting the standard
deviation. In determining the constants for the short series B and D, the
material was not grouped at all. For the units of grouping in the other series
the reader is referred to the tables in the Appendix to this paper. The constants
are tabled to three places of decimals in the case of the means, standard devia-
tions and coefficients of variation, and four places in the case of the coefficients
of correlation. It will be understood that in the computing decimals were kept
to a larger number of places.

There is one point which needs mentioning regarding the method of recording
the data in the case of the conjugants. In every instance the first individual

29—2

224. A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

of a pair of conjugants to be measured was recorded as A, and the second
measured as B. Since the order of measurement was entirely random, it is
clear that with reference to size, both A and B groups are random samples
out of the whole conjugant population A+B. Their constants then should be
sensibly equal.

Ill. Fundamental Constants.

For the sake of convenience in reference, the constants for variation in the
various series are collected and shown together in Table I. In the first column
of the table is given the letter designating the series; in the second column
the class, Le. conjugant or non-conjugant; in the third column the character,
ie. length, breadth, index or difference; in the fourth column the number of
the correlation table in the Appendix, from which the values of the constants on
the same horizontal line were deduced; in the fifth, sixth and seventh columns
respectively the means, standard deviations and coefficients of variation, and their
probable errors; and finally, in the eighth column, the number of individuals
included in the frequency distributions from which the constants were calculated.
The means and standard deviations for length, breadth and difference are given in
microns ; for the index in per cent.

IV. Variation in Paramecium.

Before considering especially the specific problems of the paper it will be
of interest to compare our results as to variability in this form with those
obtained from other series. To this end Tables II. and III. have been formed.
Table IT. gives the means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation for the
character length in the total series of the present paper in bold faced type, together
with the same values for (a) Simpson’s* series of 100 individuals; (b) a series of
250 individuals taken from a culture at Ann Arbor+; (c) three “control” series of
500 individuals each, all descended from a common ancestor, and kept in a small
volume of culture fluid for 100, 200 and 300 hours respectively{; (d) three series
of 500 individuals each, all descendants from the same ancestor as gave rise to
the control series enumerated under (c), but reared for 100, 200 and 300 hours
respectively im a very weak solution of cane sugar.

This table brings out a number of points of interest. In view of the rather
large total number of individuals we may safely conclude I think that it gives a
fairly trustworthy representation of the degree of variability of Paramecium in
respect to the character length of body. It is obvious that generally with an
increase in the mean there is associated an increase in the standard deviation

* Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 405.
+ Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J.: Seventh Report, Michigan Academy of Science, pp. 77—86, 1905.

{ Ibid. An account of the experiments on which these series are based will be found in the
paper referred to.

RayMonD PEARL 225
TABLE I.
Constants of Variation in Paramecium.
Series Class Character | Table Mean nae Oe cena No.
A_ | Conjugant 4 Length A3 | 1679764 695 | 10°559+ °491| 6°286+ :294]| 105
‘ ror Breadth | 45 | 43°3584 -253) 3-8404 -179| S8°856+ -415| 105
- pie 5A Index A7 | 25°8144 -173 2-6264 ‘122 105
fn 5 B Length A3 | 168°310+ °779) 11°827+ °550) 7:027+ 329 | 105
~ Rs B Breadth Ad 45°386+4 °279) 4:°240+ ‘197| 9°343+4 +439 | 105
i ah Index A7 | 26-8624 *175| 2665+ -124 105
» | All Conjugants Length Al | 168:143+ 522) 11:212+ :369| 6°668+4 220 | 210
alae = Breadth | Al | 443714 -194| 41704 -137| 9:398+ -312]| 210
rn oe i Index A8 | 263384 -126| 2°697+ -089 210
5 ) a ... | Difference} 18 8°943+ °435| 6°610+ °308 | 73°914+4°978 | 105
ne », Non-Conjugants | Length AQ | 189°976+ °724|15°5494 °512| 8185+ ‘271 | 210
ey fe - Breadth | 42 | 52°8274 -273| 58704 °193|11-°112+ -370/ 210
ae ee & Index 27°848+ 116) 2:502+ -082 210
a = es Difference | 18 17°619+ °785 | 11°924+4 555 | 67°676+4°359 | 105
C | Conjugant A Length C3 |176°064+4 °887]13:222+ °627| 7510+ 358] 101
xe a A Breadth | C5 | 42-9064 -226| 33724 -160| 7:860+ ‘375 | 101
3 Ks A Index C7 | 243424 --161] 2-3994 +114 101
0 an B Length C3 | 175°965+ °870 | 12°965+ °615}] 7°368+ 351 | 101
i iB Breadth | C5 | 43-4114 -231| 3-4364+ -163| 7-915+ -378| 101
9 3 B Index C7 24°649+ 159] 2°372+ +113 101
5 | All Conjugants Length Cl |176°015+ °621/13:094+ °439| 7°489+ °251]| 202
tec |e : Breadth | C1 | 43°158+ -162| 3:414+ -115] 7:910+4 -267| 202
Sou eae ie Index 24:495+ +113) 2°390+ -080 202
> ” ” ... | Difference} 18 7931+ °448| 6681+ ‘317 | 84°245+6°219 | 101
% », Non-Conjugants | Length C2 | 2093564 -906 | 19:099+ 641] 9°123+ 309 | 202
=f) 2 ) Breadth C2 54°208+4 °280] 5:905+ +198 | 10°894+ °370 | 202
Ale, ie Index 25-9114 °106| 2:238+ -075 202
eames a Difference] 18 | 21-010+1-003 | 14:939+ -709 | 71°105+4°785 | 101
D_ | Conjugant A Length D1 | 181:250+2°288 | 13°57141°618 | 7°487+ °898| 16
* é B a D1 | 182:563+2-099 | 12-445+1-484| 6817+ ‘817| 16
» | All Conjugants i D1 | 181-9064 1°554 | 13037 +1-099 | 7-:167+ -607| 32
” 5, Non-Conjugants ‘ D1 | 217°656+2°319 | 19°4534+1°640 | 8:9374 °759] 32
| All Non-Conjugants | Length EF’ | 214°47041:-074 | 18°291+ °759| 8529+ 357] 132
” > 2) Breadth Fl 63°250+ 340] 5:°786+ 240} 9°149+ °384}| 132
1 my of Index 2 29°508+ 125) 2°132+ ‘089 132
B | Conjugant A Length B1 | 169°667+3°813 | 19°581+2°696 | 11°54141°610| 12
ss kes a B1 | 166-667 + 2-324 | 11-938+1-644| 7163+ -991| 12
» | All Conjugants a B1 | 168-167 £2242 | 16-28541°585| 9°684+ -953| 24
3 », Non-Conjugants e B1 | 199°708+1°890 | 13°7274+1°336 | 6°874+ -672| 24
AA | Conjugant A Length AAJ | 218°15041°110] 18:901+ °637| 8664+ -294 | 200
> cs A Breadth AAl1| 56°880+ °476|) 8°114+ :274) 14:265+ -491 | 200
is he. 8 Length | AA 2 | 217-20041°134 | 19°309# -651| 8890+ -302]| 200
‘5 6 B Breadth | Ad42 | 56:445+ °523| 8-901+ °300| 15°769+ °545 | 200
a All Conjugants Length AA3 | 217°675+ °645/19:112+ -456| 8°783+ -211] 400
i 5 rf Breadth | AA 4 | 56-6634 :287| 8°519+ -203|15°035+ -367| 400
F, | Conjugant 4 Length f'1 =| 2097103 +1°432 | 17°767+1:013) 8:497+ -488] 70
fe ea 7 = F 1 | 207°87441°345 | 16-6894 -951| 8028+ -461| 70
» | All Conjugants < F2 | 208'489+ -983|17:247+ -695| 82724 -336| 140
F,, | Conjugant A Length F3 | 214:49741°378 | 17°927+ -974) 8:3574 -458| 77
” ” B r F3 | 213°60441°353 | 17°609+ °957] 8:244+ -451| 77
3 All Conjugants 35 F4 |214:051+ °966|17°774+4 683] 8:304+ -321 | 154

226

TABLE II.

Variation in the Length of Paramecium.

A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Series and Class Mean at mone No.

Series A, All Conjugants 168°143+ 522 | 11:212+ :369 | 6:668+ -220/ 210
5, rary, s vet ... |176°015+ °621 | 13:094+ -439 | 7°-439+ 251 | 202
Selected Ancestry, 300 hour, controlt | 182°200+ °480 | 15°917+°340 | 8°7364°188| 500
Series A, All Non-Conjugants : 189:976+ °724 | 15:549+ -512 | 8:185+-271; 210
Selected. Ancestry, 200 hour, control+ 207°080+ °518 | 17°171+°366 | 8°292+°178| 500
Series /’;,, All Conjugants ... | 208°489+ -983 | 17°247 + -695 | 8°272+ 336; 140
Series C, All Non-Conjugants 209°356+ 906 | 19:099+ -641 | 9:123+ 309; 202
Selected Ancestry, 300 hour, sugart | 213°340+ ‘601 | 19°936+°425 | 9°345+-°201| 500
Series /’,, All Conjugants 214:051+ -966 | 17°774+ -683 | 8°304+ °321| 154
Series #, All Non-Conjugants . | 214-470+1-074 | 18-291 + -759 | 8:5294 -357} 132
Selected Ancestry, 200 hour, sugart | 217°380+ ‘592 | 19°630+ °419 | 9:030+°194|} 500
Series AA, All Conjugants . 217°675+ ‘645 | 19-:112+ -456 | 8°783+-211/ 400
Selected Ancestry, 100 hour, controlt | 221-800 + °587 | 19°457+°415 | 8°772+°189| 500
100 ,, sugart | 224:°980+ °533 | 17°680+°377 | 7°859+°169| 500

Simpson’s Series* 229°050 + 19°152+ 8361+ 100
Ann Arbor Seriest 246°080+ ‘983 | 23:041 + °695 | 9°363+°285 | 250
Total 5000

so that, as a result, the coefficients of variation, measuring the amount of variation
relative to size, cluster well together in value. It may be concluded, I think,
until equally extensive series showing a different result are forthcoming, that the
usual or “normal” value for the coefficient measuring variation in the length of
Paramecium caudatum is 8—9 °/,. The good agreement in the values of the
coefficients of variation for the different series is very satisfactory, and is something
which probably no biologist would have predicted before measurements were made.
One has been accustomed to think that Paramecium because it is a soft-bodied
creature is likely to show great and altogether irregular fluctuations. As a matter
of fact Paramecium is distinctly less variable in size than is, for example, Arcellat
(coefficient of variation = 10:2676 °/,) or the crab, Hupagurus prideauas (coefficient
of variation for carapace length =from 12 to 19°/,), or the ophiuroid, Ophiocoma
nigra|| (coefficient of variation > 20 for both disc-breadth and arm-length), all
which organisms have a more or less firm exo-skeleton. Furthermore it is perhaps
of some interest to note that the degree of variation in length of Paramecium is
of the same general order of magnitude as that in the capacity of the human skull.

There can be no doubt I think of the substantial homogeneity of each of the

series. Especially does this impress itself when we compare the variability of
* Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 405.

+ Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J.: Seventh Report, Michigan Academy of Science, pp. 77—86, 1905.

+ Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J.: Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 327.

§ Schuster, E. H. J.: Biometrika, Vol. 11. p. 195, Table vit. bis.

|| McIntosh, D. C.: Biometrika, Vol. 1. pp. 463—473.

RayMonDd PEARL 227
the various “Selected Ancestry ” series with random series, whether conjugant or
non-conjugant. The individuals in these “Selected Ancestry” series all came
from the same original single ancestor, and each sample was reared throughout its
history under as uniform environmental conditions as it was possible to obtain.

It is apparent that when the table is viewed as a whole the individuals in the
conjugant series tend to be both smaller and less variable than those in the non-
conjugant series. In the early history of the Leipzig culture all the individuals in
it were small, but, as will be shown later in a more direct way, throughout the
period during which it was under observation the mean size of the individuals
increased. At the same time the variability in proportion to size tended to
increase somewhat.

Turning now to the character breadth we unfortunately have at present only
one other series for comparison with those reduced in this paper. For the present
the longer non-conjugant series alone will be considered with reference to this

character. The results are shown in Table III.
TABLE III.
Variation in Breadth of Paramecium.
Series and Class Mean eee et a ee No.
Series A, All Non-Conjugants ... | 52°827+4°:273 | 5°870+°193 |.11°112+°370 | 210
“f) C, 7) 5 ... | 54°208+ °280 | 5°905+°198 | 10°894+°370 202
A A fs a) 63°250 + °340 | 5°786+4 °240 9°149 + °383 132
Simpson’s Series ... 68°125 9°155 13°439 100

From this table it is at once evident that in proportion to the magnitude of the
dimension the breadth is somewhat more variable than the length in Paramecium,
but the difference is not great. The values of the means are, for all three of the
present series, lower than that for Simpson’s, but this is only what would be
expected from the fact that the mean lengths are lower for these particular series
also. It would appear that, as the breadth increases in magnitude, it becomes
proportionally less variable, but the series of data available at present are too few
to decide whether such a relationship is usual.

If we consider the variation analytically we have the results shown in Table IV.
This table gives the values of mean, mode, py, fs, 4, B1, VB1, Bs, 3— Bs, Kz, and
the skewness* for the length and breadth of all conjugants and all non-conjugants
of Series A. I have not thought it worth while to determine the analytical
constants for any other of the present series for the reason that they are
statistically so short, and because I hope to be able to publish eventually the
reductions of much more extensive material on variation in Paramecium.

* The analysis of these curves is carried out by the methods given in Pearson’s memoir on Skew
Variation (Phil. Trans. Vol. 186 A, pp. 343—414), and its Supplement (Ibid. Vol. 197 A, pp. 443—459).

228 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

In order to test the approach of the distributions to the normal law the probable
errors have been determined for the four constants chiefly concerned in such a test,
viz. VB,, Bs, d (= difference between mean and mode) and the skewness, on the
assumption that the distributions follow the normal or Gaussian law. These pro-
bable errors will then define the amount by which the constants will fluctuate, on
account of the errors of random sampling from their true values for the normal

TABLE IV.

Analytical Constants for Variation in Paramecium.

Series 4
Constant Conjugauts Non-Conjugants
Length | Breadth Length Breadth
_ - | ae
Number of Individuals ... 210 | 210 210 210
l 1
Unit ves fee 5 microns | 3 microns | 5 microns | 3 microns
He nad ands 50287 | 1:9323 9°6714 38286
Bs aoe Ae — "9882 | 171952 6°2239 1°9867
M4 ae we 72°6598 | 13°5622 270°7506 42-6096
Bi an es ‘0077 "1980 0428 0703
JB eee 0876 | 4450 -2069 "2652
Bo tie me 2°8733 3°6323 2°8946 2°9069
3 — Bo wes Ses “1267 — 6323 "1054 0931
ke nh anh — ‘0209 | *2330 — 0958 — 1353
|

Mean... aaa 168°1429* | 44°3714* | 189:9762* | 52:8269*
Mode ASE Ae 168°6853 * 43°5997* | 188°1581* | -51°9275*
d wee ae "5424 STATAUZS 1°8181 “8994
Skewness ae — 0484 *1851 "1169 "1532

curve. If the observed values of the constants differ from their theoretically true
values by more than two or three times their probable errors, we shall conclude
that the distribution does not follow the normal law in one or more particulars.
The values for the probable errors of the four constants mentioned, on the
assumption that the distributions are normal are as follows: Probable error of
V8,=+:'1140 for each distribution ; probable error of 6,=+°2280 for each dis-
tribution ; probable error of the skewness = + ‘0570 for each distribution ; finally
the probable errors of d are (a) for length of conjugants, + ‘6391, (b) for breadth of

* Tt will be understood that the absolute values of mean and mode are given, and not, as in the
case of the moment-coefficients, the values in terms of the unit at the head of each column.

RAYMOND PEARL 229

conjugants, + ‘2377, (c) for length of non-conjugants, + ‘8863, and (d) for breadth
of non-conjugants, + 3346.

It will at once be noted that the skewness is positive in three out of the four
cases, or in other words, that the mean falls at a higher value than the mode
in these distributions. Having regard to the probable errors, however, the skew-
ness and difference can be regarded as certainly significant in only one distribution
—that for the breadth of conjugants. For the length of the conjugants both
these constants have values sensibly equal to zero. For both of the non-conjugant
distributions it is somewhat doubtful whether the skewness and difference are to
be considered to have significant values, but probably they are. It should be
said, however, that so far as symmetry is concerned all the curves are not far
from the normal type.

If we examine the degree of kurtosis*, measured by the deviation of @, from 3
in comparison with the probable error of ,, it is evident that all the distributions
except that for the breadth of the conjugants are mesokurtic within the limits of
error from random sampling. ‘The value of 3—, in the case of the breadth
of the conjugants is almost certainly significant and indicates that the dis-
tribution is platykurtic, or in other words, is more “flat-topped” than the
normal curve.

The value for V8, differs from zero by an amount which is certainly significant
in the breadth distribution of conjugants, and probably significant for the breadth
of non-conjugants. For the length distributions the values are insignificant. It
should be noted that though in several cases the constants are insignificant in
comparison with their probable errors when considered singly, yet the skewness,
difference, and V8, for all but one the distributions show a deviation in the same
sense. When we have a number of constants all pointing towards skewness rather
than symmetry in the distributions we cannot safely say that as a whole the distri-
butions are normal, even though each observed constant taken singly differs by
something less than its probable error from its theoretical value. There is a
cumulative effect of a number of like results, though each may be insignificant by
itself.

We conclude then that while all these distributions deviate from the normal
law the length distributions do not diverge greatly. The breadth distributions
clearly demand skew curves for graduation. The breadth distribution of the
conjugants belongs to Pearson’s (loc. cit.) Type LV., while the same distribution for
non-conjugants is of Type I.

It will be understood that these conclusions are not intended to be general but
to apply only to the four cases discussed. As has been mentioned above, I hope
later to discuss the whole question of variation in Paramecium with much more
extensive material.

* For the introduction of this term to express, in connexion with the prefixes lepto-, meso-, and
platy-, the conditions as to the shape of a frequency curve in the region of the mode, cf. Pearson, K.,

Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 169—212.
Biometrika v 30

230 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

V. Differentiation of the Conjugant Population.

When the measurements at Leipzig were begun the first point which attracted
attention was the fact that, even to the eye the conjugant individuals were dis-
tinctly smaller than the non-conjugants living in the culture at the same time.
When the measurements were reduced this fact of differentiation within the
population was still more clearly shown. We may proceed now to examine its
amount and nature. What evidently is required is a comparison of conjugants and
non-conjugants with respect to means, variabilities and organic correlations, for
each of the characters discussed, namely length, breadth and index. In order not
to make too complex a table I shall treat each character separately, taking the
length first in Table V. In this table there is given for each series the mean,
standard deviation, and coefficient of variation for length in (a) non-conjugants and
(b) conjugants ; the absolute difference between the constants which is expressed
as positive when the non-conjugant constant is larger, and negative when the
conjugant is larger; the probable error of the absolute difference ; and the relative
difference defined as the percentage which the absolute difference is of the non-
conjugant constant.

TABLE V.

Differentiation of Conjugants from Non-Conjugants in Length.

a : | Standard Coefficients of
Series Group Means Deviations Variation

A Non-Conjugants ... | 189°9764 ‘724 15°549+ °512 8185+ °271

o Conjugants .. | 168°1434 522 11°212+ 369 6668+ °220

3 Absolute Difference 21°833+ °893 4°337+ ‘631 1517+ °349

_ | Relative a 11°5°/, Eo 18°5 °/,

C | Non-Conjugants ... | 209°356+ +906 19:099+ 641 9:123+ 309

» | Conjugants .. | 176°015+ 621 13°094+ -439 7°439+ °251

Pe Absolute Difference 33°341 + 1:098 6°005+ ‘777 1°684+ -398

3 Relative 5 15°9°/, 31°4°/, 18°5 °/,

D Non-Conjugants ... | 217°656+2°319 | 19°453+1:640 8937+ °759

5 Conjugants ... | 181°906+1°554 13°0387 +1:099 7167+ ‘607

x Absolute Difference | 35°750+2°792 6'41641°974 1770+ ‘972

5 Relative = 16°4 °/o 32°98 °/, 19°8°/,

B Non-Conjugants ... | 199°708+1°890 13°727 +1°336 6874+ °672
Conjugants .. | 168°167+2°242 16°285 + 1°585 9°684+ -953

3 Absolute Difference 31°54142°932 | —2°5584+2°073 | —2°810+1°166
ss Relative FA 15°8 °/, 18°6°/, 40°9°/,

a cm

RAYMOND PEARL 231

We first notice the large differences between the means. Averaging for the
four series the conjugants are 14°9 per cent. shorter than the non-conjugants living
in the same culture at the same time. The absolute variability, measured by
the standard deviation, averages in Series A, C and D (all from the same culture,
it will be remembered) 30°8 per cent. lower in conjugants than in non-conjugants.
Of course we should expect the standard deviations for conjugants to give lower
values than for non-conjugants, because the conjugants have the lower mean
values. Not all the difference, however, is due to this factor, as a glance at the
coefficients of variation at once shows. From these it is seen that (averaging Series
A, Cand D) in proportion to size the conjugants are 18°9 per cent. less variable
than the non-conjugants. Series B is in apparent contradiction to this conclusion
regarding variability, since it gives a negative difference in both variability
columns; that is, in this series, the conjugants are the more variable both
absolutely and relatively. The probable errors show, however, that neither for
standard deviations nor coefficients of variation are the differences significant.
This Series B, for reasons stated above (p. 219), is a very short series, comprising
only 12 pairs of conjugants, and a corresponding number of non-conjugants. Asa
matter of fact, within the large errors incident to such small random samples,
conjugants and non-conjugants are equally variable in Series B. The means for
this series are in good accord with the others, showing as they do a difference of
15°8 per cent. in favour of the non-conjugants.

I think then, that there can be but one conclusion from the facts set forth in
Table V., viz. that the Paramecia which are conjugating at a given time are
markedly differentiated from the non-conjugant individuals living in the same
culture at the same time in both type and variability. For the character length of
body this differentiation is in the direction of lowered mean and variability for
conjugants as compared with non-conjugants*.

* Note added Nov. 10. Mr Lister (loc. cit.) in criticism of this conclusion says: ‘Now the
non-conjugant population of the latter species [Paramecium caudatum] measured by Dr Pearl to ascertain
the range (sic) of their variability would include, not only ordinary individuals, but all stages of
individuals in process of differentiation as gametes. The non-conjugants are a heterogeneous popu-
lation ; the conjugants are, on the other hand, approximately homogeneous. This appears to me
another and grave source of error in his results on the degree of differentiation and variability of the
conjugants.” My conclusions from the data presented in this paper are that conjugants are smaller in
mean dimensions and less variable than non-conjugants. The first of these conclusions Mr Lister
agrees to, because by searching the literature he has found that Maupas observed the same thing. If he
had searched the literature a little more diligently he would have found that practically every one who
has ever worked on conjugation in Paramecium has noted this fact. Finally if Mr Lister had himself
ever carefully observed a culture of Paramecium in which conjugation was going on he would not have
needed to go to the literature to learn that conjugant Paramecia are smaller than non-conjugant. To
the second of my conclusions, viz., that conjugants exhibit lower variability than do individuals in
fission generations Mr Lister objects that the non-conjugant populations measured were heterogeneous.
In his opinion then the difference between the variation constants for conjugants and non-conjugants
arises because the non-conjugant populations exhibit a spuriously high variability resulting from
heterogeneity. Or in other words his contention is that a random sample of non-conjugant individuals
from a culture in which conjugation is occurring will show higher variability than a random sample of

30—2

232 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

The facts regarding variation in length for the four series A, C, D and E are
shown graphically in Diagram I. (pp. 234, 285). This will perhaps bring out
more forcibly the facts of Table V. In the diagram we have the frequency
distributions plotted to such scales that the areas of all are equal. The units
of abscissae are microns of body length, and the ordinates give percentage
frequencies. Beginning at the top the polygons are arranged in order of collection.
Polygons for conjugants are drawn with continuous lines, those for non-conjugants
with dotted lines.

The differences between conjugants and non-conjugants are made very evident
by these diagrams. They also bring out clearly another point, namely the
progressive change in the means as we pass from the beginning of the epidemic
(Series A) to the end (Series #). The mean length of the conjugants increased,
during the period from August 15 to August 30, 13°637 microus or 8:2 per cent.
of the original mean. In the same way, during the period from August 15 to
September 6 the mean length of the non-conjugants increased 24°494 microns, or

“ ordinary’? Paramecia from a culture in which conjugation is not occurring. Now the worth of this

contention can best be judged by an examination of the following table, which has been formed by
rearranging the values given in Table II. (p. 226).

Coefficients of Variation for Paramecium.

B C
A Non-conjugants in| ‘Ordinary ” Paramecia
: cultures where of selected ancestry from
CRB ERIAS conjugation was cultures in which con-
occurring jugation never occurred
6°668 (210) | 8-185 (210) 8°736 (500)
7439 (202) 9°123 (202) 8 +292 (500)
— 8°529 (132) 8°772 (500)
— — 9°345 (500)
— —_— 9-030 (500)
— a 7359 (500)
Av. =7:053 Av. =8°612 Av.=8°672

Now the ‘‘ordinary” Paramecia of this table (column C) were all of selected ancestry, i.e., were
the resultants of the continued division of one single individual. Therefore we should expect them
to show if anything reduced variability as compared with Paramecia of mixed ancestry. Further their
entire cultural history, beginning with the original single individual, was known and in it conjugation
did not occur. But our non-conjugants (column B) sre not, as Mr Lister presumes that they are,
more variable than are these ‘‘ ordinary ” individuals. They are on the whole about equally variable, as
we should expect them to be. Finally it is clear from column 4 and other data given in the body of the
paper that the variability of conjugants is of a totally different order from that of non-conjugants
or ‘ordinary ” Paramecia in fission generations. In the light of these figures based on the careful and
painstaking measurements of large numbers of individuals I leave it to the reader to judge of the
significance of Mr Lister’s “‘ grave source of error” in my results. R. P.

vated

Raymonp PEARL 233

129 per cent. of the original mean*. These values give some idea of the great
changes which are produced in Paramecium as a result of environmental influences.
That this increase in mean length in the present case is due to environmental
influences and is in no way connected with the conjugation epidemic is evidenced
by the fact that the conjugants show an increase as well as the non-conjugants
though not by so great an amount. Furthermore the same sort of change
has been found in other casest. Further discussion of this interesting and
important matter of environmental influence on variation in Paramecium may
be deferred for the present, as I hope to return to it in a special paper based
on data collected ad hoc.

In connection with this increase of mean length during the period of exami-
nation, it will be noted that both the absolute and relative differences between
’ conjugants and non-conjugants increase, being lowest for Series A and highest
for Series D. In other words, the conjugants and non-conjugants are more
differentiated from one another at the end of the conjugation epidemic than they
were at the beginning. This is due to the fact that the environmental influences
produce a greater effect on the non-conjugants than on conjugants. The signi-
ficance of this fact on the theoretical side will be discussed later.

Examining the coefficients of variation in Table V., we see that the differences
—both absolute and relative—are practically constant for all three series, A, C,
and D. In other words, though the means of both conjugants and non-conjugants
increase, the amount of variation in proportion to the size does not sensibly
change. This seems to be a rather important result, when it is remembered
that Series C and D must have included among the non-conjugants measured
a larger proportion of recent ex-conjugants than did Series A. It points distinctly
to the conclusion that the biological significance or purpose of the conjugation
process is not to bring about increased variability. Because, clearly, if conjuga-
tion were followed by greater variation in the ex-conjugants, we should expect
the non-conjugant distributions of series C and D (containing more ex-conjugants)
to differ sensibly more from the conjugant distributions in variability than does
that of series A. Furthermore, if we compare the coefficient of variation for
length of series H (= 8'529 + °357) with the values of the same constant for
the non-conjugants of series A, C and D (=8185 +°271, 9123+ °309 and
8:937 +°759 respectively), it clearly is not significantly greater. But’ the indi-
viduals of series # must have been, in considerable proportion, ex-conjugants.
Putting all the results together, there seems no doubt that the primary signifi-
cance of conjugation is not to produce variability, whatever else it may be.

* The increase, is of course, apparently somewhat greater in the case of the non-conjugants if
we take only the period to August 30th, thus making D the last series, since Series D shows a slightly
higher mean than Series H. Since, however, D is such a short series it seems likely that we shall
come nearer the actual facts by taking the mean of Series E to represent the maximum for the period
and culture under discussion. In any event the differeace between the means of series D and EF for
length is not significant in comparison with its probable error,

+ Cf. Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J., loc. cit.

234 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Series A. August 15th—18th.

. |

eo
a
°

Frequency

Mean

|__| Nonpeonjugant __

25 220 225 230 235 240 245, 250 255 260 260 270 275 280

Length

Series C. August 24th—26th.

20 | 1

TS
°

| a

N
@)
O
ass
shure Se Se
"ht ean eo)
se
ie
O,
Non+conjugantt__
Mea

<Q-g---.]__ BAtlas sis
140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280

Dracram I, Frequency polygons for variation in length in Series 4, C, D and H. Continuous lines=conjugants.
Dotted lines=non-conjugants. On the left margin are given the scales of frequency for the continuous line
polygons, and on the right margin those for the dotted line polygons.

RAYMOND PEARL 235

Series D. August 30.

i350

see

Po

aay
onjupant |__|
-~¢
16
o

ie

an

_ |Non

Le

~)* ahs aor
140 145 150 155 160 (65 {70 '75 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 220 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280

Series #. September 6.

40 145 150 155

236 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

We may turn now to the character breadth, for which Table VI. has been
formed on exactly the same plan as Table V. for length, except that the short
series B and D are not included. They show essentially the same relations as
A and C and, in view of the small number of individuals, it seems hardly worth
while to publish the results from them in detail.

TABLE VI.
Differentiation of Conjugants from Non-Conjugants in Breadth.
: 1, Standard Coefficient of
pone Group Mean Deviation Variation
A Non-Conjugants ... 52°827 +973 5°870 +'193 11:112+°370
es Conjugants 44°371+4°194 4:170+°147 9°398 +312
Absolute Difference 8:456 + °335 1:700 + 237 1714+ °484
is Relative _,, 16-0 °/, 28°96 °/, 15-4°/,
Cc Non-Conjugants ... 54:208 + 280 5905 +198 10°894 + ‘370
es Conjugants 43°158 + 162 3°4144°115 7910 + ‘267
, Absolute Difference 11°050 + 324 2°491 + 229 2984 + °456
i. Relative 5 20°4 °/, 492 °} 27°4°/,

From this table it is seen that in breadth the same kind of differences occur
between conjugants and non-conjugants as have already been found for length.
The conjugants are markedly narrower, and less variable in this character than
the non-conjugants. In no case is there any doubt about the difference between
conjugants and non-conjugants being significant. The differences are propor-
tionately somewhat larger for breadth than for length, but it should be kept in
mind that a part of this excess in relative breadth differences, has the simple
explanation that the conjugants have their oral surfaces somewhat flattened, as a
result of the union (see above, p. 222). This results in an artificial lowering of
the mean and variability in the breadth distributions for conjugants.

Some information regarding the extent of this decrease in breadth due to
the conjugation process itself may be gained if we look at the matter in another
way. Assume, for the moment, that the selection of conjugants is a selection
based on length alone, and that breadth is only different in conjugants from what
it is in non-conjugants because it is organically correlated with length. Then
clearly the mean breadth of conjugants would be the same as the mean breadth
of a group of non-conjugants having the same mean length as the conjugants.
Now, for series A and C; the characteristic equations* relating breadth to length
in the non-conjugants are as follows:

Series A, Non-conjugants. B='2224L +10°576, pz. = 3:199,
® C, 3 B='1897L + 14498, P.B. = 3'145,

* These are calculated by well-known methods given by Pearson, Phil. Trans. Vol. 187A, pp.
253—318, and also in convenient form by Yule, Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc. Vol. 60, pp. 1—44.

RAYMOND PEARL 237

where B signifies breadth in microns and JL signifies length in microns. The
probable errors of determinations made by these equations are given in microns.

If now, we substitute, for Z in these equations the mean length of the conju-
gants in series A and C respectively and solve for B, we shall get the probable
mean breadth of a group of non-conjugants selected to the same mean length as
the conjugants. This has been done with the following results :

Series A, Mean Breadth predicted = 47-971 microns,
; 3 5 observed = 44371 5

Difference = 3°600 3

Series C, Mean Breadth predicted = 47'883 microns,
; ,) observed = 43158 __,,

Difference = 4°725

Now these differences, which in view of the probable errors of the determi-
nations are barely sensible, must represent the sum total of decrease in mean
breadth due -to (a) direct selection of breadth, provided it occurs, and (b) shrinkage
of the breadth dimension measured due to the conjugation process itself. We
know from direct observation that (b) occurs and, as will be brought out as we go
on, there is no evidence that (a) occurs at all. Hence it seems to me not unlikely
that these differences represent practically solely the changes in the oral-aboral
breadth dimension due to the conjugation process itself as explained above.

Another interesting point which comes out of Table VI. is that, as we pass
from Series A to Series C, there is no increase in the mean breadth corresponding
to the increase in length due to environmental influences. The non-conjugants, it
is true, show a slight increase (= 1381 microns), but this is hardly significant in
view of the probable error. The conjugants show a decrease of about the same
amount. In other words, it is seen that the environmental change which occurred
in the culture during the time between the taking of Series A and Series C
caused an increase in mean length but not in mean breadth, so consequently
the shape was changed, the individuals becoming more slender. This point will
be discussed further in connection with the indices.

We may now turn to a consideration of the length-breadth index for conju-
gants and non-conjugants. Table VII. has been prepared for this character in
the same way that Table VI. was for breadths. For the same reasons as before,
only Series A and C are included.

This table brings out more clearly several results which have been reached by
examination of the lengths and breadths alone. In the first place it is seen
that the non-conjugants have a higher mean index in both cases than do the
conjugants, but the difference is not great. In other words, as was concluded
above, the conjugants are narrower in proportion to their length than the non-
conjugants, due to the flattening of the conjugants as a result of the union.

Biometrika y 31

238 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium
TABLE VII.
Differentiation of Conjugants from Non-Conjugants. Indez.
a , Standard
Series Group Mean Deviation
A Non-Conjugants ... 27°848 +116 2°502 + 082
. Conjugants 26°338 + °126 2°697 + 089
nF Absolute Difference 15104171 —'195+°121
y Relative re 5:4 °/, 78°),
C Non-Conjugants ... 25°911 +°106 2°238 + 075
Pr Jonjugants 24°495 +°113 2°390 + 080
: Absolute Difference 1:416 +°155 —'152+°110
Relative eS 55 °/, 6°8 °/,

We also note that, in passing from Series A to Series C, the index is lowered
for both conjugants and non-conjugants about two points (actually the difference
for non-conjugants is 1937 and for conjugants 1843). The individuals in the
culture at the time Series C was taken have become narrower in proportion to
length than they were when Series A was taken.

After Series C was taken from the culture the environmental conditions
changed rapidly, and with this change, as has been mentioned, a vigorous
growth of algae began. At the same time the shape of the Paramecia changed
markedly in the reverse direction to the change which had occurred in the
interval between Series A and C. Thus in Series / the index (for non-conjugants,
of course,) had risen to a mean value of 29°508 + ‘125, and the variability of the
index had decreased to 2°132.

The variabilities of the indices show a relation which at first sight appears
paradoxical. In both series the index is more variable in the conjugants than
in the non-conjugants, in spite of the fact that both length and breadth, on
which the indices are based, are more variable in the non-conjugants. This
greater variability of the index in the conjugants, however, really arises from
the fact that, as we shall see, the coefficient of correlation between length
and breadth is much lower in the conjugants than in the non-conjugants. This
point will be much clearer if we consider the general formula for the standard
deviation of an index. It has been shown by Pearson* that if 2, and a, be the
absolute sizes of two correlated characters, v, and v, their coefficients of variation
O, GO»

,— , Mp the coefficient of correlation between 2, and a, and 7, be the mean
My,” Mes

3 XH . . .
value of the index —, and %,, its standard deviation, then
vs

Sis = ty V(U2 + ve? — 27450, 05)
* Roy. Soc. Proc. Vol. 60, p. 492.

RayMonD PEARL 239

Now it is quite clear that for any given values of v, and v, the value of the
expression under the radical will decrease as 7, increases. In our present case
the excess of the non-conjugant coefficients of variability over those for the
conjugants is not great enough to overbalance the tendency of the high non-
conjugant 7; to lower the value of =. This is quite clear if we arrange for
a single case (Series A) the value of each term in equation (1) in parallel

columns for conjugants and non-conjugants.

Doing this, we have the following

results :
Term Conjugant | Non-Conjugant

v2 88°303609 123°476544
V3" 44°462224 66°994225

2743 5566 1:1780
27130103 | 34°879840 107°141126
vy vs? 132°765833 190°470769
v2 + V3" = 27130103 97 °885993 83°329643

So then we have for the conjugants

_ 26338 x 98937 _

Seems = 2:6058
13 100 2 605 5
and for the non-conjugants
“QAR Q- )
sy, — 2T8H8 x 91285 _ 9 sao)

100

The values obtained by direct calculation from the index distributions are
2°697 and 2°502 respectively. The values from the formula are thus in very fair
agreement with those from the frequency distributions directly, considering that
the constants were taken only to three places of decimals.

It is quite clear, then, that it is the higher value of 7, for the non-conjugants
which brings down the value of >,; for that group. Series C shows the same
relation.

We may now turn to the organic correlations. Besides the correlation of
length with breadth, the correlation of the index with length and with breadth
will be considered. In Table VIII. are collected all the determinations so far
made of the correlation between length and breadth of body in Paramecium.
The upper portion of the table is arranged on the same plan as Tables V., VI.
and VII. to bring out the differences between conjugants and non-conjugants in
respect to degree of correlation between length and breadth. The constant
tabulated is the well-known coefficient of correlation, 7. In the column headed
“Table” is given the number of the table in the Appendix, from which each
value of 7 was calculated.

31—2

240 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium
TABLE VIII.

Correlation between Length and Breadth of Body in Paramecium.
| Series Group r Number Table
ree :

A Non-Conjugants ... | *5890-+ ‘0304 210 A
+ | Conjugants "2783 + 0429 210 Al
| 55 Absolute Difference | 3107 + °0526 — =
. | Relative 3 52°7°/, — =
C | Non-Conjugants 6135 + °0296 202 C2
rr | Conjugants 2063 + 0454 202 Cl
3 Absolute Difference | -4072+ :0542 — —
5 Relative x 66°4°/, — —
E | Non-Conjugants 6787 + 0317 132 El
AA Conjugants A "3952 + 0402 200 AAI
a a 372840411 200 AA2
Simpson’s | Non-Conjugants 421 + °055 100 —

The table shows that the organic correlation between length and breadth of
body in Paramecium is rather high and in all cases positive, or in other words,
with an increase in length is associated an increase in breadth. If we consider
for a moment only the non-conjugants, the coefficient is in every case greater
than °5. This emphasizes the fact, which has been mentioned before, that the
shape of the body in this infusorian is relatively constant and definite. That
the coefficients are not, however, unduly high for such an organism is indicated
by the fact that in material on variation in the flagellate infusorian Chilomonas
paramecium*, the coefficient of correlation of length with breadth is in two
fairly extensive series almost exactly equal to that found for the non-conjugant
Paramecia of Series C. In this connection, I think we must conclude that
Simpson’s value for the length-breadth correlation is probably not to be con-
sidered as typical for normal Paramecia. It is too low, probably due to the fact
that his individuals were measured shortly after fission had occurred. We have
what is perhaps a parallel instance in the present series in the very marked
lowering of the conjugant correlations. I am inclined to think that the typical
or normal value for the correlation between length and breadth of body in
Paramecium is not far from ‘6.

In order to help to an understanding of the degree of relationship implied
by correlation coefficients of the magnitude we have found for the length and

* Cf. Biometrika, Vol. v. pp. 64 et seq.

RayMonD PEARL 241

breadth of non-conjugant Paramecia, I have formed Table IX., which gives for
purposes of comparison a series of coefficients for different organs and characters.

TABLE IX.
Comparison of Values of the Correlation Coefficient for Various Characters.

Organism | Correlated Characters r

Actinospherium* ... | Number of cysts and size of body... ae ae ‘7692
ys ase . », nuclei 3 PS ais oe eae 8540
5 es : » cysts + cysts... nae ... | — 6689

Arcella + ie ... | Diameter of shell and diameter of opening ... as "836
Paramecium ... ... | Length and breadth, mean of all non-conjugants... 6271
| Daphnia ¢ ..._ Body length and cell length (Hatching to 3rd moult) 5505
5 a tee 5 * (8rd to 4th moult)... “3930
a Hee yer Pe ss 5 (After 4th moult) wae "QAT7

The regressions for the length-breadth correlations are sensibly linear in the
present samples. To show the nature of the regression, Diagrams II. and III.
have been prepared§. Diagram II. gives the regression for breadth on length in

the case of the conjugants, and Diagram III. the same for the non-conjugants, of
Series A.

Series A.

Breadth

IA2Sel Ao lore dloviop Gero, IGS: W7i2259 4h Gor W829" 1875) 192555 |SI7i5
Length.

Dracram II. Regression of breadth on length for the conjugants of Series A.

* Smith, G. Biometrika, Vol. 11. pp. 243, 246.
+ Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J. Ibid. Vol. u. p. 330. ¢ Warren, E. Ibid. Vol. u. p. 258.
§ In the regression diagrams of this memoir, a broken line links points depending on too few

observations to be reliable. The absence of any line between two points marks a total failure of
intervening observations.

Breadth.

242 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Series 4.
es ee ee Be ee ee eS

ee eee SAS

Rese S

1475 152.5 157.5 162.5 167.5 1725 177.5 182.5 187.5 192.5 197.5 202.5 2075 212.5 217.5 222.5 227.5 232.5

Length.

Diacram III, Regression of breadth on length for the non-conjugants of Series A.

Considering the relative smallness of our total numbers, a straight line gives
a very good fit to the means of the arrays.

Returning to Table VIII., we see that in both Series A and C the conjugants
have length and breadth much less highly correlated than have the non-conjugants.
The lowering of the correlation I believe to be due principally to the change
in shape which results from the union of the individuals in the conjugation
process. Also, the element of difficulty in measuring the breadth of conjugants
(cf. supra, p. 222) would operate to lower the length-breadth correlations.

The increase in the value of the length-breadth correlations for the non-con-
jugants as we pass from Series A to Series Z is also to be noted. This again
marks the change in the variation constants accompanying the change in environ-
mental conditions in the culture.

We may turn now to the index correlations. For Series 4, C and EF there
have been determined the correlation of the length-breadth index with length

RAYMOND PEARL 243

and with breadth for both conjugants and non-conjugants. These index corre-
lations were all calculated by formula, and not from tables directly. That the
formula gives very close results for such correlations has been pointed out by
several workers, notably C. D. Fawcett* and Macdonnellt. Pearson { has shown
that in terms of the organic correlations 7, ...7,, and the coefficients of variation
v,...¥, of four variable characters, «,... v,, the coefficients of correlation p between
the two indices =, and = has the value
3 ae:
Typ VzVq— Ty4V1 Vg — M93 V2V3 TF V4 V3 Vs

fe, atte Call ee (i).

Vv? + ve — 27430105 Vue + Uy? — 2 Vo

In the present instance it is desired to correlate the length-breadth index «,/7;
with first length z;, and then breadth z,. For the index-length correlation substi-
tuting the proper value in (i) we get

T3301 — Us

Sa ys awieaiinananninrase ands tnas’sae (il).

Vor + 0,2 — 277130; 0

Pp

In the same way for the index-breadth correlation we have

U3 — 113V3

= us 7 <= Seal 7 Wits dues cals eciteiet esas ewsiaicme sen (111).

In the values of p in each instance there are clearly two factors, (a) the
true organic correlation arising from the existence of an organic correlation 7,;,
and (b) the spurious correlation between the index and the characters concerned.
The expression for the spurious correlation in the case of the index-length corre-
lation is

The latter differs from (iv) only in being positive where that is negative. In
the following Table X. there are given in the column headed “ Gross” the values
calculated from formulae (i1) and (i), ie. the values for p. In the column
headed “Spurious” are given the values of p, calculated from (iv) and (v), and
finally in the column headed “ Net” we have the portion of the gross correlation
due to true organic correlation between the index and the character, or in other
words, the value tabulated in this column is p— py.

The results from the index correlations are rather remarkable. In spite of the
fact that the index is formed by taking 100 times the breadth divided by the |
length, the net organic correlation of index with length is in every case positive,

* Biometrika, Vol, 1. p. 461. + Ibid, Vol. 111. p. 238.
+ Proc. Roy. Soc, Vol. 60, p. 493.

244 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE X.

Index Correlation in Paramecium.

Series Group Characters Gross Spurious Net No.
A Conjugants ... | Index and Length |-—-4096+-0387 |—-5804+:0309*; :1708+:0452*, 210
a 7 5 Breadth | -4864+-0355 | -5804+-0309 |— -0940+ 0461 | 210
- Non-Conjugants : Length |—:1797+°0450 |—°5931+4:0302 | -4134+:0386 | 210
i . be . Breadth | +3685+-0402 | -59314-0302 | —-2246+-0442 | 210
C | Conjugants ... | Index and Length |—°6002+°0304 |-—-6851+-0252 | -0849+-0471 | 202
a i a Breadth | -6102+:0298 | -6851+-0252 |—-0749+-0472 | 202
m6 Non-Conjugants 5 Length |—°2728+4 0439 |—-6420+:0279 | :3692+-°0410 | 202

- e i » Breadth | +3943+:0401 | -6420+-0279

2477 + 0445 | 202

E Non-Conjugants | Index and Length |— °3263+4°0525 |-—-6819+:0314 3556+ °0513 | 132
6819+ 0314 |—-2964+°0535 | 132

Breadth *3855 + °04998

” ” ” ” |

while that for index and breadth is in every case negative. In the case of the
conjugants for both series the net index-breadth values are probably not sig-
nificant. The spurious values are very high and of roughly the same order of
magnitude in all cases. Just as where the characters length and breadth are
considered separately, the correlations are here always higher for non-conjugants
than for conjugants. It is also quite clear, considering the net organic relation-
ship, that the index is throughout more highly correlated with length than with
breadth. There would appear to have been no significant change in the index
correlations during the history of the culture.

As there seems to be some doubt in the minds of many biologists as to whether
the expression p — p,, measuring the portion of a gross index correlation due to the
organic correlation of the characters entering into the index, has any real signifi-
cance, or if it has, what this significance is, I have prepared the two diagrams
which follow with the hope that they may make the matter somewhat clearer. It
seems to me that the difficulty regarding the expression p— p, comes largely from
the fact that biologists usually think of correlation in terms of regression, and the
effect of spurious correlation has not hitherto, so far as I know, been expressed in
those terms. Diagrams IV. and V. bring out this relation quite clearly. The plan
on which these diagrams have been constructed is as follows ; in the first place the
characteristic equation showing the actually observed relation of index to length

* It should be stated that the probable errors tabled in the “spurious,” and “net” columns were

calculated from the formula P.E. of r=:67449 — . This procedure assumes that the coefficients are
actual coefficients of correlation obtained from tables by the formula r= a we , which, of course, is
192

not the case. In all probability the probable errors as given in the table are not widely divergent from
the true values.

osama

RayMonpD PEARL 245

was calculated for a particular group (the conjugants of Series A), This charac-
teristic equation is the equation to the regression line which one would actually
observe if one made a correlation table of index and length. In calculating it from

. Ox
the usual expression byy=Try—, ‘xy Was put equal to the observed p, or gross
o
y

index correlation; o, was the observed standard deviation of index and o, the
observed standard deviation of length. Then by the usual method a characteristic
equation in terms of the units of measurement was formed. In the case of the
conjugants of Series A this characteristic equation took the form

I =42°9018 — 0985 L,

in which I denotes the probable mean index of an array of type Z in length. This
line was then plotted on decimal paper. The next step was to calculate for the
same group what may be called the spurious regression of index on length, on the
assumption that there is no correlation between length and breadth. The equation
for this spurious regression coefficient we may write as Day = Tam» in which
y
Try, = Po, the “spurious” coefficient, and o,, is the standard deviation of the
“spurious” index distribution. This standard deviation is calculated from the
usual formula for the standard deviation of an index*

Lis = tis Vo? + U3? — 27150, 0s),
by putting the organic correlation between length and breadth equal to 0. For
the case in hand rz,,= —*1571. Forming the regression equation and remembering
that it will pass through a mean of its own given by the equation

, m
Cay) = me (1+ 2;'),

in which m, and m, are the observed mean breadth and length respectively and v,
is the coefficient of variation for length we get
I, = 52'9236 — 15712.

This is the equation of the regression line for index on length when there is no
organic correlation of length with breadth. This was plotted to the same scale as
the gross regression line, and the two lines are exhibited in Diagram IV. We see
at once that, on account of the organic correlation between index and length, apart
. from the correlation between length and breadth, the regression line AB is pulled
around through the shaded area to the position A’B’ in the direction of the arrows.
The amount and direction of this change is always given by the expression
bay — bay,, 80 that we may say that the shaded area in the diagram is in each case
the graph of what has taken place owing to p — p, differing from zero.

Diagram V. was prepared in exactly the same way and plotted to the same
scale but represents the facts for the index-length correlation in the non-conjugants
of Series A. Comparing the two diagrams we see that the effect of organic
relationship between index and length is much greater in amount in the non-
conjugants than in the conjugants.

* Pearson, loc. cit.
Biometrika v By

246 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Series A.

Index.

210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130
Length.

Diacram IV. Showing the relation of the index-length correlations for conjugants of series A. AB is the
regression line of index on length when all correlation between length and breadth in the individual
is destroyed. It is the regression line for the spurious correlation between index and length
A’B’ is the ‘‘gross” or observed line of regression of index on length. The shaded portion shows
the area through which the “‘ spurious” line is moved (in the direction of the arrows) as a result of
the existence of an organic correlation between length and breadth in the individual.

Series A.

_—

29 7 + = Br
28 puryous Mea ee all
Gros|s Meare /ndex

Se27, L —-
= A’ Giross
Bl26 | 7 T - 1

25 | aor iis t

24

[ S

Ike i

ty s al.

| Ae

21 4 Sa aL :

20 0 BS

19 | = ee | —

250 240 230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140

Length.

Diacram V, Showing the relation of the index-length correlations in the non-conjugants of Series 4.
The significance of the letters is the same as in Diagram IV.

Raymond PEARL

247

In order to bring out in another way the two facts of (a) environmental change
during the history of the culture, and (b) the ditterentiation of conjugants from
non-conjugants I have prepared the following regression tables showing the rela-

tion between the three characters length, breadth and index.

In order to avoid

too many decimals I have multiplied all the regression coefficients by 10. Apart

from this the tables are self-explanatory.

Regression Table.

TABLE XI.

Series A.

Conjugants. Non-Conjugants.
Unit change of Unit change of
Corresponds Corresponds
to a probable to a probable =
change in | 10 microns| 10 microns, 10°/, in change in | 40 microns | 10 microns} 10 °/,
in length | in breadth | _— index in length | in breadth} in index
Length ... 10p 7483p —17-031p Length ... 10u 15°602u | —11:170u
Breadth... 1-035 10p 7522u Breadth... 2224 10u 8647
Index — 985 °/, 3°145 °/ LO s Index ; —°289°/, | 1:570°/ 10°/,
TABLE XII.
Regression Table. Series C.
Conjugants. Non-Conjugants.
Unit change of Unit change of
Corresponds Corresponds Lees
to a probable to a probable
change in | 10microns|10 microns} 10°/, in change in | 10 microns}10 microns 10°/, in
in length | in breadth index in length | in breadth index |
Length 10u 7913p — 32°879u Length 10u 19°842u — 23°276u
Breadth ... ‘537 | 10u 8715p Breadth ... 1897 10u 10°402u
Index —1:096°/, | 4:273 °/ 10 °/o Index — °320°/, | 1:495°/, 10°/,
TABLE XIII.
Regression Table. Series E.
Non-Conjugants.
|
Unit change of
Corresponds
to a probable
change in 10 microns 10 microns 10°/, in
in length in breadth index
Length 10u 21°454p — 27°994u
Breadth 2147p 10u 10°463u
Index — °380°/, 1:420°/, 10°/,
32—2

248 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

These tables show very clearly the relation of the different characters in the
different series. It will be noted that with a given change in either length or
breadth roughly about twice as great a probable change in the associated character
(breadth or length) occurs in the non-conjugants as in the conjugants. This is
primarily the result of the higher correlation between length and breadth in
the non-conjugants. On the other hand the index changes less with a given
change in length or breadth in the non-conjugants than in the conjugants. This
means that the shape as measured by the index is more constant with changing
lengths and breadths in non-conjugants than in conjugants. In all cases, as we
should expect, a unit change in breadth makes a larger change in the index than
a unit change in length.

We may now summarize the results of this section as follows. It has been
found that in several samples taken at different times from two different cultures
there is a pronounced differentiation between conjugant and non-conjugant
Paramecia living in the same culture at the same time, in respect to type,
variability and organic correlation. The conjugant individuals when compared
with the non-conjugant are found to be shorter and narrower, and less variable in
both length and breadth. The conjugants have a lower mean index, or in other words
are relatively more slender, and are more variable in shape of body as indicated
both by the length-breadth index and by the organic correlation between length and
breadth. The conjugants have the length and breadth less highly correlated than the
non-conjugants. I would especially emphasize the fact that the differences here
enumerated are by no means small and of doubtful character, but are, on the
contrary, of large and significant amount. The difference in size between con-
jugants and non-conjugants is perfectly obvious to the eye without any measuring,
if one’s attention is only called to the matter. The differences here are quite as
great or even greater than those which distinguish the most divergent races of
men, for example, in the character stature. This point is dwelt upon lest someone
might hastily conclude that the differentiation found between conjugants and
non-conjugants was something dependent on the proper kind of figure-juggling.
The discussion of the biological significance of this differentiation will be left to a
later section of the paper, where all the results may be taken as a whole.

During a period in the history of a single culture, occupying about four weeks
in time, definite and significant changes occurred in the type of the non-conjugant
Paramecia. Similar changes occurred in the conjugants but were smaller in
amount. Up to within a week of the dying out of the Paramecia the individuals
became, as time went on, longer, without a corresponding increase in breadth. As
a consequence the body became relatively slenderer in shape. The relative varia-
bility of the characters remained constant throughout this period. During the
last week of the cultural history the individuals became broader again.

RAYMOND PEARL 249

VI. Assortative Mating in Conjugation.

We come now to the consideration of the problem which originally led to the
taking up of this work. This problem was: Is there any definite tendency for
individuals relatively alike in size to conjugate with one another? It seemed to
me at the outstart that though conscious choice, or any selection factor depending
on a sexual differentiation, were obviously out of court, yet theoretically it was
by no means impossible that a sensible degree of correlation between conjugants
might exist. Thus the nature of the conjugation process itself made it seem
possible if not probable that the two individuals in a conjugant pair must
reasonably well “fit” one another if the conjugation were to be successful. Also
it was not at all difficult to conceive that this sorting out of “fitted” pairs might
be accomplished in a perfectly mechanical way when Jennings’* work on the
reaction of the organism was considered. ‘The difficulty of course came in con-
ceiving that the “fit” of the two individuals would have to be any better, to
ensure successful conjugation than we should in the long run get by pairing
altogether at random individuals in the same culture. It seemed to me altogether
likely that this condition was what actually existed, and I fully expected when
the work was begun to find that putting together at random pairs of individuals
would lead to just as high a coefficient of correlation between the members
of the pairs as we should find from actual conjugants. How far from the facts
this expectation was, the results which follow will show. The plan which was
adopted to reach a solution of this question of assortative pairing was to deter-
mine by actual measurement the degree of correlation between the same and
different characters in conjugated pairs and then to determine by experimentally
pairing at random the records for these same individuals what degree of corre-
lation we have between the individuals of a pair when there is no assortative
mating whatever. Also it seemed desirable to find out what would be the
result of putting together at random pairs of non-conjugants and pairs in which
one individual was a conjugant and the other a non-conjugant.

A word should be said regarding the practical methods followed in this portion
of the work. The first point which needs attention is one regarding the order of
entry of individuals into the correlation tables. Suppose we call the individual of
each conjugating pair which was the first to be measured A, and the individual of
the pair last measured B. Then if, as was actually the case, there is no selection
of the first individual to be measured on the basis of size characters, but instead the
choice of A is quite accidental, then clearly the biometric constants for the A
individuals ought not to differ significantly from those for the B individuals. As
a matter of fact they did not differ significantly. Consequently it is a matter of
indifference, so long as we are dealing with the same character in both members of
the pair, whether A or B is entered into the correlation table as the first variable.

* Various papers in Amer. Jour. Physiol., Amer. Naturalist, Amer. Jour. Psychol., etc. Specially
for the reactions preceding conjugation, cf. Jour, Comp. Neurol. and Psychol. Vol. xtv. pp. 441—510.

250 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Obviously then the proper thing to do is to enter gach pair twice, once with A
as the first variable and once with B as the first. This will result in making the
table symmetrical* with the totals for the rows and columns equal. In each case
in the present paper I have first formed correlation tables with A as the first
variable, and deduced from each such table its correlation coefficient r. Then in
those cases where we were dealing with the same character in both individuals of
the pair the tables were made symmetrical and the coeflicients of correlation again
calculated. In the case of the symmetrical tables the coefficient was not calculated
directly from the table but by a formula which is derived from a more general
theorem given by Pearson+ for determining the effect on the frequency constants
of adding together different samples of material. He shows that if we let x and a’
be measures of two organs, and there be WV pairs of organs formed by 7 heterogeneous
groups containing 7, ,, Ns, ... ete., pairs with means m,, 7, mM, Mz, Ms, Mz, «-
etc., standard deviations o,, 0), do, G2, 03, 63, -.. etc., and correlations 7, 7), 73, .--
etc.,and M, M’ be the means of the whole community, =, >’ the standard deviations
aud R the correlation, then

REN =S8 (naoo'r) + 8 {n(m— M)(m' — M’)} oo ecccececceee ees (1)
where S denotes summation with regard to all 7 groups.

In the case of the symmetrical table clearly the following relations will hold.

N = 2n,
M=M’,
=>,
Cee

Equation (i) will then become
RYAN = 2noo'r + 2n(m — M)(m' — M),
whence, dividing by 2n we get
RY =co'r +(m— M)(m' — M).

: m
But since ae 5
ba 4 2 ee
we have RY =ao'r— mses bir acnaced sc Senet cle eee (ii).

On p. 278 of Pearson’s memoir above referred to the values of >? and >” are

given as follows:
SS S (no*) ke S {1prq (rp — Mg}

N Ne
»n _S(no”) | 8 {nyng (my’ a mq )*}
>= WV ate W? :

* The reason for using such symmetrical tables was first pointed out by Pearson, Phil. Trans.
Vol. 197 A, p. 293.
+ Phil. Trans. Vol. 192 A, p. 277.

RayMOND PEARL 251
In the present case we shall have
3 gs - Tie +4(m—m’'y.
Whence substituting in (ii) we have finally
fee ae BE TON co elds (ci)

£ (0? +07) +4(m—m')P
which is the desired result.

In order to save space I have given in the Appendix, in those cases where we
have both symmetrical and unsymmetrical tables for a given pair of characters,
only the symmetrical tables in all but a few instances where the others are intro-
duced for a special purpose.

We may now turn to the results. In Table XIV. are given the coefficients of
correlation for what we may call “direct assortative pairing,” namely for those
cases in which the given character—either length, breadth, or index—in one in-
dividual is correlated with the same character in the other individual of the pair.

TABLE XIV.

Direct Assortative Pairing in the Conjugation of Paramecium.

Coefficient of Coefficient of Corre-
A é Correlation from lation from tables in | No. of
Series Characters symmetrical Tables which each pair is | pairs
tables entered but once
A | Length of A | Length of B} °5327+°:0333 | 43 and 4 5365 + 0469 105
5 Breadth of A | Breadth of B| ‘21764°0443 | A5 ,, 6 2956 + ‘0601 105
ae Index of A|Index of B| °3487+°0409 | A7 ,, 8 "4017 + 0552 105
C | Length of A| Length of B| °7249+°0225 |C3 , 4 *7250 + 0318 101
. Breadth of A | Breadth of B| °3417+°0419 |C5 ,, 6 *3492 + ‘0589 101
6 Index of Aj|Index of B} ‘5095+°0351 |C7 ,, 8 5157 £ 0493 101
D Length of A | Length of B| °4302+-0972 D1 °4355 + °1366 16
B A A > B| *7941+°0509 Bl "9106 + °0333 12
AA s A 5 B\ +5882+:0221 AA3 *5893 + ‘0311 200
53 Breadth of A | Breadth of B| 3490+ 0296 AA4 3533 + ‘0417 200
I think it will be granted by all that these results are remarkable. When we

remember that the highest values which have been so far obtained for the
coefficients measuring assortative mating in man do not exceed °3, these very high
values for Paramecium seem at first sight astonishing or even incredible. In only
one case out of five does the coefficient for the lengths give a value lower
than ‘5, and this is in the case of a very small series in which the probable
error of the determination is about +‘1. It should perhaps be stated again that
these coefficients represent the actual conditions found by making careful measure-
ments on pairs of conjugants taken entirely at random from three different cultures
at different times. There can be no doubt, I think, of the eaistence of a high
degree of correlation between the same characters in the two members of pairs

252 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

of conjugating Paramecia as they occur under normal cultural conditions. But
although these results demonstrate the existence of a high correlation, they thereby
immediately direct attention to the very interesting and important question as to
what its origin and meaning may be. The purpose of the further analysis is to
throw light, if possible, on these problems.

The first point needing consideration is the character of the regression for
these direct correlations. In order to show this, I have prepared diagrams giving
the means of the arrays and the fitted regression lines, for the three direct correla-
tions of Series A. Diagram VI. gives the regression of the length of Bon the
length of A; Diagram VII. the regression of breadth of B on breadth of A ; and
Diagram VIII. the regression of index of A on index of B.

There can be no doubt of the essential linearity of the regressions. The
diagrams show very clearly the regularity with which an increase in the size of
one member of the conjugant pair is accompanied by a proportional increase in
the other member.

The cross correlations may now be examined. Neglecting the indices, which it
hardly seems worth while to consider separately in the cross correlations we have
for each group two possible cross correlations, viz., length of A with breadth of B,
and length of B with breadth of A. Cross correlations for the short series

Series A.

Length of B.

142.5 147.5 1525 157.5 162.5 1675 1725 1775 182.5 18725, e922 5 ealove>
Length of A.

Dracram VI. Regression line for the homogamic correlation between the lengths of the individuals
of conjugant pairs in Series A. (See footnote, p. 241.)

RAYMOND PEARL 253

Series A.
375
40.5
al
SS 3
ass
3
8
2
aa)
465
49.5
34.5 375) 40.5 43.5 46.5 49.5 oe
Breadth of A.
Dracram VII.

Regression line for the homogamic correlation between the breadths of the individuals
of conjugant pairs in Series A.

Series A.

Index of B.

20 2\ 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Index of A,

Diagram VIII. Regression line for the homogamic correlation between the indices of the individuals of
conjugant pairs in Series 4.

Biometrika v 33

254 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Band D have not been determined. For the other series the coefficients are
shown in Table XV.
TABLE XV.

Coefficients of Cross Assortative Pairing in the Conjugation of Paramecium.

: u Coefficient of | No. of
Series Characters Correlation pairs Table
A Length of A | Breadth of B | —-0360+-0657 105 | AQ
| oo eB e Z 0969+:0652 105 | A410
cee Ace bi & B ‘0789 + 0667 101 1) eS
¥ alae iien| i A 11504-0655 101 C10
AA a | a B 17404-0463 | 200 | AAS
z ete | in A ‘1482 + 0466 200 | AAG
Mean *1082*

We see that these cross coefficients are, with a single exception, positive, but
they are all very low. Inu Series AA alone are the values significant when com-
pared with their probable errors. The higher values for the cross correlations in
this series are due, without much doubt, to the higher direct correlation for the
breadths, and the relatively high organic correlation between length and breadth
which we have found in this series. The relation of the cross coefficients to the
direct and organic correlation coefficients will be taken up later.

With the coefficients of assortative pairing, both direct and cross, for the
actually occurring conjugant pairs in hand we may attack directly the problem of
the origin of the high direct correlations. The first question which arises is as to
whether these correlations represent any true assortative pairing or merely arise
because conjugation goes on within a limited, differentiated portion of the popula-
tion, which portion, as has been shown above, is much less variable than the non-
conjugant population. If the latter is the true explanation then clearly any
random pairing of conjugants ought to give rise to coefficients of correlation
equally high within the limits of the probable errors concerned. What then must
be done is to make from the records pairs of conjugants chosen entirely at random,
and then determine the degree of correlation for such pairs. This “random pairing”
has been carried out in the case of the conjugants in the following way. Each
individual conjugant’s measurements were copied on to a small card or ticket, then
these cards were shuffled together in a convenient receptacle, and drawn out
blindly, two cards at a time. The two cards so drawn formed a “random” pair
of conjugants, and by entering each such pair twice (wide supra p. 249) the
symmetrical random tables were formed. For each series and pair of characters a
number of these random tables were made. The length-length random corre-
lations are the only ones which it is necessary to discuss here. Others have been

* This is the mean numerical value, without regard to the sign of the coefficients.

RAYMOND PEARL 255

made but give the same results. Also, though usually more than one coefficient
of correlation for random pairing will be given it has not been thought necessary
to publish but one random correlation table for each series. We have then in
Table XVI. the coefficients measuring the correlation between the lengths of the
two members of random pairs of conjugants. It will be understood that when
two values are given for a single series, these values represent different trials.
No two random tables on the same material will, of course, give ¢dentical results.
I have tried to give examples of the better and worse results which one gets.

TABLE XVI.
Length-Length Correlation in Random Pairs of Conjugant Paramecia.

Series Characters yicaaok a Table
A Length of Y | Length of Y | —-0847+4:0462 —
A x We i Y | -1075+-0460 | 411
C ts x . i 04494-0474 | Cll

AA 3 Xx : ar (0345 £ 0337 ae
3 :. ag fs Y | —-0360+-0337 =

It is at once evident that actual conjugation and random pairing of conjugants
are quite different things. No one of these random values can be regarded as
significantly different from zero, whereas for the same characters and the same
individuals paired together as they are in actual conjugation, the coefficients are
>'5. The results given for Series A are the most divergent from zero of any
of the lot, and in the second of these trials we have a result which may just
possibly be significant in comparison with its probable error, but certainly the
others are not. We do not even find agreement as to the sign of the random
correlation. It would seem that some other factor besides mere random pairing
among the conjugants is necessary to produce the high degree of correlation which
we find in conjugation.

To test this matter still further I made random pairings in the same way for
(a) non-conjugants and (b) pairs, one member of which was a conjugant and the
other a non-conjugant, and also (c) I considered as a pair the two non-conjugants
which happened to le in the field of the microscope nearest to each pair of
conjugants measured.

These pairings were made to meet special objections which might be raised
against considering what we are dealing with here as real homogamy. First it
might be said that the observed correlations were in some way due to the fact
that conjugants are differentiated from non-conjugants, and that random pairs of
non-conjugants might show a spurious homogamic correlation. Random pairings
(a) and (b) should test any such hypothesis as this. Again it might be maintained
that since at different points in the culture and at different times the environment
no doubt differs slightly, there would be a corresponding local differentiation of

33—2

256 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

the Paramecia in each local culture unit. Then, even though the pairing were
quite at random in each locality, yet if the records for several such localities
were mixed a spurious homogamic correlation would arise. Now the samples
used in this work were taken in just such a way as would make most pronounced
any spurious correlation due to local differentiation resulting from place or time
factors. Small samples—a drop or two of culture fluid—were taken from different
parts of the culture at intervals of time. But it is clear that if the observed
homogamic correlation were spurious and due to this “local differentiation” factor,
we ought to get sensibly as high values if we consider as a pair the two individuals
lying nearest in the field of view to each pair of conjugants measured. Such
pairs will have come from the same environment and have been killed at the
same instant as the actually conjugated pairs. If such random pairs show no
homogamie correlation, then it seems to me that it will have been demonstrated
that the observed homogamy is not a spurious correlation due to local differentia-
tion in the culture.

The results of these experimental random pairings are shown in Table XVII.

TABLE XVII.

Length-Length Correlation in Random Pairs of Non-Conjugant Paramecia.

| Series Characters r aa
A_ | Length (Non-Conjugants)... Nee ..., Length (Non-Conjugants) | — (0894+ -0462 | 105
ss . a ee Sete: x i “1204+ -0459 | 105
35 Fe (nearest individuals to Conjugants) 3 5 0908 + 0462 | 105
an : (Non-Conjugants)... = ar », (Conjugants ... |— 0167+ 0465 | 210
. . s chad gnats Soy ue tne fe i -0407 + 0464 | 210
C ” _ S is He sel » (Non-Conjugants) | — 0575+ :0473 | 101
an » (nearest individuals to Conjugants) ms 1190+ :0468 | 101
55 35 (Non-Conjugants)... » (Conjugants) ... |— 0256+ -0474 | 202
eal:

Here again we reach the same result as before, that random pairings, however
made, among the individuals living in the same culture at the time of a conjugation
epidemic give rise to correlations between the members of the pair sensibly equal
to zero. In Table XVIL, four out of the eight coefficients are plus and four minus,
and none is significant in comparison with its probable error. These are just the
results to be expected if the true value of the coefficient of correlation for random
pairing is zero and we take a number of random samples to determine it. We
must conclude, I think, that the high coefficient of assortative pairing observed in
the actually conjugated pairs cannot be accounted for by any general assumption
that there is so little variation in the conjugant population that random pairing
will produce high correlation. Random pairing in the identical populations in
which we find high homogamic coefficients actually gives rise to zero coefficients.
Nor can it be said that the observed homogamy is due to the fact that small
samples were taken at different times from different parts of the culture, and

RayMonpd PEARL 257

that consequently we are dealing with a spurious correlation which appears
because of local differentiation within the culture. If the two individuals lying
nearest in the field of view to each conjugant pair measured be taken as a
pair and a correlation table formed for such pairs, the coefficient for the homo-
gamic correlation is sensibly zero. Yet such pairs came at the same instant
from the same environment that the conjugated pairs did. Therefore the observed

correlations for conjugated pairs cannot be due to these factors.

We may now proceed to look at this fact of a high degree of homogamy in
conjugant pairs in another way. To say that there is a high degree of homogamy

TABLE XVIII.

Frequency Distributions of the Difference in Length between the Members of
(a) Observed Conjugant Pairs, and (b) Random Pairs of Non-Conjugants.

Conjugant Pairs Random Pairs of
Non-Conjugants
Frequency
Difference Frequency
in
ae eRe Series A Series C Difference
in
aa AER eS Series A | Series C
Conjugated | Random | Conjugated) Random

0— 1:9 11 10 12 4 0— 3:9 9 12

2— 3:9 19 4 22 8 4— 79 16 12

4— 59 14 11 17 12 8—11°9 15 13

6— 7°99 16 9 13 12 12—15'9 14 6

8— 99 6 6 11 4 16—19°9 11 11
10—11°9 10 9 5 8 20—23'9 13 6
12—13°9 5 6 5 5 24—27'°9 10 12
14—15'9 4 10 4 4 28—31°9 if a
16—17°9 hi 8 3 3} 32—35'9 2 3
18—19°9 4 6 2 9 36—3B9'9 3 4
20—21°9 6 5 2 4 40--43°9 10) 8
22—23'9 1 6 1 Tf 4479 3 3
24—25'9 1 5 2 33 48—51°9 10) 1
26—27''9 0) 0 1 2 2—55'9 1 0)
28—29'9 (0) 2 0) 3 56—59'9 O 2
380—31°9 1 ) (0) 6 60—63°9 1 10)
382—-383'°9 — 1 0) 1 64—67'°9 _— 1
B84—85'9 — 4 (0) 1 — = —
386—87'°9 — 1 1 (0) — — —
88—39'9 — y — 0) — — —
4O—41°9 — — = 1 oa = =
42—43'9 — — 1 — — —
Ay —45°9 — ~ — 2 - ~ —
46—Li7°9 — — — 0 — = =
48—149°9 — — = (0) -— _— _-
50—51°9 — — — 1 — — —

Totals 105 105 101 101 — 105 101

258 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

in conjugant pairs means that the differences between corresponding characters
in the two members of such pairs must be relatively small. It will be of interest
to examine the difference distributions for the character length in actually con-
jugated pairs, and in random pairs of non-conjugants and conjugants. The
difference distributions which follow were made by finding the absolute difference
(in microns) between the lengths of the two members of a pair, taking the
differences as always positive, and forming distributions of their frequencies. The
unit of grouping adopted was in the case of the conjugated pairs and random
microns, and in the case of the random pairs of non-
These difference distributions are shown in Table XVIII.

pairs of conjugants 2
conjugants, 4 microns.

It is at once evident from these frequency distributions that the differences in
length between the members of pairs are absolutely very much less in the case
of the conjugated pairs than in random pairs of either conjugants or non-con-
jugants, and also they show less “scatter” about the mean. The great divergence
between conjugated and random pairs will perhaps not at first sight be evident
to one unaccustomed to working with frequency distributions, because of the
difference of the units of grouping used. If we plot these distributions, however,
as has been done for Series C in Diagram IX., in such a way that the areas and
base units of conjugant and non-conjugant polygons are the same, the facts are at
once obvious.

It is seen that in over 60 per cent. of the conjugated pairs the two members
differ in length by less than 8 microns, while in more than 60 per cent. of the
random pairs of conjugants, and in more than 75 per cent. of the random pairs
of non-conjugants the difference is 8 microns or more. A more precise comparison
of the groups may be made from the constants of the frequency distributions
which are exhibited in Table XIX.

TABLE XIX.

Variation Constants for Difference Distributions.

Series and Groups Mean Aianat meet
Series A. Conjugated Pairs 8:943 4 °435 6°610+ °308 | 73°914+4:978
3 . Conjugants (Random) 14:143+ -631 | 9°5934°446 | 67°830+4°376
» A. Non-Conjugants (Random) | 17°619+ °785 | 11°924+°555 | 67°676+4°359
» ©. Conjugated Pairs .| 79814 °448 | 6°6814°317 | 84:2454+6°219
» €. Conjugants (Random) 15°673+ °758 | 11:297+ °536 | 72°079+4°885
. C. Non-Conjugants (Random) | 21:010+1:003 | 14°939+°709 | 71:105+4°785

We see that the mean difference in the case of the random pairs is very much
greater than in the case of the conjugated pairs. Also the random pairs give
a much higher absolute variability. The coefficients of variation are large because

* In calculating the standard deviations for the distributions, Sheppard’s correction was not used,
because we have no approach to high contact at the lower end of the range.

Raymond PrarL

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260 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

the absolute values of the means are low. From these it would appear that, in
proportion to its size, the difference is sensibly equally variable in the conjugant
and in the random pairs. It is verhaps doubtful, however, whether any significance
should be attached to the coefficient of variation in this case, considering the
character we are dealing with. I think it is quite clear that in comparing the
conjugated pairs and random pairs of conjugants with respect to the variability of
the difference, we should use the standard deviation as the measure, since we are
dealing with identically the same individuals in the two cases. The noteworthy
thing in this case is that random pairings, whether of conjugants or non-con-
jugants, give higher mean differences between the members of the pair, and
these differences more widely scattered about their mean value, than do normal
actually conjugated pairs.

The results of this section may be summarized as follows: Jn a series of
samples taken from different cultures and from the same culture at different times
in the history of a conjugation epidemic, tt has been found that there exists a high
degree of correlation between the lengths of the two members of conjugating pairs.
There is a sensible, though not a high, degree of correlation between the members
of conjugant pairs with respect to the other characters studied, viz., breadth and
index. These high homogamic correlations have been shown to be due to something
other than random pairing in a homogeneous population of low variability. An
examination of the distribution of the differences in length between the members
of conjugant pairs has shown that, as would be expected, the mean difference is
much lower and there is less “scatter” about the mean in the case of the conjugating
pairs, as compared with random pairings of either conjugants or non-conjugants.

VII. Discussion and Interpretation of Results.

All discussion of results, either in the way of accounting for the phenomena or
pointing out their significance, has been deferred to this point for the reason that
with all the data in hand the relationship of the different sets of facts to each
other comes out more clearly.

We may consider first the fact that the conjugant population is differentiated
from the general non-conjugant population in the same culture at the same time.
Maupas* maintained that there were several morphological stigmata by which
Infusoria in the depressed condition preceding conjugation were marked. One
of these morphological characteristics was reduced size. That pre-conjugants are
smaller in size than ordinary individuals has been noted by a number of other
workers. Thus, for example, Grubert says that “meist kleinere durch rasch
aufeinander folgende Theilungen enstandene Individuen sich conjugiren,” though
he proceeds in the next sentence to point out what is quite true, that it is “nicht

* Arch. d. zool. exper. et gener. (2) t. vi. pp. 165—277 and Ibid. t. viz. pp. 149—517.
t+ Bericht der Naturf. Ges., zu Freiburg. i/B. Bd. 1. p. 51.

RAYMOND PEARL 261

immer die kleinsten Individuen welche conjugiren.” Hertwig* found the same
thing in his cultures, namely that conjugants were below average sizet.

While there would appear then to be general agreement that the conjugating
individuals are usually smaller in size than the average for the general population
of non-conjugants, it has not hitherto been noted, so far as I know, that con-
jugants are also differentiated from the general population in variability and
correlation. This is of course only natural since nothing but measurements of
considerable numbers of individuals will give an appreciation of variation and
correlation in size dimensions in so small an organism as Paramecium. The fact
that conjugant individuals are markedly differentiated in variability from the
general population if generally true is unquestionably of considerable importance
in connection with the whole problem of reproduction and variation in the
Infusoria, however the differentiation may be produced. The decrease in size
preceding conjugation has usually been explained as due to a brief period at
this time of unusually rapid division in which there is little time for growth
between succeeding fissions. Calkinst has shown however that this period of
rapid division does not always precede conjugation. Consequently the reduced
size must, in some cases at least, be due to some other factor. In his most recent
paper on the subject, this investigator§ has brought out some very interesting
facts regarding the protoplasmic condition of Paramecium in periods of depression,
showing that with the reduced size usually observed at such times there are
associated characteristic changes in cytoplasmic and nuclear structures. His re-
sults, for the details of which the original paper must be consulted, certainly
point to the conclusion that the reduction of size (and also probably the changes
in variabilities and correlations) observed in conjugants depend upon fundamental
and deep-seated changes in the physiological condition of the organism connected
with reproduction. It seems to me that this conclusion is much more probable
than that we have to do with any direct selection in the ordinary sense. It
is quite clear that there is no immediate elimination of those members of the
culture which do not conform to the conjugant type. The possibilities in the way
of change of variability in Paramecium without selection, but instead as a result
of a direct general bodily rearrangement, or “Umwandlung,” are known to be
great||, and it seems to me altogether likely that in the differentiation of con-
jugants from non-conjugants we are dealing with a case of this kind.

There is a point which might be raised in objection to the view that the
differentiation of the conjugant population is to be thrown back on deep-seated
physiological causes. It might conceivably be maintained that the reduced varia-
bility of conjugants which has been found is a result of the conjugation process

* Abhandl. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wissensch. 11. Cl. Bd. xvir. pp. 153—233.

+ Note added Nov. 10. Mr Lister (loc. cit.) accuses me of being ignorant of the literature on
this point. I leave it to the reader to judge what foundation exists for this accusation. R. P.

t Loe. cit. p. 158.

§ Calkins, G. M.: Journ. of Exper. Zool. Vol. 1. pp. 423—461.

|| Cf. Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J.: Seventh Report, Michigan Academy of Science, pp. 77—86.

Biometrika y 34

262 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

itself, and not a really significant thing at all. Our data for conjugants are
obtained from conjugated pairs, and it might be maintained that the pro-con-
jugants were simply a random sample from the general population having equal
variability with it. Then if we supposed that during the conjugation act itself
there was a pronounced tendency towards equalization in size of the two members
of a conjugant pair, we might get a reduction in the variability of conjugated
individuals as a result of the act of conjugation while the pro-conjugants were
not less variable than the general population. Now data were especially collected
to determine whether any such process of equalization occurred during the act
of conjugation, and anticipating results to be presented in detail farther on, it
may be said that the most careful search has failed to find any evidence supporting
this view. One has been compelled to conclude that such a process of equalization
in size during conjugation does not occur to any appreciable degree. That there
is absolutely no tendency to equalization cannot of course be said but, so far as
the available data indicate, if any such tendency does exist it is far too slight in
amount to account for the changes in variability and correlation observed. Further-
more, such a tendency to equalization would not help us at all in explaining the
reduced mean size of conjugants, and it seems altogether probable that the same
set of causes are responsible for the changes in means and variabilities.

The first problem with which this paper has to do was stated at the beginning
(p. 215) to be “Is the portion of the Paramecium population which is in a state
of conjugation at a given time differentiated in respect of type or variability,
or both from the non-conjugating portion of the population living in the same
culture at the same time?” So far as our present material goes the answer to
this question 1s unequivocally that there is such a differentiation in both type and
variability. The morphological differentiation of conjugants is held to be probably
due to fundamental physiological changes which precede and lead to conjugation.
The further question as to the cause of these physiological changes falls outside
the scope of the present investigation. It is a subject on which there is urgent
need for experimental work.

We may turn now to the question of homogamy in the conjugation of Para-
mecium. We have seen that when measurements are taken on the individuals
of conjugated pairs, there is found to be a high degree of direct homogamic
correlation. Our problem is to find, if possible, a reasonable explanation for the
existence of this correlation. It is evident that there are at least two possibilities
here which suggest themselves immediately. One is that there is no real pairing
of like with lke, but that after two individuals have become definitely united
in a syzygy, an exchange of substance takes place until there is what we might
call an equilibrium of internal pressures. In this process it might be conceived
to result that the smaller individual of the pair becomes larger and the larger
smaller, so that at the end both would be more nearly alike in size than they were
at the beginning. If then we measured the coefficient of homogamic correlation
after this had occurred, it might be found high without any real selection having

RAYMOND PEARL 263

taken place in the pairing. The homogamy would be altogether physical instead
of biological. The alternative hypothesis to that just outlined is that there is a
real pairing of like with like, brought about in some way by non-conscious means.

In considering these two alternatives, it seemed to me that the first was rather
improbable on general grounds. In the first place no biological evidence has
been presented, so far as I know, to show that in the conjugation of Paramecium
any such extensive interchange of endoplasm as would be demanded by this view
occurs very early in the conjugation process. In this connection it should be
pointed out that if we are to explain the degree of homogamy observed by any
process of equalization, it will be necessary that the equalizing occur early in
the conjugation, as otherwise it will not help us at all. The reason for this is
clear. If random samples are taken from a conjugating population we shall get,
on the average, just as many early as late stages of the conjugation process.
Therefore if equalization between members of the pair does not occur till a late
stage, obviously it will have affected but a small portion of the conjugant pairs in
any random sample. So then we would not find a high degree of homogamic
correlation in such a sample. But, as a matter of fact, we do; hence it is to
be concluded, I think, that if any equalization occurs at all, it must occur very
early in the process. But observation gives no indication that such an equalization
takes place immediately after the union of the individuals. I have been unable
to find the slightest evidence that any exchange of material between the two
conjugants occurs prior to the exchange of the portions of the micronuclei which,
of course, is relatively late in the conjugation process.

Again, on purely physical grounds, it seems to me by no means certain that
the equalization hypothesis is adequate. Suppose we consider a Paramecium to
be a bag of fluid (the endoplasm) surrounded by an elastic membrane (the
ectoplasm and pellicle) in a state of tension. Then it would be expected, according
to the laws of curved elastic membranes generally, that if two such bags were
connected so that interchange of the contained fluid was possible, it would be
pressed from the smaller into the larger, because the larger has the greater
radius of curvature and hence less internal pressure assuming that the average
state of surface tension is the same for large and small individuals. But this is of
course the opposite of what the equalization hypothesis demands. It would seem
likely that if an equalization between the two individuals of a conjugant pair
occurred, it would have to be accounted for on biological, rather than purely
physical grounds.

There is still another consideration which militates against the equalization
hypothesis. If the apparent assortative mating arises through any such process,
it is difficult to see why the direct homogamic correlation between breadths should
not be of about the same degree as that between the lengths. In fact it would
seem likely considering the form of the organism that any process of exchange
of substance would more nearly equalize the breadths than the lengths of the
two individuals of the pair. Thus the breadths would be correlated at least as

34-2

264. <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

closely as the lengths. But as a matter of fact, as we have seen, there is no
approach to equality between the direct homogamic correlations for length and
breadth. Those for breadth are always lower.

In order to make, so far as possible, a decisive test of whether the observed
homogamic correlation is due to an equalization in size of the two members of
the pair during the process of conjugation itself or is, on the other hand, a result
of some process such that it exists at the moment of pairing, an investigation based
on the following considerations was carried out.

If the observed homogamic correlation is due to any process of equalization in
size during the act of conjugation itself, then clearly we should expect to find
a higher degree of correlation between the members of pairs in late stages where
the individuals would shortly separate than in early stages where the union had
just been accomplished. To test this question, 70 pairs of conjugants in very early
stages and 77 pairs in late stages were measured. The basis of the separation
into “early” and “late” stages was the nuclear condition. The limits chosen
as well as other data regarding these two series—designated respectively as
“Series F, Early” and “Series /’, Late”—have been given in detail earlier in
the paper (p. 221) and need not be repeated here. The important thing to keep
in mind is that, taken as a whole, the individuals of the F’, series were recently
joined pairs, and those of the #, series were on the whole nearly at the end of
the process and would soon have separated. In Table XX. the constants of these
two series are compared*. The differences are taken as positive when the
“late” series is in excess of the “early,” and negative when the opposite con-
dition obtains.

We see at once that the “late” series does not significantly differ from the
“early” in anything but the means, and there the difference is only barely
significant. Both series are equally variable, and show equally high homogamic
correlation. Instead of the “late” series giving the higher values for this corre-
lation, as we should expect on the equalization hypothesis, the “early” series
actually has slightly the higher coefficients! The differences are of course not
significant in comparison with the probable errors. In fact no closer equality
between two random samples of the same population could be desired. The
results show that in these samples at least there was no significant change in
the size relations of the body associated with the nuclear changes of the con-
jugation process during that portion of it studied. If any equalization in size
between the two individuals occurred, it must have taken place very shortly after
the union, and have been a very brief process. Both of these things seem im-
probable on biological grounds.

In order to get further evidence on the matter some direct observations on the
living organism were made, though on account of lack of sufficiently abundant

* It should be stated that the fundamental tables for the F series are grouped in units of the ocular
micrometer. The constants deduced were multiplied by 8°6, the value of a micrometer unit in microns,
to obtain the means and standard deviations tabled.

Raymonp PEARL 265

TABLE XxX.

Variation and Homogamy in Karly and Late Stages of the Conjugation Process.

Character | Constant Series I’, Early Series I’, Late | Difference | Tables
Length of All Conjugants| Mean 208'489 + -983 | 214:051 + ‘966 +5°562 +1379 | F2&F4
i a » | SD. | 17-247 + 695 | 17-774 + 683 | 4+ 527 + 975 |, ,,

:, - | Cove 8-272 + 336 | 8304 + 321 + 032 + 465 |, ,,
ea | | _ E -
Length of A cae ... Mean 209°108 +1°432 | 214.497 +1°378 +5°394 41°987 | PIS F383
3 se S. D. 17-767 41:013 | 17927 + ‘974 | + 160 41-405 | ,, z
es Cave 8-497 + 488 | 8357 + 458 | -— 140 + 669 | ,, ,,
a i = a | 7 _—— | aes |e
Length of B... ...| Mean | 207°874 +1°345 | 213°604 +1353 | +5:730 +1:908 | FL& F3
Pe: ae | SD. | 16689 + 951 | 17609 + 957 | + 920 +1349 |], ,,
RE CV. 8-028 + 461 | 8-244 + 451 4+ 216 + 645 |
Difference between d | e a reeves mine
BOS in Lereth * ve Mean | 11-794 | 12-286 | + -482
: : = ae) ee = = x
Correlation between A) Par ‘6797+ 0307 “6212+ 03384 — ‘0585+ 0454) F2& F4
and B in Length § Pal | 6832 + CEU 6223+ ‘0471 — (0609+ (0638 FI&L3
| z
Number of Pairs eae 70 77

material it was not possible to do much in this direction. The results so far
as they went were in entire accord with what was found from the statistics.
I was unable to detect any change whatever in the relative lengths of the two
members of the pair after conjugation had occurred.

Altogether, taking into account the results from the # series and from direct
observations, together with the fact that we get closely accordant results for the
homogamic correlations in all our series, though the Ann Arbor series were
collected in a quite different manner from the Leipzig series, I think we must
conclude that there is no evidence to support the view that these correlations
arise because of any equalization in size during the conjugation itself. It is on
the other hand quite clear, of course, that the evidence here presented does not
demonstrate that equalization does not occur immediately after union is effected.
I can think of but one way in which to get absolutely conclusive evidence
on this point, and that is to isolate, kill and measure pairs immediately after
definite union has occurred. If the homogamic correlation in a reasonably large
sample of this kind is no different from that of conjugants in general, it will be
demonstrated that homogamy is not due to equalization after union.

* Without reference to whether 4 or B is the larger.
+ Coefficient from symmetrical table in which each pair is entered twice. See p. 249.
+ Coefficient from table in which each pair is entered but once.

266 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

We may now consider the second alternative, namely that the homogamic
correlation is real and arises at the moment the definitive pairing occurs. The
only difficulty with this alternative is that of understanding how any real
assortative pairing can take place in such a low organism as Paramecium.
This difficulty however is more apparent than real, I believe. Let us consider
some of the known facts regarding the behaviour preceding conjugation *.

The points which are especially important for our present purpose are as
follows. (1) It is well known that a modification of the body substance occurs,
resulting in the organisms becoming adhesive on their oral surfaces (cf. Calkins,
loc. cit., and Jennings+). They are then in what Calkins calls the miscible state.
At such times, as has been noted by different obgerverst, groups of several in-
dividuals may be formed and subsequently separated again. Single pairs by no
means always remain united after they have once come together. Thus Jennings
says: “Specimens...... become adherent in every possible way provided merely
that some part of the oral surface of one of the individuals enters into the
adhesion. Many such cases are clearly not early stages of any ordered conjugation,
and they often separate after one individual has been dragged about for some
time much against his struggles.”

(2) I have been able to observe in a few instances that the firm union of the
two individuals in a definite ordered conjugation involves at the beginning only
the extreme anterior ends. Next the mouth regions unite firmly, and somewhat
later the portions of the body between the two points. I have not infrequently
found pairs in which firm union had occurred at the anterior ends and the mouth
regions, and in which there was no contact between the individuals in the inter-
mediate region of the bodies. These observations confirm what has been found
by Gruber§. He says, “ Die Vereinigung geschieht zunachst vorne an der Spitze
der beiden Infusorien und dann an den Mundéffnungen also niiher den Hinter-
grunde. An diesen beiden Stellen bleiben die Thiere festvereinigt, wahrend der
iibrige Theil des Korpers nur lose oder gar nicht mit dem des anderen Individuums
vereinigt ist.”

(3) The coming together of a particular pair of individuals in the proper
position for effective conjugation is without any doubt, I think, a matter of random
chance. What is in all likelikood the true explanation of this has been given
by Jennings|| in the following words: “A second important factor in bringing

* It is a matter of deep regret to me that I have been able to make so few observations myself
regarding the behaviour at the time of conjugation, but I have not yet been fortunate enough to
obtain a culture in which a conjugation epidemic involving large numbers of the population was taking
place. For observations of this kind on behaviour one must have large numbers of individuals.
In what follows then I shall have to make use largely of the observations of other workers, though in
no case is a statement made which has not been confirmed, either by my own observations, or by
at least two independent investigators.

+ Jennings, H. 8.: Jowr. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol. Vol. xtv. No. 6, pp. 480—482.

+ Cf. for example Jennings, loc. cit. p. 481, and Gruber, luc. cit. p. 45.

§ Gruber, loc. cit. p. 46. || loc. cit. p. 482.

‘| The first is the adhesiveness of the oral surfaces mentioned above. R. P.

Raymond PEARL 267

about conjugation is found in the usual ciliary movements of the animals, and
in the currents produced by these movements. As we have seen in the foregoing
pages, there is a strong current passing backward along the oral side of Para-
mecium so that there is a tendency for all sorts of objects suspended in the
water to be carried to the oral groove. This tendency is of course operative
on other Paramecia in the neighbourhood, as well as upon lifeless objects. In
the case of two Paramecia close together, this tendency is of course reciprocal ;
each tends to draw the other to its own oral groove. Thus if two Paramecia are
swimming along close together, there is a strong tendency through their usual
movements for them to come together with oral surfaces in contact: Under
ordinary conditions this is often seen, but does not lead to conjugation because
the oral surfaces are not adhesive. But when the oral surfaces are adhesive,
as we know them to be at periods of conjugation, then the animals stick together.”

Now, considering all these facts, we are able to understand I think how the
observed homogamic correlation may arise. For the sake of clearness, a brief
and somewhat categorical outline of the process as I conceive it to occur will be
given first, and then the points which need further discussion will be taken up
afterwards. (a) At the periods of conjugation, the individuals which are to con-
jugate are in a certain physiological state associated with the “ miscible” condition
in which the oral surfaces are adhesive. (b) As a result of the reciprocal action
of the currents produced by the oral groove cilia, two individuals which by chance
happen to be swimming parallel and close to one another are drawn together, and
their oral surfaces adhere in whole or in part. (c) The extreme anterior ends
of the oral grooves firmly adhere to one another first. (d) If the two individuals
are so nearly the same size that the mouths approximately coincide when the
anterior ends are together, firm union occurs at the mouth regions and definite
conjugation follows. (e) If, on the other hand, the mouths do not approximately
coincide the individuals separate again or die, and no conjugation results. (f) The
homogamic correlations arise then as a result of the necessity for the mouths of
the two individuals to come together (or “ fit”) when the extreme anterior ends
are united. Individuals in which the distances from the anterior end to the mouth
are approximately equal will not be greatly different in total length, and hence
their lengths will be correlated.

We may now consider the evidence regarding the various points. The facts
(a), (b), and (c) rest on direct observation. With reference to (d) it may be
said that out of hundreds of pairs of conjugants examined none has been seen in
which the mouths did not coincide. The extreme anterior ends of the individuals
of conjugant pairs (points a, a’ in Fig. 1) are in the great majority of pairs
approximately equidistant from the mouths. In other words, if pairs of con-
jugants are examined with reference to the relative position of the extreme
anterior ends it will be found that the end of one in most cases projects but
relatively little in front of the anterior end of the other. Of course variation occurs
in this as in everything else, but I think I am safe in saying that as a maximum

268 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

not more than 10 per cent. of the total difference in length between the
individuals of conjugant pairs is due to difference at the anterior ends. I do
not present measurements in support of this statement for the simple reason:
that the magnification used in the measuring was not sufficiently high for the
accurate determination of this “anterior end difference,” so small is it in the great
majority of cases. I think, however, that the statement that in definitely con-
jugated pairs of Paramecium the mouths and anterior ends of the two individuals
approximately coincide will not be questioned by anyone who has ever examined
closely large numbers of such pairs. Finally if (d), and the comments which have
just been made regarding it be true, then (c) must necessarily be true, because if
we observe that all successful conjugants have the mouths and anterior ends
approximately coinciding, then clearly all pairs which did not fulfil these con-
ditions when the individuals came together by chance, must have either separated
or died. The probability of separation being what actually happens is strongly
indicated by the observations of Gruber and Jennings cited above. Similarly (/)
necessarily follows from (d), if there be positive correlation between total length
and distance from anterior end to mouth, the existence of which can hardly be

doubted.

All things considered, I think that, at least till further evidence is forthcoming,
the conclusion is justified that the observed homogamic correlation arises as a
result of the factors set forth above, (a) to (e). On this view the real essence of
the matter is the necessity for anterior ends and mouths to “ fit” reasonably well
if conjugation is to be successful. The mechanism by which individuals which do
“fit” are brought together is readily to be accounted for by well-established
’ of the organism, and involves no assumption of
consciousness or any vitalistic hypothesis.

factors in the “action system’

It is the belief of the writer that a considerable degree of homogamy will
probably be found to exist in the conjugation of other Protozoa than Paramecium,
though of course no other form has yet been investigated in connection with this
matter. An observation recorded by Calkins*, concerning the infusorian Lionotus
fasciola, is of interest in this connection. He says that “In conjugation a large
form unites with a smaller one, the mouth parts being united.” Such a conjugant
pair is found in his Fig. 33. It would be very interesting to study this case
biometrically, in the light of the results on Paramecium. There would seem to
be two possibilities in the case of Lionotus ; one that there is a dimorphic condition
of pro-conjugants paralleling sexual differentiation in higher forms, either with or
without positive assortative pairing: the other that there is a negative assortative
pairing in the conjugation. In any event the case seems well worth investigating.

According to the explanation which has been given for the origin of the
homogamic correlation in Paramecium, the assorting in the pairing is held to be
concerned only with the lengths of the individuals. If this explanation be true
the homogamic correlation between the breadths of the two individuals of a pair

* Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1901, pp. 413—468,

RayMonpD PEARL 269

and the cross assortative correlations must arise from the existence of an organic
correlation between length and breadth in the individual and the direct selection
of lengths. It would seem that we had here the means of making a conclusive
statistical test of whether all the assorting in the conjugation is on the basis of
length alone, by making use of the theorems in selection which Pearson* has
given. Thus it should be possible to determine what would be the values of the
correlations between the breadths, and between length and breadth after a selec-
tion of the lengths alone. Unfortunately, however, these theorems cannot be
applied in the present case because of a fact which has been discussed before in
the paper, namely that the breadth dimensions of the conjugants are changed as a
result of the union in conjugation itself. As we have no data on the pro-conju-
gant population it is impossible to make accurate allowance for the effect of this
flattening of the conjugants upon the variations and correlations. The whole
matter has been studied carefully from the statistical standpoint, with the general
result which may be stated without the publication of all the equations and
figures, that if we assume the assorting in the conjugation to be on the basis of
length alone we get a system of values for the direct breadth with breadth corre-
lations and the cross correlations which are not inconsistent with the observed
values, allowing for the effect of the change in breadth which occurs during the
union. It may be possible later to make an accurate allowance for this disturbing
factor, and then the complete evidence can be presented.

Finally, in bringing the paper to a close, I wish to point out what seem to me
to be some of the significant theoretical bearings of the results. These, I think, fall
under two general heads; namely, first those considerations which arise from the
fact that the conjugants are differentiated from the non-conjugants and secondly
those considerations which are implied by the existence of a high degree of
homogamy in the conjugation. These points will be discussed in the order
mentioned.

The results of this work have given clear and indubitable evidence that in the
different samples and different cultures the individuals which are conjugating at a
given moment belong to a distinct type, clearly and markedly differentiated from
the type of individuals which are not conjugating. The facts regarding the details
of this differentiation have been shown 7n eatenso earlier in the paper (Tables V.,
VI, VIL, VIII., X., and XI., and Diagram 1), and I think there can be no doubt
as to its existence in the mind of anyone who will take the pains to examine
carefully these tables. Thus, unless the results are repudiated on the general
ground that the material here used was in no way representative of Paramecia
in general}, these facts mean that there is in Paramecium what may be called

* Phil. Trans. Vol. 200 A, pp. 1—66.

+ That such a criticism cannot fairly be made is sufficiently evidenced by the fact, which every
comparative table in the paper clearly shows, that there is a very good agreement between the results for
different series taken from different cultures in different ways. Table II. by itself demonstrates that the
material here used cannot be considered abnormal.

Biometrika v 35

270 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

a conjugant type. Furthermore, this conjugant type is differentiated from the
general population, not only in physiological but in morphological characteristics.

Now, it seems to me that the fundamentally important question is whether
this differentiated conjugant type is relatively more constant as we pass from culture
to culture or race to race than is the type of the general population. We know that
under varying environmental influences the type of the general population in the
case of Paramecia (and Protozoa generally) can be greatly modified, as a direct
result of environmental action*. Is the conjugant type modified to as great a
degree as is the type of the general population by such direct environmental
influences? The question is clearly one of inter- rather than intra-racial variability,
and as such requires a much larger amount of material than is now available
for a conclusive answer. However, the results from the present material, as will
be shown, point very definitely to the conclusion that the ‘“conjugant type” is
much less variable, that is, fluctuates less, as we pass from one environmental
condition to another, than does the type of the general population. This fact will
have been noticed, I think, from the tables given in Sections III, IV., and V. of
the paper, but to make certain of the matter a direct consideration of the
problem will be undertaken here.

In order to test the question as to whether the “conjugant” and “ general
population” types are equally changed with changing environmental conditions
the biometrical procedure is to measure the amount of variation in the two types
as we pass from one culture or sample to another. Now, in the present case, we
have only four series of conjugants (A, C, D, and 5) to put over against five
series of non-conjugants (A, C, D, #, and B). The Aun Arbor series (AA and F)
cannot fairly be included here because unfortunately no non-conjugants were
measured from the cultures from which these came. With such small series as
four im one case and five in another, it is quite clear that if any conclusions at
all are to be drawn as to a difference between the series, the differences between
the constants must be large. As a matter of fact the results of a comparison of
conjugant and non-conjugant types in respect to length of body, are as follows:

Mean of conjugant means = 172-408.

Mean of non-conjugant means = 203177.

Standard deviation of conjugant means = 4°459.
Standard deviation of non-conjugant means = 10°513.

In other words we see that as we pass from one culture to another, and from
one state of a culture to another, the non-conjugant type fluctuates more than
twice as much as does the conjugant type. It might be objected that we should

* Cf. for example, Yasuda, A.: Jour. Coll. Sci., Imp. Univ. Toky6, Vol. xm. pp. 101—140, and
Pearl, R., and Dunbar, F. J., loc. cit.

+ It should be stated that in calculating these inter-racial constants the different series were
weighted roughly in proportion to the number of individuals included in each series. It seemed hardly
fair to allow the same weight to the very short series B and D as to the longer A, C and E series. So
then the series were assigned weights as follows: A=C=8, B=D=1, E=4. As a matter of fact
it makes very little difference in the final results if all the series are given equal weights.

Raymond PEARL 271

expect that there would be absolutely more variation in the non-conjugant type
than in the conjugant, because the non-conjugant individuals are larger, but if we
take the variation in proportion to the mean size of the conjugant and non-
conjugant groups we obtain the same result.

Thus:
Coefficient of variation of conjugant means = 2°586 °/,.

Coefficient of variation of non-conjugant means = 5°174 //..

The general conclusion which we reach is that, so fur us can be judged by the
data at present available, the conjugant type is relatively much more constant us we
pass from culture to culture than is the non-conjugant type. Of course our present
data are much too meagre to demonstrate this conclusion. It is true for the
material here studied: whether it is true generally can only be determined by
further investigation; but the present results certainly give a fair degree of
probability that it is generally true.

To recapitulate then the results of this investigation show that in the material
studied (a) there is a differentiated “conjugant type” of Paramecium, and (b) this
“conjugant type” is relatively fixed and constant under varying environmental
conditions, as compared with the type of the general population in fission generations.
Now I take it to be a well-established result of the work of Calkins and earlier
investigators in this field that (c) at more or less regular intervals in the normal
life history of a race of Paramecium the individuals which are to take part in
the future propagation of the race not only do, but under normal conditions must
pass through a period of conjugation. Otherwise the race will die out. Calkins’
brilliant studies (loc. cit.) have shown that for a time the race may be kept going
by various forms of artificial stimulation, but that in the end such stimulation
fails in its purpose. But if these three conclusions, (a), (b), and (c), are true, then
ut clearly means that those indiwiduals which take part in the perpetuation of the
race conform at intervals to a definite and relatively fived morphological type. This
result I believe to be of considerable importance, for, if it be accepted, it seems
to me to mean nothing less than that we must change somewhat radically our
whole outlook on the relation of the Protozoa to evolution problems. It has
been held as axiomatic in biology that acquired characters are inherited in the
Protozoa because one cell is both soma and germ. But clearly it matters very
little to the race whether acquired characters are inherited or not, if after every
cycle of fission generations the organism must come back to the same type (barring
any real evolutionary change which may have taken place) that it started from,
or in the end die. The case then becomes not very much different from what
obtains in higher organisms. In the Metazoa what is acquired by the soma in
one generation is not usually, at least, passed on to the next. Real evolutionary
progress depends on changes in the germ cells. But similarly, if what we have
concluded for Paramecium be correct: All real evolutionary progress in such a
protozoan form must consist in definite changes in the “conjugant type.” So far as
evolutionary progress is concerned the conjugant individuals in the Protozoa

35--2

272 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

correspond to the germ cells of the Metazoa. Any modification which is to
be of significance to the race or to the species must take place there, rather than
during the cycle of divisions between conjugations.

It is somewhat remarkable that an entirely different line of evidence from that
which has led to the above conclusions has led Calkins to conclude in his most
recent paper on the subject* that the assumption seems to be warranted “ that
there is a fundamental difference in the protoplasmic elements which go to make
up the body of a protozoan, one of which is to be compared with the somatic cells
of metazoa, the other with the germ cells, the one connected with the vegetative
functions of metabolism the other with reproduction; the one may give out and
so lead to ‘physiological death’ (Hertwig), or it may be restimulated; the other
may give out and so lead to ‘ germinal death’ of the race.”

It seems almost self-evident if Calkins’ conclusion be accepted, that at the
time of conjugation the protoplasmic elements which correspond to the germ cells
of Metazoa and have to do with the reproductive functions are so to speak pre-
dominant. Then Calkins’ conclusion becomes essentially identical with that which
we have reached.

We have now to consider the significance of the fact that there exists a high
degree of homogamy in the conjugation of Paramecium. One of the greatest
difficulties against the acceptance of the theory of natural selection as the method
of organic evolution has always been that of understanding how any incipient
evolutionary change within a group of animals living together in the same
environment is to be preserved if the individuals showing the divergent character
can breed freely and successfully with those which do not have it. Thus Huxleyf,
in the chapter in the Life and Letters of Darwin on the “ Reception of the Origin
of Species,” says: “In my earliest criticisms of the ‘Origin’ I ventured to point
out that its logical foundation was insecure so long as experiments in selective
breeding had not produced varieties which were more or less infertile; and that
insecurity remains up to the present time.” Romanes, in his paper on “ Physio-
logical Selection,”t states the difficulty very clearly in the following words: “...for
in this particular case so formidable does the difficulty seem to me that I cannot
believe that natural selection alone could produce any divergence of specific
character, so long as all the individuals on an overcrowded area occupy that area
together. Yet, if any of them quit that area, and so escape from the unifying
influence of free intercrossing, these individuals also escape from the conditions
which Mr Darwin names as those that are needed by natural selection in order
to produce divergence. Therefore, it appears to me that, under the circumstances
supposed, natural selection alone could not produce divergence ; the most it could
do would be to change the whole specific type in some one direction, and thus
induce transmutation of species in a linear series, each succeeding member of

* Jour. Exper. Zool. Vol. 1. p. 455.
+ Life and Letters, Vol. 1. p. 170.
+ Jou, Linn. Soc. Zool. Vol. x1x. pp. 337—411.

Raymond PEARL 273

which might supplant its parent form. But in order to secure diversity, multi-
plication, or ramification of species, it appears to me obvious that the primary
condition required is that of preventing intercrossing with parent forms at the
origin of each branch, whether the prevention be from the first absolute ov only
partial.”

Now it is evident that if we find in any species a tendency for individuals like
one another in one or more characters to mate together, rather than with indi-
viduals unlike themselves, we have at once a vera causa for the “divergence of
individuals into varieties” by preventing intercrossing with parent forms. We
need not even suppose that unions of unlike individuals are infertile provided the
unions themselves do not occur or occur only rarely. The importance of homogamy
has been so forcibly stated by Romanes* that I cannot do better than quote what
he says. “To state the case in the most general terms we may say that if
the other two basal principles are given in heredity and variability the whole
theory of organic evolution becomes neither more nor less than a theory of
homogamy—that is, a theory of the causes which lead to discriminate isolation,
or the breeding of like with like to the exclusion of unlike. For the more we
believe in heredity and variability as basal principles of organic evolution, the
stronger must become our persuasion that discriminate breeding leads to divergence
of type, while indiscriminate breeding leads to uniformity. This in fact is securely
based on what we know from the experience supplied by artificial selection which
consists in the intentional mating of like with like to the exclusion of unlike...
Only when assisted by some form of discriminate isolation which determines
the exclusive breeding of like with like can heredity make in favour of change of
type, or lead to what we understand by organic evolution.”

Now, although the importance of homogamy as a factor in evolution has been
recognized almost universally, yet so far as I know no one except Pearson in the
work on assortative mating in man, which has already been referred to (p. 214), has
hitherto attempted to find out exactly how great a tendency for like to mate with
like actually exists in a given species. We have had general reasoning in the place
of direct quantitative evidence. In the present case it has been shown that in
what may be considered the simplest prototype of the mating of individuals,
which becomes in higher forms associated with sexual differentiation, namely in the
conjugation of the Protozoa, there is a relatively very high degree of homogamy.
Like pairs with like to more than double as close a degree as in the case of man
where conscious choice must be supposed to operate to the greatest extent. We
have then clearly all the necessary factors for divergent evolution. Let any
variation appear among the pro-conjugant individuals (ie. in the “conjugant
type”) of a race of Paramecium, and if any one of the characters in which the
variation appears is correlated (to any degree) with any character directly selected
in the homogamic pairing, we shall at once get the beginning of a divergent race
or variety. If the explanation which has been given here (p. 267) of the method

* Darwin and After Darwin, Vol. 111. pp. 6, 7.

274. A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

of assorting in conjugation is the correct one, then the relative position of the
mouth is one directly selected character. But it by no means follows that it is the
only one. There may be other characters selected to just as close a degree in the
conjugating. For the present it is sufficient to have shown that in a species living
under natural conditions, a high degree of homogamy is not only possible, but
actually exists.

Finally it should be pointed out that the fact that we find such a high degree
of homogamy in a protozoan form like Paramecium strongly suggests the possi-
bility that in higher organisms there may be assortative mating of the gametes in
the process of fertilization. Should such a homogamy of the gametes occur
it would probably be of far greater importance than any assortative mating
of somas.

VIII. Summary of Results.

The chief results of this study of variation and correlation in Paramecium
caudatum in connection with the process of conjugation may be summarily stated
as follows :

1. Biometrical analysis of the variation in a considerable number of individuals
shows that Paramecium follows the same general laws which have been found
to hold for continuous variation in higher forms. The coefficients for variation
in length of Paramecium cluster very closely about a value of 8 per cent.
Certain of the frequency distributions approach reasonably well to the normal
or Gaussian curve, but this is by no means universally the case.

2. In following a single culture throughout the history of a conjugation
epidemic, it was found that definite changes are produced in the population as
a result of the action of the environment. These environmental effects, however,
were more pronounced in the case of non-conjugants than in conjugants.

3. There is no evidence that conjugation tends to produce increased vari-
ability in ex-conjugants. All the evidence indicates, on the contrary, that
conjugation serves to restrict the variability induced by environmental influences
or, in other words, to preserve relative stability of type.

4. Conjugant Paramecia are distinctly and markedly differentiated from
the non-conjugant population living in the culture at the same time, in type,
variability and organic correlation in respect to all characters studied. This
differentiation includes not only the absolute dimensions of the body, but also
the shape, as measured by the length-breadth index. This differentiation of
conjugants from non-conjugants is in no sense insignificant in amount, nor is
it confined merely to the means of the different characters. On the contrary, it
is large in amount, and just as significant for the variabilities and correlations
as for the means.

5. There is a tendency for like to pair with like (homogamy) in respect to
length of body in the conjugation of Paramecium of a closer degree than has
hitherto been found for assortative mating in any organism. The homogamic

Raymond PEARL 275

correlation between the lengths of the individuals of conjugant pairs has about
the same value in all the series studied, and it may be concluded that the true
value for the coefficient measuring assortative pairing in respect to length in
Paramecium lies between °5 and ‘6.

6. <A considerable degree of homogamic correlation between the breadths
of the members of conjugant pairs was found. It is believed to be a result of
direct assortative pairing with respect to length, and of the organic correlation
between length and breadth in the individual. The same explanation is to be
given for the cross assortative correlations which were observed.

7. The homogamic correlations are not due to any local environmental factor,
tending to make all conjugants relatively alike, because if conjugants be paired
together at random, all homogamic correlation disappears.

8. The homogamic correlations are not greater in late stages of conjugation
than in early, hence it is not probable that they owe their existence to any process
of equalization of size due to the act of conjugation itself.

9. Evidence is presented to show that the homogamic correlation arises
through the necessity for the anterior ends and mouths of the two members
of a pair to “fit” reasonably well in a successful conjugation. The method by
which this is probably brought about is discussed.

10. One general result of the work is to indicate strongly that the relation
of the Protozoa to evolution problems is not that usually assigned on the
Weismannian hypothesis. With reference to the evolutionary history of the
race, the conjugant individuals of the protozoan population appear to be in certain
respects comparable to the germ cells of metazoan. In order that there should
be any real evolutionary progress in the Protozoa, it seems to be necessary that
there be definite changes in these differentiated conjugant individuals, or in what
has been called in this paper the conjugant type. What Paramecium may acquire
during a cycle of fission generations as a result of environmental action is of
no consequence in the evolution of the race if at the end of the cycle the
individuals must come back to a relatively fixed type (the conjugant) before
starting on the next cycle.

Appendix of Measurements.

In this section are given the correlation tables from which the constants have
been deduced. In order to facilitate reference to these tables those of a particular
series are grouped together, and are designated with the letter of the series and
the number of the table within the series. The order in which the tables are
given for each series is as follows:

1. The organic correlation tables for conjugants and non-conjugants.
2. The direct homogamic tables.

3. The cross homogamic tables.

4, Random or other tables.

For series B and D the measurements are given in full, as no correlation tables
were formed for these very short series.

276

Series A. Correlation of Length with Breadth for

Length in microns.

TABLE 41.

A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Series A. Correlation of Length and Breadth for All Conjugants.

Breadth in microns.

140—14}
145—149
150—154
155-—159
160—164
165—169
170—17'4
175—179
180—184
185—189
190—194
| 195—199

Length in microns.

Totals

DD

° ~ =
Sn) Se ts
ai]

> 9D ~s

1 2 1
1 2 7
1 3 4
—| % if
i) 5
5 | 10 8
] 7 9
2 3 | 12
—| Q 2
_- 1 2
— 1 1

TABLE A 2.

i)

D>

|

51—53'9

57— 599

Totals

60—62°9

| te

a
RR eK Ob PR Ow

Breadth in microns.

2 eA | ee | at
4

Nia |e |e |
Pig i oe era ea eae
AO) veil ee 8 rae
eget a a
Ars lve eee ee

= 1s | er Lees

All

Non-Conjugants.

145—149
150—154
155—159
160—164
165—169
170174
175—179
180--184 | 1
185—189
190—194
195—199
200—204

oop a cn | a |

205—209

210—214
215—219

220-—22
225 —229

230—234

Totals 1

3

13 | 30 | 29

P/F /el[elelel|s
SSIS Ss sy sye Totals |
URGE eign
ID WD WD No) Ne} Re) Se)

= 1
= | |S | = pS | — | = 1
ea 2
ee! 3
} 1} 3} 1/—|—/—|—f] 16
| ll |
Ie CTS eh If eee ay fe 20 |
7 3 2 34 4 28 |
7 3 6 1}—|—|]— 28 |
7 8 5 2);—}—]{— 28
7 5 3 1 hs | 21)
3 1 4 2/—;—]1 14
1 2 2 3/ 2 | —)]— 11
2 2 4 3); 1 }/—]{— 12
2 2 3 tip} Lo |S 9
— Wy |) ee 1
—/|— P}—}]—] 1 4]— 2
eg Ne | 1/—j|]—] 1 2
44 | 34 | 32/17] 3 | 2] 2 210

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation.
of B. Each Pair entered Once.

Length of A in

Raymonp PEARL

TABLE A3.

microns.

Length of A and Length

140—144
145—149
150—1545
155—159
160—164
165—169
O17),
175—179
180—184
185—189
190—194
195—199

Length of B in microns.

Totals

155—159

>

ra

~tp
Ke)
1
3
™~

190—194

| | eet bo | ro |
| | cron es me | ca

wl larol oe

Hrpwe |

TABLE A 4.

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation.

Length of first conjugant

in microns.

Length of A and Length
of B. Symmetrical Table.

a
f=
(o)
i

ae
=|
fs]

a)

2 | 140—144
a] 145—149
on| 150—154

esi lop 109
S| 160—164
© | 165—169

S| 170-174
S| 175—179
| 180—184

a, | 185—189
© | 190—194

2 | 195—199

~~

a
o Totals

—

>
>
=
|
>
>
™

145—149
150—154

s+} a}~s
xe) xo) =
s ~ ~
a {ald
S Xs) 2
s 4

—179

180 —184

199

185.—189 |
190—194

(7 {9

| | | Ot ee NO Oo

—
Se

a
DAH OMDH w

| | prec awres

8
7
2

2
1

Biometrika v

Totals

277

278

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation.
Breadth of B. Each Pair entered Once.

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation.

Breadth of second conjugant in

microns.

Breadth of A

TABLE A5.

A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

Breadth of A and

in microns.

33—85°'9
36—38'9

Breadth of B in microns.

36-—-38'9

| rane |
| | | worSareo | ow

Ne ool aif

[liens sls

TABLE 4A 6.

Breadth

Breadth of B. Symmetrical Table.

Breadth of first conjugant in microns.

of A and

338—35°9
36—38'9
39—41°9
42—hh9
Ib ty9
48—50°9
51—53°9
54—56°9
57—59°9
60—62:9

Totals

36—38°9

| | ewacmwe

5
2 |
4 |
6
3

} 1
1

ae

| | He bo boo co |

Totals

Raymonp PEARL 279

TABLE 4 7.

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation, Index of A and Index of B.
Each Pair entered Once.

Index of A in per cent.

30—380°9

19—19°9
20-—20°9
21—21°9
22—22°9
23—23°9
24-249
25—25°9
26—26°9
27279
2828-9
29—29°9
30—30°9
31—31°9

2-399
33—33'9

NrWwWNr oS

Index of B in per cent.

Totals

TABLE 48.

Series A. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Index of A and Index of B.
Symmetrical Table.

Index of first conjugant in per cent.

Index of second conjugant in per cent.

vi Totals
19—19°9 a = 1
20—20°9 — 1;—{— 1 3
i229 1.| — 2 2 1 | 6
pS BT) — 1) eae 1 1 2, 1 | — 10
2o—£o'9 LON) 3 4/ 4 1 2 | 26
24—24'9 il 53 2 5 2 1| 4 1} — 22
25—25°9 al 4) 5 6 22 || oy 2 27

26—26°9 1 aby 2 | 10 i5) 2 2 2 34 |

OB —=27°9. 2 1 1 2 5 4 1 6 1 26 |
28—28°9 1 ») 4 1 2, 1 6; Ll] — 18
29—29'9 —|—)| 1 2 2/| 6 1 | — 3 16
380—30°9 2 y) al ; 38 | — 10
ESS e) 1;—/—|]— 2) — — 1 7
lnG2=—82'9 ==] 1 | — 3
338—33'9 1 = 1
Totals 210

280 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE 4 9.

Series A. Cross Homogamic Correlation. Length of A and
Breadth of B.

Breadth of B in microns.

DS
a
|
Se)
w =
5 |
& | 140—144 a ea | 3
=| s—u9 | — 1 SG ip ee en eas eo 5
Slee uesian |= zl Jes = ale aie pene eee |e 5
4) 155-159 | — = | & ) a 10
<q | 160-164 Bl: eae) 6) ay ea | eee as
| 165—169 AN G6 A 8 (eo 25 | |e
S| 170—174 B0| Belg) 5s) o Hl |e a
| 175-179 B8 | 2371| bulacan ean ie 13
So | 180—184 1 bee) Gopl yal) o eee 6
& | 185-189 2/ 1 3
| 790-79, 0
195—199 1 2
Totals 105

TABLE A 10.

Series A. Cross Homoganuc Correlation. Length of B
and Breadth of A.

Breadth of A in microns.

Z
& | 140—144 ce Idee TN es goer 2
se 5 19 ADH eSalen th Oe eat lee 8
Si) 150-15 Te eS ps ae Np 6
| 155—159 Die oenoe le enon Nee 11
pq | 160—164 Al SO Sle Oto ih sll ae ea
~, | 165—169 Sle are act ROR Le ot 22
oh 0 Ss Sale Sul eae ae 12 _
| 175-179 Bull Sul R6el co. moe eal 19
bo | 180—184 eet ee | 1) cowie 11
& | 185—189 1 1
ml | 190—194 See ica) ah este ees oe 3
195—-199 te eee ee 1

Totals

Length of second individual in microns.

RayMonpd PEARL 281

TABLE 411.

Series A. Random Pairing. Length with Length for Conjugants.
Symmetrical Table.

Length of first individual in microns.

Z elsilalsialsila{isziea/xsie |
=) > te) Yon) Ke) ie) ~ io ie) ~*~ D> o>

a ~ il ~ ~ ~ ~ ™ ~ al ~ ~

2 eae tie ee Tes SI Ae tp aotals
=| wW S Ke) > 9D S Koy S | S “Ww

I Bat Ww Xo) Oo Ke) co f ce) na Dp Qa

S ™ Df Ls Lie | Lee | has | mo | = ds | ins Lm |
3 | 140-145 Pestiia| a

=| | Sea Oe et Sale Sin tel ce

= 150—154 dl | ess eal Psa asses |e

= | 155—159 S| el Cale eS) Be: ibe =

Sal) 16016), | ak Gale sale alk ae 9

aS 165-169 3H) oman) aoe as esas

Se 170-17), Se ero eos) oer

9 | 175—179 Te Sy coal tel ee Or HG

| 180—184 Fey el ee OE Se NA e330 8

pee 185-189 aa OMe ae :

2 | 190—194 1 (ae ee es

S| 195—199 ied

5 |
3 Totals ‘ 21 | 24 | 44 | 34

TABLE 4 12.

Series A. Random Pairing. Length with Length for Non-Conjugants.
Symmetrical Table.

Length of first individual in microns.

195—199

145—149
150—154
155—159
160—16}
165—169
170—174
175—179
180—184
185—189
190—194
195—199
200—204
205—209
210—214
215—219
220—224
225229
230—234

| +1 no bo bo no we bo | |
| Heol Ho | v0

| ero | wm rowHr | |
Roel lanes, Paes lies ae

| oo |

| | ron wc | ro | wDNwnwendre

el
I

Totals
L

282

Length of Non-Conjugants in microns.

A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE 4 13.
Series A. Random Pairing. Length of Conjugants with Length of

Non-Conjugants,

Length of Conjugants in microns.

| RD es pel of elena ee het) Oh) | ttoceis
SS) Ss [8 | Ses TS PS ss ie ees
™ ™ ™ ~ ™ = i Let ™ = mm =|
145—149 JF—| 1} —)—}—] —J] — | — | — | — | — | — 1
150—154 _- 1) = — | | = | 1
155—159 — 1 | 2
160—164 | — | — = eS ee 3
| 165—169 — 1} — 3 3 5 1 eA a || 16
17O—174 | — | —] — 1 1 1 2} 2) 4)—);—]— 11
175—179 | — | 2 1 4/ 3/ 2} 8] 5;/—j]—J—]— 20
1S0—184 1/—J]} 1 2); 6) 7{/ 4] 5); 2/—]—] — 28
185—189 _— 1 1 4 4 5 5 3 PAN 4 1 | — 28
190—194 2 1 2 2 3 5 7 3 2 aa 28
195—199 |—| Q 1 HE ee Gat eg Sh 21
200—204 1 1 2 1/—| 4] 2) 2 1}/—]|—J]— 14
205—209 | — 1/— | — 1 5] 2 1;};—/—/;—] 1 11
210—214 J—}| 2] 2] — 1 Sable asa hae 1}; 1 1 1 12
215—219 — 1 | — 1 5 | — 2); —};—}]—] — 9
220—224 1 1
225—229 2);—}—);—}]—]}] — 2
2380—234 - 1 1 = eae 2
Totals 4 | 13] 11 | 21 | 24 | 44 | 34 | 32 | 17 | 4/3] 3 210
TABLE A 14,

Series A. Random Pairing. Length with Length for the two Non-Conjugant Individuals

Length in microns.

nearest to

in microns.

each Pair of Conjugants Measured. Symmetrical Table.
Length

230—234

1U45—149
150—154
155—159

160—164
165—169

TO
Wb
180—18}
185—189

190—194
195—199
200—204
205—209

210—214

215—219

220—224
225—229

Totals

I tee | eee se | 1h

| mee tom po ce | — ro | = ||

gen

vo | wrowe mare |

|

ite

NNR wR OOF Dw

| ro | SE PWWWNe

| | romrorol ree! | |

|

Series B. Measurements in microns of the Length and Breadth of

Raymond PEARL

TABLE B61.

Conjugants and Non-Conjugants.

Conjugants Non-Conjugants
|

Length Breadth Length Breadth
Yel 1538) 43 165 57
B 154 40 182 54
A 183 4] 225 57
B 185 42 184 49
A 165 43 217 50
B 165 39 194 47
A 163 44 181 45
B 160 41 216 56
A 177 48 210 52
B 1738 41 216 54
A 151 | 43 215 57
B 155 47 204 57
A 178 50 196 50
B 171 43 213 49
A 158 36 205 50
B 168 39 205 47
A 178 45 194 52
B 165 39 204 56
A 205 54 196 49
B 184 | 4] 200 52
A 192 47 193 47
B oT 43 198 45
A 127 41 190 52
B 148 42 190 52

283

284 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE C1.

Series C. Correlation of Length with Breadth for
All Conjugants.

Breadth in microns.

Totals
3 | 140-145 ae _ 1
© | 145-149 0 i tee 3
& | 150—154 Zs Wie 9
a | 155—159 NE be 1
160—164 3 4 2 1 18
| 165—169 6| 4 9| 2 34
ey || et OB) Bie= 18
| 75-179 1 Balad 22
| 180—184 3 5 8 3 29
4 | 185—189 1] 4 8 | — 20
190—194 =| 9 3 | 24 26
195-—199 1 1 — 2 8
200—204 1 3
Totals 202
TABLE C2.
Series C. Correlation of Length with Breadth for
All Non-Conjugants.
Breadth in microns.
|
|
| Totals
a |
aloo | 1
S| 150—159 es | 0
| 10-169 | 1] 1/—|] 1] — | ay ee | 3
S| i7o—179 J|—) 2] 4] 1 7
qd 180—189 1 2 7 7 4 1 1)—)}— yer] ] 23
"7 | 490-199 | 1 | 5|/—| 6] .5/ 8}°4}/—|—|—]|—|—|—] 29
S| 200—209 3) 61) BG le | A go: |S) i en ees
a0; 210-219 |—| 1] 2| 4] 7/18} 6] 4) 2;|/—};—|]—]— 39
2 | 220—229 D7 i a) al 4 | 2/2 ),—|— 35
KH | 230—239 Bi adel eget git san ee ee ee I ee
2po—249 F-—|—|—|—] 1} 2/—] 1) 38/1] 1;—]— 9
250—259 J—|—}—}]—}|—|]—] 1}/—!1]/—};—|]—-] 1 3
Totals

Series C. Direct Homogamic Correlation.

Length of B in microns.

RayMonpD PEARL

TABLE

if
/

©
ov.

285

Length of A and Length of B.
Hach Patr entered Once.

Length of A in microns.

Qletl als ilals!/alseiloals a |
= 0 | wD S So | ~ ~~ ~ ise) o> on)
SDE Te a tia ae
4 eisigilsieisigigi/e|s
Ps es es eee aie ||
140—144 | eal
145—149 = ee a |
OT |) a aie) |
155—159 i Ben ys
160—164 ial vil Ge Al ve A
G5 ==169) |= eae Fle =F 7 |
170—174 : | Gul mele eer ea | ete)
175—179 ZR) SP ayy 8 | Ue ho | ee
180—18) ef ee Gs) a), 2 os
185—189 | Tepes! satel) 45 2
190—194 1} —} 1}/—] 1 | 2
TO 5= 199) Me a | 2 2
200—204 | =e
S|
Totals | 2 5 | 4 | 6 a1 9111|12| 7/131 6
|

Series C. Direct

TABLE C4.

Homogamic Correlation.

Symmetrical Table.

Length of first

Length of A and Length of B.

conjugant in microns.

Length of second conjugant in microns.

Wi OR OH WHE

_

>

‘

70—1

1

(o——

eg

1

180—18)

185—189

190—194 |

od ss
a ls
I~ NQ
ie | | Totals
wD S
ae)

— | mb by S&S Or

—
FNONNHE !

—
WNERNON Wr

Sl als |/aitwsia
Ss) S]o | 6 | o 1] GS
~ ~ ~ ~ | ~
d i A | | + wD
S/S) 6 | s6 | S
N n | 4
140—144
145—149 =
150—154 =
159—159 4
160—164 2
165—169 | 8
170—175 1
175—179 1
180—184 2
185—189
190—19}4
195—199
200—204
Totals

=i
Re ee

wroe |

Biometrika v

286 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE C5.

Series C. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Breadth of A and Breadth
of B. Each Pair entered Once.

Breadth of A in microns.

Totals

Breadth of B in microns.

TABLE C6.

Series C. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Breadti of A and Breadth
of B. Symmetrical Table.

Breadth of first conjugant in microns.

= alalealelealealel|lele

be Sis lS SSIS sl sess

q Ge ee he Sie | ees
Bo S/SIS/S/ Sis] Sis]e

S| 80—82:9 fF —-) te 1
~ 2| 3885-9 == lh a an = 2
=o | 3638-9 iT fincas all le eee ee | yi)
2.8 | 39—41°9 WO: | Wen ierls 8. |> 2 een kee
OS | fe 44-9 hb — | 1) al 16 sae ael oes er
na 45—47-'9 F—|— |] 3} 8} 15) 12} 1) — | — 39
° L8°— 509 i ae ONO Ane laa 14
< Ce aah oY (Nee (ene ieee | Se oe a as 1
Z Bi B69) Ai |) Se ee a ee | = 1
fab) SSS SS |

a

faa) Totals

RayMonD PEARL 287

TABLE C7.

Series C. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Index of A and Index of B.
Each Pair entered Once.

Index of A in per cent.

or)
Totals
15)
¢ Cane
CMs 16:0 4p a | 1
,, | 19-199 J—| —|—]|— 0 |
meee —20-oan Dy | =) 2S) | ee 6
ne OI a | Tel rca) ae Weel ee | ee ee 5 |
Pau eo a ||) 2) 6) — | 8 3 2 I) — 16 |
ee a a 2] 2 ey 2) 2) a 14
ee Oa We |, =. | S| Ae Oe OR |, 13
SB ll Peta || | Se BS 15
~ | 2-26-9 J—|]—}—]| 1} 1) 1] 2] 6) 1} 1] 14
® | 27—27:9 a eae hal elk a 11
Fes 28-9 | : se 2
ae SOO Oey ieee ey ae es pe ee | 2
30—30'9 a 2
Totals 101

TABLE (C8.

Series C. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Index of A and Index of B.
Symmetrical Table.

Index of first individual in per cent.

wey

(=}

2 Totals
=

oO

an ee
lees 79°98 [|= | 1 1} 1 : z 33
mo 1998 ea = | = ok | | 2
i a 8
eet Oa ae ae) 8S) el | 18
ae e229 EE | — | 3) 6] 4) 5) 6) 3) 1) —|—)|— 30
S| 29—23'9 P| 1.) 1 | 3] 4) 4) 6} 4) 1] 1] 1)—)— 26
=| 4-279 J—|—|1]}—)| 5] 6] 4] 2) 8] 2] 2 25 |
Seieco— 27 on = | ge ale) 2l oo) BS) oi) — 33
Cnece—— oo ea rt | 8 9) er 4 | od i 25
>| 27—27- Sve eee eee tl teal ell DNB a lh AR eo go) seal 18
ace oh | |) 8) eo) ey Ss) a | 10
SP ese Teo) ol |) 8 | ee ae ec | RR PL eee ee a ee ee 2
p= a WAslee pers |) aera Ree la 2
L@)

Ss Totals |

9

a

88

A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE (09.

Series C. Cross Homogamic Correlation. Length of A
and Breadth of B.

Breadth of B in microns.

Totals

145—149
150—154
155—159
160-—164
165—169
170—174
ee,
180—184
185—189
190—194
195—199
200—204

Totals

to bo |
|
|
|

_

PED WOW Re
bo

WNAWATNWRY OP DP orp

bo dO Or FH Or
|

a

Length of A in microns.
|
eepe |e ie
|
|

[| Hel | ocr | |

pal] Sp eageetico tno es

|

Sh
ee
SS

bo
bo
w
~I
iS)
bo
j=)
—

TABLE C10.

Series C. Cross Homogamic Correlation. Length of B
and Breadth of A.

Breadth of A in microns.

Sale) el/elaleleale
Y LD a) ian SYR S 89
TE at se it siicnekals
- SiS isSsliSlR<lRIiXis
es |
= | 140-144 J—|—|—| 1}/—|—|—]|- 1
“= | 145—149 | es eae | aa 1
Sl P50 foe tee |) a ae elo ee 4
| 5199 J—]1) 1) 1) 3] 1}—|-] 7
16016) Walel| 22h) Oe oni el 12
RQ | 165—169 é 1) 83) 5 he ay) 10
‘| 170-174 [—|—j}| 1] 2] 2] 2) 2] — 9
175—179 | — | — |. 2 | 931) 2). <4 es aa
ss} (80=18y a ea aime om est anlent 17
o©) 185-189 |—|—| 2) 4] 4] 3] — 13
@ | 190190" Pa |e BB iGal 2o a) onal = eas
Ft 5795-199) fe ea Se | i en ee 2
200—204 1 | = 1
Totals 1 | 1 |) 209) 95 | 40.) 207°) 6: | B01

Raymond PEARL 289

TABLE C11.

Series C. Random Pairing. Length with Length for Conjugants.
Symmetrical Table.

Length of first individual in microns.

wb eas Se ~lalxwilalsiea =>

e | <3 VS RS ee ies lee | ea | oes

iS Lt el ae a | let potals
a Isi/els{isilsls|/sis

Sg SiR (R TSR IR sie

5 | a
= | 140-144 3 — | — 1
q | 145-149 | hee | —|— 3
| 150—154 —|—/ bt] g2/—|/—J/—] 2] 1} 8s}/—|— 9
ooo) P| — | a et | ye en
sulmico—fe, 1— | 1 | 2 |=|—! 2) 2) 4)/—] | 3] 2)—] 18
Peon Teo) P=)! Ve 4) 8 8) 4) 2) ob) el ale 34
Seo 7) | — | 1 |}— |) 8 | 2) 4)—)| Fs} 3/—| s|—|— |) te
eo et a a 8 sey) tia | 22
© | 180-185 |—|—| 2] 2]/—| 5] 3] 2) 6] 2] 5) 2})—] 29 |
mimleereo—-159. Ft | | 1 | — | 2 | 5 —{| 2/4] 4/—]1 20 |
% | 190-194 |—|—| 3] 1] 3| 2] 3] 1] 5) 4) 4;—|/—] 26
| 195-199 F—|—|—|—]| 2} 1/—] 1] 2}/—];-—] 2]- 8
25 | 200—204 -| 1{/—]| 1y;—] 1}—]|—J— 3
on ;

a |

S| | Totals

TABLE (@12.

Series C. Random Pairing. Length with Length for Non-Conjugants.
Symmetrical Table.

Length of first individual in microns.

Totals

° = =

| | | | Totals
g SPs S

ln ees Be) aS || She 1
os 150—159 —}— }— } — J — | — ] eK — | — = (6)
rsa 160—169 —}—}]—] — 2;/—}|—]— 1/—/|)—|]— 3
oe 170—179 —|— 2 2) — 1 28" U
S 180—189 —|—]|2 2 4 2 3 33 3 2 2 — 23,
= 190—199 —}|— |] — , 2 2 4 Wf 4 yale 1 29
gq 200—209 —}—|]—J]— 3 4 A) Ws) he le 1 39
S 210—219 1 — | — 1 3 TE A io) 3 1 1 1 39
2 220—229 —|/|— 1 2 3 4/12 3 4 5) 1 = 35
on 230—-239 —}—-|)—|]— 2 5 1 1 5};—|]—]|]— 14
Sh Ae) | re ee ee ea Ue 9
ES 250—259 —|— i 1 1);—]—) —)}| — 3
~

on

f= hy

5)

|

290 <A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE (018.

Series C. Random Pairing. Length of Conjugants with
Length of Non-Conjugants.

Length of conjugants in microns.

. >

g =

S | Totals
= =

g x

a
= | 140-149 NS | 1
8 | 150—159 sa (ae 0
a | 160—169 el 24h ae | ee ee 3
OD) 170-179 1) — | =|; —) 1) 2) 22 eae 7
=| 180-189 }]—|—j| 1 |—| 2)%8)| 1] 4) — 24) 3/22 eae
| 190-199 }—| 1/2] 5| 2] 6| 2] 3) 2] 1/ 4} 1)—] 29
| 200-209, P= 1) 9 eb | a3) Sal SG eonloele emia 39
S| 210-219 | 1 |— | 1 | 2) °2) 2] 5] 6) 7). ok Ges om
| 220-229 |—| 1/3] 21 2] 6) 3] 2)/.-84-5] 4 | 2 | 20 eas
Sa) eeo0 280 PAB) BN Oe) Te a ee
< | 240—249 i Sap erie Sh) Ss 9
2 | 250—259 1 ee Se 3
2 | | |

a a Pn En i GS Mal IG SEES GE IGG Cakes 1

= Totals 1 | 3 | 9 | 11] 18 | 34| 18 | 22] 29 | 20| 26| 8 | 3 | 202

TABLE (14.

Series C. Random Pairing. Length with Length for the two Non-Conjugant
Individuals nearest to each Pair of Conjugants Measured. Symmetrical Table.

Length of first individual in microns.

160—169
180—189

140—149
150—159
160—169
170—179
180—189
190—199
200—209
210—219
220—229
230—239
240—249

250—259

i

|

| ee mec pope

HPewhawane |

| res cram reo bo
—

v0 | Saaka | =

Length of second individual in microns.

Ss

; oO
e
n
—
>
we)
aI
bo
we)

29 | 39 | 39 | 35 | 14

Raymond PEARL

TABLE D1.

Series D. Measurements in microns of the Length and Breadth of

Conjugants and Non-Conjugants.

Conjugants Non-Conjugants
Length Breadth Length Breadth
A 150 40 197 51
B 189 43 189 50
A 200 38 213 50
B 202 41 189 50
A 189 41 206 57
B 191 41 212 54
A_ 168 43 199 50
B 161 43 213 50
A 180 44 207 50
B 184 45 217 49
A 180 47 223 59
B 200 45 210 53
A 196 43 225 49
B 182 40 199 45
A 169 43 203 47
B 184 48 228 52
A 198 36 216 51
B 184 41 230 57
A 183 37 232 54
B 186 44 197 49
A 186 45 217 56
B 167 42 235 56
A_ 160 43 168 44
B 158 42 241 54
A 184 43 243 57
B 189 47 230 54
Aim | 42 225 60
B 167 44 “241 60
A 194 39 241 54
B 189 43 230 56
A 188 44 223 54
B 188 44 266 56

291

292 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE £ 1.
Series HE. Correlation of Length with Breadth for All Non-Conjugants.

Breadth in microns.

| [ at 2 L
SS Sass as SSS: ead) Sale ee

= | 160—169 1

S| 170—179 i

-= | 180—-189 2

E | 190—199 3
¢q 200—209
= OO 219
S| 220-229
of) 2302s
S| 24,0—249
H | 250—259
260—269
270—279

Totals 30
TABLE £2.
Series EL. Frequency Distribution of Length-Breadth Index
for all Non-Conjugants.
| ies 1 Pa (sear
| Index as

in
per cent.

| Frequency : j 2 2: | 13 | | 132

TABLE F'1.

Series F Early. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Length of A, and Length of B.

Each Patr entered Once. Micrometer wit =86 microns.

Length of 6 in units.

| | 9 ¢
7 Totals

= |
5 1 | 4
e Sola See le 6
a Sica soa =e 9
x 1) 4) 4 2 1s) | Ss) ae
oo EE anes ee Mere Sa 1) ag
= —| 1/ 2} 3}—|3]/—|]1)—] 10
2 ae pe 8) ane a peseeiel= |) 8
a aay ee | 1 2
mp ff een | eT ea ee 2
| 2929-9 | he 2
Totals 70

\

RAYMOND PEARL 293

TABLE fF 2.

Series F Karly. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Length of A and Length of B.
Symmetrical Table. Micrometer unit = 86 microns.

Length of first individual in units.

SA ee Ss sy] x | = | Ley a) | wz ~
a N NR RN RX MX SX RN | R N
al cae easel ele
a R y oo) >) » SS} R | xn | a
=
| AO) i |
eece ete 8) | 6) | |
ee Vl | Oy 66d 1 P|
a | 23-239 |—| 1|/ 6] 8] 4] 3] 2) 1]—
eee eer a) A a 6 | 6 Ry
"c. ar
Cae 25-9 he 8 8 eee its!
9 | 26-269 |—|—}|—] 2] 7 egal a
o| 27—a79 |—|—|—]| 1 1 1
«, | 28—28°9 | = ef
S| 29~29°9 ~ Tae
ye
» ’ ’
Co Potals 4 | 14 | 24 | 25 | 30] 14 | 17 | 4 | 5
o
4

TABLE F3.

Series F Late. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Length of A
and Length of B. Each Pair entered Once.

Micrometer untt = 8'6 microns.

Length of B in units.

Totals

wn |
E— 4 ee
S| (.20—20°9: 1" | 1 | 2
S07 07-9 A |. ||) | 9 1 zi 6
Ba 2229 :O N23 5
2393-9 | 1 As | 395) 9) |) 4 . 10
Bae Orn al eon Ns A Wet ae hee ries I
“ | 22:9 | 1|/—] 3| 7| 4] 4] 2 21
OGG ON ah De ON Lh TN ee 8
Cf | 2p ease) | lemon | ot (| es esl Vee Fe Ge fe ae 6
S| 28—289 J—}—]}—] 1}/—] 1 }—}/—] 1 }—-|— 3
® | 2929-9 : Hes 0
elf esq fo te) ea eae | ene fone a 1 1
Siero, P= Te licen Pee 1
Totals aa

Biometrika y 38

294 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium
TABLE F4.

Series F Late. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Length of A
and Length of B. Symmetrical Table.
Micrometer unit = 8°6 microns.

Length of first individual in units.

g gleleleleslealeleleleleles
=S |
is S/T IRlRl( FPP pPSl~RlRpRel_s fs
Bil 220-209 ee 2
mo | P1979) el) Del Gor Sal ee tale 10
= | g2—2e9 | 1 | 2) 4) 3) 2) 2) vel) Se ie
S| 23-239 |—| 3/ 8} 8] 7) 5) 1/—/—|—|—|—] 27
| 227-9 |—|]—| 2/7) 2) 12) 2) 2) 2 | =) 2) ies
| 25—25-0e | 1) Sea) oe eSaleon| ne 33
S| 26—26:9 P— | a] 2) Te ol epee: Sao oie 2a ee ey
Bol) 27279: me ee GTS) Soul oy ee ee 9
PN OS ORO) Nie ee ee ae) ee) rie etn ea 9
=a) || = i — | — 1
= | -80—80:9 es se 1
Pa (Rr Fe | een ee ie fei ar ees |. | — 2
=
4 Totals 2 | 10 | 15 | 27.28 33 | 17 19) | Ou) Te) ae om eass
TABLE AA 1.

Series AA. Correlation of Length with Breadth for Conjugant A.

Length of A in microns.

S > Sd > Sd l=) D1 > lop) Sd o> Sd
Re) NN ive} Ss) SO |W Nils | s wD B Xe)
™ ™ ™ mm RQ | WB XQ Q RN NQ Q QN Q
Ue es aa ek eats ee fe at || Tevetls
S S S Ss S SS) S S S S S SS) S
a) i ise) io) Ss bal iSy] iSn) s> wD Ney ta ise)
= tS ~ ~ RN | NV N RN RN NR SX] iS¥ N
EA eae daggs) nt eens | eter (ee | RE eset fi) eae 3
“ | eal ae 0)
8 a ea | eel — 4
m =) a al | | | 2
‘2 —/1 Sai Iv 2a 2 Laelia | | 11
i =| — | | Si 6) Bi) Bi Me aS | = || — 22
a Me Se Ra Sy Hee} bh at es | 38
1 1/ 1) 6] 6] 38] 8} 2] 1;/—/—]-=— 24
s es ee a ee es ae eee aero pees a |) a
i —|— |] 1] 2] 8] 8) 4] 9) 2) 1 1 i = 26
3 —{—!—j| 8/—] 7] 6] 38/ 2}/—/1/—}1 23
+ == | — | et ee 3
s a ae ab ae ee a PS 6
cy SS | Sy ie ay ee a ee | SS | 6
jaa — | ==) {| — 0)
=| = /—]| = 1 | 1
ee eT eel], ae Sh ee | es ee | ee | ee (0)
ey ee ef ee 2
Totals TO 2 TT | 18136 4 4a) 4s Se eS Om eT 200

Length of B in microns.

RAYMOND PEARL

TABLE AA 2.

Series AA. Correlation of Length with Breadth for Conjugant B.

Breadth of B in microns.

295

AINRiw/w®IiA|T SIL RL OClBl SI AI IN] w® lW®IH [SIR ISIBlel@lAR
a Cc Pn an A Wa De aD po

a 3 alola|e a ein {sl/r is |e |e @ |X] /ola|s a

NHN pean cla foc) ies iD to Bey |S SBS |O| 6 he al oeg ie O19 1S
160—169 = 1j/—|-1/—/ 12}/—| 3
170—179 \— a 1/ 2 | | = 3
180—189 |— aes ae pees | oe a = | 4
190—199 | De See el eo) Ge ao Tele lh | ae | : i8
|| — | | 3) 2) 4116) 6) 10) 3) 4) 2 j 1 53
210—219 | — | — oso le Meyer Fl 6ile6 | 6 Wht lhe 41
oo || |—|1]/ 1| 2) 3) 6] 3] 8] 3] 2). Bee | S| es
230—239 | — ri On ee eG eal Ol artes! o5) ia | 25
240 —249 : may pa ee ee eo on) Oe | ete ae s3) | 2 = 13
oe || | — | | | — | — | 2) 1] 2i—| 241 ai ce
260269 t—— | — | — Sees) oh “\e | il 4
al ear —
Totals [1/0/0;0 5 | 11] 12/18 36 | 81 | 32 | 18 | 12] 2) 14/3} 0]2)1)/0/ 0/2] 200

Series AA. Direct Homogamic Correlation.

TABLE AA 3.

Symmetrical Table.

Length of A and

Length of B.

Length of second individual in microns.

160—169
170—-179
180—-189
190—199
200-—209
210—219
220—229

230 —239
240—249
250—259
260—269
270—279
280—289

Totals

| ei SE Rw Ree
| Eom]

|

— bd bo
OUD WS Crate

| cx

| mRaaaaAH |

Wor TOR Re
| Rertoe | _

ro | co | vo |

Length of first individual in microns.
alaialalalalalalalalalsale
SiS ISIS l(S elif lSlisiBislisls
~ ™ Lan ~ RN RQ RN RQ » RQ RQ QQ Q
Re el ae al ily eats i Botals
ESR On | Seiic | Pom| soa om ice | Roe [aces
SiR /HIS/SIHIRI Sl Sslsl1/sielsa
SIA Tn Parl R{[re~TRel Res rxl|ReslRIr2) a

296 A Biometrical Study of Conjugation in Paramecium

TABLE AA 4,
Series AA. Direct Homogamic Correlation. Breadth of A and Breadth of B. Symmetrical Table.

Breadth of first individual in microns.

elelelelel/elelelelejeleleleleleleleslelelele
SIS/SPS Sl SPS ~ Sp sys; Sissy sys le IIE S/S 1S 1S 1S brotars
sisisisj¢/a/4iale/sisl[$/aisiéleisisleleisls
s Se |] 9 [89/8 | | ep A | Ste | | S| SS SR Sean ieee ecm ae
5 QY__99+9 1
aa
S | 30—32:9 0
& | 3335-9 = 1 3
gq | 36—38-9 — 0)
|) 39419 Of eh et 1 9
= | 42—44-9 2| 3 2 = 13
= | 45—47°9 Ol ea es 2 - 23
= 48—50°9 S71 cb Nee if 3 40
-& | 51539 2 | 98 | 10 13 | 4 74
= | 5456-9 29 | 7 8 | 2 5D
"| 5759-9 2| 3| 2 7 if 61
"S | 6062-9 ie 6 5 44
5 | 63—65°9 3 2 4 35
® | 66—68'9 =) 5
ee bGOae7 129 20
‘Ss | 72_74:9 9
Real oo 0
= | 78—s0-9 3
S| s1—83-9 1
8486-9 2
AQ | s7—so-9 )
90—92°9 2
Totals 5 ‘ By PBF | 5! j 44 2 | 400

TABLE AA 5.
Series AA. Cross Homogamic Correlation. Length of A and Breadth of B.

Breadth of B in microns.

60—62°9
69—71°9

——

160—169
170—179
180—189
190—199
200—209
210—219
220—229
230—239
240—249
250—259
260—269
270—279
280—289

‘

Length of A im microns.
EF poro dee
—
| eH worn pRwWe

Bpoowows
He wIowppw
=| wrormape

Hroe nono | oe
| E
| | = | no eo er bo bo oo

Totals

——

Length of B in microns.

Series AA. Cross Homogamic Correlation.

RAYMOND PEARL

TABLE AAG.

Breadth

Length of B and Breadth

of A in microns.

297

160—169
170—179
180—189
190 —199
200—209
210-—219
220—229
230—239

240—249
250—259

260-—269

Totals

| ro | auoawsae! oe

| ERS ie bon aT bo |

60—62°9

68—65°9

66—O8'9

7T8S—80°9

(

—

FNNWNODOF

wnNernTPeor

| ca

KH wpe

THE ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE INMATES OF ASYLUMS IN SCOTLAND.

By J. F. TOCHER.

(1) Introductory.

THE idea of making anthropometric observations on the inmates of asylums
in Scotland originated with Dr Macpherson, Commissioner in Lunacy. At his
suggestion and through his instrumentality the survey was carried out by the
writer and his assistants. The survey forms part of a scheme, entertained by the
Henderson Trust of Edinburgh, and has for its aim the making of an anthro-
pometric examination of the physical characters of the Scottish people. In view
of the fact that the data could be very easily collected, it was considered advisable,
in the first instance, to commence with the asylum class of the population.
Measurements were therefore begun on the inmates in December 1903, and with
the assistance and cooperation of the medical superintendents and staffs of the
various asylums, were carried out and completed by the end of 1904. The data,
collected and classified, have just been published by the Henderson Trust in
the form of a Report, which is reprinted as a supplement to this Volume of
Biometrika. This Report is intended by the Trust to be, and is, a repository of
facts at the disposal of those who make a special study of the head form of Man,
but it advances nothing whatever by way of interpretation of the facts themselves.
Since the Henderson Trust is interested only in the collection of data, it is not
by omission, but by design that the Trustees have, very properly, excluded from
their Report any statements purporting to interpret the results or to reach general
conclusions. That task is now attempted here. As the organiser of the survey
and the person responsible for the Report, the writer has been accorded the first
opportunity of making the necessary statistical analysis which must precede any
interpretation of the data. The results of this analysis, together with a statement
of such conclusions as have been reached, are embodied in the present memoir.

Altogether 4436 males and 3951 females were observed, but from these
numbers 55 males and 26 females were excluded from the general analysis,
because they were held to be exceptional cases by the medical superintendents

J. F. Tocuer 299

under whose care they were. These persons were suffering from some congenital
defect such as idiocy, or were rickety, syphilitic, or tuberculous, in such manner
as directly to affect their anthropometric characters*. There were accordingly
left 4381 males and 3925 females to represent the general lunatic population.
Medical experts would no doubt agree that others might be excluded if a thorough
knowledge of their history were available. It is therefore highly probable that
an undetermined residue of exceptional cases remains. An elaborate investigation
would, however, be required to reveal these cases, and as such an investigation
was, under the circumstances, out of the question, and would affect the results
of the present enquiry only in a very slight degree, the 4381 males and 3925
females are taken to represent substantially what may be termed the ordinary,
normal asylum, or general insane population—i.e. those mentally affected, exclusive
of the specific cases just mentioned. In view of the results of recent investi-
gations by Pearl+ and Blakeman{ establishing a direct connection between age
and certain physical characters, an analysis of the data in age groups would
have been useful, and would have furnished valuable additional information in
the comparative study of the inmates of individual asylums. Since the age range
in the asylums is a pretty wide one, there is little doubt that our information
as to the physical characters of the immates would have been more complete
had an age analysis been made. In recording the measurements at the asylums,
however, no note was made, at the time, of the age of the inmates, and it was
only when the statistical analysis was being carried out that the importance of
separation in age groups was fully recognised. It was then found that consider-
able additional expense would have been incurred in furnishing an accurate
statement of the ages of those observed, and any treatment of the data with
respect to age groups was therefore abandoned. Since, however, none but adults
are included in the analysis, any conclusions reached are those based on an
adult population.

As explained in the Supplement§ and in the Henderson Trust Report(,
observations were made on a selection of both measurable and non-measurable
characters of inmates. The measurable characters observed and recorded were
those of stature (S), head length (L), head breadth (B), and head height (7);
the non-measurable characters were those of hair colour, eye colour and nose
contour. Head length was measured from the most prominent point of the
glabella to the occipital point. J is therefore maximum head length. The head
breadth measured was the maximum breadth above the level of the ear. Head
height was taken from the mid points of the auricular passages to the vertex; in
some respects, as will be seen from the analysis, this is a somewhat indefinite
measurement. The hair categories were red (R), fair (F'), medium (J/), and
dark (D). Red included light, bright and dark red; fair consisted of white,

* All cases of idiocy when recognised ab initio were excluded, or if measured were afterwards
excluded under this head.

+ Pearl: Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 13—104. { Blakeman : Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 124—160.
§ Biometrika, Vol. v. Suppl., p. 3. || Henderson Trust Report, Vol. 1. p. 14.

300 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

flaxen, and golden yellow; medium included chestnut and all shades of brown
except dark brown and black. The eye categories were light, medium and
dark. Light included light grey, blue or bluish grey. Dark embraced simply
hazel brown and dark brown, while medium covered a mixed class (including
grey) which were neither light nor dark. Hair if turned grey was not recorded.
The nose shapes recognised and recorded were straight (S), Roman (2), Jewish (J),
concave (C), and wavy (W).

It seems desirable at the outset to state the problems which, from the nature
of the data, it appears necessary to deal with.

(a) The fundamental problem clearly is: Does the insane population differ
from the sane population? and this necessitates a comparison between sane Scots
and insane Scots. No general comparison can, however, be made between these
two classes since samples of the normal population in the various districts from
which the insane population is drawn have not yet been measured. Only two
or three short series are available for comparison. These will be dealt with
under the districts to which they belong. Only pauper lunatics having been
measured the population of each asylum is a local sample of the district served
by that asylum.

(b) Do the data differ in the form of their distribution from data already
collected from other, presumably sane populations ?

(c) Do different parts of Scotland differ sensibly from each other, assuming
the insane population to be an anthropometric sample of each local population ?

(d) Is there any reason for supposing greater homogeneity or heterogeneity
in one part of Scotland than in another ?

(e) What general conclusions on other points may be drawn ?

(2) Relation between the Nature of the Distributions for Sane and
Insane Populations. Problem (b).

In this section it is proposed to consider, not the absolute values of the type,
variation and correlation of characters, but the general question of how closely
the form of the frequency distribution is the same for these two classes of the
general population. This may be done (1) by discussing the frequency curve for
the distribution of a single character, or (2) by considering the nature of the
regression curve for two characters.

(i) Distributions. It bas been shown by a number of writers (Fawcett *, Pearson
and Leet, Macdonellt, and Pearl§), that, with short series, frequency curves for
anthropometric characters such as stature, head measurements, cranial measure-
ments and indices follow closely, but not without sensible exceptions, the normal or
Gaussian curve. It becomes therefore a problem of much interest to determine

* Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 443. + Biometrika, Vol. 11. pp. 361—369.
+ Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 227, § Biometrika, Vol. tv. p. 40.

J. F. TocuHEer 301

whether there are more marked deviations with long series generally, or in the case
of the insane, from this form. In the latter case, such would probably arise if
the bulk of the insane were characterised by two or more special head shapes ; for
example, if the insane had special tendencies to macrocephaly and microcephaly.

As stated in the introductory paragraph, certain individuals have been excluded
from the general analysis, because they were considered by their medical attendants
to have characters affected by special causes, not characteristic of insanity in
general. The differences arising in the frequency distributions, according as these
cases—throughout this memoir, termed exceptionals—are included or excluded,
will now be noted. The constants have been calculated for the “entire insane”
population—4436 males and 3951 females—and also for the “general insane”
population, i.e. without the exceptionals—4381 males and 3925 females. The
values of the constants are given in the following table (Table I.). They show
that the distributions are more or less skew, and that when the “entire insane”
population is considered, the extremes in the range affect the goodness of fit
considerably—in other words, while the skew or normal curves fitted to the
distributions fairly describe their nature when considered as a whole, the most
important contributions to defect of fit arise from the “ tails.” Even the “ general
insane” population shows for most characters excess frequency at the tails, in-
dicating the probability that the homogeneity of the series is affected by the
“undetermined residue” referred to above.

Considering the “entire insane” population first, we see that (a) the skew-
ness measured by y is probably significant in all cases since it amounts in each
case to three, or more, times the probable error, (b) the kurtosis, 7, is in all
cases significant, amounting in every case to many times the probable error. In
all the distributions, the positive values of 7 indicate leptokurtic curves, their
magnitudes very largely depending on outlying observations, as will presently be
seen*. Thus the skewness and leptokurtosis so affect the distributions that their
frequencies cannot be represented by normal curves. Considering further the
“entire insane” population, we see that «, lies between 0 and 1 and therefore
Type IV. is the actual form needed, but since «, is in every case very small it is
clearf that the distributions will, if 8, be very small and £, differ in excess
significantly from 3, approach closely to Type IV. with symmetry}. This actually
occurs for all characters but stature, 8, being less than ‘03 in all cases except one
(1) when it is only ‘1 and 8, = 3+, differing very sensibly from 3. Thus it is
seen that the “entire insane” population approaches to symmetry§ in distribution
of head characters, and the deviation from normal frequency, accordingly, is not

* In 10 out of 24 cases, C. D. Fawcett’s series shows leptokurtosis, while Macdonell’s English series
shows 14 cases of leptokurtosis out of 26. Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 442, Vol. 111. p. 228.

+ Pearson: Phil. Trans. A. Vol. 197, pp. 443—459.
~ That is to the form: y=y.[1+.2?/{20? (m,—4))]-™4+)), where B,-3=6/(2m,—3). Professor
Pearson points out to me that there is an unfortunate interchange of m, and mg in the memoir, lines

2, 3,4 and 5 from bottom. Biometrika, Vol. 1v. p. 174. -
§ Not absolute symmetry, because the values of 8,, although small, do differ sensibly from zero.

Biometrika v 39

Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

302

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J. F. Tocuer 303

in the main produced by a heterogeneity depending solely on the presence of a
macrocephalic or of a microcephalic group alone. In the case of stature, the values
of 8, are considerably larger. The skewness of the distribution is more marked
and is largely due in the case of females, and to some extent in the case of males,
to the existence of a dwarf element in the “entire insane” population. This
element in the females is in the main identical with the group termed “ex-
ceptionals,” removed from the “entire insane” population in the manner already
explained.

Some peculiarities of the “exceptionals” deserve to be noted. Among the
males the head height of the group is much greater than that of the “general
insane” population—in other words the male “exceptionals” are a hypsicranial
group. The female “exceptionals” are small sized generally; in all characters
the means are significantly less than the “general insane” population. The
variability of the “exceptionals” for all head characters and for stature is very
great indeed and is found to be due to excess frequeucies on both sides of the
range and a corresponding defect in the frequencies about the mean. The ex-
ceptionals are thus mainly a mixture of two groups, one, larger sized in all
characters—a megameric group, and another smaller sized in all characters—
a micromeric group. An inspection of the following table (Table IT.) will serve to
emphasize these points.

TABLE IL.
|
‘‘ Entire Insane” Population | ‘‘ General Insane” Population Exceptionals
Character —— = = = _
Mean | 8. D. Mean 8. D. Mean 8. D.
Le. 195°5 | 6°78 195°5 6°55 196°7 16°37
Bauer. 151°5 5°53 151°5 5°39 151°7 13°42
Hg . 136°7 5°85 136°7 5°58 147°2 20°75
ISG 65°7 2°90 65°9 2°84 65°4 4:22
TQ. 186°4 6°23 186°5 6°04 176°5 10°97 |
BQ. 145°2 5°03 145°3 4°91 142°9 BPI ||
Ho . 131°0 5°54 131°0 5°43 125°3 14°62 |
Sans 60°9 2°72 61:2 2°58 58°4 5°77
|

The mean is less than the mode for all characters except auricular height,

f and @, in which cases it is sensibly greater. Since the “general insane”
population forms a pretty long series, one can hardly compare the asymmetry
values with those of the very much shorter series of Fawcett and others, since the
probable errors in these latter cases are relatively very large. Four long series
from general sane populations are however available for stature: (a) Baxter's
American recruits*, (8) Powys’s New South Wales observations+, (vy) Weldon’s
Verona statisticst (Italian conscripts and recruits), and (6) Macdonell’s 3000 English

* Pearson: Phil. Trans. Vol. 186 A, p. 385.

+ Powys: Biometrika, Vol. 1. pp. 43—46.

+ Pearson; Biometrika, Vol. 1v. p. 506.

39—2

304 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

criminals. One long series is available for Z and B, viz. Macdonell’s criminals.
In the case of the 25,878 American recruits there is a very distinct positive
asymmetry (‘038 +004) accompanied by mesokurtosis. The New South Wales
males show quite significant negative asymmetry for the age groups 25—30 and
60 and over, perhaps significant negative asymmetry for the 40—50 and 50—60
groups, while the 20—25 and 30—40 groups are not significant although still
negative. Mr Powys while noting that, for each group, I/,< M,, observes that
the skewness in all cases is small, but relatively this is not so, for at least the
25—30 and 60 upwards groups. The Italian conscripts and recruits both show very
significant negative asymmetry, agreeing with the New South Wales males and
the Scottish “general insane” population. ‘The conscripts show very marked
leptokurtosis, and the recruits significant platykurtosis. For four long series, then,
viz. New South Wales males, Italian conscripts, Italian recruits-and the Scottish
general insane population, there is agreement as to asymmetry—in all four
cases 1b is significantly negative; in one case, the American recruits, there is
quite significant positive asymmetry. In two cases of very long series there is
relative symmetry, viz. 15,117 N.S. W. males (80—40), and 5442 N.S. W. males
(20—25) group. Macdonell’s 3000 English criminals show slight negative asym-
metry. Thus it is seen that in these long series of stature distributions, considered
without reference to the ages of the adults in the populations measured, there is
significant asymmetry in all cases except one; in three cases it is negative, in one
only is it positive. It falls finally to be noted therefore that the negative
asymmetry in stature of the “general insane” population is not specially
characteristic of the insane; it is also a characteristic of some sane populations.
As already stated, no very long series of head measurements are available for
comparison with the exception of the 3000 English criminals, the skew curve
of B for the series being given by Macdonell*. Here again negative asymmetry

”

is found, and since the ratio x = 334, the deviation from symmetry is probably
x

significant. The JZ distribution of the same series also shows distinct negative
asymmetry, the ratio “ = 3°40 being found by the writer from the figures kindly
Xx

supplied by Dr Macdonell. Thus in L and B, just as in stature, when long series are
pitted against long series, there is agreement us to the nature of the distribution,
which seems to be in the direction of negative asymmetry. The rule, therefore, as
stated by Fawcettt, Macdonellt and Pearl§ for short series of distributions of
anthropometric characters does not appear to hold for long series.

For LZ and H, except the above case for L, only short series are at present
available, and since there is no definite deviation in one direction more than
another for these (Macdonell’s English Crania, Fawcett’s Naqada Crania, etc.), and
since the probable errors are large, no comparison can profitably be instituted
between them and the long Scottish series.

* Macdonell: Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 183. + Fawcett: Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 443.
{¢ Macdonell; Biometrika, Vol. ut. p. 227, § Pearl: Biometrika, Vol. 1v. p. 40,

J. F. Tocuer 305

The general “ goodness of fit” of skew and normal curves for the “entire insane”
population may next be considered. Taking first the normal curves, we find that
in every case the fit is extremely bad; the skew curves show fairly good fits
for head breadth (f~ and $), tolerable perhaps for H (f° and $) and bad for
stature and L (f and ?). If now the values for the “general insane” population
are examined, it is found that the fit of normal curves is very bad for stature and H
(f and $), poor for B, and tolerable only for Z. It must therefore be concluded
that the rejection of the medically defined exceptionals does not convert the
distributions into good normal curves. This can be seen from Table I., where the
analytical constants are calculated for the “general insane” population. It is
found that (1) the skewness still remains significant for L (¢), H(#) and H (2)
and perhaps for B (¥*), (ii) the leptokurtosis is still significant for B(f and ?),
H (¥') and possibly for Z (f and $). Summarising, good normal fits are not
obtained for the “entire insane” population whether
considered as in Table III. or the values of the analytical constants as in Table I.

“

general goodness of fit” is

TABLE III.

Goodness of Fit. Entire Insane Population. Summary of Tests.

2 | 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-

| No. of in X-M>*

| oath “| Percentage c=

: dividuals : a -Nature of
h U N : ll o 2
Character | Sex | nit umber especially onelie ‘i Pointae flecte a | Curve fitted | x P
affecting Fit a axis

|

if : —4:°79 | :
dé 3mm.| 4436 5 11 44-95 TypeIV | 67°75 | Very Small
B $ 2mm} 4436 23 52 fey to — 4°34 ’ 26°60 -304
HH ad 2mm 4436 18 ‘41 —3°29+4+2°87 5 35°20 ‘110
8 3 |2in. | 4401 73 Td Meee) [mee 65-90 | Very Small
ie Q 3mm.) 3951 25 63 pea ? 54°10 :
B ° 3mm 3951 3 08 —4°4] Pf 18°80 *328
Al °° |2mm 3951 Ti 18 — 2°79 to — 3°88 x 32°10 115
Ss Q Zin. | 3915 93 2°38 } Rae. 68°50 | Very Small
L 6 3mm 4381 10 23 —3:12 to—4:03 | Normal 22°10 “140
B 6 |2mm 4381 8 18 — 3°36 i 39°10 Small
H S$ | 2mm.| 4381 42 96 +2°30 to +3°73 : | 84°20 | Very Small
S 3d | 2 in. 4393 38 87 —3°13 to —4°54 . | 495-80 55
L ? |3mm 3925 29 74 — 1°89 » 23°50 ‘170
1B, o9 3mm 8925 15 38 — 3°30+3°40 x 43°00 Small
H @ 2mm.) 3925 37 ‘94 ies te ‘ 54-40 | Very Small
Ss 9 |2in 3890 20 52 sat a hes 2 325°50 P
* M=Mean. X=Absolute magnitude of character. Relative scale is aes :

306 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

The removal of medically defined “exceptionals” tends to improve the goodness
of a normal distribution, but it is far from making it essentially good.

On the other hand the only test made of the goodness of fit of skew curves for
the “general insane” population is im the case of LZ (~"), and this gives P = ‘88,
a splendid fit as compared with the P=-14 of the corresponding normal fit, or the
practical impossibility of fit at all for the “entire insane” population before the
“exceptionals” are removed. It seems likely therefore that the skew curves
would describe the “ general insane” population satisfactorily in these cases where
the normal curve fails. This is a case again of close approximation to symmetry,
differing to some extent from normality. But until long series of sane populations
are measured it cannot be said that in the “general insane” population there is a
wider deviation from the normal curve than occurs in samples of the “general
sane” population.

It seems desirable to notice more specially the H distributions, the physical
constants of which indicate a wider deviation from the normal curve than exists in
either of the two characters [ and B. Dealing firstly with H, we find that,
while the values of B,, 8., «, and «, are less than for the whole series (x, still
indicating Type IV.) significant leptokurtosis is associated with significant asym-
metry, and that, owing to the emphasis on the positive side of the range between
2°30 to 3°73 on the relative scale, the normal curve fails to fit the distribution.
The distribution of H? shows a different type of curve from the one deduced. for
the “entire insane” population. The value of «, being >1(1°813) a curve of
Type VI. is indicated. A 5 mm. grouping however gives «, = ‘8, indicating Type IV.
Mesokurtosis occurs with significant asymmetry, and, compared with the normal
curve, there is emphasis on both sides of the range. The emphasis occurs at the
points 2°49 and 3:23 on the negative, and 2°68 and 3:42 on the positive side of the
relative scale. Since the skewness in the character H is certainly significant,
both in males and females, since a relatively greater proportion affects the good-
ness of fit of the normal curve, and since H shows greater relative variability it is
evident that this character differs somewhat from LZ and B in the nature of its
distribution. Here, however, the character head height, as defined in the first part.
of this memoir, must be considered.

It should be noted that the character H in the living head, as measured from
the mid points of the ear passages to the vertex, cannot properly be compared with
any of the three similar measurements on the skull, even after due allowance is
made for scalp-depth. These three measurements are as follows:

(1) Basi-vertical height, i.e. height of skull, from the basion to the point on
the top of the skull vertically above it, perpendicular to the horizontal plane of
the Frankfurt Concordat—the German horizontal plane. This plane is determined
by three points, the two highest points on the upper rims of the auricular passages
and the lowest point on the under rim of the left eye socket.

(2) Auricular height, i.e. the vertical height of the skull measured perpen-
dicular to the German horizontal plane, in a line perpendicular to the auricular

J. F. Tocuer 307

axis round which the skull swings when suspended from the uppermost points of
the upper rims of the auricular orifices. This height is taken by some to the
bregma.

(3) Basi-bregmatic height, i.e. the height of the skull measured from the
basion to the bregina.

In (1) and (2) the highest point in the vault of the skull is determined by the
German plane, and therefore these measurements may not be quite so satisfactory
as (3), the basion and the bregma being two fairly definite anatomical positions.
But in the living head, the conditions of (1), (2), and (3) are never reached. The
centre or mid points of the ear holes are not positions so definitely ascertained as
the uppermost position on the temporal bone of the external auditory canal, as
indicated by the suspension of a skull on two pointers. The soft tissue of the ear
yields readily to the slightest pressure, and, therefore, with an instrument having
blunt or spherical ends for the ear passages, the greatest care must be exercised in
order to avoid drawing the ear up. Any error arising through this however in
the asylum survey would be small, as the greatest care was exercised in deter-
mining the position. Probably the error is small also at the upper limit, although
with the greatest care, one cannot expect the same precision as is obtainable
with length and breadth, when it is remembered that the upper limit is “the top
of the head, measured in a vertical plane when the eyes are directed to the
horizon.” What seem more important and real are the thickness of the scalp,
the hair, and the slight variations in the pressure on the instrument. Thus it is
difficult to say whether the positive skewness in the distribution of head heights
is due severally or jointly to (1) nature of the measurement, (2) nature of
the instrument, and (3) to the observer, or (4) whether the positive skewness
belongs to the character itself and is really in the nature of its distribution.

To summarise, it is clear that the distributions of the various characters,
whether the “entire insane” or the “general insane” population is considered,
may be described with fair accuracy by skew curves, with the exception of Z
(f and $ “general insane”) which may be fairly described by the normal
curve. (See Diagrams I. to VIL)

Further, it has just been shown that for long series, just as great divergencies
from normality as exist among the “general insane,” occur among the sane
population, although greater divergencies are shown when the “entire insane”
population is considered. It is not, however, established that there is not a differ-
ence in the form of distribution between the sane and the “general insane.” So
far as Scotland is concerned this cannot be definitely determined until a corre-
sponding general survey is carried out. This analysis and discussion thereon
merely show that when long series are pitted against long series, quite as great a
divergence from normality, as measured by the kurtosis and asymmetry, occurs
among the sane as among the insane. The question whether there is really a
difference in the form of distribution between the sane and insane must be left an
open one when it is remembered that, after the striking “exceptionals” are

308 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

Dracram I, Head Length.—4436 Males.

900 — ——- _——
800 === =)
700 ai te Fea
600 Ir ca
500} + +
400; —
00} + t + ]
200 1 f a= —t

|

Ag

100 a

be

a

PSe

163. «166:«=Ct«GDSs«‘tT2~C*‘*‘TS:*SC«AT®SCOC«éSY~C(‘édmBA;*SC*#«*WKT*S*«dKD:SC«‘KS:Ssé<“‘iS]:SCAS]Ss«OR_~=s-205-'«08—s— NTS 220
Skew Curve — -—-—- Normal Curve - - - - - -

Dracram II. Head Length.—Skew Curve.—4381 Males.

900r i

| it | |
800 == ; i 1 |
700+ — JL = +
600
AL
500 ~— 32
\
\\
foaled { | |
il
300 dL Sil \ |
x i
imi
200 NE
' \ |
A |
100 ; a | ane
V1 1S |
0 eS Lali | | see |

184 187

J. F. Tocuer 309

Dracram III. Head Height.—4436 Males.
700 ;-— 7 r ij 7 T —_—— i — =

7s WIS 1215 1235 1255 275 1295 11S 335 1355 137°5 13995 ws 1435 455 1475 1495 1Shs 4535; 1559 1575,
Skew Curve — - — -—- Normal Curve - - - - - -

Dracram IV. Stature.—4401 Males.

1360 | iz | | —- Ts 5

49 53

51

Skew Curve — -— - — -
Biometrika v

310 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

Diacram V. Head Breadth.—3951 Females.

ialan rea mie
1000 -f—. i + +
900 | all
800 t = } =
| |
| i |
700 + + } jee || eee ce t =
H \\
' x
\\
| | : vs |
; | / } itt |
600 zl Benen Pes Ue ee j Poort ed eee
| ‘ iM
| Ay ll ales |.
<< uy \.
| | | | | J | = at | 4
500 Se eee zl = a == is = = \ 4 a
EP ' N |
| | | | q 1
| | ! : \
| 1 ‘ H | | |
400! | ice al sel eee Ea ak Se ee Heel
| | | ‘| | | | I\
| | 3 ees ‘
| | | i| | | lia \
" ime ee ei ee ee |
I | | ' | | ' |
| | al Ai | ANG \
a : ine
| i / | | y .
| | | | : | | | f | \ |
| | \ Hae |
200 Sas ha HI sien aie fal ——— \\ al
| yf. }
| | | WA H |
| | ee] |
foo} —_t___} |__| Se ee et | ——
| | i |
| | | | | ‘ |
eal i! LL SS
teeter tt dt UT, a) eS |, ger I ae Serle =
123 126 129 132 135 138 141 144 147 150 153 156 159 (62 165
Skew Curve — - — - — - Normal Curve - - - - --

Diacram VI. Head Height.—3951 Females.

“TTP Ty ee
2 / :

500 { { ea eh

400 al ee

300 t

200 | — | =a

100 = 4 =e

|
155 "7s NdS 120591123557 1125:5 1275 1295 tS 1335 135°S B75 139'5 1415 1435 1455 475 149°5 StS
Skew Curve — - — - — - Normal Curve - - - - - -

9s S155

J. F. TocHer 311

Diacram VII. Stature.—3915 Females.
1360 = - z z

{280

1200

1120

1040

eae

Skew Curve — - — - — - Normal Curve - - - - - -

removed for the reasons given above, it cannot be said whether others should
or should not be removed by a similar process of reasoning. Heterogeneity,
however, may exist. If, for instance, local groups at each individual asylum are
taken and their degrees of goodness of fit to the normal curve tested, it is
found that, with a 5 mm. grouping, this curve gives very good fits in 125 cases
out of 176 (see Table IV.). This, indeed, shows no more than that, for small
samples of the insane, the normal curve describes the distribution within the
probable errors of the constants, exactly as Fawcett, Macdonell, and others have
shown for small cranial series. The divergence from normality in both the “entire
insane” and the “general insane” populations of Scotland is therefore either
(a) real because the greater numbers allow of more accurate determinations of the
kurtosis and asymmetry constants, or (b) spurious and due to the introduction of
local heterogeneity. The evidence for and against heterogeneity will presently be
considered.

(ii) Correlations. The correlations and the nature of the regression curves
for two characters will now be briefly considered. The first main point to be
noted is that the values of the coefficients for the “entire insane” population are
uniformly greater than those of the “general insane.” This is chiefly due to the

40—2

312 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

TABLE IV.
Goodness of Fit. Normal Curve. Individual Asylums.
Value of P.
(For 5 mm. grouping.)

L B Jel S
Males Females; Males |Females| Males | Females} Males | Females

Aberdeen ... ae ‘916 042911 164 | ‘171 184 831 “350
Dumfries ... | 815) | 3797 "850 281 ‘869 ‘372 915 782
Dundee ... sone | ee 107 893 636 "920 "447 “730 995
Edinburgh me 986 “880 311 221 995 934 "219 341
Montrose ... ae sO) 973 886 ‘660 925 606 610 “860
Argyll Ses Bue “758 238 273 663 042 864 ‘756 834
Ayr we aae ‘778 834 822 506 730 180 *885 "782
Banff soe oe eooS ‘768 645 “860 044 822 sia 584
Elgin wee nan =| «A 8h828) 954 588 255 807 "732 062 ‘413
Fite Te we. | ‘925 983 516 “600 016 296 188 ‘756
Glasgow (Gartloch) 629 091 "107 234 | °516 953 624 612

, (Lenzie) 678 ‘719 “570 304 | +144 195 021 183
Govan... .. | 249 ‘444 ‘819 ‘403 | ‘098 "382 022 ‘875
Haddington ee | ee20 881 "136 ‘801-954 991 612 ‘296

| Inverness... eel 943 526 963 | *085 900 030 333
Lanark nee | 163 |. 277 948 658 825 169 597 056
Midlothian .. | 690 749 939 ‘277 885 779 “782 331

| Perth ane .. | 752 | *834 ‘O72 822 214 *730 612 842
| Roxburgh .. | 7488 “680 995 139 | =°617 837 952 544
| Stirling... site "885 636 | 903 953 | ‘701 537 ‘811 423
Greenock ... es 933 972 964 684 | 429 901 189 393
Paisley... oe 639 “420 ‘986 ‘76 348 ‘451 ‘875 959
pales oy i9 | 18 17 idee ae 15 15 14

good fits | |

“exceptionals ’ which are mostly “outliers” in the tables of pairs of distributions
considered. The second main point to be noted is that the values for males and
females are approximately equal and do not diverge to the extent shown in the
values of the corresponding coefficients in most other published results. In the
“entire insane” series the most highly correlated pair of characters is that of
L& B,and then follow L& H,B& H,L&S,H&8S,and B&S. The greatest
divergence between the values of the coefficients for males and females appears in
the case of the pair of characters L, S, the difference being ‘3284 — -2573 =-0711.
There is closer agreement in the “general insane” series, the greatest difference,
‘0355, between the values for males and females occurring in the case of the pair
of characters L, H.

The reader will find in Table V. a summary of the coefficients evaluated while
the lines of regression of head length on stature, 2, and head breadth on head
length, ¢, are shown in Diagrams VIII. and IX. It will be seen from Table VII.
that, taking head measurements,—to be directly comparable—there is a higher

J. F. Tocuer 313

Dracram VIII. Line of Regression; Head Length on Stature. 3915 Females.
Mean Length 186-42 mm. Mean Stature 60-9 in.

4 ie al Hfaae

|

170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205

Diacram IX. Line of Regression; Head Breadth on Head Length.—4381 Males.
Mean Length 195°47. Mean Breadth 151°53.

ee eee | eee eee al
160 +— td
159 ot | =
158 oo [eel See
157 ; os - 4 ss
ia

1S6 S| ie
155 fa -—

154

153

152

151

150

149

142

170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220

314 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

degree of correlation in the pair of characters Z, B among the “general insane”
than among the 3000 English criminals or the 1000 middle class English, which
show the lowest degree of the three classes. For the pair LS the values are very
similar for “Entire Insane” males and English Criminals. The values -of the

TABLE V.
Coefficients of Correlation.

‘‘Entire Insane” Population

4436 Males

3951 Females

Head Length and Breadth
Head Length and Height
Head Breadth and Height
Head Length and Stature *
Head Breadth and Stature*
Head Height and Stature*

5026 + 0076
“4027 + 0085
3761 + ‘0088
3284 + :0091
2002 + -0098
2340 + ‘0096

5235 + 0078
3566 + -0094
3474 + :0095
°2573 + ‘0101
*2211+ 0103
2357 + -0102

“General Insane”’ Population

4381 Males

3925 Females

Head Length and Head Height

Head Length and Head Breadth ...
Head Breadth and Head Height ie

“4848 + ‘0079
3755 + 0089
*3529 + -0090

4672 + 0084
3420 + -0095
3325 + 0096

corresponding coefficients for some series of skull measurements are given in
the table. They show marked differences from the series of head measurements.

In Table VI. are given the values of the correlation ratio, 7, and also their
differences from the corresponding comparable values of 7, (i.e. those found without

TABLE VI.
Test of Linearity of Regression.

“General Insane” Population.

i ee wa Vata rt
Males -
Head Length and Breadth ... 4612 4573 0039 2°94
Head Length and Height ... 3547 3546 | ‘0001 “41
Head Breadth and Height ... “3390 "3299 0091 3°83
Head Length and Stature ... 3226 “3133 0093 3°78
Femates
Head Length and Breadth ... 4372 "4358 0014 1°62
Head Length and Height ... “3241 3216 0025 1°94
Head Breadth and Height ... 3109 “3084 0025 1°82
Head Length and Stature ... 2489 2488 0001 17

* 4401 Males and 3915 Females.
+ Since (y—7)/r is small this formula gives a good arithmetical approximation to the value of
(n-7)/E. See Biometrika, Vol. 1v. pp. 348, 349. Blakeman on ‘Linearity of Regression.”

J. F. Tocuer 315

applying Sheppard’s correction to the moment p,, the square of each standard
deviation involved in the calculation) both absolute, and relative to H,_,.
Although the absolute ditferences appear small they are relatively large in three
cases, LB f, BH ff, and IS ¥. In all the other cases the relative differences
are small and are not significant—the regression is truly linear. It would thus
appear that, in the case of the males, there is a probable significant departure
from linearity in the regression curves of these three pairs of characters among
the “general insane” population. On plotting linear regression curves, it is
seen that this departure from linearity is mainly but not altogether caused by
numerically small groups at the ends of the regression lines. (See Diagram IX.)
The non-linearity however is not so very great and it seems scarcely worth while
undertaking the statistical labour of fitting skew regression curves to the results.
For comparative purposes, the correlation coefficients in the case of L & B ff was
determined by three different methods with the following result :

Ordinary method. @ method*. Contingency method t+.
if 5026 5010 5019.

(3) Means and their Differences. Problem (c).

In this section the following problem is considered: Do different parts of
Scotland differ sensibly from each other, assuming the “general insane” population
to be an anthropometric sample of each local population ? This problem can be
answered by discussing the individual asylum means and the extent of the difference
of each from the remainder of the “general insane” population. Asylum means,
no matter what character be selected, show differences as we pass from asylum
to asylum. Tables XV. to XXI. of Supplement} give the values of the means of
all the characters measured for each asylum, the general mean being the last line
on every table. The probable errors are given in every case, but in order to note
whether or not individual asylum means differ significantly from the means of the
remainder of the “general insane” population, the differences have to be studied
with respect to the standard deviation of sampling of these differences. If m=the
mean of any character at any one of the asylums and M’=the mean of the same
character for the remainder of the asylum population, m— MM’ is the difference
between the local mean and that of the rest of the same population. Then, if
o =standard deviation of any character at any one of the asylums and ¥’ = standard
deviation of the same character for the remainder of the population,

a8
(= ms =)
n WN’

* Using fourfold table. See Pearson, Phil. Trans. Vol. 195 A, pp. 1—47, 79—150.

+ See Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs, Biometric Series 1, on ‘‘The Theory of Contingency, &c.”
K. Pearson.

+ Biometrika, Vol. v. Supplement, pp. 92—96.

316 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

(where n=number of inmates at any asylum and W’=the remainder of the
population of inmates) is the standard deviation of sampling of m—M’. This is
the well-known expression for the standard deviation of the differences of two

means, and the ratio
1
2 >”? 2
1—M’ on =)
(m ) / ( + WN’

is a measure of the deviation of the local means from the mean of the rest of the
population relative to the standard deviation of sampling, or, shortly, is the
relative local difference (RLD),, expressed in a way enabling its significance to be
tested. Professor Pearson, whose many suggestions in the course of this investi-
gation the writer desires here gratefully to acknowledge, points out that the
biometrician is not warranted in using the ratio

(m— IM) / (= ae 2a

where M=general mean, and > =standard deviation for the whole population, J,
(although this is sometimes done), since the local sample is included in the deter-
mination of mean and standard deviation of the general population. In a note*
kindly shown to the writer Professor Pearson shows that

2 rn $ 2 2 / 213
(m My /(F+ 7) = (m— My | E Paul - a) ee
and is true whatever the magnitudes of V and » may be. In the present series
n(M—my
N (N —n)
becomes small and may be neglected, so that the standard deviation of sampling of
m— M’ is given by (and can be conveniently calculated by using) the expression

LV oe 1 2n
aol - 7)

and the ratio applicable to the present data is thus

(m— My [fF (12),

The values of this ratio, if the samples are purely random ones, are simply the

where V = 4381 and 3925 for males and females respectively, the term

abscissal values of the normal curve whose equation is y= 1/V 20 : ene and the
corresponding ordinal values divide the curve into areas proportional to the
probabilities of greater or lesser values occurring in future samples. For graphic
representation in the following maps, the relative local differences have been
grouped in the following manner. (See also Table VIII.) All values between
—°5 and +°5 have been placed into one class, class 0, the central ordinate of the
class corresponding to the abscissal value of the normal curve, «=0. All values
between +°5 and +15; 15 and 25; 2°5 and 3°5 belong to the positive classes

* Since published. Biometrika, Vol. v. pp. 181—183.

317

J. F. Tocuer

‘ecp ‘d ‘I ‘JOA ‘Smyr.uyawmorg :yoomeg §
"eee ‘d ‘III ‘OA ‘pyrijaumorg :{jeuopoeyy tf
‘S8I—I8T ‘dd 1 "JoA ‘ny2uaworg :]jeuopoeyy Aq ueaTyH 4
“B8T-18T “dd 1 ‘JOA ‘nyrgaworg :[JeMoOpoByT »

ZG0. + | CGO. = 80. + PPO. + 610. + 0¢0- ¥
6LT- €9L | €L6- 6GI | &8%- | €9L | 68Ff- PEL | SP. €8l | re. 6EL TS Sepebey |
9¢0. ¥ 660. + 190. ¥ 860. ¥ 1¢0. ¥ C¢0. ¥ | —_ysT[sugy
Ore. GIL | &&@. 9IL | GGP- AIL | Ge. OGL | .OGE.- O&l | OFéE- Tél T81s ‘F podeyooqry AA
| O610- + ystpsuyy
= = = = = OPE. OOOT peeH FSSEID OTPPUA
810. + €Z10- + puey
neal — | 66€€. 000€ el Ae = >= —— — | OTOF- 0008 pro “Sug ‘4. STRUITILID,
9600. + 0600. + G600- + | 6800- + F800- + 6100: + puryzoog ‘dog
GCSE. CG6E | 6GCE- I8Er | OGFE- | GEE | SCLE. I8eP | GLOP- GG6E | SPSP- [8é7 peo « VUVSUT [RIOU) ,,
1010. + 600. + 600: + 8800: + F600. + ¢g00- + 8L00- + 9100: + purpyoog “dog
ELGG. CI6E | P8EE.- LOFT | PLPE- 1S6€ | LT9LE- 9EPF | 99€- 1c6€ | LEOP- QEFP | GEE. IG6€ | 9@0G- 9ETT peo ¢ SUBSUT OATZU 53 |
3 ‘ON £ ‘ON $ ‘ON & ‘ON 3 ‘ON 2 ‘ON $ ‘ON 2 ‘ON |
jUSMIINSvE TL paris
| Ms = JO oINJVN HOS
S puv T H pue g_ H pure T { pue T
‘uounpatlwog oyoydag fo squawifaog

TA Wlavi

4]

Biometrika v

318 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

1, 2, and 3 respectively, the central abscissa of each class being once, twice, and
three times the standard deviation of sampling respectively. It should be noted
that the central abscissa of each class does not divide the class into two equal
areas; it merely notes the centre of the range of the class. The last positive
class is class 4, including values greater than 3°5 times the standard deviation of
sampling. In a similar manner four negative classes have been instituted with
the corresponding limits; class -1: —5 to —1°5; class -2: — 15 to —2°5; class
—3: —2°5 to —3°5; class —4: greater than — 3:5. The object of this grouping is
to arrange the relative local ditterences in the order of their significance, separating
those which are fair samples of the general population from those which clearly
are not. The following classes of relative local differences are thus created.

(Table VIII.)

TABLE VIII.

The local mean, compared with the

Ie = greater deviations
general mean is Class | (m—M) (Ge +7 “FF

Probabilities at extremes of range of
Range of class in terms of each class. Percentage cases with

Upper Limit Lower Limit
Very much smaller .. - es | 4 —3°5 upwards | 0 0233
Probably significantly less we | =3 —2:5 to —35 | 0233 6210
Less, but not quite significantly less ... | —2 —15 to —2°5 | 6210 66807
Very slightly less -1 — 5 to —15 | 66807 30°8537
Quite insignificantly different 0 + 5 to — ‘5 | 30°8537 to 50* and 50 to 30°8537
Very slightly greater ae 1 + 5 to 15 | 66807 30°8537 |
Greater, but not quite significantly g ‘greater 2 15 to 25 6210 66807
Probably Senet era ae 3 25 to 35 | aaa “6210 |
Very much greater .. 4 3°5 upwards | 0233

Relative local differences falling beyond +2 and —2 may be regarded as
probably significant since the number of asylums is small (22), and since the
probability that a greater deviation than that occurring at the furthest extreme
on the range of this class is about 1 in 81, while the value for the central abscissa
of this class is about 1 in 22. The figures in the fourth column obviously express
the probable number of deviations from the general mean (per cent.) in future
samples for the upper and lower limits of each class.

The distribution constants of each character for the whole population being
used as a basis, the constants for each character in the various districts throughout
Scotland will now be discussed. The relative differences between the local means
and the rest of the population for each character are first considered,

* 50=P, for centre of this class,

\\

Biometrika.

%

DIAMETRAL PRopuct.

MALES. Edinburgh, .. 1
Black, Macrocephalic. Gartloch,.. .. 4
Red, Microcephalic, Lenzie, wk
White, Neutral. Govan, ate.

Fa teks

Hrap Lenatu—MA tes. Edinburgh,
Black, = Macrocranial. Gartloch, ..
Red, = Brachycranial. Lenzie,

White, = Neutral, Govan,

Vol.

3
0
4
1

V. Part

ee ee

DIAMETRAL PRopuct.

FEMALES. Edinburgh, .. 1
Black, = Macrocephalic. Gartloch,.. .. 4
Red, = Microcephalic. Lenzie, #2
White, = Neutral. Govan, Bo!

a

oT ain an
re
"o

1
,

Heap Lenerao—Femates. Edinburgh, .. 3
Black, = Macrocranial. Gartloch,.. .. 2
Red, = Brachyecranial. Lenzie, .. ..0
White, = Neutral. Govan, 2

1%

+

-

)

ign

ve

a

Black,

Red,

Fo
“>

Heap BREADTH

White

MALES.

Platycranial.
Stenocranial.
Neutral.

Heap Herraut—Maes.

Black Hypsicranial

Red
White, Neutral,

Chamaecranial,

Biometrika. Vol.

Edinburgh, ..2
Gartloch,
Lenzie, ..
Govan, ..

Lenzie,

Govan,

V.

Gartloch,

PE Ciara See

Edinburgh,

Par

Heap BREADTH

Black,

Red,

tout,

FEMALES.

Platycranial.

Stenocranial.

White, Neutral.

Wg eee

. 4

Heap Heron

Black,
Red,

White, Neutral.

KrMALES.

Hypsicranial.
Chamaecranial.

Edinburgh, .3
Gartloch, ..
Lenzie, ..

moO

Govan,

Lenzie, ..
Govan, .

Edinburgh, ..
Gartloch,.. ..

-
vs :

Sai ~

a |

_

‘ -

recom a ey a a as ae a
ferry i whe i afl i .

Biometrika. Vol. V. Part Ill.

Pome =o

CEPHALIC INDEX.

FEMALES

Edinburgh, 0

CEPHALIC INDEX.
MALEs. Edinburgh, 1
Black, Brachycephalic. Gartloch, Black, Brachycephalic. Gartloch,.. ..g
Lenzie, .. 1 Red, = Dolichocephalic. Lenzie, .. ..g §
Govan, .. -.@ '

Red, Dolichocephalic.
Govan, ug White, Neutral.

White, Neutral.

i ada

PE seas Aare
i,

Edinburgh, .. I
Black, Megalomegithic. Gartloch, . .. 2
Red, = Micromegithic. Lenzie, .. ..4

Govan, ..

STATURE—FEMALES.

Edinburgh,
Gartloch,

STATURE—MALES.

L~)

Black, Megalomegithic,
Micromegithic. Lenzie, .. !
Govan, .. 2 White, Neutral.

Red,

White, Neutral.

J. F. Tocurer 319

I. Individual Characters—Head Length. (See Maps If. and IV.) An
inspection of the accompanying maps reveals the fact that, exclusive of Glasgow,
the west (and particularly the south-west) of Scotland has a long-headed or
macrocranial population of inmates, while the north-east population is distinctly
brachycranial. Edinburgh and Midlothian generally are slightly brachycranial.
Among the Glasgow asylums, nothing striking in head length is noted, except
among the males at Lenzie, who are as distinctly brachycranial* as the north-east
population. The macrocranial inmates are those of Argyll, Ayr, and Renfrew,
while the Inverness group (including Ross and Sutherland), and the Dumfries
group (including Kirkcudbright and Wigton and Lanark) show this characteristic
only in a slight degree. The Inverness females are more markedly macrocranial
than the males. Ina general way, a line drawn from the most northern part of
the boundary between Sutherland and Caithness to the boundary between Dum-
fries and Cumberland on the Solway firth divides Scotland into a macrocranial
and a brachycranial population.

Head Breadth. (See Maps V. and VI.) Quite a different grouping is shown
among head breadths. The north of Scotland is distinctly broad-headed or
platycranial, while the populous centres round about Glasgow and Edinburgh, and
these towns themselves, show stenocranial characteristics or narrow-headedness.
The female inmates of Edinburgh and Midlothian are more stenocranial than the
males, while those of Argyll are less platycranial than the male inmates of the
same asylum. The platycraniality of the Ayr males is probably significant. The
inmates, of both sexes, at the Glasgow asylums, Gartloch, Lenzie and Govan,
agree in showing distinct narrow-headedness or stenocraniality.

Cephalic Index. (See Maps IX. and X.) The ratio 1=100 B/Z is conveniently
taken after the characters B and L. The results are even more striking than
those of the characters just mentioned. The means and standard deviations were
calculated from the formulae deduced by Pearson, and the tables and maps show
the differences, with respect to the standard deviations of sampling of these
differences of means in the usual way. The north of Scotland is distinctly
brachycephalic, while the south, particularly the south-west, is dolichocephalic.
This condition of affairs is common to both male and female inmates, the only
exceptions of significance being that of (1) Govan, the females there being meso-
cephalic or differing little from the general population, while the males agree
with the surrounding population in being distinctly dolichocephalic, and (2) of
Haddington, the females there being rather dolichocephalic, while the males show
slight brachycephaly. In such distinctly Highland counties as Argyll, Perth and
Inverness, Argyll differs from the other two in being strikingly dolichocephalic,
and from the whole population in actual size of head, as will be seen later.
Perth and Fife are buffer counties, and the remaining portion of Scotland to

* All the terms of this section are used in the sense indicated by C. D. Fawcett, Alice Lee and
K. Pearson, in the memoir on Naqada crania: Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 462.
+ Proc. R. S. Vol. 60, p. 492.
412

320 Anthropometry of Scottish Insané

the west is divided off by Inverness in the north and Argyll in the south, thus
bisecting the country north and south into a benchyccphare northern population
and a dolichocephalic southern one.

LB product. If the product LZ x B=p, be now considered, an idea may
be gathered as to the magnitudes of the sectional areas in the length-breadth
plane to which the products are proportional. The ratio 7<=100 B/Z deals only
with the shape of the head in the same plane. An evaluation of the product
enables an inspection to be made of the various mean values of p, with the
same or different mean values of 7. It is to be observed that large sectioned and
small sectioned groups may have the same cephalic index. Thus groups may be
similar in shape but significantly different in size of section, due to greater or
lesser length or breadth. A comparison of the values of length, breadth and
cephalic index would of course bring out the facts, but it would be interesting to
know the values of the means and standard deviations of the product in order to
perceive by direct inspection significant differences of mean section. Before,
however, the means and standard deviations of these products can be evaluated
pa and >, have to be deduced in a manner similar to that employed for the ratio
100 B/L. Adopting the notation used by Pearson in the paper already referred
to, if a, @ be the absolute magnitudes of any two correlated characters; m,, mz
their means; o;, o, their standard deviations; 7,, their coefficient of correlation ;
p, the mean value of the distribution of 2, «, ; aa the standard deviation of the
same distribution ;

O71 2

1, =— and %=—; | =2,—m and & = %— mM;
mM, Ms

and finally n= the total number of pairs, then

ps 1 € €
Res = UL > == Me £1) ( <2)
1) Bes S (2,25) mS jm. (1 + Hi: 1+ i

_ MM g (1 € € €1€, )
Mm My NYMy,

. S (E65
and summing = myn (1 af ( =
NM,Ms
or Dig Tg Ae an Org mes olor eee ier sec toe eae eee (1).

The standard deviation is then found as follows :—

NDP = S (4182 — Pa)”

- Circo €1€; €
= m2n,2 8 ( SS ee bite)

Mm Ms, MMs
Ene
= m,2m,? E (=) +8
mM,
2S (€,?€) Na 2S (€, €" ?).

2 9
S(ere?) S(ae .
VW 2 2 ( ) 1}QVV2 ar Phe Oy + =
My" Mo" MMos m2 Mo m, me

(st) + 9 8 (a¢2)

Mo MyM,

J. F. Tocuer 321

Since S(e2¢,) = S(e¢”)=0 on the assumption of normal correlation, and since
S (e262) = noZo.2 (1 + 27,2) on the same hypothesis, we have :

NQF, = mem? [Noe + NYY + WV, + NYPv,? (1 + 1°)].

The term nv,v.2 (1 +72) does not appreciably affect the result and may be
neglected. Thus

a
Ling = MyMy [V. + Ue? + WH yVVo]® orc eeeeeeeeeesrereerersceesorenes (2).

An inspection of the relative local differences of p,, in Table IX., reveals the
fact that the entire west of Scotland is large sectioned and that the east country
south of the Forth is small sectioned, compared with the general population.
These deductions can, of course, be made from the lengths and breadths them-
selves, but the facts do not come out so clearly. It is seen that Argyll and Ayr
have large cross sections because of their long-headedness, while in the Inverness
group’s large section is due to the group’s broad-headedness. It is also to be
noted that both Edinburgh and Glasgow have small product means.

Diametrical Product. (See Maps I. and II.) This product L x Bx H =p,
is a useful character, supplying as it does, an estimate of the mean relative size
of head in each of the asylum groups. The means and standard deviations were
calculated from the following formulae, derived by the same process of reasoning
and approximation as that employed to deduce the mean and standard deviation of
the LB product.

1
Baa S (a,A%pXlq) = MyMyMs [1 + ye + 1rgVis H PogVqg] .oeerevegeee (3)

and
al
og = MMyMy [V.2 + V2 + VF + Wye + ZWigzV3 + WogVoUs]? .....ceceeee (4).

In the region of Scotland south of the Grampians and north of the Border
and Galloway (that is, practically the Scottish Midlands), with the exceptions of
the large towns of Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen and Greenock, the asylum inmates
are large-headed or macrocephalic. In the above mentioned towns they are small-
headed or microcephalic. Edinburgh and the rest of the country approximates
to the mean diametral product. The large-headed or macrocephalic group consists
of Argyll and Lanark (which are dolichocephalic), and Montrose, Perth and Stirling
(which are brachycephalic). Jt is plainly evident that, excluding Edinburgh, the
inmates of asylums in the great cities are smaller headed than those of the rest of
the country, that is, they are a microcephalic population. The only significantly
small-headed or microcephalic rural group is that of Elgin, where there are only
71 male and 89 female inmates. Aberdeen females are medium sized or meso-
cephalic, while Inverness females are smaller sized than the males. The distribution
of relative size of head is shown as follows :—

322

Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

TABLE VIII. (bis).

Diametral Product.

|
Significantly Large= : ; | Significantly Small=
Maer scsunante Medium = Mesocephalic ; Micrecen hale
Males | Females Males Females Males Females
|
Montrose | Montrose Fife _ Fife Gartloch | Gartloch
Perth Perth Banff Banff Lenzie Lenzie
Stirling | Stirling Midlothian Midlothian | Govan Govan
Lanark Lanark Edinburgh Edinburgh Dundee Dundee
| Argyll | Argyll Inverness Ayr Greenock Greenock
Ayr | Roxburgh Roxburgh | Aberdeen Elgin Elgin
Haddington | Haddington | Aberdeen Inverness
Paisley Dumfries | Dumfries
Paisley |

Head Height. (See Maps VIL. and VIII.) The means of this character show
greater variability than those of any other character do. This is at once seen
from the interlocal constants, discussed further on. The inmates are divided
sharply into two groups, (1) a high-headed or hypsicranial group, and (2) a low-
headed or chamaecranial one. The Scottish Midlands are hypsicranial. Inverness,
Aberdeen, Elgin, Argyll, Ayr, Galloway—all contiguous—are chamaecranial, as
also are Fife and Dundee. Edinburgh city differs from Glasgow, Dundee and
Aberdeen in being hypsicranial, agreeing with the surrounding country in this
distinguishing feature. Males and females agree generally, the exceptions being
Paisley, and to a lesser extent Haddington, Lenzie and Aberdeen.

Stature. (See Maps XI. and XII.) Glasgow and its environs, Paisley, Greenock,
Lanark, Stirling and Ayr differ materially from the rest of Scotland with respect
to stature. The inmates of this group are short-statured or micromegithic. The
female inmates of Govan and Lanark, however, differ very little from the general
mean. The males of the entire north (excepting Elgin, which is average statured
or mesomegithic) and the border counties are tall-statured or megalomegithic.
Galloway males approximate the mean. Taking the cases from the tallest down-
wards, the order of the asylums are as follows :—Argyll, Inverness, the Border
counties, Aberdeen, Banff and Haddington. The shortest inmates are found at
Lenzie, and then follow Gartloch, Stirling, Lanark and Dundee. Generally speaking
the asylum population is shorter in the neighbourhood of the great cities and
in these cities themselves than in the rest of Scotland.

The foregoing statements are based on results which are embodied in the
following table.

J. KF. Tocukr 323
TABLE ix.
| Sot 7, Bw
(Values of (m—M) ve aa (1 = a) .
Relative Local Differences of Means.

L B HH i), Pp i S
Males 7 =
Aberdeen ado |) = abnats} 1:92 | —3:40 | —1°'58 | —2°74 6°40 PAT
Dumfries a 1-41 | — °35 | —3°44 59 | —1:°05 | —1°66 37
Dundee real 00 1:27 | —7°52 | ‘40 | —2°81 1°84 | —1°67
Edinburgh ae —2°55 | —1°54 | 5°69 | —2°40 1°04 85 | — °138
Montrose seer 259 3°04 6:90 82 3°96 4°55 2°79
Argyll me 8°08 | 3°90) —4:29 6°82 3-21 | —3°79 | 4:92
Ayr ate 5°98 | 2°51 | —3°05 4°77 2°08 | —3°82 | —1:14
Banff Ar 22 2°80 | —1°22 1°84 ‘76 Aer Ne
Elgin ... | —1°60 Wed) = 3:07 08 | -—1°58 | 2:97 | — °35
Fite aes “46 39 | —3°88 ‘46 | —1°30 | — 05 - °12
Glasgow (Gartloch)| — 39 | —3°66 | —5:95 | —2°43 | —4:46 | —3°37 | —3°42
» (Lenzie) | —5:42 | —5:57 | —4°85 | —6°46 | —6°95 | — -60 | —7-°76
Govan aa 76 | —2:26 | —3°33 | —1°96 | —2°21 | —3°04 | 2°09
Haddington... | — ‘72 — ‘05 56 | — ‘43 "05 yi 2°03
Inverness ae 1:23 ANY || = BIRR 3°56 64 Sale) 3°43
Lanark ate 77: | — ‘21 6:11 1:10 3°63 | —2:44 | —1°69
Midlothian we | —2°45 | -—1°31 5°98 | —2°12 1°25 ‘64 1°58
Perth we | — 87) +1:°09 5°90 “45 3°37 1°43 1°49
Roxburgh we |) — 308 | — +83 3°95 | -— °84 1:09 |} — ‘31 2°89
Stirling a. | — °20 | —2°14 771 | —1°39 2°70 | —1°95 | —2:°05
Greenock ae 14 |} — ‘79 | -—6:80 |] — ‘40 | —3°15 | — ‘96 | —1°28
Paisley i 1°72 | —1:11 | —1°03 43 69 | —2°78 | —1:138
Females
Aberdeen .. | —1°93 2°16 “49 ‘ll 56 4°04 56
Dumfries es 1:16 37 | —5°79 1:04 |} -1°79 | - °73 1°79
Dundee .. | —1°298 | — °80 | —3°54 |] — °89 | —2°26 ‘94 | —1°68
Edinburgh .. | —3°04 | -— 2°85 6°68 | — 3°44 92 | — -23 | -1:11
Montrose .. | —2°06 3°78 1°98 | 1°24 1°92 5°54 -1°01
Argyll ee 6°12 1:70 | —3°61 |, 4°58 1°70 | —4°38 2°41
Ayr ee 4°02 "45 | — 6°56 2°48 | — °85 —3°20 | -1°75
Banff Heelies a3 4°36 | -—1°138 esi 28 5°73 2°94
Elgin we | — 2°62 96 | —4°78 | — °94 | —3:06 3°42 Smet
Fite .. | +1°38 1°51 | —4:°15 169 | - ‘71 3} 3°50
Glasgow (Gartloch)| —1°83 | —4:40 | —6°44 | —3°64 | —5°75 | -—2°48 | —2°45
» (Lenzie) 00 | —3°14 | — 59] -1°86 | —1°64 | -3-07.| —6-10
Govan s. | —U:76 | —9°19 | . 1-47 | =2:32 | —1-11 |} — -43 18
Haddington Ae 385 | —1°33 5°67 | — °62 2°30 | —1°68 iovalk
Inverness wae 1°84 5:18 | —8°83 4°09 | —2°01 3°18 5:06 |
Lanark sere 1°62 | — °50 2°71 63 1°75 | —2°05 | ‘41
Midlothian .. | —1°51] | —2°58 5°30 —2°36 lll 95 | 02
Perth rere ACT) ‘76 5°o7 56 2°73 ‘61 “02
Roxburgh eee OOn ci 5°85 | — ‘99 2°48 “O09 BB
Stirling nar 13} —1°43 ee —ecriic a 3°33 | —1°56 | —3°38
Greenock .. | —2°51 | —1°64 | —4:83 | —2°38 | —4-02 43 | —3°43
| Paisley wae “98 1:03 3°69 Wolsy 2°57 06 | ey

II. Interlocal and Intralocal Characteristics. If the distribution of the
differences of means of any one character throughout the whole of the asylums be
considered, and the variability of the distribution for each character be determined,

324 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

an accurate estimate can be formed as to the relative homogeneity of the general
population, with respect to each separate character. If the whole population be
homogeneous the relative differences between the general and local means should
be expressed by a random distribution. It should be again noted that the relative
local differences (RID) are the differences between the general mean M and the
local means m reduced to a common scale by dividing each difference by its
standard deviation, i.e. the ratios i

Sof, Qn
Vay Wee n (1 i. 7

for each character at each asylum are considered interlocally. If the population
be a homogeneous one with respect to the character considered, the standard
deviation of the distribution of these ratios interlocally, or s, will seldom differ
from unity by a quantity greater than three times the probable error of s, or
67449
v2q
interlocal constant determining the degree of homogeneity of the characters con-
sidered or the degree of character homogeneity. An attempt has also been made
to discover the degree of district or local homogeneity, using the values of the
relative local differences intralocally, but the writer has failed to find a solution
of this interesting problem. As Professor Pearson has pointed out no attempt can
be successful which neglects intralocal correlations, and since head characters are
all more or less highly correlated, the reasoning employed with respect to the
relative local differences interlocally is not applicable intralocally. It is to be
hoped that Professor Pearson will find time to furnish anthropometricians with
a solution.

s=l1+

where qg is the number of districts considered. Thus s is an

The numerical portion of the following tables (Tables X. and XI.) gives the
values of the interlocal constants, being the mean of the distribution of (RED) m
interlocally and (s —1) the deviation from homogeneity of the general population
for the various characters shown in the table. In the body of the table the
distinguishing feature of each character is shown for each asylum, the terms
employed to describe significant excess or defect of local means from the general
mean being those already referred to in C. D. Fawcett’s memoir, except where
new terms are used, as defined in the text and in the “synopsis of terms.”
Where the blanks occur in the table, approximations to the general mean are
indicated. This table should be examined in conjunction with the character maps
and the diagrams of relative local differences. Confining attention in the first
instance to one character at a time, it has already been noted that if the population
had been an entirely homogeneous one, the value of s—1=0 and the groups at
the various asylums would have simply been fair random samples of the whole.
The magnitudes of many of the relative local differences show this is not the
case.—The values of (s—1) for the character H (f and $2), viz. 3°89 and 3:95,
compared with their probable errors, are very large, thus indicating a very
significant deviation from homogeneity interlocally. The values of (s—1) for all

325

J. EF. Tocuer

= GGP-1 062-1 8LL-T 068-& bor-1 GG8-1 [eats
¥g0. LLO. — 170. 69g. — LOT- GI0.— ve
a

OLIOUIOST = = orpeydasoyarpoy = = [VIURIDO.1OR AL : "+ Kopsted
OTLOUTOST — oyeydeosororyy | orpeydasoyarog | permvaoovmieyy — — yoouse.4)
dIAOUI0JOT dIYYooMoIOT | otpeydaosoaorpy | otpeydaooyptjog [eraedoisd AFT | petuvso0ueyg -- SUTLAITIG
DMOMOJOIY | OLY|JLSoMLOTRSoTT — — yeruearotsd AFT — == ; ysangxoy
OIIOULOST = orpeydoooarov yy = permeroisd a Fy = cae . ~ Mbestal
DMOULOPIT, | OLYAISatMOTRsoTy = — peruvsro1sd AFT i JeuepdAyovig |“ URITZOTPIT
OLMOULOPOTI oIyysomosryy | orpeydooosoeyy | o1peydoooyorocy yeruesorsd 4 = = mR OEE
DMOMOJOT]Y | OLYALSouMOTeSaTW = oyeydeodyorag | peruvsovmeyy | peruesoA4e[ gq a ait SSOUIOAUT
OMaMOST | OLYAIBamMoTeSoy, — = = as = uoysurppeH
OMOMLOIIT — OLYASaMIoTeHeT_ | orpeydeoororpy | orpeydoooyoroqy | peruvazsaeueyy | peruezoueys = pe “* UBAdgy

DAOTLOAOT oIyysomo1oTpY | orpeydoooaoryy = [etuetoavueyy | Teruedooueyg | yperuerodyorag | (erzue'T) od
OMOMOLIP, = OTYSoMosorTY | oreydaoororyy = orperdodoyproq, | yeruvaoovmeyy | yetues0ug =a (qaep)) MOSseTE)
DLIOULOST — _— — [eluURIooRUURYy) = = Pe ec:
DIAITAO JOT TAY = orpey dasoa0T yy atpeydookyorarg [eluRioovuIvyD | peruviodyetg etavrokyovag aia ULSD
OMOULO[RSOUT-OST | OIYYSAMLOTeSayL — orpeydookyorrg = pervade [1g = a “Hurd
OMOMOTVSayy | = oeydaooworyy | oleydesoyptpog | yerursoevureyy | permeaodgrtg yerurdoodoeyy | ae iky
oomMoTeSaW | ory Sowopesoyy | oreydoooaorypy | orpeydoooyptpogy | peruesoovureyy | peruvsodqeyg yetuesioo1oeyy | [ASW
OMOMOTVSITY | OLyATBomMoTeSayq | o1peydoooaoeyy | orpeydeokyouag [eraeroisdapy | peruvsokqyetg | peruesoXyorrq | 9SO1}UO JT
IMOMIOPOT] = = Sore [eravsoisdaApy | petueroousyg | petuerAyorag ” ysanquipy
DAOUIOPOT] oryUsomosoryy | orpeydedsoaoryy | oeydookyovag | peruezoovmeyy _ = it ey eu
OLIOUIOST — — orpeqdoooyoroqy | TetuvroovueyO = 7=: He Sonu,
OMOMMOPIT — OTGWSamopeseyy | orpeydooororyy | orpeydeokyorag | petuvaovureyy | peravsokyeipg | perueaodyorag | 7° usep10q

uorydrs0sa.
eee an . 8 a : H d TZ

‘saypyy—uoynjndog wnplisy fo woynoyrady

X ATaViL

42

Biometrika v

Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

326

‘sajpmag—uoynndog wnjhs yr fo woynorroady
IX dav

ei G69. 1 P8E-T 069-1 €96-€ 1éP- 1 €GL-I iss
L0E- €L0. — 6ST. PST. — €¢0- 8ST. — Y

DIAIULOST-O]BSOT = orpeydaoo.oe yy — [eluvaoisd Fy — = os “+ ATsteg
DMOWOST-OLOTF | oryysautodoryy | orpeydoooaoryy — [elurtoovmeyg | eime10ueyg | yeruesokgovagq | °° yoouve.ty)
DUOWIOST-OJTP | OLYAISemMOoIOIP | arpeydaooaoeypy | o1peydoooyarjoq yerueaoisd AFT = — ae + Sulpayg
OMOWIOST-OTVHOTY | OIUAISATMOTeSoTW | o1peydoooasor = [eruvsorsd AFT = = a ysanqxoy
DILIUIOST-OTVSOTT = oTpeydaoo.a0v py — elueaoisd AFT — — a “* Yqdeg
DILOTWIOST-OFOTI = == = [euvaoisd AF | peruesooueyg | yerursokyovaq °° URIYIOTPIT
DIIULOST-OT VSI] = — orpeydasoyparfoy yetuvroisd A Fy — — as “ yaeuery
doMVSoUL-opTY | onylsauiopesoyy | oipeydeosororpy | orpeydaskyorrg | peraeaoovureyy | permesoAqetg yelueo1ryy SSOUIOAUT
DMVULOST-O[VSOT | OLYYLSoMOTVSaTy | orpeydeosorry, | orpeydoooyorpoq yeruvaoisd AFT — — ae u0}SUIPpeT]
DTLIULOST-OAOT FY = = — — perurasousyg | petuesodyorag | ** “* URAOL)

DLMOWOIOLUI-OST | Oly yISouro0.1O1 PY _ orpeydosoyorfoq, = pemeso0us49 = (aizuey) ‘og
oMeMOIOT | orggtsoutodoryy | oyeqdedororyy | oryeydoooypryog, | [erurzoovmmeyyy) | [eruedoouczg | perueaodypeag | (qoopzzex)) MoSsep
DMOULOSL-OJOIT, | OLZISOTMOTRSOTY —- — elurpoemeyy | permesodqeTg — “23 an ayy
OMOMMOPTY | OLYFLSouIOTeooyy | o1peydoooaoryy | oreydookyorag | perresoovureyy == erueroxyowrg | + ULSTR
DIALOULOTVSattl-Os] | OIPISeMOTRSoTT — atpeydookyorag — yeruerdqeig | peruesiokyoraq | ** gueg
DIOULOTesayT | IY AISeuO.LOL I, — oreqdesoyorpog | TeruerovueyyH — [Termeroosoryy | 7 act aikW
AWOMOTRSaT | oLyyLSotmopesoeyy | orpeydooouovyy | oyeydeooyorog | Teruesoovmeyg | eturaodyetg [elmeioo01oeyy |" yAsiy
DLIOTMOYOT] = oreydaro.oeyy | orpeydookyovaq [eluvtoisdéAy | petuesodyerg | yeruesodgoergq | aSOAZUOT
OAITMOJOT TY — — — eruraoisd dp | permerooueyg | petuesodyoeaq | ** yoanquipy
DMOMOS-OLOIL | OlyySourosoryy | orpeydoooaoryy _ etuRiderweyy =~ — fase “+ gopunqg
OMOMOpIL | OIGLsatMOTeSaTT | otpeydooororqy — [etuRtoovwmeyyo --- — 27 sotazuIn(y
OLOMOJOT _ — oreydoofyorarq = perurwdyzerg | peruesodyorag | ** usap10q ¥

uoldtsosa : da 3
ie ag 8 G } iT d T

J. F. Tocurr 327

the other characters, compared with #,_,) also show that the differences, although
not so large as in H, are all quite significant, and indicate that, passing from
asylum to asylum, the means vary very considerably. In other words, while some
local groups are fair samples of the “general insane” population for one or more
characters, the majority of them are not fair samples. Individual asylum groups
as a whole therefore cannot be said to form part of a “ general insane” population
of a homogeneous character. On the contrary, considered interlocally, asylum
groups as a whole show great heterogeneity—greatest in the character H. An
inspection of the table shows what has already been demonstrated regarding this
character, its great variability from asylum to asylum. If the differences, grouped
as already indicated, be arranged in the order of their frequency it is quite clear
that the homogeneity curve y= ae e~* does not in the least fit the distribution,
T

as Diagrams X (A and B) show. The frequency at the mean approximates to a
minimum instead of a maximum value. The diagrams and maps show, what
the analysis clearly indicates, that there are really two very distinct groups, a
high-headed or hypsicranial and a low-headed or chamaecranial one.

Examining now the relative local differences intralocally, we can form an
idea of the anthropometric character of each individual asylum. ‘Take striking
cases: Argyll males and females show macro-, platy-, and chamae-craniality ; they
are therefore large sectioned. jg is large; they are thus large-headed or macro-
cephalic and they are tall-statured or megalomegithic. Viewing dolichocephaly as
a defect of 7, this is the only significant defect among the Argyll inmates. With
the exception of pg ($), all these characteristics are significant excesses from
their respective means. Thus the Argyll group of inmates is the most significantly
different. The group is a megalomeric one, most of its characters being megalo-
metropic. By megalomeric is meant that the group possesses, on an average,
greater magnitudes of the various characters measured than the general population
of inmates. By megalometropic is meant that, in reference to the magnitude of
any character, the value found is significantly greater than the value of the
corresponding constant with which it is compared; by micrometropic, that the
value is significantly less; and isometropic means that it is insignificantly different,
with reference to the constant. Lenzie inmates show almost as great deviations
as Argyll inmates do. The body of the table shows Lenzie to possess brachy-
steno-chamaecranial inmates, small sectioned and short-statured. The group is a
micromeric one, having magnitudes of the various characters measured consider-
ably smaller on an average than the general population, i.e. most of the characters
are micrometropic. On the other hand, Paisley approximates to the general
population in the magnitudes of its character means. Paisley males are slightly
macrocranial, but distinctly dolichocephalic, their only distinguishing feature.
Paisley females are hypsicranial. On the whole, the Paisley group is an isomeric
one, the magnitudes of the characters of the group being mostly isometropic, or
they are on the whole similar to the values found in the general population. The

42-9

328 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

megalomeric populations are those of Argyll, Ayr, Montrose and Banff, while
the distinctly micromeric populations are those of Glasgow (Gartloch, Lenzie
and Govan). Isomerie populations occur at Dumfries, Fife, Haddington, Perth,
Greenock and Paisley. All the other groups are mictomeric. By this is meant
that the group possesses on an average greater or equal magnitudes of some
characters, and equal or Jess in others—the characters are in part megalo-,
micro-, and isometropic. With respect to the general population, the significant
differences or deviations are both positive and negative ; or comparatively speaking,
the mictomeric groups have a mixed specification.

Diacrams X. (4d and B). Relative Local Differences of Means.—-Head Heights.

12

: 2 :
Equation to Curve =F -e72e, The value of x? is very large.
20

da. Males.
9 ] Te Ta ae i LA TS oe eo
: pM |
e / | \
7 aL |
Hes al aN

|
2
4 |

|
3 t

|
2 =|
if |

|
0 ——

-8 7 -6 -5 Lye eb) = () 1 2 3 4 5 6 ue 8

B. Females.

Siemans

J. F. Tocuer 329

(4) Variabilities and their Differences. Problem (d).

Do the results for different parts of Scotland give any reason for supposing
greater homogeneity or heterogeneity in one part than another? An endeavour
can be made to answer this question after considering the variabilities in the
distributions of the various characters. Under the character means, just dealt
with, the sizes of the organs or characters were considered, differences in type
noted, and the conclusion reached that the asylum population, as a whole, no
matter what character is selected, is uot a homogeneous one. An attempt will
now be made to ascertain whether the separate district groups themselves can be
described to be homogeneous; in other words, whether the groups in the various
districts in Scotland are significantly more or less variable than the general
asylum population.

If «=the standard deviation of any character at any asylum, and >’=the
standard deviation of the same character in the remaining population, then the

Gas /V( WES +oy ne (RLD)o

is the relative local difference in variability for any asylum. The values of this
ratio for each character have been determined using the formula*

ratio

=
V \2n 7 2
where V = (n+ N’)=number in the whole population, in place of
>a oe (lie: a 2
aN t Bn N,
Pearsons’s full formula, which he shows to give the equivalent. to
ot, 3
G 2N’

The foregoing shorter formula has been used, on ie assumption, warrantable in

bole

>
the present series, that the ratio aN differs from iy — by a quantity so small that

it may be put =. without affecting the significance of the final result. In short,

2N

in this instance

is a good approximation.
As expected, few districts show greater variability than the general population.
Significantly greater variability occurs only in the character H among the Inverness

* Pearson, Biometrika, Vol. v. p. 183. The case considered in this note is the probable error
of the difference between the mean of a subsample and the mean of a sample, but the same reasoning
is applicable to the difference between the standard deviations of subsample and sample.

330 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

males, and the Aberdeen and Montrose females. On the other hand, significantly
low variability is exhibited by the male inmates at Ayr for all the cranial
characters and by the females in head height only. The male and female inmates
at Dundee, Argyll, Lenzie and Govan also show selection in head height, agreeing
with Paisley, Greenock and Gartloch males and Perth, Dumfries and Fife females

TABLE XII.

Relative loca tfferences of Variubilities.
Relat local Di of V

L B H B/L Pa Pp S

Males a “|

| Aberdeen nae —1:48 | —2°38 | —1°85 | —1°60 | —2°00 | —2°11 | — ‘55
Dumfries ae 165 | 1°71 | — ‘83 | 1°57 L085) ‘78 | — ‘66
Dundee we 67 |) — 328) == 5:03.) D4 20 | -—1°61 | —1°56
Edinburgh —... — 87 | — ‘56 01) — “58 | — :88 | — “87 2 Me28
Montrose 20} — 91} 1:01 | — -22 | — °34 47 | — 2°13
Argyll wai 53 | 47° —3°68 ‘OL 77 | — ‘58 20
Agr s., «+. | —3:46 | —3:90:) —2-19') 37s 3-100 = 4c 12
Banff ... w. | — '84 43 | — 36} — 03 | — 08| - ‘17 55
Elgin ... a —1°52 — -20 | ‘96 | — 568 | — °80 | — °19 “48
Fife... ses — 32 | —1:11 | —2°30 | — -76 | — ‘69 | —2°83 | —5-80
Gartloch .. | —1:23 | —1:00 | —6°38 | —1:15 | —1:18 | —3:14 ‘70
Lenzie .. | — 14 1:00 | —5:10 | HUEO 18 | —1°88 177
Govan & — 17 "74 | —2:98 | 25 27 | — ‘97 1-44
Haddington ... | — ‘63 “19 9:27 | — -09 | — -20 89 80
Inverness ee —1:16 | —2°34 | 4:18 | —1°83 --1°65 1:00 | —2°39
Lanark aes — 2°39 | — ‘86 | eet | 65 —1:49 | —1:49 | —2:27
Midlothian... —1°45 | 1°30 | — ‘67 46 | 702 | — 08 | —2°15
Perth ... ve =" <0) Wi 25) | 2460) Se 3 Li 34!
Roxburgh —... = 32) ) = 212) TS fe 2207) 27 ‘43 | —1°39
Stirling Hee + 67 | 67 1°52 64 | 61 1:19 | —1:00
Greenock ne “36 1°36 | —3:18 93 | 89 ‘61 118
Paisley nes "69 | —1°87 | —5°82 | — “63 | — °80 1:96 78

Females | | |

Aberdeen... 215 | 13>} _ 3°69 1:33 114 2°26 | — 49
Dumfries uae 21 | - 05 | —6:10 | — 02 | —2°99 | —1:°96 | —1:02
Dundee a “55 34 | — 4°40 ‘53 | 1 1-338 02
Edinburgh —... — 1°33 | ‘79 | — 48 03 | — 85 | — 26] — ‘15
Montrose ... | — ‘29 | 2°10 2-98 1365) 21-05 2:01, || — Seal
Argyll a = 22) |) Sie 0878 FS Ass 885) 2408 eel)
ACY) ss ss — ‘10 1°75 | —7:97 ‘73 "98 | —1°84 ‘73
Banff ... ... | —1°66 | —3°18 | —1-11 | —2°14 | —2:33 | -1°81 | — -04
Elgin ... ese — 12} — 26) -— ‘63/} -- ‘O01 |} — °24} -— 69] — °32
Fife... Sa — ‘17 | “79 | —2°99 31 °39 | — ‘87 | —2°84
Gartloch es - 25 ) -1:21 | -—2°47 | -— ‘74] -— -90 |] -1°81 1:14
Lenzie oat —2°04 | —3:47 | —4:21 | —2°90 } —2°86 | —3°44 | —1°32
Govan Rs —1:04 | —1°88 | —6°35 | -1°42 | --1°57 | —3°16 | + °09
Haddington ... | -— 24] °33 | -— 53 | ‘02 ‘03 ‘00 “47
Inverness... — °33 | —2°91 | ‘95 | --1°60 | - 1°43 | — °59 | — ‘69
Lanark ia - ‘45 | — -41 | -1°7 — 58 | — 42) — ‘81 | 54
Midlothian... | = 1°10 | O30 meadle22 62 | "48 | 89 | — -42
Perth ... ae lak | ‘17 | —4°48 | ‘16 "18 | —1:07 | —1°30
Roxburgh .. 6 | - 1°62 25 1:34 | — <:53)) = +66) °38 | —1°19
Stirling aaa) [eB 2e} = B20 “75 (+= agleye=. 2700! 14 | 64
Greenock sis — 1°98 HS 92:5 20) Ve OSe OS je le a8
Paisley e's 46 | — <3 — 1:36") z010) “09 27 | — °84

J. F. Tocner 331

in having low variability in the distribution of that character. The male and
female inmates at Fife are a selected group with respect to stature, their
variability being significantly less than that of the general population. The
variabilities of the diametral product (1BH) among the male inmates at Ayr
and Gartloch are significantly less than the general population, while the females
at Lenzie and Govan are also significantly less. The variabilities for the remaining
asylums approximate to the general mean with the exception of the females at
Aberdeen and Montrose, which show for pg, as they do for H, significantly greater
variabilities than the general population. The accompanying table (Table XIL.)
shows the values of the relative local differences in variabilities. Maps and
diagrams have also been prepared to illustrate this variability, but their repro-
duction has been considered unnecessary, the only facts of note being as just
stated. The means and standard deviations of the differences, interlocally (shown
in the table), measure (1) the fall in variability in passing from the general
population to the individual groups for any one character, and (2) the amount of
agreement, as to magnitude, among the differences themselves. It will be seen
that H (f' and $) has the greatest negative value among the means, and the
greatest variability among the differences in passing from asylum to asylum.

So far as the question as to homogeneity or heterogeneity of district groups
can be answered, it is answered in the following summary of differences probably
significant.

TABLE XIII.

Variability Differences which are probably significant.

L B H B/L Pg
Greater| Less | Greater Less Greater | Less Greater | Less Greater Less Greater | Less
Ayr? Ayr 6 Inverness g) Dundee d Ayr ¢| Aberdeen 9 | Ayr ¢ Fife
Inverness 9 | Aberdeen 9) Argyll | Montrose 9 | Gartloch ¢ and ?

Banff @ Montrose ?} Lenzie { and Lenzie ?

Govan Govan °
Paisley ¢
Greenock ¢
Gartloch ¢
Perth °
Dumfries ?
Fife @

(5) Differences between Male and Female Values of Coefficients
of Variation.
In the Supplement to this memoir (pp. 5—96) the values of the coefficients of

variation for the various characters are given alongside the values of the means
and standard deviations. In determining the differences between the values for

332 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

males v,, and those for females vy for each character at each of the asylums, the
values of o,, the standard deviation of the coefficient of variation, were calculated

from the usual formula
9 1
Vv Ue \AWNiz
v= aes [1 +2 (00) |

In the cases of B, B/D, and S,

was taken equal to 1:002, a sufficiently near approximation.
The following table (Table XIV.) shows the values of
inn ams Up) |( Cr,” at oy)
for L, b, H, B/L and S for all the asylums. In the foregoing formula, v,, = the
coefficient of variation of any one character in any male group and v= the

coefficient of variation for the corresponding character in the corresponding female
group.

TABLE XIV.
Relative Differences of Coefficients of Variation.
Males and Females.

ak
Values of (Um — v¢)/(o%,, + O° uf)?»

Asylums | Head Length | Head Breadth | Head Height | Cephalic Index | Stature
| Aberdeen ee —1:84 — ‘68 -4:04 — 1°55 — "34
| Dumfries ea 1°50 1°95 2°51 | 1°56 “47
| Dundee ... st 59 | “19 — ‘87 “15 -— 18
| Edinburgh oe ‘70 = 25 eke vi] — ‘10 1:29
Montrose saa 50) ei — 1:46 —2°21 — 76 — "76
| Argyll | 91 | 2°16 Sie 1°32 47
yr | —1°67 — 2°54 — *26 — 2°43 - ‘07
Bantt 86 2°83 43 1°75 65
Elgin : sae - ‘71 | “46 97 - ‘18 91
Fife Raid set | “42 | -— dl — 2°62 — 32 —1°16
Glasgow (Gartloch) — ‘06 | 1:06 -—1'72 31 - ‘17
Do. (Lenzie) | 2-09 4-00 — +26 2°84 2°56
Govan... vn 1:07 2°59 2°28 1°66 1°13
Haddington os 04 “30 2°18 ‘06 “44
Inverness rat 06 1°34 1°86 37 — ‘51
Lanark... me — °57 “71 -— ‘61 - ‘14 — 1°25
Midlothian ane —1°'34 1°48 -1°51 16 — 92
Perth... iss,|| 29 “31 4°46 09 ‘97
Roxburgh see 1:23 36 — ‘21 51 13
Stirling ... ae 1259 1°69 24 1°37 — “76
Greenock Sar 1°86 | 1°33 ‘07 1°34 1°46
Paisley... asa| 48 — ‘40 — 2°47 — ‘08 1:44
Totals set 2°18 3°35 96 eel 1°39

i

J. F. Tocoer 333

‘Taking the series as a whole, we find the coefficients of variation in BY differ
materially from Bf. On running through the values for the various asylums (see
Table XIV.) this material difference is seen to be due to the inmates at Lenzie,
where the sexual difference is very significant, and in a lesser degree to the
inmates at Banff and Govan where the males also show greater relative variability,
and at Ayr, where the females show the excess. In the other cases, the differences
are not significant. The relative difference for Z in the general population is
perhaps hardly significant, but here again Lenzie stands out with a prominent
difference. While the general coefficients for H are nearly equal, there are
significant differences in the local values at Aberdeen and Perth and less significant
ones at Fife, Paisley, Dumfries, Govan, Montrose and Haddington. Lenzie is
again the disturbing factor in B/E and in S. The coefficients for B/E and S
are approximately equal for most of the other asylums.

Thus, considering the differences between the sets of coefficients for both sexes
at the individual asylums, we reach the conclusion that the variability among
the males and females is very much alike, with the exception of the character B
and a few local cases in the other characters. The conclusion is confirmed and
amplified by considering the whole population where the males again appear
more variable in B, the difference being probably significant, but in the other
characters the variability among the males, although greater than among the
females, is only slightly greater, and cannot be said to be at all significant.

(6) Pigmentation.

I. Distribution of Hair and Eye Colour. As already stated, the colours of the
hair and eyes of most of the inmates were noted at the same time that the
measurements were taken. A complete record of the observations is given in
the Supplement to this memoir side by side with the record of observations on
measurable characters.

In order to make a comparison between the pigmentation of the inmates at
each asylum and the pigmentation of the “general insane” population, the values
of y? and log P* were calculated for each asylum. In other words the actual
frequencies for each colour were contrasted with their most probable values—the
theoretical numbers which would occur on an even distribution of the “general
insane” population. The approximate values of log P are given in Table XV.
and XVI. and show that with the exception of a few cases, the local pigmentation
diverges in character from the general distribution considerably. It is of interest
to note that the divergence in colour of any locality from the remaining population
may be measured by determining the mean square contingency coefficient

O=,4/ geal
1 14+ 2/N’

where y?=the total square contingency+. Thus, to take a particular case, the
distribution of hair colour in males at Aberdeen may be contrasted with the
remaining population as in Table XVII. We find C,='1347.
* Elderton : Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 155, x2 of Goodness of Fit.
+ Pearson; Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs, Biometric Series, 1, p. 16.
Biometrika v 43

334 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

TABLE XV. Diwvergency in Hair Colour.

|
Males Females
Asylums
Log P Q Log P Q
|
' Aberdeen 16°8 S35) 28°3 "186
| Dumfries 6:9 080 6°8 085
Dundee D7, ‘O74 4:9 ‘067
| Edinburgh 11 | 038 3°0 066
| Montrose 51°3 | 238 65 ‘087
Argyll 16°1 137 10°5 115
Ayr 6°7 ‘083 12°0 125
| Banff 6:2 085 29 043
_ Elgin 10-4 ‘107 13°6 "127
| Fife 9°9 -100 75 “(094
xartloch 84 098 6:2 089
Lenzie 3°2 062 el 041
| Govan 9°6 ‘102 2°0 055
| Haddington 1°8 021 16 029
Inverness 26°7 ‘171 19°7 153
| Lanark 1-4 033 1-0 041
Midlothian 29 “040 4°7 ‘069
| Perth 13°5 "122 2-9 043
Roxburgh lee 025 1:8 023
| Stirling 10°3 ‘110 (al ‘097
Greenock 3°2 062 2°0 056
Paisley 4-6 063 31 ‘066
1
TABLE XVI. Divergency in Eye Colour.

Males | Females

Asylums Ee | eee
Log P Q | Log P Q
Aberdeen 91 ‘101 115 ‘117
| Dumfries 4°3 064 | 4°6 066
' Dundee 5:9 ‘068 | 2°6 048
Edinburgh 47 ‘061 4:9 064
Montrose 5:1 075 10°8 ‘108
Argyll 16 021 1-99 008
Ayr 2-7 039 5:2 “080
Banff 18°7 137 9°4 104
Elgin 15:8 "124 14:0 “132
Fife 39 8-049 3-4 059
Gartloch 2-0 048 3°8 053
Lenzie 6:0 | 085 2°3 047
Govan 20 048 5:3 ‘078
Haddington 5°6 ‘070 _1:96 ‘008
Inverness 36°9 "197 16°8 140
Lanark 5:7 ‘O71 4:4 ‘070
Midlothian 5:8 | 069 16 023
Perth 11-9 ‘106 5:2 075
Roxburgh 7:9 083 3°9 052
Stirling 27 040 78 091
Greenock 1-4 ‘026 19 ‘011
Paisley 16 021 1°6 023

J. F. Tocuer 335

TABLE XVII.

| | | |
Males Red | Fair | Medium) Dark — Totals
| _ _ | | 7
| Aberdeen ee oe 8 16 78 132 234
| Remaining Population ... 58 259 2444 1240 4001
Totals... als 66 275 2522 1372 4235

In a private communication* Professor Pearson gives the following equivalent
formula in terms of y’, and thus obviates the necessity of determining each y”.
If N =number in the general population and = number in any locality ;

Tie 2 — x

OU AN) Neapaany®
the measure of the divergence of the local group from the remaining population.
Thus y°=y"(1 —n/NV), and Q, the divergency coefticient, is determined directly
from yx. The values of Q are given alongside those of log P in Tables XV. and
XVI. Both sets of values are approximations, sufficiently correct. to enable their
significance to be seen on inspection. Their relationship is shown in Diagram XI.
All values of log P > 8 (and thus, in this series, of Q > 055) are probably significant.
A reference to the tables and to the colour divergency maps (where the values of
Q and log P have been classed) will show that the south east of Scotland is like
the general population in hair colour (f* and ?) and eye colour (¢). Argyll, Ayr,
Stirling and Fife, all contiguous, are least divergent among the males in eye colour.
Generally speaking, the populous centres and environs are very like the general
population, while in the sparsely populated parts the divergencies are the greatest.

Coming now to the cause of the divergencies (the excess frequencies of one or
other of the various categories), the significance or non-significance of the various
frequencies was determined in the following manner. Let y,= total number of
inmates in Scotland possessing any particular hair or eye colour; WV = total number
of inmates ; m= number of inmates at any asylum, then m/N y,= y;, the expected
frequency. Let y;” = the corresponding observed frequency ; y,/N =p; 1-— p=q;
then (y;” — y.)/Vmpq (N — m)/(N —1)= the difference between the observed and
the expected frequency relative to the standard deviation of y,” in the sample,
m, of the population. The values of this rate for each category have been
determined.

It has been recently shown by Pearson+ that, in a population of V individuals,
Np of which possess a given character, and Vq do not, the distribution of frequency
in the character for random samples of magnitude m (when m is commensurable

* Since published. Biometrika, Vol. v. pp. 198—203.

+ Biometrika, Vol. vy. pp. 172—175.
“ley sp

te

336 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

Diacram XI. Relationship between Q and Log P.—Hair Colour, Females.

a ae, | T aie |
20 = LE

3 ie : |
2 —— : a IL
oe ian

5 | 4 ia eee |
8 2 === =
7 t |
5 a i ls | L a
A | | ‘ is PLC ie
a e | a Sa oa :

| Z
ie |
7 x | [esc ee Pe Kes

“Ol “02 “03 “04 “0S 06 «07 08 = -09 “10 “i “12 “13 14 IS “16 AT 18 19 +20

with WV) is not a symmetrical one, but can be accurately described by a skew
curve of either Type I. or Type IV. Thus, he points out that the tables of the
probability integral cannot accurately give the areas on either side of the ordinate
which divides the curve at the abscissal value (y.”— ys)/Wmpq (N — m)/(N — 1),
and the probability of greater or lesser values occurring in future samples must be
determined by other means. Since however the values of (m—1)/(V — 1) m the
present series are small (although not quite negligible), an approximate estimate
of the significance of each difference can be obtained by determining the values

of the ratio (ys —y;’)/Wmpq, the distribution of these relative differences being
assumed to follow the normal curve. The relative differences themselves are
thus, on this basis, the abscissal values of the normal curve y =1/N 27. e™.

The ratios (ys — ys’)/Wmpq (N — m)/(N —1) and (y, — ys’)/Vmpq have both been

J. F. Tocuer 337

calculated for the present series of observations on hair and eye colours, the
values of the latter ratio being given in Tables XVIII. and XIX. The values of

the factor 8 =1/V1—(m—1)/(N—1) are also given in the tables, and these,
if multiplied by the values of the relative local differences in the tables provide

the corresponding values of (ys’ — ys’)/Vmpq (N —m)/(N —1) for comparative
purposes.

Applying the foregoing test to all the hair and eye categories, it is found
that Scotland north of the Forth is quite significantly darker than the south.
Excepting Dundee, Fife and Argyll, which have a significant excess of medium
hair, the country north of the Forth is significantly dark haired. The whole
of the south-west is significantly brown haired, while a significant excess of fair
occurs in the Stirling group ($) and in Stirling, Perth and Montrose groups (*).
North of the Grampians there is a significant excess of red hair among the
females and possibly also among the males, although Aberdeen is the only group
which shows definite significance. Turning now to eye colour we see that
north of the Grampians there is a significant excess of medium eyes, south of

TABLE XVIII.
Relative Local Differences in Hair and Eye Colours.

Males
Values of
Asylums Hair Eyes he m—1
p=1/a/1 (Fen)
Red Fair | Medium Dark Light Medium Dark
Aberdeen 2°39 29, -—6°51 7°85 —5°'41 6:09 — 39 1:029
Dumfries —1°40 — 1°27 5°13 — 4:34 4°01 — 1°78 —2°79 1014
Dundee i — ‘82 -— ‘31 4°60 — 4°45 3°85 — 86 —3°63 1:017
Edinburgh . “74 1°89 —1°94 85 1°89 — 3°81 2°03 1:022
Montrose 59 14°58 —9°52 2°16 —4°37 1°27 3°78 1:031
Argyll — ‘59 — 3°63 8°70 — 8:06 38 77 —1:3: 1:023
Ayr — ‘90 — 1°63 6°34. — 4°41 2°01 — ‘14 — 2°24 1:029
Banff - ll — 2°16 —3°71 5°30 —6°'94 8°63 —1:18 1:008
Elgin 22, — 1°54 —5°83 6°36 —6°58 7°67 52 1:007
Fife —1°34 — 1°34 6°31 — 5°57 3°04 — 1°58 —1:94 1:026
Gartloch —-1:°77 — ‘51 5°97 — 5°55 1°68 — 3°01 37 1:037
Lenzie — “78 — 2°97 3°29 — 1°69 — 49 — 377 4°93 1:047
Govan cull — “O07 — 3:29 6°28 — 4:84 2°79 — 2°68 — ‘36 1:033
Haddington - ‘ll — ‘69 87 — ‘27 4°25 — 2°89 —211 1008
Inverness 38 — 163 | —9-67 10°91 —9°74 12°42 —2°13 1:026
Lanark seit 43 — 186 | — :24 1°12 4°16 — 3°76 — 78 1-049
Midlothian ,. 67 2°24 | —1:80 “54 4°27 — 2°85 — 2°04 1:016
Perth ‘87 3°73 —7'70 5°89 —5°94 1°40 168 1:021
Roxburgh - ‘ll 36 1°36 — 1°58 5°15 — 3:09 — 2°85 1:017
Stirling 1°55 2°59 — 6:90 5:48 —1:99 14 2°24 1:038
Greenock — 65 — 2°86 3°51 — 2:01 1°61 — 1:08 Se ariti 1:014
Paisley 48 — 2°54 3°72 — 2°69 1:24 — 62 — ‘96 1011
(s—1) — 03 2°75 4°57 3°98 3°35 3°38 il —

338 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

the Forth significant excess of light eyes, while Lenzie and the regions of Perth,
Montrose, Kdinburgh and Stirling are significantly dark eyed. Summarising the
results of colour observations generally, it is found that, compared with the
“general insane” population, the north of Scotland has excess of medium eyes,
dark and red hair, the south-east is light eyed, the south-west brown haired and
light eyed, while the midlands are mixed in character, having not only an excess
of fair medium and dark hair but also of light and dark eyes. Considered inter-
locally, the non-measurable characters red hair 7, fair hair 2 and dark eyes ? do
not show significant departures from homogeneity [see values of (s—1), Tables
XVIII. and XIX.].

locally. Thus the same conclusion is reached for non-measurable characters as

The other colour characters show great heterogeneity inter-

was reached for measurable characters, namely: Individual asylum groups cannot
be said to form part of a “ general insane” population of a hemogeneous character.

For a detailed examination of the pigmentation of the inmates the reader is
referred to Tables XVIII. and XIX. and to the pigmentation maps, Maps XIII. to

TABLE XIX.

Relative Local Differences in Hair and Eye Colours.

Females
Values of
Asylums Hair Eyes ae a _ (mal
; aS 7 , a ad i)
Red Fair Medium Dark Light Medium Dark
-_ | | s
Aberdeen 7°48 “72, —9°84 | 7°41 —6°72 5°33 1°68 1-030
Dumfries —1°34 “92 4°85 | —4'82 3°91 — 2°60 —1°52 1-020
Dundee wie —2°21 D3 3°58 —3°'13 2°39 | — "72 — 1:86 1-028
Edinburgh ... — 42 03 —3:'79 3°97 3:7 | = sr5il 29 1:029
Montrose | 2°22 — 02 —5:07 4:46 —5°39 6:09 - 61 1:014
Argyll —2719 — +28 6°71 — 6:08 — ‘06 18 -— ‘13 1:027
Ayr — 2°04 —1:18 7°64 — 6°72 6°04 —2°70 — 2°32 1:035
Banff "76 — 36 — 2°45 2°37 —5:01 6°02 — ‘96 1:007
Elgin Born | a7 —6:13 4°18 — 5:90 7°88 —1°98 1-009
Fife —1:82 | — *84 | 5°66 —4°89 3°20 eres 2°95 — °B5 1:029
Gartloch —1°47 Weill “| 5°02 — 5:02 3-11 —2°27 = 4) 1022
Lenzie —-1:86 | -148 | “92 ‘16 — ‘40 —1:99 2°59 1:040
Govan ae —1°'18 —1:04 3°27 — 2°60 3°84 —3°37 ‘AT 1-026
Haddington 127, —1-48 1°15 — ‘71 04 — 39 “38 1:010
Inverness 5:05 ‘71 5-71 6°96 — 6°99 781 | — ‘69 1-026
Lanark ate —1:93 —1°37 — 05 111 3°79 — 3°40 — 52 1:019
Midlothian...) — :23) | —1°05 — 3°69 4:18 1°32 — 55 — 86 1:020
Perth | 2 =| 1:10 — 2°52 2°09 —4:70 | 2°64 2°35 1:015
Roxburgh - ‘71 “99 — 29 85 2°81 —2°71 — 18 1-019
Stirling 1:29 3°00 —5'54 4°20 —5:08 | 159 | 3:90 1:035
Greenock —1:57 | ‘07 3°18 —2°76 ‘01 — ‘55 | 58 1-014
Paisley — 82 | 2-08 2°96 — 3°46 1°10 (04 | —1:26 1:013
(s—1) 1°66 ‘17 3°73 3°23 3°03 | 2°75 53 —

J. F. Tocurer 339

XVIII. the relative values being given in all cases in the tables*. ‘The percentages
are given in Tables XXIII. and XXIV. of Supplement.

II. Correlation of Hair and Eye Colour. Applying the contingency method
to the data (see Table VIII. of Supplement) the following results were obtained.
The author’s results from the Aberdeenshire population and those of Pearson
from Continental and British returns are also given, for the sake of comparison.

TABLE XX.

Correlation. Hair and Hyes.

Population Contingency Coefficient Returns by
Male Asylum Inmates sis 3039 J. F. Tocher
Female Asylum Inmates... » "2994 7
Adult Scottish Population ... 3673 -
Scottish Childrent ... a *B802 5
Swedish Conscripts { oe 2495 G. Retzius
Prussian Children ¢ ... ae 2714 R. Virchow
Italian Conscripts ... ae 3091 R. Livi
Jewish Children}... Ses 3381 R. Virchow
Baden Conscripts{ ... - 3540 O. Ammon
British Schoolboys} ... si "4203 K. Pearson

From this we see that there is no material difference between sane and
insane populations in their degrees of correlation between hair and eye colours,
although the result for the Scottish sane population is higher. The degree of
correlation in the case of the Scottish children is slightly higher than that of the
adult Scottish sane population. The continental results given above are not
directly comparable, since while the children’s data are available, those of the
corresponding adult populations are wanting, and besides there are racial differences
to consider. It would seem, however, from the foregoing that the correlation
between hair and eye colours decreases in passing from a juvenile to an adult
population. This is obviously due to a change of hair and eye colours in passing
from childhood to manhood. The correlation between age and the colour of hair
and eyes in man has been dealt with by Pearson§, who shows from Uchida’s results
on Prussian and British data that, with a range of 13 years (7-19), the correlation
between age and hair colour amounts to *158, and between age and eye colour
‘096. From Pfitzner’s hospital results the value °451 was obtained for hair colour
and age, but it is pointed out that, owing to the positive correlation between
fairness and disease in childhood, this value is too high; probably ‘2 to 25 would

* The foregoing is a short summary of the colour characteristics of the inmates. They will be
dealt with in more detail in another paper when the results will be compared with the results of
the Pigmentation Survey of Scottish School Children just carried out by the writer.

+ Not yet published.

{ Pearson: Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 461. § Biometrika, Vol. m1. pp. 462—466.

340 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

Mare XIII. Map XIV.

Hair Colour. Nw.

Local Divergencies—Males.
Edinburgh, 0 [038]
Gartloch, IT. [-098]
Lenzie, 0 [-062]
Govan, H. [102]

Hair Colour.

‘ . I. [089]
Local Divergencie edie 0 (041)
Females. Govan, 0 [055]

my ey) NT] |

10
13,
16
19

i)
(2)

y>Yy /\Edinburgh, I. [-065

Eye Colour. tl ; F Gh V2, Gartloch. 0 ee
Local Divergencies—Males. i ye Colour. Lenzie, 0 [-047]
Local Divergencies—Females. Govan, I. [078]

Map XV. Map XVI.

J. F. Tocner 341

be about the correct value. No British adult data are at present available to
determine the constants involved. The change, however, in passing from juveniles
(under 19) to adults can be approximately measured from the Aberdeenshire
data. With the figures given in the following table, r='24, when we use
Pearson’s fourfold table method for characters not quantitatively measurable*.

TABLE XXI. Correlation of Age and Hair Colour.

|

Red Fair Medium Dark Totals |
| Adults ...| 8 71 133 189 401
| Children... 28°1 100°2 188°5 84°2 401
Totals... 36°1 P72 321°5 2732 802

III. Distribution of Colour among the Sane and the Insane. Since the
Aberdeen data represent a local group, the colour observations on adults there
cannot be contrasted with the colour data of the “general insane” population,
as local groups may or may not be good samples of the general population. It
has been shown for all characters that they are more likely not to be good
samples. The rate of change of hair and eye colour with age, however, is not
so likely to vary in passing from one district to another. On the assumption
that the rate of change is fairly uniform throughout Scotland, an approximate
estimate can be made as to the probable distribution of hair and eye colours
among the adult sane population from the Aberdeenshire data and the results of
the observations from the Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scotland
about to be published. Let p,, pu, ... pn = percentage of either hair or eye colour
among school children in any district; q@, q2,--. @r= similar percentages among
the adults in the same district; p, p’s,... p’n= similar percentages among the
children in the entire school population ; R =(1 + €/(100 —e)) ; «= a constant whose
value depends on the nature of the distribution and n= number of categories then

PiDh | PoGk , piGgh | P'ngrk _ 199

Pr Pp» Ds Pn
and gives the corresponding probable percentages of either hair or eye colour in
the general adult sane population of the country. Applying this equation to the
Scottish normal data, we obtain the following values, the corresponding values for

the “general insane” population being given for comparison.

>

To judge from this result—a tentative one—there is an excess of light-eyed,
brown and dark-haired persons in Scottish asylums and a corresponding defect in
the other categories. The colour distributions of the “general insane” population
cannot therefore be held to be fair samples of the general population of Scotland.

* Tt is assumed that selection by hair-colour does not occur; the children are the distributions
of 401 individuals on tbe base of the Pigmentation Survey, for Aberdeenshire ; the division is taken
between ‘ fair’ and ‘ medium.’

Biometrika v 44

342 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

TABLE XXII. Pigmentation of Sane and Insane.

Hair per cent. | Eyes per cent.
|
Red | Fair | Medium | Dark Light | Medium | Dark
Probable distribution of adult Sane dae 409 |) 115 559 28°4 27°8| 45:9 26°3
| General Insane Population 16 6°5 59°5 32°4 450 | 32°6 22°4
Difference ... 2°6 5°0 -36 -—-40 -17°2| 18° 3°9

IV. Relationship between Colour and Insanity. This problem can be viewed
from another standpoint, without dealing either with the observed colour distri-
butions among the insane or the estimated values among the sane, just discussed.
The various proportions of the insane among the whole population in cach of the
various districts in Scotiand can be compared with the corresponding proportions
of children possessing any particular hair or eye colour within the same areas. In
the Report on the Scottish Census of 1901*, the proportion of lunatics per million
of the population in each county and in the eight chief divisions of Scotland are
given. From the results of the Pigmentation Survey of Scottish School Children
recently carried out by the writer, the proportional colour distributions within the
same areas cau be found. Taking light-eyed children as an example the following
table (X XIII.) was formed, #, being the deviation from the mean percentage of
light-eyed children, and a, the corresponding deviation from the mean proportion
of insane in the eight divisions under consideration.

TABLE XXIII.

Division Ly Hy
I |} —1:99 — 2735
II = WO + 816
III — 38 | — 206
1V -1°31 + 553
Vv +1°94 +2431 |
VI + ‘15 —1549 |
Vil + ‘51 —1084
VIII +131 +1772

The following values of 7 and of the ratio of r to its probable error 4, were
obtained by comparing the percentages of the various colours successively with
the proportion of insane in the eight divisions of Scotland. (Table XXIV.)

* Eleventh Decennial Census of the Population of Scotland, 1901, with Report, Vol. 1. Table XVII,
page xxix.

J. F. Tocurr 343

Map XVII. Map XIX.

I
Insane,~2735
Ned Hair, 19

Dell;
Insane, 816 neane,~206
Red Hair,-"19 Rod Hair, “2

2 Insane, 553
Gf Red Hair,-21 f ;
7
V.
Insane, 2431" § °
ite ek vin
Insane,-1084
V vi.
Rod Hair, *12
Insane,-1549
Red Hair,~ 05
VIII.
Insane, 1772
Red Hatr, -00

General Distribution ; —

? Comparison betweeu = ——___
of Hair Colour.

Proportion of Insane per Million
Inmatesof Asylums. and Red Haired Children per cent

I
Insane,-2735
Light Eyes, 1 V9

REGION OF MEDIUM) EYES

ay ibe

~ Insaue,-206
Light Eyes,-'38

Insane. 816
Light Byes,--20

Insane,-1084

Insane,-1549 Light Byes, 91

Light Byes, -51

Insane, 1772 Ss

Light Eyes, 1°31

General Distribution Comparison between

Proportion of Insane per Million
and Light Eyed Children per cent

of Eye Colour
Inmates of Asylums

Mar XVIIL. Map XX.
44—2

NG

344

Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

TABLE XXIV. Correlation—Hair and Eye Colours with Lunacy.

Colour ip a

Red Hair — 5824 3°70
Fair Hair — 0244 10
Medium Hair — 1283 55
Dark Hair "3396 1-61
Jet Black Hair 0836 35
Light Eyes 6952 5°64
Blue Eyes — 0719 “30
Medium Eyes — 8222 151

| Dark Eyes — 4815 2°63

The results in the above table appear to be important, and confirm the

deductions made from the pigmentation of the inmates. They show that on an
average more persons became insane in parts of the country where there is an
excess of light-eyed persons in the population, and in a much less degree where
there is an excess of dark-haired persons. Lunacy is distinctly correlated positively
to light eyes and in a much less degree to dark hair; and is distinctly correlated
negatively to red hair and in a lesser degree to dark eyes. Thus there is a greater
tendency to insanity among light-eyed and dark-haired persons, and a lesser
tendency to insanity among red-haired and dark-eyed persons, compared in both
cases with the general population. These are merely statistical facts, and no

explanation is offered as to how or why presence or absence of pigment comes

to be associated, as it is here found to be, with insanity.

I. General.

(7) Comparison with other Data.

As has already been stated, no general Scottish data exist which
can be directly compared with the Scottish “general insane’
a general survey of Scotland has not yet been carried out.
as are available can, however, be contrasted with the data under discussion.

?

population, since
Such British returns
The

following table shows the values of the means of L, B, and 100 B/L.

|

TABLE XXV. Comparative Table of L, B, and 100 B/L.
M | B
Population eon | L (mm) | B (mm) | 100 - Reference
|
|
| General Hospital Head 190'4 149°3 | 78°5 | Biometrika, Vol. 1v. p. 126, Blakeman
| English Criminals 3 1917 | 150°4 = 77:2 | Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 204, Macdonell
| Cambridge Graduates ... | “i 193°5 | 154:0 | 79°6 | Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 351, Pearson
Scottish Lunatic Pop.... | ; 195° = 1515 =) s77°6 | This Memoir
Scottish Habitual Crim. — . 196°3. | 153°1 | 78°0 | This Memoir
British Association - 198°1 | 155°5 | 78:2 | Phil. Trans. Vol. 196 A. Lee and Pearson
Naqada Crania | Cranium 185°1 | 134:°9 | 73:0 | Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 438, Fawcett
| Long Barrow Skulls y 190°6 | 142°5 | 74:9 | Biometrika, Vol. Iv. p. 354, Schuster
English Crania * 189°1 | 140°7 | 74°3 Biometrika, Vol. 111. p. 208, Macdonell
Scottish Crania e 186°8 144°3 | 77°3) RS. £. Vol. 40, Part m1. Sir W. Turner

J. F. Tocuer 345

II. Scottish Criminals. The writer is indebted to Dr J. F. Sutherland,
Assistant Scottish Lunacy Commissioner, for kindly supplying the measurements
on 375 Scottish habitual criminals. The analysis of these observations has
provided interesting results. The criminals were divided into four classes ;
those convicted of (I) robbery and assault, (II) theft, (III) murder and assault,
and (IV) offences against chastity. The following table gives the results of the
analysis, stature, head-length, and head-breadth being considered.

TABLE XXVI.
Habitual Criminals in Scotland.

| Mean Standard Deviation
| |

7: |
Stature:

Class No. I. 646+ ‘11 2°37 + ‘08 inches
» » IL 65:04 18 268413 ,,
> ~y):«LUL. (653 “20 228414 |
» oy (ULV OGSDHE *49 256430 ,,
Totals 64°8+ ‘09 247+-06 ,,

Head Length:

Class No. I. 195°3+ °30 6°37+°21 mm
og, AI. «197-24 1429 606429 ,,
ee lle ios 2 cs 706445,
>» yy ~4%LV. «195°34 °70 402+'47
Totals 196°3+4 °23 6°44+4°16 ,,

Head Breadth:

Class No. I. 152°9+ +22 4°70+°16 mm
» » IL 15394 29 4244-20 ,,
> yy LIL 153°54 -43 4°83+°31 ,,
~~ «CLV. «152°141-06 650471,
Totals 1535+ °16 4574-11 ,, |

|
Considering briefly in the first place the various classes of criminals them-

selves, it is seen that those habitual criminals who have been convicted of murder
and assault, and in a lesser degree those convicted of theft, differ considerably in
head-length from those convicted of robbery and assault and other crimes. They
have on an average longer heads. The difference in head-length between Classes I
and III is 4°43 times its probable error, and Class III differs in its mean head-
length from the remaining population by about 3°8 times the probable error of
the difference. The distinctive feature here is that those convicted of murder and
assault have significantly longer heads than the other criminal population. The
difference in head-breadth between Classes I and II, and in stature between
Classes I and III are possibly significant, but in all other cases the differences in
the various characters among the criminals are insignificant—they are fair random
samples of the short series of the general criminal population of Scotland. A
longer series of measurements might of course reveal significant differences which
appear in this series to be insignificant.

346 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

On comparing now the Scottish “ general insane” population with the Scottish
habitual criminals, we find that they differ considerably in type. An inspection of
the differences (relative to their probable errors) will show this at a glance.

TABLE XXVILI.

Between | Relative Difference

Mean Head Lengths... 3°40
» Head Breadths ... | 9°48
5» Statures per 11°24

That is, the Scottish criminal’s head is on an average longer and broader than
that of the inmate of a Scottish asylum, but he is somewhat shorter in stature ; or,
conversely, the insane person is smaller headed but taller in stature than the
criminal. This result may or may not be independent of the racial nature of
either population. It is to be noted, however, that 35 per cent. of the criminals
in Scottish asylums are of Irish origin. A very much smaller proportion of the
“general insane” population are of Irish extraction.

III. Scottish Crania. Sir William Turner, in his valuable memoir on the
“Craniology of the People of Scotland,” finds the mean length and mean breadth
of the crania examined by him to be respectively 186°8 mm. and 1443 mm.
Making an allowance of 8 mm. for scalp depth for each character and comparing
these values with those of the “general insane” population, we see that the
differences are quite insignificant. From measurements kindly made for the
writer by Dr Theodore Shennon, Pathologist at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary,
the average depth of the scalp is found to be less than that given above.
Altogether 110 subjects were measured, in the. temporal region at both sides,
and at the glabella and occipital point. Measurements on subjects still continue
to be made, but until a much larger number have been measured it seems
desirable to adhere to the figure usually given. In any case, the above result
is a purely tentative one, and no stress is laid on it. Besides, as Sir William
Turner points out, the crania are not quite representative of the whole of Scotland,
and the series is a short one.

IV. Local. One only of the asylum groups can be compared with the normal
population of practically the same area—that of Aberdeen. The writer’s values
for head length, head breadth, and stature of the Aberdeenshire population are
193°93 mm., 153°40 mm. and 67°7 inches respectively. The difference in head
length is insignificant, but the sane population of Aberdeenshire is significantly
broader headed and taller than the corresponding asylum population. Roxburgh
Volunteers have been found by J. F. Macpherson* to have an average stature of
67°89 inches, and this is significantly greater than the corresponding asylum
population. It must be remembered, however, that the Volunteers are a selected

* Stature of Roxburgh and Selkirk Volunteers: J. F. Macpherson.

J. EF. Tocuer 347

population, so that the only normal local observations directly comparable with the
local insane are those of Aberdeen.

V. Stature. Finally, stature generally falls to be briefly noticed. The fol-
lowing table shows the mean stature of the various Scottish populations measured
by the writer, alongside those of other Anglo-Saxon populations whose values have
been ascertained.

It will be observed that the first five classes in the table below are drawn from
the normal or healthy populations, while the last five are either hospital patients,
insane or criminals, So far as the Scottish populations are concerned it has been
already pointed out that the sane are significantly taller than either criminals or

TABLE XXVIII.
Stature—Males.—Anglo-Saxon or British Populations.

Class Stature (inches) Reference
|

Cambridge Students... ae 68°86 Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 191, Macdonell
English Sons : 68°86 | Family data, Pearson
Roxburgh and Selkirk Volunteers | 67°89 This Memoir
English Fathers .., : | 67°74 Family data, Pearson
Aberdeenshire Rural... a 67°72 | This Memoir
General Hospital .. on 67°16 | Biometrika, Vol. tv. p. 126, Blakeman
Criminals, New South Wales... 66°88 Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 44, Powys
Scottish Insane... soe AE 65°86 This Memoir |
English Criminals aes sie 65°54 Biometrika, Vol. 1. p. 191, Macdonell |
Scottish Criminals sis es 64°84 | This Memoir |

the insane. It would thus appear that neither the criminals nor the imsane are
fair samples of the general population with respect to stature, these two classes
being drawn more from the shorter section of the community.

(8) General Conclusions.

I. The fundamental problem (namely, does the insane population differ from the
sane population ?) cannot be answered from the data of this survey, at least with
respect to measurable characters, since no corresponding complete survey of the
sane population has been carried out. The mean stature of the Scottish insane,
however, is significantly less than that of the sane population of any of the districts
measured. With respect to the non-measurable characters, hair colour and eye
colour, the colour data of the Scottish children being available, it has been found
by direct and indirect comparison that the insane population does materially differ
from the sane. On an average, the “general insane” population of Scotland is
lighter-eyed and darker-haired than the sane population. There is a greater
tendency to insanity among the light-eyed and dark-haired population than among
any other colour class. Red-haired persons and dark-eyed persons seem less liable

348 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

to insanity. With regard to the remaining colour characters there is no material
difference between the sane and the insane.

II. In the one local district where the adult sane and insane populations can
be compared—that of Aberdeen—it is found to agree, with respect to pigmenta-
tion, with the general conclusion just stated. With regard to measurable charac-
ters, the local sane population is broader headed and taller than the local insane.

III. In the entire insane population there is a group whose characters are
affected by special causes not characteristic of sanity in general. This group
has on that account been excluded from the general analysis. ‘The group is quite
ditferent in type from the “ general insane” population, is both macrocephalic and
microcephalic in character, and thus shows excessive variability.

IV. (a) The distributions of the various characters in the general insane
population are distinctly skew, with the possible exception of head length, which
may be fairly described by the normal curve. Further, the distributions are
leptokurtic and negatively asymmetric. For long series of the same characters,
just as great divergences from normality occur among sane populations as are here
found in the long general insane series. Asymmetry in distribution therefore is
not a special feature among the insane. A difference in form, however, may exist
between sane and insane populations. If it existed, it would be detected by a
general survey of the sane population. In any case, heterogeneity would account
for much of the asymmetry, and heterogeneity (see V. and VI.) has been found to
exist among the insane.

(b) There is a probably significant departure from linearity of regression
among the males in the pairs of characters J & 6, B& H,and L& 8S. Otherwise
the regression is linear. The values of the correlation coetticients are somewhat
higher in the entire insane population. In the general insane population the
values approximate to those already found for the same pairs of characters among
the sane population.

V. Assuming the insane population in the various districts of Scotland to be,
with respect to measurable characters, an anthropometric sample of each district,
we find that local populations differ from each other sensibly in many respects.

(a) The south-west of Scotland (exclusive of Glasgow) is long-headed or
macrocranial, the north-east is short-headed or brachycranial. The north of
Scotland is broad-headed or platycranial. Glasgow, Edinburgh, and the populous
centres round them are stenocranial or narrow-headed. Again, the north of
Scotland is distinctly brachycephalic, while the south-west is distinctly dolicho-
cephalic. In the large towns (excepting Edinburgh, which approximates to the
mean) the population is microcephalic or small-headed. The Scottish Midlands,
excluding towns, are macrocephalic or large-headed. The rest of the country
approximates to the average size—the population is mesocephalic. In head height,
there are two sharply divided groups—-a hypsicranial or a high-headed group in

J. EF. TocHEer 349

the Midlands, and a chamaecranial or a low-headed one. The border counties are
tall statured or megalomegithic. In the towns generally the population is signifi-
cantly shorter—is micromegithic.

(b) The interlocal constants evaluated show that the population is not a
homogeneous one, no matter what character be considered. Intralocally, it is seen
that in some groups the means of most characters exceed their respective general
means, and are therefore megalomeric in character; in others the means of most
of the characters are significantly less than the corresponding general means and
are therefore micromeric. In others the groups exceed the means in some and are
in defect in others, and therefore possess a mixed specification—they are micto-
meric groups.

VI. Few districts show greater variability than the general population.
Inverness males and Aberdeen and Montrose females show greater variability in
head height. Male inmates at Ayr show significantly low variability for all
cranial characters. Fife males and females are a selected group with respect to
stature.

VII. There is no significant difference between the two sexes in variability.
The males, perhaps, appear more variable in head breadth, but otherwise males
and females are very much alike in variability.

VIII. While it has been shown to be exceedingly probable that the general
colour distributions of the insane differ significantly in some respects from those
of the adult sane population (see I.), the colour distribution of the insane through-
out Scotland is by no means uniform. Generally speaking the north of Scotland
is a region of excess of dark and red hair and medium eyes; the south-west of
medium hair; and the south, of light eyes. The country lying directly between
the Firth of Forth and Firth of Clyde has an excess of fair hair as well as of dark
eyes; and the Montrose group (which includes Caithness and Shetland as well as
Kincardine and North Forfar) has also an excess of fair hair in the male
population.

IX. Comparing the measurable characters of the Scottish insane population
with the other available general Scottish data we find that (a) the insane are,
on an average, probably shorter than the sane; (b) there is a distinct difference in
type between the class or race material from which the insane and the criminals
are drawn, the criminals being larger-headed and shorter men on an average than
the insane. If the criminals and the insane belonged to the same race, or con-
tained proportionally the same racial elements, it would be clear that the criminals
were drawn from a physically different section of the community. About 35 per
cent. of the habitual criminals in Scotland, however, are of Irish extraction, and
the problem, thus complicated, cannot be solved without a knowledge of the
physical characters of both races. Incidentally, the criminals differ little among
themselves. They are a homogeneous group, excepting that the class convicted of

Biometrika v 45

350 Anthropometry of Scottish Insane

murder and assault have significantly longer heads than the others; (c) so far as
can be judged, comparing head and skull measurements, there is little difference
between the asylum population and Turner’s Scottish cranial series.

Synopsis of Terms.

Specific Terms.

| Relation of the mean to the general mean
| to which it is compared
Character Reference
Greater | Less
= =
L macrocranial brachycranial Biometrika, Vol. 1. Fawcett’s Memoir
B platycranial | stenocranial 5 - <5
H | hypsicranial chamaecranial 55 ‘ *
B/L | ___brachycephalic | dolichocephalic 5 5 .
H/I | _ hypsicephalic chamaecephalic - S
B/H | __ platycephalic stenocephalic | - in
S megalomegithic micromegithic This memoir
(or macromegithic) | (or brachymegithic)
LBH macrocephalic microcephalic ss

General Terms.

|
| The value of the constant found, compared with the
| corresponding constant of the general population is

(considering the sample as a random one)
Character or group Reference
| |
Significantly Insignificantly | Significantly
Greater Different Less
Any character te megalometropic isometropic | micrometropic | This memoir
(or macrometropic)
Any group, for all or, megalomeric isomeric micromeric "
most characters | (or macromeric)
|

A mictomeric group is one where the characters are partly megalo- and
partly micrometropic, with or without being also isometropic. %

= meena ease
_,,

ON THE ERROR OF COUNTING WITH
A HAEMACYTOMETER.

By Stupenr.

WHEN counting yeast cells or blood corpuscles with a hzemacytometer there
are two main sources of error: (1) the drop taken may not be representative of
the bulk of the liquid; (2) the distribution of the cells or corpuscles over the area
which is examined is never absolutely uniform, so that there is an “error of
random sampling.”

With the first source of error we are concerned only to this extent ; that when
the probable error of random sampling is known we can tell whether the various
drops taken show significant differences. What follows is concerned with the
distribution of particles throughout a liquid, as shewn by spreading it in a thin
layer over a measured surface and counting the particles per unit area,

Theoretical Consideration.

Suppose the whole liquid to have been well mixed and spread out in a thin
layer over V units of area (in the hemacytometer the usual thickness is ‘01 mm.
and the unit of area 73, sq. mm.)

Let the particles subside and let there be on an average m particles per unit
area, that is Nm altogether. Then assuming the liquid has been properly mixed
a given particle will have an equal chance of falling on any unit area.

ue. the chance of its falling in a given unit area is 1/N and of its not doing so

= 1/0

Consequently considering all the mN particles the chances of 0, 1, 2, 3...
particles falling on a given area are given by the terms of the binomial

1 ] ) "x : : . eee eal .
(2 5) +H , and if M unit areas be considered the distribution of unit

mN
areas containing 0, 1, 2, 3... particles is given by M (: - x) + aH :

Now in practice NV is to be measured in millions and may be taken as
infinite.

352 On the Error of Counting with a Haemacytometer

Let us find the limit when J is infinite of the general term of this expansion.
The (7 + 1)th term is:

; 1 Nae A\" mN (mN — a) CaN 2)...(mN —r+1)
oy gy"

f 1 D - i =)
il oe m (me Set x) (m == 2) O08 (m NG

=(1-y r}
(1 mN —r , Nor) (N= 71) _
=( — N Ne 32h
fey yy cle ape, Ss

(m—5) (m—5). oe. (mS)

xm
r}

a a, A ee Rail r rt+1l r+s—l1
But when we proceed to the limit Wo NCW and ‘ae

are all negligeably small compared to m so that the expression reduces to

me

mu = m”
x ——h Cex
r} r!

ms
(L-m4 5. at (= 1) ey

That is to say that the expansion is equal to

m
e~ memes +. eee
yA r!

Hence it is this distribution with which we are concerned.

The Ist moment about the origin, O, taken at zero number of particles is

ae 2m? 3m? rm
(7 fi Bum Wp tss cray ee

= me" 1 4 Lae ean
2 Ti! Ga The:

=m x total frequency.

Hence the mean is at m.

The 2nd moment about the point O is

mtn ts {ene al cae i. — my
re Nee 2m? din’ a rm
i) on Ge
a ae im a, aes eae
é jm Te 1D! +m? + 21 ( 1)! Sean (
if
\

=(m +m?) x total frequency.

By STUDENT 353

Hence the second moment-coefficient about the mean
fo= m+n’? —m=M.

By similar* methods the moment-coefficients up to m, were obtained, as

follows:

Pale it
fo =m
fs = ™M.

fos = 8m? + Mm.
pb; = 10m? +m.
fe = 15m + 25m? + m.

Hence

and B, =

It will be observed that the limit to which this distribution approaches as m
becomes infinite is the normal curve with its 8,, B;, B;, ete., all equal to 0, and
Ba— 3,064 — 15; ete:

Further, any binomial (p+q)” can be put into the form (p+q)"%, and
if q be small and nq not large it approaches the distribution just given.

Thus if 1000 (,28, + 745) be expanded the greatest difference between any

100

y2 r
of its terms and the corresponding term of 1000 e° (1 +54 5 ++ = + a)

* The evaluation of the moments about the point O will be found to depend on the expansion of 1”
in the form
(r-1) ‘
+...+a =

A (r-1)! (r-1)! (r-1)!
a a “1 —n—1)1' “2 (r—n)!

x g a An, .
a lecacpi tet est teh (r-1)!

Then if we form the series for n+1 from this it will be found that the following relations hold
between a), a, a; etc. and the corresponding coefficients for n+1, 4,, 49, A, ete.
A, =a,+n,
A, =d,+(n-I1)a,,
Ap=4p+(n-—p+1) ap.
From these equations we can write down any number of moments about the point O in turn, and
from these may be found the moments about the mean by the ordinary formulae.
The moments may also be deduced from the point binomial (p+q)"%7 when q is small and n large
and ng=m, i.e. p=1, g=0, ng=m. We have
by =ng=m,
My =npg =m,
Ms =npq (p-q)=m,
My =npq {143 (n—-2) pq} =m (1+3m)=3m? +m.

354 On the Error of Counting with a Haemacytometer

is never as much as 1, being about ‘8 for the term 1000 e* which is 175°5

5!
against 176°3 from the binomial.

Diagram I compares 1000 e~° (1 +54 - tb gan ce - + =) with the binomial

1000 (42+ 4)" which of course differ, but not by very much.

Diacram I. Comparison of the exponential and binomial expansions.

: » 5”
Firm line represents 1000e~° +O+...+ a + ote. 3

19 il! l 100

Broken line represents 1000 on + 305

180 Sar
170

160)
150

140
130)
120

110
100

—

In applying this to actual cases it must be noted that we have not taken into

account any “interference” between the particles; there has been supposed the

same chance of a particle falling on an area which already has several particles as

on one altogether unoccupied. Clearly if m be large this will not be the case, but
with the dilutions usually employed this is not of any importance.

It will be shewn that the actual distributions which were tested do not diverge
widely from this law, so we will consider the probable error of random sampling on
the supposition that they follow it.

We have seen that uw, =m.
Hence the standard deviation = /m.

By STUDENT 355

So that if we have counted M unit areas the probable error of our mean (7) is

67449 ae a

If we are working with a hemacytometer in which the volume over each square
IS gohg7 mm. there will be 40,000,000 m particles per c.c. and the probable error

will be 40,000,000 x °67449 x «A/T

mr

Suppose now that we dilute the liquid to g times its bulk, we shall then have
is particles per square, and if we count M squares as before, our probable error
he the number of eS per c.c. in the original solution will be 40,000,000
x 67449 x q VE mx ap That is 40,000,000 x 67449 Jt se

That is we shall have to count gM squares in order to be as accurate as before.

So that the same accuracy is obtained by counting the same number of
particles whatever the dilution, or, to look at it from a slightly different point of
view, whatever be the size of the unit of area adopted.

Hence the most accurate way is to dilute the solution to the point at which
the particles may be counted most rapidly, and to count as many as time permits:
then the probable error of the mean is 67449 a where m is the mean and M
is the number of unit areas counted over, squares, columns of squares, microscope
fields, or whatever unit be selected.

But owing to the difficulty of obtaining a drop representative of the bulk of
the liquid the larger errors will probably be due to this cause, and it is usual to
take several drops: if two of these differ in their means by a significant amount

M, + Mz

compared with the probable error (which is °67449 py eee

where m,, m, are

the means and M the number of unit areas counted), it is ere that one at
least of the drops does not represent the bulk of the solution.

Eaperimental Work.

This theoretical work was tested on four distributions * which had been counted
over the whole 400 squares of the heamacytometer. The particles counted were
yeast cells which were killed by adding a little mercuric chloride to the water in
which they had been shaken up. A small quantity of this was mixed with a
10 °/, solution of gelatine, and after being well stirred up drops were put on the
hemacytometer. This was then put on a plate of glass kept at a temperature just
above the setting point of gelatine and allowed to cool slowly till the gelatine had
set. Four different concentrations were used.

* One of these is given in Table I.

356 On the Error of Counting with a Haemacytometer

In this way it was possible to count at leisure without fear of the cells straying
from one square to another owing to accidental vibrations. A few cells stuck here
and there to the cover glass, but as they appeared to be fairly uniformly distributed
and were very few compared with those that sank to the bottom they were
neglected: had the object of the experiment been to find the number of cells
present they would have been counted by microscope fields, and correction made
for them; but in our case they were considered to belong to a different “population ”
to those which sank.

Those cells which touched the bottom and right-hand lines of a square were
considered to belong to the square ; a convention of this kind is necessary as the
cells have a tendency to settle on the lines.

There was some difficulty owing to the buds of some cells remaining undetached
in spite of much shaking. In such cases an obvious bud was not counted, but
sometimes, no doubt, a bud was counted as a separate cell, which slightly increases
the number of squares with large numbers in them.

In order to test whether there was any local lack of homogeneity the correlation
was determined between the number of cells on a square and the number of cells
on each of the four squares nearest it; if from any cause there had been a tendency
to lie closer together in some parts than in others this correlation would have been
significantly positive.

Distributions 3 and 4 were tested in this way (Table IT), with the result that
the correlation coefficients were +016 + ‘037 and (015 + 037. This is satisfactory
as shewing that there is no very great difficulty in putting the drop on to the
slide so as to be able to count at any point and in any order; as good a result may
be expected from counting a column as from counting the same number of squares
at random.

The actual distributions of cells are given below, and compared with those
calculated on the supposition that they are random samples from a population
following the law which we have investigated: the probability P of a worse fit
occurring by chance is then found.

I. Mean =°6825 : w2.="8117 : p3=1:0876.

Containing 0 1 2 3 4 5 cells
Actual 213 128 37 18 3 1
Calculated 202 138 47 ll 184 ‘24
—_—_—
2

Whence y?=9'92 and P= ‘04.
Best fitting binomial (1'1893 — -1893)~ 3:6! x 400 for which P=-52.

I]. Mean =1°3225 : y2=1:2835 p, : =1°3574.

(0) 1 ey, 3 4 5 6
Actual 103 143 98 42 8 4 2
Calculated 106 141 93 41 14 4 1

Whence x?=3'98 and P=°68.
Best fitting binomial (‘97051 + °02949)!6-2054 x 400 for which P=-72.

By StTuDENT 357

TIT. Mean =1:80 : py=1:96 : p3=2'529.

0 1 en ae ees
Actual 7 103 121 54 30 12 2 #21 #0 21
Calculated 66 119 107 64 2 10 3 1

Whence x?=9:03 and P=:25.
Best fitting binomial (1:0889— 0889) ~ 20-2473 x 400 for which P=°37.

IV. Mean =4°68 : po=4°46 : p3=4°98.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 #12
Actual 0 20 43 53 %86 70 54 37 18 10 5 2 2
Calculated 4 17 41 #63 #74 #70 54 36 21 «11 a) 2 1

Whence x?=9°72 and P='64.
Best fitting binomial (9525 + 0475)8-53 x 400 for which P=°68.

These results are given graphically in Diagram II. on the next page.

It is possible to fit a point binomial from the mean and the 2nd moment
according to the two equations m,’= ng, pf, = npg and these point binomials fit
the observations better than the exponential series, but the constants have no
physical meaning except that ng=m. And since the exponential series is a
particular form of the point binomial and is fitted from one constant, while two
are used for the “ad hoc” binomial, this better fit was only to be expected.

It will be noticed that in both I and III the 2nd moment is greater than the
mean, due to an excess over the calculated among the high numbers in the tail of
the distribution. As was pointed out before, the budding of the yeast cell increases
these high numbers, and there is also probably a tendency to stick together in
groups which was not altogether abolished even by vigorous shaking.

In any case, the probabilities ‘04, ‘68, °25 and ‘64, though not particularly high,
are not at all unlikely in four trials, supposing our theoretical law to hold, and we
are not likely to be very far wrong in assuming it to do so.

Let us now apply it to a practical problem: for some purposes it is customary
to estimate the concentration of cells and then dilute so that each two drops of the
liquid contain on an average one cell. Different flasks are then seeded with one
drop of the liquid in each, and then “ most of those flasks which show growths are
pure cultures.”

The exact distribution is given by

Hird GED),

2 2! 3!
which is
a
No. of Yeast cells 0 1 2 | 3 4
Percentage Frequency 60°65 30°33 758 | 1:26 "16 |

or approximately three-quarters of those which show growth are pure cultures.

Biometrika v 46

‘g9.p Ioquinu uve 08-T tequinu uvayy "GZGE-T Toquinu uveyy "GZQg. TequInU UvaTYT

Rue aa STI20 _ ‘arenbg sed s]ja9 ‘eaenbg tad sTle9 | terenbg aed 10

xcs eet OL Vac, i (ey ts} 2 V E- 0) DS SVS estG wl a0 G Y SS. 6st
Re aa <= tS =a a
5 ou a ra |
S ae] os =
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SS = 09
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358

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‘sorsnbg jo tequinN

By StTuDEnN?T 359

Conclusions.

We have seen that the distribution of small particles in a liquid follows the law
m m
em |] +m+——+...+ —4+ at
( 2! ‘ioe

where m is the mean number of particles per unit volume * and the various terms
in the series give the chances that a given unit volume contains 0, 1, 2,... 7, ...
particles. We have also seen that this series represents the limit to which
any point binomial (p+q)” approaches when q is small, insomuch that even
‘ - a © ye :
(33 + ay)” x 1000 is represented by e*(1+4+5+ 21 +o. aay +... ) x 1000 with
a& maximum error of about 45 in 180.
: : 1 Z

For the rough calculation of odds with n small compared to = the exponential
series may be used instead of the binomial as being less laborious.
)~ Finally, we have found that the standard deviation of the mean number of
particles per unit volume is vy a where m is the mean number and M the number

of unit volumes counted, so that the criterion of whether two solutions contain
different numbers of cells is whether m,—m, is significant compared with

BT449 y/ Fe + ae
TABLE I.
Distribution of Yeast Cells over 1 sq. mm. divided into 400 squares.

| |

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46—2

PRORAROMNWCNEAWERWER ROB A

360 On the Error of Counting with a Haemacytometer

It must be noted, however, that the probable error will always be greater
than that calculated on this formula when for any reason the organisms occur
as aggregates of varying size.

In conclusion, I should like to thank Prof. Adrian J. Brown, of Birmingham
University, for his valuable advice and assistance in carrying out the experimental
part of the enquiry.

TABLE II.
“Centre” Squares.

Tay 22) 8 Pele Soule 7 18 | 9 | 10| 11 | 12] Totals
B OVS |) 861 onl tase] cass oe) ae eae on eee nee 69
o 216) 14) 17 | Sulla lay.) “Toa sens ec aie 134
z @ | 8 15) 95 | 39). 37) “901 Toe) Scloye| sealed 171
2} 4 [18] 34] 338) 45 48] 41) 929) 7). 51.4) 9 legos
on 5 415) 94) 37 | a7 39) 371 lee 1a ae eels 247
A 6-1 91 a7 | 95 | 939.) 340) soul 4a, et son sete eee 186
5S ” | &| 121 14) gr} 19) 16:19) %7 | aul |= aoc
S 8 3 5 7 8| 12 8 63). pl) Silt dal 57
3 G4 2) 161 oy 5| 1o| 2| 2] 3/—]| 1)—|— 38
Se Oe ss 1 4] 4| 4] —| 3/—]| 1]/—]— 18

a] 11 } 4 Bell ng 1 2

: 12 1 1 1 =
Totals} 72 | 136 | 180 | 248 | 244 | 188 | 100 | 56 | 40 | 20/ 8 | 4 | 1296

Mean of “Centre” Squares, 4°6821; S. D., 2°139.
Mean of ‘ Adjacent” Squares, 4:7014; S. D., 2°116.
r= +016 +037.

Correlation table between the number of cells in a square and the numbers of cells in the
four adjacent squares taken all over Table I.

MISCELLANEA.

On the Distribution of Severity of Attack in Cases of Smallpox.
By F. M. TURNER, M.D.

On Vol. 1v. pp. 505-510 of Biometrika, Prof. Pearson gives reasons for believing that the
distribution of severity among cases of smallpox is either normal, or not sufficiently skew to
sensibly affect the calculations of correlation tables by normal curve formulae. His arguments
are partly @ priori; of direct evidence he only produces a list of cases of smallpox classified
according to the length of time the patients were considered too ill to be bathed.

The following evidence to the contrary seems to me very strong. For over 10 years
Dr Ricketts, formerly the Superintendent of the Hospital Ships, now Superintendent of all the
smallpox hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, has divided his cases into six classes
defined as "follows :

Class I. Haemorrhagic cases.
m5 II. Cases confluent in the vesicular stage.
» III. Cases confluent, but not before the pustular stage.
» IV. Cases intermediate between classes III and V.
- V. Cases with from 100 to 500 pocks upon the face.
» VI. Cases with less than 100 pocks on the face.

It will be seen that all the classes except I are defined by the severity of the eruption. In
Class I the cases are so severe as to die, almost without exception, either before any eruption
appears or before it is fully developed. It is almost certain that the cases of this class would
belong to either Class II or III, if they lived long enough.

When I was working under Dr Ricketts two years ago, he generously put his records at my
disposal, and I found that in the year 1902 the following number of patients were treated at
Long Reach Hospital and the Hospital Ships:

Class I. 266 Class IV. 1141
» IL 291 » Vi 1385
» IID. 1015 » VI. 2851

Total 6949,

To get the comparative frequency of different degrees of severity of eruption we require a
quantitative definition of the classes, which is given in Classes V and VI and may be ascertained
with some approach to accuracy, as I shall shew below, in Classes II, III,and IV. That severity
of disease in smallpox is very closely connected with severity of eruption is quite evident to me;
and will, I believe, be admitted to be so by all who have had practical acquaintance of the
disease.

To determine the superior limit of Class IV Dr Ricketts has sent me a photograph taken by
his assistant, Dr Byles, which has been used as a standard, dividing Classes III and IV. The
photograph is endorsed “Class III. Cases of less numerical severity fall into Class IV.” The
photograph is a profile view and on the half face I have counted 672 pocks. This nuraber must
not be taken as absolutely correct, partly because it is difficult to distinguish the individual
pocks which have run together to form a group, partly because pocks are found of all sizes ;
besides those fully formed are others of small size, and others abortive, and it is difficult to draw
a definite line in counting. Still the evidence shows that the division between Classes HT and
IV corresponds to about 1300 pocks,

362 Miscellanea

For the number of pocks corresponding to Classes II and III I have only very rough
evidence. In two large scale photographs of cases in these two classes I estimated the number
of pocks at about 5000 and 2000 respectively. The pocks were so densely crowded that it was
impossible to count them accurately. All I could do was to count those in one square inch of
each photograph and multiply by the approximate area of the photograph. These photographs
were of individual cases only and were not used as divisions between classes, nor as types.
Consequently I have not used these figures in the table.

Tabulating the above results we get:

No. of cases per

Class No. of pocks | No. of cases in class range of 100 pocks
Die Nast eee od
VI 0= 100 | 2851 2851
\W 100— 500 | 1385 346
IV 500—1300 | 1141 142
Ill ia 1015
II 1300—co 291 +1572 2
| I | 266
Total 6949

which are exhibited alongside in chart form.

Classes I toll

Class V cases exceeding

ce

Neng 700, 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

The skewness of the diagram is of a high order.

Further Remarks on the Distribution of Severity in Cases of Smallpox.
By KARL PEARSON, F.R.S.

In his paper in Biometrika, Vol. tv. pp. 483-504, Dr Turner obtained a series of values for
the relation between severity of disease and vaccination, and in a discussion on these suggested
that a normal distribution ought rather to be assumed for the whole population exposed to risk
of infection than for the population actually attacked by the disease. He suggested that the
attacked population is really a “ curtailed ” normal distribution and considered formulae for such
“curtailed” distributions.

In a note on Dr Turner’s memoir I took the only test of smallpox severity which was at my
disposal, namely the distribution of intervals which the physicians at Glasgow allow to elapse
between (i) onset and (ii) eruption and the first bath ; this I have been assured is a rough but
fair measure of the severity of the attack. I showed that in these cases the maximum severity

Miscellanea 363

did not occur with the mildest attacks, or the distribution was not “curtailed” in the manner
suggested by Dr Turner. Further, I indicated that curtailed distributions did not arise in such
cases as Dr Turner anticipated, e.g. the stature distribution of selected soldiers. In fact most of
our anthropometric distributions have been more or less selected, artificially or naturally, and
they appear as a rule to be as normal as unselected material.

Dr Turner has replied to my criticism with some interesting further statistics of smallpox.
He takes the number of pock marks as given by the scheme below :

Marks 0-100 100-500 500-1300 over 1300
Frequency 2851 1385 1141 1572

and suggests that they show a maximum frequency with the mildest cases. He does not, however,
consider how far they approximate to that curtailed normal population, which as a whole he
supposes to represent the total population which has run the risk of infection. Taking the four
groups as they stand, the part of no normal curve whatever will even approximately fit them.
It may be argued that the failure arises from a considerable number of the mildest cases,
escaping notice at all. My assistant, Mr E. B. Ross, has therefore taken up the problem,
omitting the first group altogether. Taking total population to rise by multiples of 10, he
shows that the only way even to approach Dr Turner’s numbers is enormously to increase the
total population of which the above is to represent the tail, but millions and billions of
population running the risk of infection will not suffice. In fact the ratio of the bases of
the two groupings ie is 2, and the limit to this ratio for the given frequencies treated
as normal even if the risk-running population were infinite would only be 1:32. As a matter
of fact the “spot maps” show how small was the population which ran the risk of infection
even in the London epidemic of 1901-2. Thus whether we include or exclude the group 0 to
100, Dr Turner’s data are wholly impossible even as an approximation to a curtailed normal
curve. This want of any approach to normality suggests the question of whether the material
is even approximately homogeneous. Is it possible that the number of pock marks may be
different according to the extent of acquired immunity? Is it not also true that 5 or 10 pocks
are almost as rare as haemorrhagic cases and the frequency increases from such values up to
at least 100 pocks? In other words the modal severity is not as Dr Turner’s diagram would
lead one to suppose at the very mildest cases. If this be so, then the problem hinges on
whether it is right to suppose severity a linear function of the number of pocks. Non-linear
functions would not affect the application of fourfold-table methods, but they would aftect the
legitimacy of Dr Turner’s argument.

I think it will be found that unvaccinated cases ut least follow fairly closely a normal
distribution of pocking. Dr J. Brownlee kindly provides me with all the material available from
the Glasgow Epidemic, 1900-1. We have :

| Sparse Abundant | Confluent | Haemorrhagic | Totals
Gases acs macs padi: 9 41 61 4 115
Deaths ... ae a 1 12 42 4 59

|
ie it
Percentage Deaths+P.E. | 11°147°2 29°34+4°8 | 68:°94+4'4 |, 100+9°8*? 51°3 |

Assuming the distribution normal I find :

Range of “ Sparse ” : from —o to —1'417¢; mean of group —1°'868 o,
» 9, “Abundant” : 4, —1'417¢ to —0'164¢; % = — 6946,
9» 9 “Confluent” : 4, —01640to +1:815¢ ; FF - + ‘5976,

» 9 “Haemorrhagic”: ,, +1:815c0to + © é 5 . +2:208 oc.

* Deduced by an extension of Bayes’ Theorem.

364 Miscellanea
Fitting lineally by Least Squares (weighted with the number of observatio..s) the means
of the groups to the corresponding death-rates, we have if « be the abscissa of normal curve

Death-rate = 51°3 + 25°72/c.
This gives :

Death-rate | Sparse | Abundant Confluent | Haemorrhagic
ae we ae | O60 15-0 | 15°0—47°2 | 47-°2—97°9 | 97-9 upwards
Value at Mean of Class 3°4 33°5 66°7 108 0*

|
|
Range

Observed Value ... | 11:147°2 | 29°3+4°8 | 68°9+4°4 100 +9°8?

These results are well within the errors of the samples given. The death-rate at the mean
amount of pocking is 51:3. Thus, if we assume the amount of severity as given by pocking to
follow a normal curve, the scale of severity obtained fits well the severity of the classes as
found by a death-rate standard. It is further clear that the modal value lies in the confluent
class and does not coincide with the slightest cases. Further there is a very high correlation
between severity as measured by a normal scale of pock-marking, and severity as measured by
death-rate in the case of no acquired immunity.

If an investigation similar to the present on cases vaccinated,—say within ten years—should
show that a normal distribution of pock-markings fits in well there also with the death-rate
severity scale, it would indicate that Dr Turner’s severity skewness is due to a mixture of vacci-
nated and unvaccinated in his returns. Dr Brownlee’s view that the disease is physiologically
different in the two classes would thus be confirmed. The discussion having turned on the
distribution of severity in disease, has got somewhat far from the original point, as to whether
the case population, recovering and dying, could be represented by a normal curve. But clearly
death on such a scale marks a certain intensity of the disease relative to the individual con-
stitution; a scale of pock-marking cannot, we see from the above statistics, be equivalent
to this scale; for deaths occur with all classes of pocking, and death cannot accordingly be
made to correspond to a definite intensity of severity on a pocking scale. In short “power
to resist disease when acquired” might obey a normal distribution although pocking did not,
for failure to recover is not a fixed point on the scale of number of pocks.

If we have to dismiss entirely Dr Turner’s suggestion of a curtailed normal curve, I cannot
dismiss his severity statistics in the easy way in which he appears to dismiss mine. The bath
test appears to me quite as valid as the pock test. It is further in accordance with a very
considerable range of statistics for various diseases which have recently been published by
Dr John Brownleet, and which all go to show that the severity in other diseases is not such that
the maximum frequency occurs at the minimum severity, but that the mean severity is
approximately modal with milder and severer cases on either side.

It will thus be seen that the matter really demands further statistics. Is smallpox an
exceptional disease for which the absolutely mildest cases are the most frequent? Or, may it
not be that there is some method of reconciling the pock test of severity with the bath test of
severity for which smallpox falls into line with other diseases? It appears to me that there are
many other factors highly correlated with time and contributing to severity which may be
largely overlooked by the numerical estimate of pocking as the sole test of severity and take
their proper place and influence in the bath test, or what for our present purposes is more
important than either, in a “power of resistance” test.

* This is no impossible value, for the severity might be more than sufficient to kill the whole number

of haemorrhagic cases.
+ Royal Phil. Soc. Glasyow Proceedings, November 7, 1906.

Supplement to Vol. V. of Biometrika.

ANTHROPOMETRIC SURVEY

INMATES OF ASYLUMS IN SCOTLAND

J. FF. TOCHER.

APPENDIX JI.—RECORD OF MEASUREMENTS AT THE VARIOUS
ASYLUMS, PP. 5-80.

APPENDIX II.—TABLES OF CLASSIFIED DATA, PP. 81-ET SEQ.

[To accompany the memoir on ** The Anthropometric Characteristics of the Inmates of
Asylums in Scotland,” by J. F. Tocher.}

1906.

Through the ‘kindness of the Henderson Trust of Edinburgh, permission has
been given to reprint the original data bearing on the Survey of the Inmates of
Asylums in Scotland. The Editors beg to acknowledge their indebtedness to the
Members of the Trust, and to thank them for their kindness in granting permission

to reprint from their first Report such useful material.

Explanatory Note to Tables.

APPENDIX I.—J/easurements.

Observations were made on a selection of both measurable and non-
measurable characters of inmates. The measurable characters observed and
recorded were those of stature (S), head length (L), head breadth (B), and head height
(H) ; the non-measurable characters were those of hair colour, eye colour, and
nose contour. Head length was measured from the most prominent point of
glabella to the occipital point, and was therefore the maximum head length. The
head breadth measured was the maximum breadth above the level of the ear.
Head height was taken from the mid points of the auricular passages to the vertex.
The types of nose recognised were straight (S), Roman (R), Jewish (J), concave
(C), and wavy (W). The categories adopted for hair and eye colours were those
used by the author in similar previous observations, and are the categories recog-
nised by authorities in this country. The hair categories were red (R), fair (F),
medium (M), dark (D). The letters B and M have, however, been inadvertently
used in pages 5 to 14 to describe medium hair (ze. in the Record of Observations
on males at Aberdeen, Dumfries, Dundee, Edinburgh, Montrose, and Argyll), other -
wise M is used in the hair column to describe medium hair, Red included light,
bright, and dark red ; fair consisted of white, flaxen, and golden yellow ; medium
included chestnut and all shades of brown except dark brown ; dark embraced
dark brown and black. The eye categories were light, medium, and dark (hazel
brown). Where blanks occur in the table, no observations were made or recorded.
The blanks in hair colour were chiefly due to absence of hair (baldness) or absence
of pigment (grey hair).

APPENDIX II.—Classified Data.

In Appendix IJ, one table of frequency and several tables of correlation are
given, inclusive of the hair and eye colour table. Where italics occur at the end
of the range in any of the tables, a break in the continuity of the scale is indicated.
No persons with intermediate dimensions were observed to occur. Tables of
means and variabilities are also given in this appendix.

List of Asylums—Key to Map.

ASYLUM. COUNTIES IN EACH AREA.
1.—Aberdeen Royal Asylum’ 2.......0:. Aberdeen.
I1—Crichton Royal Institution ......... Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown.
1iL—Dundeée “District Asylunt teias..<: Dundee.
IV.—Edinburgh Royal Asylum ............ Edinburgh (City) and Leith.
V.—Montrose Royal Asylum ......... f Hon oe aoe as Caithness, Shet-
Vi.—Areyll District Asylum <a--s..ee ssc Argyll, Bute, and Arran.
ViL—Ayr District Asylum es ceteee Ayr.
VIIl-—Bantt District Asylum .cs.2src0s .-ce Banff.
[X.—-Floim District Asylum *2ic.con cere Elgin.
X.— Pile District Asylum 222.2272 csnese <8 Fife, Kinross.
XI.—Glasgow District Asylum (Gartloch) Glasgow.
a e = (Henzie)-s. re
AIITT.—Govan District Asylum. <tc 6. a0.06 7

XIV.—Haddington District Asylum ........ Haddington.

XV.—Inverness District Asylum ........... Inverness, Nairn, Ross & Cromarty.
XVI.—Lanark District Asylum ..........006. Lanark.
XVII—Midlothian District Asylum ......... Midlothian, Peebles.
AV IIT.—-Perth District Asylum asset: Perth,

XIX.—Roxburgh District Asylum ........ ..Berwick, Roxburgh, Selkirk.

XX.—Stirling District Asylum.......... ere eon Clackmannan,
D> le

XXI.—Greenock Parochial Asylum ......... Renfrew.

XXII.—Paisley Parochial Asylum ..... ...... Renfrew.

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Evin burgh & London

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APPENDIX J.—MEASUREMENTS.

!.—Aberdeen Royai Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Lo | 3
Colour g Cranial Colour 4 Cranial
Character. | Z Character. Character | 4 | Character.
No. S | Stature. | No ‘5 | Stature.
amen | a .
eagle EL Pie | 1B: Sate ora le Hie ie eae Be
o | | @ | ft. in. | mm. | mm mm om 2) ft. in. | mm mm. | mm.
1 DIM Ss 38) 130 187 144 || 61 1B) |) 16; R 5 6 140 199 153
2 M/iM Ss py (8) 138 198 153 || 62 D |D se eS) 134 193 145
3 Bee allel Ss iby 35) 128 195 151 63 F L S| 510 134 199 150
4 M/i|M NS) Oe ien alot 196 153 G4 D D S| 511 128 189 146
5/ Mim] S| 5 8 132] 186] 147] 65/ D|MJ S| 510 135 | 199 | 155
6 dene (ee Ss yy 136 208 159 || 66 Dae S 5.4 134 189 148
7 MiM Ss 5 5 138 198 158 67 os, de Ss iy 9) 138 199 156
8 foes {an Dj R a) (0) 128 194 149 || 68 D|D yall wisi 48) 130 191 ilsyk
9 ana : ie 5p 9 136 196 153 || 69 me aD: Ss 5 4 131 201 155
10)) 29M | Ri 5 8 USE 185.) 145.1) FO) | D | S| 6-7 135 | 189 | 150 |
DG DANS) |) 5s 5 129 |} 186] 153] 71} D|M S| 5 3 131 | 202) 155
12 ase OE Ss sy 7 129 198 149 72 D|D iS) fay te) 129 207 155 |
13 D M Ss 138 194 154 783 .. | M rs) 5) (0) 144 198 161
14 1 Ss 144 204 152 || 74 See | aE S| 5 4 | 129 181 142
ibclees uel Ss 134| 196 | 150] 75 | ..|L | S{-511 | 128] 199] 155
16 1 ag; R 131 191 145) fF 76 eV! Ss Byes) ish 194 152
17 Me Ss 132 i83 149 || 77 D|M Shy 2 al 130 19] 52
18 1D ep) NS) rae 133 197 15y33 | 78 1D 1G Ss 5.4 132 179 144
19 eon Os Saleton 6 132 201 159 || 79 Dp ;}M NS} 5 5 | 142] 186 161
OO Oe el Si 5a 7 131] 194] 145] gO] ..| MJ] S|} 510.) 135 | 198] 159
21; MIM Siiea 7 | 1303) 193) 145.1) Si Seen ee S| 510 | 140| 207] 159
PPP D{i{M Ss 5.8 | 134 209 155 || 82 D|M Ship ty 8) 135 20) 165 |
93 F M Ss SeyOnn 126 194 149 |} 83/ ND |D Shi| ar 3 125 194 150
04 cepted Bh Ss Deo) les: 189 Wil: 84 M S sy 13) 118359 199 148
95| D/iM| S| 5 6 | 136] 193] 149] 85 M| S] 5 4 136 | 189} 148
26 L Ss Deron 29 192 146 86 D =D SH) aay Sts} 136 184 149
27 cane VE S iy. 3) 132 904 156 || 87 D/|M Ss sy gf leap 196 147
28 Vie ale, NS) (M0 sts} 192 153 || 88 D |M R 5S, 3) 139 196 by)
29 Barrel tal Dy R nO 135 189 156 || 89 | ME} We) 5 62 ses 193 147
30/ EF |.L/ S| 5 6 | 130! 189] 149|| 909) D|D| S| 5 8 142! 204] 153
31 D|]D Ss 5 9) | 139 201 159) «O91 16%) 1D) Sion 144 201 155
| 32 IDEN IG; Ss By ts} 134 195 149 || 92) F | M Stale ay 5) 129 188 147
33 1) ae, 1Be GS + 9 138 191 158 || 93} D|M S| 6 0 13 188 151
34 DIM C 6 0 142 193 157 || 94 M/L Ss 5b 7 134 197 152
35 Bree | ial By Ss 5 4 | 142 207 151 | 95 M Ss 5.6 134 197 154
36 vem eve NS} 5 O | 138 197 152 || 96 D|M Ss 5.4 126 191 145
SFL ID aD) Shi 3 133: || 189 |==145: |) 97 | i. | Sie bans 130 | 189 | 148
38 1D) 4) 10) Ss 5 9 ey 192 159 | 98 1Dy |) 12 Ss (ay 5) 134 198 149
1 39 cel) alg Ss 122 | 190 144 || 99 sen || Me 3) 52 so 129 193 15d
WA Oe oc. ln lee 132, 193] 145 100) D|D)| 8S 5 5 134 | 203 | 156
4] M/ L Ss 136 195 153 |} 101 D | L Ss Dan 17 i= TSs Vy
42 soot Wil iS} 134 | 195 1515) 1024) DF a Silpeo we. 140 197 150
4358 Dei Mass 135 | 198 | 153 || 103} DJL Sill ayy 133 | 189} 151
44 ) Ss 131 | 196 158 || 104 M|L Si) ol0 | 141 198 158
45 M/S 141) 196) 154|/105| D/L | S| 510 145 | 201 | 159
46 noe ||) alu 8 136 201 149 |; 106 Rea) a R D8. 4) 128 182 152
47 DIM s 140 | 198 TA LOT Ds Mie Si) 57 137 197 157
48 D|M Ss IBY? 186 139 || 108 M;L Ss 5 9 129 198 Ty
49 Boo |) ait Ss ee 136 201 155 || 109 ee | AL NS) 5 6 138 195 158
BOVE = ME Si) 5: 2 130] 180} 150) 110; M|My| S| 5 5 133 | 194] 152
51 DIM df by 83) 138 187 149 || 111 Va WV | eb 7 143 193 159
52 IN | 10) Ss sy 3) 131 192 150 |} 112 M/ L Ss 5 9 145 204 162
53 DPD Ss By) fs} 134 192 V5) Vs 1D yal By NS) ay i 126 196 151
54 DiM isi lh ean 131 201 157 || 114 Mi|M Silo 7 135 193 152
55| MIM|W/ 5 9 132 | 192] 150|/115| M/|M| S| 5 8 143 | 194] 143
56 M|M Ss iyo gs) 131 197 159 || 116 1 ny Ss 5 10 137 193 155
57 DL SilegonG 126 189 150 |} 117 ML Simp 131 193 145
58 D|M NS) By 7 132 198 148 || 118 R | M NS) 5 2 133 189 153
59 M/]M NS) By iio} 134 195 159 || 119 D/L NS] 5 8 130 194 148
GO eel ee as eeo, a7 130; 189| 138/120; D|L | S| 510 | 140| 197) 157

6 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
!._Aberdeen Royal Asyium.
; MALES. MALES.
o o
Colour 3 Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. S | Stature. No. 6 | Stature.
v oO
a 3 ¢ H. L. B. 5 s H. Te B.
=} | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. = |} | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
121 ML Ss ay 3) 135 182 146 || 181 M|M {|W > 138 190 153
22 M|L Ss (a) dk 134 184 150 || 182 M|M Ss 5 10 137 190 150
123 D|M S 5 4 129 186 147 || 183 M/L Silg7o. 28 137 188 151
124 M|M Ss 4 8 129 185 149 || 184 DIM S| 5 9 145 187 152
125| M|M/ S| 5 3 | 133) 183| 147/185] D|M| S| 5 5 | 138] 185] 144
126 M/L S| 5 8 138 198 157 |) 186 D|M S| 5 8 135 199 157
127 D|M S sy Hf 135 201 156 || 187 DIM S| 510 139 195 150
128 . |M Ss Dd 138 199 159 || 188 D|D S| 5 9 143 208 158
129 || 10) Raomes 135 198 153 || 189 DIM Si, 7 142 189 149
1#30/ M/iL | s/ 5 5 | 135] 190| 148 ]499| ...|M1 S| 5 5 | 1483] 203] 150
131 MM S)|) 4a) 4 132 190 148 || 191 soe | fet DD S| 5 4 136 180 148
132 Mi] L Ss 5 10 143 201 158 || 192 D|M S 5 6 131 175 147
133 Mi|M|W/] 5 8 145 199 155 |! 193 M;)|};M/]W| 5 1 138 185 143
134 M|D Si] 2d" ei 145 188 150 |) 194 D;|M Ss 5 O 140 192 153
135| ..|M|R| 511 | 198] 196] 1511/195| ..|D] 8) 5 3 | 145| 190] 189
136 M| L S| 5 4 139 192 154 || 196 sere pe D) vib a 4 144 203 163
137 M|M tll Gy 5s 140 203 152 |, 197 D|M!/|W 5 8 139 196 153
138 A a NWA 52 6 132 194 156 || 198 ANC Saal | ee 5 8 129 188 148
139 N|M Sale Dee 129 184 150 || 199 Mi} M Sid: 6 134 200 155
140: N|m|s| 5 7 | 138| 197] 157 99009 D|D|RI| 5 7 1 135] 197] 145
141 D|™M S|; 510 140 197 157 |i 201 D | D S}; 411 135 181 143
142 Pee NE TAYE || oy eI 128 194 148 |; 202 Anca llsee WANA ok Ul 131 190 151
143 M/|M Salieor as 132 192 150 || 203 DAD S$; 5 5 138 180 146
144 M | D NS) 5 8 129 197 147 || 204 R|L Sill eo as: 133 186 149
145| M/L/ S| 5 8 | 141| 200| 152//998| D|mM!/ S| 5 6 | 131| 195| 150
146 Boe AE NS) ‘sy 5) 137 196 150 |) 206 M;L;,W| 5 8 140 192 156
147 Mi|M Ss 5 6 134 191 158 || 207 DIM S| 5 6 140 184 155
148 Dat NS] sy Al 133 193 152 || 208 F |M|W ay 9) 145 196 156
149 D|M Ss 5 10 140 188 155 |; 209 ae D S| 5 8 145 190 150
150| R|M| S| 5 6 | 135] 194] 148] 9109/ D|L/ Cl 5 9 | 145] 201] 160
151 D | M Ss ay A 125 189 150 || 211 ope |) Dy || 48) 5 10 141 207 164
152 M | L Syl 2) 6) 138 189 150 |) 212 D!M|W| 5 8 132 187 143
153 DD a Ral os 6 133 150 155 || 213 ID eaDy 483 6 1 153 204 168
154 MD S 5 5 142 198 157 || 214 asa PLDI WAS Sy) 43) 134 188 154
155| F |mM| S| 6 0 | 138) 1941 145 1915) D/DIR| 5 1 | 141! 3180) aay
156 D|M R| 5 6G 145 205 159 | 216 peel albiy {sts} ay 7 142 194 151
157 ND Ss By 7h 129 189 150 || 217 seen || ID las} 5 11 134 205 154
158 el Ss 5 6 133 184 144 || 218 D/;|D |S oO 6 139 189 147
159 . | M S Hy ay/ 139 187 157 || 219 Sou | Wee tS 5) 16 140 195 157
\160| M;D]/ S| 5 2 | 139] 191] 154/999) ..|D/S | 5 9 | 136] 197] 153
161 D,M 8 i) 3 129 183 153 |; 221 so aD tS! By 8) 140 200 156
162 D|M Sil) oy 7 NSB} 201 VST 1222 Dy 1D) il \Wie | Gs 55 139 195 141
163 1D ieie by stl] ay 15) 134 194 VOU 223 D|D!|S 3, JI 134 178 141
164 seo 1B) Ss 5 64 145 192 156 || 224 M;iM/S 5). 33 140 191 150
165| MjM| S| 5 2 | 126] 181] 140/995) D|D/w| 5 7 | 139] 197| 153
166 1DY «|| 1D) Ss Hy {5} 137 188 162 || 226 M;M/S DO 145 202 153
167 1D). 3B) Ss 5 10 139 194 159 227 M|M/R iy fs) 151 192 150
168 DD NS) 5: 4 135 187 142 || 228 D;iIM/S 55 5) 128 189 150
169 D|M Ss 6 1 140 196 151 || 229 ene ila Nec kxs (ej. dl 139 192 153
170| ..|M]{ S| 5 4 | 135] 193] 158 /939| D|L|wi| 510 | 144! 201] 156
galt M;M NS) Sy ts} 142 | 195 157 || 231 IDESUIBY 110} Gy 15) 138 191 148
172 1330) bi yD 6 5) 135 197 149 | 232 ID) |S 53 145 190 150
173 cee VE tS) 5 4 140 190 146 || 233 D;M/S sy 5) 143 199 156
174 M/|M R a) et 134 193 147 || 234 D{|MiS By ty) 134 191 150
175| ..|M] S| 510 | 140] 209] 158 }995| Mims | 5 2 | 199| 188] 143
176 D|M Ss 5 4 Ness 184 142 || 236 ReaD Ss 5 6 137 193 160
177 Di} D Ss 6.0 138 193 147 || 237 D|iIM!S Hy 5) 134 193 150
178 Dee aL 8 5 64 142 205 156 || 238 1 Fal by Ss 5 7 141 195 155
179 D M Ss 6). 13) 129 LS9 154 || 239 DAD ES ay (9) 144 199 160
180 M|D Ss 5 6 130 188 153 | 240 M M/S py 25 129 185 149
|

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. vA
!.—Aberdeen Royal Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
3 Pi .
| Colour 8 Cranial Colour | 2 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | 4% Character.
No. ‘S | Stature, No. ‘5 | Stature.
e . vo al . Vb)
a| 3 = H, L. B. | Pars 5 H. L. B.
=} ] mH |} ft. in | mm. | mm. | mn. =| |] @ ] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
241; D|MIJ |] 5 8 132] 194] 154 || 278| D|ILIS | 5 6 135 | 201 | 159
22! MiD|S| 5 9 138 | 193 | 157 ||279| N|M|S | 5 7 121 | 190} 144
243) F/L/I|S|5 7 137 | 192] 145 ||9890| M|/LIS |} 5 2 131 | 191 | 153
244) DIDIS|] 5 8 141] 205] 158 |} 281} D|DIS Yi 133 | 195 | 156
945| DIDIS |] 5 5 127 | 186] 149 |} 282} M|L |W] 5 5 132} 185 | 151
246/ M|M/S | 5 9 141 | 198 | 146 |} 283 D{S:-| 5 5 133. | 193 | 156
OLD Ni MIS 5 7 140] 193] 154 || 284] DI M/S | 5 6 136 | 204 | 157
2488) MIMIC | 6 0 147] 193] 150 ||985| D| MIS | 5 6 141 | 189} 153
29|/ MIDIS | 5 4 135 | 194] 1491286] D|MI/S | 5 7 139 | 201} 160
950; MiIM|S | 5 6G 129} 190) 152 || 287) F/|LIR]} 5 6 128 | 188} 142
21/ D|DIS| 5 4 140} 186] 147 |} 288] ../L IS |] 5 8 133 | 189} 156
232); R|LIS | 510 134] 201 | 154 || 289) ..] D] WI] 5 6 130 | 201} 149_
23! D|M/{S | 511 148} 194] 155/999} M/L/S | 5 8 132 | 193 | 149
254/ M|M/S | 510 135 | 181] 144/291] N|MI/S | 5 5 134 | 189] 157 |
955| R|L|S | 5 6 135 | 191 | 148 || 292 D|W| 5 2 144 | 203] 151
26| D|M|S | 4510 136 | 192] 150 || 293} N|M/|S |] 5 9 144 | 204] 153
sD iM |S | 5 7 141 | 192] 148 | 294] D|]MI/S } 510 135 | 205] 154
28| D|IM!S | 5 7 134} 193] 158 || 995| ...| MIS | 5 6 140} 199 | 157
DO IM De! | & 3 148 | 188] 149 | 206} M|MI/S 5 5 134] 188] 147
960| DIL/S | 5 6 140} 196] 151 || 297) ...] MIS 5 10 133 | 293 | 153
OGRE |S) 5) 6 142} 199] 149 || 298] M|M/S | 6 0 138 | 195 | 164
262; D|IM/|S | 5 4 131 | 192] 151 |} 299} M|M|...] 5 7 134] 193] 149
PGoulmeD la |S) 5 7 139 | 195 | 15413099; M/|MIS 5 4 144] 201 | 152
264| MI|M!|S | 5 6 133 | 192] 149] 301] ...|/DI/BR] 5 3 128 | 197 | 149
1965) D|M/S 1/5 2 130} 193] 154 || 302} D|D|S |] 5 8 123] 188] 148
266/ DIDIS | 5 5 133 | 197] 156 || 303} ../MysS | 5 2 132 | 189 | 148
267/ DIMIS | 5 8 135 | 194] 159 || 304} M|L{S | 5 7 130 | 186} 142
268; MIM{|S | 5 6 139 | 207] 159 | 305 DiS | 5 8 134] 191 | 153
269| M|M/S |} 511 138 | 202] 153 || 306 L{|S | 5 4 131 | 196] 153
970; NiL|IS | 5 6 132 | 189 | 153 || 307 MIS | 5 5 135 | 204} 160
Ze NEM | 'C i) 5 3 133 | 201] 150|/ 308! R|MI/S | 6 1 139 | 192} 150
22 DUIS is} 145} 201] 165 |) 309] ..;/ MS 5 5 128 | 197 | 145
273 | MIL |S | 5 5 134] 185] 152/310} F|LIS | 5 8 143 | 193) 152
274 DIMIS | 5 5 136} 195] 157 || 311] M|M/S | 5 7 145 | 208 | 159
975| D|M/S | 5 6 144] 194] 157]1312/ MIL1IS | 5 6 133 | 198 | 148
276) D | |S | & 4 140} 198] 156 || 313 uM |S 5 5 129 | 192] 157
le ND kOe 5) 27 136 | 195 | 156 || 314 iby lb tsy We Beit 141 | 193] 151
/1.—Crichton Royal Institution.
MALES. MALES.
1/ BIL |W 5 8 135 | 186] 147/ 146| B/L!| S| 5 7 144] 208] 166
2} B/|M!|W! 5 6 7a 207) 15 || 17 | Bele Si 5 6 141} 199] 149
Sle BelDels Sil 9 138 | 206] 151 |/ 18) BI|M|] S| 5 5 134 | 186 | 145
4B ala Ss) SB 138 | 203 159 19 B | L Sih 52-8) 135 | 211 153
Bale Balt | eSilp o 6 138 | 194] 151 || 90} B|MJ] S| 5 7 | 197] 188] 147
6} BJLIW] 5 9 138 | 194| 146|| 31| BID! S| 5 4 | 130 | 193 | 156
TalpebaleNie|) (Silear G6 135 | 199 | 147 || 22} BIL | S| 5 5 130] 191] 151
Sri Bale leesilleae 3 137 | 182} 147 || 23! BJM] S|] 5 4 133! 193 | 153
9| B|M| RB] 5 5 130 | 197 | 153 24; B|LI|]Wi 510 133 | 199 | 157
10; B|M/] S| 5 5 141 | 188] 162] 95} B/JL| S| 5 4 132 | 210] 156
1 |S el St 5a8 144] 199] 158/| 96} B/L| S| 5 5 135 | 201 | 151
28 ee lea S| 52 8 136 | 193 | 158 || 27/ D|D| S| 5 9 138 | 196 | 146
13 ly Bo | Si 5 7 141 | 199} 156]/ 28} B|L I S| 5 7 133 | 189] 157
146 Be En | Walls be 33 138 | 193} 149 | 29) B iil | Si) 5 6 132 | 189] 146
(Sl Bale | Silt 5. 4 127 | 188; 135]| 39/ B/|L| S| 5 9 130 200 | 149

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

i,—Crichton Royal institution.

MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour B Cranial
Character.| 7 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
‘s | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
: o : ()
4 | | w] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. me el fe Gn. | mm. lemmelemme
B/L S| 510 135 206 153 73 B|L Silimoees 131 193
B/D S; 510 139 | 200) 152 || 74) BIL Siiteomno 132 184
D>) i Siow 136 196 149 75 D|M R/; 4 9 N25 178
1D 15; NS) 5 8 139 201 157 76 BiL |W sy fy 134 200
Baia S| 5 6 138 193 153 AL Bs/|M Sie By 3 134 | 195
‘Bay Si oy 135 193 154 78 B | D Ss 5.8 139 201
B M S 5 5 py 194 148 79 BIL S| 511 142 209
183) by S; 5 5 143 P33 162 80 Ba Silos) 144 202
B{|L S 5 6 139 199 143 81 B | L Sioa 131 191
D{|L S| 510 143 | 203 154 82; BIL S| 5 8 133 | 193
B {| L Ss ay 3s} 132 203 154 || 83 B|L Ss yh 15) 125 189
BIiM Si 5 9 134 207 148 || 84 B{|L Sil) 540 131 201
B | L Ss D6 135 193 150 85 D/D Ss 5 ll 132 207
Be ewan il 138 197 149 86} BI|M Sil oe ei 132 | 196
Be IMC) 5:10 133 197 151 87 183) |) 1b; Sil 25: 4 126 | 192
FIL S 5 5 131 192 142 88 Bi L S| 5 4 126 181
D/iL S 5 7 132 198 156 89 IBS a S| a4 128 195
Bi|L |W Di all 139 191 161 90 B |M Sil sola 130 211
B | L Ss D> 6 136 188 155 91 BiM Si) 6) 33 138 211
B;|M| S| 5 6 135 197 156 92; D|D S/,6 0 139 | 200
BiLI{w 5 ll 136 205 150 93 Bai aa NS) a) 5) 142 198
B|M S| 5 3 125 188 146 94 B | L S| 5 0 132 195
B|M S| 5 0 128 191 149 || 95 1839/16; S| 5 8 131 195
B|M S| 5 7 134 194 149 96 D|M tS} |) ay 7 128 191
B L Ss 5 (8) 137 195 149 97 B L Ss 4 1 129 197
B / L S|} 5.5 137 191 144 98 B | L S| 5 4 131 203
Beale Sai moms 138 206 159 99 Baik S125 7 138 200
BIL! s| 5 6 | 129| 197] 156|//199; B|L| S| 5 2 | 132] 195
bD|D Ss} |) as il 133 | 188 142 |} 101 B|M|S | By) 133 | 200
D|D 12%,|| 4) 130 197 153 || 102 13) 10; Si) 1 131 174
B | M Si|ioneG 128 194 149 || 103 Bae S| 5 8 136 211
B | L S55) 137 195 149 |} 104 ID YE Sh Gy 136 | 201
BiL|w| 5 9 | 146] 210! 168 \495/ B|L| S| 5 2 | 135] 189
B | L S| 5 6 139 192 149 || 106 B|M Sil 5nd 140 193
B|M Syl Ay 10) Iso: 205 163 || 107 B | L S| 5 3 140 190
Bee 1) py UY) 143 198 151 |) 108 1By 3D) Selgow es 137 200
1D) 4) 1b; S Des 142 194 155 || 109 B/|M 8 ayes) 135 188
BiL| S| 5 5 | 148] 205] 160] 119| Bit |S! 5 1 | 131) 418i
B|M Sal ones 148 199 163 || 111 1) ab) S| 5 0 135 186
D|M 8 5 5 132 189 147 || 112 BiD|W 5.6 136 203
B | L |W ay 49) 133 202 148 |) 113 FUL Ss Do) 2, 129 187
B L Ss 5 «6 141 195 155
/11,—Dundee District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 B | L Ss Dee, 133 202 153 1] B | L Ss 5 6 132 188
yy B | L S 5 8 132 198 154 12 F L Ss 5 4 121 191
3 B|M NS) 5 6 133 199 157 13 BM NS] 5.9 133 197
4 B | L Ss iy 7 133 195 145 14 B/L Ss 5 3 133 191
5 BIi|M C; 5 9 129 188 143 15 B|L{|W 5 66 131 193
6 Bi L NS) 5 8 133 201 160 16 B/ L NS) 5 6 134 196
7 R/iM 183 |) GB) 131 183 147 17 D/L Ss Sh 9 134 193
8 B/ L Ss a Ff 133 193 156 18 BM NS) 5 9 142 203
9 B L Ss 6y 4s} 135 202 156 19 B L Ss sy (} 137 191
10 Baa Silleo 6 135 197 153 || 20 B/|M Si) Gy iil 132 | 192

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocurr.

/11,—_Dundee District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 7% Character. Character. | A Character.
‘= | Stature. | No. ‘6 | Stature.
cola [ee Sule liiecs
= 3 2 H L. B 2 | 8 BE H. It,
— ] A] a | ft. in mm mm. | mm. S|] | fe. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
B|M]| S| 5 6 130 | 183 | 143 82) Be MaF Sa 5098 138 186
B;L |W, 5 4 127 188 151 83} B|M Si) 642 134 | 187
BIL S| 5 4 133 | 193 151 3 4o] te eles S| 5 4 124} 192 |
B|M| S| 5 4 129/ 185] 146 || 85}; BJD S| 4) 3 135 | 196
D/L S| 5 4 1382} 189] 152 86} B | D S| 5 4 133 197
D{|L S| 5 7 134} 202) 153 87 D{|L Sileeo 10 135 198
133. |} 1D) S| 5 6 136 | 200 | 155 88 B}L S| a @ 133 | 205
D/L S| 5 5 130 195 | 153 89; D/|M] S| 5 6 136 | 212
Bi}M!|W| 5 6 143 | 212] 1638 || 99 B | L S| 510 138 | 211
Bi L S| 5 5 139 | 192] 156 91 B/L iS} i) ) 7 133 195
183. IU, S| 5 6 130 | 188 | 152 oy |) Jes EP S|) ay 653 134 197
Bee S| 5 6 135} 195 | 159 93} B | L il) By o) 126 192
B|M]| S| 5 4 131 195 | 160 94); D - Sy) 6) 7 138 | 204
B/L S| 5 8 137 | 203) 149 || 95 | M |]... S| 510 139 | 203
10) |} aby S| 5 8 135} 198 |) 154 Tey | <M Wh oon S| 5 8 135 185
D{L S} 510 135] 199 | 154 OF | le. ies S| 5 4 ats |) 2408}
Bele. | Ri 5 7 130 | 200 | 156 OS Del eEy alee. iy 139 196
Bey eve Ri 5) 6 131 198 148 99} D|D S| 5 7 139 | 205
Bi L Salon: 137 | 207] 156 ||100 |} BF Si ba6 136 | 204
Rye S| 5 4 130 183 151 || LOL B | L S 5 8 141 192
B|L/]W] dtl 128 188 140 || 102; D|Mj] 8S} 5 4 138 195
D | L S| 5 6 128 185 | 149 || 103 B|M| S| 5 6 140 | 202
B|L|W] 5 4 124} 195} 146 || 104 B/]|My| S|] 5 6 135 | 191
Bi|MiWi] 5 3 136 | 196; 155 ||105| B | L S| 5 4 132 | 193
B/L/|W| 5 8 136 | 204] 155 || 106 Be | DA Willimb 3 126 191
B |Mi. S| 5 4 125 | 181 146 || 107 Bi L Silo) a6 132 | 193
BiM S; 5 6 128 192 149 || 108 in) S| 5 4 133 195
B/L Silom 134 | 200} 154 || 109} D|L Sil a © 131 180
Bi M) S| 5 8 133 | 196] 151 | 110) B | L Si] a 2 133 | 181
B|L |W] 5 6 136 | 202} 160 || 111 BIL Si a 132 | 196
BIL Saieom si 132 | 193] 152 || 112 N/L Sj) a) 129 | 186
133 |] IU, Selo 139 199 | 154 || 113 Brie Stone, ists} || Baty
B | L S| 5 2 142} 198} 146 || 114} BJ] L Silo 6 132 | 189
DADs Wel) 358 16 136 | 189] 152| 115) B|M| S/ 5 6 135 | 197
Bala Si} ay 2 132 184 152 || 116 Bolas Ss 5 6 132 186
Balle hie esa) co. 27 133°)" 192 | WSs) U7. B | L S| 5 4 131 185
Re ENS Sh|5) 25: 142) 208} 156] 118) F/]L |W] 5 3 143 | 197
By Si] By 5 138 184 159 || 119 B | L Ss ae 140 203
Be leMaieSih 205 136 | 194] 154/120! B|M{| S| 5 5 140 | 199
B|M Shi) Gy 35) 128 192 148 || 121 B|M 18% || (Gy te} 126 190
1334) 16; Cio 7 132 | 196} 159 |) 122}; B|M/ S| 5 2 124 | 193
Bele Si 3! 7 135 | 188} 157 || 123} BIL Sil 50 120] 189
BL S| 5 1 130 | 195 | 152 || 124 123. j) YL || Sy 5 ak 132; 183
1D) || 1D) SSI iy al 139 | 196} 158 ||425 | F | D S| 5 4 134} 192
133, |) 1b, R| 5 4 134 | 200 151 || 126} B | D S| 5 9 133 | 212
Be | S| 5 6 138 | 194 165 || 127} D|M Sil 5 4 135 | 194
Dri MS!) & 3 134 | 185 158 || 128; BF S| 6 3 132 | 207
Bie fea Seo 7 135 | 204] 146 |} 129!) BJ L S| 5 4 144 | 207 :
¢ Be lala St] 135 | 194} 156 | 130 183. || 10; Siow 137 197
BIM Silo 137 196 153 || 131 B/iM Siok 131 196 GY
| 133; Sil 5: 6 136 | 198 148 || 132; BL Silane 127 191
y B|M] 8| 411 130 | 168 140 133 Be Da Wile 7 135 193 5
fc Bale Sil or 133 195 148 |) 134 1535) 30; Silo 134 188 5)
133 |) WEN fh) aie! 131 195 148 | 1385 | B | L Sale. 134 | 199 ‘ay
B|L S| 5 6 139 | 204] 162 |) 136 B {| L Si) DS 132 | 192
| sy essa) | 18: Silos 135 | 193 | 151 || 187] B | D Sion 134 | 193
| B|L S| 510 | 139} 200] 160]/ 138) D|L | S| 5 5 132 | 201 5
| 78 183 Hf dey |) abil ie YF 138 | 198 155 || 139 | B | L Sy 6 136 192 Gy
| Boy Neale Si 25. 8 140 | 203] 160/149) D | L S| 5 5 128 | 187 5¢
i B/|M!;]W, 510 137 | 192] 156 || 141 B|M si] a) 130 | 194 5
| B | D Cisse 6 133 | 194] 155
| ‘

10 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
IV.—Edinburgh Royal Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
g | §
Colour 3S Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character. a Character. Character.| 4 Character.
No. |_ e Stature. No. S | Stature.
= a i pS a £
ai/éle H iby B mule = |e L. B
FE ea) Otte sin mm mm. | mm Xo} }® ) ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm

Wl iy ae |) RY ey 125} 202] 152] 61| D|M| S/ 5 6 147 | 191
Ai| 13 ih | Si a GF 147} 199] 149 || 62| F|L/]|W! 5 5 137 | 194
3; BIL | S| 5 7 138} 196] 154] 68} B|M{ S/ 411 134 | 186
4/ DID] S| 5 38 1425) 1890 145 a G4 Badu lenSh ben 142 | 197
5| DIDIW! 5 3 136] 192} 141] 65| F|L/ BI] 5 8 148 | 190
6] BI|LIWI] 5 5 137 | 194] 156 || 66] D/L! S| 5 7 139 , 205
7 D | M Sy) 5) 3) 141 190 151 67 DID S| 5.3 132 192
8| BID] S| 5 5 141] 194] 148 || 68/ B{L]/ S| 6 O 147 | 207
9) BILIWI!] 5 9 141] 206| 156]} 69) B/]L| S| 5 2 141 | 190
10; BIL| S| 5u1 159 | 203). 157] 79| BiL] S| 5 5 142 | 197
Ta iby |) icy PS el TOG TES ty 133- aty |} au, a es 142 | 192
12; BID! S| 5 4 130| 194] 1529 ]] 72; F|LI|WI| 5 3 134 | 186
13| DIM] S| 5 7 143) 194] 147]| 73} B|IM]| S|! 5 8 135 | 196
1) 1} pay |) Sil & 137 | 184] 148 || 74/ D/]DI| S| 5 4 132 | 183
15; BIL S| 5 3 136 | 187| 154] 75|/ BiL| S| 6 2 141 | 192
16} D/L S| 5 2 136 | 201| 149 || 76) D|M] S| 5 6 144 | 199
17; BI|D]WI| 510 141} 204] 148] 77} BJM] S| 5 7 137 | 194
i| N/|D] S| 5 9 141 | 200] 154]) 78) B/iL| S|] 511 144] 192
19} F/L] 8] 411 158 | 202) 162/| 79) B|L| S| 5 5 140 | 192
290|' DIL| S| 5 7 137 | 194] 152|/ gg; D|Mj, S| 5 4 141 | 197
21} W/L | S| 5 6 142} 189} 149]/ 81! D|DI| S| 6 0 137 | 202
by || an) ie, i) edi] Al 134} 180] 148 ]} 82) D|M] S| 5 8 131 | 189
23/ BIL S a 147] 191] 156]/ 88); B|D]| S| 5 7 138 | 194
24/ D|DI| S| 5 6 149} 196| 149 || 84] BI|D| S| 5 7 136 | 196
295; B|D| S| 5 2 137| 194] 148 || g5| B|L|W| 5 8 141 | 196
26| B|M]| S| 5 4 137| 197) 154]) 86/ BjL]| 8| 5 5 140 | 200
27; DID! S| 5 6 147] 201] 159]| 87| D|LI{- S| 6 O 135 | 204
23/ D|D| S!] 5 5 141} 195] 153 ]) 88} B|MJ S| 510 140 | 205
ey | 1 | es I Ss 143 | 197] 151 ]} 89} B|D| S| 5 8 132 | 184
30| B\L| Ri 58 146' 190] 155 || 99|} B|L| S| 5 6 133 | 186
310) Bele Salons 140 | 192] 154|| 91| D/D| S| 5 4 129 | 186
By | i ib | S| ey 136 | 192] 152]|| 92} F|M]| S|] 5 4 138 | 196
33| B|M|W| 5 6 137 | 2034) W577) 939) Bel i) S57 140 | 200
34 BiL |W) 5 6 143 186 148 94 BiM S| 510 132 191
35) N/ibv|S/ 51 142-1187 | 162 1-950) Dol DES) 5.5 140 | 191
36; B/L |W 5 6 143] 196} 160 || 96} D|D]| S| 5 8 159 | 199
37| N|LI|W| 5 6 Wie 19388) M57 97 |) MDa) S159 136 | 191
38} B|M]/ S| 5 7 129} 194] 153] 98/ B|L| S; 5 7 130 | 189
3) py a Si 137 | 197| 154// 99} B/D] S| 6 1 144 | 196
40; D|;L| S| 5 6 | 139] 187{ 142|/400; BJL| S| 5 5 | 142) 195
41| N/|DI| S/ 510 140] 189] 1145/1101}; B{|L| S| 5 4 142 | 187
OAS aS eRe) By 140] 189] 149 |} 102} N|M]| S| 5 6 151 | 204
43| M|B] S| 5 3 134 | 187] 157//1083/ N|DJ| S| 5 6 136 | 194
44) D|L |W] 5 7 151] 198] 1154/1104; B/D| S| 5 8 140 | 189
45| D|D| S| 5 4 136} 197) 147.405 | N | Do) Si-s 7 143 | 199
464| D|)] S| 5 7 135 | 188] 148 //106| D|MJ| S| 5 6 139 | 200
47| BIL R| 5 38 144] 198] 149|/ 107} B|D| S| 5 4 136 | 182
48/ BI|L]| S| 5 5 137 | 190] 150 /}108} B}|L| S| 5 2 137 | 189
49| R|L S| 5 6 132 | 189] 140]/109/} B|M| S| 5 9 132 | 179
50) DIDI|W! 5 6 138 | 191] 142/419; Dib] S| 5 4 142 | 198
Fie |) eee | Te SE By 13 190] 158 |} 111} D|D] S| 5 5 132 | 205
52| MIL S| 5 4 142;| 192 |) 149°) 112) DN Side 7 137 | 196
53} DID | S| 5 4 135 | 196] 147]/113} D|D] S| 5 4 143 | 201
54/ BIL |W 5 6 136 | 196] 156 ]}114/ D|M]} S| 5 5 140 | 197
i55| BID |] S| 5 6 144] 194] 1561415] D|M]| S| 5 5 159 | 194
i 56} BIL] S| 5 9 153] 197] 15211116} D|D|R| 5 4 138 | 186
57| FiD | SS! 5 6 153 | 197] 157]/117| F | D |W) 5 8 140 | 196
58/ B|M|W| 5 4 138 | 200] 149 ]/118/ BJ]L | S| 5 9 150 | 207
59| B|M]| RI 5 9 140] 196] 152]/119} B|M] S| 5 5 142 | 190
60; DIL s|] 5 9 150 | 202} 1571/1299] N|D |W] 5 4 133 | 182

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocurr. 11

IV.—Edinburgh Royal Asylum.

MALES. | MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character.] 7 Character.
No. ‘3 | Stature. No. ‘s | Stature.
‘ . (3) : (2)

5 & 2 H L. B 5 o a. Hie») SL. B

4} | wm | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. |) @ | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
TOTO eR ela eS Gy 7 136) 196} 146] 152| F | D/S Dp 2 130; 194] 152
122°) Be) L}s By 7 148; 188} 160/153} D|LI/IS 5 11 150 | 207] 149
123; D|D|S 5S 4) 152 | 201 147 1154} F |M/S 5 5 146 | 204] 154
14| B/|L|S/|] 5 2 | 194] 185] 145 1155| B|MIS | 5 4 | 136] 196] 154
125 BiLIS 5 4 136 | 198 149 || 156 BIM|S 5 2 139 190 151
126 B;iL/S 5 5 138) 195 | 160 || 157 B;iLIS 4 6 135 189 145
W7eBe lt, |S) 6 5 | 4) 19s | 144 158 | BiG |S | 5 3 | 143:| 1991) 155
128 Bi D/S 5 10 138 197 146 |} 159 | FEF Liss 6 0 130 174 138
12299; D|M{S 5 9 143 | 203] 151 1160; BsiL{s 5 6 137 | 197 | 152
130/ B/L{|S | 510 | 136] 209] 157] 161} B|D;S | 5 0 | 138] 191] 143
131 B/iL!/S 5.4 146 202 157 || 162 BiL/S Hy 3) 138 190 153
132) D |-D| W) 5 7 145 | 203} 148 | 168; B/]}L/S 5 9 142 | 201 156
133) D | MS 5 5 137 195 | 153/164; B|L |W] 5 5 130 | 196) 147
134 B;iD|S by 1) 143 199 154 11165 B;LIS 5 4 151 | 192 153
185; B;i|M/S 5 8 144 199 | 150 |) 166) B |} D |S 6 0 144: 202} 151
136 D;iIL|Ww by 3) 141 198 153 |, 167 INS We a) 94: 136 | 194 153
137} BI|L|S 5 4 135 | 195) 152] 168; R/|L |S 5 10 144 | 201 152
138 Baers 5 5 142 197 148 || 169 DADS 5 3 135 200 153
139/ B/L |S | 5 9 | 139] 196] 149/1170/ D|D!S | 5 4 | 145] 199] 151
140; BiL|wW 5 9 137 | 199 | 166 || 171 Bi/M|S By 6 145 | 187] 142
141 NEES 5 3 142 200 | 153 || 172 D|i|MI/S Sy of 140 203 159
142 WwiLis 5 6 142 206 156 |} 173 Fi/LI|W 5. 8 144 194 146
143 Bs} W/W 5 6 147 198 150 |! 174 Bess 5 6 127 182 148
144; N;|L/S 5 8 145, 187) 154 175 B/|M/S 5 4 131 190 | 149
145); D|D/S By GS 146 | 198) 154 || 176) F |}L {|S Dm 137 | 192] 148
1446/ D/|L{S 5 4 147 191 144/177) B|M/]W) 5 5 143 | 198 | 163
147 B/;LiW 5 10 141 208 154 || 178 BiLIS by 140 189 154
148; F/L IS 5 10 15] 194) 156 ]/179) D|L{S8 6B) 6 138 | 211 160
1449} D/|D|W) 5 2 145 | 187 150/180 | D|LIS 5 0 130 | 196 | 147
150 JQ) abe ts) 5 6 131 185 151 181 BLS 5 8 138 196 156
151 N |D |S 5 7 136 | 199 | 148

V.—Montrose Royal Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
| \
it MS Es 5 1 128 WwW) 142 21 D/|L S| 5 4 142 | 187 161
2 1) Oy Al ts) 5 4 142 192 152 22 F L Ss 5 5 145 204 149
3 M;|L/S 5 4 121 175 142 23 F L 8 5.8 145 | 197 155
4 D|M{S 5 9 132 187 146 24 D b Siieouro 141 | 198 158
5 D|MIS 410 137 196 154 95 F M Ss Do 4 144 199 | 161
6 B L/S 5 6 147 191 151 26 F D| R 5 6 147 | 200 157
id F M|S 6) Uf 144 200 156 27 M/L Sh|| Sy 6) 132 192 147
8 M/L NS) 5 5 13] 196 149 28 F L NS) 5 6 | 147 201 | 161
9 DE DES by 15) 135 200 155 29 B L Ss y(n) 131 190 150
10 F M/S sy 48) 142 208 155 30 F M Ss oy AlN 140 199 159
11 MiM/S 5 5 126 182 144 31 M'!D SS] 5 3 139 191 152
12 M;L|{S 5 6 145 208 156 32 M|M NS) OMo 137 194) 153
13 D;|D{S8S 5.7 138 195 158 33 M{|M Ss ay KG) 152 201 | 153
14 DIM/S 5 5 138 196 158 34 M/|D C 5.64 145 191 146
15 DOP Das 5 8 134 196 151 35 Ab) Ss 5 8 133 202 148
16 D;iIM/S 5 6 146 195 153 36 D|D Ss By {8} 146 204 160
17 D;|M|S 5 6 146 198 158 37 D L Ss 5 5 136 191 148
18 Mee ueies 5 4 129 189 155 38 D|M Ss by 83 138 187 144
10 Deh MES 5 6 136 191 152 39 F L NS) 5 4 150 198 159
20 D/IM;{S 5 8 127 196 152 || 40 M | L Si) 510 139 195 153

—

12 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
V.—Montrose Royal Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
3 ? 3
Colour 3 Cranial Colour B
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | 1%
No. “S | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
5 - co) e 5 o
I s H. L B. a ee =
=] A} wm] ft. in mm. | mm. | mm 4 || w | ft. in
4] F M S| 510 154 194 148 || 101 D{|D NS] iy <7/
42 D|M S| Gy 134 192 152 || 102 F/D |W] 510
43 M|L Sil), ome 140 190 156 || 103 D|D S|} 510
44 D|D S| 4 0 129 188 144 || 104 D|D/|W| 5 0
45| F|L | S| 5 8 | 134] 195] 146l108| D/D| wi 5 6
46 in | 1b) S| 4 9 137 198 156 || 106 K/L C| 5 5
47 1D) 1b) Silene) 142 201 164 || 107 D|M Ss 5.5
48 F M (o} |] By 83 140 208 155 || 108 F | L Sion vi
49 eeeralh ala Ss 53 135 185 154 || 109 D|D Ss 5.4
50| R|L| Ww] 5 6 |} 142] 194! 145] 1190| F|L| S| 5 3
51 D/|D Ss by 9 140 198 155 || 111 D/|D Ss 4) = ff
52 es lB NS] 5 64 140 205 155 || 112 FIM S| 5 6
53 M|M S|) Oo. 4 130 192 156 || 113 D|D R; 511
54 M/|M Ss By BA 134 185 145 |) 114 F | M S 6 0
55|../L] S| 5 9 | 140] 195] 1461915| D|MIwl| 5 6
56 eee |G Sie 142 195 148 |} 116 D|D NS 5 3
57 M/|M Ss 5 8 145 197 152: || 7 M;}M|W! 5 3
58 DP Sy ay 7 141 201 159 || 118 De 1b; S| 5 5
59 FsiM Sh) by 83 132 196 149 || 119 MiM S| 5 4
60| M|D|{ S| 511 | 146] 201| 150/499; D/|D| s| 5 5
61 M|D Ss 5 5 144 198 149 || 121 F M NS) tay 3}
62 B | L Si| 43 53 138 192 156 || 122 D|D Sul) od
63 M!/ L Ss cay 1K0) 141 190 156 || 123 ID) 10; Ss By 7
64 DAD NS) D6 140 198 159 || 124 D!D NS) ay Hi
65 F |M S|) 6 7 135 199 151 || 125 DA Daw >. 4
66 F M ts) 5.68 134 193 146 || 126 M/L S| 3s) 83
67 F | D S| & @ 138 190 154 || 127 F | L IRs || ay 7
68 D/D S| 5 4 139 203 155 || 128 D|D S| 6 0
69 D{L S| 4 2 140 202 153 || 129 F|M S|; 5 5
70| F|L/ S| 5 6 | 140] 192! 148] 13909| F|M/ Ww] 5 6
71 D|D S| 5 6 134 194 153 |) 131 D/|D Ss 5 4
72 F | L S 5 6 134 186 isy4 I} eee F | D Silo 88
ie F M S| 5 4 150 196 158 || 133 F|M Si eore9
74 D | D Si || o 4) 151 191 161 || 134 M/M 8; 5 8
75| M|M/ S| 5 5 | 140] 198] 147]195| F|L/ S| 5 9
76 Mi|M|W| 5 4 132 194 151 |; 136 FL Ss by 7
vie M!D si) & @ 149 197 157 || 137 F | D S| 5 6
78 F L Ss Om, 139 193 149 |} 138 Poy Ss By (0)
79 M|L Siloam 143 197 149 || 139 D|M Silo: 16
80; M/D| S| 5 6 | 127] 187| 154] 149| D|M]/ S| 5 6
81 F L 184 || ay as) 145 202 151 || 141 | NE SR aes
82 FUL Sion a 142 194 152 || 142 FL S| 510
83 F L R! 6 0 145 194 150 || 143 D | L S| 6 6
84 D|D Ss @ FF 129 184 154 || 144 F}]M|W?/ 510
85| F | L| S| 510 | 141] 185] 146llq45| F/L/ S| 5 8
86 F | D Ss 5 8 142 198 163 || 146 Ss D S;| 5 9
87 F | D Sil D! a6 145 201 147 || 147 M!}D S| 5 9
88 MiDs|W Hy 83 135 191 148 || 148 F/M Ss 5 64
89 FL Sip oe) 135 192 146 || 149 MiL|W| 5 9
90 F|M S| 5 9 131 203 155 || 150 D;Di|W!| 5 4
91 R L S| 5 8 148 197 155 || 151 M | M Shi] 4) Gy
92 D|D SS} | 61 7 140 193 147 || 152 D|M Sil oF
93 DL Silom 126 191 145 |} 153 J he 1D; S| 5 6
94 M;|M/W 5 -9 135 193 149 || 154 D{L Ss 5 10
95; D/M| S| 5 9 | 141] 195] 159 l1155| D|M{|W| 510
96 D|D SS} 510 iby 192 156 || 156 By Wa 5: 6
97 D|M Ss 5 64 140 199 155 }| 157 M] L Ss 5 6
98 D/iM Sil) 5) 9 133 185 147 || 158 M/L Silecouno
99 M/;M R/; 5 8 147 192 153 || 159 D | D 14] Gy BY
100; D|D| S| 5 5 | 144] 196] 153 /1469/ D/|M| S| 5 6

Cranial
Character.
H. L. B.
mm. | mm. | mm
127 190 | 148
139 | 200] 161
148 203 153
131 193 157
137 196 155
138 199 150
137 190 149
142 | 200 157
140 195 155
142 | 201 158
143 195 144
159 | 202 161
134 198 152
142 | 191 146
133 | 182} 154
134 | 198 145
133 183 152
130 188 147
133 | 205 156
134 | 183 154
138 195 155
145 | 203 158
134 183 147
147 | 200 158
136 | 204 156
130 | 189 146
133 191 153
135 | 200 157
135 | 204 151
140 196 157
140 | 196 143
140 | 195 154
130 | 192 158
136 193 150
140 | 201 166
143 | 199 156
153 187 157
140 | 200} 151
140 195 151
141 | 204 156
157 197 154
145 | 208 155
131 190 152
147 | 204; 151
137 190 146
143 | 201 164
135 | 201 152
139 186 147
135 197 154
129 189 142
139 | 205 152
151 | 201 151
140 |} 199 166
150 | 206 149
150 | 202 154
133 190 155
140 197 151
140 | 203 149
136 187 155
142 189 150

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer, 13

V.—Montrose Royal Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Colour | & Cranial Colour | & Cranial
Character. 5 Character, Character. S Character.
No. ‘3 | Stature. No. ‘= | Stature.
Sellinet ee Hei) vos 1h 2; el gag] & eli ball B
ellos te : e |S |
Ie Eemibcgiites io.) mim mm: |) mm; ct ley | ow | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
161 Bb S} 510 142 | 202 157 || 208 1 | ae; S/ 5 7 138 188 148
162; M{|L S| 5 2 134} 183 | 142/209] F | L Shi] G4 148 | 203 | 153
163 | D | D Sia 5 141 | 192/} 151 |}210| M|My S/ 5 6 135 | 193 | 146
164; D | L Sie 38 146 | 195] 151 |) 211} M|L |W - 145 | 202] 159
165 HG S;} 5 4 148 200 159 || 212 M/L Ss; 5 0 135 184 143
166 | D | L Ss; 510 142 | 186] 157 | 213} D|D| S| 5 7 135 | 195} 152
167 | D | D Ss} 5 1 134 | 191] 147] 214) M|M]} S| 5 7 140 | 190} 159
16835 Di) -D Sill on 6 144} 200] 152/915] KR|M]| S| 5 7 139 | 188] 151
169} D | L Sil on of 133 | 191}; 155 || 216) M|L S| 5 9 148 | 186] 152
170; M{|D silh 7 142 | 205] 158 |} 217|/ M|L |W] 5 6 138 | 198 | 152
171; M|D S; 5 4 137 | 194] 149] 218; D|D| S|} 5 5 137 | 192] 159
172} D|M Sh ay 7 137 190 144 || 219 F |M S|] 510 144 197 157
3s DPD | Wel 35° 4 136} 192] 152 999] F | L 8} 5 4 134 | 201] 149
Wie) | M | S) 5 6 159 | 194] 154 |} 221] FI] L Sil oF 2 141 | 198] 148
175| D|D/ S| 5 7 | 143] 201] 152] 222) p|M/ S| 5 6 | 135] 194] 157
176} D|D S|; 5 9 153 | 203] 164 | 223; M/|MJ]| S/} 5 4 129 id) V50
We ha 3) Sion 139 | 186] 148 || 224) F|M|]W]| 5 4 152 | 193] 148
178| F |My] S| 5 4 138 | 185} 151 2295) D|Mj| S|} 4510 147} 195) 157
179) Di | M | Wi) 6 0 146 | 199 | 152 |) 226} M/|D Sil a0 136 | 200] 156
180 | M{|L S| 510 138 | 205} 150 | 227) M/|M| S/ 5 3 140 | 198) 159
IS Dy | Ry 5S 6 140] 191} 153 || 228) M/|M|]W/ 5 6 139; 185] 150
182); F |L Sileo 9 139 | 197 | 158] 229] D|D| S| 5 8 149 | 194] 153
183 | M | D S; 5 6 140; 198 | 162/939; M;|M| S| 5 2 136 | 192} 150
USTe MiG Da eR |) o99 7 148 | 202] 145/231 / M|M| S| 5 5 134 | 197 | 150
185| D/|M{| Sj 6 O 148 | 209 | 159 |) 232) M|MJ| S|} 5 5 150 | 193] 154
186} D|D/| R| 5 9 135 | 199) 154 || 233) F | L C} 5 8 141 |} 197] 157
TSN | MEE S| os 7 145 | 196 | 165 | 234] M|L |W] 5 9 140 | 205 | 150
188} M|L Sill ons 143} 193 159 1935|} D/|D/ S|} 510 149 | 200] 152
189), DY | D S| 5 4 134 | 195 | 154] 236} M/|M]W/ 5 8 140 | 203] 159
190; F |Mj| 8} 5 6 134 |} 188} 149 | 237) D/|D | S} 510 140 | 192] 150
NOUS SEE | PME; Si|| co: 15 146 | 203 | 148 |} 238; M,;M |W] 5 7 140 | 200] 143
192; D|D Ss; 5 6 143 | 195 | 151 | 239} M|M|W| 5 8 150 | 191] 157
SRY |) 1D) 4) 1) S/ 5 3 142) 200|) 155/949; D|D|Wy 4510 147 | 200] 155
194; D|D|W| 5 5 146 | 200] 157 || 241) F]L |W] 5 5 144 | 201 |) 155
195 M | D S|} 6 0 142 195 157 || 242 D|M S|; 5 8 133 190 147
TOGS |e es |W: 5-39 139 | 203 | 156 || 243} M|M/] S| 5 6 129; 182] 150
IGE, AD) ME TSS) Gy ts} 129 | 182) 142 |) 2944) F | L S)| 99) 5 131} 191 | 140
198 M/|M S|; 5 8 146 196 152 ||945) M|M Shi 145 | 200 151
199 D|™M S|; 5 5 140 191 153 || 246 D|D |W] 5 5 135 183 156
200; M|My| S| 5 6 134 | 184] 148 |} 247) M|]L S| 5 9 1389 | 194} 165
201 D|D tsi] ay 2! 136 188 151 || 248 D|D iS) |] as) ts) 139 193 156
202 M|M Sil oO 135 185 144 |} 249 BR Gi) Wild 16 140 188 153
203 D|M S| 5 5 126 178 143 950) D | D Sil) ay 140 189 159
204 M;M Silo: 139 | 202 152 || 251 D/|D Si lionr 142 | 201 159
905; M|M] S| 5 5 145 | 186 | 147 || 252) M|M Salon 137 | 198 | 157
206 M/|D Siligonc0 132 182 145 || 253 R|M S| 5 6 134 198 154
207 10s || 18; S; 5 § 140 199 152 || 254 M | L S| 5 6 137 188 161

V/.—Argyll District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Th |) 3183" |) SD} 8S; 5 4 131 189} 151 6] B | L S| 5 4 132 | 196 | 158
PAN 1st Wy 1b, I We) By 138 | 187] 151 vie | L S| 5 4 132 | 186] 153
3; BJM S/{ 510 138 | 202] 153 Sa Bale S|; 5 6 140 | 210], 153
4; BIL Siip-on 16 134 | 204) 153 9); B JL Si 9.76 131 191 146
5) BIL Silane rd 133 | 199] 141 (Oe Ba eas |) Wao" 8 131 | 202] 158

14 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates oj

VI.—Argyli District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
3 3
Colour g Cranial Colour a Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. | Character.} 4 Character.
S | Stature. No ‘S | Stature.

v | o)
H| 8 = Blais eel aBane te Ae fe eal oe |) 2
=} 8] / fe. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. S|] | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
1} Bi|M|W|] 5 8 142] 200] 151 || 71) DJL S| 6 1 133 | 188 | 140
12/ BIN] S/ 5 6 139 | 203] 156 || 72) D|D | S|] 5 5 125 | 195} 141
13°) (BD | 8S) 5) 5 134] 189] 148] 73} D{|L |W] 5 5 128] 194] 142
145) Bo D9 4S) | 59 134} 208} 156 |} 74] BIL S| 5 6 141 | 210) 164
15| B|M{|W| 510 140 | 202] i53 || 75} B|L S| 5 6 145 |} 201] 163
14; B{M| S| 5 7 137 | 200} 158 || 76/ BJM] S| 5 4 144 | 200 | 154
i BM | S| 5) 7 138") 197 e1b3 sla le) Bae S| 5 4 141 | 204] 152
18/ B/]M{| S| 510 137 | 205| 152] 78) BiD| S| 5 6 139 | 201 | 155
Tey IP 383 ae OP ase Zt 140; 196} 148 | 79) BIL S| 5 5 155 | 216 | 160
90'; B/D| S| 5 5 138 | 211] 154|/ 80; B|M/|W| 5 7 132 | 190] 147
21/ BIL S| 5 6 134] 194] 153 /]} 81] BI]D{| Al 5 5 138 | 199 | 150
22} BIL S| 5 2 133 | 197 | 152] 82] B]M]| S| 5 6 136 | 194} 152
23/ B | L S| 5 6 133 | 195} 152] 83) B | L S| 5 6 136 | 194 | 157
%4/ BI|M] S| 5 8 136 | 202] 149] 84} B|L S| 5 5 144} 199 | 143
95| B/L |W] 5 6 138 | 199} 160] g5/ B | L 8| 5 7 138 | 199 | 159
26| B|D S| 510 135 | 201 | 159 86; Bi|M| S/ 5 8 139 | 208 | 152
O78 | Dailies S| 5 4 136 | 203] 151] 87} B|M{]{ S| 5 5 138 | 192} 154
231 B|M]/ S| 5 4 132 | 195| 156// 88/ B|]|M] S| 5 7 135 | 199 | 153
/ 29} B|M| S! 510 137 | 213 | 157 || 89} BIL S| 5 6 136 | .204 | 150
30/| BL S| 5 4 138} 201} 152|| 99/ B|M{| S| 5 6 132 | 195] 250
31|/ B|M! S| 5 7 135 | 201 | 157 |/ 91/-B JL S| 5 5 127] 183} 139
322} B/D] S|} 510 | 136] 207] 156]) 92} B | L S| 5:9 136 | 195 | 152
Bey 18s hp) Sh ay 139 | 216] 164 || 93) B/ L 8| 5 7 137 | 199 | 160
SD MD. essa. 5 137 | 203 | 155 || 94) Bia) 4S) 6:5 129} 183} 149
35| R|D/| S| 5 8 144} 210; 166) 95 | B/L S| 5 6 131} 193} 153
36] BIL S| 5 7 130 | 197] 159 || 96/ BIL S|) 5 6 133 | 199! 150
37| BI|M]/ Bi 6 1 134 |} 203) 153 || 97} B|M/ S| 5 7 136 | 195 | 158
38| B|M| S!/ 5 6 131 | 192] 148} 98} B JL S| 510 133 | 200 | 143
eye) 383 ae) S| 10) 142] 190] 152] 99] Bj|M| S| 510 130 | 200} 152
' 40) BIL S| 6 2 134} 196] 155 | 100) B | L S| 5 8 135 | 197] 155
| 41 | Bow S| 6 0 136 | 197 | 155 || lol | D | L S| 61 136 | 212 | 153
42} B|M S|} 510 145 | 210] 158 | 102] B|M S| 510 139 | 206 | 162
43; B|L |W] 5 9 142 | 207] 158 || 103} B | D Sil beed 135 | 200 | 156
44} Bi L S| 5 6 130 | 196 | 151 | 104| B | D Silas aa 135 | 203 | 154
}45/ BIL 8/ 5 8 131 | 192] 149|/105| B|L |W] 510 138 | 212] 152
| 46/ B|M]S/ 5 7 132] 190] 152]/ 106) B|M| S| 5 9 137 | 194 | 161
47| BiM| S| 510 130 | 199} 147 || 107} D|bD] S| 5 6 135 | 199 | 156
48|} BIL S| 5 6 131 | 196} 158 | 108/ B|bD | S| 5 9 132 | 202 | 150
49| B|M S| 5 4 133 | 191 148 || 109} B|M| S| 5 9 132 | 204] 158
50; BL |W] 5 6 133 | 202] 158/110) D|D | S| 5 5 132 | 201 | 150
5l-| Bill |S) 511 137 | 209} 162]/111!| BJDJ| S| 5 7 133 | 197 | 153
2)| B!L 8/5 9 137 | 201] 159/112; BIL S| 5 6 129 | 199 | 148
53| BIM! S| 5 8 136} 195] 158] 118] BIL S| 5 5 131 | 195 | 155
54/ BjM| S| 5 7 134] 193] 151] 114} B | L S| 510 137 | 209 | 163
| 55} BI|M| RBI] 5 8 128) 202} 158/115) B|L | C| 5 7 131] 199 | 148
56/ BiM| S| 5 5 131 | 205] 155 || 116} B|M| S| 5 6 123 | 185 | 149
57| RI{M|S/ 5 7 141 | 204] 15411117} B|D] S/-5 8 129} 199 | 143
58| BIL | S| 5-8 131 | 207! 156|/118/ B|M]| S| 5 7 129] 197] 152
59} B|M|W}| 511 131 | 208} 151 ]} 119} B | L S| 5 5 132} 193 | 145
60; BIL S| 6 0 134 | 192] 153 |11299/| B|M| S| 510 135 | 205 | 157
61} B|M| S| 5 8 1327) 97 5s I Ba S| 511 134 | 206 | 165
62; BJM! S| 510 130 | 203} 152 ]) 122} RIL Si, a © 130 | 202 | 160
63/ B|M|WI| 5 7 140 | 204] 152 || 123) B | D hl 2 134 | 212 | 158
64} D|M/|W) 5 3 128 | 184] 149 || 124} B | L S| a 2 135 | 206 | 145
65) 8 |L} S| 5 7 | 135) 196): 1551195 | D | D | S| 5 7 | 128) 199%) “lao
66/ B |M| S| 510 129 | 193} 157 || 126; B | L S| 5-8 128 | 199 | 150
67; BIM! S| 5 9 133 | 205] 1481127; B|M|W)] 5 7 136 | 208 | 160
681 B/D S|} 510 140] 195 | 153 | 128} B|L |W 510 142 | 202 | 157
69| BIM S| 5 5 127 | 185] 146 || 129} BIM Sila 3 140 | 200 | 148
70; BIM! S| 5 5 140} 206} 156 ||/130 |} B | L S| 5 7 140 | 200 | 152

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. 5
V/l.—Argyll District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
ov | oF
Colour 3 Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character. | A Character. Character. | A Character.
No. | cS | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
Vv o
Boge ee Han te ies fe oe Paice as:
S > | o S lees
=] 8 | 2] ft. in. |] mm. | mm. | mm. a} } | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
131 M | L S|) wo 6 139 | 206 152 || 161 Mi L S/| 6 0 137 | 205 | 160
BY M|L Ss yen KO) 136 204 155 162 M/ L NS) 5) 6 134 202 144
133 Mi|™M Ss 3) 5) 132 200 157 || 163 M;D |W 5 10 136 208 | 159
134 M/L Ss bee? 128 194. 142 || 164 M|M|W eo: 134 194 150
135; mM/iL | S| 5 2 | 132] 196] 1521165| M/M{ S! 6 0 | 138] 193] 154
136 M | L Ss 5 8 135 207 155 166 M | M Ss 5 10 135 206 153
137 Mi L NS) by 134 195 145 || 167 MD NS) 5 ll 33 197 147
138 M/iM Ss ay 7 143 197 153 || 168 Mi L s 5 5 129 196 151
139 ML Ss 5 10 39 211 161 || 169 M|L Ss ay aia) 136 196 150
140| M/L/ S| 5 5 | 131] 191] 152/170|/ M|M/ S| 5 3 | 135] 195] 149
141 M|M Ss 5 5 136 212 iltsy| 171 MIM Ss ay {6} 136 205 160
142 M|M Ss sy 8) 148 211 158: 172 M|D S 5 8 132 202 156
143 M | L NS) By 49) 131 199 163 || 173 M/L |W 5 10 134 206 166
144 Mi L | W 5) 0 132 201 147 || 174 D/|M Ss Sy iil 138 209 Is
145| M/L | S| 5 6 | 132] 191! 1551175/ M/L| S| 5 5 | 143] 207! 158
146 M/L Ss a 139 P04 159 || 176 Mi;M NS) Ay) 1 139 200 150
147 ML Ss aye 137 206 148 || 177 D|D Ss yen5) 140 201 157 |
148 DY lai; Ss 5.8 137 205 145 || 178 Mi{|L | W 5 9 140 191 151
149 ML Ss 4 10 132, 190 146 || 179 M|M Ss 5 10 IS y/ 205 145
150 M/|M]W ay 125 176 13 180 R | L NS) 5 10 144 202 160
151 D|™M Silegome5) 137 195 153 ||. 181 M|M Silneor 6 146 | 208 169
152 M/L Ss i, ss 200 150 |} 182 WC AL, Ss 5 8 136 207 151
153 M|D Ss iS 3) 140 201 MESSE) alts M | L Ss 5 11 ii45) 203 155
154 M | L S$ 5 4 140 197 149 || 184 M/|M Ss 5 4 133 193 141
155| M|D| S! 5 7 | 140] 202] 148/195] M/D] S| 5 7 | 132] 195) 148
156 Mi L Ss by 4) 135 187 150 || 186 M|D Ss By 2) ISH 196 165
157 M|D SS} By a7 135 199 148 || 187 M/D S 5 9 150 209 158
158 DIM NS) By 5) 134 200 156 || 188 MiM Ss iy A 141 192 149
159 DD iS} 5 7 145 220 162 || 189 M!D Ss 5 5 144 197 148
160 M|M S| 4 6 137 195 150 || 190 M| L S| 6 0 133 | 205 153
|
Vil.—_Ayr District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 M/L S| 5 9 133 189 149 2] M | D S$| 5 9 139 199 147
2 M|M S| 5 9 134 192 151 DOs |e Ve eles msi || i). a! 133 197 143
3 M/L Ss 5 4 136 192 146 23 ML S| 5 6 139 189 160
4); M|L Sil) Sy 136 194 154 DA NID vee 5 8 147 197 IIB!
5 D|M Ss 5 10 ists) 198 157 95 D|M Ss sy 143 194 149
6 M/L tS) 5.64 134 179 151 26 M|L Ss 54 ilSy/ 189 146
7 M/|M Sil) Gy 133 197 148 27 M|L iS) ||) Ge 3 136 191 147
Sa eDa Ma IW: 25: 7, 146 197 149 28 M | L Si Peon 143 | 204 152
9 M|M Ss 5 64 139 198 152 29 D|M NS) 5 8 139 200 Gz
10; M|M Silane a3: 137 196 164 |! 39 M | L Si ey a) 135 193 146
11 M|L Ss 5 1 136 188 148 Ball Mi M Ss is) 142 206 148
12 M | L Ss by 15) 136 203 157 32 M|L Iie ay te) 135 193 151
13 Mi L Ss 5 6 138 198 154 3H} M|M C 4 10 U3 193 149
4 Ds tt Wey 5-2 146 193 139 34. M/|M Sill oy 7 130 | 200 146
15 M|L Ss a) i 141 197 1538 35 D{|M S| 510 134 189 lias
16 Des bs) bye 4; 135 206 ol 36 M{|M Ss ay 5) 141 202 158}
17} M|M Seo! 136 | 197 153 37 M/|M Sl) do 8 137 194 149
18 1; 8 by Be 130 196 148 38 D|M|W 5. 6 147 204 156
19 M/|M iS) i) ley 207 153 39 M/;L | W 572 140 189 149
270'| M|IiM S| 5 4 129 | 200 149 || 490 | M} L isi). GY 3} 135 | 198 151

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Vil.—Ayr District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
vo 4)
Colour g Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | 4% Character.
‘S | Stature. No. S | Stature.
: . S ro a iS

2 é = H. ye 1}, el eoull a? Hi. 1G;
co | A] w | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. = |] @% | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Mi|M/W!] 5d 6 132 194) 152 || 101 Mi L SS: 5:45 139 | 209
D | D SiiounS 142 | 204; 157 ]/102} M|L | S| 5 7 132 | 204
Da S| 5 4 140 | 185} 148 |} 103 | M/|M Salona 129 197
er Valle tone: 139 | 203 | 144 || 104) M/D Sil ay 6) 136 |} 202
M/ L S| by 4 141 198 |} 160/105} D|M) S|] 5 6 137 | 200
M]L S| 5 6 140 | 197 | 149 || 106 M|M| S| 5 2 124 |} 196
MIL Saleeoelo 134 |, 193" 1525) 107 M | D Silly. 7 138 198
M|M Silo 6 135 194 | 154 |] 108 | D | D Sioa 135 197
M/ L S| 5 6 135 197 151 |} 109 M|L Sil a 2! 134 | 202
M/|M Si o 9 137 193 153 || 110 M/|D!/]W)] 5 6 134 | 201
MIL Ss 2D) 40. 133 194 1539 oe Mi L R Oe te 32 193
MiM Si. 6 1320 22011 151 || 112 Dea Sib, 2 131 | 200
M/ L Shi! 3) 130 193 144} 113} DJL S| 4 1 130 194
M|M Sones V7 200) 55. 14s | De S| 5 5 136 | 201
M/;|M S| 5 9 140 | 203 14911115 | D|M] S/ 5 2 131 194.
M | M S| 5 7 135 | 208 159 || 116 ME) |) Wi) 25 15 134 196
M/D S| 510 140 | 201 153 || 117} M/] M SilomaD: 138 | 207
ML Si 5 6 134 196 147 || 118 M{|L S| 5 5 140 | 209
ML Si By 3} 123 188 143/119} M|M|W] 5 5 135s 205
M/M S| 5 8 136 196 149 || 129 M\i\L/]W/ 5 6 144 | 208
D|M S| 5 9 138 193 151 |) 121 RE Wile a7 140 | 202
M/ L Sila 6 137 | 200 149 |} 122} D|M Silo 35 139 | 205
Mi L Ss By 13) esi, 207 146 N33 M|L Ss D5 134 201
Mi NS) 2 10 1s37/ 193 153 |) 124 M/L NS) 6 0 139 194
M{L | S| 5 8 | 139! 204] 1521495| MID| S| 5 3 | 139] 196
1 WAG; Si > 6 135 194 | 146 || 126 M{|L S| 4 11 140 192
M | D Sil ones 134 194} 146 ]/ 127) M{L Silo 140 | 206
F|M S| 5 4 133 186 | 149 || 128} M|M Silo 132 | 191
DIL Sy ay 131 201 154 || 129; FIL Sh ||) 7) 13552205
NES || VE) Sia: %5 139 | 200} 153 || 130 MiD/]W] 5 6 139 199
M|M S| 5 9 137 197 151 |} 131 eal) Wal 5 226 136 | 203
DD SilimouL 136 | 210 1607) 51324) DED | Wi |b? 135 | 196
M | L S| 5 6 134 198 156 || 133 | D | M Silo. 85) 138 | 202
D|L Shh ah 7 134 | 201 159 || 134) M | L Sil ome, 137 | 203
DIM S| 5) 8 138 198 149 | 135 | M|D Sil ome 145 198
M | D Ss 5.68 141 202 153 || 136 1B} 1B) Ss 5 4 143 196
M | L S| 5 9 146 197 156 || 13 D|M sy) i) 83 133 | 200
Dy ID) S| 5 3 136 192 152 | 188 | M;L S| 5) 70 1325 \eZo
M | L Silo 4: 134 197 146 | 139 | M|L Sj 15: 5 135 | 202
M | L S| 5 9 135 192 | 148 || 149) D | M Sil) 4) 3} 134 198
D|D S| 5 4 127 | 201 156 || 141 D|i|M/iW! 5 5 131 195
F L NS) 6 O 144 213 164 || 142 M/i!M|W 5 5 134 199
1B) |} 1b; 8S} 5 9 140 198 145 1143 | D|M S| 5 8 135 | 200
M/|M S| 5 9 132 196 | 157 || 144 M/D Salome: 134 197
D/L S| 5 9 136 188 146 || 145 M/iM Salou 138 198
Mi L Si 5 5 131 164 | 146 || 146] M/]M S|) ay 132 | 188
Mi L S| 5 7 130 191 152 || 147) D | D Sal, 00 38) 132 | 192
M/L S| & 3} 137 193 147 | 148 | D | M Shy 7 1355|) 3202
Mi L S| 5 8 136 | 205 | 152 || 149 M!/D Ri 5 8 132 | 198
M|L Stal ts) 132 | 199 146 || 150 M|M S| 5 9 126 | 201
M/i|M Ss ay 45) 142 192 15d5|/ 57 M;|L IS 5 11 131 188
M/L Si| os 7 140 | 204 154 || 152} M|M] S/ 5 5 130 | 204
M | L Ss 5.8 139 199 148 |} 153 1D} | 15; Ss 5 38 128 191
D M Ss 6 0 148 202 154 || 154 M| L NS) ay 3} 131 195
M{D S| 6 2 138 188 158 ||155 | M|M Si |) i), -5) 135 | 204
M/M S| 5 8 138 199 | 147 || 156 M|D Sil) bn 8 137 | 208
M | D S35: 3 135 199 155 || 157 | M | M S| 510 133 197
M/D Ss} 6 1 131 200 | 153] 158 | M|L sil] iy 5) 136 | 192
M|L S| 4 9 135 | 207 152} 159 | M |] L S| 5 9 137 | 295
M}D S| 5 6 140 | 199} 159 | 460 M|L S| 511 139 | 203

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Toousr. 17

Viil,—Ayr District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Colour | @ Cranial Colour | % Cranial
Character. Z Character, Character.| 7 Character.
No. ‘3 | Stature. No. ‘3 | Stature.
ae [asa Hy |e (8B; ef a] oe Be |) Et Bs
ae oles ‘a/|2/s
=] a] we | ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm. — 1a | aw | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
161 M;|L Ss} 5 4 136} 195] 149 |/198| D|My| SS} 5 5 1385 | 196] 151
| 162} M|D S| 5 4 134; 196} 148 |} 199 | M|D Sa © 139 ; 203 | 160
163; M|M Ss} 5 9 133 | 187 145 |}900 ; M|L]|W] 5 5 137 | 205] 159
164); M|L Jed) 0 138 | 202 | 155 || 201 M/L S| 5 5 IBoa el Oe eel 5?
1445; M;|Mj| S| 5 8 134 | 208 | 155 || 202} M | L Sil a3 136 | 189 | 155
166} M|L S} 5 6 133 | 195 | 150 || 203 M;/L/]W| 5 6 13 202} 151
167 / M | L Sa 8) 140 | 202) 153 || 204! M|L] S| 5 7 136 | 203 | 156
168 | M;,D S| 5 5 137 | 195 {| 155 ||2905! D|D Si) 5283 130 | 196 | 145
169;-M|Mj| 8S; 5 3 142 | 201 158 || 206 | M |] L S} 5-9 136 | 198 { 150
170; Mj|L S| 5 7 144 | 206] 155 || 207| M|L |W] 5 4 139 | 199 | 154
Wi |e MM | Sele Ono: 130 | 191i | 151 || 208; M|L S| 5 6 136 | 198 | 150
W72| M|M/ S| 5 6 135 | 190] 150 || 209} MJD iS) ||) fy IO 136 | 201 | 162
7s | M) MI S| 5 9 136 | 197] 154 |/210); M|L S| 5 7 132 | 196; 149
WS |e Re |B Cho: 1 138 | 203} 159 |) 211; M|L S| 5 9 132 | 201 165
175; M|L fs) tan) 133 | 193} 149 || 212) M | LU S| 5 7 134 | 199 | 155
176} MiMI| S| 5 3 135} 199] 153 |) 2183; M|M) J] 5 5 142 | 198] 154
ia ei |) da S| 5 6-] 139} 197] 152 214] M/D S| 5 9 142} 198} 150
178 | M | L Side <6 138 | 197] 150 |/|915 | D | L S| 5 5 139 | 196 | 148
WO eV Vine Silo 158 | 200] 145 |] 216} N | D S| 5 9 132 | 200} 152
180 | MiM| S| 5 6 138 | 198 | 152 || 217| M|L S| 5 4 13: 189 | 139
1s] Metis Rs) O71 140} 199] 149 /]/ 218; M/]M/ S! 5 8 138 | 197 | 154
182; M|L S| 5 6 135 | 194] 139 || 219} M|L S| 5 8 135 | 2104153.
183 | D | L fey] a) 2 135 | 200) 159 |/999) M|L J/ 5 6 130 | 174] 150
184 | M |D Sil 015 134; 189| 151 |} 221) D|L S| 5 9 137 | 191 148
185| M;M| S| 5 9 144) 205) 160 || 222} M'L |W] 5 2 132 | 192; 149 |
186| M|M| S| 5 3 ! 140] 191] 155 |) 223; M{/D Silane 136 | 202) 150 |
187 | M|L S| 5 5 134 | 202] 159 || 224) MJL S| 5 6 138 | 196, 153 |
18g8 | M|L S| 5 4 132 | 202} 153 1/995/ M|M{| S| 5 3 129 | 191 ils
1897 Ve | Seon 128} 183] 158} 226) M}]L Silos 134 | 201 153
190 VES Si O89 138 | 195 | 150 | 227) Mi L S59 38 133.| 197 | 160
191 M-| D S| 5 4 134 | 200] 153 || 228; D}|M]| 8S] 5 7 143 | 200] 152
192 | Mj L S| 5 4 132} 193] 149 |} 2299} M|L/]|W] 5 6 131 | 192] 148
193 |} M|.L S| 5 8 1382 | 207] 147 230 | M|L S| 4 9 134 | 200] 150
194; F |My] S| 6 O 138 | 198] 157 |] 231 M/]L Sel no) 3 125 | 194] 151
195 | Mj|L Sit a 16 129} 197) 150 || 232} M/|L 8| 5 3 133 | 196 | 142
1967)" ML iS) eed 132} 208) 155 || 233); M|M| S| 411 138 | 189] 151
197 | M;:L S| 510 131 | 192] 158
Viil._Bantf District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 Soo | Shh) Seat 137 | 195 | 150 163 | De VS Sal yo 10 137 | 187 | 150
ae VIS ES Sie a7) 130 | 186} 145 17 soo || AWE || SP a 143 | 200) 155
SMD: MS Si5 a9 137 | 194] 152 TS a S| 5 5 128 | 198] 144
4; MIM] S| 5 2 133 | 202 | 142 19} Meo R57 137 | 195] 158
5} D|M]| S| 5 7 132 | 196 | 143 || 29 meee) A NS |e eo 130 | 197 | 159
6/ D|M| S|] 411 143 | 198 | 153 DAL MAD units CO) ay 7 136 | 194] 153
7} M;|M) S| 5 68 132 | 191) 157 22} D|D Sil) a) 7D 136 | 207} 157
Si) Ma D Silom 141] 185); 151 23; M|M/ S| 510 136 | 193] 148
al) 21D) 9) 1B) Silom 138 | 196 | 159 24| M|M| S| 5 7 138 | 199] 154
10) DD} My) S| 510 132} 189] 151 || 25 ape NE) ESE S555) 135 | 195 | 159
Ty |) 1B) aE AS) GF 133 | 211 | 163 26| D|M)| S| 5 9 145 | 204} 155
12; D|M|.S| 5 4 134 | 193 | 156 27; M|My S| 5 9 145 | 197] 158
1i3| D|M/]W| 5 8 136 | 207] 159}]/ 28; ...}/M/ S/} 6 1 158 | 211] 162
TET ceo TIME SP tay, 27 131 | 201 | 156 }/ 29) ...|M | SS; 5 8 134 | 203] 155
15; D JD Sil) or 2) 130 | 183 | 147 || 30 Ma ME Sa on 7 130 | 195] 143

18 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
Vill.—Bantf District Asylum.
MALES. | MALES.
3 ; g ;
Colour PA Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character.| 7 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. “ | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature
a . o
alee laa He) oa. iB. Cull a shel) iy || 18,
=) ]}@ | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. a} |} |} ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
31 eV 8} 5 8 145 204 1sy7/ 58 1D} \| JB) Salzonn9 136 208 155
32 M|M NS) 5 11 139 200 154 59 eae Vi S By - “ff 130 192 150
331 D{|M|s/ 5 6 | 131] 190] 149] g69| D|M| S| 5 5 | 143] 194] 153
34 Daa S| % 8 133 197 154 61 wena Silmmomes 137 190 146
35 M|M S| 5 4 13 182 154 62 DiM ‘Siloneo 132 191 145
36 Di|i|M S| 5 8 13 195 Als) 63 D|M Sh a 8 128 193 146
iyi M|M Syl) Gy X5) 136 198 151 64 M/|M Shit ty 9) 144 193 155
38 DiM Si) 2 9 132 198 157 65 M|M Si o 9 136 199 139
39 M|M NS) 5y 116 177 150 66 M;|M Ss 5. 68 140 198 158
40 seals S| 5 7 136 193 155 67 M/|M Silomno 129 186 144
4] D |M S| 510 32 195 151 68 nope. {le aw S| 49) 143 199 164
42 D/|M Ss 5 6 134 189 156 69 MiM Ss Hy (6) 141 187 153
438| MiM S| 5 8 137 1929) 54 70) ie Salons 133 | 191 156
44 DM Si Gy 0) 132 194 151 7) M|M Sh || 35) 5} 134 185 154
45| D|D]| S| 5 3 | 168] 195| 158] 72| M|M] S|] 511 | 144] 202] 153
46 DD S| 5 9 143 199 154 7237 D|M Silpsoe 147 206 158
47 see |B) Silo 133 193 146 74 D | D Shi oy 2 140 189 149
48 wo. | M Sy] ay 132 199 52 15 D|M Ss i 141 197 159
49 Be M ‘Sa|Omned 125 201 146 76 D|M Ss 9 6 35) 190 155
50 DiM S| 5 6 139 204 164 Ti Saal aie Ss ss) 139 191 157
51 DD | D S| 5 6 135 200 149 78 M|M Ss (5). 7 140 198 151
D2 DiM S| 5 9 135 194 153 79 D/|M Ss aD) Si 191 158
53 DiM Sill eye 134 202 154 80 bDiM Ss 6 0 142 197 151
54 M/|M Ski] tay a} 143 206 163 81 M;|M Sess a8 131 196 151
5 ee eV Sloe 131 188 147 82 Dae Ss 5 6 130 191 156
56 DM Ci bd. 7 135 190 148 83 D/|M Ss Gael 144 191 145
57 D{i|M Sileeoiee 136 193 157 84 M;|M Shi ah o7f 140 210 164.
1X.—Elgin District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 De Vie Wielpae V7 184 141 26 Re AY Ss 5 5 131 195 150
2 ee Silo; <6 134 199 151 |} 27 D|M S Din 124 185 153
3 M{|M Salona 133 196 149 28 D!|D S ay 4 131 196 154
4 1D >|} Salon 8 135 197 155 29 M|M NS} 5 2 142 205 158
5 Dp Si) Gy 3% 138 195 161 30 MiM!|W| 5 8 145 200 157
6 D M Sion. 11335) 193 Mis $59 31 D|M Ss 5 8 134 197 150
7 R |M Ss fy off 130 204 163 32 AONE! Sal oles 124 200 1438
8 DP NE S| 5 6 135 202 152 38} see | AL S! 511 136 194 153
9 D | D Silly Doe 125 182 145 34 D|M Ss 5 11 132 201 163
10| D/|MI S| 5 6 | 120] 201| 144] 95] M|M]/ S|] 5 8 | 144] 202] 151
iil Dep S507 131 198 | 150 364) Dai S| 5 8 135 | 190 | 147
1124 D|DbD sy) By Zt 139 196 156 aii MiM NS} 411 145 197 155
13 D|M sit 5) 5) 133 188 150 38 D{|M NS) 5 5 138 189 148
14 D|M S; 5 0 125 185 145 39 M/i|M Ss iy, P4 140 195 148
15/ D/M! S/ 5 5 | 135! 191] 145] 49| R|M]| S| 510 | 140] 192) 155
16 D/|M|W!] 5 0 122 185 142 41 ial: Salo eel 131 185 138
17 D/|M Ci) SF 134 191 154 42 M|M Sion ad 139 203 154
1s DIM ile ad 133 199 155 43 1D) 7}, 1) SilOae/ 144 198 153
19 D|M Si) ay zt 135 195 154 44 M|M S| 5 8 135 198 159
90| D|M! S| 5 7 | 139] 198] 154||45| D|M| S| 5 4 | 140] 197] 147
2] D M S 6 0 135 201 161 46 D|M Ss 576 137 185 154
22 D|M 8 iy 33 18 184 154 47 D|M Simeone: 139 185 151
23 D M S 5} ll 135 191 153 || 48 D|M Ss iy 4) 134 196 157
94 D D Cc 5 4 120 191 145 || 49 D |b Ss By (5) 138 195 152
25 D|M S| 5 4 132 193 155 50 Di iD Sil Saez 138 182 153

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocurr. 19
1X.—Elgin District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 | Cranial
Character.| A Character. Character. | A Character.
No. ‘5 | Stature, No. ‘3 | Stature.
wig] 2 1 iD Hi} g |e Fs. li inal eB
21818 5 : : a|2|s : 2
| a] | ft. in | mm. | mm. | mn. S } a | a | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
GS goes | S| 5 7 139 | 199] 148 G25 MS ME Cha: 47 133 | 199 | 157
52 M/|M Silioe 7s 139 206 155 63 M{|M S|; 5 6 130 194 151
53 sa) Pe; S| 5 4 129 186 148 64 D|M S; 5 8 129 196 sya
SA Deer US . 131 | 188| 159 || 6§5| M|M| S| 5 6 | 140! 189] 154
55 M S ies 139 196 151 66 D|M S| 5 6 129 193 147
56 M Som 2 133 192 151 67 D{iM S| 411 128 193 143
57 D|™M Sileoe 7 143 202 153 68 D|iM S| 5 9 123 190 143
58 M;M Sileebr9 134 204 162 69 M|M S| 411 133 194 157
59 wee) ME S|} 510 138 195 153 70 D|M ehl) axe 7 127 199 155
60 D|M S|} 510 136 196 156 fil M S| 5 6 131 196 161
61 NM Shea 7 137 | 193 | 159
X.—Fife District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
ev ees 5 5 128 | 189] 154 41 M;iM|S 5.7 136 | 193] 150
2 R|L IS 5.5 137 198 154 42 MOE es 5 6 135 193 141
Bi) A | LS) 5 5 138 | 194] 148 43} M|D/S 5 4 135) | l95 bd]
A evs Te eS: 5 1 132 |} 191] 146 44}; M|L/S 5 8 138 |} 201} 154
5/ DI|LIS 5.47 134 | 202) 156] 45 |. M|L/S 5.7 136 | 204 { 151
Cae Me as: 5 6 134] 194] 154 46 M/{|M/S 5 5 TA | e202 a Sed
7 M|M/R D7. 138 197 151 47 D/|D{S8S 5 9 130 192 149
8 M;)}M/S 5 4 133 186 146 48 M/L/S8S 5 6 138 201 156
Dips ts 5 6 133 | 193] 151 49| M/|M/S 5 6 138 | 195 | 150
10; F|LIS 5 10 132} 193) 147 || 50; M/L |W! 510 137 | 196 | 146
Dass 5 4 130 | 189] 146 br] D | DAS 5 2 136! 191 152
12; M|M/|W|] 5 6 140} 198] 154 521} D|M/S 5 3 128 | 191 144
135 Me ees By 2 138 | 196) 1Ld1 53} M/L/S 5 8 130 | 198 | 152
14) Mi iL |-C 5 6 138 | 192) 151 54] M/L |S 5 8 150) |) 238 |) 172
15; M|../C | 4 3 | 133] 182] 143/155| M/|M/S1|5 7 | 139] 190] 150
16 M;L/S 5.4 129 187 140 56 M;i|L/S 5.4 130 199 156
P| Ea Wal a 7 128 | 1971! 148 of DAD IER 5 4 130 | 188 | 155
13) MDs | Wi 5 4 134 | 200 | 163 58} M|M/S 5 6 132 | 190} 153
19 M|D/S 5.5 134 202 153 59 D;|D|W| 5 6 132 194 144
90; M/|D{S 5 6 139 | 203} 154] 609; M|D{S 5 8 137 | 190} 159
210 Vie aes 5 3 sts} || WB |) aby 61; M;|M{C bay 35) 135°) 207 | 158
22 MI MAIS 5 8 132} 195] 151 62; M;|L/S iy 7 135 | 200 | 154
23a Viele Wao 75 133 | 192] 157 635 te) aes yl 109 | 168 | 133
24 M;|L/S 5.4 138 194 153 64 D|M/S > 6 129 196 149
95| MILIS 5 138 | 199] 148 || 65) M|M|Wj| 5 3 143 | 210} 167
26 M{|M!S 5.9 140 192 154 66 Meee eS a 9 139 209 153
27 M|M|W| 5 4 144 200 156 67 M|L{|W| 5 6 135 200 151
28 M|L/S a 5 127 191 150 68 M;L/S 5) 8 130 188 1538
299} M|MIS 5 11 136 | 206 |} 160 69; M|L |W) 5 8 139 | 203 | 149
30| M|D/|W| 5 6 136 | 189] 147/| 70; D|LIR}i 5 7 137 | 200] 745
31 M;{|L|S8S ao 4 128 189 143 71 M;iD]|S + 3 135 190 150
32 D|iL |W! 5 6 142 208 155 72 M;|L|S8S 5.6 132 200 153
33 MiM/S 5.4 139 198 150 73 Mis 5.5 140 202 151
San ee le Wie eae 3 136 | 185 | 144 74| M|M|R]{ 5 8 140 | 183] 147
35; M|L/S | 5 7 | 136] 191] 150] 75| MIM|S | 5 6 | 133] 201] 154
36} DI|DIS 5 9 138 | 198 | 156 1 |) OO IAS) 6 0 137 | 220} 159
37 M;D|S yp Gh 138 193 153 77 M/iL|S ay 4) Io 189 149
38; M;{L|S8 5 2 136 | 201) 153 |) 78); D|L |S 5 8 138 | 203 | 160
39; M;|L |W 5 7 141 | 205 | 160 TOU ei a Wis abe 4. 127 | 186] 147
40; M|LI|Wj| 5 6 136 | 196; 140] 89); M/M{S by 8 129 | 187] 142

20

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

X.—Fife District Asyium.

MALES. MALES.
5 | | R
Colour Z Cranial | Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | A Character. | Character. | 7 Character.
No. ‘Ss | Stature. | No. “x | Stature.
: 4 se 6 o |
5 é = H. Ibs B. 2 So oe Jnl L. Bot
— } 8 |W | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. | S|} |e | ft. in. | mm. |} mm. | mm.
Sl ML S 5 5 | 140 196 153 || 141 M | L S bed 140 202 150
| s2| M|M| J} 5 8 | 185] 198| 1451142} M|DJ| Cl] 5 6 139 | 200] 154
83 ID 8; San 7 si el36 197 158 || 143 1 AWAIT 55 37 142 198 155 |
s4/ M/M| S| 5 3 | 1341 189] 149/144] M/L| S| 5 7 | 143] 195] 152 |
|$5| M|L| S| 5 7 135 | 203| 154//145| M|M! S| 5 9 141 | 198 | 155
s6| M|D |} S| 5 6 136 | 208 | 155') 1446} D|D] S| 511 136 | 195 | 147 |
87 ML S| 5 4 | 135 195 154 || 147 M/L Salonen 137 198 159 |
ss} M|L W) 5 6 132 189 144 |} 148 M;L Syl) i 5} 136 196 151
| gs D|L |W! 510 | 131] 189] 148|/149| M/|M| S| 5 9 136 | 197 | 1652 |
90| M|L | S| 5 5 138 | 198] 1501/459| M/|DJ| S| 5 4 140 | 212 | 156 |
9] M;M Si) 27 140 | 195 147 || 151 M;L Sule by 135; | 203) a4
92; M|L Sil 3 7 135 206 152 |) 152 M{|M Si 5) 5 134 195 158 |
93! M/ L W D5 135 194 160 || 153 Diab Su oes 133 191 149
94); M|M Siieoans 136 LOT 152 || 154 M{|L S| 5/8 135 194 156 |
1 95| M|L| S} 510 | 139] 207| 158/155|/ M/|M] S| 5 6 136 | 192] 151 |
9%| M|D/] S|} 5 38 134 | 186| 147) 156} M|L | S| 5 9 | 187] 198) 149 |
97 Do) As S| 5 5 134 193 152 || 157 D|IM|W! 5 7 136 192 152
98 | D/L S| 5 5 133 | 188 | 145 || 158} M|D Sil) ba 16 i381 189 | 148 |
99}; M|L Simo 136 | 204] 159 |} 159} M|L S| 5 4 182 | 197 | 148
i100; M/|M]| S/ 5 8 146 | 201) 155 |/1609/ D|MI S| 5 4 184) 194] 151
| 10] M | L Sel ora, 140 185 140 || 161 ML S| 5 6 132 198 150 |
102 M!|M Si ay 2 134 189 145 || 162 WEE, S| 5 6 137 196 152
1038 M/ L S| 5 4 135 201 158 || 163 M/i|M Sil bee 7 135 209 152
104; M|M Si 5) 38 137 199 157 || 164 M i.M | Wi 5 8 134 201 147
/ 105 M{|L Sil 5) at 136 197 153 || 165 M/ L S25: 3 139 205 163 |
106 M) L Selo 4! S35) 191 143 || 166 M|M S| 5-8 125 181 136 ©
107 M/|™M Sis: 7. 140 203 155 || 167 M;LsWw Ds 139 189 146 |
108 FL Sai fone} 138 189 151 || 168 M/|L S| 5 6 134 203 151
109 ML S| 5 6 129 J97 155 || 169 M/|L Sal ere, 136 196 154 |
| 119 Me Gl) Wi) 134 194 150 || 176 M/;iL|W!/ 5 5 135 189 160 |
lll M/ L Si be 135 207 155 || 171 ML isi) oy (0) 133 188 144 |
112 M|M sl | Gs 127 184 147 || 172 M|M isi] oI 130 188 147 |
| 115 M;M Sip 3) 1d 132 192 154 |) 173 M{|L Sh) a). 7 138 198 148
l1144/ M|Dj| S| 5 7 132 | 192) 143 /1174/ M/L/ S| 5 4 127 | 187 | 154 |
| 115 M | L R| 5 7 135 194 149 || 175 M/L Chae 138 194 147
| 116 M|M Ss 5 8 134 197 149 || 176 aaa ley Si 5) 6 137 204 158
/117/ MIM! S]} 5 6 136 | 189) 150177; M|M{| S| 5 5 135 | 200) 154 |
118 M/L 8S; 5 4 138 189 152 || 178 ML alee 140 192 150 |
119 MD Si) a 73 138 206 155 || 179 M {| L || 6) 7 137 202 155
120 FLL S| 5 8 sh 193 144 || {80 Dep Shit ay 7/ 140 197 151
121 M|D Sip lui 132 191 156 |! 181 M|M|W| 5 7 141 202 149
122; M/L Sil 252 16 132 | 196) 153 |) 182; D|D|W)] 5 0 139 | 195 | 153
123 M|M Sil eepeed 135 194 157 || 183 MM; R| 5 1 133 181 145
124 ME | ne |) We) 5 6 132 189 155 || 184 M;D |W! 5 8 140 192 151
125 M|M S| 5 9 136 196 150 |! 185 M/iM| BRB 5 7 136 191 155
126 M{|L Si & @ 133 198 155 || 186 D/L S58 25 138 189 154
127 D\iM Syl 4 a 132 206 162 || 187 M;L/|wW] 5 5 138 203 153
128 M/|M Ss) oF 152 187 158 || 188 M|M Sal omeo 139 195 143
129 F |M Sd) 5 Ie3} 198 153 || 189 M!D s} | 3} 149 194 150
130/._ M/|L| S| 5 4 | 131] 192] 156/190; M|L/| S| 5 3 | 146] 200] 156
131 M/L S| 5 4 135 202 150 || 191 M;|M S| oY 137 202 148
132 FLL Silo 136 2038 161 |) 192 M;|L |W] 5 8 135 198 150
leo M|L sy i) os) 129 189 150 || 193 M/ L S| 5 8 140 192 144
134 WT || Ue NS) By (6) 139 202 149 || 194 MiL |W] 6 0 138 204 147
135| M|D| S| 5 5 | 138] 187] 150]195| M|L|Wwy| 411 | 136| 203] 149
136 ML iSi|| By 7 136 196 152 || 196 M/|M S| #7 136 191 152
137 M | L Salome) 135 202 158 || 197 |. M | D Sy] a) a 133 197 149
138 D|D In|} By 0) Wily 182 140 || 198 M/D S| 5 6 134 193 154
139 M/L Sill 6 8 128 195 153 || 199 M/}M S| 5 6 135 197 161
140' D|D|W| 5 6 | 126] 181] 148 | 200 | D | D | Si) 5 8 0134) 190) 150
|

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 21
X.—Fife District Asylum. |
MALES. MALES.
;
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| & Character. Character.| 7 Character.
No. “| Stature: No. = | Stature.
. . Vv . : [3]
5 & a _ || Wats Li: B. 5 & a | H. L: B:
Z| 2 |} mH] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. co} |} we] ft. in mm. | mm. | mm.
20TH Ds Sih ay 139 | 192] 159 || 208} M|L Silo 9 Sd) | 1958) Los
2025|) ME | Ta Si) ay Mal 142 |} 209/ 160//209} M|M| S| 5 5 140 | 209 152
203) ||) MD Si a 2 131 182} 145 919; M/L Silomeo 141} 201 151
204) M*! L Siow 134 | 199] 158 // 211}; M/|M/ §| 5 3 138 195 | 143
905| M|L Salome 133 | 192) 148 || 212} M/]L Si 5 65 1350 ela ealoo
206 | M|L Rie oes Bt) || ne || eyee I) PASS) Bye |) AS} il) ay 127 | 194 151
2077) Mi. | Si ono: 135 | 196] 146 || 214} D|D ist | ay 9 132 | 186] 148
X1l.—Glasgow District Asylum (Gartloch).
MALES. MALES.
eV ee Sally OF V7 136 | 205] 152 46; M|L Sil) ay 3} 136 | 197 | 147
27 eM els Rill) 130 | 190 | 150 47) M/|L S| 5 4 130 | 185} 148
3 M|D NS) 5- 6 131 193 148 48 M|L W 5 9 136 195 150
4 D M Sil) a (5 141 202 149 49 Tiel Wi | eas 5 8d 135 190 147 |
5| M|M| S| 5 6 136 | 193; 148 ]/ 50| M|Mj S| 5 7 142 | 210} 154
6/ M/ L S|) 089 137 | 202! 155 51) M|L S| 5 6 133 | 194 | 144
OW \) sue ae Sy poet 133 | 199 | 149 52.|- -M | D Suit on 2 139 | 202} 153
8/ M|L Sil 6) 5) 146} 212) 153 53 | M|D S| 5 6 1385 | 186 | 154
OF ee MES ME Sih 5: 6 130 | 184] 141 54} MIM] S| 5 4 132 | 194] 147
10; M;OG|W| 5 7 132} 198] 146] 55) M|L Silom 22 130 | 185} 146
TM) ads a Silieo8 130 | 200} 156 56| M|M// S| 5 8 132 | 195] 149
NOR SDs | S| 5 3 T3201 |e Laz Bye Il ONE |) ET Sy] By 145} 199 | 150
13; M|L Sil oe 2 133 | 200} 158 58 | M|L Sill Gy 2 142 | 187 150
TE Si wear a7 132 | 199} 153 59; M|L Saicomes 138 | 203] 159
15 1D 4B) C| 5 8 136 194 151 60 M | D S Do 138 203 154
146} M|D S| 5 6 138 | 199 | 153 61); M{L S| 5 8 146 | 206 | 157
ily M | L Salours: 34s 925 Pe l2 625) DD Sie Ded 142 | 192] 142
185 WMO Sab) 33 137 | 194] 156 63} M|D Sheoeas 145 |) 205 | 157
19; D|D Silom 7 129} 193] 153 64 M | D Si a8 9 142] 193] 144
90'| D|M! S| 510 127 | 194) 149 || 65) M|L Sil Gr 6 137 | 187] 144
DAL F L NS) 5 2 134 192 147 66 M/L Ss 5 2 134 186 146
D2 De |) MW: i “5: 38 130 | 193 149 Cay) | AO) 18) Si} 5: oO 135 | 201 150
23 M|M NS) 5 9 141 196 149 68 M|M Ss 5 4 142 202 154
24 D | D S| 5 9 141 196 156 69 M|M Ss 5 6 141 192 1538
95! M|L Si ono 138 | 203} 147 || 79; M|M] S/ 5 6 142] 195] 150
26; M|L Sih oe 136 | 200 | 154 71; M|D Sill oeee, 127 |} 193, 132
ee ele S| 5 4 135 | 194) 150 72); M/|D Sil aye 132} 194] 146
PAS) || AB) |) 1; Sear 7 133 | 194] 148 73 | M!/D S| 4 7 138 | 197] 158 |
29 M | L Si 2 2 127 | 182] 134 74| M/D S957 9 141 | 201 149 |
30; M|L Sil; 43) “f 137 | 199} 149 || 75| Mj|L Sil) 6) 3 141 192 | 156
Se VS line ieee) On 2 3} 200) |) 152 76; MIM/]W!] 5 7 130; 199 | 156 |
320 eM |) Wii 5 3 137 | 195} 149 77| M|M! S| 5 7 138 | 205 | 149
33 FL Si be 3 128 191 149 78 M/L Ss 5.68 134 194 151
34 M/|M Si do) 10 130 189 153 79 IDL) 1b; 3 5 10 141 212 169
35| F|L| S| 5 6 | 141] 200| 150] g9) M/L/ wi 5 6 | 148] 194] 152
3 Gn|) eel, | la Shi By 9 142} 199] 148 81 DED Wile >. 5 134 | 189] 143
Br | ME NYE ASS) at) 7 135 | 187 | 150 82| M!IM| 8] 5 7 135 | 195] 149
38; M|M Sion 5 147| 199 | 153 8}; M;|M/]W] 5 4 141 198 152 |
39| M|D Silane 6 143} 192} 146 84; M|] L SH 3 0) 138 | 205] 156 |
40; M|L/ Wy 410 141! 199} 150 || 85| M|D S| 5 6 134 | 200} 150 |
4] D/;M Si]| de 83 137 199 144 86 M|M R| 5 6 140 202 153
47) SM NE S|) 5 6 141 | 197} 150 87} M/|M} S| 5 9 | 139] 198] 153
43 M/L Ss 5 1 141 201 162 88 D|M Ss > 1 143 195 1538
Aaa MaMa eS le be 7 130 | 194] 147 89; M|M| S| 5 8 140 | 200} 148
45| F |M| S| 5 4 | 137| 204; 163|/ 99! M/L| 8| 5 6 | 133| 197] 138

WY, Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
X!.—Glasgow District Asylum (Gartioch).
MALES. MALES.
) 3)
Colour & Cranial | Colour g Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | A Character.
No ‘S | Stature. | No. ‘S | Stature.
oO vo
ce I es Hi.) Wh: B. x, o] H. fees
io ES re 3 Dy a
oO} | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. | | 2 | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
9] M | D So we 131 186 150 |) 151 M/D R/] 5 4 140 199 158
92 M|D S| 5 3 134 192 149 |} 152 M|)/M/|W/ 5 2 138 196 149
Ob: M/;|M S| 5 7 137 194 153 || 153 M/iM Sill to: 2 132 186 143
94 M;|;D |W] 5 3 134 189 148 |) 154 MN fs) |) ay 2 135 195 152
95| mMiL| S| 5 8 | 127/] 201| 152]155| D|D]| S| 5 5 | 137] 182] i44
96 M|M S|; 510 LS 199 151 || 156 M/L eee | 142 196 160
97 MD \Ww)] 5 9 135 203 155 || 157 DD Walt 5 143 199 149
98 M|;M S| 5 6 134 193 152 || 158 IME DD), We 25233 137 192 148
oh) M|i|L |W} 5 2 132 196 151 || 159 R |M BR] 5 9 142 | 203 154
100; M/|L | w|i 5 2) 132] 192] 151 /4¢9/ M/L| RB] 5 6 | 135| 192] 157
101 D|M Si | a 137 199 147 || 161 Mi M S| 5 8 142 | 202 150
102 M|M S| 5 5 131 189 152 || 162 M/i|M Shifts ta) 5s 134 195 150
103 ML S| 5 7 | 132 198 151 || 163 x et 131 181 144
104 D{|L S| 5 1 | 181 188 153 || 164 M/;M S| 5 6 136 196 152
105 | D/L | S| 5 6 | 130] 186] 150|/165| M|D/ S| 5 9 | 136] 194] 156
106 ML S| 5 8 1338 203 156 | 166 M/L Cl a 7 138 196 157
107 | M|Mj| S| 5 2 128 | 181] 140] 167) M |L S| 5 9 133 | 199] 152
108 M | L S| 5 7 136 190 153 || 168 IBY) 1) S| 411 132 195 155
109 M|M S| 5 6 129 200 159 || 169 M|L Sao: al 132 190 145
“0! MiD| S| 5 3 | 134] 203] 156/170| M/m| S| 5 4 | 135] 193] 151
11) M;Ls|Wy 5 8 139 207 152 || 171 M/L Si) Gy 5) 129 189 151
112 DY Ie; S| 5 9 139 210 158 || 172 DPD S| 6 0 133 194 152
113 M/L Ship aye 6} 140 190 150 |) 173 M/D Jeg |) 45). 128 185 145
114 Mi) L SS; 5 8 139 207 146 || 174 MD Wal tb) 7 144 202 152
75 | M{|L S| 5 8 127 | 194] 152/175} M|DJ| S} 510 140 | 204 | 154
116 1D | 1B) Sion 2 4) 135 195 145 || 176 18) | 10; S/.5 8 136 194 145
17 D/L Chim 3675) 2335 190 141 || 177 Tey S| 5 6 134 180 144
118 D{iL S| 5 8 | 129 200 151 || 178 ML is) | 6) 134 | 200 150
119 M|M Salon ad 133: 190 148 || 179 ML il) De 128 189 150
0; M/L| S| 5 3 | 129! 187] 134|/190| M/L | RI 5 7 | 134] 203] 149
121 M | L S|; 4 10 12] 179 134 |) 181 M|L is) |) Gy 5) 138 197 154
122 M;Ls|W 5 6 130 | 200 149 |) 182 ML Si 5 6 124 195 145
1253 M|M S| 5 6 133 211 159 |) 183 D|D Sai ean 7 134 194 148
124, M|M S| 5 2 133 188 149 |) 184 DY 1b) Ral) (br 2 128 180 145
125| D|L| s| 5 8 | 135] 196) 152] 198| M/iD| S| 5 4 | 118| 185] 146
126 M/i|M S| 5. 5 129 195 147 || 186 M/L Salmon ed: 136 193 152
127 D|D Sal) ao 15 128 190 149 || 187 Dy) Si =: 16 135 205 155
128 M/}D S| 5 6 129 194 153 || 188 M|L |W 5 3 133 199 148
129 M | D S| 5 4 136 201 153 || 189 WEE, Sil) By Zt 140 194 153
130/ MIL | S| 5 2 | 135] 203] 159/499; M|DJ| S| 5 2 | 1382] 188 | 152
131 FUL Si > 5 134 194 146 || 191 M!iM|W| 5 4 132 190 144
132 F|/M/|W| 5 9 141 199 147 || 192 M|D Sal) 2) 4: 128 193 154
133 F|L Si) von a 152 202 163 || 193 Mj|L S| 5 5 134 186 146
134 M;|L S| 5 6 139 204 158 ||} 194 MiL S| 5 6 136 183 146
135; D|M|w| 5 4 | 134] 192] 149]195| MiL | S| 4 9 | 194] 177] 188
136} F | L Sil) ay fs 137 198 151 || 196 IME TT ENE I Sy 0) 128 199 159
137 M | L S| 5 5 135 200 159 || 197 M!D Si 25) 16 136 195 158
138 M/L S| 5 3 136 192 150 || 198 M || i Si) Gy 5) 134 188 150
139 D|D S| 5 6 136 184 149 || 199 M;L S| oa) 9 138 198 156
40/ M|M]| Ss} 5 1 | 197] 185| 139]//9900| D|D|W| 5 2 | 129) 180] 137|
141 M|M Sih oa 134 195 142 |) 201 M|L Si) 7: &2 128 196 145
142 DAD S|] 4 7 136 193 151 || 202 IM) Te Vali ros 33. 128 198 143
143 BG S| 5 6 135 192 147 || 203 M)L Silos as 137 194 158
144 M|M Si son 2. 133 186 148 || 204 M{|L S| 510 139 195 150
45| M/M|W| 5 8 | 134] 193] 148|/905| M/L| S| 5 3 | 140] 195) 153
146 M\|M Sib a 144 196 150 || 206 M/D J/ 5 4 140 | 206 151
147 M | L S| 5 6 133 187 149 |} 207 D|M sf G3 136 198 156
148 F |M S| 5 4 133 191 149 || 208 M|L Sh ||) Gy) 6) 132 198 152 |
149 M | L St} a 2 127 184 138 || 209 M;L S| 5 3 148 | 200 162 |
150| M|L | S| 5 6 | 133] 200] 158/919) M|DJ| S| 5 2 | 128] 193] 150

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 23
XI.—Glasgow District Asylum (Gartioch).
MALES. MALES.
oO a
Colour 3 Cranial Colour | 3 Cranial
Character. A Character. Character.| 4 Character.
No. 6 Stature. No. S | Stature. |.
aie] Ee |) ele a|¢ 8 MA Se ae a
S)m]” | ft. in. | mm. } mm. | mm. S} a} |] f. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
211 D|D Suid. 4: 131 199 145 || 254 M/|M S| 5 8 143 | 208 169
212; M/|L S| 5 9 136 | 205 145 ||955;) M;L |W] 6 0 140 | 204 156
213 Dyas Ss Do 134 210 157 || 256 M;|D Ss 5 9 142 203 158
214; M|L S| 5.3 134 199 152 || 257) M | L Simons 140 196 154
915| D|D Sih oy) 3 137 | 202 157 || 258 | M|L Sib 4: 135 194 152
216 M/ L NS) 5 1 136 194 151 |} 259 M/L Ss On 4: 135 194 149
217| M|L | S| 411 | 121| 164] 140/960| M|D| S| 5 5 | 181] 184] 150
218 M)M NS) 5.8 125 190 148 || 261 M|M Ss 5 6 134 193 141
219 M|L |W 5) 93) 137 189 143 || 262 M/ L Ss 5.698 133 195 151
990| D|D| S| 5 2 | i42| 204] 151 | 263/ M/|L/ S| 5 4 | 187] 201] 152
221 De D S| 5 4 122 | 195 144 || 264 M/L Seo 7 Teviele2 Ol 156
221 DID] S| 5 7 | 198] 195] 150]965| M|L/| S| 5 0 | 138] 198] 153
223 | M|D SiR ore 134 196 144 || 266| M|L Ss ee 133 191 143
Q24 M/L Ww sy) (0) 134 188 147 || 267 M | L 8 5 6 13 194 149
995| M|L Sita gh 133 189 150 || 268 | M |} L Siiepa9 138 | 200 153
226 M | D Ss ays} 124 181 152 || 269 M/D Ss 54 140 190 148
227/ m/|D| S| 5 4 | 131| 199] 146/979| F/|L|B/] 5 9 | 140] 197] 148
228 M|M Sil 5:48 136 195 152 || 271 M|M S| 5 4 134 197 151
229; M|L S| 5 10 139 | 202 159/272 | D | D Sis 3 118 177 137
2930 | D|D Sule on i 136 | 205 157 273°) Fo Silo 7 134 197 148
231 M|M She died 141 197 154 || 274} M|M S| ms 4 133 189 146
232 | M|L S| 5) 9 143 | 202 157 ||275| M|M Sloe ad 129 | 207 147
233 M!D NS) fay ill 136 206 151 || 276 M|L NS) 5 5 11333 188 158
234 M;L Ss By 33 128 190 142 || 277 M|D Ss Dio 134 196 12
935 | M|L Sil 5. 7 139 | 202 157 || 278 | M|M S| 5 0 134 189 148
236| M|M Si 5-3 139 191 146 || 279| M|D is) |) 5) 7 133 199 161
ZOVel acts |i de Sil) bs 4: 139 185 145 || 280) D | D eh) By 7 141 202 152
238 | M|L Sip ees 131 183 149 || 281 M/|D S$; 5 1 137 193 146
239°) M iL | W| 5 11 134 195 157 || 282; M|L Sib: 7 132 198 146
940| M|L S| 5 9 135 192 146 | 283; M|M Si] 5) 133 186 bye
241 M!]D Siitours 131 198 145 || 284 WE || ID) eee) 53.933 133 | 200 160
242|} M|L S| 5» 4 142 | 197 157 ||285| M|L |W] 5 8 131 204 151
243 | M | L Sal eae 2 140 192 153 || 286 | _M | D Si 6) 4 131 205 156
2445); |) M S| 5 8 133 | 200] 150 || 287} Ds|D shil 23). i 133 194. 161
945; M|L Si) 5s 9 134 195 149 || 288 MiL/|W| 5 3 134 194 150
246} M|D S| 5 5 134 189 150 |} 289} ML S| 5 2 132 189 142
OAT Dials S| a 7 137 196 152 1/290} D|M| S|] 5 9 138 | 203 162
248 | M|D S| 5 6 140 199 151 || 291 M | L S| 5 6 134 | 195 141
249; M|M S| 5 4 136 | 188 W485) 2925) He Te: ||) Waal) 5) 25 138 192 152
250| M|D| S| 4 2 | 137] 187] 145||/203| M{D| S| 5 6 | 141| 196] 145
251 M;|D/|W| 5 4 131 192 142 |} 294) M|M Sh dy 138 | 203 154
D525 Mi ib ht Wi 5 2 135 | 198 154 || 295| M| L Sl ay BB} 191 150
By | ATG) SS} by 8 138 191 151
|
XIll.—Glasgow District Asylum (LenzZie).
MALES. MALES.
1 M|L RF Ons 131 197 140 11 M|M S| 5 4 137 | 205 161
Pa IE 1G) Saligomes: 137 195 | 149 12} M/D sil} Gy i) 144 | 209 156
3D) aD We) :5) 8 136 | 201 156) 13| M|L |W 5 6 134 | 197 149
4; M|L R| 5 6 132 | 190 | 154 14'|M|M sil] fy 127 199 GY,
5; M|M S|) By 8) 134 | 187] 147) 15 ML Skill 6) 7 130 190 | 149
6; M|M]{ S| 6 0 134 | 206 159 16); M)L Si) by 33 137 | 201 149
|) Ae | AG; S|) 3) 3) 138 197 146 17; M|L S| 5 9 137 | 196) |) 14-7.
8} R|D Ss, 510 137 194 154 18 M|L Silom s 136 | 199 | 145
9; M|L Si) day al 123 | 179) 132 19; M|L Siler 141 | 209} 159
10; M;D SalaeoenD: 134 189 | 148 || 20 M/|M Sil] 6) 136 | 202) 154

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Xill.—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie).

MALES. MALES.
o o
Colour 3 Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
S | Stature. No. ‘S| Stature.
o SSS a aa oO
a atiay erases Fei) Cle lee aig] s i. ¥en
iS] A ae 3 = a=)
a} | ) ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm a | | @ | fe in mm. | mm
M/L S| 5:6 130 | 202 142 81 M|L Sj 5.8 140 191
IME |} Te; NS} () 250) 33 135 | 200 149 82} D|M Sil25) 33 14] 194
M|L S| 5 -4 135 193 152 83°] M | LW) 5 35 134 188
D|D Sila) 8 135 | 209 154 84 M) © Iwi 5 83 128 191
M|M S| 5: 95 136 | 202 153 || 85 D/iM S;| 4 8 129 178
M|L is} || Gy 6 135 197 145 86 M|D ish |) 5 8} 134 192
ML APM etsy 9/ 132 196 153 87 DO DAW" 5 2 122 189
M|L Sl so “6 132 196 149 88 D{|L S|] 3 136 | 200
M | L S} i) 3 133 193 151 89 D;|D|W) 5 5 136 189
1 AG; Still oy tes 133 187 143 4; 99 D |-L Silepers 130 188
DD Wall oe e6 140 197 154 91 DIL Silda 124 | 187
M/|L Sil) ton 26 139 199 156 92} M|M S275 4 13 185
M|D Sil) 2 36 135 186 146 93 DiIM|W! 5 4 135 188
F | D Sy Gy 6) 144 199 154 94. M|L S| 410 136 189
M|L Si o 6 135} 190 148 || 95 M|L Silos eS 137 | 202
M{|L ishi|| | Gy | 8} 127 189 147 96 DS) la Wal 5 142 | 202
M|L Salas 115333 192 147 97 M | D S| 4 9 122 177
FUL Nilo: 4! 133 194 154 98 M|M Sued! 62 135 | 200
M|D iki |) 3) 3 144 |] 202 154 99 M|D/|W] 5 0 153 194
1D 18; Sy || ay X53 135 185 147 ||100 | M|L| RB) 5 1 130 | 186
1D WAG; S| -5 6 132 191 149 || 101 M;|D|W| 5 7 134 | 199
M|L S| 5 9 136 199 154 |} 102 M | L Si) a) 3 134 199
M|D Sil) son 5 134 195 153 || 103 M/|M Syl) oy 7 140 | 208
M/L Si eo) 5 135 191 147 || 104 M|M S| 5 6 135 190
D | D | Wi S 4 133 194 146 || 10 M|L S| 5 5 136 | 209
ML S| 5 9 137 | 205 158 || 106 M|L |W] 511 141 198
M|L 1) 6) 83 139 193 151 || 107 M|M Silve52 28 132 | 197
M/ L Salo) 33 127 190 147 || 108 M | L R!| 5 6 125 188
M/;M Syl ay 128 189 150 |) 109 M|M| RI 5 5 136 195
D|D Sul eo ed 145 196 154 |) 110 Mi|M{|W} 511 135 196
M|L S| 5 5 135 189 144 |} 111 M!iM]| R/ 5 8 Mei 196
MiL |W] 5 4 139 199 142 || 112 M | D Si 25626 129 190
D9) Ee Wall) aie 7: 141 205 153 |} 1138 M|D S'| 2a: 7 134 192
WEY AYE All oy 7 127 187 142 || 114 D/|M S| 5 6 132 | 200
M|D iwi] 5 8 147 194 156 || 115 M)M/]W| 5 7 134 | 200
M/D Shout 134 189 145 || 116 M/L Ss) | By 137 192
M/D SS) |} Gk 140 194 Po2 a Ly M;D S| 410 131 192
M|L Salo: 127 189 148 || 118 D|D iS) 6) 3 134 187
M/L Ss oY WY 131 190 145 |} 119 MIL Ss ‘Oe A 140 191
D |-D |. S| 5 6 | 195) 195.) 145.499) D | D4 {Sl 5 10 )) 24a) Mise
ML Sill eos all 131 187 142 |} 121 M/|L S735: dik 131 194
M/L R| 5 9 137 190 148 || 122; D,M n| ~ J 137 197
M{|L NS) 5 3 146 190 148 || 123 M|D Ss 5 6 133 201
D |i S| 5 10 143 199 153 || 124 Diy Le Si 5) 7 133 | 204
Dib Sh ly i 132 184 146 || 125 M|D Si Dae? 128 185
M/D S| 5 6 131 184 144 || 126 DL eSiles 7 138 | 203
M|D|W| 4 8 139 | 205 163 || 127 M!|D Si a 3 138 | 207
D>) De) Wa. 6 13d, 194 144 || 128 Mj{L Silo 144 | 202
M|M Sil) ax 2 128 190 143 || 129 M}|D Silene: 140 | 197
M/;M Ss 5 4 13h 186 156 || 130 M|MiW| 5 5 134 192
M!|D NS) By. 3} 133 195 158 |} 131 M/D S 5 4 138 197
M | L Shi 3) 6 140 196 147 || 132 MiM|W! 5 8 35 190
i} Sl 4) 3} 138 194. Sy |) SB} M/;M Shi) 55 5} 143 182
MIM Syl) G) 8 133 192 159 || 134 M/|}M S| 5 6 133 190
D|D S; 4 9 130 184 154 |/ 13 1D) |) 1B) Ral, 52 a 125 18]
M;{|D/W] 5 6 140 199 153 |} 136 M;/;L |W] 5 2 135 187
D | D SS; 5 6 134 193 145 || 137 Mal Dal Ra eb) a7 133 187
Di Ds) Wi 5) a5 138 | 202 158 |}. 138 M|M Sioa 130 190
M/|L SS; 5 5 126 174 141 |} 139 M;/D|W| 5 7 141 202
M/;M Syl) ay 2! 143 189 146 || 140 M}|D S| 5 9 139 | 176

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 25

XIl.—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie).
MALES. ‘ MALES.
oO oO
Colour 3 Cranial Colour a Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | A Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. ‘S , Stature.
oO iB)
sw] g | u. L. B Paileelliea 1s Oa |e Bi
= ~ | & & > |S
= | A} | ft. in mm. | mm. | mm. | =) A | 2 |} ft. in. |} mm. | mm. | mm.
|
141 D|D Salons 138 196 151 |} 201 M|M isi) 6) 3) 140 | 204 163
142 FL NS) on 6 136 203 152 |} 202 MIM Ss 5 6 132 187 150
143 Dee | Wi sy 140 188 147 || 208 Mi L | WwW Ay als 134 208 153
144 M/ L iS) ye 48) 138 190 146 |} 204 M|L | W sy 33 136 199 151
145; M/|L! S| 5 5 | 132] 198] 1491905) D|ID| S| 5 7 | 139] 195] 145
146 M/L IROL tyes 135 192 155 || 206 M | M S Sy) te} 149, 189 by
147 R | D NS) 5 4 15) 202 155: i207 D/;}D{|W 411 136 193 152
148 M|L Sit on 7 135 | 208 166 || 208 D|D S| 410 BY 185 160
149 M/L Ss 5 8 ee 192 149 || 209 M;L hs) 6 0 133 202 149
150/ D|D| S| 5 5 | 139] 190] 160919; D| mM] S| 5 5 | 136] 195] 153
151 M;M Ss 5 9 136 185 15671) ZU M|M NS) ae (5) l4e 202 151
152 M | L S| 5 9 5 193 143 || 212; M|D Salome: 135: 185 149
153 M | L Silo. 130 193 151 |} 213 M)j;M|W| 5 4 135 190 147
154 M|M NS) 5 8 140 200 154 || 214 Mi|M/|W a4 139 192 144
155/ M|M!{ S| 5 6 | 140] 198] 155]/215|/ M/D| S| 5 5 | 135] 190] 151
156 Mal D | Ww i 5) 5 134 192 152 || 216 M/ L S$; 411 138 203 151
157 M|D Sei fos 32 139 | 203 153° ||| 217 M|M Sil 5 7 131 189 148 |
158 D_|M 1a] 5% (0) 132 188 147 || 218 M/D iieor nd) liS¥e 196 148
159 M | L S| 4 9 134 1938 143 || 219 M/{L S| 4 7 132 192 142
160 | Dj |D S|} 5 0 132 | 203] 152 ||299; M/| L S| 410 139 | 188 | 158 |
161 M/L Ss Ded 141 196 152 || 221 M/]M Ss ie 136 185 145
162 Mi|M Sal a6 oo 160 |} 218 154 || 222 M/M Sipeo 28 143 | 205 162
N6SaeD ae DS We} 5: 4 13 197 149 || 223 D/L Seow. 135 192 157
164 M|D Ss 5 8 131 199 T5224. M!|D Ns) 5.6 135 190 151
165 NEM WV 5) (3 134 191 140 || 925} DJ|D S| 411 133 192 148 |
166 M;M|W ob 139 201 154 || 226 D/L Ss 5 7 135 193 146
167 M/|L |W 5 1 118 180 Wd: || 227 M;|DsW 516 137 200 151
168 Ha) eer VV 7) 130 200 159 || 228 1D) Silane 134 185 146
169 ML Ss or 140 198 158 || 229 IDE} 18) iS) yids) 1438 191 155
170; M!L| S| 5 5 142] 193] 150|/930| M|L | 8S] 5 2 131 | 190 | 160 |
171 M|M Sal oe 4! 136 193 140 || 231 D|D Shi). by 5 144 187 154 |}
172 DiD;W| 5 6 135 187 141 || 232 D|Ls|W! 5 O 132 194 151
17j3) M/|M Ss aye ey 139 203 155 || 233 1D Nab Mh Was Deo) 143 202 158
174 ML So) a) 7 135 198 149 || 234 M|M/W|] 5 6 140 | 200 147
175 M} L S| 5 9 ila} |) Ao 149/235; M|M|W!] 5 5 185 192 154 |
GA, MI |) Te Siibaoeo 134 195 150 || 236 Dy Sil uon 2d 137 | 204 148
ieee | Ss Sil): Ut 145 | 203 158 || 237 Deb Sue 133 195 144
178 D|D Ss by 83 142 199 153 |} 238 D|D Ss 5 64 135 201 148
79) M0 || L Sill oF 8 136 | 200] 143 || 239 IDD |e 1D) Salleor co 132 199 146
180 DH ED Sil 50.5 133 185 152 || 240 M!} L Ss 5.9 146 201 150 |
181 D|M|W 5.8 135 194 147 || 241 1D) 16; S 5 4 140 196 Lisp
182; M|L Siem ei 147 | 202 160 || 242; M|M Sion 6 129 189 147
183 M;|L/IW 6) Gt 144 182 154 || 243 M/L NS) 4 10 eo 191 147
184; M|L SS} |) ar 2 139 191 151 || 244] M|]M Si ay 135 191 164
185 M|D S|; 410 132 187 150 ||245 | D | D Srlleoueg 137 190 147 |
186} D|D Saileoe 4! 134 187 148 | 246; D|L Slo 3 133 187 147
187 Dae SEW) 95) 6 133 | 200 156 || 247 IBY 1b) Silene 6 136 194 151
188 M | D Sits 8 133 | 203 158 || 248} D}|D{|W| 5 7 134 190 141
189 M;L iS) 8 135 198 155 || 249 M;i|L |W fay) 5) 136 200 148 |
190; M/L Sijeon 5 134 193 147 ||250; D|D|Wy 5 1 134 181 144
191 M|M NS) 58 135 194 151 || 251 MIL |W Dao 130 190 149
192 D|D Sill 25) 16 142 196 160 || 252; M/;|LIW] 5 3 138 189 | 156 |
193°) D9) D Vee ||) by O76 1% 196 145, (6253 | Mi | DoW il 5: 6 134 184 145
194} D|M S| 5 4 134 189 154 || 254 D;iL/|W] 5 3 128} 191 | 142
195| M|L Shi} yz! 129 193 155 |}255| R|M S| 410 133 187 135
19%6| M|M Sif .or eG 131 189 150 || 256 M|M elo oll 136 | 200 146
197 DEED RW. |b 7 142} 191 147 || 257 D|L Sill) ty (0) 134 192 | 140
198| M|L!W| 5 5 142 189 149 || 258 Dea | Weld: 16 136 196 146
199; M|M S| 510 139 192 152 || 259 F | L Salon eo: 136 188 | 148
200| M | L S| 5 4 139 176 142 |/|260} F | M S| 5 5 128 185 142

26 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Xil.—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie).

MALES. MALES.
5 3)
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character.| 4 Character.
“= | Stature. No. S| Stature.

. . . . v

are a. HW, ales B. 2) 3 = H. | L
S128] / ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. = }A} OM] ft. in. | mm. | mm
D|D S| 5 6 131 196 151 || 317 | M | D Shp 6) 74 130 | 203
ME OVE Semon: 135 | 201 150 || 318} D/|LI|W] 5 4 130 | 198
M/D Si on 143 | 207 161 || 319} M|LI|W!] 5 7 132 | 190
MIM] S| 5 4 145 | 204 158 ||320; D|D|W| 5 6 136 | 200
D|D S| 510 139 192 | 148 |) 321 D|D Cl 52-2 132 | 186
M|LI|W| 5 6 137 191 152 || 322; M|D S| 5 5 133 | 196
M/L S| GE 7 142 | 205 152 || 323 | M|D IR |} G8 132 | 184
M;L IW 5.4 137 193 157 || 324 D/|D NS] 5 8 133 198
Mi|M Ss By 3) 135 193 155 || 325| M|M Ss 4 10 133 190
D | D Si) a 8 134 188 143 || 326 M|L Sib 6 145 201
M|M]| RB] 5 8 135 | 188 142 || 327 D|D CHe5e0 135 | 193
DiL Ss ay ik 142 199 154 |} 328 MiL |W) 5 4 138 188
M/L Ss Ole 125 195 150 || 329 De | SDR EW: 5) 129 195
D/L/ S| 5 6 | 148] 202] 159/9399/ M/L| S| 5 5 | 129] 197
M;|M] S} 511 142 | 197 151 || 331 M/L S| 5 6 133 | 192
M/|M|W| 5 6 153 195 156 || 332} M/|L |W] 5 3 133 | 188
DIL S| 5 8 134 | 197 148 || 333 | D|M | S| 5 4 132 ; 187
M|D Sila 137 193 149 || 334 | M|D Silmoneo: 133 190
D|D Si 554s 143 | 217 158 || 335) M | L S| 5 7 137 194
D|M Ss 5 0 131 176 149 || 336 M|D NS] 5 5 138 193
D;M Ss 5 6 131 182 143 || 337 M|L Ss 5 1 134 196
M/L S| 5 4 121 195 145 || 338 D!I!D{|Wi 410 145 185
M|D Shi) 4) 1 131 194 153 || 339 | M|L |W 5 4 126 | 189
M|/D] S| 5 5 | 135| 183] 153/949 D|L| S| 5 5 | 143] 197
ML Sion 135 193 154 || 341 M/L Silmouel 136 183
M|L S75) 33) 138 189 156 || 342 M/D sii} G3 il 130 187
MiM]| S]/ 5 2 133 | 199 147 || 343 | D | L (OnR ay 125 | 184
M/D S|; 5 4 132 | 186] 143 || 344! M/D §/ 5 1 139 | 182
R/L Syl 6) 137 186 | 146 ||3845) M |] L S| 5 5 139 | 191
M/D S| 510 142] 201 153 || 346 | D | D S| 5 4 142 | 200
M|M| 8] 411 140 | 182] 143 || 347} M|D Silom 137 | 207
ML S| 410 137 193 155 || 348 M|M S| 5 5 132 195
M | Ri] 5 2 137 | 185] 139 || 349| M|MJ|R| 5 4 133 | 197
M/L S| 5 8 137 193 | 152 ||350| M|M|W] 5 3 133 | 196
M/ L S| 5 4 131 194 158 || 351 M;i;LsIW| 5 7 136 196
D | D | Wi 5 3 133 | 189 147 || 352) M|M|WI] 5 3 139 193
M{|L S| 5 3 135 191 146 || 353 D|M NS) iy 1 6) 138 201
M;M sii 3 136 | 182] 152 || 354) ML sit] Gy. 7 141 196
MiM| S| 5 7 133 | 185] 146 || 355| M|L S| 5 5 137 | 194
M|M Si) 35: 25) 134 196 151 || 356 DID{|W| 5 6 138 196
M/L S| 411 136 195 | 149 || 357; M|L |W] 5 4 138 | 195
M|D si} a) 137 191 147 || 358; M|M|{ S| 5 6 135 | 190
F.|M| S| 5 1 139 | 196 151 || 359 | M|D S| 5 6 139 | 198
M/|D]/ S| 5 8 | 139] 190] 152/360 D|D | S| 5 5 | 143] 198
M;iL |W! 5 3 134 186 155 || 361 D/L Sil somes 141 201
M|L S| 5 2 128 | 189 | 148 || 362|} M|M S| 511 136 | 198
D|D S| 410 134 188 157 || 363 D|DI|W 5 7 141 204
M/L S| 511 138 | 200] 156 || 364} D|M|]W] 5 6 139 | 190
D|D iShil by 135 | 195 | 153 || 865) M | D S| 6 0 139 | 197
M/L Sh] Sy ¢h 131 | 200] 160 || 366} M | L Sil ao mo: 135 | 200
M|L S| 5 4 132 | 193 | 146 || 367) M/M Sj 5 2 130 | 188
M|D S| 5 5 140 | 194] 154 || 368] D | D isl) Gy 130 | 191
M/L Si 5 70 129] 184] 148 || 369; Mj|L |- S|} 410 140 | 200
D|D S| 5 0 137 194} 145 | 370) D | L S| 5 5 140 | 197
D/L S| 5 0 133 | 183 | 150 || 371 M/L S| 5 1 137 | 2038
M/;|D/W| 411 130 185 145

|

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 2h
Xii1.—Govan District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| & Character. Character. | 4% Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. 3S | Stature,
4 : vo . - v 5
5 & = H. L. B ces z EL L. B.
= )/A] wm] ft. in mm. | mm. | mm. a Sa tt. aim. |mm. |) mm. | mm:
1 M/ L S| 5 6 145 199 155 61 D/|D NS] 5 6 124 191] 146
2 M|M S|; 5 8 131 191 145 62 M;|L/]W] 5 6 123 193 146
3/ M|M Ss/ 61 137 | 194} 151 63 | D |D S| 5 6 139 | 203 | 155
4 M|D Si || By 138 197 154 64 D{iL S; 511 137 203 148
5 FLL S|) 3 & 137 198 152 || 65 D | D Ss 5) 9 136 193 153
6 D/;|L/|W] 5 6 133 203 152 66 M!/D S| 5 9 136 195 153
7 D|M|W| 5 7 130 18] 148 67 D|D ty th yf) 136 192 143
8 M|L R| 5 8 129 | 190] 147 68 | D |™M S| 4 8 137] 192] 146
9| M/|M]! S| 5 9 132; 196} 151 69; MM] L Sao 7 135 196 149
10 M|M Sh} By) 132 189 143 70 M/L S;} 5 8 139 198 154
ll M|L S Dos 132 196 151 71 D!|D S| 5 9 142 198 157
12}; M/|L iS) |) 3) 8: 133 | 204] 154 72/ DID S| 5 8 138 192 150
13 D|D S| 5 9 138 206 157 183 M/;M sii] 1) VF 136 191 146
14} M/]D S| 5 8 154 | 197} 168 74) M|L Si 5 3 138 193 ea,
15; M/|L/ S/ 5 9 | 137] 197] 146] 75|/ R|M!/ S| 5 8 | 135] 189] 148
16 Dy eG Wal 6. a 145 210 159 76 D;|M/Wy 5 8 14] 209 156
17 D|D Sind 137 201 154 ea M;|M S| 5 6 147 201 159
18 Mi; L S| 5 8 126 190 151 78 M!|D Silo 7 138 189 158
19 M|L Sil) Ey 7 132 190 144 79 M!/D S|] 511 138 195 154
20 M/L Salo eg) 135 198 152 80 D{|L S 5 8 136 189 142
2) M|M]|R] 5 6 141 | 201 163 81} M;M/ S/ 5 5 139 | 193 155
22 M|M Sl) ay #7 141 192 154 82 M/L Salome 134 196 150
23 M/;L S| 5 6 130 192 148 83 M;|M Sh) a 8 134 196 147
24 RID Si) oF 7 135 191 145 84 M}|L S| 5 6 142 192 151
295| M|L| S| 5 7 | 140! 199] 150] g5| M/L]| S| 5 3 | 133] 192] 138
26} M|M|{ S!/ 5 8 135 187 | 147 86}; M}|}L S/ 61 137 195 156
27 D|D S| 5 6 126 193 148 87 M|L Gl By 3 135 194 145
28 D|M S| 510 134 194 147 88 M | D Si a UL 135 187 146
29 ML NS] 5 8 141 197 148 89 1D 1B; Ss 5 9 143 201 150
30; M/|LIW| 5 5 135 | 195] 153 || 99 | M|D S| 5 5 132] 189 141
31 M|L Silesob ee 135 193 149 91 D!D S nomes 132 194 148
32} M|M!/]W|] 510 133 183 | 145 92) M;L S| 5 5 129 190 | 149
33 | M|L Si) Gy 5 134 191 144 93; MIM! S| 5 7 139} 203 | 154
34 M;|M Ss 5 6 136 200 145 94 M/M S > 6 141 203 150
35| M|L S| 5 6 132 | 204] 146 |) 95 M/L CC] 5 8 138 | 199 oo
36 M;}M!]W 5 4 142 202 153 96 M'!M Silo) 2 141 188 146
37| M/L S| 5 3 138 196 | 154 97| M|M/ S/ 5 2 141 196 160
38 M/L S| 5 4 134 189 151 98 M/L S| 5 5 129 186 144
39 | M/|D Si 5 7 139 199 | 147 99; M!/D S| 5 5 135 | 194 150
40; M/D| S/ 5 7 | 139] 197] 157/100; M|DJ| S| 5 2 | 134] 195] 145 |
41 M/L Sioned 149 213 158 || 101 M;|M/W! 5 8 137 198 150 |
42 M/L S526 140 196 152 |} 102 M/L Sil Gy 136 210 146 |
43 M|L S|} 510 135 190 147 || 103 D|M S| 5 6 139 196 155
44 M/L Ns) || Bh 4 135 192 154 || 104 D|D Sh] da 9 137 189 T52i)|
45| M/|D S| 5 9 145 | 199} 1521195} D|M! S| 5 5 138 | 210} 158
46} M|L/]|W] 511 135 |: 205 |} 161 ]/106|] M|Mj| S| 5 7 136 | 188 154 |
47 M|D Ss) || 4) 5) 134 192 145 || 107 M|M S| 5 5 137 192 155 |
48} D|M!/W/ 5 3 137 | 192) 152]/ 108} D|L/ R| 5 7 143 | 195 | 158 |
49 M/L Sy) a @ 146 199 162 |} 109 D|L S| 5 1 143 192 152
50;| M/|L/ S| 5 9 | 146] 200] 150/49; M/L/ Ss! 5 6 | 136] 195] 151
51 M;|Ls|W| 510 141 200 150 || 111 MiLIW| 5 3 132 189 144
52 M|D Sib) 4 a2 190 145 || 112 M!/D S| 5 6 148 202 154
53 M/]L S$} 5 11 142 196 152 || 113 M|L S| 5 4 136 193 143
54 M/D S| 5 6 144 210 164 || 114 M{|L S| 510 137 205 lissi)
55 M!D Si) a (8 124 190 147 || 115 M{|L S| 5 6 136 194 149
56 M|L Sia 4 132 199 155 || 116 M/L S| 5: 6 139 188 152
57 M|L S| 5 6 131 196 148 || 117 Mi L S| 5 1 132 187 142
58 M|M S|! 5 8 129 202 147 || 118 D/L S 5 5 132 190 145
59 M|L S 5 5 134 186 148 || 119 M{|L Ss by 1 123 189 150
60 M/L 8S; 5 4 132 192 132 || 120 M/L Sil pcos: 129 189 146

28 Anthropometric Survey oj the Inmates of
Xiil,—_Govan District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour a Cranial Colour a Cranial
Character. Ss Character, Character. 5 Character.
No. ‘sl Stature. No. S Stature.
Seer tee HY) ie GB; ol) ca | Ba H: || aes
ances cae ee ast
— lay] wm | ft. in mm. | mm. | mm. m / ey |] & | ft. in mm. | mm mm.
121 M/|M Sil 4) 129) 193 | 147 || 181 Dyes S| 5 9 135i L998 alos)
122); M|L S|; 5 §& 139 | 194) 152 || 182; M|m S|; 5 8 139 | 200 | 152
123|/ M/|M S|) 5 1 133 | 180] 147 || 183) M/L S|) 5 4 134) 1974) | te
124} D|™M S! 5 10 133 | 202} 153 || 184} M |p Senne 134 | 193} 142
125; M|L S| 5 9 141 197 157 1185 | M|L/] Wy 4511 136 q alone 150
126 D | Di Wi Ss 4 140 208 152 || 186 M'‘L S| 5 6 135 194 151
127/ DIL S| 5 3 133 | 197] 141 || 187} M/L Sal oes 135 | 19407 145
128 D|M S| 5 9 144 210 151 || 188 Mi L SuleomeD 123 187 148
129; M;iD|W| 5 8 134 | 196] 144 || 189} D/D SSI], 0) 7 1325)" 2018] 62
130; M/~}] S| 4un 33 | 178 | 1471//199/| M|DI| S| 5 6 | 136] 199} 148
131 M|L S| 5 2 130 189 14i 7 191 1) 16, Sullaeoe i48 190 147
132} M|D Siloens 143] 202) 157-|/ 192) D|MIi~S 5 8 133 | 195 | 148
133 M/|L S 5.5 134 193 145 || 193 MG Sil omao 136 192 148
134} M|L S| 5 9 138 197 | 154 ]/ 194} M|M S| 5, 7 136 | 198} 1651
135/ M/M! S| 5 7 | 137] 192! 158 |l/195| M/L| S| 510 | 134] 193] 148
136 M,L 8S; 5 5 142 191 155 || 196 IM ds Shi By 6 136 195 151
ey ML iS) |) 5x Ju 139 194 150 || 197 M/M Si) a 86: 132, 193 155
138 | F | L Ss; 5 8 138 | 191 148 |} 198; M|L Sil eon6 137 | 2038354
139 | MiL |W] 56 & 141 195 | 147 199 |’ M | D S|) 1a: 4 1410 32005) a7
140 M/L SS; 5 6 13} 192 145 || 200 M!/DbD (On) fea 140 195 156
141; D|D Si). 6 136 195 | 160 || 201 D|M See Omere 140 | 215 | 155
142 Ry) Silo. 9 135 198 151 |} 202 M/iM S| 5 .6 129 192 146
143 D{|L Sao 9 137 | 201 150 || 203; M/|M S|; 5 10 141 | 197 | 159
144 | M/|D isi | oy 8 128 18s | 145 |} 204; M/L S|} 510 143 | 205] 160
145 M|L S| a 9 136 195 152 12905; ML S|; 5 10 142 201 152
146 Da, Si a @ 135 202 155 || 206 M/D S| do 9 144 199 157
147 M{D Silom 134 | 183 | 143 || 207 M/|M S| 4 8 126 | 173 | 144
1448} D/IM| S| 5 7 Ie 198 | 155 || 208 MDE | Wel o204 136 | 201 152
1449; M|My| S| 5 1 158 | 184] 150] 209) Mj} L S| 5 6 137 |. 206)) “161
150; M/Myj S| 5 2 139 | 204] 155 || 219; M|L Si) 5a eo 141 193 | 152
151 D|M 8 5 6 139 198 147 || 211 ML S|; 511 141 201 159
152; M;L |W 5 6 PAS || heyy |) AS) |) le NE) 16) S| 6 0 131 194 | 152
1538 | M | L S| 5 6 141 | 208 153 || 213 | M | L Sileoowek: 129 |} 192} 148
154) Mj|L S| 5 4 127 | 192] 135 || 214) M/]M S| 5 4 132 | 196] 155
155; M;L/]Wy, 5 8 132 188 | 157 || 215| D|M Si) 25 6 1386 | 198 | 146
156 M|M St) a &) 141 197 158 || 216 My de S| 5 2 133 202 161
157 | M|L Sell oe 8 140 |. 205 |, 152 || 217- | M | L Sil) a) 3 130} 188; 153
158 | M|L S| 5 4 132)|- USF TAT Vis Mi Te EWP. 33) 133 | 198] 153
159 | M{|D Simones 1352) 1877 |) VSP e219N Re ae S| 5 9 135 | 195 | 155
1640; Dj /D S| 5 8 130 | 200} 153 1299; M|M 8; 511 126 | 185 | 142
161} M|L S| 4 9 125 | 180| 183 | 221/)-D | D isi | a G 135 | 202} 150
162} Mj|D Silane 126) 191 140 || 222; MiMj] S8/ 5 1 138 | 201 | 152
1639) Ds Go S| 511 134 ; 201 1509) 2233) | Gi $8; 411 142} 199 | 154
164} M|L S| 5 2 132 | 196} 149 || 224) M/ L S/ 5 4 131 189 | 143
165; M/|L S| 510 132) 208} 1561295) M/ L Silos eo 136 | 200] 151
166 | MJD S| 5 6 137 | 189] 146 ]) 226; M]|] L S| 5 6 135 | 195 | 162
167 M)] L S| 4 3 129 | 292 | 140 |) 227} ML Siar 6 37 | LOM) V4
168 | M|D Si 5 8 1324 | 295] F477 |) 2285) MM Si 5) 7 132 | 197] 150
169 | M|L Sy a 125} 190] 151] 229} DiM/] S| 5 4 137 | 206 | 157
170 M;i;M| S| 5 0 138 | 200] 150 || 2380} M|L S| 5 8 139 | 202] 154
171 M/ IL S/ 6 0 136 | 203 | 156 || 231 | M | L S| 5 8 143 | 194 | 143
172| M|M S| 5 8 135 | 191 149 || 232} RL S| 5 0 134 | 184 | 148
173 | M/|L Ss; 5 0 118 | 202} 145 | 233} M|D S| 5 5 137 | 198 | 150
174} M{|D S| & 2 126 | 192] 150] 234) M|L Sioa 135 | 207 | 170
175 | M|D Si] & il 130 | 195} 151 |] 235} M|M S| 5 8 137 | 214} 150
WG) MM Si = 7 137 | 210} 151 | 236} My|D S| 5 8 140 | 202 | 162
177 | M|L S} 5 5 127} 190] 143] 237} M!|M]Wy| 5 8 145 | 290} 149
178) M|D|{ Ri 5 7 127 | 200} 150] 238; M/L S| 5 7 136 | 193 |} 162
179; D|D{|W] 5 4 139 | 197 | 158 | 239); M/]L S| 5 5 136 | 202] 156
180 | M|L S|} 5 5 137 | 206] 154/249; M|L Sil > 7 141 | 203] 157

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. 29

Xili.—Govan District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character.| 7 Character.
‘= | Stature. No. ‘gs | Stature.
a|é| 2 lige) Gee" Be s | ¢| & 15 Cal (eau egw)
a | a] we | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. S)/e2 | al fe. in mm. | mm. | mm.
mip|s|5 5 ! 133] 195] 144 ||254] Dimi] si 510 | 138] 200| 154
M|L Suleeomed 137 | 200} 150 || 955) M|D Sh, a 7 135 | 196 | 147
M|M C! 510 141 200 155 || 256 M|L NS] 8) 138 188 150
M|M/]W; 5 8 135 | 192] 144 |) 257) M/L Ril 5: 2 139 | 190 | 155
M/L S| 5 8 134} 201 155 || 258 | M | L S| 5 6 139 | 207 158
M:|M!] 8S} 5 6 141 193 | 154 || 259 M|L S| 5 6 125 | 195] 150
DiM] S| 5 3 135 | 185 | 148 || 969) M/L S| 5 7 133 | 189 a2,
M;iM} S/ 5 9 134] 195 | 151 || 261) M/L ish) a 130 | 191 145
M|L |W 5 7 139 | 200) 156 || 262; M/L Si) @ il 133 | 198 | 155
M/|M S|) 70) 6 372035) ld3s ||) 2634) Veo Sil miOmD 133 | 194 | 151
Vie ale: Ss; 4 8 136 | 190] 138 || 264) M/]L S| 5 4 134 | 201 157
MeeDe is Si" 5:96 138 | 195] 158 ||965| M|L | Wy 510 140 |} 211] 158 |
IDs 15; Saleoe od 135 | 194] 152
XIV.—Haddington District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Th} DY i) BD) Salmond 137 | 195 | 151 || 95) D |b Si) & ql 142 | * 202 155
2) M|L Suljeon G6 144 | 196] 156 36 | M | L Sileeo 10 139 | 200 157
3) |) Abel a; Rell By 2) 132 | 190] 154 37 | M |D oo 11 138 193 156
AN OMG | ies Wo} 5 4 131 194 | 149 Bie} |] IDE UN) SS a3 5 129 195 155
5) DD Sileoea 131 |; 186 | 142 390 Dee Si o) 3 139 | 192 145
(a) |) 1D) 1D) Silue oneal! 144] 199} 151] 40} M/L |W] 5 1 137 198 151
7 M | L S| 5 5 145 | 202) 158 41 M | L Si} a 7 139 190 | 159
8 ML Ss by 49) 155 205 159 42 NL AG; Si) oy 98) 126 191 138
9 D{|L |W 4 1] 125 186 141 |} 43 M/L S| 510 145 205 154
0; M|L S| 5 9 146 | 204 | 157 44; D|D iit ol ts! 143 198 | 157
wim| s| 5 8 | 143] 199] 154] 45| MIL| S| 5 3 | 133] 188] 149
1D) | 16 Sil Dns 152 | 199} 154 46) MIM!]W] 5 1 137 194 | 149
M;iM] 8S] 5 9 137 194} 147 47; M;|L |W 5 8 143 | 201 161
M/L Siimome) 134 192 | 149 48; M!/L S| 5 6 125 177 144
M|L Sileon 21 140 203 154 49 M/ L Ss 5 5 139 192 152
M | L Sea ad 137 180 | 141 || 50} M] u S/ 5 2 131 195 153
DiM Ss iy is! 142 192 149 51 M |] L Ss 5.68 119 188 141
M | L Siow 138 187 149 52 | F | L Siily Sy 134 | 198 160
M/L Ss 5 8 150 198 153 53 M;L{|W 5 4 143 192 155
M|/L| S| 6 7 | 141! 195) 158 {1 54] M/Z | S| 6 0 | 1491 203| 158
M/L Syl) 4) 5) 129 198 149 55 1D) || Av; Ss 6 0 136 192 156
M/L Ss Hy Al 137 198 153; 56 HS | as Cc 5 10 150 194 146
M|M Shi] Gy ¢ 129 | 186 | 153 at DAD S59 141 199 148
D | L S|) ta}. / 140 197 149 58 M/|M Ss 5 5 ILE 3 196 Tas
M/L S 5) 7D 130 185 148 59 M/L NS 5 10 143 200 Syl
M/D S| 5 9 143 | 207} 157 || 60) D|M] S| 5 6 129 | 188 | 148
Dp? | Silmeomg 141 197 145 61 D|D |W 5 5 131 196 149
M/L S| 5 9 126 | 189) 140]/ 62; M/L| S| 5 6 145 | 201] 158
1D 3B NS] 5 6 134 198 155 63 D|M/W 5 6 133 194 ls}
M|™M Sh || ay 3G 138 207 157 6+ M/] LL S| 5 10 13 199 156
M | L S| 5 4 139 | 198} 158 |} 65} D | L sii] Gy ah 125 | 198 143
D|M NS) 5 6 144 201 156 66 M|L Ss 5 4 138 Iss 151
Deals Sil) 4:9 128 191 141 67 M|L NS) 5) 183 130 195 145
M | L Ss 5 6 138 195 151 68 MAE Wild: 6 134 185 150
|

30 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XV.—Inverness District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 17 Character. Character. ] 4 Character.
No. “ | Stature. No. ‘Ss | Stature.
o : a) 3
Ba é a H. Ie B. a é es el, Te B
S| A }a! ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm. = | 2] H | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
1 MiMi Sil 5 6 131 193 151 61 10) |) ML SS; 5 6 140 | 203 155
2 M Si 5) 5} 139 198 153 62} D|M/]W| 5 7 147 198 154
3} M Si 0: 6 131 191 146 63 D|M S|} 5 8 140 197 156
4 sear Ns Wy Salton! 131 190 158 64} D |D S| 5 5 139 196 157
5| D|D]|s| 5 4 | 131] 205| 15411 6§| F |L | S| 5 4 | 1821) S97 | ad6
6 DAD S| Sp 2 141 209 154 66 1D |) at SS; 5 8 131 201 157
a R|M S 6 O 133 194 153 67 M/ L a! al 133 198 160
8 . | M So peli 140 | 202 157 68 seep |) WE S/ 511 143 198 157 |
9 L Sion 133 187 150 69 see eld S| 5 7 132 195 153
10 M/| S| 5 1 | 123] 192] 154/1 79/ D/L | S| 5 6 | 131) 201] 155
tl Mi; RR] 5 6 129 200 147 71 “poe (| Ss/| 5 1 127 185 155 |
12 M S| +b 7 127 199 151 72 spe |) 2A S3j- 5-11 125 | 201 150
3 L S| 6 0 141 189 | 152 73 | D7) Moyes), 20° 6 140 | 196 | 162
14 M Sala 9 139 201 149 74 M|M Sis 7 152 193 154
15 | L Silas 2 131 192 151 15 D|M S| 5 6 155 196 154 |
146; DIM S|; 5 4 140 | 200 152 76 D sD S| 5 5 138 195 153
17 L isi] ay 3 139 ) 200 160 tl. wa || OME S|; 5 3 134 196 151
18 D/;|M S| 5 9 128 186 154 78 D | L S| 5 6 132 196 154
19 D|D Silos 7 134 191 146 79 M/M S; 6511 125 182 149
90| DIM! S| 5 5 | 134] 200] 154] 99] D/D| Cc] 5 9 | 131] 200] 159
21 DM S;| 5 8 127 193 154 81 D|D S;} 5 4 130 | 185 155
22 DIM Sil ay) 3 137 199 151 82 DD aM C|] 5 5 131 188 153
23 M} S| 510 138 | 213 | 158 88; D;|M| C}] 5 6 153 | 198 | 150
24 fet ONE So 7 132 194 154 84 ML S/ 5 4 158 205 158
95| ..{M| S| 5 2 | 132] 197] 149] 95| D|MI S| 5 6 | 139] 205] Ie
26 aoe |) si 4 6 131 200 155 86 IDY ie; S| 5 3 130 194 148
if | 1D) || 1b Sala 7 1259) 91969) 8147 87/ D|M]{ S| 5 6 151 | 199 | 152
| 28 D|M; S| 5 9 133 | 202 152 88 Seae lida S| 510 133 185 152
29; D|D Sil on of 146 183 156 89 M/|M Si] a & 144 197 160
30! DIM] S| 5 3 | 134] 199] 152] 99| M/M|{ S/ 5 4 | 140] 186] 152
31). Do | Mi Si 5 4 129 | 197] 146 91 |... || M | 3S] 22 6 131 | 205] 160
32 gen | 1a Ss oz 144 196 151 92} D|M S| 5 7 139 | 207 158
33 1D) Salome 140 | 200 155 93 M|M S$; 5 4 135 198 156
34 1D 1G S| 5 4 131 196 151 94 weer ay Sion ad 140 | 202 156
5| ..{M | S| 5 7 | 130| 193] 166||95| M|M| S| 5 5 | 141] 198] 147
36} M|MI] 8| 4 9 132 | 196] 152 96} M|L S|} 6 2 140 | 207] 154
Sih oy | Ib. S| 5 9 139 | 200 155 97 DIM S| 5 4 144 187 155
38 see |) 1D) Si) f 3 129 | 200 150 98} M|M S; 5 6 136 | 200 155
39| M|M iShi| 5) <a) 138 193 153 99} D|M Silo. 38 146 | 211 158
40| D|M| CC} 5 38 129} 186] 144] 190) ... | L S| 5 6 137 | 199 | 158
41| M|M| S| 5 7 130 | 193] 151 |} 101} D |My] S|} 5 3 131 | 183] 162
42); F|L |W] 5 8 138 | 196} 150]/102} D|M{ S| 5 5 134 | 195 | 156
43} ... | L S; 5 6 133 | 184] 146 |} 103 | ...; MJ S|] 5 8 139 | 204] 150
44 1D) ft 10; Sia: 131 199 152 || 104 DM S| 5 7 133 | 202] 151
45| D|L 8; 5 8 141] 206) 1154/1105 |} ...|M] S| 5 7 140 | 200] 149
46 D|M Si 5) 7 138 193 151 |} 106 D|M S| 5 4 145 | 198 154
47 D/;|M S|] 4 8 131 200 | 157 || 107 Bes | iL S| 5 7 144 | 201 149
48 M|L S75 16 156 192 | 148 || 108 D/;|M S| 5 3 139 | 197 156
49} D|M, S| 5 5 130 | 198 | 146 | 109 | D | D S| 5 2 133 | 193] 149
50; D|M| S/ 5 7 138 | 200] 148/119; D|D | C} 5 6 139 | 201 | 157
51 F | L 6) 5 5 134 191 147 | 111 .. | M Sh) a 7 148 | 201 156
52 ee $| 5 9 128 193 151 || 112 sca {db §/ 5 1 132 | 191 151
53 . | M S| 5 8 141 200 149 |} 113; D|M Ss} 5 9 134 | 196 150
54 ee S| 5 1 128 190 | 153 |} 114) D}]L Ss} 511 131 196 152
55! D;|M) S| 5 4 119} 171) 133)/15| D|My S|] 5 5 132 | 200] 152
56 ean | S| 5 8 139 | 200 | 159 |) 116 Bae |p) S| 5 6 140 | 201 146
57 D|M Si) 6) 7 130 | 188 148 |} 117; D|L S| 5 7 136 192 | 150
58 M{|M S| 5 8 139 197 152. || 118 see liels S| 5 8 155 | 197 153
59} DIM S! 5 5 133 | 203 151 || 119; D|M S| 5 6 144 | 202) 157
60; DP |M/ S| 5 4 130 | 193] 154 |}120; D|Mj| S| 5 4 126

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 31

XV.—Inverness District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
o a
Colour z Cranial Colour | 8 Cranial
Character. | & Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘5 | Stature, No. ‘s | Stature.
i . vo . . 2)
5 o s H. IL, B. 5 & ez H. L. B.
Z|} } WH | ft. in | mm. | mm. | om. =} ]}@ / ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
121 M|M S| 5 I 136 198 145 || 181 DID S/ 5 3 129 198 155
122; D|M is) oy 6 141 199 158 || 182 M|M S| 6 0 140 197 161
yj 123) D|D S|; 5 8 146 | 203 152 || 183 F iL Sy] 6 8B 126 185 147
124 sacl aul Sr) by 8 141 | 207 158 |; 184 DPD Sil) ay a) 138 198 iis
125 shee hal NS) 5 7 145 204 160 || 185 M|M NS) 5 8 133 196 151
126 D |M Sr eau 2} 131 | 200 152 || 186 . | M So) 5 134 190 149
127 DY 10) Ss} ||) fy 2! 138 198 144 || 187 D|M Ss; 5 8 139 198 152
128 D/L Ss sy, 5) 142 198 149 || 188 wee th Le Ss 5) Of 180 193 154
129 WE WU) Bes D8 138 198 156 || 189 M|M NS) 5 6 144 197 160
130| ../u | S| 5 4 | 134] 201] 156 /199/ D|M| S| 5 8 | 153] 190] 154
131 D |,D Ss 5 8 145 193 150 || 191 ML Ss 5 8 139 198 155
132 Fe, JOE S| 6) 8 143 | 193 156 |} 192} D |M Si) a © 131 192 156 |
883] 1D) S| 5 8 138 191 147 || 193 M/|M Ss) | oY 5 126 182 145 |
134 D|M S By ty) 134 184 150 |} 194 D|D Ss 5 6 127 193 150
135 noo atl NIE Ss 5 5 137 204 158 || {95 D D NS) 5 6 139 195 lo33}
136 ae le By NS) 5 4 124 195 148 || 196 Soop wil NS) 5.64 135 195 157
137 D/;M ‘S| 4) 4 143 194 151 || 197 DIM S| i B} 132 196 154
138 M | M S| 5 8 135 | 200 160 || 198 D|M S| 5 8 135 | 201 147
139 D|M Ss 5 ol 122 185 141 || 199 D|D Ny 5.8 136 195 155
140 M;M Sila! 7 136 191 150 || 200; D iM sil 1) 7 128 188 147
141 D/|M S|) oy 1 131 199 160 || 201 D |D S| 5 8 134 193 155
142 M{|M Sy] oy 1 136 195 156 || 202 Di) M | wi 5 9 138 191 156 |
143 sone |) WL Stil | Gy 8 139 197 152 || 203 D|M S| 6) 7 129 199 154
144 M{|M S| 6 0 134 194 146 || 204 D|M Ss 5 8 148 194 162
145 D | D C;} 6 0 139 192 150 ||905) DIM Sy) ah 137 193 154
1446} D|M Shi 4) 8 126 199 155 || 206 Bele VE iil yy 6 136 199 146
147 D|M isi || ay a 129 196 153 || 207 M|M S! 511 149 197 165
148 MIM Ss By 33 138 190 155 || 208 M;|M S| 5 5 131 197 153
M97 DWM) ©) 5 1 125 188 148 || 209 ea |) ML S; 6 0 138 | 205 154
15 M/|M Siloeea: 130 190 147 || 210 D|M S| 6 0 138 197 152
151 D{|D Ss 5 8 135 200 150 |} 211 M|M C 5 4 140 191 157
152 F iM S| 5 6 130 204 Gy |i PAY . | M NS) 5 ll 140 201 L6L
153 M | D SS) by 126 192 149 |} 213 D|D So 7 139 182 147
154 D|M Ss Dy 26 121 193 147 || 214 M | M Ss by 141 206 153 |}
155 M/iM Sy |) 5) 2h 126 190 150 || 215 D|M S| 5°96 133 | 203 157
156 M|D S| 5 6 137 199 147 || 216 so WE Shi) Gy 33 127 186 152
157 DF} D iS) || oy 9 134 199 164 |} 217 Mi|M S| 5 6 145 | 204 155
158 D|M S| 5 9 136 197 160 |} 218 D!|D Si) 3 135 195 152
159 R|L $s} 5 9 138 | 203 160 |} 219 D|M bell aye yh 147 | 201 158
160 D|M S| 5 9 137 197 150 |}290) ... | M iS) |) ay 8 136 193 150
161 D;|M S|; 510 140 | 203 1s |i) CPA D|M S| 6 O-} 135 197 153
162} D|M Si Dr 8 135 | 208 153) |) 222)" Mo D si] oy 7 145 190 153
163 D|M Silay 7 130 195 150 |} 223 Mi|M S| 5 8 143 | 206 157
164 DIM Ss 5 6 140 198 151 || 224 D|M NS) 5.6 143 195 160
165| ...|M/ S| 5 6 | 140] 200] 155]995/ M|D/ S| 5 8 | 142] 198] 157
166 M | M Sid) 46 136 184 146 || 226 | D | M Sa 5) 27 135 | 202 165
167 M/;M S| 510 134 191 12 227 F | L S| 5 9 140 196 158
168 D|i|M/;iW! 5 8 135 198 154 || 228 | D | D S ae 124 186 139
169 M|M sillP Gy 15 131 190 152 || 229 te) We NS ae 134 193 158
170 .. |M S| 6 0 150 | 206 162/930; D|M S| 510 132 196 154
171 D|D S| 5 3 124 192 149 || 231 sone) S tek 132 | 201 151
EDEL Well 5 2 136 185 150 || 232 M Ss se 136 193 150
173 | D|D Si 5 38 131 198 153 || 233 M Ss be 133: | 205 151
174| M|M Saleoee/ 133 197 150 || 234 | M | M Ss oi 137 193 5D
175 | D|D S| 5 6 124 | 192 154 ||235 M Ss a 135 | 200 155
176| D|™M Sil 5 4 134 192 | 155 || 236) D|M Ss a6 135 189 154
177 D|M Shy ay 7 134 197 156 || 237 M; 8 “s 126 187 153
178 wn S| 5 6 133 | 200 | 160 || 238 M Ss is 136 195 156
179 D\M S/o 39 138 188 166 || 239 M Ss re 131 189 150
180 D|M Sao) 29) 135 188 155/949) M|M is} a) 7 140 | 199 154

32 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XV.—Inverness District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
9 ¢
Colour 3 Cranial Colour | 8 Cranial
Character. A Character. Character.| A Character.
No. ° Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
al alas EIS A) dee aol ae fe alll aap. Eh. a) see ese
a bi c= a ei) os —
a | mM} | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. XS} a] a | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
241 see) VL S| 5 4 139 196 150 || 267 DIM S| 6 & 132 186 151
242 M|M S| comet 134 | 206 159 || 268 M|M Salone 139 194 146
243 sen 2 S| 5 7 133 193 156 || 269 M;M shill GE 7 140 196 151
o44| ...|L | S| 510 | 139] 199| 157 ||979| M|M]| S| 5 7 | 147] 217) 164
945; D|D|W 5 4 131 195 150 || 271 D|M S| 6 0 138 198 150
246} D/|M]| S| 5 5 124 186} 150 ||} 272) M/|M)| S| 5 7 126 | 187] 148
247 D|M S|; 5 4 129 191 149 || 273 D|M S| 5 9 137 198 161
248 D|M S| 5 +6 139 202 158 |} 274 R | D Cl (5) 93 126 190 150
249 D|M S| 5 5 134 193 151 ||975; D|M|W| 5 7 133 | 201 157
950| ...|M| S| 510 | 129} 190] 155 || 376 M| S15 8 | 197 |) aon maa
251 D|iM S| 510 139 195 TOT 2th D | M Sill onal 133 192 151
252 M|M iS} || oh. 5) 137 189 161 || 278 M|M Shis-ar 137 203 164
253 D\M S| 5 4 131 ; °187 149 || 279 D|M Some 159 193 153
254 D|M S| 5 6 129 195 152 ||} 980; D|M spilt ays) 138 206 152
255| ..|M| S| 5 0 | 126] 175| 141 ||2981| M;M{ S| 6 0 | 140} 202! 187
256 D/M Some). 138 191] 154 || 282 M|M Sh 6) 2 142 197 164
257 . | M S| 5 7 137 185 145 || 283 D|M Sill to) 28 134 193 154
258 D|M Ci oss 137 204 153 || 284 R|M S| 5 3 PRE || 1833 153
259 D|M S| 5 4 118 178 132 ||285); D|M S| 5 4 134 | 204 152
960| ..|D/ S| 5 9 | 146] 196] 149 || 286] D|M| S| 5 7 | 130] -195| 157
261 D|M S|} 5 6 126 190 155 || 287 D|M Silo 138i 199 148
262 acer ML! S| 3) 7 133 | 195 149 || 288 D/;|M Se omeo 136 | 198 156
263 D|M S| 5 5 127 199 155 || 289 MiM Silos s 134 | 205 153
264/ M|M| S| 5 6 | 136] 198| 154/990! M|D| S| 5 6 | 138| 198| 158
965 .. | M S| 5 10 148 202 155 || 291 JD)" |)" "4D) S| 510 144 | 205 162
266 D|M Sul oer y 119 187 130
XV!l.—Lanark District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 M/ L Syl ond 137 198 153 26 M;L |W] 5 6 129 196 | 151
2 DD Wal toi 9 135 196 151 27 M | L S| On 0 141 194 149
3D Mas oe: 137), 194); 2153 289) Dia er Sion 139 | 199 | 153
4 M|L Shi) Gy. 3} 134 193 154 29 DG Ws 4 151 212 157
5| D/L | S| 5 6 | 139| 201! 161 || 39/ M|M/ S| 5 5 | 145] 217] 160
Ge Nie De an ero: 133) 187) 146 | 315) Ma Ds) 9885 9 138 | 197} 158
7 M | L S| 5 6 137 183 149 32) R|L Roe 7 138 198 162
8 M|L S| 5 6 137 190 149 83 || 1DYe |) 1B) sy |p Oy a 146 | 202 149
8) M | L S| 5 6 139 194 156 34) M|/|My| Ry] 5 5 139 | 203 155
10 D|M si] a) 6 141 198 147 || 35 D;|L |W] 5 6 133 192 146
Th |) JY) 1 Silo. 6 i40 | 197! 149 || 36; D,;D|W] 5 6 136 | 192} 159
12 M|M/|W! 5 5 139 190 143 37 Dy Dy Wi 3555 136 193 150
13 IDS) NW Wal be 138 196 158 38 MWe on 19 136 | 203 158
TEE |) 1D) TIME | Sh) Gy al 148! 198) 149] 39} M|L |W] 5 4 130 | 186 | 146
15 M|L S| 2.8 142 199 153 || 40 ML S|; 5 4 132 198 151
16 M{|D S| 6 0 141 204 153 41 DAD R; 5 5 144 199 154
i || 1D} 1B) |) SS) SB 133 | 188 | 144 |) 42] D | L S| 5 4 139 | 187 | 158
18 M | L isi ]| 6) 3} 125 187 149 43 DIM S| 5 4 142 193 151
19; M|L S) 5 6 143 | 203] 156 |) 44) D|L| Wy 5 7 142 | 200} 152
20 DD) We 57 144 198 145 || 45 ML 8S; 5 3 133 187 143
21 1D) 10) S|} 5 10 144] 204 152 46 M/)/M|W}] 511 141 204 151
22 M;L |W] 5 8 136 193 144 A7 F |M S| 5 4 137 199 149
23 M|M Siicao 7 143 | 206 152 48 M |] L S| 5 6 135 198 152
24 ME Gs |S Wi be 10) 151 208 152 49 D|D S| 5 6 142 | 201 153
95 Me Wall be 7 144 194 157 || 50 M|M Sileroneel 144 | 205 156

Asylum in Scotland—J, ¥, Tocusr. 33
XV/.—Lanark District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.} Z Character. Character. | 4% Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
fs . oO . ° v
= o s H. L. 183. E g H. L. B.
| A] mw] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. 4 |} | w | ft. in. | mm mm. | mm. |
51 DM Salons 144 202 164 |] 111 MiM Site on6 134 195 155 |
52 NIG Wee 5s 5: 142 196 156 || 112 M;|M S| 5 6 126 190 142 |
53 1D) Av) Syl i 144 | 205 158 || 113 M/iM Shion it 130 190 156
54 1D) sf) iS) |) 1B Y/ 194 141 || 114 Dae Sl) @: @ 141 204 160
55 M|L Seipomeg 139 199 150 || 115 ML Som 126 187 148
56 ID) [elie || Nain) aay ae! 150 | 208 147 || 116 M/L Si 2b) 2 130 196 152 |
57 M|M Delp one 136 188 150 || 117 VG We | Ome 135 195 150
58 M/iM Siii-os 134 201 155 || 118 M | L S; 5 6 138 198 154
59 1D TB; sii] wy leo 193 143 || 119 Mj; L S| 5 9 139 202 153
60| M|M| S| 5 7 143 | 203) 164/120; Dj|D/ S| 5 9 139 | 195] 154
61 DP | i Shion eG 145 | 203 160 || 121 D|iIM|W!] 5 5 141 201 153
62 M|M isi G4 139 196 152 || 122 DIM/|WI] d 5 142 197 152
63 IDS] Ie ARE | ay 1537 199 158 || 123 M!D S| 5 5 130 190 140.
64 M|M Sill gomro 138 193 153 || 124 M/L Sito) 4 132 195 153
65 M/ BL Sule oe 2 142 | 204 162 ||}125 M|M Gil) 0 6 BB) 195 147
66 M|M Sip 52-9 139 201 146 || 126 D;|D{|Wy,.5 8 136 198 152
67 M|L Sill tie 49) 142 199 160 || 127 D/;|;D/|W| 4 6 1183 185 150 |
(33) ID) Sirona 142 | 207 | 153 || 128} M|L Silipos ad 140 | 190] 150 |
69 Mine vi Rie 5a 4 132 186 146 || 129 D|D Ss; 5 9 142 193 142
70 MEMEO Wi |) 5: 2 IBY; 193 156 || 130 TR AG; S| 5 7 141 204. 153
All M|L Ball oe 7 143 } 200 153 || 131 Di | Di) Wo: 3 146 190 153
Miz, VO SVS Rea 5, 135 198 154 || 1382 MiL S| 5 2 137 188 147
73) DED |W 6 4 131 | 193] 149/133; DIL | S| 5 4 138 | 191 | 147
74 Ae el Sl o26 142 196 155 || 134 D\|M S| 5 4 142 196 150
75 MM C;} 5 0 139 199 148 | 135 DIM S| 5 8 131 197 149
FG |) 1D) VD) S| 5 8 139 192 147 || 186 M/ L S| 5 6 130 194. 149
77 De Mh Well 5 5 137 190 154 || 137 D|L Silt omo 131 189 136
78 De Di | Wil Ss 4 129 | 200 144 || 138 Dp | D S|; 5 5 133 201 154
79 DP | ia Salleconmed: 133 193 148 || 139 D|D Sj] 3) 8! 138 201 153
g0| M|M]| S| 5 2 129] 186] 153/140; D|L |W] 5 3 136 | 191 | 139
81 M/L si) a Zt 133 184 140 || 141 M|M S| 5 4 140 193 150
82 F | L Si a6 134 188 143 || 142 Dp {| L (OH) Sby 3} 139 | 200 Hoi!
83 M{|L Si) 6) (5) 142 194 152 || 143 M/L 1B ay) 136 192 147
S45 De Ls Si; 5 4 121 183 140 || 144 My de | Wei oa 7 140 199 159
85 M/M S| 5 8 140 199 144 | 145 M/L S| 5 6 139 195 145
86) |) 2D aiED S| 510 140 | 202] 153 || 146} M/L Silo. 4! 143 | 201] 159
87 M/;|M Si) db 11 135 197 151 || 147 RS des), Wall ones 133 188 147
88 M{|L Sh) Zt 136 189 147 || 148 D|M S| 411 137 187 150
89 M/L S| 5 3 143 191 152 |} 149 M/L Soc 132 189 146
90 M/L Sy] Bi Ff 144 | 205 149 |} 150 D: | D S| 5 5 128 183 142
91 M|™M Silanes 137 192 154 || 151 M/iM S; 6 9 139 196 150
92} M/L S; 510 13 188 160 || 152 M/|M S| 5 5 127 193 152
93 DG Sill oO. 6 135 | 202 150 || 153 D/|D S; 5 4 135 183 143
94 M;|L Syl] By 6 145 193 154 || 154 1D) |) 16; S| 5 6 134 191 150
95 M;|D |W) 5 5 139 | 202 160 1'155 D|M S| 5 4 136 197 153
96 Da iPDs | Wal 5:4 140 | 202 147 || 156 M|L S| 5 8 145 198 154
97 M | L Sie on 6 142 | 209 157 |; 157 D|M S|; 510 148 203 164
98 M|M S| 5 9 146 | 201 159 || 158 M|L S| 5 9 139 192 150
99 D|M S| 510 133 193 146 || 159 D;iLI|W| 5 4 142 198 148
100 D|M Saieom al 142 | 206 156 || 160 F|/D|W)| 5 4 141 196 151
101 M | M St] 6 @ 140 196 154 || 161 D|D Silimones 141 204 152
102} M|L Salcows6 133 189 144 || 162 M;iL/]W| 5 6 131 183 134
103 | M|M sii) Gy Y/ 130 186 148 |! 163 M/L Sy |) <2 7/ 140 196 144
104 Bie ee eWiil oa 8 135 199 158 || 164 M|L S| 5 4 138 | 203 153
105 VI ie le VV | 5) 6) 138 | 202 149 || 165 M;|Ls]|W] 510 152 | 206 159
106 |} M/ L R; 5 6 140 191 152 || 166 M|M Si oO 7 144 | 208 159
107 FsL SilesD a6 130 197 152 || 167 M|L |W By) of 139 198 157
108 M/L Sul) by hy 134 | 203 154 || 168 D|D S| 5 0 144 191 153
109 M/;M Sy) By 138 197 148 || 169 M;|LI|W| 5 8 143 197 153
110 D|L Ss | 5 2 133 192 149 || 170 M|L|W| 5 4 143) |) 203 156

34 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

XV/.—Lanark District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.] 7 Character. Character.| A Character.
i Ne. “= | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
4 5 vo
aH] g| 6 Ess" | Toeagit Gets: |g] 2 H. | eee
|| ep || = mo] ee | ;
leak a Q2 ft in mm. mm. mm. EA A wn ft. in. mm mm mm
171; M|My|{ 8} 411 142) 198) 148 || 231} M | L Ss; 5 9 134 | 189 | 1389
2) MG S| 5 8 136 | 195 | 150 || 232) M/|D S| 5 3 136 | 192) 157
isn) SDD Sal) eo5 127 4a 130512338) 9 IVE ee Nile Ole 135 | 196) 151
(174| MIL S| 5 6 131 | 201] 148 |) 234; DJ} L Siam 138 | 197 | 148
175| D|Li SS! 5 6 140 | 195] 1501935; DIL | S| 5 5 137 | 197 | 155
176 M|M S| 5 5 135 200 150 || 236 Mi|M Sil Oue 135 195 155
i ee ae S| 5 9 150 206 158 || 237 M|M |W] 5 4 139 195 150
(is) BR Ee Wl bes 146 | 203 | 161 |} 238} M|D S| 5 5 138 | 201 | 147
1179} D|M{|Wy 5 7 131 | 184] 142] 239; M/L|W! 5 8 129 | 208 | 162
180); D|D{]Wit 5 7 133 | 200] 162 }949) M | L Sa 139 | 208 | 159
| 181) M/ L S| 5 5 133 | 192) 151 || 241 | M,M | —-RJj 5 9 142 | 203.) 158
182} M|L S| 5 6 144 | 196 | 152 || 242; M|L S| 65 4 142); 199] 161
1838) eM DS ios 138 | 192] 149 || 243) M | L S|] 5 6 135 | 193) 149
184} M) L S| 5-11 138 202 150 || 244 M;iLIW By ay 144 | 200 153
185| D/|bD]| S|-5 5 | 128] 177] 141 la45| D|D| S| 5 6 | 142] 204] 155
186} M|M: S| 5 5 130 | 190 | 150 || 246; M|D|W| 5 4 155 | 192] 150
187|-M|M) S| 5 5 134; 196 | 156 || 247) D | L S| 5 4 144 | 199] 150
188; M/L S| 5 2 137 | 190 | 144 || 248) D | D Sai oes 142} 190) 150
189 Mi|M S|} 511 138 201 150 || 249 Do L SH by 0) 144 185 159
199| M/|M/ S| 5 7 | 142] 205] 155/959) M/|L | S| 5 4 | 138] 201] 145
gl M/L Shi) te) 141 193 152) || 25 Db R/ 5 6 142 193 155
192) Mi) Mo} wel 5 2 132) 190 | 149) |) 2520) DD S| 5 6 144 | 203 | 157
1938) DD S| 5 8 1364) 62038) P1525 e253n Ds Me Sill) be 16 133 | 204 |) 155
} 194 M/|M S| 5 5 140 195 145 |} 254 M | L Salt 3 25) 128 197 148
195) D|L/| S| 5 3 | 131] 195] 158955) D|D|W| 5 6 | 141] 197| 154
| 196 M/|D St Ome 131 192 150 || 256 1D | 1b: Si 216 150 194 158
197 M|L S| 5 8 156 1S}3) 157 || 257 M|L irons 148 195 143
1198| M|M]/ S| 5 5 142 | 195] 1538 |) 258 | M | L fs} |) 2a) il 136 | 195] 150
LOOT DS e S| 5 5 138 | 190 | 147 || 259) D | D Sy) a) 6 150 | 199) 157
\900' F|LIWw 5 7 139 | 202] 149 ||960| D|M| S| 5 5 155 | 200] 152
201 R{L S| 5 9 134 193 152 |) 261 DD Shh! ey wz 141 203 150
12020) MOD Waa? 129 |} 188] 153 || 262) M{|D Sil) 757 142 | 195 | 155
PORE |p ADS | TE Wh eH Gi 3 132 | 194] 148 || 263) M | L S|) Say 2 139 | 189 | 144
1 202 Na ee Ci be 7 133} 193 151 || 264 D |) Si 5) 6 136 190 144
2705; D|L |W] 5 4 133 | 193) 152 |965| F | L S| 5 7 148 | 203 | 156
12067) 2) S| 5 3 139 | 207] 156 || 266} M|Ds]Wy| 411 151} WOON Ss
2007| M|L | 8| 5 5 130 | 198 | 149 || 267 | DD} Lah SS) 7 143 | 194] 153
1208; D|D st] Gy al 137 | 197 | 152 || 268; D!L |W] 5 4 139 | 199 | 148
i 209| Mj] L Sal eee a: 140 186 152 || 269 D|D Si, oxo 149 191 150
i210; M;|L | 8s] 5 1 137 | 187) 155 W970 Dr Ee eS) 586 135 | 206 | 147
211; M|L S| 5 4 134 | 201) 148 || 271); D|M} S| 5 8 145 | 199 | 158
PANY | AMIE Silom 139 189 138 || 272 M|L shila 95) 135 194 150
2137) 5 Da) Ms | SS 5r3 134} 197 |) 156 || 273) M | L Silimones 140 | 197 | 156
|} 214; M/ L Ss; 5 9 137 | 202} 148 || 274} D|L |W] 5 8 144 | 194] 155
| 915; M|D Sileoaes 137 | 187 | 146 ||975| D|M/|W| 5 7 140 | 200 | 152
| 216 M}|D Si) 5.73 141 198 153 || 276 De D Silom) 146 199 147
217} D|D S| 5 6 142} 195) 1471277; M|M) S| 5 4 140 | 203 | 150
218; M|M| S| 5 8 145 | 198) 151] 278; D|M| S|} 5 5 132 | 190 | 145
219} D|L S| 5 5 155 | 209} 165] 279} M|D|W/] 5 1 139 | 191 | 150
990| F|M/ 8|_... 118] 163] 125/989 M|M]| S| 5 5 | 151] 202| 157
221| M| L S| 5 2 138 | 197] 151 } 281 | M | L S| 5 6 143 | 211] 158
222; D|D S; 5 7 140} 194; 156 |} 282} M|L]W| 5 1 143 | 190 | 147
223 M | L RR} 5 8 143 | 210 161 |, 283 M/;iL|W] 5 5 146 196 148
294; M|L |W] 5 4 136 | 199} 150}'284| M/L] R| 5 4 142} 198] 160
2295; M/L| S| 5 6 | 140] 199] 154/995] D/L] S| 5 5 | 132] 198] 132
2967) ME | Walon 8 143) 197] 162] 286; M|My] SS} 5 1 140 | 202; 147
227| M|L S| 5 5 139 | 202} 163 || 287; M|M{| S| 5 9 142 |, 203 | 149
228 M/D Sion 2 134 189 145 || 288 Di DiWw)] 5 4 144 | 208 151
229; D|M|W!] 5 6 128 | 193] 145 || 289 | D | D S| 5 2 127 | 186 | 145
930; M/M/ S| 5 6 140 |} 206) 155 ||999; D|D |W] 5 8 144 |} 195] 149

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 35
XVi.—Lanark District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 7% Character. Character. 5 Character.
] No. “3 | Stature. No. ‘3 | Stature.
© : Vv Ae & o
2 & a H. Ike B. ce o | o. Val, IC; b.
cq) a ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm qc} a ft. in. mm mm. | mm.
291} m/iL | S| 511 139} 198] 161 || 339} M/]L]| S] 5 O 129 | 187 | 142
292| M|L/ S| 5 9 131 | 200] 145/349) M|L |S} 5 5 142] 197] 151 |
2933| D|LIW| 5 3 144 | 202] 152/341] M/|LI s| 5 6 145 | 193] 153 |
294; M/L | S| 510 | 135] 200] 157 || 342) D|L]| S|] 5 6 | I4l] 185] 145}
995; M/L! S| 5 5 142 | 206] 157/|348! M/L I S|} 6 1 141 | 194] 165
296) M/L| S/ 5 5 140] 198 | 152 || 344) M|MI/]WI 5 8 138 | 198 | 150
297; M/L| S/ 5 8 140 | 201] 1541345) M/L| S| 5 9 144] 190] 148
298] M|DIW]| 5 4 135 | 197| 147/346] M|L/| S|] 5 8 140 | 205 | 153 |
299 M|L S| <5 8 139 197 52" || 34:7 M/L S| 5) 8 141 192 las
300; M/L/W, 5 6 139 | 190] 155 || 348 | MI|D Sill) Gy! 132 | 183} 143
BOIGeD! | |) Sil 5 3 138 | 204! 153 || 349} M|L/ SS] 5 8 143 | 198] 155
302} M/L{ S| 5 7 | 139] 185] 144/9509|] FIL S| 5 7 130] 192] 155
303 RB | Ll S| 6 0 140 | 201 155 || 351 M;L/]W] 5 6 143 200 155
304] M/|DI| S! 5 6G 138 | 188] 150} 352] M!|M! 8| 5 5 131 | 188 | 145
305|; DIL Sil 5: 1 135 | 190] 147 |] 353) M | L Simo 143 | 191] 147
306 | D|L |W! 5 6 138 | 197] 151 || 354] M/|L/ S| 5 6 145 | 200] 152
307; M/|LI{ S| 5 4 | 134] 190] 148/955| M/L|S/ 5 5 | 144] 207] 159
308 | M/L| RB] 5 5 128 | 192]) 1471356; M|M{!{ S| 5 8 142} 194] 155
SOON Le ||| eSil 5 2 130] 191] 149/357} D|D] SI 5 2 134] 188] 156
310; D|M| S| 5 8 142] 201] 160 || 358} M|MI| S/ 5 7 143 | 204] 162
SU at | te | 9B: 5 7 129/ 198] 146// 359} M/{L I SI 5 7 144 | 204] 147
S12, Del DW 5 7 136} 195] 148 //369/ MIL /|W|]| 5 6 139 | 192] 145
313 Caleta lh Gall 5) 4. 134) 185' | 148/360 | D 1th | Si 5 7 133] 197] 151
314} M/|L |W! 5 6 132 | 201 | 147/362} D|M{I{ S| 5.7 149} 200] 153
315; M/L! S| 5.6 142 | 207] 157] 363| M|M| S| 5 5 146} 195 | 158
316; M|D|WI! 5 6 1385 | 198 | 1521 364/ D|DIWI 4511 141 | 195] 161 |
Slee | Tele Sal 5.87 126 | 184] 143113865] D|L I S! 5 6 137 | 190] -155 |
a8) M/L.| S|! 5 7 140/ 198] 145 1 366) D/L] SI 5 oO 165 | 228] 194
SOR MaDe ele | Sil 5) 4 141] 188] 148 || 367} MILI S| 5 7 141 | 197 | 146
320| M/|L/ S| 5 1 137 | 191] 154 //368/ M/L | S| 5 7 l4l | 199] 149
S2IG Be lay | Rill bea 138} 185) 155 1}369| M|MI|WI| 5 8 135 | 202] 149
B22 Dee Sill 5 25 134/ 190] 158 ||379; M/L| S| 5 3 135 | 199 | 157
S28 Melly |S) 5°10 134 | 204) 1551/1 371| F|MIW| 5 7 135 | 190} 155
S24 Ma Ri 5 7 1386 | 198| 153/372; M/iIL/ S| 5 5 134 | 183] 154
325| D|M|WI| 5 7 1360) 196 | 154 373") Meda |) Sil 5 8 131 | 200] 150
SOG Raila Sila jad: TSE LOL TWAS a S74 | a Sil 58 137 | 196} 152 |
327 5 Mei) Well 5: 8 144] 196] 155 |1875| M| MI! 8S] 5 9 135 | 194] 159]
S28n 0 De ln Sil b8G 139 | 191] 152/376} D|ImM| S| 5 2 134] 188) 148 |
Svat) | Sata; a) ASH Gy al 137 | 193) 144 || 377) M|L | si 5 2 146 | 201 | 156 |
330/ D|IDIW] 5 5 137 | 203| 155 || 378} D/DI]WI] 5 2 134] 188] 148 |
331| M|L |W! 5 5 135} 188 | 147 || 379/ M/i LI S| 5 6 138 | 198 | 152 |
332| M|M}/W]| 5.5 | 133] 194] 142/989 D|L| S| 5 4 | 134|/ 198| 162]
333 | MiL| S; 5 4 139 | 193] 147 || 381! RIM! S/] 5 8 141 | 199) 125
334/| M|L|-S] 5 4 138 | 191] 152 || 382; MIL] S| 5 4 139 | 194] 149
335| M|L | S| 510 135 | 198 | 151 || 388/ DIMI! SI 5 6 137 | 200] 156
336| D|M/] SI] 5 6 145 | 193] 157 || 384} MIDIWI 5 2 132 | 183] 151
BBY] ID WGP ASS) oe 133 | 201] 15511385) F|L| S| 5 5 133 | 185] 143
Bate De | Del Sila6) 10 141] 200] 160]/386| DID|IWI| 5 6 142] 194] 148
XVil.—Midiothian District Asylum.
1 | 1b) jib) || Sh Gy} 150 | 196 | 162 Sally DEAT |eSil) eS: 8 148 | 192] 163
OF 1 De De eWale ib) 2. 131 | 197] 141 9| M/|M]| S|.5 6 145 | 194] 153
Se) Mas |e Stl 56 146] 195} 149] 10/ DIL] S| 5 9 143 | 198] 160
4 Fi|M/|W!/ 5 1 VST aZls le To7e | VI Ne | Te wl 566 141 | 206] 154
5 TDP YESH SS Gy 8} T28a S82) esses 12) |e Dil aie Sills) 7 155] 191] 150
6 Tobey yt ashi G3 8} U3se\6 LOO) 1528| ele | ela | Si es eS 141] 198] 149
7 Min play Si) 254 4. 141} 187] 152] 14/ M{ILI-S| 5 5 141} 202] 152

36 Anthropometric Survey oy the Inmates of
XVil.—Midlothian District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
o o
Colour 6 Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | A Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. S | Stature.
oO - 2)
le ee ee js alae eee la dey Hg s H. | Seales:
a |A |” | ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm. <a} | 2] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
15 M/L ri oy 3) 145 202 159 75 M | M Shi a GB 145 195 158
16 D/L Si) Gy 8 142 202 155 76 D!|D Syl] G) 35} 135 190 149
W9e Da sii) oy 145 206 151 il DIL Salome. 143 201 162
18 M/|L Sil 2p 2 V7 199 155 78 DAE Si) 5o10 156 202 158
19 M{|L Silo: 37 189 150 79 M/L S| 5 6 135 191 150
90| miL/| S/ 511 | 141] 196] 146] 99; M/L| S/ 510 | 142] 195] 146
{ 21 M/L Ss 59 149 198 157 81 DI|M Sy) i 74 185} 191 146
22, F |M S| 411 132 190 147 82 Mee) Wo, 5:10 146 200 148
} 23 M|M Ss 5 1 125 188 140 83 D|D N) 5.64 142 195 156
| 24 DD S| 5 6 141 204 157 84 Mi) D iW) 511 143 200 155
25| D|M|S/ 511 | 140] 190] 155|/195| D|MI[ S| 5 7 | -143-| 193] 152
| 26 M;D |W ay i) 141 190 146 86 M/|D Sito 6 139 206 151
} Pa M|L R| 5 6 145 199 157 87 M;|L Sh ||) ye 5 137 194 148
1 28 M/L S| 5 7 140 192 151 || 88 M/D S| 5 9 142 195 157
29 M|M S| 5 4 144 185 150 89 D | L tS) |l) sae (0) 134 192 144
(30; mM/L | S| 5 8 | 145] 194] 159] 99/ M/L/ S| 511 | 141] 191] 142
| 3l DL S| 5 8 1K 37/ 198 155 91 MM S) Hy 27 135 194 154
By Tea (ey Si a 83 140 197 147 || 92 VE ee Sil) ay) GD 142 192 162
| 33) M{L I S|] 5 9 142 * 202} 161 || 93) M|L | 8S} 5 8 133 | 183] 151
fo D|M Ss DD) 140 195 155 94 1D a) ab; Ss yz 140 197 145
/35| D/M/ S| 5°8 | 135] 184| 149] 95| m|L |W] 5 4 | 131] 198] i44
36 M{|L S| 5 7 133 196 144 96 1D) PiU; Shiau 140 192 148
Bl Ds. || 1B) Silos 140 | 205 160 97| M|L Sy] a) 7 137 | 187) 1438
38 Mj)L Salon eo: 127 190 150 | 98 18! 2) 16; Sil) ope) 136 194 150
39 M | L Si 512 137 197 157 || 99| M|D Silom 141 196 | 145
40/ D|D} S| 5 6 | 133] 198] 143|/199/ F|L | S| 5 3 | 143] 191] 152
41 Dp | i Si) oO 7% lis yi 192 158 || 101 M/L Ski) By 7 143 198 147
42 M | L S| 5 6 139 196 151 || 102 1) oy Sious 142 200 156
43) D | L S} 510 153} 204) 154 //103} D|L SH oa @ 137 | 193 | 148
44 [me || ab R;| 5 5 128 198 155 || 104 VES Vill Pon 7 145 197 153
45| M\L| S| 5 7 | 147| 197] 150|11905| D/L | S| 5-9 | 139| 190] 150
46 DL S| 5 8 137 188 151 || 106 Do) Sileoas 138 201 150
47 M/;|M Silo 10) 139) |) 97h To 07a | Wel) soe 4 134 | 197 | 158
48 M|L S| 5 6 139 198 159 || 108 F{M Shi ay 7 145 188 143
49 DO Sil) 0208 1184 200 150 || 109 D | D Salome 132 189 141
50| D/L | S| 5 5 | 141] 197] 148 | 40| M/L| s| 5 4 | 140] 198] 156
51 D|M NS) 5 11 142 199 150 || 111 Ryle Silo) eo 149 197 151
o2 M | L S; 5 8 143 196 144 || 112 M|M Shi), By 4 134 188 142
53 M/L |W 5 4 132 191 141 || 1138 FIM fehl) “arr 8} 139 195 147
54 MiMi W| 5 2 141 190 156 || 114 DIM S|} 510 145 205 158
55 F | L Sil od 136 191 143 || 115 D|D S| 5 4 134 183 149
56 M;|L | W yy oF 140 200 153 |) 116 DD Sy |) os). «7 139 190 154
57 M/D SH), a Wey 187 157 |} 117 M!|M Syl ay oy 131 192 151
58 Mi L S| 5 4 140 190 150 || 118 Mj{L Stil Gy 7 152 PAW 157
59 M;|D |W) 5 6 152 197 166 || 119 F |L S| 5 4 142 201 151
60| D|L | S| 5 6 | 150] 198] 150/499| M;/L| S| 5 8 | 140] 203] 149
61 D{|L Syl) By 5) 129 188 148 || 121 Rio lawl ees By 7 140 202 154
62 M{|M Si) by 7 140 187 140 || 122 M;|L|W| 5 8 143 190 151
63 M/i;D|W 5 2 130 187 140 || 123 M|L S| 5 4 142 191 143
64 Mi L |W 5 9 140 206 155 || 124 M{M Rae 5) 25 148 181 147
65| M|L| S| 5 7 | 149] 204] 158/)495| D|L | S/.5 8 | 140] 195] 156
66 Mi|M S| 6 0 145 197 154 || 126 D/|M S| 5 6 135 190 140
67 1a AG; Silo meD 136 204 158 || 127 Mi/L SS}; S35 55 138 192 155
68 Re Si & 149 196 152 || 128 M|L Simoes 134 205 152
69 | Di|M S|] 6 2 140 | 182) 137] 129} F | L Sion 138 | 195 | 163
70; D|M S| 511 144} 195} 147 || 1380 M/L S| 5 4 147 | 195} 149
val M/L Shi) oy 9 143 194 151 || 131 M/|M S| 5 6 136 196 156
72 1D B) SS) 5 10 139 188 145 || 132 1D) | Ab; S| 4 2 134 162 145
73 M/L Ss 5 8 133 187 146 |) 133 M/L S| 5 9 148 192 152
Ges || | 1B) 1B) Silo 4 143 | 198] 155

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. 37

XVill,—Perth District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
|
Colour | 3 Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character. Z Character, Character. SF Character.
No. ‘3 | Stature. No. “3 | Stature.
Fe a a Ey L. B ro a 4. Jal L B,
ales a |e |S
}e8} Q | wm | ft. in mm. | mm mm. Tinian ft. in mm. | mm. | mm.
1 DE DOs Wala: 138 195 151 61 M|L Gio 7 136 196 151
2 M|M/]W] 5 6 142 198 159 62 M |b S;} 511 134 202 161
3) MDS Walled: 3 148 194 154 63 FiM iA ye 127 181 | 151 |
4 DD} D. R! 5 7 141 190 147 64 F L Oa Yi 136 194 157 |
5 M;D S| 5 4 135 190 147 65 FiM S|; 5 8 141 192 158
6 1D)? 3B) So 2 127 195 149 66 D!D S;} 5 9 135 193 155 |
alee eb) sii 3 142 | 208] 175 OPN) EN ID Pee ty (8 150 | 203] 156 |
See ae De We a. 7 138 | 197] 155]/ 6G8| F/|M| S| 5 5 131; 190] 150:
B) M|M S| 5 3 132 183 157 69 F | D S| 410 142 182 152 :
[Obes |b Sis 7 137 | 196] 156]| 70|; M|pdD | gs/ 5 8 140] 192! 146 |
HP ESD | S| 5 8 150 | 197] 161]/ 71} D/L | wi] 5 0 128 | 193] 140 |
12 D|M Si || 5% $F 138 193 152 12 D|D Siion6 131 182 150 |
als 1) 8) Sh py as 136 187 152 73 M{M S|; 510 141 206 155 |
| 14 TRS evi S| 5 6 136 195 156 74 D | G S| 3 8 138 199 152
15 M|D Siiivon do 135 189 149 15 Fi/M S|; 5 5 129 179 140 |
16 De |-D Ss; 5 8 131 193 153 76 1D) | 16; S| 2 9 154 215 164 |
17 D/;|M Si 206 132 187 149 qe M/iM Sion 145 203 154 |
18 NTE RDS Waly 5 77 138 186 138 78 M;]|M/W!] 5 9 136 198 151 |
19 M:iD|W| 5 7 142 195 148 79 Da De Wa le omes 136 192 150 |
30 NED SIV) a5 178 146 195 156 80 M/L Si leone: 139 202 158 |}
ee M|M,W! 5 5 139 195 146 8 M;iM S|) 7 149 210 155
2D M|M/|W]| 5 2 134 191 142 32 D}D S| 5 2 132 187 141 |
23} M/D S| 5 8 142 193 152 43 DIM Sti) a) 3} 134 189 153. |
24 D|DIW| 5 9 137 203 153 84 D|M S| 5 5 151 195 148 |
95 D4) D S| 5 6 137 194 144 || 85 DONG EW. | ones 146 202 155
26 1b) |) 1b sii) ay 1 150 198 159 86 D|M S; 411 137 186 153 |
Qi |e S| 5 8 140 192 143 87 FiL |W] 5 8 148 199 155
28 M|M Si toe 5 134 192 146 88 M/iL/|W!] 5 7 142 189 154
29 M;M Suloed: 138 200 158 89 Be a W566 140 191 148
30 1DY |) Silom as 138 192 155 90 M/|M Sil One: 140 199 156 |
Bill Hes SW || 5s 3 140 187 156 91 M]L S| 5 6 141 194 142
32 Deep S| 5 0 141 192 152 92 D/L Dil) oo 148 198 158 |
33 18 |) LE, S| 5 6 148 191 152 93 M/L Sy | a) 55 140 196 150
34 Dy) Mi wi 5 7 143 203 152 94 D|iIMIW] 5 1 154 191 150
35 M|D Sib 9 152 199 151 95 D|LiIW| 5 4 134 182 151 }
36 D|D SH By 5) 129 195 162 96 DP Sal 5a 9 145 195 156
37 M | L Siipeoass 135 193 150 97 DIM SS} 510 138 199 159 |
38 D|D Seo) 8 139 197 154 98 Fs L ts) tly 83 135 187 150
39 D/|D Sip) 7 138 199 146 99 D|D S| 6 1 155 217 161 |
40 D|M Sil 6 5) 138 195 154 || 100 DIM Sil omee, 137 199 157
41 RY el S| 5 9 153 211 163 || 10L M|M S| 5 9 B97; 200 153 |
42 py \D Silpcone 9) 137 193 150 || 102 M/L S| 5 6 139 197 147 |
43 D|D Sa]) OF 3 139 195 156 || 103 DIM S| 5.6 137 195 142
44 M;i|D]W! 5 5 134 193 156 || 104 De Ci 5 5 130 184 140
45 D|D S| 5 6 146 188 150 || 105 1 IE; S| 5 9 137 197 161
46 DF SDA Wale bo. 143 197 155 |} 106 D|M S|; 5 6 130 192 143
47 Dee) Salo) 7 134 192 147 || 107 D|D Si) od: 7 142 198 154
48 De S| 5 § 135 201 155 |} 108 D|M S| 5 4 133 194 147
49 16) i) 1B) S| 5 0 139 201 153 || 109 MVE |e 7 137 204 155
50 Deep Sion e/ 134 206 150 || 110 1 I aie | ey 8} 141 195 146 |
51 R | D S| 510 148 196 157 || 111 M|D C| 5 4 139 182 151
52 D|M Sil) soo 127 179 140 || 112 DED S| 510 141 198 156
53 M/|L Simone: 138 198 149 || 113 M{|L Si 6h il 151 200 156
54 Dey Sip eon 29 141 204 151 |} 114 D|M S| 4 9 130 192 151
55; D|D|W] 6 O 133 198 149 | 115 D/D ish] Gy 135 191 153 |
56 D|M Syl} By 2 131 194 156 || 116 D|D Sileeon 16 141 193 148
57 M D S| 510 140 202 155 || 117 M;iM Sillno 29 143 202 147
58 Deeb Sh || @) 7 136 201 150 || 118 D|D Sib) 139 184 145
59 M|D S; 511 143 201 154 || 119 M|M Silo 135 193 162
60 D/|M Sal eor ad: 141 205 149 | 120 D|D Silecoees 140 201 | 157
|

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

XViil.—Perth District Asylum.

MALES. MALES.
A o
Colour 3 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 7 Character.
‘S | Stature. No. %s | Stature.
. . Vv . . .
2/¢]e et ne ai ¢ a Heo) a B.
= |} | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. =} ] | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
DAD S| 5 4 148 199 151 || 147 D/;M S|; 5 6 150 202 158
ML Sal onto 147 | 206; 166/)/ 148; M|M} Sj] 5 9 139 | 199} 154
M/iM Silicon os 143 199 154 || 149 M;M Sill eoneg 143 205 158
mMi|M| S| 5 5 | 139} 201] 155 |11459/ D|D/ S| 5 7 | 130] 198] 154
1} Sons 144 201 159 || 151 D|M Ss yl 153 198 156
1 | Ib: Sti) 4) 7 140; 188} 149 ]) 152; D|D S| 510 146 | 201 154
R | L Sul 7 143 | 201 161 |} 153 | D{M S| 510 142 | 204] 156
DIM S; 5 8 144 193 146 |) 154 D9) 2D Ti AWall ome: 143 196 151
M/iM S| 5 4 132 197 151 |} 155 FM Ral) Du5 153 201 156
DAD Sr OnES 135 187 143 || 156 DIM S| 5 4 137 196 149
D/iM S!|) 5. 6 138 199 154 || 157 D|D So? 128 181 153
1B) ||) 1) Si a 7 149 | 193 | 142]) 158} D|M Scion 139 | 196] 156
DOD C6" 0 136 193 151 || 159 Da Vi Wale Sines 146 202 153
M)M S| 5 8 128 | 191 161 ||160| M|M| S| 5 9 148 | 192]! 150
D|D Sill 256 146 201 159 |} 161 M|M S| 5 4 131 193 143
Maer NS 5 5 129 185 139 || 162 DM ley By 34 133, 189 153
NG) as Wale os 142 204 156 || 163 F|M/;|W| 5 3 134 182 141
M/|L R;| 5 8 139 194 153 || 164 M/i|M/]W] 5 8 135 203 155
D/|D S| 5 5 149 197 156 || 165 D|M Sill ons 144 208 156
D|D{|W! 5 8 143 206 158 || 166 ID) Male W isos i 141 200 161
D/L S)) 5 4 141 NOS VST V6 7a) Wal oe 7 155 | 197 | 149
D/L Ss; 510 142 207 154 |) 168 D|M Sil ome 142 196 156
D;iM|WI| 5 6 134 196 152 || 169 ni IB Bo) on) 142 190 145
M/|M/ S|} 6 1 |] 141] 195/ 1461/170| D|D| S| 5 7 |.15L| 195] 157
DAD SPM 137 194 149 || 171 D|M S| 5 6 145 195 150
1% |) 1B Si] oy 7 154 204 162
(

X1IX.—Roxburgh District Asylum.

2OMWCOIE We

MALES. MALES.
M/L |W] 5 4 | 141] 190] 149] 26] M/|M] S| 5 7 | 141] 191] 152]
M/|L |W] 5 4 | 149] 198] 151 || 27/ M|MJ| S| 5 5 | 138] 192] 1839 |
M/|M/ S| 5 7 | 134] 196] 153] 28) D|D|W] 6 2 | 147] 210] 163 }
D|L | S| 5 5 | 133] 194| 147 || 299] Min! S| 5 9 | 2184)" Isteeaaea
M|M/ S/ 5 5 | 144] 198] 155/ 309/ D|L | S| 5 6 | 133] 201] 154}
M|L | S| 5 5 | 184|-188| 148 || SE] Mi lw 6 3°) son rostiiareom
D/|D/ S| 5 6 | 147| 208] 162] 32; F|L/ Wi] 6 0 | 136] 193] 149
D|D/|W| 5 7 | 138| 203] 149] 33! M/L| S| 5 6 | 141] 193] 160
Di M| S| 5-5 | 188] 187] 149) 34| DIL |W] 510 | 133) 200)/Rasay
M/L/|W| 5 1 | 126] 181] 147] 35| D/L |W] 5 9 | 137] 196] 147
M/|D]/ S| 5 5 | 146] 193] 149]) 36] M/L | S| 510 | 144] 191] 151 f
M/D|R/ 5 6 | 132] 193] 153] 37 M|D|W| 5 4 | 126] 193] 148 }
D/|L{| S| 5 8 | 140] 193] 147] 38] M/L | S| 5 8 | 140] 194] 150
M|L| S| 5 7 | 139] 198] 157/|-39| D|M]| S| 510 | 136] 198) 156 |
D|M|:S! 5 5 | 140] 198) 147] 40| D/L] S| 5 1 | 130] 188] 144}
FlL|W| 6 7 | 140) 199 | 165) 41| D'l\G | S| 5 7 | 147 | 2038) Si5o
M/L i S| 5-4 | 187| 194) 152) 42) F198] 15 9) 228 928 ios
M|M] S| 5 3 | 134| 191{ 144] 43) M/L]| S| 5 07] 136] 196] 149}
M/L| S| 5 8 | 136] 191] 144] 44] M|L/} S| 510 | 145] 200)" 153
D/L/ S| 5 4 | 134} 194] 1501 45| M/L| Wi 5 7 | 138| 194] 148}
M/L] S| 5 2 | -142/ 188] 1551 46| F/L | S|-5 8 | 137] 188] 139
D| D1] S| 5 8 | 189) 188 |~160)|) 47) 2M) aS 5a | ssi more ase
D/D]| S| 5.7 | 196) 187) 142) 48h) Mla eS 5 6 911400) 1958) ea52n
D/L} S| 5 6 | 138] 184| 154] 49| M/L | S| 5 2 | 241) 194)" 1501
D/D/ S| 5 6 | 133] 183] 148] 50/ M/L}] S| 511 | 143] 199] 158

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocumr. 39
X1IX.—Roxburgh District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
3 : g :
Colour B Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. “; | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
2)
ae] ge] 2 Hy. |B. B. ~ |g} 2 H. L. B.
SF esd) Ss] SN]
x oa wn ft in e mm. mm. mm. | x 4 nN ifs in mm. mm. mm.
51 M/|M NS) by yf 136 190 150 95 M|L Ss 5 8 153 205 159
5p4. nie PIB) Sil ol 142 196 152 96} D|M Silieomeo 143 | 201 145
53 M/ L NS) 5. 8 137 198 153 97 M|D/]W 5 5 139 195 150
54 M {| L Ss 5 6 146 198 151 98 M/ L S 5) Ff 139 194 144
55) FIL S| 5 8 141 | 203 151 99 DiIiM|W,| 5 4 142 | 196 | 157
56} M|L Ri 5 9 139 192 150 || 100 M;L|WI| 510 145 194 157
57 M|L Ss iy 7 136 191 145 |; 101 M/L Ss 5 3 121 192 146
58a) Re jo Cio 150 | 204 152 |} 102} D|M Sioae8 142 | 202] 156
59 Da Te Ss} by 19) 144 2OL 150 || 103 Doe Ss 5). 583 129 178 143
60 ML NS) 5 5 138 198 154 || 104 M;|M S 5 6 139 195 150
61 M/L S| 5 6 130 188 1538 || 105 M|L S55 3 143 189 | 145
628 eG S| 5 4 141 199 154 |} 106} F | L S58 137 189 154
63 M;M; S| 5 9 142 |} 200] 159 || 107; M/LsiWwy] 5 8 147 184 155
64 M|L |W by) i 142 192 142 || 108 M| L Ss 5 6 137 195 140
65 M|L Sid) 10 139 193 146 || 109 M/|M S| 5°6 133 | 20L 143
66 M/D Ss 5 9 141 207 155 | 110 M|L Ss 5 5 142 199 151
67 M|L Ss Hy 10) 144 203 156 || 111 M/L Ss 5 5 183) 194 146
68 IDs S 5 10 141 200 146 || 112 D|M;W 5) 143 189 152
69 F |M|W ay al 134 192 149 |} 113 M/|L Ss 5 5 133 200 152
70 D|M Ss 5 6 135) 179 137 114 DIM Ss ay 140 190 153
val M | L Ss iy. “7 143 204 155 || 115 D/L Ss sy 4) 123 188 158
72 M | Sele Gy 3) 139 188 155 || 116 M/L Ss Hy {0} 135 200 151
723} Shi] ts 139} 203) 148 //117| M|L |W] 5 9 138 | 202] 154
74 M/D S|> 5 6 135 192 146 || 118 M,L Ss 5.5 141 206 153
75 Meee Wai 6) 10) 145 204 158 || 119 M;|L |W 5.8 137 191 156
76| M|L | Bi 5 6 | 130] 195] 146]/199| D|M{ S/ 5 5 | 130] 194] 153
Te M|M Si |omes 151 205 154 || 121 M/L Sl 6) @ 140 | 197 159
oa oD! ae OW || bo 4 141 192 151 || 122} M|D S| 5 6 145 197 153
79 1 eID) Ss by %5} 147 192 Wass} ||) 1253 M/L Ss 5 9 139 194 153
80 D | L NS) By al 126 182 132, 124 M|L NS) 6) *7/ 133 196 151
sl M|™M Ss 5 5 133 190 139 || 125 M|M S 5.7 137 188 156
82} M|L Shion) 131 184 148 || 126} M|L S| 5 8 132 | 201 152
83 FLL Ss sy I) 158 22D) 167 || 127 M/L Ss 5 11 143 208 169
sa) MiMi Ri 6 6 138 189 154 |} 128 |} M|L Bill) ai 733 138 195 149
85 D|D C 5 6 147 206 161 129 M/L Ss 5 Il 144 193 160
s6| D|L/-S/ 5 7 | 153! 205| 14911439 M|L| S| 5 8 ! 145] 192] 153
87 M|L S| 4 9 147 196 148 |} 131 M{|M S| ay 129 194 | 148
88 M/|L iSti| Gy 128 | 196 Vey BPA) i) 10; SilptOmEs 134 182 146
89 M;iM] S| 6 0 146 | 202 NGS BBY |p dy |) 1b; S| 5 8 139 197 149
90 M/i|M Pe} 5.4 143 198 151 134 Dy} Te Ss 5 8 138 194 152
91 M|L S| 510 154 | 208 156 || 135 Dy 2D S| 5 8 142 196 150
92 M|M Ss 5 3 138 191 146 || 136 M/ L Ss 5 10 136 197 157
93 M/|L SS) oy 131 188 147 |} 137 M/L NS) by 45) 132 184 153
94 M|L | WwW Syn 154 211 160 || 138 M;L |W sy, 3} 131 196 154
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 M|M Ss 5 4 125 184 143 6 DD NS} 5.8 143 202 149
2} M/;D ispi| 43 7 138 194 152 Th | Hy eM. S|; 510 144] 202] 147
3 | Mi Silte.on 6 147 | 191 156 8|/ D|M Sib 4 125 182 148
4 F D Ss ay, ts} 143 196 153 9 Dye) WW 6 ll 146 198 147
Bale Dr | eDa i Wi | oie 8 144 | 201 150 || 10 M|D S| 6 0 141 194 153

40 Anthropometric Survey a7 the Inmates of
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
rs) k o ;
Colour g Cranial Colour | 2 Cranial
Character.} & Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘s | Stature, No. ‘s | Stature.
5 . 1.3) . . o
5 o = H, ibs B. 5 o ez H. ILA B.
Xo} ]wH ! ft. in mm. | mm. | min. a) }h | ft. in mm. | mm. | mm
11] RI|M!/ RB| 5 7 137 | 186| 145 || 71} M/D]| S|] 5 4 140 | 187] 153
122; MIM! S| 5 5 143 | 194} 154]! 72} D|MIWI] 5 4 143 | 194] 148
13|/ M|M! S|! 510 146} 199] 164} 73} M|MIWI] 5 3 138 | 196 | 146
144; F |M]|S/ 5 9 138} 194] 148) 74} M|MI| S/ 5 6 145 | 190] 156
15|/ M/|MI/IW! 5 9 137 | 196} 145 || 75| D|DI| SI] 5 3 150 | 186 | 152
1/ D|DI| S| 5 5 142 | 202] 154 || 76) M|L |W] 5 1 135 | 186] 151
V7 DD Si 5. 7 V4) 2035" W569, e777 | | Vise Shl B5 88 137 | 194] 149
18; D/|D| S| 5 7 155 | 194] 153 || 78; D|DI| SS] 5 6 135 | 194] 147
He) || 10) by || SS ay 144] 199} 156 || 79} D|D|W] 5 9 140} 200] 152
90| M/|M!/ S| 5 3 127/ 191| i45|/ 89/ DIDI WI] 5 8 133 | 196 | 149
21} M:;DI| S| 5 7 154 | 202) 151 || 81} D|D| S| 5 7 135 | 188 | 152
22) SD eae Sante 140 | 202] 151 || 82) M|M|WI 5 9 147 | 206 | 150
23; R/|MI| S| 510 147| 197) 158] 83) M|/LI|Wwl 5 7 140 | 194] 150
24) M|IM| RBI 6 2 145] 194] 154] 84/ M| DI S|] 5 5 144} 208] 151
95| MIM! S|! 5 9 140} 206] 159 |) 85} D|DI WI] 5 3 126] 183] 145
26| Ri L S| 510 150} 199| 154// 86; M|D]| S| 5 2 135 | 190 | 145
PE \\) DY || aie NY Sh) ay 130] 188] 146] 87} M/|D| S| 5 38 145 | 208 | 154
23/ M|L/ S| 5 8 136 | 200] 156]) 88; ML] S| 5 8 133 | 202 | 159
29} D|D|WI 5 6 148 | 197 [ 161 89} M/L S| 5 9 140 | 192} 156
30| F|L/| S| 5 4 138; 205] 161] 99/ M/DI| SS! 5 6 144} 197] 152
31} M/|D1IWI| 510 146 | 204] 152 |) 91! D|MI| S|] 5 8 141 | 199} 157
32) DID] S| 5 5 137 | 199 | 148) 92} M[D|WI| 5 6 132 | 199 | 157
33; F|M|W| 5 4 134 | 199] 153 || 98} D|DIWI] 5 5 137 | 204] 149
34/ M/|M]| S|} 511 150 | 208] 159 || 94} DJD S| 5 5 145 | 197 | 147
35| F/M] S| 5 4 145 | 210) 157] 95| M|M] S/ 5 5 147 | 203 | 156
36; MI|M|WI| 5 8 136 | 187) 154 || 96| M|ID| S| 5 7 135 | 190 | 147
37/ D|ID|W] 5 9 144] 197] 150]) 97) M|D|W] 5 5 140 | 200] 151
38| M/iL/ S| 5 9 137 | 194] 153 || 98) D|DsWI 510 143 | 199 | 155
39 FUL Si) a) 2 141 201 150 99 D |b Sa oe e2 133 187 152
40; DiM| S| 5 5 128; 199] 151 |/409| F |L I S| 5 4 141 | 191 | 150
AN) Bo) ea Wall 5s 4 146 | 199] 148 |/101} D|]M|W]| 5 6 140 | 192] 146
42; DIM] S| 5 3 141 | 197] 153 || 102) DIL S|} 5 1 139 | 189] 151
43| M|M] S| 5 5 138 | 188 | 149]/ 103} F | MI S| 5 7 141 | 198 | 145
44} MIM]! 8S ae 141} 191] 152 |/104/ M|MI! C/| 5 7 141 | 203 | 157
45| D|M/WI 5 4 144} 199] 164|/105| M/|L/ GC] 5 1 131 | 188 | 144
46/ D|M|W! 5 4 137 | 186} 149 || 106) M/D|WI| 5 5 141 | 194] 147
47| D|JM/ S!/ 5 5 137 | 194] 1150/1107} D|D]| RP] 5 6 142} 192] 151
48} D|M|]| S| 5 2 136 | 185] 147//108; F |M] S| 5 2 135 | 198 | 147
49| MIL] S| 5 2 136 | 185] 156]}109; D|M| S| 5 3 136 | 199] 152
50; M/|{L/ S| 5 8 138 | 205] 158/110) M|LU! S| 5 4 140 | 205) 157
51} M|M|]| S| 5 9 141 | 196] 158/111] M|M| S| 5 4 143 | 196 | 156
52} M|M| Rl 5 6 133 | 194] 153 ]/112|/ D|M|WI| 5 2 140 | 196 | 159
53/ M/L S| 510 140} 199] 153 ]/113) M/]DJ| S| 5 2 132 | 192] 149
54} D/iIM|C| 5 2 142] 201] 157] 114| D|DI|WI 5 6 145 | 196 | 159
[Aj || 1 py | El & a 138 | 187} 152/115| M|M!] SI 5.7 129 | 191] 147
56| D|IM|W| 5 7 136 | 209] 155 |/116) D|M| S| 5 8 137 | 193 | 152
57| D|M! S| 5 8 136 | 190] 153 117| M|D |W] 510 135 | 190] 148
58} FIL | S| 5 4 130} 191] 148/118} M|M]| S| 5 6 131} 188 | 148
590) Dae | Wall 59 143 | 205] 151/119} M|M| S| 5 9 145 | 197 | 158
60}; D|DJ] S| 510 130] 181] 147 |/120| M/|M] C] 5 5 144] 198] 151
61] M|D]WI] 5 0 132 | 193] 150 || 121] M/|L I S| 5 5 138 | 207) 148
62} DIM] S| 5 5 137 | 193] 159} 122} D|L |W] 5 5.| 137] 198] 150
68} D|L {IW 5 2 141] 190} 152] 123} D|]DJ]W]| 60 140 | 202] 152
GEL) 1D) ad) || at] i 136 | 188] 143 || 124/ M|M| SS] 5 7 143 | 210] 163
65| D|I|M|W]| 5 6 131} 191] 151 /425| D|M] RI 5 3 137 | 188 | 149
66/ F|M] S|] 5 7 136 |~ 202] 156 || 126) F|M| S] 511 141 | 197] 141
67| DIDI] S| 5 5 144] 190] 148 || 127/ F|M]| S| 5 4 133 | 175 | 139
68/ M|M!|W| 5 2 140} 199] 158 || 128) D|D]| S| 5 9 131 | 182] 147
69} D|M| S| 5 6 137 | 192] 146 || 1299) M/]D| S| 5 1 129 | 187] 142
70; R|M/W| 5 8 | 135/] 196] 153 ]139| D|M{| S| 5 7 | 142] 195] 150

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocunr. Al
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character.| A Character.
No ‘= | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
Smee lee oe |Get ‘
e & 2 H. Ike B. fa eas H. L. B
4 | A | w | ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm. 4} } wo] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
131; M/|My| S| 5 5 134; 196] 156 |} 191} M|M|W] 5 8 145 | 198] 154
1322} D|D|]W/] 5 9 141] 193] 151 || 192} M|L S|} 5 6 138 | 191] 148
133 | M|Mj| S| 5 6 134} 186] 147 || 193 | DJL Sih dae 144] 192] 142
134] MID iS) |) gy By 135 |} 191} 141 || 194) D|L |W] 5 0O 135 | 195 | 153
185; F|L Si) de 2 128} 191} 141 ||195 | ... | D Cc; 5 1 134 | 202] 135
136 | D}|D Si a 3 141} 203} 152/196; M|M, S|} 5 2 135 | 193 | 142
US Dl De} Ri 5 93 129; 199] 144) 197; M|My| S| 5 2 134 | 194] 141
138 | M|D S| 5 5 135 |° 193 | 155 || 198 | M|L S| 5 9 137 | 199} 155
139] F | L Sy O38 138} 198} 152 |) 199; D|D S| 5 6 146 | 210] 156
140; D|M| S| 5 3 141; 191} 147/200; D|M! S|] 5 8 136 | 188] 154
1441; D/;|L/ B| 5 6 145 | 198} 147 |) 201} Dj iL S| 5 2 133 | 201] 149
14422; D/L Sil so 3 139 | 197] 149 || 202} D|D |W] 5 4 141 | 186} 149
143; M/] L S|} 5 5 130 | 190} 146 |} 203| M|MI] 8S} 5 8 139 | 190] 145
1444}; D/|L)|WwW 5 38 139 | 188] 146 || 204; Dj}; D S| 510 136 | 193] 147
145| D|M| S; 5 7 144 | 212] 153 || 2905) D{|L Son 138 | 200] 147
146 Mies} We] 5 12 153 191 159 || 206 DiIM|W| 61 149 206 158
147; M|L S| 5 6 136; 197] 150 || 207; DJL Sa Ome): 140 |} 205] 152
1448; M/L |W] 5 7 137 | 205 | 157 || 208] F | L S| 5 4 143 | 194] 155
1449}; D|M{|W] 5 4 143 | 192] 149 |) 209} M | L S| 5 5 134 |} 189] 154
150; D|L Wy] 5 4 137 | 201 | 155 || 219) D | L Si o 3 127 | 193] 146
151 | S| 5 8 141 192 152 || 211 M/;|M S| 5 4 140 200 155
152} M|LIW] 5 4 142 | 193] 152] 212; ..|/L |W] 5 7 142 | 195 | 159
153 M/;L Sion.) 153 196 151 || 213 D;iM|W| 5 1 137 197 151
154} D|D S|} 5 7 134] 188] 160]/ 214); M|MJ] S| 5 O 138 | 198 | 144
155| F/LI|w] 5 8s | 140] 193] 156] 915; R|D|W| 5 0 | 142] 196] 146
156; D|L S| 5° 9 135 | 193] 146 || 216; M|]|MJ| S| 5 7 137 | 194] 147
157 D|D R| 5 8 140 198 155 || 217 D|M{W a 3 151 202 147
158; M|L S| 5 9 135 | 196} 150 || 218; M/L S|} 5 4 136 | 194} 153
159| M|L |W) 5 2 138 | 198 | 157 || 219} DJL Tell) 143 | 203 | 167
160; D|D S| 5 6 142} 194) 152 ||999); M|L Silieoerc 141 | 200] 151
161} D|D Shi] 2 152 | 209] 155 |) 221 | M|L S| 5 4 1388 | 197} 155
1625) (DY) Di} Ri} 5S 3 130 | 199] 143 |) 222; D|L Ss; 5 9 13 195 | 152
163 | D|L S| 5 8 128 | 184] 148 |) 223; M/ L S| 5 5 132 | 199] 146
164} M | L teil 23) 2 133 | 198 | 156°) 224) ...| D Siliio8 138 | 190} 151
165| M/|D isi @ 8 141 | 203 | 162 ||995) D|L S| 510 146 | 201 153
166) D/|M/W] 5 0 142 | 185] 149 |} 226) D|L S| 5 2 135 | 198 | 154
167} D;|Mj S|} 5 4 132 | 190] 152 || 227; L|L |W] 5 2 140 | 172} 142
168 | M|L S; 5 6 144] 198] 148 |} 228; Mj|L S| 5 6 130 | 191 | 147
169: |) D |_D S|} 510 142} 194] 156 |] 229) FJ] L S; 5 1 144} 195} 145
170| M/L| S| 5 9 | 135] 193] 142 |19399| M/L |W] 5 4 | 141] 198] 149
|) 8S} 5 7 150 | 202] 149 |) 231 | F|L S; 5 4 142] 190] 144
172 F/M S|; 510 146 201 143 || 232 M;|M|W] 5 3 140 198 151
173 FL |}wi) 5 7 144 204 151 || 233 D/L S| 5 4 143 210 155
174 FL C;} 5 4 137 198 149 || 234 D|M S! 411 128 182 145
1745| D|M/|W! 5 7 | 143| 190] 145 /lo95/ D/L] S| 5 7 | 150] 197] 146
One DE Da Wils (bd) 5 147 | 200] 150 || 236; D|L S|} 5 4 141 | 193] 147
Tighe HEN a; Sub oor 77 134 | 181 WisPA | PRI | AD A eee |) Sl ay Ts} 128} 194] 154
178 | M| L Sino 7 142} 192] 148 | 238; M;L}] WwW 410 142 | 192] 155
179| D|D S| 5 6 149 | 202} 159} 239] D|MJ| S| 5 6 136 | 194] 151
180; D|M/ S| 5 5 141} 200] 157]/949/ D/|}...| S| 5 4 135 | 192) 143
S| Ds MEWS Si 526 142] 208) 165 |} 241; M/L S| 410 132 | 175 | 134
182 D;|M S| 5 9 147 204 158 || 242 D/|D C; 5 4 148 191 147
183); Dj] L S| 5 5 133 | 205 | 155 || 243) D | D R| 5 7 153 | 196 | 154
184| M|L S|} 510 137 | 200 | 149 || 244) F | L CC} 5 5 147 | 207] 149
185 | M|M{|W} 511 147} 196] 155)945| D|M S| 5 4 147 | 196) 156
186| M|L | RR} 5 6 149 | 205 | 155 || 246; D|M|W/ 5 1 126 | 184] 140
187 | M|L S| 5 6 135 | 198| 148 || 247) D|D |W) 5 4 139 | 193 | 156
188| M|M] S| 5 6 141 | 192] 147 |) 248; M|D Sia: 10 158 | 205 | 158
189} D|L Si| 5) 5 150 | 203 | 154 || 249} D|D Silo sz 154 | 206 | 172
199| D/|L| S| 5 2 | 144] 193| 1481959) D|D| S| 5 7 | 153] 200] 156

42 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
°C ;
Colour 3 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 7 Character.
No. ‘S| Stature. No. ‘s | Stature.
. . v . A vo
5 rf s Le 15 B. 5 o = H. L. B.
=} | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. 5S] 8] 8 / ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Bil D|L |W] 5 6 140} 191 147 || 282} D|D Ral) S80 143 | 202 | 148
2025) DS St} D> 5 143 | 199 140 || 288 | M|D Silom 6 37 189 | 144
253 1D) 10) Ss 5 6 140 194 151 284 M;|L IW 5 8 148 194 148
| 254) D|L S|) & & 130 | 197 150 |}285) D|L Sion 4: 142 | 208 155
255| D/IL| S| 5 4 | 139] 202] 155 ||236| M|M|W| 5 7 | 141); 196] 154
256 D!|D Ss 5) 2 levi 196 145 || 287 D* | D Ss iy off 136 197 150
257 M|D Ss 5 4 135 194 158 || 288 DG Ss 5. 7 142 17 151
258 D|M Ss 5 6 149 | 203 151 |} 289 R | D Ss 5 4 134 186 142
259; M|L Sila) # 149 | 190] 145 || 299; M|L S3| 5.38 146 | 195 | 158
960! bD|D S| 5 7 140 | 196 149 || 29) M | CL S| 5 4 131 192 | 150
261 M;L S ay Hf 148 201 141 || 292 M|M C is) 3) 124 188 164
262; M/|L IR} sy) 139 | 190] 146 |} 293; D|M| S| 5 5 140 181 161
263; M/iL |W) 6 0 152 | 197 155 || 294 | D|My S| 6 1 144 198 | 155
264| M|D Si prt 137 | 199 156 || 295; D|L Stl 4) 134 191 145
965| RL Sil ay 4 144 | 193 T5du 2968 De a Si enone) 136 195 | 149
266} M | L SiG. 146 195 143 || 297; M|U |W] 5 8 135 | 195 | 148
267 D/L Ss ay: 134 187 146 |} 298 Mi L Ss iy 7p 13i 186 143
268 M|L S| 5 8 136 191 157 || 299; F | M S| 5 4 147 195 | 148
269 F Mo We |b 5 135 184 144 || 300 M | L Sil OG 130 185 143
970' M/L Sioa! 141 198 158 || 301 IBY AG; S| 5 4 153 | 198 | 145
271; M/|D Si 5 4 136 194 148 || 302 |} M | L Sil] 4), 7 135 199 | 158
2729) Mh) Mi So 7 137 197 1437/3035) DD) Siiiiomes 13 189 | 142
DABY | DY Yh ab; Si 5 8 135 197 1549/5304) MO Le | Well on 7 146 | 204] 147
274| D|M S/ 5 6 145 | 188 154 ||305) M|L Sh bie. 7 147 198 | 159
9715 Roi L Sill ee 27. 138 198 155 || 306 D!|D Ss 5 5 Ne y/ 191 150
276 1D) 28) Sy ay ut 142 196 156 || 307 D £L | W 5 .5 135 198 147
217 D;|D|W 6) 5) 141 196 144 || 308 IBY NG; Ss ay (6) 146 205 157
278 | M|L |W] 410 134 | 189 149 || 309 | D|L Sil) 0) a7 140 | 188 | 147
279 MIM! S| 5 5 | 141] 192] 152\1919/ M/L | R/| 5 5 | 148] 203] 155
980 DIM Ss 5 8 140 187 156 |} 311 D/L C 5 9 135 193 140
281 ID | 16; Sars 146 | 200} 149
XXI.—Greenock Parochial Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
1 M|/M/]W| 5 8 128 | 201 143 2] M/D S510 138 198 | 152
2} M|D S| o 2 122 | 178] 134 22 De} M Sh ome 127 | 183] 148
3] D | L Ss) | al & 133 | 195 | 149 230) 9D? |e We belO 130} 199] 156
4/ M|L Silo 9 135 192 | 144 24. MiMi} S| 5 8 132 | 200] 149
5 M | L S| 6 123 | 195 146 || 25 | D|D Salome 129] 192] 152
6 M/;M S 4 9 130 183 151 26 M | G. |) W 5 8 128 197 147
4 M; LI] WwW yeas) 128 198 154 Pall Db |M SS) 5.8 135 205 157
8 M | L || G3} 126 187 146 BSe! Mey IMME aa) 7 134 | 204] 147
9} M|L |W) 5 5 133 188 147 29) M|D Sil 6) 2 131 184 | 148
10| M/D| S| 5 2 | 143] 204] 162] 309| M/L |W] 5 7 | 131] 187) 140
11 M/|L Ss 5 1 136 194 155 31 M|L Silieomn) 129 186 141
12 MiM NS) 5 6 135 198 151 ay Ma Le | Wi 5) 7 131 203 148
13 M;|Ls|W a7 130 191 153 33 M|M Salone 134 188 146
14 M/|L N) > 7 139 205 158 34 M|L S| 5 8 132 192 144
15 M | L Sil ouco, 138 | 187 151 || 35 | M|L Sie out 135 | 194) 146
16 M/D NS) 5 9 135 194 154 36 M/D Sh] Gy 8 124 193 143
7 M/ L Ss 5 9 13 200 154 37 D|L Spb 129 184 151
18 et || a6; Si] & 3} 130 185 142 38 JOY) abe AW) oy 138 18] 146
19} M]|L St]; ay IB 137 | 200] 151 39! M/D Silo. 6 133 | 194] 143
90 D/L S| 6.1 141 209} 157 |) 49) D | L Siemans 134 | 205 | 148

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. 43

XXI.—Greenock Parochial Asylum.

on
ray
s

135 | 20i 157 96 Db 129 195 153
128 192 | 142
131 201 163
136 197 158
133 193 144
134 191 144

L
M
D
M
L
M
L
L
M
L
M
D
L
D
M
D
136 | 202] 161 97; M]L
138 | 195 | 152 98; M|IL
M

L

L

L

L

M

M

M

M

L

L

L

L

D

L

L

L

nr
o-)
ra

MALES. MALES.
Colour Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. Character. Character. | 7 Character.
No. Stature. No. “= | Stature,
5 i co)
5 Ii. 1b B. = é s H. L. B.
q ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. rm | | w | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
4] M 138 197 151 Sl D S 0 126 189 138
42 D 139 199 152 82 D NS) 7 134 191 149
43 | M 128 186 153 83 D S 5 133 188 147
44} M 131 195 153 84 M Ss 1 14352 164
45/ M 141 | 200 156 || 85 M WwW 5 137 198 143
46| M 136 195 155 || 86 M Ss 2 129 183 132
47} M 135 | 190] 149 87 M W 8 134} 201 150
48 D 141 193 154 88 M NS] 5 130 189 153
49 D 138 198 152, | 89 M 8 8 134 195 145
50; D 138 194 150 | 90 M WwW 9 140 | 203 160
51 M 132 | 195 158 91 M W 6 134] 210] 156
52 M 142 191 160 92 M 5 132 197 154
53 M 130 188 144 93 M 7 132 199 150
54 | M 130 | 204 153 94 M 0 132 188 144
55 M 128 190 148 95 M uf 139 195 160
6
4
8
5

Ou
wo
=z

137 | 199 | 160] 99! M
128] 191] 145 | 100! M
130 | 200 | 148 |] lol | M

os

lor)
—
ta
=

130 | 193] 151] 116} D | D
132 | 198 | 151] 117/ M/|M
135 | 188] 150 |} 118 M|L
129) 199; 147]/ 119} M/|M
134 | 202 | 158

—
OFS

127 175 | 145
137 | 195 | 156
136 | 204] 163
138 | 198 | 160

SD OL Se H Or Ot OT G1 OV OT OF OV OL OL St OL Ot OV St OU OU ST OT OU GA SAU SA SAU STAU AOA A MN OU OT OVO Or
ao

MNNNMNNNNNNNNNNNNMNANNNANNNNMAN

=

=
i)
BP PPM M COME UUR RUDE REOU EME EOOMEEOOUSUUNUMH | Eyes,
402 euununnnnnnnnnunne 22 anunnnntnannnndane| Shape of Nose.

Or SUS Cr St SE SA St OT Or Ot OT ST ST OT OV OU OU OU Ot OU St OU SU SA GA OA OT ST GA SU SA OU ST SU SUS GU GD On

62] M 123 | 188] 147 | 102| m 8 | 136] 198 | 158
63 | D 124] 193 | 151 || 103] Mm 10 | 137] 203] 151
64 | D 149 | 207] 154 || 104] M 8 | 143} 207] 148
65| M 137 | 194} 151 | 105| M | 137 202) 51
66 | M 134 | 197] 156 || 106 | D 4 | 138] 196] 158
67| M 133 | 190 | 153 || 107] M 1 | 136] 196] 154
68 | D 135 | 203} 160 |} 108 | D 3 | 135] 189] 148
69) M 134 | 200] 156 |] 109) Mm 1 | 133] 185] 135
70| M 138 | 199 | 151 || 110] D 7 | 132] 203 | 153
71 | M 135 | 199 | 148 || 111 | M 7 | 139} 205] 160
72| M 128 | 191 | 148 |} 112] mM 4 | 137] 195| 151
73| M 135 | 195 | 147 || 113 | D 3 | 134] 187] 145
74| M 133 | 199] 150 | 114] M 6 | 132) 200] 154
75| M 134] 200] 155/115 | M 7 | 140] 194] 153

M

D

D

D

M

ATO WODAQDONWAAKF SCOWDNNWONADANTMINTAWWEORNUNUOKRE OD

XXil.—Paisley Parochial Asylum.

MALES. MALES.

| 15 | Mea Si 5 6 135 |} 201 148 11 M | L Silman 2 132 | 193 | 153
[ee 2 |e Nes ie Sil on 77 139 | 209 | 153 24) AD) )) 1B) S| 5 6 142 |} 200] 152
6) |} 15) i) ab) S| 5 9 136 | 203 | 150 135 |) <DEL Silo 0 137 191 145

2o |e ENS ee Onion of 139 199 | 153 14); R|L Sil bn 2 139 | 199} 145

5| M/|M S;} 5 9 146 | 194 | 146 15; RL S; 5 5 134 | 186) 144

Ga Ma Silo 8 144 197 | 154 16; M|L S| 5 4 142 | 192 | 162
DED | Ow 153 | 209 | 159 1 is ey ne Sule DFS 135 | 195] 150

See Di Vi Ss eo 5 141 | 200} 151 18 M | Silo. 6 138 | 206] 154

OTe Da MS Sis. 0 137 | 189] 151 TON) ME AW) bs 4: 144} 195] 151

10; M|™M Ss] & 137 | 194] 152] 299} M|L S| 510 152); 193] 153

44 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XXi1,—Paisley Parochial Asylum.
MALES. MALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour B Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character.| F Character.
No. ‘S| Stature. No. ‘S| Stature.
. - v : . v
5 g s H. L. B 5 o Q. _| Ip B.
|} a | ® | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. 5/2) @ | fi in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
21 M/;|M|W) 5 6 147 199 152 58 M;|L |W] 5 8 137 | 203 152
22| M|M S/ 411 133 182 141 59 M|M Si tora? 141 209 158
23| M|{M] S| 5 5 135 | 194] 158 | 60| M|L 8; 5 7 137 | 197} 150
24 M/L S| 5 2 128 178 145 61 M{|L S|; 5 8 135 194 148
295| D| Mi S|/.5 2 137 | 192] 156]/ 62) M/|M| S|! 5 5 138 | 200} 145
26; D|D | S|} 5 6 137 | 190} 158]| 68; M|DJ{ S| 5 8 134 | 196] 149
27 M|M Ss; 510 144 | 213 158 64} DIM Sl) 587 137 | 201 164
28 M\M S| 5 0 133 196 150 |) 65 D|M Sioned 133 197 149
29 M|™M S| 5 7 141 203 161 66 D|L |W 510 137 | 200 148
30; M/;L S| 5 3 138 | 201 152 67 Dj|L Sh) 1B) ov 135 | 208 150
3) M|M S| 5 4 136 196 149 68 M|L Sil oe 3 134 191 153
32 M/D S| 5 6 135 196 147 69 M|L Sal) Obed 132 195 156
33 M/;L Silane 133 189 146 || 70 M/L S|} 510 141 204 152
34 D | D R| 5 4 136 188 149 71 M | L S| 5 4 141 202 158
385) M/ L S| 5 0 133 186 142 72 M |} L Si | io 8 141 199 156
36 M{|L S|} 5 8 135 192 147 73 M{|L Silletouead, 140 195 145
37 M|L So 2. 134 194 153 74 D{|L S; 510 141 197 149
38 D{|L Shi] Gy 7 138 | 200 153 || 75 D|D S| 5 4 136 194 156
39| M/]L S| 5 3 136 | 197) 152 |) 76] M/L Sil aoa 139 | 203 | 150
40| M;|Mj) S|} 410 130 | 190} 140 || 77} M|D]| S/} 4511 142 | 200} 151
41 M{ LU S|} 5 5 132 196 152 78 M | L S| 5 4 138 192 151
42 Mi|M S| 5 6 134 | 202 157 79 M/D S|} 510 134 199 157
43} M|L Sil) 38 134] 195} 153 || 80; M|L|.S| 5 6 137 | 189] 148
44) M|L S| 5 7 133 | 190] 154 ]) 81] D|Dy| S| 5 2 133 | 188 | 147
45; M|M S|; 5 4 129 | 208 148 82} M/L S| 4 10 143 | 205 154
46 M|L Silom 139 194 148 83 My S| 5 0 128 186 150
47 M|M S| 5 3 135 188 146 84 M | L Ss; 511 130 193 152
48 M/L S| 5 9 138 216 154 || 85 M|D S| 5 5 130 198 147
49 M/M;|W|] 5 4 138 192 148 86 D|D Ss; 5 8 134 | 209 157
50; M/|L S| 5 8 138 | 195] 153 |) 87| M|M | C/ 5 5 142} 195 | 154
dl M|D S| 5 7 137 196 150 88 M | L S| 5 9 144 195 151
562} M|L R| 5 6 132 188 141 89 M|D Ss; 5 8 141 203 156
53 M!|D S| 5 9 137 | 202 154 |} 90 M|M S| 5 5 137 196 150
54 M;L{|W| 5 7 139 | 200 146 91 M | D S| 5 9 137 136 151
55); M/L Sil 5 7 141 | 208) 152 |) 92) M|L S| 5 2 143 | 208 | 153
56 M/|M|W| 5 7 138 197 149 93 M|M S| 5 8 136 193 146
57 M|M S| 5 4 141 188 147

No.

|
i BP ODURUEEUODUUM: ORUY | Hair.

Svonudc pwr

—
~

Asylum in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 45

Colour
Character.

PWORU: iii:

ROOM: SOPOUeU: :

Geeoe oe: Goi o:

Slelolol4-tal-talel~ | Byes.

; Bees

Bes SUS Ssheesee hes seeheoelSesheerPesRecheerraee:

1,—Aberdeen Royal Asylum.

FEMALES.

nnnnnnnnnnnndtnnnonnnnonnnnanntonnnnnnonesndonundnannsananmn | Shape of Nose.

Stature.

>

COUT OU SLOT OU Or

DAM TMH TE TOT OU CUR CR OTOU BR OUT OT OU UR LL el od on oy) dO rT

=
BOE NOFN ON

— io) ~ a
SCNCOCONOKFCENWNNEFWOWWNENY

me
p—_

_

_—
WOWWNWWWHONRFHWRNNRFOCONNDeEwWworu

Cranial
Character,
H. L B.
mm. | mm. | mm
132 180 i41
134 187 143
131 187 146
134 187 152
130 187 147
140 183 141
136 171 142
132 187 146
133 182 141
141 194. 154
132 188 148
132 178 136
132 178 139
139 193 146
129 194 144
136 183 147
133 167 142
133 186 141
139 191 153
137 186 153
126 188 144
131 194. 151
130 184. 141
123 171 135
133 187 153
131 187 149
128 188 141 |
135 189 153
132 189 149
120 186 146
123 171 141
132 188 144
pay 181 150
139 186 149
127 176 142
131 179 147
140 186 149
122 186 141
133 186 145
131 187 147
119 168 139
148 198 166
134 188 147
141 187 150
134 183 145
134 188 152
125 169 143
138 190 139
135 201 154.
126 194. 148
123 190 144
125 179 139
131 191 153
139 183 148
124 188 148
132 170 134
130 | 192 144
126 186 151
130 | 183 145
138 193 145

Colour
Character.
5 | 8
Eee a
M|L
M|M
R} pD
D|D
R/| D
seas ft
D|D
M/ L
| Ml
.. | M
DIM
sear
D|M
D | L
D|M
FsiM
FIM
M/iM
ceil els
D|M
D|M
D/|M
D|D
D|M
FIL
D|M
DIM
MI/|M
M!|D
D|M
Peee | D
D|M
D|D
D|M
1D) |f A,
D|D
ea eels
F/ L
D/|M
M/;|M
Mi L
M|M
D|D
M/L
Ro GL
1D} 19)
Beet ele
D|M
D | D
M
M
D
D

HEOUBUUUCE:
Ka

=a 66S =a
nounnonnnnnnannannannn ind dunn ennndanunnnnnnnnnnannannsnnnnnn | Shape of Nose.

FEMALES.
Cranial
Character.
Stature.
18 L. B,
ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.

1 120] 179] 142
0 128; 183 | 148
3 130 |} 182 | 145
2 128 | 187] 142 |
3
3
1
0

132 | 186 | 150
132} 180} 143
127 | 181 143
127; 181 147
10 120 | 182) 144
10 124] 178 | 138
ll 132 | 194] 144
0 137 | 179 | 145
139 | 193 | 150
149} 193} 148
129 | 187} 146
140 | 194} 147
131 185 | 149
140 | 197 150
125 | 184] 145
128 | 183] 148
129 | 201 146
139 | 179 | 150
138 | 176} 145
131 190 | 143
130 | 17 139
131 192 | 154
135 | 190 | 143
133 | 188 | 152
124 | 182 | 137
128 | 189] 150
119} 184} 139
127 191 149
128 | 177} 146
138 | 187] 138
132 { 182] 148
119} 169} 130
138 | 188} 147
123 | 177 | 139
135 | 186 | 157
126 | 186] 151
123 | 182] 147
133 | 176 | 148
132 | 184] 147
135 | 191 150
i25 | 176] 188
136 | 183] 152
130 | 188} 155
139 | 194] 152
128 | 180] 145
120 | 179 | 139
135 | 190] 1538
152 | 207) 178
126 | 187] 148

134 | 184] 147
134 | 186} 145
135 | 195] 144
139 | 184] 147
126 | 187] 154
130 | 187] 144
130} 182, 135

_

CUR CUR CUO CLO R ER OUR OLOLOLON OUR COLONIE BR RO OtOLO oR on
—
NNO RK WE OCWNORFWOMNHWwWHY

et
wm = oO

—

BPE RONNOOCORE RE WRERE OP UNNOAHO

—_

_

Se CUM OU SUR SUT OU SUT OV OU OT UH CUT OL OT OUT

46 Anthropometric Survey oj the Inmates of
!.—Aberdeen Royal Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Co) Co)
Colour & Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character, | 4 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘Ss | Stature. No. S | Stature.
o 0)
i) eee seid lane B. el BO lage Hal? Geers
Ss fet ts GS > |
a) A | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. = | | 2 | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
121 Roe (he il Ns] 5 0 128 187 148 || 181 M/|M Sal 4414 131 187 154
122 tcotlll MI NS] by By 135 199 162 || 182 Ri L Ss DD 141 197 153 |}
123 | M Ss 5 2 126 189 130 || 183 R/iM Ss 4 11 138 188 142
124 D{L Si 139 181 148 || 184 D> iD: Cc 5 1 138 189 151
125 D/L 8 5 6 140 202 151 || 185 Mi L NS) 5 1 131 184 141
126 Ree | ea OF Ss 5 O 150 180 143 || 186 DM Ss ij, 2 132 183 145
127 M\|M Ss 5 0 125 187 150 || 187 D|M Ss 5 64 125 185 142
128 D;i|M/ WwW 5 0 128 190 140 || 188 ae M Ss 4 8 128 189 148
129 FIL Ci on 138 183 150 || 189 DIM NS) 5 5 128 188 145
130} D/|D | S| 410 | 136] 179] 145 /1909| D|M| S| 5 2 |-134] 181 | i44
Bi man D Ss 4 11 138 187 143 || 191 erie 8 S| 5 0 145 186 148
132 Dp | D 8 5 2 121 183 141 || 192 hep. || aul Ss Gy 134 184. 152
133 . | M Sil oO 2 126 175 147 || 193 D|M Sil 2d) 33 137 192 150
134 M Ss By 8} 129 187 142 || 194 Di|M Si|) ) 138 183 140
135 L Ss o 2 132 180 140 || 195 FF |M S|; 5 4 138 191 149
136 sare aye! DD S oy fall 140 197 152 || 196 DD: Ss i) 130 190 146
137 D|M S| 4 5 139 184 152 || 197 bD|M Silane? 126 18] 140
138 See || ai 8 ay a3 138 189 146 || 198 Dp | Mi Ss a 35 121 189 146
139 Dp | D Sal 2 134 184 144 || 199 ano. | dil Sti) eb aul 128 186 145
140| ..|M| S! 5 1 | 137] 193] 152 |l900| ...|MI/ S| 5 3 | 139] 200] 152
141 ape | 0} NS 5 0 122, 187 146 || 201 F iM Syl ta: 33 133 192 147
142 DiM}C 4 10 Ry 183 149 || 202 D|D Ss 5 O 127 180 139 |
( 143 D!1D Cc 4 ] 188} 173 143 || 203 M|M Sileeon et: 125 185 133 |
| 144 R/iM C 5 0 126 2 147 || 204 Rad pail Salome 138 193 151
145 ID} |) 1D) C 4 7 128 178 133 || 205); R | L S| 411 145 193 152
146 sop || 10 NS) 5 1 132 187 146 || 206 D|D Ss 411 127 191 149
} 147 re eda S| 410 125 198 154 || 207 D|M Sor 7a: 33 IBY/ 199 150
| 148 fae AY, Ss 4 8 125 193 143 || 208 DIM Cc 6) il 126 183 145
149 sore |p NAL Ss 5 1 123 182 146 || 209 D|M Ss 5) 5 129 183 143
150| ...|M] S| 5 2 | 130! 184] 148 |/919/ D|D| Cc] 5 3 | 134] 189] 147
151 son || AMM Ss 5 0 138 190 148 || 211 D|D |W 5 8 128 192 151
iS? Di|M Ss 4 10 129 183 187 || 212 Res | terete | vat 5 (O 134 198 157
153 M|D NS) 41] 140 194 145 || 213 M{|L Silos 129 184 151
154 D|M Ss By 147 191 150 || 214 D/iD|W by DP 125 190 145
155| ..|M/ S| 5 0 | 197] 179] 149]915| ..)]MJ] S| 5 0 | 129] 179| 142
156 .. | M | W aoe 125 188 145 || 216 M|L hs} |) 45) 126 184 145
157 D/;D NS) a 140 199 152 || 217 D|D C yy 83 123 184 145
158 JD} 1D) Ss 5 7 139 186 143 || 218 1D) |) 4b; NS} 4 1] 128 184 138
159 yee | Mi Ss 5 4 148 194 146 || 219 D|D Ss 4 10 1S37/ 185 146
160; ..|/b] S| 5 4 | 132] 1871] 141 ||999| D|L| S| 411 | 192] 191 | 132
161 D|D Ss 41] 132 181 140 || 221 eee Sh || fy Ye 120 177 145
162 D{|M Ci bs 2 134 189 143 || 222 oe Mi S| 5 6 123 178 137
163 mo |) NE Ss 5 O 128 185 142 || 223 1DY |b; Ss 5 4 130 178 141
164 feo. || awl 8 5-73 132 185 150 || 224 bj ;D Silo) a 126 180 143
165| M|M| s| 5 1 | 133] 191] 143 |1995] ..|/M]C| 5 2 | 125{ 190] 152
166 D|M|W 5 4 133 180 141 || 226 D;M iS} I) <6) al 130 186 152
' 167 R|M Si) 3 144 185 142 || 227 M|M S|) Gye 131 185 155
168 D|jM Ns) Bye 144 185 145 || 228 D/|D Sila) 128 183 143
169 DD 8S Do 3 134 186 144 || 229 D|M S}|| 6) 8} 137 187 149
170| R|M| Cc] 5 1 | 147| 175] 149]/939/ D/|D|C| 5 8 | 121| 181] 148
wal DIM Ss eee, 138 182 150 || 231 D|M Si or 2 127 175 146
172 M|M Ss 55 3} 137 186 139 || 232 vD{|L S| 411 121 185 139
ie eee a S| 410 130 176 143 || 233 D|M C| 411 128 183 149
174 MiM S|; 5 2 126 180 149 || 234 M|M S|} 4 132 195 151
175; M|D| S| 411 | 125|] 169] 143/995] M|M| S| 5 3 | 187] 198] 151
176 aoe | 1 NS) fy 133 183 144 || 236 D|D Ss 5 0 127 186 141
Uf D|M Ss 4 11 132 189 150 || 237 D|M Sill 2 121 180 145
178 D|M SS) 5, 2 128 173 146 || 238 ML S|) ae (0) 121 185 143
179 MM] L S| 5 5 137 188 147 || 239 Dep Ci 5283 131 178 147
180; M|M] S| 5 © | 133] 189] 143 |/949] D|D]| S| 5 2 | 130] 190] 145

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 47
1.—Aberdeen Royal Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
d 5 a ;
Colour | 8 Cranial Colour | 2 Cranial
Character.| Z Character. Character. | 4% Character.
No. “S| Stature. No. ‘S| Stature.
fa . v . . uv
| Sele H. | L. | Bz Bi ¢| & Ee | te, | SB:
q A nN ft. in mm. mm, mim. = a nA ft or 1) mm. mm. mm.
241; D|D S| 5 4 133 | 182) 145 | 269; R|My| S| 5 1 134 | 192] 147
242 D|M S/ 5 4 126 185 146 || 270; D|M S| 5 4 133 176 143
2433) MoM | S| 5 1 132 | 186 | 145 | 271} D|MJ| C} 5 0 126} 190 | 148
244 D|M Syl ul 125 188 142 |) 272 R/|M S; 5 4 126 189 151
OAS. | Mi S| 5 3 135 | 190 | 149 || 273} D sD S| 4 9 126] 172] 144
AGH Pee Mo So 10 126 | 196] 150 |} 274) D|My| C} 410 122 | 187] 145
247 3:.-| M | Si). 4 10 120 | 183) 143 ||}975| R|M| S/ 5 2 126 | 172) 140
248; M|M{| S| 5 2 123 | 182] 145 || 276] ... | L Si) w 127 | 194] 146
249; M|M]| Sj 5 3 132 | 192) 150 || 277| D|D S|; 5 6 130 | 200 | 158
950; D|M! SS; 410 123 | 183 | 138 || 278 | D | D S| 5 4 133 | 184] 1385
251); D|M{] S| 410 120 | 189| 141 |} 279] ...;M] SS] 410 119} 189] 144
D2 Di M | Ss; 4 8 125 | 183] 141 1/280; D/|D | S| 5 0 136 | 193 | 150
F258} ID pL AA tay al 135 | 199 | 150 |} 281} DJL Si om 126} 183 | 146
254!/ D|My| S| 411 ING R74 SG 2820 VME | S|" 5: 0 129] 180] 148
955| D|D S| 5 6 126} 189] 181 || 283] ...|M] S| 5 3 128} 181 | 145
D5 Onl ke ME S:| ba 132 | 185 | 146 || 284); Rj L S| 5 0 148 | 184] 148
257, |) D> | D Sileor J 124} 178] 145 ||985| ...]D {| S|] 5 1 136 | 190 | 148
258 R/L S| 5 4 125 180 142 || 286 M/|M S|} 410 132 184 147
259; D|D S| 5 4 138 | 186] 142 || 287} D\M| Cy] 5 3 125 | 178) 143
960; ...|M{ S} 5 1 133 | 177 | 143 |! 288| D|My, Sj; 5 1 126 | 190] 153
C6 DEM) S| 5 1 135 | 196) 147 | 289] ... | D S| 5 1 134 | 189 | 145
262) tee | S| 5 0 132 | 190} 149/990] ...|}M{ S| 5 3 128 | 194} 145
263m beer lun ©: O03 139 | 188; 149}/ 291} D|My| S| 5 1 126} 178 | 148
PAR coe 1 |) ISH) ah 453 143 | 184] 147 || 292); D |D Silt or 133 | 202 | 149
965; D|M/ S| 5 O 119 | 191} 147/293} D|M] 8S] 5 4 126 | 194] 154
266 M|M Sb) 2 136 187 152 |} 294 D/M Cio 2 126 179 146
o67| ..|M| S| 5 1 | 1382] 186] 150|/995| ..|M/ C| 5 2 | 132] 201] 148
268} M|M] S| 5 5 129} 185] 150] 296; R |My S| 5 4 132 | 183 | 150
i1.—Crichton Royal Institution.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1} M|L S| 5 2 131 | 190] 144 }) 26) M|L S/} 5 4 134 { 199 | 147 |
PA |) ai | AB: S| 4 9 131} 190] 139 || 27; M/D Si) oy) 129.| 180] 141
3/ M/L S| 5 1 127} 187] 146 |) 28; M|L Simoes 133 | 192} 149
4| D/|D S| 5 0 129} 186] 150}// 29} M/;L S| 411 124] 186} 146
5| M|M|W! 5 0 124] 185] 148] 30; Mj|U S| 411 129 | 192] 146
6| M/|L Sb 0 ISL | Wit |) 1435) 31) Dy | G S| 5 2 129 | 192] 149
fe) Ee a Silvaor al 129]; 188] 150 ]| 32; M|L S| 5 0 132 |} 185] 149
8} M/;|D| S|! 4 7 127 | 190! 149 33; ML S;} 4 9 124} 179 | 147
9|/ M/|M| Cy] 5 3 129} 188} 149 || 34) M/ L S/ 5 2 130 | 178] 151
100 D2 ee S|) 2 132] 196} 151 || 35 | D|D S$; 5 0 128 | 179) 139
Mi MM) S| 5 2 131} 196] 139 |) 36) M/ L S|; 5 4 132 | 186] 144
12 ee Dee Silane 129 | 189 | 146 37 | M|L S| 5 1 135 | 182} 141
130 |e Mec Silpto: ll 120 | 185] 144 |) 38} M|L Sil) bs 2 124 | 177 | 141
14 M/|L Siliow 131 186 148 39 M/|M Sil] a) 132 185 152
15) M|L SS} 410 134] 193] 152 || 40); D|M|W| 5 1 130 | 183) 144
GH |e be |e Me es Salon a7, 127) 198} 150]) 41} Mj|L S| 5 4 124 | 189] 143 |
V7 NEEM | Si 5) 5 131 | 185] 150 |} 42} M|]L S| 5 3 131 | 193 | 148
18; M|D Silt ou 2 129! 188) 141 48) M|L{ Cj] 4 8 128 | 183 | 146
19} M| L S| 5 2 135 | 190] 149 || 44} M|D] S| 5 O 137 | 193 | 156
20| F/L S| 5 3 130] 189] 148 ]) 45); M|L| C}] 5 4 131 | 187] 151
21; M|D S| 5 0 129 | 186] 152|) 46; M|M! S| 5 4 129] 178 | 148
D2] F avis SNE |S eon so 124 | 190) 147 47| M|Dj S| 411 128} 181 | 140 |
23} MI|M)|W] 5 4 129 | 181] 140]) 48; D|Dy| Cj 5 1 123 | 182) 141 |
24; M/ L Si] 52 134 | 192] 148 || 49|} D | L $; 5 0 129} 185 | 144
295| M|D S| 5 90 129] 192} 144} 59) M|D S| 4 8 124) 177 | 13€

48 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

f1.—Crichton Royal Institution.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
; 3)
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character. | A Character.
No. ‘= | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
oO
alg] 3 H. iby B. Pe Balllass H L. B
a |x| 3 3 | >|
Z| | | ft. in. | mm. |} mm. | mm. S]A | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
51 M,|L Si) @ 3 128 | 200] 148 98 M|L S| 5 6 130 | 181 148
52 |) iD: S|; 411 128 198 150 99} M|L Si) a) ll 126 | 181 144
ball) Mae Ss) De dl 126 190 | 141 | 100 M/iL Silo) 3 123) | L758 V3
54| D|D CF 3 124 | 197 152 || 101 1D || ADE Ae) ey 4 131 185 | 141
55) M| L Silom 124 | 189 142. |} 102} M/ L S| 410 132 | 185 | 140
| 56°). Do) D Sip ome 139 188 145 || 103 | Mj} L Salome): 131 188 151
sy D|M 8; 5 3 126 188 146 || 104 | M|M Sill) oll 129 | 190) 140
58 | Mj L S| 5 2 131 188 146 ||105| D|M Sil iomee 136 | 183] 148
590 Deb S| 5 4 136 196 152 |/106| M!|My 8S} 5 1 1330 eels. 148
60 DD (|| isy 33 132 | 186 146 || 107] M|L Sil ome 129 | 195 | 146
61 1D) |} 3D. Sh) ay 9 130 | 196 143 || 108; R|M|W| 5.2 128 183 | 146
62} M/|L Sale al 128 190 147 || 109 | D| L Ss; 5° 0 133i |e SSalelos
63) EF | Ws 0 126 182 140 | 119) M|L S| 5 4 i29 | 193] 150
64} M/L Sion 22: 11s 191 141 |} 111 M/|M sy) ay 2! 126 | 185 | 150
65| M/|M S| 5 4 128 | 186 143 |} 112 | M|M sil) 8 129 | 187 150
66 M|M 189 || | Gy oe! 128 185 149 || 113 F|M 8 Do 134 204 157
67| M/|L Ss |iiome 127 187 146 || 114 | M|OD S| 5) 133 | 189 | 148
68 | M|D Silom TO 130 191 148 |! 115 M/L S| 5 5 Lessa ST: 147
69} DL Si) a 6 130 | 191 146 || 116} F | L Salon 131 L758 32
70; M|D Sal ae 127 186 TAT Ds Sito: IZ7 Ae SO a2
al M|UL Sion 2. 126 186 142 se) Mi Te S| (4 11 136 | 188 150
On| oD 1) Sit 5) 0 1255 ss 142 || 119 M|L Sh oy 40) 124} 180] 139
73) M|L S| 411 135 193 | 154 ]}129/ D/|M Shi) By eh 1237) Seals)
74/ M/L|W| 4 9 138 180 150 |} 121 M/D S;} 5 0 131 | 200} 144
75 M|L Ss 5 0 132 183 146 | 122 D|L Ss 411 125 175 139
76/ M|L Samo 136: |) 2029)" 1539)/ 1235) NF NES Wa 2 PA 184 | 139
he TEE 1B) ||, Ss 5.3 139 205 152 || 124 DG NS) B.S 131 180 144.
| 7| M|M iS) |) 7 132 | 192 153 ||125 | M/|M Sil] Ge °83 136 | 194) 144
799! M|L S| 4 9 127 191 147 || 126 | M| L Si 5 1 127 | 180 | - 183
80 M!/U sii] ay 2 By 194 | 152 || 127; M | L S| 5 0 125 | 181 143
81 D/M Sia 130 | 184 4 282) SM Wal eel: 127} 190) 183
82} M|M Si 5 5 133 | 184 151 || 129] M/|M S| 410 1257|\ S1SOn| ea?
834 D> |p Si) an eal 129 183 133 || 1830 | M/L S| 410 127 191 136
84} M|M Sal oud) 129 184 150 || 131 M} L Sri, ay 125 | 188 147
85| D|D Saino 2 128 187 142 || 132) M|L St] aye 4 126 | 185 | 145
| 861 D|D Sion 125 | 185 141 || 133} M|]L Salona 126 | 1938 | 144
87 | MJ L Si) os 124 182 | 1438 || 184; M/L S| 410 1382; 182 | 144
88} M|] L S| ay 126 191 146 | 135 IMS VER Cb a! 139 | 1787) 142
89 FF] L Ss yg | 121 183 129 |) 136 M/|M Ss 5 O 127 175 141
| 90| M/ L Silom IPA) 189 | 147 || 1387] M/]L Syl) 2h ial 124 | 180] 134
9] M | L SiO 126 193 149 |} 188 | M/]L Silom 140 | 187] 1438
92; M|M Si o 1 129 194 148 || 139 | M|M/] Sj] 410 127 |S S45 | lb?
93} M!D Si} ay @ 136 186 154 || 140; M/| M/W] 410 129] 182] 153
94; M/L Sh) ey 20 132 | 190} 150 || 141 M | L Sle on 3 132 | 193 | 151
95| M;L Si oy 125 | 189 142 || 142} M|M Silomeo, 129) 188 | 144
96} D|D sil) oy @ 122) 184 Mey || ale} |) 10) || JE; S| 411 130 | 181 144
97} D|M S| 410 122:| 187 142 || 144} M|L S| 5 6 | 134] 186] 148
i
fii.—Dundee District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 D|D 8.1/6 0 129 | 191 153 6| M|M Si) 4oi 131 187 | 148
2 Dm a is) |) Gi © 3 138 | 188 141 TA WD RES 131 188 | 153
3/ M/D Si) o 20 133 | 184 141 8| M{L Sle ovedl 136 | 186] 140
4} M/L J| 411 126 183 | 147 9)? Di | Shi) a) 133 | 195] 146
5 M/|M S| 5 0 124 | 183 135 || 10 D|D Sale ail 123 | 187 | 141

Asylums in Scotland—J. F, Tocurr. 49

411.—Dundee District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.

(3) ro)
Colour a Cranial Colour ed Cranial

Character,| 4 Character. Character. | A Character.
‘S | Stature. No. S | Stature.
: .) : E 8

aI o = _ ish, I. B. 5 & g H Te B
cla] oa ft. in mm. | mm. | mm. =] A | 2 | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
M|D Sid 4 134 191 153 7a D/L Cc ay al 129 182 136
D/|D Si yal 136 192 144 72 M/L Sil) 55 533 132 193 145
M|L Silom. 126 187 145 183 M/L Si] Sy 129 197 145
M{|L S25) 10 136 195 143 7: M/L Si be 2 126 190 143
M;iM S| 411 129 182 151 15 Mi L Sil da). 25) 134 192 155
ML S| 410 122 174 141 76 M|M Sion el 126 178 i44
M|D Si on I 132 190 149 77 1D) EN OG; ay Al 131 182 146
MiL |W 411 129 193 152 78 D|D |W] 410 130 179 146
NY ae By S| 4 9 133 192 149 79 M;,M Shi. a 138 199 153
MiMIW| 5 2 128 183 140 || 80 1D) 16; S| 4 9 130 182 141
M|M S|} 410 135 187 152) 81 M!D |W] 4 9 122 172 133
1 ee Sy |) 3), 130 172 140 82 M | L sh) oy a 137 188 152
M/D Silo 0 130 193 144 83 M!D S|} 411 1138} 182 143
D/|D Ss By, 125 183 141 $4 M|™M Ss i 128 180 141
M | L Silo 0 132 178 142 ||} 85 M!L Ss; 411 126 184 145
ML Soll oare 132 189 144 |} 86 ML S| 5 0 126 186 149
M|L Ss; 5 1 129 187 151 || 87 D|M Syl) ta, 126 190 152
M/;M Son 0 124 181 142 || 88 M/;M Sil oes: 113333 185 144
LY; Sligo) 3 134 194 152 89 M|M S| 4 10 125 186 141
M;|M S| 5 2 129 188 151 | 90 M/L St aan 132 185 147
DP | il Ss 4 8 132 189 148 91 M|M Ss Dw 133 182 149
M/L S| 5 0 128 189 142 || 92 MiD/i|W| 51 130 176 142
M|M S$; 5 1 13s 192 Toil 93 M;/M S| 4 9 125 180 139
M|L S|; 5 5 131 186 146 94 M|M Salo 0 131 180 149
ML Sal) om. 2 131 193 144 || 95 M|L Sole on 0 130 179 142
DIM Silom: 125 186 138 | 96 M | L Shi) eae 128 189 146
MiMIW|] 5 2 137 188 150 || 97 M/L shy] 26 Tal 129 io) 139
M|M S| 410 py 186 141 | 98 M|M S| 4 9 130 181 140
M|M Siig -o7. 0 125, 187 144 99 DL Sy || 26) 6s 130 195 155
10% | 10; S| 5 3 128 / 193] 147 || 100; M|M| S| 5 0 126] 180] 145
M{|L S| 5 0 131 191 148 || 101 DD srl] 3G), ee 131 190 158
D|M S| o 1 130 188 | 145 |} 102} DJL il D8. 139 | 201 153
M/L Sil orel 131 193 137 || 103 D;i|M s| 4 9 127 186 143
Dai Ds es mor 2 128 | 182] 148 || 104) D|L/ C] 4 8 125} 172] 139
M|M Si|eomeD 188} 192 143/105) M|M S| 4 9 123 180 142
M/L Silom: 134 194 148 || 106 M/|L S| 4 8 126 178 138
Dale Salvo, 2 133 184 145 || 107 M/L S| 5 2 140 185 145
DiM S| ay al 132 184 145 || 108 FUL S| 5 2 140 187 144
Mi|M S|; 411 136 186 145 || 109 M} L S| 5 0 128 187 144
M|M S| 411 125 184 145 |} 110 M/L Sj) 3 3 134 190 144
D/|M C;} 5-1 129 186 154 || 111 M|L S| 5 3 129 188 142
MD S| 410 126 185 147 || 112 M/ L C 4 10 136 185 145
Mi L sh Gh 7 129 184 145 |} 113 DD Mis Cal 53 137 189 148
M|M S| 4 3 125 179 151 || 114 M/ L S| 4 °8 129 186 147
M/;M S| 410 125 179 141 || 115 Dy) a S| 5 0 130 191 150
MiM S:|Peome2 138 | 202 154 |} 116 DS Dp Slo O 132 185 142
D/|M Sj o 2 132 186 145 || 117 MM Cae 4a 135 206 159
M|L S| 5 4 SOR As 149 |} 118 M/|L si || 4) 33 130 186 143
ML Si) 3) 0) 134 190 146 || 119 M | L Sioa 137 191 150
M|M Spon tl 132 182 140 || 120; M | L S| 5 6 135 191 148
M|M S/ 411 126 182 143 || 121 M;|LI|W| 4 7 133 191 148
M;M Sion 2 125 185 147 || 122 M|M S; 411 124 178 140
D|Mi] Cl] 5 O 120 186 144 || 123 M/ OL Siieomro 126 180 146
1 1b; Si lieoma 125 179 147 || 124 DS De | We 4 11 125 180 142
M|M Salome: 129 | 202 151 |/125; D|M|R/ 5 0 138 185 150
M|M NS} || Sy 2 127 188 146 || 126 M|M Ga 45) 2 135 179 148
M/L S| 5 2 125 171 140 || 127 M/L Shi; 5) 2 126 181 139
Di} Wield 1 125 180 140 || 128 Fs L Shi sy 4 125 187 142
M} L Siow 2 134 | 189 144 || 129 M | L Sill ono 131 191 149
M/L Silene 2 120 178 141 || 130; M|L Silom Ul 127 184 142

50 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

/11.—Dundee District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
o oO 5
Colour 3 Cranial Colour B Cranial
Character.) 4 Character. Character. | % Character.

No. ‘S | Stature. i| No. “= | Stature.

5 P vo | : : vo

5 9 s u Te B a & g 1BL, L. B.

=| | ® |] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. 4 |A | w ] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
1315|) Mee S| 5 3 127 183 |} 149 || 166; M/|L |W) 410 125 | 174] 148
132 ML S| 4 10 130 178 145 || 167 1D) +) 1D) Silpomel 137 180 148
138 | M|L Si| ay 4: 132 |} 199 | 152] 168} DJ|D Salone 135 | 188 148
134] M|L Sol) on a 137 190 | 146 || 169 M/L SS & 2 133 | 185 142
185; D|D S| 411 130 | 192) 145 || 170); M|M Sion 20 13i 192 | 146
136 M/L 184 || GS 130 178 142 || 171 M/L Sileon al 133 185 148
137 MD Si) a 2 130} 183) 144], 172! M|L S| 4 8 125 | 184] 1388
138 M/L S|; 411 122 182 137 || 173 D|D Sil oneo 125 194 145
139} D | D Sill a 132 | 178 146 || 174} D|L Si) 5 3 134 | 194] 153
140; M/|D Sil 25. al 133 | 186} 149 ||} 175) D | L S|; 5 0 129 | 182] 140
141 Mi|M|W! 5 0 128 186 146 || 176 Doe Csi= 5— 2 136 185 152
142 M/ L Silom 131 182 142 || 177 M/|M 5) 5120 126 181 138
143 M/L S| 4 10 129 181 141 |} 178 M/iM Sie 4a 135 182 140
144 M/L Sy Ab | tay 45) 135 187 157 || 179 M/|M S| 411 135 195 153
145| M/D/ s/| 5 1 |] 134] 183] 149] 180/ M/D|! S| 5 0 | 136| 195] 145
1446; M|L S| 5 0 125} 184] 146 |} 181} D|D Sale one 134 | 178 | 139
147| F | L Shit ay 7 1Z2Ze Se 143 1) 182: Di D Silom 122 | 184] 142
148 M|L SilroneO 137 198 156 || 183 M!|D C} 410 121 182 145
149 19) |) 30; Sal onal 134 178 142 || 184 M|M Si) a8} 122 188 149
150; D|D Si || ay 2! 134 | 193 144 || 185) D | L fey) Gy Yl 138 | 196 | 150
151 M|i|M Calo 2 136 188 155 || 186 Mi M Ship by Zt 137 177 145
162} M{L Sil 25n « (0) 134 | 183 | 137 || 187; M|D S;} 411 123 | 183] 150
les Fi/M Sy] oy 127 178 137 || 188 M|L Saleen 123 184 142
154 1D DW) 4a 138 195 150 || 189 M|;M Silom, 129 196 144
155| M/|L Saito 126 | 173 |) 133 || 190; M|L S| 410 131 184 | 139
156; M{/L S| 411 124.| 177 137 |) 191 M|M Sil a 0 126} 190 | 145
157 DiM S| & 3 136 190 142 |} 192 1D) |) 1) C; 411 125 185 142
158 D9) a Sula 2 135 190 149 || 193 D|D Saeed 0) 132 189 146
159| M|™M S| 410 125| 180] 146 |} 194) F | M1] S/} 411 127 | 187 | 148
160; M/D| S| 6 9 | 124] 184] 1441195] M| MI] S| 5 2 | 125] 191] 139
6G Dap ())) 2 131 195 | 147 |} 196; D|D S} 411 130 | 198 | 157
1627) (Da Mai aSsl) eDee3 128 | 182] 142 || 197 M | L S| 5 90 130} 192 | 146
163 D/iM 8S; 411 124 189 147 || 198 1D) |) 1DY eRe a 24 127 183 145
164 D/L S ay) Al 124 175 138 || 199 D|D Salome 128 187 141
165} D|L| s|/ 5 1 | 124] 191] 138990; D|D]| S| 5 2 | 131| 190| 144

4V.—Edinburgh Royai Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 DAD | Wa 533 133 | 187 | 145 169) EM MON Saba eo 140 | 191] 151
2a) DD S| 5 6 135 | 182] 150 WP | dk | OM Sy) BO 131 | 179 | 136
Bp | NE IE) ISS ay 8 140 | 182] 142 1S) Dab S|} 411 137 | 176 | 149
4 | D | D S| 5 0 124) 178 | 139 19} DIL S;} 5 1 | 1384] 186) 141
5) M/L isl) Gy" al 126 | 177) 1388 || 20; D|Mj)| S/} 5 0 141); 190} 145
Ca) PAB) |) ME SP eet} PA kee || BY) PAE | 3D) ih aa S| a 2 135 | 183] 147
|) 1b) |) tv S| 4 8 133 | 189 | 146 22! D|D C| 5 4 132 | 192] 146
8| D|L Si be by 2 128 | 179 | 139 23} M|L Sl a 2 139 | 189 | 142
9| M| L S| 411 139 | 184] 138 24); M/D Shi oy i 135 | 185 | 142
10; M/L S|) 5 10 129} 187) 139 || 25 | M|D S; 4 9 131 | 186] 147
UU AB OMe She Gey 139 | 198 | 160 26; M/L Oi) ey il 132] 185] 141
124 SID) | aD) isl] Sy 8} 134} 188 | 147 Pate || sak || 1D) Syl) ay dl 136 | 191] 151
133; M|M Sil Nong 127 | 179) 182 Pay | DY aR We fyi) ee 53 132 | 186 |) 145
14} M|D Shi oul 140] 186] 149 29; M|L C|] 410 126 | 173) 129
15; M/L S|) 5°50 133] 179 | 139°) 30\| D | L |.W) :4 10 128 | 184] 146

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocurr.

Colour
Character.

CUURUUSUZUEREUOUUUREUSSUUUUURUU Se eee eerovEeeyY | Hair.
sisio alalaiwlololaleltal alelalel~)--4--+-4- 1-1 ai alia lala) alot ial~) a) al1al al al) al 1a] a) a) al i419) a= )-4-4-4-4 | Eyes.

FEMALES.

aa =
DANNNNMMNNNARNONNASRNOADCHNSFunonarnnnunnnnnntoonsnsninsunsunnsow | Shape of Nose.

Stature.

>

SUR UST OU OT UOT OUST TTB CUCU RB CUR ROR CLOUR CUB CLO OU CTO R B OLOL OT OUST OUR BOR OOOO OE ROL A NT

iV.—Edinburgh Royal Asylum.

=)

=
WOFNNWENRFRFWrO

Cranial
Character.
Te ibs B.
mm. | mm. | mm.
137 187 147
138 193 151
144 188 148
136 193 145
132 | 193 144
127 181 138
142 192 153
124 181 139
133 184 144
127 188 141
133 182 | 142
134 185 142
136 182 145
136 183 150
137 192} 141
139 188 156
135 191 148
142} 193 | 146
128 177 138
127 191 142
136 181 143
137 188 142
131 181 148
126 177 143
126 184 | 146
138 185 | 158
120 | 177 140
131 181 137
135 | 185 | 146
131 183 146
138 184 | 146
132 183 143
129} 182 139
128 184 142
136 | 200] 150
130 168 128
130 | 182 146
133 186 143
133) 187 133
135 181 138
130 | 184 139
140 183 141
124! 179 139
131 181 144
127 182 | 147
133 181 141
140 | 183 144
126 181 150
122) SON 137
142 190 141
132 | 185) 142
133 | 185 143
126 | 177 136
138 Nyy 142
132 190 146
131 76: | V4
131 182 | 138
129 | 186] 145
140 189 144
IRB} |) gpl 152

Sh
|
FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 1% Character.
“3 | Stature.

a Ga) Pe pet Be
| ct 2
oc} | wm] ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
M{|L S| 411 136 184 136
D|D 8 5.64 132 182 141
De Ss 5 0 133 191 148
M/L S)|) oa) 4 138 194 150
M;|LIW} 5 5 136 193 143
M,L S| 5 0 126 182 140 |
D|M Sip 4211. 137 189 154,
DM Silt ay al 130 175 146 |
R {| L Ss 411 138 185 145
M/|L S| 5 0 130 181 148
ID) |) 1p) S| 410 133) eel 83eine 3b
1D) |} 1D) Si o22 136 194 145
IDE Ab; S 5 1 138 183 131
D/L 8S; 65 1 135 190 148
D;|;Li]W/ 4 8 122 187 142 |
M;i|M!|W| 5 O 127 192 | 146}
M/L C| 56 4 124 182 142
D | L Si) oF 2 127 181 138
D | L S| 5 1 124 | 190] 142
M|L S| 5 2 131 187 142
DEEDs Ite) 55-2 135 185 148
De ela S| 5 5 134 183 | 148
M/L C 5 1 134 185 145
D|D Sion 2 131 185 148
D;|L Ss 5 0 144 184 148
D|D NS) 5 4 139 188 145
D|Mj S|} 410 131 182 | 140
Die Ss 4 10 142 196 150
D{|L Sil oo 2 141 181 147
R|M 8} 5 1 137 184 146
MiM S,{ 5 1 135 190 140
M;iM Sion? 139 189 148 |
Dib S| 5 0 131 179 140 |
D|D S; 411 128 184 144
D|D 8S; 5 1 141 187 154
MiM C;} 411 135 185 138 |
De S/ 411 131 177 144 |
D!|D Siipo 4 137 | 179 143
M| L S| 5 O 128 188 148
1D) |) 10) S| 5 4 138 194 | 143
1D) |) 1B) S| 410 127 185 145
MD S| 5 3 127 178 138
D|M Silla 10 129 184 147 |
Mi D Silom 132 | 186] 142}
DAD Sil od 137 | 193] 143)
M/|L |W] 5 0 138 | 193] 152)
M;}M;{W! 5 2 137 187 151
M|M Slee. 130 191 142
Di. Cc 4 11 146 197 154
D/L Sy || ay 7! 142 | 197 145
D|D S; 6 1 135 182 145
By Si > 3 14] 186 146 |
D/|M Sil db 3 138 189 | 149 }
M|D S| 4 9 134 185 143 |
DiM/iW! 5 0O 130 196 151 }
Mi L Ss 4 8 127 182 145
M {iL Ss 4 11] 130 193 145
MiD Sii—eor 128 185 150
MUL S| 5 0 133 188 149
D | D Cito 131 176 138

52 Anthropometric Survey oy the Inmates of

IV.—Edinburgh Royal Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
g 3
Colour 3 Cranial Colour | % Cranial
Character. A Character. Character.| & Character.
| No. ° Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
. is . . oO
a|2|# Fie 12, anaes 2/2] @ |) lee
GS) | * | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm =] } | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
| ——- |——__-] —— ; —— a
151 D|M|W 5 0 141 187 143 || 180 M|M 5S ay Il 134 182 140
152 D|D NS) 5 0 137 180 138 |) 181 DS |G Sule wl sil 187 139
153 M/|L Cim5: 1 136 180 138 || 182 IBY {15 S|; 5-0 126 184 150
154. D;|D C ye 9324 135 192 156 || 183 DASD A AWall a2: 132 191 149
15 D | Ly Si 44 141 186 146 || 184 D|M Ss by) 151 198 159
156 Ree Ss Diaetes 141 188 152 |! 185} M|D Ss ij 1 128 180 140
157 Die | Ea Wale ees 188} 180 145 |} 186 M/L Cia 132 193 149
| 158 iDy |) 1D) NS) 4 10 134 190 145 || 187 Dy aa Sle Gy 133 185 144
| 159 DjL NS) 411 129 176 133 || 188 M/L Si] 5: 2 135 169 139
'160' D!D S| 5 4 135 180 140 || 189 D|M Sill Deo 1B 183 145
| 161 GP Wi 4 11 133 183 142 | 190} M/ L S HD a 135 183 146
162 ML Ss Dane 13 176 124 || 191 DTD idl) ay 2 144 194 154
163 | M|L NS) 4 9 135 187 141 || 192 1Dy 1b Sh) Be 983 128 188 142
164 D|M Ss hy 135 192 152 || 193 D|M Ss 4 9 133 181 i44
165 Mi L Ss 4 11 lists 188 144 | 194 M{|L Ss 4 10 129 7/2 133
166 Dea Cc } 41] 134 195 149 | 195 M/i|M (Q/ -&) 68: 133 195 153
167 DiL |W 5 3 129 182 141 || 196 Di) C MED 142 187 145
168 D {iL NS} oO: a 129 185 144 || 197 Mt ae i WW 7 133 188 149
169 oe eS Ss 4 9 124 189 140 |} 198 1D E10; Ss 4 0 137 183 148
1170) D|D NS) 5 6 137 188 152 || 199 D/D Ci; 5 0 130 Ibe 142
lye BD: | D SS) 4 10 139 187 144 || 200 M!/D S| 4 10 132 185 146
172 L Cc 5 4 138 196 148 |} 201 D/;|M Ss 5) 16 143 192 146
ie D;}i|D|W DU 126 186 143 || 202 D{|L NS) Dime 130 184 146
174 Mi|L | W 4 10 120 189 138 || 203 ny L C a2 141 187 153
175| M|L| S| 410 | 129] 183] 148/204; M|L | S| 5 3 | 129] 183] 139
176} D/L} S| 410 | 129] 186] 1483/1905} D|M| S| 5 5 | 139| 194] 142
177 Mi L Ss D3, 138 191 149 || 206 DiM Salas 146 193 146 |
178 M{|M Ss 5 3 145 187 145 || 207 M/L Cc iy. 3} 145 192 149
179| R|L| S| 5 0 | 139] 185] 152 |
|
VY.—Montrose Royal Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
| ] DiM Ss 411 131 186 145 21 P| MI iS) 510) 125 182 144
2, 1D) }) 1b) S/ 41) 129 Iyi7f 138 Pi D|M S| 4 9 144 198 155
3 D|M S| 410 33 181 141 23 M|M S 4 10 119 172 138
4 . | M Sulie4e a5 123 180 140 24 venaloala Ss 5 0 132 185 153
1 5 M S| 410 148 191 154 95 DM Salone 122 178 143
6 D{|D C{ 4 9 129 182 147 26 R|M Stil by 2 131 186 148
uf D|M Salo 126 174 145 27 D|D Sill ca: 64: 132 185 148 |,
8 R | D S| 410 120 181 142 28 DIM Syi)> ay (0) 132 178 137
9 DIM Sl 5) 2 138 183 146 29 ms M S| & 8 122 192 148
10 M| s| 5 2 | 139] 188] 149] 39] D|M| S| 410 | 132] 185| 147
11 DIM Silo 128 183 149 31 D|D S| 5 4 135 191 142
12 DIM S| 5 0 129 184 140 32 D|D Sil gor 20 129 184 142
13 DiM S| 410 130 173 139 33 D{|M S|} 411 131 195 152
14 DIM S74 35 128 181 149 34 R|M Sica 130 180 143
15} D{iM| S| 5 4 | 125] 192] 145]/ 95| ...|]M/ S| 411 | 127] 183| 149]
| 16 aa) |) iM Ss D0 127 185 146 36 D|M Silom 128 187 150
17 non |} aM Ss By 83 131 195 151 37 ao |} Ail S|} 411 128 189 158
18 pone | asi Caleb a2 134 197 150 38 D|M S| 5 4 129 176 143
19 D|M Ss Ay 5} 127 186 154 39 D/|M Sil sbi: 135 176 139
20 sop pol fi) Gy 1 126 184 150 || 40 M;M S| 4 9 | 127 175 142

Asylums in Scotland —J. F, Tocusr. Ne)

V,—Montrose Royal Asylum.

FEMALES.

Colour

Character.

SSCECUUU: SEU: SRESU: OU: OU: CORUE: ;

MOS: eae: SSE:

UO:

SESH eae ESE se sete POs eesctomeo shea =

ANNNNNNM AN NNNNMN!? CNNMNRNNNN NNNNNWMMNNMNMNNNNNNNNNNNNNNQOMNNNMNM | Shape of Nose.

Stature.

>

CLOUT OU OU OU BH Or Oe OV Ov OU OU OUST CLOT OV OU OV OT OTE OV OT OT OU OU OV OT OU OU OTH OU OT OT OU OT OL ST OV OT OU OU BE OL OT OL OT OT OT OH

ie
=

NOR OWN

=
RO POMOM HEH ON EE WWHORBOOR FORE NNNOANUHWOOWHWONEHHOMOO

Cranial Colour
Character, Character.
No.
Hi. Le B s | oa
ai 3
mm. | mm. | mm mm)
124 189 151 97 M/L
143 188 147 98 ae el
122 196 144 hey ||| aDY i 1)
131 182 136 || 100 sod a
130 185 148 || 101 DIL
136 186 151 |} 102} MM
132 182 138 |} 103 | D|M
123 180 142 || 104 | D|M
128 181 148 ||105; M|M
127 184 147 |} 106 | RJD
131 193 151 || 107 DIM
130 185 149 || 108 | M|D
123 189 157 |} 109 | L | M
126 180 146 || 110) M/M
127 182 149 |} 111 M{|M
129 191 148 || 112 LI|M
124. 181 141 113 D|M
PAL 192 142 || 114 D|M
131 186 152 || 115 ee | M
128 182 145 || 116 M{|L
124 178 150 || 117 arr hed By
127 181 142 || 118 et fi
131 191 149 |} 119 D|M
135 | 188] 149 |/499!] ...|D
143 189 149 || 12) M|™M
135 188 149 |} 122 le
127 183 144 || 123 D|M
139 181 144 || 12 1D A
125] 175 | 14511495 | ... | D
136 183 149 || 126 sage i dD)
143 191 147 || 127 ig jt 1B
128 182 152 || 128 aoe) 1D)
122 186 150 || 129 D|M
121 179 149 || 130 .. | M
130 187 146 || 131 DIM
139 184 149 || 132 D{|M
127, 195 145 || 133 Beret lal):
145 T9G2a loos 34 |) |
136 | 180] 153/135] ... | M
132 188 141 || 136 D|D
140 184 144 || 137 seo 1B)
135 195 156 || 138 De iM
133 181 139 || 139 M|M
133 191 147 || 140 ve (eM
142 186 158 || 141 soc |p A)
132 188 158 142 1% 9" 1B)
123 179 Seals Perea es (
126 185 149 || 144 10) || 1B)
130 | 177 151 145] ... | D
125 180 159 146 D|iM
133 180 141 || 147 D|M
140 197 151 || 148 eerie lun B
145 198 156 || 149 M|M
136 197 155 1150} D | D
132 192 | 159 }} 151 L
136 186 145

FEMALES.

2 Cranial
S Character.
‘3 | Stature.

a. H. L. B,
wm | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
S/ 5 3 126 | 184 | 136
S/ 411 125 184 144
S/ 5 1 132 201 145
S! 411 135 192 141
S| 410 135 | 185] 148
Ss; 5 1 140 | 179} 143
S| 5 0 133 | 175 | 143
S| 5 4 140 191 151
S| 411 139 | 189 | 148
CC; 5 0 134 | 175, 153)
S| 5 2 150 | 186 | 148 |
S| 5 2 137 | 186 | 144
S|} 5 0 133 | 184] 151
Silo) 2 135 | 184] 146
S| 5 2 128 185 152
S| 5 6 131 | 191 | I4l
CC} 5 5 139 | 184} 143
Saleoee 141] 185 | 149
S| 5 1 140) 190 | 148
S| 5 0 126 | 179 | 147
S| 5 4 128 | 182] 186
Si) eon eo 139 | 196] 161
one 5.3 134 180 149
S|; 5 2 134 | 191} 141
Cio. 136 195 146
S| 410 134 191 144
Si ay 8 124 183 145
S| 411 127 185 138
S| 5 0 134 | 183 | 148
S| 5 5 138 180 144
Silom 2 140 | 193 | 135
8S; 5 0 136 | 190 | 147
S} 410 138 | 189] 154
S| 410 132 | 188 | 139
Silom 138 | 186 | 141
Ssr]| ay i 135 188 145
S| 5 3 138 | 196 | 147 |
C| 410 133 | 188 | 144
S|} 411 133 | 190} 149
S; 410 128 | 180] 143
S| 5 4 148 | 262 | 154 |
S| 5 2 13L | 188 | 158
S| 5 0 135 | 186] 144
Sion 2 131 183 140
S| 5 1 132 185 150
S| 5 2 137 | 189] 141
S; 5 2 i25 | 177 | 146
Sib 2 145 188 148
C| 5 3 139 | 188] 144
S| 4 7 128 | 173 | 134
S| 411 138 | 190 | 151
C| 411 137 | 193 | 146
S| 5 0 132 | 174] 146
S| 411 122 | 178) 141
5| 5 2 134 | 192] 156

54 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

V/.—Argyli District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 ro)
Colour % Cranial Colour | 6 Cranial
Character. | G Character. Character. | A Character.
‘5 | Stature, No. S | Stature.
iS G oO . a v2
5 o s 1515 Te, B. = o s labs L.
oS )}8 |] | ft. in | mm. | mm. | mn. = }A | |] ft. in. | mm. | mm
1 M | M isi] 4) 3 138 201 141 61 L S|; 411 128 185
2 M|D S| 4 6 133 188 148 62 M/L |) a2 127 186
3} M|L S| 4 9 133 181 144 683} M/|M|]| S|} 5 3 137 | 190
4 M/L Ss 5 0 so 191 144 64 M|™M NS) Sy 119 181
5 M/L S| a) al 137 181 143 || 65 M;|M|W] 5 5 125 189
6 M{|L Shliomel 123 | 184] 137 66} M/L Sileoueel! 132 | 190
7 M | L S| 5 8 129 187 1485 367 || Ds Silom 137 | 193
8 DIM Ss Do 5 124 188 144 68 M/L NS) 4 5 126 186
9} M|M S| 5 0 129 181 1470) 69") De | iS} | ah 283 129 | 182
10 M;D Sy ty 133 192 148 70 M|D Si ora 139 201
ll M,;M S|) 5.90 130 193 1445) |\ee cell M|M Siro se2 133 193
12 M/;|M S| 4 9 122 182 137 12 MiM;|W| 411 131 190
13} DIM S| 5 4 133 198 149 73. || Mi) Ma) 4S.) 59 127 | 188
14 M/L Si oy 3 124 182 146 74 M;iM Si peor a 121 178
15| M|L/ C/} 5 2 | 124] 196] 147] 75| M/L]| S| 410 | 125) 188
146}; M|M S| 5 5 124 182 | 134 76; Mj|U S/ 411 127 | 185
17 M|D Simo 133 181 149 77| M|M/ S| 4 9 123/184
18 M!|D Simone py 191 144 78 MM Si 55 123 185
19 M | M S| 410 124 181 147 79 M/L S| 4 8 124 180
290| M|M S| o 2 127 184) 151] 80; M|D iis Oe 1o 129 | 193
21 M|L S| a 2 129 203 153 81 M{L s| 5 0 132 194
22, M/D S| 5 0 136 205 149 82 MD RSH oy 0) 130 194
23; M|Mi Ci 5 2 135 | 196 148 83 | M|M Shy) by 123 | 172
24/ M{|D fe) || ta} 9 2 134 | 187 | 146 84) M|L S57 134 | 179
95| M|L S| 5 2 132 | 185] 151 |) 85) DJL (Oh) ay al 130 | 194
26 D|M Ss 5.5 136 194 146 86 MIM Ss 5 0 121 189
27 M)|D Silo 2 129 193 143 87 D | D Syi| fy al 130 185
28 M/L S| 5 6 113353 179 144 88 M|D S|} 5 2 132 182
29 MIL Si 5.0 129 181 142 89 M/L Si zor al 135 189
380; M/|D S| 5 8 129 | 183] 151] 99; M|My S| 5 1 131 192
31 M:iM/ S/] 5 1 134 | 195 | 130 91 MiM] §S]} 410 131 195
32 1D) 1) 18) Som 131 191 150 92 FLL S|} 410 130 184
33 M{|M Sia 4 129 179 144 93 M/L S| 411 129 186
34 1B) |} 10) Some 132 201 150 94 M/|M S| 5 0 130 190
85 1M MS) 54 123 | 190] 146// 95} M|My] S} 411 139 | 189
36 M/;M S| ay 130 184 143 96 M;M S| 4 9 126 184
37 M|D S| 5 6 129 193 147 97 M;D |W 5 3 132 190
38 FUL Sil 5 135 194 150 98 M|D S|; 5 4 130 185
39 M|D Silt ouG 132 188 147 99 M|M S]/ 411 125 186
40/ M|M/ S/ 5 1 | 198! 192] 146/190! D|M{| S| 5 3 | 133] 192
4] M)L NS) 5 3 132 193 14] 101 DM Ss 5 (0 127 182
42 M/D Shi ay al 130 181 146 || 102 M/L Si, & & 128 194
43 M/D Site 2 128 190 142 || 103 D|L S|; 5 4 140 191
44} M|L Si Sy 2 124] 192) 143] 104] D | L Ss; 5 2 137 | 196
45 MiIM/W! 5 5 140 204 150 || 105 D|M Silom? 135 188
46 D|M NS) 5 3 133 193 149 || 106 M|M Ss 4 9 127 192
47 M/L Si ay il 126 187 153 || 107 M/L S|; 411 121 196
48 M/|D S|; 411 126 186 146 || 108 D|D S|} 411 127 191
49 M/L Shi] 4) Se, 184 144 || 109 M/L S| 4 9 130 174
50; M{L/ S| 5 5 | 127] 189] 137/19!| D|L| S| 5 0 | 130] 183
51 M;|M/W| 5 6 134 | 187] 148 | 111 M/L Si a & 140 | 200
52 M|M/W| 5 4 134 196 154 }| 112 M/L Sil Gy a 131 188
53 M/ L S ay el 128 185 148 || 113 D|D S|; 5 4 133 189
54 M/;M Seon, 130 186 142 || 114 M|L Silom 129 181
55 M/L S| 410 130 | 194] 153 |//115| D|M| S|} 5 4 133 | 195
56 M/L Ss 5 6 132 186 144 |} 116 M;|M Ss 5 5 124 182
57} M|M stip aye 2 132] 184) 148] 117] M;|M| S| 5 7 133 | 202
58 D;M Si) beet: 129 193 135 || 118 M|L Silom: 130 194
59 M;|L Sia a 130 182 141 |} 119 M/D Silom 2 131 195
60; M|M)] S| 5 2 | 129] 190} 143/129] D|D]| S| 411 | 127] 190

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 55

Vi.-Argyll District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character.| 4 Character.
‘3 | Stature. No. ‘Ss | Stature.
° vo
w]e] 2 Hee) dese e| 2] A, fea aes
= |e] a) | ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm oS |A ]} a |] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
M|L S/ 411 125 179 141 || 160 D|M Son 2 130 186 148
M|L Sion 2: 125} 188] 149 || 161} M | L || a 8 128 | 183] 149
M;iM/W| 5 O 132 | 185] 146]| 162} M/|Dj| S} 5 1 132} 185} 145
ee We |ed) © D 135 197 155 || 163 M|M S;} 5 2 126 179 144
IN 1G S| 5 2 130 185 141 || 164 M{|L S| 5 2 129 187 142
M/D| S/ 5 3 127 | 188) 148 ||165| M|M! S| 5 0 129 | 197 | 145
MiM/|W| 5 7 131 201 148 || 166 M;|M/|W] 5 O 151 199 143
L|M S| 411 132 197 141 |) 167 M{|D Ss; 5 1 128 196 150
M/|D Siok 135 183 149 || 168 M{L S| 5 4 126 192 145
M/D S| 5 5 133 185 148 || 169 M|D isi) By al 133 196 151
M|M| S| 411 | 128] 187] 147/170| D|M| S| 5 3 | 135] 195] 146
ML S; 5 2 128 179 146 || 171 M|L S|} 5 6 137 194 150
M/L S| 5 0 124 179 139 || 172 M;|M|Wy] 411 132 193 148
M/L Sule aL 120 191 oT) ve D/L Sil} i 83 141 196 148
M|D S|; 5 4 130 186 153 || 174 M|D S| 5 0 135 184 144
DIL S; 411 137 | 198 | 138 ||175| M/|L |W! 5 7 132 | 190 | 150
M/L S| 411 131 185 140 || 176 MiL|W| 5 O 134 188 143
M/L Sion 134 197 149 || 177 Dep S| By 127 184 143
M|M S|; 5 4 132 200 143 || 178 M/D S| 5 3 bey 189 148
M;/D| S/} 5 6 133 | 188 | 143 |) 179} M |D S|} 5 2 126 | 192] 138
M/iM S| 5 4 132 | 201 151 || 180 IDS |G; S| 5 4 130 191 147
D|M S| 5 3 127 190 140 |} 181 D/|M Si) B&F 134 190 142
D|L S| 411 130 194 141 || 182 D|D S| wut 134 188 148
M/L Ss] 411 127 191 151 || 1838 M|D Siar 2 131 194 150
IME IG; S55) 2 127 188 140 || 184 M;|L/]W] 410 130 190 142
M/iD]| S| 5 2 | 121] 185! 144]195| D/|D| S| 5 4 | 138] 192] 145
M/|M S; 5 0 132 192 154 || 186 M;|L Sy |i 3) Fil 129 194 148
M/|M S| 4 7 131 189 133 || 187 M | L S| 410 123 187 143
M/|D S; 5 4 128 191 148 || 188 M/L S| 5 4 130 195 146
M/L S| 410 118 179 138 || 189 WE || oo Cor 125 185 149
M/iD! S| 5 0 | 196] 195] 148]199| D|D{ S| 5 0 | 128] 188] 146
D/D S| 5 2 127 189 141 |} 191 M/|D S| 5 0 130 190 145
M|D SHibebye 126 187 141 || 192 ML S| 5 4 136 189 150
D|M Sil By 125 189 145 || 193 D|D S| 5 5 130 194 151
D|M S| 5 0 129 186 145 || 194 M | L S| 5 4 137 188 150
ML iSi]| @) 3 130 189 149 || 195 M;|M Ss} 5 1 135 182 139
M/|L is} |) oy 1 133 182 146 |} 196 M;M Sioa 3 133 189 147
M|M S|) 5 70 129 181 143 || 197 D/L S|} 5 0 127 196 147
M/}D S| 5 3 131 190 147

Vil._Ayr District Asylum.

—

FEMALES. FEMALES.
1| M|M| S| 410 | 129| 191] 138] 11] D|M] S|] 5 5 | 132] 185) 143
21 M/|L/ S| 5 0 | 129] 179] 149|| 12| M|L | S|} 5 2 | 129] 185] 146
3| M|L]| S| 411 | 134] 189] 145|| 13| D|L| S| 5 0 | 134] 184] 156
4| M|M| S| 5 0 | 131] 192| 153]] 14| M|M/ S|] 5 0 | 132] 185] 147
5| M/D| S| 411 | 129] 184] 141|/1 15| M|L{ S/ 5 2 | 120] 192] 142
6| M|M|W/ 5 1 | .130{ 182| 147] 16] M|D] S| 5 1 | 131] 185| 147
7| M/|L{ S|] 410 | 134] 193] 146] 17| M|D]| S| 5 1 | 130] 194] 142
8|/ M/D|W]/ 5 1 | 127| 181| 143])/ 18] D/L] S| 5 5 | 138] 207] 187
9| D|L| S| 5 5 | 138] 189] 139|| 19| M|M| S| 5 0 | 199] 187| 143
0; M/L{ S| 5 5 | 132] 188] 147]/ 29] M|M] S| 5 4 | 134] 190] 143

56 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Vil.—Ayr District Asylum.

FE MALES. FEMALES.
| 3 3
Colour S Cranial Colour 8 Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character. | G Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. S | Stature.
o Se) ee ea vo
ei rte ie ee ste fe em ti 1s H 13) Heyl ee
| x= || ® | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. =| | 2] ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
| WA M|M sf oy Ul 135 193 150 81 DAG S; 411 124 180 | 146
| 22) M|L Ci) 5 2 131 188 142 82| M|L S| 411 125 184} 135
23 ML CS v3 133 186 147 83 M|M S| 3 <5 133 194 | 145
| 24 M/L S| o 2 131 183 139 84| M/]L S| 411 124] 184] 139
| 95} M|D (Oy (0) 129 185 153 || 85 | D|D Silom, 132 | 191 144
| 26) M/L Sil) cone 130 188 149 86 M/L S| 5 2 1283 194 146
27; M | L Seon 130 190 151 87 Mi L Cc; 51 121 178 142
| 283} D|D Si) a & TSO 4 1925) 146 88 Mi|M S|} 410 123 171 142
| 29)| M|L S|; 5 0 132 194 | 150 89} M|D Suiouel: 121 175 137
' 830!| M/ L Sion 2, 124 185 138 || 90 M|L S| 9/32 125 190 | 147
31 M / iL Ss 5 O 120 184 141 91 Mi L Ss ‘) Pal 130 195 152
| 32/ MjiD Sloan 2, 129 185 144 92; D|L Sip O80 129 | 198 | 147
api) 1D) || 1b Ss! 5 0 132 | 178 145 937) Ma S| 5 4 136 | 193 | 149
34;| D|M Sy || ay 131 190 | 144 94; M/ L S| 5 6 133 196 | 151
| 35| M|L Salo 125 185 141 95| M|M S| 5 4 133 | 198 158
| 36} M/L S|} 411 129 183 | 159 96} M/IM]} S| 85 O 24S eli 140
yf M|L sii) 53 il 135°) “2OOn| W54 By By 1B) S| 5 5 130 | 199 145
| 38 M/|L Silo 7 132 | 186 140 98} MIM|W!] 5 3 131 197 146
| 39 M|M Salome 129 185 142 99; M/L S| 5 5 135 | 183 145
| 40| M|M Salon 14: 129 | 185 139 || 100; M/L S| 5 4 137 188 | 150
| 4] D{|L S| 5 2 129 189 | 145 || 101 ML Si) son 135 | 197 154
| 42; M|D Si) 2 129 184 | 147 || 102; D|D |W] 410 115 |) 72) | > 122
43; M/|M Si ay al 132} 189 141 |} 103} M|]L S|} 410 130 | 191 i44
44) M/] L Sh ay Zt 121 183 142 || 104 M/L S| 5 1 131 187 | 144
45| M|L Silo 0) 133 193 | 155 |}105); M/L S| 5 2 129 | 188 145
46} M/D S| 5 0 131 180 146 || 106; M|]M| S| 410 120 | 183 |- 142 |
| 47} M]...| S| 5 0 134 | 192] 142 ]|107| M|M] S| 5 8 134 | 193 | 144
48| M|M S| 5 4 132), 188 148 || 108 M|M| C| 4 7 124] 180] 138
| 49 M/ L Sil ona 133 196 145 || 109 | M|L (Rion 132 | 191 146
/ 50) M| L stl) ea) = al 121 180 | 137/110; M|L C| 4 6 130 | 197 | 149
1} 51! M|M Ci 4 4 123 186 146 || 111 M/L Sil 428 128 | 185] 146
D2 Me Wale 2 132 | 186; 149 |} 112| M|L S| 411 129 | 180] 145
| 53 M/L Sil a 129} 199 151 |} 1138; M{|L S| 5 2 130 | 184] 150
| 54} MIL S| 4 9 129 180} 137 || 114} MD S| 5 0 126 | 187) 145
55 M/;D Syl} as al iby 183 14211115} D|M S| 410 130 | 191 150
56| D|M S|} 4 8 121 179 143 |} 116; DJ|™M S| 5 2 130 | 177 144
57| M|L S| 5 4 124 | 193 145 1117} MiM| S/ 411 128 | 187 | 147
58 | M|D Si) 2 130] 191 146 || 118 M/D S| 5 2 127 | 189) 145
59| MIM S| 5 1 122]; 190) 151 |/119} M|L S| 5 3 130 | 191 146
60 | D{|D S| 5 3 121 186 | 148 || 120; M|L Si || <2 dil 132 | 191 148
61 M;/L |W 5.0 129 186 | 142 |} 121 MIM] S|} 4 1 127 | 187 | 147
| 62) M|M Sil] Ga 1241) 90) WSF 225) Beal S| 5 2 128 |} 196) 151
63) M|L Si) a) 8 133 | 184] 149 || 123} D | D S| 5 1 130 | 179 | 149
64| M|D S| 5 3 129 | 185] 141 || 124} Mj;D S| 410 130 | 181 135
65| DIL Sion al 125 | 190] 149 || 125) M | L S| 4 9 123 | 184] 149
66 | M|]D S|; 5 8 136 | 201 153 |} 126 | M|M S| 5 0 Meri kei 144
67; M|L S|; 5,1 131 181 147 |) 127 M!]L S| 5 2 129; 191 158
68 | M|L Sil) 6) II 132} 186) 151 |} 128!} M|M S| 5 6 132 | 185] 139
69; M!/ L S| 5 2 132 | 194] 137 || 129 M|M S| 5 2 129] 190) 149
70 M{|D Syl 6 8 128 | 200] 152 || 130; M/|D|C| 4 7 132 | 185 | 148
71 M|L S|; 411 130 | 189] 151 |} 131 R/|L S| 410 124; 182] 147
72} D{|D Silomee, 128 190] 149 |} 132) M|M Sion 2 127 | 190} 143
ie M|L S| 5 6 134} 191 149 || 133 M/L S| 5 6 126 | 180 | 144
(4) DD Sy) a 4 131 196 148 || 134] M|L Cc] 411 129 | 186 | 145
75; M/|D Syl oy 2 129 190 | 145 1/1385 D|M S| 5 3 139 | 199] 151
76} M/D Syl 4y 53 141 | 201 156 || 136 | D | M S| 5 6 137; 181 152
77| M/L Sy) Syl 133 | 189] 153 || 137 M;|M S| 5 3 129; 189 | 144
78{| M/L S925) © 131 187 | 150 || 138 M/|L S|} 5 2 130 { 193 | 143
TAY | AD |) Gee S|} 411 130 | 187} 148 || 139} M/]L |W] 5 0 131 173 | 140
80| M/L S| 410 122 | 178] 137 || 140 M|L S|; 5 1 136 | 192) 145

Asylums in Scotland—J. EF. Tocuer. 57

Vil,—Ayr District Asylum.

Colour

Character.
No.

a] S

ee) ica}
141 DID
1422; D|M
1431) Dy |
144 10) 41D)
145 MIM
146; M/L
147} D}|bD
1448} M/L
149 | D|]D
15 M | L
151 D|M
152) MO
153 | M | L
154}; M|M
155| F | L
156 M/|D
157 M/L
158 | M|L
159 DL
160 | M|L
161 De
162 M|L
163} M/|M
164 M/L
165| M|L
166 M|D
167 Mi
168 | D|D
169 M|M
170| M|L
171 D{L
W255 DD
173 M|M
174| D|M
175 | M|D
176); M/L
177 IDG;
178} Mi; D
17 AE
180) M|u
18) M/iM
182; M/ L
183] M|M
184 i DD: | D
1 M | L
a Mi|M
187 Mi L
188 M|M
189| D|M
199 | ML
191 M|M
192 MiD
193 M/L
194 M{|L

FEMALES.

=< <a
nun dun dnnnnnnnoncuntounntnnnnnnesonnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnmnun | Shape of Nose,

Stature.

>
:
”
3

(=
SOP RK RK OOO R= OO

10

— _
ReNoF

Ce OWWOCNOFrONGS

=e

a)
Cr nNnnNnar

=
SCWONDBDKWOCRNWNHRE WHEE

APA PAPAANRAAANERNATEATMANATNIBHATTEAATMTRARATR ROR OTOP ER OOO
_—

Cranial Colour
Character, Character.
No.
lal Tes B. 3 vi
mm. | mm. | mm. aay ad laieal
127 187 143 | 195 DP eG
136 196 149 || 196 MIM
127 182 148 || 197 M/L
131 190 145 || 198 M|M
125 189 146 |} 199 D;|L
125 175 142 ||200| M/|™M
130 | 188 137 || 201 M|M
126 181 138 || 202 ML
126 183 146 || 203 M|M
133 184 142 || 204 MIM
125 185 139 || 205) MIL
125 183 145 || 206 M/L
125 119/33 146 || 207 Mi L
127 191 148 || 208 ML
127 185 133 |} 209 Mi L
130 195 154 || 210 Mi L
131 192 144 || 211 M|M
Ta 192 137 || 212) M | i
128 190 145 || 213 M{|L
131 192 148 || 214 ML
129 190 142 || 215] M1] L
132 183 153 || 216 M/L
131 185 150 {) 217 DIL
131 183 145 || 218 M/D
126 187 137 || 219 DIM
122} 181] 130|/999) D | D
127 188 142 |} 221 FiM
131 195 142 || 222 M{|1L
128 183 146 || 223 D|M
119 179 130 || 224 M|M
128 | 192] 146 |995| D|M
128 182 140 || 226 MID
132 187 149 || 227 M{|L
122 187 143 || 228 M | M
130 192 146 || 229 M/L
136 195 155 || 230; MJ|D
131 182 146 || 231 M}]L
133 | 190] 150 || 232 | M | L
128 186 144 || 233 MID
134 190 141 || 234] M|L
131 | 188 | 145 |/935| M|M
131 185 150 || 236 M/L
131 191 146 || 237 M/|L
139 195 143 || 238 M/|M
131 190 141 || 239 D/L
125 | 180] 145 |}949| M |
131 189 142 || 241 M|D
126 189 145 || 242 | M1] D
138 196 147 || 243 M | L
114 174 140 || 244 M|]L
TS 199 142 1945) M | L
126 173 135 || 246} My|D
122 187 147 || 247 b|D
127 187 146 |} 248 Mi) L

FEMALES.
a Cranial
Zs s Character.
‘s | Stature.
a. H. Mi, || 8p
a | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
S|; 4 8 11455 174 124
S| 410 134 191 152
as 5 3 125 178 14u
Sey 33 135 | 207 157
Si) 49 135 188 149
S| 5 4 i25 194. 145
S|; 410 134 195 153
WwW! 5 3 ish) 183 145
Ss; 411 129 188 146
S| 5 1 126 192 151
S| 410 123 192 150
S/ 5 3 133 193 153
S|; 411 128 189 149
S|; 411 124 Isl 142
S| 410 128 186 149
C/ 5 1 130 | 190} 143
WwW) 5 2 126 183 137
W! 5 2 125 190 147
W! 5 6 124 189 145
Si) 5 5 132 186 147
S| 5 1 129 M7 143
S| 5 1 132 186 144
S| 411 129 191 153
C| 5 5 127 200 143
S| 5 3 130 189 143
S| 410 120 183 ]44
S| 5 3 125 180 | 140
S| 5 5 125 194 146
S| 5 2 133 196 145
W| 410 131 183 144
S| 5 6 137 181 149
S| 4 8 132 198 151
S|; 4 9 128 182 141
S| 411 130 193 145
Shin 24 127 185 14]
S; 5 2 130 184 141
S| 4 9 133 195 149
Silo. 2 137 192 159
S| 411 126 184 14t
S| 411 131 185 141
8S; 5 1 130 186 147
S| 5 2 132 185 144
S| 4 9 131 189 151
s| 4 9 128 199 154
S|} 411 132 198 159
C; 4 5 124 183 135
Ss} 5 4 127 189 150
S| 5 4 136 | 202 145
S| 410 134 192 146
SijeoeO 133 183 140
S| 410 139 | 200 153
S| 4 7 126 195 144
Wi 4 9 132 194 148
S| 5 8 129 193 147

58 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Vill.—_Banff District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
o a :
Colour S Cranial Colour g Cranial
Character.| 4 Character. Character.| 4 Character.
No. 6 Stature. No. S | Stature.
SOs os Hy ee: eles hs Ho | L. | B
S|] 8 Sf} a] 8 a
||” | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. GZ} }H] f. in. |} mm. | mm. | mm
1 M|M] C| 5 5 136 | 183 152 325) Ds Mai tS) | b=3 132 | 184], 149
2 Doo. C Ome 126 187 146 33 Bee {fp 3D) Siisomae 139 189 154
33 M|M 8S; 411 129 178 147 34 D | D Sy |oas. 130 192 156
41 p|D|s| 5 0 | 120] 182| 142|| 35| M|M| S| 410 | 134| 184] 146
5 M/i|M Sion 0 128 182 148 36 .. | M S| 5 8 131 184 145
6 M/|M Sijon0 23 178 150 37 poor lD) Ct 25e88 134 188 143
a Mi) | M || "Ci “52 137 183 | 143 38 | D|D Silicone) 125} 188] i47
8 D|M st |f iy 130 188 141 39 DIM Shi) ay 130 185 151
9 1B). |G; Dlr e5s ke 123 181 148 40 D|M Siipone2 131 197 150
10 D/|i|M S|) 5256 138 198 152 41 D;M Sl 5k 133 180 152
ll Di|M Si lerowee 135 187 151 42 D\|M Ssiueon ed 132 182 147
12 D|M Sil) 5) 33 136 189 146 43 D|M Salero ai 135 187 146
13 R|M Sil 125 175 149 44 tee || VE Sy) al 132 192 147
HO Bae iD) Si) Bo 131 190 | 157 || 45} D|M| S| 5 2 123 | 176 | 139
15 . | M S|; 5 8 133 181 149 46 Foo) avi Cilior 133 188 139
NG} | sen |) ul Sy} ol 125 | 182] 146 47| M/|M] S/ 5 1 138 | 197} 148
17 M/M S|; 411 135 178 146 48 M|M Silos 138 182 147
18 M | M sil} 37 126 186 151 49 MiM S| oo 122 192 142
19 D|M S| 411 127 181 144 50 M|M (OF) Gy 83 128 180 150
20 D|M Sion 134 191 153 51 D|D Sileyon a7 143 189 150
21 .. | M So 3 132 189 148 OZ eee |) 0) Silrome2, 131 192 146
22 D|D Sip i 130 174 149 53 R|M S|; 411 130 188 147
De F L Ss By ll 128 180 144 54 M|D Ss 5 4 126 184 144
24 M;iM S| 4 9 130 188 144 55 M|M S| 410 124 186 140
95}; DIM iS} || 5) 5) 137 176 | 150 56/ D|Mi S} 5 0 129 | 187] 146
26 Bae |) kul || sy 123 183 142 57 M | M Si} 4 & 7 183 146
27 D|M S|) ay 3 Ri 185 145 58 D|D Siar 133 184 149
28 eeee eM Ci 27 189 151 59 Sea. || 1D) Sil bis 131 192 154
29 D|D S$; 5 1 127 181 149 60 DIM S| 410 125 191 149
30 M/]D Sd 272 18 P2 178 143 61 D{|M Sil 25:36 133 193 152
3) M;iM 8 5 4 125 182 149 62 D|D Siar 2 129 190 153
1X.—Eigin District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 D|D S| 5 0 125 196 148 || 21 M|M NS) 4 10 126 186 14]
2 DiM S| econes 131 183 149 22 AME S| 5 0 127 185 143
3 DPD Simone 126 184 147 3 M/iM S| 5 2 134 191 144
4 R|M Ny 5 3 132 181 145 24 DIM|C ay 131 179 149
5} DIM Si; 3 125 | 182} 145] 95) M|M S| 5 2 134) 190 | 158
6 D|M Nt) a 8 130 181 144 26 Dib Sill oy 2 138 188 141
7; DIM Sh) 6) 126} 183) 142 27 > ML | Ma) Sit 53 117 | 183) 144
8 R|M S| 5 4 136 190 146 28 ae S| 411 125 175 138
9 DIM S| 5 0 132 189 149 29 M|D Stil) bi 132 179 144
10 FIM Ss ae 119 192 152 || 30 M|M S| 410 128 190 147
ll . | M S aA 128 180 143 31 R/|M Sylora 126 190 149
12 . | M NS} ae 131 193 146 32 D|M/C 4 1] 123 187 139
183 soe | ME S ais 140 196 156 33 Ri|M Shih ay aL 133 186 141
14. DIM NS ve 127 189 141 34. fn M|] W 5.4 119 172 141
15 D{|M Ss te 129 183 149 | 35 D/|M Ss by 136 188 150
16 Di | D Ciba 2 131 181 142 36 D|M Silieoues 123 182 143
17 D | D Site 20 137 187 150 37 Soe |b WE Silane): 125 188 145
1s M | D Chia 4- 137 191 154 38 M/|M S| 411 125 189 149
19 D|M Sil oy & 136 184. 147 39 san, S| 411 131 183 142
90 eee || ONE Si) 590 134 187 142 || 40 D|D Silmeomeo l 135 189 151

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocuzr. 59

1X.—Elgin District Asylum.

Az
9

>
~

FEMALES. FEMALES.
: oO
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character.| A Character.
“s | Stature. No. ‘So | Stature.
vo
alg] 2 Ele li ieee 8 paella! H. | L. | B.
Ss BS SS Et ae!
S}A 1S | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. Xo} a] ] ft. ine | mm. | mm. | mm.
D “ Silo 131 181 143 66} D|M S} 411 129} 179 | 142
ADT a shel S| 5 7 132 | 188 149 67; D|M; S; 5 1 121 171 135
43 men) VE S| 5 6 135 | 200] 146 68; D|M]| S] 5 0 124 184 148
44; D|M Si] a 2 123 | 186 139 69; D|M] 8S} 5 2 128 188 145
45| D|M Silo) a 128 183 144 || 70 so= || © Seo 7d 129} 190] 151
46 M|M C ay (0) 126 180 143 ral D|M S|; 4 9 124 182 150
47 |) Silsoe L 129 180 | 144 (2. Da NIMC 5 5 136 195 145
48; M,M] CC] 5 6 132 | 184 142 73 vv. | M | Ry 4 9 129 178 139
49| DiM] C;] 5 0 135 | 180} 148 TEE |) bbe |p EN ISS) Gy aL 127 179 146
50; D|M S| 5 6 131 187 | 145 |) 75 R}|L Ss; 5 1 122 182 145
Ss!) D|M| SS} 5 O L3t | eLor 155 76 D|M S| 5 0 127 186 144
52} RIM! Si 5 6 127 | 188 146 77| M|Mi Si 5 2 130 | 186 144
53 | D |D iS) |] Say 33 119 | 183 148 78 sou 4} 1D) S| 4 11 129 185 | 145
Si |) 1D), 1D) Silo) 2 129 | 189 150 79 MEW C5 3 119 169 129
D|M Sih sy) 7 136 184 153 || 80 WE )| ASS) fay 129 195 144
D|M S| 5 2 Jil 176 145 81 DP MEI Si 555 127 184 | 143
R|M Si] 6) 134 188 | 147 82 WWE | (Onl) ty Ye 131 | 200} 149
D/|M S| 5 3 123 182; 148 83 M|{M] C/] 5 0 1230 els 148
D/|M Si] 9) 6) 120 | 180] 144 84} D|{M| SS} 5 8 118 183 | 146
D/D Sh] 3 & 134 | 191 148 || 85 D/;|M/ Cl} 410 131 184] 143
D|M S| 5 6 130 | 185] 158 86 R|M S| 5 1 134} 173) 144
D/|M Ss 5 6 130 184 155 87 M C 5 8 SS ee lize 139
eee Slip 8 125 | 173] 146 88 D C;} 5 1 126 184 | 142
DM S| 410 123 | 179 142 89 M/} S| 411 shiksy [I aba 139
D|M S| 5 5 136 184] 147
X.—Fife District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 M|L J} 411 135 186 148 26 M/ L S| 5 0 128 190} 143
2); M/D S| 5 2 129 | 182] 149 27 M/L Ci aee a: 130 | 189 145
3} M|M/|W! 5 6 133 |} 189 | 142 283; DiMI| S/} 5 0 126 182 152
4| M|L SS) i ay 83 134 187 148 290) De it Sip 22, 122} 191 141
5} M|L S| 4 9 134 177 | 149! 30) M/L Sila 126 | 185 148
6; M|L Soy al 123 | 179 141 31 M|M Sl 5 4 137 | 200] 154
7 D|L SS) || 63 © 8 130 182 144 |} 382 MIL Ss 411 125) 189 139
8; M;D ms) ||) (0) 125 180 | 139 33 | MID S}|| ty (a 125 190 | 153
9} M/| L Sion 2 126 | 184] 144 34| M|M/ S| 5 2 126 183 145
1D) |) 1h; dy 6) 83 125 181 142 || 35 M;iM] Sj 5 8 131 190 138
M/L Silo 121 167 | 141 36| F |M] S/ 5 4 124 185 145
Dy | el S|’ 5) 4 137 197 | 160 37} M;D Ci bs 3 128 183 | 143
M/|D Sul oe 136 ; 196 144 | 38 M;|M| S| 5 8 126 | 187 140
M{|L |W] 51 127 179 | 14 39 M | L Sie be 128 185 144
DD Salinas 129 186 | 141 || 40 M;|M Si a. oF 139 | 196 156
M;L | W 411 128 188 151 41 M|M Ss ay al 130 193 151
M|L isi} ty 123m Pels2 |e 145 4D Me Te Wa 47 134 |} 183 147
M;|L Ss 4 10 124 184 144 43 M/|M Ss Ay Pe 138 194 147
M;iL/|W| 5 4 125 ast 144 445) Di |p: S| 5 0 126 178 142
M;D Sl Gh 2 129} 188 | 147] 45 M|L.| W} 5 2 128 | 191 140
M;L/]W| 411 131 190 | 142 46} M/|M Si] Gy 122) |, 184 137
M | L si || 6) 83 128 | 191 149 ry A) BY S|} 5 0 122} 184] 146
D|M Ss 5) a 132 187 151 48 bD D Ss 5 1 124 190 148
M!D NS] D 0 127 183 141 49 M{|M Ns) 5 0 128 188 143
M|L Ss peel 129 184 144 50 M,|M Ss 54 136 189 151
\

60 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
X.—Fife District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 7 Character. Character.| % Character.
No. ‘5 | Stature. No. ‘= | Stature.
“ nw i F = :: cc)
ic S g TAs L. B. I o a. H. 1b, B.
4 |} | w | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. |] & ] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
51 DAN eD Sia 4 138 189 152 |) V1 ML S| 5933 131 190 146 |
52} M | L S| a 126) 179] 149]/ 112) M|™M Siieomes) 131 196 | 147
53 Mi|M Shi ar a 131 185 141 || 113 M/L S|; 5 0 131 195 151
54 ML S| 5 4 133 186 145 || 114 Deb SH] 6) 83 134 188 152
55| M|D| S| 5 2 | 130] 184] 142/915! M/L/ s| 5 0 | 133] 192] 153}
56 D|D C 6 i} 130 191 154 || 116 M|M Ss 411 130 194. 147 |,
57| ML S| 5255 131 L953) 1534) 174) MD Si) 4208 128 | 192 | 145 |
58 M{|M Siro. 4 128 180 144 || 118 M|D S| 5 8 131 190 145
59 M/L S| 5 1 120 73: 142 || 119 M|M S| 5 4 129 182 141
60 M|M S|; 5 0 136 192 147 || 120 MiL|Ww| 5 0 135 185 149 |
61 M/|L S| 5 2 135 190 147 || 121 MID S| 4° 9 116 178 134
62); M|L S| 5 8 126 | 190 | 142] 122) DIL S| 5 0 117 | 177 | 140
63 M|D C|} 4 9 125 186 150 || 123 D|D S$; 5 5 IB 193 149
64 Mi; L $$; 5 0 134 189 151 || 124 MeD Walt b= 2. 134 193 151
65 ML S|; 411 128 183 145 || 125 M|M S|; 5 4 124 187 150
66 M;M S| 5 4 1853 185 154 || 126 MDa Wel e510) 127 187 148
67 | Mj|D S$; 5 1 135 | 178 | 146 || 127} M|L S| 5 4 135 | 192 | 144
68 | M{L Si omne7, 134 | 193) 145 || 128; Mj|D Sly) by 2 124 | 186 | 145
69 M/L S| 5 4 130 195 144 |} 129 M|M S| 5 4 134 200 154
70 M/L SS; 5 0 131 185 137 || 130 M|L Sis-4etl 134 194 147
71 | ML Sileor 5 132 183 038. 031] Meas (OI eay 3} 132 | 181 138
72.) “DD Si 5 4 127) 1945) 9147 1/325) SDs). S| 4 9 126 | 185] 147
73 D{|L Sion 2 129 189 139 || 1383 D|M Sai) os 136 184 154
74 FUL S| 5 5 130 185 138 || 134 ML Sion 130 191 143
75| M|D| S| 5 2 | 197| 187] 149/195 | D|D/ S| 5 2 | 25 | iene
76) M|D S| 5 3 127 | 179) 142 |/136| D|M{|W/] 5 1 124 | 179} 141
77 M/;M S| 411 132 180 150 || 1387 MiM|W} 411 126 188 147
78 M/L Sill of as 135 186 145 || 138 D|M Sieoie. 124 185 136
79 Dai Wo ltomes 130 185 147 || 139 M/D Ss; 5 0 126 175 146
s0| M|L| S| 5 0 | 127] 190| 144 |\140/ D|D| S| 5 5° | 138] 195] 140
$l 1DY |} 1B) S| 5 6 125 179 140 || 141 MG|SDe Wal eomel: 128 192 145
82 DD S|} 5 0 128 18] 143 || 142 M|L Saou 125 190 150
83 M;L |W 5 2 132 196 152 || 143 M|L S|} 4 9 126 179 146
$4 M/ L Silo, 3 130 184 143 || 144 M/|M Sy ip a3 al 123 18] 142
85| M|D]|s8| 5 1 | 134] 185] 148/145/ M|M| S| 5 0 | 138] 192] 149
86 M;i|M/;W| 5 3 126 189 150 || 146 M!|D S; 4 9 127 183 138
87 IDE AG: Sil oF 2 141 196 163 || 147 M/;L Siiaeo0 128 178 144
$s M/D S|; 5 3 131 183 140 || 148 D|]D S| 410 127 187 141
89 M | L 8; 411 137 192 140 || 149 M/L Sub .20 128 188 150
90| D|L| S| 5 0 | 138] 183] 145/1150| D|L | C| 5 4 | 131] 188] 148
91 D|M Sion 130 198 148 |) 151 M|L S| Gy 8B 131 183 140
92 M|L S| 411 11333} 178 144 || 152 M;|L Salome 132 193 148
93 M|L IW oF dl 129 185 145 || 153 D | D S op 129 185 148
94 D/|M Cc; 5 °2 127 176 134 || 154 M/|L S| 4 9 123 193 148
95! M/|M/ S| 5 2 136 | 182] 143 || 155) D|D iS) Gy (0) 137 | 193 | 142
96 M/D Sao 125 177 145 || 156 D|D Sil} oy 2 128 194 148
97 M|L S| 5 2 128 188 147 || 157 M{|L Sala 138 188 152
98} D|iM] S|} 5 6 130 | 207] 158/158/ M;L |W] 5 1 133 | 192] 150
99 1D) ah; S| 411 128 190 140 || 159 M{|L Sy (0) 136 184 140
100; M/L| S| 5 4 | 136] 186] 147] 160/ D|D| S| 5 4 | 134] 182] 146
101 10) ly S|} 5 0 130 181 143 || 161 M|L Selon! 135 186 145
102 Dp D S| 5 4 130 182 145 || 162 M/D Sule on ol 126 186 142
103 M | DbD Silo. 6 130 199 152 || 163 D/|M Sile-5s 0) 128 186 149
104 ML SloneG 125 192 148 || 164 M|M S| 411 128 194 145
105! D|M/ S|] 5 4 | 195] 181| 145/165] M|M|_S| 5 1 | 131] 177] 149
106 D/L Ss 4 9 130 189 151 |} 166 M{|L | W 5 1 124 182 142
107 | M|D S| 4 8 129 | 183°) 145°) 1677) “Roh Sia 125 | 178) 145
108 M/ L S| 373 131 187 145 || 168 Mi|M S| 410 138 195 145
1109} M|L S| 5 4 127} 189} 145/169} M|M S| 5 4 143.| 202] 162
/ 110 b|D S| 411 134 202 162 || 170 M;iM PSU) ay 4 138 186 145

Asylums in Scotland—J. F, Tocusr. 61

X.—Fife District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 :
Colour 3 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 7 Character.
‘S | Stature. No. = | Stature.
ar la z :
ai é| les | Deed |: 2/¢| 2 He |, |) 8
5} |! ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. a | wm | ft. in mm. | mm. | mm.
De eee Wil ob . 6 137 196 150 || 191 M;L S573 127 152 127
ML Si] Gy a 127 188 147 |} 192} DJL Sl om 2: 131 187 147
M | L S| 411 127 191 155 || 193 M|L Shi] 5) 3} 135 194 144
M/ L Ss Gy) 5) 124 183 133 || 194 M a Ss By Al 1123 185 138
M!L Silom 134 184 145 || 195) M{L St] 0) 140 195 155
1D) |) 1b; Sl 5:70 128 176 134 || 196 | EF | M S| a 2 134 198 152 |
M/|D Ci 5 0 127 183 147 || 197 M;M Si) aay (0) 127 191 141 |
M;D Ss eee 128 189 153 |} 198 M;L/] W 5 0 124 183 146
D;iM yi) ay 0) 130 187 145 |} 199} M/|!M]|W|] 5 8 124 187 148
M/L Ss 4 11 130 192 146 || 200 M/ L NS) By 33 130 180 143
De |) Soe 128 188 153 |} 201 ML iS} ||) ay (0) 128 182 139
M|L Ss me, 132 151 132 || 202 M!/ L Ss 4 1] 130 182 145
M|L Syl] Sy al 128 187 140 || 203 M|M Sion 134 194 149
M/|M S| 410 123 180 138 || 204 | M|™M Siliomeo 124 179 133 |
M/] L Si] ay 121 184 142 |} 205| F | L Si) oy 132 189 | 147 |
AYES) JOM] Papel 59 es 125 199 153 || 206 M;iM is] By 8 11883 195 148 |
NG DEW VV) |e 0 124 185 145 || 207 DPD S| 5 6 134 195 153 |
D{|L Sy Ay © 1283 184 138 || 208 M/|L S| 5 0 134 184 141
M/L Siiome2 124 188 148 || 209 M/;M Sih fy 3 128 183 148
M{|M S| 411 IieAy/ 190 | 152

OOWSOR WOH

X1.—Giasgow District Asylum (Gartloch).

FEMALES. FEMALES.
]
D|M!/ S/} 4 8 | 131] 190| 141] 31] D/L |Ww{ 48 | 125| 187] 153
M/L| S| 4 9 | 127] 193] 138] 32} M/M]/ S| 5 0 | 126] 185] 142
M|M| C| 410 | 128] 188] 144] 33} D|D]| S| 5 4 | 128] 194] 154
D/L | S| 5 4 | 198| 180] 147|| 34] M|iL | S8|.5 2 | 129/ 190] 141
F/L| S| 410 | 133] 192] 1461 35|/ M|D/W] 5 7 | 126| 188] 147
M/{L} S| 5 1 | 125] 165] 1383] 36] M|D| S|] 5 0 | 127] 180] 142
M|L/ C| 411 | 122] 189/ 135|| 37/ D|M| S| 5 2 | 131; 179] 140
RO ee ees eae Oral. 128) 0187 |) 141 88 Me | Silas 1 | 187 | Ie | 140
D/D} S| 5 1 | 130] 190] 139] 39) M/M| S| 5 2 | 140] 183] 144
D|D/ S| 5 2 | 128] 186] 139] 49/ M/L{| S| 411. | 129] 179] 134
Dri Sica 2 127) 178) 1379) 4 Me | Ce) - 4 1k | 1791) 178 |) 198
M|L/ C| 4 7 | 135] 179] 136] 42; M|D/ S| 5 1 | 124] 186]! 140
M/M/ S| 5 3 | 130] 191] 146] 43/ M/D]| S|} 5 2 | 195] 183] 146
M/D/ S| 411 | 125] 179] 141] 44] M|M/ WI! 5 0 | 127] 169| 138
M/M| S| 5 4 | 1298] 186| 144] 45| M{L/ S| 5 3 | 199] 185] 146
M/M! S| 411 | 122) 179; 144] 46/ M|L{ S| 5 4 | 134] 188| 144
D!D/ S| 411 | 125] 184] 147] 47; M|M! S| 5 2 | 133] 190] 146
D/M/ S| 5 3 | 120] 184] 135|| 48] M{D| S| 5 5 | 129] 189] 139
M|D/ C| 4 2 | 120] 184] 136] 49] D|D]| S}] 5 2 | 129! 183] 147
M/D| S| 5 1 | 126] 188] 146] 50| M|L/W! 5 3 | 128{ 183] 144
M/L | S| 5 1 | 124] 180] 141] 51| M|L| C| 410 | 128] 184] 142
M|/M/ S} 5 1 | 130] 185] 146] 52} M/|L| S| 5 2 | 135| 193] 154
M/L.| S| 5 0 | 129] 188] 146] 53} M|L/ S| 5 0 | 130] 181] 141
M/D/ S| 5 9 | 126| 182] 142] 54] M/|L| 8/ 410 | 181| 187| 151
M/;L/ S| 4 9 | 134] 196] 148] 55| M/|L/| J] 4 9 | 130] 182] 144
M|GL/} S} 411 | 134] 182] 149] 56/ D|M]| S|] 5 0 | 129] 183] 143
M;L! S| 410 | 128] 182] 143] 57} D|D| S| 410 | 127] 183] 135
D|...|. S| 5 0 | 136] 196] 148] 58| M|LC| S| 4 2 | 133| 187] 146
M/L| S| 4 9 | 122] 174] 136] 59/ D|M| S| 5 2 | 126| 185| 1492
M/M| S| 4 7 | 117] 166] 140] 69| F|/L| S| 5 3 | 128] 180] 146

62 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
X1I.—Glasgow District Asylum (Gartloch).
FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 : 3
Colour we Cranial Colour | 2 Cranial
Character.| & Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
5 o -. x
Ho] 8] 2 BE |} his) eB a eee Gee dey. ih Ie
ay {I ee 5 mm | os

co} ]w ] ft. in. | mm mm. | mm. oma <a 7) ft. in. | mm mm mm.
61| M| MI] S] 5 2 128} 185] 148/114] F|L | Cl 410 126} 178] 137
62) M|D| C| 5 3 125 | 187] 1511115} M/|M/ S! 5 6 132 | 182] 136
63| F|M| S| 411 125! 186] 142/116} M|M]/ 8S] 4109 122 | 184] 143
64/ M|M] S| 411 123 | 185] 1481117} M|M]! S| 5 1 126] 189] 142
65| M|L| S| 5 1 127) 186] 142]/118; D|D]| SS] 5 1 130 | 183] 144
66/ M|L | S| 5 5 126] 191] 140|/119} M/|L]} 8} 5 2 127 | 182] 144
67! D]...}| S| 411 124] 181| 1491120; D|L] S| 5 2 136 | 188 | 148
68 | M]L S| 5 3 132 | 188] 144 || 121) MJ] L Si be 3 136 | 185] 142
69e|— Mo DASH saa 127| 191 | 145 //122| M|L} S/ 5 9 119 | 181] 138
70; M/D| S| 411 125 | 18¢| 144/123} M|M!] S] 410 130 | 171 | 147
71/ M|LI.S] 5 0 147| 198 | 151 |} 124} D|D| 8} 5 4 122 | 182] 140
Fes |) Dy | ih | 4S) al 133 | 194! 151|/1129| M/D/ S! 5 3 123 | 183] 141
73/ D|MI S| 410 128 | 186] 141] 126} M/|D]| S|] 4 9g 123 | 189] 147
74) M/|L/] Wy] 5] 128} 185| 140/127; M|M/W) 5 1 128 | 183 | 145
75| M|M! S| 5 5 134 | 189] 148 || 128} F|/L]| 8| 5 2 126 | 183] 142
76) Doll. tf Sil 5-0 728 | 183} 140/129} D}|L]} SS] 410 108 | 172] 144
77/ DIM] S| 4 9 127/ 183] 142/180! M|D)Ww| 51 123 | 185 | 145
180 |e Mo S| 5° 0 130 | 183] 141 || 131} M|M/|WI] 410 127 | 182] 146
79} M/|L| S| 5 0 130 | 194] 152|/132} M|M]| Cl] 5 7 130 | 181] 140
gs0| M/L| S| 411 129 | 189] 147|/133} M/|LY] S! 5 8 129 | 190] 145
sl D | | Si 4.49 123} 170] 138 |/134/ D|LIw] 5 1 131} 181] 139
s2| M|M]| S| 5 4 133 | 193] 15311185) M|My) S| 4 9 128 | 190] 146
88/ MI|D| S| 5 4 133 | 196] 149 |} 136] M|L/ GC] 411 131 | 189] 147
8st} M|M{]{S] 5 1 131 | 188 | 144 |} 137! M/]L]| S] 5 0 133 | 187] 142
85|/ M/U! S|} 410 127} 190] 149] 1388] M|L] S| 410 127 | 185! 144
86; M/L |W] 4 7 126] 183] 141/139] D/L] S|] 5 0 134] 189] 149
87} M|M]|S/ 411 1220! 176) 140/149; M/L] S|] 5 o 128 | 188 | 145
iy i Ss & 127| 187] 146 || 141] M/L] S| 5 2 127] 190] 149
s9| M|M] S| 410 128 | 187] 152 ||142} MIM! S} 410 127] 183] 140
90| M/L|! S| 51 134] 194] 142]143/ F|L] S| 5 1 128 | 182] 142
9} D|DI S|] 5 2 129 | 189] 148 || 144] M/]D/ S| 5 Oo 133 | 184] 144
92; M|M] S| 4 8 128 | 181] 1411145} M;/D/| S| 5 0 126] 191] 152
93/ M|M]| S|] 5 2 132} 180] 141 // 146; MIL] Sj} 5 4 126 | 193] 144
94/ DIL S| 5 3 140] 194] 161 |} 147; M/L/ Sj 411 121 | 193] 148
95| M/D]| S| 5 0 1321! 179| 147//148; MIDI Wj] 51 133 | 195] 149
9/ M/|L| S| 4 8 1722| 180| 139/149} D/]DJ] S| 411 135 | 191] 150
97; M{|L]/] S| 41 121 | 191 | 143|//150} M/L | S| 5 4 134 | 189] 145
98| M/|L | S| 5 2 128 | 185) 142//151] M/L I S| 5 6 129 | 190 | 145
| 99} MIDI S}] 411 135 | 200! 1451152} M;|L J §S/ 5 2 127 | 185 | 146
100; M/..]..] 5 3 136 | 203} 154//153} D/|M{]|W| 5 7 133 | 184] 144
101} M/|L I S| 5 2 133 | 183| 148 /}154/ M/]D]| 8S} 410 133 | 191 | 146
1022} R{D| S| 4 5 127] 183] 140/155} D/|D|W] 5 4 128 | 189] 139
103 | M|L S| 5 2 728 | 184! 140] 156} M/L] S|} 5 8 126 | 202] 150
104;/ M|M! S} 4 9 129} 181} 148]//157|} M/| MJ S| 5 1 138 | 196 | 154
105) M/L{ 8} 5 0 121] 181 | 144/}158;/ D/|M|W| 5 3 136 | 192] 142
106; M|DI| S| 5 2 134} 185] 147//159] D|L] S| 4 7 114] 180] 135
107; MID] 8| 5 1 135 | 190} 140) 1609; M|Lj S| 5 7 130 | 180] 147
10s | D|MJ S|] 410 131 | 186] 144 |} 161} D|D] S] 411 128 | 182] 145
109; M/{/L] S| 5 1 129 | 186] 147// 162} M/L | S| 5 oO 122] 177] 140
10/ M/M/ S/ 411 128 | 181| 151//163; M/L |] S| 5 8 126] 179 | 136
lll| D|..] WI] 5 4 135 | 190! 146]// 164; M/Ly S|} 5 0 133 | 181} 146
12} M/ILi CC] 5 0 128} jss| 145 |1165] M|L | S| 4 9 122} 185} 140
113] M|LI S| 5 8 127} 188] 141] 166) F}]L| S| 5 5 132] 185] 138

]

Asylums in Scotland—J. F, Tocusr. 63
X11,—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie).
FEMALES. FEMALES
o oO
Colour a Cranial Colour | 3 Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘Ss | Stature, No. 6S | Stature.
< . o : : <
cae = Hi, L. B. 2 é s lle L. B.
o)}A }H | ft. in | mm. | mm. ; mm. =} | | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
i M|M S| 5 0 138 | 181 151 61 D/L Ss; 410 137 189 143 }
2 M{|L S/ 410 137 195 143 62 M/L S| 5 3 131 184 152
3 M/L S| 5 3 138 190 146 63 D|M S| 410 134 187 144
4 M|L S| 4 7 131 191 151 64 D|M S| 410 133 176 147
5 M|M Selon 2: 129 190 145 || 65 M/L Cc} 410 128 182 139
6 Mi|M C; 5 1 124 187 143 || 66 M;|L S|; 4 10 132 190 149
7 M|D Sul Oneo! 136 190 148 67 D|D S; 5 5 133 1s8 149
8 M/;M Si eeceail 138 188 137 || 68 D{|L S|} 5 0 128 177 142
iS) |), 1D). p10) S| 410 137 187 149 || 69} M|L S| 5 2 128 | 180 140
10| D|D| S| 4 7 | 129] 184] 142] 79| M/|M] S} 410 | 130] 189] 146
al VIE elo aVVe lo) dl 134 | 191 148 | 71 D;}M/] SS} 5 0 134 192 146
12; M|D Silos 134 | 182 | 145 | 2a evil S| 4 2 129 187 138
13 M;M iS) |) ay 2 138 189 149 73 M;i!D|W]| 5 4 133 197 152
14 M|M Sil all 135 | 201 151 || 74 M|L S; 4 9 130 196 144
15 M|M Seow) 130 187 145 || 75 M/L S|; 5 1 136 198 144
16 D/|D S| 4 0 127 184 141 76 M/;L Ss; 5 1 127 183 142
17 M/;L S| 5 0 125 187 146 || 77 M|L S| 4 9 124 191 150
18 M/L Sib) 135 189 151 78 M{|D Cc} 410 123 188 142
19 M/D Silo) 0 130 187 147 719 D/|D S| 4 9 133 183 141
20 1DY | 1b; Shh a 4 124 184 i43 || 80 D/;D S| 5 0 132 192 143
21 VI els S| 5 0 128 Isl 142 81 DEED S| 5 2 134 191 146
22 ML Sileor 20) 129 180 144 82 DP S| 5 0 128 182 141
23 M|L CC; 5.0 130 194 147 83 D/|D Sion 133 188 139
24; M|M Sh, ay 4 132 | 187 | 145 84} D|M S| 411 128 181 138
95|M|M S| 410 127 179 | 141 || 85 M | D S/ 5 6 138 185 145
26 M/;M S; 410 128 183 144 86 M|L S| 5 2 129 189 150
27 1D) | 10) Si) 55) 0 129 189 151 87 M/;L Cc; 4 8 131 191 145
28 R | M Seles 2 131 192 139 88 1b) |) 1b; S| 4 8 132 191 142
29 Db | D (OH Gy - 3} 133 181 141 89 ML Saline 128 1s4 147
30 IEE EIA ala 129 187 145 || 99 ML Ss; 5 1 130 184 146
31 M/L Salo 2 128 193 152 91 M/D S| 411 128 186 146
S4.|| INE aw) S| 4 8 126 Wid 143 92} D|M S|} 5 1 140 194 155
33 M/|M NS) | ay Ze 131 191 145 93 D;L S/} 5 8 140 199 146
34 D|D S|; 410 128 178 143 94 M;D S| 5 0 127 179 141
35 ee MGIVVelion 2, 129 188 147 || 95 M|L Cc} 410 128 181 147
36 M/L isi) G3) 93) 125 187 155 96 M/D S| 4 9 120 176 134
37 M/ L S| 5 0 132 191 147 97 M | L Cc; 411 130 183 148
38 M/D S| 5 1 133 187 148 98 Mi D S| 5 3 126 185 142
39 Da S| 5 4 134 193 150 99 M | D S|; 5 3 132 200 147
40| D|M| S| 5 o | 128] 184] 139/499! M|D!| S| 411 | 132] 180] 131
4] DAN | Wi te: 1 127 194 148 || 101 M/D S| 5 0 133 178 142
42 M|M Silior al 127 186 141 |} 102 M/|M S| 5 5 142 196 155
43 Dy ets S| 5 3 135 186 139 || 103 M|L S| 4 7 132 180 141
44 Vi Ni ino. Tt 134 18] 140 || 104 M|L s| 5 1 124 182 136
45; D|D|{ S/ 5 1 | 133] 187] 143/4195| M|L| S| 5 1 | 129] 186] 146
46 Mj|L Sion 2 136 190 145 || 106 D|M/Wwi] 5 O 133 191 141
47 DP GL S| 410 132 189 144 || 107 M|D S|; 41l 126 190 150
48 D/|M Silieo 2 133 188 141 || 108 DAieD S| 4 3 128 178 141
49 D|M Si) 5) 0 136 200 147 || 109 D|M S| 411 135 191 149
50| M/L/| Si 5 1 | 132] 188] 144] 110| D|D|.S| 5 2 | 133) 185] 145
51 DN || Gy i 132 180 138 || 111 M | L S|; 410 127 186 143
52 DP To We |) 252 32: 130 188 148 || 112 M;L Sioa i 12: 193 145
53 M/L Si 5 1 131 184 136 || 113 M | L S| 5 0 129 191 148
54 D|M S| 5 0 128 190 150 || 114 M;iD/|W] 411 129 190 1538
BRD | oS) 6 0 121380) 19a 145/45 | MM) | S| 5 0.) 126) 186) 133
56 M|D Seo: i 131 191 144 || 116 M;|M S|} 411 132 189 147
57 F iM ee ee) 125 187 136 || 117 M)|L S| 410 123 185 140
OSE eve |e Silo eo 137 | 196 146 |} 118; M|D Sil oy 128 193 144
59 DIM Sill ome 133 188 145 || 119 M|D S| 5 7 141 190 148
60| M/L| S| 5 3 | 136] 189| 146 | 499 | M\D|s| 4 5 | 126| 185] 143

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

Xil.—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie).

UNS Or

FEMALES. | FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| Z Character. Character. | 7 Character.
S | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.

Fi . vo . . vo

e é 5 18h L. B. “z é a H. iV
an ca n fits in mm. mm. min. Ll] ea) a ft in mm. mm mm
NSD Sh aaa 140) 1998) S408 TSI Da Vie eeSalee sees 136 | 195
DADs C411 140] 190] 152 ]}182| DIL Sil 5. 7 128 | 187
M | L S| 4 9 127! 1x8} 143/183) D|M! S| 411 133 | 174
M|L S| 5 0 137 | 82) 147 S42" Ds ae S| 5 0 130 | 179
M;|M]| S] 4 6 124] 180] 148/185} D|L S| 411 123 | 192
Mo oC isa? 129 | 192] 153 || l36| M | L Saal 134 | 185
IBY) 1D SL a3 al 133 | 190] 143 |) 187] M|M/]WI| 411 133 | 180
M]L S| 5 2 131 | 192| 154/188] D|D|]WI| 5 1 135 | 188
MiM| S| 410 134 | 183] 144 || 189| M]|L SS) Sieall 134 | 189
Do) Mo IS) 5: 1 134] 178] 1441/1909| M|D|W)] 411 1245/75
DF Dp S| 5 0 139'} 184] 143 || 191) M | Mi] Gl: 50 125 | 178
DF ED S|) il 138 | 184! 147|/192/ D|MI{ SI 5 oO 123) | 85
D|L S| 5 5 135 | 184] 150 ]/193/ M|D] S/] 411 136 | 188
M|M!/ Cl 5 2 186.) 190) 1505) 194.) MN eDinh Stl sees 127 | 184
MUD Si Siena 125] 185] 144/195} D|M]|C|] 5 2 131 | 195
1D) |) 26; S| 410 136 | 176} 145 || 196 | D |] L Sioa 129 | 177
M|L Si) 28 aul 127 | 183°) 143°\| 197) "| D S| 410 124 | 179
D|D 8S; 5 0 130 178 144 || 198 D|M Silt 52 5 121 186
Deeb S/ 4 § 130 | 178} 139 || 199) M|M] S| 5 0 120 | 177
DDS) sees 129] 180] 138 |/990) M|M/ Sj] 4 9 134 | 192
M/L S) |Pe5e all 124 | 188) 143 ]} vol] DIL C;} 5 0 127 | 188
MIiIL/iW!] 5 1 140) |) 197"), 150) )2025)) Di Ne Ww |) Sano 128 | 188
Da DE Shes eee 135] 196{ 146 || 203; D|D] S| 5 oOo 127 a eels
M|L Si ay @ 133 192 | 150 || 204) Dj; D Sil 4.97 126 182
Me De iGi 5. 32 135] 200] 148 ]995| M] L Sh 3 134] 189
M|M/ S| 411 136 | 183 | 142] 206; M|D] S| 5 3 133 | 189
D/|Mi S| 410 140} 179} 143 || 207; D|Dy| S| 410 125 | 186
Di Si al 128 | 183] 143 || 208; M|MJ]C| 410 129)
D | i} Si) 53 123; 190} 145 |} 209; D/}L | S| 5 1 131 | 193
1D) |) Joes) Gn ay 141] 194) 149/919) M|D|W/] 411 127 | 182
M | D S| 4.9 130 | 177,| 148 || 211} M|D |W] 5 0 123 | 184
M/L S| & 2 129 | 187| 142 |;212| M|M/ Ss] 4 1 129} 181
Da Da sSi 57 1237) 195.) V50N 82139) Da Mas Si 4a 136 | 185
DADE eS: 53 129 | 184] 141 || 214} M|L S| 4 4 mg} | re
M/D| S;} 5-5 127 75| 188/915} D{|M] SS] 411 128 | 184
M|D Siiioanl 141 | 202] 143 |) 216| F | L C} 411 135 | 181
M/L S| 5 6 134] 190] 147 |/217/ M|M]| S| 5 6 129 | 195
M|M/ S| 410 137 | 197) 150]/2:18/ M|L} S| 5 3 133 | 185
DA De AS) eae 134 | 189] 145 |} 219/ M|My] S| 4 9 132 | 184
M|M] Cl! 5 5 136 | 183] 149/999} D|M/W] 5 1 131 | 189
M/iM] C/] 411 133 | 187] 144] 221} M|MJ| S| 4 9 123 | 191
BoD So) e410 33 | 188] 149 ||} 222} D|D! S| 5 2 136 | 177
ID) || Bp |] AY Lay 8} 130] 180] 146 |} 223; M|D] 8} 411 143 | 193
M/iM!/ C| 5° 2 128] 186] 146 || 224} M | L S| 5 1 125 | 188
M/|M]| C|/ 5 8 130 | 188] 148 1995) M|M/ S| 5 7 128 | 186
M | L S| 5 0 121} 188] 145 |) v6] D |L S|} 5 1 137 | 194
M{L S| 5 8 136 | 185 | 144} 927) D|D) S| 5 0 130 | 186
M | L Sil ay 134 | 191] 143 ||} 228} M|M| S| 4 1 136 | 186
M|D] S| 4 9 134 | 184] 146 || 229) M/]L S| 410 135 | 187
M/L| 8] 5 O 135 | 188] 142 ||939/ D|M! S/ 5 0 130] 181
De DF eS ISi 5S 139 | 191] 150 || 231} M|Mj] S| 5 0 129 | 179
M{/L S| 5 1 133 | 192} 146 | 2932} M/L I S| 411 124 | 190
D|D Cl a 3} 134} 183] 148 | 233; M/L | R] 5 4 124] 184
D | L S520 139 | 189 | 144 |} 934] M/L S| 411 123 | 183
M/|D]| C] 410 127 | 178] 138 |/935| F/L| S| 410 123 | 182
M/D] S| 411 129) 177 | 1429936) |) DAD a| SSi5ea 123 | 185
My ey Sule 1 1383) 1965) 14595937850 eDale Dal sC)|eaant! 127 | 179
Dev Satan 126 | 189 | 145] 238; D|D| S| 5 8 127 | 183
M | L S| 4 8 125 | 183] 144] 239} MIL |W] 5 2 129 | 187
Me NE Sis ol 140 | 201} 151/949} D|M]| S| 410 128 | 184

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocurr. 65
Xil.—Glasgow District Asylum (Lenzie),
FEMALES. FEMALES.
5 ()
Colour a Cranial Colour 3S Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. “s | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
. . . . vo
ea oales: isteua|| gabe B. | S| & H. | L. B.
pub} a 4 > He}
4S |}A |} mw] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. a} | 2] fe. in mm. | mm. | mm.
241 D|D S| 411 126 | 190] 146 |} 263; M|M Ss; 5 1 131 184 | 150
242 DPD NS) 4 6 131 173 136 || 264 M|M C 4 ll 134 185 137
243; M|M|C; 5 O WT 189 142 ||965| D{|L CC] 4 8 137 182 146
244} M|L S| 410 123 187 146 || 266} D | D S|} 410 136 | 186 144
945; M|M SShi| gay al 130 | 185 142 || 267; D|D Silo 2 127 | 186 152
246; M|M S| -4 8 123 177 141 |} 268); D/L |e) 133 | 181 141
247| DD S| 4 0 125 186 142 || 269} D|M Silene 124 |} 183] 142
248/ D|D|S| 5 1 | 129] 186] 142|/|9790/ D|M| S| 5 1 | 120] 178] 146
249| M/|L Si 5) 1 127 183 137 || 271 DD CC; 5 O 124 184 | 146
950' D|IM|W] 5 2 132 187 148 || 272} M|M S| fy 118 184 | 145
251 M|M|W| 5 1 128 190 | 142 || 27¢ 10} 9) 1b) Sh] a 2 134 | 185 137
252 | M | L Siloe 129 186 138 || 274} M|L si i A 128 | 183 150
DABS ||) 1D) |) aD) sii oF i 125 182 | 143 |/275| Mj|D Sil 3) 4 136 | 188 147
254 M|D Ss de 0) 133 195 148 || 276 M|D NS) D3 130 185 149
955;| D|M Sil) a) 333 136 191 149 || 277; M|D S! 410 130 | 190 147
256 M|L S| 411 133i, W71 140 || 278; D|D{|WI| 5 0 123 183 147
257 Dy |G espa tay a) 129 184 | 143 || 279| M|M SM) By a 137 189 148
258) || D | D Su One 123 191 147 ||280); D | D si) 4 123 | 188 144
259! D|D Simcoe 127 188 147 || 281 1D) | 10) Ishi) > al 136 | 192] 156
960; M|L S; 5 5 128 191 150 || 282 | D | D S| 5 1 132 | 181 147
261 DP) G Silt dD) 123 175 140 || 283) F | L S| 5 0 124 | 187 144 |
262; D|D Sion 0 131 194 | 155
Xifi.—Govan District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 M|L Sil] 5) 4 131 189 | 144 26 M/} L So, I 131 195 | 149
OED DEW. eon 137 181 153 ay D|D S| 6 0 133 | 197 153
SnD: | ve S| 4 4 129 168 | 144 283; M|M Sip I 124 179 141
4 DoD: S/ 411 130 178 147 29 M!D S| 5 0 139 185 146
5 M | i | W | 5 4 132 | 193 143 || 30; M|LJ]W] 4 0 136 193 | 142
6| M| L Si) iB) 33 130 | 184 146 31 M/L S| 411 132] 184) 150
Te De Ni Sloue 131 184 | 1438 32; M| L C| 410 130 192] 142
8| M; L S isd 2 130 | 186] 142 33 | M!/] L S/ 411 128 182 | 146
Gy | ay 4p 1D) S| 5 1 129 188 | 144 34} M|M!] Cl} 4 9 132 | 186 141
10 DiL S| 5 2 135 178 139 || 85 | M|L S/; 411 129 185 | 149
11 M/;L Dill 1b. 4 124} 178 | 146 36; M/]D|Wy 411 129 171 145
12} M|L S| 5 0 129 178 | 147 Bf || AMES a8; S; 5 0 129 181 145
13 |, BY |) ia S| 5 0 128; 185! 145 38 | D|D Chie 133 191 147
14} M|D Silebe 2 137 |} 199 | 154 39| M|M Sh) ay 132 |} 186 139
15; M;L/|W 5 O 129} 178] 136] 49); M|L Siena 127 185 | 143
16s) Ds |e Sip) al 129 | 179 | 138 4] M| L S| 4 9 128 179 | 138
Vay ie |e S| 5 2 127 177 | 149 42} M,M/ R/ 410 UPB Hash 134
18 M|L Silman 131 185 148 43 M,L S| 4 9 135 192 148
19} Mj| L S) |) 3) 3} 1385 | 195 | 139 44; M|M| S; 5 1 125 | 181 138
20; M|L |W; 4 9 132 | 177 147 || 45 | D|L hf | Gy eal 132 | 179] 140
21 10) 9) 10 Si) 6) 132 | 198 143 46| M|L|]W| d 2 131 184 141
22a eo Ny |e Sy || ta 135 | 176 | 143 Alfa aie tas), We 5) 127 181 144
230) Mas Sid) 20 130 | 201 148 48; M|L Shiono 132 | 182 146
24 M!L C 5 5 138 181 141 49 M/i|M!W 4 11 lisse 184 143
95| M/|L S| 5 0 137 195 | 152 || 50} D|D S| 410 128 | 176 142

66 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
Xill_—Govan District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character. | A Character.
| No. “= | Stature. No. ‘s | Stature.
. . ° v
a || He ae: a1 6)\ & H,. | te "SBs
=} A] a | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. =| A |] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
51 M|D Ci oes 131 179 147 || 111 M|L S| 5 2 135 195 148
52} D|D S/ 411 125 189 149 || 112 M|L R| 5 5 125 179 145
53 | D | D S|} 410 128 186 142 || 113 | D|M S| 5 1 135 189 143
54 D|D C| 5 8 139 199 149) 114} DJL S| 5 3 129 195 149
55| DID| S| 5 1 130 | 179] 140/115; M|L] S| 5 0 129 | 186] 147
56| M|M S|; 411 120 184 140 || 116} DJL S| 5 0 140 186 147
57} F|L |W] 5 2 121 186 143 || 117 M/ L S| 5 3 135 195 146
S| Nt Da Silmon 2 132 | 197] 149 |) 118; M|L S| 5 4 128 | 187] 146
59 Me D S|) 5 2 127 188 142 || 119 M/|L S| 4 10 128 181 139
60| D/L | S| 5 6 | 135] 195] 148/1290/ M|M| S| 5 0 | 131] 190] 148
61 M/} L Sale oe 133 185 146 || 121 M/D C| 5 0 135 192 147
62} M|L S| 5 1 126 186 156 |) 122 D|L S| 5 0 15 184 139
63 D/|D S| 4 9 123 182 136 || 123 D/D S| 5 5 139 188 144
64| M|M| S| 4 7 131 | 189 | 140 || 124} M|L St 136 | 193] 143
165| M/|D/ S| 5 4 | 128] 191] 144//19§| D|L | S|} 411 | 135| 189] 143
66} M|L S| 5 5 133 189 147 || 126; M|D Salome 138 187 149
67 | M|L S| 4 9 130 | 182 | 147] 127) M|L S| 5 2 130 | 187] 145
is I PL ADE ISH ay 183 132 | 187 | 149 || 128; M|/L Sil) & 33 130 | 189} 140
69 WE |) Ay) S| 5 3 135 197 146 |} 129; R|M S| 5 6 142 | 190 146
70; M|L|{ S| 5 2 | 131] 182] 142\/1430/ M/L| S| 4 9 | 136] 201] 145
71 M|LIW| 5 4 130 182 146 |} 131 iD) |) 1; S|} 411 129 177 139
72| DIM S| 5 4 131 190 148 || 132; M|M Some, 133 192 143
eto) DME Silas ae? 137 | 179] 140 || 133} D | D Simo 130 | 190] 140
74 M | L S| 411 139 182} 152 //1384| M|L | Wy] 5 1 134 185 141
75| D|L|Wi| 5 2] 133] 193] 155|1135| D|D| S| 6 1 | 134] 184] 155
1G al ee els Cimon 135 198 145 || 136} R | M S;} 410 137 187 144
77 EA; S| 5 4 129 179 145 || 137 D;L/W! 5 1 135 187 150
78 M/|L Slow 130 182 137 f| 138 M | L S| 410 129 182 140
79 Dees Ss; 4 9 133 191 141 |} 1389} D|M Siimeomes, 127 182 143
80; MIL S| 5 4 135 | 185] 152 140; M|L Stone: 136 | 190} 149
Sl M | L S| 411 133 186 155 |) 141 M|L S| 5 4 137 172] 148
82; M/L Sioa. 125| 186] 141] 142; D|DJ| C] 4 8 134 | 187] 161
83 M | D S;} 5 0 124 185 144 |} 143 D|D Sil a 132 185 142
84} MIL S| 410 140) 184] 149 || 144); M/DJ| S|} 5 8 125] 196] 153
85/ D|L| S| 410 | 125] 181] 134]145| D/D| S| 5 2 | 141] 191] 144
86} M|D} Sj] 411 125] 181] 151], 146) D/|M| S| 5 7 138 | 186} 143
87 M|L Silo: 2 136 191 155 || 147 M|L Sill ono 133 184 147
88 M/D S| 4 133 187 149 |) 148 D | L Son 132 191 147
89; D|M Si o I 127 173 136 || 149 D/iIM Si 7980) 132 188 145
' 90 D|D S; 4 9 131 182 140 || 150 | D | D Sioa 2 131 183 146
91 M|M S|} 411 130 184 140 || 151 M} L Siagomee 131 184 142
92 M|M S| 5 1 133 182 141 || 152 M|L S| 5 4 129 185 143
os M/|M S|} 5 1 137 185 147 || 153 M|M S| 5 5 123 193 150
| 94 D' | D S| 410 131 181 144 |} 154 M/L S| 5 6G 144 191 141
| 95 M|M Si 50 13] 194 145 || 15 D|D Sil eee? 129 185 139
| 96 Dae) S|; 5 2 131 187 140 |} 156 M{|L S|; 5 0 128 18] 141
97 D|D S| 5 1 135 189 148 |) 157 M;M S| 5 3 124 188 141
98 M|D Ss; 5 1 135 185 151 || 158 M;|M S| 4 9 129 186 144
99 D/L S| 5 4 133 185 135 4} 159 | D | L Si) 2 131 183 142
100 M/D S|} 410 127 179 136 || 160 D|D S|} 410 131 187 145
101 D|D Saleon 133 182 138 || 161 M;L S| 750 133 182 145
102 D|L SilpeomeD 133 185 143 || 162} D|L |W! 5 6 131 185 148
103 | M | D S| 5 4 134 184 144 || 163 | F | L Silos 126 179 140
| 104 D|D S| 5 0 133 191 140 || 164 | MJD S| 5 3 126 192 139
| 105 M/D S| 4 2 133 185 138 || 165 D|M S| 5 6 132 188 143
106) Mi Ma eS) ss: 7 124 179} 143] 166]; M/|Dj| S| 5 2 129 | 189 | 143
107 M|M isi) ay 145 190 146 || 167 Mae OW | be 6 130 | 190 | 145
108 M {| L S; 410 125 187 145 || 168 M/L S|} 410 127 184 141
109 M{L S| 5 3 131 188 141 | 169; M/L S| Sy 23 133 | 188 145
110; M/D/ S| 5 0 | 130] 187] 149!1170| M/L {S| 5 0 | 198] 176| 143

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 67

Xill.—Govan District Asylum.

: FEMALES. FEMALES.

3 :

Colour | 6 Cranial Colour | 2 Cranial

Character. A Character. Character.| % Character.

| No. S Stature. No. ‘5 | Stature.

| we] g] & H Ts B a] 3] 8 H i B

: es | 2) < j—— \ e121 a

| } a | % | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. }8 | eH] fi. in. | mm. | mm. | mm

| 171 M/L S| 5 0 128 184 147 || 180 M | L S| 5 5 135 183 146

| 172 M|M S/ 411 127 191 140 || 181 M/;L S| 4 8 126 178 137 |

1173) M/ L s/ 5 1 133 186 145 |} 182 D/|D Sion 136 185 147

| 174 M/;M Ss te 123 179 138 |} 183 M|D si] wy 133 190 147
175| M|D Cc; .5 0 130 | 192} 140 || 184) M|]L S| 4 9 137 189 | 143

176| D|M St) yO) 131 192 147 || 185; D | L Si) on 0 133 186 143

Bai) M |G S| 5 2 133 185 147 || 286 M/;M S| 4 8 140 189 149

| 178); M|L S| 4 9 129 181 140 || 287 D;|M S| 5 3 129 188 148

1179) Mj; L Si) 6 136 185 148

XIV.—Haddington District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.

Pei te S| 410) 144) 17) 138 || 38! DID] Wi 5 3 | 188! 184] 146
Leonel Si 5 0 | 127! Is) 136] 39] Mi | S| 5 4 | 187 |- 192.) 143
3; MIL | S| 5 3 | 135| 163] 149] 49| M|L/| S| 5 2 | 137| 189] 141
4| M/|L| S/ 5 2 | 130! 181| 144] 41| M/]L| S/ 5 2 | 128] 182] 136
5 M|L Sy|| ay 2 135 186 144 42 DiM S 5 0 130 184 142
é6/ DID|{ S| 5 1 | 138] 189| 150|) 48| R|M| S| 5 7 | 145] 183] 143
TAME KE | Si. 6 8 | 137 | 186 |- 140 || 441 DIM) S| 411 | 1871] 185} 142
sD |D| S| 5 7 | 143] 185| 1471 45] M|M| S| 4 9 | 135|.178| 146
9|/ D|M|W!/ 5 2 | 134] 184] 142|/1 446/ D/|D]| S| 5 4 | 135] 182] 141
1M Del | Si. 5 3 | 189) 197] 150) 47] MIL | S| 491 | Il] 178 | 136
Wi-MiL | S| 5 1 | 199! Iso] 1438/1 48/ MID! S| 4 9 | 127.| 188] 142
122| MIL | S/ 5 5 | 141] 198] 150|| 49] D|M/ S| 4112 | 1385] 188] 141
133/ M/|) | S| 5 0 | 141] 192] 143| 59] M/|L| S| 4 9 | 125] 180] 142]
14; D|D]| S| 5 1 | 136] 189) 146] 51] M|D] S) 4 9 | 141] 183) 151)
15| M|D|W| 411 | 134] 188] 150| 52! D|D| SI 4 9 | 136] 194] 155
16; M|M| S| 5 0 | 128] 194| 149] 53/ M|L {| S| 411 | 134] 180] 136
alee | Del Si aie) 196) Isp} is || 64] M iD | Sh 411 | 338] is5| 145
ASH NE | Doles) 5 1 |. 188), 188) 144 || bE | Min | S|! 5 3 1] 11] 1761 154
19| D|M/ S| 5 2 | 128] 178] 143) 56/ M|DJ| S| 411 | 136] 192] 143
20 Mis L Silvebw 4 139 183 146 ay/ M|M S iow 4 137 176 146
21! D|M{ SI! 5 3 | 136] 198] 144|| 58| D|M{|WI] 5 2 | 126| 176| 145]
D2) M/L Sil] by Ye 138 184 138 59 M{L S| 5 0 136 192 152
233/ D|M{| S| 5 3 |] 136] 191] 142] 69| D|M, S| 5 2 | 131] 197] 150
”| R|L| S|} 5 3 |] 130] 180] 134|/| 61| M|M/]C| 5 4 | 141| 196] 149
95| M/|M! S| 5 2] 138] 195] 148]/ 62| M/D]| S| 5 5 | 146] 198! 1551]
26| M|M| 8S} 5 0 | 123) 181] 146] 68 | M|D| S| 411 | 131] 180| 152]
O71 .M iD |W) 5 0 | 184) 196) 143) 64) DIL! S| 5 & | 185| 192) 155 |
23; M{iL| S} 5 8 | 129] 183] 143||65| M|L| S| 411 | 129] 185] 145
Soe WD ieO |) 4510: 4 188) 160) 40 66) MD | S| 5 1 | 134) 195.) 165
30| Mi{L | S| 5 7 | 135/ 186] 146|| 67| D|D|W| 5 6 | 132] 189] 140}
3}| MIL | C| 5 0 | 135] 185] 142] 68| D|M]| S|] 4 9 | 124] 184] 139%
SAD Mel S| .5 6 |) 134.) 1881 149 69) DM) S| 5° 1 | 1801) 196) 147
SoileMe || S|) 5,2 | 138) 188] 140 || 79.| Dim | S| 6 3 | 241 | 902) 150°
34 M/L Sale on 7 136 195 156 71 M;M/|W 5 6 133 178 129
ScD iM) S| 5 2 | 188) 185 | 1431 ,72| Mit | S| 5 2 | 188] 184) 136
| 36/ M|M|W!/ 5 7 | 147| 200] 146|| 73| DID] S| 5 4 | 184] 188] 142
ovale Molt Cie. be Ie! 130); 85 3)) 150 74! DG |W) 5.2 | 128) 1s0| tae
| | | |
le, st

68

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

XV.—Inverness District Asylum.

FEMALES.

FEMALES.

Colour
Character,

ao} a
1By |) 1b)
1D | D)
M|M
a |p au
sor |} aE
D|M
bD|D
cop || Mi
DiM
D|DbD
DIM
M/M
D;iM
IDM | 10)
D|D
soe if aul
R/|M
1D) |) Av
ane ev
DTD
F |M
geo || IM
D7) M
Feo
D|D
D|M
D|M
M|M
R | L
D;M
M|M
M/|L
D

D

D

:eteod: seo: UROERTUCCE

x
Pn Cn a nn eee en ne ae ee | Shape of Nose.

Hel al cell eal ell ced lh calls} aloes elt a et a ec | ea ea

Stature.

>

SCVOUSU OTL OVO Or B® OLOT OUST OL OT OT OL OUR BOL OT OT OL OT OU OT OT OT OT OT OT OTHE OU OT OU OT OUR CLOT OUP CLOT HR BE

CUCU OTE CLOT OV OU OUT OT

.)

me

SNE ONAN OWP ND RWORF OT ORFNNWENOwWE hb

PNONOHOREE RO”

Cranial Colour
Character. Character.
No.

H. Ts B. H/o
mm. | mm. | mm. a} a
11) 78 240 61 D4) ME
127 | 186] 143 || 62| D|™M
126} 193] 144] 63] ...|M
132 | 196] 149]/ 64] RJD
133} 183] 138] 65/] ... | M
127) 187 | 152)) 66 |) 0 ae
129} 180| 139 || 67] ... | L
116 | 184] 144 || 68} D|D
117] 180] 141 || 69} D|D
125 | 182] 145 /| 79] D-|D
127 | 186] 150]] 71} DJ|D
127 | 184] 142]/ 72} D|D
135°) 1985) 1504) 73 Wee
122); 191) 148) || 44) RD
UPA MYA | TIBI I 745 |) a | DD
130} 192] 150 /| 76] ... | M
137 | 180] 145 || 771 D|M
138 | 192] 154 || 78] ... | M
137 | 189] 144]1 79] D|D
120} 186] 146 || gg; D|D
120) 189] 139 |) 81} DJ|D
129 | 187] 150 |} 82] ...|D
120} 183] 148 |} 88| M|M
126 | 186| 151 || 84] ...)M
122 | 187] 150]| g5| D|M
126 | 184] 149 || 86| D|M
123 | 179] 144]| 87] F | L
121g) 1788] S137) S8aleeD ale
125] 184] 142] 89} D|M
127 | 187] 151 || $9; D|D
130 | 198] 154 |} 91} D/|M
124] 180] 146} 92} D/|D
130] 187] 150 |) 93} M|M
133 | 181] 155 || 94] Dj}D
122} 193] 146 || 95] ...|M
132] 186| 146]] 96] ...|M
124 | 191] 142]) 97] ...}M
130 | 181] 149 || 98} R|M
114] 181] 141 /| 99] .../M
132 | 191] 143 |/1909/ D|D
IPPA | ley |) eS} | I |) | M
128 | 178| 139 || 102) ...!M
132 | 180] 153 [103] D | M
137 | 194] 145 || 104] 1...) M
135 | 189] 156 || 105] D | M
133 | 187] 151 |) 106} Dj |D
125 | 192] 148 || 107] D|D
126] 180] 142 |/108] ...| M
129 | 183] 148 || 109} R |D
135 | 194] 148 || 110/ D|M
126 | 188) 1461) an | ae
133 | 194] 147 |) 112] R/L
120} 183] 153 // 113] D|M
127) 191] 145 || 114] F | L
125} 188] 146 || 115 | D|M
1220] 189] 145 || 116] F | L
131 | 187] 145 || 117} D|M
133 | 193] 153 |/ 118} D|M
114} 175] 147 |/ 119} D|M
125 120; D|M

189 | 152

NOUTNANNNNNNNNNNNANNNNNMNNNNE NNMNMNNNNNURMNKNNENNNAUNNMNNNNUNNNNNMNNNM | Shape of Nose.

Stature.

Lesa)
Sr

CrOvOoue

COR OUR |

RR Oru Orr or or, CUR CUR OVOLOUTT OL OU OU OL OT OU OUR CLOUT OTE CLOTHE CLOT OT,

TRO
RE who’

AN,

in.

a
oe

ll

—

—

i

—

—

5 Doe 3
COWWONAFWO CORP CRE ON FERN WE FOR RPE ONRF OF WONoNnW

e

i

ASCaAwW

Cranial
Character.

H. 105 B

mm. | mm. | mm.
112 182 143
120 | 171) 139
129 | 176| 147
116 183 145
123 | 192] 152
131 196 153
126 184 145
130 192 150
126 184 148
122 191 145
126 186 142
129 187 144
128 °|| 175 |) -144
149 194 151
123 186 145
138 | 197] 150
127 | 190} 139
136 188 146
125 187 150
131 187 144
132 187 143
139 | 202] 150
131 189 149
124 184 144
127 188 141
128 191 149
125 190 149
127 | 180.) 143
128 | 195 | 153
128 189 145
127 184 144
133 181 148
123 | 191 | 152
122 |} 179) 147
134] 188 | 145
127 | 188] 150
127 184 148
138 191 150
137 | 191] 149
128 188 150
126 187 151
126 183 142
135 193 149
133 | 188 | 148
128 194 144
128 | 190] 153
133 180 145
120 197 144
133 | 194] 147
117 | 181] 140
121] 188] 145
123 189 158
131 187 141
121 191 144
126 187 150
125 182 146
127 188 148
131 | 183} 147
137 | 186} 143
135 | 193 | 152

Asylums in Scotland—J, F. Tocuer. 69

XV.—Inverness District Asylum.

FEMALES.

No.

Colour
Character.

Be: ORESOCOS: OS: PERSEUS: Heeve: ee: | Hair.

JEEU:

Se -2

Ee lose go¢

OU: OO: VUE: :

siiglclo|icics| tel) | Eyes.

VUSSSUUEEES

Stature.

C
=
=)

~ — ~
COE NN OW RK WNWORDRE NWT NOORWOAYURWOHOR WH

SUSU OU SAU OU OU SU OV OV OT SUT OH OU SUSU OT OT SOT OU OL OU CU OU CL OU OU CUE CLOT

Or.
~)

=<
DNNANNANANNNNNNNANRNNNNNN SNH AUNWNNHNOA NRNRNNRACRNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNANH | Shape of Nose.

Sao ee Seu neha? a GN ee

H St Or Orv Sr Or

Cranial Colour
Character. Character.
No.
H Th B 21 3
mm. | mm. | mm a |e
127 186 140 || 181 D|M
BPS | SY 153 || 182 M/|M
121 182 144 || 183 MIM
126 191 152 || 184 D|M
119 182 | 140 |185 M
134 190 158 4 186 RiM
135 191 150 || 187 M
130 | 196] 147 |} 188; RJ|L
132 | 199 145 |} 189} F | L
129] 190} 144 ||499| D|M
128 192 | 145 || 191 D|M
1395) Lis 152 || 192 M
120] 175 146 || 193 M
134 | 194 149 | 194 M/|M
132 | 186 153 || 195 pee ie Bs
123 184 | 146 || 196} D | M
1327203 151 || 197 R | M
126 187 146 |} 198 M/;M
134 | 188 144 || 199 L
121 187 | 144 ||999| D|M
126 189 | 152 |/ 201 M{|L
117 | 179 143 || 202} R|M
132 | 187] 152 |) 203 son. {| WE
122; 180] 138 |] 204 ell
121 189 142 //205| D|M
124 | 204] 155 || 206} DIM
115 173 | 139 || 207| D|M
122 180 | 145 || 208 D|M
128 183 | 145 || 209} D|M
123°) 182 146 || 210; D|M
123} 184] 141 || 20) D|i|M
134 194 151 || 212 M/ L
126 189 15 B34|| PABS |) DY |W
120 191 140 || 214} D|D
134 | 194 147 || 215; D|M
128 189 141 |} 216} D|M
123 180 |) 145_|| 217 | Di | D
124 185 140 || 218 D|M
129 191 144 || 219} D|M
121 180 | 147/999] ... | L
125 190 | 149 || 221 D/|D
120 194 154 || 222 M!i|M
126 193 150 || 22: M;M
121 195 | .144 || 224; D|M
134} 182] 146/995} D|M
132 186 151 || 226 M/L
132 189 5 2277 DIM
W225 1825) 134.1228 D|M
128 188 143 || 229; DIM
119 179 147 || 230; D|™M
125 180 142 |) 231 MiM
125 | 187 HSD 232 aces |) ME
pel 197 153. 233), D, | D
127 183 | 144 |} 234) D|]M
131 194] 152 ||935| D|M
125 196 | 155 || 236 Drip
131 173 | 135 | 237 | D|M
131 187 148 || 238; M|M
133 | 189) 148 || 239] D|M
134) 183 148 ||249| ... | M

FEMALES.
Cranial
‘ Character.
Stature.
Jal, ILe Bs
ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.

} 131 186 149
| 134 194] 148
136 187 143
193 142
125 179 150
123 190 | 148
128 184 147
Vit 145
125 185 144
134 193 | 148
131 191 144
131 185 146
1300 W925) Vor
125 | 185] 145
123 184 147
139 192 | 148
125 188 150
128 | 195 144
132} 192] 138
125 | 189] 148

PNWOWMWO
_
iS)
(ea)

<)
—
to
J

185 | 155
125 | 187] 150 |
127| 191] 149 |

142 190 152
117 174 | 138
118} 181 147
130 | 180 | 144
128 | 189 | 145
137 191 146
130 | 192} 150
| 127] 187 | 137)
126 185 141
124 | 188 147
133 | 196 154 |
3 128 192 | 145
1k 132 | 194 | 144
5 131 191 153
4 128 194 | 142
10 126 189 148
3 127 198 149
10 ;} 130] 183 14]
134 | 196 148
128 186 155
| 128 187 146
130 | 176 143
132 | 193 145
135 185 149
129 183 | 144
136 | 193 149 |
127 | 183) 147

183 148

133 | 199 | 145

1380 | 174] 142

125 | 184 140

139 | 194] 149

133 | 183 148

126 | 189 146

118 | 187] 140

128 | 187 146

116 | 179} 140

—
ROC NNWOWE ENTER WOOE PERE ORWONOD
—
ew
rss

—

_

SGNONKFWWDOOeE KH Re ROPE DO
i
w
Oo

—

RNANRNANARNNNNNNANNT NAANNNANACNNANANNNNOUNNNNNUNNNNONUNNNERNNNNM | Shape of Nose.

He SUR OU SU OTHE OV OUST OU OU OU OTH OU OTUE CUE OL OUR CLOUT OU OTHE OL OTOL OUR BE CLOT OT OTE CLOLOLOLOL OU OU OU MOL TLL OL SL ST Sa
I

——— ne EE EE

70 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XV.—Inverness District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 : Vas :
Colour 3 Cranial Colour B Cranial
Character. | 4 Character. Character. | 7 Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. ss | Stature.
[-)
2 Ee ee H..| 2. 4] 38: a|¢| 2 H. |i
8 es || 2S 3 |
Ss |] |} ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm S| |W | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
241 D/i|M S| 5 0 135 | 173 | 143 || 244} DIMI S| 5-5 137 | 195 | 150
242) MIM! S| 5 2 129 | 185 | 147 || 247 shee |e, S| 410 128 | 188 | 146
ABT ED) NS) bie 126] 180] 146 || 248; M|™M Sipe) ol 130 |} 180} 148
244 DiIM S| 5. 22 134 182 152 || 249 M/;M S; 4 8 131 184 148
945; DIM S|] 263 5) 130 195 148 || 250 sali OD Sil pea 139 183 147
XVi.—Lanark District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.

1 M | L S|} 5 1 137 | 191 Til 46|} D|D sii] 2k 7 133 | 182] 140
| 25) als S| 411 131 187 142 47) M| L Si) br Zh 137 | 198] 151 [
i 3 M/|M SS 5 1 128 178 143 48 1D; Si ar 83 136 188 146 |.
| 4 MAW sd. 2 136 187 151 49 M|D S| 5 3 143 202 156
| 5 M/L S| 410 127 187 147 50 | Ron 2 139 185 150
| 6 DL Cc By il 124 178 136 51 DD) Ds) Woe 2 133 183 142
fauad D/|M S| 4 9 128 181 151 52 D|M Silom: 130 190 146
| 8 DIM Seat 125 186 148 53 M!/D (Oy Gy. ll 134 195 148

9} DIM] §] 411 127 | 188] 148 DAT | Dsl ep) Sil BB 131 | 187 | 148

10; M|Mj| Sj} 4 9 134] 194] 142) 55 M|M]| S! 5 3 139 | 187} 146
ll M|L Simones 128 | 184] 189 56| D|M] S| ‘5 8 131 190 | 150
42 DID S dn 3 130 185 142 57 D|M Siow 131 185 147
13 MiL Ss 5 4 127 183 141 58 M|M Sy) ab a 133 | _183 142
14 M/|M Seen 133 184 142 59 ML iSiip oy al 137 197 149
15; RB|L| S| 5 0 | 127| 180| 144] g69| D|M] Cl 5 3 | 139| 187] 147
14}; D|L | Wy 410 128 | 188] 145 61 MENG SSo ome: 136 | 194) 148
yf |e DY INE SI) Gy} 135 | 186] 140 625) SDAIeD S| 4 8 122 i valel ss
1s MiL |W] 5 6 137 186 145 63 M|M S| 4 8 123 178 135
19 DIM S| 305 129 189 142 64 1Oy a A 121 185 151
90| MIL | 8| 5 2 | 134] 1883] 152] 65| M|D| S| 5 6 | 146] 199] 150
Zl WI AG; Shi Sy P2 130 18] 143 66 DiM Si) 459 142 197 149

|} 221 M1! D S; 5 0 132 184 151 67 M/iM Cc ay 128 191 151

| 2) D|DI Wy 411 129 | 184] 136 68 | M|D Syl) Gy 131 196 | 155

| 24 D|D Ss? 5 0 127 183 147 69 M/;|M Si 5 +0 132 191 145 |:
95 iG S:/| 3593 133 191 137 70 DAD Sy) 4 8 132 195 151
26 DD Sl- ay al 133 187 144 71 IE jf JE, S| 410 135 185 145
O79) Mt Shoe 120 | 195 | 139 7P2 |) LN WL ASSP ay 8} 127 |} 186] 140

;} 23; M/L S| 5 4 135) |) 1860) 42 73| Mi L Si) 6) 2 139} 190] 149 |

} 29 M,;M Sib 93 140 182 147 74 DD Wale: 133 185 144

| 30| M/D|W| 5 1 | 128] 185] 145] 75] M/D| S| 5 3 | 135] 190! 156

f 3k| Min tw) 5 1 131 187 138 76; M/L Cee? 131 178 | 148
ay M]L Sill on a 142 186 151 7 M/L Silom: 123 172 137
33 MD Silo: 0 37 188 148 78 | a We 4a 122 183 143
34 D|M S| 5 0 124 191 151 79 M/L Salone: 134 190 155
385; D/L Si) a) 7 128 | 196} 151 | 80 M | L S| 4 9 129 | 174 | 142
36| M|L |W 6 1 133: S89) $142 81} M|M| S| 411 131 | 185 | 140
Si M|M Si) oO) 16 135: 185 149 82 IDF ID MAY) By 135 190 142 |
38 D|D R| 4 8 132 173 142 83 M/}L Sioa: 132 186 142
39 FL S| 410 131 181 146 84 MiL |W] 5 1 137 188 141
40| M|L|wi| 5 4 | 133| 183] 140] g5/ M/|D| S| 5 3 | 139] 187] 158
4] D/|M C| 4 9 130 179 143 86 D|M S| 410 139 183 146
42 D|D S| 5 0 142 202 151 87 M/{L S| 5) 2 127 188 150
A350) Mo Ve 3S) 5r ae. 129 | 176] 139 ss} M | L §$| 5 0 135 | 193:)| | 152) |:
44 M|L S| 5 1 131 188 149 89 D|D C 4 10 129 183 143
45| M|L|s8| 5 1 | 133] 184] 142] g9| M|L| S| 411 | 127] 185] 140

Asylums in Scotland—J. F, Tocusr. Wl
XVI,—Lanark District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
|
Colour : Cranial | Colour gy Cranial
Character Ss Character, Character. s Character.
No. “x | Stature. | No. SS otatone:
a | es Hh abs Bs Soe alae Hide Be
a | Ss : eel Ss
= ley | ow | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. ™ | ey |] wm | ft in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
91 MIM S| 411 128 193 148 || 151 M|OD Sh) oy 8 149 | 197 158
OPE Ne | Si onl: 129 186 | 149 || 152} MJD S| 4 10 133 189 | 143
93 | MID S| 5 0 131 184 | 138 || 153} Di|M S; 5 2 130 188 | 147
94 M;iM! S! 4 9 131 177 135 || 154 | D | D S| 411 126 | 183), 139
95| D/L S| 5 0 126 183 | 1388 | 155 | D|M Siar 128 183 | 142
96 M|M Ss 3 10 131 173 138 || 156 D,D iS) 54 134 184. 142
97 D{|L S; 411 126 185 | 146 || 157} M{|L S| 4 8 135 190 | 143
98| D}|D S| 411 132 184 147 || 158 | D | D S| 411 122 174 135
99}; M/L Sil) ty) 3) 129 188 141 || 159 | D | M Si 3. 1 127 184 | 145
100 | DsD S| 5 0 126 194 147 || 160 | D|D S| 5 2 131 193 150
101 D\iM Ss 5 6 128 194 146 |) 161 M/L S 5 0 ley 183 150
LOZ = Mei My Si 5 3 130 | 190 150 |} 162 |} D | D S| 5 1 139 | 188 141
103 | M/L S| 5 4 132 | 189 146 || 163 | D | D S| 5 2 136 | 185 145
104 M/|™M Ss by 5) 134 189 145 || 164 D|L Ss 5 0 136 182 145
105 DD. S$} 411 134 187 143 || 165| M|L S| 5 4 127 188 14,
106 M{|M Si 5 2 127 188 145 |} 166} M|M|W]| 5 5 136 191 148
LO, Del i | Wi 6 3 135 193 148 || 167; D|M{|Wy] 5 1 130 | 180 141
108 D|D Simeon el 138 185 144 |} 168} R | L S| 411 133 | 186) 148
109 Mi|M Sia 2 129 185 146 1) 169} M|L S| 5 1 144} 192) 151
110 M|L Sis: 134 187 148 || 170 M/L S| 5 1 137 193 142
lll FL StiloieG 136 195 145 || 171 Det Saran el 130 | 189 149
112 D{|D NS) 5 6 133 182 143 |) 172 D |v Ss 411 124 174 140
113| M|L Cj; 411 131 184 | 144 || 173 M/L S/} 411 129 187 142
114}; M/L SS; 5 1 133 186 | 1461 174; M|D]Ww] 5 2 136 198 | 151
115 Mi L Sie 52 2 133 184 141 |} 175 | M/|D S| 410 137 i96 | 147
1146; M|D Ci: a 129 188 145 |} 176 | M | L S| 4 7 131 185 146
117 MIM Si) ay 1 131 180 | 145 || 177 M;iLiwi] 5 1 123 190 | 1438
118 R | L S| 4 9 129 186 145/178 | F | L Chom 2 120 | 170 109
119 D/L S| 5 0 131 182 146 |} 179! M|L Si 503 140 | 198 Ilys)
120 Dip S| 4 3 120 161 128 || 180 M;M/ WwW! 411 139 198 150
IAL M/|L S$; 411 138 195 148 ||} 18) D/D S| 5 0 140 | 181 141
127 even | Wel 5 B37 184 142 || 182} D|M S| 5 0 130 | 185 147
1235) 1D) | Si | Ge 8} 140 188 151 |} 183 | M|L|Wwi] 5 1 127 187 152
124; M/L Sl By 134 | 187 152 || 184} M{|L |W! 5 9 133 179 | 146
12 D/L S|} 5 1 136 196 | 153 || 185| M | L S| 5 0 129 185 | 146
126; D}|}D Cie oa, 13 188 142 // 186 | M|L C@ | 5s 1 129 181 145
127 M|M Sy io 11337) 193 149 || 187 M {| L S/ 5 1 122} 188] 141
128) | D! |) D Sipe 2, 134 | 182) 140]/188| MIL |W! 5 4 138 198 | 153
129 M/L Salome 127 187 140 |} 189 |} D|L S| 5 8 135 186 145
130; M/|D Sol ore 121 176 140 || 190 D/|D S| 5 8 139 192} 142
131 D{|D Si) 5 3 129 195 147 || 191 M|D Si) com 135 193 150
SPAN) By a; Si ov 134 198 145 |} 192 | M | M Si] 5 1 126 | 185 | 148
133 |; M\j;L |W] 5 3 128 181 141 |} 193} DJL S| 5 J 137 196 | 154
134}; M/iL |W 5 2 126 |} 184 144 |} 194} M | L S| 5 1 136 194 | 148
185; DD S; 4 8 118 177 135 || 195| Mj _L Salon a3 131 191 1153
136} M/;D Ss; 4 8 125 176 138 |} 196 | M|L S| 5 1 13] 191 144
ova Deb s| 411 135 190 | 146]/ 197} D/|M| 8S} 5 3 137 191 144
138 Mi/M Ss ot 3 132 191 149 |} 198 D{|M Ss 5 3 133 188 148
139 | M|L Ss; 5 0 128 187 148] 199; M|D S| 4 9 131 197 | 145
140); DL S| 411 134 | 188 148 || 200; M | L S| 5 5 136; 193 147
14) ML Ss by (O) 27/ 184 149 || 201 M|D Ss 5 2 130 189 144
142 D|M S 5) Ik 11335) 192 154 || 202 DAD Ss By 8) 134 186 141
1435) Ds ie) Si) 6 3 135 182 | 150 | 203} M | D S| 410 137 | 191 146
144 D|M NS) By PA 134 189 145 || 204 D|D Ss on 2, 136 183 142
145| D|L{ S| 41 | 126| 192] 152/995] M/L| S| 5 2 | 124] 189] 152
1446; M|D hi) Gy 2 133 190 | 140] 206} M | L S| 5 4 140 | 200 | 148
1447}; M/|M;| Wj 411 130 190 | 152 || 207; M|M S| 411 125 183 | 142
148 | M|L Shih BE 2 133 178 147 | 208; M|L S| 5 6 144 199 155
149} DL S} 411 124} 180} 140] 209} D|L S| 5 0 127 189 | 134
150; D/L S| 5 6 133 | 199 145 || 210} D|D S| yl i124 #8] 136

72 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

XVi.—Lanark District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character. | 7 Character. Character. | G Character.
No. ‘x | Stature. No. ‘So | Stature.
. . o a . vo
5 | | 3. H Thee 2| 3] ¢ EL, ees
| | a | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. S} | & | f. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
TY i) YE |) Bs S| a 8 131 | 192) 154 ]/ 271) D | L S|) 5-0 132.) 181
nie | ME IP 1, S/ 5 2 131 | 190} 148 || 272; D|L S/ 411 123 | 179
13; M|L S| 5 3 13] 1927) V4A7 2783) De LW ae? 148 | 189
214; M|L S|} 61 134] 195} 151 || 274); M/|Mj S/ 5 3 142 | 191
915; DIL S|} 5 4 134 | 193 | 147|/975| M|D/| J} 411 137 | 188
2160) DPE) se) 52 130 | 180 | 145 || 276; M/D S|; 5 1] 133 , 185
217; M|L $$} 5 0 133 | 186} 147 || 277| D/L Silouge 125 | 188
218| D|M/ S| 5 2 136 | 189] 143 |! 278| M|D|W] 5 0 128 | 181
PANG) | DY) de S| 4 5 125) | 1839) ST 279 1) Des De Estas! 130 | 200
990); M|L 8S; 411 131 | 186] 147 ||280| M|D! S| 5 3 136 | 191
D221 ALS ENV Cha es 135 | 190] 140 || 281 | D | D S25" 3 143 | 192
992| DiM;) S/ 4171 1345) 2027) Wola 282 9 Mie Salama 126 | 182
23a MARE Sie 131+} 199,| 155/283") Dh) Si) 50 133 | 189
224 D|D Chl 252 30 132 177 140 || 284 M|M Si ond) 127 174
995| M|L S| 5 0 128 190 | 1411985; D|M/] S| 5 1 129 | 191
PING, || 1D) 1B) S|) ond 132 | 191] 144 |) 486} D|M{ S| 5 4 141 | 194
227; M|L S|} 5 1 TSO) CUSI a A 287 NT INE es Si ed a) 136 | 188
993 | -D | D 8S; 411 139 | 190 | 146 || 288; M]|D S| 5 0 132°) 28
229} M|D 8S; 411 121 | 176.) 133 || 289; M/ L Silimow 136 | 185
930); M|L Si) 4a 130] 194] 152 ]/999)/ D|L S;| 5 0 129°) V77
231 | M | L Si} 5 t- | a8) }- 184) V4 on) De Wal Mao 124 | 181
232 M/D C/o a | aS? 185 144 || 292 D|D sy) oe 3 128 185
233; M;/L |W) 411 131 | 182] 146 || 293; D|D |W, 5 1 139 | 179
934; M/L/]W] 4171 137} 188] 140 || 294) M|M/] §/ 411 136 | 188
935| D|L Salome 128] 186] 140|1/995| M|MJ| Sj} 410 124 | 171
236; M|L S;| 5 7 133 | 188} 153 || 296) D | L S| 5 4 138 |. 195
PRY || ibe Ab: 8; 411 123 | 198 | 146 || 297; D|M) S|} 5 1 127 | 186
238 | M | L S| 5 0 128} 186] 144 || 298) M/ L S| 410 136 | 192
PRAY ||) 1B) |e Sioa3 134} 192) 148 )| 299} M/ L Silomee 136 | 195
949); M|L Ss; 4 9 126 | 194) 147/|300| MiL |W] 5 2 136 | 198
241} M|L S|; 5 0 T3516 1883) Leb SOle DM ee wale Call ron a0 123 | 185
22} D|L/ S/ 6 1 130} 181) 145) 302} M/ L Sill a), 2 136 | 188
243 1D) |) 1) Sti a 120 M77 134 || 303 M/ L Si 0 128 197
244/ D|My S| 5 0 133.| 189 | 148 || 304; D|MI| S| 5 2 131 | 181
945; M|D Sil] by 2 122 | 184] 142//805) M|M|Wy| 5°91 133 | 185
246 | D|L S| 5 3 134 | 197 1421) 306) D | i S|} 5 1 1259) Sil
OH a | NEE Wo 3 130 | 190] 144 || 307; D|M)| Sj 5 0 131] 183
248 EF | Ss; 411 120 184 143 || 308 IDE | 16; Sill woo 131 197
249} M|L/|W/] 5 O 136 | 193] 150 || 309} M | L S; 410 128 | 186
950; M|MjW| 5 8 144} 192] 141 || 319); MJ|L S| 5 3 129 | 198
51} M {| L Sil 20 all 127 | 188; 148 |) 311; D|M/] S| 410 130 | 183
252 DL Wal 63 123 187 145 || 312 Dae Sioa, 128 192
Bes || DY I) 18) S|; 410 1345) WS) P44 SSDs eee Cal oun? 137 | 189
54} M|M/] S| 5 8 126} 185} 144 |) 314] M|L Ci Fog 131 | 188
955; D|L | S| 5 1 | 195] 186| 1451/3915 | M/E \<S| 5 1 || 187 | 7180
PA || IVY || 10) Si ee 136 | 194} 150]/ 316} D}| M/W] 4 8 124 | 170
257} Di Mi S| 410 1333) U79G WBS a eS eM ee Ss a en 124 | 185
258 | |) S; 4 8 132} 185] 148 || 318} ML Salaun) 140 | 180
259 | M/| L S| 5 2 1269) LSE" US7al SlOn eH Ds reese oaes 133 | 186
960' M|M{ S/} 4 8 127] 184] 138 ||329) Mj L S|} 411 133 | 198
261 D|D hii fe oe) 130 191 144 |] 321 M|M Si pose 124 178
262 | M | L 8S}; 411 136) 1835) Vor 8224) DD a awa aoa, 134 | 182
263 | M | L Srioneo 132 | 187 | 149 || 323; DIM|Wy] 5 3 132 | 185
264) M|L CC] 5 3 134 | 194] 156 || 324) M)|MJ| Sj 5 2 136 | 184
965; D|D]| S| 5 1 | 134] 191 | 146/995), DD | 8) 502 | 27) 277
266; M|M|] S| 411 135 | 188 | “150 || 326| M'| D S| 5 4 139 | 185
67 IDS | AWE Si) ay a! 137 187 147 || 327 D;iIM|W| 5 0 137 190
268 | M|M/ 8S] 5 3 133 | 188] 142 || 328; D {| D S° 411 134 |} 189
269; M|L S| 4 9 130} 178] 143 || 329} M|L |W] 5 2 132 | 183
970; D|j;D| Ww) 5 2 129/ 188) 140)/1330/ D|M| S| 5 7 140 | 186

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Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 73
XVi,—_Lanark District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES
3 3
Colour % Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | A Character. iCharacter. | 4 Character.
No. ‘s | Stature, No. ‘S | Stature.
Vv
a] 2] HM, od, 8: ai¢]s He jf) aera) Be
|| | ft. in | mm. | mm. | mn. o)A] 2) ft. in. | mm. min. | mm.
331 M|L Sion 2: 129] 183| 146|/ 346); M/|L] S/ 5 8 133 | 185] 140
332 | D | D Sone 133} 192] 147 || 347; D|My, C] 5 5 137 | 192] 153
BBR D/L sil @ Wy 125 183 145 || 348 Dees S| 411 132 183 144
334 | M|D S| 5 2 131 189 | 148 || 349; M|M/ SS] 4 2 131 | 179) 146
8385| D/|D |W 410 137 | 186] 147 ||350)| D|M/ S|! 5 3 128 | 182] 140
336} D|M| S| 5 2 138} 188 |] 148 |} 351 M/L Sal eae 131 186 | 142
COHEN Mia C)) 538 135 | 193] 147 || 352); M|L Sal oe IBSa ee Lson elas
338} D?>|M| S| 4 8 TOFS L779 | 138 | 3538) Dey Siro e0 132; 188} 141
339 M|M Sil beet: 133 180 144 || 354 D/L S| 410 136 188 140
340; D|M/;} S|] 5 1 130 | 186} 146 || 355) M| L S| 5 4 121 | 186) 137
341 DELDE Wilds 1 130 186 150 || 356 D/L Si) > 2 123 191 143
342} M|L |W] 5 O 133 | 184} 140 || 357) DJL Silom. 127 labo 5a
343 | ML Sieoune 133 | 187] 149 || 358} D|L |W] 5 1 129 | 186} 143
344} DIM) S|} 5 2 127] 180} 148 || 359} M|L Sito 0 127 | 180] 137
345); M|L Si 5. 2 134 | 187] 147
XVil.—Midiothian District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
1 D|L |W] 5 8 138 | 1939 |) 52 36} M | L S;} 5 2 127 |) 1908 1895)
2: D|MiWwy 5 2 135 193 142 37 D|M Sijo 0 132 190 145
oie MM) EG iwi 5 3 128 | 186} 148 388; R{|M| S| 5 2 134] 181 142
4} D|L CC} 5 6 130'|. 193 | 152 BA | DE yp SE ASS ay 127 | 178, 149 }
[|] Daa 2b) S| 5 5 141 | 196} 152 ]| 49); D | L S} 5 0 137 | 177] 141
6| DJL S| 5 3 120 | 181 1153} AV ID | Ds Cs) 2b I37 | 182" 13
7 D|M S) 5.1 132 188 ils} 42 DIL S| 5 0 130 176 139
Sle. ah S| 5 0 130 | 190] 147 43} M|M] S| 410 123 | 179 | 145
SED ENE Si) oF 2 142; 184] 148 44} MJ L Sion 2 128 | 187] 142
1h De ML | S| 5 2 124] 177; 148] 45} D|IM] S; 5 0 138 | 188} 141
ll D/|M S| 410 133 With 145 46 M;iL |W; 5 1 135 188 151
De DE | Wi: 9 129'| 170 | 128 171 DY ee S;} 4 8 126 | 175] 128
13 M/L S| 410 130 182 146 48 D|M S; 5 0 135 189 152
14 DIM S| 410 135 186 145 49 M{|L S| 5 3 147 187 138
15); DIL S|; 5 1 133 | 188} 152 ]/ 50; D|My| C] 5 O 126 | 180] 136
16 D|D Ss; 5 8 132 187 145 51 M/L S| 5 3 136 184 144
17 Mi|M Ceo. 1 124 183 144 52 D|D S| 411 119 180 144
18} M/L Sil son 2 136 | 193 i43 epi |) IO) | ab; Ss; 410 130 | 188] 142
19 DD Salo 2 142 187 143 54 D|L S| 5 0 135 Isl 145
20 M|L S|; 411 145 182 142 55 D|D/]WI| 411 126 187 148
21 M|D Sito; 155} 188 141 56 M|M S}; 410 WoL 7, 142
GPE) AD et e1b; Sif ood 132 | 188 | 138 57 | Mi) Sy) ay 2 132} 180] 139 |
DBD Let) Si o> 2 12 190 | 147 58} D | L S| 4 7 TS 8 |e leno)
24 M|M S; 5 3 131 191 145 59 M|L S| 5 0 139 188 152
OX | aD Ay SSE tases! 129 | 191 138 || 69 | D|D S; 411 130 | 179] 139
26 M|M S| 4 9 133 190 147 61 M|M NS] 5 2 126 HEE 146
27 M;L Ss 5 0 130 174 139 62 D|M Ss 4 9 130 182 138
28 M;i!D |W] 5 5 126 180 138 63 D;L{|W 411 130 180 145
29 Da D S db 2 136 192 144 64 IBY AG as 5 2 141 187 148
Ab Bt) Si 4 6 | 122) Wr! 189/65] Dit | Si 4 8 | 141) ise | 139
31 M|M Sill one 130 175 145 66 1Dy 4D) Sj, 5 1 1438 187 143
Bye) SME | IG; Si) 086 140 189 | 146 Cie De EVE TSS 2 137 | 197 | 149
33 M|L S 5 3 128 180 138 68 M|L Sil] > fy (0) 138 195 146
SYR IDS WEN SS ey, 0) 135) Si |) W425) 69) Mia D S| 5 4 133° || 173), l45
a5 Duin Silo. 16) |) 185 | 193) 148 79) D |i. | S| 5 & | 130} Isl} 148

74 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
XVil._Midlothian District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
; ;
Colour Z Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| A Character. Character.| 4% Character.
No. ‘5 | Stature. || No. ‘S| Stature.
5 0 a e wi Vv
ae 2 H. Ib, B. foe de pe 8k L. B.
X |} a} | ft. int | mm. | mm. | mm. =} A} Hh] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm
71 M!D sy) 22 nl 139 186 143 || 107 D/|M Sia iG 138 193 148
12 M{|L C/ 4 8 126 174 141 |) 108 D|M S| 411 144 196 155
7 1D) |) 1B) Sill won 3 138 186 146 || 109 M;M Siero all 136 186 148
74 M/L Si 47 132 184 147 || 110 Fo le) W) 5 6 138 190 149
15 M/L Sil d. 2: 134 190 Lod a M;L |W] 5 5 136 199 150
76 M|L Oia 132 198 148 || 112 D|M Srieeoiee2 132 183 151
77 D|D|Wy 4 9 132 175 139 |) 113 Dy D Gy core 136 186 146
78 1D S|} 410 27. 187 145 || 1l4 R|L Si) 4 126 186 134
79 D|M S|; 411 140 189 148 || 115 M|L Sis eal 136 190 146
80 M/|M Si mI 130 179 144 |) 116 M | L N) 4 10 123 173 130
81 ID 1; S| 410 126 184 | 147 || 117 M | L Seia-o8 0 130 182 141
82 1027] 40) Si] & il 138 190 153 || 118 ID) fh Ler C| 4 9 130 184 150
83 D|M Sil by Zt 139 187 137 || 119 D|D C 5 1 130 184 139
84 Dy S| a 7 142 198 161 || 120 D|M Siiivor 73 144 191 148
85| M|M Sil 5: 0 130 179 142 || 121 M|L Cul a0 126 188 143
869) DM Wo be 133 | 187 148 |} 122} M/| M S| 5 4 139 193 139
87 M)L Si) ol 145 199 146 |) 123 D/|D Sil oreo: 131 182 139
88 D|L S| By 9 134 187 148 || 124 IDA le) Wy ee 144 195 151
89 DiL SS) || i 83 132 193 147 || 125 D|M Coe 13 193 143
90 DL Sila. 2 130 181 150 || 126 DL S| 5 4 140 194 139
91}; M;|D|W] 5 0 131 187 141 || 127 M/D S| 75.10 140 183 144
92 D|M| Cy] 411 133 174 148 || 128 1D) | Gy AYN ay 55 136 186 144
93 DP ED Wills 136 191 145 || 129 D|M Silo 134 184 146
94 Mi L Si} 4) 8} 133 199 146 || 130 D|D Semone 126 182 141
| 95 Mi L Sif Oo 1 139 182 146 |} 131 R | D Si] oue2, 146 192 150
96 D|M Sion a 147 196 146 || 132; M|L ©) Reo aeel 134 | 190 | 140
97; M/|M S|) Sir 8 132 | 188 147 || 138 | M|M] Cy] 5 8 137 193 | 148
98; D|D Salon all 141 183 145 || 1384 | D | L S| oaeG 139 | 189 153
99/ M/L{ 8; 5-2 | 143] 187] 143 /14185| M|M/ S| 5 4 | 196) 197° 1ay
100; D|D| S| 5 1 | 183] I84} 143 | 1386 |-M | MI S| 5 6 | 184)" 1s7l) 145
101 Dye S| oe, 134 182 | 137 ||. 137 M|M Sy |p 2th 135 | 183] 147
102 1D) |) 1D) Si 5 0 140 189 145 |) 138 DM Wel be ail 138 183 143
103 IBY |) 1D} Sy) By 4 138 NATE 143 || 139 D/|D S| dS 136 188 146
104 M/L Salone) 126 176 137 || 140 DD Gp ay & 132 184 139
105 D;i|;M|W! 411 138 187 147 || 141 M|M Si] apa0 131 192 141
106 ML Sh |) Gy 138 186 142 || 142 D|D S 5 0 129 181 141
XVili.—Perth District Asylum.
FEMALES. | FEMALES.
1 M/|M Si) By 2! 135 189 145 16 D | D S;} 410 132 182 142
2) M)|D S|) a 2 140 191 150 M7 D|D C 4 10 131 185 143
3 M;|D Sy ||) ay il 128 180 146 || 18 D|D Sioa 134 182 143
4 1D) | 1) Silom) 134 181 142 |} 19 M/;M iSite 139 195 151
5 FUL Silom 132 188 148 20 D|D S/| 4 9 132 198 147
6 IMD VES NV a 134 185 143 21 M | D (OR) ay 6} 144 189 149
i M|M S| 5 0 131 181 141 || 22 D|)|M si) 4) i 129 182 143
8 1B) |) 3b; S|) ay 124 182 138 23 M|D S; 410 128 180 143
9 M/D S|; 410 134 185 149 24 F | L S| 5 0 132 195 147
10 M | L S|) Gy 10) 128 190 156 95; D|D S; 4 8 124 178 141
a M/D S| oy i 136 181 146 26 M/L is), ay J] 136 183 143
ME 8 |) BY I SS | ae 1405) L921 GON 27 Da eMa Ci one? 126 | 185) 142
13 M | D S| 410 128 180 134 28 M|M Sion O) 130 191 147
14 D/;iM S15 a 129 182 145 || 29 R {| L Ss; 5 0 135 181 145
15) D|M) Si 5 37) 182))) 1827) 1425) 991) 9) aS) soe eset en edn

Asylums in Scotland—J. ¥. Tocuer.

XViil.—Perth District Asylum.

FEMALES. FEMALES,
i)
2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
A Character. Character. | 7 Character.
“ | Stature. “s | Stature.
= 7) P J »
g a BI Lv. B 2/8 = L. b,
|! ft, in. | mm. | mm. | mm. ea fete | ca: ft ain mm. |} mn.
M| wl 5 3 13 188 | 151 DI|IM/ S| 411 191 | 153
1D | Sal aya 132 | 186] 147 MIM! S| 5 0 189 | 141 |
1D) | Si eye a 12 198 | 146 1D) |) we |] ey al 189 | 149 |
15 |) eel) ay 0) 132} 188} 141 DIM! S| 5 1 194 | 151 |
D| S| 5 4 132, 188} 152 || DIDIW| 5 3 184 | 151
M| S| 5 0 127 | 185| 139 |) Dileeesle Seas 182 | 144
M| S| 4 9 133 | 196 | 142 | 10) || by |) CH by 7 192] 150 |
M| S| 5 2 132] 187] 149 MIM| S| 5 2 192 | 147
Ta Silas. 4 135) 191 | 151 F|M| S|] 5 4 184 | 147
M/ S| 5 0 132 |} 179] 138 DID]/ S| 5 4 192 | 150
Dale S49 134 | 183 | 147 D/|iM] S| 411 185 | -144 |
M| S| 4 9 128 | 176] 148 1D) wl |) Cl) a 174 | 135 |
1B) |) Sy) a 135 | 185 | 147 M|M] 8S} 410 176 | 144 |
M|W]| 5 8 139 | 184] 139 D|D| S| 5 2 182 | 142 |
M|W| 5 3 138 | 192] 157 | DIL} S| 5 8 203 | 157 |
M/| S| 5 0 132 | 179 | 139 MIM] S| 5 0 185 | 141
M/| S| 5 3 141] 191 | 146 D/ID| BI 5 2 184] 143
D|wi| 51 137 | 186 | 147 MIM] S| 5 0 189 | 144
Mi C]/ 410 134 | 184] 141 MiL| S| 5 3 190 | 145
DEAS! | 25) 0 134 | 189] 147 D/|D/| S$} 410 185 | 143
M| S|] 5 4 134] 179 | 148 MIM] S| 5 1 185 | 141
Mee Si ent 133 | 182] 126 Delp Sis 3 185 | 149
Miwl 5 5 134} 198 | 143 D|M| S| 5 2 186 | 147
De Si 4 9 130 | 189 | 134 M|M]| S| 5 3 189 | 136
S| 5 3 135 | 194] 156 Bi|M/S/ 51 185 | 142
C| 5 1 141] 191 | 152 M/iM]/ Cl 5 O 194] 148
S|] 410 131 | 176 | 150 Diu! S| 5 6 188 | 146
S| 5 1 134] 196 | 147 DID| S|] 5 1 179 | 149
ae ee) 126] 182] 138 MiM|S!/ 5 0 190 | 141
S| 4 9 132) 180] 145 Mi|L{ S| 411 187 | 144
S| 410 129} 176] 149 DIM] S| 5 5 195 | 159
S| 5 6 136 | 185 | 144 M|M|C/ 51 188 | 146
S| 5 3 134 | 187] 156 De aDaiest oe 194 | 154
Gill Geert 136 | 195 | 147 MiL| S| 5 2 190 | 149
S| 410 133 | 188] 145 1D) || Dy | SS es 179 | 146
SiG al 128 | 184] 138 D|DI| Cj 4 6 184] 144
S| 5 3 139 | 180] 148 DaleNele Sida 192} 150
S| 5 2 i140} 195] 150 D|M!/| S| 5 2 188 | 148
S| 5 2 140} 198 | 147
X1X.—Roxburgh District Asylum. |
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Ie De Dei, Sill 5 3 140} 191 | 144 M/|L| S| 5 2 | 183 | 148
ie. y Dal Sil 410.) 124 180))) 144 | DiM! S| 51 | 190 | 142 |
SUP aM tae | Sel ee 0 1388 | 193] 148 | Re ele |e Walino 4 185 | 144 |
4| M|D!W| 5 8 124} 184] 148 Daa Si aerl | 170) 137
Bile Della |) Silo: Ou fea | 180"), 146: | MUD SiS 91 5) 129.) e246 4
6 Me eClerswiSiel eds c184.|) 138 M|M]| S| 5 3 | 194] 142 |
7 Talwalecs: 2 138 | 188 | 148 Dele \Si es 20n | | 189 | 148 |
8 1g; | Sh ew 133 | 186 | 144 M/|L| C| 5 4 | 180] 139
9 TCs 5a 5 139 | 175 | 147 Maple Sites 188 | 149
10 M/ S| 5 0 131 | 185 |) 149)| iY 6,1) She ey 180 142

N

6 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

X1IX,— Roxburgh District Asylum.

tro Fe po ea)
DAACUA wr

sI-T

FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 | 3
Colour % Cranial Colour 3 Cranial
Character. | Z Character. Character. | 4 Character.
‘s | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature.
eee o . Sg
5 So z Jel, Ib B. 5 & s H. L
S/S 1G] ft. in mm. | mm. | mm. a Ca Steen mm. | mm. | mm
10) 10) iso || oy 33 129 179 142 79 IDSs | 16; S/ 5 0 138 185
M/iM Sal eDaeD 139 188 151 |} 80}; D/|M Siliomas 140 | 177
M|L Sie 127 183 144 81 D|D Si} bY °3} 146 187
1D], 1b S|: 33: 133 189 142 82| D|M Sion: 134 | 192
D|D S| 5 8 142 197 148 83 M/M/] S| 5 2 BBY || 137
1D es Silo 00) 126 190 144 84} MIL ts} ||) ax 145 | 186
M/|D Silay 138 180 139 || 85 | M|L Shi) Gy 3} 14 181
D|i|M iS) || ay 8 136 188 149 86 M/L Salome) 136 | 188
M/L Silom 129 186 142 Sif |) 1D |) 1b) Silly 25 3 131 183
D!D Shi 6 98} 139 195 147 88} F|M|W] 5 2 135 | 189
MO MSs 5 133 183 142 89) M/L evi A590) 135 182
M\|L S| 410 121 192 143 || 90) D | L Ohi), ay) 13 182
IBY |) 103 Siena: 134 181 147 91 D|D Shi ar 135 187
D|D S| 5 0 133 193 149 92; D|D Si) oe 136 179
D/|D Si 5 2 136 183 146 93) “D:D Stil) tye 7 141 187
M/L Silomee, 133 187 147 94| D|M Sib #4 135 | 186
M|L Sal a 139 190 148 || 95 | D|L S| 5 0 131 185
ID | 1D) S| 4 8 134 184 146 96} M|L Sao e0) 138 189
M/L S|; 5 1 132 | 186 148 Oy |) IDE |] Ib. Sipe, 148 198
MI TO Wall 5 4 142 |} 200] 153 98} DPD} L Satgose2, 136} 181
M/L Cat 123 183 139 99} M|L Sao 32 125 | 189
M|M Ss) ay 3 132 192 150 |100 | D|D Sill ome: 134 | 188
DM ss 5: 4 126 181 146 |} 101 M/L Silipeomed: 130 182
D;iM} S| 5 8 137 187 148 || 102} M|L (OP Gy 2 142 182
DiM Silo 5 151 192} 149] 103; M|L Salome: 136 189
M;|LiW}] 4 9 129 196 153 elO4 a) Sener Sh] Gy © 138 179
1By | 18) Si 5 2 135 178 140/105); M|L Sion 130 | 188
M | L S| 4 9 137 190 149 || 106} DIL Silom es 139 191
D|M S| 5 1 132 | 188 144 || 107 M|L Silipomee 129 | 182
1D) |) DE) Wwe Ze ikl 143 188 139 |} 108 | F | L Si 5. 4 143 | 189
D|D S| 5 0 136 187 143 11109} M | L Silom): 136 | 186
DO a) a Salpe 2 130} 179} 143/110; M/L | C} 5 8 132 | 182
D/iM S| 5 0 129 183 WAZ Ve ML Si lion 10) 126 185
VER eS Wale 1 133 182 1479) a2 Va C| 4 8 124 | 165
R|D S| 4 8 139 179 1429) 113) NOs Saleem: 136 | 195
Dy S| 4 9 146 195 152 || 114} M/]D Si || 2), 83 144 | 186
M|D Si) 4 11 135 182 14311115 | M|L |W] 5 0 137 192
M;|M iri) 3) Xe) 119 184 137 |.16°) DD Si 2533 1350) W83
1D || Ab AWE Gy wal 126 193 | 150 || 117 D|D S| 5 4 136 | 191
M|M/]W| 411 135 184 143 || 118 M|D Silo 134 | 189
Da S|} 410 138 | 180; 136]//119}| D|M| S| 5 2 128 | 192
DED WY | een 133 180 | 134/199; D|LI|W] 5 2 135 182
DG S| 5 130 | 179 143 || 121 M/L si] @ i 121 173
M|M Shi) fy 2! 134 192 139822 ee eD Ol) & & 124 | 185
M/L S| 5 16 134 178 140 |} 123); M|L Silom 132 | 178
MiM Shiro) Il 140 191 147 || 124} M|MJ| S|; 5 1 140 | 191
M/ L S| 5 1 132 194 | 160/125) M|L Salome 139 194
M/L S| 5 4 130} 193 143 126 IME || JG iS) | 6) 83 140 | 189
M|M SDs 130 | 181 152 |) 127 D|D Syl by © 140 | 191
M/L Cc 5 4 133 190 144 |} 128 i M Ss oy) 5) 133 187
D|D Si ay 0) 138 185 146 || 129} D | D Gi 49 119 168
D|M Sie 4210 125 1763 131 || 1380 ML Silom: 126 | 193
D|M S| 411 128 190 | 140 |] 131 M/L Cai 127 183
M/ L St 6 2 131 188 147 || 132 | M|M S| 4 6 140 | 192
ML Sri] yf) 134 190 | 140 || 183); ML Sal eae 133 188
M {| L NS) byt 130 187 148 || 134 M{|L NS) 5} 8} 131 185
MN Ge 0 136 184 150 1185; M|™M Sib py 2 139 | 185
DD Sil pe 5 138 195 148 || 136 | D | M S| 5 4 126 182

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. ee
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
3 3
Colour g Cranial Colour z Cranial
Character.| A Character. Character. | 4 Character.
| No. ‘S | Stature. No. ‘S| Stature.
. Vv a
4/8] s|— 13 ea | aU mash cals Han | ple ese:
a} ] | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm. =| |] 2] ft. in. |] mm. | mm. | mm.
We nt SS] Sw 132 L7G 146 61 M|D S| 4 9 132 183 144
2! Dim Sie 4s lel! 142 | 186 147 62|/ D|M S| 5: 2 134 184 146
3) ID Wy a ay 145 194 | 157 63 | D | D si Ze Ul 134 | 176 138
4 Mim Ss 5 2 134 176 143 64 D | D | W by Al 132 187 154
by i) IMTS, St al 135 191 146 || 65; F | M S/ 411 134 179 141
Gf} 1 ae S| 4 9 139 181 143 66; R|M|W!] 5 3 135 193 146
7 D/|D Ss 5 8 132 189 145 67 Dei Dp Ss 5 3 136 182 141
Sale Mi, Si |) iy ah 137 186 150 GSe ea eb) ist |) 5) 136 187 151
9 MIL Ss 5.0 142 182 142 69 M/;|M Ss ny 136 191 154
10| Mix | cl] 5 4 | 145] 189] 1531/1 79@/ D/|D]| S| 5 0 | 134] 191] 143
11 MIM Ss 5) 4 131 196 151 71 DD | D Ss 4 7 129 179 138
12; M|M Sijeo: 0 137 194 145 TPE QS | ee ay eZ 137 186 149
13 Mim C 5 3 140 193 147 73 19.9] 1) Ss 5 4 134 191 144
144) M|M Sa lieben? 144 193 154 74} M/|M See) 130 | 176 129
15 M!/D Ss ay) 133 143 191 143 75 D{|M NS) 4 9 128 187 140
16 M|iM Ss By Al 136 191 139 76 M{|M Ss 411 131 182 145
We || DY 1G; Suleeoe to 136 182 | 136 TE IM | Wal eb 139 178 137
18 D/ID Ss 5 0 i28 177 137 78 DOD Sia 0 130 190 145
197 DD Sill or 4 131 184 146 79 M | L Si oe 138 196 156
90| Dim/|c/ 5 3 | 145| 194] 150] g9| R/L | Cl 410 | 133] 179] 143 |
21 M/ L Ss iy 134 192 150 sl DF Cc ane 128 184 143
DS) M/iM Ss 4 8 134 187 143 82 D|L C 5 1 136 192 144
Zane DD) Mt Sy a al 135 182 145 88/ M{|M|Wy| 5 1 140 186 158}
DAS eV eee lav; |p or ok 144 191 154 84} Dj} D Ss) oy 129 180 | 145
95 MiM lis 53, 138 184] 147 || 85 | D|D Silo 88 128 190 151
26 MiM NS) by 4 133 186 146 86 M/ L Ss 411 138 180 149
27 M{|D NS) 4 6 118 166 129 87) Dib he) ay Mi 135 176 138
23; M|M Salome: 147 191 148 88 | D | D |W) 410 139 190 | 144
29 D\|M Sie or 2 130 | 183 143 8s9| M|M S|) b @& 123 187 147
30| Mim! S| 411 | 134! 195] 151 || 99/ M|M{W]| 411 | 132] 178] 144
31 10) |) 4b} N) 411 138 191 147 91 1D) | 40) Ss 4 9 136 189 145
ay D|D Ss 4 10 130 189 144 92 DiM Cc 5 O 136 187 151
33 MiD Ss aye dl 132 178 140 93 D|D/|W 4 10 138 201 150
34 M!/|D Ci 134 187 137 94 D}D Ss 4 11 WW? 174 Igy
35 1B) a) Si) ey 130 | 183 140 || 95 TQ ME rey Nh 557 Al 134 190 | 143
Sie] 1D) a) Sil) Gy 4 135 | 189 149 96; F | M iS) || on 2 130 187 143
oh M{|M iS) be 3} 128 173 144 97 D|M Ss 5 1 144 192 147
38 D{|M Ss ay el 134 189 144 98 D|M Ss 4 7 131 178 150
39 D/D Ss Ol 124 183 144 99 DIM! Ww Aa 132 182 idl
40; D/D| S| 411 125} 186] 147/100) D/|D/| S| 5 1 131] 181} 140
4] DOD NS) 4 8 129 174 14] 101 D|M/]W i 3} 138 193 145
42 F|M S 411 122 183 143 || 102 M!M Ss Onell 137 197 146
43 M|L NS) 5 0 134 193 145 || 103 D|D C 4 10 136 184 147
44 M|M Si) <4. 39 132 191 141 || 104 | Dj|M Si || esr 140) 132) 2si7 150
45| F|L | Cc! 5 0 | 129] 191/] 148/1/195] D|D|Ww/] 5 2 | 196] 189] 137
46 D|M SS) 5 2 134 198 150 |) 106 D;M/iW 5.64 142 196 148
Aa tee | EP aS: Ok 12 134 | 187} 145/107; D;D] S| 5 2 143 | 190] 147
48 IBY 4/10) Ss 5 4 1s}) 194 149 || 108 D!D NS) oe 0) 134 186 150
49 M|M Ss 5 6 139 179 150 |} 109 7 |W: 4 11 128 187 136
50/ D|M|W| 5 1 | 143 197] 148/110/ D/|M!/ Cc] 4 8 | 125] 183] 143
51 1D) PID), PAs ye 146 201 150 |) 111 DIL Ss 5) Oo 132 187 147
52 M/D Ss D 131 189 143 || 112 R|M|W iy 3 134 199 149
53 D | L C ys 3} 140 196 151 113 D|D NS) 411 135 1s] 145
54 M|M Ss 4 11 133 188 150 || 114 D/|D NS) sya 83 33 187 146
55 IDS 1D) S|; 410 127 178 14311115) BR] Lb Si 5 0 132 | 184 143
56 F D S Diane 13i 191 154 116 DD Ss 4 10 134 182 143 |
57 M/;]|M!|W yo) 131 187 142 |) 117 R | M C 4 11 sy; 190 141
58 M|L Ss 4 10 128 179 146 |} 118 F | M S by u! 145 195 147
59 D/|M NS) 4 9 124 1838 140 |} 119 M|M hs) ay 3) 136 ss 143
60 1D).5}|/ 1B) C 4 7 129 175 144 || 129 MiM S| 410 132 190 148

|
|
|

“I
Oo

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

XX.—Stiriing District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
S :
Colour eS Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
5 Character.) 4 Character. Character. | 4 Character.
No. ‘S | Stature. No. ‘S | Stature
. “ [2] . & Vv
a a Bar ee ||P Aleks Uy B. 5 é a H. L. B.
| A] w | ft. in. | mm. } mm. | mn. =} ) | ft. in, | mm. | mm. | mm. |
IBY 10) Si} 5 92 136 | 188} 140] 181) F | L S| 4 5 123 | 187 | 142 {|
22; M/|M/| C} 5 1 135 | 189) 150) ||_182'| “DD | M ).-C) 5 2 131 | 189] 145 }
| 123| M|M/ S|] 5 2 123; 180] 141] 183] D | D Silloyeee 133 | 179 | 149 §
1124; D|M! S| 5 8 136} 187] 144]| 184); D|Mj| S| 5 8 142] 188 | 144 |
125 M/D Si ded 132! 187] 144 |1185) DJL S| 411 125 | 185] 140
126) DD S| 4 9 134 | 195] 158 |} 186); D|D Si) o 3 135 | 177} 146 |
127 ID) WML S|) 6s (0) 137 || 192°) 145) 18s Dor Saomeo 131 | 193] 147 |
128; M|M/ S| 5 5 135 | 183 | 142 || 188; D|D Siliomes 141 | 180) 140 }
129; D|L S| 5 0 1335] W918) 143) 1895 SDs |v eaSie ba0 145 | 183] 142 |
130 D/|D Ss} 5 0 139 | 192| 147190) F | L C} 511 132 | 191 | 139 |
131 | M;M| S| 5 2 WS |) 1958) 1450) USI Ds vis arto cel 124 | 180] 142
132 Dy sDs|5S:|\ soe 2 134 | 182) 144 || 192} M|L SS; 410 125 | 193 | 142
133 M|D S| 4 9 131 | 190} 149 |) 198} D | D S|; 4 9 133 | 177 | 140
134} M|Mj{ S| 5 0 130 | 187) 138 || 194) D/L S|} 5 0 134 | 199] 149
135; D|D/ Sj; 5 4 | 126/ 179] 148/195; D|D/| S| 5 1 | 131) 192) lar}
136 | D|D Sijo 20 136 | 182) 147] 196| D|D Si Ome 139 | 183] 150 |,
137 | Di} M] S| 5 4 128°) 187) W497) SD ea Ca) tao 125 |} 187] 140
1388} M|M/ S} 5 2 124 | 187) 148] 198} D|L S| 5 4 145 | 190} 148 |
Yeh) | Dye eiDy If SS) By 136 | 192| 149) 199] D | L 8S); 4 9 142} 191); 148 |
; 140; M|M/ S| 4 7 125 | 183 |} 143 || 200) D | D S| 5 0 135 | 187] 142 |
141") 3D) MS) 4 10 136} 189; 146 || 201); D|D]| Cj 5 2 134 | 192) 143
142; M|D S|} 410 136 | 192] 144 || 202; D|D S| 411 137 | 190 | 147
1439) 9) Dey (C429 V4) US4o SV S4s 20ST eR eM Sion e7, 134)— 178) 145
144| D|D S; 4 7 136 | 180) 142 || 204; M;M |W 4 9 126 | 185 | 140
14'5:| MD °C) 5 2 132 | 196| 149 ||205| D|D S| 5:70 143 | 192! 145
1465) D) |) MIS 9496 134 | 183] 145 || 206| D|M Silom 138 | 192] 148
F147; M/D Salome 128 | 179] 187 || 207; D|My| S| 5 6 136 | 190} 146
(148; M/|D}W/] 411 130 | 186] 151 || 208; M|M/ C; 4 1 125 | 181 | 125
pee DM Cl 2 134 | 186} 142) 209; M|D 8S; 411 137 | 186 | 144
150; M/M| S| 5 3 134] 186] i41/910; M/D]| S| 5 0 115 | 181) 136
151 | M | D S|} 5 2 NOON V7 V4 S52) De eMin Cs eae i 122 | 179 | 142
152; D|D Salae ll 126 | 194} 148]/} 212); R|D |W! 5 2 132 | 183] 140
153 | M|M{|W] 5 2 134 | 182] 140 || 213) M | L 8S; 411 132 | 175 | 139
154) M|L S; 4 6 129} 188 | 145 || 214; D|My| 8j| 5 3 123 | 192] 140
155) M/|L heh] a) 129 177] 1388 || 215; Mj|D Sillomes 159 | 186 | 145
156); D | D S| 5 3 138 | 195) 147 || 216; M|My| Cj 5 1 133 | 181 | 148
157} M|L |W 4 10 132 >|) 189) V54 || 2178) Dr |e Walon 2 140 | 186 | 145
158; DD |.C} 5 2 139 | 184) 149]}218; D|M}| C} 5 2 132 | 188 |) 143
159} D|M| S| 5 5 123) || 175 | V4 |e 2095) M0 Me We) ae 140 | 183] 145
140 M{|L S| 4 8 123 | 1838 | 144 || 92 Dele Mey Wal one2 146 | 197 | 157
161); M|M|W] 5 3 137 | 192] 150 || 221); R|M/W/] 5 2 131 | 190] 152
162| M|M| S| 4 §$ 140] 189) 148 || 222) D|D|W)] 5 2 136 | 191} 147
1635) Da il Sileoueall 135.) 198") 48452235) Da |W |) 252 141 | 191 |) 147
1649), 2D) DS | We | oes 137 | 192) 156 || 224| D | L Si|leomes 130 | 190] 141
165) M|D Sy) 141 | 194] 150 ||295) D|...| W| 4 8 139 | 194 | 150 |
166} M | L Saleeeal 129 | 186} 145 |) 226) D | L Sileoue 123 | 184] 147 |.
167} D|L (on) by 0) 131 | W939) 2401227 |) D1) W686 120} 190) 141
168 | D|L Ss; 410 142} 180} 140 || 228; M | L S|; 411 131} 188 | 140 }
169; D/|Dy|Wy 5 2 143 | 180] 150 |) 229) D | L Sirona 124 | 190] 135 }
70); D|DIWwy 411 141] 196 | 149 || 230) F | L S| 5 0 137 | 190) 151
TAL |) 1S || 1 8S; 411 135 |. 188 | 151 || 231 | M | L S| 5 0 132 | 189) 144 |
2a Mae S; 4 9 1265 |) 1735)) W338 F232 De rece Cale 127 | 173 | 131 }
P7385) Me MO Sas 127 |) 183)) W388") 2335 Me | us Som 126 | 187) 142 |
(174); D|U Silleo! 2 128] 191] 145 || 234; M|My| S|] 5 2 138 | 187 | 148 |
'175| F{|L|w] 4 0 123 | 158| 182 ||985) F |M| C) 4 6 127) 186 | 147 |
176) Ne S| 5 3 136 | 188 | 141 || 236} D | D S| 5 0 129 | 185] 143
V7) De | Mal SSile dies 133 | 189) 147 || 237) D|D S| 5 0 127 | 180] 143 }
178| D|M/] 8} 411 140 | 193 | 147 |) 238; D | D S| 5 2 136 | 185 | 136 }
179i) S|) VE | Wale 25: 135 | 188] 145 |} 239] D | D S| 5 0 133 | 190 | 150 }
180; D|Mj| S| 5 2 136 | 187} 140 ||249; D |L S| 410 127 | 185 | 144

Asylums in Scotland—J, ¥, Tocusr. 79
XX.—Stirling District Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Colour 2 Cranial Colour 2 Cranial
Character.| 7 Character. Character.] 7 Character.
No. ‘5 | Stature. No. ‘s | Stature.
. . vo . . oO
5 g H. L. B. 5 & 2 H. I: B.
S| 8} ] ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm S|] 8 | w® | ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
241 R|D S; 411 131 186 145 || 246 F/L Sioa 25 135 187 147
242 M/;L S| 5 0 142 191 149 || 247 M|M{|W;} 5 1 139 193 145
243 | M|D Simone 134 | 186] 151 | 248} M/L C| 4 8 137 177 | 140
244 D|D S/ 5 0 132 178 132 || 249 D | D S| 5 1 139 190 149
945} D|M} S8{ 5 8 131 189 | 147 || 95 M:iD|W| 5 1 138 | 179 | 139
XXif.—Greenock Parochial Asylum.
FEMALES. FEMALES.
Pr |G sh] a 132 | 186] 150 46; D{L Srl ei 119 | 182] 136
2 M/|™M S$; 5 0 124 184 144 47 M/|D S|; 5 3 134 184 142
3 D|D Cio =4 132 187 145 48 M|M S| 5 5 128 181 136
4 M|D S| 5 4 136 194 153 49 M{|L SS) i) 6) 33 127 182 143
5 M|L S; 4 8 129 187 141 50 M|L S| 6 2 135 187 148
6 D|M S| 4 9 1ey/ 185 150 51 M/M S| 5 3 136 191 155
7 M{|D S| 4 9 122 185 145 52 D/|D Silo 3 132 185 146
8 D{|L C; 4 9 125 185 148 53 M{|L iS) |) ta 133 192 149
9 M|M|W/ 4 1 106 154 123 54 M] L S$; 5 1 131 196 149
10 M{|M C 5 5 130 189 142 55 DL S|} 410 134 187 147
11 D\|M S;} 5 1 127 187 150 56 DIM S| 5 4 134 186 141
12 M|M S| 410 125 186 143 57 D|D S|; 4 8 127 178 145
13 D|L Sip & 2 131 181 140 58 M!/D S|; 5 1 136 195 146
14 M/{L Sti) a) 124 181 144 59 D/|D Sil) on, 131 188 148
15 M/L s|} 5 1 129 194 139 60 M/]D C; 410 129 185 145
16 M!D S| 5 0 129 179 141 61 D/|D S! 410 134 185 149
17 M/|M S| 410 130 181 149 62 D|D S| 5 4 128 180 148
18 M/D C; 410 125 177 136 63 M;|L Sreeowee: 133 180 144
19 M/|D S| 4 8 128 181 143 64 M|L S|} 5 0 122 182 139
20 M|L Ss 4 9 127 185 144 65 M!|D SS; 5 1 135 188 151
21 D|M Silo 129 195 149 66 M|M S| 5 1 130 196 151
22} M|L S| 410 124 | 176] 136 67 | DD S| 5 2 125 | 182] 137
23 M|L Ss 4 10 124 181 143 68 M;|M S| 4 9 124 184 145
24} M|M| S| 5 0 123 | 180] 141 69! M|M| C}] 3 8 130 | 193 | 136
95 M!D Silpores 123 186 143 70 M{L S| 4 9 125 191 148
26 M;M S| 5 0 134 184 148 71 M|D S| 5 1 128 188 148
27; M| L Sillor ce 137 | 199} 154 vee ae S| 410 129 | 173] 139
28} M|L 0} || ay 141 188 | 148 Foi) MoD S| 410 132 | 178 | 136
29 M/;M S| 5 0 128 180 140 74 M/;M S| 5 1 126 187 145
30 M|M Ss 5 5 132 192 148 75 M|M Silo 2 125 190 149
31} D|M] S| 410 129 | 182] 140 76} M/ L S| 4 8 119 | 173] 181
32 M!D Silpeon no 135 191 147 4. D/|D S|} 5 3 131 189 140
33 D|L S|} 4 9 127 182 144 78 M|L S| 5 0 129 185 143
34 M/|D S|} 410 121 170 137 79 D|D Si] 6) 5 128 185 139
35} M|L S| 5 2 132} 186] 144] 839/ M|M!] S] 5 0 127 | 187] 141
36 F | D Ss 4 10 132 187 155 81) ML S| 5 2 126 185 145
37 D|L Sil eoneD 140 191 151 82 M|M S| By 4 132 192 148
38 | M|L S| 5 0 134 | 186] 140 83 | MiM] S| 5 12 122 | 183) 146
39 D/L S| 410 134 189 144 84 DL Sil) 352.0 124 190 146
40 M/|L S|) 4) O 130 191 143 85 M/|M S| 4 7 131 196 151
41 M/D Ss 4 9 128 182 146 86 D!|D Sittieo 2 128 187 151
422; DIM S| 4 9 123 | 173] 134 87| M|D S| a 3 136 | 183] 151
43 Mi L S; 410 128 179 139 88 D{|L S| 4 9 133 184 140
44 D|L |W 5 0 124 180 141 89 M|L Sie ul 125 189 144
45; M|L Sil 74 27 123 | 180] 143] 90| M|... S|; 5 0 120 | 182] 143

80 Anthropometric Observations in Scotland.
XXi,—Greenock Parochial Asylum.
FEMALES. TYEMALES
3 co)
Colour | 8 Cranial Colour | 3 Cranial
Character.| & Character. Character. | A Character.
No. ‘s | Stature, No. ‘6 | Stature.
; 2 co) z v
8 | 2 H, L. B. z| 8 s EL Spa (eal B.
S|} |} wH | ft. in | mm. | mm. | on. )R |) ft. in. | mm. | mm. | mm.
91 M|M S; 5 1 123 183 144 97 DiL S| 5 3 126 190 | 145
92; M|M S; 411 125 191 150 98 M/D S| 5 0 126 184 | 146
93 ML Sor 3 130 194 142 99 M|L S| 410 129 187 150
94 M|M S|; 5 0 128 180 141 || 100); M | M S| 5 0 124 184 140
95 M/;M Sy oy 139 182 146 || 101 M|M S| 4 9 126 184 138
%| M/D|W] 5 3 | 134] 189] 150
| XXil.—Paisiey Parochial Asylum.
|
FEMALES. FEMALES.
| 1 M\|M Salon at 138 193 146 48 M/|D Sil somo 135 198 146
2; D\|M Si 4 4 133 187 146 49 M{L S; 5 2 128 | 179 147
3 M | L Sil foe a 134 191 147 || 50 IDy |) 10; S| 5 6 138 181 153
4| M|M S| 5 3 137 182 146 dl D|M S| 5 0 134 | 184 149
5 M/L Syl Sy al 134 179 142 52 M|L S| 5 38 131 187 143
6 M/|D S| 5 0 129 182 143 53 M;M S| 410 122 | 186 149
7 MiMy] Cj 4 9 133 190 148 54}; M|L S47 132] 188 153
8 D|D S| 411 123 187 151 55 M/L Sil on 132 | 187 142
) M|L S| 5 4 134 188 151 56 M{|L ish] Gy 132} 191 143
10 M|L Ss] 5 3 138 187 147 57 M/L S| 5 2 129 190 148
ll D|M S| 5 7 144 188 139 58 | M } L ‘Si ome, 134 | 190 148
TPA Deb; S| 5 2 138 189 153 59 M|D S| 5 4 142] 184 148
133| M|L S| 5 2 140 189 144 || 60 D|D S| 5° 0 124 | 189 148
143 (Mo Gs S| 5 O 132 | 184 145 61 M/D S| 5 0 135 187 152
15 M|M S| 411 126 184 144 62; M|D S}/ 5 3 131 193 143
16 INU eee S! 4 8 131 181 137 63; M|M S/ 5 0 127 186 148
17 F iM S| 5 2 142; 191 143 64 Mi] L S| 5 0 134 190 145
| 18 M|M S| 5 4 131 179 142 || 65 M|L C; 5 4 135 192 145
, 19} D} L S| 5 4 129 187 141 66; M|D S| 5 4 132 | 187 144
20 M/D S|} 411 127 188 145 |) 1/30) (Of) Gy 4 135 | 200 | 147
21 M}D S| 4 9 123 172 138 68; M] L S| 411 135 | 187 144
22) MO S| 5 5 132 187 149 69; DIL S| 411 126 |- 179 130
23| M!D S| 410 127 194 140 || 70 D|M S; 5 1 123 | 175 147
24} M/L S/ 5 0 129 192 145 71 M/|M S| 5 8 132 188 148
95 Mi|M]| C} 5 8 132 | 195 142 72| M|D Si|| a 33 130 | 191 140
26); D/L S| 5 3 137 182 146 73| M|M S| 5 2 142 | 193 150
Pa | 1D) |) NR WIS) || Say 135 | 194} 151 74| M|D S|] 410 138 | 178 | 145
WS | MIE | a Oy & 134) 192; 146 || 75| M/|M} Sj} 411 128; 182] 139
29; F|M|W] 5 1 131 | 187] 151 76} M|L S| 5 2 131 | 182] 147
30 ML S| 411 131 191 144 77 MiIM/W] 5 2 132 | 172 151
31 M|M S| 5 3 131 184 144 78 M|M S;} 5 0 124] 181 142
325) Do) 8S; 5 1 128 190 145 79; M|L S| 5 8 138 193 148
33} M{L S|; 411 13h 189 138 80; F | L S| 4 9 131 170 | 140
Bye || ae |) S| 5 2 141 | 187} 146 8t| DI|M| WwW] 5 0 136 | 194] 150
85| R|M| S| 5 3 138 | 197 | 146 82} M;L/]W| 5 3 138 | 196 | 149
36} DJL S| 5 0 134 | 197 154 838} M|L Ss; 5 1 136 186 147
37' M;L |W] 5 8 129 | 194] 151 84; M|M, S! 5 2 141} 182) 152
38 | M|D S| 5 0 131 | 187} 141] 85} M|M| S|] 5 4 136 | 180} 136
39 M|L S| 5 8 140 | 183 145 86) EL) Midi ©) | 254 136 | 200 157
40 M|D C} 5 0 132 | 189 142 87; D|M]| S} 411 140 | 177 149
4] M | L CC] 5 O 138 19] 153 88} D;iM]| S} 5 0 131 184 145
42} M|L S;} 5 1 137 | 195 146 89} D}D S/ 5 2 137 187 148
48} M|L S| 5 1 141 190; 152// 909} D|M{| S| 5 3 137 | 189 | 145
44/ M|D S; 411 126 | 183 140 91 D/iIM/|W| 5 6 141 193 146
45; D{|L 8S; 5 3 128 | 187] 137 92; M/ L S| 5 0 140] 198] 154
46; M|L S|} 5 4 127 | 183 | 154 93/ M|D Silieouez 130 | 184] 143
47} M|M S| 411 132 | 190 141 |}

APPENDIX II.—TABLES OF CLASSIFIED DATA.

TABLE I.—TABLE OF FREQUENCIES.

Head Height.

MALES. FEMALES.
rs s rs; Z| ee
: s : to : si ic — mo bh st
oe ise > | § periiwear ab a5 g > 5 S
8 a 5 4 5 - 5 a 5 4 5
= ae) = a] = a es He:
4 a a x ce a by x oy mq fy
1 125 1 162 1 106 L 122 1 1
Hits 126 ASE 163 1 107 123 I 1
aa 127 164 2 108 1 124 2 ac
ee 128 165 109 Se 125 1 1
on 129 1 166 110 Aas 126 1
a0C 130 2 167 111 1 127 1
|| 13h . | 168 2 112 Delos 5
1 132 7 169 es 113 Z 129 5)
1 |) 138 4 | 170 es 114 4 | 130 7 %
6 | 134 Teal 1 115 4 | 131 6 Be
3 135 6 172 1 116 4 132 I 1
3 136 2 173 i 117 8 133 20 al
Sallalod 7 | 174 5 118 7 | 184 21 i
7 | 13 15 | 175 6 119 22 | 135 30 ee
13. | 139 1S i) 176 4 || 120 45 | 136 51 2
22 140 43 177 7 121 48 137 65 2
34 | 141 45 | 178 1] 122 57 | 138 | 106 2
47 142 72 179 9 23 115 139 131 4
54 143 99 180 13 124 133 140 167 6
90 144 103 181 26 125 kyl 141 220 8
115 145 151 182 41 || 126 208 142 276 é
157 146 Mei 183 42 || 127 230 143 286
188 | 147 | 230 | 184 50 128 | 268 | 144 | 319
235 148 265 185 78 129 261 145 340
271 | 149 | 294 | 186 88 130 | 279 | 146 | 321

189 158 179 195 273 139 97 155 41
144 159 124 196 262 140 79 156 27
119 160 90 197 253 141 45 157 15
99 161 54 198 262 142 30 158 Wi
62 162 50 199 235 143 20 159 8
48 163 aye 200 214 144 20 160 4
38 164 27 201 190 145 18 i6l 4
25 165 13 202 172 146 9 162 3
32 166 1] 203 150 147 7 163 1
16 167 4 204 106 148 i 164
14 168 33 205 94 149 4 165
22 169 4 206 6L 150 2 166 1
9 170 2 207 is} 151 2 167
10 171 208 49 152 2 168
2 172 » 209 30 169
2 173 210 27 170
5 174 211 18 171
4 175 1 212 12 12,
1 176 213 7 ifs
= 177 214 1 174
178 215 2) 175
179 216 3 176 :
180 217 6 177
1 181 218 y 178 1
194 i 220) 2
222 1
228 1
4436 4436 4436 3951 3951

TABLE II.—TABLE OF HEAD LENGTHS AND HEAD BREADTHS—4436 Male Inmates.

Head Length (Millimetres).

82 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

(<=)
= ~~ WIDWOMIONHAMArDMIAHADODAOADDMDAMDAADHOAKMVMAMHMHAN | Nos]
age CMe OO OS ERS SBR RSASRRHAADSAHRNSOODONUS H
AA ANAANMOMMAN AA aS ~H
I Te Need Det a j mee | ria Titi tincialbrl sw. 0 f =] 1
Lipa | al | | Le a LR l
laa La | | | | | j tal fit | aii |] | 2
| is | It [ale ates iTt) tT pra
ie) | | | Lal i re Pink ih a aaa DD)
J 1 I Tai liga S944 it Pry vt a igi
el aa | | | o = wale TT TT 3
LL | | Para rey ie | lal | ir Pitino ste TT 2
| | | Peal hee st! Mtehtiaeta vole y fil l
| | mao | Le a La a 7
| [Peel “mm aoe | Cle Ls a 12
| | ie re a | HANAN | Fou 18
ral = | N NANMNAM SSS No Hoi i 1 | 27
Sia | tS iL LAMAN HOUDOOOAN ING 1a! Prt tT 7 30
aii tiie fo PO HIDQNWDO | AHO INT IHN! tod | ta 49
[eae als sill elie sheet col elle ANN | ot HID HH 00D Pa I i, at LIS 53.
Liat Le SiS lot Lon) KAA NSHHOOAMNHAMANM IAA TR We Wat th dt 61
ae aie) AHAIGMIDRAOOMmATAKAO TTT | marl Fo
Sina [i elie CHANMANDNHOMRrONL | M104 | a Pas Bi
— = co
eet ee ee ee MIDHRI~FAHAMASCHDADHOSrMAAGHT IA een ow 150
Comal Ss
Ct obem PP EE LIN RNR SO HK ONANAMAHOUMIHEVOIOANAM SS! 1 [Seat 172
Ho [eae (ON Mia te! Sie /
Pi hal rt | PTA PMA NHRONDKKNANNINIAEBMDHOAAMMS | rll t th y99
co [ileus fila tiles ila! —_
hole iyo | LoL Ll LPO HH HAOOGADOPMMIAOGAAHNWM MA: | | rir yr a 214
as = aN SNe ARN onl a
| Sisto ANAM MOORE MIOIOLD-UAMAPMArOMANHA I AT] I Itt dod 235
Se RR NN AS RG c
| i= iS al TT TT PT Pi ®@ 9 DWONADORSNGSDDDAOOMHAN! i 1 riot t t to6go
= S44 Ss BA NANNN Ss ee ee
ie (1 TESTE Sa) = 1AMaAM | DWOOOMOMIANAHMA MH OMO GS erie ii Ft | t W O 953
Ses NDNNAN Se Se )
| eel LS Le MADMAN TR HONDHNDOTAHHARHN aN | Pein ieee 2962
ABA NNMN RAO RS al
[at rr | LI NANMIO HHO MMO RAE ADOrrADMIOONNA |! | Miia ir I 273
Sas Ss NNNSO oe lees Meee Maen! a
LTS TTT Ll Le IN PWNOONMrOBAMMHDr-MNOOmeHAOS ic) Peay pe a 263
Se NNBANANM loa!
‘ 1 fia he a iT AM OID DE HDOOMM AB IQHODDDNGIOWA IN! |! il rr ht 7 261
SRR NNN See
Pit TKS Tal AANA OAMOOWMARMMAAMMAE HOODOO 1 IN 1 tr Fo 239
SANNNAN Se eS
tie Plat SOD HH LD OIE NON MEMO OOO MAA | cE i OU th dl 194
SS et SS el
a ay) Sl SON OHHON TR OH R TOR OW | HON ! | Pep 7 | | 185
Leen Moen OS Moen Maen AP Been een lee! os 19)
i it PL Le LRNNHHIODANDDNSDAABAGW—“MIAGANNA ! | 166
o an N Loon a,
LI ase SB 1LAMNWODMOPrOMDDADAAOUIUAMANMAN = tel |] 7 150
al aa
ingle! PPS Pot 1 Se Oise Cr OI1s r= MIO MoO HAT TT ASI ] ena clin, i 103
Le eae Tea aT ee AN THOM OHEHRAOOHOrOMAR | era hy | | 88
rr
al Pairs lO lee sls sO tees Cee) WeGe TIGER) [ies Nes Been i ee | | 78
LSAT Era Ty ih 1 aS LHNMHMONM RR HOR eR HN Le ae | Pei 50
Die ai = ed ac LAAN IAH INARA HAAN TASS lene Piet ho 42
a] Sa lel laa LANA MANIABMAAHANANMAH es ie eal] | 4]
tol lol cal LAO I NAMNNO MD | LAN | im 4 ] im 26
! a at Te ltl eI LL Fa | iat ial | 13
ah Tee So =o) i lee ahs i rT Lt init 9
faite) i Fea aS Wer CU a | | Ip eal el lal rm] 1)
Ce lied| | rire Se Vitis LCN eae ea ial re] | Dai %
CT irra ae rt | | | et ll | ote yy et
a Sie T=) itr cit it ietlmlaiehan bt tr 1 a6
= alae ae ie) Srl rica a lal rrr; &
ro ] I [Mi elites ed Ls as ee ea il | Poe Py} a
Lal Cl SVS fea Miah isl ri re inl | yy 1
LL TS LSS aaa Pee hei hie heir aie is til | rt} it
| Tit Mittin cml ni kot tk bela Whole dolcd | PW Ty)
Lal Lea Sa TL aL ae a ae ae all ae ais a Tt tibie lt rr} &
SiS ieee TS oi ae os fl | I Le ee
= Pi ie i a a an hah bodied Unc ale hs eno PST TT) ah
tot TT hpi. ale lalneilo helen imel | mri Toy} 3
Se
SBD AAI HID OI~DRDOGAAMDH OOM DHOANMADORDBOANMHDOOMRDROHAYHS 4
QIN OD 99 09 O90 OD 09 OD OD OD OD SH SH SH SH SH SH HH HH 1D 1D 1D ID DID IID HSOSDOSSOHSSOGCORRERAD &
Or re ee oO
=

‘(SoxjOWITIN) YIpearg peop

TABLE III.—TABLE OF HEAD LENGTHS AND HEAD HEIGHTS—4436 Male Inmates.

Head Length (Millimetres).

Asylums in Scotland—J, F, Tocusr. 83

SAR OMMOMr-MOA HE HS
mA oD Hd

]
1

I | a | eal ae ea et Lee ie
ft 0 ela [aw | iri} his Pe =e ae
a | ay | j rir oO 1a = Se aa
a i ial | Lo! is) [were | CO ee ie ieee le ae Lie
al | ee i AANA RTARTA HHMNS lest! sot lll
LT aa aaa ea ead Lik LI ANON OOM OCS Ie | lI Re ie leer le
tT LIN TSN LOHR HA INGNMOMOMG a 1 leet tl
CT TS ia | Qi lah lM DAAeAMIOAN | IN TAN! | tt il
ee eles | LP Pe IP OONAHMOAMWOOA HH AAD [AHO 1a le |
tetra ra | [eas | Ng TCO GSH CORO COR OO SHER OD eH hia!
tt | | | [SHH SD HAG S EO E19 OD E19 © 0010 OD [tans ITN
ieee lie) aa} at INA MIO OMMtOHOOMDAHIOMNANINM 1 lal |
(aloes Miao len len Mite an!
TT STS ie IFES CNICO ICO Tet GNC (E3100) OO} IO NOOO ti lal
— Ssaqaq
to a tale I) I ey) Ax (CASS Sa SIO) See Cte eel
SS oS “4
Co TS See Pa] i= OAOMrAHOMMAMDOSCRrDNDANHAN TA leis
4 See Ne Re ANA
rT a Lot ot tL Pe ED WOO NMOWDADAHAAINHAHOAMreIOMM I ANNA! I i!
Sees een aoe
ee a ES SSS PHIDWD ID HAAOAOIOMOCFDONDOAMANHAAH | |
(coos Milo! Aaa AANA GS
rT a Le Ls a ee Let LUMO HAOON DIFP OOIWOMHrADrANMAHA I NNAN
SS sae NSN
alent Lol LSS MIDWIA“WMAAMIr HAP WDOAHANOPrAMMANN | IA 1a
> ANQetNes en AR
ae eal a eee Rocio IB ROLO FSO COON AO I OVS OIG CON Oies k= ier I EASA!
asa BNANANAANAN
oT aaa [TABS HOOM OAS UAH HHAACOAAOADA la
SSS OMAR
2 NSC OO 1 Py uw 2
tot WD a loam I NOors TH SSSA AOR OR ADOSFAS ISA TST |
Prot tt tm Pe LHR DHODOOOAHDRHORODIONANN TNO TINT IT ol
Sea AN ABN eee
Pol ot ot beat Pee 11 HAMNOAOR DOR MANIMIOAMS LOA AAS laa
Loma See ASS ee
i al SASS AANOAMIIDONOMWOMIIMDOMODUIMAMOM ING! I let
=== N — ee
Pe) tS laa LNA NEDDOPGSDNAANGDOSONOC I |! ttat ttt dod
sae oOl ——
Prt batt lH He HHOHOSOMNDANDAMr-MOAHA ! IMA INT 1 1 It
eK a —_
Ss Scorer: PROTO KS FO HOO Os Co SHIC SH LEE SS ae
—
[Tt aa AC ae Stora OPH eto SH CO NCO Ca ie Lh Teel |) To | |
Ld bel PINAR NAAM HHRHAROMOMDOHONMA INGA] IT Itt Lia ial
LUT ea att ANMNHMMHIDO MIO MH Mas tt lt tt test od tl |

Le eae eT rapa LAN NOMHIDMOOMNA | Peat | ot tb bet lt | |

0 Vi ey | MMAMN | HAHHANANTMN aoe | | | ra |

Ta Oa | AMHANaHaA NON a as Le Nis ei! eee |

a4 | aN Pinal! 1 hoe a ea |

onl
| le lee Se | | ar | Fl]
a

1 — = =a CNIGN lillie I 1 PL ] l

‘(sonSWITTA) WSIoH peoH

TABLE IV.—TABLE OF HEAD HEIGHTS AND HEAD BREADTHS—4436 Male Inmates.
Head Breadth (Millimetres).

84 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

4 1
175 ]
172 I i ] Taal ial lines nel =I — Phh vipa

ns -_
170 ] ] TT tee lien | | ira ai | MaMa) tei lt Wma

7)
169 1 } i er T 1 hel rs ian = 1 ] pela } Er tl rep
168 i | | rd Tey gee al = Pi poe

S e
167 ] | | it Io] ral ie) ial = 1 titan Tf wl frets
166 liad rd r=] a eS rN T= ] ati Rr Tht
165 a | [ealeealenl aa lan [aa las] Qa J 4 Trt Pet Te.
164 Ra Re ===] el a a = RaANSAAAAS Toes a4 PD) ay;
rea hl i he i SNR AAMNAARMA Ra Hes TaN Phar | Ty Te BID
162 = ia aa AQ lLAeMAANAANANMAMAO HOA IAN PS} ASE hale 50
161 [hall ans rt. t= A TOAMNDNOMNAOHN TAA TAR IA lA | Poked Bd

€
160 ie inal er Tl lea | AINIAMOWORHORMAR HAAN ! |! itt 1 tt 1h 99
ae Lom!
159 1 mis 7 AAO HHORODHOMWOMMMONM SAM ao 1a ] eee 124

Oe Lom) ag eae ce = rast. i aes

= | 7 =e al MEMO AOAMDWOM-MrAMNNAMOIOAAHO | Tal ain arm 179

Loma! a—_— ee = (oo | a =
la7t,.! tt ea TS LMA HDADONDHMAAMADORENAAAMHAAT I) I altaltitiii 7 R8

OT |. Ss Sosa 188
i orn Soa wD & 1D OS HL ~~ To
156 TE pee ele Oe SN tad eerie ete hes ESOS Siri Cs aa | a 241
55 ADMNOMOSOARCCORIrEMOAY on of = DA
155 (SS LS ) i Sess cise CUO EIS CNM on hop Dl Pitt t Th 968
154 ar hen laa TOD OOHHSCODOSSAANANDADODANAMAMNOAANANM lala 4 rT 1 1 P9g9
E BANANAMAN G SS
= | SOmM0DSS NANSIDS 3 1D ON ® : y
153 ou ol ee itn SE DONNANN | IN | = i 320
152 Ll Io 4 L’WDAOH KHL DAMAADMrMONOMIAIANMMANA SA 1a I | 334
ta! See aA AANNA SH
151 [outea mal ANWIDMON HAAG HMOMEArSMNIANNM lage i] 330
¥ SAANNNNNNAR A See
x z ~~ Q¢€ Ns S OD G L 5
150 = 1 tl Co tH HEL CoS ea SieRiGtiGe Cl Gd GUIGdSirciioe oo oe eta ama iar | IM 320
149 (Tima SAND HNONMIAMOCHODHONMNHOOCRINOMAAS | = 1S 1 294

e SRA NNN RN eee

, ra ee ley ere el
148 [eal ene ao eS EN a ee l= me = | a TD j ' 11965
147 | SS LS NOMTDMOHORDOTMAOCWOGHINNM HOH oO lL = My ESi 230

a Lo liooe! BARN See
146 4 = I AMMANNDONDHNOSANAAEOMANSA TIT IN 1 177
Ss — Sesto ase Comal
145 = la TO OID A |OKSORDOARAOANIOMNMS == lal = 151

co loon ilaon! = — Comal ——|

@ AG Oru MADIOAAMIIM ANNA TS | 5

144 aen 1 Tan US IDOAWIA ro) | | ead al veut 103
143 ia ANNMSMIHEOSHDSOWIMNMH LANRAA Tal 1 | rT Ty 99

=< —

142 PLL mL BO DMLWMIH]HOE HAHN OAHOS | see i te | | | 72,
141 a — ANN HANNYNMOOMMAN RA AA I! I al | | | | Ioly 45
140 4 les) SHAM OHHANNA N = | 1 | fal oe Th ee
139 ie, i aN 1n Se LR ORR ROR 1 to 1 | ') 18
138 SeAee IAN TA) ole ha | IT T5—
137 TS Sse linia! 1 = Pel I 1 aI hay
136 1 4 ina [eal | | ! reel | Lier alee Dy)
135 rie i N Na ] (Sala ing
134 tan = lela ele a eT T 7 =|
13: = la = 5 cal ] 1 en Pert 0 a ae
132 lea 7 al iebics al Cea! | Lael ra rh or rT j 7
130 = = I } Ted I Tay Uy ly 2 an ie)

29 [os Poa (out 1 1 ill | Dn Umnunn | \ if
125 Fan cM Se Ye ] | ] ] ee ee ace ecient! UT 7]
12. | ] rd I lineal | | DO) i eas
123 Tal | | I Ta | 1 SE SLE a aa a

M
DIFDADAAMVAGDOLHHADANMDHAODO Sr WDHOAAMANO OSCE DHSOANMHAHOrDROAAMHO] GS
SMAI GION IAN 08 08 Be 00 OF 0 08 0 OD OO SH SH SHH SH SH HDHD 19 1 1D LH IH NID HW GOSSOS| SF
Toei een ime aon ann amen aren a aes en ce es cen een ce tre ae re i ee Os Oe Oe ee oe ee ee Be ee ee ee ee | O°
EE

‘(soapOWIT HAL) JUSTO} pea

a8

TABLE V.—TABLE OF HEAD LENGTHS AND HEAD BREADTHS—3951 Female Inmates.
Head Length (Millimetres).

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr.

1
1
2
1
th
1
5
5
i
6
7
20
1
0

I La P| ee a LL a a | a en Le eee
a] | DU ET ae ai
| LS Le tie SS eT hs
ee ee
| Na LN A LS ie
| a ee
Went eal i a! Lines 1 mM TM MANA TR
| | | AANNAMMaaA IANO | o
fol a OOD | COHN NOON
i rt AGN RON HOOM aAMOMNAAN aa
1 [ aa att mama naM om 1a
=
| Caml aN 1019 1) OO D190 DOD HID HOD |
(rs!
| | INARA RMOOMDMOMmOsHO |] HN
= taal fol :
| | Lo) a NAB OROORMMAMDADOAHAOMON GS
i as
leat I I ol (iI NOAANGHRWOAMON tHAA GS
[coe oon Be Bl cee oe ee Laomnl =
| | | ' ON OO OO P= OO ON GA SH DO 19 LD OO OD 19
SSS mo
la LAMM IDOTHDMAOOONMDAAHWARDOWOM !
Loma! SSeS RO NAR col
Lit ! el AdDINAMHNATROMmMHH ODODE | AM—
See se ANB RN
ih AN RAN ME 1D OM He OO MMO OME IQ H | ANC)
[eslMlaen ON MON Mee Mice ON Meo Mellon!
lie NAW ONAIMNANArOMAMrMIAOW 1 Hn
ANQeAANNAN BMA SAS
al | NINOS MHDHOWDOWAOWMrreOowo tsa Gs
ANANANAN SaaS
lh tia NNOCENWND TAR OMS Ss HIOMANA SG
SsNeNNNANANS ee
I CLAM HMO MIMAMDeATADAOVIWAA HM
ee = SSO a NAA St St
aaa LIME WMWONCTOHODORDONAORHAANS
ene BANANA AS SS
| o lo 1 OD IS CO HID OID IN IRM ROOM OMA =
a ANANN Sa
imal LINN WD DWOHl™=M OCWMN RHO Haw i=l ||
SSR NANA
=I Lol ANNO AIN DWDM OMmRORNADMIUAN 1S
Lom See ae
idl nl Sate HHOAAN HID Higgs mMomtd |AN |
[petro Bl me Lem see fal ges Hes
iN Aes 1 ONOAONDOAHHMNOANWMNAG
— =e re
re FAB OOCSCUWErNDAGOrUNOMAMS |
e
| LOM AID OP MIO I= NOWMN OO Col |
= = AML ANMANR MRR ANAANAA | ei |
[i = | ie LI NOPE N MANO H IN i 35
| Tht a1 INN TANNA BNR INA | 23
‘ Aas I MONNN LT RMR INAN AO I OI (=I | 30
a | | lon! N SaelANARAS YN | leas fel | 18
| oD LIL ANAN ss | | 13
| rt Tod LNAN eae 8
| ett | fbi! PI Ae ey al] [em Fae Fed | 6
| al o \— | os | | 4
tole | i Ca } } [el )
4 = \ | ll Dy)
Vf fe liye al | (Lal Leal I 2
| | | | eS il
| ra | | Le ae | i | il
rs el | | lod | il
o et | | | 1
=! | | ("al i to| | | 1
| tal | Ie | ee | | | 1
eel
Hn
NO ID DER NDADAANM HDS DHDANAMANO Or DADAAMVMHOOMrNHNBOSANMHOOMMH] GB
ARAN ANA TH HB OHHH AHRAAHAADIODIODIODINDOSSSOOSEOR 8
Hee Oe Be OO Oe OO Oe OO OO Oo
=

‘(soz}OWITTHA) Wpessg peoH

86 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

A) aoladsdtor gee nese eeset eset s See SeSggeenr acai s

a AAA ANANANANAANAAAS oO
N77 ean a ae eT Le ne eal eta pe feu [—belalec=iel Titania tat tt) cr
206 Keni | ] ies en a ec en es De enact a ry el he

205 | eral i Mn a Di Main hislseii—thmiis lel i Lam hh D>

oe 204 nian lel a iii ttt liieteat I= iio o 0 mh rns
3 203 lee [a eal | | ryt ht Tinie b a i Th oil A
N 202 rd al i } ian eh aia aa Ie) lial | 7
aS 20] lea | | ae oie LAT AAS 4 Sk ee te 18
wy 200 | TT Te Ss S| eas Nati Lean INNN Sw MAS INN |e | l te | mal D5
iS 199)! TI i i i re ARN nn rT. Th 39,
$ 198 | LS Por od tot Lm Lm TRAN TM SLIDMIMMHANMRS A laa am AN ! = | 50.
Ge, 197 one al a se a | be RN MOAN HMR OMS He Da | IN helene 46
al 196. Ta AE at totob tt la PRM A MNOWMALR MO MOWDANWOM | a! |e | ll 79
oO 195 TTT Pitt) isso) Aa N SOSH ROONASHA | Iaaot TT if 9]
1 194 [Filta SPS [er mee) ONES it iad lie Wier — PRS EE es SPER BSE a itera EIA GE Te Ce) ssn the |} =a I 113
ca | HOS] at LASS ano oS SOR Cr SS aes Ginae mes
Si x | 192 Pilg linet TI PTANFAADOFDAOIADS OAM AAAS a
Leal % 19 oe Te seus HID HH DOI HOMIAN MARTA TTA 1 199
a $a} 190 | la) } OIMOAANTVANTOOOSOSMrOANMMA TA ra a ae PAG
ae: = i89 | DAHA OANOAARTARPSHNSTORH TI Mae 1 Tai Td 227
fay 22 TS PT ANN SHOR SIA RO SAT SSANAANAS ret 259
<Cee ] Fl LAO IDMIDRAS MW HHRARBHHANDOMBOALANS ASS TT TT 1 LO79

f= RAR ay Scan ao ee ae Se es

Lol i a Sea NRHA 2 a 244
a = Dat OO OO 1s HAO A Homo Ais Ta Tenia /26n
Zz on rs ROS ag Sr es Seca et eS CO OIG —u—F | rales Uhh ay |b
a = i FATA MO DASHO BIS A IGHARORBAOGNA | al rit? 1/935
nm 4 |1821 a AWANSSAOOASEASDHRBASOAANAA I 1 rT dT 1 11207
esas) 181 SATA SAAN TDA SHAR AADSPTOOM HMMA TI rrr tS I 167
Go ov 180 =a | = Be CO MII OT EA 2 aS SN SIC ia iia 153
A | 179 FS ANANTRDDAGDONDOORTAANSATA | ritttit.0|q97
| 178 oo al CN SH 2 TH G2 XH CO GO'E= 10900 1 CYL 10 1097) SAK Tia [vl i Js 96
a 177 = ae 1H HNO BHUIMODMONINAMAAAMN IAN | I vga] lg | 67
x 176 1 = INN TS ANANBOOMDAMMMaAMae le! | hoor yr J 1 48
= 175 i 4 Tae THAYwMDAMAANAS ase ] a ae Le 1} 35
: 174 = 14 Ti omni i ki} iit int ii Uinitaim i ua 23
5 17: a eS NS DS Da Pitino hor 0 1| SO
@) 172 =I el Nl lan lam —hieotelle) let rad Trae 7 18
2) val THs | eae ee lee lS = | Pal inalael I Tt 13

= 170 me | l= la 1 | rd aia emia 8
ES 169 ex) ial Atal 1 laa Ter tl ilo Minis 0 |) 6
| 168 I IN lit | Li | Pa lias | | 4
i 167 et ] = ial Ti teal Lipa east a aga Per D)
> 166 1 vl i! il ] I ell ial 1 mr mer. Pw Te
fx) 165 l I —— ro Phe t I ral hint ull a

= 163 l elie =r i ph ihter Uy Tee |} ou

x 161 1 = el Te ned Mice ioms eto 1\! a1
fH 158 | a 1 I ial 1 al julie eae! Ree!

ay) |e. | I ] mi ws 1 Ini rl I ine we 0 \\ i

152 i! | elie Te lA Tals aa ass ae aT

161, ia ] mi fet ti rT hier © t teenies we 0 |F a

7 Teen : z &

Zax
n
oO
ra
a)
oO
£
=
ae,
a)
fe;
ie)
o
Ho,
Tw
oC
oO
a

TABLE VII —TABLE OF HEAD HEIGHTS AND HEAD BREADTHS—3951 Female Inmates.

Head Height (Millimetres),

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusrr.

87

SNA HH HOD G16
Ast

oO
sH

tt
1D

115
3
171

08

1
ae ae ee ee ae Te SS ST TS al roe aaa [el =
aa Loa a a LN ae Me eg EI a eel Se el aa Ta ae (a =
SI att OT Se eel ee SSeS et) he ae UAE edo Hat ou ea lie] | ae
VT ATS APS aT Tea 99) We a Lge ie 1 a WTF TA VT a a he al al) Pal dl Lal =z
Ee Ted [aaa a Se ea MLS eS wi It es
at ae ae SS SSS iT 0 i ae lel lalate l fb Te a! ee 1
dee ath LPS NS TF yh Sas eal Lee rt ini aaa Ly I ot =
Yh ow A SUE a smi Hise TESST cone nT SFR) Fes Re ahs Ta 9) a One at ae eT Li ahiout 1 ot =
bh Lee [a Fil Tea] a] re i UE eth Ua STA] ee aa] fel liegi l
mal eed we iy Fire el hala ih aa STS ee et {fea} el 3
[| all el] TE aie Ea Sa TS} TE ST STE 1 Fi rT TTS are i His Wer Dil i el ie 4
NT Ake Td a Sew LL elit Le ie Creel) A OE TP a toh Teo Ee fal el] 4
CS Teal [uel inet aera) PW ets Pe a Tk eed CoN TOT OT Tee eel nh TI ATE RNY ST TEs Sete a i] i= 8
eel aet Pi eet eS CIC rt CSicyonal a Ser lie it (cl | 17
ES IPAS Wy ih oath hPa) Pa rere eee | 15
a Pp ell STS irs ERG ir Sa '(KONMaE Nae leo te st sll | 27

| li ee a SGC ar OnE AOE WL IS [eos | | 4]
het: 1otot bt Pet lt PRI NNN SOE YOM DOoOtmesaest | IML RM IA lit 59
the ag ae a ie alk Uf si} Sy) Seal SEG e) aS NS Sarl So tS) on toe CVO ee aie ol al | 86
yay ee etl een el eo —tle PRAAIGIDANASSH ARH DWOSE Tas I 1 110
eli PoP LL Lm SOHO TMAAHAHIONDODAAOMOAHAANN I AS laa I 161
Sa — Sa
1a bode bt bo bt tL bE PND HOR OMANWM EOGHAN HH MROMAM I|NMaS lors 207
ee a4 S “Ui
it ae] 1obeobt bt t tl bl tae N RB RB OMMODNAOR OHH CORPAWANAN ss lems) oll 244
° = Sessa ntONN ens ee “
| Pb od EE IN LAER IQDOAONMO DER ANHMAHAEDMHAMErOHMOARGANAA AA | 29)
Sse NSB NNNAN SAS e
rbd tb beat 1 PRN INR OP DMOAWHOBRME TANCE OCAEINMOA 1 ear 281
BRA ANNANANANANS AAs oa
Pdetit bt tl dt tm LBM PDAWANMWMDODONOCDOTADMNAOHErHMe INMAR 1! |! 321
SQANRANN Seas . oz
| TT eae IND DODADDSOSNOAMAAMODAAHONAAO GS 1 lire 341
SAR ANAM AAAAANA A 940
va 1 lt tl PRS INO NDAHOWDMODMAMVMeADOMAHAMOrMNODaAa 1! | LS ST 319
SSBB NANNANAMA SS e
Poteet dt | teat TPE ODO OGVOOMMAWOOWIQAaMNAMWOowmononn iN / se | 286
SR BNANNRTAN irl
1d’ett bd bt tt let LWOOAMOAMSWOnRr-ODr-ONGDOON |e ios ae a 276
See ANNAN Ae Ree (
Lbs ttre Le LR AN ODDMNHAGrAGCAMrHWOWANNOOAM | a N | dl 220)
o — Sse eNnae 4
tbo ba LR OMB HA MHOOC MR ODNARBODOMrOMM laa eal Shel 167
ee /
[iy TS Gi a) on Veet Tig IRCA SIC CIS SISO ICO Net RCO SSIS SACO SO Sr Sat HIG i = Hil a 131
a —
bor tl tb bt Pea eet INWOOD OMO RHE AANMANMA 1 | | fal || om al 106
on! ll
1bobe tt bt te 1 DOK ONWMrANMANANNYO | lean! i il he al ly 65
LS IS ANAS SS St SLO Seta eo el bl
SSAA SSN Pana) haa hat it edt LS eal 30
Pu) th ve bea IN TRINA RANMA Pest tl tlt le ld Last S| ea 21
See yey aS LANA aA Metre! bi topo ft tod Pail Vt 20)
aaa ieee SSS SE SSL a a | | a
CT Era aaa aa ea a ee i ae Sa SS 6
Lee ee ie Lic ee Le CU LL 1 SS Uy a | eT 7
ee aa ae ea i a Se Ie SIS | | 5
a aa ae a ae aT SS ST TST TR Ea | 5
LL ee Le ya nae Tat FO TN TT NTS | YT TT ae Te ia I oJ 1
Tea Wea Ue ae La Kir Gt ie P| iL a TA TL Gk Am ah he Te RL AE GU Silos Visi lee | 1
Naa Lame i Aenea | PN eee tsa LA SS ie iS SS veel | l
ee a eee Tea ee Wd Ten TST VPS FRR TA VST Ct VV Ete TR J Oe Les [Pe Ve | 2
amet oa | mat) ea mee] fe | ee) a LL ee | aN A eA MA he SS I US I ES ae est 1
ae a Lame a mt a eae tye Chee eS LL PS a] 1

QQ
iS CO IQ COIm~ ND ANMAOOENDHOANMAOOLrHRAROHMNBAAOSCErBDOOAAI |S
SF SZ FARM AAA NRAAR GOOD HMO MAHAHAHARHAARS oOo S

i=

‘(SoajOWITTHA) YIpearg peoH

88

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

fe eUei old WRU

TABLE OF HAIR AND EYE COLOURS.

4235 Males and 3708 Females.

MALES.

HAIR GOLOU:

Red Fair |Medium} Dark Total | Per cent.
~ : ae oe one Dan ¥ ;
5 Light 37 175 1345 346 1903 44-94

|

2 [’Nediam| mon 77 788 | 497 1382 | 32-68
2 | Dark 9 23 389 | 529 950 | 22:43
x) - E Re

S| Total 66 275 2522 | 1372 4235 100
cc

Per cent. 1:56 6°49 59°55 32°40 100 —
FEMALES.
HAIR COLOUR.

Red Fair |Medium|} Dark Total | Per cent.
ps ik 2 72 G 7 5 ‘Q7
= ight 28 72 998 347 1445 38-97
= Medium 46 31 642 564 | 1283 34:60
S Dank 15 4 369 592 980 | 26-43
S | Total 89 107 2009 | 1503 | 3708 100
a ii: aa ieee ae

Per cent.| 2-40 289 | 54:18 | 40°53 100 uss

Stature (Inches).

Asylums in Scotland

J. F. Tocuer.

ABER TX:

4401 Males.

Head Length (Millimetres).

7 = | Pw & ~~ Ga << 7
~ ~ ~ ip | ™~ | RN NX iy] NX o} -
Sele | ul | | | el | | | i | 3 | Totals
2, Say S0 |} & | & = wx iS) i.e) 3D ie)
Sees i se lo tS = |e |e Re |S
Up to 50 —
52 —
5h i =
56 1 = |
58 4 =
60 1 — |
62 3 1 |
64 6 5
66 | 6 3
68 | — 4
70 le walk | 8]
72 1 1 |
Th 2 |
16 =
Totals 1299 | 1066
TABLE X.
4401 Males.
Head Breadth (Millimetres).
|
Sen Cane Serie
— | SI | 8
| ; | | | | gg | Totals
Up to 50 | 2 ier 4 Tg 5 |
> 52 2 | - | 3 i
E 54 —|- 2 |
= 564t— oe
& 58 1 33 |
nag US | ae iti
v eae 299 |
SB 64 | — 691 |
o 66 | 3 1221 |
ZR 68} 1 | 1209
th “= 589
| = 220 |
ot = 44 |
76 2
Totals | 4401 |

89

90

Stature (Inches).

Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

TABLE XIE

4401 Males.
Head Height (Millimetres).

~ | ~ F a | RN | S | a
Si8§/S /8]/5 |] S| S18 ;sl sie
N ~ s s ™ >a = ab wi al on

| 8 | | | eaeilec leis Totals
=,| © | % © | % % 9 Ry alles! lh, GS
| mall) > » % 39 SF Sr ROR ecS
| > ~ ~N ns | ~ ~ abe | eee aes ay ay =

Up to 50 | 2 2

54 2 2

56 3 aa ?

58 ul oe

60 28 J 77

62 ¢ a Ae

G4 [goal 691

66 ——a 1221 |

68 \-3 1209

70 1 589

9 | @ 220

th 1 | 44

76 | ! =

Totals 4401

TABLES

3915 Females.
Head Length (Millimetres).

SPs X ra Ph ce 2 ty

cS}

0.
207

Stature (Inches).

Totals

Stature (Inches).

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocuer. 91

TABEE XT.

3915 Hemales.

Head Breadth (Millimetres).

| Py
SIS; s/s Ss] sls sl sysyisig
s ~ s ~ | ~ 5 i ™ 5 FER |
Neb te el Vert At hiss b Totals
alesis ileis!|aeieils;/s]{/esiea
Aa] SR 35 sy > > iS ue cS 5 a
=) Lael ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ | ~ ~ ~ oy
Up to 507 1 1 1
52 | — 1 2
Gy Wes) |
56 | — 5 8
58 | 2 i 35
607 1 6 47
OSa 2 7 51
64) 1 | 2] 29
66 | — | — 6 |
68 | — | -— 3
HO =
72 | —- | —
v4
Totals
TABLE XIV.
3915 Females,
Head Height (Millimetres).
> |e . e | x » EE |
S2 RN 3 > > =
~
| |
29
_
~| Uptod0} 1
4 52 1
net 54 | —
2 56] 3
ey 58} 4
ms 60 | 10
= 62| 4
a O4 2
A 66 | —
68 | —
D0) \\ —
72 1
ro. a
Totals 843 | 1368

92 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of

TABLE XV.—HEAD LENGTH.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.

MALES FEMALES
Asylums | al ‘ 5
| Mean Standard Coefficient Mean Standard Coefficient
Deviation | of Variation Deviation | of Variation
Aberdeen ... | 1938°94°24 | 6°19+°17 |] 3°20+°09 | 185°8+°26 | 6°60+°18 | 3°55+:°10
/ Dumfries ... | 196°44°47 | 7°344°33 | 3°744°17 || 187714 °34| 611+ °24| 3-°274+°13°
Dundee ... | 195°1+°39 | 6°824+°28 | 3°494+°14 || 185°94+°30 | 6:°204+°21 | 3°33+°11
Edinburgh ... | 1943+ °32 | 6°264+°23 | 3°224+°12 || 185°34°27 | 5°68+°19]) 3:°06+°10
Montrose ... | 194°8+°28 | 660+ °20) 3°39+°'10 |} 185°5+°33 | 5:°944°93 | 3:°204+-12
Argyll ... | 199°3+ °33 | 6°724°23 | 3°374°12 || 189°0+°29 | 5°97+°20] 3:16+°11
Ayr ... | 197°74°25 | 5°67 +°18 | 2°87+°09 || 188°0+°26 | 6°01+°18 | 3°20+°10
Banft ... | 195°6+ °46 | 615+ °32 | 3°144:°17 || 185°3+°45 | 5:2964+ °32 | 2°844°17
Elgin ... | 194°4+ °47 | 5°814°33 | 2°99+°17 || 184:°8+°43 | 5°98+°30] 3°24+°:16
Fife ... | 195°74°30 | 6°45+°21 | 3°304°11 || 187°04+ 28 | 5:99+-20] 3:°20+°11
Glasgow (Gartloch) | 195°3+°25 | 6°244°18| 3:19+-09 || 185°64+°31 | 5°96+°22} 3°214°12
5 (Lenzie) 193°74°23 |6°51+°16| 3°36+°08 || 186°5+ :22 | 5°58+°16|] 2°99+ 09
Govan ... | 195°8+°27) 6°50+°19| 3°32+°10 || 185°8+-28 | 5°744+°20| 3:09+°11
Haddington ... | 194°9+°5) | 6°214°36 | 3°19+°19 || 1186-74-47 | 5-924 °33| 3-174 -18
Inverness ... | 195°9+:25 | 6°25+°18 | 3:19+:09 || 187°24+°26 | 5:95+°18| 3°18+4 10
Lanark ... | 196°2+°21 | 6°05+°15 |} 3:°09+-08 || 187°0+°21 | 5°94+4-°15)| 318+ :08
Midlothian ... | 194:°2+°36 | 6°01 4:25 | 3°104°13 | 185°7+°37 | 645+ °26| 3°474°14
Perth ... | 195°34°34 | 6°544°24 | 3°354+°'12 || 186°6+°40}] 6:09+:28| 3:°27+°15
Roxburgh ... | 195°2+°37 |6°42+°26 | 3°294+°14 | 186°0+ °32 | 5°50+°93) 2°96+:12
Stirling ... | 195°4+°26 | 6°72+°18| 3°444°09 || 186°5+°25 | 5°83+:':18| 3:13+°10
Greenock ... | 1956+ 42 | 6°704°29 | 3°434°15 || 185°24+°36/ 5°314+-25] 2°3874+°14
Paisley ... | 196°7+°49 | 6°89+ 34} 3°514°18 || 187714 °44 | 6°244+°31 | 3:°344°17
General Population | 195°5 + °07 | 6°55+°05 | 3°35+-02 || 186°5+°07 | 6:°044°05 | 3:24+ :08
TABLE XVI.—HEAD BREADTH.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.
MALES || FEMALES
Asylums ae ; E
Maan Standard Coefficient Mean Standard Coefficient
Deviation | of Variation Deviation | of Variation
| Aberdeen 152'1+°19 | 4°944°13 | 3°254°09 || 145°9+°'19 | 4993+ °14] 3°38+:09
Dumfries | 151°34°39 | 6074-27 | 4:°014°18 || 145°54+°28 | 4°894+°19 | 3°36+°13
Dundee | 152-14 °30 | 5°304+°21 | 3°49+-14 || 145-2424) 4:994+°17| 3:°444+°12
Edinburgh | 1509+ °27 | 5°244+°19] 3-474 °13 | 144-34 °24/5°104+°17| 3°53+°12
| Montrose .-- | 152°54°22 | 5°18+°16| 3°404°10 || 146°94°31 | 5°57+°22 |) 3°794°15
Argyll 153°14 27 | 5°524+°19| 3°614°13 |) 145°8+ 22 | 4-494 °15 | 3°08+:11
Ayr 152°34+°21 | 4°714':15| 3:104+°10 || 145°54:23 | 5°32+°16 | 3°65+4°11
Banft 153°2+°42 | 5°57+°29| 3°644+°19 || 147°44+°33 | 3°834+°23 | 2°60+-16
Elgin 152°5+°42 | 5°30+°30| 3°484+-°20 || 145°84+°34 | 4°814+°24| 3°304+°17
Fife ... | LOUTH 84 | SIDA ADT || BBS 1 45-824 | SO se 7S Ory
Glasgow (Gartloch) | 150°5+°21 | 5:184°15] 3:444°10 || 143°84°24| 4614-17 | 3:20+°12
ve (Lenzie) 150°0+ °20 | 5°594+°14] 3°734°09 || 144°54°17 | 4°304°12 | 2°98+-09
Govan 1508+ 23} 5°56+'16| 3694-11 || 144:64+-22| 4:484+°16) 3104-11
Haddington | 151'5+°45 | 5°484+°32 | 3°62+°21 || 144:5+°40 | 5°044+°28} 3°49+ 20
Inverness 152°9+°20 | 4:°934+:°14| 3°22+°09 || 146°74:19 | 4°364:13} 2°97+:09
Lanark 151°54:°18 | 5°234°13 |) 3°464°09 || 145°24°17 | 4°844+°12 | 3°33+°08
Midlothian 150°9+°35 | 5°86+'°25| 3°88+°16 || 144°34+°28 | 4:991+°20| 3°414°14
Perth 152°0+ 28 | 5°324+°20) 3°504+°13 || 145°7+°33 | 4°96+°23 | 3:414°16
Roxburgh 151°2+°31 | 5°35+4°'22| 3°544°15 || 145:0+°29 | 4°98+-91 | 3°48+°14
| Stirling 150°9+ °21 | 5°53 4°15] 3°67+°10 || 144:°94°21 | 4°804°15 | 3°31+°10
| Greenock 151°14+°37 | 5°90+':26| 3°914°17 || 144°5+°34 | 4°974+°94| 3°44+°16
_ Paisley 151°0+°33 | 4°744°24 | 3°144+°16 || 145°84+°33 | 4°78+°24 | 3°28+°16
General Population | 151°5 +06 | 5°39+ -04 | 3°56+°03 || 145°34+°05 | 4°914°04 | 3°38+ °03

|
|
|
|
|

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr. 93

TABLE XVII.—HEAD HEIGHT.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.

MALES FEMALES

eyhups Moan Standard Coefficient Micah | Standard Coefficient
Deviation | of Variation Deviation | of Variation
Aberdeen .. | 135°8+°20 | 5°214°14| 3°84+°10 || 1381°2+°25|6°374+°18| 4°86+°14
Dumfries ... | 185'0+ °34 | 5°29+°24 | 3°92+°18 12931-4223) 4503s 116) 32 2
Dundee ee leAOReQ | Ar siieeeiiT | 3522/2213 129°9+°21 | 4°48+°15|] 3°45+°12
Edinburgh ... | 189°0+ °28 | 5°58+°20 |) 4:°02+°14 || 1383°44°25 | 5°31+°18] 3°98+°13
Montrose ... | 189°2+ °25 | 5°844°18 | 4:194+°138 132°14+°36 | 6°54+°295 | 4°95+°19
Argyll ... | 185°2+°23 | 4°714°16 | 3°484°12 || 13070420 | 4°244°14|] 3°264-11
Ayr we | 35:9 19") 4-184 "13 | 3:07 —-10 129°44°18 | 4°04+°12] 3°138+°10
Banff ... | 136°0+ °40 | 5°484°29] 3°99+°21 || 180°34°42 | 4:°944°30 | 3°79+°23 |
Elgin ... | 138495 + °49 | 6064+ °34] 4°5514°26 128°4+4°37 | 5'19+°26| 4:°044+°21 |
Fife ... | 1385°6+°19') 4:14+°14| 3°05+-10 129°74+°22 | 4°75+°16| 3°664°12
Glasgow (Gartloch) | 135°2+°18 | 4°464°13 | 3°30+°09 || 128°74+°25 1! 4°79+°18) 3°72+4°14
2 (Lenzie) 135°54:°17 | 4°744°12 | 3°50+°09 130°9+°19 | 4°644°13 | 3°55+°10
Govan .. | 1385°7 4°21 | 4°964+°15| 3°664°11 LSldeeQOn AT 40) Sate aT
Haddington ... | 1387°2 4°57 | 6°93 +°40 | 5°06+4°30 134°5+°41 | 5:°20+°'29 | 3°87+ °22
Inverness ... | 1385°6: 27 | 6°73 19 | 4:96+-14 || 128:0+°24 | 5°674°17 | 4°4384°14
Lanark ... | 188°3+°18 | 5°19+°13 | 3°75+°09 || 1381°7+°18 | 5°11+°13 | 3°88+°10
Midlothian ... | 13995 +°32 | 5°364°23 | 3°84+°16 133°6 4°33 | 5°85+°23 | 4°384+°18
Perth ... | 139°'6 4°34 | 6-43 4°24) 4°614°17 || 133°34-26 | 4-174°19| 3134-15
Roxburgh ... | 188°7 4°35 | 6700+ °25 | 4°33+°18 134°0+ °34 |5°914°24 | 4°41+°18
Stirling ... | 1389°24+°23 | 5°934°16 | 4°264°'12 || 133°64°24 | 5°614°17| 4:204°13
Greenock ... | 183°8+'29 | 4°644°20|} 3°474°15 || 128°94°30 | 4°-444°95 | 3°444°17
Paisley | 187°24 28 | 3°984°20 | 2°87+°14 | 132°94°35 | 4°944°24 | 3°724+°18
General Population | 136°7+°06 | 5°584+°04| 4:08+4°03 | 1381°04°06 |5°434°04 4:°144 08

TABLE XVIII.—CEPHALIC INDEX.-—-INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.

MALES | FEMALES
Asylums : | muds
Mean Standard Coefficient Mean Standard | Coefficient
Deviation | of Variation | at Deviation | of Variation
|| - ae | ae
Aberdeen .. | 78°54°10 | 2°574°07) 3:274+°09 || 78-64-11 | 2°81+°08| 3°58+°10
Dumfries ws | (OLED | 3°044+°14 |) 3°944°18 7784-15 | 2664-11 | 3°424+°14
Dundee gee |) V82OEE 1G! 2276-11 | sto4e 14 78°14 °13 | 2°74+°09) 3°50+°12
Edinburgh ite tte Ne 2-64-10! rd Ose 12 Ta Qelise Qt Gist 09) F343 ei
Montrose meee ferede 12 2: 7022-08' |) 3:45- 10 79°2+°16 | 2°89+°11)| 3°64+°14
Argyll 76°8+°13 | 2°738+°10|] 3°55+°12 772+:12 | 249+ °09} 3°22+-11
Ayr T71+°'10 | 2°34+°'07) 3°04+°10 T7'44:°12 | 2°754+°08| 3°56+°11
Banff 78°4+°20 | 2°724+°14| 3°474+°18 79°6+:19 | 2°944+-14|) 2:°89+°17
Elgin 185-2) | 2-60-15 | 3833804 19 78'9+°19 | 2°674°14| 3:°384°17
Fife eo ie Ose 12) |2°633--09) |) 3389-11 78°04 13 | 2°714°09| 3°474°12
Glasgow (Gartloch) | 77°14£:°10 | 2°61+°07 | 3°38+°10 | 775+ :14 | 2:-56+°10 3°31+°12
si (Lenzie) 77°5+°10 | 2°80+°07 | 3°61+°09 || 77:54:10 | 2°39+°07 | 3:08+°09
Govan TeV | 2°754°08 | 3574-11 T779+°12 | 2°494°09 |} 3°20+°11
Haddington 77-8+°22 | 2°70+°16 |) 3°484°20 || 77-44°21 | 2°67+°15|/ 3:°454+°19
Inverness 78 hee 10) |) 2754-07 || 3325-09) || 785-11 || 250+ -08 | S18 “10
Lanark 7773+°09 | 2°58+°06| 3°34+4°08 77°74:09 | 2°61+°07 | 3°36+:09
Midlothian Mieke Lh | 2-804 °12 |) 3:6l-b 15 TT8+°16 | A7TH-11 | 3°564°14
Perth a | COE M4 | 2714-101) 3°48+°13 7B1+°18 | 2°70+°138| 3:°45+°17
Roxburgh .. | 7754-16 | 2°69+4+°11 | 3°474+°14 Once e2ebOee ala) S32 1d
Stirling inom alee eon Oc OShmeacOlet LOM |Mi(ciets le POL bOrEsO8i areas Wak
Greenock Pel kisoicte lo |p2sGOcecl Sioa olin aienoluctet, Wl Ded fist Di B22 O17
Paisley ... | 76°8+°18 | 2°60+°13) 3°39+°17 78'0+°19 | 2°67+°138 | 3:°424+°18
General Population | 77°64 03 | 2°72+°02 | 3°51+°03 || 78:°0+°03 | 2°67+°02 | 3°42 + 03

94 Anthropometric Survey of the Inmates of
TABLE XIX.—STATURE.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.
MALES FEMALES
Asylums f é

Mean Standard | Coefficient Mean Standard | Coefficient
Inches Deviation | of Variation Inches Deviation | of Variation

Aberdeen 66-34-11 | 2°78+°08 | 4°19+°12 || 61°34°10° |) 2°52+°07 | 4:124+°12
Dumfries 66-0417 | 2°724+°12} 4:12+°19 |) 61°54°14 | 2°-43+°10| 3:954+-16
Dundee; 65°5+4°15 | 2°60+°11) 3°97+°16 |) 60°94°12 | 2°454+°08| 4:034°14
Edinburgh | 65°8+°15 | 3°03+°11 |) 4°614°16 | 61:°04'12 | 2°56+:°09 |} 4:1194°14
Montrose 66°3+°11 | 2°60+°08} 3°93+°12 | 61°0+°14 | 2°534°10} 4:15+°16
Argyll | 668+ +14 | 287410} 4:°294°15 | 6164°12 | 256+ °09| 4:154°14
Ayr | 65'7+°13 | 2°86+°09 | 4°354+°:14 || 60°9+-11 | 2°664:°08 | 4:°374°13
Banft | 66°44 °22 | 2°964°15 | 4:°464°23 || 62°14 °22 | 2°564°16] 4:1384+°25
Elgin 65°74 °24 | 2°96+°17| 4°50+-26 || 62°14°19: | 2°514°13) 4:05+-21
Fife .. | 65'9+°10 | 2°244°07 | 3°-40+4°11 || 61°74°11 | 2°27+°08) 3:°694°12
Glasgow (Gartloch) | 65°34°12 | 2°924+°08|] 4:474°13 |) 60°74°15 | 2°744°10} 4°524+:17
(Lenzie) 64°7+°11 | 3°03 +°08 | 4°68+°12 || 60°34°10 | 2°45+°07| 4:°06+'12

Govan .. | 66°24+°13 | 3°024°09 | 4°564°13 | 61°24°13 | 2°59+-09| 4:234+°15
Haddington 66°64 °25 | 3°05+°18 | 4°584+°27 61:7+°21- | 2°68+°'15 | 4°344°24
Inverness 66°4+°10 | 2°59+°07 | 3:°90+°11 62-O+ "11 | 2°50+-08} 4:03+°13
Lanark 65°7+°09 | 2°64+°06 |) 4:°024°10 | 61°24°09 | 2°624+°07) 4:294+°11
Midlothian 66°24°15 | 2°51+4°10) 3°804°16 | 61°24+°14 | 2°514°10) 4:114°17
Perth 66°24+°14 | 2°794°10} 4:°224°15 | 61°24°16 | 2°374°11| 3°87+°18
Roxburgh 66°5+°15: | 2°624+°11 | 3:°95+°16 61°6+°14 | 2°41+°10/] 3:90+°16
Stirling 6564-11 | 2°744+°07) 4:174+-11 60°6+°'11 | 2°65+°08 | 4°37+4°13
Greenock 65°54°19 | 3°044°13 | 4°638+4 °20 60°3+°17 | 2°484+°12 | 4:°084°:19
Paisley 65°5+°21 | 3°O1+°15 | 4:559+-23 || 6154-17 | 2°484+°12 | 3°995+-20
General Population | 65°9+°03 | 2°84+°02 | 4°31+°03 | 61°2+°03 | 2°58+:02 | 4:°22+°03

TABLE XX.—H.L.B. PRoDUCT.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.

MALES FEMALES
Asylums
: Mean Standard Mean Standard
em.3=1 unit | Deviation em.*?=1 unit Deviation
Aberdeen 4008412 | 3192+ 86 | 3565413 321-14 8-9
Dumfries 4020 + 23 363°6+16°3 | 8517415 | 262°6410°4
Dundee 3981 +18 315°3+412°8 3512413 | 2745+ 93
Edinburgh 4083 +17 338°5+12°1 3573+14 | 288:'7+ 96
Montrose 4141+15 352°2+10°6 | 3605418 | 329°74+12°8
Argyll 4132416 | 335-2411:7 | 3586413 | 2606+ 8-9
Ayr 4094 + 13 287°0+ 9°0 |} 3541412 270'9+ 8:3
Banff 4084 + 25 340°6+17°9 3564 + 22 251°7415°3
Elgin 3992 +27 339°7419°2 3466420 | 280:14+14°2
| Fite ae 4029+14 304°4410°0 | 3542413 | 280°5+ 9:3
Glasgow (Gartloch)| 3977412 306°7+ 8°6 | 3438414 | 266°2+ 9:9
3 (Lenzie) 3942411 323°6+ 8:1 || 35381410 | 256°8+ 7:3
Govan ne 4012+14 331d 9% ||) Bb85 197 |) 252-3 8e8
| Haddington 4058 +31 373°5421°8 | 3633 +23 | 299°3416°3
Inverness 4068 + 14 359°5+10°1 3519+12 | 284:°94+ 8:7
Lanark 4114+11 | 328:°2+ 8:0 3580410 | 2841+ 7:2
Midlothian 4093 + 20 343°5+14°5 3584+18 | 308°34+12°4
Perth 4149+19 368°3 + 13°6 3627418 21233 LET
Roxburgh 4098421 | 354°1414°5 38618 +17 | 290°0+12°3
Stirling 4111+14 3618+ 9:8 | 3B615+13 294:0+ 8°9
Greenock 3960 +21 332'0+14°6 | 3453 +17 | 257-5412°3
Paisley 4077421 | 302°0415-0 | 3631420 | 9286-74142
General Population} 4055+ 4 | 345°04 2°5 | 3555+ 3 | 292°2+ 2:2

TABLE XXI.

Asylums in Scotland—J. F. Tocusr.

95

H H
— INDEX, — INDEX AND L.B. PRODUCT.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.—WMales.

B 1G
H H L.B. Product
Rewer B ingles L Index mm.?=1 unit
Mean D Mean Mean Ss. D.
Aberdeen 89°3+°14 | 3°634°10 | 70-14-11 | 2: 29494+ 62 | 1639+ 44
Dumfries 89°3+°26 | 4°03+°18 | 68°8+°19 | 2:°944+ 29746+126 1987+ 89 |
Dundee 88:24°19 | 337414 | 68-74°15 | 2-5 | 296964102 17864 72—
Edinburgh 92°2+-20 | 3°9954+°14 | 71°64:°15 29337+ 86 | 1692+ 61 |
Montrose 91°34°17 | 3:°994°12 | 71°5+°13 29725+ 74 | 1739+ 52
Argyll 88°44 °18 | 3°574°12 | 67°94°13 | 30529+ 90 1837+ 64
Ayr 89°34°'14 | 3:13+°10 | 68°8+°10 | 301134 69 | 1550+ 49
Banff 88:°9+°29 | 3°864+ 20 | 69°64 21 | 299904131 | 1754+ 92 |
Elgin 88:34 °33 | 4:08+°23 | 69:24 °24 | 296514132 | 1655+ 94
Fife .. | 89°5+°'15 | 3:°284°11 | 69-44-11 | | 296904 79 | 1709+ 56
Glasgow (Gartloch) |} 89°94°14 | 3°45+°10 | 69°5+°10 29403 + 67 1685+ 47 |
x (Lenzie) 90°54°13 | 3°72+°09 | 70:04:09 29061+ 63 | 17764 44
Govan se | 9O114°16 | 3°764°11 | 69°44°11 29534+ 74 | 1785+ 52 |
Haddington 90°6+°38 | 4°60+°27 | 70°4+°28 | 295464143 | 1735+101 |
Inverness 88°74:17 | 4°324°12 | 69°24°13 | & 29974+ 66 | 1656+ 47 |
| Lanark ICA AeCilom| omlort=sO9M) (Odi -O9) e272 29728+ 58 | 1679+ 41
Midlothian 92°64 24 | 4:074°17 | 71:9+°17 | 2°81+° 293114105 | 1767+ 74
Perth 91°9+°22 | 4°324+°16 | 7154-17 | 3°264°12 | 29697+ 91 | 1753+ 65
Roxburgh DIES ee24 aos ll, 7 Lele 18 | 3:09: | 295144101 | 1737+ 71
Stirling 92°34+°16 | 4:19+°11 | 71°3+°12 | 3-11l+° 29498+ 70 | 1808+ 49
Greenock 88°74:°23 | 3°78+°16 | 68°5+°16 | 2°64+- | 295674116 | 1871+ 82
Paisley 90°94 °22 | 3:114°16 | 69:84:18 | 2°514°13 | 297124120 | 1703+ 85
General Population; 90°34 °04 | 3°944+°03 | 70°0+°03 | 2°94+ | 29637+ 18 | 1765+ 13

PABLE XXII.

# INDEX, a INDEX, AND L.B. PRODUCT.—INDIVIDUAL ASYLUMS.—Females.
= Index 2 Index ies Ere ue |
Meylams L mm.?=1 uni
Mean D Mean Mean | 8. D.
Aberdeen .. | 90°04 °17 | 4°424°12 | 70-7414 | 3°494+°10 | 27118+ 63 | 1610445
Dumfries Me POOLOce LO! | oreacz lle | 6Orl-e 4 1) B53 = 2722U+ 74 | 1812+52
Dundee 89°6+°17 | 3°56+°12 | 69°9+'13 | 2-72+° 27012+ 75 | 1569453
Edinburgh 92 54°19 | 4:03+°13 | 72°14°14 | 2°96+°- | 26700 71 1511 +50 |
Montrose 90°0+°25 | 4°62+°18 | 71°2+°'19 | 3°47 27269+ 90 § 1635463
Argyll SO N6n| 897 Ell | 68:8 12) | 9:54 -- 27578+ 71 | 1474450 |
| Ayr 89°04 -15.| 3°51 +711 | 68'°9+"1l | 2°50+° 27355+ 69 1606449
Banff 88°4+ 29 | 3°38+°20 | 70°4+°23 | 2:734° 273294109 | 1274477
Elgin .. | 88:24:27} 3°774°19 | 6954-21 | 2°94+° 26960+108 | 1510476
Fife ee OO Oe 71 3:60 12 1969-4 13") 2274 F< | 272874 73 | 1506452
Glasgow (Gartloch)| 89°6+°19 | 3°604°13 | 69°4+°15 | 2°774°10 26699+ 77 | 1466455
A (Lenzie) 90°6+:14 | 3-444°10 | 70-24-11 | 2°65+-08 269604 55 | 1378439
Govan -- | 91°0+°16 | 3°28+°11 | 70°8+°12 | 2°53+° 26871+ 70 | 1425450
Haddington eee Gowusts cole | onOitasaae|| wale “2oe|| 2: Odie: 269974122 | 1541486 |
Inverness 87-24°17 | 3-87+°12 | 68°4+°13 | 3°07+°09 | 274754 62 | 1447+44 |
Lanark ..« | 90°8+°14 | 3°80+°10 | 70°5+°'10 | 2°88+:° | 271564 54 | 1514438
| Midlothian ve | 92°C 4°24 | 4234-17 | 72-04-19 | 3-294- 26800+ 90 1581464 |
| Perth 91°64 23 | 3-464°16 | 7154-17 | 2°624° 271924102 | 1556+72 |
| Roxburgh 92°5+°25 | 4:2564°18 | 72:14:18 | 316+" 26984+ 86 | 1478+61
Stirling 92r oes) 4062 2120 | ET 13) 3:08 se 27086+ 64 | 1491445
Greenock 89°3+°24 | 3°554°17 | 69°7+°17 | 2°544+°- 267674 98 | 1449 +69
Paisley 91°2+-26 | 3°70+°'18 | 71°1+°20 | 2°89+°- 27295+108 | 1548+77
General Population) 90:2+ 04 | 3°96+°03 | 70:34 ‘03 27108+ 17 | 1537412

96 Anthropometric Observations in Scotland

TABLE XXIII.—HAIR AND EVE TABLE.—ASYLUM PERCENTAGES.—WMadles,.
HAIR EYES
Asylums a

| Red Fair Medium Dark Light Medium ih Dark
Aberdeen nS 3°42 6°84 33°33 56°41 27°35 51°28 21°37
Duiofries ee ‘00 13°27 83°19 3°54 63°72 24°78 11°50
Dundee BAe ‘73 | 5°84 78°83 14°60 61°31 29°20 9°49

| Edinburgh soa |) 221 9°94 52°49 35°36 || 51-93 19°34 28°73

| Montrose AGE 2°00 | 29°20 30°00 | 38°80 31°20 36°40 32°40
Argyll coe ASO5e a ‘00 90°53 8°42 || 46°32 35°26 18°42
Ayr Ree 86 3°86 76°40 18°88 51°50 32°19 16°31
Banft a ‘00 00 | 37°31 62°69 1°49 82°09 16°42

| Elgin Ae 4:92 | 1°64 22°95 70°49 1°64 78°69 19°67
Fife sae ‘47 ADS 80°75 14°55 || 55:40 27°70 16:90
Glasgow (Gartloch) "34 5°76 76°61 17°29 || 49°83 24°41 25°76

| na (Lenzie) ... 1:08 | 2°70 67°92 28°30 43°67 23°45 32°88
Govan Sol) ewe ay eo 78°49 18°49 53°58 24-91 21°51
Haddington er 00 | 4:41 64°71 30°88 72°06 16°18 11°76
Inverness Ae 1°87 3°74 27°10 67°29 11°21 72°43 16°36
Lanark 1°82 4:16 58°96 35°06 55°58 23°64 20°78
Midlothian 2°25 11°28 | 51°88 34°59 63°91 | 21:05 15°04
Perth 2°35 13°53) B0°59 53°53 21:76 | 37:65 40°59
Roxburgh 1°45 | 7°24 | 65:22 26°09 67°39 20°29 12°32
Stirling 261 | 1013 | 40:20 | 47-06 || 39-21 | 3301 | 97-78
Greenock 85 | 00 75°42 23°73 || 52°54 27:97 19°49
Paisley 215 | ‘00 78°49 19°36 || 51°61 30°11 18°28
General Population 1°56 | 6°49 | 59°55 32°40 44°94 32°63 22°43

TABLE XXIV.—HAIR AND EYE TABLE.—ASYLUM PERCENTAGES.—Females.

HAIR EYES
Asylums

Red Fair Medium Dark Light Medium Dark

Aberdeen wes 10°19 3°70 20°83 65°28 16°67 51°85 31:48
Dumfries ASE 69 4°17 74:31 20°83 54°86 24°31 20°83
Dundee ae 00 3°52 66°83 29°65 47°24 32°16 20°60
Edinburgh ae 1:95 2°93 40°97 54°15 49°75 22°93 27°32
Montrose ae 5°71 2°86 29°52 61°91 13°33 62°86 23°81
Argyll at 00 2°55 78:06 19°39 38°78 35°20) 26:02
Ayr tee “41 1:63 78°45 19°51 53°66 26°42 19°92
Banff S36 4:08 2°04 36°74 57°14 4:08 75°51 20°41
Elgin a: 13-04 4°35 17°39 65°22 4:35 79°71 15:94
Fife Bas 48 1:91 73°69 23°92 49:76 24°88 25°36
Glasgow (Gartloch) 62 4°35 73°91 21°12 50°93 26-09 22°98
5 (Lenzie) ... iil 1-41 56°89 40:99 37°81 28°97 33°22
Govan NaC 1:08 161 66°13 31:18 52-69 19°35 27°96
Haddington ans 2°70 00 60°81 36°49 39°19 32°43 28°38
Inverness ia 8:07 3°76 22°58 65°59 13:98 61°83 2419
Lanark aa 0°84 1:68 54:06 43°42 48-74 26:05 25°21
Midlothian ae 211 1-41 38°73 57°75 44°37 32°39 23°24
Perth ne 2°80 4°67 42:06 50°47 16°82 46°73 36°45
Roxburgh Nei 1:47 1:47 52°94 44°12 50°73 23°53 25°74
Stirling ja | 3366 6:10 36°58 53°66 BIT 39°43 37°40
Greenock aA “00 3:00 70-00 27-00 39:00 32:00 29-00
Paisley ee 1:09 6°52 69°56 22°83 44°57 34°78 20°65
General Population 2°40 2°89 54:18 40°53 38°97 34°60 26°43

:

Lee _ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.

PRINCIPAL SIR WILLIAM TURNER, K.C.B.,
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INDEX TO VOLUMES I—V OF BIOMETRIKA

The Editors have to heartily thank Mr Lewis F. Rtcnarpson for the preparation of this
much-needed index to the first five volumes of Biometrika.

I. SUBJECT INDEX.

Ability ut 147, 152, 155,189 1v 78-80,83 v105-
146, 197, 202, 485; inheritance of v 485; and
head measurements v 485

Abnormality, Fertility and Variation 1 255

Abnormal Organisms 1 255 11 33

Adjustment of Moments tv 380-384 v 450-459

Age and brain weight 1v 109, 118-123, 124-160;
and coat colour, greyhound 11 261, 262; and
eye colour m1 459-466; and fertility, mankind
1 30-38; and hair colour ur 459-466; and
head height 1v 342; and immunity by vacci-
nation 1v 483-510; and intelligence v 127; and
variability in snails 1 109-124, 468-492 111 299-
306 v 33-51, 387-359; stature and brain
weight 1v 51-63; and stature 1 38-49 wm 371;
and viscera weight in Man 111 68-70: see also
Growth

Albinism 11 101-104, 165-173, 282-285, 294-298
mz 1-51, 107-109, 471-472 1v 1-12, 231, 436-
464: see also Hair-Colour

Allelomorphs 1 228-254 11 44-55 11-51 iv1-
12: see also Mendelism etc.

Alternative Inheritance 1 228-254; generalized
theory of 111 344: see also Colour, Mendelism,
Coat-, Hair- and Eye-Colour

Amnion 1 367

Ancestral Inheritance, Law of 1 364, 368-372
ir 211-240, 282-285, 300-306, 499-503 11 1-
51, 109-112, 255-257, 263, 342, 364 1v 451,
452 v 184

Ancestry in Mendelian Inheritance 11 101-104,
165-173, 282-285, 286-298 1m 1-51, 109-112

Anemone 1 307-309, 370

Aneurism, Aortic m1 71, 72

Angle Measurements in Anthropometry v 484

Anthropometrical Committee, Cambridge 1 187 et
seq. 111 234 v 105 et seq., 317, 506

Anthropometric Bureaus at Universities vy 477

Anthropometry v 483, 486

Antitozin 11 134

Ants v 38

Arcella 11 321-337 v 226

Arithmetical Mean, v. Toérék’s attack on 11 339-345
mr 231

Ass 11 290

Assertiveness 111 152, 155, 184

Association of Attributes in Statistics 11 121-134
v 429

Assortative Mating, in Man 11 372-377, 396, 408-
414, 481-498 mm 112 v 211, 213-297, 484;
among the deaf tv 473; artificial in mice
m1 9-13 ; in Paramecium v 213-297

Biometrika

Aster Flower 1311 11 113,114 vy 188, 189

Asylums in Scotland, Anthropometric Survey of
Insane v 298-850, supplement

Asymmetrie 11 307-320

Athletic Power 111 151, 154, 182 v 105-146, 484

Autogamie 1 12

“* Autonomie der Lebensvorgiinge” v 71

Bassett Hound 11 212, 379 wr 157, 246 1v 451-
454

Bayes’ theorem v 478

Bean, Kidney 11 290, 499-503 -v 43, 52

Beech Tree 1 20, 336 111 104-107

Bees v 365-386, 419-421, 484

Beet, Sugar Producing v 486

Beetles 1333 v 38, 211, 484

Bibliography v 210-212, 482-486

Bilateral symmetry 11 115-121, 307-320

Bimodality and the Constants of the Curves ut 85-
98: see also Frequency Curves, Multi-Polymor-
phism, Modal, Mode, Dichromatism

Binary Fission, its Relation to Variation 1 400-407

Biology and Mathematics, Relations of 1 3, 4, 5
v 211

Biology, Fundamental Conceptions of 1 320-344

Biometrika, scope of 11; spirit of 13

Biometry 1 7-10; history of v 13-52

Birds 1 164-176, 256-257, 367 11123 1v 363-373
v 10, 51, 210, 211, 482, 483, 486

Birth-rate, Decline of tv 233-285

Blackthorn 1 29

Body Weight and Brain Weight tv 64-66

Brachybioty 1 51, 57

Brackish Water, Effect on Sea Mollusca 11 24-43

Brain Weight, Variation and Correlation of tv 13-
160

Cabbage 1 368

Campion 11 47-55

Cats vy 211

Cattle 1v 427-464 v 212; origin of domestic breeds
tv 436-440

Celandine (lesser) 1 11-20, 125-128 11 145-164
v 38, 52

Cell Size and Body Size in Daphnia 11 255-259

Cerebrum, Weight of tv 74-75

Chickweed Wintergreen 1 11

Chicory v 184-188

Chilomonas v 53-72, 217, 240

Chromatin 11 241-254

Chrysanthemum sp. 1 12, 20, 27, 309-315, 319

Climate, Fertility and Age in Mankind 1 32-33

1

Clover, Five-leaved 1 371

Coat-Colour, cattle, inheritance of 1v 427-464;
greyhound, inheritance of 111 245-298; grey-
hound, growth with age 11 261; horses, in-
heritance of 1 361-364 11 211, 212, 214, 221-228,
229-236 ; in mice 11 101-104, 165-173, 282-285,
294-298 tr1-51 iv 1-12; rabbits m 299-306;
various v 210-211

Cockroach 1 383

Colour of Arcella 11 325, 333-335 ; of cuckoo’s egg
1164-176; of hair and eyes and age 111 459-466;
Lina lapponica v 211: see also Coat, Hair and Eye

Combinatorial Fluctuation v 379

Comfrey 111

Compound Allelomorph 11 292, 293

Conception and age 1 30-38; alleged prevention of
Iv 233-285; antenuptial 1 30-34

Conjugation in Paramecium v 213-297

Conscientiousness 111 152, 155, 187 v 105-146

Contingency 111 253, 459-469 Iv 225-226 v 176-
178, 470-476; probable error of mean square
v 191-197; class heterogeneity v 198-203

Correlation, its use, importance and meaning 1 322,
425 11509-512 111462 v13, 485; text books
on v 483, 485; of characters correlated with a
common third character 1v 79; effect thereon
of changing scale order v 176-178; non-linear
Iv 332-350 v 470-476

Correlation, Organic: see Organic Correlation

Correlation, Parental, etc.: see Inheritance

Correlation-ratio 1v 332-350

Crabs 11 306-320 v 14, 16, 19, 51

Cranial Types 11 508-512

“ Craniological Notes” 11 338-356, 504-512

Craniometer tv 107: see also Skull papers

Cranium, Human, thickness, growth and dis-
ease Iv 111-114; various 1 409-467 mr 191-244
Iv 286-312, 351-362 v 86-104; and brain
weight 1v 67-73, 105-123

Crayfish 11 255 v 483

Criminals 1 38-49, 177-227 111 60-62 v 345-346

Criterion to Test Various Theories of Inheritance
11 365

Cross Breeding v 210, 483

Cubit 1 177-227

Cuckoo 1 164-176 1v 363-373

Cultural Age of Arcella 11 335-337

Curtailed Fourfold Tables tv 495-510

Curve Plotting 111 469-471

Cytoplasm 11 241-254

Deaf and Dumb, Institutions for 1v 480

Deaf Mutism 11 127; inheritance of 1v 465-482

Death-Rate in Buenos Ayres 111 99-103

Depth of Sea-Water and Character of Eupagurus
prideauxi 11 191-210

Determinantal Theories of Inheritance tv 207, 209

Dichromatism, Inheritance of in Lina Lapponica
v 211

Difference Problem, Galton’s 1 385-399

Differentiation and Homotyposis in Beech Leaves
1 104-107

Differentiation of Organisms 1 320-344

Dimorphic Frequency Curves, Resolution of tv 230-
231 v 480

Dimorphism vy 24

Discontinuity 1 320-344; and number of cause-
groups Iv 204-208

Disease in Mankind, aneurism, aortic 111 70, 71;

il Subject Index

brain weight, head measurements and disease
Iv 111-123; immunity 1v 313-331, 483-510
v 423-434: see also Small-Pox; measles with
broncho-pneumonia v 428, 429; osteitis defor-
mans Iv 112; pneumonia 111 71, 72; severity of
disease, means of estimating v 423-434 ; sickness,
statistics of 11 260-272, 503, 504; smallpox
1 375-383 11126, 135-144 1v 313-331, 483-510
v 361-363, 431-435; syphilis, inheritance of
v 211; tetanus v 210; tuberculosis v 478 ; typhus
v 424-430; vaccination 1 3875-383 m 126,
135-144 iv 313-331, 483-510 v 361-364, 431-
435; valvular disease of the heart 111 71; viscera
weight in disease 111 63-83

Divergence of Classes, Coefficient for Measuring
v 198-203, 334-338

Dogs 11 212, 213, 379, 475 111157, 246-298 1v 451-
454

Dominance 1 228-254 31 44-55, 101-104, 165-173,
211-215, 228, 282-306, 389 1 1-51, 107-109,
345 1v 1-12 v 481-486

Duration of Life: see Length of Life

Earthworm tv 213-229

Editorial 1 1-6, 304-306 11 273-281 m1 308-312

fgg and Embryo, Relation of their Symmetry
v 147-167

Eiggs of Birds 1 256-257 ; of the cuckoo 1 164-176
Iv 363-373

Encystment of Actinosphaerium 11 241-251

Enteron, Length of v 212

Environment, Influence on: actinosphaerium 11 241—
251; anemone 1 305-319; beech leaves m1 104;
man, parental m1 467-469 i 395, 485-490;
psychical 11 160; Chilomonas v 53-72; and
conjugation of Paramecia v 213-297; develop-
ing egg v 161-162; difference of for the two
sexes of mankind tv 163; Hupagurus prideauxi
1r 196-210; Ficaria ranunculoides 1 145-164 ;
Helix nemoralis 1 468-492; Mantis 11 58, 59;
Nassa obsoleta 11 24-43; poppy 1 56-100 Iv
401-403 ; sugar beetroot v 486; Trifolium pra-
tense 1 371; wheat 1 367

Ephyra of Aurelia aurita 1 90-108

Error, law of v 206-210: see also I’requency Curves

Errors, Personal vy 470-476, 486

Errors, Probable: see Random Errors

Hugenics v 477

Evening Primrose 1 373

Evolution Committee of the Royal Society v 22-28

Evolution in Man, data for problem of 1 30-49: see
also Mankind in Species Index

Hxamination Marks, Statistical Study of v 212

Examinational and Professional Success v 485

Hecalation in Meristic Series 111 334-337

Expectation from Experience, Theory of v 478

Expectation of Life 1 50-89 11 476; change of in
2000 years 1 261

Extrapolation, Dangers of 111 99-103

Eye-Colour in Mankind 11 213, 214, 221, 222,
237-240 11 149, 154, 167, 459-466 v 105-146,
470-476; and insanity in Scotland v 298-350,
supplement

Family, size of influences fraternal correlation
ur 258, 259

Fecundity, mares 1 289-292; sows v 485

Fertility, in an abnormal species 1 255; Drosophila
v 210, 483 ; mankind 1 30-88 Iv 233-285; and

Subject

length of human life 1 34-38; among the deaf
tv 474; poppy u 66 Iv 395-398 ; Pulmonaria
officinale 111 398-458

Fibonacci curves 1 11-29

Fingerprints 1 356

Fingers t 177-227, 345-360

Fir Tree 1 21-23

Fish 11 115-120, 315, 316 1 313-365 v 9, 24, 51

Fitting of Theory to Observation 1 155-163, 265—
308, 454 11 1-23, 260-272, 343, 364-367 11 99-
103, 230 1v 172-212 v 450-459: see also Cor-
relation and.Frequency Curves

Flamingo v 10, 51

Flight, Speed of Birds v 486

Flowering Season 1 305-319 1 113, 145-164 im
398-458 ; change in organic correlation during
I 125-128

Flowers: see Phanerogams in Species Index

Focus of Regression 1 365-874 1 217-268, 499-503
mr 110

Foot 1 177-227

Foster Parent of Cuckoo 1 164-176

Fowls 1367 11123 v 210, 482, 483

Foxglove 11 290

Frankfurter Verstindigung tiber ein gemeinsames
craniometrisches Verfahren 1 413-467 111 199

Fraternal Correlation, same and different litters
111 258-261; influenced by size of family 11 258,
259: for the rest see Inheritance

Frequency Distributions, Gauss-Laplacian (only
where specially emphasized) 11 361-370, 395,
mr 226-231 iv 37-41, 169-212 vy 470-476;
Pearson’s hypergeometrical 1 30-49, 293, 442-
455 1 261, 268, 265-272, 311, 341-345,
471 wi 226-231 tv 37-41, 169-212 v 168-
175; Galton-McAlister and Fechner’s Double
Gaussian iv 193-203; Edgeworth-Kapteyn v
168-175, 206-210; heterogeneous and multi-
modal 1 11-29, 304-319 um 261, 345-347, 504-
508 1 85-98, 230-231 1v 230-231 v 24, 480;
with excess of exceptionals v 305; curtailed
normal tv 495-510; in haemacytometer theory
v 351-360; in Helix nemoralis 1 468-492 ; infant
mortality 1v 510-516; frog v 151, 155, 158;
text-book on v 483

Frequency Ratios, Classification of v 179-181

Friendly Societies 11 260-272 ur 52-57

Frog v 147-167

u 1ll4

Galton’s Difference Problem 1 385-399

Gametal Purity: see Purity of Gametes

Genetics Conference v 485

Genital Sacs of Aurelia aurita 1 106-107

Geographical Variation 1 30-49, 261-264, 307-315,
409-467, 468-492 11 145-164 11 398-458: see
also Races of Man

Geological Society, its origin 1 9

Germ-plasm, Constitution of v 484

Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society
m 358 11 134,314 v 106

Grades and Deviates v 400-406

Graduation and Analysis of a Sickness Table
11 260-272

Grass 1 23, 24

Gravity and Development of the Egg v 162

Greyhound 11 213, 379, 475 ur 157, 245-298
iv 451-454

Growth, of Ceratophyllum v 485; of children 111
133, 141 vy 486; of colour of hair and eyes

eee

Index ill

111 462-466 ; of Daphnia m 255-259 ; of lobster
v 484; in meristic series u1 333: see also Age
Guinea-pig v 210, 483

Haemacytometer, error of counting with v 3851-360

Haemophilia, inheritance of v 211

Hair, human, colour ur 149, 150, 154, 168,
459-466 v 105-146, 298-350, supplement ;
curliness 111 151, 154, 169 v 105-146

Hand, human 1 177-227, 345-360

Handwriting ut 158, 155, 190 v 105-146, 197, 202

Hartstongue Fern 1 339

Hawthorn 1 28

Head Measurements, human (as distinct from
skull measurements) 1 177-227, 409-467 11 338-
356 ur 60-62, 151, 154, 170-181 Ww 161-
168, 286-312, 342; and brain weight 1v 105-
123, 124-160; and mental characters v 105-
146, 485; among Scotch insane v 298-350,
supplement

Health ut 145, 149, 154, 166 v 105-146; relation
to pigmentation rr 465

ITealth, General Board of tv 331

Heart, healthy and diseased human 111 63-83

Heredity: see Inheritance

Herring (Clupea harengus) v 24, 51

Heterogeneity and Homogeneity of Material 11 345—
347, 504-508 rv 29-36 v 198-203

Heterogeneity, coefticient of v 198-203

Heterophylly 1 258

Heterostylism of Pulmonaria officinalis 111 398-458

Heterozygotal Characters 11 1-51, 248 v 481: see
also Mendelism

Homogamy : see Assortative Mating

Homogeneity and Heterogeneity of Material 1 345—
347, 504-508 iv 29-36 v 198-203

Homotyposis 1 258, 318, 320-344, 400-407 1 67,
501 ut 104-107 v 34, 187-189; and inherit-
ance iv 409

Horns of Cattle 1v 427-464 v 212

Horse 1 361-364 mm 2-6, 211, 221, 222, 229-236,
290 111157, 255 iv 451-454 v 47, 80-83, 211

Hospital Patients contrasted with general popula-
tion 11165 1v 19, 20, 125-143

Hydrocephalus tv 112

Hypomerie und Hypermerie bei Aurelia aurita
1 108

Identification of Criminals 1 177-227

Illegitimate Infants, death-rate of tv 510-515

Immunity tv 313-331, 483-510 v 423-434:
also Small-Pox

Inbreeding v 210, 483

Index Measurements in anthropometry v 484

Infants, feeding 1v 277; metabolism of v 212;
mortality 1384 iv 277-285, 510-516

Inheritance, of acquired characters v 271; ancestral
1 211-229; apparently non-existent v 32, 73-85 ;
colour v 470-476 ; coat colour in cattle 1v 427-
464 ; in greyhound 111 245-298; in horse 1 361-
364 1m 229-236; in mice 1 101-104, 165-173,
282-285 111-51 1v1-12 v 436-449; cross in-
heritance 11 383-387, 392, 396, 423-444, 451-462 ;
deafness in mankind rv 465-482; determinantal
theory of v 18, 44, 45, 206; of fecundity in sows
v 203-205 ; in mice v 41, 436-449; of length of
life, mankind 150-89 ; Mendelian: see Mendelism;
of mental and moral characters 11 287-298
ur 131-190, 467-469 ; of meristic characters in

1—2

see

Spinax ur 341-344; in organisms with many
gonads 11 68-75, 77, 78 1v 409; parthenogenetic
1 11, 129-154, 364; in peas 1 228-254; of
physical characters in mankind 1 357-462
Iv 287; of psychical characters in mankind
111 131-190; taste and occupation 1 467-469 ;
in rabbits 11 299-306 ; of sex ratio v 73-85 (man)
v 436-449 (mice) ; in the Shirley poppy 1 56-100
Iv 394-426 v 33; statistical and physiological
laws compared v 483

Insane, anthropometric characteristics of Scotch
v 298-350, supplement

Instrument for Plotting Curves to Various Scales
i 469-471

Integration, Finite Difference Formulae for 1 273-
303 Iv 878

Intelligence 111 147, 155, 189 1v 78-80, 83 v 105-
146, 197, 202, 485

Interpolation by Finite Differences, two Independent
Variables 11 105-108

Interracial Correlation 11 347-356

Interracial Resemblances
Mankind wv 163

Intestine, length of the small vy 212

Introspection 111 152, 155, 185

Isolation (in Romanes’ sense) in Paramecium
v 213-297

Isotropy of Frequency Distributions v 470-476

Iv 286-312
between the Sexes in

Jelly-Fish 1 90-108, 255 v 484
John Dory 11 115-120
Judgment and Measurement 11 338, 504-512

Kidneys, Human 111 63-83
Kleistogamie 1 12
Kurtosis tv 172-212; and selection tv 505-510

Leaves, beech 111 104-107 ; mulberry 1 258 ; pine
1 318

Length of Life, assortative mating among English
11 481-498; and fertility among English 1 34-
38 iv 233-285; inheritance of among English
1 50-89; Makeham’s formula 1 298-303; mean
for individuals dying within a year of birth
1v 510-515 ; and priority of birth 1 53-60; in
Roman Egypt 1 261-264

Library of Original Data 19

Limbs of Vertebrates, their origin 111 313-365

Linear Regression: see Regression

Litter, inheritance of size of v 203-205, 436-449

Liver, Human 111 63-83

Lizard v 9, 51

Lobster (Homarus) v 484

Local Death Rates in mankind 1 384

Local Races, Helix nemoralis 1 468-492 ; approxi-
mate constancy of organic correlations v19; of
Man: see Races in Species Index; of plants
1 304-319 11 145-164

“ Tokalization Morphogenetischer Vorgiinge” v 53

Longevity: see Length of Life

Lotus (Nelumbium luteum) v 485

Lungwort 111 398-458

Maize 1242 v 484 (Zea mais)

Makeham’s Formula for Mortality 1 298-303 11 263,
503, 504 1 52-57

Mallow 1 839

Marine Biological Association v 49

Marriage, age at 1 30-35 nu 20 Iv 256-263;

iv Subject Index

duration of life and number of offspring rv 264—
280; and length of life 1 481-498 rv 233-247
Mass Relations of Nucleus and Cytoplasm 11 241-254
Mathematics and Biology, relations of 1 3, 4, 5
v 211

Mating, Assortative, in mankind 11 372-377, 396,
408-414, 481-498 111112 v 211, 213-297, 484;
among the deaf 1v 473; artificial in mice mI
9-13; in Paramecium v 213-297

Mating, Preferential 11 373, 396 v 213-297

Maxima of frequency curves, see Mode or
Frequency Curves

Measles with Broncho-Pneumonia v 428, 429

Mechanics of Living Organisms vy 483

Median 11 839-345

Mendelism 1 228-254, 320-344, 365-374 1 44-55,
101-104, 121, 165-173, 211-218, 228, 282-306
11 107-112, 248, 268, 341-346, 363-365, 471-472
tv 1-12, 427-464 v 36, 39, 42, 47-48, 79, 210-
212, 478, 480-486 ; connection with the law of
ancestral inheritance v 43, 44, 481-482

Mendel’s Categories, theory of 11 44-55, 121, 228

Mental and Moral Characters: see Psychical
Characters

Merism and Sex in ‘* Spinax Niger” 111 313-365

Meristic Variation 11 813-365 1v 213-229 v 483

Mice: see Mouse

Micro-photography of Live Ciliata 1 401

Microscopic Measurement Method 11 324

Migrating Birds, speed of v 486

Migrations of Human Races v 480

Migration, Random v 485

Modes, apparent multiple 1 304-319, 442 11114;
determination of 1 260, 329, 331 11 2, 327, 339-
345 ; of the sum of two Gauss-Laplacian distri-
butions m1 85-98

Moments, method of for fitting theory to observation
1 265-303

Moneywort 1 11

Mortality: see Length of Life

Moths 111 113-130 _v 82, 51

Mosaikarbeit v 147-167

Moscatel 11 108-113

Mosquito v 212

Moulting of Daphnia 11 255-259

Mouse 1 244 11 101-104, 165-173, 282-285, 294—
298, 305 wri1-51,108 iv 1-12, 431 v 41, 44,
51, 212, 436-449, 483

Mulberry Tree 1 258

Mule 11 290

Mutation 1 228-254, 320-354, 365-374
v 210, 483, 485

wr 44-55

Natural Selection: see Selection

Newt v 212

Normal Distribution, test for in non-measurable
characters v 470-476

Nose, shape of in Scotch insane v supplement
Yucleus 11 241-254

Occupations, contingency between father and son
m1 467-469

Ordinates and Strips of Area 11 310-312 v 450-
459

Organic Correlation, in Arcella 11 321-337; in bees
v 420; in the earthworm tv 213-229; effect of
environment upon in Chilomonas v 53-72; in
Eupagurus prideauxi m 196-210; in Ficaria
ranunculoides 1 125-128; in Gelasimus pugi-

Subject Index Vv

lator 1 307-320; in Helix arbustorum v 387-
399 ; human brain weight with various charac-
ters 1v 13-104 ; human viscera 111 63-83 ; human
skull 111 191-244: see also Skull; human hair
and eye-colour 11 459-466 v 298-350, supple-
ment; mental and physical characters 1 345-360
11 370-372, 399-462; in meristic series m1 321-
338 Iv 213-229 v 483; in mice 11 7, 19, 37-48;
in Paramecium 1 400-404 v 213-297; in plants
mt 104-107; Scotch insane v 298-350, supple-
ment; in wasps v 420
Osteitis Deformans 1v 112

Parabolas, fitting of to observations 11 9-23 111 99-
103

Paramecium 1 400-407
297, 485

Parental Correlation: see Inheritance

Parsnip 1 368

Parthenogenetic Inheritance 1 11, 129-154, 364

Pea, Sweet (Lathyrus) v 482

Pea (Pisum) 1 228-254 1 45

Pear Tree 1 28

Pedigree Tables 11 29-37

Periodic Selection: see Selection, Periodic

Personal Equation v 470-476, 486

Petites Espéces: see Species

Physical Characters in Man ur 131-190, 467-469
Iv 78-80, 83 v 105-146, 197, 202, 211, 485:
see also Hand, Head, Hair, Hye, Skull, Stature,
Fertility, Length of Life, Immunity, etc.

Physical Deterioration tv 479

Pig v 203-205, 441, 485

Pigeons v 211

Pigmentation and health 11 465

Pigmentation: see Colour for the rest

Pioneers of Biometry 14 v 13-52

Place Modes: see Local Races

Pneumonia 111 71, 72

Polydactylism v 483

Polymorphism in plants 1 304-319 11114, 145-164:
see also Local Races; Frequency Curves, Multi-
modal; Bimodality, Dichromatism, Mode

Poppy 1 304, 367 1156-100 tv 394-426 v 33

Popularity ut 152, 155, 186 v 105-146

Population, Growth of in Buenos Ayres 111 99-103

Poultry 1367 11123 vy 210, 482, 483

Preformation of the Embryo in the Egg v 147-167

Prepotency 11 300 v 425; intermittent 11 389-391 ;
sex 11 389 v 211; unit m 389-391 im 345
v 211: see also Dominance

Primula ut 401, 422 v 210

Priority of Birth and Duration of Life 1 53-57

Probable Errors: see Random Errors

Progressive Means v 370

Promise of Youth and Performance of Manhood
v 485

Proper Fractions, distribution of v 179-181

Protective Colouration m1 58,59 v 211

Psychical Characters of Mankind ut 467-469
Iv 78-80, 83 v 105-146, 197, 202, 211; inherit-
ance of 111 131-190 v 129-131, 460-469, 485

Pure Lines (Johannsen) 11 499-503

Purity of Gametes 1 228-254 11 44-55, 286-298
mr 1-51, 108 tv 1-12, 231-232 v 212, 483: see
also Mendelism

11 821 et seq. v 54, 213-

Quadrature Formulae 1 273-303
Quietude v 127, 460-469

Iv 378

Rabbit 11 299-306 v 210, 211

Races of Man, comparisons of 1 332, 409-467
1 345-356, 504-512 wi 191-244, 459-466
iv 13-104, 125-133, 161-168 v 92-104, 298-
350, supplement ; interracial correlation 1v 286-
312

Radial Canals of Aurelia aurita 1 90-108; of
Pseudoclytia pentata 1 255

Radiation and the Development of the Egg v 162

Random Change in Segments 111 838-3841

Random Errors in Frequency Constants 1 273-281,
504-508 ; computation of Iv 386-393 v_ 190,
212; of the difference between the correlation
coefficient and ratio 1v 3832-350; of coeflicient
of class divergence v 198-203 ; of counting with a
haemacytometer v 351-360; of isotropy v 471;
of mean square contingency v 191-197; sub-
sample v 181-183, 315-333

Random Flight, problem of v 212

Rat 1244 vy 211

Regression 1 323, 365-374 i 217-228; linear
(specially emphasized) 11 361-370, 395, 468-470 :
see also Correlation, Organic Correlation

Reproductive Selection: see Selection

Reversion i 172, 289: see also Heterozygote,
Mendelism

Schedules for Data 11 359, 360

Scientific Men, statistics of v 483

Seasonal Polymorphism, in the beetle Gonioctena
v 211; in plants 1 125-128, 304-319 wm 113,
145-164 111 398-458

Sea Urchin v 58

Secular Modes 1 313-314

Secular Variation 1 109, 118-119, 261-264, 408-
467 1 371, 395

Segments, random increase and decrease of 111 338-
341

Selection 1 331-333; in Aurelia aurita 1 95;
and correlation 11 510; among crabs y 25; in-
tensity of natural selection among the English
1 50-89 i 371, 395 v 211; by disease among
the English m1 73; infant mortality v 211;
natural selection in Lepidoptera ur 113-130 ;
modifying the intensity of inheritance in a
population rv 403-411 vy 84, 85; periodic 1 119-
124, 384, 468-492 m 210, 371, 395 m1 299-
306 v 387-399; and pigmentation in man-
kind ur 465; reproductive 1 256 1 371, 373,
396 Iv 280-285; of the sexes separately in
mankind iv 163; sharply curtailed, contrasted
with normal 1v 495-510; in Spinax niger m1 321;
sexual selection 1v 161-168, 287, 292; effect
upon variation 11 510

Self- Consciousness v 125 et seq., 460-469

Severity of Disease, means of estimating v 423-
434

Sev and brain weight rv 45, 155, 156; determina-
tion of mm 241 «1 343; differences in the
estimation of time v 212; dimorphism in the
beetle Gonioctena v 211; influence of number of
changes on inheritance 11 237-240, 257 ; infantile
mortality of the sexes compared tv 510-515;
interracial correlation in mankind tv 163; and
merism in Spinax niger m1 313-365; sex pre-
potency: see Prepotency; physical ditferences
v 105-146, 460-469; and statural differences
1 39-49 ; sexual selection : see Selection; wing
measurements in wasps v 407-422

Sev Ratio, inheritance of v 73-85, 436-449; in
Spinax 11 321

Sheep v 210, 212

Sheppard’s Corrections 131, 181 1 147, 364, 504
111 8308-312 v 450-459

Shyness v 125 et seq.

Sibships, Types of in Plants 11 59-62

Sickness Table, graduation and analysis of 11 260-
272, 508, 504 111 52-57

Silkworm ut 113-130 v 486

Similar and Simultaneous Parts 1 324

Skew Variation tv 169-212; relation to selection
tv 505-510: see also Frequency Distributions

Skull, determination of capacity 11 203-206 ; skull
measurements and brain weight 1v 67-74, 105-
123; variation and correlation in the human
1 409-467 ur 191-244 tv 286-312, 351-362
v 86-104; for head characters see Head

Sloe Tree 1 29

Small-Pox 1 375-383 11 126, 135-144 1v 313-331,
483-510 v 361-364, 431-435

Snails 1 109-124, 468-492 1 24-43 mir 299-306
v 14, 30, 33-38, 41, 51, 485

Sows: see Pig

Spearman's Correlation Formulae ut 160 v 212

Species, Klementary and Linnean 1 11-29, 304-319,
365, 468-492 1v 363-373

Spleen, human 111 63-83

Spurious Association 11 133

Spurious Correlation 1 456, 461 v 482

Social Status, Small-Pox and Vaccination 11 135-
144

Stability, Organic 1 328

Stable Population with Mendelian Inheritance 11
263

Starfish 11 463-473 v 226

Statoblasts of Pectinatella magnifica 1 128

Stature, change with age 1 38-49; of criminals
1 177-227; and brain weight 1v 51-63; among
Scotch insane v 298-350, supplement

Sterility, self-fertilized poppies 1v 395-398; of
Drosophila v 210: see also Fertility, P'ecundity

Still Born, number of in Buenos Ayres m1 99-103

Stock 1243 v 482

Subsample Drawn from a Sample, Significance of
v 181-183, 315-333

Summation Method of calculating moments from
statistics 1v 374-378

Survival of the Fittest Species 1 366

Symmetry 1 324; in an abnormal species 1 255;
bilateral 1 115-121, 307-320

Syphilis, inheritance of v 211

Tables, corrective terms for moments of trapezia
119; for computing probable errors Iv 385-393 ;
deviates of the normal curve for each per mille of
frequency v 405; probability integral 1 174-190;
of sums of the first seven powers of natural
numbers 11 474-480; for testing the goodness of
fit of theory to observation 1 155-163

Teaching of Statistics v 477

Telegony 1 51

Temper ut 152, 155, 188 v 125 et seq., 460-469

Tentaculocysts of Aurelia aurita 1 90-108

vi Subject Index

Tetanus v 210

Thistle v 210

Thorn Apple 1 243 11 55

Time of Absence from Nest (bees and wasps) v 365-
386

Time Estimation v 486

Trades and Sickness 111 53

Trades, Small-Pox and Vaccination 11 135-144

“ Types” and Races 11 504-512

Typhus Fever v 424-430

Tuberculosis v 478

University of London v 19-21
Unprogressive Communities v 366
Useless Characters 1 109

Utility and Organic Correlation 1 346

Vaccination 1 375-383 1 126, 135-144 Iv 313-
331, 483-510 v 361-364, 431-435

Valvular Disease of the Heart ut 71

Variation Curves: see Frequency Curves

Variation (in de Vries’ theory) 1 365-374

Variation (fluctuating) 1 11, 321 et seq.; an
abnormal species 1 255; in Arcella im 321—
337; in bees v 420, 484; in Aurelia aurita
1 90-108; and binary fission 1 400-407; in
Ceratophyllum v 485; in Cichorium intybus
v 184-186 ; in lesser celandine 11 145-164; and
environment of Chilomonas vy 53-72; in the
earthworm iv 213-229; in Eupagurus _pri-
deauxi 1 191-210; in parts of flowers 1 11-29;
in Helix arbustorum v 387-399; in Scottish
insane v 298-350, supplement; in Lotus v 485;
in Moscatel m 108-113; variation coefficients
for Man, table of 1v 32; in meristic series
m1 321-338; in Ophiocoma nigra 1 463-473 ;
in Paramecium 1 400-407 v 213-297, 485;
in Philosamia cynthia ur 113-130; in Pul-
monaria 111 398-458 ; in Scyphomedusae v 484;
secular variation 1 109, 118-119, 261-264,
408-467 i 371, 395; in the human skull
1 408-467 111 191-244 iv 286-312 v 86-104;
in snails v 485; in sparrow’s egg 1 256-257; of
stature in mankind 1 39; in wasps v 407-422; of
weight of human viscera 111 63-83; for other
characters, especially human ones, see under
special headings

Variations, Favourable, maintenance and con-
tinuity of in critical periods v 211

Vegetative Growth 1 11

Viscera, weight of the human 111 63-83

Vivacity 111 152, 155, 183 v 460-469

Wasp v 365-386, 407-422

Weight at Birth, influence of size of parent upon
among sheep v 212

Weldon’s Life v 1-52

Wheat 1 367

Whitethorn 1 28

Whitlow Grass 112 v 39-41

Woodruff 1 339-344 Iv 341

NXenogamie 1 12

1

Abbot, G. tv 398

Ackerman tv 356, 357
Ackland, T. G. 1105

Adair, E. W. 111 135

Adami v 15

Alexander 1v 467

Allen, E. J. v 28

Allen, Glover M. tv 1, 6
Allen, Lewis F. rv 440
Amann 11 406

American Medical Association tv 33
Ammon, Otto m1 460 v 339
Anders, J. M. v 210
Andrewes, F. W. v 6
Anonymous v 351-360
Apgar, A. C. 11 30, 34
Apted, M. 111 193

Arcoleo 111 107-109, 471-472 iv 231
Arutinow tv 293, 295
Assheton, R. v 15

Aston and Mander rv 106
Atcherley, W. L. m1 193
Auerbach 1 26

Bacot, A. 111 73

Balbiani v 213

Balfour, F. M. 111 313

Ballowitz, EH. 1 108

Balzac vy 15

Banks, Sir J.19

Barber, C. A. v 15

Bard 111 64

Barlow 11 474 v 201

Baronas tv 165, 294

Barrington, Amy 11 390
v 136

Barrows, W. M. v 483

Barton, E. R. m1 194, 196

Barry, Dr tv 321

Barry, Canon v 7

Bates, C. J. 1v 440

Bateson, W.1 244, 252, 320-344, 374 11 34, 44-55,
101, 123, 211, 228, 285, 286-298, 305-306, 472
11 15-18, 107, 109, 334, 346, 471, 472 1v 3, 6,
223, 227, 231, 232 v 15, 23, 39, 42, 52, 210, 482

Baur, G. 11 337, 346

Baxter v 303

Beaumont, W. I. 1 93

Beddard tv 223, 227 v 15

Beddoe, J, 111 367-397 tv 129

Beeton, Mary 1 34, 50-89 w« 145-164, 481-498
mr 136, 202 1v 58, 128, 132, 235, 397

v 2,8, 9, 15

mr 245-298 rv 427-464

NAME INDEX.

Behr, K. von v 73, 74, 75

Bell rv 440

Bell, A. Graham tv 466

Bell, Jeffrey m 464, 470, 472, 473

Bensenger tv 295

Bentham, Jeremy 1 393-397
148

Bertrand 11 406

Bidder, G. P. v 15

Bielodied tv 165, 294

Biggs, Eva tv 395

Binney, W. G. 11 34

Bischoff, T. L. W. v. 1v 16, 17, 21, 43, 47

Blakeman, John tv 105, 124-160, 195, 332-350,
386 v 191-197, 299, 314, 344, 347, 485

Blanchard, H. 1v 396, 405, 411

Blanchard, Norman L. 1 361-364, 425
145-164, 221, 229-234

Blandford, W. F. H. v 15

Blankinship, J. W. u 34

Blechman, iv 293

Boas, Franz 1410 vy 482

Boole 1275 11121 mr 309

Boring, A. M. v 167

Born, G. v 161, 167

Borrajo, E. M. m1 193

Bottomley, W. B. v 15

Boulenger 11 115

Bourguignat 1 365

Bowser, Wilfred A. 11 264

Boyd rv 16, 18, 75, 79, 109, 110, 154

Boyle 111 99

Bramley-Moore, Leslie 1 277-303, 361-363
221 111 246

Braus, H. 111 317, 321, 332, 334, 346

Bravais, 11 309 tv 43

Brennsohn ty 165, 294

Brewster, E. T. 1 32, 34

Bridge, T. W. v7

Brindley, H. H. v 15

Broca 1 428 11 339
164, 298

Bronn, H. G, 11 30, 34

Brown, Adrian J. v 360

Browne, Sir Thomas 1 472

Browne, Edw. T. 1 90-108

Brownlee, John, 1 135-143
510 v 363-364, 423-435

Broxup 111 6

Brozek, A. v 482, 483

Buchanan 11 481-498

Buckland, v 6

iv 129, 145, 147,

11 56-100,

ir 1-23,

vy 222

mr 200, 221, 239, 375 1v 67,

v 28
rv 313-331, 505, 508,

v 28

Vili Name

Buckman 1 368
Buckton, G. B. 1 129

Bumpus, Herman C. 1 256-257
Burbury, 8. H. v 23
Burke, v 74, 76
Burr, Mary J. v 214
Bury, H. v 15
Biitschli, O. 11 322
Byles, v 361

Byrne, L. W. 1 93

11 30, 34

v 59, 72, 213
m1 115-121

Calkins v 213, 261, 266, 268, 272

Cambridge Anatomical Museum 1 464

Cambridge Anthropological Committee 1 187

Cambridge Instrument Company 1 414 m1 202

Camerano, L. v 483

Cardinal, James 1v 112

Carey-Foster, G. v 20, 21

Carnegie Institution tv 15, 229

Carpenter, F. W. v 483

Carter & Co. 1 244 et seq.

Cartographers of London 111 194-199

Castle, W. E. 11 285, 304, 306
v 210, 483

Castrel, D. B. v 419-421

Cattell, J. McK. v 483

Cave, Frances E. 111 136

Cekanowsky 1v 162

Cesnola, A. P. di mr 58 v 387-399

Challenger Expedition 1v 164

Chamot v 486

Channing, Walter v 128

Chantre tv 165, 293, 294, 295

Charusin tv 294

Chesterman rv 107

Chree 1 279, 280

Chugunow tv 295

Chun, Carl v 57, 215

Charlier v 206-209

Clark, A. H. v 483

Clark, Trevor 1 243, 252

Claus v 14

Clawson, A. B. v 483

Clendinning 11 63, 69

Clifford, W. K. v 6

Coates 1v 431, 442, 443, 444

Cole tv 213

Colladon 1 244

Collins, Howard 11 213, 390
258

Collmann 1 17

Cook, Capt. Thomas 11 387

Cooke, A, H. 1 34

Cooperators on assortative mating mm 481-498
Iv 22

Coradi 1v 376

Cornaz m1 472

Correns 1 236-252 11 299 v 210

Cotton, Anne=Mrs Walter Weldon v 3, 5

Courdow 1v 294

Crampe 1 244, 252 11 294, 299, 305, 306

Crampton, Henry Edward 11 113-130 v 210

Crelle 11 268, 474

Crofton, Morgan tv 180 v 206

Cuénot 11 284, 305, 306 ur 14, 108, 109 tv 1-4, 6

Culverwell 1 245

v 87-90
1 1, 107, 109-112

Iv 31, 129, 133

11t 246, 247, 254, 256,

Daly, R. A. v 210
Dandeno, J. B. vy 210

Index

Danilow tv 294, 295

Dante tv 147, 148 v5, 15

Darbishire, A. D. 1 101-104, 165-173, 282-285,
286, 294-298, 305, 306 11 1-51, 108, 109, 261,
263 1v 1, 397 v 41, 436, 483

Dareste 1 367

Darwin, Charles 1 1, 3, 4, 8, 232, 252, 368, 370
11172 1173, 400, 401, 403, 424, 447, 448 v2,
9, 15, 16, 17, 38, 272

Darwin, Francis v 23

Darwin, Horace 1112 m1 134

Davenport, C. B. 1 128, 255, 312-314
304-306 11 86, 403 v 210, 483

Davis, J. Barnard 1m 339 wn 192, 377, 378, 380-
388 Iv 133, 298

Dawkins, Boyd tv 435, 437, 439

Day 111 472

De Bary 1 12, 469

De Brugher 1 22, 258

De Helguero, Fernando m1 &4-98
v 184-189, 480

Delpino, Federico 1 12

De Morgan 1 274 11121

Deniker 11 354 tv 26, 287

Deutsch Pathol. Gesellsch. tv 34

de Vries, Hugo 1 20, 243, 252, 253, 322, 365-374

11 24-43,

Iv 230-231

Iv 77

11 47-49, 286, 299, 499, 500 111 404 rv 189, 196)
v 39, 52

di Cesnola, A. P. 111 58, 59

Dickens v 21

Diebold tv 294

Dimon, Abigail Camp 1 24-43 1v 182 v 72

Donaldson, H. H. 1v 15, 18, 65, 74, 78, 80, 109

Doncaster, Leonard v 211

Donkin, H. B. m1 60

Drapers’ Company 11 357
253 Iv 224, 394 v 136

Drew, W. H.v 8

Dreyer v 52

Driesch 1 367 v 53, 54, 70, 71, 72, 154

Driiner v 222

Dumas 1 244

Dunbar, Frances J. 1 321-337 1v 182 v 56, 65,
68, 217, 226, 233, 241, 261, 270, 485

Duncker, Georg 1 12 1m 34, 307-320
Iv 182,199 v 186

Durham, A. E. v 15

Durham, H. E. v 15

Duvillard 1v 320, 321, 331

Dyer, W. T. Thiselton 1 333

Dzerzinsky tv 295

1 134, 150, 215, 244,

mr 406

Ecker 1 413
Edgeworth, F.-Y. tv 172 et seq.
209, 365-386
Editorial 1 1-6, 304-306
Edkins, J. S. v 15
Hichhold 1v 293
Eichler 11 113
Elderton, Ethel M. 11 474-480 v 460-469, 485
Elderton, W. Palin 1 155-163 11 56-100, 105-108,
260-272, 364, 474-480, 503, 504 m1 52, 54, 231
Iv 42, 170, 171, 372, 374-384, 397 v 206-210,
333, 477-480, 483
Elkind, 1v 165, 293, 295
Ellis, Havelock 11 372
Engler 11 113
Erkert tv 293
Euler 1 274

v 168-171, 206-

1 273-281 11 308-312

Iv 193, 209

Name

Everett 11 106, 175

Fairclough, G. 1v 117

Farabee 111 109

Faraday 1 4

Fath, E. A. v 486

Fawcett, Cicely D. 1 409-467 11 179, 345, 346,
351, 395, 481-498, 504-508 m1 191 et seq., 369
et seq. 1v 39, 40, 67, 68, 72, 130, 136, 170, 172,
176, 298, 353 v 71, 72, 243, 300 et seq., 482

Fay, E. A. 11127 1v 465-482

Fechner tv 169, 172, 176, 178, 180, 189, 193, 194,
196, 203, 204, 209, 210, 211

Fibonacci 1 306 1v 209 v 186

Field Freke 1v 117

‘* Field ” Newspaper Office 111 247

Fife, H. L. 1v 431

Filon, L. N. G. 1 391

Fischer, von 1 244, 252

Fischer, O. v 483

Fleischmann 1 492

Fliess, Wilhelm v 210

Flower, Sir William 11 339
tv 106, 164, 298, 351

Fockelmann 111 6

Forbes, A. v 483

Forbes, Edward 11 464, 468, 472

Foster, W. T. v 484

Fournier, E. v 211

Fowke, Esther=Mrs Reuben Weldon v 3

Fowler, G. H. v 28

Freund 1 18

Friends’ Provident Association 1 51

Fry, Agnes 1 258

Fullarton, 1 135

Fuller, Wilbur N. 1v 213-229

Fiirst, Carl M. 111 202 -v 484

1273 =1v 186

11 192, 199, 200, 206

Gagnepain 11 49

Gain, Edmond 11 398-458

Galai tv 165, 293 v 484

Galloway 11 261-268

Galton, Francis 1 2, 5, 7-10, 38, 119, 125-128,
139, 190, 228, 241, 252, 328, 329, 364, 368 et seq.,
385-390, 390-399 1 1 et seq., 71, 83, 145-164,
215, 216, 219-227, 237, 238, 300 et seq., 340,
356, 357 et seq., 482, 499 111 9, 12, 14, 109-111,
132, 137, 246, 342, 364, 404, 406 1v 128, 172
et seq., 275, 465 v 2 et seq., 80, 111, 184, 397,
400-404, 460, 469, 477

Garnett, James Clerk Maxwell tv 397

Garrod, A. H. 11 107, 109 v7, 8

Garson 1 178, 180, 206

Gartner 1 237, 252

Gauss 111 142, 405, 406

Gayton rv 314

Gegenbaur 111 313, 314

Gerard’s Herbal 11 109

German Anthropological Catalogue 1 425

Gibson, Winifred 1v 385-393 v 91, 190

Gilchanko ty 294

Giltay 1 237, 252 11113

Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. v 484

Gladstone, Reginald J. tv 105-123, 124, 129, 133,
136, 144, 154, 157, 158

Glasgow Small-pox Hospital 1 375

Godefroi 1v 164, 298

Godman, F. D. v 23

Gompertz 11 261, 503

tv 170-212 v 16, 169

Biometrika

Index

Goodrich, E. 8S. v 28

Goodsir 11 465

Gordon, W. J. 1v 371

Goroshenko tv 164, 165, 298

Goss, J. 1 236, 253

Gosse, P. H. 1 465

Gould, A. A, 11 30

Grant, Ogilvie 1 164

Gray, J. 1v 107 .

Green, J. Reynolds v 15

Greenough, O. B. 1 9

Greenwell tv 355

Greenwood, M. 11 63-83
v 136

Gregory, R. P. v 210

Greiner 1v 169-212

Griffiths, G. B. 111 60-62

Grigoriew Iv 293

Grinzewich, Talko tv 293, 295

Grisolle 11 63

Grobben vy 14

Groom, T. T. v 15

Grube tv 295

Gruber v 260, 266, 268

Giinther 11 118

Gunter 111 471

Gurney, J. H. 1v 363

Guy’s Hospital, London tv 112

1v 19, 32, 125, 183

Haacke, W. 1 244, 253

Hadley, P. B. v 484

Hagen tv 180

Hall 1 488

Hall, K. M. 11 113

Halsted, B. D. v 484

Halsted, G, B. v 211

Hammerschlag tv 467

Hankin, BE. H. v 15

Hardy, G. F. 1 298-303

Hardy, W. B. v 15

Hargitt, C. W. v 484

Harmer, F. W. v 15

Harper, KE. H. v 211

Harrison tv 435

Hartert, E, tv 363

Head, H. v 15

Heape, W. v 23

Heincke, F. 1 30 1 319, 346

Helguero, Fernando de ur 84-98
v 184-189, 480

Henderson Trust of Edinburgh v 298, 299, sup-
plement

Henrici, Olaus v 7

Henslow, G. 1 113

Herbst, Curt. 1367 v 53

Herford, Caroline 11 147

Heron, David v 79-85, 437, 484

Hertwig, Oscar v 148, 167

Hertwig, Richard 1 241, 251

Heyer, A. 1 17-29, 258

Heymans, G. v 211, 460, 476

Hildebrand 111 400, 401, 423, 424, 449

Hillier, W. T. 1v 106

His 1 409, 413 11 339

Hobhouse, Eleanor 1 258

Hodgson, G. 1v 432-436

Hotimann, C, K. v 9

Holmes, Mrs Basil 111 196

Holt, E. W. L. 191-93 1115

11101, 295 v 484

Iv 376

Iv 230-231

v 213, 261, 272

x Name

Hood, P. Jacomb v 6

Hooke ur 99

Horoshanko tv 294

Howitt, Mary v 3, 4, 5

Howitt, William vy 3, 4

Huber v 386

Hughes, McKenny tv 437, 438, 439
Hurst, C. C. v 47, 210, 211
Huxley, T. H. 11 131, 147 v 2, 20-21, 29, 52, 272
Hyrtl 111 218

Hyslop tv 432-436

Taworsky 1v 295

Ibsen v 5

Institut fiir gerichtliche Medizin, Prag 1v 17
Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 11 476
Institute of Actuaries 1 298-303 11105, 106, 504
Irving de Vere 1v 432-436

Islington Health Officer 11 144

Ivanovsky 1v 287 et seq., 293 et seq.

Jackson, Hatchett tv 351

Jacob, S. 11 347-356 111373 v 86
Jakowenko tv 165, 293

James II tv 440

Jenkinson, J. W. v 147-167
Jennings, H. 8. v 249, 266, 268
Jeunet 116 iIvl

Jevons, Stanley 11 121
Jkow tv 165

Johannsen 11 367, 499-503
Jones, Hugh R. tv 277
Jones, Viriamu v 6
Jordan 1 365

Juel, H. O. 1 12

Jurin iv 322

Iv 209 v 43, 479, 482

Kapteyn 1v 172, 178, 179, 180, 193, 199-203, 204,
209, 210, 211 v 168-171, 175

Kellogg, V. L. v 420, 421, 484

Kerr, tv 479

King, G. 1 298-303

Klebs v 31

Knight, T. A, 1 232, 253

Kobelt 1 109, 474 v 31, 36, 43, 45

Koeppe, Hans v 211

Koernef tv 298

Koganei 1 428, 429

Kolliker v 52

Kollman 1 413

Kolmogorow tv 165, 295

Kopsch v 148, 167

Korolew 1v 165, 294

Korési 1 30, 34, 48

Koshuchow tv 165, 294

Kranichfeld, H. v 211

Krasnow tv 294

Krause 1v 164

Kreidl 1v 467

Kynaston, H. v 15

Iv 165, 293, 298

Lacroix iv 193

Lagrange 11 105

Lake, P. v 15

Lamonby, W. F. 111 247, 251

Lang, A. v 485

Lankester, Ray 1164 v 7, 15,19, 21, 23, 27, 45, 46
Laplace 111 142 tv 172 et seq.

Latter, Oswald H. 1164-176 1v 363-373 v 407, 415

Index

Laurie, Malcolm v 15

Laxton 1 237, 245, 251, 253

Layton 11 476 1 53

Lea-Smith, Edna 11 56-100

Leake, A. Martin 1 415 mr 205, 206

Lee, Alice 1 31, 48, 51, 121, 138, 140, 189, 194,
204, 316-319, 396, 403, 409-467 uu 56-100,
145-164, 221, 234-236, 258, 347-356, 357-462,
481-498 11 104, 136, 207 et seq., 245-298, 341,
366 et seq., 461 Iv 32, 43, 51, 67, 68, 72, 124—
160, 176, 186, 289, 396 et seq., 451, 478 v 91,
136, 175, 300, 344, 407-422, 441, 482

Leidy, J. 11 322, 329

Lenhoségek, M. von v 73, 78

Leuckart v 414

Lewenz, Marie 1 125, 157, 255, 297, 345-360

11 56-100 mr 136, 234, 366-397 Iv 79, 142,
158, 169

Lewis, C. J. and J. N. v 79

Lexis v 379

Lijin rv 295

Lill rv 195, 197

Lister, J. J. v 215, 220, 221, 222, 231, 232, 261

Livi, R. 111 85, 108, 109, 460 iv 506 v 339

Lock, R. H. v 478-480

Loisel, G. v 211

Lokine tv 165

Lombroso 1 38

Lorenz, O. v 73, 78

Lossen, H. v 211

Lotter 117

Louzenko tv 295

Lubbock, Sir John 1 4

Lucas, F. C. 1 310-314

Ludwig, von, F. 1 11-29, 258, 306, 310-319, 331
11114, 145-164 111403 rv 209

Lukine tv 293

Lutz, F. E. m 221, 237-240, 357, 389, 481-498
mi 247, 257 1v 449 v 211

Macalister, A. 11 243 v 23

Macaulay, W. H. v 105

MacBride v 15

Macdonell, W. R. 1 177-227, 375-383, 429
100, 135-144, 346, 395 m1 142, 143, 191-244,
369 1v 30 et seq., 127 et seq., 170, 172, 176,
324, 331, 483, 485, 486, 501 et seq. v 71, 72,
86-104, 243, 300 et seq., 482

Macdonell, Mrs W. R. 11 56-100

Maciver, D. Randall 1 424, 425

Maclaurin 1 267 rv 180, 193, 209

MacLeod, Julius 1 125-128, 316, 318 v 38

Macpherson v 298

Macpherson, J. F. v 346

Maeterlinck v 36

Mainow tv 165, 295

Makeham 1 298-303

Malieff 1v 165

Maliew tv 293, 295

Mander tv 106

Manouvrier 11 346 = 111 239, 378

Marchand, F. 1v 16, 17, 20, 21, 133, 154

Margaritow tv 295

Marine Biological Association, Plymouth 1 90

Marsh, E. L. 1 375

Marshall 1v 16, 18, 75, 77

Marson Iv 326

Martin v 474

Martin, Alfred v 6

11 56—

11 263, 503, 504 111 52-57

Name

Martinez, Albert B. 111 100

Maslowsky tv 165, 293, 295

Massau, J. 1v 376

Maste, S. O. v 483

Masterman, A. T. vy 15

Masters, M. v 23

Matiegka, H. 1v 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 27, 28, 133,
137, 144, 164

Maupas v 213, 231

Maxwell, James Clerk v 2

Mayer, A. G.1255 111 127

Maziewsky tv 293, 294, 295

McAlister, D. rv 172, 178, 185, 193-198, 202, 203,
211

McCracken, Isabel v 211, 485

McGreal & Co. 1 248

McIntosh, D. C. 11 463-473

Mead, A. D, 11 25, 34

Mehmke tv 195, 197

Meldola v 23, 28

Mendel, Gregor 1 228-254 11 44-55, 170-173, 211,
213, 228, 286-298, 299-306, 389 11 1-51, 107,
108,114 iv 1-6, 206 v 36, 39, 42, 52, 79, 481,
482-486

Merkel 111 375

Merrifield v 16

Metropolitan Asylums Board tv 331, 483, 485, 486,
487, 504

Middlesex Hospital, London tv 105

Milne, T. 1v 441

Minn, W. 111 193

Mobius 11 30

Mond, Ludwig v 3

Mook 1 425

Moore tv 479

Morgan, A. C. v 210

Morgan, T. H. v 53, 78, 148, 166, 212

Miihlmann tv 34

Mulhall rv 278, 279

Miiller, O. F. 11 463, 465

Mumford, F. B. v 212

Murbeck, St. 1 12

Myers, C. 8. 11 345-347, 504-508, 511

Myres, John L. v 477

Iv 182 v 226

Nalimow try 294

Naples Biological Station 11 191
Nasarow tv 293
Naudin, C. 1 243, 253
Newcomb, Simon v 77
Newsholme trv 515
Newton, A, 1 165 et seq.
Newton, Sir Isaac 1 3, 274-278
Niederle 1v 164
Nicolsky iv 164, 298
Nobbe, F. 1 243, 255
Nordgaard 111 314, 321
Norgate, F. 1v 363
Norman, Philip m1 193
Notcutt, John 11 56-100
Notcutt, Margaret 11 56-100
Nystrom rv 286

Iv 363 et seq.
i 475

Iv 397
ur 136

Occam 111 156

Ogle 1 69, 261, 262 11 265
Olechnowiz 1v 165, 295
Oliver, Daniel v 7
Oliver, F. W. u 56-100
Olsufiew 1v 295

11104 vild

Index

Orschansky, O. v 73, 78
Osborne, W. A. 1 412

Paissel 1v 295

Palmer and Howe 111 5

Pantuchow trv 293, 294, 295

Papillaut tv 291

Parkinson, §. v 8

Parmentier 1 280

Pathological Institute at Marburg 1v 16

Pathologisch-Anatomische Institut Prague 1v 17

Payne, H. 1v 398

Peacock 111 63, 66, 68, 69 rv 31, 129,.133

Pearl, Raymond 11 321-337 tv 13-104, 124 et seq.,
182, 213-229, 386, 510-516 v 53-72, 190, 212,
213-297, 299, 300, 304, 415, 485

Pearl, Mrs Raymond rv 15

Pearson, K. 1 11, 30-89, 112, 122, 125, 128, 137
et seq., 155, 172, 178 et seq., 228, 241, 253, 255,
256-257, 260-303, 316, 319, 320-344, 345 et seq.,
361 et seq., 368, 375, 390-399, 404-407, 408 et
seq. 1 1-23, 51, 56-100, 113, 127, 134, 145-164,
172, 179, 191, 211-232, 237, 260, 264-266, 273,
309, 318, 327, 333, 338-356, 357-462, 474, 481—
498, 499-503, 504-508, 508-512 11 7 et seq.,
54, 63 et seq., 86, 104-107, 109-112, 131-190,
191 et seq., 245-298, 314 et seq., 363-365, 366-
397, 402, 405, 406, 459-466, 467-469, 472 1v 15
et seq., 124-160, 163, 164, 169-212, 224, 225,
230-232, 235 et seq., 331, 332 et seq., 351, 373,
376, 378, 380, 384, 396, 427-464, 465, 478, 483,
504, 505-510, 513 vy 1-52, 59, 66, 72, 79, 86, 94,
99, 105-146, 153, 163, 166, 168-178, 181-183,
187, 188, 190, 191-197, 198-203, 206, 208, 213,
214 et seq., 300, 301, 315 et seq., 361-364, 397,
403, 407-422, 429, 432, 436, 441, 469, 470-476,
478, 480, 481, 482, 485

Pearson-Gee, A. B. 1 411

Peile, W. H. 111 194, 196

Percy, John tv 439

Perenni 1 250

Perozzo 11 20

Perrin, Emily m1 99-103, 136, 467-469

Peters v 56

Petrie, W. M. Flinders 1 261-264, 411, 422 v 480

Pfitzner 1 345, 359 111 137, 262, 464, 465 Iv 155
v 339

Pfliiger, HE. v 161, 167

Phillips, E. F. v 203-205, 419-421, 441

Phoenix, 8. Whitney v 80

Pilsbury 1 30

Poisson tv 172, 189, 190, 191, 193, 195 203, 209

Pollak tv 467

Porotow tv 165

Poulton, E. B. v 6, 23

Powys, A. O. 1 30, 191 m1 371 Iv 57, 58, 128,
154, 176, 233-285 v 303, 304, 347

Prantl 1 113

Prévost 1 244

Publication Fund of Royal Society 1 244

Punnett, R. C, 111 313-365 v 482

Quain tv 109, 110

Quebell 1 420

Quetelet 1 409
v 16

11 340, 341 iv 189, 193, 209

Radford, Marion 111 104-107, 202 v 94
Radl, E. 1 322

Xi Name

Ranke, J. 1 413-415 ut 345 1 206, 226, 369,
390 1v 133, 169, 170, 172, 286, 298, 353

Ranke, K. E. 1v 169-212 v 485

Registrar of Friendly Societies 1 260

Reh= Rey 1 166

Reid 111 63, 68, 69 Vv 31, 129, 133

Reinohl, F. rv 188

Retzius 1v 165, 294, 295

Retzius, A. tv 16, 17

Retzius, G. 111 243, 459 1v 133, 136, 149 v 339

Reuschle 1v 195, 197

Rey, Eugene 1166 iv 363, 367, 373

Reynolds, 8. H. v 15

Richardson, G. 1v 433-436

Riches, T. H. v 15

Ricketts, tv 504 v 361

Ridewood, W. G. 111 315, 316, 346

Rimpau 1 236, 238, 244, 253

Ripley, W. Z. 1v 26, 287

Riskine 1v 165, 295

Risley 11 348, 355

Ritchie, Adeline rv 6

Rivers, W. C. v 478

Robinson, B. v 212

Rolleston tv 355

Rollet tv 133

Romanes 197 v 213, 272, 273

Rommel, G. M. v 203-205, 441, 485

Rosdestwensky tv 165, 293

Rosen 1 12

Ross, E. B. v 363

Ross, R. v 212

Roux, W. v 147, 148, 157, 161, 162, 163, 167

Royal College of Surgeons, England rv 111, 112, 117

Royal Commission on Decline of the Birth-rate
iv 251-253

Royal Commissions, Vaccination 1375 Iv 331

Royal Horticultural Society 1 245

Rubin tv 247, 251

Riicker, Sir Arthur v 21

Rudd, B. 1v 440

Riidinger 1 413

Riitimeyer 1 409 1v 437

Salvin, O. v 23

Sanders, C. B. 11 50

Sandford 1v 437

Sandfroi 1v 298

Saunders, E. R. 1 243 ir 44-55, 288, 290, 306
v 210, 482

Schiffer 1v 289

Schmidt, Ad. 1 476, 488

Schmidt, E.1 425 11351 11 201, 211, 212, 240,
369, 390

Schmidt, Oscar 1 469

Schmidt 1v 298

School Teachers Contributing Inheritance Data
mr 164

Schulze, O. v 148, 163, 167

Schuster, E. H. J. 1 191-210, 481-498 ur 28,
243 1v 1-12, 351-362, 465-482 v 104, 166,
184, 226, 344, 460-468, 485

Schwalbe, G. 1 359, 413 m1 375, 464

Seaman, Owen v 6

Sedgwick, Adam 1 144, 400 v 8, 10

Seligmann m1 472

Sergi 11 506 rv 298

Seton, Alexander 1 236

Shadrowizky tv 165, 293

Index

Sharpe, D. Radford 1 435

Sharpe, Isaac 1 51

Sharpe, The Misses 11 57

Shennon, Theodore v 346

Sheppard, W. F. 1 81, 181, 273-303, 392, 397
1r 147, 174-190, 273, 327, 364, 475, 484, 504
111 308-311, 322, 327, 342, 406, 469 1v 187, 201,
202, 217, 345, 379-382 v 57, 170,.258, 315,
400, 404-406, 450-459

Sherlock, Frank m1 28 v 41

Sherrington v 15

Shipley, A. E. v1, 10, 15

Shuffry, Rev. W. A. 1v 396

Shull, George H. 1 311-314 1 113-114

Simpson 1 274

Simpson, J. Y. 1 400-404 11 321, 329, 330, 332,
337 v 224, 240

Simroth, H. 1 30, 34

Sims tv 31, 129, 133

Smalley 111 60

Smidt 1v 298

Smith, Andrew 1 4

Smith, Geoffrey 1 241-254 v 241

Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 1v 147

Sommerville, D. M. Y. v 179-181

Sommier tv 165, 293, 294, 295

Sorby, H. C. 111 149

Spearman, C. 111 160

Spencer, Herbert v 478

Spencer, John 111 52-57

Spiegelberg, W. 1 262

Spillman, W. G. 11 299, 306 v 212

Spillman, W. J. v 212

Spitzka, E. A. rv 14

Spon, E. & F. N. 1 474

Sporleder, A. 1 468

Sprengel v 13

Stebbins, J. v 486

Steer 111 6

Steggall v 180

Stephani v 486

Stewart, C. 1v 117

Stieda 1 409, 413 11340 Iv 293

Stirling rv 190, 206

St Marylebone Infirmary rv 16

Stockwell, J. W. 1v 117

Stonehenge 111 248

Storm, V. m1 321, 346

Strassen, Otto Zur v 57, 215

Strong, T. B. v 52

‘«Student” v 351-360

Sutherland, J. F. v 345

Sutton & Sons 1244 11 62

Sutton, J. Bland ur 73 «1v 112

Sutton, William 11 260, 504

Sweeting 1v 314

Symington rv 34

Tabernaemontanus 1 113

Talko-Grinzewich tv 165, 293

Tammes, Tine 111 106-107

Tansley, A. G. 1156-100 111 104

Tate’s calculator 1v 385

Taylor 111 308

Tebb, William v 9

Tezinsky 1v 165

Thackeray, W. M. iv 77

Thane, G.D. 1411 11345 m1 191, 203, 215, 376,
378, 393 1v 351 v 86, 94

“s dy

Name

Theobald, F. V. v 15

Thiele 1293 1118 v170, 207

Thiselton-Dyer v 23, 28

Thomas tv 298

Thompson 111 378

Thompson, D’Arcy v 15

Thomson, A. 1v 286

Thomson, Herbert 1 409-467 v 26, 28

Thomson, R. 8.1375 11135

Thorndike, E. L. v 212

Thorndyke 1 367

Thornton, A. G. m1 470

Thurnam 11 243 1v 355-357

Tinniswood, R, 1v 432, 436

Tocher, J. F. v 198, 298-350, supplement

Topinard 11 339 1v 76

Tower, W. L. 1 305-306, 309-315

Toyama, Kametaro v 486

Tressler, Karl 1 441

Tronow trv 165

Tryon, G. W. 11 34

Tschepourkowsky, E. 1v 161-168, 286-312

Tschermak, HE. 1 232, 253

Turner, F. M. 1v 483-504, 505-510 v 361-364, 432

Turner, Sir William 111 192, 200, 241, 242 v 344,
346, 350

Uchida, Ginzo 111 462-466 v 339
Unwin y 21
Urban, F. M. v 212, 486

Variat v 486

Verrill 11 24, 25, 34

Verschaffelt 1125-128 v 38

Vierordt tv 109, 154

Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. 1 244

Virchow 1413 11339 wr 201, 262, 459, 460, 462,
463 Iv 352 v 339

Volta Bureau 1v 466

von Guaita, G. 1 244, 253 1m 101,171, 294, 295,
299 tz120,108,111-112 v 41

von Hensgen, C. 1 468-492

von Laszldé, Gabriel 11 339, 347

von Martins m1 299

von Torok, Aurel 1 413
353, 508-512 11 231

Ir 281, 339-345, 347,

Waeber iv 165, 294

Waldhauer iv 294

Wallace, A. R. v 38

Walther, J. 11 30, 34

Warburton, C. v 15

Ward, H. HE. 1v 397, 411

Warren, Ernest 1 129-154, 340, 359, 361, 400, 411-
467 11 255-259, 393 11 262 rv 183, 452 vy 28,
32, 68, 72, 241

Warushkine ry 165, 295

Watson 1 368

Watson, Ellen v 6

Watson, A. W. 111 53, 55, 56

Watson, W. v 6

Weatherby vy 47, 80

Index

Weddle 1 275

Weigner tv 77

Weisbach tv 45

Weismann 11 228, 286 iv 206, 237 v 421

Weissenberg tv 165, 293, 294

Welch v 86

Welcker 1 413 1v 109

Weldon, Clara v 5

Weldon, Dante v 5, 8

Weldon, Reuben v 3

Weldon, Walter v 3-6, 7, 12

Weldon, W. F. R. 1 90, 109-124, 125-128, 228-
254, 365-374, 411-467 11 44-55, 56-100, 101,
191, 213, 286-298, 299, 306, 358, 481-498,
499-503 mr 27, 58, 247, 299-307, 400, 471, 472
1v 1, 189, 200, 231, 351, 506 v 1-52, 303, 387,
436-449

Weldon, Mrs W. F. R. 111136 v9

Wentworth, A. H. vy 212

Westergaard 11508 iv 247, 251

Whitehead, Henry 1 108-113

Whiteley, M. A. 1 205, 345-360

Wiedermann, Bernard 1 413

Wiersma v 211, 460, 476

Wiertz v 4

Wiley, H. W. v 486

Wilga tv 293

William of Orange rv 440

Williamson, W. 1 370

Wilson, E. B. 11 306 v 212

Wilson, James tv 438, 439

Winkler 1 17

Winterbottom, Augustus 1 467

Wishgorod tv 294

Wissler, Clark v 128, 212

Witachewsky tv 165, 295

Wolterstorff v 212

Wood-Hill v 86

Woods, Frederick Adams 11 299-306 v 73-78, 79,
85, 437

Woods, H. v 15

Worcester, D. C. v 214, 216, 220

Worobiew tv 165, 293

Wright, Alexandra v 407-422

Wydler 11 113

Wynn tv 33

m1 234

Yasuda, A. v 270

Yeo, G. F.v7

Yerkes, Robert M. 1 260
486

Young, Baldwin 1 164

Young, R. A. 1v 106

Yule, G. Udny 1 4, 34, 52, 125, 128, 181, 260,
305, 307-309, 319, 409 11 56-100, 121-134, 228,
229, 327, 332 mr 205, 469-471 1v 43, 79, 196,
v 129, 176, 429, 470-476, 481, 482

11 307, 308, 318 v 212,

Zealand tv 165, 293, 294
Ziegler v 184

Ziehen, Th. tv 14
Zograf tv 294, 295

IMB Es

INDEX TO SPECIES, GENERA, etc.

VERTEBRATES.

Mankind 1 30-49, 50-89, 177-227, 345-360, 408-
467 1 135-144, 211-228, 260-272, 357-462,
476, 481-498 111 52-57, 60-62, 63-83, 99-103,
107-109, 131-190, 191-244, 255, 459-469, 471,

472 1v 13-168, 176, 233-331, 342, 351-362,
451-454, 465-482, 483-504, 505-510, 510-516
v 73-146, 197, 202, 210-211, 298-350, supple-
ment, 423-434, 441, 460-469, 470-476, 482-486

Local Races of Man.

Abyssinians tv 297, 298

Aetas Iv 296

Afghans 1v 293 :

Aino 1 424-465 11 346 et seq. 111 206, 221-226,
234-239 Iv 32, 67, 68, 164, 165, 293, 297, 298

Aisoren Iv 293

Alfourous Iv 289, 297

Alpine rv 28

Altbayerisch (put in with Bavarians in first 3 vols.)
1v 67, 73, 74

America tv 465-482

American Quakers tv 235

American Whites, U.S.A.137 1v 516

Andamanese tv 164, 296, 297, 298

Anglo-Saxons 1v 164

Annamese tv 296

Arabs tv 293, 296, 298

Arbunsumun ty 293

Armenians tv 165, 293

Australian Blacks ty 164, 289, 296, 297, 298

Australians, New S. Wales Whites 1 30-49 iv 233-
285

Austrians 1v 277-280

Auvergnats Iv 297, 298

Badagas tv 296

Baden population 111 460-461 1v 164 v 339

Badensians, modern 111 223-226

Baltis 1v 296

Baluchi tv 296

Bashilange 1v 296

Bashkirs 1v 164, 293, 297, 298

Basques tv 296, 298

Basques, Spanish tv 296

Batekes tv 296

Battas Iv 296

Bavarians 1 424-465 mm 346, 350 11 207-215,
221-226 1v 16-103, 164, 277, 297, 298

Belgians tv 277-280, 296

Berbers 1v 298

Bhumi tv 296

Bielorussians 1v 165, 293

Bilkula Indians rv 296

Bohemians tv 16-98

Bouriats tv 165

Bow tv 293

Bretons tv 164

British: see also Scotch, English, Irish and Welsh
rr 460-461, 463-466, 466-469 rv 244, 483-504,
508-510 v 73-78, 79-85, 105-146, 197, 202, 339

British v 423-434

Buenos Ayres population 11 99-103

Buriats tv 293

Burmese tv 296

Caribs 1v 296

Caucasians tv 293

Celebes Iv 297

Chakamas tv 296

Chalchas tv 295

Cheremiss tv 165, 295
Chinese tv 164, 296, 297, 298
Chukchi tv 295
Comanches tv 296
Copts 1 425-465
Corsicans 1v 296
Courds tv 165
Courtins 1v 165
Czechs tv 164, 297

111 210 rv 289, 297, 298

Dalmatians rv 296

Danakils 1v 296

Danish rv 247-251, 277, 278
Dards tv 296

Dawson Straits 1v 297, 298

. Dravidians tv 296

Duke of York Islanders 1v 164, 289, 297, 298
Dungans tv 293

Species, Genera, ete.

Dutch 1v 164, 277
Dzungarians tv 164

Egyptian Mummies tv 32, 164

Egyptians, modern 1 425-465

Elsass population 111 465

English 136, 424-465 11346, 347, 349-462 11 52-
57, 63-83, 131-244 1v 16-104, 105-123, 124-160,
164, 279, 280, 313-331, 515 v 86-104, 344, 347

English and Welsh tv 277, 278

English Counties, separately tv 279

English Criminals 1 177-227, 346 111 60-62 1v32,
68 v 344

Eside 1v 294

Eskimo m1 217 1v 164, 296, 297, 298

Esthonians 1v 295, 297

Etruscans 11 221-226 tv 32, 164, 289, 297, 298

European Royalty v 73-78

Europeans tv 289

1 347

Fijians 1v 164, 289

Finns 1v 165, 295

French 1 424-465 1 347, 349, 355 wr 207-215,
217, 221-226, 234-239 tv 32, 67, 68, 277-280,
296, 297, 298

French catacomb skulls 11 345-347, 504-508

Friesians 1v 164

Fulahs tv 296

Gaulish 1v 164

German skulls 1 439-465

Germans, modern 11 347, 355
221-226, 234-235 iv 30, 32

Great Russians tv 165, 293

Gruzins tv 293

Guernsey 111 135

Gypsies 1v 296

ur 223-226 tv 68
ur 207-215, 217,

Hawaiians rv 164

Hessians tv 16-95

Hindus rv 296

Hottentots rv 164, 297, 298

Hungarians 11 338-345, 349 1v 277, 278

Indians 1v 296: see also North American Indians

Ingoushi tv 294

Irish 1v 277, 278 v 346

Troquois tv 296

Istigarzin rv 294

Italian local races v 484

Italians, modern 11 221-226, 460-461
277-280, 296, 506 v 339

Iv 32, 164,

Jakuts Iv 165, 295

Jakuns Iv 296

Japanese Iv 277

Javanese Iv 164, 296, 297, 298
Jews 111 460-461 vy 339

Jews, Russian 1v 165, 293

Kabards tv 294

Kalmuek Astrackan rv 164, 165, 294, 297
Kanakas tv 164, 297, 298

Karachai 1v 294

Karagass tv 165

Karaims tv 165, 294

Karakirgiz tv 165, 294

Karelians ty 294

Kharvars Iv 296

Kioways Iv 298

Kirgiz 1v 165, 294
Kols iv 296

Korumbas tv 296
Kothas tv 296

Koulsa, Chinese rv 294
Kulu-Lahulis tv 296
Kurmis tv 296

Laotians 1v 296

Lapps rv 296

Latish 1v 165

Laze ty 294

Lenftemberg rv 164

Lettish 1v 294

Lezgin tv 294

Little Russians 1v 165, 294

Lithuanians 1v 165, 294

Livonians tv 294

Long Barrow British skulls m1 207, 243, 244, 351-
362 v 104, 344

Lopar iv 294

Loyalty Islanders tv 164, 298

Magyars Iv 296

Malays tv 289, 297

Malé tv 296

Mal-paharias 1v 296

Mandingans tv 296

Maoris tv 297, 298

Maricopas Iv 296

Marquesans rv 164, 297, 298
Mesleganz tv 294

Meszeriaks 1v 294

Micronesians ty 164, 289, 297, 298
Mingrelians 1v 294

Minousinsk tv 164, 297, 298
Moquis tv 296

Morayians Iv 295

Morawa tv 165

Murmi Tribe, Chittagong Hills 11 354
Mushikongos tv 296

Naqada Race 1 408-467 1 346 et seq., 504-508
ur 207-215, 221-226, 232-239 Iv 32, 67, 68,
164, 297, 293 v 344

Neanderthal skull 11 353

Negroes 1 426-465 111199 rv 164, 289, 297, 298

Netherlands rv 298: see also Holland, Denmark

New Britain 1v 296

New Caledonians 1v 164, 297, 298

New Zealand Whites tv 277, 278

Nicobars 1v 296

North American Indians 11 379, 380

Norwegians 1v 277, 278, 279, 280

Omahas tv 296

Oraons of Chota Nagpur 11 346, 352-356
Orochons ty 295

Ossetes tv 295

Ossetins 1v 165

Ostiaks tv 165, 295

Oudins tv 295

Oxford rural population 11 481-498

Panjabi (low caste) 1 440-465 rv 164
Papuans tiv 289, 297, 298
Parisians 111 221-226 tv 32, 164

Pawnees tv 296

XV1

Permiaks 1v 295

Persians 1v 295

Piedmontese rv 296

Pimas tv 296

Poles iv 165, 295

Polynesians tv 289, 296, 297, 298

Prussians mr 459-463 1v 277, 279, 280, 511-516
v 339

Punjabis 1v 296

Quakers 1 37, 50-89 11 481-498
Quakers, U.S.A. 1v 235

Iv 235

Romans tv 164

Romans, ancient 1v 164

Rotti Islanders 1v 296

Round Barrow skulls 1v 351-362 v 104
Row Graves tv 164

Rumanians tv 297

Russians tv 161-168, 277, 293-298 v 484

Samoieds 1v 165, 295, 297

Santals 1v 296

Sardinians 1v 296

Sartes 1v 295

Saxons of Saxony Iv 277

Scandinavian 111 217

Scotch mr 241-244 ry 277-278
plement (Asylum districts)

Senftenberg crania Iv 297

Sibo-Shibins tv 295

Silicians mr 107-109, 471, 472

Singhalese rv 296

Siouans Iv 296

Sioux 1 458-465

Slav 1v 28: see also Russians ete.

Soiots 1v 165, 297

Solomon-Islanders 1v 296

Solorese 1v 296

Spaniards rv 278, 279, 280, 296

Sundanese tv 296

Sungarians Iv 298

v 298-350, sup-

Iv 231, 296

Species, Genera, ete.

Swedes 111 459-461 rv 16-89, 164, 277-280 v 339
Swiss 1v 164, 277, 278, 279, 280 ;

Tahitians 1v 164, 296, 298

Tajiks 1v 295

Tamils 1v 296

Taranchi 1v 295

Tarbagatai-Torguts 1v 297, 298

Tasiks 1v 165

Tasmanians tv 164, 297, 298

Tatars Iv 165, 295

Telenguts 1v 295, 297

Tenggerese 1v 296

Thebans 1 351, 352, 426-465 11 210, 221-226,
234-239 1v 164, 289, 297, 298

Tipperahs tv 296

Torguts 1v 295, 298

Torres Straits 1v 164, 297, 298

Toucouleurs 1v 296

Trao Mois 1v 296

Tungus tv 295

Turkomans tv 295

Turks tv 295

Uru-Kurubas 1v 296
Ute Indians rv 296
Uzbegs Iv 295

Veddahs tv 296, 297, 298
Viti-Levu 1v 297, 298
Votjaks rv 293

Waichenfeld Graves 1v 164
Wolofs tv 296

Wiirtemberg crania 111 207-215 iv 67, 164
Wiirttembergians 1v 297, 298

Yorkshire dale population 11 481-498

Zandehs, W. iv 296
Zirians 1v 165, 294
Zuhis tv 296

Other Vertebrates.

Acanthias vulgaris (elasmobranch) 11 316, 319
Acerina cernua (pisces) 11 316

Bdellostoma (pisces) v 9, 51
Birds, various v 482, 486: see also separate species
Bos (cattle) 1v 427-464 v 212

Callithrix gigot (monkey) v 10, 51

Canis (dog) 11 212, 213, 379, 475
tv 451-454

Cavia (guinea-pig) v 210, 483

Clupea harengus (herring) v 24, 51

Columba (pigeon) v 211

Cuculus canorus (cuckoo) 1 164-176

Equus (horse) 1 361-364 1 2-6, 211, 221-236,
290 url157, 255 1v 451-454 v 47, 80-83, 211
Equus asinus (ass) 11 290

Felis catus (cat) v 211

Gallus bankiva (fowl) 1 367
483

1m 157, 246-298

Iv 363-373

11 123 v 210, 482,

Lacerta (lizard) v 9, 51

Lepus cuniculus (rabbit) 11 299-306 v 210, 211

Mus (mouse) 1 244 11 101-104, 165-173, 282-285,
294-298, 305 111-51,108 iv 1-12, 431 v 41,
44, 51, 212, 436-449, 483

Mustelus laevis (elasmobranchiata) 111 319

Ovis (sheep) v 210, 212

Passer domesticus (sparrow) 1 256-257

Phoenicopterus (flamingo) v 10, 51

Pleuronectes flesus L. (pisces) 11 315, 316

Pleuronectidae (pisces) 11 115

Rana (frog) v 147-167

Selachoidei (sharks) m1 346

Spinax niger (elasmobranchiata) 111 313-365

Sus (pig) v 203-205, 441, 485

Tetraceros quadricornis (horned antelope) v 10, 51

Triton blasii (newt) v 212

Zeorhombi (pisces) 11 115

Zeus faber (pisces) 11 115-120

* ihe NER

Species, Genera, ete.

XVil

INVERTEBRATES.

PROCHORDA.
Balanoglossus v 13

MOLLUSCA.

Clausilia biplicata v 37

Clausilia itala m1 299-307 v 33, 34, 44, 51

Clausilia laminata 1109-124 v 30, 33, 34, 36, 37,
41, 51

Helix 1 111, 124, 468-492 v 14 plate, 37, 387-399,
485

Nassa obsoleta and trivittata m 24-43

MOLLUSCOIDEA.
Bryozoa v 51

ECHINODERMATA.

KEchinoidea v 53
Ophiocoma nigra (brittle-star) 11 463-473 v 226

ARTHROPODA.

Anopheles (mosquito) v 212
Apis Mellifica (honey bee) v 419-421, 484
Atyephyra (crustacea) v 482

Blatta Americana (cockroach) 1 333
Bombus (bumble bee) v 365-386

Cambarus propinquus (lobster) v 483
Carcinus moenas (crab) v 19, 51
Crangon vulgaris (prawn) v 14, 16, 51
Crustacea v 30, 42, 45, 51

Daphnia magna 1129 1 255-259 ur 157, 262
iv 344 v3l
Diabrotica soror (beetle) v 484

Drosophila (insecta) v 210, 483

Eriphia spinifrons (crustacea) 11 315, 316
Eupagurus prideauxi 11 191-210 v 226
Formica v 38

Gastroidea (insecta) v 485
Gelasimus pugilator (fiddler crab) v 306-320
Gonioctena variabilis (beetle) v 211

Hippodamia (beetle) v 484

Homarus (lobster) v 484

Hyalopterus trirhodus (aphis) 1 129-154
262

ur 157,

Lepidoptera: see also sub-division mr 113-130
v 32, 51

Lina lapponica (insecta) v 211

Mantis religiosa 111 58-59

Palaemon serratus (crustacean) v 14, 51

Philosamia cynthia (silkworm) 1 113-130

Phyllopods v 45, 52

Samia cecropia (lepidoptera) 11 122

Strenia clathrata (moth) 1 138

Vespa (wasp) v 365-386, 407-422

Xylotrupes gideon (Java beetle) 1 333

v 486

VERMES.

Dinophilus gigas v 10, 51
Distomum corrigerum (trematode) 11 255

Haplodiscus piger v 51
Lumbricus 1v 213-229
Perionyx 1v 223, 227

COELENTERATA.
Aurelia aurita (jellyfish) 1 90-108
Hydromedusae 1 255
Pseudoclytia pentata 1 255
Scyphomedusae v 484

PROTOZOA.

Actinosphaerium eichornii 11 241-254
Arcella 11 321-337 v 226

Chilomonas v 53-72, 217, 240
Heliozoa 11 241-254 v 45, 52
Lionotus fasciola (infusoria) v 268

Paramecium 1 400-407
213-297, 485

Stylonychia pustulata 1 401

1r 321 et seq. v 54,

PLANTS.

CRYPTOGAMS.
Algae v 31
Equisetum arvense tv 345
PHANEROGAMS.

Adoxa moschatellina (moscatel) 11 108-113
Agropyrum repens (couch or quitch grass) 1 23
Alchemilla sp. (lady’s mantle) 1 12
Anemone coronaria 1 370

Anemone nemorosa I 307-309
Antennaria alpina 1 12

Apocynum hypericifolium 1 11

Arnica montana 1 26

Asperula odorata (woodruff) 1 339-344
Aster 1311 11 113-114

Aster chinensis L. v 188, 189

Iv 341

Bellidiastrum Michelli 1 27
Beta (beet) v 486
Brachypodium sp. (grasses) 1 24
Brassica (cabbage) 1 368

Carduus v 210

Ceratophyllum v 485

Chrysanthemum sp. 112, 20, 27, 309-315, 319

Cichorium intybus L. (chicory) 1 184-188

Collomia grandiflora 1 12

Crataegus oxyacantha and monogyna (hawthorn)
1 28

Datura stramonium

1243 55
Dielythra spectabilis (flowering plants) 1 11
Digitalis (foxglove) 11 290

tatula etc. (thorn apple)

XViil

Draba verna = Erophila verna (vernal whitlow grass)
112 v 39, 40, 41

Elodea Canadensis 1 11

Erophila verna = Draba verna (vernal whitlow grass)
112. v 89, 40, 41

Fagus (beech) 1 20, 336 11 104-107

Ficaria ranunculoides (lesser celandine) 1 11-20,
125-128 11 145-164 v 38, 52

Heracleum (parsnip) 1 368

Homogyne alpina 1 24, 318

Kalmus 1 11

Lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea) v 482
Lychnis diurna and vespertina (campion) 1 47-55
Lysimachia nummularia (moneywort) 1 11

Malva rotundifolia (mallow) 1 339
Matthiola annua incana Glabra (stock) 1 243
Melosira arenaria 1 20

Morus (mulberry) 1 258

Nelumbium luteum (lotus) v 485

Nigella hispanica 1 335-344 11 74

Species, Genera, ete.

Oenothera lamarckiana (evening primrose) 1 373

Papaver 1 304, 367 1156-100 iv 394-426 v 33
Papaver somniferum 1 367

Peucedanum (parsnip) 1 368

Phaseolus 11 290, 499-503 -v 43, 52

Pinus silvestris (Scotch fir) 21-23

Pirus communis (pear) 1 28

Pisum (pea) 1 228-254 11 46

Plantago virginica (plantain) 1 12

Primula v 210

Primula angustifolia 11 401

Primula grandiflora 111 422

Prunus spinosa (sloe blackthorn) 1 29
Pulmonaria angustifolia (lungwort) 111 401
Pulmonaria officinalis L. (lungwort) 111 398-458

Scolopendrium vulgare (hartstongue fern) 1 339
Symphytum bulbosum (comfrey) 1 11

Trientalis Europaea (chickweed wintergreen) 1 11
Trifolium pratense quinquefolium (clover) 1 371
Triticum sativum (wheat) 1 367

Zea mais (maize) 1242 v 484

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