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T H E

BIRDS OF CELEBES

AND

THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS.

BY

f # ^ ^ * 0

VOLUME I.

WITH 17 PLATES (14 COLOURED) AND 7 COLOURED MAPS.

BERLIN:

R. FRIEDLANDER & SOHN.

1898.

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Map I

CELEBE S

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2600

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Map II

Scale l:3S30.000

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598.2(91.2).

THE

BIRDS OF CELEBES

AND

THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS.

A. B, MEYEK am L W. WIGlESffOETH.

WITH 45 PLATES (42 COLOURED) AND 7 COLOURED MAPS.

BERLIN:

R. FRIEDLlNDER & SOHN.

1898.

598.2(91.2).

1/1 f

BIRDS OF CELEBES

AND

THE NEmHBOUEING ISLANDS.

BY

A. B. MEYER ai^d L W. WIGLESWORTH.

VOLUME I.

A¥ITH 17 PLATES (14 COLOURED) AND 7 COLOURED MAPS.

BERLIN:

R. FRIEDLlNDER & 80HN.

1898.

\ .

I

\

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SEP f e I S)02/

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T

PREFACE.

When we began this work six years ago, we were under the impression
that it would not he premature to wite “The Birds of Celebes”, hut the further
we proceeded, the more we became aware how impossible it is at present to give
a complete history of the species, as many undoubtedly still remain to he discov-
ered in the interior and the mountains , not to speak of the islands ; and in
the case of others whose names are familiar to oi-nithologists, we encountered a
great lack of knowledge touching their local distribution, their subtile variations
— individual, geographical , seasonal, sexual, and developmental, — their move-
ments or, as the case may be, migrations, with tlie questions bearing thereon of
seasons, climate, flowermg of plants, ripening of fruits and the like, their nidifica-
tion and moulting, habits and economy. We, therefore, are conscious of the imper-
fection of our work and shall be entii*ely satisfied if it be useful to futiu’e workers
on the Celebesian A\dfauna, not doubting that a classical woi-k coiild be ultimately
written on the subject, of the standard of Naum aim’s “Vogel Deutschlauds” in
12 volumes.

The principles of nomenclature are now again in process of development and,
consequently, unsettled; it is impossible to meet ivith the approval of every one
in this respect. Our endeavours to give nomenclatory expression to the minute
variations of groups of individuals not yet formed into species or subspecies led
us to adopt an mnovation discussed on pp. 52, 53 and elsewhere in the text; we
anticipate that ere long this will be superseded by something better, and only regard
it ourselves as a first step towards indicating those minute complex variations of
a species within itself, which occur in Natiu-e and are of such great importance
in the study of evolution.

In our s}Tionymy an attempt at completeness has rarely been made, except
ill the case of endemic Celebesian birds; and, instead of an aimless repetition of
the fuller synonymies in, for instance, the “Catalogue of Birds” and the “Ornitologia

YI

Preface.

della Papuasia, etc.”, reference is given to the authors of these works, to whom we
feel deeply indebted, as indeed every ornithologist will be. As to the abbrevia-
tion of authors’ names, we had proceeded too far to remodel them when the
German list was issued, hut we have introduced the methods recommended there
at the headings of the species.

We have never used the term “Malay Archipelago”, so much in vogue since
Wallace, because this expression is incorrect in this sense, that not all the inhabi-
tants of the islands comprehended are Malays. It is the “East Indian Archipelago”
of which we speak, having in view the island-world from Sumatra to the Solomon
Islands and from the Philippines to the Lesser Sundas.

As to localities we have been as accurate as possible, but unfortunately it
is only in recent times that collectors have attached the exact locality to every
specimen. Formerly “Manila” meant the whole of the Philippines, “Manado” the
whole Minahassa (Northern Celebes), “Macassar” the southern part of Celebes;
though, for instance, ]\Ir. W allace did not shoot all of his bii’ds labelled Macassar
near that town, but some at Maros and elsewhere. Of course we could not
eliminate these inaccuracies. The future writer on the Birds of Celebes will
happily have to deal with more exact data.

Our artist, Mr. Geisler of the Dresden Museum, wishes us to draw attention

to the cu’cumstance that the dull colours of some of our plates have been inten-

tionally used at our request, the exact hue of the specimen painted being aimed
at, sometimes at the cost of the artistic effect and clearness of thit usually seen
in the English productions.

And now we have the agreeable duty of thanking all those who have lent us

their welcome aid during our six years’ work. In the first place Dr. P. and

Dr. F. Sara sin of Basel, who placed their highly valuable and important collections
enthely at our disposal; and not less the Hon. Walter Rothschild of Tring,
who joined us in engaging native hunters for completing our collections and for
making investigations on much new ground in our Area, as will be seen throughout
the book. Mr. Nehrkorn of Riddagshausen most generously furnished us with
a MS. descriptive of the eggs of Celebesian birds in his celebrated collection, and
many are now described for the first time. Dr. van der Stok of Batavia and
Prof. Neumayer of Hamburg helped us with our meteorological maps, as
mentioned pp. 21 and of the Introduction. Dr. Bowdler Sharpe of London had
the great kindness to send us the proof-sheets of his part of vol. XXYI of the
“Catalogue of Birds”, not yet out. Mr. Veen of Kele Londej (Minahassa) and
Mr. North of Sydney sent us some notes bearing upon the question of migration,

Preface.

VII

quoted in our Introduction, pp. 39 and 47. For the transmission of specimens
we are much indebted to the following gentlemen: Prof. W. Blasius of Bruns-
wick, Dr. Biittikofer of Leyden (now Botterdam), Dr. A. Dubois of Brussels,
Mr. Gurney of Norwich, Mr. Hartert of Tring, Prof. Hertwig of Munich, Prof.
V. Koch of Darmstadt, Dr. v. Lorenz of Vienna, Mr. Pleske of St. Petersburg,
Dr. E. P. Eamsay of Sydney, Prof. Reichenow of Berlin, and Mr. W. Schltiter
of Halle; as well as for special information to Prof, de Groot of Leyden, Resident
Jellesma of Manado, Prof. Kern of Leyden, Prof. Newton of Cambridge,
Dr. Oustalet of Paris, Dr. Riedel of the Hague, and Count Salvador! of
Turin. Inspector Lehnig of the Dresden Museum has assisted us in drawing
up the lists of Geographical Distribution and of Local Avifaunas, the alphabetical
Index and list of abbreviations, and has supported us in other ways; as has also
Miss C. S. Fox of London by her aid in the correction of the proofs.

Should we, unhappily, have forgotten any one in rendering our thanks, we
apologize for such an omission.

Finally our sincere thanks are due to the Publishers for their compliance in
all our wishes as to the fashion of the hook.

Royal Zoological Museum, Dresden, April 30^^, 1898.

V

CONTENTS

Volume I.

Preface

Systematic Index . . .

List of plates

List of maps

Alphabetical list of abbreviations of authors’ names, titles of books, journals, etc.
Notanda et corrigenda

Page

V

X

XVII

XIX

XX

XXXI

Introduction i

Travel and Literature 2

Labillardifere, 2 — Keinwardt, 2 — Salomon Muller, 3 — Quoy and Gaimard, 3 — Forsten, 3

— Leclancher, 3 — Wallace, 4 — Eiedel, 4 — van Duivenbode, 4 — v. Eosenberg, 5 —
Bernstein, 5 — Hoedt, 5 — Bickmore, 5 — Meyer, 5 — Conrad, 6 — Fiscber, 6 —
Beccari, 6 — Bmijn, 6 — van Musschenbroek, 6 — Murray, 7 — v. Biiltzingslowen, 7

— V. Faber, 7 — Teijsmaim, 7 — Platen, 7 — Laglaize, 8 — Eibbe and Kithn, 8 —

Guillemard, 8 — Hickson, 8 — Weber, 8 — Eadde, 8 — Cursham, 9 — P. & F. Sarasin, 9

— Kiikentbal, 9 — Everett, 9 — C. & E. Hose, 10 — Doberty, 10 — Waterstradt, 10 —

Special List of Literature on tbe Birds of the Celebes, 11 — 16.

Seasons and Winds in the East Indian Arcliipelago 17

Explanation of maps, 17 — Influence of climate on the distribution of birds, 17 — The
Monsoons of the East Indian Archipelago, 18 — The rainy season north of the equator, 19 —

south of the equator, 20 — Change of climate at different altitudes, 21 — The seasons in

Celebes, 24 — Sangi, 27 — Philippine Islands, 29 — Borneo, 29 — Sumatra, 32 —
Natuna, Billiton, etc., 32 — Java, 33 — The Lesser Sunda Islands, 33 — The Halmahera
Group, 34 — Burn and Ceram, Contrast of the north and south coasts, 34 — Amboina and
Saparua, 34 — Banda, Kei and Aru, 35 — New Guinea, 35 — Solomon Islands, 36 —
Northern Australia, 36 — Meteorological Literature, 57.

Migration in the East Indian Arcliipelago 38

Migration in its simplest form, 38 — Local movements, 38 — Islet nomads of the East
Indies, 39 — Migration proper in the Archipelago, 40 — Table of migrants to Celebes 41j
42 — Birds at sea, 43 — Eoutes of different species to the East Indies, 44, 45 — Migration
south of the eqhator, 46 — Birds which stay behind in their winter quarters, 49 — Causes
of migration, 50,

Contents.

IX

Page

Variation 53

The five phases of Variation in birds, 53 — 1. Individual variation: its universality, 53

— Eange of individual variation, 54 — Psychological differences of individuals, 54 —
Monstrosities, 55 — Albinism, melanism, etc., 55 — Dichromatism, 55 — Modifications due
to foreign violence, food, etc,, 56 — 2. Geographical variation: New species arising
under geographical isolation, 57 — Increase of size in the Sangi and Talaut Islands, 58, 59

— Decrease in Sula, 60 — Similar geographical variations of coloration, 61 — 3. Seasonal
changes: almost unknown in the tropics, 62 — The moult, 63 — Change of coloration
without a moult, 63 — 4. Sexual differences: classification thereof, 64 — The psycho-
logical differences of the sexes, 65 — Theories in explanation of the development of secondary
sexual characters, 66 — 69 — 5, Changes depending upon Age: classification thereof, 70

— Ancestral characters, 71 — their value in questions of descent and of geographical distri-
bution, 72 — Phylogenetic value of the tips of feathers, 73 — Hereditary effects of shelter
and exposure: the tail-feathers of Ffioniinms, 73 — of Merops, 76 — other cases, 77 —
Effects of light, 78—79.

Geographical Distribution 80

The contrast between the Oriental and Australasian faunas and floras, 80 — Status of geolo-
gical knowledge of the East Indian Archipelago, 80 — Wallace’s line: Wallace's opinions
thereon, 81 — Blyth, 82 — Pijnappel, 82 — v. Pelzeln, 82 — Veth, 82 — Allen on the
mammals 82 — Semper, 83 — Krummel on the sea -depths, 83 — Martin, 83, 85 —
Wichmann, 84 — Drude, 84 — Heilprin, 84 — Marshall, 84 — Kan, 84 — Reichenow, 84

— Schuiling, 84 — Jentink on the mammals, 84 — Reclus, 85 — v. Martens on the

land-shells, 85, 87, 88 — Warburg, 85 — Trouessart, 85 — P. L. Sclater, 85 — Flower and

Lydekker, 86 — van der Lith, 86 — Haeckel, 86 — Haacke, 86 — Newton, 86 — Sharpe, 86

— Guillemard, 86 — Weber on the fresh- water fishes, 87 — Beddard, 87 — Lydekker, 87

— Hedley on land-shells, 87 — Supan, 88 — Kiikenthal, 88 — W. L. Sclater on the

mammals 88, — Niermeyer, 88 — The conflict of opinions, 88 — Table of the Geogra-
phical Distribution of the Birds of the Celebesian Area, 90 — 111 — Peculiar
genera and species of Celebes, 112 — Table showing the estimated value of the affinities of
the peculiar species of Celebes, 115 — 117 — Summary of the various components of the avifauna
of Celebes, 118 — List of the Birds of the Sangi Islands, 120 — of the Talaut Islands, 121

— Affinities of the peculiar species of Sangi and Talaut, 122 — List of the Birds of the

Peling Group, 123 — of the Sula Islands, 124 — Evidences of the former union of Peling
and Sula, 125 — List of the Birds of Saleyer Island, 125 — of the Djampea Group, 126

— Affinities of the peculiar species of Saleyer and Djampea, 126 — List of the Birds of
Togian Island, 126 — Peculiar species and subspecies of Celebes (Mainland), 127 — Differences
of the birds of the North and South Peninsulas, 128 — Results, 130.

Meyer & Wigleswortli Birds of Celebes (May 20tl>j 1898).

b

X

Contents,

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Order Accipitres

Family Falconidae

1. Spilornis rufipeotus J.Gid 1

— rufipeotus (typical) 2

— — sulaensis (Schl.) 4

— — <C( sulaensis 5

2. Circus assimilis Jard. Selby 7

3. Astur griseiceps Sobl 9

4. — trivirgatus (Temm.) 11

— — rufitinctus (McClell.) 12

5. ? — tenuirostris Briigg 13

6. Urospizias torquatus (Temm.) .... 15

7. Tachyspizias soloensis (Horsf.) .... 17

8. Spilospizias trinotatus (Bp.) 21

(typical) 21

— — haesitandus Hart 23

9. Accipiter rhodogaster (Scbl.) 25

10. — sulaensis (Scbl.) 26

11. — virgatus (Temm.) 27

- — — (typical) 27

— — affinis (Hdgs.) 28

manilensis (Meyen) 28

— — gularis (Temm. Scbl.) 28

— — rufotibialis (Sbarpe) 29

12. Spizaetus lanceolatus Temm. Scbl, . . 32

13. Lopbotriorcbis kieneri (G. Sparre) . . . 35

14. Ictinaetus malayensis (Reinw.) .... 38

15. Haliaetus leucogaster (Gm.) 40

16. Polioaetus bumilis (Mull. Scbl.) . ... 43

(typical) 43

— — major n. subsp 44

— bumilis — major 44

17. Butastur indicus (Gm.) 45

18. — liven ter (Temm.) 49

19. Haliastur indus (Bodd.) 51

— indus — girrenera 54

20. Milvus migrans (Bodd.) 57

— — (typical) 60

— — melanotis (Temm. Scbl.) .... 60

— — govinda (Sykes) 60

Page

Milvus migrans affinis (J. Gd.) . ... 60

21. Elanus bypoleucus J. Gd 62

22. Pernis celebensis (Wall.) 65

23. — sp 72

24. Baza celebensis (Scbl.) 73

25. — reinwardti Mull. Scbl 75

26. Tinnunculus moluccensis Jacquin. Pucb. 78

— — orientalis n. subsp 79

— — occidentalis M. & Wg 79

— — orientalis — occidentalis. ... 79

27. Falco severus Horsf 81

papuanus M. &Wg 84

— — indicus n, subsp 84

28. — peregrinus (Gerini) 85

(typical) 85

— — melanogenys (J. Gd.) .... 86

ernesti (Sbarpe) 86

anatum (Bp.) 87

— — pealei Ridgw 87

Family Pandionidae

29. Pandion baliaetus (L.) 89

(typical) 89

— — leucocepbalus (J. Gd.) .... 89

— — carolinensis (Gm.) 90

Order Striges

Family Asionidae

30. Ninox ocbracea (Scbl.) 94

31. — scutulata (EaftT.) 95

— — (typical) 95

— — lugubris (Tickell) 95

— — affinis (Tytler) 95

— — japonica (Temm. Scbl.) . ... 95

32. Cepbaloptynx punctulata (Q. G.) . . . 100

33. Scops manadensis (Q. G.) 103

— — (typical) 103

— — albiventris (Sbarpe) 105

rutilus (Pucb.) 105

— — capnodes (Gurn.) ...... 105

Scops manadensis magicus (S.Miill.) .

— — lexicospilus (Grray)

— — morotensis (Sharpe)

— — brookii (Sharpe)

— — sihutuensis (Sharpe)

Family Strigidae

34. Strix flammea L

— — rosenhergi (Schl.)

— — (typical)

35. — iaexpeetata Schl

36. — Candida Tick

Order Psittaci

Family Loriidae

37. Eos histrio (St. Miill.)

— — (typical)

— — talautensis (M. &Wg.) , . . .

— — ehallengeri (Salvad.)

38. Trichoglossus ornatus (L.)

39. — forsteni Bp

40. — meyeri Tweedd

— meyeri (typical)

— — honthainensis (A. B. M.) . . .

41. — flavoviridis Wall

Family Cacatuidae

42. Cacatua sulphurea (Gm.)

— — (typical)

djampeana Hart

— — parvula (Bp.) .

Family Psittacidae

43. Prioniturus platurns (Vieill.) . . . .

44. — flavicans Cass

45. Tanygnathns muelleri (Mull. Schl.) . .

(typical)

— — sangirensis M, & Wg

— muelleri — sangirensis

46. ? — lueonensis (L.)

47. — talautensis M. &Wg

48. — megalorhynchus (Bodd.)

— — (typical)

sumbensis (A. B. M.) . . . .

— megalorhynchus — sumbensis . . .

49. Loriculus exilis Schl

50. — catamene Schl

51. — sclateri Wall

(typical)

— — ruber M. &Wg

XI

Page

Loriculus quadricolor Tweedd. ... 157

— stigmatus (Miill. Schl.) 158

Aprosrnictus sulaensis Rchw 170

Order Pici

Family Picidae

lyngipicus temmincki (Malh.) .... 173

Microstictus fulvus (Q. G.) 175

— Wallace! (Tweedd.) 179

Order Coccyges

Family Ouculidae
Subfamily Cuculinae
Hierococcyx crassirostris Tweedd. . . 182

— sparverioides (Vig.) 184

— fugax (Horsf.) 185

Cuculus canorus (L.) 187

— — (typical) 187

— — canoroides (S.Miill.) 188

? — saturatus Hdgs 191

Chrysococcyx malayanus (RafFl.) ... 194

— hasalis (Horsf.) 195

Cacomantis virescens (Briigg,). . . . 196

— merulinus (Scop.) 199

Coccystes coromandus (L.) . . . . 201

Sumiculus musschenhroeki A. B. M. . 203

Eudynamis mela,norhyncha S.Miill.. . 205

— mindanensis (L.) 210

(typical) 211

sangirensis (W. Bias.) . . . 211

Subfamily Centropodinae
Centrdcoccyx bengalensis (Gm.) ... 213

Pyrrhocentor celebensis (Q. G.) . . . 221

(typical) 221

rufescens M. &Wg 223

Subfamily Phoenicophainae
Phoenicophaes calorhynchus Temm, . 226

— — (typical) 226

meridionalis M. &Wg 227

Subfamily Scythropinae
Scythrops noyaebollandiae Lath. ... 231

Order Bucerotes

Family Bucerotidae
Rhabdotorrhinus exaratus (Temm.) . . 235

Cranorrhinus cassidix (Temm.). ... 239

b*

Contents.

Page

105 52.

106 53.

106 54.

107

107

109

109

111 57.

112

112

58.

115 59.

115 60.

117 61.

118

120

123 62.

124 63.

124 64.

125 65.

127 66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

130

130

133 7,

.38

140

140

142

142

144 73.

145

146

146

148

148

149

151

153

153 75.

154 76.

XII

Contents.

Order Coraciae

Family Meropidae

77. Merops ornatus Lath

78. — philippinus L . . .

79. Meropogon forsteni Bp

Family Alcedinidae

80. Alcedo ispida L

81. — moluccana (Less.)

82. — meninting Hoi’sf.

83. Pelargopsis melanorhynclia (Temm.) .

84. — dichrorhyncha M. &Wg. . , . .

85. Oeyx wallacei Sharpe

86. Oeyoopsis fallax (Schl.)

87. — sangirensis M. (feWg

88. Halcyon coromanda (Lath.) . . . .

— — rufa (Wall.)

89. ■ — pileata (Bodd,)

90. — sancta Vig.Horsf.

91. — chloris (Bodd.)

(typical)

92. Monachalcyon monachus (Bp.) . . .

— — (typical)

intermedins Hart

93. — capucinus M. &Wg. . . . , . .

94. — princeps Rchb

95. Cittura cyanotis (Temm.)

96. — sangirensis Sharpe

Family Coraciidae

97. Coracias temmincki (Vieill.) . . . .

98. Eurystomus orientalis (L.)

Order Macrochires

Family Caprimulgidae

99. Caprimnlgns macrurus Horsf. . . .

' — — (typical)

— — albonotatus (Tick.)

100. — celeb ensis Grant

101. — affinis Horsf . .

102. Lyncornis macropterus Bp

Family Cypselidae

103. Cypselus pacificns (Lath.)

104. Ohaetura celehensis (Scl.)

Page

105. Oollocalia fnciphaga (Thunb.) ... 331

106. — esculenta (L.) 334

107. — francica (Gm.) 335

108. MacroiDteryx wallacei (J. Gd.) . . . 336

Order Passeres

Family Pittidae

109. Pitta celehensis Miill. Schl 340

110. — palliceps Briigg 344

111. — caeruleitorques Salvad 345

112. — inspeculata M. & Wg 346

113. — forsteni Bp 350

114. — sangirana (Schl.) 351

115. — cyanoptera Temm 352

116. — irena Temm 354

117. — virginalis Hart . 355

Family Hirundinidae

118. Hirundo rustica L 356

119. — javanica Sparrm 358

Family Muscicapidae

120. Mnscicapa griseosticta (Swinh.) . . . 363

121. Mnscicapula westermanni Sharpe . . 365

122. — hyperythra (Blyth) 366

123. Siphia banyumas (Horsf.) 368

124. — djampeana Hart 371

125. — kalaoensis Hart 371

126. — rufigula (Wall.) . 372

127. — bontbaina Hart 373

128. Stoparola septentrionalis Butt. ... 374

129. — meridionalis Biitt 375

130. Hypotbymis j)uella (Wall.) .... 376

131. — rowleyi (A. B. M.) 378

132. Kbipidura celehensis Biitt 379

133. — teijsmanni Biitt 380

134. Zeocepbus talautensis M. &Wg. . . . 382

135. Monarcba commutatus Briigg. ... 383

136. — inornatus (Gam.) 384

137. — everetti Hart 385

138. Myiagra rufigula Wall 386

139. Culicicapa beliantbea (Wall.). . . . 387

140. Gerygone flaveola Cab 388

141. Pratincola caprata (L.) 390

Page

248

253

257

262

264

266

269

271

272

275

278

279

280

283

287

291

292

296

297

298

299

300

303

305

309

312

317

317

318

320

321

322

327

329

Contents.

xni

Volume II.

Family Laniidae

Page

Family Nectariniidae

Page

142. Paoliycephala sulfuri venter (Tweedd.)

394

179.

Aethopyga flavostriata (Wall.) . ,

. 453

143. - — meridionalis Biitt

396

180.

Eudrepanis duivenbodei (Schl.) . .

. 456

144. — teijsmanni Biitt

396

181.

Oyrtostomus frenatus (S.Miill.) . .

. 458

145. — orphens Jard

397

(typical)

. 458

146. — griseonota Gr. R. Gray .....

398

saleyerensis Hart

. 458

147. — clio Wall

399

saleyerensis

. 458

148. — everetti Hart

400

— — <C( saleyerensis

. 459

149. — bontFaina M. &Wg

401

dissentiens (Hart.) ....

. 460

150. ■ — bonensis M. &Wg

401

182.

— teijsmanni (Biitt.)

. 462

151. Collurioincla sangirensis Oust. . . .

402

183.

Hermotimia auriceps (G. R. Gray) .

. 464

152. Lanius tigrinus Drapiez

403

184.

— porphyrolaema (Wall.) ....

. 465

153. — lucionensis L

406

(typical)

. 465

— — scapulata M. &Wg. . . .

. 466

Family Campopbagidae

185.

— gray! (Wall.) . .

, * 467

154. Graucalus bicolor (Temm.)

411

186.

— sangirensis (A. B.M.)

. 469

155. — leucopygius Bp

413

187,

— talautensis M. & Wg

. 470

156. — temmincki (S.Miill.)

415

188.

Anthreptes malaccensis (Scop.) . .

. 472

157. ■ — scbistaceus (Sharpe)

416

• — • - — celebensis (Shell.) ....

. 475

1 58. — melanops (Lath.)

417

— — chlorigaster (Sharpe) . . .

. 477

159. Edoliisoma raorio (S.Miill.) ....

419

160. — salvadorii Sharpe.

422

Family Meliphagidae

161. — talautense M. &Wg

423

189.

Myzomela chloroptera Tweedd. . .

478

162. — emancipata Hart

424

190.

Melilestes celebensis M. &Wg. . .

. 481

163. — obiense Salvad

424

(typical)

. 481

164. Lalage leucopygialis Tweedd. . . .

425

— — meridionalis M. &Wg. . . .

. 482

165. — timorensis (S.Miill.)

428

191.

Myza sarasinorum M. &Wg. , . .

. 483

Family Artamidae

Family Zosteropidae

166. Artamus leucogaster (Val.) ....

430

167, — monachus Bp

434

192.

Zosterops squamiceps (Hart.). . .

193.

— intermedia Wall

. 486

Family Dicruridae

194.

— atrifrons Wall

. 487

168. Dicrurus leucops Wall

435

195.

— subatrifrons M.&Wg

. 490

• — — (typical)

436

196.

— nehrkorni W.Blas

. 490

— — axillaris (Salvad.)

438

197.

— sarasinormn M. tfeWg

. 491

169. — pectoralis Wall

439

198.

— anomala M.&Wg

. 494

199.

— babelo M.&Wg

. 495

Family Dicaeidae

170. Dicaeum celebicum S.Miill

441

Family Timeliidae

171. — sulaense Sharpe

443

200.

lole aurea (Tweedd.)

. 496

172. ■ — sangirense Salvad

444

201.

— longirostris (Wall.)

. 497

173. — talautense M. &Wg

445

202.

— pdatenae (W.Blas.)

. 498

174. — splendidum Biitt

446

203.

Malia grata Schl

. 499

175. — nehrkorni W. Bias

447

(typical)

. 499

176. — hosei Sharpe

448

— — ■ recondita M.&Wg

. 500

177. Acmonorhynchus aureolimbatus (Wall.)

449

204.

Androphilus castaneus (Biitt.) . ,

. 502

178. — sangirensis (Salvad.)

451

205.

Cataponera turdoides Hart. .

. 503

XIV

Contents.

206. Trichostoma celebense StricM. , . .

207. — finscH Tweedd

208. Malacopteron affine (Blytli) . , . .

Family Turdidae

209. Geociclila erytfironota Sol

210. Merula celebensis Biitt

211. Petrophila cyanus (L.)

(typical)

solitaria (P.L.S.Miill.) . . .

Family Sylviidae

212. Oisticola cursitans (Frkl.)

213. — exilis (Vig. Horsf.)

214. Phyllergates riedeli M. &Wg. . . .

215. Acroceplialus orientalis (Temm.Schl.)

216. Locustella fasciolata (G. E. Gray) . .

217. — ocbotensis (Midd.)

218. Pbylloscopus boi'ealis (Bias.). . . .

219. Oryptolopha sarasinorum M. &Wg. .

Family Motacillidae

220. MotaciEa flava L

221. — boarula L

(typical)

melanope (Pall.)

222. Anthus gustavi Swinh

223. — cervimis (Pall.)

Family Ploceidae

224. Munia oryzivora (L.)

225. — ■ formosana Swinb

— — (typical)

jagori (Marts.)

brunneiceps (Wald.) ....

226. — pallida Wall

2 27. — subcastanea Hart

228. — punctulata (L.)

— — nisoria (Temm.)

229. — molncca (L.)

(typical)

— — propinqua Sharpe

— molucca — propinqua

<C[propinqua

— — ))>> propinqua

— — kangeanensis (Vorderm.). . .

Family Fringillidae

230. Passer montanus (L.)

Family Sturnidae

231. Calornis panayensis (Scop.) . . . .

— — (typical)

Page

Calomis panayensis chalybea (Horsf.) 556

affinis (Hay) 556

— — chalybea — affinis. ..... 556

tytleri (Hume) 557

sangirensis (Salrad.) .... 557

— panayensis — sangirensis .... 557

altirostris (Salvad.) 558

enganensis (Salvad 558

232. — minor (Bp.) 561

233. — sulaensis Sharpe 561

234. - — metallica (Temm.) 562

235. Enodes erythrophrys (Temm.) . . . 564

236. Acridotheres cinereus Bp 566

237. Scissirostrum dubium (Lath.). . . . 567

238. Sturnia violacea (Bodd.) 570

239. Basileornis celebensis G.K.Gray . . 572

240. — galeatus A. B.M 574

241. Streptocitta albicollis (Vieill.) ... 575

242. — torquata (Temm.) 577

243. Charitornis albertinae Schl 579

Family Corvidae

244. Corvus enca Horsf. 580

245. Gazzola typica Bp 584

Family Oriolidae

246. Oriolus celebensis (Tweedd.) .... 585

(typical) 585

meridionalis Hart 586

— • celebensis — meridionalis .... 586

247. — frontalis Wall 589

248. — boneratensis M. &Wg 589

249. — formosus Cab 590

(typical) 590

sangirensis n. subsp 591

— formosus — sangirensis 591

250. — melanisticus M. &Wg 593

Order Colnmbae

Family Treronidae

251. Osmotreron wallacei Salvad 595

252. — sangirensis (Briigg.) 598

253. — vernans (L.) 599

254. Ptilopus fischeri i^Brugg.) 602

255. — meridionalis M. &Wg 604

256. — gularis (Q. G.) 605

257. — subgularis M. &Wg 606

258. — melanocephalus (Forst.) .... 607

259. — melanospilus (Salvad.) 608

260. — chrysorrhous (Salvad.) 610

Page

504

506

508

509

510

512

512

512

515

517

519

521

524

526

527

530

531

534

534

535

538

540

542

543

544

544

544

546

548

548

548

549

549

550

550

551

551

551

553

554

555

Contents.

Xv

261. Ptilopns xanthorrlaous (Salvad.) . . .

262. — temmincki (BesMurs Prev.) . . .

263. Oarpopkaga concinna Wall

264. — paulina (Bp.) . .

265. — pn.lch.ella Tweedd

266. — intermedia M. &Wg

267. — rosacea (Temm.)

268. — pickeringi Cass

269. — radiata (Q.C.)

270. — forsteni (Bp.)

271. — poecilorrhoa Briigg.

272. Myristicivora hicolor (Scop.) . . . .

273. — luctnosa (Temm.)

Family Columbidae

274. Columba albignlaris (Bp.)

275. Turacoena manadensis (Q. G.) . . .

276. Macropygia albicapilla Bp

— — (typical)

— — sangirensis (Salvad.) . . . .

— albicapilla — sangirensis . . . .

277. — macassariensis (Wall.)

Family Peristeridae

278. Turtur tigrinns (Temm.Kn.) . . . .

279. Geopelia striata (L.)

280. Chalcophaps indica (L.)

281. — stephani Rchb

282. Phlogoenas tristigmata Bp

283. — bimacnlata Salvad

284. Caloenas nicobarica (L.)

Order Gallinae

Family Phasianidae

285. Excalfactoria chinensis (L.) . . . .

286. Gallus ferrugineus (Gm.)

Family Megapodidae

287. Megapodius cumingi Dillw

288. — sangirensis Schl

289. — bernsteini Schl

290. — duperreyi Less. Garn

291. Megacephalon maleo (Hartl.) . . . .

Order Turnices

Family Tnrnicidae

292. Turnix rufilatns Wall

293. — maculosa (Temm.)

Order Ralli

Family Rallidae

294. Gymnocrex rosenbergi (Schl.) . . . 689

295. Aramidopsis plateni (W.Blas.) . . . 690

296. Hypotaenidia striata (L.) 692

297. — philippensis (L.) ....... 694

298. — celebensis (Q.G.) 697

299. — sulcirostris (Wall.) 698

300. Rallina minahassa Wall 699

301. Porzana fusca (L.) 701

302. Limnocorax niger (Gm.) 703

303. Amaurornis cinerea (Vieill.) .... 705

304. — phoenicura (Forst.) 708

305. — moluccana (Wall.) . 711

306. — isabellina (Schl.) 712

307. Gallinula frontata Wall 713

308. — chloropus (L.) 715

309. Porphyrio calvus Vieill. .... 717

310. — pnlverulentus Temm 721

311. Fulica atra L 722

Order Limicolae

Family Parridae

312, Hydralector gallinaceus (Temm.) , . 725

Family Glareolidae

313. Glareola Isabella Vieill 728

Family Charadriidae

314. Esacus magnirostris (Vieill.) .... 733

315. Lobivanellus cinereus (Blyth) ... 735

316. ?Squatarola helvetica (L.) 736

317. Chai’adrius fulvns Gm 738

318. Aegialitis vereda (J. Gd.) 741

319. — geoBroyi (Wagl.) 743

320. — mongola (Pall.) 746

321. — curonica (Gm.) 749

322. — peroni (Schl.) 752

323. Strepsilas interpres (L.) 755

324. Himantopus leucocephalus J.Gd. . . 757

325. Totanus glottis (L.) 759

326. — calidris (L.) 761

327. — glareola (L.) 764

328. Heteractitis brevipes (Vieill.). ... 766

329. Actitis hypoleucos (L.) 770

330. Terekia cinerea (Giild.) 773

331. Tringa acuminata (Horsf.) 776

332. — damascensis (Horsf.) 778

333. — ruficollis Pall 780

Page

611

613

615

617

619

619

620

621

622

623

625

627

631

633

635

637

637

638

638

641

643

646

649

653

654

656

657

663

667

671

675

676

677

678

686

687

XVI

Contents.

334.

? Calidris arenaria (L.)

Page

782

335.

Phalaropus hyperboreus (L.) ....

785

336.

Limieola platyrhyncha (Temm.) . .

787

337.

Gallinago megala Swinh

789

338.

Limosa novaezealandiae (G.E. Gray' .

792

339.

Numenius minutus J.Gd

795

340.

— variegatus (Scop.)

797

341.

? — arquatus (L.)

799

342.

— cyanopus Vieill

800

Order Ciconiiformes

Suborder Ciconiae
Family Ibidae

343. Plegadis falcinellus (L.) . . . .

Family Oieoniidae

344. Dissoura episcopus (Bodd.) . ,

Family Plataleidae

345. Platalea sp

Suborder Ardeae
Family Ardeidae

346. Pboyx manilensis (Meyen) . . .

347. Ardea sumatrana Eaffl

348. Notopboyx picata (J.Gd.) . . .

349. — noyaebollandiae (Lath.). . .

350. Demiegretta sacra (Gm.) . . .

351. Herodias eulophotes Swinh. . .

352. — garzetta (L.)

353. — alba (L.)

354. — intermedia (Wagl.) ....

355. Bubulcus coroman dus (Bodd.) .

356. Ardeola speciosa (Horsf.) . . .

357. Nycticorax caledonicus (Gm.). .

358. — manilensis Vig

359. — griseus (L.)

360. Gorsachius kiitteri (Cab.) . . .

361. Butorides javanica (Horsf.) . .

362. Ardetta sinensis (Gm.) ....

363. — eurhythma Swinh

364. — cinnamomea (Gm.) ....

365. Xanthocnus flavicollis (Lath.). .

366. — melaenus (Salvad.) ....

803

806

809

811

814

816

817

819

824

826

829

832

835

838

841

843

845

848

851

854

856

859

861

863

Order Anseres

Family Anatidae

367. Nettopus pulchellus J.Gd..

368. — coromandelianus (Gm.) .

369. Dendrocycna arcuata (Horsf.)

370. — guttata Schl

371. Anas superciliosa Gm. . .

372. Hettion gibberifrons (S.Miill.

373. Querquedula circia (L.) . .

374. Hyroca fuligula (L.) . . .

Order Steganopodes

Family Fregatidae

375. Fregata minor (Gm.)

Family Phalacrocoracidae

376. Plotus melanogaster (Penn.) . . .

377. Phalacrocorax melanoleuous (Vieill.)

378. — sulcirostris Brdt

Family Sulidae
379. Sula leucogaster (Bodd.) .

Page

865

866
868
870
872
874
879
881

883

886

888

890

892

Alphabetical Index

Order Lari

Family Laridae

380. Hydrochelidon leucoptera (Meisn.Sch.) 893

381. — hybrida (Pall.) 895

382. Sterna media Horsf. 897

383. — bergii Lcht 899

384. — sinensis Gm 901

385. — melanauchen Temm 903

386. — anaestheta Scop. . 906

387. Anous stolidus (L.) ....... 908

388. Stercorarius sp 910

Order Tubinares

Family Puffinidae

389. Puffinus cuneatus Salv 911

390. — leucomelas (Temin.) 913

Family Diomedeidae

391. Diomedea sp 914

Order Pygopodes

Family Podicipedidae

392. Podiceps tricolor (G.R. Gray) ... 915

393. — gularis J.Gd 917

919—962

Contents.

XLYir

LIST OF PLATES.

Volume I.

Plate

»

»

>

»

»

»

>/

»

»

I.

II, III.

IV.
V, VI.
VI.
VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

xn.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

Spilospizias trinotatus (Bp.) imm

JSpizaetus lanceolatus Tenam. ScU. ad., juT

IPernis celebensis (Wall.) ad., juY

Ninox ocbracea (Schl.) ad. et juv

Prioniturus platurus (Vieill.). Tails , . . .

Prioniturus flavicans Cass. Tails

Aprosmictus sulaensis Echw

/Merops ornatus Latb. Tails

^Merops philippinus L. Tails

/Pelargopsis dicbrorhyncba M. &Wg

iMonachalcyon capucinus M. &Wg

jCeycopsis fallax (Schl.) . . .

lOeycopsis sangirensis M. & Wg. ad. et juv

/Oaprimulgus celebensis Grant

\Lyncornis macroptems Bp

Chaetura celebensis (Sclat.) fern. juv. et mas

Muscicapula hyperythra (Blyth) mas, fern, et juv

{Siphia banyumas (Horsf.)

Siphia djampeana Hart

Sipbia kalaoensis Hart

Stoparola septentrionalis Biitt. mas, fem. et juv

fZeocepbus talautensis M.&Wg. ad. et juv

iMonarcba commutatus Briigg

Monarcba everetti Hart

■ Pacbycepbala teijsmanni Biitt.

Pacbycepbala everetti Hart

Pag. 2 1
» 32

* 65

» 94

> 133

» 138

» 170

» 248

>» 253

» 271

» 299

» 275

> 278

» 320

> 322

» 329

> 366

» 368

» 371

>» 371

> 374

=» 382

» 383

» 385

» 396

» 400

Volume II.

iPacbycepbala sulfuriventer (Tweedd.) . . . .

IPacbycepbala bonensis M.&Wg

/Pacbycepbala bontbaina M.&Wg. mas et fem.

\Oryptolopba sarasinorum M.&Wg

Graucalus bicolor (Temm.) mas et fem. . . .
Graucalus leucopygius Bp. ad. et juv. . . .
Edoliisoma morio (S.Miill.) mas et fem., . .
Edoliisoma talautense M. & Wg. mas et fem.
Edoliisoma obiense Salvad. mas et fem. . . .

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (May 27th, 1898).

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

394

401

401

530

411

413

419

423

424

XVIII

Contents.

Plate

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

]>

»

»

»

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

xxxni.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

xxxvm.

XXXIX.

XL.

XLI.

xLn.

XLIII.

XLIV.

XLV.

Edoliisoma salvadorii Sharpe mas et fern. . .

IDicrurns lencops Wall. ad. et juv

\Dicrurus leucops axillaris (Salvad.)

Dicaeum celebicum S.Mull. mas et fern. . .

Dicaeum sangirense Salvad

Dicaeum nehrkorni W.Blas

/Cyrtostomns frenatus saleyerensis Hart, mas .
ICyrtostomus teijsmanni Biitt. mas et fern. . .
(Acmonorhynchns sangirensis (Salvad.) , . . .
iHermotimia talautensis M.&Wg. mas et fern.

/Melilestes celebensis M.&Wg .

iMyza sarasinorum M.&Wg

JZosterops sqnamiceps (Hart.)

\Cataponera turdoides Hart

Zosterops subatrifrons M.&Wg

Zosterops anomala M. & Wg

Zosterops babelo M.&Wg . . .

jZosterops nehrkorni W.Blas

\Zosterops sarasinorum M.&Wg

Hole aurea (Tweedd.)

llole platenae (W.Blas.)

Malia grata recondita (M.&Wg.)

JAndrophilus castaneus (Biitt.)

iPhyllergates riedeli M.&Wg

Merula celebensis Biitt. ad. et juv. . . . .

JCalornis sulaensis Sharpe

\Basileornis galeatus A.B.M

Oriolus melanisticus M.&Wg

Ptilopus melanocephalus (Porst.) ... .

Ptilopus chrysorrhous (Salvad.) ......

Ptilopus xanthorrhous (Salvad.)

/Carpophaga concinna Wall

iCai’pophaga intermedia M.&Wg.

Macropygia albicapilla Bp. mas, fern, et pull.

iMegapodius cumingi Dillw

iMegapodius sangirensis Schl

IGymnocrex rosenbergi (Schl.)

lAramidopsis plateni (W.Blas.)

/Amaurornis isabellina (Schl.)

vGallinula frontata Wall

Herodias eulophotes Swinh

Ardetta eurhythma Swinh

Page 422
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610
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615
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» 671

» 675

» 689

» 690

» 712

» 713

» 824

» 856

» 674

Drawing of Mound of Megapodius cumingi Dillw,

Contents,

XIX

LIST OF MAPS.

Map I. Celebes and the Neighbouring Islands Frontispiece

For the preparation of Map I (Celebes and the Neighbouring Islands) with the
sea-depths our cartographers were directed to make use of the following publications :

0. Kriimmel: Das Belief des austral-asiatischen Mittelmeeres : Ztschr, f. wiss.

Geogr. ni, 1, Taf. I (1882).

Stenfoort en Siethoff; Atlas, Ned. Bez. in Oost-Indie, 1883 — 1885 (Topogr,

Inrichting te’s Gravenhage).

0. M. Kan: Bodengesteldheid der Eilanden en diepte der Zeeen van den in-

dischen Archipel; Tdschr. Ned. Aardr. Gen. (2) V (Versl.), 202, Kaart
IV (1888).

id.; Kaart van den Ned.-Ind. Arch. (1:6,000,000) s. a. (after 1889).

H. Berghaus: Atlas der Hydrographie (Berghaus’ Pbysik. Atlas, Abth. II),

Karte X(25) (1891).

Further, the Dutch and English Admiralty Charts concerning the region round
Celebes; articles in the Annalen der Hydrogi’aphie 13, Jahrg. 1885,207, and 25. Jahrg.

1897, 352, Taf. 11; an article in the Tdschr. Ned. Aardr. Gen. (2), III (Versl.), 485:

Zeediepten in den Oost-Ind. Archipel, 1886; and others.

» II, Celebes Frontispiece

In preparing Map II (Celebes) use has been made of the maps in various
Dutch and German Atlasses, of S. C. J. "W. van Musschenbroek’s map of the Gulf
of Tomini or Gorontalo and the neighbouring territories, with its accompanying notes
(Tdschr. Aardr. Gen. lY, Kaart 2, 1878, p. 93), and of the recent special maps of
Drs. P. & F. Sarasin, viz.:

1. Zeitschr. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1894, XXIX, Taf. 13 (Region between the

Minahassa and Gorontalo, North Celebes).

2. ib. 1895, XXX, Taf. 10 (Region between Buol and the Gulf of Tomini,

North Celebes),

3. ib, Taf. 15 (Central Celebes).

4. ib. 1896, XXXI, Taf 2 (South-west Celebes).

5. Verb. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Berlin, 1896, XX 1 II, Taf. 3 (South-east Celebes).

Besides this Drs. P. & F. Sarasin have had the great kindness to look

over our map and to express general approval of it. AVe have also made use of
de Hollander: Handleiding Volkenk. Ned. Oost-Indie, 4. ed. 1882 — 4.

The map shows only the names of the places mentioned in the text where

birds have been collected.

» III. Winds and Rains: April — September Pag. 17

» IV. Winds and Rains: October — Max’ch » 17

» Y. Distribution of the genus Gaeatua » 128

» VI. Distribution of the genus Loriculus » 149

» Vn. Distribution of the Bucerotidm » 242

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORS’ NAMES,
TITLES OF BOOKS, JOURNALS, ETC.

Our abbreviations were made before the issue of the list used in the “Zoological Kecord”, which is
recommended by the “Deutschen Zoologische Gesellschaft” as a model for such, or we would have adopted at
least a part of them, but many are far too long to be made use of in a synonymy, and others are not practical.

Portions of abbreviations here enclosed in brackets are often omitted in the text.

Abh. (Ber.) Mus. Dresden = Abhandlungen und Pe-
ri chte des Kgl. Zoologischen und Anthropologisch-
Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden.

Abh. (Naturw.) Yer. Bremen = Abhandlungen heraus-
gegeben vom naturwissenschaftlichen Yereine zu
Bremen.

Abh. Senckenb. Natnrf. Ges. = Abhandlungen heraus-
gegeben von der Senckenbergischen naturforschenden
Gesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main.

Acta (Nova) Acad. Leop. (Carol.) = Nova Acta Acade-
miae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Germanicae
Naturae Curiosorum. Also = Yerhandlungen der
KaiserHchen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen
Akademie der Naturforscher.

Alb., Nat. Hist. B. = E. Albin; Natural history of
British Birds. 1738 — 40.

Am. Journ. of Sc. & Arts = American Journal of
Science and Arts.

Ann. (K. K.) Nat. Hofmus. (Wien) = Annalen des K. K.
Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums zu Wien.

Ann. Mns. Civ. Gen. = Annali del Museo Civico di
Storia Naturale di Genova.

Ann. (& Mag.) N. H. = The Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, including Zoology, Botany, and
Geology.

Ann. Sc. Nat. = Annales.des Sciences Naturelles. Zoo-
logie et Paleontologie.

Arch. Nat. = Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte.

Atti Ac. Sc. Tor(ino). = Atti della Beale Accademia
delle Scienze di Torino.

Atti Soc. It. Sc. Nat. Mil. = Atti della Societa italiana
di Scienze naturali. Milano.

Audubon, B. N. Am. = J. J. Audubon: The Birds of
America. 1826 seq.

Auk = The Auk. Quarterly Journal of Ornithology.

Ausland = Das Ausland. Wochenschrift fiir Lander-
und Yolkerkunde.

Baird, Brew. & Eidg., Water B. N. Am. = S. F. Baird,
T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway: The Water Birds
of North America. 1884. (Memoirs of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Yol. YU
and Xin.)

Baldamus, Leben europ. Kuck. = E. Baldamus: Das
Leben der europaischen Kuckucke. Nebst Beitragen
zur Lebenskunde der iibrigen parasitischen Kuckucke
und Starlinge. 1892.

Barth, (Mon.) Weaver-b. = A. D. Bartlett: A Mono-
graph of the Weaver-birds. 1888.

Bechst., Naturg. Deutschl. = J. M. Pechstein: Gemein-
niitzige Naturgeschichte Deutschlands, nach alien
3 Reichen. 2. verb. Aufl. 1801—1809.

Bechst., Orn. Taschenb. = J. M. Bechstein: Omitho-
logisches Taschenbuch von und fiir Deutschland.
1802—12.

Begbie, Malay Benin. = P. J. Begbie: The Malayan
Peninsula; history, manners and customs of the in-
habitants, politics, natural history etc. 1834.

Bijdr. (t. d.) Dierk. = Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde.
Uitgegeven door het K. Zoologisch Genootschap
“Natura artis magistra”, Amsterdam.

Bijdr. taal, land, volkenk. Ned. Ind. = Bijdragen tot
de Taal-, Land- en Yolkenkunde van Nederlandsch
Indie.

Blanf., Faun. Br. Ind(ia) B. = The Fauna of British India,
inch Ceylon and Burma. Ed. by W. T. Blanford. Bii-ds,
by E. W. Oates and W. T. Blanford. 1889 — 1895.

Blak., Amend. List B. Jap. = T. W. Blakiston:
Amended List of the Birds of Japan, according to
Geogi’aphical Distribution. 1884.

W. Bias., Braunschw. Anzeigen = W. Blasius in the
“Braunschweigischen Anzeigen” (Newspaper).

W. Bias., Euss’s Isis = W. Blasius in Karl Russ’
“Isis”: Zeitschrift fiir alle naturwissenschaftlichen
Liebhabereien.

Blyth, B. Burmah = E. Blyth: A Catalogue of the
Mammals and Birds of Burmah (Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1875, pt. II, extra number).

Blyth, Cat. (B.) Mus. A(s). S. (B.) = E. Blyth; A Cata-
logue of the Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic
Society. 1849.

Bodd., Tabh PI. Enh = M. Boddaert: Table des plan-
ches enlumineez d’histoire nat., de d’Aubenton. 1783.

Boll. Mus. To l ino = Bollettino dei Musei di Zoologia
ed Anatomia comparata della R. Universita di Torino.

List of abbreviations.

XXI

Bonn., Tabl. Enc, Meth, = Encyclopedie metbodique,
ou par ordre de matiere, par une societe de gens de
lettres. — Histoire naturelle. — Tableau encyclope-
dique et metbodique: Ornitbologie. Par Babbe
Bonnaterre, 1790,

Bourjot, Perr, = A. Bourjot St, -Hilaire: Histoire Na-
turelle des Perroquets, vol. HI, 1837 — 38 (vols. I and
II by Le Vaillant, 1801 and 1805).

Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. = P. S. Bourns
and D. C. Worcester: Preliminary Notes on the Birds
and Mammals collected by the Menage Scientific
Expedition to the Philippine Islands (Occasional
Papers of the Minnesota Academy of Natural Scien-
ces, Yol. I No. 1), 1894.

Bp., Cat, Ucc. Enr. = C. L. Bonaparte: Catalogo me-
todico degli Uccelli Europei. (Annali delle scienze
naturali. Tom. YHI, 2» semestre.) 1842.

Bp., Comp, List B. Enr. & N. Am. = C. L. Bonaparte:
A geographical and comparative hst of the Birds
of Europe and North America. 1838,

Bp., Consp. = 0. L. Bonaparte: Conspectus generum
avium. 1850 — 65.

Bp., Consp. Vol. Anisod, = 0. L. Bonaparte: Conspectus
Yolucrum Anisodactylorum. 1854.

Bp., Consp. Vol. Zygod. = C. L. Bonaparte: Conspectus
Yolucrum Zygodactyloi’um. 1854,

Bp., Coup d’Oeil Ordre Pig. = C. L. Bonaparte: Coup
d’Oeil sur I’Ordre des Pigeons. (Comptes Rendus heb-
domadaires des seances de I’Academie des Sciences,
Paris. — Articles in vols. XXXEX, 1854; XL, 1855;
XLHI, 1856.)

Bp., Icon, des Pig. = C. L. Bonaparte: Iconographie
des Pigeons. 1857.

Bp., Notes Orn, Coll. Delattre = C. L. Bonaparte: Notes
ornithologiques sur les collections rapportees en 1853,
par M. A. Delattre, et classification parallelique des
Passereaux chanteurs. Paris 1854.

Brehm, Tierl. = Brehms Tierleben. Allgemeine Kunde
des Tierreichs. 3. ganzlich neubearbeitete Auflage.
Ydgel. 1891.

Brehm, Vog, Deutschl. = C. L. Brehm: Handbuch der
Naturgeschichte aller Yogel Deutschlands. 1831,

Briss., Orn. == M. J.Brisson: Ornithologia s. synoj)sis me-
thodica, sist. Avium divisionem in ordines etc. 1760.

Briigg., Ahh. Ver. Bremen = P. Briiggemann in Ab-
handlungen herausgegeben vom naturwissenschaft-
lichen Yereine zu Bremen.

Biitt,, (Zool. Erg.) Weber’s Eeise (Ostind.) = J. Blittikofer
in: Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in Nieder-
landisch Ost-Indien. Herausgegeben von Max Weber,
1890—97.

Bnfif,, H. N. Ois. = Gr. L. Leclerc comte de Biiffon, de
Montbeillard (etPabbeBexon): Histoire naturelle des
Oiseaux. 10 vols. (Small fob ed.) 1770 — 86.

Bull. Ac. Imp. Mosc. = Bulletin de la Societe Impe-
riale des Naturalistes de Moscou.

Bull, Ac, Sc. Petersb. = Bulletin de PAcademie Impe-
riale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg.

Bnll. Brit. Orn. Club = Bulletin of the British Ornitho-
logists’ Club.

Bull. Mus. Belg. = Bulletin du Musee Royal d’Histoire
Naturelle de Belgique.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge = Bulletin of the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass.

Bull, of the U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey = Bulletin
of the United States Greologicai and Geographical
Survey of the Territories.

Bull, Soc. Philom. (Paris) = Bulletin de la Societe
Philomatique de Paris.

Bull. S(oc). Z(ool). Er(ance) = Bulletin de la Societe
zoologique de France.

Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. = Bulletin of the U. S. National
Museum.

Buller, B. N. Zeal. = W. L. Buller: A History of the
Birds of New Zealand. I. ed. 1873; 2. ed. 1888.

Butler, Foreign Finches = A. G, Butler, Foreign
Finches in captivity. 1894 — 96.

Cab, & Hein., Mus. Hein. = J. Cabanis & F. Heine
jun. : Museum Heineanum. Yerzeichniss der omitho-
logischen Sammlung des Oberamtmanns F. Heine.
1850—63.

Calc. Journ, Nat. Hist. = Calcutta Journal of Natural
History.

Campb., Ber. 11, Orn. Congress Budapest = A. J.
Campbell, in : Zweiter intemationaler ornithologischer
Congi’ess. Budapest 1891. Hauptbericht. Il.Wissen-
schaftlicher Theil. 1892.

Cass., B. Calif, = J. Cassin: Hlustrations of the Birds
of California, Texas, Oregon, British and Russian
America. 1 853 — 55.

Cass., Cat. Hale. Phil ad. Mus. = J. Cassin: Catalogue
of the Halcyonidae in the Collection of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1852.

Cass., U. S. Expl. Exp(ed). 2"^! ed. = J. Cassin: United
States Exploring Expedition. — Mammalogy and
Ornithology. 1858.

Cat. B. = Catalogue of the Birds in the British
Museum.

C. E. Congr. Int. des sc. geogr. a Paris = Congres
international des sciences geographiques tenu a Paris
1875. Compte rendu des seances. 1878 — 80.

C(omptes) E(end). = Comptes rendus hebdomadaires
des seances de PAcademie des sciences, Paris.

Cretzschm. in Eupp. Atlas = (W. P.) E. Riippell: Atlas
zu der Reise im nordlichen Afrika. 2. Abtheilung
Yogel. Bearbeitet von P. J. Cretzschmar. 1826.

Cuv,, E%ne An. = G. Cuvier: Le regne animal,
distribue d’apres son organisation. 1829 — 30.

Darwin, Anim. & Plants = C. Darwin: The variation
of animals and plants under domestication. 1868 — 69.

D’Aubent., PL Enl. = D’Aubenton le jeune: Planches
enluminees d’histoire naturelle par Martinet, exe-
cutees par D’Aubenton le jeune. 1765.

Baud., Tr, d’Orn, = F. M. Daudin: Traite elementaire
et complet d’ Ornitbologie, ou histoire naturelle des
Oiseaux. 1800.

David et Oust., Ois. Chine = A. David et E. Oustalet:
Les Oiseaux de la Chine. 1877.

XXII

List of abbreviations.

Des Murs & Prev., Toy. Yenus, Zool. = Les Murs et
Prevost, in the Voyage autour du monde sur la
fregatte “la Venus”, commandee par A du Petit-
Thouars. 1845 — 64.

Deutsche geogr. Blatter = Deutsche geographische
Blatter, herausgegeben von der Geographischen Ge-
sellschaft in Bremen.

Biggies, Orn. Austr. = S. Diggles: The Ornithology
of Australia. 1866 — 70.

Direct. lud. Arch. = A. G. Pindlay; A Directory for
the navigation of the Indian Archipelago. 1870.

Drap., Diet. Class. H(ist). N(at). = Drapiez: Dictionnaire
classique des sciences naturelles etc. 1828 — 45.

Dresser, B. Eur. = H. E. Dresser: A history of the
birds of Europe, including all the species inhabiting
the Western Palaearctic Eegion. 1871 — 81, 1895 — 96.

Dresser, Mon. Corac. = H. E. Dresser: A Monograph
of the Coraciidae. 1893.

Dresser, Monogr. Merop. = H. E. Dresser: A Mono-
graph of the Meropidae. 1884 — 86.

Dumont, Diet. Sc. Nat. = 0. H. F. Dumont: Dictionnaire
des sciences naturelles. 1828 — 45.

Edw., Birds = G. Edwards: A natural history of
uncommon Birds, and of some other rare and
nondescribed animals, Quadrupedes, Reptiles, Fishes,
Insects etc. 1743 — 51.

Edw., Glean. = G. Edwards: Gleanings of natural
history, exhibiting figures of Quadrupeds, Birds,
Insects, Plants etc. 1758 — 64.

Elliot, Monogr. Bucerot. = D. G. Elliot: A monograph
of the Bucerotidae, or family of the Homhills. 1882.

Elliot, Monogr. Pitt. = D. G. Elliot: A Monograph
of the Pittidae. 1893 — 95.

Festschr. Vers. Naturf. Braunschw. 1897 = Festschrift
der Herzoglichen Technischen Hochschule bei Ge-
legenheit der 69. Versammlung Deutscher Natur-
forscher und Aerzte in Braunschweig. 1897.

Festschrift zool.-bot. Ges. = Festschrift zur Feier des
25 jahrigen Bestehens der k. k. zoologisch-botanischen
Gesellschaft in Wien. 1876.

de Fil., Mus. Mediol. = Ph. de Filippi; Museum
Mediolanum, M. 1, Animalia Vertebrata, Olassis II.
Aves. 1847.

Finsch, J. Mus. Godef. = 0. Finsch: Zur Ornitho-
logie der Siidsee-Inseln. I. Die Vogel der Palau-
gruppe. n. Ueber neue und weniger gekannte Vogel
von denViti-, Samoa- und Oarolinen-Inseln. (Journal
des Museum Godeffroy. Heft Vm, XII.) 1875 — 76.

Finsch, N(eu) G(uinea) = 0. Finsch: Neu-Guinea und
seine Bewohner. 1865.

Finsch, Papag. = 0. Finsch: Die Papageien. 1867 — 68.

Finsch, Yog. der Siidsee = 0. Finsch: Ueber Vogel
der Siidsee, in Mittheilungen des ornithologischen
Vereins in Wien, 1884.

Finsch & Hartl., Orn. Centralpol. = 0. Finsch & G.
Hartlaub : Beitrag zur Fauna Oentralpoljmesiens.
Omithologie der Viti-, Samoa- und Tonga-Inseln. 1867.

Finsch & Earth, Yog. 0. Afr. = 0. Finsch und G.
Hartlaub: Die Vogel Ost-Afrikas. (0. 0. von der
Decken: Reisen in Ost-Afrika. 4. Bd.) 1870.

Flem., Phil, of Zool. = J. Fleming: Philosophy of
zoology ; or a general view of the structure, functions
and classification of animals. 1822.

Forst., Descr. An. = J. E. Forsteri: Descriptiones
animalium in itinere ad Maris Australis terras
1772 — 74 suscepto observatorum. Ed. H. Lichten-
stein. 1844.

Forst(er), Zool. Ind. = J. R. Forster: Zoologia Indica.
1781.

Fraser, Zool. Typ. (Av.) = L. Fraser: Zoologia Typica, or
figures of new and rare Alammals and Birds. 1841 — 9.

Fritsch, Yog. Eur. = A. Fritsch: Vogel Europa’s. 1871.

Gadow, Tog. in Bronn’s El. u. Ord. = H. G. Bronn’s
Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, wissen-
schaftlich dargestellt in Wort und Bild. 6. Band.
IV. Abth. Vogel. Von E. Selenka u. H. Gadow. 1891-3.

Gatke, Yogelw. Helgol. = H. Gatke: Die Vogelwarte
Helgoland. 1891.

Garnot, Voy. Coquille, Zool. Atl. = Voyage autour du
monde, execute par ordre duroi, sur la Corvette d. S.. M.
la Coquille pendant les annees 1822 — 25. Publie par
L. J. Duperrey. Zoologie, par Lesson et Gamot. 1826.

Gefied. Welt = Die gefiederte Welt. Wochenschrift
fiir Vogelliebhaber,- Ziichter und -Handler. Herausg.
von K. Russ.

Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. = Giovanni Gerini: Storia
Naturale degli uccelli, trattata con metodo e adornata
di figure intagliate in rame e miniata al naturale.
Firenze 1767—76.

Gigh, Avif. Ital(ica) = E. H. Giglioli: Avifauna Italica.
Elenco deUe specie di uccelli stazionarie o di
passagio in Italia. 1886.

Gigh, Avif. Itah pt. I = E. H. Giglioli: Primo reso-
conto dei risultati della inchiesta ornitologica in
Italia. I. Avifauna Italica. 1889.

Gigh & Manz., Icon. Avif. Itah = E. H. Giglioli &
A. Manzella : Iconografia dell’ Avifauna Italica, ow^ero
Tavole illustranti le specie di Uccelli che trovansi
in Italia, con brevi descrizioni e note. 1882 — 84.

Gld., B. Eur. = John Gould: The Birds of Europe.
1832—37.

G(ou)ld., B. Asia = John Gould: The Birds of Asia.
1850 — 1883. [Completed by R. Bowdler Sharpe.]

Gld., B. Austr. = John Gould: The Birds of Australia.
1848—69.

Gld., B. Gr. Brit. = John Gould: The Birds of Great
Britain. 1862—1873.

Gld., B. N(ew) Guinea = John Gould: The Birds of
New-Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands, includ-
ing any new species that may be discovered in Australia.
1875—88. (Completed by R. Bowdler Sharpe.]

Gld., Handh. B. Austr. = John Gould: Handbook of
the Birds of Australia. 1865.

Gld., Syn. B. Austr. = John Gould: A Synopsis of
the Birds of Australia and its adjacent Islands. 1837.

Globus = Globus. Blustrierte Zeitschrift fiir Lander-
und Volkerkunde.

Gin., S(yst). N(at). = Carol! Linnaei Systema Naturae.
Ed. XIII., aucta, reformata. Cura J. F. Gmelin.
Lipsiae 1788 — 93.

List of abbreviations.

XXIII

Gould, Cent. Himal. B. = John Gould: A Century of
Birds from the Himalaya Mountains. 1832.

Graafland, Be Minaliassa = N. Graafland: He Mina-
hassa. Haar verleden en haar tegenwoordige toestand.
1867—69.

Grant, Handb. Game B. = "W. E. Ogilvie- Grant: A
Hand-book to tbe Game-Birds. 1895 — 97. Hi Allen’s
Naturalist’s Library, ed. by E. B. Sharpe.

Gray, B. Trop. Is. = G. E. Gray: Catalogue of the
Birds of the Tropical Islands of the Pacific Ocean,
in the collection of the British Museum. 1859.

Gray, Cat. B. New Guin. = J. E. Gray & G. E. Gray:
Catalogue of the Mammalia and Birds of New Guinea,
in the collection of the British Museum. 1859.

Gray, Cat. Hodgs. Coll. B. = J. E. Gray, Catalogue of
the specimens and drawings of Mammals, Birds, Eep-
tiles and Fishes of Nepal and Tibet, presented by
B. H. Hodgson to the British Museum, ed. Lon-
don 1863.

Gray, Cruise “Cura^oa”, B. = G. E. Gray: Birds in
Brenchley’s Jottings during the cruise of H. M. S.
“Curagoa” among the South Sea Islands in 1865.
1873.

Gray, Gen. B. = G. E. Gray: The Genera of Birds:
comprising their generic characters, a notice of the
habits of each genus, and an extensive list of spe-
cies referred to their several genera. 1844 — 49.

Gray, HL. = G. E. Gray: Hand-list of Genera and
Species of Birds, distinguishing those contained in
the British Museum. 1869 — 71,

Gray, List Acc. B. M. = G. E. Gray : List of the Spe-
cimens of Birds in the collection of the British
Museum. Sec. ed. Part. I. Accipitres. 1848.

Gray, List Anseres Brit. Mus. = List of the Specimens
of Birds in the collection of the British Museum.
By G. E. Gray. Part. IH. Gallinae, Grallae, and An-
seres. 1844.

Gray, List B. Br. Mus., Columbae = List of the Speci-
mens of Birds in the collection of the British Museum.
By G. E. Gray. Part. IV. Columbae, 1 856.

Graj^, List (Coraciadae etc.) Fissirostr. Br. Mus. = G. E.
Gray: List of the Specimens of Birds in the collec-
tion of the British Museum. Part. II. Section I.
Fissirostres. 1848.

Gray, List Gall(inae) Brit. Mus. = List of the Specimens
of Birds in the collection of the British Museum. By
G. E. Gray. Part. HI. Gallinae, GraUae, and Anseres.
1844.

Gray, List Gen. B. = G. E. Gray: List of the Genera of
Birds. 1844.

Gray, Cat. gen. & subgen. B. = G. E. Gray: Catalogue
of genera and subgenera of Birds in the British
Museum. 1855.

Gray, List Grallae Br. Mus. = List of the Specimens
of Birds in the collection of the British Museum. By
G. E. Gray. Part HI. Gallinae, Grallae, and Anseres.
1844.

Gray, List Psitt. B. M. = List of the Specimens of Birds
in the collection of the British Museum. By G. E.
Gray. Part III. Section II. Psittacidae. 1859.

Gray, Toy. Ereb. & Terror, B. = [J. Eichardson & J. E.
Gray] The zoology of the voyage of H. M. S. Erebus
and Terror, 1839—43. 1844—45, 1875.

J. E. Gray, Zool. Misc. = J. E. Gray: The zoological
miscellany. 1831.

J. E. Gray, 111. Ind. Zool. = J. E. Gray: Illustrations of
Indian zoology, consisting of coloured plates of new
or hitherto unfigured Indian animals from the col-
lection of Major-General Hardwicke. 1830 — 34.

Griff., An. Kingd. = G. L. C. F. D. Cuvier: The animal
kingdom , described and arranged in conformity
with its organization; with additional descriptions
of all the species hitherto named, of many not before
noticed, and other original matter, by E. Griffith,
S. H. Smith, E. Pidgeon, J. E. Gray and others.
1824—33.

Giildenst., N. Comm. Petrop. XIX. = J. A. Giildenstaedt:
Sex avium descriptiones : Loxia rubicilla, Tanagra
melanictera, Muscicapa melanoleuca, Motacilla ery-
throgastra, Scolopax subarquata, Scolopax cinerea.
In Novi Commentarii Academiae Lnperialis Scien-
tiarum Petropolitanae XIX 463 ff. 1774.

Guerin, Icon. Beg. Anim., Ois. = F. E. Guerin-Meneville :
Iconographie du regne animal de G. Cuvier, ou re-
presentation d’apres nature de I’une des especes les
plus remarquables et souvent non encore figurees
de chaque genre d’animaux, pouvant servir d’atlas
a tons les traites de zoologie. Oiseaux. 1829 — 38.

Guillemard, Australasia = F. H. H. Guillemard: Au-
stralasia. Vol. n. Malaysia and the Pacific Archipe-
lagoes. Edited and greatly extended from A. E.
Wallace’s “Australasia”. 1894.

Guillem.. Cruise Marchesa = F. H. H. Guillemard:
The Cruise of the Marchesa to Kamtschatka and
New Guinea. 1886.

Gunner, in Leem, Lap. Beskr. = J. E. Gunnerus : An-
maerkninger in Knud Leems, Profe sor i det Lap-
piskeSprogBeskrivelseover Finmarkens Lapper 1767.

Gurney, (List) Diurn. B. of Prey = J. H. Gurney: List
of the diurnal Birds of Prey, also a record of spe-
cimens preserved in the Norfolk and Norwich Museum.
1884.

Hartert, Eat. {Tog.) (Senckenb. Mus.) Frankf. M. = E. Har-
tert: Katalog der Vogelsammlung im Museum der
Senckenbergischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Frankfm’t a. M. 1891,

Hartert, Nov. Zool. = E. Hartert in Novitates Zoologicae.
A Journal of Zoology in connection with the Tring
Museum.

Hartert, Tierr(eich) = Das Tierreich. Eine Zusammen-
stellung undKennzeichnung der rezenten Tierformen.
Herausg. von derDeutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft.
Lief. 1. Aves : Podargidae, Caprimulgidae und Macro-
pterygidae von E. Hartert. 1897.

Hartl., Faun. Madag. = G. Hartlaub: Ornithologischer
Beitrag zur Fauna Madagascar’s. 1861. (Journ.f. Orn.
1860.)

Hartlaub in Neumayer’s • Anleitung = G. Hartlaub in
Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf
Eeisen. Herausgegeben von G. Neumayer. 1875.

XXIY

List of abbreviations.

Hartl., Verzeichniss = Systematisches Verzeichniss der
naturbistoriscben Sammlung der Gesellschaft Museum.

I . Abtb. Vogel. Von Gr. Hartlaub. 1844.

Hartl., Yog. Madag. = Gr. Hartlaub: Die Vogel Mada-
gascar’s und der benacbbarten Inselgruppen. 1877.

Hayes, Portr. of rare and cur. B. = W. Hayes : Portraits
of rare and curious Birds, with tbeir descriptions,
from the menagery of Osterly Park. 1794.

Heine & Echnw., Nomencl. Mns. Hein. = P. Heine & A.
Reichenow: Nomenclator Musei Heineani Ornitho-
logici. Verzeichniss der Vogelsammlung des Kgl.
Oberamtmanns P. Heine. 1882 — 90.

Hengl., (Yog.) Orn. N. 0. Afr. = M. Th. von Heuglin:
Ornithologie Nordost-Afrika’s, der Mlquellen- und
Kiisten-Glebiete des Rothen Meeres und des ndrd-
lichen Somal-Landes. 1869 — 74.

Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes = S. J. Hickson: A natu-
ralist in North Celebes. 1889.

de Hollander, Handl.Land- en Yolkenk. Ned. Oost-Ind. =

J. J. de Hollander: Handleiding bij de beoefening
der Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Oost-
Indie, 4‘^ ed. 1882—84.

Hombr. &Jacq., Yoy. Pole Sud = Voyage au pole Sud et
dans rOceanie sur les corvettes L’ Astrolabe et La
Zelee, 1837 — 1840, sous le commandement de J. Du-
mont d’Urville. Zoologie. Par Hombron & Jacquinot.
1842—53.

Horsf., Zool. Eesearch(es) in Java = T. Horsfield: Zoolo-
gical researches in Java and the neighbouring Is-
lands. 1824.

Horsf. & Moore, Cat. B. Mus. B. I(nd). Co. = T. Hors-
field & P. Moore: A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Museum of the Hon. East-India Company. 1854 — 58.

Hume, Eongh Notes = A. 0. Hume: Scrap Book, or
Rough Notes on Indian Oology and Ornithology. 1869.

Hume & Marsh., Game B. Ind. = A. 0. Hume and 0. H.
T. Marshall : The Glame Birds of India, with coloured
illustrations of all the known species. 1879 — 82.

Jacq(ninot) et Pncher(an), Yoy(age) (au) Pole Sud =
H. Jacquinot & J. Pucheran: Voyage au Pole Sud
et dans I’Oceanie sur les corvettes L’ Astrolabe et la
Zelee 1837' — 40. Zoologie, vol. Ill (Mammiferes et
Oiseaux). 1853.

Jard., Contr. Orn. = YY. Jardine: Contributions to
Ornithology. Descriptions of new or undescribed
birds. 1848—52.

Jard., Nat. Libr., Orn. = The Naturalist’s Library.
Ornithology. Vol. IV. By "W. Jardine. 1834.

Jard., & Selb(y), 111. Orn. = W. Jardine andP. J. Selby;
Illustrations of ornithology, etc. 1825 — 39, 1843.

(Jb.) Yer. Erdk. Dresden = Jahresberichf des Y^ereins
fur Erdkunde zu Dresden.

Jb. (Yer.) Naturw. Braunschw. = Jahresbericht des Ver-
eins fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig.

Ibis = The Ibis , a Magazine of general Ornithology.

Jerd., B. Ind. = T. 0. Jerdon: The Birds of India; being
a Natural History of all the Birds known to inhabit
Continental India. 1862 — 64,

Jerd., 111. Ind. Orn. = T. C. Jerdon: Rlustrations of
Indian ornithology, a series of fifty coloured litho-

graphic drawings of Indian Birds, accompanied by
descriptive letterpress. 1 843.

Illig(er), Prodr. = J. K. YY. Rliger; Prodromus syste-
matis mammalium et avium additis terminis zoo-
graphicis utriusque classis eorumque versione ger-
manica. 1811.

Joest, Das Holontalo = YY. Joest: Das Holontalo:
Griossar und grammatische Skizze. Diss. 1883.

J. A. S. (B.) = Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

J. f. 0. = Journal fiir Ornithologie.

J. (of the) Proc. Linn, Soc., (Zool.) = Journal of the
Proceedings of the Linnean Society. Zoology.

J. E. Geogr. Soc. = The Journal of the Royal geogra-
phical Society.

J. Str. Br. E. A. S. = Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society.

Journ. L, Soc. = Journal of the Linnean Society.
Zoology.

Journ. of Malacol. = The Journal of Malacology,

J(ourn.) E. Met, Soc. = Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society, London.

Isis = Isis Oder Encyklopadische Zeitung von [L.] Oken.

Isis, Dresden = Sitzungsberichte und Abhandlungen
der naturwissenschaftlichen Glesellschaft “Isis” in
Dresden.

Jukes, Yoy. “Ply” = J, B. Jukes: Narrative of the
Voyage of H. M. S. Ply in Torres Strait, New Guinea
and other Islands, 1842 — 46. 1847.

Kaup, Classif. Saug. u(nd) Yog. = J. J. Kaup: Classifi-
cation der Saugethiere und Vogel. 1844.

Kaup, Contr. Orn. = J. J. Kaup in YY. Jardine’s Con-
tributions to Ornithology. Descriptions of new or
undescribed birds. 1848 — 52.

Kaup, Isis = J. J. Kaup in “Isis” oder Encyklopadische
Zeitung von Oken.

Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. = J. J. Kaup: Skizzirte Entwick-
lungsgeschichte und natiirliches System der europ.
Thierwelt. I. Vogelsaugethiere und Vogel. 1829.

Kaup, Yerh. nat. hist. Yer. Hessen (Familie der Bisvogel)
= J. J. Kaup: Die Pamilie der Eisvdgel (Alcedidae).
Verhandlungen des naturhistorischen Vereins fiir das
Grossherzogthum Hessen, Vol. H (1848).

Keeler, Evol. Col. Birds (Feath.) = C. A. Keeler: Evolution
of the colors of North American land birds. 1893.
(Occasional papers of the California Academy of
Sciences, HI.)

Keulemans, Onze Yog. = J. G. Keulemans: Onze Vogels
in huis en tuin. 1873.

Keys. & Bias., Yfirbeltli. Eur. = A. v. Keyserling & J.
H. Blasius: Die YYirbelthiere Europa’s. 1840.

King, Survey Int, Austr. = Ph. P. King: Narrative of
a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of
Australia, performed between the years 1818 — 1822;
with an appendix, containing various subjects relat-
ing to hydrography and natural history. London 1827.

KittL, Knpfert. (Yog.) = P. H. v. Kittlitz: Kupfertafeln
zur Naturgeschichte der Vogel. 1832 — 33.

Koch, Baier. Zool. = K.L.Koch: System der Baierischen
Zoologie. — Auch u. d. Titel : Die Saugethiere und
Vogel Baierns. 1816.

List of abbreviations.

XXV

Kocb, Yerz. Togelb. (aus) Cel. u. Sangliir = G-. v. Koch:
Verzeichniss einer Sammlung von Vogelbalgen aus
Celebes und Sanghir, welche vom Grrossherzoglichen
Zoologischen Museum zu Darmstadt im Tausch oder
gegen Baarzahlung zu erhalten sind. 1876.

Erancher’s entoinolog. Jalirh. = Entomologisches Jahr-
buch. Herausgegeben von 0. Krancher.

Eruhenherg, Yergl. physiol. Studien = O.F. W. Kruken-
berg: Die Farbstoffe derFedern in des Yerf.'s VergL-
phys, Studien, Y. Abth. u. 2. Keihe I. — III. Abth.
1881—82.

Eiister, Orn. Atlas = H. 0. Kiister: Omithologischer
Atlas der aussereuropaischen Ybgel, nach C. W. Hahn’s
Werke fortgesetzt. 1836 — 41.

LahilL, Toy. a la Eecherche de La Perouse 1791 — 92 =
J. J.Labillardiere: Kelation du voyage a la recherche
de La Perouse, 1791 — 93, [I860.] (English trans-
latation: Stockdale) . , .

Lath., Gen. Hist. = J. Latham : A general history of
Birds, being the natural history and descriptions of
all the- Birds (above four thousand) hitherto known
or described by naturalists, with the synonymes of
preceding writers; the second enlarged and impro-
ved edition, comprehending - all the discoveries in
ornithology subsequent to the former publication,
and a genei’al Index. 1821 — 26.

Lath.. Gen. Syn. (Suppl.) = J. Latham: A natural history,
or general synopsis of Birds. — And Supplement.

. 1781--1802.

Lath., Ind. Orn. = J. Latham : Index Ornithologicus.
1790.

Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Br. Mns. = W. E. Leach’s
systematic Catalogue of the specimens of the indi-
genous Mammalia and Birds in the British Museum.
1816. (Ed. by 0. Salvin. Willughby Society. 1882.)

Lear, 111. Parrots = E. Lear: Illustrations of the Family
of Psittacidae. 1832.

Legge, B. Ceylon = W. Y. Legge : A History of the
Birds of Ceylon. 1880.

Less., C(oin)pl. (de) Buff. (Ois.) = K P. Lesson : Comple-
ment des oeuvres de Buffon, ou histoire naturelle
des animaux rares decouverts par les naturalistes et
les voyageurs depuis la mort de Buffon. Yol. 6.
Histoire naturelle des Oiseaux. 1829.

Less., Man. d’Orn. = R.P. Lesson: Manuel d’ornithologie
ou description des genres et des principales especes
d’ oiseaux. 1828.

Less., Tr. d’Orn. = B. P. Lesson: Traite d’omithologie,
ou description des Oiseaux reunis dans les princi-

. pales collections de France. 1831.

Less., Voy. de Belanger = C. Belanger: Yoyage aux In-
des orieutales, par le Nord de PEurope, les provin-
ces du Caucase, la Gleorgie, I’Armenie et la Perse,
suivi de details topograph., statistiq. etc. sur le Pegou,
les isles de Java, de Maurice et de Bourbon; sur
le Cap de Bonne-Esperance et Sainte Helene pendant
les annees 1825 a 1829. Zoologie. 1831 — 44,

Less. & Garn., Bull. Sc. Rat. = R. P. Lesson et P. Har-
not: Megapodius Duperreyi, Glarn. Bulletin des
Meyer & Wigles-?rortli, Birds of Celebes (May 27tii, 1898).

Sciences Katurelles et de Greologie par le Baron de
Ferussac. Yol. YIH (1826).

Lesson, Yoy. Coqu(ille) Zool. = L. J. Duperrey: Yoyage
autour du monde, execute par ordre du roi, sur la
corvette de S. M. la Coquille, pendant les annees
1822 — 25 etc. Zoologie, redigee par MM. Garnot
et Lesson, etc. 1829.

LevailL, N. Hist. Guepiers = F. Levaillant: Histoire
naturelle des Promerops et des Guepiers. 1807.

LevailL, Ois. d’Afr. = F. Levaillant: Histoire naturelle
des oiseaux d’Afrique. 1799 — 1805.

LevailL, Ois. Farad. Eolliers = F. Levaillant : Histoire
naturelle des Oiseaux de Paradis et des Rolliers, suivie
de celle des Toucans et des Barbus ; des Promerops
et des Guepiers, des Couroucous et des Touracos.
1803—18.

LevailL, Perr. = F. Levaillant: Histoire naturelle des
Perroquets. 1801 — 1805.

Licht., (Nomencl. Av. = H. Lichtenstein: Komenclator
Avium Musei Zoologici Berolinensis. 1854.

Licht., Yerz. Douhl, Berl. Mus. = H. Lichtenstein: Yer-
zeichniss der Doubletten des zoologischen Museums
der Kbnigl. Universitat zu Berlin, nebst Beschrei-
bungen vieler bisher unbekannten Arten von Sauge-
thieren, Ybgeln, Amphibien und Fischen. 1824.

Linn., Mant. (Plant.) = C. Linne: Mantissa plantarum
altera; acced. Regni Animalis Appendix. 1771.

Linn., S. N. = C. a Linne, Systema naturae per regna
tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, spe-
cies, cum characteribus, differelitiis, synonymis, locis.
12. ed. 1766—68.

M.et S., Yerh. (Eat. Gesch.) Natuurk. Comm. = Yerliande-
lingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Neder-
landsche overzeesche bezittingen, door de Leden der
NatuurkundigeCommissiein Indie en andere schrijvers.
Hitgegeven op last van den Koning door C. J. Tem-
minck. Zoologie. [Yertebrates by Salomon Muller
and H. SchlegelJ. 1839—44.

Madar(asz), Aquila = J. v. Madarasz in the Journal
“Aquila”.

Madr. Journ. = Jornmal of Literature and Science.
Published under the auspices of the Madras Literary
Society.

Mag. (de) Zool. = Magasin de zoologie, d’anatomie
comparee et de paleontologie. Journal destine a
faciliter aux zoologistes de tous les pays les moyens
de publier leur travaux et les especes nouvelles ou
peu connues qu’ils possedent, par F. E. Guerin-
Meneville. I. Serie (1831—1838).

Malh., Picidae = A. Malherbe : Monographie des Pi-
cidees. 1861 — 62.

Marsh., W., Z. Yortr. Die Papag. = YY. Marshall: Die
Papagaien (Psittaci). Zoologische Yortrage herausr
gegeben von YY. M. Heft I. 1889.

Marshall, Die Spechte = YY.. Marshall: Die Spechte
(Pici). Zoologische Yortrage herausgeg. von YY. M.
Heft .2. 1889.

Marshal], Schadelhocker der Yog. =YY. Marshall: Ueber
die knochernen Schadelhocker derYogel. In: Nieder-
landisches Archiv fiir Zoologie. Band I. 1872.

d

XXVI

List of abbreviations.

Maury, PLys. Geogr. Sea = M. F. Maury; Physical
Geography of the Sea. 2. ed. 1855.

Meisuer & Schinz, Yog. Schweiz = P. Meisner & H.
R. Schinz: Die Vogel der Schweiz; systematisch ge-
ordnet und beschrieben, mit Bemerkungen iiber ihre
Lebensart und Aufenthalt. 1815.

Mel, Biol, Ac. Petersh. = Melanges biologiques tires
du Bulletin de I’Academie Imperiale des Sciences
de St. Petersbourg.

Mem. Mus. d’Hist, Nat. = Memoires du Museum
d’Histoire Naturelle. Paris.

Meyen, Eeise um die Erde = F. J. F. Meyen ; Eeise um
die Erde, ausgefuhrt auf dem kgl. Preuss. Seehand-
lungs-Schiflfe Prinzess Louise, commandirt von Capi-
tan YY. Wendt, in d. J. 1830 — 32. 1834 — 35.

Meyer, Ausz. Neu Guinea Eeise = A.B. Meyer: Ausziige
aus den auf einer Neu Guinea-Beise im Jahre 1873
gefiihrten Tagebiichern, als Erlauterungen zu den
Karten der Geelvink-Bai und des MacCluer-Golfes.
1875.

Meyer, Isis (Dresden) = A. B. Meyer in; Sitzungsbe-
richte und Abhandlungen der naturwissenschaftlichen
Gesellschaft “Isis” in Dresden.

Meyer, (Abb. v.) Vogelskel. = A.B. Meyer: Abbildungen
von Vogelskeletten. 1879—1897.

Meyer & Helm, J (hrs)h. Orn. Beoh. Sachsen = A.B. Meyer
&F. Helm: Jahresbericht der ornithologischen Be-
obachtungstationen im Konigreiche Sachsen. 1885— 94.

Meyer & Helm, Yerz, d. Yog. Sachsens = A. B. Meyer &
F. Helm: Verzeichniss der bis jetzt im Konigreiche
Sachsen beobachteten Y^ogel nebst Angaben iiber
ihi’e sonstige geographische Y^erbreitung. [An-
hang zum VI. Jahresbericht (1890) der ornith. Be-
obachtungstationen im Kgr. Sachsen.] 1892.

M. & Wg., Ahh. Mus. Dresd. = A. B. Meyer & L. W.
YViglesworth in : Abhandlungen und Berichte des Kgl.
Zoologischen und Anthropologisch-Ethnographischen
Museums zu Dresden.

Meyer & Wolf, Orn, Taschenh. = B. Meyer & J, YYolf :
Taschenbuch der deutschen Yogelkunde oder kurze
Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands, 1810, 1822.

Midd., Sib. Eeise = A. Th. v. Middendorff’s Beise in
den aussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens. BandH.
Zoologie Theil 2. Saugeth., Vogel u. Amphibien. 1851.

Milne-Edw. & Grandid,, (H. N.) Ois, Madag. = A. Grandi-
dier: Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de
Madagascar. Publiee par A. Grandidier. Oiseaux
par A. Milne -Edwards et A. Grandidier. 1876 — 81.

■ Mitth. Mus. Dresd. = Mittheilungen aus dem K. Zoo-
logischen Museum zu Dresden.

M(i)t(th). 0rn.Yer. YYien = Mittheilungen des Ornitholo-
gischen Vereins in Wien.

Mivart, Lor(iidae) == S. G. Mivart: A monograph of the
Lories or Brush-tongued Parrots, composing the
family Loriidae. 1896.

Mottl. & Dillw., Contr. Nat. Hist. Lab(uan) = J. Mottley
and L. L. Dillwyn: Contributions to the Natural
History of Labuan, and the adjacent coasts ofBorneo.
1855.

Mtschr.Yer. Schutze Yogelw. = OrnithologischeMonats-

schrift des Deutschen Vereins zum Schutze der
Vogelwelt.

Mull,, S. Eeiz(e) Ind. Arch(ip). = Salomon Muller: Beizen
en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, 1828
—1836. 1857.

Miill., S. N. Suppl,= C. Linnes Vollstandiges Natursystem
nach der 12. lat. Ausgabe. . . Supplements- u. Be-
gister-Band iiber alle 6 Theile oder Glassen des
Thierreichs. Mit einer ausfiihrlichen Erklarung aus-
gefertiget von P. L. S. Muller. 1776.

Murray, Avif. Brit. Ind. = J. A. Murray : Avifauna of
British India and its Dependencies. 1887 — 90.

Murray, Yoy. Chall., Narr. = John Murray in Report
on the scientific residts of the voyage of H. M. S.
Challenger, 1873 — 76. Narrative. Vol. I, 2. 1885.

Naturaliste = Le Naturaliste. Revue iUustree des
sciences naturelles.

Nature = Nature. A weekly illustrated journal of
science.

Naum., Yog. Deutschl. = J. A.Naumann; Naturgeschichte
der Vogel Deutschlands. Auf s Neue herausgegeben
von J. F. Naumann. 1822 — 1860.

Naumannia = Naumannia. Archiv fiir die Ornithologie.

N(ed.) T(dschr). D(ierk). = Nederlandsch Tijdschriftvoor

. de Dierkunde.

Nelson, Cruise “Corwin” or Eeport N. H, Coll, (in) Alaska
= Cruise of the Revenue-Steamer “Corwin” in Alaska
and the N. W. Arctic Ocean in 1881. Birds of the
Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean by E. W. Nelson.
YVashington 1883.

(Newton,) Diet. B. = A Newdon: A Dictionary of Birds.
Assisted by H. Gadow. YVith contributions from
B.Lydekker, C.S.Roy and R.W. Shufeldt. 1893 — 96.

Newton (’s ed.), Yarrell’s Brit. B. = YY. Yarrell: A
history of British birds. 4. ed., by A. Newton and
H. Saunders. 1871 — 85.

Nikolski, He de Sakhal. et sa faune = A. Nikolski : He
de Sakhalin et sa faune des vertebres. St. Peters-
bourg. 1889.

Nitzsch, Pterylogr. = C. L. Nitzsch: System der
Pterylographie. Nach seinen handschriftlich auf-
bewahrten IJntersuchungen verfasst von H. Bur-
meister 1840.

Nitzsch, Engl. Ed, = 0. L. Nitzsch; Pterylography.
Translated from the German [by W. S. Dallas], ed.
by P. L. Sclater. 1867.

North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. = A. J. North: Cata-
logue of the Nests and Eggs of Birds found breeding
in Australia and Tasmania. 1889.

Notes Leyd. Mus. = Notes from the Leyden Museum.

N. T. N(ed), I(nd)-. = Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indie.

N(ouv.) Arch, du Mus. = Nouvelles Archives du
Museum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris.

Novit. Zool. = Novitates Zoologicae. A Journal of
Zoology in connection with the Tring Museum.
Edited by W. Rothschild etc.

Oates, B, Brit. Burmah = E, W. Oates: A handbook
to the birds of British Burmah, including those
found in the adjoining State of Karennee. 1883.

List of abbreviations.

XXVII

Oates, ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs = A. 0. Hume: The
Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. 2. ed. by E. W,
Oates. 1889 — 90.

Obs. meteor, de Manila de la Comp, de Jesus = Obser-
vatorio meteorologico del Ateneo municipal de Manila
bajo la Direccion de los PP. de la Oompania de
Jesus.

Ornis = Ornis. Internationale Zeitscbrift fiir die
gesammte Omitbologie.

Orn. Centralbl. = Ornithologiscbes Oentralblatt. Bei-
blatt zum Journal fiir Omitbologie.

Orn. Mb. = Ornitbologiscbe Monatsbericbte.

Orn. Monatsscbr. = Ornitbologiscbe Monatsscbrift des
Deutscben Vereins zum Scbutze der Yogelwelt.

Oustal., Mon. Megap. = E. Oustalet: Monograpbie des
Oiseaux de la Eamille des Megapodes. 1880 — 81.
In: Annales des Sciences naturelles. Zoologie.

Pall., Eeis. Knss. Keiclis = P. S. Pallas: Reisen durcb
verscbiedene Provinzen des Russiscben Eeicbs in den
Jabren 1768—74. 1771—76.

Pall., Zoogr. Eosso-Asiat. = P. S. Pallas: Zoograpbia
Rosso-Asiatica, sistens omnium animalium in extenso
imperio Rossico et adjacentibus maribus observa-
torum recensionem, domicilia, mores et descriptiones,
anatomen atque icones plurimorum. 1811.

Peale, U. S. Expl. Exped., Zool. = United States Ex-
ploring Expedition, Yol. YHI: Mammalia and Orni-
thology by T. R. Peale. 1848.

Pelz., Eeise der Novara, Zool. or Novara Eeise, Yog. =
Reise der oesterreichiscben Fregatte Novara um die
Erde, 1857 — 59. Bd. I: Yogel von A. v. Pelzeln. 1865.

Penn., Ind. Zool. = T. Pennant: Indian zoology;
including “Eaunula Indica” etc. 1790.

Petermann’s Mittb. = Petermann’s Q-eograpbische Mit-
theilungen.

Pleske, Yog. Euss. Eeicbs = Tb. Pleske: Ornitbograpbia
Rossica. Die Yogelfauna des Russiscben Reicbs. EC.
Sylviinae. 1891.

Pr. Acad. (N. Sc.) Pbilad. = Proceedings of the Aca-
demy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Pr. L. Soc. N. S. W. = Proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales.

P. U. S. Nat. Mus. = Proceedings of the U. S. Natio-
nal Museum.

P. Z. S. = Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
London.

Prev. & Knip, Pig. = 0. J. Temminck : Histoire natur-
elle generate des Pigeons avec figures en couleurs
peintes, etc. Tome H. cont. les Pigeons exotiques
de M'i'e Knip. Le texte par E. Prevost. 1838 — 43.

Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. = Proceedings of the
Boston Society of Natural History.

Quoy & Gaim., Yoy. Astr. (Zool.) = Quoy & Gaimard
in: Yoyage autour du monde de la corvette L’ Astro-
labe execute 1826 — 29 sous le commandement de
Dumont d’Urville. Zoologie. 1830 — 33.

Eadde, Eeise S.-O. Sibir. = G. Radde: Reisen im
Siiden von Ost-Sibirien, 1855 — 59. 1862 — 63.

Eams(ay), Tab. List (Austr. B.) = E. P. Ramsay:
Tabular list of all the Australian birds at present

known to the author, showing the distribution of
the species over the continent of Australia and
adjacent islands. 1888.

W. Earns., Tweedd. Orn. Works = The ornithological
works of Arthur, IX. Marquis of Tweeddale. Ed.
by R. G. YY. Ramsay. 1881.

Ecbb., Columbariae or Tauben = H. G. L. Reichenbach :
Die vollstandigste Naturgeschichte der Tauben und
taubenartigen Yogel. Columbariae. 1848.

Ecbb., Fulic(ariae), No vit. = H.G.L. Reichenbach: Die
vollstandigste Naturgeschichte der Sumpfvogel :
Novitiae ad synopsin avium. III. Rasores: Scharr-
vogel. I. Eulicariae: Wasserhiihner. 1851.

Ecbb., Handb. Picinae = H. G. L. Reichenbach: Hand-
buch der speciellen Omitbologie. Picinae. 1854.

Ecbb., Grallat. = H.G.L. Reichenbach: Die vollstan-
digste Naturgeschichte der Sumpfvogel: Aves Gral-
latores. 1851.

Eeicbb., Hb. sp. Orn. Alcedin. = L. Reichenbach : Hand-
buch der speciellen Omitbologie. Alcedineae. 1851.

Eeicbb., Hb. sp. Orn. Meropinae = L. Reichenbach:
Handbuch der speciellen Omitbologie. Meropinae.
1852.

Eeicbb., Hb. Scansoriae = L. Reichenbach: Handbuch
der speciellen Omitbologie. Scansoriae. 1853.

Ecbb., Syn. Av. Gallinac. = L. Reichenbach: Synopsis
avium. Gallinaceae. 1 848.

Ecbb., S. A., Natatores = H. G. L. Reichenbach: Die
vollstandigste Naturgeschichte der Schwimmvogel :
Aves Natatores. Synopsis Avium. Yol. I. Natatores.
1845.

Ecbb., Syst. Av. (Natur.) = L. Reichenbach: Avium
systema naturale. Das natiirliche System der Yogel.
Yorlaufer einer Iconographie der Arten der Yogel
aller Welttheile. 1850. Also under the title: Orni-
thologie methodique ou expose des genres des oiseaux
de toutes les parties du monde. Prodrome d’une
iconographie des especes des oiseaux ou synopsis
avium.

Ecbnw., Yogelb. = A. Reichenow: Yogelbilder aus
femen Zonen. Abbildungen und Beschreibungen
der Papageien. 1878 — 83.

Ecbnw., Consp. Psitt. = A. Reichenow: Conspectus
Psittacorum. Systematische Uebersicht alien be-
kannten Papageienarten. In: Journal fiir Ornitho-
logie. 1 882.

Ecbw., Yog. Deutscb O.-Afr. = Deutsch-Ostafrika. Thier-
welt Ostafrikas und der Nachbargebiete. IH. Bd.
2. Lf. Yogel von A. Reichenow. 1894.

Eeinw., Eeis. Ind. Arch, (in 1821) = 0. G. 0. Rein-
wardt’s Reis naar het oostelijk gedeelte van den
Indischen Archipel in het jaar 1821. Uitgegeven
door W. H. de Yriese. 1858.

Eev. Zool. = Revue zoologique, par la Societe Ouvier-
ienne.

Eidgw., (B. N. Ain.) Landb. N. Am. = S. F. Baird,
T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway: A History of North
American Birds, Land Birds. 1874.

Eidgw., Man. N. Am. Birds = R. Ridgway: A manual
of North American Birds. 1887.

d*

xxvni

List of abbreviations.

Eidgw., Sin. Eep. = R. Ridgway: in tbe Annual
Report of the Eoard of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution.

Ros(enh)., Mai. Arch. = C. B. H. v. Rosenberg: Der
malayische Archipel. Land imd Rente. 1 878.

Eosenh., Eeistogt. in Gorontalo = C. B. H., v. Rosen-
berg: Reistogten in de afdeeling Gorontalo. 1865.

Eothsch., Av. Laysan = "W. Rothschild: The Avifauna
of Laysan and the neighbouring Islands; vdth a
complete History to date of the Birds of the Ha-
waiian Possessions. 1893.

Eowl., Orn. Misc. = Ornithological Miscellany. Ed.
by G. D. Rowley. 1875 — 78.

Euss, Einheim, Stnhenvog. = K. Russ: Handbuch fiir
Yogelliebhaber, -Zuchter und -Handler. II. Ein-
heimische Stubenvdgel. 1873.

Enss, Eremdl. Stnhenvog. = K. Russ: Die fremdlan-
dischen Stubenvdgel. 1879 — 98.

Sail. Direct. = A. G. Findlay: A Directory for the
Navigation of the Indian Archipelago etc. 1870.

Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. = T. Salvador!: Aggiunte alia
ornitologia della Papuasia e delleMolucche. 1889—91.

Salvad., Orn. Pap. = T. Salvador!: Ornitologia della
Papuasia e delle Molucche. 1880 — 82.

Salvad., Cat. Ucc. (di) Borneo = Catalogo sistematico
degli uccelli di Borneo di T. Salvador! con note ed
osservazioni di G. Doria ed 0. Beccari intomo alle
specie da essi raccolte nel Ragiato di Sarawak.
Annali del Mnseo Civico di Storia naturale di Ge-
nova. Yol. V. 1874.

Sb. Ges. natf. Freunde zu Berlin = Sitzungs-Bericht
der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin.

Schinz, Ahbild. Vog. = H. R. Schinz : Naturgeschichte
und Abbildungen der Ybgel. Nach den neuesten
Systemen bearbeitet. (1831 — 33.) 1835 — 36.

Schinz, Nat. Vbg. — H. B. Schinz: Naturgeschichte
der Ydgel. Mit kolorirten Abbildungen nach der
Natur und den vorzliglichsten naturwissenschaftlichen
AVerken gezeichnet. Neueste (2.) umgearbeitete tmd
sehr vermehrte Ausgabe. 1846 — 53.

Schl., (De) Dierent. = H. Schlegel & P. J. AVitkamp :
De dierentuin van bet kon. zoolog. Genootschap
Natura Artis Magistra. Amsterdam. 1872.

Schl., H(an)dl. (d.) Dierk. = H. Schlegel: Handleiding
tot de beoefening der dierkunde. 1857 — 58.

Schl., Mns. P.-B. = Museum d’Histoii’e NTaturelle des
Pays-Bas. Par H. Schlegel. Revue methodique et
critique des collections. 1862 — 94.

Schl., N. T, D. or Ned. Tdschr. = H. Schlegel in
Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde, uit-
gegeven door het Koninklijk zoologisch Genootschap
Natura Artis' Magistra. 3. deel. 1866.

Schl., Eev. Acc(ip). = H. Schlegel: Revue de la Collec-
tion des Oiseaux de Proie faisant partie du Musee
des Pays-Bas. Accipitres. 1873. (In AIus. d’H. N.
d. P.-B.)

Schl., Eev. Alcedin. = H. Schlegel: Revue de la
Collection des Alcedines faisant partie du Musee
des Pays-Bas. 1874. (In Mus. d’H. N. d. P.-B.)

Schl., Rev. Noctuae = H. Schlegel: Revue de la

Collection des Oiseaux de Proie faisant partie du
Musee des Pays-Bas. Aves Noctuae. 1873. (In Mus.
d’H. N. d. P.-B.)

Schl., Eevne Pitta = H. Schlegel: Revue de la Collec-
tion des Breves (Pitta) faisant partie du Musee des
Pays-Bas. 1874, (In Mus. d’H. N. d. P.-B.)

Schl., Rev. Psitt. = H. Schlegel: Revue de la Collec-

' tion des Perroquets (Psittaci) faisant partie du
Musee des Pays-Bas. 1874. (In Mus. d’H. N. d. P.-B.)

Schl., Valkv. (Ned. Ihd.) = H. Schlegel: De vogels
van Nederlandsch-Indie , beschreven en afgebeeld.

— Les oiseaux des Indes Neerlandaises, decrits et
figures. Monographic 3, Yalkvogels (Accipitres). 1866.

Schl,, Vog. Ned. Ind. Ijsvogels (Alcedin.) = H. Schle-
gel: De vogels van Nederlandsch Indie, beschreven
■ en afgebeeld. — Les oiseaux des Indes Neerlan-
daises, decrits et figures. Monographic 2, Ijsvogels,
(Martins-Pecheurs). 1864.

Schl., Vog. Ned. Ind, Pitta = H. Schlegel: De vogels
van Nedei’landsch Indie, beschreven en afgebeeld.

— Les oiseaux des Indes Neerlandaises, decrits et
figures. Monographic 1, Pitta. 1863.

Schl. & Pollen, Faun. Madag, = F. P. L. Pollen et
D. C. van Dam: Recherches sur la faune de Mada-
gascar et de ses dependances. 2. partie: Mammiferes
et Oiseaux par H. Schlegel et F. P. L. Pollen. 1868.

Schmeltz, Eth. Abth. Mus. Godef. = J. D. E. Schmeltz,
& R. Krause : Die Ethnographisch-Anthropologische
Abtheilung des Museum Godeffroy in Hamburg. 1881.

Schrenck, Eeis(e) Ainurl(ande), Vog, = L. v. Schrenck:
Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande, 1854—56.
Bd. I, 2. Yogel des Amur-Landes. 1860.

Sclat., List, Vert, An. = List of the vertebrated ani-
mals now or lately living in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society of London. 8. ed. 1883. By P.
L. Sclater.

Sclat., Voy. Chall. B. = P. L. Sclater in Report on
the scientific results of the voyage of H. M. S.
Challenger, 1873 — 76. Zoology. Yol. H. 1881'.

Scop(oli), Del. Flor. & Faun, Insuhr. = J. A. Scopoli:
Ornithological papers from his Deliciae florae et
faunae insubricae. 1786 — 88. Ed. by A. Newton
CWillughby Soc. 1882),

Seebohin, B. Japan. (Einp.) = H. Seebohm : The Birds

. of the Japanese Empire. 1890.

Seebohin, (Hist.) Br(it(ish) B. = H. Seebohm : A history
of British birds with illustrations of their eggs.
1883—85.

Seeb., Distr. Charadr. = .H, Seebohm: The geographical
distribution of the family Charadriidae or the Plovers,
Sandpipers, Snipes and their allies. 1888.

Selby, Nat. Libr., Parrots = The Naturalist’s Library.
Conducted by Y^illiam Jardine. Ornithology Yol. AH.
PaiTots by P. J. Selby. 1836.

Selby, Natur. Libr., Pig. = The Naturalist’s Library.
Conducted by AVilliam Jardine. Ornithology Yol. Y,
part, in. Pigeons by P^ J, Selby. 1835.

Sharpe, Mitth. Zool. Mus. Dr. = R. B. Sharpe in Mit-
theilungen aus dem K. Zoologischen Museum zu
Dresden.

List of abbreviations.

XXIX

Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin. = E. B. Sharpe: A mono-
graph of the Alcedinidae. 1868 — 71.

Sharpe, Eep. Trans. Yenus Exp. B. Kerguelen = Account
of the Petrological, Botanical and Zoological Collec-
tions made in Kerguelen’s Land and Eodriguez
during the Transit of Yenus Expedition carried out
in 1874 — 75. Birds by E. B. Sharpe. 1879.

Sharpe, Eeport Toy. “Alert” = Eeport on the zoolo-
gical collections made in the Indo-Pacific Ocean
during the voyage of H. M. S. “Alert”, 1881 — 82.
1884.

Sharpe, Tarkand Mission, Aves = Scientific results of
the second Yarkand Mission, based upon the collec-
tions of the late E. Stoliczka. 1878 — 91.

Sh. & Dresser, B. Enr(ope) = H. E. Dresser: A history
of the birds of Europe, including all the species
inhabiting the "Western Palaearctic Eegion. 1 87 1 — 81.

Sharpe & Wyatt, Mon. Hirund. = E. B. Sharpe & C.
W. Wyatt: A monograph of the Hirundinidae, or
family of Swallows. 1885 — 94.

Shaw, Gen. Zool. = Gr. Shaw: Oeneral zoology, or
systematic natural history, with plates from the first
authorities and most select specimens, engraved
principally by Heath. Continued by Stephens.
1800—19.

Shelley, B. Egypt. = Gi. E. Shelley: A Handbook to
the Birds of Egypt. 1872.

Shelley, Monogr. Kect. = Gr. E. Shelley: A monograph
of the Kectariniidae, or family of Sun-birds. 1876 — 80.

Sitzh. Ak. Wien = Sitzungsberichte der math.-naturw.
Classe der Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien.

Sitzh. Ak. Wiss. Berlin = Sitzungsberichte der Konig-
lich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin.

Sitzh. Ges. Isis, Dresden = Sitzungsberichte und Ab-
handlungen der Naturwissenschaftlichen Gresellschaft
Isis in Dresden.

Sonn(erat), Voj''. N(onv). Guin. = P. Sonnerat: Yoyage
a la nouvelle Gruinee, dans lequel on trouve la
description des heux, des observations physiques et
morales, et des details relatifs a Thistoire naturelle
dans le regne animal et le regne vegetal. 1776.

Souance, Icon. Perr. = C. de Souance: Iconographie
des Perroquets non figures dans les publications de
Levaillant et de Bourjot Saint-Hilaire. 1857.

Sparrm., Mus. Carls. = A. Sparrman: Museum Carl-
sonianum, in quo novas et selectas Aves coloribus
ad vivum brevique descriptione illustratas. 1786 — 89.

Steere, Coll. B. Philip. (Is.) = J. B. Steere: A List of
the Birds and Mammals collected by the Steere
Expedition to the Philippines. 1890.

Steph., Gen. Zool. = Gr. Shaw: Gleneral zoology, or
systematic natural history, with plates from the
first authorities and most select specimens, engraved
principally by Heath. Continued by J. P. Stephens.
1800—19.

S(tr). P. = Sti-uy Feathers. A Journal of Ornithology
for India and its dependencies.

Strickl., Contr. Orn. = H. E. Strickland in W. Jardine’s
Contributions to Ornithology. 1848 — 53.

Strickl., Orn. Syii. = Ornithological Synonyms.
Edited by H. E. Strickland and W. Jardine. Yol. I.
Accipitres. 1855.

Stiider, Eeis. or Voy. Gazelle-(Eeise) = Th. Studer:
Die Forschungsreise S. M. S. “Gazelle” in den
Jahren 1874 bis 1876. IH. Theil, Zoologie und
Geologic. 1889.

Snndev,, Tentamen or Av.Meth. Tent. = C. J. Sundevall:
Method! naturalis avium disponendarum tentamen.
Fbrsok till fogeUdassens naturenliga uppstaUning.
1872.

Sw(ain)s., B. W. Afr. = The Naturalist’s Library.
Edited by W. Jardine. Yol. XI— XH. Ornithology.
Birds of Western Africa. By YY. Swainson. 1837.

Sws., Zool. Illnstr. = W. Swainson: Zoological
illustrations, or original figures and descriptions of
new, rare or otherwise interesting animals, selected
chiefly from the classes of ornithology, entomology
and conchology etc. 1820 — 23, 1829 — 33.

Tacz., (Faun.) Orn. Sih. Orient = L. Taczanowski : Faune
omithologique de la Siberie Orientale. 1891 — 93.

T(d.) Ned. Aard. Gen(oots.) = Tijdschrift van het Kon.
Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, gevestigd
te Amsterdam.

Temni., Coup d’Oeil gener. Possess. Neerl. = C. J.
Temminck: Coup d’oeil general sur les possessions
Neerlandaises dans I’Inde Archipelagique. 1846 — 49.

Temm., Man. d’Orn. = C. J. Temminck: Manuel
d’ornithologie, ou tableau systematique des Oiseaux,
qui se trouvent en Europe, precede d’une analyse
du systeme general d’ornithologie, et suivi d'une
table alphabetique des especes. 2eedit. 1820, 1835,
1839, 1840.

Temm., Pig. et Gall. = C. J. Temminck: Histoire
naturelle generale des Pigeons et des Gallinacees,
accompagnee avec pi. anatomiques. 1813 — 15.

Temm., PL Col. = C. J. Temminck: Nouveau recueil
de planches coloriees d’Oiseaux, pour servir de suite
et de complement aux planches enluminees de Buffon,
edit, de Pimprimeiue royale 1778. Publie par C. J.
Temminck etM.Laugier, Baron deChartrouse; d’apres
les dessins de Nic. Huet fils et Pretre. 1820 — 39.

Temm & Knip, Pig. = C. J. Temminck: Histoire
naturelle generale des Pigeons avec figures en couleurs
peintes, par Mme Knip, nee Pauline de Courcelles.
Le texte par C. J. Temminck. 1808 — 11.

Temm. & Schl., Faun. Jap. Aves = P. F. de Siebold:
Fauna Japonica. Conjunctis studiis C. J. Temminck
et H. Schlegel pro vertebratis atque W. de Haan
pro invertebratis elaborata. Oiseaux. 1833.

Thienem., Fortpfl(anz.) Yog. = F. A. L. Thienemann:
Fortpflanzungsgeschichte der gesammten Yogel. Mit
100 Tafeln Abbildungen von Yogeleiern. 1845 — 56.

Thuuh., Act. Holm. = C. P. Thunberg in Kongliga
Svenska Yetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar, Yol.
XXXIII. 1772.

Tr. As. Soc. Jap. = Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan.

Tr. Chicago Ac. Sc. = Transactions of the Chicago
Academy of Science.

XXX

List of abbreviations.

Tr. L(inn), S(oc). = Transactions of tbe Linnean
Society of London.

Tr. Z. S. = Transactions of tbe Zoological Society of
London.

Tr. & Pr. N. Z. Inst. = Transactions and Proceedings
of tbe New Zealand Institute.

Tristr., Cat. (Coll.) B. = Catalogue of a Collection of
Birds belonging to H. B. Tristram. 1889.

Tnnstall, Orn. Brit. = M. Tunstall’s Ornitbologia
Britannica [1771], Ed. by A. Newton. (Willugbby
Society 1880.)

Tweedd., Orn. Works = Tbe ornitbological works of
Arthur, IX. Marq^uis of Tweeddale. Ed. by R. Gr. W.
Ramsay. 1881.

Verb. D. Zool. Ges. = Yerbandlungen der Deutscben
Zoologiscben G-esellscbaft.

Verb. Ges. Erdknnde Berlin = Yerbandlungen der
Gesellscbaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin.

Y(erb). z.-b. Ges. Wien = Yerbandlungen der k. k.
zoologiscb-botaniscben G-esellscbaft in Wien.

Terr, in Vinson’s Voy. Madag. Annex B. = J, Yerreaioc
in Yinson’s Yoyage a Madagascar. 1865.

Vieill., Analyse = L. P. Yieillot: Analyse d’une
nouveUe ornitbologie elementaire. 1816. (Ed. by
H. Saunders, Willugbby Soc. 1883.)

Vieill., Enc. Metb. = Encyclopedie metbodique, ou
par ordre de matiere, par une societe de gens de
lettres. — Histoirenaturelle. Oiseaux, 0\dpares et
Serpents. (Oiseaux par R. J. E. Mauduit, re-vis. et
augm. par Yieillot.) 1784—1820.

Vieill., Gall. Ois. = L. P. Yieillot: Galerie des Oiseaux
du cabinet d’bistoire naturelle du jar din du roi, ou
description et figures coloriees des Oiseaux qui
entrent dans la collection du museum d’bistoire
naturelle de Paris. (Continuation de I’bist. natur.
des Oiseaux dores), dessinee(et litbogr.) d’apres nature,
par P. L. Oudart, et decrite par L. J. P. Yieillot.
1820—26.

Vieill., N. D. = L. P. Yieillot; Nouveau Dictionnaire
d’Histoire Naturelle, 2e ed. (Articles contributed
between 1816 — 19.)

Vig., Zool. J(ou)rn. = N. A. Yigors in tbe Zoological
Jommal. 1824 — 35.

Wagl., Mon. Psitt. = J. G. Wagler: Monograpbia
Psittacorum. (Aus dem 1. Bde. der Denkscbriften

der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenscbaften inMiincben
1832.) Besonders abgedruckt 1835.

Wagl., Syst. Av., = J. Wagler: Systema Avium. 1827.

Wald., Orn. Works = Tbe ornitbological works of
Arthur, IX. Marquis of Tweeddale. Ed. by R. G.
W. Ramsay. 1881.

Wall., Island Life = A. R. Wallace: Island Life: or,
tbe phenomena and causes of insular faunas and
floras. 1880.

Wall., Malay Arcbip. = A. R. Wallace: The Malay
Archipelago. 1869.

Wallace, Geogr. Distr. Anini. = A. R. Wallace: Tbe
geographical distribution of Animals. With a study
of tbe relations of li-ving and extinct faunas as
elucidating tbe past changes of the earth’s surface.
1876.

Weber, Zool. Ergebnisse = Zoologiscbe Ergebnisse
einer Reise in Niederlandiscb Ost-Indien. Heraus-
gegeben von Max Weber. 1890 — 97.

Wliitebd., Expl. (Expd.) Kini Bain = J. Whitehead:
Exploration of Mount Kina Balu, North Borneo. 1893.

Wieg. Arch. = Arcbiv fur Naturgeschicbte. Gegriindet
von A. P. A. Wiegmann.

Wiglesw., Aves Polyn. = L. W. Wigleswortb: Aves
Polynesiae. A catalogue of tbe birds of the Poly-
nesian Subregion (not including the Sand-wicb Islands).
1891. In: Abbandlungen und Berichte des Konigl.
Zoologiscben und Anthropologiscb-Ethnograpbischen
Museums zu Dresden. 1890/91 Nr. 6.

Wilson, B. Sandw. Is. = Scott B. Wilson; Aves
Hawaiiensis. Tbe Birds of tbe Sand-wicb Islands.
Assisted by A. H. Evans. 1890 — 96.

Z. (Ges.) Erdk., Berlin = Zeitscbrift der Gesellscbaft
fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin.

Z. wiss.Zool.= Zeitscbrift fiir wissenschaltlicbeZoologie.

Zool. Garten = Der Zoologiscbe Garten. Zeitscbrift fiir
Beobacbtung, Pflege und Zucbt der Tbiere.

Zool, Jabrb. Abt. f. Syst. = Zoologiscbe Jabrbiicber.
Abtheilung fiir Systematik, Geographic und Biologic
der Tbiere.

Ztscbr. ges. Orn. = Zeitscbrift fur die gesammte
Oimitbologie.

Ztscbr. wiss. Geogr. = Zeitscbrift fiir -wissenschaftliche
Geographic.

NOTANDA ET CORRIGENDA.

120 in Introduction, cancel the number 42, making the total 87 instead of 88.

4, hne 30, for Forster read Porsten.

4, » 31, add Saleyer (Everett a 22) and Togian (Meyer).

8, » 18, 19, alter the reference-letter b into a.

28, » 16, instead of chocolate-brown rufous, read chocolate-brown, without rufous.

53, » 18, for H. indiis and H. indus — girrenera, read E. indus and H, indies girrenera.

55, » 26, add Togian (Meyer).

63, » 24, add Kalao (Everett 32).

77, » 4, Hartert now calls this bird Baxa suberistata suberistata (Nov. Zool. 1898, 47).

79, » 11 from below, add Djampea and Kalao (Everett g 2).

90, » 5 from below, add Kalao (Everett d 3).

91, > 33, add the Osprey has been observed nesting in India by Hume and others, according to

Blandford. (Eaun. Br. Ind. B. HE, 1895 p. 315.)

95, » 25, for Ninox lugubris affkiis read Ninox scutulata affmis.

115, » 19, for D’Aubert. read D’Aubent.

117, » 11, add Tagulandang and Biarro — ? var. (Nat. Coll.).

118, » 17, 18, 20, for ol read tl and for nl read si.

187, » 31, correct the name into Gucuhis canorus L., without brackets.

188, » 7, first reference, for Tr. Z. S. read Tr. L. S.

191, » 21, query summer, as Platen's collecting in Mindanao was continued into the winter months.

217, » 14, from below, add Djampea and Kalao (Everett lo 8, p. 176).

218, » 16, for c2 read c 5.

219, » 12, for Wellesly read Wellesley.

233, » 25, for Eamphastidae read Bhamphastidae.

239, » 13 from below, after Elliot insert Monogr. Bucerotidae.

248, > 16, for Cox & Hamilt. ib. read Cox and Hamilt. Pr. L,. Soc. N. S. W.

257, title, affix an to Meropogon forsteni Bp.

263, » 27, add Saleyer (Weber).

265, » 15 from below, for Kalao read Saleyer.

269, » 6, for Handb. read Handl.

285, » 14 from below, for 1885 read 1883.

288, » 6 from below, add Banggai (Nat Coll.).

294, > 6 from below, add Saleyer and Djampea (Everett d 23).

300, title, affix an to Monaehaleyon princeps Rchb.

305, » affix an ^ to Gittwra sangiremis Sharpe.

322, » affix an 4c to LynGornis macropterus Bp.

328, line 5, for Gld., HL, read Gld., Hb.

329, title, before 104. Qhaetura celebensis cancel the
335, line 6, add Kalao (Everett 13).

337, » 19, add Saleyer (Everett 15).

350, » 5, title, put Bp. in brackets.

360, » 28, add Kai'kellang, Talaut (Nat. Coll.),

389, » 15 from below, add Saleyer (Everett 14).

393, » 11 from below, for CoUurincla read CoUuricincla.

400, » 18, for S. olio read P. olio.

407, » 6, the name Lanius jeracopsis is spelt Lanms Jeraeopis by de Pilippi.

416, » 14, add Sula (Wallace).

XXXII Notanda et corrigenda.

Page 421, line 23, add Togian (Meyer d 3).

. > 437, » 4, from below, for Luwn read Luwu,

440, » 22, for earbonaria read carbonarius. '

» 445, title, affix an stc to Dicaemn talautense M.&Wg.

» 459, line 14, add Dongala, West Celebes (Doherty o 1).

» 459, » 18, erase f. 2 (Q) — this figure representing a North Celebes female (fide W. Blasius).

» 497, » 18, 19 put the names Wall., W. Bias., and Hombr. & Jacq. in brackets.

» 504, » 8 from below, title, for Triehostoma celebemis (Strickl.) read Triehostoma celebense Strickl.

» 505, » 6 for R'achyteryx read Brachypteryx.

» 513, last line, for Nat Coll, a 25 read a 26.

» 525, line 6 from below, for W. Taczanowski read L. Taczanowski.

» 550, » 9, for Munia molucca propinqua Hart, read Munia molueea propinqua (Sharpe).

» 551, line 21, alter the formula Munia molueea'^ propinqua into Munia molucca typica'5>.

» 561, » 28, add Saleyer and Djampea (Everett 15).

» 564, » 14, for erythroprhys read erythrophrys.

» 576, » 10, cancel the inverted commas in the name “La Perouse”.

» 605, » 24, for f. 2197 (read f. 1297).

» 606, title, affix an to Ptilopus subgularis M.&Wg.

» 616, » 14, add Djampea (Everett 20.).

» 638, » 10, add Peling and Banggai (Nat. Coll.).

» 638, » 25, add Talaut — Lirung (Nat. Coll.),

» 671, last line, for Tagegallm read Talegallm.

» 676, line 18, for bensteini read hernsteini.

» 712, » 2 from below, read Tawaya, West Celebes, not West Tawaya, Celebes.

» 765, » 3 from below, add Togian (Meyer).

» 773, » 19 from below', read Petrop., not Petrov.

» 813, > 14, add Togian (Meyer b 13).

> 827, last line, add Sula (Wallace).

» 843, fine 4, from below, read t. 153, instead of t. 155.

» 850, » 4, for goisahi read goisagi.

» 857, » 6 from below, add Karkellang, Talaut (Nat. Coll.).

» 884, » 1, for B. Kerguelen 1877 read 1879.

Plate XXVI read teismanni.

INTRODUCTION.

When we first planned a treatise on the Birds of Celebes, we soon found
that it w^onld he quite impossible to restrict ourselves to the mainland, as this
is everywhere surrounded by larger or smaller islands which are so connected
with it by their Avifaunas that they could not be left out; at the same time it
proved ini230ssible to define a natural zoological frontier between certain of these
islands and the adjacent ones. Our frontis23iece-ma2) shows the limits we decided
upon, viz. the inclusion of the Talaut Islands in the north, the Sula Islands in
the east, and the Djam2)ea Grou2) in the south, though at each of these 2ioints
elements from, respectively, the Philq^t^ines, the Moluccas, and the Lesser Sunda
Islands are very marked. The boundary so chosen adjoins to the north the
southern limit of the Philip23ines, as defined by Tweeddale, Worcester and
Bourns, and others; to the east it coincides wfith Salvadori’s western border,
as drawn in his “Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molluche”; to the west
it follows the eastern boundary of Borneo, as adopted in Everett’s “List of the
Birds of the Bornean Group”, and by other writers; to the south it takes in
all the islands between Celebes and the Lesser Sundas. The book may thus
be said to fill up an ornithological ga23, and the bounds as chosen appear also
to be the most natural, except possibly (?) in the case of the Djampea GroiqD.
Moreover, the Avifauna of the adjacent grou23s often gives a clue to the deriv-
ation of non-Celebesian forms in Celebes; it would, therefore, be inadvisable
to leave them out.

Meyer & Wigles worth, Birds of Celebes (May 4th. 1S*)8).

1

1. TEAVEL AND LITERATUKE.

The naturalists and collectors who have done work among the birds of this
area first deserve attention, and to the following short biographical notes con-
cerning them we append a list of the publications on the Birds of Celebes and
the neighbouring islands, based more or less directly on these travellers’ results.
We are afraid that our lists are not complete, either in regard to its including
all the names of ornithological collectors, or all items of literature. As to the
latter we have restricted ourselves, with a few exceptions, to the period after
the publication of Walden’s “List of the Birds known to inhabit the Island
of Celebes” in the year 1872, and several papers and books, which we have
not enumerated in our list, though they contain something on Celebesian Birds,
will be found in the synonymy of the species, if they have not been unhappily
entirely overlooked.

1793. Labillardiere (Jacques Julien Houton de) 1755 — 1834. Frenchman. Naturalist.
Accompanied Dentrecasteaux’ expedition in search of la Perouse (see: Eelation du voyage
par le 0®^ Lahillardiere; an VIII [1800] vol. II, p. 298). The ships spent 18 days in
passing through the strait between Buton and Muna, and parties landed upon both islands.
There is no doubt that the “Pie de la Nouvelle Caledonie”(!), Streptocitta albicollis (Vieilh),
was then obtained, as possibly also Bp. Lahillardiere mentions some Parrots

in these islands. Besides the above, he published many works and papers on botany, etc.

1821. Reinwardt (Caspar G-eorg Carl) 1773 — 1854. German. Naturalist. Sojourned
from 1816 — 1822 in the East Indian Archipelago, visited about 1820 the Island of Saleyer,
spent a few months in 1821 in North Celebes (see: Eeinwardt’s Eeis naar bet oostelijk
gedeelte van den indischen Archipel in bet jaar 1821 by "W. H. de Vries e, Amst. 1858,
pp. 503 — 538, Gorontalo; pp. 539—603, the Minahassa; with plates, 7 concerning Celebes, and
the published Catalogues of the Leyden Museum). His ornithological collections are in the
Leyden Museum, — see the list of Birds collected (125 species) in the work quoted (pp. 237 — 239)
and the mention of 633 specimens of birds etc. sent home (p. 245). On p. 592 some birds
of the Minahassa are recorded. As to ornithological papers he only wrote: “Uber die Art und
den Ursprung der essharen Vogelnester auf Java” (1838), but we do not know where this
has been published. Baza reimvardti, occurring on islands south of Celebes and elsewhere,
was named after him.

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

3

1828. Muller (Salomon). German (born at Heidelberg). Naturalist. Sojourned in the
East Indian Archipelago from 1826 — 1837 and visited among other places South Celebes
and the Island of Buton, see: Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, 1828—1836,
voL II, 1857, pp. 4 — 19 (on the birds of South Celebes, pp. 7—8, 64, 69—71; of Buton, pp.
12, 15, 65, 69). This work is a new and enlarged edition of a part of the “ Yerhandelingen
over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche bezittingen, door de leden der
natuurkundige Commissie en andere schrijvers”, uitgegeven door C. J. Temminck, 1839—1844,
fob His ornithological collections — about 8000 specimens — are in the Leyden Museum
(see: Schlegel’s Catalogues; Yetli: Overzicht van hetgeen gedaan is voor de Kennis der
Eauna van Ned. Ind. 1879, p. 89, etc.). Tanygnathus muelleri from Celebes was named after
him. We have nowhere been able to find the dates of birth and death of this meritorious
naturalist.

1828, Q,uoy (Jean Rene Constant) and Gaimard (Joseph Paul) 1790 — 1869 and
1790 — 1858. Erenchmen. Naturalists. The latter took part in the expedition of the “Uranie”
and “Physicienne” (1817 — 1820), both in that of the “Astrolabe”, 1826 — 1829 (see: Yoyage
de la corvette lAstrolabe, Paris 1830^ — 1834, Histoire du voyage, 1833, Y, 428 by Dumont
d’Urville, and Zoologie, 1830, I, 165, where 10 new species of birds from Celebes are
described, by Quoy and Gaimard). They only visited the Minahassa for about 5 days in
the year 1828. Temminck (Coup-d’oeil gen. s. I poss. neerl. dans I’lnde arch. 1849, III,
105 — 106) said about this trip: “La relache de la corvette frangaise a la factorerie

de Menado, et I’excursion d’une couple de jours faite par les naturalistes frangais au lac
de Tondano, n’ont offert, a Tune comme a I’autre expedition scientifique, q’une recolte peu
nombreuse de plantes, ainsi que la capture d’un petit nombre d’animaux. Toutefois, le
naturaliste a decouvert dans ces acquisitions, a peu-pres autant d’especes nouvelles a faire
connaitre, qu’il s’est trouve d’objets rassembles, presque sans choix ]3realable; on a ete non
moins surpris des resultats qu’elles ont offerts a la science.” Both have written many important
works on Natural History, etc.

1841. Forsten (Eltio Alegondus) 1811 — 1843. Dutchman. Naturalist. Was elected
(1836) a member of the “Natuurkundige Commissie” in the Netherlands’ Indies and sojourned
in North Celebes from 1841. He could not do much, however, in consequence of bad
health, and died on the 2’^'^ of January 1843 in Amboina. Nevertheless Temminck was
justified in saying (Coup-d’oeil gen. s. 1. poss. neerl. dans Unde arch. 1849, III, 106): “Les
perquisitions et les travaux auxquels il lui fut possible de se livrer, nous ont valu des additions
fort interessantes a la connaissance trfes-superficielle qu’on avait pu acquerir jusqu’ici de
cette contree.” His ornithological collections are in Leyden (see Schlegel’s Catalogues,
etc.). Meropogon forsteni, Halcyon forsteni, Pitta forsteni and Caipophaga forsteni from
Celebes were named after him.

c. 1844. Leclancher (Charles Rene Auguste) 1804 — 1885. Frenchman. Surgeon on
several warships from 1828 — 1844. He visited among other places Borneo and Celebes and
brought home extensive collections to the Paris Museum. When with the “Favorite” from
1841 — 1844 he stayed at Manado in North Celebes and got two species of birds till then
unknown, one of which was named after him Dicaeum leclancheri (see Rev. Zool. 1 845, p. 93).
During a former expedition of the same ship from 1830 — 1832 Eydoux was the doctor
on board, and in 1839 he, with Gervais, described the birds then collected in the zoological
part of the work on the voyage. The “Favorite” was also out from 1838 — 1839 with Leclancher
on board, but neither this expedition, nor the one of 1841 — 1844, have been described, so
far as we are aware.

2*

4

Introduction: Trayel and Literature.

1856. Wallace (Alfred Eussel). Born 1823. Englishman. Naturalist. Amazon
1848 — 52, in the East Indian Arcliipelago 1854—62, where especially he was most successful
in every respect, none of the former nor of the later naturahsts there having attained any-
thing to equal his results. He was in South Celebes from September to November 1856, and
July to November 1857, in North Celebes from June to September 1859, and his Assistant,
Charles Allen, collected in the Sula Islands. As is generally known, Mr. Wallace has
written specially on the Avifauna of Celebes in his various important works. His separate
ornithological papers concerning the Celehesian Area are; On the Ornithology of Northern
Celebes, Ibis, 1860, 140; List of Birds from the Sula Islands, P. Z. S., 1862, 333; and Note
on Astur griseiceps, Ibis, 1864, 184; hut he treated of different genera and families mono-
graphically in which the Celebes birds play a great part, e. g. ; On the Parrots of the Malay
Begion, P. Z. S., 1864; On the habits and the distribution of the genus Pitta, Ibis, 1864;
On the Pigeons of the Malay Archipelago, Ibis, 1865; Catalogue of the Birds of Prey of the
Malay Archipelago, Ibis, 1868. His ornithological collections are for the greater part in
the British Museum as the “Catalogues of Birds” sIioav, but there are to be found in many
other museums and private collections specimens from his rich harvest, amounting to 8050
specimens, as he himself mentions in the preface of his “Malay Archipelago”. Prioniturus
icaUacei, Alicrostichis ivaUacei^ Macropteryx ^mllacei, Osmotreron wallaeei and Chalcophaps
nxillacei from Celebes, as well as Ceyx ivallacd from Sula were named after him.

c. 1856. Riedel (Johann Gerardus Eriedrich). Dutchman. Born 1832 at Tondano,
North Celebes, where his father was a missionary; educated in Europe. A discourse with
Alexander von Humboldt in Berlin’) and later Mr. Wallace’s presence in Celebes
appear to have had much influence in awakening his interests in Natural Science. From
1853 — 1883 he was in the Civil Service in the East Indian Archipelago (1853 — 1863 in the
Minahassa, 1863 — 1875 in Gorontalo — both in North Celebes — , 1875 — 1878 in Billiton,
1878 — 1880 in Timor, 1880 — 1883 in Amboina). Many papers from his pen on North Celebes
are to he found in Dutch periodicals, but his chief work is: “De sluik-en kroesharige

Rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua”, with many plates (1886). He made extensive ornithological
and other collections everywhere, which he presented to several European Museums. His
birds from Celebes are among other places at Brunswick (see: Z. f. d. ges. Orn. 1886, 81 )^),

Darmstadt (see; Ahh. Naturw. Ver. Bremen V, 35, 1876, and 464, 1877), Dresden (see:

our work), Karlsruhe (see; J. f. 0. 1883, 129), Leyden (see: Schlegel’s Catalogues, etc.),

Paris (to which he presented many consignments from 1864 — 1872), St. Petersburg (see:

Z. f. d. ges. Orn. 1886, 193)2). Phyllergates riedeli and Ardetta riedeli from Celebes were
named after him. Dr. Riedel has been living in Holland since 1883.

c. 1860. Duivenbode (Lodewijk Diederik Hendrik x^lexander van Renesse van)
1832 or 1833 — 1881 or 1882. Dutchman (half-caste of Ternate). Planter and merchant
at Manado. Son of Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode, whom Mr. Wallace
in his “Malay Archipelago” (II, p. 2) calls the King of Ternate. He sent out native hunters
to make large collections of birds in the Minahassa and the neighbouring islands and
presented them in part to Museums (such as the Leyden) and sold others; consequently lots
of birds from “Manado” were in the European market between 1870 — 1880 (see, for instance,
J. f. O. 1883, p. 129), and those in many collections may be traced to this source. They

1) Alexander von Humboldt asked Mr. Riedel among otber things, why there are no large mammals
to be found in Celebes, a question invohdng the whole problem which makes this island so interesting.

2) This collection is not from the Minahassa, as Prof W. Blasius writes, but from Grorontalo, as we know
from Dr. Riedel himself Grorontalo does not belong to the Minahassa.

Introduction; Travel and Literature.

O

bear, however, no exact locality and date and were often mixed up with birds from other
parts of the East Indian Archipelago. He appears to have been induced to collect birds
from the visit of Mr. Wallace to the Minahassa in the year 1859. Eudrepanis duivenhodei
from Sangi was named after him.

1863. Rosenberg (Karl Benjamin Hermann von) 1817 — 1888. German. Lived, with
an interval of two years, from 1840 — 1871 in the East Indian Archipelago, first as soldier,
then draughtsman, next in the Civil Service, finally as naturalist to the government. He
travelled in North and Central Celebes from April 1863 to August 1864 and wrote concerning
it: “Beistochten in de Afdeeling Gorontalo” (Amst. 1865), containing a few ornithological
notes; the chapters on Celebes in his “Malayischen Archipel” (Leipsic 1878 — 1879) with
more extensive remarks on the Avifauna (p. 270 — 279); and “Ein Jager-Eldorado” (Zool.
Garten 1881, 164). His determinations are, however, not throughout trustworthy, as he was
more of a sportsman than of a naturalist. He also sent some hunters to the Sangi Islands
in the year 1 864. During his long stay in the Archipelago he made extensive ornithological
collections, which now are in Darmstadt (see ; Abh. Natw. Ver. Bremen, 1876, Y, 35), Leyden
(see Schlegel’s Catalogues, etc.) and in some other Museums (e. g. Lubeck, see: J. f. 0.
1877, 359; Dresden through von Schierbrand). Strix rosenbergi and Qymnocrex rosenbergi
from Celebes were named after him.

1864. Bernstein (Heinrich Agathon) 1828 — 1865. German. Naturalist. Sojourned
in the East Indian Achipelago from 1855 — 1865, from 1860 onwards as naturalist to the
Government, and died near New Guinea. His extensive ornithological collections are in the
Leyden Museum. Though he did not visit the Celebesian Area personally, except for a short
stay at Macassar, he sent some of his native collectors to the Sula Islands in the year 1864
(see Schlegel’s Catalogues, etc.). Bernstein’s admirable ornithological papers do not concern
Celebes directly. Van Musschenbroek published the diary of his last voyage to New Guinea
(1864 — 1865) in the Bijdr. taal-, land- en volkenk. Ned. Ind. (4) YH, 1, 1883, containing much
valuable information as to this lamented naturalist. Megapodius hernsteini from Sula was
named after him.

1864. Hoedt (Dirk Samuel). Dutchman (half-caste of Amboina); secretary to the
government; a passionate amateur naturalist; was nominated successor to Bernstein. He
collected on Sula Besi and Sula Mangoli (1864) and on Great Sangi and Siao (1865) and
forwarded his ornithological collections to the Leyden Museum (see: Schiedel’s Catalogues,
etc.). He died some time after 1879, but we have not been able to ascertain the year.

1865. Bickmore (Albert S.). Born 1839. American. Naturalist. In the East Indian
Ai’chipelago from 1865 — 1866 (see: Travels in the East Indian Archipelago, London 1868,
transl. into German, 1869, and Dutch, 1873) and sojourned a short time in South Celebes
(June 1865) and in North Celebes (December 1865 till January 1866). He published a fist
of birds collected there in the Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist, as he remarks in his book, but
we have not been able to find it in this Journal nor elsewhere. His ornithological collections
will be in an American Museum. He now is Curator of the department of Public Instruction
in the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

1870. Meyer (Adolf Bernhard). Bom 1840. German. Naturalist. Travelled from
1870 — 1873 in the East Indian Archipelago, having been induced to go out to this part of
the globe in the hope that its innumerable islands would afford the possibility of studying the
variation of species in the Darwinian sense, for the publication of the “Origin of Species”

6

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

had influenced his University studies (1862 — 70), and he selected Celebes to begin with in
consequence of Wallace’s brilliant speculations on the anomalous condition of its fauna, and
on the scientific problems awaiting solution there. He sojourned for over a year in Celebes:
November 1870, Macassar; November — July, Minahassa and the neighbouring islands ; July—
September, G-orontalo, Togian and Central Celebes; September— November, South Celebes;
January 1873, Macassar, Gorontalo, Kema; August 1873, Macassar. His ornithological collec-
tions from there are in Dresden, Berlin, London (British Museum: Walden Collection), etc.;
they amounted to about 4000 specimens. Lord Walden treated of some of them in the
Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. YIII, 1872; in the Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. VIII 1871, IX 1872,
XIV 1874; Meyer himself among other places (see “Literature”) in the J. f. 0. 1873, 404,
where he made knoAvn that he had discovered 14 new species, and 25 which had not yet
been recorded from Celebes; Rowley’s Orn. Misc. 1877 & 1878; Ibis 1879 (field notes); and
Abhildungen von Vogelskeletten 1879—1897. Trichoglossiis meijeri, Oyrtostomus frenatus ojieyeri
from Celebes, and Halcyon meyeri from Togian were named after him. He has translated some
of Wallace’s works into German and has been in charge of the Dresden Museum since 1874.

1870. Conrad (Paul). German. Captain of a trading vessel. He collected 5 species of
birds at Macassar, South Celebes, in 1870, which are probably in the Bremen Museum (see:
Verb. Zool.-hot. Ges. Wien 1873, 341).

1873. Fischer (Georg). German. Army Surgeon in the Dutch Indies. Collected in
Celebes and Borneo and presented his ornithological collection of 1066 specimens from the
Minahassa and Sangi to the Darmstadt Museum (see: Abb. Natw. Ver. Bremen V, 1876, p. 35,
and t. c. 1878, p. 538). Piilo'pus fischeri from Celebes was named after him. In 1880 — 1881
he was stationed at Ternate (see: Bull. Ac. Imp. des Sc. St. Pe'tersb. 1884 XI, p. 109).

1873. Beccari (Odoardo). Born 1843. Italian. Naturalist. Sojourned in the East
Indian Archipelago from 1865 — 1868 (Borneo), from 1871— 1876 (Moluccas, Celebes, New
Guinea), from 1878 — 1879 (Sumatra), and as a scientific collector takes almost equal rank
with Wallace. In 1873 — 1874 he visited the South-eastern Peninsula of Celebes, as well
as the Minahassa and Macassar, and Count Salvadori has described his ornithological
collections from there, now in the Genoa Museum (see: Ann. Mus. Civ. di Stor. Nat. di Gen.
1875, VII, 641). Aethopyga heccarii and Tiirnix beccarii from Celebes were named after him.
He lives at Radda in Chianti near Florence.

1874. Bruijn (Antonins Augustus). Dutchman. He was an officer in the Dutch Navy,
but settled on Ternate as son-in-law of the great merchant M. D. van Renesse van Duiven-
bode (mentioned above p. 4), whose business he carried on after his death. He sent out
hunters with many of his ships and sold the bird-skins collected chiefly in Paris to plumassiers,
but a large and highly valuable collection was presented by him to the Genoa Museum, containing
among others a series from North Celebes and Sangi (see: Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, VH,
p. 641; ib. 1876, IX, p. 50). He died about the year 1880.

1875. Musschenbroek (Samuel Cornelius Jan Willemvan) 1827 — 1883. Dutchman.
Naturalist. In the Civil Service of the Dutch Indies from 1855 — 1877, including a two-
years’ furlough in Europe. He was Resident of the Province of Manado from 1875 — 1876.
Here he collected ornithologically, as indeed he did in all branches of Natural History wherever
he was stationed (Java, Ternate), sending his collections to the Museums of the Netherlands.
He presented (1879) part of his North Celebesian birds to the Dresden Museum, others
to Leyden (see: Notes of the Leyden Museum 1879, I, p. 50). He published some remarks on

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

7

the birds of North Celebes (Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 1877, XXXVI, p. 376), and amongst
his other works we may mention here his large map of the Minahassa (1878, and

that of the Griilf of Tomini and the lands adjoining (1879). As to his sojourn in the Mina-
hassa, see also Rowley’s Orn. Misc. 1878, m, p. 115. As a gentleman of high scientific
attainments he oflered great help to all naturalists visiting the East Indian Archipelago.
Snrniciiliis musschenbroeki from Batjan, now also known from Celebes, was named after him.

1875. Murray (John). Bom 1841. Scotsman (Canada). Naturalist on the “Challenger”
under whose superintendence the ornithological collections were formed, and of whose note-hook,
and of further notes, Mr. Sclater made use in his Report (see: “The Voyage of H. M. 8.
Challenger” 1873—1876, Zoology vol. II, part Vm, 1880). There is, however, only one
species recorded belonging to our area, viz. a Lory from Melangisi), one of the Nanusa
Islands (1. c. p. 115) to the north of Celebes. Specimens are in the British Museum. This
bird was afterwards named Eos challengeri. Dr. Murray lives in Edinburgh as Director
of the Scottish Marine Station for Scientific Research and is a member of the Fishery Board
for Scotland.

1875. Biiltzingslowen (Wulf von). Born 1847. Cxerman, Sportsman, He travelled
in the Minahassa in the year 1875 and brought together there a small collection of birds,
which he presented to the Luheck Museum (see: J. f. 0. 1877, 359). Lives near Berlin.

1876. Faber (F. von). Dutchman. In the Civil Service of the Dutch Indies. He collected
hird-skins in the Minahassa Avhere he stayed at Amurang in the year 187(!, and presented
collections among others to the Dresden and Berlin Museums (as to the latter, see J. f. 0.
1877, 217, and 1883, 121). Subsequently (1881) he collected ornithologically in Sumatra also.
Died after 1886.

1876. Teijsmann (Johannes Elias). 1808 — 1882. Dutchman (of German origin).
Naturalist. Lived at Buitenzorg in Java, from 1830 till his death, as Botanist and as Honorary
Inspector of the Plantations. He made an official voyage in 1876 to the Moluccas and
visited Sula Besi (see Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 1877, XXXVH, p. 88); in 1877 another (be-
sides various journeys in the Archipelago not mentioned here) to South Celebes and Saleyer
(1. c. 1879, XXXVHI, p. 54), and on these occasions he collected birds among other objects.
In Celebes he procured (t. c. p. 121) “893 specimens of skins <5f mammals, birds, etc. in 254
species”. His reports also contain some ornithological notes. He visited Macassar, Pankadjene,
Tjamha, Maros, Bonthain and Loka in South Celebes and Saleyer Island, hut a full description
of his valuable ornithological collection sent to the Leyden Museum was never given.
Rhipidm'a teijsmanni^ Pachycejjhala teijsmcmni and Cyrtostomus teijsmanni were named after
him (s. Notes Leyden Museum 1893, XV, pp. 167, 170, 179). In the year 1860 he had also
visited the Minahassa on a short trip together with Prof, de Vries e, who died soon after-
wards. (See 1. c. 1861, XXHI, pp. 343 — 369.)

1878. Platen (Carl Constantin). Born 1843. German. Naturalist. Was a physician
at Amoy, then collected, chiefly ornithologically, with a short interval in Europe in the
year 1879, in 1878 in South Celebes, 1884 in Malacca, Borneo, the Moluccas and Waigiou,
1884 — 1886 in the Minahassa, North Celebes, 1886 — 1887 on Great Sangi, 1887 — 1892 in
the Philippines, 1892 — 94 on Batjan. The greater part of his collections were sold to the
Brunswick Museum and to Mr. Nehrkorn’s Museum at Riddagshausen near Brunswick;

1) We write Melangis, instead of Meangis, as the former name is on the best Dutch maps.

5

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

other specimens to different museums and collections in Germany and abroad. Dr. Platen
himself wrote about his trips in Celebes and Sangi in the “Gefiederten Welt” 1879, pp. 358,
378, 1887, 193, 264. His hh’ds from Celebes and Sangi were carefully described by Prof.
W. Blasius in the Z. ges. Orn. 1885, 201 (S. Celebes, 1878); Ornis 1892, IV, 527 (Sangi,

1886); and Festscbr. Yers. Naturf. Braunscbw. 1897, p. 277 (N. Celebes, 1884—1886).

Aramidopsis plateni, and Cyrtostomus plateni from Celebes were named after him, and
Criniger platenae after Mrs. Platen, who has always accompanied her husband. He lives
at Barth (Prussia).

c. 1880. Laglaize (Leon). Frenchman. Collecting Naturalist. Made extensive expeditions
in the East Indian Archipelago and sojourned about 1880 in Celebes and Sangi; bis ornitho-
logical collections from there are in the Paris and some other museums.

1882. Ribbe (Carl) and Kiihn (Heinrich). Born 1861 and 1860. Germans. Collecting

naturalists. They made an expedition together in the East Indian Archipelago from 1882
—1885, and visited South and East Celebes in 1882—1883, North and West Celebes (on

a short trip) in 1885; the island of Banggai and East Celebes for the second time were

visited by Mr. Kiihn alone in 1884 — 1885. Part of their ornithological collections from Celebes
came to the Dresden Museum (see Sitzh. Ges. Isis, Dresden, 1884, Abb. 1, pp. 16, 48); for a
general report on this voyage and on a second to the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon
Islands (1892 — 1896) by E. alone, see: Deutsche geogr. Blatter 1895, vol. 18, p. 372.
Concerning Celebes Mr. Eihhe has published: “Ein Sammeltag am Wasserfall von Maros”
(see Krancher’s entomolog. Jahrh. 1893). He is living near Dresden; Mr. Kiihn at Tual in
the Kei Islands as owner of a steam saw-mill.

1883. Guillemard (Francis Henry Hill). Born 1852. Englishman. Naturalist. Visited
North and South Celebes, 1883, during the “Cruise of the Marchesa to Kamtschatka and
New Guinea” (1886, p. 153 — 215: Chapter on Celebes, where there are some notes on birds)
and described his ornithological collections in the Proc. Zool. Soc. of London 1885, 542.
He collected 108 species in Celebes, 3 of Avhich had not been recorded before from there,
though from elsewhere. These are mostly in the Tring Museum. Dr. Guillemard has also
travelled in Lapland and in Africa, and is now living in England at Trumjaington near
Cambridge.

1885. Hickson (Sydney John). Born 1859. Englishman. Naturahst. Made scientific
researches in North Celebes, Sangi and Talaut in 1885 to 1886 and gave some notes on
the birds there (see: “A Naturalist in North Celebes”, 1889, Appendix B, p. 360). His ornitho-
logical collections, winch are, however, small, are in the Cambridge Museum. He now is
Professor of Zoology at the Owens College, Manchester.

1888. Weber (Max Carl Wilhelm). Born 1852. German. Naturalist. Professor of
Zoology at Amsterdam. During an exploring ex]3edition in the East Indian Archipelago
(1888—1889) he visited South and Central Celebes and the Island of Saleyer, and procured
97 sj)ecies of birds in 234 sj)ecimens in Celebes (of which, however, only 2 species of wide
distribution were as yet unknown from the island) and 14 species in 22 specimens in Saleyer.
These collections are partly in the Leyden Museum, partly in the Zoological Museum of the
University of Amsterdam. (See: “Zoologische Ergebnisse einer Eeise in Niederlandisch Ost-
Indien”, 1894, HI, p. 269.)

1890. Radde (Gustav Ferdinand Eichard). Born 1831. German. Naturalist.
AccomjDanied two Eussian Grand-dukes on a voyage to the East and visited the Island of

Introduction; Travel and Literature.

9

Buton and South-east Celebes in 1890. He has not published a report on the ornithological
collections made here, unless it he in the work brought out by the Grand-dukes in Russian.
A chapter of this work, from the pen of Dr. Radde, on Buton and South Celebes aj)peared
in German in the journal “Globus” 1896, vol. 69, p. 151, wherein are some ornithological
notes (s. pp. 172, 189), but the determinations are not trustworthy, and have, therefore, not
been quoted in this book. Dr. Radde is Director of the Museum of Tiflis, where, or elsewhere
in Russia, this collection may now be.

1892. Cursham (Charles W.). Dutchman (half-caste of Celebes). Merchant at Manado,
North Celebes, who had collected birds there before 1892, which may be in some museum.
Was engaged by Dr. Meyer and the Hon. W. Rothschild to form another collection and
sent out native hunters from 1892 — 1896 to some parts of the Minahassa and the small
neighbouring islands, and to the Sangi, Talaut and Banggai Groups (see: J. f. 0. 1894, 237,
and Abh. Ber. Mus. Dresden 1894/5 Nr. 4, Nr. 9; 1896/7 Nr. 2). In our work specimens
from this source are marked: “native collectors” or “native hunters” (“nat. coll.”, “nat,
hunt.”) and some of these skins have passed into other museums also.

1893. Sarasin (Paul and Fritz). Born 1856 and 1859. Swiss. Naturalists. The
cousins Sarasin spent the years 1884 — 1886 in Ceylon and published the results of their
investigations in the great work entitled: “Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf
Ceylon” (1887 — 1893). From 1893—1896 they were in Celebes, viz. 1893—1894 in North
Celebes, 1895 in central parts, 1895—1896 in the South (see: Zeitschr. Ges. Erdkunde Berlin
1894, XXIX, 351; 1895, XXX, 226, 311; 1896, XXXI, 21; and Yerh. Ges. Erdkunde
Berlin 1896, 337; with 5 maps). No naturalists before them have made such a thorough
and many-sided exploration of the Island, and contributions of the highest importance are to
be expected from their pen, for as yet they have only begun to publish some of their results.
They collected in nearly every branch of Natural History and Ethnography, and we had the
privilege of receiving their ornithological specimens in 9 different consignments during the
time we were writing this book (see: J. f. O. 1894, 153; Abh. Ber. Mus. Dresden 1894/95,
Nr. 4 and Nr. 8; 1896/97, Nr. 1), which has reached a much higher standard through their
welcome aid, as may be seen on almost every page. We are, therefore, deeply indebted to
Dr. P. & Dr. F. Sarasin. They obtained 207 species on the mainland of Celebes, 10 of
Avhich proved to be new to science and 12 others not yet known from Celebes. Their ornitho-
logical collections are for the most part in the Museum at Basel, where they live; they also
presented some valuable specimens to the Dresden Museum. Myxa sarasinorum , Zostei'ops
sarasinwiim and Crypiolopha sarasinorum were named after them.

1894. Kiikenthal (Willy). Born 1861. German. Naturalist. When on his exploring
expedition into the East Indian Archipelago from 1893 — 1894 spent a few weeks (in June
and July 1894) in North Celebes and collected some birds there, which are now in the
Senckenberg Museum at Frankfort. Dr. Kiikenthal is Professor of Zoology at Jena.

1895. Everett (Alfred Hart). Born 1848. Englishman. Naturalist. Has collected birds,
etc., beginning about 1870, in the East Indian Archipelago, viz. in Borneo (see his “List of the
Birds of the Bornean Group of Islands”: J. Str. Br. R. As. Soc. 1889, Nr. XX), the Philip-
pines (see Ibis 1872, and Proc. ZooL Soc. 1877 — 1879), Natuna, Savu, Lombok, Timor, etc.
(see Novit. Zool. 1893 and 1896), and visited South Celebes and the islands to the south in
1895 (see Novit. Zool. 1896, pp. 69, 148, 256; 1897, 170). His ornithological collections
are chiefly in the British and Tring Museums, but many of his duplicates are to be found
elsewhere, for instance, in the Dresden Museum. Androphilus everetti from South Celebes,

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (May 4th 189S).

9

10

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

Pachycephala everetti and Monarcha everetti from the Island of Djampea were named after
him. He has been during most of this time in the Sarawak Government Service, and now
resides in Lahuan, when not engaged in zoological collecting.

1895. Hose (Charles and Ernest). Born 1863 and 1872, Englishman. Visited the
hlinahassa, on a collecting trip in 1895. Charles, the elder brother, had already explored
the mountainous parts of North Borneo and made extensive collections there; he has written
about the mammals and bhds of Borneo (1893). He is in the service of the Bajah of Sarawak,
as Besident of the Province of Baram. Bicaeum hosei from Celebes was named after him.
Ernest Hose also lives in Sarawak, when not engaged in collecting work.

1896. Doherty (William). American from Cincinnati. Naturahst, He has travelled
extensively for many years in Europe, Persia, India and the East Indian Archipelago
and Vsited South Celebes in 1887 and 1891, South and West Celebes (Palos Bay) in 1896,
Talaut in 1892 and Sula in 1898. His ornithological collections are cliiefly in the Tring
Museum (see: Nov. Zool. 1896, 153). Pitta dohertyi from Sula was named after him, this
species, however, could not be treated of in our book, as it was not described until after
we had finished. He is highly distinguished as a hnguist and entomologist and has written
a great deal on Lepidoptera from India. He is still travelling in the East.

1897. Waterstradt (Johannes). Born 1869. Dane. Collecting naturalist. Has made
extensive expeditions in Ceylon, Malacca and the East Indian Archipelago (chiefly Borneo)
since 1888 and sent his Bornean hunters to the Talaut Islands in 1897. The ornithological
collections of this expedition are in the Tring Museum (see: Nov. Zool. 1898, 88). He is
still collecting, and is settled for the moment in Lahuan.

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

11

Special List of Literature on the Birds of Celebes/)

1850. Gould J. The Birds of Asia. 1850—1883. 7 vols. folio (completed by E. B. Sharpe).
1857. Schlegel H. Handleiding tot de heoefening der dierlmnde. Vol. I 1857. 530 pages.

8 plates in folio.

1860. Wallace A. E. On the ornithology of Northern Celebes. Ibis p. 140—7.

1862. Schlegel H. Museum d’Histoire Naturelle des Pays-Bas. Eevue methodique et critique

des collections. 1862—1880. 7 vols. and 1 vol. Index by P. A. Jentink.

1862. Wallace A. E. List of Birds from the Sula Islands (east of Celebes), with descriptions

of the New Species. P. Z. S. p. 333 — 46. Plates XXXVIII — XL.

1863. Schlegel H. De Vogels van Nederlandsch Indie (Pitta, Ijsvogels, Valkvogels). 1863

— 1866. 3 parts 4T 185 pages, 50 plates.

1864. Wallace A. E. Note on Astur griseiceps, Schlegel. Ibis p. 184, plate V.

1865. Pinsch 0. Neu-Guinea und seine Bewohner. 185 pages. (On p. 154—85 list of

Birds including Celebes.)

1866. Schlegel H. Observations Zoologiques I. Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk. Ill p. 181 — 213.
1868. Bickmore A. S. Travels in the East Indian Archipelago,

1868. Sharpe E. B. A monograph of the Alcedinidae. 1868 — 1871. 4T LXXXII+ 304 pages,

120 plates.

1869. Wallace A. E. The Malay Archipelago. 2 vols. XXIV + 1002 pages. (German

edition by A. B. Meyer, in the same year.)

1871. Meyer A. B. Brief liber Merops Porsteni von Celebes. J. f. 0. p. 231 — 2 (translated

in Gould’s Birds of Asia vol. I pi. 39 1873).

1871. Walden A. On a new species of Trichoglossus (T. Meyeri) from Celebes. Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. (4) VHI p. 281 — 2.

1872. Cahanis J. [Note on Oriolus formosus n. sp.] J. f. 0. p. 392 — 3.

1872. Walden A. Description of a supposed new species of Cuckoo from Celebes. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) IX p. 305 — 6.

1872. Walden A. On some supposed new species of Birds from Celebes and the Togian

Islands. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) IX p. 398 — 401.

1872. Walden A. A List of the Birds known to inhabit the Island of Celebes. Tr. Z. 8.

VHI p. 23—108, Plates HI— X.

1872. Walden A. Appendix to a List of Birds known to inhabit the Island of Celebes.

Tr. Z. 8. VHI p. 109-98, Plates XI— XIH.

1873. Cahanis J, [Note on Gerygone flaveola n. sp.] J. f. 0, p. 157 — 8.

1873. Pinsch 0. und P. Conrad. Ueber eine Vogelsammlung aus Ostasien. Verb. ZooL-

hot. Ges. Wien p. 341 — 61 (5 species from Celebes).

1873. Meyer A. B. Notiz liber die Vogel von Celebes. J. f. 0. p. 404 — 5.

1873. Pelzeln A. v, [Liste von Vogeln grosstentheils aus Celebes.] Verb. Zool.-bot. Ges.

Wien p. 10 of sep. copy.

1873. 8harpe E. B. On three new species of Birds. P, Z. 8. p. 625 — 6 (1 new species from

Celebes).

1874. Walden A. Descriptions of some new species of Birds. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4)

XIV p. 156—8 (1 new species from Togian).

1) Wliere not otherwise specialized the hook is octavo.

2*

12

Introduction; Ti^ayel and Literature.

1874. Sharpe, Seehohm, Sclater, Gradow, Hartert, Grant, Hargitt, Salvadori,

Salvin, Saunders: Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum.
27 volumes. 1874 — 1898.

1875. Gould J. The Birds of New Guinea and the adjacent Paiman Islands. 1875—1888.

5 vols. folio (completed by B. B. Sharpe),

1875. Gurney J. H. Notes on a “Catalogue of the Accipitres in the British Museum”. Ibis

p. 87 et seq. (These notes continue till 1882 and contain remarks on many
of the Birds of Prey of Celebes.)

1875. Meyer A. B. [Ueber Corylhs.] Gef. Welt IV p. 229 — 30.

1875. Meyer A. B. Ornithologische Mittheilungen I, Mitth.Zool. Mus. Dresden vol. I p. 19. 4‘«.

1875. Murray J. Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger. Zoology vol. II part YUl p. 115. 4‘®.

1875. Pelzeln A. v. Africa-Indien. Verb. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien p. 33 — 62.

1875. Salvadori T, Intorno a due collezioni di uccelli di Celebes inviate al Museo civico

di Genova dal Dr. O. Beccari e dal Sig. A. A. Bruijn. Note. Ann. Mus.
Civ. di Stor. Nat. di Genova VII p. 641—81, Tav. XVIII.

1876. Briiggemann F. Beitrage zur Ornithologie von Celebes und Sangir. Abb. Naturw.

Ver. Bremen V p. 35 — 102, Taf. DI— IV

1876. Koch G. V. Verzeichniss einer Sammlung von Vogelbalgen aus Celebes und Sanghir,

welche vom Grossherz. Zoologischen Museum zu Darmstadt im Tausche
Oder gegen Baarzahlung zu erhalten sind.

1876. Pelzeln A. v. Ueber eine . . . Sendung von Vogelbalgen. Verb. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien

p. 716 — 20, Taf. XIII,

1876. Salvadori T. Intorno a due piccole collezioni di Uccelli, Tuna di Petta (Isole Sanghir)

e r altra di Tifore e di Batang ketcil, inviate dal Signor A. A. Bruijn
al Museo Civico di Genova, nota. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova IX p. 50 — 65.

1876. Salvadori T. [Letter on Celebes Birds.] Bus p. 385 — 6.

1876. Shelley G. E. A monograph of the Nectariniidae or family of Sun-Birds. 1876 —

1880. CVTII + 393 pages, 121 plate.s. 4<'‘.

1876. Wallace A. B. The Geographical Distribution of Annuals, 2 vols. XXXII -f- 1 1 08 pag.

(German edition by A. B. Meyer, in the same year.)

1877. Briiggemann F. Nachtragliche Notizen zur Ornithologie von Celebes. Abh. Naturw.

Ver. Bremen V p. 464 — 6.

1877. Lenz H. Mittheilungen iiber malaGsche Vogel. J. f. 0. p. 359 — 82.

1877. van Musschenbroek S. C. J. W. Jets over de Fauna van Noord-Celebes en zijne

naaste omgeving. Nat. T. Ned. Ind. XXXVI p. 376 — 84.

1877. Beichenow A. [Note on Bh’ds from Celebes.] J. f. 0. p. 217 — 8.

1877. Bowley G. D. [and A. B. Meyer]. Broderipus formosus (Cab.). Orn. hlisc. D p. 227

—9, plate LVI. 4*0.

1877. Bowley G. D. [and A. B. Meyer]. On a few species belonging to the genus Loriculus.

Orn. Misc. II p. 231 — 54, plates LVH — LX. 4*°.

1877. Bowley G. D, [and A. B. Meyer]. On the Genus Pitta. Orn. Misc. IT p. 259 — 69,

321 — 3, plates LXII, LXIV — V. 4'-'^.

1877. Salvadori T. Intorno alle specie di Nettarinie della Papuasia, delle Molucche e del

gruj)po di Celebes. Note. Atti d. B. Acad. Sc, Torino XU p. 299—321.

1877. Teijsmann J. E. [Beport on a journey to the Moluccas with the mention of some

birds from Sula Besi.] Nat. T, Ned. Ind. XXXVII p. 75 — 148.

1878. Fischer G. Bemerkungen iiber zweifelhafte celebensische Vogel. Abh. Naturw. Ver.

Bremen V p. 538.

1878. Meyer A. B. Description of two sj>ecies of Birds from the Malay Archij)elago.

Bowley’s Orn. Misc. DI p. 163 — 4, 4^®.

Introduction : Travel and Literature.

13

1878. E-eichenow A. Yogelbilder aus fernen Zonen. Abbildungen und Beschreibungen der

Papageien. 1878 — 1883. Polio. 33 plates and letter-press.

1878. V. Rosenberg H. Der Malayische Archipel. Land und Leute. 615 pages, 2 maps.

1878. Rowley G. D. [and A. B. Meyer]. Domicella coccinea (Latham). Orn. Misc. Ill

p. 123 — 9, plate XCym.

1878. Rowley G. D. [and A. B. Meyer]. On the genus Cittiira. Orn. hRsc. Ill, p. 131 — 43,

plates XCIX— on.

1878. Salvador! T. Descrizione di trentuna specie nuove di uccelli della sotto regione

papuana, e note intorno ad altre poco conosciute. Ann. Mus. Oiv.
Genova XII p. 317 — 47.

1878. Salvador! T. Descrizione di tre nuove specie di uccelli e note intorno ad altre poco

conosciute delle isole Sanghir. Atti d. R. Accad. d. Sc. Torino XIII
p. 1184—9.

1878. Sharpe R. B. On the collections of Birds made by Dr. Meyer during his expedition

to New Guinea and some neighbouring Islands. Mitth. Zool. Mus.
Dresden DI p. 349—72, plates XXVIII— XXX.

1879. Meyer A. B. Field Notes on the Birds of Celebes. Ibis p. 43 — 70, 125—47.

1879. Meyer A. B. [On Pitta Forsteni] in Gould’s Birds of New Guinea vol. IV, letter-

press to plate 30. Fob

1879. Meyer A. B. Abbildungen von Vogelskeletten. 2 vols. 1879 — 1897. XXXVIII -f-

192 pages, 242 plates. 4^°.

1879. Platen C. C. Reisesldzzen aus Slid-Celebes. Gef. Welt p. 358 — 60, 378 — 81.

1879. Schlegel H. On Strix inexj^ectata. Notes Leyden Mus. I p. 50—2.

1879. Schlegel H. On an undescribed species of Ardea. Notes Leyden Mus. I H3 — 4.

1879. Teijsmann J. E. [Report on a journey to South Celebes with the mention of some

birds of South Celebes and Saleyer.] Nat. T. Ned. Ind. XXXVIII
p. 54—125.

1880. Frenzel A. [and A. B. Meyer]. TJeber Fledermauspapageien (Gattung Coryllis).

Monatsschr. D. Ver. Schutze Vogelwelt p. 8 — 28, with plate.

1880. Legge W. V. A History of the Birds of Ceylon. XLVI -[- 1237 pages, 34 plates. 4*«.

1880. Meyer A. B. De Vogels van Celebes. Een Handboek voor de Ingezetenen van bet

Eiland. Prospectus in Dutch and Malay, 4 pages, with plate (5 sp. of King-
fishers fig.). 4‘*». (Never j>ublished on account of insufficient subscriptions.)

1880. Meyer A. B. [Letter on Streptocitta torquata and caledonica.] Ibis p. 249 and 373,

1880. Oustalet E. Monographie des oiseaux de la Famille des Megapodides. Ann. Sc.

nat. Paris 6. ser. X, Art. Nr. 5. 60 pages, pi. 20 — 23; XI, Ai’t. Nr. 2.

182 pages, pi. 2 — 3.

1880. Salvador! T. Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche. 3 vol. and 3 App.

1881 — 91. XLIH -f- 2119 pages, 4*“.

1880. Schlegel H. On an undescribed Bird of the Timalia- Group. Malia grata. Notes

Leyden Mus. II p. 165—7.

1880. Wallace A. R. Island Life: or, the phenomena and causes of Insular Faunas and

Floras. XVII -f- 526 pages.

1881. Blasius W. Ueber eine Sendung von Vogeln aus Nord-Celebes. Braunschweigische

Anzeigen Nr. 247 (newspaper!) and Gef. Welt p. 534.

188L Meyer A. B. [Letter on Gymiiophaps poecilorrhoa and Ptilopus Fischeri.] Ibis

p. 169—70.

1881. Meyer A. B. Ueber Vogel von einigen der siidostlichen Inseln des malajdschen

Archipels. Verb. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien p. 759 — 74.

14

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

1881. Oiistalet E. Notes d’Ornithologie. (2® serie.) Bull. Soc. pliilomath. Paris 7® ser.

vol. V 18 pages (1 new species from Sangi).

1881. v. Rosenberg H. Ein Jager-Eldorado. Zool. Garten p. 164 — 8.

1882. Elliot D. G. A monograph of the Bucerotidae. XXXII pages, 59 plates with

letter-press. Eolio.

1883. Blasius W. Ueber neue und zweifelhafte Vogel von Celebes. (Vorarbeiten zu einer

Vogelfauna der Insel.) J. f. 0. p. 1 13 — 62.

1883. Sharpe R. B. Notes on some species of Birds of the Eamily Dicaeidae. P. Z. S,

p. 578 — 80 (1 new species from Sula).

1884. D res ser H. E. A monograph of the Meropidae. 1884 — 1886. XX -f- 144 pages,

34 plates. Eolio.

1884. Meyer A. B. Ueber neue und ungeniigend bekannte Vogel, Nester und Eier aus dem

Ostindischen Archipel im K. Zoologiscben Museum zu Dresden. Sitzber.
u. Abb. der naturw. Ges. Isis Dresden. Abb. 1 . 64 pages.

1884. Salvador! T. Remarks on the 8. and 9. Vol. of the “Catalogue of Birds”. Ibis

p. 322 — 9 (among others some remarks on Celebes Birds).

1885. Bla sius W. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vogelfauna von Celebes. I. Vogel von

Slid-Celebes, 1878 gesammelt von Herrn Dr. Platen bei Mangkassar und
im District Tjamba. (Mit vier colorirten Tafeln.) Z. fiir d. ges. Orn.
p. 201—328, Taf. XI— XIV.

1885. Guillemard E, H. H. Report on the Collection of Birds obtained during the Voyage

of the Yacht “Marchesa” — Part IV. Celebes. P. Z. S. p. 542 — 61.

1885. Sharpe R. B. and C. W. Wyatt. A monograph of the Hirundinidae , or family of

Swallows. 2 vols. LXXV -f- 673 pages, 129 plates. 4*®.

1886. Blasius W. Ueber Vogel von Celebes. Braunschweigische Anzeigen Nr. 52. (Newspaper!)

1886. Blasius W. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vogelfauna von Celebes. II. Vogel von

Nord-Celebes, 1866 und 1867 gesammelt in der Minahassa und 1868 dem
Herz. Naturhist. Museum in Braunschweig geschenkt von Herrn Resident
J. G. E. Riedel, damals in Gorontalo. Z. flir d. ges. Orn. jj. 81 — 179.

1886. Blasius W. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vogelfauna von Celebes. IH. Vogel von

Nord-Celebes, gesammelt in der INIinahassa und zu verschiedenen Zeiten
(hauptsachlich 1869 und 1876) dem Zool. Museum der Kais. Akad. der
Wiss. zu St. Petersburg geschenkt von Herrn Resident J. G. E. Riedel,
damals in Gorontalo. Z. fiir d. ges. Orn. p. 193 — 210.

1886. Guillemard E. H. H. The Cruise of the Marchesa to Kamtschatka and New Guinea.

2 vols. LIV -h 683 pages.

1887. Blasius W. [Notiz iiber Sangi-Vogel.] Braunschweigische Anzeigen Nr. 75 p. 695.

(Newspaper!)

1887. Meyer A. B. [Ueber Coryllis catamene Schh] Gef. Welt XVI p. 264—5. 4^®.

1887. Platen C. C. Ornithologische Skizzen aus der Minahassa. Gef. Welt p. 193 — 4,

205—6, 217—9, 230—1. 4^°.

1887. Platen C. C. Der Eledermauspapagei von Sangir (Coryllis catamene, Schh). Gef.

Welt p. 263 — 4. 4*®.

1888. Blasius W. [Notiz iiber Sangi-Vogel.] Braunschweigische Anzeigen Nr. 9 p. 86

(Newspaper!) and Russ’ Isis p. 78. 4*®.

1888. Blasius W. Die Vogel von Gross-Sanghir (mit bes. Beriicksichtigung der in den

Jahren 1886 und 1887 von Herrn Dr. Platen und dessen Gemahlin bei
Manganitu auf Gross-Sanghir ausgefiihrten orn. Eorschungen) nebst einem
Anhange iiber die Vogel von Siao. Mit 2 Tafeln. Ornis IV p. 527 — 646,
Taf. HI- IV.

Introduction: Travel and Literature. 15

1889. Hickson S. J. A Naturalist in North Celebes. With Maps and Illustrations. 392 pages.

1890. Meyer A. B. Brush-Turkeys on the Smaller Islands North of Celebes. Nature vol.

XLI p. 514 — 5. 4*°.

1892. Blittikofer J. A Eeview of the Genus Rhipidura. Notes Leyden Mus. XY p. 65

— 110 (2 new species p. 79 and 80).

1892. Buttikofer J. On Merula javanica and its nearest allies. Notes Leyden Mus. XV

p. 107 — 10 (1 new species p. 109).

1892. Meyer A. B. [Letter on the Togian Islands.] Ibis p. 178—80.

1893. Buttikofer J. On two new species of Pachyeephala from South Celebes. Notes

Leyden Mus. XY p. 167 — 8.

1893. Buttikofer J. On two neiv species of the genus Stoparola from Celebes. Notes

Leyden Mus. XY p. 169 — 70.

1893. Buttikofer J. On two new species of Birds from South Celebes. Notes Leyden

Mus. XY p. 179 — 81.

1893. Buttikofer J. On two new species of Birds from Java and Celebes. Notes Leyden

Mus. XY p. 260 — 1.

1893. Dresser H. E. A monograph of the Coraciidae. XX -f 1 1 1 pages, 27 i^lates. Folio.
1893. Elliot D. G. A monograph of the Pittidae. 1893 — 1895. XXYH pages, 51 plates

and letter-press. Folio.

1893. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Leucotreron fischeri meridionalis n. suhsp.

Orn. Monatsber. I p. 12 — 3.

1891. Buttikofer J. Ornithologische Sammlungen aus Celebes, Saleyer und Flores.

Weber’s Zool. Erg. HE p. 269 — 306, Taf. XYH — XYIH. 4Y

1894. Grant W. R. 0. On the Birds of the Philippine Islands. II. Ibis p. 519 (I new

species from Celebes).

1894. Meyer A. B. Neue Yogel aus dem Ostindischen Archipel. Abb. u. Ber. Mus. Dresden

1894/5, Nr. 2. 4 pages, with plate. 4*®.

1894. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Neue Yogel von Celebes. Abb. u. Ber. Mus.

Dresden 1894/5 Nr. 4. 3 pages. 4*'‘>.

1894. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Beschreibung einiger neuen Yogel der

Celebes-Region. J. f. 0. XLH p. 113 — 6.

1894. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wigles worth. Ueber eine erste Sammlung von Yogeln

von den Talaut Inseln. J. f. 0. XLH p. 237 — 53, Taf. HE.

1894. Sara sin P. und F. Reiseberichte aus Celebes. I. ITeberlandreise von Menado nacb

Gorontalo. H. Erforschung des Bone-Flusses. Z. Ges. Erdk. Berlin
XXIX p. 351 — 401 (with notes on birds).

1895. Buttikofer J. A Revision of the genus Turdinus and genera allied to it. Notes

Leyden Mus. XYH p. 65 — 106.

1895. Sarasin P. und F. Reiseberichte aus Celebes. HI. Yon Buol nacb dem Golf von

Tomini. Z. Ges. Erdk. Berlin XXX p. 226 — 34. lY. Reise durch Central-
Celebes vom Golf von Boni naeli dem Golf von Tomini. Ibid p. 311 — 52
(with notes on birds).

1895. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Bericht iiber die von den Herren P. und

F. Sarasin in Nord-Celebes gesammelten Yogel. Abh. u. Ber, Mus. Dresden
1894/5 Nr. 8. 20 pages. 4^*^.

1895. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Eine zweite Sammlung von Yogeln von den

Talaut Inseln. Abh. u. Ber. Mus. Dresden 1894/5 Nr. 9. 9 pages. 4*^®.

1896. Blasius W. Yogel von Pontianak (West -Borneo) und anderen Gegenden des indo-

malayischen Gebietes. Mitth. Geogr. Ges. Llibeck 2. Reihe Heft X p. 90
— 145 (p. 124 — 5 on Celebes birds).

16

Introduction: Travel and Literature.

1896. Hartert E. Preliminary descriptions of some new Birds from the mountains of

Southern Celebes. Nov. Zool. Ill p. 69—71.

1896. Hartert E. On ornithological collections made by Mr. Alfred Everett in Celebes

and the Islands south of it. Nov. Zool. IH p. 148 — 83.

1896. Hartert E. A few additions to former Notes. Nov. Zool. HI p. 255 — 6.

1896. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Bericht iiher die 5. bis 7. Yogelsammlung

der Herren Dr. P. und Dr. E. Sarasin aus Celebes. Abh. u. Ber. Mus.
Dresden 1896/7 Nr. 1. 17 pages.

1896. Meyer A. B. und L. W. Wiglesworth. Eine Yogelsammlung von Nordost-Celebes und

den Inseln Peling und Banggai. Mit einer Karte. Abh. u. Ber. Mus.
Dresden 1896/7 Nr. 2. 20 pages. 4^®.

1896. Mivart St. Gr. A monograph of the Lories. LHI + 193 pages, 51 plates. 4*°.
1896. Badde Gf. Besuch auf Buton und Siid-Celehes. Globus, Band 69 p. 151 — 5, 171

—74. 4*0.

1896. Sarasin F. Durchquerung von Sildost-Celebes. Yerh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin p. 339 — 57

(with notes on birds).

1897. Hartert E. Das Tierreich. l.Lief. Aves; Podargidae, Caprimulgidae und Macroptery-

gidae. 98 pages.

1897. Hartert. E. On some necessary and some desirable changes of names . . . Nov. Zool.

lY p. 11.

1897. Hartert E. Mr. William Doherty’s Bird-Collections from Celebes. Nov. Zool lY

p. 153—66.

1897. Hartert E. Descriptions of . . . one ne^v subspecies from Djampea. Nov. Zool. lY

p. 172.

1897. Sharpe B,. B. [Dicaeum bosh n. sp.] Ibis p. 449,

1897. Blasius W. Neuer Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Yogelfauna von Celebes. (Nach Samm-

lungen des Herrn Dr. C. Platen von Burukan in der Minahassa, Nord-
Celebes. Mit einer Farbentafel. Festschrift der herz. Techn. Hochschule
bei Gelegenheit der 69. Yers. D. Ntf. u. Aerzte in Braunschweig p. 275
— 395. (Too late for our letter-press.)

1898. Hartert E. List of a collection of Birds from the Island of Lirung or Salibabu, the

largest of the Talaut Group. Nov. Zool. Y p. 88 — 91. (Too late for our
letter-press.)

1898. Bothschild W. [2 new sj>ecies from Sula Mangoli.] Bull Br. Orn. Club Nr. LI

p. XXXHI— lY. (Too late for our letter-press.)

1898. H artert E. [On Surniculus musschenbroeki from Macassar]. Nov. Zool. Y p. 119,

note. (Too late for our letter-press.)

1898. Hartert E. List of a collection of Birds made in the Sula Islands by AYilliam

Doherty. Nov. Zool, Y Nr. 2. (Too late for our letter-press.)

2. SEASONS AND WINDS
IN THE EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO.

See Maps III and IV.

The red colour on the maps denotes ^jbie season'\ the blue colour '^rainy season”,
while purple distinguishes districts where it would he incorrect to term the period either
wet or fine. The arrows fly with the wind. The short arrows distributed over the
Archipelago show the persistence of the wind in the given direction ( those grouprd
5 mm apart denoting 50 per cent of the winds as coming more or less directly from
the quarter indicated, those 4 mm apart denoting 60 per cent, and so on). The long
arrows, chiefly outside the Archipelago, demonstrate the prevailing direction of the wind
during the sioo months concerned, without reference to percentage. .

It should be observed that our sketch-maps are more or less arbitrary and
hypothetical, for data have not been accurately recorded from all parts, and others are
hidden in papers in periodicals or in special works, and were not consulted, as lying
too far from the aims of this book. We have been obliged to satisfy ourselves with
an approximately correct picture of the winds and rains of the Archipelago, and this
remark refers both to the arroivs on our maps and to the colours. The general results
and general points of view of our reasoning will not be greatly affected, even if some one
should prove that there are faults here and there in our maps, which we are very
ready to concede.

Among the many causes which effect the dispersal and the distribution of
birds (cf. A. K. Wallace, Geogr. Distr. Anim. vol. I, chap. Ill, 1876), winds and
seasons play an important part — the winds directly by carrying birds involun-
tarily to new lands, or in offering barriers to their wandering across certain
zones; the seasons indirectly by their influence upon the abundance or scarcity
of food, which forms the strongest of several motives for migration and local
movements. In temperate and cold climes the alternation of the seasons, summer
and winter, is, as it were, accompanied by a flow and ebb of vital energy in
the vegetable kingdom expressed in the sprouting of foliage and the fall of the
leaf of deciduous trees, and, at the approach of the cold season, insects, such as
feed upon leaves and flowers, etc., hibernate or perish with the disappearance
of their food, seeds and grain are buried or hidden under snow, molluscs and

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (3Iay 4th, iggS).

3

18

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

batrachians hibernate; consequently, most insectivorous, granivorous and other
birds betake themselves at this season to warmer latitudes, the majority invad-
ing the countries and islands of the tropics , where specimens often fall to the
gun or blow -pipe of the collector, sometimes to be named as new species or
subspecies by learned ornithologists at home. Amongst the endemic birds of
tropical countries, such as the East Indian Islands, periodic wanderings across
the sea are very rare (though not unknown amongst certain Pigeons); the birds
do not as a rule shift their quarters in an extensive manner, for they have not
far to go to find the needed food, since one side of an island often has its dry
season when the other has its wet one, and the highlands in general an entirely
different climate from that of the districts near the sea-shore or the plains.
Birds, therefore, need not cross the sea to find new feeding-grounds; it is
probable however that local movements, depending upon the ripening of certain
fruits or blossoming of flowers (see, for instance in the text, Meyer’s obser-
vations on some small Parrots in Celebes, pp. 122, 150, 159) are common, and
the food-supply seems to be regulated by the season. The seasons are determined
in the East Indies by the monsoons, the monsoons themselves by the position
of the sun over the greater masses of land.

Monsoons of the East Indian Archipelago. — In consequence of the superior
power of the sun about the equator, the heated atmosphere there rises, and
an indraught of the cooler air from the north and the south flows in to supply
its place, taking the form of N.E. and S.E., instead of due North and South,
winds, owing to the rotation of the earth. These are the Trade-winds, which
blow with a general regularity from year’s end to year’s end over most of the
Pacific and over parts of the other great Oceans. The return of the rising
equatorial air through higher strata towards the north and south, its meeting
in the upper atmosphere with high N.E. and S.E. Trade-winds blowing from the
Poles, their stopping one another, piling up and descending to the globe about
lat. 30° — 35*^ N. and S., giving rise to a high barometer and zones of calms
(cf. Maury, Phys. GeogT. Sea, IT^ ed. 1869 p. 80), the starting from these belts
of the true Trade-winds and of low winds returning towards the Poles, are questions
upon which the meteorologist may be consulted, but which need not further
concern the weather-chart of the Archipelago. Here, there are four principal
winds, two north of the equator and two south of it, which blow alternately
throughout the year generally speaking without much interruption, except at
the periods of the shifting of the winds, the N.E. and S.E., which blow each for
about half a year, when they are displaced by other winds, the true Monsoons.

The South-west Monsoon. — When the sun in the Northern Hemisphere
draws towards the Tropic of Cancer (our summer), the plains and table-lands
of Asia become greatly heated^), and the N.E. Trade-wind, instead of continuing

1) “L’ete de Pekin, qui est sous le quarantieme degre de latitude, donne une moyenne de chaleurs egale a
celle du Oaire (30° lat.), et son liiver, une moyenne de froids egale de celle d’Upsal (60° lat.)” (David, N. Arch, du
Mus. 2e ser., 1885, VIII, 5).

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

19

to blow towards the parts of the Indian Ocean and islands about the equator,
now no longer the hottest quarter, stops, and, turning back, commences to move
towards the heated Continent as the S.W. Monsoon. This wind is general
from about April to October in the Indian Ocean and the East Indian
Archipelago north of the equator, sometimes extending as far east as the
Marianne Islands and as far north as the south of Japan.

The South-east Monsoon. — During the time that the sun continues north
of the equator and the South-west Monsoon is blowing, the S.E. Trade-wind
in general has free course in the Southern Tropics, and from April to October
is the wind of the East Indian Archipelago south of the equator,
where it is commonly spoken of as the South-east Monsoon. The general
direction of it and of the S.W. Monsoon of the Northern East Indies is shown
on Map III.

The North-east Monsoon. — When the sun, at the autumnal equinox, passes
into the southern hemisphere, the N.E. Trade-wind reasserts itself in the parts
where it has had to give way to the S.W. Monsoon, and, displacing that wind,
it blows from some time in October, to April. It is then the prevailing
wind of the Archipelago nortli of the equator.

The North-ivest Monsoon. — At this time of the year, in the zone of calms
about the equator between the N.E. and S.E. Trade-winds, a westerly monsoon,
unaccountable to meteorologists at the time of Maury’s celebrated work (1869),
sets oif and blows in a narrow, curved belt across nearly the whole width of
the great oceans; much, one may suppose, as the return current flows back
towards the buttresses of the bridge under which a swift river passes. Out of
this belt there arises the N.W. Monsoon of Australia and the East Indies south
of the equator. Corresponding with the S.W. Monsoon of the north of the
equator, the N.W. Monsoon evidently is originated by the heating of the interior
of Australia and New Guinea during the southern summer, and it is the
prevailing wind throughout the Archipelago from the equator south-
wards during the period October to April. See Map IV.

The Rains: north of the equator. — Between April and October the S W.
Monsoon, arising in the Indian Ocean about the equator or to the south of it near
Sumatra, reaches the northern half of that island saturated with moisture and
produces the rainy season there and along the west coast of the Malay Penin-
sula. The mountain-ranges running through the middle of that peninsula
probably hold back the clouds, for, as the wind passes over the east coast, it
is the fine season there, though there are occasional showers. In the Gulf of
Siam the wind again commences to take up moisture ; here, during the cruise of
H. M. S. “Saracen” between 1855 — 58 a rough sea was experienced at this time
of year, and, on the opposite coast “strong breezes with much rain and occasion-
ally a fresh gale” (Direct. Ind. Arch. 1870 p. 17). Cambodia and the neighbouring
parts of Siam have then their wet season. Further east the wind, passing over
the middle of Sumatra and gathering vapour afresh in the south part of the

3*

(

20

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

China Sea, brings the season of most rain to Borneo north of the equator,
though the climate of that country is moist at all times of the year. The Sooloo
Islands and the southern and western parts of the Philippines have now their
rainy season. See Map III.

During the other half-year, October to April, the N.E. Monsoon is operative
and reverses the work of the S.W. Monsoon. Laden with moisture taken up
in the Pacific it deposits much of it on the northern and eastern parts of the
Philippines, and, on arriving in Borneo north of the equator, does not bring
with it so much rain as the S.W. Monsoon. In the Siamese Peninsula, Annam,
facing the wind, now has plentiful rains, but on the opposite side Siam and
Cambodia have their finest time of year: “at this time the sky is frequently
unclouded for a week together”, but the wind again becomes saturated in pass-
ing over the Gulf of Siam, and on the opposite coast along the eastern shore
of the Malay Peninsula “the weather is wet and stormy”.

The Rains: south of the equator, — In the parts of the Archipelago lying
south of the equator the S.E. Trade-wind — here called the S.E. Monsoon —
is the prevailing wind from April till October. Blowing from out of the arid
deserts of Australia, it leaves the north coast of that country hot and dry, and
has not time to take up much vapour before it reaches Timor and the chain
of islands stretching between there and Java. Consequently these islands have
now their dry season, and the vegetation of Timor — which country is probably
the driest of all — is said by Wallace to have an aspect strikingly similar to
the Australian. Before reaching the west end of Java the S.E. Monsoon, having
passed over a wide stretch of ocean, has gathered moisture, and this part of the
island now receives ample quantities of rain, though not in such abundance as
is the case there during the returning N.W. Monsoon, which is the bad season,
and the vegetation here is consequently most luxuriant. The same holds good
even in a still greater degree for the west coast of Sumatra south of the
equator, where there is still less ditference between the two seasons. During
this Monsoon it is also the fine season in South Borneo and in almost the whole
of Celebes; but further east this is now no longer the case. The winds that
reach the shores of the Gulf of Tomaiki in East Celebes, the southern coasts
of Burn and Ceram, the Islands of Kei and Aru, the S. W. Coast of New
Guinea, etc., pass from the South Pacific Ocean either through the Torres
Straits or over the Cape York Peninsula across the Gulf of Carpentaria; thus,
there are no broad lands in the way to receive their moisture until they reach
the above-mentioned territories, which now have their rainy season. The high
mountain-chains of New Guinea and the ranges which intersect the islands of
Ceram and Burn serve to retain the clouds brought up by this Monsoon, and
here again occurs the phenomenon of the rainy season on the south side of an
island and the fine season on the north.

These conditions are reversed during the counter Monsoon, the N.W. Monsoon,
which predominates from October to April in the Archipelago south of the

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

21

equator, and the lands, which had their dry season before, now get their wet
one, and those, which then had their rainy season, now have their fine one.
Though easy to be understood, this alternation of the seasons is often not a
little striking. See Map IV.

- Professor van der Stok of Batavia recognises 4 different types of Monsoons
in the East India Archipelago, about which he has most obligingly sent us (in
lit.) the following particulars.

“There are various types of Monsoons in the Indian Archipelago:

“First, the perfectly regular, the S. E. Trade-wind, or the S. E. Monsoon
blowing out of Australia, which prevails in the southern parts of the Archipelago
from April till October, characterized by dry weather (instances: Java, Bima in
the Lesser Sunda Islands, Macassar, S. Celebes, and Banjermassin, S. Borneo);
while from October to April the heavily saturated West Monsoon is in force.

“A second type is found, as your map^) also shows accurately, in South and
Middle Sumatra, especially on the west coast, and in the middle portion of
Borneo, where all through the year a tolerably equal quantity of rain descends
(instances: Padang, Siboga, Sintang, Singapore). For these conditions also your
map is suitable.

“It is otherwise with the third type, of which examples in North Sumatra
and North Borneo are recorded. Here it is not possible to divide the year into
two halves in such a manner that the one contains the dry, the other the wet
season. (See below p. 29 under Borneo.)

“Finally a fourth type is found in the eastern parts of the Archipelago

where, as in Amboina, Saparua, etc., the Monsoon-periods — at least on the

south side of the Island — are exactly reversed [as compared with the first
type], as your map also shows. As a whole Celebes also lies under the southern
Monsoon-division, for in North Celebes there is still to be found only a trace
of the February minimum whereby North Sumatra and North Borneo are
characterized”.

Change of climate at different altitudes. It is probably always the case that
the highlands of tropical islands have a very different climate from the coasts
and plains. In April, 1871, when the fine season had begun at Manado,

Meyer could not start for the mountains of the Minahassa, as the rainy season

was still going on there. The following table shows this:

Average

April

May

.June

July

of years

mm

mm

mm

mm

Masarang (highlands)

15

256

249

228

135

Manado (coast) ....

17

205

167

179

125

In Java where meteorology has been much more thoroughly studied than
elsewhere in the Archipelago, Dr. J. J. de Hollander (Hand!. Land- en

1) An original MS. map, since revised and modified.

22

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

Volkenk. Ned. Oost-Ind. 1882, 4*^ ed. vol. I pp. 178 — 181) describes four differ-
ent climates peculiar to different altitudes — climates having not only differences
of temperature, but also of winds and rains. As the existence of such have
great influence upon bird-life we translate his remarks; .

“The climatic conditions of Java are very varied, and especially dependent
upon the altitude, as well as upon the Monsoons. In respect of this the sur-
face of Java may be divided into four zones or belts: the First, or Hot Zone
extending from the sea-level up to 2000 feet; the Second or Temperate Zone
from 2000 to 4500 feet; the Third or Cool Zone from 4500 to 7500 feet; and
the Fourth or Cold Zone from 7500 to 10000 feet and upwards.

“In the First or Hot Zone the mean temperature is 29-7 C. (85-5*^ F.,
23-8*^ R.) on the strand and 24-2® C. (75-5*^ F., IQ-S** R.) on the upper boundary.
At Batavia the greatest heat is experienced in April, the least in January; the
nights and mornings are, however, coolest from June to August. In this Zone
the atmosphere is very damp. This dampness naturally increases as one des-
cends from a higher level to the strand, so that the atmosphere at Batavia
contains a mean amount of 84 per cent of vapour, in other words, a cubic
metre of air holds in suspension 20-25 grammes of water-vapour, whereas at
the sea-level the air would be completely saturated with 26-39 grammes of
vapour to the cubic metre. The damp is greatest in the months of January
and February, and least in August. Near the sea-shore the air is filled with
pernicious vapours developed in great quantities by the heat from the morasses,
where many plant and animal remains are always rotting, . . . these exhalations,
however, do not appear to rise to a height of more than 900 ft. The Monsoons
operate very regularly. The rainy Monsoon prevails continuously from November
to March, the dry Monsoon from May to September or October; the shifting
of the winds takes place in April and October or November. The most rain
falls in December, January, February and March; and, although at this time
brighter and rainless days sometimes occur, the sky is usually heavily clouded
over, and the rain comes down in copious streams, sometimes for days in suc-
cession, causing great floods. ... In the East Monsoon the dryness is most
marked in July and August, when — save for the daily alternating land- and
sea-breeze — hardly any wind is perceptible. The moisture in the atmosphere
is then deposited as heavy dew, to be taken up again with the warmth of the
sun in the morning, forming itself in the upper air into clouds which are
driven landwards by the sea-breeze (felt up to 2500 ft. above sea-level) and
become heaped up in the Second Zone. They sometimes disburden themselves
in thunderstorms in the afternoon, especially in mountainous districts, such as
Buitenzorg, where storms accompanied with heavy showers are of almost daily
occurrence.

“In the Second or Temperate Zone the mean temperature is 23-6® C. (74-5® F.,
18-9® R.) at the lower and 18-7® C. (65-7® F., 15® R.) at the upper boundary,
wdth a very marked difference between the warmth of the day and of the night,

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

23

especially on the table-lands. The warmth of the clay itself is also subject to
more or less variation, according as the moisture out of the First Zone rises
sooner or later and in greater or less quantity, which, forming into clouds, inter-
cepts the rays of the sun. Owing to the lesser heat and to the ground also
being less damp, less vapour rises here than in the First Zone and consequently
the atmosphere in general contains less moisture, the mean quantity of vapour
being 15-7 grammes to the cubic metre, while 21-15 grm. at the lower and
16-88 grm. at the upper boundary are necessary for saturation. The degree of
moisture also varies much in different localities; it is much greater over the
■svet rice-fields (‘sawahs’) and dense woods than over stretches of grass or ‘alang-
alang’, or over plantations of shrubs (tea, coffee). Also the masses of mist driven
up from lower territories by the sea-breeze produce great differences. These
mists condense here more quickly than in the warmer temperature of the First
Zone, and often very heavy storms and showers suddenly result. As to this
division it should be remarked that in the west part of Java the atmosphere is
much damper than in the eastern portions of the island. The West Monsoon
in the highest parts of this Zone is already felt in less force, and consequently
the difference between the seasons (the wet and the dry) is here much less
marked than in the lower districts, and even when the West Monsoon is in
full force in the First Zone, the East Monsoon (the Trade-wind) often blows
here for days in succession.

“In the Third or Cool Zone the mean temperature is 18-7*’ C. (65-7*’ F.,
14-9^ R.) at the lower and 13” C. (55-4” F., 10-4” R.) at the upper boundary.
The difference of temperature between day and night is here much less marked
than in the First and Second Zones; the plateau of Mt. Dieng (6300 ft.) pre-
sents an exception to this rule, the difference here being so great that the dew
on bright nights sometimes freezes into rime. In this Zone the air, which, in
consequence of the diminished warmth cannot carry so great a quantity of water,
is entirely saturated with water-vapour (16-88 grm. to the cubic metre at the
lower and 11-60 grm. at the upper boundary). The mists rising from the lower
regions condense here to such an extent that this Zone might literally be called
the Zone of Clouds. They sometimes begin to form as early as nine o’clock
in the morning, especially on declivities covered with forest; from 11 or 12 till
2 or 3 o’clock everything is covered with thick fog, which discharges itself —
often simultaneously in different places — in storms of thunder and rain, after
which alone the sun makes its way again through the clouds. But when the
clouds are not broken up in this manner, so thick a fog covers everything for
the rest of the day that it is impossible to distinguish an object at twenty-five
paces, and it is not till after sun-down that the fog settles on the earth as dew.
This, however, is more particularly applicable to the lower parts of this Zone,
where the clouds gather most thickly; they seldom ascend to the upper parts,
and then in less quantity, in consequence of which the showers there are rarer
and less heavy. The influence of the West Monsoon is here almost entirely

24

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

imperceptible. The S.E. wind in general blows continuously, though, when the
rainy season is going on in the lower regions, it may be replaced for a few
days only by the West wind or by complete calm, the latter being the con-
dition which nearly always reigns at night. The rain also is not heavier or
more continuous here during the time of the West Monsoon than in the other
period, but falls in tolerably equal quantity almost daily throughout the year.

“In the Fourth or Cold Zone (7500 to 10000 ft. and upwards) the mean
temperature is 13° C. (55-4° F., 10-4° E.) at the lower boundary, and 8° C.
(46*4° F., 6-4°E.) at a height of 10000 ft. above the sea-level. The difference
in warmth of day and night is usually not very great; this is to be ascribed
to the comparatively small extent of solid ground for the sun to play upon.
On the highest mountain-tops, in places where there is no shelter from bushes
and other objects, the temperature sometimes descends to the freezing-point,
so that water, removed from the ground which contains warmth, receives a
coating of ice in the open air and the grass is covered with rime. The moisture
of the atmosphere is much less here than in the lower Zones, not exceeding
11*60 grm. at the lower limit and 8*70 grin, at 10000 ft. The air is conse-
quently more rarified, purer, more transparent and fine; sound does not travel
well, and breathing is more difficult. The few mists that rise up so high fail
to form into clouds; rain is consequently very rare, and then only occurs as a
fine drizzle. During great calms, however, it happens that the mists from the
lower districts ascend right up into this Zone and then, becoming at once solidi-
fied by the ice-cold atmosphere, fall as hail. An East wind prevails uninter-
ruptedly on these heights, though usually falling to a calm at night. Only
very rarely, when the West wind is blowing strongly in the lower regions and
is driven up the declivities of the mountains, it makes itself felt in the under-
most parts of this Zone, bringing mists and fogs with it. At 10 000 ft. a West
wind is unknown. Obviously there can be no question of a rainy season in
this Zone.”

Although we have not particulars of the climatic variation at different
altitudes in other parts of the Archipelago, it is not to be expected that the
high mountains south of the equator will present any great differences from
those of Java; those found north of the equator will be affected by other-
winds.

It is now proposed to examine the different parts of the Archipelago in
greater detail.

Celebes. — The greater part of the country, being south of the equator, is
under the influence of the Monsoons of the southern hemisphere. Over the
Northern Peninsula, which lies just north of the equator, the S.E. Monsoon
of April to October seems to be deflected by the S.W. Monsoon of the north
of the equator, and from October to April the N.E. Trade-wind of the north
similarly deflected by the N.W. Monsoon of the south; in consequence of this
fairly due South and North winds respectively figure rather prominently here

Introduction: Seasons and Winds

25

on Dr. van der Stok’s monthly charts^). The fine season over most of the is-
land is during the S.E, Monsoon between April and the beginning of November,
the rainy season from November till March, when North-west or North winds
are predominant. To this rule there are many exceptions, sometimes due to
location, sometimes to shelter from the high mountains.

Touching the Minahassa, Graafland writes (De Minahassa 1867 I, 1):
“The changing of the Monsoons here takes place almost imperceptibly. One
passes over from the East to the West Monsoon without noticing it otherwise
than by the more or less plentiful showers and thunderstorms; and even this
is not regular. There are years in which the West Monsoon brings so little rain
that poor rice-harvests are the sensible result, while there are again other years
when too much rain causes the rotting of the crop. The West or rainy season
is calculated to be from the middle of October to the middle of April, but
this is not at all certain”. Dr. Eiedel writes (in lit.) that during the N.W.
Monsoon the sea is rough on the north coast of the Peninsula, which faces the
wind, while on the south coast the wind is less heavy and blows out to sea.
The plantations are harvested everywhere at the same time, and the rice is
sown in October — November. There is, however, as Dr. van der Stok’s tables
show, a marked difference in rainfall between the north and south coasts of
the Peninsula; when the N.W. Monsoon is blowing') Manado. and Kwandang on
the north receive two or three times as much rain as Kema and Gorontalo
some 20 miles distant on the south. The interior of the country is mountainous,
and, as is clear from Dr. de Hollander’s remarks on Java, the N.W. Monsoon
is a superficial, somewhat shallow wind, and it is doubtless held back and de-
prived of its moisture to a great extent by the hills. During the N.W. Monsoon
the shipping is carried on ah Kema, while during the S.E. Monsoon everything in
this way is done at the more important settlement of Manado. Meyer arrived
at Manado in November, 1870, having been misinformed by Mr. Wallace that
October is the beginning of the fine season for this region. Travellers should
go there in April and the following months, though on the south coast of the
Minahassa, at Kema for instance, the weather is much better and even fine
in the rainy season. September is the drie.st month of the year.

The western portion of the N. Peninsula seems to be exposed at most
times of the year to N. and N.W. and S.W. winds blowing out of the Celebes
Sea, and Tontoli at the N.W. angle of the Peninsula cannot be said to have
a rainy season, but has a tolerably equal rainfall throughout the year.

The following tables, extracted from the “Regenwaarnemingen in Neder-
landsch-Indie”, 1895, show the differences in rainfall and rainy days at different
places in the N. Peninsula:

1) See: van dei’ Stok: Wind and Weather, Currents, Tides and Tidal Streams in the East Indian
Archipelago (Batavia, 1897. Broad folio).

2) The “Directory for the Indian Archipelago” 1870 p. 22, states that on that part of the island situated N.
of the equator the N.E. Monsoon in October I'eplaces the S.W., wrongly adding that it makes the fine season.

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (May 4tli, 189S). i

Average monthly rainfall and number of rainy days in the North Peninsula.

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

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Introduction : Seasons and Winds.

21

In the South Peninsula the rainy and dry seasons are generally much
more strongly contrasted than in N. Celebes. On the west side of this Peninsula
the N.W. Monsoon brings great quantities of wet and the S.E. Monsoon for
some months very fine weather. On the opposite east coast the converse of
this is the rule. This is ’well shown by the rainfall at Balang Nipa which lies
on the east coast of the Peninsula in about the same latitude as Macassar some
60 miles distant on the west coast: May, June and July are among the fine
months at Macassar, while great quantities of rain fall at this time at Balang
Nipa; but December, January, February and March are fine months at Balang
Nipa, during which Macassar receives deluges of rain. Bonthain on the south
coast of this Peninsula is sheltered from the N.W. Monsoon by the great
Bonthain mass of mountains, and its seasons correspond with those of Balang
Nipa, except that much less rain falls. Df. van der Stok has most obligingly
sent us tables showing the direction of the winds at Bonthain in the years 1886,
1887 and 1888. These are chiefly westerly from December to April, veering
from S.W. to W.N.W. and generally changing a point or two in the course of
each day; from May till the end of November the general direction is east,
N.E. to S.S.E., with similar changes during the course of the day.

The following are the tables in the “Kegenwaarnemingen in Ned. Ind.” for
the South Peninsula of Celebes (see next page).

One of the only two injurious winds known in the Dutch East Indies is
found on the west coast of Celebes between Maros and Mandar and called the
“Barubu”. It blows yearly during the months of July, August and the beginning
of September from the E. N. E. and extends about a geographical mile seawards.
It causes a difficulty in breathing, dries up the lips and the throat, bringing
about inflammation of the eyes and often long- lasting fevers (de Hollander,
1882, I, 86). The botanist Teijsmann experienced this wind in the South Pen-
insula at Pankadjene, Tjamba (6*^ September) and Bantimurang (26*’^ September).
He describes it as a wind which covers everything with fine dust, as very unplea-
sant, and at sea often very dangerous (N. T. Ned. Ind. 1879, 60, 78). A similar
obnoxious wind is the “Anging bolo” of Bima, Sumbawa.

The temperature of Celebes is not high, seldom exceeding 32“ C. (26“ E.,
90“ F.). The tables show that August and September are the driest months at
nearly all spots where the rainfall has been observed. On the whole, as a glance
at our maps HI and IV will show, Celebes has the same seasons as the islands
lying south of the equator, as indeed should be the case from its geographical
position; but at a few spots both in North and South Celebes traces of the
minimum of rainfall in February, which is characteristic of N. Borneo and
N. Sumatra, may be noticed.

Sanqi. — The rainy season seems to set in after October. Dr. Platen,
writing from Great Sangi in January, 1887, speaks of having been confined to
the house for weeks by ceaseless rain falling in the N. W. Monsoon. (Gefied.
Welt, 1887, 263).

Average monthly rainfall and number of rainy days in the South Peninsula.

28

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

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Introduction: Seasons and Winds,

29

Sooloo Archipelago and Celebes Sea. — According to the Sailing Directory,
easterly winds are experienced here from October till May; from May onwards
westerly winds accompanied by “rains, squalls and tempests”, especially in July
and August (p. 22). From van der Stok’s charts the direction of the more
prevalent winds is seen to be southerly from June till October, and northerly
or north-easterly from November till April.

Philippine Islands. — The windward shores of the islands are in general
the wet ones; thus, on the north and east coasts the most abundant rainfall
takes place in the half-year from October till March when the N. E. Trade-
wind is in force, while the territories to the South and West, which lie exposed
to the S. W. Monsoon, have their rainy season during the other half-year. At
Manila the winds vary much in the course of each day, owing to land- and
sea-breezes. In July, August and September S. W. winds prevail, in November
and December N. E. winds, becoming more S. E. in March and April. The town,
being on the west coast, has its rainy season during the summer months of the
northern hemisphere (cf. Obs. meteor, de Manila de la Comp, de Jesus, 1870 — 73,
1876). The following observations were obtained by Meyer from. Iloilo on the
Island of Panay. The S. W. Monsoon commences in June, exceptionally in May,
but it does not then blow uninterruptedly. The rain falls in varying quantities,
being sometimes heavy, at other times not so; and it may last — though this
is the exception — for a month continuously; fourteen days in succession may
be taken as the rule, judging from four or five occasions when this was ex-
perienced. June — September generally afford disturbed weather; most of August
fine. The N. E. Monsoon commences about the middle of October, and there
is occasional rain from October to December, in January only very little; from
the end of January till March it is dry. In April and May, when the Mon-
soons are changing, there -are occasional thunderstorms.

In Palawan the Monsoons are liable to much interruption, and there appears
to be no rainy season in particular (Sail. Direct. 1870 p. 23).

Borneo. — “Owing to the great extent of alluvial ground with which Borneo
is nearly everywhere surrounded, to the numerous water-courses irrigating the
land in every direction, and to the vapours arising from the dense forest with
which most parts of the island are covered the atmosphere is always damp.”
Land- and sea-breezes are felt far inland. The temperature is more moderate
than might be expected ; at Pontianak in the west almost on the equator, at
sunrise 24*5® C. (19-5® P., 76*^ F.), at midday not more than 33-3® C. (26-7° P.,
92«F.), mean 27.8» C. (22-2° P., 82*^ F.). As the island is divided by the
equator, the northern and southern halves are subjected to the influence of
different monsoons.

South of the equator the character of the season is well determined by the
particular monsoon in force. The S. E. Monsoon prevails, roughly speaking, in
the time of our summer, and the finest months of the year, as is shown by the
reports sent in to Dr. van der Stok from six stations in Central and S. E. Borneo,

30

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

are July, August and September. June is also a fine month, though somewhat
more rain falls than in October, when the returning N. W. Monsoon, the true
rainy wind, can hardly have commenced to blow home. The wettest months
of the year are from November to March, inclusive, when the N. W. Monsoon
is in force. It has been stated that while Borneo south of the equator is having
its rainy season under this wind, the parts of the island north of the equator,
over which the N. E. Monsoon is blowing, are fine; but this is not altogether
true. The great western projection of the island upon which Sarawak (near its
north coast), Sinkawang (west coast), Pontianak (south coast) are situated, receives
its heaviest amount of wet at the same time as South Borneo. This is also the
case at Sintang far inland a little north of the equator. The N. E. Trade-wind
does not blow in force right down to the equator, and, when the N. W. Mon-
soon is going on in the islands south of the equator, an indraught of the de-
flected N. E. wind must needs take place. In the South China Sea in the
islands of Bintang, etc. this deflected wind is felt for half the year as a pre-
vailing North wind (see, p. J2), and, no doubt, as such, or even as a N. W.
wind, it passes over Borneo a little north of the equator, bringing with it great
quantities of moisture from the China Sea.

In Northern Borneo the seasons vary much according to locality. Dr. de
Hollander speaks of the S. W. (April — October) as the rainy monsoon, and
the N. E. (October — April) as the fine one, and so also the Sailing Directory
of the Indian Archipelago; but there is much to take exception at in these
statements. In an article on the climate of British North Borneo by Mr. Bobert
H. Scott (Journ. B. Met. Soc. 1889, pp. 206 — 219), to which Dr. van der Stok
has kindly called our attention, it is stated that “the true wet season occurs at
Sandakan (on the N. E. coast) in the N. E. Monsoon, and includes the months
of November, December and January, and generally part of October or February
or both . . . The true dry season immediately follows this true Avet season, and
includes March and April, and generally the Avhole of May and part of Febru-
ary . . . This true dry season is followed by a period of moderate rainfall,
commencing generally about June. The first month or six Aveeks of this period
almost deserves to be called a second w^et season, and the rest of the period
up to the commencement of the true w^et season might be described as the
second dry season”. With these variations, the actual figures taken at Sandakan
and Kudat show that by far the larger half of the total rainfall is deposited
during the N. E. Monsoon, Avhich is not to be Avondered at, seeing that these
places then present a windward shore to the Monsoon passing over the
Sooloo Sea.

At Labuan, the average for 1 1 years shoAvs that the first four months of
the year — the closing ones of the N. E. Monsoon — are the driest.

The folloAving tables are taken from those of Dr. A^an der Stok (Begen-
waarnemingen in Ned. Ind. 1895, 416, 417), and Scott, 1. c. (the inches
of the latter converted to mm).

verage monthly rainfall in Borneo.

Introduction: Seasons and. Winds.

31

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32

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

As a general conclusion it may be stated that Borneo south of the equator
has its fine season during the months of our summer and its wet one in those
of our winter. A little north of the equator the conditions are much the same,
the differences being that the rainfall is more copious, and that the wet and
fine seasons commence a little earlier in the year. August, when the S.W. Mon-
soon of Asia is in full force, appears to be a very wet month here, as it is
also at Labuan, Mempakol, Gaya on the N.W. coast of the island, and at
Banguay Island off the north point of Borneo. On the N.W. coast the figures
from four stations show a strongly marked minimum rainfall in February; the
fine period appears to last for about three months only, January — April. On the
North and N.E. coast the true wet season takes place in the N.E. Monsoon and
the true dry season about the period of the shifting of the winds, February — May.

Sumatra. — Dr. van der St ok shows that very varying conditions prevail
upon the different coasts of this great island.

In the Malacca Straits land- and sea-breezes are general, neutralizing the
effect of the Monsoons. The wettest months along this part of the coast of
Sumatra are from October to December, the rains being apparently brought up
by the N.E. Monsoon out of the China Sea and the Straits. The dry months
are February and March, and also June and July, there being here, as in North
Borneo, a second rainy and fine period.

At the northern end of Sumatra the S.W. Monsoon is much more marked,
being felt from May till October, and bringing the rains with it from the
Indian Ocean. February and March, when the E. Monsoon is blowing, are the
finest months.

Along the N.W. coast down to the equator it is hard to speak of any
rainy — or one might better say of any fine — season. South of the equator
down to the Straits of Sunda the wettest months are from September to De-
cember, and the driest May to iVugust, with a reduced rainfall in February.

In South and S.E. Sumatra the Monsoons are well marked, the dry season
being produced by the S.E. Monsoon from April or May till September, the
wet accompanying the northerly and westerly winds which prevail from November
to March.

The Bintang., Lingga., Karimon.^ Timbula?!, Ana7nhas, Natima, and Serasan
Islands', groups of small islands in the South China Sea between Malacca and
Bangka and Borneo. — These islands receive the rains of both Monsoons and

are very wet almost the whole year, the greatest number of fine days occurring

in January, February and March. The climate is not considered unhealthy.

Banka., Billiton and the Straits of Karimata and Gaspar. — Here the climatic
conditions are very changeable, varying on the land at different altitudes. The
greatest amount of wet is brought up by the N.W. Monsoon in November,
December and January; there is a minimum of rainfall in February, but the

driest months are July, August and September. In Banka the temperature on

the coast is given as 2D — 24 C. (17** — 19® R., 70® — 75® F.) during the night

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

33

and morning, rising sometimes to 32*^ — 35" C. at midday. In the interior it is
less hot, the nights being even cold and damp. In Billiton the damp atmosphere
is sometimes very oppressive, although the temperature in the morning and
evening is 22" — 23.5" C., and rarely more than 29" C. at midday; the nights
very cool (de Hollander, t. c, 812, 828; van der Stok, Wind and Weather).

Java. — The chief meteorologic conditions of this island as recorded by
de Hollander have been already given (pp. 22 — 24). Bad weather is encoun-
tered during the N.W. Monsoon (October to April) ; the fine season accompanies
the S. E. Monsoon in the months of our summer. On the south coast much
wet is also brought up by the S.E. Monsoon from the Indian Ocean, particularly
towards the western parts of this coast, but the true rainy season here as else-
where is during the N.W. Monsoon. It has been said that bad weather marks
the shifting of the Monsoons; there set in “wild storms from the W. and N.W.”;
“storms of wind and rain beneath a clouded sky alternate with severe gales and
heavy winds” (Jansen in Maury’s Phys. Geogr. Sea, ed., 380); but the
extensive observations of van der Stok lead him to the opposite conclusion
— that “the condition of the sea is at its best when the Monsoons turn, i. e. in
March, April, and November” (op. cit. p. 57).

The Lesser 8unda Islands (Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Timor,
Eotti, Timorlaut, and the intermediate smaller islands). — The wet and the dry
seasons are here very strongly contrasted, especially in Timor. In this island
hardly a drop of rain falls during the five months June — October, while an
abundance comes down in December, January and February. The rivers are
said to be then overstreaming, but during the S. E. Monsoon many are dried
up, and the thermometer then rises to 52" C. in the sun and 35" C. in the
shade. A similar drought in summer is found at least on the north coast of
the other islands (Bali, Sumbawa). Elores is subject to manifold and sudden
changes in the atmosphere, rnaking it very unhealthy. An injurious wind, the
“Anging bolo”, occurs, as mentioned above (p. 27) , in Sumbawa where the
climate is considered unhealthy. The Lesser Sunda Islands as a whole receive
far less rain than Java, Celebes or the Moluccas, and only about one-half or
one-third the amount of that which falls in Borneo, and ornithologists should
not neglect to make studies of possible climatic variation among allied species
of birds in these regions, such as have been made on certain birds in North
America by Allen (see, below p. 58). It may be that the climate has had some-
thing to do with “Wallace’s Line” as far as it goes (see, below pp. 81 — 89)., for
not all animals and plants can exist indiflrerently in a wet climate like that of
Borneo and a dry one like that of the Lesser Sundas. A general similarity
between Timor and Australia has been noticed, and it should not be forgotten
that the S.E. Monsoon, which is productive of the drought in the Lesser Sundas
blows out of the arid deserts of Australia, and it may bring many things directly
with it, just as the returning N.W. Monsoon may carry to Australia any thing
that is capable of sustaining a voyage through the air.

Meyer & Wi gl e sworfh, Birds of Celetes (May 4th, 1898). 5

34

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

The Hahnahera Group. These islands lying under or near the equator are
chiefly under the influence of northerly winds from December to April and
southerly ones from June to October, and as they are therefore not sheltered
by any great land-masses they receive much rain with both winds. According
to Dr. van der Stok there is “a principal maximum in June and July and a
secondary maximum in January”, but the rainfall seems to be chiefly determined
by the position of the place concerned — whether it lies on the windw'ard or
lee shore of the island with sheltering hills behind. The climate is stated to
be healthy. In Ternate the thermometer seldom rises higher than 30® C. (23.5® E..,
85® r.); in Halmahera the mean temperature on the coast is about 30® C. at
midday and 23® C. at night.

Burn and Ceram. — In consequence of the high mountain- chains which
intersect these islands from west to east, a wall is presented to the alternating
N. W. and S. E. Monsoons, so that, when the former is blowing, the northern
or windward sides of the islands have their rainy season, while the southern
sides, being sheltered by the mountains, are fine. This wind dominates from
December to March. From May or June till October, wFen the S. E. Monsoon
is blowing, the previous state of things is reversed; the southern parts now
get their rainy and the northern their fine season.

In the “Jahresb. des Ver. f. Erdk. zu Dresden”, 1892, 159, 160, Mr. C. Eibbe
writes; “The climate of Ceram is one of the heathiest and most agreeable ex-
perienced by me in the Indies; from my tables of the temperature I find that
the greatest degree of heat at Illu was 32 C. in the shade, the lowest 20® C.
... By shifting quarters according to the time of year, it is possible to live
in a perpetual spring, for the great heat, as also the wearisome rainy season
can be avoided : you build your hut now on the south and then on the north
coast of the island. ... It would not be safe, how^ever, to conclude that these
wmather conditions recur from year to year with mechanical regularity; on the
other hand frequent exceptions to the rule take place, from which the travelling
naturalist may have to suffer severely”.

The rainfall has been studied at two places in Ceram — at Wahaai on
the north coast and at Amahei nearly opposite on the south coast, spots which
are separated by mountains from 6000 — 10,000 feet high. The following monthly
averages for 15 years show the contrast in the seasons at the two spots.

Jan.

Febr.

Mcb.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Noy.

Dec.

Total

Wahaai .

280,

476

293

234

140

106

113

94

93

107

110

212

2258

Amahei .

127

101

121

191

274

424

537

538

241

174

101

109

2938

The figures for February on the one hand and for July and August on the
other are particularly instructive. The respective Monsoons are then especially
well developed.

Amboina and Saparua. These islands lying under the shelter of the south

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

35

coast of Ceram, have their rainy season during the months of our summer, when
the S. E. Monsoon is blowing, and a great abundance of rain then falls. The
north coast of Amboina receives less rain than the south, but the seasons are
not so strongly contrasted as in Ceram.

Banda Islands. “The East Monsoon brings rain and storm with it.” April,
May and June are the w^ettest months, and August to November somewhat
the driest.

Kei Islands. — The fine season seems to be restricted to three months of
the year, viz. August, September and October.

Aru Islands. — A plentiful and generally even amount of rain fell here
during the year 1890. Dr. de Hollander writes: “In the West Monsoon, which
lasts from the beginning of December to April, the day- temperature is very
high, but the nights, when a heavy dew usually falls, are on the contrary cold
and raw ; during the East Monsoon from the middle of April till the middle of
November the heat of the day is less oppressive and the nights less cold. The
most rain falls at the turning of the Monsoons; at this time fever occasionally
occurs.”

Neic Guinea. — In Dutch New Guinea, as in other islands which are
intersected by high mountains, the north coast has its fine season while the
rainy season is on the south. Some observations at Doreh and Andei in the
Geelvink Bay gave the prevailing winds as east — generally due east — from
May to November, wEich is the dry season, and westerly during the other half-
year — the rainy season. Stormy or violent winds were rare and occurred
most frequently in the E. Monsoon (Meyer, Ausz. Neu Guinea Beise 1875,
p. 20). Van der Stok records the winds at Mansinam, western shore of the
Geelvink Bay, as N. E. from May to September, the drier period, and W. from
November to April, with a maximum rainfall in February. De Hollander
records the temperature as rising to as much as 35.5*^ C. (28.5® R., 96® F.) during
the E. Monsoon.

On the west coast the “Sailing Directory of the East Indian Archipelago”
states that the S. E. Monsoon blows from April to November, bringing great
quantities of rain chiefly from June to September; the N. W. Monsoon prevails
from October to May, when the weather is fine and calm.

Further down the north and north-east coast, some interesting figures, on
a parallel with others already given, have been sent in from three settlements
in Kaiser Wilhelms -Land: Finschhafen, Constantinhafen and Hatzfeldhafen.
Finschhafen ’) lies at the head of the Einisterre Peninsula, south of the lofty
Einisterre Mts. which intersect the peninsula near its north coast; Constantin-
hafen is on the other side of the range at the head of Astrolabe Bay, and Hatz-
feldhafen^) higher up the coast. Owing to its position, Finschhafen, together with
the adjacent north coast of the Huon Gulf, presents a windward shore to the

') Finschhafen and Hatzfeldhafen are now abandoned.

5*

36

Introduction: Seasons and Winds.

S. E. Monsoon of June — September, while Constantinhafen lies sheltered from
wind and rain by the mountains, which also, with some other nearer hills,
protect Hatzfeldhafen. During the N. W. Monsoon the case is reversed, Einsch-
hafen is now sheltered by the Finisterre Mts., and the other two exposed to
the wind. Consequently Finschhafen has its fine season with this, the N. W.
Monsoon, and its rainy season with the S. E. Monsoon, while at Constantin- and
Hatzfeldhafen exactly the opposite takes place. The total rainfall for the year
being given as 100, the following shows the percentage of rain when the different
Monsoons are in force:

Finschhafen.

Dec. — April 1886/87 17^

Dec. — April 1887/88 18_^

June — Sept. 1886 58_%'

June — Sept. 1887 62^

Constantinhafen. Hatzfeldhafen.

These results held good for the subsequent reports in 1888 and 1890. (Nach-
richten fiber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, 1888, 160).

In South-eastern New Guinea Capt. Moresby states that “the N.W. Monsoon
blows from November till March, accompanied with occasional westerly gales,
and with fine-weather intervals”. D’Albertis says that a S.E. wund blows at
Yule Island for 8 months and confirms Moresby’s remarks in stating that the
rainy months are November — February (N. G. 1880, I, 402). The same traveller
found that heavy rains fall in the valley of the Fly Elver from December to
April. In the dry and cooler season May — August the max. heat was 29.5*^ C.,
and during the hotter months rarely rose to 35° C.

Solomon Islands. — This group is subject to variable winds, violent squalls,
and heavy rainfall. The N.E. Monsoon from the end of November to the end
of March is considered to be the rainy season. Heavy gales from the west
and north-west are not infrequent at this period. The S.E. Trade-wind from
April to November seems to blow in fits and starts, interrupted by calms,
variable winds, and often heavy squalls and much rain. The temperature varies
little: 75° F. at night to 90° — 95° F. at noon (Deeper, J. E. Met. Soc. 1885,
309—313).

Northern Australia. — Here the N.W. Monsoon brings the rains, and the
S.E. Monsoon, blowing out of the interior, is of course very dry.

This rough sketch of the winds and rainfall in the East Indian Archipelago
may, it is hoped, prove to be not without use in the study of the climatic
variation of birds, of their local movements, their nidification and moulting.
The winds and rains and temperature are also factors which should be taken
into consideration in questions concerning the geographical distribution of birds.

Introduction; Seasons and Winds.

37

The following publications liaye been consulted in preparing this chapter:

Findlay: A Directory for the navigation of the Indian Archipelago (London,
1870).

id.: A Directory for the navigation of the South Pacific Ocean (London,

1877).

de Hollander: Handleidung bij de beoefening der Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, ed. 2 vols. (Breda, 1884).

Leeper: Journ. Boy. Meteor. Soc. 1885, 309 — 3J3.

Maury: Physical geography of the Sea, 14^^ ed. (London, 1869).

Meyer: Ausziige aus den auf einer JSTeu Guinea-Beise im Jahre 1873 gefiihrten
Tagebiichern (Dresden 1875).

Nachrichten fiber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land (Berlin, 1887 — 90).

Neumayer: Segelhandbuch fur den Indischen Ocean, with Atlas (Hamburg, 1891).

id.: Segelhandbuch ffir den Stillen Ocean, with Atlas (Hamburg, 1897).

Observatorio meteorologico del Ateneo municipal de Manila (Manila, 1876 — 78).
Scott: Journ. Boy. Meteor. Soc. 1889, XV, Nr. 72, October,
van der Stok: Begenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch-Indie. 27. Jahrgang, 1895
(Batavia, 1896).

id.: Wind and Weather, Currents, Tides and Tidal Streams in the East

Indian Archipelago (Batavia, 1897).

Excerpts from other writings will be found in the text.

We are also indebted to Dr. van der Stok of Batavia for examining an
original draught of our maps HI and IV and for kindly pointing out and de-
scribing an alteration which was neccessary. We had, too, the advantage of
Prof. Neumayer’s kind advice.

3. MIGRATION IN THE EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO.

Migration in its simplest form. — As Mr. Whitlock points out in his recent
critique on Gatke’s theories (see: “The Migration of Birds” 1897), the first
stage in the history of migration is probably seen in the daily journeys of certain
species to their feeding grounds and their return to their roosting places in the
evening. In England this may he particularly well observed in the Books and
their comrades, the Jackdaws; they are very methodical in their daily visits to
certain fields, though their movements are by no means governed with the
regularity and punctuality of a pendulum. This sort of thing will of course be
found in all animals, human or avian or other, which sleep in one spot and
dine in another. One of the most striking cases which we have seen from the
East Indies is that recorded by Dr. Hagen of the large Hornbill, Oranorrhimis
corrngatus.^ in E. Sumatra. These ill-fiying birds feed by the sea and return in
the evening to their roosting places inland, maldng use of certain trees about
every kilometer of their way as travellers’ rests. “The resting jilaces are fixed
spots, and, if they are not scared, the birds may he expected with tolerable
certainty every evening at the appointed time” (see: text p. 244).

Local movements. — A further development of the principal of migration
is seen where species do not spend the hours of a day hut remain some weeks or
months in one locality, and then depart elsewhere. These movements are
probably common in the tropics and depend upon the abundance of certain
foods at these periods. Thus Meyer observed that the small Parrots, Loriculus
exilis and stigmatus, Trichoglossus ornatus and meyeri.^ visited Manado in great
numbers at March or, respectively, April and May, the cause being apparently
the flowering or fruit-bearing of certain trees; and the Sara sins found Munia
pallida abundant at Macassar during the rice-harvest (June, July), hut they personally
did not see them afterwards as late as September. There is much to be learnt
still about movements of this kind in Celebes, but it would be easy to multiply
instances in the Indian countries and elsewhere. Dr. E. P. Bam say (see: “Ornis”
1885) terms the movements of all Australian birds “nomadic”, but there are
also some species there which are as true migrants as those of the temperate
parts of the northern hemisphere (see, below, p. 48).

Introduction; Migration.

39

Local movements are the more to he expected among the birds of Celebes
and other parts of the Archipelago in consequence of the great differences in
the season often to be found in spots a few miles apart. The east side of the
Southern Peninsula, for instance, has its wet season when the west side has its dry
one, and when the west coast is deluged with rain, the east coast has fine weather,
though the two districts are only some 30 — 60 miles apart. In a similar manner the
north and south coasts of Ceram are contrasted, and traces of the same condition
are seen on the north and south coasts of the North Peninsula of Celebes. The
climate of the mountains is also strongly contrasted with that of the plains. We
have been at some pains to obtain particulars of the movements of the birds from
gentlemen resident in the East Indies, hut have not received any data suited
to the requirements of the present work, except some notes from Mr. H. Veen
of Kele Londej, a place situated at a height of about 3000 ft. in the Minahassa.
Mr. Veen has observed in the case of a few species (“Sonsoliat”, “Tegi”, “Tang-
kuitj” = Hypothymis puella, “Keresow”) that their movements are affected by the
abundance or scarcity of food; they generally arrive in groups and start again
after 3 — 4 weeks. He adds: “The blossoming and the ripening of the fruits
goes on the whole year, according to the altitude, e. g. the Lansap (Lansium
domesticum ) ; near the coast this fruit is ripe towards the end of December and
in January; a little higher up in February and March; still higher from April
to August. The Durian and the Mango are ripe near the coast as early as
December and January, but at Langowan (in the hills) in. April — June. The
Coffee-tree is in blossom in Kele Londej the whole year round, but at its fullest
from November to February, and it begins partially to ripen in May. At Langowan
this occurs about a fortnight earlier, and at Tondano a fortnight earlier still.
Last year (1893) coffee was gathered every month, though in various quantities.
And this though Kele Londej is only about 400 ft. higher than Langowan, and
Langowan only about 200 ft-, higher than Tondano”.

Other phaenological observations from Celebes than these, except stray ones,
have not reached us, though we possess such from Middle Luzon, which, how-
ever, would not afford a crucial test for Celebes.

Islet nomads. — A curious phase of migration is displayed by several Pigeons
of the East Indian Archipelago. The species occurring in the Celebesian area and
displaying the characteristic in question are Caloenas nicoharica, Mpristicivora hicolor,
Carpophaga concinna and C. pickeringi. These birds ■ — at least the two first and
better known species — are highly gregarious; they rejDair to breed on certain
fixed islets and during the rest of the year seem to wander from one small
island to another within their range, only occurring exceptionally on the neigh-
bouring mainlands. In this manner the Mgristiciwra and the Caloenas have a
range of three or four thousand miles, and that of Carpophaga concinna is also
large. The Nutmeg Pigeon, Mgristicivora., is often excessively numerous; we
read of the lofty trees of a small island being simply covered with thousands

40

Introduction: Migration.

of these white birds, of their fairly swarming at times on other islets, of great
flocks literally hanging in clusters on the trees of the little island of Manado
tua. So, too, the Nicobar Pigeon, Caloenas, is described as swarming by
thousands upon its almost inaccessible breeding islet of Batty Halve in the
Nicobars. It is obvious at once that these small islets cannot and do not
support such a population of Pigeons for long, consequently the birds are
repeatedly on the move, flying over the sea in search of fresh feeding grounds.
Instances of their being seen in the act of crossing the sea are given in the
text (p. 629, 659). It appears that they visit their breeding islands seasonally,
but everything has still to be learnt about the periodicity, if any, of their visits
to the other islands of their ranges. The four Pigeons in question have no
near affinity with one another ; the Nicobar Pigeon is the sole representative of
a subfamily; the other three have more or less near affinities with mainland species.

As is well known, certain sea-birds, such as the Gannets, Albatroses, and
some Terns, resort to particular rocks or other islets to breed. In their case,
as in that of the Pigeons, protection of their brood from animals destructive to
their eggs and young may well have been the original motive for the adoption
of these habits, yet with the Pigeons it remains strange that they avoid the main-
land after their young have been safely reared. (For further remarks hereon,
see pp. 616, 629, 659 — 661).

For the sake of the general reader, who may be apt to suppose that narrow
straits of the sea offer no barrier to the geographical distribution of tropical
species, it may be mentioned that, so far from this being the case, there is
reason to believe that resident species never, or only very exceptionally, cross
the sea; were it otherwise the species would not be found with such restricted
ranges as is actually the case.

Migration proper in the East Indian Archipelago. — The following is a list
of most of the more prominent migratory birds of Celebes. A few species,
well known to be migrants, ofi“ered difficulties which have led to their being
omitted, while a large number of other species have been left out because their
migrations are as yet hidden in such obscurity that it would probably be mis-
leading to attempt to trace them categorically. In the case of the species given
it has often been impossible, in the absence of positive data, to avoid speculation
in the use of the signs for summer and winter haunts , but it will generally
be found that too little has been said, rather than too much.

O: signifies “summer visitor”. (It would generally be safe to assume
that the species breeds in the localities so marked, but in not one-
half of them have the nest and eggs yet been discovered.)

X: signifies “winter visitor”, or “passes through on migration”.

+ : signifies “rare”, or “a straggler”.

Introduction: Migration.

41

Localities

Taehyspizias soloensis (Horsf.)

H

1 4

6

Si

CO

e

■1^

o

Butastur indieus (G-m.)

1

Ninox scutulata japoniea (T. & S.)

bb

• iH

50

*<s>

.o

£

e

o

o

s

Guculus ccmorus eanoroides (S. Miill.)

Coccystes coromcmdus (L.)

Merops ornatus Lath.

Merops philippinus L.

Halcyon pileata (Bodd.)

Halcyon sancta Vig. Horsf.

eS

<?*

22

CO

Pitta cyanoptera Temm.

Hirundo rustica L.

Pi

• rH

e

•Si.

CO

o

e

22

Lanins tigrinus Drapiez

Lanins hicionensis L.

Petrophila cyamis solitaria (P. L. S. Miill.)

r— 4

c

zn

a

a

o

«s>

•Ks

«>

CD

•«s»

e

■o

o

o

Locustella- fasciolata (Gr. R. Grray)

Locustella ochotensis (Midd.)

Phylloscopus borealis (Bias.)

Motacilla flava L.

Motacilla boarula melanope (Pall.)

Pi

zn

i

a

22

1

Anthus eervinns (Pall.)

Sturnia violacea (Bodd.)

Northern Euroj)e .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

_

—

—

—

—

—

_

—

_

—

—

—

—

O

O

—

o

O

—

Centr. & S. Europe .

t

O

-

-

X

—

South-west Asia . .

xo

X

-

Africa ........

X

X

—

Madagascar

Siberia, West . . . .

o

0

o

Siberia, Central . .

—

—

—

-

—

—

—

-

—

—

—

o

—

—

-

-

—

-

O

—

o

-

—

o

o

—

Sihena, N.E

—

—

-

—

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

o

—

—

—

-

-

—

O

-

o

—

0

o

o

—

Arctic Regions . . .

Bering Islands , . .

O

0

X

—

Alaska

o

o

—

-

X

..

Kamtschatka ....

o

o

o

—

o

—

—

S.E. Sib., Amurland

—

-

O

O

o

—

—

-

—

-

-

o

-

fee

—

0

-

O

o

XO

-

xo

o

o

o

xo

—

Mongolia

—

—

—

-

-

—

—

—

—

—

-

o

-

—

—

—

—

o

—

-

xo

0

-

-

—

—

Manchuria

—

o

—

-

—

—

-

—

—

—

—

—

-

a

o

—

—

-

o

—

—

—

—

-

-

-

—

—

Corea

o

-

o

—

—

-

—

—

O

-

o

O

pS

—

0

o

o

-

—

-

xo

-

o

-

—

—

Japan

—

o

o

o

-

o

-

—

—

t

-

o

-

-

t

—

o

o

X

X

X

-

o

—

-

o

China, North ....

O

o

o

o

o

o

O

—

—

O

-

o

-

o

xo

o

X

o

o

X

X

xo

o

-

X

X

—

China, South ....

O

X

X

xo

—

o

O

-

O

o

—

o

o

c/}

X

-

X

xo

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

Formosa

-

-

X

-

-

-

- .

• —

—

—

-

o

-

X

-

X

-

-

—

-

X

-

X

-

X

—

Philippines

X

X

xo

X

X

X

X

—

XO

X

-

—

-

.a

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Borneo

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

X

-

xo

be

—

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Talaut Islands .

X

—

X

X

-

X

-

X

—

—

X

—

—

X

—

X

X

—

X

—

X

X

—

-

—

Sangi Islands . .

X

-

X

X

-

X

-

X

_

—

X

X

-

—

—

X

X

—

X

—

X

—

—

-

—

—

Celebes, North .

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

t

X

X

X

—

t

X

X

X

X

X

X

Celebes, South .

-

-

—

X

—

—

-

-

X

—

X

-

—

i

X

—

—

—

X

-

-

—

X

X

-

—

—

Moluccas

-

-

X

X

—

X

-

X

—

—

X

—

—

X

—

t

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

—

X

Papuasia

-

—

X

-

—

X

—

xo

—

—

X

X

—

o

X

—

-

-

—

—

—

—

—

X

-

—

—

India

—

-

-

—

O

xo

xo

-

xo

X

-

X

—

s

—

—

t

-

—

—

—

—

—

xo

-

X

—

Ceylon

-

-

—

-

-

—

X

-

X

t

-

—

—

o

o

—

—

t

—

—

—

—

—

—

X

—

—

—

Islands, B. of Bengal

X

—

—

—

—

X

—

—

X

X

—

—

—

-+3>

—

—

X

—

X

—

—

X

X

X

—

X

Further India. . . .

t

-

X

-

-

X

xo

—

xo

X

—

X

o

o

X

t

—

X

—

—

X

X

X

—

X

Malay Peninsula . .

X

X

X

-

—

—

X

-

X

X

—

X

X

—

X

X

X

X

—

—

X

X

X

—

—

Sumatra

X

X

-

-

—

—

X

-

X

X

X

-

X

■ —

X

t

—

X

—

—

X

X

X

—

—

—

Java

X

X

X

-

X

—

X

-

X

—

X

—

—

—

X

—

X

X

_

—

—

X

X

—

—

Lesser Sunda Is. . .

-

X

-

—

-

-

—

X

X

—

—

—

—

—

—

X

—

X

—

_

X

X

X

X

—

Australia

-

—

—

—

-

X

—

o

—

—

o

X

—

Polynesia

New Zealand ....
North America . . .

X

_

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (May 4thj 1898)

6

42

Introduction: Migration,

Localities

Fuliea atra L.

Olareola isabella Vieill.

LobivmwUus einereus (Blyth)

Squatarola Jielvetiea (L.)

Gharadrius fulvus Gm.

Aegialitis vereda (J. Gd.)

Aegialitis geoffroyi (Wagl.)

Aegicditis mongola (Pall.)

Aegialitis curonica (Gm.)

Strepsilas interpres (L.)

Totanus glottis (L.)

Totanus calidris (L.)

Totanus glareola (L.)

Heteraetitis brevipes (Vieill.)

Actitis hypoleueos (L.)

Terelcia cinerea (Giild.)

Tringa acuminata (Horsf.)

Tringa damascensis (Horsf.)

Tringa rufieollis (Pall.)

Phalanopus hyperboreus (L.)

Limicola platyrhyncha (Temm.)

Gallmago megala Swinh.

C3

?H

Ci5

p4

d

e

<s>

Co

e

e

O

§

e

OD

O

.§

Nvmenius minutus J. Gd.

Numenius variegatus (Scop.)

Numenius eyanopus Vieill.

Ardetta eurhythma Swinh.

Northern Europe .

O

—

-

O

-

—

—

-

O

0

o

o

O

—

0

O

—

—

O

O

Centr. & S. Europe .

xo

—

-

X

t

—

t

-

XO

S

X

ox

OX

-

OX

t

I

-

—

X

X

South-west Asia . .

xO

—

-

X

—

-

O

O

O

X

xo

X

-

O

X

-

—

X

X

_

—

—

—

—

—

Africa

X

—

-

X

—

—

X

X

xo

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

-

-

X

X

—

—

—

—

—

Madagascar

—

—

—

X

—

—

XO

—

-

X

-

-

—

X

X

—

-

—

-

X

—

—

—

—

—

-

Siberia, West . . . .

Siberia, Central. . .

—

-

-

-

O

—

-

o

-

qq

-

-

O

—

o

-

-

-

O

o

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Siberia, N.E

—

—

—

ox

X

—

-

o

-

03

o

-

O

X

o

o

O

O

o

o

—

—

X

—

—

O

—

Arctic Regions . . .

—

-

-

o

O

—

-

-

-

—

—

O

O

—

-

O

—

-

—

—

—

o

—

O

_

—

Bei’ing Islands . . .

—

—

—

X

o

—

-

o

-

0

X

—

O

X

o

X

X

XO

X

o

—

—

X

—

X

XO

—

Alaska

—

-

-

X

o

—

-

o

-

-

—

—

—

—

-

X

-

—

—

—

—

o

—

—

t

—

Kamtschatka ....

—

-

-

ox

o

—

-

o

-

P

-

—

-

—

o

-

X

O

o

o

—

—

—

—

X

o

—

S.E. Sib., Amurland

o

—

—

X

o

—

—

o

o

c3

rH

X

o

XO

X

o

X

X

0

X

X

-

O

X

o

X

xo

O

Mongolia

—

—

O

—

xo

O

-

—

o

—

o

-

—

o

—

—

X

X

-

-

X

X

o

-

—

—

Manchuria

o

—

—

X

X

—

-

—

-

1-0

-

—

—

—

o

-

—

-

—

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

—

Corea

—

—

O

X

—

—

-

-

o

P

o

X

X

X

-

o

—

X

X

X

—

X

—

X

—

X

ox

—

Japan

o

—

o

X

X

—

t

X

-

CO

X

t

X

X

o

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

t

X

X

X

China, North ....

xo

—

xo

X

X

XO

—

X

xo

a

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

China, South ....

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

0

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

o

Formosa

—

—

—

X

X

—

xo

-

X

-

-

-

X

o

—

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

Philippines

X

—

—

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

X

-

X

X

—

Borneo

—

X

—

X

X

—

X

X

X

CS

X

X

X

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

—

—

X

-

X

X

X

Talaut Islands. .

—

-

-

-

X

X

X

-

-

—

-

X

X

X

-

—

—

—

-

—

-

X

-

X

-

—

Sangi Islands . .

—

—

—

-

—

-

X

-

-

-t-s

-

-

—

X

X

-

-

-

X

—

—

-

-

-

X

-

—

Celebes, North .

X

X

t

+

X

X

X

X

X

o

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

X

Celebes, South .

—

X

-

—

X

X

X

-

X

p ■

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

—

-

-

X

X

-

—

X

-

-

Moluccas

—

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

-

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

-

Papuasia

—

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

-

X

-

-

X

X

-

X

—

X

X

—

—

X

X

X

X

-

India

xo

—

X

X

X

—

X

X

xo

X

X

X

-

xo

X

t

X

-

X

X

-

Ceylon

—

-

-

X

X

—

X

X

X

03

X

X

X

-

X

t

—

X

-

—

t

-

-

—

—

-

Islairds, B. of Bengal

—

—

-

—

X

X

X

xo

X

P

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

Further India ....

xo

-

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

—

X

-

-

X

-

—

—

—

—

—

Malay Peninsula . .

-

—

—

-

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

X

—

X

X

-

X

—

X

—

—

—

—

Sumatra

X

-

-

-

X

-

X

X

—

X

X

—

—

X

X

—

-

-

-

-

-

—

—

X

—

—

Java

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

X

o

X

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

-

X

X

X

-

X

Lesser Sunda Is. . .

—

X

—

X

X

—

X

—

X

CO

X

—

X

X

X

—

-

-

X

—

-

—

X

-

X

-

-

Australia ......

—

o

-

X

X

X

X

X

—

O

CLP

X

—

X

X

X

X

X

—

X

-

—

-

X

X

X

X

—

Polynesia

-

—

-

-

xo

-

X

-

—

CO

-

-

-

-

X

-

X

-

X

-

—

X

X

-

X

—

—

New Zealand ....

—

—

-

-

xo

-

-

-

-

~

-

-

—

-

—

X

-

—

—

—

-

X

—

—

t

—

North America . . .

Introduction: Migration.

43

During our studies it has become abundantly evident to us that ornithologists
are not generally aware that migration goes on in the East Indies to the great
extent it does. Naturalists travelling in the Archipelago have rarely had a
word to say on this subject, for the reason that they themselves are continually
on the move from place to place and are consequently unable to say whether
the birds they see are visitors or stationary. Among the residents or travellers
of longer standing it would be difficult to mention the names of more than
two or three competent observers; of these Mr. Everett has us yet published
nothing on migration to our knowledge beyond a few terse notes on individual
species, but there are a number of interesting observations extant from the pen
of Mr. Whitehead. We quote from this gentleman the following passages
relating to the S. E. parts of Palawan: “When the great rush of birds from
the far north takes place these plains have a much more lively aspect; hun-
dreds of Wagtails, Pipits, SnqDes, and other small Waders are continually flying
up on your approach . . . Towards the middle of September, after we had
collected all the resident species within our reach, the sea-coast, with its rocky
points and estuaries, was by far the most attractive hunting-ground; for about
that time the great winter migration from the north reaches the coasts and
forests of Palawan. Most Waders passed between 5 and 6. P. M. , all in one
direction, S.W. ; if a small flock settled and was disturbed, never did the birds
return, but still hurried on their southward course. By continuing this line of
flight they would touch Balabac, and then turn due south down to the coast of
Borneo, where some remain for the winter, but most seem to travel further still.
When the wind was blowing gales from the S.W., bringing up heavy clouds
loaded with rain, then was the liveliest time for moving; on calm, or even
moderate days, it was seldom worth while to visit the coast. All these great
travellers were as fat as butter, and in no state for a bird-collector” (Ibis 1890
p. 40). Out of a total of 157 species in Palawan 49 are migrants.

Birds at sea. — Nearly all naturalists when at sea in these regions have
been visited by birds of migratory species for a temporary rest on board ship.
When sailing ships were common this was possibly a more usual occurrence
than in these days of steamers. The following passage from E. J. F. Meyen’s
“Reise um die Erde”, 1835 II, 195, is of interest. When crossing the China
Sea between Macao, Canton River, and Manila, “besides the ordinary sea-birds
a number of various small land-birds were seen, which, as we quickly per-
ceived, were migrating and resting upon our ship. We obtained on this occasion
the Lanins phoenicurus (Pall.) (= L. lucionensis), the Hinindo domestica Pall, and
the Motacilla Jiava, all of them birds which spend the summer months in Southern
Siberia ... As it appeared all these birds were directing their course towards
the Moluccas; the Swallows came along in such numbers that we caught eight
of them in the evening. One day the head of a palm-tree drifted by our ship . . .
Large birds v^ere resting on this swimming island as it came towards us, and

44

Introduction: Migration.

a host of fishes swam in front of it,
sunned themselves”.

while innumerable crabs sat upon it and

In the special articles on the species records of individuals captured or
observed at sea are quoted, such are: Tachyspizias soloensis (China Sea, near
the Pescadores, May); Accipiter virgatus (China Sea, near the Natuna Is.,
14*^ November); Merops philippinus (Indian Ocean, November); Halcyon sancta
(Pacific Ocean, 300 sea-miles S.E. of the Louisiade group); Hirundo rustica
(several records from the seas between the Moluccas and S. China); Acrocephalus
orientalis (40 miles N. of the Loochoo Islands); Motacilla Jiava (Indian Ocean and
China Sea); Tringa ruficollis (China Sea, May 14^^); Hypotaenidia philippensis
(Pacific Ocean far at sea east of Australia) ; Myristicivora hicolor and Caloenas nico~
harica (Seas of the East Indian Archipelago).

Routes. — The above tables tend to prove that each species has
its own route or routes of migration; nevertheless the species allow of
a certain amount of co-ordination, as follows.

From Northern Europe and Siberia to the East Indian Archipelago. — So far
as species occurring in Celebes are concerned, migration reaches its highest
development in the Arctic Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus borealis (J. H. Bias.) afid the
Siberian Pipit, Anthus gustavi Swinh. The former is known to breed as far
west as Northern Norway (Collett), the latter as far as the Petchora (Seebohm
and Har vie -Brown); they also breed in various parts of Siberia. In the
winter there are no observations to show that individuals stop short of S.E. Asia
and the East Indies; on the other hand they are observed to pass through China
on migration, the Pipit holding to the countries washed by or near the Pacific
Ocean and not visiting the Indian countries, while the Chifi’chaff occurs both in
the territories invaded by the Pipit and in Further India and the neighbouring-
islands as well. So far as can be judged the general direction of the two
species in autumn is from west to east across Siberia and then south or south-
south-east. They are in singular contradiction to Gatke’s picturesque theory
of an east to west fiight at this season, and Anthus gustavi should be contrasted
with Anthus richardi V., which is supposed to migrate in the opposite direction,
and is often referred to for proof by Gatke.

From Northern Europe to Africa, and from Siberia to the East Indies or
further. — Many species migrate thus, but, as a rule, appreciable racial differ-
ences may be seen in the western and eastern individuals, with intermediate
forms from other localities between them. Such are: Hirundo rustica, Cuculus
canorus, Petrophila cyanus, Motacilla flava , Motacilla boarula, Anthus cervinus,
Totanus calidris. Other forms are commonly separated as distinct species in the
West and East; such are Charadrius pluvialis and fulvus, Acrocephalus turdoides and
orientalis, Tringa minuta and ruficollis, Limosa lapponica and novaezealandiae, Numenius
phaeopus and variegatus. Others do not differ in the West and East, or at least
no prominent racial differences in them have as yet been insisted upon; such

Introduction: Migration.

45

are: Squatarola hehetica^ Aegialitis curonica, Strepsilas interpres, Totanus glottis^
T. glareola^ Actitis hypoleucos^ Terekia cinerea^ Phalaropus hgperhoreus, etc. It may be
that these last commingle more freely in their breeding grounds than the others,
and have not yet adopted routes of migration of an equally unvarying character.

From China^ or China and S. E. Siberia^ to Further India^ the Philippines and
Sunda Islands as far as North Celebes. — A large number of visitors to Celebes
are distributed in summer and winter, respectively, as above. Celebes appears
to be reached by individuals which have travelled over the Philippines, and
not by birds coming from Borneo and Java. This is shown by the fact that
these species occur in the Northern Peninsula, but much more rarely, if at all,
in other parts of Celebes. Migrants descending south through the Philippines
and across the Celebes Sea are confronted by a lofty barrier 400 miles long
formed by this peninsula, and the majority of individuals do not pass over it
into South Celebes or into the Moluccas. If the migrants came from Borneo
or Java they would reach the west and south coasts first, and their presence
on the northern coast could only be accounted for as an aimless progression
towards the north-east, of which there is no evidence. The simpler explanation
may he assumed with much confidence to he the correct one. The winter visitors,
therefore, from China and the North to the Northern Peninsula are: Tachyspizias
soloensis, Accipiter virgatus gularis^ Hierococcyx sparverioides Coccystes coroniandus.,
Halcyon pileata^ Pitta cyanoptera., Lanius lucmiensis^) , Petrophila cyanus solitaria^).^
Locustella ochotensis, Lobivanellus cinereus, Tringa damascensis Ardetta eurhythma.

There is no species occurring as a migrant in the Philippines which has
been found in South Celebes and not in the North Peninsula, except Liniicola
platyrhyncha , which is as yet known from Celebes by one specimen only from
the South-central part of the island.

Species with the above summer and winter distribution but which pass on further
into South Celebes., the Moluccas and Papuasia are: Butastur indicus., Ninox scutulata
japonica, Cuculus canorus canoroides, Acrocephalus orientalis , Gallinago megala,
Numenius minutus. To these should be added most of the Waders, and the two
Wagtails, the Pipit, Anthus cervinus., the Arctic Chitfchatf, Phylloscopus borealis, etc.,
which, however, have a higher northern breeding range.

From S. E. Siberia and China to Further India and the Sunda Islands, avoid-
ing the Philippines. — This route is pursued by Lanius tigrinus, in striking
contrast to its compatriot Lanius lucionensis, which visits the Philippines in abun-
dance, and the Indian countries and Southern Sunda Islands only sparingly
(See pp. 405, 408 — 410). Most of the individuals of Pitta cyanoptera seem to
take a route like that of L. tigrinus.

West- Pacific migration. — There are several species occurring in Celebes
w’hich in winter visit the countries in the more immediate neighbourhood of the
Pacific, not crossing to the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the islands in

1) Has occurred in the Moluccas.

46

Introduction : Migration.

the Bay of Bengal. Sturnia violacea^ for instance, is not known from the con-
tinent of Asia, but breeds in Japan, from where it seems to fly directly in
autumn to the Philippines, Borneo, N. Celebes and the Moluccas. Muscicapa
griseosticta and Locustella fasciolata breed in North China or N. E. Asia and occur
in winter in the East Indies which are washed by the Pacific, as far as New
Guinea and ^ the Moluccas, respectively. Heteractitis brevipes wanders in winter
down the West Pacific coasts from unknown breeding grounds in the high North
as far south as Australia. A remarkable traveller across the Pacific is seen in
Limosa novaezealandiae ; this bird has been found breeding in Alaska and Arctic
Siberia, and it visits New Zealand in great numbers in winter, the majority of
individuals apparently flying directly across the Pacific without making use of
the East Indies as a resting-place, for the number of examples recorded from
there is comparatively very small (see p. 794). In the case of this species, as
also in that of the Pacific Cuckoo, TJrodynamis taitiensis (Sparrm.), it is perhaps
erroneous to attempt to avoid the assumption of a “sense of direction”. Still
ocular remembrapce of the sparsely scattered atolls and high islands of the
Pacific on which the birds may land or pass over, together with the positions
of the sun and stars at certain hours, and the direction of the roll of the waves
should not be left out of account as a means by which they may alter and
regulate their course over hundreds of miles of trackless ocean (see M obi us:
“Ein Beitr. z. Erage ilb. d. Orientirung der wandernden Vogel”: Ausland 1 882 p. 648).

Migration south of the equator. — Professor Newton remarks (D. B. 555):
“If the relative proportion of land to water in the southern hemisphere were
at all such as it is in the northern we should no doubt find the birds of southern
continents beginning to press uj)on the tropical and equatorial regions of the
globe at the season when they were thronged with emigrants from the north
. . . but we know almost nothing of the migration of birds in the other hemi-
sphere”. In this comment — very true, apparently, in regard to the compara-
tively small amount of migration south of the equator — Prof. Newton has
almost overlooked a great point of difference in northern and southern mi-
gration, namely that the birds of the South proceed towards the equator in the
time of our summer and leave the tropics again for their breeding quarters
about the time that the equatorial countries are invaded by the migrants from
the North. The southern territories which call for consideration in this book
(the East Indies and Australia) have furnished very few thorough - going
migrants; it is certain that the number is very small compared with that of the
northern hemisphere, but there is also a regrettable lack here of competent
observers and of published observations. One or two passages relating to mi-
gration across the Torres Straits seem to show that among the islands here it
is possible that a second Heligoland may be found some day. Bemarks to this
effect are made in Moseley’s ‘Naturalist on the “Challenger”’, 1879, p. 364:
“Most of the birds of Cape York are constantly migrating, and the resident
official at Somerset told me that the constant change from month to month of

Introduction: Migration.

47

the birds seen about his place was most astonishing. The Torres Straits Islands
serve as resting places for the birds crossing from New Guinea; Booby Island
is evidently thus used, and the number of its land-birds is thus to he accounted
for. This island corresponds thus in this respect with such an island as Heligo-
land. ... It is the last place in the world, as viewed from the sea, with clouds
of Boobies hovering over it, from which one would expect two new land-birds
[a Dove and a Bail described by Gould] to hail. Our officers laughed at the
notion of there being quails or anything to shoot upon it. . . . On August
1841, the officers of the ‘Beagle’ shot 145 quails, 18 pigeons, 12 rails of two
species, and 3 pigeons [“doves” in Stokes’ ‘Discoveries in Australia’ 1846 II,
330].” The contents of the game-book of the “Beagle” when among the islands
of the Arafura Sea are large and interesting, though unscientific; an extract is
given by Stokes, 1. c. The transit of the Australian Bee-eater, Merops ornatus^
across the Torres Straits has been remarked upon by two observers (see p. 250).
This bird takes some weeks to travel from here to its breeding grounds in New
South Wales.

Touching migration in Australia Mr. A. .1. North [in lit. 7. VIII. 1894) has
most obligingly furnished us with the following; “There is nothing published in
the Proceedings of any society beyond a paper contributed by Dr. E. P. Bamsay
to the Ornithological Congress held ... in Vienna about twelve years ago . . .
As there pointed out by Dr. Bamsay we have, comparatively speaking, but very
few migratory birds in Australia, but a great number of nomadic species which
shift from one point of the country to another, many of them appearing regu-
larly every season in the spring to breed and returning north or west directly
the cold weather sets in. Prom my notes which I have kept for the past
twenty years I will give you the date or time of arrival and departure of the
species asked for . . .

^^Chaetura caiidacuta. This bird arrives in New South Wales during the
hottest months of the year. I have noted them as early as December, but they
usually arrive in January and depart again about the middle of April. I have
never seen them resting, they pass the whole of the day on the wing,

^^Cypselus pacijicus. Arrives and departs at the same time as the preceding
species, with which it is more often than not seen in company. It is not,
however, so numerous as C. caudacuta.

^''Eurystomus pacijicus and Scythrops novaehollandiae . These species arrive in
Northern Queensland about the end of August, but their appearance is influenced
greatly by the season; sometimes it is at the end of September, and in 1892
it was as late as the 12*^^ of October when Eurystomus arrived. They leave
again on the approach of cold weather about the end of April. In New South
Wales Eurystomus arrives usually about the middle of September and departs
again early in April. I saw young birds nearly fledged taken from their nesting
place in the hollow limb of a tree near Newcastle on the 3’'*^ of October, 1893;
this was very early for New South Wales.

4S

Introduction : Migration.

^'Halcyon sancta. The main body of these birds arrive in N. S. W. during
August and the early part of September , breed and depart again by the end
of March; I have, however, noted straggling pairs during the intervening winter
months. In Northern Queensland this bird is a resident species.

^'Circus assimilis [C. jardinii Gould). This bird arrives in N. S. W. durino-
the month of August and is frequently met with in the small clumps of pine
[Callitris) growing out on the plains in the inland portions of the colony, and
in which it is often found breeding during September and October. It takes
its departure again about the end of January or middle of February.”

The paper of Dr. E. P. Pamsay’s referred to by Mr. North will be found
in the “Ornis” 1885, pp. 581—584. The author remarks: “One thing with
respect to our Australian fauna must be carefully borne in mind, strictly
speaking we have no migration among our birds”; and again: “The term
‘migratory’ as understood by European naturalists, does not apply to any
Australian species, the term I propose for these is ‘nomadic’”. Dr. Ramsay
considers that Australian birds wander from place to place in quest of fresh
feeding grounds and suitable breeding quarters; when they have reared their
young, they retire to another part, sometimes only 10 or 20 miles away. “The
Hirundinidae, our species of Gallinago, Rhynchaea, Merops, Artamus and some
Rallidae ^ make the closest approach to a migration here as they sometimes
wander from the north to the south of Australia”. We know nothing about
the endemic species of Australia, but, as regards others which occur in Celebes,
Dr. Ramsay’s statements are certainly more or less erroneous and misleadiug.
Two to four natives of Australia occur only as migrants in Celebes, in the same
manner as a number of natives of the northern hemisphere reach the island
and proceed as far as Australia in the south. Evidences of remarkable migra-
tions across the Torres Straits have been given above. Of birds breeding in
Australia Merops ornatus (though a few probably stay out of the general migra-
tion on occasions) is known to be a migrant to Celebes and the Moluccas;
Glareola isahella and Halcyon sancta are almost equally certainly such; the Austra-
lian form of Eurystomus orientalis has been recorded from Celebes and probably
correctly, though we confess to an inability to distinguish the supposed races
of this bird. Circus assimilis and Scythrops novaehollandiae seem to be residents
in Celebes, though it would be a matter for no surprise if their numbers ulti-
mately proved to be affected by migration to and from Australia. Some of the
greatest migrants of the North travel to Australia, among them being the follow-
ing visitors to Celebes: Cypselus pacijicus^ Squatarola helvetica, Charadrius fulvus^
Aegialitis vereda^ A. geoffroy% A. mongola, Strepsilas interpres^ Totanus glottis and
glareola^ Heteractitis brevipes, Actitis hypoleucos, TereJda cinerea, Tringa acuminata^
Tringa rujicollis^ Limosa novaezealandiae ^ Numenius minutus , N. variegatus and
cyanopus. There are also several other species about which particulars as to mi-
gration would be very welcome, such as Turnioc maculosa \ the Herons, Herodias
eulophotes , H. alba, H. garzetta, H intermedia, Notophoyx novaehollandiae, N. picata

Introduction: Migration.

49

and Nycticorax caledonkus\ and the Eails, Hypotaenidia philippensis, Amaurornis
cinerea and moluccana. Dr. Earn say’s term “nomadic” for wandering Australian
birds denotes an initiatory form of migration not of a regular half-yearly cha-
racter, but, as is shown by the above species, a development of the migratory
habits is sometimes found as high as in many species of the northern hemisphere.

The return-migration. - — Birds do not appear always to return in spring by
the route pursued in autumn, often, apparently, being rare or absent in one
season in districts through which they pass in abundance in the other season.

Birds which stay behind in their winter quarters. — It seems to be a very
common occurrence for a few individuals to stay throughout the year in the
winter resorts of the species. Among Celebesian species which have been found
in the island after their fellows have departed to their breeding localities in
the North, or, respectively, the South, may he mentioned: Merops ornatus, Motacilla
jiava^ Charadrius fulvus, Aegialitis geoffroyi^ A. mongola^ A. curonica.^ Totanus glottis^
T. glareola, Heteractitis hrevipes., Tringa acuminata.^ T. rujicollis., Numenius variegatus.
To these Motacilla boanda and Anthus gustavi should probably be added; the
first has been sent to us from Manado tua as late as May, the Pipit as late
as May 26*'^. Other instances of migrants killed in the Moluccas and elsewhere
at dates when the main body of their species is absent will be. found in the text.
During his travels in Polynesia Dr. Finsch found many Waders of several species
on the Marshall and Gilbert atolls of the Central Pacific in the summer
months; and similar observations will be found in “Stray Feathers” and elsewhere.

It is unprofitable to speculate on the cause of this violation of the general
rule, as the possible explanations are many and the individual judgment is prone
to select that which conforms best to its own prejudices. Several reasons may
indeed work together in inducing these birds to stay behind. The following is
likely to escape general observation, viz. the time of shedding the remiges varies
in individuals and a bird with its powers of flight thus diminished at the
spring migration might well hesitate at attempting the journey. Or an accident
— a broken wing or leg — may delay an individual, and as observers know,
one or more sympathetic companions will be likely to remain by the injured
one with a devotion equal to that of man himself. In other cases, as, for in-
stance, the individuals on the. atolls in the middle of the Pacific, it may more
plausibly be supposed that the birds had lost their way. At other times it looks
as if the birds remain behind simply from choice. But, though in Natural
History it is almost always impossible to assert that a certain this, and this
only, is the true explanation, it is happily sometimes possible to show that
some other is an untrue explanation. Thus, it has been asked in Baird,

1) See pp. 739, 744, 747, 761, 762, 765, 768, 772, 798.

Meyer & Wi gl eswo rtli Birds of Celebes (May 5th 1898).

50

Introduction: Migration.

Brewer and Ridgway’s “Water Birds of North America” 1884 1, 123, whether
those birds which spend the summer in the winter haunts of their species are
not old, effete and barren individuals. This suggestion is negatived by the
fact that among such visitors to Celebes five species have been known
to breed in some part, or parts, of their winter range, viz. Charadrius fulvus,
Aegialitis geoffroyi. A, mongola^ Strepsilas interpres and Limosa novaezealmidiae.

Causes of migmtion. — It may be tritely said that birds migrate in autumn
to feed, in spring to breed! At the approach of winter most birds must of
necessity proceed towards the tropics, or starve, owing to the disappearance of
their food through death or hibernation, or through concealment under snow or
ice. In spring the temperate and arctic regions produce an abundance of food
and, it may be presumed, offer safer and easier conditions for the propagation
of the species than is found in the tropics; the birds then repair to their native
haunts. Naturalists, who seek for physiological conditions to account for the
actions of the subject, may find a stimulus for the s]3iing migration in the annual
develo]3ment of the reproductive systems, while the approaching autumnal moult
of the remiges may sometimes serve as a w^arning to species that it is time to
accomplish their flight towards the equator, for many of them leave long before
the cold sets in. Waders killed in their winter quarters in the Celebesian area
in the late autumn or winter months are generally found to be moulting some
of their remiges. Possibly, however, the chief motive for the spring migration
is to be found in the love of home so strongly developed in birds, for without
this it is conceivable that they would attempt to establish themselves in the
tropics for breeding purposes. Instances of the marvellous regularity with which
individuals return to the old breeding haunt after a journey of hundreds, or
more often thousands, of miles have excited the admiration of all field-observers.
That the young birds also sometimes follow their parents to their birth-place is
shown by a case given on p. 48 (text). But it seems to be the case — which is
not so generally known — that birds display a very similar adhesiveness in the
choice of their winter quarters. An instance of enormous numbers of Wagtails and
Swallows returning two years in succession to roost in a coffee garden in Ceylon,
as observed by Mr. S. Bligh, will he found on p. 537; and Davison states
that a large number of migratory Collocaliae^ which had taken to roosting upon
a certain spot about a yard square against the roof of a shed in the Andamans,
disappeared when the building was pulled down, only to come again and occupy
the same spot on a new shed, which had been put u]d on the identical site
(p. 332). There are no rookeries near Dresden, but every year about the be-
ginning of November great numbers of Rooks and Jackdaws pass over the
neighbourhood for many days in succession^), and some sj^end the winter there.

1) The flocks fly high, so that it is sometimes difficult to detect them with the naked eye. The mode
of progress is very slow in a S. or S.W. direction, perhaps at the rate of 12 miles an hour, and conducted
with much cawing and calling and circling in the air, as if none wish to have the responsibility of leading the -way.

Introduction: Migration.

51

Two or three individuals often make their appearance in the daytime in the
Bismarckplatz in the town each year, though they are not always driven there
by cold and hunger, and they are most likely the same birds each season.
There is an autumnal migration route of Wild Geese [Anser segetum) at Grossen-
hain near Dresden, the birds making their appearance during their transit to the
South every year on the fish-ponds at this place, but only quite exceptionally on
the fish-ponds at Moritzburg some 10 miles to the S.E. Mr. Schwarze of the
Dresden Museum informs us that Kingfishers did not occur in summer at his
native village in Saxony , hut were to be found every winter, when the fish-
pond was frozen over, at the inlet or trap where water was let in, and where
there were plenty of small fish. The Grey Crow, Corvus cornioc L., visits the
Eastern counties of England in great numbers every autumn; these birds do
not proceed far inland, being unknown in the Western counties; and such is
almost equally the case in the Southern Midlands, for instance, in Northern
Buckinghamshire. Yet these parts of England appear to he quite as capable
of sustaining them as the Eastern counties. Mr. W. Eagle Clarke’s “Digest
of the Reports on Migration” should also be read in this connection.

If the birds remember their final and intermediate halting-places so well,
it appears that they must find their way in migrating by means of such familiar
land-marks and stations. It is well known that “homing” Pigeons are lost if
turned out in a strange country, and these birds are trained for long flights by
breaking the journey into a number of stages and thus gradually lengthening
the familiar landscape. In the same way it can well be understood how such
a bird as Phylloscopus borealis^ which migrates from Norway across Siberia to
the East Indies, may originally have been a native of East Siberia, but extended
its breeding range for a mile or two at intervals , the advanced individuals
flying back over the known track to their comrades in autumn; while the
young generation gathered experience from the older travellers, and thus the
ancient traditional route was increased in extent.

Nevertheless it should be pointed out that Professor Newton, who was
one of the first to examine the “homing” faculty of Pigeons in the hope that
it might afford a clue to explaining how migrating birds find their way, has
since been led to abandon it, holding that ocular memory as the guiding medium
is disproved by three facts; first, that migrating birds fly over the open sea,
sometimes thus traversing as much as a thousand miles before they can reach
land; secondly, that much migration is done in darkness at night, sometimes at
high elevations; thirdly, that “among migrants the young and old always journey
apart and most generally by different routes”. These reasons may well be con-
sidered beyond all objection by many ornithologists, but by others not so. A
bird may take its direction across the vast open expanses of the Pacific, as has
been already remarked, by means of the familiar lay of the land at starting,
the rise and setting of sun and stars, and, as Prof. Mobius has suggested, by
the direction of the roll of the waves; also by ascending to a height of 10 000

52

Introduction: Migration.

feet (which seems to be within what has actually been observed — Diet. B.
p. 563) a hill of 2000 feet could be seen at a distance of 190 English miles,
and similar heights in the land the bird is leaving would disappear at this
distance behind.^) This of course could only take place under suitable atmo-
spheric conditions, but, should such conditions be thought impossible, it may be
mentioned that Meyer when in Celebes was able from the top of Mt. Klabat
(over 6000 feet) to see the islands of Maju and Tifore in the Molucca Straits,
a distance of about 90 English miles, and the guide, the Hukum kadua of
Ayermadidi, who had ascended the mountain four times, stated that Ternate could
sometimes be seen, a distance of about 170 miles. The hills of Tifore are
only 300 — 400 feet high, but the Peak of Ternate reaches 5300 feet. The
effects of refraction may still further increase the length of view. It would
be of interest to know whether the birds ever attempt their great journeys across
the Pacific at night. As to nocturnal migration it should be remembered that
nights are seldom of a “pitch” dark character, when we are not aware that
birds’^) are heard migrating, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that they
keep in view the outlines of the country over which they wander. As to the
young birds migrating alone, it may be that a small percentage of adults among
them may have been overlooked by those who have made these statements;
like many others we do not entirely trust the evidence. But if it be accepted,
such cases seem to point to “inherited experience”, the young bird recognising
the right way by innate knowledge, in the same manner as a newly hatched
chick knows that grains of rice are good to eat. If birds have a “sense of
direction”, why do they take such indirect routes to their destinations?

1) Prof. Patten hausen of the Eoyal Technical School in Dresden has most obligingly given us the
following formula for making this computation: Granted the atmosphere as jjerfectly transparent and, further,
that the rays of light travel directly onward from the surface of the sea, the equation is:

s = 3-S(yX + yV)

when h = the height of the point of view in metres,
h' — the height of the object seen in metres,
and s = the radius of view in kilometres.

2) Diurnal birds almost certainly have a long and clear range of vision, although it may not be fair to
cite the Vulture, Kite, and Kestrel in proof At night they seem to experience much the same difficulty as
ourselves. Those who have practised netting along hedgerows with a beater on one side and a double-handed
clap-net on the other are well aware that it is next to no use attempting to catch birds except on dark nights,
and even then the great majority see the net against the sky and avoid it. But the manner in which a scared
party flutter in some neighbouring hedge to which they have flown , is in part due to the difficulty they have
in finding a perch in the dark, and shows that they do not see distinctly.

4. VARIATION.

The phases of V ariation, or Modification of Structure and Plumage displayed
among the birds of Celebes may be conveniently considered under the following
headings :

1. Individual Variation; the differences peculiar to the individual.

2. Geographical Variation; as shown by local races, subspecies, or species.

3. Seasonal Changes; such as peculiar summer and winter plumages in birds.

4. Sexual Differences; the secondary sexual characters.

5. Changes depending upon Age; the development and decadence of the
individual.

1. Individual Variation.

The assumption that no two individuals are ever exactly alike seems to
be completely justified by facts. No one, probably, is so fully aware of this,
as the zoologist, who is called upon to make the closest possible comparison
of large series of individuals of the same race. In the course of writing the
present book, for instance, which is chiefly based upon a study of the ex-
ternal coverings, and bills, legs and feet of Celebesian birds, with occasional
reference to their skeletons — some thousands of specimens have been examined,
yet to the best of our knowledge no two of them were exactly alike; moreover
in the text several thousand measurements of parts will be found, yet we believe
that hardly any two cases occur in which four terms (wing, tail, tarsus, bill)
are the same. There are some very close observers of Nature to whom a know-
ledge of this infinite diversity of form is perceptible; who, as children, are
conscious of the peculiarities of individual Sparrows or the differences in blades
of grass ; others, and amongst them men of learning, have never had their eyes
opened to the fact, and assert that exactly the opposite is the case. Thus the idea
of a uniformity of the individuals of a species is encouraged by the latter, with
its consequence, that species were evolved per saltum. This position is partly
the result of a system of nomenclature which no longer meets the needs of our
time. There are of course species — groups of individuals possessing some
character (or characters) never so found in any other group, ■ — but each indi-
vidual has its own peculiarities, and an ideal system of nomenclature can only

54

Introduction : V ariation.

be attained when each specimen is compared with the type — the first-described
individual — of its species, and a formula representing the difi’erence appended
to the binomial name. Such a method is however impossible at present for
practical reasons; there is no means of measuring the differences in question.
Another reason why individual variation finds so little mention from those who
have most experience of it is that for a long time a strong effort has been
made to enforce the recognition of subspecies; the effect of this has been to
give undue prominence to geographical variation and to divert attention from
individual and other phases of variation, which form exceedingly difficult factors
in the study of local races, and are for that very reason disregarded by careless
or ignorant writers.

Range of individual variation. — Compared with some other animal forms,
for instance, certain Beetles, individual variation in birds (other than domesticated
races) keeps within somewhat narrow limits. The maximum as regards variation
of plumage is seen in the male Buff (Machetes pugnax). The extinct Solitaire
(Pezophaps) of Bodriguez was also extremely variable; its osteological remains
show that “the variability of colour he (Leguat) had noticed in the females
— some fair, some brown — was paralleled by the marvellous variability dis-
played by almost every bone of the skeleton” (Newton, D. B., 890). Other
familiar examples of high individual variability among birds are furnished by
the Honey Buzzard [Pernis apivorus), the Common Partridge (Perdiw cinerea)., and
the Common Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) . The minimum of individual variation
is perhaps found among certain highly local species of Pigeons, such as those
of the genera and Osmotreron\ also many Sunbirds, Kingfishers, Parrots, etc.,

seem to be very stable in this respect. The differences separating many species
of Pigeons are so small that it creates a feeling of surprise to find that large
series of specimens do not present every sort of intermediate form and other
modification. Under domestication, on the other hand, the Blue Bock Dove
has displayed a most remarkable variability. A high degree of individual
variability is sometimes found among species of birds in which the sexes are
dissimilar (e. g. Machetes^ Macropggia., Galhis), but the sexes are dissimilar also
in Ptilopus^ Osmotreron, the Sunbirds, and other stable forms, so that this factor
evidently has no direct influence in the matter.

Some species vary much in the measurements of various parts of the body,
but little in coloration (e. g. Streptocitta, Amaurornis moluccand)\ others vary much
both in size of parts and in coloration (e. g. Halcyon chloris., ILanthocnus Jiavicollis).
Highly specialized features are generally very variable: for instance, the long-
tails of Streptocitta^ Phoenicophaes and Fregata, the long hind claws of Centro-
coccyx and Hydralectoi\ the long bills of Limosa and Numenius, the long tarsus
of Himantopus; but age also plays an important role in this connection.

Psychological differences of individuals. — Persons who have closely observed
or have kept wild species in confinement have often noticed differences of

Introduction: Variation.

55

temperament in individuals; some are bold and fierce, others more gentle; some
more clever, others more stupid; some trustful, others shy; and so on. A marked
“individuality” in birds may sometimes be noticed in their choice of their feeding
grounds and nesting spots.

Monstrosities. — Cases of exceptional individual variation, infraction of the
rule of bilateral symmetry^) etc., have not fallen under our observation among
Celebesian birds. There is a tame Duck with webless toes in the Sarasin Col-
lection from North Celebes.

Albinism^ Melanism^ etc. — Among genera occurring in Celebes albinism,
partial or complete, seems to be most frequent in the Coucals, Centropus and
Centrococcyx. The Hornbill, Cranorrhinus sometimes displays white spots on the
tail, but this may be a partial reversion to a form with a white band across
the rectrices, as seen in some allied Hornbills. Cases of albinism are so common
in the Heron, Demiegretta sacra., that this species may be rightly termed dimorphic.
A further advance of albinism is seen in species which are now always white,
such as certain Herons and Swans, for it seems certain that these birds were
at one time coloured species.

According to the observations of Mr. K. G. Henke (see, besides, Z. ges. Orn.
1886 III, 268), albinism, when partial, does not conform to the rule of bilateral
symmetry.

Partial melanism occurs in a highly variable degree in the large Talaut
Oriole, Oriolus melanisticus., which appears to be developing into a sj)ecies wfith
a black uy»per surface. The Bittern, ILanthocmis melaenus (Salvad.) may ulti-
mately prove to represent a case of frequent melanism in X. Jiavicollis. Per-
manently black species among Celebesian birds are Ictmaetus malayensis (when
adult), Surnicidus musschenbroeki, JEudynamis (males), Hhabdotorrhinus exaratus and
Cranorrhinus cassidix (females), Dicrurus, Corvus., Limnocorax.

Examples of individual xanthochroism in Trichoglossus ornatiis have been
mentioned by Bruggemann, Meyer, and Guillemard among Celebesian birds
(see text, p. 121). The species of Cacatua and. Myristicivora are probably permanently
xanthochroistic forms. The sulphur tint of the plumage of the former in life^)
is due to the absence of the pigment fuscin, the colour parrot- green being
caused by the yellow pigment psittaco-fulvin lying on the fuscin (see, Meyer,
Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Berlin 1882, 518); and the similar tint in the Nutmeg Pigeons
is probably caused in the same manner, very possibly by the same pigment.

Dichromatism. — The phenomenon of dimorphism seems to be classifiable
under Individual Variation, although there are cases where it appears to mark
the commencement of the evolution of a new species. The best illustration of

See below p. 68.

2) It fades through exposure to the light in course of time in skins and stuffed examples, leaving the
plumage white.

56

Introduction: Variation.

dichromatism among Celebesian birds is afforded by the Heron, Demiegretta sacra\
this bird is ordinarily slate-coloured, but a pure white form is very frequent,
and in some parts of its range, as in the Andamans, white individuals number
some 20 per cent of the species. The two forms are known to breed together,
and pure white young ones, as well as the usual dark ones, are known from
the nest; piebald specimens are also not uncommon. It may well he, as has
been suggested by Dr. Stejneger, that Demiegretta sacra will in the end be-
come a pure white species, like the allied Herons of the genus Herodias, one
of Ardea, and Buhulcus (when not breeding). In other parts of the world three
more Herons are known among which white individuals are of very frequent
occurrence (see text, p. 822).

The genus Spilornis is supposed by some ornithologists to be dichromatic
when young, but further proof of this is wanting (see p. 3). Ardetta eurhgthma
perhaps makes an approach to dichromatism, since the male is sometimes known
to breed in its immature dress (the ordinary female dress), and a female is
occasionally found in the male plumage. Other cases of dichromatism have
not been found among Celebesian birds, and the phenomenon is indeed always
rare in ornithology.

Modificatmis of the individual due to foreign violence^ such as injuries to feathers
and parts of the hody^ disease^ effects of shelter and exposure^ of food etc, cannot
be discussed here, as leading too far. Only a remark or two. The heredity of
oft-repeated external action on feathers is discussed below, pp. 73 — 79. Hemark-
able effects may sometimes be produced by food, such as the conversion of
Canaries or white Fowls into red ones by feeding them with Cayenne pepper.
Isabelline-coloured Pigeons fed wdth crumbs coloured mth Methyleosine were
turned into birds of a permanent red tint, and green Australian Parrakeets
[Mellopsittacus) supplied with millet coloured with Methyl violet were converted
into blue birds, the yellow forehead becoming white or dirty white (Sauermann,
Mitth. Ornith. Vereins Wien 1890, pp. 92 — 94). Parrots [Sittace) in Brasil are

made to change colour into yello-w by plucking out feathers and inoculating
the wounds with a frog’s or toad’s blood or with the milky secretion from its
skin; when the new feathers grow the colour is changed. The common
Amazonian green Parrot [Chrysotis)^ if fed with the fat of large Siluroid fishes,
becomes beautifully variegated with red and yellow feathers. In Halmahera
Lorius garruliis is said to be influenced in a similar manner. (After v. Martins
and Wallace, communicated by Meyer: Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Berlin 1882, 521.)

Thus we imagine that a bird flying to a neighbouring island and finding
there another sort of food, may, if settled there, acquire some new character in
coloration; e. g. Loriculus stigmatus flying over to Banggai becomes sclateri ruber,
to Togian Island quadricolor, etc. etc., these forms only differing slightly. Such
alterations may occur per saltum or at least quickly, not requiring generations.
A fruit from Batavia planted at Manado does not always remain the same, as

Introduction: Variation.

.57

is well known there; wood-rutF transplanted from the woods loses its aroma.
Examples could be added by scores. Though we cannot explain these alterations
mechanically, facts remain ; so it is with insignificant variations in the colours of
birds in new localities, if isolated. How easily colour may be influenced is
shown by the following case of one of the Musophagidae^ Corgthaioc alhociistatus, first
made known by Dr. Chenu (Encyclopedie DHist. Nat. Oiseaux 2™® partie 1855
p. 55): “Une particularite remarquable, dont nous devons la communication a
Jules et Edouard Verreaux, si bons observateurs , c’est que les douze ou
quatorze pennes alaires, qui sont d’un si beau pourpre violatre, perdent cette
couleur chez les individus vivants, lorsqu’elles ont ete mouillees par la pluie: si,
dans cet etat, on vient a les toucher ou a les frotter avec les doigts, ceux-ci se
trouvent aussitot rougis jDar la couleur pourpree qui a deteint sur eux; et, en
sechant, ces memes plumes reprennent leur eclat primitif. Sur la depouille de
I’Oiseaux, aucun effect semblable ne se produit. Ce fait nous parait unique
dans la classe des Oiseaux.”^) Though this be exceptional, no doubt chemical
or mechanical alterations of colour occur elsewhere, be they dependent on food,
light or other external influences, touching which we know next to nothing
at present. Alteration of colour in individuals, gone astray to isolated localities,
leads us to geographical variation, which should next be treated of.

2. Geographical Variation.

Although it is conceivable, and indeed likely, that a new species may
sometimes owe its origin to dimorphism, a condition which may be ultimately
due to the successful multiplication of a single case of exceptional individual
variation, it is nevertheless far more certain that the great majority of the
peculiar forms of Celebes and the neighbouring islands are what are termed
geographical species or local races, which have developed their distinctive
characters while geographically isolated from one another. In the Celebesian
area there are about 150 species of this description now known, not to speak
of a large number of partially formed races. The latter are in many respects
the most interesting, as they show species in the first stages of their differen-
tiation, and their study holds out the best hope of solving the problem of the
origin of species — or at least of the majority of species. The differences seen
are often very small, but of a very palpable description, as, for instance, the
broader black border to the secondaries of Eos histrio in Sangi, the narrower
border in Talaut; the darker grey of the head of Phoenicophaes calorhymhus in
North Celebes, the lighter grey in the South, and so on. These differences
may be due to an inherent tendency in the individuals in question to evolve

1) Compare Sclilegel: J. f. 0. 18-58, 381 ; A. Bogdanow: 0. E. Ac. Sc. Paris 1857 XLY, 311 and 1862
LIV, 660; Brelim Tierl. 3. ed. 1891 V, 138; Krukenberg: “Die Farbstoffe der Federn” in bis Vergl-
Pbysiol. Stud. 5. Abt. 1881, 75.

Meyer & Wigl es wort li Birds of Celebes (May 5th, 1S9S).

8

55

Introduction: Variation.

in a certain direction (as a complete ceasing from all variation, even under
unaltered conditions, is inconceivable in the course of the propagation of organic
forms), or they may be caused by local influences. For some cases the former
assumption appears unavoidable ; for other cases there is satisfactory evidence
of the effect of local influences, though the exact nature of these latter is almost
always uncertain; as a rule, probably, both causes operate together, but it very
rarely happens that an opinion either way is permissible at present. In illu-
stration of independent development in the same direction it may be mentioned
that the genus Loriculus has produced two species with very similar red crowns
in Ceylon and in the Southern Philippines; and a corresponding distribution of
markings is seen in the plumage in the two forms of Celebes [L. stigmatus) and
Sooloo [L. honapartei), which are not closely related to one another (see p. 163
et seq.). Local influences are sufficiently indicated when a number of species
are found to vary in the same place in a corresponding manner; for instance,
two phases of modification have been detected by Mr. Allen among North
American birds and are recapitulated by Professor Newton (Diet. B. 1896,
p. 1005) as follows: there is “a general increase of intensity toward the south
and development of dark markings at the expense of the light intervening
spaces, so that of brightly-coloured species southern individuals are the most
brightly coloured, and some tints, which to the northward cannot be called
brilliant, become vivid in a lower latitude. In respect of longitude Variation
occurs with like regularity, the difFerences appearing to hold a direct relationship
to the humidity of the climate. Thus on the dry plains of the middle and
western parts of the continent birds have a pallid complexion, while on the
Pacific slope they resume nearly the tints of the eastern form, though further
to the northward, in the rainy belt that extends along the coast of British
Columbia, they acquire a depth of colour far in excess of that which they
display on the Atlantic border.”^) In such cases the direct influence of climate
upon the colours appears to be proved.

The following instances of correlated geographical variation are noticeable
among the birds of the Celebesian Province.

Increase of size in the Sangi and Talaut Islaiids. — The local species or races
of Sangi and Talaut having their nearest affinities with species on the mainland
of Celebes are:

1) This quotation, which we have reprinted, is only from a resume of Mr. Allen’s original memoir:
“On the Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida” (Bull. Mus. Oomp. Zool. Cambridge, 1870 — 1, II, pp. 161
— 450, plates IV — VIII) which should be consulted here, chiefly pp. 259 sq., where he says: “Causes of
Climatic Varation. — ... The southward increase in depth of color and in iridescence in birds specifically
identical coincides also with the general increase in brilliancy of color in birds, taken as a whole, in the lower
latitudes (as well as in insects and animals generally), the maximum being reached in the tropics. — The
longitudinal Variation, or the westward increase in color, seems to be also coincident with the increased humidity
to the westward, the darker representatives of any species occunung where the annual rainfall is greatest and
the palest where it is least . . .”

Introduction: Variation.

59

Sangi

1 . Tanygnathus muelleri sangirensis M. Wg.

2. Ceycopsis sangirensis M.&Wg.

3. Cittura sangirensis Sharpe

4. Hypothymis rowleyi^) (Meyer)

5. Acmonorhynchus sangirensis (Salv.)

6. Anthreptes malaccensis chlorigaster (Sh.)

7. Zosterops nehrkorni W. Bias.

8. Calornis panayensis sangire7isis (Salv.)

9. Osmotreron sangirensis (Briigg.)

10. Ptilopus ocanthorrhous (Salv.)

11. Macropygia alhicapilla sangirensis (S.)

12. Megapodius sangirensis Sc hi.

Talaut

1 . T. muelleri — sangirensis

2. Dicaeum talautense M.&Wg.

3. Hermotimia talautensis M.&Wg.

4. Calornis panayensis sangirensis

5. Ptilopus xanthorrhous (Salv.)

6. Megapodius sangirensis Sc hi.

To the Talaut list the following species having their nearest affinities in
the Philippines and elsewhere should be added; 7. Tanygnathus talautensisM-.SPNg.',
8. Zosterops habelo M.&Wg.; 9. Oriolus melanisticus M.&Wg.; 10. Carpophaga
intermedia M.&Wg.; and to the Sangi list should be added Oriolus formosus Cab.,
allied to Philippine and Sula forms.

There are about 17 species in Sangi with near affinities to forms on the
mainland of Celebes, but which have developed more or less appreciable local
differences. Of these 17, no fewer than 12 named in the above list have in-
creased in size in Sangi, while two others, Prioniturus platurus and Dicaeum
sangirense^ are probably also a trifle larger than their relatives on the mainland.
Oicrurus leucops, Hermotimia sangirensis and Pitta caeruleitorques have not increased
in size, but they are at the same time not smaller than their Celebesian allies.
In no case have Celebesian species decreased in size in Sangi.'^)

The imperfectly explored Talaut Islands are at present known to possess
8 peculiar species allied to forms belonging to Celebes or the Philippines, not
counting 2 with Moluccan affinities; and to these eight should be added 4 Cele-
besian forms which Talaut possesses in common with Sangi. Ten of these twelve
species display a marked increase of size in Talaut, and the other two show no
reduction.

The converse supposition that the large forms of Sangi and Talaut represent
the original size and that the races of Celebes and the Philippines are those
which have undergone alteration, viz. reduction in size, is not plausible. The
islands seem most obviously to have been colonised chiefly from the mainlands

1) Nearest affinities uncertain.

2) From tlie island of Siao belonging to the Sangi group a single very small specimen of an Owl like
Scops manadensis has been described by Sohlegel as Scops siaoensis. Its distinction is not admitted in this
^ ork (see p. 104).

8*

60

Introduction : Variation.

of Celebes and the Philippines, and not Celebes and the Philippines from them;
their volcanic or coral character (see de Hollander, Land- en Volkenkunde
Ned. Cost. Ind. 1884, II, 234) and the absence of heavy, ill-flying birds and of
peculiar generic types speak for the recent upheaval and colonisation of these
islands^). It might happen that a species or two on the mainlands subsequently
became smaller, but there is no reason to assume that the twenty species which
remained in Celebes and the Philippines all became small hereafter, while those
which had peopled the islands all maintained the original sizes of the species.
On the other hand there is reason to anticipate that the individuals of these
twenty species which had emigrated to the new islands would undergo alteration
of some kind or other, for the conditions of existence are not precisely the
same there. It appears, therefore, quite safe to assume that Celebesian and
Philippine birds develop as a rule into larger races in Sangi and
Talaut"^).

As is usual in such cases it is not difficult to find more than one explan-
ation why these things should be so, but not easy to decide which explanation
is the true one. The most plausible suggestion is that the dangers are fewer
and the struggle for partners perhaps more severe in Sangi and Talaut than on
the mainland. 'Hawks and Falcons which prey upon birds seem to be very
rare in these islands; so far not one bird-eater, strictly speaking, has been killed
in them, for Tachyspizias soloensis, the most dangerous to small birds, is not
only a migrant but feeds to a great extent on insects. Moreover there are no
monkeys in Sangi and Talaut, and other enemies, which could be dangerous to
breeding birds, their nestlings and eggs, are rarer than in Celebes and the Phi-
lippines. The chief competition therefore that goes on would appear to be
among the birds themselves, and the largest and strongest will be more likely
to secure nesting quarters and partners than the smaller and weaker®).

Decrease in size in Sula. — Two Birds -of- prey and two Pigeons display a
slight reduction in dimensions in the Sula Islands, viz. Spilornis I'ujipectus, Acci-
piter sulaensis, Turacoena manadensis and Macropygia alhicapilla. Sula seems to
resemble Celebes in its Birds-of-prey.

Differences in size in the North and South Peninsulas of Celebes. — As a rule
the birds agree in their dimensions in these districts, but where there is a differ-
ence it seems to be in the direction of an increase in size in South Celebes.
Pachycephala meridionalis and Sto])arola meridionalis are much larger than the

1) Prof. Hickson noticed e-vndences of I’ecent sligkt elevation in Talaut (Nat. in N. Celebes 1859, 151, 157),

2) The case affords a good illustration of our postulate, tliat colonists become more changed than stayers-
at-home (see, p. 162).

3) It may be added that many ornithologists are of opinion that the males of most species of birds are
more numerous than the females, and Dr. Platen certainly collected many more males than females in the
Sangi Islands (see "W. Blasius, Ornis 1888, pp. 527 — 646;; but it may well be that the superior plumage of
the males leads to their being shot and skinned more frequently, and it is preferable not to introduce this
doubtful element into the argument.

Introduction; Variation,

61

representative species, P. septentrionalis and >S. septentrionalis, of the North; also
Carpophaga paulma shows a slight increase in size in the South, and a very
small increase is noticeable there in Streptocitta alhicollis and in Phoenicophaes
calorhgnchus.

Similar geog^'aphical variations of coloration. — The Lories of the genus
Trichoglossus range from Australia as far as Celebes and consist of two groups,
Trichoglossus proper of Australia, the Lesser Sundas, Papuasia, the Moluccas
and Celebes, and Psitteuteles of Australia, the Lesser Sunda Islands and Celebes.
Count Salvador! (1891) recognises 16 species, all of which have a yellow (in
two cases red) band across the base of the remiges, except in the Celebesian
area, where there are three species, T. ornatus and P. meyeri in Celebes, and
P. flavoviridis in Sula, which have no yellow band. We have, however, found
small evidences of a yellow band in two or three immature specimens out of
17 examples of T. ornatus and in three young specimens and one female in a
smaller series of P. meyeri — a significant indication that these species are
derived from birds which possessed the band, such as are found inhabiting the
countries to the east and south of Celebes to-day. Why the birds have lost the
band in the Celebesian area it appears useless to speculate.

Pitta forsteni of Celebes wants the usual white wing-band.

The Serpent -harrier,. Spilornis rufipectus., and the Sparrow-hawk, Accipiter
7'hodogastei\ of Celebes, are represented in the Sula Islands by two closely allied,
but slightly smaller forms [S. rufipectus sulaensis and A. sulaensis). Both of these
have undergone a similar modification of the wing, viz. the bars on the under
surface of the remiges have become narrower in Sula, or have increased in width
in Celebes, as the case may be.

The Cuckoos of the genus Eiidynamis., which range from the Himalayas to
Australia, have pale bills, and the Kingfishers of the genus Pelargopsis.^ ranging
from India to the Sula Islands, have red bills, except in Celebes, where both
the Cuckoo and the Kingfisher have the bill black, while the bill of the latter
is varied with black and red in the neighbouring Banggai Archipelago.

Out of the ten known geographical species of the Talaut Islands three
display melanotic infiuences or, at least, a darkening of their tints; these are
Oriolus melanisticus Picaeum talatitense, and Pitta inspecidata. The Lory, Eos
histrio talautensis, has, however, slightly less black on the wings than the typical
Eos histrio of Sangi.

The above cases are included under the heading Geographical Variation,
because their peculiarities of coloration seem most probably to be connected
with some unknown local influences ; there are in the Celebesian area, however,
other cases of similar variation, the cause of which seems to be in no way
connected with the locality. Such are Pernis celebensis and Spizaetus lanceolatus
which are similar, adult to adult, and young to young, as are in the same W'ay
also Spilospizias trinotatus and Accipiter rhodogaster ; while Muscicapida westermamii.

62

Introduction: Variation.

Lalage leucopygialis and Graucalus bicolor correspond in coloration to a consider-
able extent, male with male, and female with female. These cases call for
consideration later on.

3, Seasonal Changes.

The modifications which birds undergo at certain periods of the year seem
to depend sometimes upon climatic, sometimes upon sexual conditions. The
breeding season however is regulated by climatic conditions, the young being
brought forth at a period when food is abundant; consequently climate should
be regarded as promoting all periodic variation. Climate alters the appearance
of the surface of the earth — causes it to be clothed with a luxuriant vegetation
or covered with snow and ice, now bringing forth an abundance, and then re-
moving the supply of food — and organisms are modified to suit these condi-
tions. In the tropics, as, for instance, in Celebes, where a contrasted summer
and winter does not exist, hut only a fine and a rainy season, strongly marked
periodic changes in the plumage of the birds are rarely seen. More than
160 peculiar species are now known from the Celebesian area, and seasonal
changes are not known to occur in a single one of them, though
sexual differences are common enough. A few tropical or subtropical Herons
[Ardeola, Herodias^ Buhulcus), a Cisticola^ and perhaps one or two others which
are resident in Celebes difier when in nuptial and simple plumage, but, in order
to see seasonal variation in full evidence, it is necessary to look to the northern
temperate and arctic regions. Here, as is well known , most remarkable con-
trasts of summer and winter plumage are abundantly represented; as, for instance,
the varied dress of the Ptarmigan [Lagopus mutus) in summer, its snow-white
plumage in winter; the black under surface of the Golden Plover [Charadrius]
in summer, the whitish of these parts in winter. Many northern forms visit
Celebes in winter, often in an attire very different from that in which they
breed in the North; amongst them may be mentioned the Eastern Golden Plover
[C. fidvus)^ and the Grey Plover (Squatarola) which undergo a similar seasonal
change; the Stints and Godwits which are suffused with rufous in summer, the
Glossy Ibis [Plegadis] which has the under j>arts chestnut in summer, earthy
brown in winter ; the Phalaropes ; certain Terns [Hgdrochelidon)^ etc. These
changes are not of a sexual nature, as the sexes differ little or not at all in
coloration, and both are subjected to the same seasonal changes; but in many
— probably in most — cases where there are any secondary sexual differences
these characters are intensified in the breeding season and new markings are
sometimes added in the male sex (e. g. the ruff of Machetes^ the black facial
markings in some species of Aegialitis^ the long tail-feathers of Vidua). It may,
however, also happen that the sexes are less similar in the winter season than
when breeding; this seems to be the case to a slight extent with Anthus cervinus.

Introduction: Variation.

63

The moult. — In the temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisjDhere
it is generally admitted that a complete moult takes place in birds in autumn
after the breeding season ; many species moult again in spring, and some a third
time in summer. The principal time for moulting in Celebes, Sangi,
and Talaut seems to be from July to December, when the birds probably
undergo a complete post-nuptial moult. It is questionable whether signs of a spring
moult can be found; on the other hand some species may be found moulting
during most months' of the year. For instance, specimens in the Dresden
Museum of Heteractitis brevipes are moulting in January, April, July, August,
November; of Actitis hypoleucos in January, March, July, November.

Some of the Waders, autumn visitors from the North to Celebes [Aegialitis
geoffroyi., Heteractitis)., seem to moult first on the under parts, then the remiges,
and finally on the upper surface. No regular order in moulting is pursued in
the Black Sunbirds {Hermotimia), among which the transition from young to adult
male dress can be particularly well observed. The characteristic metallic sub-
gular stripe of the Celebesian species makes its appearance first, but the rest
of the plumage is developed without any such regular sequence, and there is a
specimen of Hermotimia talautensis in the Dresden Museum (C 15 377) in almost
complete adult dress except on the forehead and crown, while a second of the
same species (C 13 847) has the plumage of the adult on the forehead and most
of the crown, but the young dress on most of the other parts. This proves
that the transition from the young to the adult dress does not take place in
perfect phylogenetic order; that is, the adult characters are not necessarily
develo]Ded in the young male bird in exactly the same sequence as
that in which they were acquired in the evolution of the race (see,
also, immature male, pp. 469, 471).

Besides their feathers some birds are known to shed certain corneous
appendages or coverings on their bills; for instance, the white Pelican of
America has a horny knob on the culmen during the breeding season, but
which falls off when that period is over; and the Puffin [Fratercula) moults the
horny sheath of its bill and the outgrowths over the eyes (Newton, D. B.,
pp. 599, 600). It is possible that a similar moult of the ribbed plates at the
base of the bill of the Celebesian Hornbill, Cranorrhiniis cassidiv, takes place.
It is believed by the natives to add one rib -plate each year; and, though this
notion is certainly wrong, it is possible that a shedding of the plates has been
observed.

Change of coloration without a moult. — In a recent number of the “Auk”
(1897, April) Dr. Chadbourne has furnished what seems to be the first really
conclusive evidence that a change of colour may take jilace in the perfect
feather, this being caused by a redistribution of the pigments already present
in the shaft and barbs. The observations were made on the male Bobolink,
Holichonyx oryzworus (L.), but there can be now^ no doubt that the principle is

64

Introduction: Yariation.

general among birds. The difficulties of making observations are gi-eat, and no
certain evidence has been adduced from Celebesian birds, but Prof. W. Blasius
holds that Centrococcyx hengaknsis when passing into adult dress is subjected to
certain colour changes without moulting (see, also, p. 215 of our text).

The changes in colour of certain corneous or epidermal parts, such as the
bills and legs of certain Herons [Herodias, Bubidciis) in the breeding and winter
seasons, may perhaps be placed in the same category as changes of colour in
the feathers without a moult (see p. 838).

4. Sexual differences.

In relation to sex it is convenient to gather birds into three groups:

1. Male more highly developed than the female. Examples: Para-
diseidae, Trochilidae, Cim^yridae, many Phasaniidae^ many Anatidae, etc., etc.

2. Sexes alike. Examples: Pittidae, Artafnidae^ many Ploceidae^ many
Alcedinidae and Cuculidae^ most Ardeidae and Laridae^ etc., etc.

3. Female more highly developed than the male. Examples: Turni-
cidae. Phalaropus , lAmosa^ Hydralector, Centrococcyx ^ Phynchaea^ Eudromlas^
Casuarius, Dromaeus, the Crypturi and others.

To these may be added doubtfully:

?4. Sexes developed on independent lines of evolution. Eudynamls,
Monachalcyon^ Cittiira. The sexes either differ in coloration from the nest or
after the first plumage; nevertheless there is some reason to think that the
adult female represents an earlier stage in the evolution of the race, and that
the species concerned should, therefore, be placed in the first group. Thus the
female of the Black-billed Koel, Eudynamis melanorhyncha^ resembles another
Cuckoo, Centrococcyx hengalensis, when the latter is in first plumage; Monachcdcyon
monachus, especially the female, bears resemblance to Halcyon hombroni of the
Philippines; the female of Cittura cyanota is more like both sexes of C. sanyirensis
than is the male.

It is not to be understood that these groups are always sharply characterized
and easily distinguishable; on the other hand, gradual transitions from one
group to another are found: from such contrasts of the sexes as are seen in
Paradisea^ Gallus and Cinnyris in which the male far surpasses the female in
adornment, to Tanygnathns and Zoster ops in which the female is hardly inferior
to the male, to Pitta and Myristicivora in which there is nothing to the human
eye to choose between the two sexes, to Limosa and Phalaropus in which the
female becomes rather the finer bird, and so on to Turnix in which she is much
superior to her partner. It also happens at times that the male is the more
advanced in one respect and his mate in another; thus, among the Birds-of-prey
the male generally has the more highly developed plumage, but the female is
of larger size.

Introduction: Variation.

65

The psychological differences of the seoces. — The rule found among mammals
— that the male is more active and wars and works for the sake of the female,
while the female is more passive and gentle and devotes herself more to the care
of the young — holds good also for large numbers of birds, but in many others
the sexes seem to be much alike in temperament and to share duties, while in
some species the rule is more or less completely subverted, the male undertaking
the “female duties”, and the female assuming the usual role of the male. The
fact is important, as it shows that there are no mental peculiarities origin-
ally bound up with the primary fact of sex. It appears, moreover, that
these psychological conditions often (but not always) accompany the three con-
ditions of development of plumage and structure mentioned above; namely,
when the male is more highly developed than the female, he is noisy, com-
bative and extravagant of display in his courtship, while the female builds
the nest or most of it, incubates the eggs, and takes the chief or sole care of
the young; when the sexes are alike, the males are less quarrelsome in the
breeding season, less demonstrative in their courtship, and share the work of
incubating the eggs and rearing the young ; when the female is the more highly
developed, she is noisy, pugnacious with other females and courts the male,
leaving him to do most or all of the work of hatching the eggs and caring for the
young. Thus the highly coloured males of the Trochilidae, many Anatidae and
Gallinae seem not to concern themselves for the brood to which the plain-look-
ing female devotes herself most faithfully, whereas the large and handsome female
Turnioc roams about and calls and fights other females, leaving the smaller and
plainer male to attend chiefly to the incubation of the eggs and the welfare of the
chicks, though indeed she does most of the nest-building and assists a little in
hatching the eggs (Krohn, Gefied. Welt, 1894, 190). The female of one of
the Emus which is larger than the male and wears a slight top-knot has been
observed in captivity not only to leave the entire work of incubation to the male,
but apparently to use her utmost endeavours to destroy her young when hatched
(Darwin, Descent of Man 1871, II, p. 205).

Among species the sexes of which are much alilce in appearance and which
share the duties of incubation may be mentioned the Tits, Paridae\ many
Warblers, Sylvitdae; some Larks, Alaudidae; some Buntings, JEmberizidae ] certain
Finches, Fringillidae\ Woodpeckers, Picidae, and others; while in other cases the
male feeds the brooding female and sometimes relieves her in sitting for a short
time (cf. e. g. Naumann’s Vogel Deutschlands, 1824, IV, 93 and in many other
places). But it is by no means always the case that the finer one sex in birds
is in comparison with the other, so much the more he (or she) will abandon
the nest, eggs and young to the humbler consort, and that the more similar
they are in appearance, the more evenly will they share duties. As instances
to the contrary may be mentioned the male Ostrich, which, though the finer
bird, broods on the eggs of his wives at night ; the females of the Birds-of-prey,
which are usually superior to the males in point of size (though not in coloration),

Meyer <6 Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (May 5tii, 1898).

,9

66

Introduction : V ariation.

fulfil the usual maternal duties properly; the males of the Swallow, Goldfinch
and Hoopoe which, though very like their mates, are said to take no share in
the incubation of the eggs ; while the male Reed Bunting and Blackcap, which
are more highly developed than their mates, nevertheless help a little in hatching
the eggs. There appears, therefore, to be no hard and fast law of correlation
in the evolution of higher organic development and of mental functions of the
“masculine” type; in other words, the structural differences and the psychological
differences of the sexes seem to have been developed independently.

Theories in explanation of the development of secondary sexual characters. —
Several have been advanced:

1. Darwin (Descent of Man, 1871, pp. 38 — 238, Birds) accounts for the
superiority of the male by reason of the choice by the female of the male which
pleases her best (sexual selection), and

2. partly by the survival of the fittest in combat.

3. Wallace (Darwinism, 1889, 289, et seq.) believes that the secondary
sexual differences have risen to a higher development in one sex owing to a
prepotency of vitality or growth-power, and some evidence is adduced tending to
make it plausible that the accessory plumes of the males are developed over
centres of high muscular or nervous activity.

4. Wallace (t. c. p. 277, Darwin, t. c. p. 166) adds the complementary theory
that the need for protective coloration in the brooding female has prevented
her by natural selection from acquiring many of the bright colours and showy
ornaments of the male.

5. Stolzmann (P. Z. S. 1885, 421, et seq.) bases a theory on the assump-
tion that among birds the males are more numerous than the females. Any
development of colour or markings which is disadvantageous to the males, by
rendering them more conspicuous and more easily destructible to foes (whether
predaceous animals or males of their own species), Avill be advantageous for the
species, because the superfluous males are parasites devouring food which would
be useful to the breeding birds, persecutors of the brooding females, destroyers
of the eggs, etc. It is argued that natural selection wfill favour the preservation
of those females Avhich produce male offspring handicapped with such peculiari-
ties of structure, plumage, temperament, etc., as are likely to bring about the
destruction of these males.

6. Beddard (Animal Coloration, 1892, p. 282 et anted) finds that “the
secondary sexual characters of animals are dependent upon the germ glands
themselves; and that the sexual diversity of animals is also associated with
differences of disposition and habit”.

Touching Darwin’s theories it is obvious that natural selection in the “law
of battle” affords a simple explanation of the develo]3ment of certain offensive
and defensive organs, greater size, strength, activity and courage.

Mr. Wallace’s theory of the development of protective coloration in the

Introduction: Variation.

67

female is also easily to be understood on the ground of the elimination of the
disadvantageously coloured birds of this sex, yet the explanation does not seem
to apply to the majority of cases, in many of which the female is like the male,
and in others she is only a little less bright or wants some special marking
and appears then to represent a lower stage in the history of the race, as the
immature male is often like her. Many males assist in incubation. The female
of the Cuckoo, Eudynamis, which lays its eggs in Crows’ nests does not appear
to be protectively coloured, but the male, being black, might be thought to be so.

Darwin’s theory of sexual selection has been much contested of late years.
The author cites cases of certain female birds in captivity mating by preference
with certain males and avoiding others; though allowance must perhaps be made
for this in nature, there is now a strong opinion in favour of the view of a
passive role being generally played by the female, the male expelling his rivals
and making the female yield to him.

There is much to be said for Mr. Wallace’s view of an excess of vitality
or growth-force in the male as the cause of the development of superfluous
decorative plumes, etc., though a localization of such growths in the skin “over
centres of high nervous or muscular activity” is not tenable. For instance, the
second primary of the male Macrodipteryx^ an African Nightjar, is developed
into an enormous racket-feather capable of erection; three long racket-feathers
sprout from each side of the head of the male of the Paradise-bird, Parotia, one
very long one in Pteridophora, etc., etc. As the principal muscular and nervous
centres are not dififerent in birds, such a great diversity in the location of the
accessory growths could not arise from this cause. Why does the male Paradisea
have its ornamentation chiefly on the side of the breast, and another Bird of
Paradise, Lophorhina^ on the occipital region and jugulum?

Mr. Wallace’s theory appears to include “the normal development of colour
due to the complex chemical and structural changes ever going on in the
organism” (Darwinism, p. 288), for the sex which possesses the most growth-
force will be the flrst to undergo these necessary modiflcations. It is probable
that a great number of sexual differences owe their origin to this developmental
law. (See Loriculus^ antea p. 57).

Mr. Stolzmann portrays the two sexes as naturally inimical to one another’s
well-being. The males above a certain number are useless parasites, they diminish
the food-supply and persecute the females; ill-fed females produce an excess
of male offspring, and the female for her own preservation produces males which
are disastrously equipped for the struggle for existence. We are unable to
grasp the argument, if indeed it is a valid one, for it appears to us that the
handicapped males will be the flrst to perish, and the males which will per-
petuate the species will be the sons of females which produce the best-equipped
offspring. Their qualities being inherited, these males will somewhat counteract
the tendency on the part of certain females to produce inferior males, and the
latter females will be less likely to survive than their sisters. As their inferior

9*

6*^

Introduction: Variation.

male olfspring will not be allowed to perpetuate itself it would appear that
such females will have to breed with the finer males and their harmful effect
on that sex will be done away with in course of generations, because the
male qualities are transmitted in part to the female offspring as well as to
the male.

Mr. Beddard’s opinion that sexual dimorphism is mainly dependent upon
the reproductive organs is based upon such rare cases as that of a hermaphro-
dite Chaffinch (p. 262) in which one side of the bird was found to be like the
male in coloration, the other side like the female, with the generative systems
correspondingly divided^). As bearing upon the same matter may be cited the
circumstance that old females which have lost their fertility sometimes assume
the male dress. Such facts appear to be very instructive, perhaps proving that
the sexual glands themselves through nervous influences determine the coloration
of the integument, intricate questions, which we are not prepared to discuss
here. But when Mr. Beddard suggests that the differences in disposition and
habit of very many males and females are dependent upon the sexual germ glands
themselves he appears to be contradicted by reasons given antea^ p. 65.

Exceptional cases. An examination of exceptions often throws more light
upon a matter than is afforded by the contemplation of the rule. The female of
the Coucal, Centrococcyx hengalensis.^ is much larger and stronger than the male,
though of similar coloration; it utters remarkable cries and is not known to take
any share in incubating the eggs; the male is small, silent, and it broods on
the eggs. Moreover the male possesses only one testicle, the left one being
entirely wanting. The_ conditions have been fully described by their discoverer,
Bernstein, in the Natuurk. Tijdschr. van Ned. Ind. 1860, pp. 27 — 49, pi. I; and
mentioned J. f. O. 1859, 185; 1860, 269. (See also, subtus, pp. 219, 220). Ap-
parently both Darwin, Wallace, and Beddard might claim this case as sup-
porting their different theories. Darwin, though he seems to have overlooked
the fact, anticipated the possibility of such a condition: “If we might assume
that the males . . . have lost some of that ardour which is usual to their sex,
so that they no longer search eagerly for the females . . . then it is not im-
probable that the females would have been led to court the males, instead of
being courted by them” (Descent, p. 207). For Wallace’s vieiv it might be
claimed that the structural deficiency of the male points to a lower status of
vitality, sufficient to account for its smaller size and quiet habits. In accordance

1) The Chaffinch quoted by Prof. Beddard was described by Prof. Weber (Zool. Anzeiger 1890, 508).
Compare Prof Cabanis’ descriptions of such differently coloured halves in Pyrrhula vulgaris and Colaptes
mexieanus (J. f 0. 1874, 344); of v. Rosenberg’s of a Chaffinch with two anterior halves of the body, the one
in coloration a male, the other a female (M. 0. Ver. "Wien 1884 YHI, 87 & plate) and of Kleins chmidt’s
of a bilateral -asymmetrically coloured specimen of the Common Kingfisher (Abh. u. Ber. Zool. Mus. Dresden
1898/9 Kr, 2 p. 73, plate HI). Also the remarks of Prof. Brandt on Arrhenoidia lateralis (Z. wiss. Zool. 1889
XL VIII, 107) should be consulted. Lorenz asserted that he had seen a similar case in Tetrao tetrix (see:
Tichomirow: “On Hermaphroditism in Birds” — written in Russian — 1887 p. 21 note), but we doubt this.

2) “Hahnenfedrigkeit”. Comp. Meyer: Auer-, Rackel- und Birkwild 1887 p. 33, and Abh. Ber. Mus.
Dresden 1894/5 Nr. 3, as well as Brandt’s paper quoted in note 1.

Introduction: Variation.

69

with Bedd aid’s theory, the rednction in size and the quiet disposition of the
male bird should be due to the partial atrophy of the male organs. Beddard’s
theory here seems to contain the most probable explanation, and it would be
well to make observations on other Centropodinae. It still remains to be demon-
strated how such an aberration has arisen, which is perhaps comparable to the
development of only the left ovary^) in the female of all birds.

In the case of Tw'niw nigricollis^ in which the male does most of the work of
incubating the eggs, the large and strikingly coloured female is supposed from
observations by Mr. Krohn (Getied. Welt, 1894, 190) to be given to polyandry.
Darwin cites Jerdon’s remark that the females are “much more commonly
met wdth than the males”. It is difficult to reconcile this statement with the
former supposition, but these cases are mentioned here as showing that the
contrast in size, habits, etc., may sometimes, as in Centrococcyx^ be accompanied,
and perhaps determined, hy a deficiency of reproductive energy or capacity, or
sometimes, as perhaps in Turnix^ by an excess of reproductive power.

In addition to the 6 theories of the origin of secondary sexual characters
mentioned above at least two more can be indicated.

7. Secondary sexual characters as “recognition markings”. Mr.Wallace
(Darwinism, 1889, p. 217 et seq., and in other works) seems to have been the
first to define conspicuous markings and patches of colour as useful means by
which individuals of a species may at once recognise others of their own kind.
He applies his theory to species and further on (p. 284) to the sexes,

8. Development of accessory sexual characters owing to external
violence or excessive physiological employment of the parts in question.
Use promotes the development of a part in the individual, disuse its atrophy. In
the next section of this chapter reason is also given for the opinion that mutilations
of feathers — and hence of other parts — if repeated for generations are inherited.

In the present case out of 8 theories of the origin of secondary sexual
characters it may well be that 6 have been actually operative in Nature, work-
ing alone or more likely in different combinations and degrees. These
causes are:

1. The differences of the reproductive organs (Theory 6).

2. Higher development owing to a prepotency of growth-force (Theory 3).

3. Survival of the fittest in combat (Theory 2).

4. The stimulation of parts to a higher development by use and external

violence or irritation (Theory 8).

5. Development of recognition -characters by natural selection and pre-

ferential mating of males and females which can distinguish one
another (Theory 7).

6. ^) Protective coloration for the sex which broods on the eggs (Theory 4).

i) A rudimentary right ovary is usually present (Gradow, Vdg. in Bronn’s Kl. u, Ord. 1891, p. 842).
-) As to Darwin's theory of sexual selection authors are disagreed.

70

Introduction : V ariatiou .

5, Changes depending upon Age.

The modifications of plumage and structure displayed during the life-time
of the individual, the phenomena of its development and decadence, may fitly
be placed at the end of this chapter, as one form or other of the four prece-
ding phases of variation — sexual, seasonal, geographical, and (if perpetually
recurrent) individual variation — is often repeated during the growth of the
young towards maturity.

Classification of the developmental phases. — Charles Darwin (Descent of
Man, p. 187) gives six “classes of cases or rules under which the differences
and resemblances, between the plumage of the young and the old, of both sexes
or of one sex alone, maybe grouped”. Keeler :Evol. Col. Death. 1893, p. 213)
adds two classes more. All eight of them have representatives among Celebesian
birds, and they allow of re-grouping according to the phase of variation which
exerts a predominant influence in each case.

Sexual influences predominate in four classes:

1. Male more highly developed than female: young like female

{Loriculus, Cinnpis, etc.).

2. Female more highly developed than male: young like male [Turniiv].

3. Male like female: young like the parents (Many Psittaci,

Columbae, etc.).

4. Male unlike') female: young male like adult male, young female

like adult female {Mo7iachalcpon, Cittiira)-).

The influence of seasonal variation appears to be prepotent for
the following:

5. Male like female: young like the adults in winter plumage [Bubulciis\

or like them in summer plumage (A/c«), or intermediate between

summer and winter plumage {Charadi'his) .

The influence of some previous condition in the history of
the race (hereditary geographical or individual modi-
fication) is sometimes satisfactorily, more often doubt-
fully, displayed under the following conditions:

6. Male like female: young different from both [Munia., Lams.^ Ardea^ etc.).

7. Male unlike female: young different from both [Siphia, Chalcophaps.,

Endpnamis, ‘^) etc.) .

8. Male unlike female: young ones different, and differing sexually

from one another {Graiicaliis bicohr).

1) Probably a biglier development: see antea, p. fU.

-) The condition — male unlike female: young male like female, young female like male — is not known.
3) In Etidynaviis the coloration of the young is supposed to be protective (see Whitehead, Ibis 1888,
p. 410; and Expl. Kina Balu 1893, p. 145;.

Introduction: Variation.

11

9. Male unlike female: young female like adult female, young male
peculiar partly; Dry abates ~Kenopicus\ Keeler, p. 224),

It seems to be a very true remark of Darwin’s that these several classes
graduate into one another.

Ancestral characters, — At the present time much interest turns on the
difficult question of the manifestation of the past history of the race occasionally
to be read in the plumage of the young or in the less highly developed sex.
Among Celebesian birds the following are some of the more interesting and
undeniable examples of ancestral indications in the young.

The Kingfishers of the Oriental genus Pelargopsis have the lower back and
rump blue, except in the Celebesian area, where Pelargopsis melanorhyncha and
P. dichrorhyncha have these parts buff. The young of P. melanorhyncha is known
to have the parts in question blue — proof that the species was once so coloured
(pp. 269, 270 of text).

The Lories of the subgenera Trichoylossus typical and Psitteuteles have a
yellow (or red) band across the under side of the wing, except in Trichoylossus
ornatus and Psitteuteles meyeri of Celebes, and P. Jlavoviridis of Sula, which have
the wing uniform below. Traces of yellow, where the band should be, are often
seen in young individuals (occasionally in an apparently adult female) of P. meyeri,^
and now and then in the young of T. ornatus,, proving that these two species
once possessed the wing-band (p. 126 of text).

The Stork, Dissoura episcopus, has no contour- feathers, but only down, on
the sides of the head and on the neck, though it is not to be doubted that it once
had these parts feathered. The young has the sides of the head feathered, and
some feathers of blackish brown are produced on the neck, but they soon fall
out. These feathers indicate what the species was like at some period of the
past (pp. 807, 808 of text).

The Parrots of the genus Prioniturus have the two middle tail-feathers
furnished with long projecting rackets. Young birds before the first moult dis-
play attenuated projecting ends or half-formed rackets (see pi. V^, figs. 1, 2),
showing, according to the argument pursued below, p. 74, an earlier stage in
the formation of these growths.

The Tree Duck, Dendrocyyna yuttata, has round white spots on the flanks;
in the young these spots take the form of stripes similar to those of D. arcuata
at all ages; a proof that the round spots are a recent development (p. 872). The
Blackbird, Merula celehensis, when young is spotted like a Thrush (see pi. XXXV).

The little slate-and- vinous Hawks, Accipiter rhodoyaster and sulaensis and
Spilospizias trinotatus are totally different vLen young, resembling Kestrels
( Tmnunculus) ; and the Pigeon, Chalcophaps, in first plumage has no resemblance
to the adult (an unusual circumstance among Pigeons) , but has the coloration
of the Pigeon- genus Macropyyia. It appears hardly possible to doubt that these
are ancestral indications (pp. 25, 26, 650, 652 of text).

12

IntroductioD : Variation.

Ihe I^ingfisher Melidora of New Guinea, a curious form with a hooked hill,
is held by Sharpe to be the lowest type of the family, and Cittuva of Celebes
and Sang’i has the nearest affinities with it, hut wants the maxillary hook.

^\hen quite young Cittura has this hook (p. 307). Though not a feather-

character, this point is of equal significance.

It has been already remarked that, when the two sexes are not alike, one
pisually the female) seems to show a lower development than the other. It is

probable that such females preserve more ancestral features than the males,

which have acquired more new features than have the females; yet direct proof
of this is hard to find. Among Celebesian birds, a female of Psitteuteles meyeri
displays, as mentioned above, a trace of the yellow ancestral wing-band; and
the rackets of the females of Prionituvus are seldom so long as in the males.
Indirect proof of the phylogenetic value of the female plumage is furnished
when the young of both sexes are like the mother, for such facts as those given
above render it pretty certain that the young tend to display ancestral characters.
It sometimes happens that the mother and young of one species resemble the
adults of both sexes of another species less highly developed than the male of
the first.

These considerations place in the hands of the student of geographical
distribution an important and (to ourselves) new means of proof in tracing the
land of origin of particular species or genera — provided that our supposition be
admitted that emigrants, cut off from their native country, are more likely to
get altered than the stayers-at-home.’) In this manner it has proved possible to
trace the genus Loriculus (of which over 20 geographical species are known
between India and New Guinea) as having originated in Asia, and to construct
a genealogical tree of two main branches showing the descent of the species
from the Asiatic P. vernalis or its ancestor, this species being supposed to have
extended its range in process of time across the Archipelago, undergoing some
new modification with each change of habitat, viz. wnth each new isolation. The
more eastern forms now throw back by their females and young to more western
forms, and in this manner the two branches of the genus finally converge upon
a form like L. vernalis. The case is fully discussed, pp. 160—169 of text,
Map VI.

On similar grounds it is possible to trace the origin of the Blue-and-rufous
Flycatcher of Kalao Island to Celebes. The sexes are slightly different, and
the male of Siphia kalaoensis is the most specialized member of its group; its
female is like the male from Djampea Island, (S'. djampeana\ the female from
Djampea is like the male from Saleyer Island and Celebes, S. hanyiimas, which is
thus indicated as having emigrated first to Djampea and later from there to
Kalao.

In the same manner the blue back of the young of Pelargopsis melanorhyncha

1) For proof see variation in Sangi and Talaut, anted, p. 58.

Introduction: Variation.

73

of Celebes may be held to prove the derivation of that species from the blue-
backed forms of the Oriental Region, and the indications of a wing-band in the
young Trichoglossus and Psitteuteles of Celebes to demonstrate their descent from
the banded species of the Australian Region.

In applying this argument one is apt, however, to stumble on such diffi-
culties as the following. Muller’s Green Parrot, Tanygnathus mueUeri^ of the
Celebesian area occasionally displays blue on the head when young, suggesting
its derivation from the blue-headed T. luconensis of the Phili]Dpines. But the
young T. lucone7isis has the head green, which might be taken as an indication
of its descent from the green-headed T. muelleri. Is T. muelleri descended from
T. luconensis^ and T. luconensis from a pre-existing green-headed Parrot, or is
the coloration of the head of the young simply due to some chemical condition
imposed upon it by the respective parents?

Mr. Keeler (Evolution Colors Birds 1893, p. 178) has suggested, without
producing any real proof, that a different colour at the basis of a feather may
have a phylogenetic value and denote what the colour of the bird at this spot
was at some period of the past. On the contrary our own observations have
persuaded us that a different basal colour sometimes shows w^hat colour
the feather is going to become. The adult male of the eastern form of
the Blue Rock Thrush, Petrophila cyanus^ has the breast and abdomen chestnut;
the immature bird has the feathers of these parts terminally fringed with whitish,
next to which is a subterminal bar of dusky, below this usually a little blue,
and then a large area above the extreme base chestnut — the colour which the
bird will become. Also the jugulum, head and upper parts of the adult are
blue, but in the young this blue occupies the basal part of the feathers. Not
the base, but the tip of the feather may sometimes have a phylogenetic
worth. Evidence of this is shown by the buflF-backed Kingfisher of Celebes,
Pelargopsis melanorhyncha^ the young of which by its pale bine back throws back
to the other members of the genus, all of which (except another Celebesian
form) have blue backs. Now the blue in the young P. melanorhyncha is confined
to the tips of the feathers; below this they are buff, though there is usually
also a faint buff fringe round each feather. In the young of this species the
tendency to change into a form with a buff back does not set in in force until
the tips of the feathers have already been developed; these tips present the
point wherein it agrees with the rest of the genus — apparently therefore a
character of long standing, while the buff at the base betrays the character
which will soon be assumed.

Hereditary effects of shelter and exposure. — It is proposed here to show
some evidence drawn from Celebesian birds that modifications of shape or colour
of feathers as caused by the ever-repeated action of mechanical attrition, or by
the action of light, are ultimately transmitted to offspring.

The racket-tail-feathers of Prioiiiturus. The two middle tail-feathers are

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (MaySth, 1898).

10

74

Introduction: Yariation.

prolonged mucli beyond the others, and in adult birds the overreaching portion
of these two rectrices is converted into a bare shaft tipped with a spatule of
ordinary web (see pi. VI, figs. 1, 4, pi. V, fig. 5). The question of the formation
of these racket -feathers has been broached by several writers, especially by
Prof. W. Blasius (Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, pp. 212 — 219, figs.). Dr. Finsch
remarked (Papag. 1868, II, 401) that the bareness of the shafts was manifestly
due to the attrition of the barbs of the feathers; Meyer showed (Ibis 1879, 49)
that this view, as of a direct mutilation of the individual, is incorrect, since
many specimens were shot by him in which the racket-feathers were growing,
and the bare rachis lay upon the surface of the other feathers protected from
foreign contact. Prof. W. Blasius has expressed the opinion that the shafts
do not grow out naked from the first, but become bare later, owing perhaps to
a physiological casting-off of the webs.

The specimens in the Dresden Museum prove that the webs are neither
rubbed off, nor bitten off as in the case of the Motmots (see Salvin, P. Z. S.
1873, p. 433). Two specimens figured on plate VI, figs. 2, 3, display the
growing racket as found underneath the upper tail-coverts (here removed to show
the conditions) ; the shaft is already webless even where it is still enclosed in
the corneous husk or follicle out of which the young feather has grown, and
where it could of course be neither rubbed nor bitten. On removing a third
younger sprouting racket (cf ad. P. by the root and taking off the

epidermal husk (pi. V, fig. 4), it was found that the web (rami) is present on
either side of the shaft, but some of the rami appear not to be attached at all
but to run, soldered together, parallel to the shaft almost to its root; other rami
have become individually broken off or have fallen off from the shaft, and it
was easy to see that, as the feather grew longer, all would have fallen from the
shaft. In a growing racket with the shaft 35 mm cut out of the tail of an
adult male bird it was not possible to detect any signs of barbs with certainty.
Plate VI, fig. 3 displays 44 mm of a growing shaft (cf ad. P. flavicans)^ which
would reach a length of 67 mm (judging from the length of the other perfect
racket) ; this shaft was found to be bare down to its point of attachment by the
side of the oil-gland; near the base alone some corneous matter of uncertain
determination, but perhaps feather-material, was adhering to it.

These investigations tend to prove that no web at all is produced with
long-shafted rackets, but rackets of a lower stage of development have imperfect
or unattached webs which fall off before the racket is fully exposed.

The inquiry as to how the middle tail-feathers originally began to be
lengthened and narrowed and finally formed into long rackets may be answered
by a hypothesis which, if it is a correct explanation of the facts, may be not
without weight in its bearings upon theories of heredity.

It is easy to obtain a practical demonstration as to how racket-feathers may
be formed by holding a feather by the barrel and scraping the w-ebs with a
knife; a bare stem with a spatule at the tip then quickly forms itself, the

Introduction : V ariation.

75

yielding pliancy of the tip making it difficult to remove the web from this
point without cutting off the end of the feather altogether. In Nature any feather
of sufficient stiffness, prolonged so as to stand out beyond the other feathers, will
be liable to such a process as this, attrition against the twigs of trees, the walls
of their nesting holes etc. , supplying the place of the knife. Assumed that the
two middle tail-feathers of Prioniturus were originally a little longer than the
rest^), the ends, if sufficiently prolonged, are liable to attrition; and a narrowing
of the tips, such as is now seen in the young birds (pi. V, fig. 1), will result.
The friction at the ends of the feathers causes irritation to the roots; an in-
creased supply of blood ensues there, with the result of an increased size of these
feathers. These longer feathers are more liable to attrition, and half- formed
rackets (pi. V, fig. 3) take shape ; the increased irritation and consequent
lengthening of the feather results in the production of other stages (pi. V, fig. 4),
up to the most advanced development of the present time (pi. VI, fig. 1). Yet
the striking features shown in the plates were not obtained in one generation,
as has been proved; on the other hand this appears to have been a process
of ages, more and more advanced results being obtained in successive
generations and transmitted by heredity. The simplest stages of this for-
mation are displayed by young birds in first plumage which in respect of the
tail probably resemble the first ancestors of the genus (pi. V, fig. 1 ) ; the second
moult, when the webs are often quite absent on the shafts of the rackets, which
are about half the full length in old birds, seems to show a later period in the
history of the race ; while the highest development of th'ese feathers, as seen in
old birds (especially males) of the present day, is probably the most recent stage
in the evolution of the genus.

The following are the arguments in proof that these rackets are the inherited
effects of attrition:

1. It has been shown that such can easily be formed artificially by scraping,
the size of the spatule depending upon the stiffness of the feather.

2. Where the shafts are not exposed to attrition they are not bare.
It is only on the projecting part of the middle tail-feathers that the shafts are
bare; and as far as the ends of the lateral feathers, by which the middle ones
are protected from attrition, they are fully webbed. If the bareness were due
to something else, it might be expected that the naked shaft would not in
every S23ecies^) arise just at this point of the tail, but sometimes much higher
up, or sometimes much lower down®).

3. Rackets do not occur on unexposed feathers sheltered from attrition.

1) A very common condition in birds.

2) We have examined P. lueonensis, cyaneieeps, suliiensis, discurus, flavicmis, plcdurus, and the plate of
vertiealis.

3) Genera in which the racket-feathers are longer and consequently heavier (e. g. Bhringa) usually have
larger spatules and the attenuation of the webs on the shaft continued towards the base of the tail — a result
of friction upon the other feathers.

10*

76

Introduction; Variation.

4. Rackets are present in birds having no affinity with one another, and
in the most varied positions on the wing, tail, or head, where a sufficiently stitf
feather projects so as to be liable to attrition. Thus they are found on pro-
jecting feathers on the sides of the head in the Paradise -bird, Parotia^ on the
projecting second primary of the Nightjar, Macrodipteryoc , on the overreaching
tail-feathers of Prioniturus^ of the Indian Drongos, Bhringa and Dissemurus (the
web of the racket on the outside only) , of the Kingfishers of the genus
Tanysiptera, etc.

5. Remains of the web are often to be found on the shaft of the racket
(pi. V, fig. 5).

6. There appears to be no other means of accounting for the origin of
these racket-feathers. They are not sexual characters, nor is it conceivable that
they are useful and hence developed by natural selection. The theory of
“recognition markings” fails, because they are not present in the young and
because they are present and very similar in different species living in the same
localities (e. g. Prioniturus platurus and jiavicans).

7. The Motmots of America have the curious habit of forming rackets
artificially on the lengthened middle tail-feathers by biting or tearing off the web
behind the tip. The result appears now to be partially inherited, since a very
pronounced narrowing of the web here is seen in young birds (see Salvin,
P. Z. S. 1873, pp. 431, 432 with figures). The habit of tearing away the web
also appears to be inherited, for young birds reared by hand began to tear away
the webs of the middle tail-feathers when these had reached their full length
(see Cherrie, Auk 1892, 323).

As an argument against the loss of the webs through attrition during the
individual development, it has been pointed out that when a narrow fringe of
web is found on one side of the shaft, it is almost always on the outside that
this occurs, where it is said that it would be most likely to get rubbed (Meyer
and W. Blasius, 11. cc.). Due weight should, however, be given to the
following considerations: first, birds rarely spread out their tails except in flight,
and in the position of rest one middle tail-feather lies over the other so that
little of the latter is seen, and the inner web of the one racket vmuld receive
a good deal of the pressure and friction put upon the outer web of the other;
and second, the webs on the inside would be liable to get crossed, interlocked,
sawed and broken by one another.

The attenuated tail-feathers of Merops. The two middle tail-feathers
of all the species of Bee-eaters of the genus Merops are prolonged beyond the
others when the bird is adult; the tip is not furnished with a spatule as in
Prioniturus^ but attenuated for its terminal projecting portion and for a little distance
on the non-projecting part (see plate VIII, fig. 1). These attenuated ends are
not formed by attrition at the sides during the lifetime of the individual, as is
shown by young feathers sprouting out of the follicles thus perfectly developed
(see pi. VIII, figs. 2, 3). Yet the argument for attrition continued during gene-

Introduction: Variation.

77

rations without number applies equally well here. The habits of Merops are
very different from those of Prionitums ; the Parrot breeds in holes in trees, but
the Bee-eater forms a burrow, like the hole of a mouse or rat, for a depth of
one to three metres in a bank of sand or earth. The friction caused by the
sand, against which the terminal portion of the feather is chiefly brushed, seems
sufficient to account for this peculiar shape. If a feather of ordinary shape be
taken, and rubbed and drawn between two sheets of sand-paper, a ragged simili-
tude of a Merops-iQctYYK. may be obtained. ')

Other cases. If once the theory that the racket-tail-feathers of Prioniturus
are the inherited results of attrition is admitted, a principle is arrived at by
which a host of other cases are capable of explanation. Among feather-forma-
tions may be mentioned: the bifid tips of the remiges of Merops and Hirimdo^
explicable by the habit of these birds of supporting themselves on their wings
when commencing their nests (for Merops^ see p. 252, note), the oscillation of
the body forcing the webs apart at the tips of the feathers and so forming a
little notch, just as is done by rubbing the tij) of a feather on blotting-paper
or by knocking the tip gently with the finger; the stiff, tapering tails of Wood-
peckers and Nasiterna^ stimulated to strong growth and worn down to shape by
the habit of using them as a prop in climbing; the curiously attenuated first
primaries of many Hornbills and Pigeons, so shaped by the friction caused in
flight to these reduced quills which lie under the other remiges, against which
they vibrate and by which they are rubbed; the narrowing of the outer
webs of the lateral tail-feathers of all birds and the gradual increase in
width of these webs from one feather to another until on the two middle feathers
they are of approximately equal width, the middle feathers being protected by
the lateral ones from the friction of objects against which the tail is repeatedly
getting brushed, the lateral feathers being exposed to this attrition, — most of all
the outermost pair in which the outer web is narrowest. Also in the narrowing
of the outer webs of the remiges, though feathers of this shape are apparently
essential to flight, mechanical attrition, caused by the rush of air in flight, may
have worked together with natural selection in determining their shape. The
friction may have acted as a stimulus to the lengthening of these feathers
which are far larger and stronger than contour -feathers. Other parts may be
modified in the same manner as feathers by the inherited effects of wear and
tear : such as the bills of Aiiastomus, Esaciis and Pemiegretta , worn away so as
no more to close properly by the rough shells and crustaceans upon which the
birds feed; the bill of adult Hornbills not meeting for a space where the bird
lays hold of objects in climbing and feeding and even swings from them on
occasion suspended by its bill (see, Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, p. 274); the skin
of the head of the Cock, drawn out into a comb and with the formative feather-

1) See also Meyer’s remarks on and figures of the two lengthened middle tail-feathers of Paradisea
minor etc, in Abh. Ber. Mus. Dresden 1S9S/9 Nr. 2 p. 44 plate II.

IS

Introduction : V ariation.

papillae destroyed by the beaks of antagonists; the face of the adult Rook from
which the feathers fall at the base of the bill as a result of dirt and wear for
generations; the head and face of the adult Moleo, naked owing to ages of
attrition from the sand in which it burrows ; and so on. Examples drawn from
man and other animals could be given. The principle is of importance, as a
cause of, or directive stimulus to, variation ; it should therefore not be accepted
without criticism. For some cases the principle of natural selection affords an
explanation (e. g. the remiges), but for others the argument furnished thereby
can hardly be made to commend itself to impartial judgment (e. g. the rectrices),
and for others again this principle appears to fail completely (e. g. the rackets
of Prionitunis, the comb of the Cock')).

Effect of light. In course of time most colours in mounted specimens
and skins of birds fade with exposure to the light. Among Celebesian birds
the effect is particularly well seen in the buff of the JSTutmeg Pigeons and the
wash of salmon-colour on the under parts of the Moleo, which soon fade in
exposed skins, leaving the respective parts white. Nor does light seem to be
operative solely upon the dead.

Where the wing rests upon the body. — In nearly all birds a change of colour
takes place on the under side of the remiges where they rest upon the body
with the wing closed, so that this part differs from the distal ends and more
external parts of these feathers. Sometimes merely a slight change of gloss is
seen, but all stages of difference may be found from this up to the most marked
contrasts. Among Celebesian birds some of the most striking examples are: the
Cuckoo-shrike, Grancalus hicolor, with the remiges white below where they rest
upon the body, black on the other portions; the Parrots, Prionitimis Loricuhis^
with the remiges below verditer-blue against the body and partly where they
cover one another, black elsewhere; the Roller, Coradas temmincki — remiges
blue against the body, black changing with the light to bronze on the free
parts “); the Flycatcher, Zeocephus, with the said parts ferruginous and blackish
respectively; and so on. A tendency to blackness is generally seen on the distal
ends and external portions of these feathers.

Where the tail-feathers are concealed by the upper tail-coverts. — A change
of colour in the shafts and webs of the rectrices is generally seen on their con-
cealed bases, very commonly a tendency to paleness or white, suggesting a loss
of pigment. The most striking examples occurring in Celebes are the Cuckoo-
shrike, Graucalus hicolor \ the two Nutmeg Pigeons, Mpristicivora hicolor and luctuosa ;
the Pratincole, Glareola isahella (as also G. orientalis). In these birds all that
part of the tail which is concealed by the upper tail- coverts is white, and all

*) As shown by Stolzmann (P. Z. S. 1885, 430) this may bring disaster to the wearer of it, but the
author attempts to explain this by natural selection.

2) On the upper surface of the remiges these colours are reversed, being blue above where they are
bronze below, and bronze above where they are blue below, but the lines of demarcation do not exactly coincide.

Introduction; Yariation.

79

the terminal exposed part is black, the division of the colours being sharply
conterminable with the tips of the longest upper tail-coverts.

The concealed bases of the contour-feathers. — - Here again a difference of
pigmentation or of gloss, or of both, is seen, the bases being usually of paler or
duller hues than the tips. Thus the bases of the contour- feathers in Corviis
enca are white, the terminal portions glossy black; in the Parrot, Aprosmictus
sulaensis, the bases are grey or greenish, the exposed terminal portions bright
blue on the mantle; and so on.

Apart from the phylogenetic value of the different parts of a feather, there
is convincing evidence that light must be cited as an important agent affecting
the distribution of the pigments of a feather, either through physiological stimu-
lation, or direct action, or both. No better test case could be found than the
male of the Celebesian Cuckoo-shrike, Graiicalus hicoloi\ Seen from above with
its wings closed it is a black bird, for, though the rump and upper tail-coverts
are white, these parts are then probably concealed by the wings. The under
surface is white. The wings and tail are black; yet that part of the tail which
lies hidden beneath the upper tail-coverts is white, and so is the wing below
where it rests upon the sides of the body; also the black contour-feathers of
the upper parts are white on their concealed bases. It may be said that where-
ever the feathers are exposed to the sun they are black; where they are in
shadow or concealment they are white. It is preferable to attempt no explanation
of these facts here, but it seems permissible to suggest that the case is similar
to that of Priomtimis, the difference being that the inherited effects of attrition
are assigned as the cause of the formation of the racket-feathers of the Parrot,
whereas the action of light is regarded as having in the course of generations
in some way brought about the distribution of the pigments in Graucalus.

Direct evidence of the action of sunlight upon plumage is afforded by the
following statement. As Dr. Russ writes: “The Goldfinch when kept caged in
a dark place often becomes black, and even in a light room the bright colours
after moulting often appear fainter and more impure, but this can be prevented
if the Goldfinch is placed as much as possible in the open air and sun” (Einheim.
Stubenvog. 1873, 11, 265).

The soft, glossless plumage of nocturnal birds, viz. Goatsuckers and Owls,
also calls for consideration in this connection, as well as examples already sug-
gested, and innumerable other ones in which the action of light, or the want
of it, appears less obvious.

5. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

In the intermediate seas between the Euro-asiatic and the Australian con-
tinents there is stretched out the largest and most numerously membered archi-
pelago of the earth, with a fauna and flora derived partly from the West and
partly from the East. Where do we now And the frontier of these two faunas
and floras, which contrast so strongly with one another in their extreme forms;
or do they pass into one another so insensibly that a sharply defined frontier
cannot be traced? It would be very premature to attempt a sketch of the
geological history of this region of the earth in view of the quite insufficient
knowledge available concerning the living and, especially, concerning the extinct
fauna and flora of the Archipelago, for we are acquainted with only a small
fragment of the latter (the extinct) ; we must content ourselves with an attempt to
answer the above interesting question with the aid of the rather better established
data of the present time ^), and, in accordance with the character of our book,

1) The status of geological knowledge as to Celebes is very defective as yet, though some valuable work
has been done recently and moi’e is to be expected from Drs. P. & F. Sara sin. In this state of things we
have found it preferable to abstain entirely from discussing the past histoiy of the island, but give some of
its hterature, where references to further geological, palaeontological and mineralogical papers are to be foimd :
1S83. K. Martin: "Wiss. Aufg., welche der geologischen Erforschung des Indischen Archipels gestellt sind.
(Lecture. Leyden, Brill). Id. : Die wichtigsten Daten unserer geologischen Kenntniss vom Mederl. Ost-ind.
Arch. : Bijdr. taal- land- en volkenk. van I^ed. Ind., uitg. ter gelegenheid van het li. intern. Congres der
Orientalisten te Leiden. Land- en volkenkunde. 188^, 17 (Celebes p. 23) with summary of literature.
1888, C. M. Kan: Bodengesteldheid der eilanden en diepte der Zeeen van den ind. Arch.: Tdschr. Ked. aardr.
Gen. (2) V (VersL), 202, Kaart lY.

1890. K. Martin: Die Kei Inseln und ihr Verhaltniss zur australisch-asiatischen Grenzlinie, zugleich ein Bei-
trag zur Geologie von Timor und Celebes: Tdschr. Ked. aardr. Gen. (2) VII, 241. Id.: Zur Geologie von
Celebes: he. 1891 VIII, 180.

1890. A. "Wichmann: Bericht iiber eine . . . Reise etc. II. Celebes. 1. c. (2) VII, 921 Tab. II; 1892 IX, 258.
Id.: Die Binnenseen von Celebes : Petermann’s Mitth. 1893, 215 Taf. 16. Id.: Petrogr. Studien iiber den
Ind. Arch. I. Leucitgesteine von der Insel Celebes: Nat. Tschr. Ned. Ind. LIII, 315, with plate. 1895
II. Zur Geol. der Insel Saleyer: 1. c. LIV, 236 pi. Y.

1894. W. E. van Yliet jr. : De verticale ligging en de geologische bouwvan Celebes: Tdschr. gesch., land en
volkenk. 9. Jaarg., 257 (with summary of literature).

1895. I. W. Retgens: . . . Gesteenten van Celebes: Jaarb. Mijnwezen in Ned. Oost-Ind. 24 Jaarg., 124.

1896. Encyclopaedie van Ned. Indie (by van der Lith and others) I, 317 (s. a.). A general report on the
geological formation of Celebes.

1 896. K. Martin : Zur Erage nach der Entstehung des ost- und westindischen Archipels : Geogr. Zeitschr. II, 376.

It is nearly the same with the flora of the Archipelago. Though relatively much is already known, we
are very far from a thorough knowledge, which would enable us to draw trustworthy conclusions. We, there-
fore, likewise abstain from touching these questions, which are discussed in the works of Grisebach (Vege-
tation der Erde 1872, Ges. Abh. u. kl. Schr. zur Pflanzengeographie 1880), Engler (Yersuch einer Entwick-
lungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt , insbesondere der Elorengebiete seit der Tertiarperiode 1882), Drude (Die

Introduction; Wallace’s line.

81

restrict ourselves to the ornithological facts at our disposal, taking the Avifauna
of Celebes as the basis for this purpose. Conclusions which may be drawn from
ornithological facts alone must, however, be weighed very carefully, as birds
have tbeir own modes of dispersal. We shall then see in how far these con-
clusions differ from those arrived at by other means.

Wallace’s line.

As is generally known Mr. Wallace drew a line to the west of Celebes
by which the Archipelago was divided into two widely differing halves. This
division was welcomed with much approbation on account of the fascinating
speculations of its inventor, though these speculations were more suggestive
than substantially founded upon and backed by facts, some of which were not
taken into consideration, and others Avere not available with our defective know-
ledge of 20 or 30 years ago, nor indeed are they available to-day.

Mr. Wallace has, however, in the course of his later studies modified his
vieAVS in some respects. At first, as in the “Malay Archipelago” (1869) and in
the “Geographical Distribution of Animals” (1876) — not to mention earlier
writings^) — the line passes between Bali and Lombok, through the Macassar
Strait west of Celebes, turning to the east between Mindanao and Halmahera;
while he adds in “Island Life” (1880, 431) “that the present land of Celebes
has never (in Tertiary times been united to the Asiatic continent, but has re-
ceived its population of Asiatic forms by migration across narrow straits and
intervening islands”. He draws in the latter work (p. 434) the following con-
clusion: “We have in this island a fragment of the great eastern continent
which has preserved to us, perhaps from Miocene times, some remnants of its
ancient animal forms”; and (p. 509): “I now look upon Celebes as an outlying
portion of the great Asiatic continent of Miocene times, which either by sub-
mergence or some other cause had lost the greater portion of its animal inhabi-
tants and since then has remained more or less completely isolated from every
other land. It has thus preserved a fragment of a very ancient fauna along
with a number of later types which have reached it from surrounding islands
by the ordinary means of dispersal”. He further says in his “Australasia” (ed.
by Dr. Guillemard 1894, p. 287): “The peculiarities of the animal life of
Celebes may be best explained by supposing it to be an outlying portion of
that Miocene continent, Avhich became detached from it, and has since never
been actually joined to any Asiatic or Australian land. It has thus preserved
to us some descendants of ancient types, and these have become intermingled
with such immigrants from both east and west as were enabled to establish

Florenreiche der Erde, Petermanii’s Erg. Heft !Nr. 74 1884, Atlas der Pflanzenverbreitung 1887, Handbuch der
Pflanzengeograpbie 1890), Warburg (Die Flora des asiatischen Monsungebietes ; Verb. Ges. Deutscher Naturf.
Allg. Tbeil 1890, especially concerning South Celebes), etc.

1) These earlier writings ai’e to be found in the Ibis IS.AO, 450; J. of the Proc. Linn. Soc., Zool., I860,
IV, 172; P. Z. S. 1863, 481; J. E. Geogr. Soc., 1863, XXXIII, 217; Edinburgh Philos. Journ., new ser., 1864,
XIX, Nr. 1, etc.

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (May 5th, 1S9S).

11

82

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

themselves in competition with the ancient inhabitants. To the naturalist, there-
fore, Celebes is an island of extreme interest. It cannot be said to belong
either to the eastern or the western divisions of the archipelago, but to stand
almost exactly midway between them; the relic of a more ancient land, and
dating from a period perhaps anterior to the separate existence of any of the
islands.”

If we now glance over the scientific literatui-e on “Wallace’s line”, as
Huxley baptised it (P. Z. S. 1868, 313), it should be understood that we do
not pretend to give an exhaustive extract, but only quote such writings as have
been within easy reach or which have appeared sufficiently characteristic. There
are also heaps of other books and papers in which Wallace’s line is mentioned.

E. Blyth, in 1871 (Nature III, 428), recognizes the line. He has a Cele-
besian Sub-region of the Melanesian Region and it comprises : Celebes, Lombok,
Sumbawa, Flores, Wetter, Timor and Sandalwood Island.

J. Pijnappel, in 1872 (“Enkele aanmerkingen op Wallace’s Insulinde”:
Bijdr. taal, 1. en vk. Ned. Ind. 3. ser. VII, 159), made some serious objections
and is of opinion, that as Geography, Anthropology, EthnograjDhy and Botany
are opposed to the line. Zoology alone cannot ui^hold it; the less so, as it
sometimes requires the most hazardous hypotheses as to geological convulsions,
upheavals and submergences in order to explain the occurrence of a single
mammal.

A. yy. Pelzeln in a paper entitled “Africa-Indien”, published 1875 (see:
Verh. z.-b. Ges. Wien p. 33), adopted the line; he considered Celebes as
belonging to the Australian Region and enunciated as peculiar bird-genera (p. 48) :
Monachalcyon ^ Cittura^ Ceycopsis^ Artamides, Gazzola, Streptocitta, Scissirostrum^
E?iodes, Basileornis, Prioniturus and Megacephalon. He takes as identical (p. 47)
Scops manadensis from Celebes and Madagascar, and Ortygometra jiavirostris from
Celebes and Africa, and mentions eighteen species which are common to the
Ethiopian and the Indo-Malayan Region. In 1876 he confirmed his general
conclusion in a paper on the Malayan mammalia (see: Festschr. z.-b. Ges. p. 53).

P. J. Veth, in 1875, gave a lecture on the line before the International
Geographical Congress in Paris (“Observations sur les lignes de Wallace”: C.
R. Congr. Int. des sc. geogr. a Paris, 1878, 305), and treated the matter with the
acumen usual to him. He said that it rests on an inadequate basis hydrographically,
that the flora was not taken into consideration, that Wallace only referred to
mammals, birds, some insects and land-shells instead of to the whole fauna; that it is,
therefore, zoologically insufficiently proved, and that it is not evinced by the facts
of anthropology (see, also, 1. c., p. 276 and Veth’s translation of Wallace’s paper;
“Over de physische Geogr. van den Ind. Arch.”, with notes, Zalt-Bommel, 1865).

J. A. Allen, 1878 (“The Geographical Distribution of the Mammalia con-
sidered in relation to the principal ontological regions of the earth and the laws
that govern the distribution of animal life”: Bull, of the U. S. Geol. and Geogr.

Introduction; Wallace’s line.

83

Survey, vol. IV, 363 — 377), is one of the few earlier zoologists who do not recog-
nise Wallace’s line. His Indian Kegion, being part of the Indo-African Realm,
has for its eastern frontier a line drawn west of the Moluccas and Aru. He
says (p. 358): “I fail to see any good reason for assigning Celebes and all the
smaller Sunda Islands to the Papuan Province, as Mr. Wallace and others
have done, but abundant evidence that such is not their real affinity.” And
p. 364: “The Australian Realm will be here restricted so as so embrace none
of the islands situated to the westward of the Moluccas.”^) His Insular or Ma-
layan Province forms part of the Indian Region; it includes all the Sunda
Islands, the Philippines and Celebes. His Papuan Province (p. 367) takes in
the Molucca and Aru Islands to the west, but he considers the Molucca Group
(p. 364) to be a transitional link between the Indo-African and the Australian
Realm, faunistically more loosely allied to the latter than to the former.

K. Semper, 1880, in his work: “Die natiirlichen Existenzbedingungen der
Thiere” (II, 136), discussed the problem fully. Though he found that facts do
not speak everywhere in favour of Wallace’s line, he was nevertheless inclined
to adopt it in a general way; he explained the differences of the faunas to the
east and west not, however, by former land-connections, but by the sea-currents
transporting the animals, a hypothesis which, as far as we are aware, has not
been accepted elsewhere.

O. Krummel, in 1882, published (see: Ztschr. wiss. Geogr. HI, 1, Taf. I)
an important map: “Tiefenkarte des australasiatischen Mittelmeeres”, on which
he drew the line, but remarked (p. 2) that the depths of the Macassar Straits
are quite insufficiently known and (p. 3) that in the Straits of Lombok
only one sounding very near the coast of Bali, which was broken off
at 50 fathoms, serves as a basis for the assertion that a deep gap in
the chain of islands exists here! He further mentioned (p. 5) that there
are no soundings whatever known from the three large gulfs of Celebes.

K. Martin, in a lecture on the “Wissenschaftlichen Aufgaben, welche der
geologischen Erforschung des Indischen Archipels gestellt sind”, held in Leyden
in the year 1883, considered the line entirely erroneous. In his opinion (p. 28)
the continental frontier between Asia and Australia is approximately identical
with the chain of volcanoes in the Archipelago. The same author says in a
paper: “Die wichtigsten Daten unserer geologischen Kenntniss vom nieder-
landisch Ost-indischen Archipel” (see: Bijdr. taal-, land- en volkenkunde Ned.
Ind. uitg. ter gelegenheid van het 6. intern. Congress der Orientalisten te Leiden,
Land- en Volkenkunde. 1883, 27): “As far as our knowTedge of to-day goes,
.Wallace’s line is geologically unjustifiable. . . . Nothing hinders us from drawing

>) Previously (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, 1870—71, n, p. 381) IVIi’. Allen had uttered the follow-
ing opinion: “The Australian Realm embracing Australia, New Zealand, New Gruinea and their dependent
islands, including those to the eastward [?] as far as Timor and Celebes, is zoologically as distinct . . .” This
is not at all clear to us, but as this prominent writer later (see above) was quite intelligible, it is not necessary
to discuss his former intimation.

11*

84

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

the frontier to the north-west of Timor; the sea-depths would allow it just as
well, and in this case at least a separation of geognostically different regions
would be attained.” (A. Wichmann, however, appears to reckon Timor, etc.,
to the former Asiatic continent, see: Samml. des geol. Eeichs-Mus. in Leiden,

1. Ser. Bd. II, p. 201, 1887.)

O. Drude, 1884 (“Die Florenreiche der Erde”: Erg. Heft Nr. 74 zu
Petermann’s Mitth. p. 62^), acknowledges the line as a floristic frontier, to
which opinion he still adheres in 1890 (“Handbuch der Pflanzen geographie”,
p. 150 and Map I; see also: “Atlas der Pflanzenverbreitung” Berghaus’ Phys.
Atlas. 5, No. 1, 1887).

A. Heilprin, 1887 (“The Geographical and Geological Distribution of
Animals” p. 107, and map), adopts an Austro-malaysian Transition Eegion, which
is bounded to the west by Wallace’s line, to the east and south by New Guinea
and Australia, to the north by Mindanao.

W. Marshall, 1887 (“Atlas der Tierverbreitung”: Berghaus’ Phys. Atlas.
VI. Abth. p. I^, Map III), simply adopts the line.

C. M. Kan, in a paper published in 1888 on the “Bodengesteldheid der
eilanden en diepte der Zeeen van den ind. Archip.” (see: T. Ned. Aard. Gen.

2. ser. vol. V. Meer uitgebreide art. p. 219, with map IV) does not recognize the
line for reasons indicated in the title of his paper.

A. Eeichenow, in 1888 (“Die Begrenzung zoogeographischer Begionen
vom ornithologischen Standpunkt”: Zool. Jahrb. Abt. f. Syst. Ill, 699), recognizes
an Eastern Zone with an Eastern Temperate Eegion, an Ethiopian Eegion and
a Malayan Eegion as far as Wallace’s line (see also map XXVI), and a Southern
Zone which extends to the west up to Wallace’s line; he, therefore takes
Celebes as non-Oriental.

E. Schuiling, in a special dissertation: “De grenslijn van Wallace eene
continentale grens”, 1888 (T. Ned. Aard. Gen. 2. ser. V, p. 523), came to the
conclusion (p. 548), that Geology, Zoology and Oceanography teach: “Celebes
belongs to Asia”.

F. A. Jentink, in 1889 (1. c. VI, 244), showed (p. 246), that we are very far
from such an adequate knowledge of the mammals of Bali and Lombok as to justify
Wallace’s affirmation (Island Life 1880 p. 4): “Bali and Lombok differ far
more from each other in their birds and quadrupeds than do England and
Japan,” neither was Wallace justified in basing an argument on 16 land-
mammals as the ascertained number from Celebes, because as early as 1878
21 were already known and this large island has not been at aE thoroughly
investigated yet. In 1888 there were already 26 land-mammals and 19 bats extant
from there, a number which is probably still far from the true total. There
was therefore no good reason whatever for drawing important conclusions with
such scanty knowledge.^)

1) "We can only point to IMi’. Wliitehead’s recent discoveries of mammals on the high mountains of the
Philijjpines (see: Ann. Mag. N. H. 1895, 6. ser. vol. XYI, 160), in the conviction that such an experienced

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

85

E. Eeclus, 1889 (Nouv. Geogr. univ., vol. XIV, 209) sticks to the line
and says: “De tons les cotes elle [Celebes] apparait isolee; c’est nne terre dont
I’isolement complet est nn fait geologique datant des ages les plus recules”(!).

E. V. Martens published in 1889 bis “Tagebuch-Notizen” from Banda,
Timor and Flores (see: Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. zu Berlin, vol. 24, p. 83j and concludes
(p. 104) that Timor, Celebes, the Philippines, and the islands east of Java
represent the region of intermixture of the eastern and western animal worlds
and may just as well belong to neither as to both. “Nearly every zoological
genus presents a different frontier, a sharply defined common frontier does not
exist in nature, nor here.”

O. Warburg remarked in 1890 (“Die Flora des asiatischen Monsungebietes”:
Verb. Ges. Deutsch. Naturf. Bremen, Allg. Theil, p. 15 of sep. copy) that im-
portant as Wallace’s line is for understanding the evolution of the floras in
detail, the character as a whole was not altered by the separation; the greatest
part of the present flora would have already transmigrated before the separation,
thus certainly long before Miocene times.

K. Martin in a paper of 1890: “Die Kei-Inseln und ihr Verhaltniss zur
Australisch- Asiatischen Grenzlinie” (Tdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen. 2. ser. VII,
273) says: “To the west of Great Key and to the north-west of Timor lies a
natural and geognostically well-founded line of separation between the islands
dismembered from the Asiatic and Australian continents.” He adds, however,
that it is not to be expected that on the continental borders the present faun-
istic and floristic character of single islands should have a direct connection
with the geological line of separation or be congruent with it, because peripheric
parts of the continental masses are at times connected or separated.

E. L. Trouessart, in 1890 (“La Geographie Zoologique”, pp. 89, 131, 243
and map p. 9), simply accepts Wallace’s line.

E. V. Martens showed in 1891 (“Landschnecken des Indischen Arch.”:
Weber’s Zool. Erg. H, 263) that the land-shells do not allow of a sharp line
being drawn between Celebes and Borneo, though they differ considerably, for
North Celebes cannot be separated from the Philippines, and the differences
between Java on the one side, and Flores and Timor on the other, are less
conspicuous. The region to the east of Celebes does not offer any uniformity
with this island and cannot be regarded as constituting a unit with it.

P. L. Sclater, who, as is well known, first divided the earth into six orni-
thological regions now widely adopted for animals in general (“On the general
Geographical Distribution of the Members of the Class Aves”: J. Proc. Linn. Soc.
1858 II, 130 — 145)^) in 1891 recognised the line (“On Decent Advances in our
knowledge of the Geographical Distribution of birds”: Ibis, p. 515), though he
gave Celebes a special heading (p. 530) and says (p. 533) that Celebes is “a

collector as lie would gain a similar harvest on the high mountains of Celebes, which rise to nearly 10 000
feet, and from where next to nothing is as yet known.

’) See, also, his lecture on “The Geogr. Distribution of Mammals” Sc. Lect. f. the j)eople (6) 1874 p. 80.

86

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

debatable land between tbe Oriental and Australian Regions, but more properly
attributable to tbe former”.

W. H. Flower & R. Lydekker, in 1891 (Introd. to the Study of Mammals
p. 102), regard Celebes as the typical representative of the Austro-Malayan tran-
sitional region or sub -region, but they do not define it and do not recur to
Wallace’s line (except on p. 97).

P. A. van der Lith, 1893, gave (Nederl. Ost-Indie, 2. ed. I, 11) a sketch
of the facts and views concerning the line, but was inclined not to adopt
it. A very readable resume is to be found in J. F. van Bemmelen’s book:
“Uit Indie”, 1895, p. 146 et seq.

E. Haeckel in 1893 (“Zur Phylogenie der australischen Fauna” in Semon’s
Zool. Forschungsreisen, I p. V) adopts the line without entering critically into
this difficult and complicated question, though he presents us with the following
astonishing affirmation: “An keinem anderen Punkte unserer Erde stehen zwei
benachbarte Thiergebiete in so auffallendem Gegensatze, als auf der schmalen
Grenze zwischen der indo-malayischen und austral -malayischen Region. Uber-
schreiten wir die schmale Meerenge am Siidende dieser Grenze, die tiefe Lombok
Strasse, so treten wir mit einem Male aus der Gegenwart in das mesozoische
Zeitalter [!]. Obgleich die beiden Nachbar-Inseln Bali und Lombok nur wenige
Meilen entfernt und im Allgemeinen denselben klimatischen Bedingungen unter-
worfen sind, erscheint dennoch die charakteristische Landesfauna derselben ganz-
lich verschieden; und noch mehr gilt das, wenn wir die Mangkassar Strasse
iiberschreiten und von dem indischen Borneo nach dem australischen Celebes
ilbersetzen. Der durchgreifende Gegensatz ihrer Vogel- und Saugethier-Welt
ist so gross, dass er zu den schlagendsten chorologischen Argumenten des Trans-
formismus gerechnet w^erden muss.” (!)

W. Haacke, 1893, simply adopts the line (Schopfung der Thierwelt” p. 238).

A. Newton, also in 1893, (“A Dictionary of Birds”, p. 317 — 363, and Map
facing p. 1), likewise accepts the line. Concerning Celebes he says: “To the
Papuan Region may be assigned, though with doubt, the wonderful island of
Celebes, presenting perhaps more anomalies than any other in the world, and
yet anomalies which, by the use of strictly scientific inference (as Mr. Wallace
has shewn us), may possibly tell a story that sounds so romantic and yet will
satisfy those who judge it more severely”.

R. B. Sharpe, likewise in 1893 (“On the Zoo-Geographical Areas of the
World, illustrating the Distribution of Birds”: Natural Science III, 100 and map',
applies the Wallace-line as western frontier to his Australian Region; he recognizes a
Celebean Sub-Region, which, with the exception of the Sula Islands, coincides
with our Celebesian area, and a Moluccan Sub-Region, comprising everything
between Lombok, a line east of Celebes, New Guinea and Aru to the east, and
Australia to the south.

F. H. H. Guillemard, when editing Mr. Wallace’s “Australasia” in 1894,
likewise appears to have neglected literature when he says (p. 347 — a passage

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

87

not in the first edition of 1879, p. 419, and we are not aware whether it is in
subsequent ones): “We thus have the Sunda Chain divided distinctly and definitely
into an Asiatic and an Australian portion, the dividing line coinciding with the
deep-sea channel existing between Bali and Lombok. This boundary is now
universally known as ‘Wallace’s line’”.

M. Weber, 1894, in his important paper: “Die Siisswasser-Fische des
Indischen Archipels, nebst Bemerkungen iiber den Ursprung der Fauna von
Celebes” (Zool. Ergebnisse III, 468) came to the result that Celebes has no
Australian, but a highly impoverished Indian character in its fish-fauna, and
remarked as to the general problem (p. 473): “The unhappy line of Wallace,
which he himself has not formally retained for Celebes, has worked its way
deeply into the brains of numerous zoologists as something fascinatingly simple.
Text-books which touch upon zoogeography and get rid of the subject in a few
words maintain their hold on this classical frontier. And thus the Australian
Fauna of Celebes lives notwithstanding various protests.” Prof. Weber concludes
(p. 476): “The original line of Wallace separates groups of islands, of which
the western (Borneo, Sumatra and Java) received, on account of their size, but
chiefly in consequence of their longer connection with the Indian continent, a
rich Oriental fauna and, therefore, have developed specific forms of Indian
character. Of the eastern, Celebes was first separated from the Indian continent
and remained cut off. In consequence , it retained single older forms, which
developed independently. — Consisting in earlier times of single smaller islands,
its fauna has remained poor.”

F. E. Beddard, in 1895 (“A Text-Book of Zoogeography”), recognises
Wallace’s line (p. 103 and frontispiece-map) as a frontier between the Oriental
and the Australian Begions (p. 103 and 113), though (p. 113) he says that Celebes
“probably” belongs to the latter, but (p. 106) treats of it under the heading of
the Malayan Sub-region of the former.

R. Lydekker in 1896 (“A Geographical History of Mammals”, p. 45 and
map), adopts Heilprin’s Transition Region (see above) as an Austro-Malayan Region
and as one of four Regions of the Notogaeic Realm (p. 27): “Poverty, and an
admixture of Australian and Malayan types, with a very marked preponderance
of the latter, are the leading features in its mammalian fauna”. He says, how-
ever, that from the living mammalian fauna one might be inclined to place the
whole area within the limits of the Oriental Region. He evidently hesitates
in giving Celebes a fixed position, the more so as “there is absolutely no palae-
ontological evidence to help us in regard to past history”.

C. Hedley (“Mollusca of the Oriental region”: Journ. of Malacol. IV, 53)
showed, 1895, that the line between Bali and Lombok has no value for the
Mollusca, as the land-shells of these two islands do not differ essentially.

Likewise E. v. Martens showed in 1896 (Sb. Ges. natf. Freunde zu Berlin
p. 157), that of 10 land-shells from Lombok 3 are geographically neutral, 4 are

Introduction; Wallace’s line.

assigned to the great Sunda Islands, 3 to the eastern islands, that, therefore,
no sharp frontier exists for land-shells between Bali and I.ombok.

The same eminent conchologist said in 1897 (“Suss- und Brackwasser-Mol.
des Indischen Archipels”: Weber’s Zool. Ergebnisse IV, 298): “The frontier between
Bali and Lombok is for the fresh-water Mollusca quite imaginary, as long as we know
next to nothing of the species living on these islands;” and he proved further
(p. 297) that the fresh- water Mollusca from South Celebes are most closely
allied to those of Java and Flores, those of North Celebes most closely to those
of the Philippines, which is not consistent with Wallace’s line, but with the
geographical position.

A. Supan, 1896 (“Grundziige der physischen Erdkunde”, p. 557, and Maps
XIX, XX) sticks to the “celebrated” line.

AV. Kiikenthal, in 1896 (Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. XXII, 130), abnegates
Wallace’s line.

W. L. Sclater, 1896, treating of the Mammals of his Celebesian Subregion
(“The Geography of Mammals”: Geogr. Journ. VIII, 388 with Maps), finds that the
Australian element in the mammalian fauna of Celebes does not in any way
require the supposition of an ancient land-connection with that Region, hut that
the greater amount of Oriental forms suggests such a former connection with Asia;
he, therefore, annexes the Celebesian Subregion to the Oriental and not to the
Australian Region. In the beginning of this important paper (1. c. 1894, III,
p. 97, with MajD, and IV, p. 35, with Map) Mr. Sclater draws Wallace’s line
to the east of Celebes and between Bali and Lombok (see, also, 1. c VIII, p. 378)
and takes this as the frontier between the Australian and the Oriental Region,
reckoning the Sula Islands to the former, Celebes to the latter, as “on the whole
the evidence of the mammals, at any rate, serves to connect it more closely with
the Oriental Region” (see 1. c. IV p. 36).

F. J. Niermeyer, finally, in 1897 (“De Geschiedenis van de lijn van
Wallace”: Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aard. Gen. 2. ser. XIV, 758), has given a very
readable historical sketch. He rightly censures zoologists, botanists, and geo-
graphers for often writing on the problem without having consulted AVallace
himself, or the manifold literature extant on this subject, and still advocating
a frontier which S23ecialists have long since abandoned. He shows in detail how
Wallace himself has altered his opinion from 1860 to 1863, 1869, 1876, and
1880, and what Weber’s merits are in promoting knowledge on this question.

On going over these different opinions on Wallace’s line it will be seen
that they are fairly equally divided, though they must he weighed and not
counted many writers on the general subject not plunging deeply into the
problem, but uncritically following the authority of this eminent naturalist.
One must also take into account that errors, when once they have crept into
books, disappear from them with great difficulty. On the other hand also, some

Introduction: Wallace’s line.

S9

specialists of the highest standing acquiesce in the line, partly disregarding the
circumstance that Wallace himself has to a certain degree altered his views;
whereas others of the same rank encounter insuperable obstacles in adopting
such a frontier between the Oriental and Australian Regions. There can be
no doubt that in our present state of knowledge it is premature to define the
problem for solution, however interesting and suggestive it may he, and that it
is, therefore, waste of time to speculate on it with the help of an up-and-down
system for the islands and continents, just as required. It is characteristic of
an inadequate hypothesis that it is always in need of a new one which should
sustain it, and as geology and palaeontology are as yet powerless to guide us,
we must restrict ourselves to zoology, though we know that here also our
knowledge is defective in a high degree. Let us see, however, what the orni-
thology of Celebes in its present state teaches, and whether our results agree
at least with those arrived at by others.

What are the characteristic elements of the Celebesian Avifauna and where
did they originate? This is the only question we put, and which we will try
to answer — always bearing in mind that our ornithological knowledge of Celebes,
especially of the centre and high mountains, is imperfect — , leaving all further
speculations to the naturalist of the future.

The following table of the Geographical Distribution of the species treated
of in this book will facilitate the answer to our question. It will be observed
that the Celebesian Area is flanked to the left by the Nearctic, Ethiopian,
Palaearctic and Oriental Regions, to the right by the Australian and Neotropical
Regions, the generally adopted Sclaterian division having been accepted for
convenience’s sake, though we are aware that that of Prof. Newton (D. B. 1893,
p. 315 et seq) is an improvement upon it. (His main divisions are the New
Zealand, Australian, Neotropical, Holarctic, Ethiopian and Indian Regions; unit-
ing under the Holarctic the Nearctic and Palaearctic, and separating the former
Australasian Region into an Australian and a New Zealand Region.) The affinities
of the Celebesian Avifauna make it preferable to break up the Oriental Region
into several parts, inserting between them Japan — a section of the Palaearctic
Region, as follows: Indian Province, Chinese Province, Japan, the Malay Pen-
insula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. For similar reasons we have divided the
Australian Region into Papuasia, Australia, Polynesia, and New Zealand. As
to the middle parts of the East Indian Archipelago we advocate, as will be seen
later on, the recognition of a broad Transition- Zone, comprising four areas —
a Philippine, a Celebesian, a Lesser Sun dan, and a Moluccan, — although the
three first display a preponderance of Asiatic elements, while the Moluccas
correspond naturally to their geographical position between Sula and Papuasia.

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celetes (May 5tii, 18t)S).

72

90

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE 2|(

•

CQ

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Name of species

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18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

Spilomis rufipectus J. Grd. (typical) . .

— rufipectus sulaensis (Schl.) . . .

— rufipectus<(sulaensis

Circus assimilis Jard. Selby . . . .

Astur griseiceps Schl

Astur trivirgatus (Temm.) (typical) . .

— trivirgatus rufitinctus (Me Clell.)

? Astur tenuirostris Briigg

Ilrospizias torquatus (Temm.)

Tachyspizias soloensis (Horsf.) . . . .
Spilospizias trinotatus (Bp.) (typical) . .

— trinotatus haesitandus Hart. . .

Accipiter rhodogaster (Schl.)

Accipiter sulaensis (Schl.)

Accipiter Aurgatus (Temm.) (typical). .

— virgatus af finis (Hdgs.) . . . .

— virgatus manilensis (Meyen) . .

— virgatus gularis (Temm. Schl.).

— virgatus rufotibialis (Sharpe). .
Spizaetus lanceolatus Temm. Schl. .
Lophotriorchis kieneri (Gr. Spar re) . .
Ictinaetus malayensis (Beinw.) ....

Haliaetus leucogaster (G-m.)

Polioaetus huinihs (Miill. Schl.) (typical)

— humihs major n. subsjD

— humilis — -major

Butastur indicus (G-m.)

Butastur liventer (Temm.)

Haliastur indus (Bodd.)

Milvus migrans (Bodd.) (typical) . . .

— migrans melanotis (Temm. Schl.)

— migrans govinda (Sykes). . . .

— ■ — affinis (J. Gd.) & m. — affinis.

Elanus hypoleucus J. Gd

Pernis celehensis (Wall.)

Pernis sp

Baza celehensis Schl

Baza reinwardti Mull. Schl

Tinnunculus moluccensis orient, n. suhsp.

— moluccensis occidentalis M.&Wg.

— molucc. orientalis — occidentalis .
Falco severus papuanus M.&Wg. . . .

2

4

5

7

9

—

—

11

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

*

12

—

—

*

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

13

1 r;

10

17

—

—

*

*

*

*

jfc r

*

*

*

21

23

25

26

—

27

—

—

—

*

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

28

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

28

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

-

28

—

—

*

—

*

*

*

*

*

*

29

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

35

—

—

>K

*

*

*

*

jjc

38

—

—

—

*

—

—

*

*

*

—

--

40

—

—

—

*

*

—

*

*

*

* fj

43

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

I

44

—

—

—

*

_

—

. —

—

—

—

—

1

44

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

\

45

—

—

*

*

*

*

*

—

*

*

*

-f

49

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

51

—

—

—

*

—

—

*

*

*

*

*

*til

60

—

*

*

*

i

60

—

—

*

*

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

'll

60

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

— -

—

- !i

60

—

—

—

*

*

—

*

>K

—

—

—

62

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

65

72

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

73

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

75

*

79

79

*

—

79

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

84

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— — -

Introduction: Greographical Distribution.

91

• species of the celebesian area.

Celebesian Area

Ce

1 e b e s

Pi

w

rnl

1 rt
1 ci

■ 'S

H

i

1

m

M

•5i)

1

.3

!=l

O)

PM

u

00

o:>

o

O

<4-:)

m

0)

rs

CO

i=^

•

!=l

O)

-i-3

ZD

00

eg

03

i— 1

i

• t— I

oo

<x>

'~S

O

^ eg

*3

CO

• rH

j=l

(D

pi

E. Peninsula

(and Buton)

1

CO

M

<D

CD

0

(S

(D

1

O

S

bs)

.3

oo

rS

hH

c3

CO

c3

a

c>

pi

^ (

eg

• l-H

CO

eg

eg

•t-H

OO

eg

• r-(

CO

o

Ti

a

eg

'Ig

o

Cs3

o
• *— (

to

<D

Ph

o

►(—I

a

o

-t.2

o

Name of species

1

m

o

O

H

o>

O

OQ

QQ

eg

OQ

P

<v

pi

QQ

eg

p

JP

o

p

03

*

>K

*

*

*

*

Spilornis rufipectus (typ.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

- — -

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— rufipectus siilaensis.

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

— •

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

*

—

—

—

Circus assimilis.

—

—

*

*

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Astur griseiceps.

Astur trivirgatus.

—

? Astur tenuirostris.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

Urospizias torquatus.

*

*

*

*

—

—

—

—

Tachyspizias soloensis.

—

—

*

—

—

Spilospizias trinotat. (typ.).

*

«

liaesitandus.

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

x\ccipiter rhodogaster.

*

*

Accipiter sulaensis.
Accipiter virgatus (typ.).

— virgatus af finis.

— virgatus manilensis.

_ —

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

— virgatus gularis.

— virgatus rufotibialis.

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

Spizaetus lanceolatus.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Lopliotriorchis Ideneri.

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

■ —

—

■ — ■

—

—

Ictinaetus inalayensis.

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

*

—

—

*

*

—

Haliaetus leucogaster.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Polioaetus humilis (typ.).

—

>)c

*

*

*

—

• —

—

—

Butastur indicus.

—

—

—

*

__

>|C?

—

—

—

—

Butastur liventer.

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

—

—

Haliastur indus.

Milvus migrans (typical).

—

—

*

—

—

*

—

—

—

— migrans af finis, etc.

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

—

*

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

Elanus liypoleucus.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Pernis celefiensis.
Pernis sp.

—

—

*

—

*

*

—

Baza celebensis.

—

—

—

■

—

Baza reinwardti.

—

---

— —

—

—

—

—

Tinnunculus mol. orient.

—

—

*

— —

— -

*

>!<?

—

—

—

— moluccensis Occident.

—

—

—

*

—

- — -

—

—

—

—

— — orient. — Occident.

—

Ealco severus papuanus.

12*

92

Introduction; Geographical Distribution.

5^

05

rO

a

Name of species

-1-3

X

O

o

.S

0^

tuo

Ph

So

CD

o

• rH

H-3

O

?-4

<D

s

0

• t-H

bn

05

pH

1

-♦.i

S

o

• f—i

b/D

o:>

pH

-1-3

o

u

0^

Ph

•X)

o

;>

o

u

Ph

<x

o

* I— i

o

05

M

05

i

P.

cS

CO

p

p)

05

c/2

c3

§

O

05

Pi

fH

o

W

m

Pi

cO

05

.a

PH^

• l-H

:a

PM

CO

n3

Pi

Oj

oS
Tp
Pi
pi

m

i

U

05

cn

ca

(V

j

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Falco severus inclicus n. suhsp. . .

— severus papuamis — indicus . .
Falco peregrinus (Gferini) (tyiucal) .

— peregrinus inelanogenys (J. Gd.)

— peregrinus ernesti (Sharpe) .

— peregrinus anatuin (Bi^) . . .

— peregrinus j)ealei Bid gw. . .
Pandion haliaetus (L.) (typical) . . .

— haliaetus leucocephalus (J. Gd.)

— haliaetus carolinensis (Gin.). .

Ninox ochracea (Sc hi.)

Ninox scutulata (Baffl.) (typical) . .

— scutulata lugubris (Tickell) .

— scutulata af finis (Tytler) . .

— scutulata j aponica (Tern m. S c h 1.

Oephaloptjmx punctulata (Q. G.) .

Scops inanadensis (Q. G.) (typical),

— inanadensis alhiventris (Sharpe

— manadensis rutilus (Pucher.).

— inanadensis capnodes (Gurney)

— inanadensis magicus (S. Mil 11.)

— manadensis leucospilus (Gray)

? — manadensis moroteiisis (Sharpe

— manadensis hrookii (Shai’iie).

— manadensis sibutuensis (Sharjie
Strix flammea rosenbergi (Schl.) .

— flammea L. (typical) ') . . .

Strix inexjiectata Schl

Strix Candida Tick

Eos histrio (St. Miill.) (typical) , .

— histrio talautensis M. &Wg.

— histrio challengeri (Salvad.)
Trichoglossus ornatus (L.) . . . .
Trichoglossus forsteni Bp. (typical)

— forsteni djampeanus Hart. .
Trichoglossus meyeri Tweedd. (tyxiical)
— meyeri honthainensis (A. B. M.)
Trichoglossus flavovuidis Wall. .
Oacatua sulphurea (Gm.) (typical)

— sulphurea djamjieana Hart

— suljihurea jiai’vula (Bp.) .
Prioniturus platurus (Vieill.) . .
Prioniturus flavicans Cass.. . .
Tanygnathusmuelleri (Miill. Schl.) (typ.

1) Distribution not clearly defined.

84

84

85

86
86
87
87
89

89

90

94

95
95
95
95

loo

103

105

105

105

105

106
106
107
107
109
111
112
112

115

117

118
120

123

124

124

125

127

128
130
130
133
138
140

*

%

3k

>k

3k

3k?

3k

3k

3k

3k

>k

3k?

>k

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

*

3k

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

>kf

3k'

>k

Introduction: Geographical Distribution,

93

Celebesian Area

a

CO

H

-p

i

&c

Cj

QQ

Celebes

r“ H

cc

!=l

CP

pH

cc

o

c:)

O

CO

a;

CO

■g

©

Pm

in

i

(=3

• f-H
&0
o

CO

a

o

O

-p>

fi

©

O

d

M

■g

o

pi

o

QC

.g °
g^

® cq

si

GQ

*

*

*

*

*

*?

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

>!<;? >fc — — >fc

>j< — ^ ^

2) Lit, Nanusa Islands.

*

*

I

©

>-3

©

02

o

cS

o3

©

c©

d

pi

O

;h

Ci5

&c

©

i

"~in

M

oi

02

*

*

*

* ! *

*

*

03

c

O

I— <

O

c3

• r-<
CO

c3

*

c3

'ra

I

c3

• I— I
02
©
Pi

o

S

c3

c3

O

©

izi

o

• rH

bo

©

PlM

©

-pi

O

©

Name of species

*

Falco severus indicus.

papuan. — ^indicus.

Falco peregrinus (typ.).

melanogenys.

ernesti.

anatum.

pealei.

Pandion lialiaetus (typ.).

— — leucoceplialus.

— — carolineusis.

Ninox oclu-acea.

Ninox scutulata (typical).

— — lugubris.

affinis.

japonica.

Oeplialoptynx punctidata.
Scops manadensis (typ.).

albiventris.

rutilus.

— — capnodes.

P

magicus.
leucosj)ilus.
morotensis.

brookii.

— — sibutuensis.

Strix flammea rosenbergi.

— flammea (typical) i).
Strix iiiexpectata.

Strix Candida.

Eos histrio (typical).

— histrio talautensis.

— histrio challengeri.
Trichoglossus ornatus.
Trich. forsteni (typical).

— forsteni djampeanus.
Trich. meyeri (typical).

— meyeri bonthainensis.
Trich. flavoviridis.

Cacatua sulphurea (typ.).

— sulphurea djami)eana

— sulphurea parvula.
Prioniturus platurus.
Prioniturus flavicans.
Tanygnath. muelleri(typ.).

r

94 Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

Number

Name of species

Page in the text

Nearctic Eegion

Ethiopian Eegion

Palaearctic Eegion

Indian Province

Chinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Philippine Islands

Lesser Sunda Islands

45

Tanygnatlius muelleri sangirensis M.&Wg.

142

— muelleri — sangirensis

142

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

46

? Tanygnatlius luconensis (L.)

144

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4c

47

Tanygnathus talautensis M. & Wg. . .

48

Tanygnath. megalorliynclius (B o d d. ) (typ. )

146

- —

—

—

— megalorhynclius sumbensis (Meyer)

148

4c

— megalorbynchus — sumbensis . .

148

—

49

Loricnlus exilis Sc hi

149

—

—

—

—

—

50

Loriculus catamene Scbl

151

51

Loriculus sclateri Wall, (typical) . . .

153

■

— sclateri ruber M.&Wg

154

—

—

52

Loriculus quadricolor Tweedd

157

53

Loriculus stigmatus (Miill. Scbl.) . .

158

■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

54

Aprosmictus sulaensis (Bcbw.) . . . .

55

lyngipicus temmincki (Malli.) ....

173

56

Microstictus fulvus (Q. G-.)

175

—

—

—

—

57

Microstictus wallacei (Tweedd.) . . .

179

58

Hierococcyx crassirostris (Tweedd.). .

182

-

59

Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vig.). . . .

184

—

—

*

4c

>tc

4c

—

4c

4c

4c

—

60

Hierococcyx fugax (Horsf.)

185

—

—

*

- —

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

—

61

Cuculus canorus (L.) (typical)

187

—

*

*

4c

—

—

—

—

—

—

— canorus canoroides (S. Miill.) .

188

—

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

62

? Cuculus saturatus Hdgs

191

—

—

>|c?

4c

4c

*?

4c?

4c?

4c

4c?

4c?

63

Ohrysococcyx malayanus (Baffl.) . . .

194

*

4c

*

*

*

64

Ohrysococcyx basalis (Horsf.) . . . .

195

—

—

—

—

—

—

4c

—

4c

4c

65

Cacomantis virescens (Briigg.) . . . .

196

66

Oacomantis merulinus (Scop.) ....

199

—

—

—

4c

4c

—

*

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

67

Coccystes coromandus (L.)

201

—

—

—

*

4c

—

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

68

Surniculus musscbenbroeki A. B. M. . .

203

—

—

-69

Eudynamis melanorbyncba S. Miill. . .

205

—

—

70

Eudynamis mindanensis (L.) (typical). .

210

—

■ —

■ — ■

■

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

— mindanensis sangirensis (W.Blas.)

211

71

Centrococcyx bengalensis (G-m.) ....

213

—

—

—

4c

4c

—

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

72

Pyrrhocentor celebensis (Q. Gr.) (typical)

221

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

- -

—

—

—

■

— celebensis rufescens M.&Wg.) .

223

73

Plioenicopliaes calorliyncb. (T e m m. ) (typ. )

226

■ — ■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— calorbynclius meridionalis M.&Wg.

227

74

Scytlirops novaeliollandiae Lath. . . .

231

*

75

Bliabdotorrbinus exaratus (Temm.) . .

235

76

Oranorrhinus cassidix (Temm

239

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

77

Merops ornatus Lath

248

4c?

4c?

-

4c

-78

Merops philipj)inus L

253

—

—

—

*

4c

—

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

79

Meropogon forsteni Bp

257

—

—

—

-

—

—

—

—

80

Alee do ispida L

262

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

—

4c

4c

4c

II

H

Introduction: Geogi’aphical Distribution.

95

Celebesian Area

Moluccas

Papuasia

Australia

Polynesia

New Zealand

Neotropical Pegion

Name of species

Talaut Islands |

Sangi Islands

Ce

1 e b e s

Saleyer Island

Djampea Group

Peling Group

Sula Islands

North Peninsula

West Celebes

East Peninsula

Togian Islands

Central Celebes

South Peninsula

S. E. Peninsula
(and Buton)

*

Tanygn. inuell. sangirensis .

—

— muelleri — sangirensis.

1

i

*

?Tanygnatb. luconensis.

1 *

Tanygnath. talautensis.

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

- —

T. megalorhyncbus (typ.).

1

sumbensis.

*

— megalorh. — sumb.

—

Loriculus exilis.

—

—

Loriculus catamene.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

Loriculus sclateri.

■

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

- —

—

— sclateri ruber.

'

*

—

Loriculus quadricolor.

—

—

*

*

—

*

*

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

■ —

— ■

Loriculus stigmatus.

—

—

— -

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

— ■

- —

■ —

Aprosmictus sulaensis.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

lyngipicus teinmincki.

—

>ic

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Microstictus fulvus.

—

—

—

— ■

*

Microstictus wallacei.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Hiero coccyx crassirostris.

*

—

—

Hierococc. sparverioides.

*

—

Hierococc. fugax.

Cuculus canorus (typ.).

>K

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

*

—

*

*

*

*

*

- —

—

— canorus canoroides.

—

■ — '

- —

■ —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*•?

—

—

? Cuculus saturatus.

■ —

—

• — ■

—

—

— ■

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Cbrysococcyx inalayanus.

• —

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

Cbrysococcyx basabs.

—

—

>K

*

*

—

*

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Cacomantis virescens.

—

—

—

*

—

—

*

Cacomantis merulinus.

>b

Coccystes coromandus.

—

—

>K

—

- —

—

—

•

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Surnicul. musschenbroeki.

• —

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

Eudynam. melanorbyncba.

—

—

—

End. mindanensis (typical).

*

— ■

—

—

—

—

— •

—

—

—

— -

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

sangirensis.

*

*

*

—

*

—

*

*

*

—

*

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

Centrococcyx bengalensis

i ^

—

—

—

*

—

— •

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Pyrrbocentor celeb, (typ.).

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— celebensis rufescens.

—

—

—

*

—

—

• — ■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Phoenicopb. calorh. (typ.).

—

• —

—

*

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— — meridionalis.

! *

—

*

—

• —

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Scythrops novaebolland.

—

*

*

—

*

*

—

Phabdotorrbinus exarat.

—

*

—

*

*

*

—

—

Cranorrhinus cassidix.

*

*

*

*

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

*

—

—

.

Merops ornatus.

■ —

*

—

■ —

• —

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Merops pbilippinus.

—

—

*

—

—

Meropogon forsteni.

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

Alcedo ispida.

96

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

Name of species

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97
-98

Alcedo moluccana (Less.)

Alcedo meninting Horsf

Pelargopsis melanorliynclia (Temm.) .
Pelargopsis diclirorhynclia M. &Wg. .

Oeyx wallacei Sharpe

Ceycopsis fallax (Sc hi.)

Oeycopsis sangirensis M. cfeWg. . . .
Halcyon coromanda rufa (Wall.) . .

Halcyon pileata (Bodd.)

Halcyon sancta Vig. Horsf

Halcyon chi oris (Bodd.) (typical)') .
Monachalcyon inonachiis (Bp.) (typical)
— inonachns intermedins Hart. .
Monachalcyon caj)ucinus M. &Wg. .
Monachalcyon princeps Bchh. . . .

Oittura cyanotis (Temm.)

Cittnra sangirensis Sharpe . . .
Coracias temmincld (Vieill.) . . . .
Eiirystomus orientalis (L.)

99

100

101

102

103

-104

105

106
107

- -108

Oaprimulgus macrurus Horsf. (typical)

— macrurus alhonotatus (Tick.) . .

— macrurus — alhonotatus

Caprimulgus celehensis Grant . . . .
Oaprimulgus affinis Horsf.. . . . ,

Lyncornis macropterus Bp

Cypselus pacificus (Lath.)

Ohaetura celehensis (Scl.)

Collocalia fuciphaga (Thunh.) . . . .

Colldcaha esculenta (L.)

Collocalia francica (Gm.)

Macropteryx wallacei (J. Gd.) . . ..

109

no

111

112

113

114

115

116
117

' -118
-119
120

Pitta celehensis Mull. 8 chi

Pitta palliceps Briigg

Pitta caeruleitorques Salvad

Pitta inspeculata M. &Wg

Pitta forsteni Bp

Pitta sangirana (Sc hi.)

Pitta cyanoptera Temm

Pitta irena Temm

Pitta virginalis Hart

Hirundo rustica L. (races)')

Hirundo javanica Sparrm

Muscicapa griseosticta (Swinh.). . .

h Distribution of races not capable of exact

Page in the text

Nearctic Region

Ethiopian Region

Palaearctic Region

Indian Province

Chinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Philippine Islands

264

_

266

—

—

—

*

' *

—

4c

1 4c

4c

4c

269

—

271

—

—

—

—

j

272

—

—

—

275

—

—

—

—

■

278

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

280

—

—

—

—

'

—

—

—

—

283

—

—

*

*

4c

4c

—

4c

4c

287

292

—

—

—

—

4c

4c

*

—

297

—

—

1

298

—

—

—

- —

—

—

- — ■

—

—

—

—

299

—

—

—

—

—

—

300

—

—

—

—

303

305

—

309

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

312

—

—

*

*

*

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

—

317

—

- —

—

—

—

- —

4c

4c

*

4c

318

—

—

—

*

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

318

—

—

—

—

-

320

—

—

—

321

—

—

—

- —

—

■

—

4c

4c

4c

—

322

—

—

—

—

—

—

327

—

—

4c

4c

—

—

329

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4c

331

—

—

—

•

4c

4c.

4c

334

—

—

—

—

335

—

>K

—

■ —

^ .

4c

—

—

■

4c

336

—

—

—

- —

—

- —

—

—

—

—

340

344

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

345

—

—

—

—

—

1

346

—

—

1

350

351

—

1

4c '

9

352

—

—

*

—

4c

4c

4c

354

—

—

—

.

■ 1

—

—

—

—

—

—

355

357

358

—

■ —

—

>k

—

• —

*

4c

*

*

4c

363

jiinitioi

i.

4c

4c

*

*

*

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Lesser Sunda Islands

Introduction: Geographical Distribution

Celebesian Area

97

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Name of species

Alceclo rnoluccana.
Alcedo meiiinting.
Pelargops. inelanorhyncha
Pelargops. dichrorliynclia.
Oeyx wallacei,

Ceycopsis fallax.
Ceycopsis sangirensis.
Halcyon coromanda rufa.
Halcyon pileata.

Halcyon sancta.

Halcyon chloris (typ.)^).
Monaclialc. inonacli. (typ.).

intermedius,

Monachalcyon capucinus.
Monaclialcyon princeps.
Cittura cyanotis.

Cittura sangirensis.
Coracias teinmincki.
Enrystomus orientalis.

Oaprimulg.macrurus(typ. ).

— — - albonotatus.

— inacrurus — albonotat.
Oapriinulgus celebensis.
Caprimulgus affinis.
Lyncornis niacropterus.
Cypselus pacificus.
Chaetura celebensis.
Collocalia fucipbaga.
Collocalia esculenta.
Collocalia francica.
Macropteryx wallacei.

Pitta celebensis.

Pitta palliceps.

Pitta caeruleitorqiies.
Pitta inspeculata.

Pitta forsterd.

Pitta sangirana.

Pitta cyanoptera.

Pitta irena.

Pitta virginalis.

Hirimdo rusticaL. (races)
Hirundo javanica.
Muscicapa griseosticta.

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (May 5thj 1898).

13

08

Introduction; Geographical Distribution.

OJ

Xa

m e

of

species

X

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121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

dd

160

161

162

163

164

Muscicapula westermamii Sharpe
Muscicapula hyperythra (Blyth)

Siphia baiiyimias (Horsf.)

Siphia djampeana Hart. .

Siphia kalaoeiisis Hart. .

Siphia rufigula (AYall.j. .

Siphia honthaina Hart. .

Stoparola septentrionahs Biitt.
Stoparola meridionahs Biitt. .
Hypothymis puella (Wall.). .
H^qjothymis rowleyi (A.B.M.)
Bhipidura celebensis Biitt. . .
Bhipidura teijsmamii Biitt. . .
Zeoceplms talautensis M.&Wg.
Monarcha commutatus Briigg.
Monarcha inornatiis (Garn.) .
Monarcha everetti Hart. . . .
Myiagra rufigula Wall. . . .
Oulicicapa helianthea (Wall.).
Gerygone flaveola Oah. . . .
Pratincola caprata (L.). . . .
Pachycephala sulfuriventer (Twee
Pachycephala meridionahs Biitt
Pachj^cephala teijsmanni Biitt.
Pachycephala orpheus Jard. .
Pachycephala griseonota G.B. Gray
Pachycephala cho Wall. . .
Pachycephala everetti Hart.
Pachycephala honthaina M.&Wg,
Pachycephala bonensis M.&Wg.
Colluricincla sangirensis (Oust'
Lanius tigrinus JDrapiez
Lanins lucionensis L. . .

Graucalus hicolor (Temm.

Graucalus leucopygius Bp
Graucalus tenunincki (S. Miill.)
Graucalus schistaceus (Sharpe)
Graucalus melanops (Lath.) .
Edoliisoina morio (S. Miill.) (t}^ical)

— morio septentrionahs M.&Wg.

— morio — sei^tentrionalis M. & Wg
Edohisoma salvadorii Sharpe
Edoliisoma talautense M. & W
Edoliisoma emancipata Hart..
Edohisoma ohiense Salvad. .

Lalage leucojDygialis Tweedd.

365

366
368
371

371

372

373

374

375

376

378

379

380

382

383

384

385

386

387

388
390
394
396

396

397

398

399

400

401

401

402

403
406
411
413

415

416

417

419

420

421

422

423

424

424

425

*

*

*

*

*

'V'

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

4c

*

4c:

4c:

—

4c«

4c«

Introduction: Geograpliical Distribution.

99

Celebesian Area

Moluccas

di

• ^

C3

Dh

Australia

Polynesia

New Zealand

Talaiit Islands

Sangi Islands

Ce

1 e b e s

Saleyer Island

Djampea Group

Pelmg Group

Sula Islands

North Peninsula

West Celebes

East Peninsula

Togian Islands

Central Celebes

Soutb Peninsula

S. E. Peninsula

(and Baton)

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

. —

—

—

—

—

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—

—

—

—

—

—

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*

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*

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—

—

*

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—

—

—

—

—

*

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—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

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—

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—

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—

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Name of species

Muscicapula westermanni.
Miiscicapula hyperytlira.
Sipbia banyumas.

Sipbia djampeana.

Sipbia Icalaoensis.

Sipbia. rufigula.

Sipbia bontbaiiia.
Stoparola septentrionalis.
Stoparola meridionalis.
Hypotbymis puella.
Hypotbymis rowleyi.
Rbipidura celebensis.
Rbipidura teijsmaiini.
Zeocepbus talautensis.
Monarcba commutatus.
Monarclia inornatus.
Monarcba everetti.
IVIyiagra rufigula.
Culicicapa beliantbea.
Gerygone flaveola.
Pratincola caprata.
Pacbycepbala sulfurivent.
Pacbycepbala meridioual.
Pacbycepbala teijsmanni.
Pacliycepbala or])beus.
Pacbycepbala griseonota.
Pacbycepbala clio.
Pacbycepbala everetti.
Pacbycepbala bontbaina.
Pacbycepbala boiiensis.
Colluricincla sangu’ensis.
Lanins tigrinus.
lianins lucionensis.
Grancalus bicolor.
Grancalus lencopygius.
Grancalus temmincM.
Grancalus scbistaceus.
Grancalus melanoj)S.
Edoliisoma morio (typ.).

— morio septentrionalis.

— morio — septentrion.
Edoliisoma salvadorii.
Edoliisoma talautense.
Edoliisoma emancipata.
Edoliisoma obiense.
Lalage lencopygialis.

100

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

Number

■

Name of species

Page in the text

0
Tn

01

o

• l-H

O

o

Ethiopian Begion

Palaearctic Region

Inchan Province

Oliinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Philippine Islands

Lesser Sunda Islands

165

Lalage timorensis (S. Miill.)

428

4c?

166

Artamus leucogaster (Yal.)

430

—

—

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

167

Artamus monacbus Bj)

434

168

Dicrurus leucops Wall, (typical) . . ,

436

—

— leucops — axillaris

437

— leucops axillaris (Salvacl.) . . .

438

169

Dicrurus pectoralis Wall

439

170

Dicaeum celebicum S. Miill

441

171

Dicaeum sulaense Sharpe

443

172

Dicaeum sangirense Salvacl

444

173

Dicaeum talautense M. &Wg

445

174

Dicaeum splencliclum Biitt

446

175

Dicaeum nehrkorni W. Bias

447

176

Dicaeum hosei Sharpe

448

_

-fil -

177

Acmonorhynchus aureolimbatus (Wall.)

449

—

—

pTl !

178

Acmonorhjmchus sanguensis (S al v a d. )

451

—

1

179

Aethopyga flavostriata (AYall.) ....

453

—

-

—

f

180

Eudrejaanis duivenbodei (Schh) ....

456

J

181

Oyrtostomus frenatus (S. Miill.) (typical)

458

—

—

—

—

-

}

— frenatus saleyerensis Hart.. . .

458

—

—

-- -

-

i

— frenatusOsaleyerensis

458

—

—

—

—

_

(

— frenatus <(saleyerensis

459

— frenatus dissentiens (Hart.) . .

182

Oyrtostomus teijsmanni (Biitt.) . . . .

462

183

Hermotimia auriceps (Gr.E.. Glray) . . .

464

—

-

184

Hermotimia porjshyrolaema (Wall.) (typ.)

465

— porphyrolaema scapulata M. &Wg.

466

185

Hermotimia gray! (Wall.)

186

Hermotimia sangirensis (A. B.M.) . . .

469

—

—

—

—

,

187

Hermotimia talautensis M. &Wg. . , .

470

-

—

— ' i

188

Anthreptes malaccensis (Scop.) (typical)

472

—

—

—

*

—

—

4c

4c

*

.

4c? -

— malaccensis celebensis (Shell.) .

475

—

— malaccensis chlorigaster (S h arp e)

477

—

—

4c

189

Myzomela chloroj)tera Tweedd. . . .

190

Melilestes celebensis M. &Wg. (typical).

481

— celebensis meridionahs M. &Wg. .

482

191

Myza sarasinorum M. &Wg

483

192

Zosterops squamiceps (Hart.)

485

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

- .

193

Zosterops intermedia (Wall.)

486

4c -

194

Zosterops atrifrons Wall

195

Zosterops subatrifrons M. &Wg. . . .

490

196

Zosterops nehrkorni W.Blas

490

197

Zosterops sarasinorum M. &Wg. .

491

198

Zosterops anomala M. &Wg

494

—

—

—

—

—

—

.

199

Zosterops babelo M. &Wg. . .....

495

- )

200

hole aurea (Tweedd.)

496

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Talaut Ii

r

Introduction : Geographical .Distribution.

101

Celebesian Area

Celebes

in

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Name of species

Lalage timorensis.
Artamus leucogaster.
Artamus nionachus.
Dicrurus leucops (typ.).

— leucops — axillaris.

— leucops axillaris.
Dicrurus pectoralis.
Dicaeum celebicum.
Dicaeuin sulaense.
Dicaeum sangirense.
Dicaeum talautense.
Dicaeum splendidum.
Dicaeum. nehrkorni.
Dicaeum hosei.
Acmonorli. aureolimbatus.
Acmouorb. sangirensis.
Aetliopyga flayostriata.
Eudrepanis duiveiibodei.
Cyrtostomus frenatus(t3rp. )

— frenatus saleyerensis.

— — i> saleyerensis.

<[saleyerensis.

— • frenatus dissentiens.

Cyrtostomus teijsmanni.
Hermotimia auriceps.

H. porpliyrolaema (typ.).

— — scapulata.
Hermotimia grayi.
Hermotimia sangirensis.
Hermotimia talaiitensis.
Antbrept. malaccens. ( typ . ) ,

celebensis.

— — cblorigaster.
Myzomela cliloroptera.
Melilestes celebensis(typ.).

meridionalis.

Myza sarasinorimi.
Zosterops squamiceps.
Zosterops intermedia
Zosterops atrifrons.
Zosterops subatrifrons.
Zosterops nehrkorni.
Zostero]3S sarasinorum.
Zosterops anomala.
Zosterops babelo.
lole aurea.

102

Introduction ; Geographical Distribution.

Number

i

Name of species

Page in the text

S3

o

• ^

bJO

o

o

• ^

o

q;

!z;

Ethiopian (Region

Palaearctic Region

Indian Province

Chinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Phibppine Islands

Lesser Sunda Islands

201

lole longirostris (Wall.)

497

202

lole platenae fW. Bias.)

498

203

Malia grata Sclil. (typical)

499

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— grata recondita (M. &Wg.) . . .

500

204

Andro|)hilus castaneus (Blltt.) ....

502

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

205

Oataponera turdoides Hart

503

206

Tricliostoma celebensis (Strickl.) . .

504

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

207

Tricliostoma linschi Tweedd. . . , .

506

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

■

208

Malacopteron affine fBlytli)

508

—

—

—

—

—

3k

3k

3k

3k

—

,

209

Greociclda erytlironota S c 1. . . . . .

509

—

—

—

—

_ —

—

—

—

—

—

—

210

Merula celebensis Blltt. .

510

—

—

■

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

211

Petropbila cyanus (L.) (typical) ....

512

—

*

*

>K

—

— -

■ —

• —

—

—

—

— cyanus solitaria (P.L. S.Mllll.) .

512

—

—

*

>k

3k

3K

—

3k

3k

3k

212

Oisticola cursitans fErkl.)

515

—

*

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

—

3k

*

213

Cisticola exibs (Yig. Horsf.)

517

—

—

—

*

*

—

3k

—

3k

_

3k

3k

214

Pliyllergates riedeli M. &AV"g

519

215

Acroceplialiis orientalis (Temm. 8cbl.)

521

—

—

*

*

3k

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

216

Locustella fasciolata (G.B. Gray) . . .

524

—

■

*

—

*

3k

—

—

—

—

3k

217

Locustella ocbotensis (Midd.)

526

—

—

—

>k

3K

—

—

—

3k

3k

—

218

Phylloscoiuis boreabs (Bias.)

527

*

—

*

3k

3k

3k

—

3k

3k

3k

219

Oryptoloj)ha sarasinoruni M. &Wg. . .

530

—

—

• —

—

—

. —

— -

—

—

—

—

220

Motacilla flara L

531

*

*

*

*

—

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

221

Motacilla boarula L. (typical)

534

—

*

— boarula melanope (Pall.). .

535

—

—

*

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

3k

222

Anthus gustavi Swinb

538

—

—

— -

*

—

—

- —

—

3k

3k

223

Antlius cervinus (Pall.)

540

>k

—

—

—

—

3k

3k

—

224

Munia orvzivora (L.)

542

—

—

*

>k

3k

3K

3k

3k

3k .

3k

*

225

Munia formosana Swinb. (typical) .

544

—

—

—

• —

>k

—

—

■ — ■

—

—

3k

—

— formosana jagori (Marts.) . . -

544

3k

—

— formosana brunneiceps (Wald.).

544

—

—

—

■ —

—

■ —

—

—

—

3k

—

—

226

Munia jjallida Wall

546

3k

227

Munia subcastanea Hart

548

228

Munia punctulata nisoria (Teinm.)^). .

548

—

—

— ■

—

—

3k

3k

3k

—

—

3k

229

Munia molucca (L.) (typical)

549

— molucca propinqua Sharpe . .

550

3k

— molucca — propinqua ......

550

— moluccaOproiDinqua

551

— molucca tyj)icar>

551

— molucca kangeanensis (Vordm.)-)

551

230

Passer montanus (L.)

553

—

*

3k

3k

3k

3k

—

3k

— ■

231

Oalornis j)anayensis (Scop.) (tyj)ical). .

555

3k

—

— panayensis chalybea (Horsf.) . .

556

3k

3k

3k

3k

—

—

— panayensis affinis (Hay) . . . .

556

—

■ —

*

—

■ —

—

■ —

—

—

—

—

— f)anayensis chalybea — affinis

556

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— panayensis tytleri (Hume) . . .

1) Five races recognised by Sharpe. ‘^) ]

557

vangeai

IF

>k

Introduction: Geogi’apliical Distribution

103

Celebesian Area

Celebes

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CO

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*

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*

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*

*

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*

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5k —

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Name of sjjecies

5k

5k

5k

5k

5k

5k

5k

5k

5k I —
^ ' —

* —

lole longirostris.
lole platenae.

Malia grata (typical).

— grata recoudita.
Aiidroj)hLLus castaneiis.
Oat ap oner a tur doi d es .
Trichostoma celebensis.
Tricliostonia finsclii.
Malacopteron affine.
Geocichla erytlironota.
Merula celebensis.
Petropliila cyaniis (typ.).

— cyaniis solitaria.
Oisticola cursitans.
Cisticola exilis.
Pliyllergates riedeli.
Acroccpbaliis orientalis.
liocustella fasciolata.
Locustella ochoteiisis.
Phylloscopiis borealis.
Cr,yptoloplia sarasinoriim .
Motacilla fiava.

Motacilla boariila (typ.).

— boarula melanope.
Antlius gustavi.

Anthus cervinus.

Mania oryzivora.

Mania formosana (typical).

.lagori. _

brunneiceps.

Munia pallida.

Mania snbcastanea.

IMun. punctalata nisoriab-
IVIania mokicca (t}y).).

— — propiiiCjLna.

— molncca— in-opinqua.

— — Opropinqua.

— molncca typicai>.

kangeanensis 2).

Passer montanns.

Calornis panayensis (typ.).
— panayensis cbalybea.
— ■ — af finis.

cbalvl)ea— affinis.

tytleri.

104

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

CD

Name of species

X

a;

<D

bJD

i>D

CD

p:i

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§

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cc

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231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

Calornis panayensis sangirensis (Salvad.

— panayensis — sangirensis . . . .

— panayensis altirostris (Salvad.) ^

— panayensis enganensis (Salvad.) ^

Calornis minor !Bi3.)

Calornis sulaensis Sharpe. . .
Calornis metallica (Temm.) . .
Enodes erythrophrys (Temm.) .
Acridotheres cinereus Bp. . . .
Scissirostrum duhium (Lath.). .
Sturnia violacea (Bodd.). . .
Basileornis celebensis G. B. Gray
Basileornis galeatus A. B.M. . .
Streptocitta albicolhs (Vieill.) .
Streptocitta torquata (Temm.) ,
Charitornis albertinae Schl. . ,

Corvus enca (Horsf.) (Celebesian races

Gazzola typica Bp

Oriolus celebensis (Tweedd.) (typi

— celebensis meridionalis Hai

— celebensis — meridionalis
Oriolus frontalis Wall. . . .

Oriolus boneratensis M. &Wg.

Oriolus formosns Cab. ...

Oriolus melanisticus M. &Wg.

cal)

t..

557

557

558
558
561

561

562
564

566

567
570
572

574

575
577
579
581

584

585

586
586
589

589

590
593

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260
261
262

263

264

265

266

267

268

Osmotreron wallacei (Salvad.) (typical)

— wallacei pallidior Hart

Osmotreron sangirensis (Briigg.) . . .

Osmotreron vernans (L)

Ptiloi^us fiscberi (Brugg.)

Ptilopus meridionalis M. &Wg

Ptilojaus gularis (Q. G.) .......

Ptilopus subgularis M. &AVg

Ptilojjus melanocephalus (Forst.) . . .
Ptilopus melanospilus (Salvad.). . . .
Ptilopus cbrysorrhous (Salvad.). . . .
Ptilopus xanthorrbous (Salvad.) . . .
Ptilopus temmincki (Des Murs & Prev.)
Carpophaga concinna Wall. ^) . . . .

Carpopbaga paulina (Bp.)

Carpophaga pulchella Tweedd

Carpopbaga intermedia M. &Wg. . . .

Carpophaga rosacea (Temm.)

Carpopbaga pickeringi Cass.^) . . . .

1) Nias. -) Bngano. 3) Islet nomad.

595

597

598

599
602

604

605

606

607

608
610
611
613
615
617
619

619

620
621

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

105

Celebesian Area

Celebes

1 H

-P

cc

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EH

cc

T)

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1-^

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0

0

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o

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r— <
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*

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*

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* >k

>k

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>|c

*

* ^

*

*

*

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* —

*

*

9, -

*

*

*

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Name of species

* I 5fc

*

Calornis panayens. sangir.
— panayensis - sangir.
altirostris.

Meyer & Wigles wortli , Birds of Celebes (May Ctl> 189S).

— — enganensis.
Calornis minor.

Calornis sulaensis.
Calornis metallica.
Enodes erythroplirys.
Acridotlieres cinereus.
Scissirostrum dubium.
Stnrnia violacea.
Basileornis celebensis.
Basileornis galeatus.
Stre]dtocitta albicollis.
Streptocitta torquata.
Charitornis albertinae.
Corviis enca (Cel. races).
Gazzola typica.

Oriolns celebensis (typ.).

meridionalis.

— celebensis— meridion.
Orioliis frontalis.

(Jrioliis boneratensis.
Oriolns formosus.

Oriolns melanisticus.

Osmotrer on Wallace! (typ.).

— Avallacei pallidior.
Osmotreron sangirensis.
Osmotreron vernans.
Ptilopus flscberi.

Ptilopus meridionalis.
Ptilopus gularis.

Ptilopus subgularis.
Ptilopus inelanocephalus.
Ptilopus nielanospilus.
Ptiloims clirysorrlious.
Ptilopus xanthorrlious.
Ptilopus temmincM.
Carpophaga concinna.
Carpophaga paulina.
Carpophaga pulcliella.
Carpophaga intermedia.
Carpophaga rosacea.
Carpophaga pickeringi.

u

106

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

5h

O

rQ

Name of specie

<D

OJ

'OD

Ph

o

To

O)

o

O

fH

cd

o

bo

CP

i

o

bo

CP

Ph

o

-(.3

o

03

cd

Cj

Ph

Ip

p

cj

p

o

T

o

Ph

cd

>

o

Ph

p

OD

P

o

i

rd

w

Pi

p

cd

cd

;p

OQ

cd

>-5

O

P

o

pq

CO

■tS

i

p

Pi

CO

M

cd

Ti

Pi

OQ

p

CO

CO

p

269

270

271

272

273

274
-275
276

277

278

279

280
281
282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

Oarpopliaga radiata (Q. Gr.) . .
Carpophaga forsteiii (Bp.) , . .
Oarpopliaga poecilorrhoa Briigg,
Myristicivora liicolor (Scop.)i) .
Myristicivora luctuosa (Temm.) .
Oolumlba albigularis (Bp.) . . .
Turacoena manadensis (Q. G.) .

Macropygia albicapilla Bp. (tjqiical)

— albicapilla sangirensis (Salvad.)

— albicapilla — sangirensis . .
Macropygia inacassariensis (Wall.
Turtur tigrinus (Temm. Kn.)

Geopelia striata (L.)

Cbalcopbaps indica (L.) . . .
Cbalcopbaps stepbani Bcbb. .
Pblogoenas tristigniata Bp.. .
Pblogoenas bimaculata Salvad.

Oaloenas nicobarica (L.)')

Excalf actoria cbiiiensis (L.)2) .
Gallus ferruginens (Gm.). . .
Megapodius cumingi Dillw. .
Megapodius sangirensis Sclil. .
Megapodius bernsteini Scbl. .
Megapodius duperreyi Less. Garn
Megacepbalon maleo (Hartl.).

Turnix rufilatus Wall. .
Turnix maculosa (Temm.)

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

Gymnocrex rosenbergi (Sclil.)
Aramidopsis plateni (W. Bias.)
Hypotaenidia striata (L.) . . .
Hypotaenidia pliibppensis (L.)^)
Hypotaenidia celebensis (Q. G.)
Hypotaenidia sulcirostris (Wall.
Ballina minabassa Wall.. . .

Porzana fusca (L.)

Limnocorax niger (Gm.) . . .
Amaurornis cinerea (Vieill.) .
Amaurornis pboenicura (Eorst.)
Amaurornis moluccana (Wall.)
Amaurornis isabellina (Scbl.).
Gallinula frontata Wall.. . .
Gallinula cbloropus (L.) . . .
Porpliyrio calvus Yieill. . . .

’) Islet nomad.

622

623

625

627

631

633

635

637

638
638
641
643
646
649

653

654

656

657

663

667

671

675

676

677

678

686

687

689

690
692
694

697

698

699
701
703
705
708

711

712

713
715
717

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

*

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

*

2) Introd. into Mauritius and ? Bourbon.

3) Introduced.

1) Mauritius.

4c 4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c ^

4ct

4c|:

4cb

4c 4c 1 —

Introduction ; Geographical Distribution.

107

* ^

Celebesian Area

Ce

1 e b e s

1

j Talaut Islands

Sangi Islands

Hortb Peninsula

West Celebes

East Peninsula

Togian Islands

Central Celebes

South Peninsula

S. E. Peninsula

(and Baton)

Saleyer Island

Djampea Group

Peling Group

Sula Islands

Moluccas

Papuasia

Australia

Polynesia

New Zealand

—

—

*

—

—

—

>K

•

—

•

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ — •

—

—

—

—

— -

—

—

—

—

—

~

—

—

*

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

■ —

*

>K

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

*

*

—

—

—

- —

—

—

—

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—

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Name of sjjecies

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Carpopliaga radiata.
Carpopliaga forsteni.
Carpoj)liaga poecilondioa.
Myristicivora bicolor').
Myristicivora luctuosa.
Oolumba albigularis.
Turacoena manadensis.
Macropygia albicap. (typ.).

— — sangirensis.

— albicapilla — sangir.
Macrop. macassariensis.
Turtur tigrinus.

Gfeopelia striata.
Clialcophaps indica.
Chalcopbaps steidiani.
Pblogoenas tristigmata.
Phlogoeiias bimaculata.
Caloenas nicobarica i).

Excalfactoria cbinensis^).
Galliis ferrugineus.
Megapodius cumiiigi.
Megapodius sangirensis.
Megaj)odius bernsteini.
Megapodius dnperreyi.
Megacephalon inaleo.

— Turnix rufilatus.

— Turnix maculosa.

Gymnocrex rosenbergi.
Araniidopsis plateni.
Hypotaenidia striata.
Hypotaenidia pbilippens.'b
H}^Dotaenidia celebensis.
Hypotaenidia sulcirostris.
Pallina minahassa.
Porzana fusca.
Limnocorax niger.
Amaurornis cinerea.
Amaurornis pboenicura.
Amaurornis moliiccana.
Amaurornis isabellina.
Gallinula frontata.
Galliniila chloroj)us.
Porphyrio calviis.

14.*

m

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

5h

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Name of species

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Obinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Pbilippine Islands

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310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

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322

323

324

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326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

Porpliyrio pulverulentus Temm

Fulica atra L

Hydralector gallinace.us (Temm.) . . .

Glareola Isabella Vieill. ')

Esacus magnirostris (Yieill.)

Lobivanellus cinereus (Bly th)

? Squatarola belvetica (L.) ......

Cliaradrius fulvus Gm. .......

Aegialitis vereda (J. Gd.)

Aegiabtis geoffroyi (Wagl.)

Aegialitis mongola (Pall.)

Aegialitis curonica (Gm.)

Aegialitis peroni (Schl.)

Strepsilas interpres (L.)

Himantopus leucocepbalus J. G d. . . .

Totanus glottis (L.)

Totanus calidris (L.)

Totanus glareola (L.)

Heteractitis brevipes (Vieill.)

Actitis bypoleucos (L.)

Terelda cinerea (Giild.)

Tringa acuminata (Horsf.)

Tringa damascensis (Horsf.)

Tringa ruficollis Pall

? Oabdris arenaria (L.)

Pbalaropus hyperboreus (L.)

Limicola platyrbyncba (Temm.). . . .

Gallinago megala Swinb

Limosa novaezealandiae (G. P. Gray)

Numenius minutus J. Gd

Numenius variegatus (Scop.)

? Numenius arquatus (L.)

Numenius cyanopus Vieill

Plegadis falcinellus (L.)

Dissoura episcopus (Bodd.)

Platalea sp

Pboyx manilensis (Me yen)

Ardea sumatrana Raffl

Notopboyx picata (J. Gd.)

Notopboyx novaeliollandiae (Latb.) . .

Demiegretta sacra (Gm.)

Herodias eulopbotes Swinb

Herodias garzetta (L.)

Herodias alba (L.) 2)

1) Add Billiton. Varies geographically,

721

722

725

728

733

735

736
738
741
743
746
749
752
755
757
759
761
764
766
770
773
776
778
780
782
785
787
789
792
795
797

799

800

803

806

809

811

814

816

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819

824

826

829

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intro duction : Geographical Distribution

109

Celebesian Area

Moluccas

Papuasia

Australia

Polynesia

New Zealand

Neotropical Pegion

Name of species

' Talaut Islands |

Sangi Islands

Ce

1 e b e s

1

Saleyer Island

Djamj)ea Group

Peling Group

Sula Islands

North Peninsula

1

West Celebes

East Peninsula

Togian Islands

Central Celebes

South Peninsula

S. E. Peninsula

(and Buton)

*

Porphyrio pulverulentus.

>K

Fulica atra.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

■

—

*•?

*

—

—

—

Hydralector galbnaceus.

—

—

*

— ■

—

—

— ■

—

— ■

—

*

—

*

*

—

—

—

Glareola isabella').

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

*

*

*

*

—

—

Esacus inagnirostris.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Lobivanellus cinereus.

—

■ —

— ■

—

— ■

—

—

—

— -

■ —

—

*

*

—

—

? Squatarola helvetica.

*

—

*

—

- —

*

—

—

—

—

—

%

*

*

—

Charadrius fulvus.

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

>K

—

—

—

Aegialitis vereda.

*

—

—

—

— -

—

— '

—

*

—

*

*

—

—

Aegialitis geoffroyi.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Aegialitis mongola.

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

■ —

- —

■ — •

—

—

—

—

—

Aegialitis curonica.

—

—

*

—

—

—

— •

—

— •

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Aegialitis peroni.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

*

*

*

*

*

Strepsilas interpres.

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

—

*

—

Himantopus leucocephal.

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

—

Totanus glottis.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

- —

—

Totanus calidris.

*

—

*

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

jfc

—

—

—

—

—

Totanus glareola.

*

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

- — ■

*

%

—

—

—

Heteractitis brevipes.

*

*

*

—

—

*

*

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

Actitis hypoleucos.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

— •

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

Terekia cinerea.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

Tringa acuminata.

*

Tringa daraascensis.

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

Tringa ruficollis.

*

—

*

■? Cabdris arenaria.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

Pbalaropus hyperboreus.

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

• —

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

Limicola platyrbyncba.

—

—

>K

—

—

—

—

*

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

*

—

—

Gallinago megala.

*

—

*

%

*

*

*

—

Limosa novaezealandiae.

—

—

*

*

*

*

—

- — '

—

Numenius minutus.

*

*

>♦<

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

*

*

—

—

Numenius variegatus.

—

—

>k?

*

? Numenius arquatus.

—

>K

*

*

—

*

—

Numenius cyanopus.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

_

—

—

Plegadis falcinellus.

—

— ■

*

—

— •

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

• —

• — •

—

—

—

Dissoura episcopus.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

— ■

Platalea sp.

—

—

*

—

>K

*

*

—

Pboyx manilensis.

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Ardea sumatrana.

—

—

*

—

—

—

■ — ■

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Notophoyx picata.

—

—

*

*

>K

*

*

—

Notopb. novaehollandiae.

>k

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

*

—

Demiegretta sacra.

—

— '

—

—

Herodias eulopbotes.

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

Herodias garzetta.

*

>k

'

" ■

—

—

—

*

*

—

>K?

—

Herodias alba 2).

no

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

Number

Name of species

Page in the text

Nearctic Begion

Ethiopian Begion

Palaearctic Begion

Indian Province

Chinese Province

Japan

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Java

Borneo

Philij^pine Islands

Lesser Sunda Islands

354

Herodias intermedia (Wagl.)

1

832

_

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

355

Jdubuiciis coromandus (J3odd.) . . . ,

835

—

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

— -

356

Ardeola speciosa (Horsf.)

838

4c

4c

4c

357

Nycticorax caledonicus (G-m.). . . .

841

—

—

4c

4c

358

Nycticorax manilensis Vig

843

—

—

—

—

4c

4c

359

Nycticorax griseus (L.)

845

*

*

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

360

Gorsacliius Imtteri (Cab.)

848

4c

4c

361

Biitorides javanica (Horsf.)')

851

—

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

362

Ardetta sinensis (Gm.)^)

854

—

—

4c

4c

4c

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

363

Ardetta eurbytbma SAvinb

856

—

—

4c

>h

*

4c

4c

364

Ardetta cinnamomea (Gm.). ....

859

—

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

365

Xantbocnus flavicollis (Latb.)^). . . .

861

366

Xantbocnus nielaenus (Salvad.) . . .

863

367

Nettopus j)ulchellus J. Gd

865

388

Nettopus coromandelianus (Gm.) . . .

866

—

—

—

4c

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

369

Dendrocycna arcuata (Horsf.) . . . .

868

4c

4c

4c

4c

370

Dendrocycna guttata Scbl

870

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4c

371

Anas superciliosa Gm

872

—

—

—

—

4c?

4c

-

4c

372

Nettion gibberifrons (S. Miill.) ....

874

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4c

4c

373

Querquedula circia (L.)

879

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

374

Nyroca fuligula (L.)

881

—

*

4c

4c

*

—

4c

*

—

375

Nregata minor (Gm.)^)

883

376

Plotus melanogaster (Penn.)») . . . .

886

—

—

—

4c

*

—

4c

4=

4c

4c

4c

377

Phalacrocorax melanoleucus (Yieill.) .

888

—

—

—

—

—

4c

378

Pbalacrocorax sulcirostris Brdt. . . .

890

—

—

—

—

—

■

4c

-

4c

379

Sula leucogaster (Bodd.)")

892

380

Hydroclielidon leucoptera (Meisn. Sch.)

893

—

*

4c

4c

4c

:

4c

4c

4c

—

381

Hydrochelidon hybrida (Pall.) . . . .

895

—

*

4c

4c

4c

—

—

—

4c

4c

4c

382

Sterna media Horsf

897

—

4c

4c

4c

—

—

4c

4c

4c

383

Sterna bergii Lcht

899

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

384

Sterna sinensis Gm

901

—

—

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

4c?'

385

Sterna melanauclien Temm. ') ....

903

—

—

4c

Jc

4c

4c

4c

386

Sterna anaestheta Scop

906

4c

—

4c

4c

4c 1

4c

*

*

4c

4c

4c

387

Anous stolidus (L.)^)

908

388

Stercorarius sp

910

389

Puffinus cuneatus Salv

911

390

Puffinus leucomelas (Temm.)

913

—

—

—

—

4c

4c

—

—

4c

4c

391

Diomedea sp

914

392

Podiceps tricolor (G. B. Gray) ....

915

4c

393

Podiceps gularis J. Gd

917

-

—

4c

4c?

—

1) With racial differences. 2) Add Seychelles. 3) Bacial differences not perfectly understood. *) Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

Ill

L

Celebesian Area

^

Talaut Islands

Sangi Islands '

Ce

1 e b

e s

Saleyer Island

rs

0

s

Ph

1
P

Peling Group

Sula Islands

Moluccas

Papuasia

Australia

Polynesia

New Zealand

Neotropical Pegion

Name of species

Horth Peninsula

West Celebes

East Peninsula

Togian Islands

Central Celebes

South Peninsula

S. E. Peninsula

(and Buton)

>K

5k

5k

_

Herodias intermedia.

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

— ■

—

Bubulcus coromandus.

>K

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Ai’deola speciosa.

*

—

*

5k

5k

5k

5k

—

Nycticorax caledonicus.

—

*

5k

Nycticorax manilensis.

— .

—

*

5k

Nycticorax griseus.

Gorsachius kutteri.

.

*

—

—

—

—

>1^

>k

—

—

— -

5k

5k

5k

—

—

Butorides javanica ’).

- —

—

>K

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

5k

5k

5k

—

—

Ai’detta sinensis ^).

*

—

Ardetta eurhythma.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Ardetta cinnainomea.

5|<

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Xantbocnus flavicollis^).

*

*

Xanthocnus melaenus.

—

*

*

5k

5k

—

—

—

Nettopus pulcliellus.

1,

Nettop, coromandelianus.

*

—

*

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

*

5k

5k

—

—

Dendrocycna arcuata.

*

—

*

—

>K

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

5k

—

—

—

—

Dendrocycna guttata.

—

—

*

—

—

—

*

*

—

—

—

—

—

5k

5k

5k

5k

—

Anas superciliosa.

’ —

—

—

—

—

>1^

—

—

—

—

—

5k

5k

5k

5k

—

Nettion gibberifrons.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

.■ —

—

—

Querquedula circia.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

—

5k

—

—

Nyroca fuligula.

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

Fregata minor.

■ —

*

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Plotus melanogaster.

—

—

*

—

—

— ■

—

- —

—

*

—

—

5k

5k

5k

5k?

—

Pbalacroc. melanoleucus.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

*

5k

5k

—

—

—

Plialacroc. sulcirostris.

—

*

—

— '

- —

—

—

—

—

—

Sula leucogaster.

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

>k?

—

5k

—

*

Hydrocbelidon leucoptera

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

>k

5k

5k

—

—

—

Hydro chelidon bybrida.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

■ —

—

5k

5k

—

—

—

Sterna media.

*

—

*

—

—

—

—

*

• —

—

—

—

—

*

5k

5k

5k

—

—

Sterna bergii.

—

—

*

■ —

—

• —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

5k

5k

—

—

—

Sterna sinensis.

—

- —

*

5k

5k

5k

5k

—

—

Sterna inelanaucben.

—

*

■ —

—

—

—

—

—

*

—

—

—

5k

5k

5k

5k

—

—

Sterna anaestheta.

—

*

Anous stolidus.

—

—

Stercorarius sp.

—

—

*

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

5k

—

—

Puffinus cuneatus.

—

■ —

*

5k

5k

5k

—

—

—

Puffinus leucomelas.

—

—

• —

Diomedea sp.

—

—

—

—

— ■

• — -

—

—

—

—

—

■

5k

5k

—

—

—

—

Podiceps tricolor.

5k

*

—

—

Podiceps gularis.

Add Madagascar. The tropical and subtropical seas of the globe. Islands of the Indian Ocean. 8) Tropical seas.

m

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

'ihe Island of Celebes is now known to possess 15 peculiar genera of birds,
some of which, indeed, range into other parts of the Celebesian area. These
forms are of unequal values, that is to say some of them are very distinct from
genera existing in other parts of the world, while others hardly possess any
structural difference to warrant their distinction. We have, therefore, divided
the Celebesian genera into three classes, according to their taxonomic value.
The following four are I. Class genera:

Megacephalon Cittura

Strep tocitta Scissirostrum .

The Moleo, Megacephalon^ has affinities with Talegalliis and Aepgpodius of
New Guinea.

Streptocitta, a bird very similar in appearance to a Magpie, seems to occupy
an intermediate position between the Stuniidae and Corvidae. It is probably
most nearly allied to Basileornis, a Celebesian genus occurring on the mainland
and known also by distinct species from Banggai and Ceram; the latter genus
seems to have its nearest affinities with Melanopgrrhus of New Guinea. Hence
Streptocitta does not seem to be of Oriental origin, but of Australasian (pp. 576,
573 of text).

Cittura., a low type of Kingfisher, has certain affinities with the still more
primitive Melidora of New Guinea, but its direct descent from such a form is
improbable, and its land of origin is hidden in doubt (p. 307 of text).

Scissirostrum., a Grosbeak-like Starling, has been variously treated by systema-
tists, and in our opinion it has as near affinities with the Oriental Acridotheres
as wdth anything, but its curious beak undoubtedly entitles it to an isolated
position among the Sturnidae (p. 569 of text).

The following are II. Class genera:

Rhabdotorrhimis

Meropogon

Ceycopsis

Myza

Malia

Cataponera

Enodes

Aramidopsis.

The small Hornbill, Rhabdotorrhimis, is apparently most nearly related to
the Philippine genus, Penelopides (p. 237 of text).

Forsten’s Bee-eater, Meropogon, finds its nearest allies in Nyctiornis of the
Oriental Kegion — not including the Philippines (pp. 259, 260 of text).

The little Kingfisher, Ceycopsis, seems to be intermediate between the red-
backed section of Ceyx which ranges from India to the Philippines, and the
blue-backed section of that genus found from the Philippines to the Solomon
Islands, but it differs from both in possessing a minute inner toe, which is quite
obliterated in all members of the genus Ceyoe. We believe that indications may
be found showing that the red-backed section of Cey(v is more ancient than the
blue (pp. 274, 277 of text).

Introduction : Geographical Distribution.

113

The Honey-sucker, Myza^ belongs to the purely Australasian family of the
Meliphagidae, a family which cannot, however, be sharply distinguished from the
Nectariniidae of the Ethiopian, Oriental and Australian Regions. The nearest
affinities of Myza are doubtful (p. 483 of text).

The Bulbul, Malia^ appears to belong to Oates’ Crateropodinae^ a subfamily
of the Timeliidae. The geographical limits of the group have not been defined,
but it is very strongly represented in the Oriental Region and very sparingly
in Papuasia. The nearest affinities of Malia are uncertain (p. 501 of text).

Cataponera^ a Babbler, is related to genera of the Oriental Region (p. 504

of textb
/

Enodes, an aberrant Starling, is somewhat intermediate between the Indo-
Australian Calornis and the Oriental Acridotheres (p. 565 of text).

Platen’s Rail, Aramidopsis , is most closely allied to Ar amides of South
America (p. 691 of text).

The remaining three genera are what we have termed III. Class and are
not of higher taxonomic value than 10 strongly characterized species They are;

Spilospizias Charitornis Gazzola.

The ten species estimated to be of equal value with III. Class genera are:

1. Microstictus fulvns [Q.G) or 'ivaUacei (Tw.)

2. Hierococcyx crassirostris (Tweedd.)

3. Cranorrhinus cassidix (Temm.)

4 . Monachalcyon monachus (B p . ), or prmceps R.

5. Pachycephala honensis M. & Wg.

6. Melilestes celebensis M. &Wg.

7. Carpophaga poecilorrhoa Brllgg.

8. Phlogoenas tristigmata Bp.

9. Gymnocrex rosenbergi (Schl.)
10. Amaurornis isabellina (Schl.)

The above ten, equal to III. Class genera, we propose to term I. Class
species. Their differences from their nearest allies (not counting local forms of
them in the Celebesian area itself) are about as great as those between Corvus
monedula L. and Corvus corone L., or Buteo vulgaris Leach and Aquila
chrysaetus (L.).

Then follow 22 II. Class species, differing as markedly from their nearest
allies outside Celebes as, for instance, Turdus musicus L. from Turdus merula L.
They are:

1. Astar griseiceps Schl.

2. Accipiter rhodogaster 'Schl.)

3. Trichoglossus ornatus (L.)

4. • — meyeri (Tweedd.)

5. Prioniturus platurus (ATeill.)

6. Loricidus exilis Schl.

7. — stigmatus (Mirll. Schl.)

8. lyngipicus temmincki (Malh.)

Meyer & Wi gl e s w o r tli, Birds of Celebes (May Cth, 1808).

9. Phoenicophaes calorhynchus Temm.

10. Coracias temmincki (Vie ill.)

11. Hypothymis puella (Wall.)

12. Graucalus bicolor (Temm.)

13. — temmincki (S. Mull.)

14. Dicaeiim nehrkorni W. Bias.

15. Acmonorhynchus aureolimbatus (Wall.)

16. Zosterops squamiceps (Hart.)

75

114

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

17. Zosterops anomala M. &Wg. 20. Ptilopus fischeri Briigg.

18. Trichostoma celeheme Strickl. 21. — gularis (Q. G.)

19. BasUeornis celehensis G. R. Gray 22. Carpophaga forsteni (Bp.)

There are about 45 species in Celebes which may be relegated to the
III. Class, differing from one another about as much as Corvus corone L. from
Corvus comioo L., and for the most part geographical species. They need not
be tabulated again here, but in the following table these III. Class species have
been taken as the unit in computing the relationship of the avifauna of Celebes
with those of the neighbouring countries. We have adopted the following scale:

One III. Class species, or V.(!) Class genus = 1

One II. Class species, or IV. Class genus = 2

One I. Class species, or III. Class genus = 4

One II. Class genus = 8

One I. Class genus = 16

Species of lower value than the III. Class , and first class subspecies are
valued at -50; less pronounced races at -25. We have not troubled to make
finer estimations than these last^).

In attaching a value in this manner to species or genera, room for error
due to the “personal equation” must be allowed for, but the method is obviously
better than the usual addition and substraction of genera and species as if they
were, respectively, units of equal worth. It is very evident, for instance, that
Megacephalon suggests much more about ancient Celebes than does Gazzola, but
it is another question whether the value of the former (four times as great as
the latter) is correctly estimated.

1) Besides the peculiar species of Celebes and the neighbouring islands, there ai’e about 200 other
Celebesian species which are either migratory or extend their range beyond the bounds of the area. They
may be tabulated as follows, with the premonition that there is great imcertainty as to whether some species
should be termed migi’atory or not:

Species occurring both in the Oriental and Australasian Eegions (often migratory) c. 60

Asiatic migrants 64

Australian migrants o. 5

Asiatic non-migrants c. 38

Australian non-migrants c. 34

It is sufficiently obvious that these species have nothing to say about the former distribution of land and water
in the East Indies, and they should not be taken into consideration in questions of Geographical Distribution.

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

115

Estimated value of the affinities of the peculiar species of Celebes.^)

Doubtful

Indo-Australian

Oriental

Bornean

Javan

Philippine

Name of sp>ecies

Lesser Sundan

Moluccan

Papuasian

Australian

—

—

1

—

—

1.

Spilornis rufipectus J. Grd

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

2,

Astur griseiceps Scbl

—

—

—

—

4

• —

—

— ■

—

—

3.

Spilospixias trinotatus (Bp.)

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

4.

Acdpiter rhodogaster (Sclil.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

5.

Spixaetus lanceolatus (Bj3.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

6.

Pernis celebmsis (Schl.)

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

—

•5

—

•5

7.

Baza celebensis Sclil

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

8.

Nimx ochracea (Sclil.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

- —

—

—

9.

Cephaloptynx punckdata (Q. Gr.) ...

—

—

1

—

—

•5

—

—

—

—

10.

Scops manadensis (Q. Gr.) (typical) . . .

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

11.

Strix mexpectata (Sclil.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

12.

Tnchoglossus ornatus (L.)

—

1

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

13.

Trichoglossus meym'i Tweedd

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

14.

Cacatua sidphurea (Gm.) (typical) . . .

•5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

15.

Prionifurus p^iaturiis (Vieill.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

16.

Prionitw'us flavicans Cass

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

17.

Tcmygnathus nmelleri (Mlill. Scbl.) . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

18.

Boriaidus exilis Scbl

2

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

19.

Lonculus stigmatus (Mlill. Scbl.) . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

20.

lyngipimis temmincld (Malh.) . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4

21.

Mici'ostictus fidviis (Q. G.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

4

—

—

—

22.

Hierococcyx crassirostrls Tweedd. . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

23.

Caeomantis vircscens (Briigg.) . . . .

—

■5

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

24.

Eiidynamis melanorhyncha S. Mlill. . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

D)

—

25.

Pyrrhocentor celebmsis (Q. G.) ....

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

26.

Phoenicophaes calorhynchus Temni. . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

8

27.

Rhabdotorridnus exaratus (Temm.) . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4

28.

Cranorrhi/nus cassidix (Temm.) ....

—

—

—

—

—

—

8

—

—

—

29.

Meropogon foj’steni Bp

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

•5

—

•5

30.

Pelargopsis ^nelanorhyncha (Temm.) . .

—

—

—

—

—

8

—

—

—

—

31.

Ceycopsis fallax (Scbl.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

•5

—

—

—

32.

Hcdcyon coromanda rufa (Wall.) . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

33.

Monachalcyon monachus (Bp.) ....

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

•5

34.

Monachcdcyon princeps Be lib

•5

—

—

—

16

—

—

—

—

—

35.

Cittura eyemotis (Temm.)'*)

—

—

—

—

1) Species occurring on the mainland, sometimes ranging into the islands of the area. Where two or
more geographical races are found in the Celebesian area, the fii’st described only is reckoned.

2) Literally Kangean. 3) Probaldy Australasian,

Australasian

116

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

Doubtful

Indo-Austraban

Oriental

Bornean

Javan

Philippine

Name of species

Lesser Sundan

Moluccan

Papuasian

Australian

Australasian

—

—

2

—

—

36.

Coi'aeias temmincld (Yieill,)’) ....

,

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

—

—

—

1

37.

Lymornis ^naci'opteriis Bp

— ,

—

—

—

—

—

— -

—

—

—

1

38.

Caprmiulgus celebensis Or ant . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

— -

— ■

—

39.

Macropteryx tvallacei (J. Ocl.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

•5

40.

Pitta celebensis Miill. Schl

—

•25

•25

—

—

—

—

—

•25

—

• 25

41.

Pitta forsteni Bp

—

—

•5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

42. Sipliia 7'ufigula fWall.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

43.

Stoparola septentrionaUs Biitt

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

44.

Hypothymis puella. ("Wall.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

45.

PhipiduQ'a teijsjyianni Biitt

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

•5

—

•5

46.

Oei'ygone flaveola Cab

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— -

1

47.

PachycepJiala sulfnriventer (Tweecld.) .

—

—

—

—

—

—

4

—

—

—

—

48.

Pachycephala bonensis M. & AVg. ...

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

49.

Oraucalus bicolor (Temm.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

50.

Qraucalus leucopy gilts Bp

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

51.

Graucaliis temmincld (S. Miill.) ....

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— ■

52.

Edoliisoma 7norio (S. Miill.j

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

53.

Lalage leucopygialis Tweed d

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

54.

Aiiamus monachus Bp

—

• —

1

—

—

—

•5

—

—

—

—

55.

Dicrurus leucops AYall. . . , . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

— ■

56.

Dicaeum celebicnm S. Miill. . . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

57.

Dicaeum nehi'horni AY. Bias. . . . . .

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

58.

Dicaeum hosei Sharpe

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

59.

Acmonorkynchiis aureolimba tus (AY all.)

2

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

60.

Aethopyga flavostriata (AYall.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

61.

Cyidostomus frenatus (S. Miill.) (loc. races)

—

i —

—

—

•5

—

—

—

—

—

—

62.

Hermotimia porphyrolaema (AYall.) . .

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

■5

—

—

—

63.

Antlweptes malacc. celebensis (Shelley).

—

i

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

64.

Myzomela chloroptera Tweedd. ....

—

1 '

—

1

—

1.

—

—

—

—

■ —

65.

Alelilestes celebensis M. & AA^g

—

4

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

66.

Myxa sarasinoriim M. & AYg

—

1 —

—

—

8

—

—

—

1

1

—

67.

Zoster'ojjs squarniceps (Hart.) .....

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

68.

Zostei'ops at7'ifrons Y^all

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

69,

Zosteropjs sarasinorimi AI. & A\''g. . . .

• 5

1

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

70.

Zosterops a^iomala AI. &AYg.-) ....

—

—

—

—

—

8

—

—

—

—

—

71.

Media grata Sc hi. 3)

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

72.

And7'ophilus castaneus (Biitt.) . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

8

—

—

—

73.

Cataponera turdoides Hart

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

74.

Trichostoma celebensis S trie Id

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

75.

Geocichla erytkrmwta Scl

1

—

—

—

b Partly African.

-) Chiefly Oriental.

3) Probably Oriental.

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

117

Doubtful

Indo-Australian

Oriental

Bornean

Javan

CD

a

• (— i

• fH

Name of species

—

1

—

76.

Merida eelebensis Biitt

— •

—

1

—

—

—

77.

Phifllergates riedeli M. & Wg

—

—

—

—

■5

—

78.

Cryptolopha sarasinorwn M. &Wg.

—

—

—

—

—

•25

79.

Mmiia formosana brunmiceps CWald.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

80.

Mtmia subcastanea Hart

—

—

—

—

—

—

81.

Muiiia. molucca — propinqua

—

8

—

—

—

—

82.

Enodes erythrophrus (Temm.) . . . .

—

—

—

—

1

—

83.

Acridotheres cinereus Bp

16

—

—

—

—

—

84.

Scissirostnim duhiiim (Latli.)^) . . .

—

—

—

—

—

85.

Basileorms celebmsis Gr. E,, Gray . .

16

—

—

—

—

—

86.

StreptociUa albicollis (Vieill.)^). . . .

4

—

—

—

—

—

87.

Ga)oxola iypiea Bp

—

—

•5

—

—

—

88.

Oriolus eelebensis (Tweedd.)

—

—

—

—

•5

—

89.

Osniotreron imllac&i Salvad

—

—

—

—

2

90.

Ptilopus flscheri Briigg

—

—

—

—

—

2

91.

Ptilopus gidaris (Q. G.)

—

—

—

—

•25

—

92,

Ptdoqms melanosplhis (Salvad.) . . .

—

—

—

—

—

■5

93.

Carpophaga paidina (Bp.)

—

—

—

—

—

1

94.

Carpopfiaga radiata' (Q. G.)

—

—

—

—

—

2

95,

Carpophaga forsieni (Bp.)

4

—

—

—

—

—

96.

Carpophaga poecilorrhoa Briigg. 3) . .

—

1

—

—

—

—

97.

Myrisiieivoi'a luetiiosa (Temm.) . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

98.

Turacoena manadensls (Q. G.) . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

99.

Macropygia albicaqnlla Bp

—

—

—

—

—

—

100.

Macropygia macassaiiensis (Wall.) . .

—

—

—

—

—

2

101.

Phlogoenas Bistigmata Bp

—

—

—

—

—

—

102.

.Megaeephalon mako (Hartl.)

—

—

—

—

—

—

103.

Turnir rufilatus Wall

— -

—

—

—

—

—

104.

Oynmoerex rosenbergi (Sc hi.) . . . .

8

—

—

—

—

—

105.

Arainidojjsis platem (W. . . .

—

—

—

—

—

—

106.

Ilypotaenidia eelebensis (Q. G.) . . . .

—

—

—

—

—

1

107.

Pallina mmahassa Wall

—

—

—

—

—

2

108.

Aniaarorms isabelUna (Sclil.) . . . .

79

31

|37-5

|5-75

7*25

44-5

Lesser Sundan

Moluccan

Papuasian

Australian

Australasian

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

• 5

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

•25

- —

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

— -

— -

—

—

—

—

—

•25

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

•5

—

—

—

•5

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

—

—

—

—

16

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

2

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

15

7-25

33-75

2

10-5

1) Proloahly Oriental.

Probably Australasian, 3) Probably Oriental. S, American.

118

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

The above totals for each area added together give the sum of 273-5. The
percentage of “Doubtful” components in the Celebes avifauna is then:

79 X 100 ,

— y- 5 or 29 per cent.

In the same manner the percentage of the other components is obtained.

The total number of peculiar forms in Celebes is 108. Dividing the value
of a species where the nearest affinities with these peculiar forms are found in
two or more of the neighbouring areas, the shares are:

Doubtful

. 10

forms

Indo-Australian

. 12

))

Oriental (incl. Bornean and Javan)

. 29-25

»

Philippine

. 23-75

»

Lesser Sundan

. 13

D

Australasian

. 20

))

108

The table then affords the following percentages:

Number of
forms

Comparative

value

Forms of doubtful affinities

9-3 per cent

29 per cent

Forms of Indo-Australian affinities

11-1 per cent

11-3 percent

Fonns of Oriental affinities (incl. also strictly Bornean and Javan)

27-0 per cent

18-46 per cent

Forms of Philipiune affinities

22-0 per cent

16-27 per cent

Forms of Lesser Sundan affinities

12-0 per cent

5-5 per cent

Forms of Moluccan affinities

5-0 per cent

2-6 per cent

Forms of Papuasian and Austrahan affinities

13-5 per cent

16-94 per cent

99-9

100-07

Thus, the forms of doubtful affinities in Celebes have the highest value,
viz. a little over 3 each;

those of Indo-Australian and of Australasian affinities have the value I

those of the Oriental Region about -7

those of the Philippines about -74

those of the Lesser Sunda Islands only about -5.

Consequently, the “Doubtful” elements seem to be the oldest, and the Lesser
Sundan generally the most recent in Celebes.

Including the Philippines in the Oriental Region, and comparing the area
thus formed with the Australian Region, Celebes shows itself to be decidedly
Oriental.

Oriental components . . 49 per cent, value 35-73 per cent
x-lustralasian ’) components 18-5 per cent, value 19-54 percent

*) The Lesser Sundan forms are not added, being shared about equally between the Australian and
Oriental Regions.

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

119

That is to say, one-half of the peculiar birds of Celebes have their nearest
affinities in the Oriental Region, and one -fifth only in the Australian Region;
but the Australasian forms seem to be on an average rather more strongly differ-
entiated than the Oriental forms.

While the Philippines display nearly as many points of affinity with Celebes
as do all the other parts of the Oriental Region taken together, they also show
fewer points of dissimilarity — i. e. a far smaller number of genera not found
in Celebes.

A comparison of all the genera occurring in the Philippines, Borneo, Java,
and Papuasia and the Moluccas with those of the Celebesian area gives the
following results'):

Present in the
Celebesian area

Absent in the
Celebesian area

Genera occurring in the Philippines (not including Palawan) .

154

68

Genera occurring in the Bornean Group

150

147

Genera occurring in Java

135

125

Genera occurring in Papuasia and the Moluccas

136

169

The figures show that, as regards genera, the Celebesian area agrees much
better with the Philippines than with the neighbouriug countries.^)

We now turn to examine the various parts of the Celebesian area itself,
giving lists of the birds of the different groups of islands, with a few remarks
on their general afffnities and derivation. JRe relations of the Northern and
Southern Peninsulas of Celebes to one another are similarly discussed.

1) The numbers are taken respectively from Prof. D. C. Worcester’s “Contributions to Philiijpiue
Ornithology” (Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1898 XX, pp, 551—564), Mr. Everett’s “List of the Birds of the Bornean
Group of Islands” (J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, pp. 96—212), Dr. Vorderman’s “List of the Bii-ds of Java” (Nat.
Tdschr. Ned. Ind. 1885, XLIV, pp. 189 — 207), and Count Salvadori’s “Orn. Papuasia e Molucc.” 1880 — 82
vols. I— III.

2) It would be suggestive to compare the number of the endemic genera and species of Celebes with
those of other islands of the earth, say Borneo, Mindanao, Java, Timor, New Guinea, New Zealand, Mada-
gascar, etc., etc., but such data are not yet readily a,vailable. It would, however, be worth while to draw up
such lists, as we possess them to a greater or less extent for plants. We mention for instance that endemic
genera of Phanerogwmae are known from Fiji 13, Ceylon 21, New Zealand 22, Sandwich Islands 32, the
Mascarenes 34, New Caledonia 38, Japan 48, Madagascar 9 1 , and that from New Guinea about 35 are as yet
known (see 0. Warburg, Bot. Jahrb. 1891 XIII, 231).

m

Introduction; Greographical Distribution.

List of the Birds of the Sangi Islands.

Name of species

Grreat Sangi

Siao

! Tagulandangj
' Ruang & Biarro

Name of species

Great Sangi

1. Spilornis mfipectus J. Dd. (Ptypical) . . .

—

*

—

*46. Eudrepa7iis duivenbodei (Schl.)

4c

2. Taeliyspi^ias soloensis (Horsf.)

4c

—

*47. Hermotmiia sangirc7isis (A. B.M.) ....

4c

3. Btdastur mdieus (Dm.)

*

4c

—

48. Anthreptes 77talaceensis chlorigaster (Sharpe)

4c

4. HaUastur indus (Bod d.)

*

4c

4c

*49. Zosterops 7iehrl{orni W. Bias

4c

5. Pwndion hcdiaetus (L.) (typical)

*

—

—

*50. lole pjlatenae (W. Bias.)

4c

6. Pandion haliaetus IpAieoeephalus (J. Grd.) . .

*

4c

—

51. Petrophila cyanus solitaria (P. L. S. Miill.) .

4c

7. Ninox scutulata japoniea omm. Sc hi.). .

*

4=

4c

52. Loeustella faseiolata (Gr. R. Gray) . . , .

4c

8. Scops mcmadensis (Q. Gr.) (typical) ....

4c

—

53. Phylloseop7.is borealis (Bias.) . . . . . .

4c

9. Strix flammea rosenbergi (Schl.)

*

—

—

54. Munia inolueea — prophigua

4c

*10. Eos histrio (St. Miill.) (typical)

*

4c

4c

55. Galoriiis panayc7isis sa7igire7isis (Salvad.) .

4c

11. Prioniturus platurus (Vieill.)

4c

—

* Galornis panaijensis — smigirensis ....

—

12. Prioniturus flmicans Cass

—

—

*56. Oriolus fonnosus Cab. (typical)

—

*13. Tanygnathus mudleri sangirensis M. &'Wg.

—

—

*57. Oriolus fofomsus sa7%girensis M. &Wg. . .

4c

14, ? TwnygnatJms lueonensis (L.)

*

—

—

* Oriolus formosus — sangirensis

—

15. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus (Bodd.) (typ.)

4c

4c

*58. Osinotrero7i semigirensis (Brligg.) . . . .

4c

*16. Loriculus catamene Schl

*

-

■ —

59. Ptilopus xantho7'7'hous (Salvad.) . . . .

4c

17. Guculus canorus eanoroides (S. Miill.) . .

*

—

—

60. Garpophaga concinna Wall

4c

18. Eudynamis mindanensis sangirensis (Bias.)

*

4c

4c

61. Myristieivora bicolor (Scop.)

4c

19. Gentroeoccyx hengalensis (Glm.)

*

4c

4c

62. Oolu7nba albigidaris (Bp.)

—

20. Merops ornatus Lath

*

4c

—

*63. Mac7'opygia albicapilla sangirensis (Salvad.)

4c

21. Alcedo ispida L

4c

—

* Mac7-o}7ygia albieapilla — sangirensis . . .

—

22. Alcedo moluecana (Less.)

4c

—

64. Twttir tigi'i/ms (Temm. Kn.)

—

*23. Geycopsis sangirensis M. &Wg

*

—

—

65. Ghalcophaps mdica (L.)

4c

24. Halcyon coromanda rufa (Wall.) ....

4c

—

66. Galocnas nicoba7~ica (L.)

4c

25. Halcyon saneta Vig. Horsf.

*

4c

4c

67. Oalius fei-nigineus (Om.)

—

26. Haley 071 chloris (Bodd.) (typical) ....

4c

4c

68. Megapodius sangirensis Schl

4c

*27. Gittura sangirensis Sharpe

*

4c

—

69. Megaeephalo7i 77ialeo (Hartl.)

4c

28. Em'ysto7nus orientalis (L.)

*

4c

4c

70. Ai7iati7-07'nis phoenicura, (Forst.) . . . .

—

29. Gypselus paeifteus (Lath.)

—

4c

—

71. Amauro7-nis moluecana (Wall.)

—

*30. Pitta pallieeps Brligg

—

4c

4c

72. Aegialitis yeoffi'oyi (W agl.)

4=

*31. Pitta eaerideitorques Salvad

*

—

—

73. Heteraetitis breripes (Vieill.)

4c

*32. Pitta sangirana (Schl.)

*

—

—

74. Actitis hypoleucos (L.)

4c

33. Pitta irc7%a Temm

—

—

4c

75. Tringa 7-uficollis Pall

4c

34. Hirundo rustica gidturalis (Scop.) and H.
rustiea — gutturalis

*

_

76. Efu77i,e7zius rariegatiis (Scop.)

77. Ardea suznedi'ana Raffl

4c

35. Hirwido javanica Sj>arrm. . . . . . .

*

—

—

78. Demiegretta sacra (Gm.)

4c

*36. Hypothymis rotvleyi (A. B.M.)

*

—

—

79. Herod'ias gaz'xetta (L.)

4c

*37. Monarcha cmmmdatMs Briigg

*

4c

—

80. Bubtdeus coz'oznandus (Bodd.)

4c

*38. Golkiriemcla sa7igire7isis (Oust.) . . . .

*

—

—

81. Nycticorax caledooiicus (Gm.)

4c

39. Lanius lucionensis L

*

—

—

82. Xanthoenus flaricoUis (Lath.)

—

40. Graucalus leioeopygius Bp

*

—

—

83. Xanthoenus znelae/ms (Salvad.)

4c

*41. Edoliiso77ia salvadorii Sharpe

*

—

—

84. Stda leucogaster Bodd.)

4c

*42. Dierurus leueops — axillaris

—

4c

4c

85. Hydz-ochelidon leueoptera (Meisn. Sch.) . .

4c

*43. Picrurus leueops axillaris (Salvad.) . . .

*

—

—

86. Ster7ia anaestheta Scop

4c

*44. Dicaeiwi sa7igirense Salvad

*

—

—

87. A';i^o^^s stolidiis (L.)

4c?

*45. Aemo7iorhy7tchus sangiretisis (Salvad.) . .

—

—

88. Podieep)S gida7'is J. Grd

4c

*

*

at

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

* signifies autoclitlionous.

Siao

Tagulandang,
Euang & Biarro

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

121

r

List of the Birds of the Talaut Islands.')

Name of species

Karkellang

bjo

p

03

P

Salibabu

Name of s^iecies

Karkellang

Kabruang

Salibabu

1. Tachyspizias soloensis (Horsf.)

—

35. Motaeilla flava L

—

4c

—

2. Bidastwr indicus (Gm.)

*

—

4c

*36. Munia molucca typica j>'^)

4c

—

4c

3. Haliastior indue — girrenera

■ —

*

4c

37. Calornis panayensis sangirensis (Salvad.) .

4c

4c

4c

4. Pandion haliaetus (L.)

—

—

4c

*38. Oriolus melanistieus M. &Wg

4c

4c

4c

Pandion haliaetus leucocephahts (J. Gd.) . .

*

—

—

39. Ptilopus xanthorrhous (Salvad.)

4c

4c

4c

5. Ninox scutulata japonica (Temm. Schl.) .

—

4c

40. Carpophaga conemna Wall

4c

4c

4c

*6. Eos histrio talautensis (M. &Wg.) ....

*

4c

*41. Carpophaga, intermedia M. &Wg

4c

4c

4c

*7. Prioniturus platurus talaidensis Hart. . .

*

—

4c

42. Carpophaga pickeringi Oass

—

4c

4c

*8. Tanygnathus mudlcri — sangirensis ....

*

4c

43. Myristicivora bicolor (Scop.)

4c

4c

4c

*9. Tanygnathus talautensis M. &Wg

*

4c

4:

44. Chaleophaps indica (L.)

—

—

4c

10. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus (Bodd.) (typ.)

*

4c

4c

45. Macropygia albieapilla sangirensis (Salvad.)

—

—

4c

11. Guculus canorus canoroides (S. Miill.) . .

*

4c

4c

46. Megapodius sangirensis Schl

4c

4c

4c

12. Eudynamis mindanensis sa?igirensis (W. Bl.)

*

4c

4c

47. Amaurornis einerea (Vie ill.)

4c

4c

4c

13. Centrococcyx bengalensis (Gm.)

*

4c

4c

48. Amaurornis phoenicura (Borst.) . . . .

—

4c

—

14. Scythrops novaehollandiae Lath

—

—

4c

49. Porphyrio pulverulentus Temm

4c

—

—

15. Merops ornatus Lath

*

—

—

50. Charadrius fulvus Gm

4c

4:

—

16. Aleedo ispida L

*

—

—

51. Aegialitis vereda (J. Gd.)

4c

—

—

17. Aleedo molueeana (Less.)

—

—

4c

52. Aegialitis geoffroyi (Wagl.)

—

4c

—

18. Halcyon coromanda rufa (Wall.) ....

*

—

4c

53. Totanus glareola (L.)

4c

4c

—

19. Halcyon sancta Yig. Horsf.

4c

—

54. Heteractitis brevipes (Yieill.) . . . . . .

—

4c

—

20. Halcyon chloris (Bodd.) (typical) ....

*

4c

4c

55. Actitis hypoleucos (L.)

—

4c

4c

21. Eurystomus orientalis (L.)

*

4c

4c

56. Limosa novaezealandiae (G. R. Gray). . .

—

4c

—

*22. Pitta inspeculata M. &Wg

*

4c

4c

57. Numenius variegatus (Scop.)

—

4c

—

23. Hirundo javanica Sparrm.’^)

tf-

—

—

58. Demiegretta sacra (Gm.)

—

4c

—

24. Muscicapa griseosticia (Swinh.)

*

—

4c

59. Herodias garzetta (L.)

—

4c

—

*25. Zeoeephus takmtensis M. &Wg

*

4c

4c

60. Herodias alba (L.)

—

4c

—

26. Alonarcha inornatus (Garn.)

*

4c

4c

61. Bubulcus eoromandus (Bodd.)

—

4c

—

27. Lanius lucionensis L

*

4c

—

62. Qorsachius kutteri (Cab.)

4c

—

—

*28. Edoliisoma talautense M. &A¥g

*

4c

4c

63. Ardetta eurhythma Swinh. 2)

4c

—

—

*29. Dicaeum talautense M. &Wg

*

—

4c

64. Xanthoenus flavicollis (Lath.)

—

4c

4c

*30. Hermotimia talaidensis M. &Wg; . . . .

*

4c

4c

65. Dendroeycna guttata Schl

4c

4c

—

*31. Zosterops habelo M. &Wg

*

—

4c

66. Dendroeycna areuata Horsf. 2)

4c

—

—

32. Petrophila cyanus solitaria (P. L. S. Miill.).

—

4c

4c

67. Sterna bergii Lcht

—

4c

—

33. Loeustella faseiolata (G. H. Gray) , . . .

*

—

4c

68. Podieeps gularis J. Gd

—

4c

—

34. Phylloseopus borealis (Bias.)

4c

—

1) A small collection of forty species obtained by Mr. Water stradt’s Bornean hunters on Sahbabu
has recently been recorded by Mr. Hartert (Novit. Zool. 1898, pp. 88. — 91). Of these 21 were new to Salibabn,
and 3, Pandion haliaetus, Aleedo molueeana, and Micnia molucca, had not yet been recorded from the group,
though the last is present in the Dresden Museum from Karkellang, as well as a small form of Pomdion.
Trichoglossus ornatus (L.), lyngipieus temmincki (Malh.), and hyneornis maeropterus Bp., are included in
Mr. Hartert ’s list, but omitted in the above, as we have little doubt that they were obtained in Celebes.
Bor the same reason Hartert omits Oriolus celebemis and Dienirus leuoops.

2) Hirimdo javanica, Ardetta eurhythma , and Dendroeycna areticda were included in a third collection
from Talaut, received in 1897.

3) The formula Munia molucca typica )> is more accurate than the Munia molucca > propinqua used
in the text, p. 551, the Talaut birds being, as one might say, more typical than the type!

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (May Gth , 1898).

16

m

Introduction : Gieograpliical Distribution. •

The nearest affinities of the peculiar species of the Sangi Islands.

Celebes

Philippines

Bornean

Group

Moluccas

andPapuasii

1.

Eos histrio (8. Mlill.) (ty|3ical)

—

—

4c

2.

Tmiygnatlius muelleri smigireiisis M. &Wg. .

*

—

—

—

3.

Loriculus catamene Sclil

—

—

—

4c

4.

Ceycopsis sangirensis M. &Wg

*

—

—

—

5.

Cittura sangirensis Sharpe

—

—

—

6.

Pitta palliceps Brilgg

*

—

—

—

7.

Pitta caeruleitorqiies Salvad

—

*

—

—

8.

Pitta sangirana (Schl.)

—

*

—

9.

Monarcha cormnutatiis Briigg

—

—

—

4c

10.

Hypothymis roivleyi (A. B.M.)

*

— ■

4c

—

11.

Colluricinda sangirensis (Oust.)

—

—

—

4c

12.

Edoliisonm salvadorii Sharpe . . . . .

—

—

—

4c

13.

Dici'urus leucops axillaris (Salvad.) . . .

—

—

—

14.

Dicaeuin sangirense Salvad

—

—

—

15.

Acmonorhynohus sangirefnsis (Salvad.) . .

*

—

—

—

16.

Eudrepanis duivenbodei (Schl.)

—

4c

—

—

17.

Hermotimia sangwensi^ (A. B.M.) ....

—

—

—

18.

Zoster ops nehrkorni W.Blas

—

—

*

19.

dole plate?iae (W.Blas.)

Togian

Sula

—

—

—

20.

Oriolus formosus Cab

—

*

—

—

21.

Osmotreron sangw&nsis (Briigg.) . . . .

—

—

—

12

4

2

6

nearest affinities of the peculiar species o

f th

e Talaut

1.

Eos histrio talautensis M. &Wg

—

—

—

4c

2.

Tanygnathiis muelleri sangirensis M. &Wg. .

—

—

—

3.

Tanygnathus talautensis M. &Wg

—

4c

—

—

4.

Prioniturus platurus talautensis Hart. . .

*

—

—

—

5.

Pitta impeeulata M. &Wg

—

—

—

4c

6.

Zeocephus talautensis M. & Wg

—

4c

—

—

7.

Edoliisoma tcdautense M. &Wg

—

—

—

4c

8.

Picaeum talautense M. & Wg

*

—

—

—

9.

Hermotimia talautensis M. &Wg

*

—

—

—

10.

Zosterops habelo M. &Wg

—

*

—

—

11.

Munia molucea typica'd>

—

—

j —

4c

12.

Oriolus melanisticus M. &Wg

—

4c

—

—

13.

Carpophaga intermedia M. &Wg

—

*

4c

—

4

1 5

1

1 4

Six of the Talaut forms (numbers 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, J 2) have still nearer affinities
in Sangi, and there are five other species or subspecies which are “identical”
in Sangi and Talaut. One of these latter [Macropygia albicapilla sangirensis) has

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

m

its nearest affinities in Celebes, one (Eudynamis mindanensis sangirensis) in the
Philippines, and three [Calornis panagensis sangirensis^ Ptibpus ooanthorrhous, Mega-
podius sangirensis) in Celebes and the Philippines alike. Consequently it might
be claimed that the Philippines are known at present to have 9 forms in Talaut,
and Celebes only 8 forms; but as the avifauna of Sangi presents the strongest
agreement with Talaut, and Sangi belongs to Celebes, it is convenient to include
Talaut with Sangi in the Celebesian area.

The peculiar birds of the Sangi and Talaut Islands seem to be of com-
paratively recent origin ; there is not a form among them which can be termed
an ancient type. There is not a single peculiar genus, and all, or almost all,
the endemic species are geographical races of forms in the lands lying near at
hand to north, south, east or west. Moreover, ill-flying birds, such as the
Bucerotidae and Phoenicophainae^ are absent, or at least not known as yet. Every-
thing points to the recent colonisation of these islands, and their highly volcanic
or coral character and the deep sea around them are suggestive of their recent
upheaval '-) .

As has been pointed out elsewhere, almost all of the peculiar species of
Sangi and Talaut have increased in size (see p. 58).

List of the Birds of the Peling Group.

Name of species

Peling

Banggai

Name of species

Peling

Banggai

*1.

Spilornis rufipeetus sulaemis

*

*13. Lorieidus selateri ruber M. &Wg

*

*

2.

Aeeipiter sulaensis (Schl.)

*

*

14. Aprosmietus sulaensis Echw

*

—

3.

Haliaetus leucogaster (Gm.)

—

*

15. Cacomantis vireseens (Briigg.)

—

*

4.

Polioaetus hwnilis (Mull. Schl.) (typical) .

*

—

16. Eudynamis melanorhynoha S. Mull. . . .

*

—

5.

Paliastu/r Indus — girrenera

*

—

17. Merops ornatus Lath

*

—

6.

Pernis celebensis (Wall.)

*

—

18. Alcedo molueccma (Less.)

*

—

7.

Ba%a celebensis Schl . .

—

19. Alcedo menintmg Horsf.

*

*

8.

Tinnimculus moluee. orientalis — oecidentalis .

*

—

*20. Pelargopsis dichrorhyncha M. &Wg. . . .

*

*

9.

Pcmdion haliaetus leueocephalus J. Gd. .

—

*

21. Ealeyo’n coromanda rufa (Wall.j

*

—

10.

Triehoglossus ornatus (L.)

*

*

22. Halcyon chloris (Bodd.) (typical)

*

*

11.

Prioniturus platurus (V i e i 1 1.)

*

*

23. Haley Of i saneta V. & H

—

*

12.

TcmygnatJms muelleri (Mull. Schl.) (typical)

*

*

24. Eurystonius orientalis (L.)

*

—

1) Such a change need call for no surprise; Worcester shows (Pr. D. S. Nat. Mus. 1898, 581) that such has
evidently been the case with Siquijor, an island, with an area of about 90 sq. miles, to the north of Mindanao.
“There is a tradition among the natives to the effect that the island has been thrown up from beneath the
sea within a comparatively short time, and there is abundant geological evidence that this tradition is founded
on fact. Every stone cracked open by the hammer shows evident signs of its coral origin. The tops of the
highest hills, which rise a thousand feet above sea level, are strewn with the shells of the very same mollusks
which to-day live along the shores. The hills themselves are mere masses of coral rag, to which a few trees
cling with difficulty, as the soil washes down into the valleys almost as fast as it is formed. The fresh-water
streams are without fish.” Our native collectors sent 16 species in a small collection from Euang, a volcano
rising out of the sea close to Tagulandang in the Sangi Islands, and it is pretty certain that these species
must have settled there since the eruptions of 1870 and 1871, which destroyed the vegetation (see p. 634 of text).

16*

124

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

Name of species

Peling

Banggai

Name of species

Peling

Banggai

25. Golloealia eseulenta (L.)

*

*

44. Gistieola eursitans (Frkl.)

*

26. Maeropteryx wallaeei (J.Gd.)

*

45. Gistieola exilis (Yig. Horsf.)

—

27. Hypotliymis puella blasii Hart. . . , . . .

*

*

46. Mimia molueea — propinqua

*

• —

28. Monareha inornatus (Garn.)

*

47. Galornis sulaensis Sharpe

*

4c

29. Gulieieapa helia/nthea (W all.) . . . . . . .

—

*

48. Scissirostrum dubium (Lath.)

*

4c

30. Pachyeephala elio Wall

*

*

*49. Basileornis galeatus A. B. M

—

4c

31. Orauealus schistaeeus (Sharpe). . - . . .

—

*

50. Oriolus frontalis Wall.

4c

32. Orauealus melanops (Lath.) .

*

—

51. Osmotreron ivallaeei (Salvad.) (typical) . .

*

4c

33. Edoliisoma ohiense Salvad

*

*

*52. Ptilopus subgularis M. &Wg

*

4c

34. Lalage leueopygitdis Tweed d.

*

53. Ptilopms elirysorrhous (Salvad.)

*

*

35. Artamus leueog aster (V al.)

*

*

54. Garpopliaga paidina (Bp.)

*

4c

36. Artamus monaehus Bp

—

*

55. Myristiewora luetuosa (Temm.)

*

4c

37. Dierurus peetoralis Wall

*

56. Golumba albigularis (Bp.)

—

4c

38. Dieaeum sulaense Sharpe

—

*

57. Twraeoena manadensis (Q,. G.)

*

—

39. Gyrtostomus fren-atus (S. Miill.)

*

*

58. Maeropygia albieapilla Bp

*

4c

40. Hermotimia aurieeps (G. B. Gray) . . . .

*

*

59. Ghalcophaps indica (L.)

*

—

41. Anthreptes malaeeensis celebensis (Shell.) .

*

*

60. Olareola isabella Vieill

4c

—

*42. Zosterops subatrifrons M. &Wg

*

—

61, Aegialitis geoffroyi (Wagl.)

4c

—

43. dole longirostris (Wall.)

*

*

62. Nyetieorax caledonieiis (Gm.)

—

4c

List of the Birds of the Sula Islands.

*1. Spilornis rivfipeetus sulaensis (Sc hi.)

2. Tachyspixias soloemis (Horsf.)

3. Aecipiter sulaensis (Schl.)

4. Spixaetus lauGeolatus Temm. Schl.

5. letmaetus malayensis (Reinw.)

6. Haliastur indus — girrenera

7. Baxa celebensis Schl.

*8. Pisorhina sulaensis Hart, f
9. Ninox SGidulata japoniea (Temm. Schl.)

*10. Triehoglossus flavoviridis Wall.

11. Tanygnathus muelleri (Mull. Schl.) (typical)

*12. Lorieulus selateriy^ all. (typ.) (also from Mangoli f)

13. Aprosmietus sulaensis Rchw.

14. Eudynamis melanorliyneha S. Miill. (= *faseialis

Wall.)

15. Gueulus canorus eanoroides (S. Miill.) f

16. Gammantis mreseens Briigg. f

17. Merops ornatus Lath.

18. Alcedo moluGcana (Less.)

*19. Pelargopsis melanorhyneha eidreptorhyncha H a r t. f
*20. Geyx wallaGei Sharpe

21. Raley on eoromatida rufa (Wall.)

22. Halcyon sanota Vig. Horsf.

23. Halcyon Moris (Bodd.)

24. Eurystomus orientalis (L.)

25. Alaeropteryx ivallaeei (J.Gd.)

26. Pitta irena Temm.

*27. Pitta dohertyi Bothsch. (Bull. B. 0. 0. 1898.
p. XXXIII)

28. Hirimdo javaniea Spar r m.

*29. Hypotliymis puella blasii Hart, f

30. Alanareha inornatus (Garn.)

31. Pachyeepliala, grisecmoia G. B. Gray (= lineolata

Wall.)

32. Pachyeepliala clio Wall.

*33. Phinomyias colonus Hart, f

34. Qrauealus melanops (Lath.) f

35. Orauealus schi-staeeus (Sharpe)

36. Orauealus temmineki (S. Miill.) ’)

37. Edoliisoma ohiense Salvad.

38. Lalage leueojiygialis Wald. -[■

39. Artanms monachus Bp.

40. Dierurus peetoralis Wall.

41. Dieaeum sulaense Sharpe

42. Gyriostomus frenatiis (S. Miill.)

43. Hermotimia aurieeps (G. B. Gray)

44. Anthorptes malaccensis celebensis (Shell.)

45. Zosterops subatrifrons M. &Wg. (Sula Mangoli:

D 0 h e r t yj +

46. dole longirostris (Wall.)

47. Phylloscoims borealis (Bias.) f

48. Munia molueea — propinqua

49. Galornis sulaensis Sharpe

50. Galornis metalliea (Temm.)

•]- Mr. Hartert has kindly sent us (April, 1898) an early copy of his “List of a Collection of Birds
made in the Sula Islands by William Doherty” (Xov. Zool. vol. Y, Nr. 2, May 1898); all species marked f are
new additions.

1) Accidentally omitted in the distribution of the species in the text.

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

m

51. BasUeornis galeatns A. B.M. i
*52. Gharitornis alhertinae Sclil.

53. Cormis enea Horsf. (Celebesian race)

54. Oriolus frontalis Wall.

55. Osmotreron wallaoei Salvad. (typical;

56. Ptilopus chrysorrhous (Salvad.)

*57. Ptilopus mangoliemis Rothsch. (Bull, B. 0.
1898, p, XXXIV)

58. Garpophaga paulina (Bp.)

59. Myristieivora luctuosa (Temm.)

60. Golumba albigularis (Bp.) f

61. Turaeoena manadensis (Q. G.)

62, Maeropygia albicapilla Bp. (typical)

63. Glmleophaps indica (L.j
*64. Megapodius bernsteini Sc hi.

*65. Hypotaenidia suhirostris (Wall.)

66, Rallina minalmssa Wall.

67, Amaurornis molueea/tia (Wall.) f
C. 68. Esaeiis magnirostris (Vieill.)

69. Numenitcs variegatus (Scop.)

70. Herodias alba (L.)

71. Herodias garzetta (L.)h

72. Qiierquedida eireia (L.) f

Peling and Sula. The Peling or Banggai Archipelago and the Sula Group
seem to have formed in comparatively recent times one large island. Although
the island of Peling lies only about 12 miles from the coast of East Celebes,
the majority of the characteristic Celebesian genera [Microstictus , Pyrrhocentoi\
Phoenicophaes , Cranorrkinus, Phahdotorrkinus ^ Monachalcyon^ Cittura^ Ceycopsis^
Meropogon^ Coracias, Myza, Malia, Cataponera, Enodes^ Streptocitta, Megacephalon^
Aramidopsis) were not included in the only collection yet made upon the island,
while the peculiar species or subspecies are generally the same as Sula forms.
Fifteen species are identical with Sula forms, or are local races thereof, but
only four agree with Celebes forms not known to occur in Sula; ten Sula species
were not sent from Peling and Banggai (though some of them are pretty sure
to occur there) ; while twenty-two Celebes species not known from Sula were
contained in the above collection from the neighbouring mainland of Celebes, but
not from Peling or Banggai (see, Ahh. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 2, pp. 1 — 6).

List of the Birds of Saleyer Island.

1 . Spilornis rufipectus J. Gd. J)

2. Haliaetus leueogaster (Gm.)

*3. Pernis sp.

4. Guciilus Gwnorus canoroides (S. Miill.)

5. Ahedo mohiecana (Less.)b

6. Ahedo ispida L. b

7. Halcyon chloris (Bodd.)b

8. Gaprimulgus macrurus Horsf. (typical)

9. Maeropieryx tvallacei (J. Gd,)b

10. Siphia banyivmas (Horsf.)

11. Gidieicapa helianthea (Wall.)

12. Oerygone flaveola Cab. i)

13. Pratincola eaprata (L.)

*14. Paehycephala teijsmanni Biitt.

15. Paehycephala orpheus Jard.

16. Lalage timorensis (S. Miill.)

17. Arto/mus leueogaster (Yal.)

18. Dierurus leucops Wall, (typical;

19. Dieaeum splendidum Biitt.

*20. Gyrtostonms frenatus sahyerensis Hart.

21. Myzomela chloroptera Tweedd.

22. Zoster ops inte^'media Wall.

23. ? Mali a grata Sclil. (typical)

24. Phylloseopus borealis (Bias.)

25. Motaeilla flava L.

26. Mania •molucca cfpropinqua

27. Galornis minor (Bp.)b

28. Osmotreron loallacei Salvad. (typical)

29. Ptilopus melanoeephalus (Forst.)

30. Maeropygia maeassariensis (Wall.)

31. Geopelia striata (B.)

32. Megapodius duperreyi Less. Garn.

33. Amaurornis phoenieura (Forst.)

34. Gharadrius fulims Gm.

35. Strepsilas inlerpres (L.)

36. Himantopus leueoeephahis J, Gd.

37. Totanus glottis (L.)

38. Totanus calidris (L.)

b Accidentally omitted in the distribution of the species in the text.

m

Introduction: Geographical Disl dbution.

39. Aetitis hypoleucos (L.)

40. Tringa rufieollis Pall.

41. Qallinago meg ala Swinh.

42. Bnbulcus aoromandus (Bodd.)

43. Buiorides javcmica (Horsf.)

44. Nettion gibberifrons (S. Mlill.'

45. Sterna anaestheta Scop.

List of the Birds of the Djampea Group.

1. Urospixias torquatus (Temm.)

2. Aceipiter virgatus gularis (Temm. Schl.)

3. Blwnus hypoleucus J. Gd. ')

4. Baxa reinwardti Miill. Schl.

5. Tinmmeidus moliiceemis oecidentalis M. &Wg.i)

6. Pandion haliaetus leiicocephalus ( J. Gd.) *)

7. Ninox scutulata japoniea (Temm. Schl.)

8. Strix flammea L. (typical)

*9. Trichoglossus fm"stcni djampeanus Hart.

*10. Oacatua sulphurea djampeana Hart.

*11. Tanygnathus megalorhynehus — stcnibensis

12. Gueulus eanoncs canoroides (S. Miill.)

13. Geniroooecyx bengalensis (Gm.)i)

14. Alcedo moluecana (Less.)

15. Halcyon ehloris (Bodd.)h

16. Eurystomus orientalis (L.)i)

17. Gaprimulgus macrurus Horsf. (typical)

18. Gollocalia frandca (Gm.)

19. Gollocalia esculenta (L.) i)

*20. Pitta virginalis Hart.

*21. Siphia djampeana Hart.

*22. Siphia kalaoensis Hart.

(*?)23. Rhipidura cdebensis Biitt,

24. Monarcha inornatus (Garn.)

*25. Monarcha everetti Hart.

26. Myiagra rufigida Wall.

*27. Pachycephala everetti Hart.

*28. Edoliisoma emancipata Hart.

29. Lalage timorensis (S. Miill.)

30. Artamus leucogaster (Val.)

31. Dicaeum splendidum Biitt.

(*?)32. Gyrtostomus teijsmanni Biitt.

33. Myxomela cliloroptera Tweedd.

34. Zosterops i/ntermp.dia Wall.

35. Phylloscopus borealis (Bias.)

36. Motacilla flava L.

37. Anthus gustavi Swinh.

38. Ahmia molucca <ipropinqua

39. Galornis minor (Bp.)i)

*40. Oriolus boneratensis M. &Wg.

*41. Osmotreron wallacei paUidior Hart.

42. Pfiloptis melanocephalus (Porst.)

43. Garpophaga rosacea (Temm.)

44. Garpophaga concimia W all. i)

45. Alyristicivora, bicolor (Scop.)

46. Macropygia maeassariensis (Wall.)

47. Alegapodius duperreyi Less. Garn.

48. Amatirornis cinerea (Vieill.)

49. Esacus magnirostris (Vieill.)

50. Nycticomx caledonieus (Gm.)

51. Phalacrocorax melanoleucus (Vieill.)

Salet/er and the Djampea Group. It has been shown by Biittikofer and
Hartert that these islands have many points of affinity with Timor and the
other Lesser Sunda Islands, as well as with Celebes. On counting out the
respective forms, and allowing for the nearest affinities of the peculiar species,
it appears that there are 9 Oelehesian forms and 14 Lesser Sundan forms in these
islands. Of the nine Celebesian forms four are not known from the Djampea
Group, but only from Saleyer, as likewise two or three of the Lesser Sundan
forms, so that it appears that the Djampea Group has much stronger relations
with the islands to the south than with Celebes.

List of the Birds of Togian Island.

1 . Spilornis rirfipectus J. Gd. i)

2. Haliastur indus — girrenera')

3. Trichoglossus ornutus (L.)

4. Priemituriis plaiurus (Vieill.)

5. Prioniturus flavicans Cass.

6. Tanygnathus muellcri (Miill. Sclil.) (tjpical)
*7. Loricidus quadricoloi- Tweedd.

8, Microsfictus fidvus (Q,. G.)

9. ? Gacomantis merulimis (Scop.)

10. Eudynamis melanorhyncha S, Miill.

I) Accidentally omitted in the distribution of the species in the text.

Introduction: Greographical Distribution.

11. Pyrrhoeentor eelebensis (Q,. Gr.) (typical)

12. Phoenieophaes calorhyncims Teinm. (typical)

13. Oranorrhmus cassidix (Temm.)

14. Merops ornafus Latb.i)

15. Aleedo memniing Horsf.

16. Pelargopsis melanorhyncha (Temm.)

17. Haleyon coromanda rufa (Wall.)

18. Halcyon saneta Vig. Horsf.

19. Halcyon chloris (Bodd.) (typical)

20. Macropteryx ivallacei (J. Gd.)

21. Pitta eelebensis Miill. Schl.

22. Hi/nmdo rustiea guituraUs (Scop.) and H rusticct
— giMuralis

23 . Hirundo javaniea S p a r r m.

24. Hypothymis puella (Wall.)

25. Oraucalus bieolor (Temm.)

26. Oraucalus leueopygius Bp.

27. Edoliisoma morio (S. Miill.)')

28. Artamus leucogastcr (Yal.)

29. Picrurus leucops Y^all. (typical)

30. Hicaeum celebicum S. Miill.

31. Cyrtostomus frenatus'i> saleyerensis

32. ? Hertnotimia x>orphyrolae)na scapulaia M. &AYg.

33. Anthreptes malaceensis eelebensis (Shell.)

127

*34. dole aurea (Tweedd.)

35. Gistieola exilis (Yig. Horsf)

36. Mxmia formosana brunneieeps (Wald.)

37. Calornis panayensis (Scop.) (typical)

38. Seissirostrmn dubium (Lath.)

39. Streptocitta torqiiata (Temm.)

40. Corvus enca Horsf (Oelebesian race)

41. Oriolus eelebensis (Tweedd.) (typical)

42. Osmotreron tuallaeei Salvad. (typical)

43. Ptilopus melanospilus (Sal.vad.)

*44. Garpophaga pidekella Tweedd.

45. Turacoena manadensis (Q. G.)

46. Maeropygia albicapilla (Bp.) (typical)

47. Ghalcopkaps indica (L.)

48. Qallus ferrugineus (Gm.)

49. Megapodms cmningi Dillw.

50. Gharadrius fulvus (Gm.)

51. Totanus glareola (L.) ')

52. Actitis hypoleucos (L.)

53. Dissoura episeopus (Bodd.)

54. Phoyx manillensis (Meyen)')

55. Herodias garzetta (L.)

56. Hydrochelidon hybrida (Pall.)

57. Sterna media Horsf ')

Only two species, Loriculus quadricolor and lole aurea ^ are known to be
peculiar to this group of islands in the Gulf of Toinini; for a third form,
Carpophaga 'pulchella^ which has been separated, is probably the same as C. paulina.

Peculiar species and subspecies of Celebes (Mainland).

1. Spilornis rufipeettes J. Gd. (typical)

2. Astur griseiceps Schl.

3. ? Astur tenuirostris Briigg.

4. Spilospizias trinotatus (Bp.) (typical)

Spilospizias trinotatus haesitandus Hart.

5. Accipiter rhodogaster Schl.

6. Ninox ochraeea (Schl.)

7. Gcphaloptynx punetulata (Q,. G.)

8. Strix inexpeetata Schl.

9. Triehoglossus meyeri Tweedd. (typical)
Trichoglossus meyeri bonthainensis (A. B. M.)

10. Gaeatua sidphurea (Gm.) (typical)

11. Loricidus exilis Schl.

12. Loricidus stigmatus (Miill. Schl.)

13. lyngipicus temmineki (Malh.)

14. Mierostictus fulvus (Q,. G.) y

15. Mierostictus zvcdlacei (Tweedd.)

16. Hieroeoecyx crassirostris Tweedd.

17. Pyrrhoeentor eelebensis (Q. G.) (typical) p
Pyrrhoeentor eelebensis rufeseens M. &Y^g.

18. Phoenieophaes ealorhyncJms Temm. (typical) p
Phoenieophaes calorhynehus meridionalis M.&Wg.

19. Phabdotorrhinus exaratus (Temm.)

20. Granorrh.inus cassidix (Temm.) p

21. Meropogon forsteni Bp.

22. Geycopsis fallax (Schl.)

23. Monaehedeyan monaelms (Bp.) (typical)
Monachedeyon momiehus intermedius Hart.

24. Monachalcyon capucinus M. &Y^g.

25. Monachalcyon princeps Rchb.

26. Gittura eyanotis (Temm.)

27. Goraeias temmineki (Vieill.)

28. Gapi'inmlgus eelebensis Grant

29. Ijyneornis znaeropterus Bp.

30. Pitta forsteni B p.

31. Pitta eelebensis Miill. Schl. p

32. Siphia ruftgida (Wall.)

33. Siphia bonthaina Hart.

34. Stoparola. septentrionalis Biitt.

35. Stoparola mez'idwnalis Biitt.

36. Phipidura teijsmamn Biitt.

37. Oerygone flavcola Cab.

38. Pachycepheda. sidfuriventer (Tweedd.)

39. Pachycephala meridiozialis Biitt.

40. Pachycephala bonthaina M.&Wg.

41. Pachycepheda bonensis M.&Wg.

1) Accidentally omitted in the distribution of the species in the text,
p Occurs also on Togian Island.

128

Introduction: Greographical Distribution.

42. Orauealus hieolor (Temm.) ^

43. Orauealus leueopygius Bp,

44. Edoliisoma morio (S. Miill. (typical)
EdoUisoma morio septentrionalis M. &AVg.
Edoliisoma morio — septentrionalis M. (feWg.

45. Dieaeum eelebicum (S. Miill.) i|:

46. Dieaeum nehrkorni W. Bias.

47. Dieaeum liosei Sharpe

48. Acmonorhynehus aureolimbatus (Wall)

49. Aethopyga flavostriata (Wall.)

50. Cyrtostomus frenaius > saleyerensis ^
Cyrtostomus frenatus <C. saleyerensis
Cyrtostomus frenatus dissentiens (Hart.)

51. Hermotimia porphyrolaema (Wall.) (typical)
Hermotimia porphyrolaema scapidata M. &Wg.

52. Hermotimia grayi (W all.)

53. Alelilestes eelebensis M. &Wg. (typical)

Melilestes eelebensis meridionalis M. &Wg.

54. Myxa sarasinorum M. &Wg.

55. Zoster ops squa^nieeps (Hart.)

56. Zosterops atrifrons Wall.

57. Zosterops sarasinorum M. &Wg.

58. Zosterops anomala M. &Wg.

59. Malia grata Schl. (typical)

Malia grata recondita M. &Wg.

60. Androphilus castanetis (Biitt.)

61. Cataponera ttirdoides Hart.

62. Trichosioma eelebensis (Strickl.)

63. Triehostoma finschi Tweedd.

64. Oeoeiehla erythronota S c 1.

65. Merula eelebensis Biitt.

66. Phyllergates riedeli M. &Wg.

67. Gryptoloplia sarasinoritm M. &Wg.

68. Mimia subeastanea Hart.

69. Ebiodes erythrophrys (Temm.)

70. Acridotheres einereus Bp.

71. Basileornis eelebensis Gr. B. Gray.

72. Streptoeitta albicollis (Vie ill.)

73. Streptoeitta torquata (Temm.) 4=

74. Oaxxola typiea Bp.

75. Oriolus eelebensis (Tweedd.) (typical) 4=
Oriolus eelebensis meridionalis Hart.
Oriolus eelebensis — meridio-nalis

76. Ptilopus fiseheri (Briigg.)

77. Ptilopus meridionalis M. &Wg.

78. Ptilopus gularis (Q. G.)

79. Ptilopus melan-ospiltis (Salvad.)

80. Carpophaga radiata (Q,. G.)

81. Carpophaga forsteni (Bp.)

82. Carpophaga poeeilorrhoa Briigg.

83. Phlogoenas tristigmata Bp.

84. PJdogoenas bimacidata Salvad.

85. Megaeephalon maleo (Hartl.)

86. Turnix rufdatus Wall.

87. Gymnoerex rosc7ibergi (Schl.)

88. Aramidopsis plateni (W. Bias.)

89. Hypotaenidia eelebensis (Q,. G.)

90. Amaurornis isabcllma (Schl.)

Contrast between North and South Celebes. Almost all links between the Lesser
Sunda Islands and Celebes occur in tbe Southern Peninsula, but not alw^ays in
the North. This is shown by Butastur liventei\ Ckrysococcyx malayanus and basalts,
Muscicapida westermanni, Lalage timorensis, Zosterops intermedia, Munia pallida and
M. punctulata nisoria, Calornis minor, Macropygia macassariensis , Geopelia striata,
which are not known from the North. Up to the present Loriculus eocilis,
though allied to L. jiosculus of Flores, is only known from the North, but we
anticipate its discovery, or of a race of it, in the South.

On the other hand there are as well as L. eccilis Schl. several peculiar species
which occur in the North and not in the South, for instance, Ninox ochracea
(Schl.), Strix inexpectata Schl., Meropogon forsteni Bp., Lyncornis macropterus Bp,,
Pitta forsteni Bp., Myza sarasinorum M.&Wg., Enodes erythrophrys (Temm.),
Carpophaga poeeilorrhoa Briigg,, Gymnoerex rosenbergi (Schl ), Aramidopisis plateni
W. Bias,, Megaeephalon maleo (Hartl.) and others, besides such migratory species
as only touch the North. It must, however, be taken into consideration that
it is more than probable that at least some of these species will still be found in
the South, which is much less thoroughly explored than the North, and the Centre
is almost unknown. Conclusions, therefore, cannot he drawn from these data.

That there are a numher of forms differing specifically or subspecifically in
the North and South Peninsulas will appear from the pages of our book. These
representative forms are:

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

129

North Peninsula
Spilospizias trinotatus (typical) .
Trichoglossus meyeri (typical)

Microstictus fidvus

Phoenicophaes calorhynchus (typical)
Monachalcyon monachus
Stoparola septentrionalis
Pachycephala sulfuriventer
Pachycephala honensis ....
Edoliisoma morio septentrionalis .
Cyrtostomus frenatus saleyerensis

Hermotimia grayi

Melilestes celehensis (typical) .

Malia grata recondita ....
Trichostoma celehense ....
Streptocitta torquata ....
Oriolus celehensis (typical)

Ptilopiis jischeri

Phlogoenas 'tristigmata ....

South Peninsula

S. trinotatus haesitandus

T. meyeri honthainensis
M. wallacei

P. calorhynchus meridionalis
M. capucinus

S. meridionalis
P. meridionalis
P. bonthaina

E. morio (typical)

O. frenatus saleyerensis
H. porphyrolaema
M. celehensis meridionalis
M. grata (typical)

T. jinschi
S. alhicollis

O. celehensis meridionalis

P. meridionalis
P. himacidata

When it is remembered that the distance from the extreme ends of the
North and South Peninsulas is between 800 and 900 miles and that the interior
is in most parts very mountainous, the difference in the birds of the North and
South need not cause surprise, since isolation, one of the essential conditions
for the origin of a new species or subspecies, can occur here very readily.

There are differences of other kinds in other classes of animals in the North
and South, but as the fauna of Celebes is so insufficiently known, the cases
cannot yet be grouped together from a more general stand-point. We may mention,
however, that Prof. v. Martens showed (in Weber’s Zool. Ergebn. 1891 II, 259),
that of the 64 land-shells known from Celebes only 2 are doubtless identical in
the North and South, while 23 occur only in the North and 21 only in the
South-west, etc. Among the Land Planarians collected by Dr. P.& Dr. F. Sarasin
(Verb. D. Zool. Ges. 1897, 114), Prof v. Graff found that in North Celebes
the Oriental, in South Celebes the Australian character prevails. It may
be added that Prof. Wichmann (Tijdsch. K. Nederl. Aardr. Gen. 2. ser. 1890
VII, 978, and Petermann’s Mitth. 1893, 281) surmises that during the second
half of the Tertiary age single parts of South Celebes were raised as islands
above the surface of the sea and only later, when the whole of it was upheaved,
became united with Central Celebes as one land. Whether certain differences
in the fauna of North and South Celebes may be explained hereby, we leave over
to future decision. That, for instance, the Moleo of the North does not occur in
the South is no zoological proof of former geological conditions, for as a rule
animals have a restricted distribution.

Meyer & Wiglesworth) Birds of Celebes (May Gth 1898).

n

m

Introduction: Geographical Distribution.

The result of our study of the birds of Celebes, as well as of those of the
countries around, is that by its Avifauna Celebes has far stronger connections
with the Philippines than with any of the other neighbouring lands, and that
the relation of its birds with the Oriental Region is more than twice as strong
as with the Australian Region.

The line between Celebes and Borneo, though not that between Bali and
Lombok, no doubt represents a conspicuous faunistic frontier, which remains un-
altered even if the oldest continental frontier in earlier times was more to the
east, but this line between Celebes and Borneo has not the fundamental signi-
ficance which is still attributed to it by many writers. Even to-day the broad
strait is nearly bridged over by shallows between South Celebes and Borneo (see
map I). The line is not the western frontier ,of the Australian Region. The
origin of the Celebesian Avifauna is principally an Asiatic one, but Celebes as
a whole, or as a group of islands, was separated early from the continent, or
never was intimately connected with it; its Avifauna, therefore, remained poor
and must be pronounced an impoverished Asiatic one, but in consequence of
isolation, peculiar forms were developed. The Papuan elements in it can be
simply explained in view of the geographical position by the dispersal of birds
through flight. This agrees very well with the results arrived at by Prof. Weber
and Prof. v. Martens and others (see above pp. 55, 57 et seq.).

The special faunas of Celebes, however, and of all islands of the East Indian
Archipelago are far from worked out and we shall not live to see this. It will
be the labour of a century and more. The future, therefore, only can decide,
whether the ornithological facts as at present known teach us correctly that
Celebes belongs to the Oriental Region and not to the Australian, and
that it is most appropriate and safe to adopt a Transition-Zone between
these two Regions, comprising a Celebesian Area, besides severally a
Philippine, a Moluccan and a Lesser Sundan Area, of which the Celebesian
has been treated of as to its Avifauna in our present essay.

After all we have not been able to discover anything very extraordinary
about the birds of the island of Celebes. Its most striking feature is not that it
has so many highly peculiar forms, but so extremely few. It has nothing among
its birds to compare with a Dodo, or a Kiwi; it has not even a single peculiar
avian family; only a few well marked peculiar genera, a large number of well
characterized species belonging to genera not peculiar to the island, a still larger
number of less well characterized species, local races or “subspecies”, others
which only very close observers believe they can discriminate ; while the rest are
by common consent termed absolutely identical with the individuals of their
kind in the neighbouring lands. Islands like New Caledonia and Fiji have in
proportion to their size quite as much that is peculiar about them , as has
Celebes. The chief interest in the latter depends upon its intermediate position
between Asia and Australia, the faunas of which are so vastly different.

SYSTEMATIC PART.

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4ii

ORDER ACCIPITRES.

The diurnal Birds of Prey: Hawks, Eagles, Falcons, the Osprey, Vnltiu’es;
distinguishable by the rigid, hooked, and sharply pointed bill; powerful, hooked
claws; three toes in front and the fourth behind (except in the Osprey, ip which
the outer toe is reyersible); usually of great powers of flight; 11 primaries;
plumage often varied in coloration, but of sober tints: brown, black, white, grey,
rufous, and purplish being found, but pure yellow, blue, red, bright gveen, and
metallic tints are wanting. The Accipitres usually build a nest of sticks; the
eggs are white or whitish in ground-colour, in many genera very handsomely
varied with markings of rufous or brown; the young are hatched helpless and
clothed with down.

FAMILY FALCONIDAE.

Containing all the Birds of Prey, except the Osprey (which is distinguished
from them by its having the outer toe reversible and pterylologically by its
having no aftershaft to the feathers) and the Vultures (which have the head
and neck bare, or clothed in down).

GENUS SPILORNIS G. E. Gray.

Birds of Prey of medium size (about as large as a Raven), stout and com-
pact in form, wings moderate; bill not denticulate; a broad nuchal crest;
tarsi naked (except the upper fourth anteriorly), reticulated with hexa-
gonal scales; toes short; under parts marked with transverse spots or
bars of white; food: chiefly reptiles and amphibians; number of eggs laid: one
or two. The genus contains about 12 species of a local and stationary character,
distributed from the Himalayas and South China to the Andaman Islands, Celebes
and Sula.

* 1. SPILORNIS RUFIPEOTUS J. Gd.‘)

Russet-breasted Serpent-harrier.

Under this specific name we include two well-pronounced geographical races,
1. the typical Spilornis rufipectus of the mainland of Celebes, 2. Spilornis ruftpectus

1) The abbreviation of the author’s name at tlie head of each article is taken from the Berlin ‘-Liste
fler Autoren” (1896), tliough the foi’m adopted does not always meet with our approval,

Meyer & Wigles worth, Birds of Celebes {Oct. 4th, 1897).

1

2

Birds of Celebes; Balconidae

sulaensis of the Sula group, and 3. the individuals inhabiting the Peling group,
which are intermediate between these two races. For the treatment of this,
and of similar cases, the following method of nomenclature may be adopted
without prejudice to ornithology,

1. The typical Spilornis rufipectus.

a. Spilornis rufipectus (1) Gould, P. Z. S. 1857, 222; (II) id., B. Asia, I pi. IX (1860);

(3) Wall, P. Z. S. 1862, 338, pt. ; (4) id.. Ibis 1868, 16, 21; Wahl, Tr. Z. S. 1872,
Vni, 35; (6) Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 187^ 291; (7) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875,
Vn, 643; (8) Briigg., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 46; (9) Gurney, Ibis 1878, 96,
102; (10) W. Bias., J. f, O. 1883, 135; (11) Gurney, List Diurn. B. of Prey 1884,
17; (12) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1885, 403; (13) id., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 222; (14)
Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 544; (15) Hickson, Xat. in X. Celebes 1889, 89; (HVI)
Meyer, Vogelskel H 1892, 27, t. CLVH; (17) Biitt., ZooL Erg. Webers Eeise 1893
HI, 271; (18) Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 552; (19) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895
no. 8, p. 3; (20) iid., ib. 1896 no. 1, p. 7; (21) iid., ib. 1896, no. 2, p. 7; (22) Har-
tert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 161; (23) id., ib. 1897, 159.

b. Circaetus bacha celebensis (1) Schl, Mus. P.-B. Buteones 1862, 27; (2) Eosenb., Malay.

Archip. 1878, 271.

c. Circaetus rufipectus (I) Schl, Valkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 37, 72, pi. 23, figs. 1 — 3; (2) Gray,

HL. 1869, I, 15; (3) Schl, Eev. Accip. 1873, 114.

“Kokodschi”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen a 13.

“Berna” (albescent young), Tjamba, Platen a 13.

“Buliea-mohengo”, Gorontalo Distr., N. Celebes, v. Eosenberg b 2.

“Kiokkiok”, near Manado, Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.

“Boina”, Balante, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

“Sikep utang besar”, Lembeh Id., Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Gould II, 7; Schlegel c J; Meyer XF7 (skeleton); Sharpe 6.
Diagnosis of race. Wing relatively longer than in S. rufipectus sulaensis (see, table of mea-
surements), remiges below grejdsh white, broadly tipped and barred with blackish.
These bars coalesce on the secondaries and base of primaries, enclosing spots of
white, mottled with brown.

Old female. Upper surface dark brown, glossed vdth purple; sides and top of head,
crest, and throat black, ear-coverts washed with grey; hind neck dusky, the
margins of the feathers here and there, and on the crest, fulvous brown; secon-
daries and some of the upper tail-coverts tipped with white; carpal edge
spotted with white; tail above pale brown, tipped with whitish, and crossed with
four broad black bands — the basal one rather indistinct*; breast mummy-brown;
remaining under-parts — including under wing- and tail-coverts — darker, the
lower breast spotted, the sides, abdomen, thighs and under tail-coverts closely barred
with white; under side of wing broadly barred and spotted with white (Manado,
Nr. 6682).

Younger female. Like the above, but the brown of the upper plumage paler and duller
without so much purple gloss; hind neck pale brown, without (or with only a few)
yellow-brown margins here and on the crest, the black feathers of wliich are more
or less broken up with yellowish white; tail crossed with three black bands, the

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

3

basal one indistinct; breast miicb paler and more of a dark wood-brown tone (S. Ce-
lebes: Platen — C 10707).

Male. Similar to tlie female, but tlie white bars of the under parts more sharply defined
and extending further towards the breast (whereas in the female they form sooner
into disconnected spots); the brown bars on the under tail-coverts narrower (cf vix
ad. S. Celebes — Platen, C 10708; 3 ad. & vix ad. Sarasin Coll., N. &

8. Celebes).

“Iris gold-yellow; periocular skin and cere green-yellow; bill blue-black; feet
lemon- (or gold-) yellow” in both sexes (Platen a 13).

Female in albescent immature plumage. Head, crest and neck fulvous white with dark
brown shaft-streaks; the upper parts display a varied plumage of sepia and fulvous
brown, the feathers in general having dark centres and pale bases and margins; j)ri-
maries and secondaries tipped with white; tail pale brown above, white below,
and crossed with 5 to 6 indistinct dark bands, tip white; whole of under sur-
face bufiy white, streaked from the breast downwards with dark brown, which often
spreads out in a washy manner in lighter brown over much of the feather. In this
specimen the cross-barred feathers of maturity are sprouting at the flanks (S. Celebes
— Nr. 6683).

A male in albescent plumage recently obtained by the Drs. Sarasin at
Kema, Aug. 5^^^, 1893, corresponds with the above description of the female; ear-
coverts and subocular region black; under surface purer white, with fewer and smaller
brown streaks, here and on the upper surface not showing a general wash of rufous
apxjarent on comparison in the other sjDecimen. “Iris yellow; legs and feet yellowish
grey; bill black, at the base blue” (Sarasin). A second male is much more rufo-
fulvous in general tint than the other (Macassar, 12. IX. 95: Sarasin Coll.).

A specimen in the Leyden Museum (N. Celebes — Paber, 1883) is half in
albescent plumage, half in adult. Wings and tail as in albescent specimens; under
wing-coverts white, some tijjped with rufous brown; back, breast, abdomen and thighs
much as in Q ad.

First plumage. The full-fledged young of this species is not known, but in the cases of
Spilornis hacha (Java), 8. clieela' (India) and 8. spilogcister (Ceylon), young birds of
each in the first stage of dress have been described or figured (Schlegel, Yallrv.
N. I. pi. 22, f. 3; Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 287; Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 62; Bernstein,
J. f. 0. 1860, 425), from which it will be seen that the first plumage often — perhaps
always — much resembles that of full maturity. Whether young birds always assume
this mature-looking dress on first leaving the nest, and then lose it and put on the
immature albescent plumage, and finally recover the adult type of coloration, or,
whether the members of the genus are dimorphous when young — both mature-
plumaged and albescent individuals existing from the nest, — are questions upon
which opinion is divided, and facts, unfortunately, are as yet insufficient to allow of
their being answered. The albescent type of immature plumage probably occurs in
all species of the genus. Specimens in this dress are figured by Schlegel in the
cases of 8. hacha, 8. rufipectus and 8. sidaensis [h J; c J; Schl. , Yalkv. pi. 22, f. 3);
similar immature birds of 8. davisoni Hume, 8. rutherfordi Swinh. and 8. cheela
Lath, have been described (Hume, Str. F. H, 148; Bingham, ib. IX, 144; Oates,
B. Brit. Burmah, II, 194; Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 287), and there is a Q specimen of
8. holospilus Yigors from ^Mindanao in this plumage in the Dresden Museum
(Nr, 13822). Grurney considered this to be the second plumage (8), Schlegel and
Colonel Legge express the opinion that it is a more or less frequent variation of

1*

4

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

dress assumed in the nest itself. Longitudinal streaks on the feathers of birds appear
to represent a more original, less highly differentiated plumage than do cross-bars;
this is shown by the fact that almost all birds of prey, which when adult acquire a
cross-barred under-side, have tliis region streaked or drop-marked when immature.

If Gurney’s view, that the pale, streaked specimens of Spilmjiis are in the
second plumage, be correct, the curious case would be seen of a species regularly
reverting from a higher stage of dress to a lower one and, subsequently, re-acquiring
the more highly differentiated coloration.

As pointing to the probability that both albescent, streaked individuals and also
dark, spotted ones exist from the nest in the case of Spilornis, Colonel Legge points
out that of the Booted Eagle (Nisaetiis pennatus) both dark and light young ones
have been taken out of the same nest; but the case is not strictly a parallel to that
of Spilornis, inasmuch as K pefwiaiics has two different phases of adult dress, a light

and a dark one, and, when dimorphous pairs of young ones have been found, they
are said to be sprung from a light male and dark female, or vice-versa (B. Ceylon, 62).
The albescent plumage is found in both sexes.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium .

77.5

mm

Length of fibula

84 0

Greatest breadth of

cranium 42.0

» » tarso-metatarsus . .

. 76.0

»

Length of humerus .

97.0

3 » sternum

. 61.0

»

» » ulna . . .

110.0

Greatest breadth of sternum .

. 35.5

»

» » radius . .

105.0

Height of crista sterni ....

. 13.5

» » manus . .

87.0

Length of pelvis

72 0

» » femur . .

65.0

Greatest breadth of pelvis . .

. 31.5

»

» » tibia . . .

105.5

»

(Siao, Sangi in Mus. Berol. XVII.)

Nidification. Unknown.

Distribution. Celebes. South Peninsula (Wallace a 1, Guillemard a 14, Platen a 13, AVeber
a 17, etc.)', Central Celebes — Luwu Distr. (AVeber a 17, P. & E. Sarasin a 20);
S.E. Peninsula — Kendari (Beccari a 7); E. Peninsula (Xat. Coll, a 21)\ X. Peninsula
(Forster hi, v. Duivenbode c 3, etc.)', Talissi Id. (Hickson a 15)-, Lembeh Id.
(Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); Siao — known only from skeleton (Meyer a XVI).

Spilornis rufipectus sulaensis (Schl.).

d. Circaetus sulaensis (I) Schl., Valkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 38, 72, pi. 23, figs. 4 — 6; (2) Gray,

HL. 1869 I, 15.

e. Spilornis sulaensis (1) AVall. Ibis 1868, 16; (2) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874,1, 292; (3) Gurney,

Ibis 1878, 102; (4) id. Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 17; (5) Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 552.

f. Circaetus rufipectus sulaensis (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Rev. Accip. 1873, 114.

Figures and descriptions. Schlegel d I\ Sharpe e 2.

Diagnosis. Wing relatively shorter than in the typical S. ruflpecttis (see table); under-side
of quills greyish white, passing into blackish at the distal ends, and crossed by three
or four well-marked bars of blackish, much narrower than those of the typical form.
These bars do not coalesce on the basal half of the quills in the same manner as in
that form, but pass separately across the wing.

Distribution. Sula Islands, SulaBesi and SulaMangoli (Allen dl, Bernstein & Hoedt c7, el).

In the Leyden Museum are seven specimens — 3 ad., 3 Q ad. and 1 Q juv.
albescent — from Sula. The males have the breast paler; on the lower breast and

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

D

abdomen the white bars are broader and the brown ones narrower, and the barring
on the lower breast is better defined than in the other sex; under tail-coverts white
(in one specimen slightly barred towards the tip). The females of Sula have the
under tail- coverts barred and in regard to the barring of the under surface would
aj^pear to resemble the males of Celebes, but there are only one or two males
with the sex satisfactorily ascertained in the Leyden Museum for comparison.
The female of Celebes is more spotted below.

3. Spilornis mfipectus sulaensis.

g. Spilornis sulaensis (1) M. &Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896 no. 2, p. 7.

“Alaji Kabut”, Peling; “Alaji”, Banggai, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Intermediate between the typical 8. rufipeckis and 8. ncfljjectus sulaensis, but on
the whole more like the latter race.

Distribution. Peling group between Sula and E. Celebes: — Peling and Banggai (Nat. Coll.).

Measurements.

"Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

(Nr. 6682) [§] North Celebes

370-5

250

79

28

(Nr. 2199) [$] North Celebes

340-4

250

74

26

(C846) [Q] N. Celebes, March 1871 (Meyer).

. . . •

360

240

75

—

[C 10844) [P] N. Celebes, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

344

230

74

27

[C 10845) [9] N. Celebes, Aug. — Sej)t. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

353

236

74

27.5

(Sarasin Coll.) cf, N. Celebes, 20. Oct. 93 (P. & F. S.) .

340

230

78

25.5

(Sarasin Coll.) N. Celebes, 6. Oct. 94 (P.

& F. S.) .

342

242

78

27

(Sarasin Coll.) cf Juv., N. Celebes, 5. Aug. 93

(P.&F. S.)

337

230

73

27

[G 14247) [o^J Lembehid. March 95 (Nat. Coll.). . . .

337

218

73

25

[G 10708) South Celebes, 6. May 78 (Platen) . . .

330

215

75

28

[G 10707) South Celebes, 12. March 78 (Platen) . .

325

220

73

27.5

(Schliiter Coll.) South Celebes (Platen)

• • . .

344

229

72

—

(Sarasin Coll.) South Celebes, 21. Sept. 95 (P. &F. S.)

322

223

74

29

(Sarasin Coll.) d' juv., S. Celebes, 12. Sept. 95 (P. &F, S.)

332

232

70

26

(Sarasin Coll.) Centr. C., Palopo, 21. Jan. 95

(P.&F.S.)

328

—

72

28

[G 1429S) [Q], East Celebes, May-Aug. 95 (Nat. Coll.). .

363

236

78

—

(Norwich Mus.) ad. Macassar (Wallace). .
(Norwich Mus.) d' ad. Macassar (Wallace)

Commu-

345

345

—

71

71

—

(Norwich Mus.( d’ ad. Macassar (Wallace)

nicatcd

338

—

69

—

(Norwich Mus.) ad. Macassar (Wallace) .

by Mr.
Gurney:

345

—

76

—

(Norwich Mus.) imm. N. Celebes (Meyer) .

345

—

71

—

(Norwich Mus.) vix ad. N. Celebes (White ly)

355

—

76

—

5 adults, Peling Id., V— VLU. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

....

312-38

—

—

4 adults, 2 juv. Banggai Id., VI. 95 (Nat. Coll). . . .

305-25

—

—

—

(Norwich Mus.) d*, Sula Islands

314

221

73

27

(Norwich Mus.) Q juv., Sula Islands . . .

305

220

72

26

1) As will be found more fully explained under the heading ; Haliastur indus, a long connecting hyphen
{e. g. S. rufipectus — sulaensis) is used in this work to indicate the connecting forms between subspecies; or,
where it may be safely said that such individuals have stronger leanings to one subspecies than to the other,
the sign > or <^, respectively [S. rufipectus > sulaensis) indicating that the affinities are more with the typical
form, or {S. rufipectus ■< sulaensis) with the latter form.

6

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

The fine series of this Serpent-harrier before ns displays great variation in
tint; on the breast, for instance, from pale russet to dark Vandyck-brown. The
darkest examples are probably the oldest. The specimens from North Celebes
are, with one exception, darker than those of the southern peninsula, and
Mr. Gurney writes that the specimen from Kema (N. Celebes) in the Norwich
Museum “is decidedly darker than onr four from Macassar, especially on the
breast”. Two in the Leyden Museum from Pare-Pare near Macassar do not
appear to differ from those of the north, and Mr. Hartert remarks (a 22) of
some fresh specimens from the southern peninsula in the Tring Mnsenm that
the breast is much paler in some examples, darker in others. None of the
southern examples before ns appear to be old birds. The birds from Peling
and Banggai vary in the same way, — one is Yandyck-brown on the breast,
most of the others much paler.

Outside the Celebes Province a very near ally of 8. rujipectus is found
in Dr. Sharpe’s recently described Spilornis raja (Bull. B. O. C. 1893, no. X;
Ibis 1893, 552, 569), a specimen of which was sent by Mr. Edward Bartlett
from Kuching, Sarawak. This is said to be most like the Sula race, but differs
in having the white bars of the breast, abdomen and axillaries strikingly narrower.
From Sharpe’s measurements it would appear to have the wing of the Sula
form (viz. 309 mm), but a shorter tail (178 mm).

The food of Serpent-harriers consists chiefly of frogs, snakes and other Bep-
tilia. The Indian species lay one or two eggs; most usually only one.

The genus Spilornis is an important one in questions of geographical dis-
tribution. Owing to the small number of eggs laid, the species do not suffer
from overcrowding; and there appear to be no causes for its ever shifting its
quarters. The genus is a purely Indian one, and is not found further east than
the Sula Islands; and the close connection of these islands with Celebes is shown
by the fact of their possessing the same species, which also — if identical —
occurs on Siao in the Sangi Islands.

Attention might here be called to the close similarity of the plumage of
Circus assimilis Jard. & Selby to certain species of this genus, especially Spil-
ornis holospilus Vig. of the Philippines.^) Mimicry is here out of the question,
as C. assimilis does not occur in the Philippines, and the similarity must be
taken as pointing to kinship of the two genera (see below under Circus assi-
milis and Pernis celebensis).

GENUS CIRCUS Lac.

The Harriers are of slender form, with very long wings, tail, and tarsus,
arid somewhat short and not powerful toes. A more or less well developed
facial ruff extending from behind the ear-coverts across the throat:

') Of. also SjJilornis panayensis Steere (List B. Philip. Is. 1890 p. 7.

Birds of Celebes: Faloonidae.

T

bill somewhat weak, with a blunt festoon: tarsi naked (except at the top
anteriorly), clad in front with transverse shields, elsewhere with small
reticulate scales. Food: amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, etc. Eggs
2 — 4 in number. x\bout 18 species, migratory and stationary, distributed over
the greater part of the world.

•h 2. CIRCUS ASSIMILIS Jard. Selby.

Allied Harrier.

Circus assimilis (I) Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. 1820, I, pi. 51 type examd. i) ; fJjScliL, Mas.P.-B.
Gird, 1862, 9; (III) id., Valkv. 1866, 29, 66, pi. 20, f. 2, 3; (4) Walden, Tr. Z. S.
1872, Vin, 37; (5) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 63; (6) Gurney, Ibis, 1875, 225; (7j
id., Diurn. B. of Prey, 1884, 23; (8) W. Bias., Ztsdir. Ges. Orn. 1885, 205, 234; (9)
North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889, 1, pi. II, f. 4 (egg); (10) Biittik, Webers
Reise in Ost-Ind. 1893 HI, 272; (11) M. & Wg. , Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896 no. 1, p. 7;
(12) Harter t, Nov. Zool. 1896, 163.

a. Circus jardinii Gld., P. Z. S. 1837, 141; (I) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 27; (2) S. Mull.,
Beizen Ind. Ardi. 1857, II, 8; (3) Gld., Han db. B. Austr. 1865, I, 60; (4) Sc hi.,
Bev. Acc. 1873, 50.

h. Spilocircus jardinii (1) Kaup, Isis, 1847, 102.

G. Strigiceps jardinii (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 34.

“Bokan buri”, S. Celebes, Platen 8.

For further references see Sharpe 5.

Figures and descriptions. Jardine & Selby 7; Gould a I, a 3; Schlegel 777; North .9
(egg); Kaup b 7; Sharj^e 5; W. Bias. 8.

Male, nearly adult. General colour above brownish ash, darker on head; forehead, ear-
coverts and crown with rufous margins to the feathers; secondaries pure ashy,
banded with dark brown — indistinctly on the inner web; wing-coverts, scapulars
and upper tail-coverts marked with short bars or large spots of white, which are
more indistinct and ashy on exposed parts of the plumage; shoulder rufous; tail
above ashy, below white, crossed with seven bars of blackish and terminally margined
with white; under surface — including under mng- and tail-coverts and thighs —
cinnamon-rufous, lighter on the thighs and abdomen, and spangled all over with
white spots arranged two and two at short intervals on the opposite webs of the
feathers. “Iris sulphur-yellow; cere and bill bluish grey (cere pale yellow —
Wallace); tip of bill black; feet citron-yellow” (Platen). Nr. 6735, Tjamba, May).

Old. Crown of head, cheeks and ear-coverts tawny-rufous, 'with blacldsh mesial streaks
to the feathers ((J*, Lake Posso, 14. Feb. 95, P. & F. Sarasin).

Female. Like the male, but larger.

Young. Above brown with fulvous margins to the feathers; upper tail-coverts wliite
washed with rufous and having dark brown centres; tail sepia-brown tipped with

4' The type of Circus assimilis J. S, in the British Museum is immature and not normal, differing
from all other specimens there of this species in the coloration of the wings and tail. The tail is nearly uniform
brownish ashy with a rufous wash at its sides, marked -with 3 or 4 imperfect bars of brown towards the base,
followed by a clear space, with an imperfect terminal bar. Upper tail-coverts white, a few of the longer ones
with a bar of brown towards the tip.

8

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

tawny-buff and crossed with six bands of black; below pale tawny-buff, lightest on
abdomen and thighs, and streaked with dark browm on breast and under tail-coverts
(ex Sharpe).

Eggs. 2 or 3, white, with a bluish green tinge on the inner surface; 51— 52 X 38— 39 mm
(Australia — A. J. North 9). Uniform white, a little smaller than those of C.
rufiis of Europe: 49—51 x 39 — 39 mm: Nehrkorn, MS.).

Nest. Elat, of small sticks and twigs, lined with green leaves ; usually placed among the thick
branches of a low tree (Australia).

Breeding-time in Australia. Sept. — Nov.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen
from cere

a. (Sarasin Coll.) cf ad. Lake Posso, Central Celebes,
14. II. 95 (P. & F. S.)

375

235

84

20

h. (C 10709) vix ad. S. Celebes, 16. IV. 78 (Platen) .

390

260

93

19

c. (C 10710) 9 vix ad. S. Celebes, 25. V. 78 (Platen) .

425

275

98

20.5

d. (Nr. 6735) cf, 8. Celebes, 6. V. 78 (Platen) ....

385

250

93

—

e. (C 11293) [Q] New South Wales

435

280

101

21

f. (C 11092) [Q] juv. Australia

437

280

107

22

Distribution. N. Celebes — Minahassa (Riedel b 4\ Glorontalo District (Forsten 2, Rosenberg
h4\ Central Celebes (P. & F. Sarasin A], S. Celebes (S. Muller 2, h 2, Weber 10,
Platen 5, Everett 12]] Australia — apparently throughout (Ramsay S); Tasmania
(Norwich Mus. 6').

This well-marked Harrier is remarkable for its distribution, occurring, as
it does, in Celebes and Australia and, so far as is yet known, on none of the
intervening islands. To the north and west of Celebes, the Chinese Circus spilo-
notus Kaup is found in the Philippines and Borneo, and, according to Mr. Eve-
rett and Mr. Whitehead (J. Straits Br. R. A. S. 1889, 180; Ibis, 1890, 43),
this species is “a regular winter migrant” to Borneo and Palawan. East of
Celebes, a Harrier [C. spilothorax^ Salvad. & D’Alb.) has been discovered at
Yule Island in the Papuan Gulf, South New Guinea, corresponding closely in
coloration with C. maillardi Verr. (C. macrocelis Nhwton) of Madagascar and
Reunion and with C. wolji Gurney and C. gouldi Bp. of New Caledonia and
Australia, respectively (Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 71); but neither this species, nor
C. spilonotus, have anything to do with C. assimilis.

The similarity of the adult plumage of this Harrier to that of certain
species of Spilornis is worthy of notice. The type of coloration may be
ancient. It should be remarked that Gurney, whose arrangement of the
Falconidae we follow, places the subfamily Circinae much nearer to the Circae-
tinae (containing Spilornis) than has been the custom with most other authors (7).

C. assimilis is, we believe, a stationary species in Celebes, though we have
only been able to collect the following few dates of occurrence there ranging
from February to November:

Birds of Celebes; Palconidae.

9

a.

Macassar

jiiv. March

(2)

b.

Tjamba

nearly ad. April 16‘^

(7, C 10709)

c.

Tjamba

cT

nearly ad. May 6'^

(Nr, 6735)

d.

Tjamba

Q nearly ad. May 25*'^

(7, C 10710)

e.

Gorontalo

cf

ad. June 8*^^

(a 4)

f-

Gorontalo

cf

ad. July 1 6'^''

(a 4)

9-

Ay er-P annas

$

August 18*'’^

(a 4)

h.

Bone

Q

ad. Nov. 23’''^

(a 4)

i.

Bone

9

Nov. 23’'‘i

(a 4)

I

Lake Posso

cT

ad. Eebr. 14^^

(11)

Mr. Everett {12) obtained six specimens between Sept. 16 and November.
If stationary, differences might be expected to have arisen between Celebesian
and Australian birds; nevertheless the numerous specimens in the British and
Leyden Museums appear to be quite similar.

When at Macassar, Salomon Muller observed that this Harrier ‘'flies like
the Harriers of the northern quarters of the globe, haunts open fields and mea-
dows and settles in the same manner by preference silently and unnoticed upon
the ground, or on a stone, or a low pole, or the like, where, for its own secu-
rity and for watching for its prey, it gets a wide view” {a 2).

GENUS ASTUR Lac.

The Goshawks range in size from medium to small (Kestrel-size); stout,
compact birds; wings rather short, reaching to about the middle of the tail;
tomia with a blunt festoon; tarsi stout, feathered on their upper half (except
posteriorly), the lower half clad with transverse shields anteriorly, elsewhere
irregularly scaled; toes stout, the middle one not exceptionally prolonged. Food:
any land-vertebrates weaker than the bird itself. Eggs 2 — 4. The genus is
found in most parts of the five continents and Australia, but authors are not
agreed as to its systematic limits. There are migratory and stationary forms.

3. ASTUR GRISEICEPS Schl.

Grey-headed Goshawk.
a. Falco griseiceps [Temm. in Mus. Leyden].

Astur griseiceps (1) Sclil., Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 23; (II) Wall., Ibis, 1864, 184, pi. V;

' Finsch, Neu-Guinea 1865, 155; (IV) Schl., Valkv. 1866, 19, 58, pi. 11, f. 1, 2;

(5) Wall., Ibis, 1868, 6, 20; Gray, HL. 1869, I, 30; (6) Sclil. , Kev. Acc. 1873, 66;
(7) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 106; (8) Briiggem. , Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 43;
(9) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895 Nr. 8, p. 3; (10) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, pp. 4, 7;
(11) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 165.

h. Lophospiza griseiceps (1) Kaup, P. Z. S. 1867, 17S; (2) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI,
33; (3) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 365; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 55; (5) W. Bias., J. f. 0.
1883, 134; (6) id., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 221.

c. Lophospizias griseiceps (1) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 355; (2) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 67;
Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 29.

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 4tii, 1897).

2

10

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

“Rurunbalu”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen h 4.

“Sikep burik sedang”, juv. Manacle, Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Wall. II; 8cbl. IF, 1, 6\ Sharpe 7; Brilggem. 8; W. Bias, h 6.

Adult male. Head, neck, cheeks and ear-coverts blue-grey, shafts of the feathers
dark; rest of upper surface, including primaries, warm (Pr out’s) brown with a
purple gloss in certain lights; upper tail-coverts washed with slaty; tail crossed with
four bands of blacldsh, the basal one concealed and imperfect; chin and throat
white, bounded on either side by a malar streak of slaty black and marked down
the middle with a stripe of the same colour; underparts white, uniform on the
lower abdomen and under tail-coverts, but marked on breast, sides and abdomen
with broad longitudinal streaks of blackish brown, and closely barred on thighs and
flanks with blackish; under wing-coverts white; quills below white, at
distal ends brown, and imperfectly crossed with about four narrow bars of dusky
(d', Kurukan, N. Celebes: April 1894: P. & F. Sarasin).

Adult female. Much like the male, but larger; the head browner grey, upper surface paler
brown; the white of the under surface more tinged with buff, and the longitudinal
stripes thereon warm dark brown (Prout’s); the dusky bars on the thighs and flanks
broader; five bars (instead of four) generally distinguishable on the tail — the two
basal ones more or less obhterated and concealed; under wing-coverts white, with
a few brown spots on them — sometimes also seen in the male (Q ad., Kema,
N. Celebes, 30*^ Aug. 1893: P. & F. Sarasin).

“Iris gold-yellow; feet yellow; cere greenish yellow; bill grey-blue” {$ —
Sarasin).

Young. Above warm dark brown, mth whitish terminal edges to the feathers, the middle
and lateral parts of the feathers more buff-brown; head above blacker brown, with
whitish tips; face and under surface white, somethnes almost unstriped with
brovm, usually striped with dark brown, chiefly along the mesial part of the feathers
of the breast, and stained (as it appears) with a weak solution of the same brown
chiefly on the face and breast; the thighs with dark transverse spots and bars;
5 — 6 dark bars on the tail, basally indistinct (^ juv.. Lake Matanna, S. E. Central
Celebes, 27. H. 96: P. & F. Sarasin; and other examples).

"Iris yellow ; cere greenish ; legs green-yellow, on the shins dark” (P. & F. S.).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Ctdnien
from cere

a. (Nr. 6701) ad. Minahassa, N. Cel. (v. Musschenbroek)

206

180

56

h. (Nr. 6703) [(I’] ad. Gorontalo, N. Cel. (Riedel) . . .

183

157

49

— ■

c. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Kema, N. Cel., 30. VIH. 93 .

200

160

54

18

d. (Sarasin Coll.) $ ad. Tomohon, N. Cel., 2. YHI. 94

204

170

—

17.5

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Rurukan, N. Cel., IV. 94

176

142

46

15

f. (Sarasin Coll.) cf ad. Lake Limbotto, N.Ceh, 18.HI. 95

181

141

—

16.5

g. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. LakeTowuti, S.E.CeL, 3. HI. 96

182

142

—

14.5

h. (Sarasin Coll.) "cf” [? 2] j. Mapane, C. Cel., 3. HI. 95

200

168

—

17.5

i. (Sarasin Coll.) j. Lake Matanna, C. Cel., 27. H. 96

195

161

—

17

j. [c 10847) juv. Minahassa, VIH.-IX. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

203

164

54

IS

k. [c 13451) juv. Minahassa, 15. YHI. 94 (Nat. Coll.) .

200

165

—

16.5

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

11

In tlie case of the tarsus, on account of the difficulty of measuring this part
in many birds of prey, the figures given should be taken only as approximate.

Distribution. Celebes. S. Peninsula (Wallace 5, Platen b 4), S. E. Central Celebes, Lakes
Matanna and Towuti (P. & P. Sara sin); Dongala, W. Celebes (Doherty 11)', N.
Central Celebes, Mapane (P. & P. Sarasin); N. Peninsula, Minahassa (Wallace 5;
etc.), Grorontalo Distr. (Porsten 1, etc. 6, 8).

Ceram was also put down as a locality for this species in 1865 by Dr. Pinsch (3J,
but it is now evident that this is an error.

This small Goshawk was discovered about fifty years ago by Porsten.
Its range is not known to extend beyond the mainland of the island, where
it seems to be not uncommon, though specimens are not abundant in European
Museums. Professor W. B la sius (b 3) was able to examine 21 skins collected
by van Duivenbode’s hunters in North Celebes. A nice series of three adult
males, two adult females, and two young specimens were obtained in North and
Central Celebes by the cousins Sarasin, and these, combined with the speci-
mens in the Dresden Museum, enable us to say with safety that the species
does not vary locally to any^ appreciable degree, if at all, and also to point out
the difference between the sexes.

Nothing has been recorded of the habits of this Goshawk. It is most
nearly related to the next species, Astur trivirgatus (Temm.) which differs by
having the breast rufous-brown, or striped with rufous-brown, as against the
long blackish or blackish brown stripes in the present bird.

4. ASTUR TRIVIRGATUS (T emm.).

Crested Goshawk.

This species is composed of the two following subsj)ecies:

-h 1. The typical Astur trivirgatus (Temm.)

a. Falco trivirgatus fIJ Temm., PL Col. 1824, no. 303.

b. Astur trivirgatus Ouv., Pegne An. 1829, pt. I, 332; flJ Jerd. , B. Ind. 1862, I, 47

f2J Sclil., Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 22; (III) id., Valkv. 1866, 18, 57, ifi. 10; (4)
Swinli., Ibis, 1866, 395; Wall., Ibis 1868, 6; Schl., Pev. Acc. 1873, 65; (5) Sharpe,
Cat. B. I 1874, 105 pt.; (6) Salvad. Ucc. di Borneo, 1874, 17; (7) Sharpe, Ibis,
1876, 32; (8) Hume, Str. P. 1879, VIH, 43; (9) Legge, B. Ceylon, 1880, 20;
(10) Nicholson, Ibis, 1882, 52; (11) W. Bias., Yerh. z. b, Ges. Wien, 1883, 21;
(12) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah, 1883, H, 177 pt.; (13) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 545;
(14) Sharpe, Ibis, 1888, 195; (15) W. Bias., Ornis, 1888, 303; (16) Sharpe, Ibis,
1889, 67; id., ib. 1890, 274, pt. ; (17) Everett, J. Str. Br. P. A. S. 1889, 180;
(18) Steere, Coll. B. Philip. Is. 1890, 7; (19) Oates, Hume’s Nests & Eggs, 1890,
in, 119, pt.; (20) Vorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1890, 379; (21) Hose, Ibis, 1893,
418; (22) Hartert, Ornis 1891, 122; Bourns &Worces., B, Menage Exped.
J894, 32; (24) Everett, Ibis 1895, 31.

2*

12

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

c. Lophospiza trivirgatus Kaup, Oontr. Orn. 1850, 65; (1) David et Oust., Ois. Chine,

1877, 22; (2) Bourdillon, Str. F. 1880, IX, 299; (3) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1890, 144;
(4) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1895, 476.

d. Lophospiza indica (1) Hume (nec Hodgs.) Str. F. 1875, IH, 24.

e. Lophospizias trivirgatus (1) Gurney, Ibis, 1875, 355; (2) id., Str. F. 1877, Y, 502; (3) id.,

Diurn. B. of Prey, 1884, 29; (4) Blanl, Faun. Br. India B. 1895 IH, 401.

f. Lophospiza trivirgata (1) Hume, Str. F. 1877, 8, 124.

g. Astur (Lophospizia) trivirgatus (1) Hartert, J. f. 0. 1889, 375.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I] Schlegel IZJ; Sharpe, 5, 16] Gurney
d 1, d 2] Hume, el] Legge 9] Oates 12] W. Blasius 11] Blanford e 4]
d’Alton, Skel. d. Bauhv. 1838, Taf. VI figs. o (Skull); Selenka, Bronn’s Kl. u.
Ord. VI. Abth. IV, pi. HI fig. 6 (wing-hones).

Young. Above warm dark (Front’s) brown, the feathers furnished with small rufescent tips ;
head and crest blackish; ear-coverts and neck more rufescent; upper tail-
coverts crossed with a blackish band and broadly tpoped with white; tail —
not fully grown — crossed with three black bands; below white, on the flanks and
thighs barred and elsewhere marked with streaks and drops of brown; a dark streak
down the middle of the throat (Java — Nr. 5692).

Adult. The upper plumage — brown in the young — becomes slaty grey with maturity,
palest on head, browner on wings; tail crossed with four dark bands; throat as in
the young; chest tawny-rufous; rest of under surface white, barred with rufous
and brown, except on the under tail-coverts which are uniform. Bill black ; iris orange-
yellow; feet yellow.

“Iris light brown; bill black; tarsus yellow” (a 13).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen

[a Nr.-5692) juv. Java

180

130

56

22

(Sharpe 3) ad. (Java?)

198

160

56

—

(Gurney 5) $ ad. Java

228

—

58

—

Distribution. Indian Peninsula (Hume fl, Gurney el)] Ceylon (Hume /*7, Legge h 9)]
Pegu (Oates h 12)] Formosa (Swinh. h 4)] Philippines .(Gurney el. Platen c 3,
Steere h 18)] Palawan (Whitehead h 14, Platen b 15)] Borneo (S. Miill. h 2, etc.
b 6, b 17)] Sumatra (S. Miill. b 2, Forbes b 10)] Java (Boie, Bernst. b 2)] North
Celebes (Guillem, b 13).

2. Astur trivirgatus rufitinctus (McClelL).

Ji. Spizaetus rufitinctus (1) McClelL, P. Z. S. 1839, 153.

i. Astur trivirgatus pt. (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 105; (2) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah, 1883,

II, 177 pt.; (3) Sharpe, Ibis, 1890, 274 pt.

j. Lophospizias indicus (? Hodgs.), (1) Gurney, Ibis, 1875, 355.
h. Lophospiza indica (1) Hume, Str. F. 1877, V, 8.

l. Lophospiza rufitinctus (1) Hume, Str. F. 1877, 124; (2) Hume & Davison, ib. 1878, VI, 7.

m. Lophospizias rufitinctus (1) Gurney, Str. F. 1877, V, 502.

n. Astur rufitinctus (1) Hume, Str. F. 1879, VTH, 152.

o. Lophospizias trivirgatus subsp. rufitinctus (1) Gurney. Diurn. B. of Prey, 1884, 29.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

13

Diagnosis. Like the typical A. trivirgatus, hut larger and more rufescent. Apparently a high-
land race. (See: Grurneyyi, Hume k 11).

Distribution. Himalayas from Hepaul to Assam, Cachar, Sylhet, Tipperah (Hume k 1, 1 1)\
Hagpore, Bengal (Gurney jl); Tenasserim (Davison I 2)\ Malay Peninsula (Ely th,
Hume nl).

Dr. Sharpe includes in the smaller race a young specimen obtained by
Mr. Wallace in the Malay Peninsula (h 5) \ and it is possible — judging from the
length of wing — that Swinhoe’s specimen from Formosa, though placed by
Gurney in the smaller race, approaches more nearly to the larger Himalayan birds
[h 4, e 1).

The right of this species to be included among the birds of Celebes rests
upon a young specimen obtained at Likoupang, North Celebes, by Dr. Guille-
mard during the cruise of the “Marchesa”.

In India two, or rather three, nests of this species have been found, from
which it would appear that only two eggs are laid (h 19). It is not surprising,
therefore, to find a sufficient number of dates of occurrence in Borneo to show
that the species is a resident there (b b 7, h 11). Its occurrence in Celebes
is of interest, but, in consideration of the fact that this species is represented
there already in a near relation, A. griseiceps Schl., it is more probable that it
is a straggler from the north or w^est than a resident.

It differs from A. griseiceps by its brownish-rufous breast, or where the
breast is white with stripes and spots thereon, by the brown-rufous tint of these
markings, as against the blackish, or very dark brown, colour of the lengthy
stripes of A. griseiceps ; the claws also seem to be longer in the latter species.

The Crested Goshawk was found by Captain Legge to be very partial to
lizards, while other authors note that it preys fiercely upon fowls, pigeons and
other birds (b 9).

For further references to literature on this species see: Sharpe 5 5,
Legge h 9, Oates b 12.

f 5. ? ASTUR TENUIROSTRIS Brtigg.

Astur tenuirostris (1) Brliggem., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 43.
a. Urospiza iogaster (1) Bias. (? nec S. Mull.), J. f. 0. 1883, 151.
h. XJrospizias hiogaster pt.? (1) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 36.

Brliggemann described an example from Celebes from v. Rosenberg, without
exact locality, as follows:

Young (3f. Bill somewhat thin, elongated; the ridge scarcely curved doAvnwards at the base,
almost straight, and not bent markedly till near the point; the projecting hook only
slightly developed; edge of upper mandible along the gape straight, somewhat
turned inwards about the middle, without any signs of a tooth, and with only a trace
of a flat hollow before the point; feet and their covering as in A. iogaster'. tarsi
somewhat slender, feathered in front for about a third of them length, at the base

14

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

with overhanging feathers, behind with a double row of rather small, and for the
most part multiangular, scales; toes middle-sized; claws relatively weak.

Entire upper surface uniform dark brown, passing into dark grey on the
front and sides of the head; bases of the feathers white; lesser wing-coverts,
tertiaries and points of the secondaries and rectrices furnished with rust-
red edges; tail uniform dark brown, in certain lights with faint traces of narrow
cross-bars [separated by intervals of about 10 mm]; inner webs of the quills and
tail-feathers with moderately broad indistinct cross-bars of darker brown, more
apparent near the rust-red margins and on the under side; under wing-coverts
reddish white; outer quills below ashy grey, inner ones pale rust-reddish; tail-
feathers below wliitish grey, reddish at the edge of the inner web; body below
white, with a rusty yellowish wash on the abdomen and thighs; feathers of the
breast with dark brown shafts and with a rhombic, sharp-pointed, brown spot before
the end; towards the belly these spots are arrow-shaped, and pass into rather broad
and somewhat washy cross-bars on the sides of the body and thighs; lower
abdomen, anal region, under tail-coverts and feathering of the tarsi unspotted.
Wing 182 mm (when adult perhaps ca. 200), tail 115; culmen from forehead 23;
height of bill at base 14.5, at front edge of cere 12; tarsus 53; middle toe
28 (Briiggemann).

Through the kindness of Professor von Koch we have been able to examine
Briiggemann’s type, a young specimen most nearly resembling, among other
Celebean species, the young of Astur trivirgatus and griseiceps. From these
species it differs by its more slender tarsus and toes, especially in this respect
from A. griseiceps^ and the character of the barring on the wings below and tail
is quite different from both.

Professor W. Bias ins (a 1) thinks it possible that this specimen is a young
one of A. hiogaster or the young of a new species of Celebes, the adult of which
has not yet been found. Jacquinot and Pucheran have already indicated
Macassar as a haunt of A. hiogaster^ but neither Walden , nor Salvador!, nor
Blasius believe in the correctness of the locality noted for the specimen in
question. It is not possible to form a positive opinion about it. If A. tenui-
rostris is the same as Urospizias hiogaster the following is the synonymy:

-*■ Urospizias hiogaster (S. Mil 11.)

a. Falco hiogaster S. MlilL, Verb. Kat. Gescbied. 1839 — 44, 110.
h. Epervier oceauien (I) Hombr. & Jacq. , Voy. Pole Sud, Atl. pi. 2, f. 1.
e. Accipiter hiogaster Gray, Gen. B. 1845, I, 29.

d. Nisus iogaster (1) Scbl. , Mus. P.-B. Astures 1862, 43; (II) id., Valkv. 1866, 27, 65, j}!. J8,

11, 2, 3; (3) id., Kev. Acc. 1873, 89.

e. Erythrospiza iogaster (1) Kaup, P. Z. S. 1867, 173.

f. Erythrospiza iogastra (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VUI, 34.

g. Astur hiogaster (1) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1874, I, 104; (2) id., Mitth. Mus. Dresd. 1878,

353, 355.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

15

Urospizias hiogaster (1) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 365; id.. Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 36.
h. Astur tenuirostris (1) Briiggein., Abli. Yer. Bremen 1876, 43.

j. Urospizias iogaster (1) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 47; (2) W. Bias. & Nelirk., Yerli.

z.-b. Ges. Wien 1882, 413; (3) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1889, 18.

/.:. Urospiza iogaster (1) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 151.

For further synonyms and references see Salvador! y 7.

Figures and descriptions. Hombron & Jacquinot 6 J; Sclilegel d JJ, d 7, d 3\ Kaupe7;
Sliarpe ^7, g 2\ Salvador! y 7; W. Blasius & Nehrkorn y 2.

The absence of any exact locality for Bruggeroann’s Astur tenuirostris
(the type-specimen now bears no original label at all) renders it impossible
to decide at present whether A. tenuirostris is a new Celebesian species, or
A. hiogaster in young plumage, or whether the bird is really an inhabitant of
Celebes, or has been recorded from there owing to an erroneous label. Salva-
dor! (O. P. I, 48) does not mention Celebes as a locality for hiogaster^ and there-
fore does not acknowledge Jacquinot and Pucheran or express an opinion
on tenuirostris Brhggem. It is a priori not altogether likely that hiogaster of
Ceram and Amboina should occur in Celebes, especially as an ally of hio-
gaster, A. pallidiceps Salvad., belongs to the intermediate island of Burn, and
it always remains surprising that no other traveller obtained the bird in Celebes.
V. B 0 sen berg himself sent only one specimen of hiogaster from Amboina to the
Leyden Museum.

GENUS UROSPIZIAS Kaup amended by Giirney,

Hawks of rather small size, in structure hardly differing from Astur \ tail
long, crossed with 8- — 24 bars (Kaup); tarsus rather long, the upper fourth
feathered in front, toes moderate. About 20 local species, inhabiting Australia,
Papuasia, the Moluccas, the Lesser Sunda Islands to Lombok, Polynesia as far
as Fiji and the Mariannes.

q- 6. UROSPIZIAS TORQUATUS (T emm.).

Bufous-collared Hawk.

a. Falco torquatus “Cuv.” (I) Temm., PL Col. Krs. 43 ad., 93 juv. (1823).
h. Nisus torquatus (1) Sclil. , Mus. P.-B. Astures 1862, 39; (II) id., Yalkv. Ned. Ind, 1866,
25, 63, pi. 17, figs. 1 — 5; (3) id., Bev. Accip. 1873, 91.

c. Astur cruentus (1) Gould, P. Z. S. 1842, 113; (II) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 18?; (3) id.,

HB. B. Austr. 1 865, I, 43.

d. Astur torquatus (1) Sharpe, Oat, B. I, 1874, 125; (2) Hartert, Nov. ZooL 1896, 177.
Urospizias torquatus (1) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 365; (2) Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 60, 549;

(3) id.. Ibis 1881, 606; (4) Gurney, Ibis 1881, 263—66; (5) id., Dimm. B. of Prey
1884, 37; (6) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1889, 20; (7) Gurney jr., Ibis 1893, 349;
(8) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1896, XXXYI, 60.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvador! 2, 6.

16

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I\ Sclilegel b II\ ? Gould c II\ Sliarpe d 1\
Salvadori 2.

Adult. Above brownish slate-grey, paler on ear-coverts; a broad collar of rufous on
hind-neck and upper mantle; fore-neck and breast paler rufous, almost
uniform on jugulum, but taking the form of narrow pale rufous bars on a whitish
ground on breast, sides, abdomen and under wing-coverts; under tail-
coverts winter, thighs almost without bars ; tail like the upper parts, below whitish
grey, crossed with 10 — 12 almost obliterated dusky bars: wing 256 mm; tail 200;
tarsus 61 ; middle toe with claw ca. 45; culmen from cere 20 (ad. Dammar Id., near
Timor: Eiedel — ISTr. 6696).

Measurements, adult wing 195 mm, Q adult wing 230 mm (Hartert d 2).

Young. “Above brown; the feathers white at the base, some of this white being shown on
the liind-neck; all feathers margined with rusty rufous; shoulders deep rufous.
Underside white; chin, throat, and breast longitudinally striped with brown; abdomen
with more rounded pale rufous spots. Thighs entirely rufous, the feathers with paler
edges. Quills more distinctly barred than in adult birds” (Hartert d 2).
Distribution. Java?, Sumbawa, Flores, Samao, Timor, Babbar, N. & W. Australia, Hew
Guinea, Waigiou, Batanta (cf. Schlegel h 1, b 3; Salvadori 2, 6). In the Celebesian
Province — Djampea and Kalao Islands (Everett d 2].

In the above treatment of this species we have followed Count Salvadori,
though it should be pointed out that the late J. H. Gurney, J. H. Gurney
jnn,, and Dr. E. P. Bamsay hold a different op)inion in regard to its distinctness
in Australia and New Guinea. Temminck originally recorded its distribution
as N. Australia, Timor, and the Moluccas. Several specimens were recently ob-
tained by Mr. Everett in Djampea and Kalao between Flores and Celebes, and
recorded by Mr. Hartert, hence the inclusion of the species in the Celebes list.

In Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 42, Schlegel recorded under Nisns cmentus
a ad. (Nr. 10) said to have been collected in Celebes by Rein war dt. Later
(Rev. Acc. 1873, 88) it was included by him with 67 other specimens from various
localities under the title N. rufitorqiies, but the locality, Celebes, was then can-
celled and stated to be erroneous. This specimen is included by Count Salva-
dori in the synonymy of A. griseigularis of the Halmahera group.

An Astiir torquatus labelled “?Celebes” is recorded by Mr. Hartert in his
Katalog der Yog. Frankf. Mus. 1891, 180. As in the case of a specimen of
A. hiogaster in the Dresden Museum similarly labelled “? Celebes”, no authority
is given for the locality, and both in all probability are incorrect.

GENUS TACHYSPIZIAS Kaup amended by Gumey.

A small migratory Hawk, in structure very like Astur\ wing rather long
and pointed, quill longest, from carpus to the tip of the secondaries only
three-fifths of the length of the wing; bill moderate, tomia furnished with
a large festoon or almost-semicircular tooth, cere very large, convex
and bloated-looking; tarsi slender, upper fourth feathered anteriorly. Food:

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

17

insects; birds. Only one species, ranging from North China and Tenasserim
east as far as Waigion in Papuasia.

'■h 7. TAOHYSPIZIAS SOLOENSIS (Horsf.).

Horsfield’s Short-toed Hawk.

a. Falco soloensis Horsf., Tr. L. S. 1821, XIH, 137.

b. Falco cuculoid.es (I) Temm., PI. Col. 1823, Nrs. 110, 129 (juv. et ad.).

c. Astur soloensis Less., Man. d’Orn. 1828, I, 94; (I) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 114, pi. lY,

f. 1.; (2) Hume & Dayison, Str. F. 1878, VI, 8; (3) Bingham, Str. F. 1880, IX,
143; (4) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883, H, 180; (5) Guillem, P. Z. 8. 1885, 544;
(6) Everett, J. Str. Br. K. A. S. 1889, 180; (VI his) Murray, Avif. Brit. Ind.

1889, 20, fig.; (7) Sharpe, Ibis 1889, 68; 1890, 274; (8) Steere, Coll. B. Philip.

1890, 7, 5; (9) Styan, Ibis 1891,488; (10) He la Touche, Ibis 1892, 410; (11) Blanf.,
Faun, Br. India, B. Ill, 1895, 400.

d. Nisus minutus Less.; (1) Pucher., Bey. ZooL 1850, 210.

e. Nisus soloensis Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831, 60; (1) Schl, Mus. P.-B. Astines, 1862, 44; (II)

id., Valkv. 1866, 28, 66, pi. 19, f. 4—6; (3) id., Eev. Acc. 1873, 97.

f. Tachyspiza soloensis (1) Kaup, Classif. Saug. u. Yog. 1844, 117; (2) id., P. Z. S. 1867,

169, 172; (3) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 110; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56.

g. Micronisus soloensis (1) Gray, List Acc. B. M. 1848, 75; (2) Swinh., P. Z. S. 1863,

261; (3) id., P. Z. S. 1871, 342; (4) Yorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1891, 205; (5) id.,
ib. 1895, 318.

h. Micronisus badius Swinh. (nec Gm.), Ibis 1860, 359.

j. Accipiter virgatus Swinh. (nec Temm.), Ibis 1861, 264.

k. Astur cuculoides (I) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 115, pi. lY, f- 2; (2) David & Oust.

Ois. Cliine 1877, 24; (3) Styan, Ibis 1891, 488; (4) id. Ibis 1893, 333.

Tachyspizias soloensis (1) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 365, 366; (2) Salvad, Orn. Pap. 1880, I,
65; (3) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey, 1884, 32; (4) Pleske, Bull. Ac. Sc. Petersb.
1884, 113; (4a) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 544; (5) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1889, 21;
(6) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895 no. 8, p. 4; (7) iid., ib. 1895 Nr. 9, p. 1.

I Tachyspizias cuculoides fl) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 366; (2) id. (? subsp.). Diurn. B. of Prey
1884, 32.

“Meo”, Karkellang, Talaut Is., Nat. Coll.

“Sikep abu-abu mera”, Minabassa, iid.

For further references see Salvadori 2.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck h I; Scblegel e JI, e 1, e 3] Sharpe e J, k 7; Murray
c VI bis', Kaup f 1, f 2; Pucberan d 7; Gurney 7; Hume & Davison 2; Bingham
c 5; Salvadori 2; Oates c4; Yorderman g 4', Blanford c 11.

Adult Astur cuculoides”. Entire upper surface slate-grey with dark slate margins to the
feathers, the unexposed basal part of the feathers white; wing-coverts and quills
bkcker, ear -coverts smoke-grey; breast pale vinaceous-cinnamon ; abdomen and
sides varied with grey which tends to form into bars; remaining under parts
buffy white, the feathers on chin and throat having dark shaft-streaks; inner webs
of secondaries and basal parts of the inner webs of primaries below pure
white; distal ends of the latter black; tail below wliitish. crossed with about six
imperfect narrow dark bands. (Celebes: C 10480.)

Jleyer & Wi gl esw o rth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 4tii, 1897).

3

18

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

A second specimen, moulting (male), is similar to tliat described, and a
few brown feathers of immaturity among the scapulars and secondaries reveal the
fact that the pale vinaceous under surface of this form (known as T, cucidoides) is
not a result of age, but is assumed as the young dress is cast off. “Iris dark brown;
cere orange; feet gold yellow” {(f, Kema, N. Celebes, 3. Oct. 93; P. & F, Sarasin).

Adult in more rufous plumage: ^^Astur soloensis’\ Sunilar to the first-
described bird, but darker slaty above; the jugulum and breast rufous, obscurely
barred, the bars becoming more distinct on the flanks (Main, N. Celebes, 28. Peb.
1894: Nat. Coll. C 13239).

A young specimen (moulting), assuming adult plumage of the
rufous form, has the head, neck and mantle, and single feathers on the scapulars
and lower back, dark slate ; the wings (many remiges lost), tail, and other upper parts
in the brown plumage of the young; the breast (adult) deep rufous (Manado tua Id.,
end of May, 1894: Nat. Coll. C 1335:5).

Young. Very different from the adult: above brown (instead of slaty), darkest on head;
below white, broadly streaked on the breast with rufous, and barred on the abdomen,
flanks and tlnghs with j)aler rufous.

A young ■ specimen — Q, Mindoro — kindly lent to us by ' Mr. Nehrkorn
resembles Sc hi eg el’s figure (e II), but the streaks on the breast are larger and
broader; the upper surface more uniform; ear-coverts without any grey wash;
head dark clove-brown — almost black.

Eggs. Similar to those of Acdpiter nisus, white with a few dark brown convolutions and
blots at the small end: 39 X 30 mm (Nehrkorn in litt.).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen
of cere

a. (C 10480) ad. Celebes

198

130

45

13

h. (Nr. 6726) ? ad. Sangi

198

132

44

13

c. (C 13753) ad. Talaut Is., Nov. 1894 Nat. Coll.. . .

190

130

42

12.5

d. fC 13239) ad. Minahassa, Feb. 94 iid

199

133

43

13.5

e. (C 13358) vix ad. Manado tua Id., May 94 iid. . .

—

133

44

13.5

f. (Sarasin Coll.) (J' vix ad. Minahassa, 3. Oct. 93 (P. &F. S.)

190

126

43

12

Distribution. North China, Amoy, Foochow, Tientsin, Pescadores, etc. (Fortune^ 1, vSwinhoe
g 2, g 3)\ Tenasserim (Davison c2, Bingham c5); Nicobar Islands; Malacca;
Sumatra; Java; Philippines — hlindoro (Mus. Nehrkorn; Salvad. 2; Schl. e 1, e 5);
Palawan (Platen); Borneo (Mottley 2, Ussher, "Whitehead c 6, c 7); Talaut
Islands — Karkellang (Nat. Coll.); Sangi (v. Bosenb., Hoedt e 5; Meyer); Siao
(Hoedt e 3); Celebes — Northern Peinnsula (Forsten el, Bosenb. e 3, Meyer
f 3, f4, Gruillemard c 5)\ Sula Islands — Sida Besi (Bernsi, Hoedt e 5); Hal-
mahera; Ternate; Batchian; Morty; Gagie; ? New Guinea (Salvad. 2); Waigiou
(Platen 5).

Some strong grounds have been given for separating A. cuculoides Temm.
from A, soloensis Horsf. as a distinct species. Dr. B. B. Sharpe ik I) distin-
guishes A. cuculoides chiefly by its pale vinous under surface mixed with ashy,
and pure white under wing-coverts, from A. soloeiisis in which these parts are
vinous-chestnut and huffy white, respectively. The late J. H. Gurney (1) adds
from information supplied by Swinhoe, in whose cabinet he was able to exa-

Birds of Celebes: Balconidae.

19

I

mine specimens, that the two forms lay eggs which differ remarkably, and that
they have differently coloured irides. Nevertheless Gurney, at the time, was
doubtful about their specific distinctness, and, in his “List of the Diurn. B. of
Prey in Norwich Mus.” p. 32, he only admits A. cuculoides as a questionably
valid subspecies. It should be remembered, that both occur together in the
same localities — China, Java (Dresd. Mus.), Celebes, and, that at one time
Swinhoe was not quite sure of the correct nomenclature for A. soloensis^ A. vir-
gatus and A. hadius^ but on one or two occasions misemployed these names,
whence it appears not unjustifiable to suppose that the eggs in the Swinhoe
collection, referred to by Gurney as those of A. soJoensis and A. cuculoides, were in
reality those of M. soloensis andM. virgatus, especially as A. cuculoides is not men-
tioned by Swinhoe except in the synonymy of A. soloensis (g 2) and we are not
aware that any fourth species, corresponding to it, was ever spoken of by him.

After examining the series of these forms (nearly 70 in all) in the British
and- Leyden Museums (where is the type of T. cuculoides), in addition to six at
" Dresden, we at first were pf opinion that the pale, more uniform plumage of
T. cuculoides represents the old T. soloensis, especially the old male, though
there is one very pale sjDecimen at Leyden marked $ . There is a male in the
British Museum, assuming the adult dress, which is of as dark a rufous on the
breast as the female, viz. specimen “fcf ad. Pescadores (Swinhoe)” of Dr. Sharpe’s
Catalogue (cl) which retains some immature plumage; other specimens, mostly
males, if sexed, in the Leyden Museum afford transitions between such and the
type of cuculoides. But this supposition — that the pale vinous specimens are
always old — is controverted by a specimen (cf) in the Sarasin Collection
described above; it is in the pale plumage of T. cuculoides, but a few brown
feathers not yet moulted show that it is only a second year’s bird. The only
conditions possible seem to be, therefore, either that T. soloensis and cuculoides
are two distinct species, as Sharj)e supposed, or that they form one species which
varies a good deal in the intensity of the rufous on the breast and slaty on the
back. The presence of intermediate specimens, the perfect agreement of the
two forms in structure, and their occurrence in the same localities, are argu-
ments against their being two S23ecies; we believe the other explanation to be
the correct one.

Very little has been recorded of the habits of A. soloensis. Kaup, examining
the peculiar formation of the bill, believed himself justified in pronouncing
that its food, especially when it has young, would prove to consist only of in-
sects (f2)] in Celebes v. Rosenberg found it to be “ein Hauptinsectenvertilger”
(Malay. Archip. 1878, 271). We cannot put much stress upon either of these
two statements. The specimen obtained by Zelebor during the visit of the
“Novara” to Kar Nicobar was shot, however, while it was unsuccessfully chasing
an Oriolus macrourus (Novara-Reise, Yog. p. 12).

When a species is found to range far over a group of islands and yet
develop no differences of coloration in the various localities, it is usually safe

20

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

to assume that it is migratory. In the present case, in the absence of any direct
statements to this effect, the dates, which have been recorded by various authors,
tend to show that, while the species breeds in China (Swinhoe), it descends in
the cold season with the N. E. monsoon into the Malay Peninsula and the East
Indian Archipelago and stays till the S. W. monsoon begins, — that is to say
from September-October to March. We make this statement with spme hesi-
tation, inasmuch as it is certain that some specimens remain behind (though
perhaps not south of the equator), a specimen in the Leyden Museum having-
been obtained in Morty Island by Bernstein on August P*, 1861.

On the other hand, all the dates but one, which we have been able
to find, point to its being a migratory species. Davison and Bingham speak
of it as a rare straggler in Tenasserim, and a specimen given to Swinhoe by
Captain Ebert fiew on board ship off the Pescadores early in May, facts which
also point to migration.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9,

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Q ad. Amoy, China,

$

Cf

$

o

22.

15.

20.

ad. Amoy, China,
Ningpo,

? N. China,

Amoy,

Amoy,
ad. Pescadores,

? Pescadores,

§ Thoungyeen, Tenasserim

1.

25.

31.

11.

20.

9.

juv. Tenasserim,

Q juv. Nicobar Is.,

? Nicobar Is.,

$ juv. Nicobar Is.,

Q juv. Salangore,

— juv. Malacca,
ad. Mindoro,

$ juv. Mindoro,

— ad. Labuan,

— juv. Labuan,

— juv. Labuan,

? Kini Balu, Borneo, 26

— ad. Talaut Is.,

Q ad. Sangi,

Q juv. Sangi,

Cf juv. Sangi,

(J' ad. Sangi,

ad. Sangi,

$ ad. Sangi,

1^ juv. Celebes,

? Celebes,

— imm. Manado tua Id.,

— ad. N. Celebes,

vix ad. N. Celebes, 3.

3.

24.

3.

22.

April 1867 (Swinhoe) Sharpe, cl.

April 1867 (Swinhoe) Sharpe, cl.

May 1874 (Swinhoe) in Brit. Mus.

April 1884 (Fortune Coll.) in Brit. Mus.
Aiu’ill867 (Swinhoe) in Brit. Mus.

Sej)t. 1866 (SAvinhoe) in Brit. Mus.

April 1866 (Swinhoe) Sharpe c I.

May 1866 (Ebert) Swinhoe (? same as Nr. 3).
12. April 1880 (Bingham) in Brit. Mus.

Oct. 1875 (Hough) in Brit. Mus.

Dec. 1873 (Wimberley) in Brit. Mus.

Feb. (Zelebor) Pelz, Novara, Yog. 12,
Jan. 1874 (Wimberley) in Brit. Mus.

Nov. 1879 (Davison) in Brit. Mus.

Feb. 1880 (Davison) in Brit. Mus.

April 1890 (Platen) in Mus. Nehrk.

Sept. 1890 (Platen) in Mus. Nehrk.

Dec. 1889 (Everett) in Brit. Mus.

Dec. 1889 (Everett) in Brit. Mus.

Feb. 1883 (Everett) in Brit. Mus.

• Feb. 1887 (Whitehead) Everett, c 6'.

Nov, 1894 (Nat. Coll.)

Jan. 1866 (Hoedt) Schl. e 3.

Oct. 1864 (Posenb.) Schl. e 3.

Nov. 1864 (Posenb.) Schl. e 3.

Oct. 1865 (Hoedt) Schl. e 3.

Oct. 1865 (Hoedt) Schl. e 3.

Oct. 1865 (Hoedt) Schl. e 3.

Sejjt. 1863 (Posenb.) Schl. e 3.

Mch. 1871 (Meyer) f 4.

May 1894 (Nat. Coll.'.

Feb. 1894 (Nat. Coll.j.

Oct. 1893 (P, & F. Sarasin).

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

21

34. Q ad. Sula,

35. $ juv. Sula,

36. ad. Morty,

37. c5' ad. Morty,

38. — Ternate

39. ? Ternate,

40. Q ad. Gagie,

Eeb. 1864 (Bernst.) Sclil. e 3.
Dec. 1864 (Bernst.) Sclil. e 3.
1. Aug. 1861 (Bernst.) Sclil. e 3.

1 Dec. 1861 (Bernst.) Schl. e 3.
28. Dec. 1879 (Fischer) Pleske, 4
Dec. 1874 (Bruijn) Salvad. 2.
14. ISTov. 1864 (Bernst.) Schl. e 3.

Dr. Steere (c 8) obtained the species in Mindanao in October or December.
The apparent absence from South Celebes, though many specimens have
been obtained in the north during our winter, is also indicative of migration.

GENUS SPILOSPIZIAS Salyad.

A small weak-winged Haivk, peculiar to Celebes, and easily recognisable
there by the three rows of large, round spots of white on the tail, P oint o f
wing very blunt, the 3''^ and 6*’' primaries only about 4 mm shorter than the
4*^ and the secondaries relatively long, the distance from the carpus to the
tip of the inner ones being about five-sixths the length of the wing; tail
rounded and slightly decurved; tomia with a large festoon; cere small,
short, and dark in colour; toes much as in Tachyspizias^ but the anterior
claws blunter and straighter ; food unknown. Only one species, evidently strictly
stationary, as it differs racially in North and South Celebes.

^ * 8. SPILOSPIZIAS TRINOTATUS (Bp.).

White-spot Hawk.

Plate I.

It is not surprising to find that this weak-winged Celebesian Hawk differs
racially to some extent in the Northern and the Southern Peninsulas of the
island. The two races are:

H 1. The typical Spilospizias trinotatus.

a. Accipiter trinotatus [1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 33 [ex Temm. , MS.]; Strickl. , Orn. Syn.

1855, 115; (2) Wall,, Ibis 1868, 8 pt.; Gray, HL. 1869, I, 34.
h. Astur trinotatus Bp., Bev. Zool. 1850, 490; (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 101, pt.; (2)
Briiggeni. , Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 44; (3) Guillem., P, Z. S, 1885, 544.

c. Sparvius trinotatus Bp., Rev. Zool. 1854, 538.

d. Nisus trinotatus (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 15; (II) id., Valkv. 1866, 27, 65,

pi. 19, f. 1—3; (3) id.. Rev. Acc. 1873, 90.

e. Erythrospiza trinotata (1) Kaup, P, Z. S. 1867, 172; Walden, Tr, Z. S. 1872, YIH, 33;

(2) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 55; (3) Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes, 1889, 87.

f. Erythrospizias trinotatus (1) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 364; (2) id.. Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 32.

g. Spilospiza trinotata (1) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1876, 643; W. Bias., J. f. 0.

1883, 134.

li. Spilospizias trinotatus (1) Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 47; (2) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd.
1895, Nr. 8, p. 4; (3) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897.

22

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

“Sikip-batta-batta”, Mnahassa, Meyer e 2. '

“Sikep abu-abu”, Manado, Guillem, b 3.

“Sikep werreng selak”, Alfurous, Mnabassa (Nat. Coll.).

Figures and descriptions. Scblegel d IT, d 1, d 5; Bonaparte a i; Kaup e J; Sharpe bl\
Gurney /"I; Briiggem. b 2,

Adult male . Above slate-grey, blacker on the upper tail-coverts ;quillsabove blacldsh, notched
on the inner webs towards the base of the feathers with wlute; wing below and
under wing-coverts white, free end of wing below grey; tail black, marked on'
the inner webs of the feathers with tlmee rows of large white spots, intervals of
about 25 mm separating the rows; on the' outer webs of the feathers almost oblite-
rated brownish spots corresponding to the white ones are just discernible; tail narrowly
tipped with white, mainly confined to the inner webs; ear-coverts smoke-grey, paler
on chin and throat; below rufous vinaceous-cinnamon, pabng into whitish on thighs,
flanks and under tail-coverts Tomohon, hlinahassa, 7. IV. 94: P. &B. Sarasin);
bill and cere above the nostrils black; cheeks and orbits orange-yellow; feet
deep orange-yellow; iris chrome-yellow (Wall. 2).

Young. Head and neck dark brown with ferruginous borders to the feathers; entire
upper surface dark cimiamon-rufous, tail varied with black — the rufous predo-
minating on the outer webs, the black on the inner — and marked as in the adult
with three rows of large wliite sj)ots on the inner webs, and tijpped on the inner
webs vitb white; under surface fulvous white, marked with long stripes of blackish
brown on the breast and sides, and with a narrow dark streak down the middle of
the throat; under wing-coverts and base of wing fulvous white ; quills below
reddish, marked on inner webs towards the bases of the feathers with short bars of
blackish not extending completely across the web. (Manado,'Nr. 6733).

Changing plumage. Another specimen is in a stage midway between the above described young
plumage and that of the adult: middle parts of upper surface slaty grey as in the
' adult, with some cinnainon-rufous tipped feathers about the occiput and mantle ; first
prbpary and one or two of the secondaries cinnamon -rufous, the rest dark slaty;
shoulders and scapulars cinnamon -rufous .varied with slaty; breast vinaceous-cinna-
mon varied with a few broad streaks of dark brown, particularly on the left side of
the specimen (Tondano, Aug. — Sept. 1892: Nat. Ooll. — C 10790).

A very similar example in process of assuming the adult dress is in the Sarasin
Collection. (See plate). “His, malar skin, and feet yellow; bill black” {(f imm., Kema,
31. July 1893).

jments ,

"Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (Nr. 8150) (;f Manado

170.

148

55

b. fNr. 6731) ad. Manado

164

146

52

14

e. (Nr. 6732) ad. Manado '.

180

148

56

16

d. (c 10848) ad. Manado, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

165

145

55

15

e. (c 10849) ad. Manado, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

164

150

51

15

f. (c 10790) vix ad. Tondano, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.)

172

150

52

14.5

g. (Nr. 6733) juv. Manado

160

138

49

13.5

h. (c 10850) juv. Manado, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

164

144

51

15

(Sarasin Coll.) (J* ad. Tomohon, N. Cel. 7. April 94

155

130

53

12.5

j. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Masarang, N. Cel. 9. Oct. 94

166

141

54

14

A’. (Sarasin Coll.) vix ad. Kema, N. Cel. 31. July 93

169

140

51

15

1. (Sarasin Coll.) juv. Kema, N. Cel. -13. Sept. 93

173

136

53

—

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

23

Distribution. Northern peninsula of Celebes: IMinabassa (Wallace a 2, b 1, Rosenberg d 3,
Meyer e 2, Beccari g 1, etc.), Gorontalo District (Forsten cl 1) , TaHssi Island
(Hickson e5); Tawaya and Dongola, W. Celebes (Doherty h 3).

' 2. Spilospizias trinotatus haesitandus Hartert.

i. Aecipiter trinotatus pt. (1) Wall., Rais 1868, 8 (Macassar).'

I Astur trinotatus (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 101, pt. (Macassar); (2) Biittik, Zool. Erg.
Webers Reise 1893, HI, 271 (Bare-Bare).

Spilospizias trinotatus haesitandus (IJ Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, Hi, 162, (2) id., ib. 1897.

Diagnosis. Differs from the typical S. trinotatus of the N. Beninsula in having the ab-
domen paler, white for its greater part., the vent and under tail-coverts pure white,
the thighs pure wliite or with a very fain,t rosy shade on their U23per part only
(Hartert 1). In the typical form these parts are whitish, washed with pink buff.

Measurements.

1

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (C 15443) 2
(Everett) .

ad. (cotype) Indrulaman, 'S.'Cel. Sepjt. 95

175

143

52

16

Distribution. Southem Beninsula, Celebes: Macassar (W allace i 7, j i), Bare-Bare (W ebery 2),
Beak of Bonthain (Everett 1), Doherty k 2.

The differences between tliis form and the northern birds are slight and aj)pa-
rently not always pronounced.

This little Celebesian Hawk, which Mr. Wallace speaks of as one of the
most beautiful Hawks of the East, much resembles Accignter minullus of South
Africa in the unusual markings of the tail, but differs from it and other species
in so far that it must be placed in a genus or, better, subgenus for itself.
In 1867 Kaup) made the genus Erytkrospiza for this sj^ecies and A. hiogaster
and griseigularis , but later the two latter species were very properly removed
by Gurney and E. trinotatus made the sole representative of the genus, the
name of which he amended to Ergthrospizias. Count Salvadori, almost simultane-
ously, pointed out that Erythrospiza had been employed already by Bonap>arte
for a Loxiine genus; and he advanced the name Spilospiza^) in its stead (g 1).
The original description of Erythrospiza as apj)lying to S. trinotatus is imp)erfect
and misleading; an analysis of the original description of the two genera Ery-
throspiza and Teraspiza ( = Aecipiter) shows that the only tangible means men-
tioned for distinguishing between the two forms consists in the statement that
in Teraspiza the inner vanes of the first four jnimaries are emarginated, while
in Erythrospiza the emarginations extend to the fifth; but even this does not
hold good for E. trinotatus in which the emarginations are usually only slightly-
cut out on the second, third and fourth, and not at all on the fifth primary.

trinotatus in reality differs markedly from Terasp)iza — taking T. rhodogaster
for comparison — in the rounded j)oint of the wing, there being little difference

ij We prefer Spilospizias to Spilosjnzn, as G-urney did for other accipitrine genera with names ending
in spiza, because aniCa means any small chirping bird, whereas ampins is a falcon or sparrow-hawk.
(aniloi; = spot.)

24

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

in length, between the 4*^^, 5^^ and 6*^ primaries; in the blunt, weak ends
of these feathers, significant of quiet flight; in the rounded tail; in the relatively
much shorter toes, especially the middle one; whereas T. rhodogaste)\ which
cannot be separated from Accipiter (as likewise the other members of Teraspiza),
has the point of the wing and the tips of the individual feathers sharpened,
hard and strong; the (about 12 mm) and succeeding primaries much short-
ened; the tail square; the toes — especially the middle one — lengthened.
Doubtless the two birds differ much in habits.

From Urospizias hiogaster and griseigularis which were included in the same
genus by Kaup, but removed by Gurney, S. trimtatus differs chiefly in its
short, rounded and weak wings, its less massive beak, and in its curiously
marked and weak tail-feathers. Spilospizias stands as a genus on a somewhat
better footing than Tachgspizias , Urospizias^ Scelospizias and others into which
the great genus Accipiter with its eighty or ninety species has been split up.
Whether it be advisable to recognize these small divisions at all is very doubt-
ful, but if once the subdivision of Accipiter into Accipiter and Astur is made,
the other subdivisions appear necessary. The student of general ornithology
would do well, and be sufficiently within the bounds of accuracy in speaking
of this great body of Hawks broadly under the generic name Accipiter. Although
Spilospizias is an interesting Celebesian form, it cannot be looked upon as of
equal importance with Meropogon.^ Basileornis^ Scissirostrum^ etc.

On the island of Talissi just off the jSiortheastern extremity of the Mina-
hassa Dr. Hickson speaks of this Hawk as “a bird often seen on the orange
trees and the higher branches of the trees in the mangrove swamps”. Nothing
is known with certainty about its breeding habits, but it is probable that it
makes its nest in mountain districts, where the young birds remain until they
have assumed the adult plumage. From December to March 1870-71 young
birds were not met Avith by Meyer in the plains near Manado, and the natives
asserted that they did not occur there; on the other hand, in June one or more
young specimens were shot at a height of 2000 ft. near Kakas on Lake Ton-
dano (e 2). The Dresden Museum has, hoAvever, since received 3 young
examples from the neighbourhood of Manado.

GENUS ACCIPITER Briss.

The Sparrow-hawks are of small size, distinguishable from Astui\ etc. by
their long slender toes, the middle one being especially prolonged,
overreaching the others by the entire length of the claAV or more;
tarsus slender, rather long, the upper fourth feathered anteriorly; tomia festooned;
wing rather short, secondaries reaching about three-fourths the length of the
Aving. Preys chiefly upon birds. Eggs 3 — 6. About 23 species, migratory and
stationary, of almost cosmopolitan distribution.

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

25

* 9. ACOIPITER RHODOGASTER (Schl.).

Vinous-breasted Sparrow-hawk.

a. Nisus virgatus rhodogaster (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 32.

Accipiter rhodogaster (1) Gurney, Ibis 1863, 450; (2) 'Wall., ib. 1868, 7; Gray, HL.
1869, I, 33; (3) Sbarpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 145; (4) Gurney, Ibis 1875, 471, 484;
(5) Briiggein., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, 45; (6) Gurney, Ibis 1882, 452; (7)idi.^
Dimm. B. of Prey 1884, 39; (8) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 545; (9) W. Bias.,
Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1886, 85; (11) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, ISTr. 8 p. 4;

(12) iid., ib. 1896, Vr. 1, p. 4; (13) Hartert, Nov. ZooL 1896, 162; (14) id., ib. 1897.

h. Nisus rhodogaster (I) ScbL, Yalkv. 1866, 21, 60, f)l. 12, f. 5, 6; (2) id., Bev. Acc.
1873, 76.

c. Teraspiza rhodogaster (1) Kaup, P. Z. S. 1867, 171.

d. Teraspiza rhodogastra (I) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIII, 33, 109, joL IX jiw.); (2)

Meyer, Ibis 1879, 55; (3) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 134.

“Sikep werreng kokie”, Alfurous, near Tondano, X. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

Figures and descriptions. ScbL, 5 7, b 2\ Walden 7 7; Kaup c 7; Sliarj)e 5; Gurney 4, 6.

Adult Q. Above dark slate-grey, paler on the ear-coverts and sides of neck; wing-

coverts blackish; quills and tail above browner, obscurely crossed with dark
bars, these bars are very distinct below on a pale greyish brown ground, 7 or 8 in
number on outermost rectrice, 4 or 5 on the middle feathers, and about 9 on the
longest primary; under wing-coverts fulvous white mottled with grey; chin and
throat greyish white; breast, sides and upper abdomen rufous -vinaceous-
cinnamon; lower abdomen and thighs pale grey, shghtly varied with rufous;
crissum and under tail-coverts white. ((T' ad. Tomohon, N. Cel. 10. April 1894:
Sara^in Coll.) “Bill black; cere dusky yellow; feet yellow; iris bright chrome-
yellow” (Wallace).

The female is very much larger than the male ; the upper parts are blackish slate, the under
wing-coverts buff-white with blackish spots thereon, the bars on the tail plainer and
more decided; in other respects like the male. ([Q] Manado: Meyer Nr. 6722).

Young. Kestrel-like. Above bright hazel-rufous, the quills and tail crossed with four bars,
and the wing- and tail-coverts and back marked with large heart-shaped spots of
black; head and neck dark brown with fine rufous margins to the feathers; below
buffy white, finely streaked about the sides of the face and down the centre and
sides of the throat with blackish, and broadly streaked with blackish brown on the
remaining under parts (with the exception of the under tail-coverts); under wing-
coverts deeper buff, the loAvest row spotted with brown, which is present as a few
fine streaks on some of the others; secondaries crossed with five dark bars,
primaries with about seven. (N. Celebes: v. Musschenbroek Nr. 6721).

Measurements.

AYing

Tail

Tarsus

BiU

from cere

m (Nr. 6723) [Q] ad. N. Celebes (Kiedel)

211

156

63

16

b. (Nr. 6722) [Q] ad. Manado, N. Cel. (Meyer) . . .

212

157

60

16

c. (Sarasin Coll.) [$] juv. Kema, N. Cel end Sept. 93

201

151

57

15

d. (C 10789) [(^] ad. Manado, VIII— IX. 92 (Nat. Coll.)

167

125

53

12

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Mt. Soputan, N. Cel. 16. IV. 95

166

120

51

11.5

/'. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Tomohon, N. Cel. 10. IV. 94 .

161

116

51

11.5

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. (jth, 1897).

26

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

(Measurements continued.)

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from cere

g. (Sarasin Coll.) vix ad. E. of Peak of Bonthain,

c. 900 m. S. Cel. 25. X. 95

170

125

54

12.5

h. (Sarasin Coll.) juv. Tomohon, N. Cel. 3. X. 94 .

168

129

50

12.5

i. (Nr. 6721) [(y’] juv. N. Celebes (v. Musschenhr.) .

161

122

51.5

13

Distribution. Celebes: Minabassa (v. Eosenberg h 2, v. Duivenbode b 2, d 3, etc.), G-orontalo
Distr. (Forsten a 1, Eosenberg h 2, Eiedel 9], Soutbern peninsula — Macassar
(Wallace 2, 3, Everett 13), Mt. Bontbain (P, & F. Sarasin, Everett 13), Dongala,
W. Celebes (Doberty 14).

Nothing is known of the habits of this Hawk. It was made the type of
Kaup’s genus Teraspiza, but the distinguishing characters giyen are very slight
and the differences not appreciable at first sight. How insufficient they are may
be gathered from the fact that even Kaup failed to see that the allied
A. sulaeTisis, of which he had a specimen, belonged to the same genus, and
placed it in another [Uraspiza Kaup), though Schlegel would not allow it
later even subspecific distinction from A. rhodogaster (c h 2). It is distin-
guishable from that slightly differentiated geographical sjDecies by the bars on
the wing below being nearly twice as broad, and in the male they are noticeable
down to the tip of the wing, whereas in the male of A. sulaensis the bars are
quite obliterated on the free end of the wing for about 4 cm; the Sula form
also seems to be smaller. It is interesting to find that a closely corresponding
process of wing-differentiation and of size has occurred in the Celebesian and
Sulan forms of Spilornis (cf. antea, pp. 2, 4). Accipiter sulaensis differs further by
its vinous (not grey) ear-coverts.

The resemblance of this Sparrow-hawk to the White-spot Hawk, Spilospizias
trinotatus^ is very perfect, though the curious white spots on the tail of the
latter, and the structural differences pointed out in our article (p. 24), at once
serve to distinguish them. What is more remarkable is that the young, which
are totally different from the parents, are closely similar in both species. Moreover,
the young, especially at least that of A. rhodogaster (by reason of the plain
bars on the wings and tail), are just like Kestrels! The young of birds by their
first dress often seem to “throw back” to a distant ancestral form, but the in-
dications generally seem as if obscured by superimposed influences inherited
from the parents, and, when not so obscured, the question comes in, wEether
the similarity really has the meaning which one is prompted to attach to it.

^ * 10. ACCIPITER SULAENSIS (Schl.).

Sula Vinous-breasted Sparrow-hawk.

a. Nisus sulaensis (I) Schl., Valkv. 1866, 26, 64, pi. 16, f. 3, 4.

b. Uraspiza sulaensis (1) Kaup, P. Z. S. 1867, 176.

Accipiter sulaensis (1) Wall., Ibis, 1868, 10, 20; Gray, HL. 1869, I, 34; (2) Sharpe, Cat. B.
1874, I, 146; (3) Gurney, Bjis, 1875, 484; (4) M. & Wg., Ahh. Mus. Dresden
1896, Nr. 2, p. 7.

Birds of Celebes: Ealconidae.

27

c. Nisus rhodogaster (1) ScliL, B,ev. Acc. 1873, 76 pi (Siila),

d. Urospizias sulaensis (1) Salvad., Orn. Paj). 1880, I, 65.

e. Accipiter sulaensis subsp. Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 39.

“Alaji sasoko”, Banggai Id., Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Schl. a J, c 1\ Kaup b 1\ Sharpe 2.

Adult male. Similar to the adult male of A. ^'liodogaster^ but the cheeks vinaceous-cinnamon
with a grey shade (instead of dark grey), chin and throat whiter vinaceous, the dark
bars on the wing below much narrower and absent on the distal 40 mm of the
wing, no bars distinguishable on the outermost tail-feather, the others also more in-
distinct ad. Banggai Id., Y — YIII. 95, Nat. Ooll. — 0 14627).

Female. Very much larger than the male. Differs from the female of A. rhodogaster by
having the bars on the wing [and tail much narrower, those on the outermost tail-
feather partly obhterated; cheeks vinaceous grey ([§] ad. Peling Id. V — VIII- 95:
Nat. Ooll. — C 14502).

Immature. The under parts as in the adult male ; above with the rufous, Kesti’el-like plumage
of the young, varied with the slate-grey feathers of the adult ([0^] Banggai, V — YIII.
95 : Nat. Coll. — 0 14626).

Measurements.

\

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen
from cere

a. (C 14502) [5] ad. Peling

185

135

56

15

b. (C 14627) [0^] ad. Banggai

160

118

48

13

c. fC 14626) [0^] imm. Banggai

—

115

49

13

Distribution. Sula and Peling groups: Sula Besi (Bernstem a I, c 1, b 1)\ Banggai (Nat.
Coll.), Peling (Nat. Coll).

Schlegel did not admit the validity of this local sj>ecies in 1873 (c 2),
hut it was again uj)held hy Sharpe (2), and after examining the type, we agree
with the latter in holding the two forms distinct. It is a very rare species in
collections. Gurney (3) once remarked that the type appeared to be the only
specimen extant in any collection; there was, however, a second in Darmstadt
(b 1)\ five are now known. The young one discribed by Kaup at the same
time as that of this species is probably either A. rubricollis W all. or A, hiogaster
S. Mull., as is pointed out by Schlegel (cl) and Salvador! (cl 1). A. sulaensis
varies geographically in Sula in the same manner as Spilornis rufipectus sulaensis.

11. ACCIPITEK VIRGATUS (Temm.).

Jungle Sparrow-hawk.

This species apparently consists of the following subspecies:

1. The typical Accipiter virgatus.

a. Falco virgatus Temm., PI. Col. 1823, Nr. 109 (Java).

See also; Schl.,’ Yalkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 20, 59, pi. 12, f. 1—4; Sharpe, Str. F. 1879,

4*

28

Birds of Celebes; Balconidae.

yni, 440; Gurney, t. c. 443; Hume, Str. F. 1880, IX, 231; Legge, B. Ceylon,
1880, 26; Oates, B. Brit. Burinali, 1883, H, 182; Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey,
1884, 39, 164 — 177; Blanforcl, Faun. Br. Ind., B. HI 1895, 404; Grant, Ibis
1896, 104—109.

Diagnosis. Size small, breast in adult male rufous, in female browner, upj)er surface slaty
(after Gurney).

Distribution; Java (type), Sumatra (Mus. Leyd.), Malay Peninsula, Burmali, India and the
Himalayas (Hume), Ceylon (Legge).

2. Accipiter virgatus affinis (Hdgs.).

b. Accipiter affinis Hodgs. in Gray’s Zool. Misc. 1844, 81.

c. Accipiter virgatus (1) Sharpe, Str. F. 1879, VHI, 440—442 pt. (larger race of inner

Himalayas); (2) Gurney, t. c. 443; (3) Hartert, Xov, Zool. 1894, 482.

d. Accipiter gularis Hume (nee. T. & S.), Str. F. 1880, IX, 231; Oates, B. Brit. Burmah,

1883, H, 183, pt.

e. Accipiter virgatus affinis Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 39, 168 — 173.

Diagnosis. Size large, breast chocolate-brown rufous (after Gurney).

Distribution. Himalayas from Sikkim to Mussorie (Hume); Formosa! (Gurney — in migration?).

(3?). Accipiter virgatus manilensis (Meyen).

f. Accipiter manillensis (1) Meyen, Xova Acta Acad. Leojj. 1834, XVI, Supj)l. p. 69, pi. IX;

(2) Grant, Ibis 1894, 503; (3) Grant, Ibis 1895, 438; (4) Bourns & Worces.,
B. Menage Exped. 1894, 32.

g. Accipiter stevensoni Tweed., P. Z. S. 1878, 938, pi. LVH.

h. Accipiter virgatus manillensis Gurney, Diimi. B. of Prey 1884, 40, 173 — 177.
Diagnosis. Size small, breast of adult female as rufous as in the male, above somewhat

broAvuer than the typical form.

Distribution. Philippine Islands; — Luzon (Meyen, IV. Bamsay, Whitehead /’2), Min-
danao (Everett).

-f 4. Accipiter virgatus gularis (T. & S.).

i. Astur (Nisus) gularis (I) Temm. & ScliL, Faun. Jap. Aves, 1845, 5, pi. H.

j. Accipiter nisoides (1) Blyth, J. A, S. B. 1847, XVI, 727, (2) id.. Ibis 1865, 28; 1866,

240; 1870, 158; (3) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 40, 165 — 177; (4) id., Ibis,
1887, 362; (5) Gigl. & Salvad., P.Z.S. 1887, 581; (6) De La Touche, Bus 1892, 485.

k. Accipiter stevensoni (I) Gurney, Ibis 1863, 447, pi. XI; (2) Swdnhoe, ib. 1874, 430;

f3J Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874,1, 152 (note); (4) Gurney, Ibis 1875,482; Sharpe,
Str. F. 1879, VHI, 442; (6) Gurney, Ibis 1880, 217; (7) Hume, Str. F. 1880,
109, 231; (8) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 29; (9) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883,
n, 183.

l. Accipiter virgatus (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 150, partun; (2) David & Oust., Ois.

Chine 1877, 26; (3J Styan, Ibis 1887, 233; (4) Sharpe, ib. 1889, 68; Everett,
J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 180; (6) Styan, Bois, 1891, 326, 488; (7) Hose, Ibis
1893, 418; (8) Everett, Ibis 1895, 38; {?9) De La Touche, ib. 337.

m. Accipiter gularis (1) Gurney, Ibis, 1875, 481 — 484, pt. ; (2) id. Str. F. 1879, VHI, 443;

(3) Seebohm, B. Japan. Emp. 1890, 205; (4] id., Ibis 1893, 52; (5) Grant, Ibis

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

29

1896, 104; {6} Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 177; {!) Blanf. , Fauna Br. Ind. B. HI,
1895, 405.

n. ?Teraspiza virgatus (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 141.

0. ?Accipiter stephensoni fl) Kiitter, J. f. O. 1883, 294.

Diagnosis. The harring on the under parts of the female continued up to the throat,
while in the females of the A. virgatus group the chest is, on the whole, longi-
tudinally marked and blotched, or nearly uniform in coloim, in contrast to the
barred breast and under parts; the ashy black line down the middle of the white
throat very narrow, in A. virgatus much wider and more strongly marked. In A.
gularis the fourth primary quill is considerably longer than the fifth, in A. virgatus
only slightly longer. (Glrant m 5). Sharpe says A. gukiris has a shorter middle
toe (c. 28 mm as against 30.5).

Distribution. Siberia and Mantchuria (David I 2)\ Corea (Prince of Savoy j 5); North
China (David I 2, etc.); South China (Styan I 3, I 6, T)e La Touche y d); Jaj>an (Glur-
ney j 3, Seeb. w 5); Philippines? (Meyer n 1, Grurney j 5); Cochin China (Gurney
j 5); Natuna Islands (Conrad m 2)\ Malacca (Wallace k 5); Sumatra (Gurney j 5);
Java (Gurney j 5); Timor (Wallace k 5)\ Palawan (Everett I 8); Borneo (Everett,
Whitehead, Mottley I 3, I 4); North Celebes (Biedel in Petersb. Mus.); Djampea
(Everett, fide Hartert m 3).

5. Accipiter virgatus rufotibialis (Sharpe).

p. Accipiter rufotibialis Sharpe, Bns 1887, 437; id., ib. 1889, 68, pi. H; id., ib. 1890, 274;

Everett, J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 181; Hose, Bois 1893, 418.

Diagnosis. Under tail-coverts uniform chestnut, tliighs cliestnut.

Distribution. Mt. Eani Balu, Borneo (Whitehead).

The above subdivision of this troublesome and badly understood species is
based chiefly upon the conclusions of Gurney, Hume, Sharpe and O. Grant,
but it can only, we think, be regarded as a provisional one. In his elaborate
and careful article on A. virgatus (I 3), Gurney distinguished three forms of this
species, viz: the typical one, A. virgatus^ a large race of the Himalayas
(A. afftnis subsp.) and a third, differing in coloration, from the Philippines
{A. rnanilensis subsp.). Gurney distinguishes these from the typical form as
follows :

“The larger form (afjirds) chiefly differs, as regards coloration, from the
typical A. virgatus (the range of which is decidedly more southern, though both
races inhabit the most northerly parts of India) in the bright rufous, which
usually characterizes the under surface of the old males of A. virgatus, being-
replaced in those of the northern race by a non-rnfous chocolate brown”.
“The nearly allied hawk of the Philippine Islands (A. manilensis subsp.) is re-
markable for having the rufous colouring of the breast as strongly developed
in the adult female as in the male, which I believe is never the case in the
typical A. virgatus-, and, in addition to this, it also differs from A. virgatus in
the somewhat browner and less slaty tint of the upper surface, and in the dark
gular stripe being, in some adult specimens, much less distinctly marked.”

30

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

A fourth form, which we have termed A. virgatus gularis (T. & S.), is treated
by Gurney as a distinct species — A. nisoides Blyth^). The means of distinguish-
ing this form from the typical A. virgatus are not pointed out; Dr. E. B. Sharpe,
however, considers it^) “a paler breasted form of A. virgatus with a shorter
middle toe (28 mm as against 30.5 mm circa), the female being barred under-
neath with brown, but not with rufous. It ranges from China down the Malay
Peninsula, to Java and Timor, visiting these localities in winter” (k 5). Hume
speaks of it as wanting the central gular stripe, but this does not always hold
good, — at least for Chinese birds (k7). Mr. Ogilvie Grant (m 5) has quite
recently re-investigated this species, arriving at much the same result as
Mr. Gurney, and holding A. gularis for a good species. Whether treated as
a species or a subspecies does not lessen the difficulty of determining it, and
Grant’s careful analysis seems to be applicable only to the old female.
Mr. Hartert (m 6), with Gurney’s and Grant’s results before him, found
much difficulty in determining Everett’s 3 examples from Djampea; the wing-
formula and the markings on the breast did not correspond with Grant’s diagno-
sis. When the migration of the subspecies is taken into consideration, it is
probable rather that they were the tgpical A. virgatus than the East Asiatic form,
gularis^ which in conformity with many other migrants from the north might be
expected not to travel so far south.

Dr. Sharpe’s A. rufotihialis may be distinguished from the others by its
red thighs.

Facts, as at present understood, appear to point to the circumstance that
A. virgatus in the warmer parts of its distribution is stationary and has become
modified there into several local races; in winter, however, these localities are
invaded by quantities of individuals migrating southwards from China, Japan and
probably elsewhere, where they have developed some racial differences, and
which noAV become intermingled with the stationary races, and this circumstance
makes a satisfactory understanding of the species hardly possible at the present
day. In the spring the northern birds, apparently, separate themselves from
their southern relations and proceed again to their breeding quarters in China
and Japan. Had facts relating to these points been more plentiful when Gurney
wrote, it is probable that he would have had reason to modify his views; facts,
however, are still scanty. In North China, near Pekin, Abbe David says that
the species arrives in spring in great numbers (I 2); about the lower Yangise
Basin Mr. F. W. Sty an marks it as a non-breeding species, which passes in
migration, and mentions a jjair of specimens taken at sea, between Shanghai
and Nagasaki on 6*^ May (16)\ in South China, Foochow, Mr. De La Touche
notes it as occurring in spring and autumn (j 6); in a note sent with a specimen
from Kini Balu, Mr. Whitehead speaks of it as being evidently a migrant

1) Blyth’s name was published in 1847, Temminck and Scbleg el’s Raptores of the Banna J aponica,
Aves, in 1845 (see Seebohni, B. Japan. Empire, 1890, 3); consequently these authors have the priority.

2) Under the name A. stevensoni.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

31

to that mountain of North Borneo (I 4)\ Gurney mentions a specimen captured
at sea off the Natuna Islands on 14^^ November (not “Nantura” as Gurney
writes, see I i), and we cannot agree with him that it had “accidentally” wandered
so far to the southward (m 2 ) ; the same author elsewhere expresses the opinion
that it may occur as “only a winter visitor to Java” (P. Z. S. 1878, 938), and
Dr. Sharpe takes the same view. But, since other species, such as Tachyspizias
soloensis, Butastur indicus and Ninow scutulata japonica^ migrating southwards from
China and Japan, appear to fix their Avinter limits in Borneo and North Celebes,
going little south of the equator, it is desirable to ascertain whether the birds,
which invade Java in our winter, are not Avanderers from India and Tenasserim,
making a movement similar to that which appears to take place Avith Butastur
liventer of the same regions.

More inquiry should also be made as to whether the Philippine Islands
are really inhabited by a stationary and distinguishable race, inasmuch as the
few specimens knoAvn from those quarters appear to have been obtained during
the time of the southern migration from China. Luzon, January; Guimaras,
March (Meyer n 1)\ Mindanao, Dec. — April (Koch o 1)\ Mindanao — 4 speci-
mens, April (Everett j 3)\ Luzon, 2 sometime between Jan. and April 3^^'^
(Whitehead f2), 1 in Avinter, Luzon (Whitehead/,?).

A single specimen of A. virgatus gularis obtained in North Celebes (Gorontalo)
by Dr. Biedel has been most kindly lent to us by Mr. Pleske; it is now
jAreserved in the St. Petersburg Museum. It is a iicaa- addition to the avifauna
of Celebes. Djampea Island, from Avhere Mr. Hartert records three specimens,
also falls AAdthin the Celebesian Province as defined in this book.

Appended is a general description of the^sjiecies and of the above sj)eci-
men from Celebes.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck & Schlegel i 7; Gurney /.: I, J 5, /r 4, ml. m2’,
ShaiqAe 11, k 5\ Hume 1' 7; DuaucI & Oust. I 2\ Grant m 5\ Blanforcl m 7.
Adult (general description). Above blackish slaty, ear-coverts and sides of neck greyer;
tail ashy grey crossed Avitli three or four bars of blacldsli; throat, abdomen and
under tail -coverts AAhite, the former marked AAutli a dark mesial streak; rest of
under surface auiious chestnut; under Aving-co verts wlutisb marked Avith broAvn;
A\fing below ashy crossed Avitli blacldsli bars.

Measurements (from Grant m 5 converted to mm).

AA^ing

Tail

Tarsus

Ttjpical A. virgatus §

183

145

51

J. virgatus affmis Q

203-221

168-180

55-56

A. virgatus gularis Q. ...

183-190

127-142

50-53

A. virgatus gularis (/

157-167

114-119

41-47

A. virgatus manilensis Q

175-178

137-140

52-53

A. virgatus manilensis (/

152-155

122-124

51

A. virgatus rufotibialis

149-150

114-117

46

32

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

Young. A. virgatus gularis. Above a somewhat greyish dark brown, tbe nape a little
varied with white, the hind neck with rufous; wing-coverts, secondaries and feathers
of back terminally margined with rufous; tail hair-brown, crossed with four dark
bars, the outer feathers with about eight; throat and under tail-coverts white, the
former with a slight trace of a gular streak; remaining under surface wliite, marked
with streaks of rufous brown on the breast, with heart-shaped spots and bars on the
abdomen, sides, thighs and under wing-coverts (Celebes — Eiedel, St. Petersbimg
Museum).

Wing 170 mm; tail 122; tarsus 45; middle toe 27 (without claw), culmen from
cere 9. The young of Accipiter rhodogaster readily distinguishes itself from the young
of A. virgatus by the hazel-rufous of its upper plumage, barred on the wings and tail
and spotted on the back with black; also the middle toe (32 mm) and the beak (13 mm)
are longer.

GENUS SPIZAETUS Vieill.

The Hawk-eagles are powerful birds of large-medium size (larger than a
Eaven); with or without a crest; wing somewhat short, secondaries long,
from carpus to the tip of the secondaries about five-sixths of the
length of the wing; tomia festooned; tarsus completely feathered down to
the base of the toes; toes somewhat short; claws large, strongly hooked, the
hinder one nearly half as long again as the toe-joint. The species of the genus
are stationary, about ten in number, foimd in the Oriental Region as far as
Celebes, Africa, Central and South America. They prey upon large birds,
mammals, lizards, and lay one or two eggs.

-k*12. SPIZAETUS LANCEOLATUS Teinm. & ScliL

Celebesian Hawk-eagle.

Plates II and III.

Spizaetus lanceolatus (1) Temm. & Schl. (Celebes tantum). Faun. Jap. Aves 1845, 8;

(2) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 29 partim; (3) Wall., Ibis 1868, 13; (4) Pelz., Verb,

z.-b. Ges. Wien 1872, 426 (Am!); (5) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 270; W. Bias.,
J. f. 0. 1883, 134; (6) id., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1886, 195; (7) Biittik., Zool. Erg.
Webers Beise in Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 272; fS) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895,
Nr. 8, p. 4; (9) ud., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 7.

b. Spizaetus cirratus part. (1) Scbl., Mus. P.-B. Astures 1862, 9 (Celebes); (II) id., Valkv.

Ned. Ind. 1866, 16, 55, pi. 7, f. 2 (Celebes) et f. 3 (Sula); (3) id.,. Eev. Accip. 1873,
57 (Celebes, Sula); Rosenb., Malay. Arch. 1878, 271.

c. Spizaetus fasciolatus “Temm.” (err.) Scbl., Astines 1862, 9; id., Valkv. 1866, 53; id..

Rev. Accij). 1873, 58.

d. Limnaetus lanceolatus Gray, HL. 1869, I, 13, pt.; (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH,

34, 110; Gurney, Ibis 1877, 424; (2) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56; (3) Salvad., Orn.

Pap. 1880, I, 5; Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 49; Guillem,, P. Z. S. 1885, 545.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

33

“Bakatoa”, Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen in Drestl. Mus.).

“Koheba burik”, Banka Id., N. Cel. (Nat. Coll.).

“Kiokkiok” 1), Manado (Nat. Coll, in Mns. Dresd.).

Figures and descriptions. Sclilegel & ZZ, 6 5; Walden d 1; Sbarpe o; W. Blasius 6.

Adult male. Head and neck blackish brown, the bases of the feathers white, the margins
and snh-basal part of the feathers of the neck and sides of the head broadly washed
with cinnamon, giving a streaked apjDearance to these parts; back and wings sepia
glossed with purple, darkest on the mantle and shoulders; lower back paler; upper
tail-coverts narrowly tipped with whitish; tail whitish brown, slightly mottled and
washed with darker shades and crossed with four bands of blackish brown, a broad
space (about 45 mm) separating the two endmost ones; throat white, with a black
stripe down the middle 2) of it and at the sides (sub-malar stripe); breast and sides
pale brownish rufous marked with broad drop-shaped spots of black and, towards
the abdomen, irregularly with white ones; remaining under parts white, closely
barred with brown, of a rufous tinge on the abdomen and blacker as w^ell as more
closely barred on the legs; under wing-coverts white, thickly spotted and barred
with dark brown; quills below white varied with grey, brown towards the distal
ends, and with more or less perfect remains of about five dark cross-bars, which are
also perceptible on the upper side on the inner w^ebs. “Iris gold-yellow; cere blue-
grey; bill black; feet citron-yellow. Length 550 mm; expanse 1160.” (cf, Tjamba,
S. Celebes: Platen — Nr. 6670).

Adult female measured by Dr. B. B. Sharpe has: wing 376; tail 274; tarsus 82.5
(?92.5); culmen 42.

A second S23ecimen, from the neighbourhood of Manado (Nat. Coll.) is darker
on the under surface than the above, especially on the abdomen. Head black; the
black moustachial and throat stripes broad and well-developed (C 10846).

Female. Much larger than the male.

Young. Head and neck white, narrowly streaked on the crown and more broadly on the
neck vuth dark brown; all other upper parts dark brown with a irar^jlish gloss
as in the adult, the unexposed inner webs of the secondaries white; ujDper tail-
coverts tipped with wliite, the basal part of the feathers varied with white and
barred with brown; tail much as in the adult, crossed with three broad bars; under
siu’face white, almost uniform on clnn and throat, somewhat sparsely marked with
drop — shaped spots of dark browm on the breast, a few broad but ill-defined markings
of washy rufous on abdomen, indistinct bars of brownish rufous on the abdomen and
under tail-coverts, and close bars of dark brown — narrower and less dark than in the
adult — on the flanks and thighs; under wing-coverts white, sj)otted somewhat
sparsely with dark hrown; quills and tail below much as in the adult. (N. Celebes
— Hie del in St. Petersburg Mus.)

Another specimen, still younger, much resembles the above, but has still more
white about it; sides of wing more mottled with wliite; head and neck more
narrowdy streaked with browm; under surface white, marked with a few streaks of
brown on the breast, tliighs and flanks narrowly barred with rufous or brown, very
indistinct on the inner side of the thighs; some brownish bars just discernible on

t A name given for Spilornis rujipectus also.

-} Prof. W. Blasius (6) has expressed the opinion that the black sti'ipe down the middle of the throat
mentioned by Bonaparte (2) does not really exist in this species. 4i\^e find it to be always present in the
adult and nearly adult, as shown by four before us, and Sclilegel (b II) has described it in three in the
Leyden Museum. It is, however, absent in the very differently plumaged young bird (see plate).

Meyar & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 7tli, 1897). k

34

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

tlie under tail- coverts; under vdng- coverts still more scantily spotted vith. brown
than in the above. In almost every detail the description of the young Pernis celebensis
would apply equally well to this bird (1ST. Celebes — Dresd. Mus.).

Immature. Litermediate between the young and adult: head whitish, broadly streaked with
black, breast marked with guttate streaks of blackish brown; under parts mottled
with pale brown and whitish, with feathers regularly barred with dark brown inter-
mixed; flanks and tliighs narrowly barrred as in the adult; upper parts dark brown,
tail with five bands, the basal one indistinct (Banka Id., N. Celebes, 17. May 1893:
Nat. Coll — 0 12235).

Two young specimens in the Leyden Museum have the head all wliite.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Mid. toe
without
claw

Culmen
from cere

a. (Nr. 6670) ad. S. Celebes (Platen) . . .

355

258

91

45

30

h. (C 12235) [(y'] hum. Banka Id., N. Cel 17. V. 93
(Nat. Coll)

375

265

50

31

c. (Sarasin Coll.) vix ad. Lake Posso, 17.H. 95
(P. & F. S.)

358

265

91

29.5

d. (C 1 4246) [cf] juv. Lembeh Id. 28. H. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

355

260

—

31

e. (Mus. Petersb.) juv. N. Celebes (Eiedel)

370

270

91

49

31

f. (C 10846) [Q] ad. near Manado YIH— IX. 92
(Nat. Coll.)

410

290

97

53

35

g. (Sarasin Coll.) Q juv. Eurukan Forest, N. Cel.
2. VH. 94 (P. & F. S.)

395

276

34.5

/^. Nr. 14077 [Q( juv. N. Celebes (Eiedel) . . .

406

285

90

54

34

Distribution. Celebes and Sula. Gorontalo Distr. (Borsten A i, h 3)\ Minahassa (Wallace 5,
V. Eosenberg h .3; etc.); Banka Island off the Minahassa (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.);
Lembeh Island (Nat. Coll, ib.); Central Celebes — Lake Posso (P. & F. Sarasin 5j;
South Celebes — Macassar (Wallace 5), Tjamba Distr. (Platen in Dresd. Mus.),
Maros (Weber 7); Sula Islands — Sula Be.si (Bernstein h II, h 3).

Aru, recorded as the land of origin of this .species by von Pelzeln (4), may
be safely ascribed to erroneous labelling, as v. Pelzeln himself subsequently con-
cluded (see: Salvadori cl 5).

Nothing is known of the habits of this Hawk-eagle. The allied S. limnaetus
of Java preys on rails, waterfowl, ducks, chickens, robbing also the nests of
other birds (Schl. Astnres, 7). Colonel Legge found the favourite food of
8. ceylonensis (Gm.) to be a large lizard, Calotes. It also devours Squirrels and
other small mammals (B. Ceylon, 59). The allied species, S', cirrhatus (Gm.)
and S. ceylonensis, lay as a rule only one egg; 8. limnaetus one or two eggs
(Legge, 1. c.; Oates, Hume’s Nests and Eggs, 1890, III, 147, 149). Conse-
quently, among the Hawk-eagles, there is no overcrowding; the birds are
stationary, and a number of local races have been built up.

Touching the remarkable similarity of the plumage of this species to Pernis
celebensis, see the descrij)tions of the latter and plates/.

The form of 8pizaetus most nearly allied to S. lanceolatus is perhaps
S. philippensis Gurney. A figure of this species given by Walden (Tr. Z. S.
1875 IX, pi. XXIV) displays a bird very like the adult Celebesiau Hawk-eagle,

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

35

but differing by having a crest, and the cross-bars on the under surface com-
mencing first on the flanks, instead of extending on to the lower breast and ab-
domen. The Spizaetus limnaetus (or caligatus Eaffl. as it is called by Gurney),
ranging from India to Java, occurs, as Gurney remarks (Ibis 1877, 425), “under
two very distinct phases of plumage, if, indeed both be really referable to one
species” (see, also, Whitehead, Ibis 1889, 71), one black-brown all over, the
other particoloured. S. lanceolatus^ when adult, seems to be readily distinguishable
by its barred legs from the latter.

GENUS LOPHOTRIORCHIS Sharpe.

A crested Hawk-eagle of medium size, differing from Spizaetus in having a
much longer, more pointed wing, the secondaries falling short of the
tip by one-third of the length of the wing (instead of one-sixth); the
middle toe much longer, being three-fourths the length of the tarsus, instead
of about one-half that length as in Spizaetus. Evidently a form of more sustained
flying-powers. Preys on birds and small mammals. Probably not strictly sta-
tionary. One species ranging from the Himalayas to Celebes; a second in
Columbia.

- 13. LOPHOTRIORCHIS KIENERI (G. Spane).

Rufous-bellied Hawk-eagle.

a. Astur Kieneri (I) Gr. S. '), Mag. Zool. 1835, pi. 35 (ad.).
h. Spizaetus cristatellus (I) Jard. & Selby, 111. Orn. pi. 66.

c. Spizaetus albogularis Tick ell apiid Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1842, XI, 456.

d. Limnaetus kieneri Strickl, Ann. N. H. 1844, XHI, 33; (1) Jerd., B. of Ind. 1862, I, 74;

Legge, Str. F. 1875, 198; (2) Gurney, Ibis 1877, 433; (3) Salvad., Orn. Pap.
1880, I, 5.

e. Nisaetus kieneri (I) Jerd., 111. Ind. Orn. 1847, p. 5, pi. I.

f. Spizaetus kieneri Gray, Gen. B. 1845, I, 14; Bp. Consp. 1850, 1, 29; Blyth, J. A. S. B.

1850, 335; Horsf. & Moore, Oat. B. Mus. E. Ind. Co. 1854, I, 34; Strickl., Orn.
Syn. 1855, I, 71, (1) SchL, Mus. P.-B. Astures, 1862, 11; (2) Gurney, Gld. B. of
Asia 1863, pt. XY; (3) Wall., Ibis 1868, 14; Gray, HL. I, 13; Hume, Bough
Xotes 1869, 201, 216; (5) ScliL, Bev. Acc. 1873, 58; (6) Hume, S. F. 1873, I,
310; (7) Salvad., IJcc. Borneo, 1874, 16; (8) Beicbnw. , J. f. 0. 1877, 218; (9)
W. Bias, ib. 1883, 121, 122; (10) Hartert, ib. 1889, 374.

g. Spizaetus kieneri Blyth, Oat. B. Mus. As. S. B. 1849, 26.

Lophotriorchis kieneri (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 255, 458; (2) Legge, B. Ceylon, 1880,
43—46; (3) Hume, Str. F. 1880, IX, 273, 274, 277; (4) Gurney, Hiurn. B. of
Prey 1884, 50; (5) Sharpe, Ibis 1889, 71; id., ib. 1890, 274; Everett, J. Str.
Br. B. A. S. 1889, 182; (7) Steere, List B. Philip. Is. 1890, 7; (8) Salvad., Ann.
Mus. Civ. Gen. 1891, XH, 41; (9) Hose, Ibis 1893, 419; (10) Blank, Faun. Br.

1) Dr. R. B. Sharpe and others ascribe these initials to Gleoffroy St- Hilaire; Count Salvadori
and Schlegel to Grervais; Colonel Legge shows good reason for believing them to belong to G-. Sparre.

5*

36

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Incl. B. rn 1895, 345; (11) Grant, Ibis 1895, 438; (12) Hartert, Nov. Zool
1896, 575.

Figures and descriptions. G. S. a J; Jarcline & Selby h J; Jerdon d 1\ Sclilegel f I;
Gurney f 2\ Sharpe 7; Hnine f 6, 3\ Legge 2, Blanford 10.

Adult. Above blackish brown, 6 or 7 narrow indistinct bars on tail; occipital crest about
60 mm long, chin, throat and breast white, passing into ferruginous on the
remaining under parts, which, together with the sides of the breast, are marked
with dark shaft-streaks; tail below greyish; quills below white, greyer towards
tip; under wing-coverts with the greater series tipped with white and edged
with fulvous.

Measurements. Wing Tail Tarsus Culmen from cere

CT 360—394 208—228 68.5—76 25.5—28

Q 432 444 254 — 317 76 30.5 (from Legge 2).

Immature. Crown and sides of head and neck tawny-brown, becoming more fulvous on
neck, the bases of the feathers white (producing a mottled api^earance on the crown
in which the tawny-brown feathers of a more advanced stage of dress are sprouting);
short occipital crest (1.6 in.j brown as head; upper parts Prout’s Bro'wn, beco-
ming drab -colour mixed with whitish on the greater wing- and upper tail- coverts;
secondaries and the three inmost primaries tipped with whitish; tail brown as back,
crossed with five narrow equidistant bars of black of fairly equal width and separated
by spaces of about 25 mm; all under parts, including legs, pure white; the flanks
and outer side of the thighs with some feathers of brownish intermixed. Wing
362 mm; tail 230 mm; tarsus 71 mm; middle toe 53 mm. Celebes: v. Muschenbr.
Nr. 6671).

Distribution. Himalayas (Sparre a I; Inglis 2, etc.); Lidia (Jerdon d 1, Tickell 2);
Ceylon (Bligh, Legge 2); Malacca and Singapore (Hume. .5); Sumatra (Hartert / id,
Modigliani 8); Java (Gurney /" 2); Borneo (Wallace / 3; Whitehead, Fischer,
5, 6); Philipiiines, Luzon (Gevers /"i, f 5, Whitehead 11); Mindanao, Panay, Ma-
rinduque (Steere 7); Celebes (Faber f 8, f 9, van Musschenbroek in Mus. Dresd.);
? Batchian (Norwich Mus. d 2, d 3)\ Satonda, Lesser Sunda Is. (Doherty 12).

The first mention of the occurrence of this species in Celebes was made
by Prof. Keichenow in reference to a specimen brought from that island by
V. Faber, and later, in answer to a communication from Prof. W. Blasius, Dr.
Beichenow confirmed his first note (f9). A second specimen in the Dresden
Museum, labelled Manado by van Musschenbroek, is in immature plumage,
and corresponds fairly well with one described by Hume, Str. F. IX, 274. We
have described it above.

Probably because the immature plumage of this species remained for a long
time unknown, there has been much misconce2ition touching the stmcimen in
the Leyden Museum from Luzon referred by Schlegel to this sjiecies. Gur-
ney (f 2) included this sp>ecimen under his Spizaetiis •philippinensis., overlooking
the much longer tarsi and tail of that sjiecies; and other authorities have fol-
lowed him. Consequently the Philijjpine Islands have been generally struck
out of the range of this sp>ecies. There is no reason to doubt the correctness of
Schle gel’s identification of the specimen from the Philijipines, and in the

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

37

Leyden Museum we have seen just such another immature bird from the
Philippines as that described above from Celebes.

The specimen in the Norwich Museum stated to have come from Batchian
bears no collector’s name on the label. It was purchased of Bouvier of Paris,
and most probably the locality indicated is quite correct, but, until more evi-
dence is forthcoming, it must be looked upon as of uncertain origin (see Sal-
vadori d 3).

The genus Lophotriorchis^ founded by Dr. Sharpe for this species and 8p.
isidori of South America and to which L. lucani Sharpe & Bouvier of S. W.
Africa has since been added ^), occupies a position about midway between Nisaetus
and Spizaetus, resembling the former by its long wings, feet and tarsi, and the
latter by its bill and immature j^lumage. The specimen in the Dresden Mu-
seum agrees in many respects of coloration with Spizaetus alboniger Blyth, juv.,
from Malacca and Borneo, but the following scheme shows how widely they
differ structiu’ally;

L. kieneri juv.

8. alboniger juv.

wing 14.25
tarsus 2.80

wing 11.00
tarsus 2.625

mid. toe 2.10
tarsus 2.80

mid. toe L375
tarsus 2.625

It will be found that, in proportion to the tarsus, the wing of Lopliotriorckis
kieneri is 2'/2 inches longer than that of 8pizaetus alboniger^ and the middle toe
0.64 inches longer.

i. kieneri is a rare species, and little is known of its habits. Colonel
Legge points out that it is a hill-haunting bird. Its food consists of birds and
small mammals; Mr. AVall ace’s Sarawak example was killed while devouring
a pigeon — a fact which points to its fine flying powers, which have been
remarked upon by Legge and others.

From its rarity Mr. Whitehead {5) believes this to be a migratory species
in Borneo, visiting the country during the N. E. monsoon, towards the end of
which (March 20^^^, 1887) his specimen from Kini Balu was obtained. Mr. Hume’s
example from Singapore and Count Salvadori’s from Sumatra were likewise
shot during the N. E. monsoon, viz; Jan. 19*^ 1880, and Feb. 1891, re-
spectively. Dr. Steere found it in Mindanao, Panay and Marinduque in Oct. —
Dec,, January and May, the last being a very late date for a migratory species;
but until more evidence is forthcoming of course no conclusion as to migration
can be drawn.

GENUS ICTINAETUS Jerd.

This Eagle is well characterized by its foot: the inner toe, including
the claw, is much longer than the middle one; the claws very little curved,
that of the hallux and of the inner toe very long, exceeding the length of the

1) Griirney considered tliis species to be Nisaetus spilogaster juv. (Diurn. B. Prey, 52, note).

38

Birds of Celebes: Balconidae.

toes; tarsi completely feathered; wings very long; edge of upper mandible
without any tooth or festoon. A single species, ranging from the Himalayas
to the Moluccas, possibly migratory. It carries off birds’ nests, for which pur-
pose its foot is adaj)ted, and devours the eggs or young; feeds also on reptiles,
mammals.

A 14. lOTINAETUS MALAYENSIS (Reinw.).

Black Eagle.

a. Falco malayensis (I) Eeinw. in Temm., PL Col. LLr. 117 (1824).

h. Aquila malayensis Yig., Zool. Jm. 1824, I, 337; (1) SchL, Mus. P.-B. Aquilae 1862, 11;
(II) id. Yalkv. 1866, 8, 49, pi. 3, f. 1, 2; (3) id., Eev. Acc. 1873, 116; (4) Eosenb.,
Malay. Arch. 1878, 271.

c. Aquila (Heteropus) pernigra Hodgs., J. A. S. B. 1836, Y, 227.

d. Nisaetus ovivorus Jerd., Madr. Joimi. 1844, XTH, 158.

e. Neopus perniger Hodgs. in Gray’s Zool. Misc. 1844, 81.

f. Ictinaetus perniger Blyth, Ann. N. H. 1844, XTIT, H4.

g. Onychaetus malayana Kanp, Classif. Sang. u. Yog. 1844, 120.

Ji. Neopus malayensis Gray, Oat. Hodgs. Coll. B. 1846, 42; (I) Beavan, P. S. Z. 1868,
396, pi. XXXIY ; (2) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1874, I, 257; (3) Briiggem., Abh. Yer.
Bremen 1876, Y, 45; (4) Gurney, Ibis 1877, 423; (5) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 47;
(6) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 6; (7) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883, H, 190;
(8) Davison, Str. F. 1883, X, 335; (9) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1888, 268; (10) id., Ibis
1889, 71; id., ib. 1890, 274; Everett, J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 181; (11) Oates,
Hume’s Xests and Eggs 1890, HI, 145; (12) Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, 11;
(13) Hartert, J. f. 0. 1889, 376; (14) Sharpe, Ehs 1893, 563; (15) M. & Wg.,
Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Xr. 1, p. 4; (16) Biittik., Notes Leyden Mus. 1896,
XYIH, 195.

Ictinaetus malayensis (1) Blanf., Faun. Brit. India B. IH, 1895, 347.

“Oopo”, Celebes (v. Eosenb. h 4).

For full synonymy and references see Salvador! 6.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I\ Schlegel h II\ Beavan 7^ 7; Sharpe h 2\
Gurney h 4\ Legge h o; Salvador! h 6] Oates h 7, It 10 (egg); Blanford 1.

Adult. Entire j)lumage brownish black; tail marked on the upj)er surface with about
7 indistinct and broken bars of brownish grey, wliich are whitish and distinct on the
under surface (Halmahera Nr. 2945). Lis brown; bill, gape and feet yellow; tip of
bill black.

Young. Above brownish black; greater wing-coverts and secondaries tipped, the
tail-coverts barred, with wliite; the feathers of the back, lesser, and middle wing-
coverts with a small whitish spot at the tip of each; tail black, indistinctly crossed
•with numerous bars of grey-brown; feathers of head and neck broadly margined
and tipped with whitish; face, throat and under surface pale ta-wny, -vith broad
sooty brown margins to the feathers of the breast and sides; wings and tail
below marbled with broken bars of whitish ((^f juv. Loka, S. Celebes, 6. X. 95:
P. & F. Sarasin).

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

39

merits.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from cere

a. (Sarasin Coll.) juv. Loka, S. Cel. 6. X. 95 . . .

530

294

73

26

h. (Sarasin Coll.) Q [?] juv. Burukan, N. Cel. 20. XI. 94

538

285

71

30

Small (J' adult (from Legge d)

520

305

81

34

Large Q adult (from Legge /^ 3)

635

375

97

35

Distribution. India, Oeylon, Burmali, Tenasserim, Malacca, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes,
Ternate, Halmahera (Me Legge h 5, Salvaclori h 6), Nias (Nieiiwenbuisen &
V. Bosenberg h 16. In Celebes: — Minaliassa (v. Duivenbode b 3, Fischer h 3,
P. & F. Sarasin h 15)\ S. Peninsula, Loka (P. & F. Sarasin); (?) Sula (apud
Gr. B. Grray, HL. 1869, I, 11).

Thougli the locality Sula may very probably be correct, G. B. Gray, as Sal-
vador! lias remarked, has never shown his grounds for this indication.

The remarkable shape of the foot of this Aquiline species is connected
with something very unusual in its habits. “It subsists”, writes Colonel Legge,
“as far as can be observed, entirely by bird-nesting, and is not content wuth
the eggs and ^mung birds which its keen sight espies among the branches of
the forest trees, but seizes the nest in its talons, and decamps with it, and
often examines the contents as it sails lazily along. Furthermore, Mr. Bligh
informs me that he once found the best part of a bird’s nest in the stomach

of one of these Eagles Avhich he shot in the Central Province! The long

inner claws of this bird seem especially adapted for the work of carrying off
loose and fragile masses such as the nests of birds”. Their length and straight-
ness also, it may be added, would enable the bird to let fall a nest, when it has
done with it, without difficulty and risk of entanglement, — no small consi-
deration, when it is remembered into what a panic of alarm and rage a wild
animal is thrown at finding itself clung to by an object from which it tries in
vain to free itself. It also occasionally carries off' large birds, hut this may be of
rare occurrence; a rat in the stomach is noted by Beavan /J; a rat, a bird’s

egg and a snake’s egg by Mr. Wray (h9)\ a snake by Davison (h 8). Tem-
minck states probably from information of Beinwardt that it eats insects, as
well as birds and reptiles. In India Jerdon remarks that “doves, and per-
haps some other birds breed at all times in the year; and it may, perhaps,
obtain eggs or nestlings at all seasons, by shifting its quarters and varying the
elevations, if not, it probably may eat reptiles; but of this I cannot speak from
observation”.

This Eagle is rare in Celebes and in the other parts of the Malay Archi-
pelago where it has been found, and we suspect, it occurs only in migration, or
as a somewhat frequent straggler. It was never met with by Mr. Wallace in
any island; Meyer never saw it in Celebes, and the only examj)les recorded
from there prior to 1894 were two, both immature — one in the Leyden (b 3)
and the other in the Darmstadt Museum.

In November 1894, a third example, also young, Avas obtained by the

40

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

cousins Sarasin in the same province as the previous specimens, the Minahassa,
and in October, 1895, a young example from the extreme south of the island
was added to their collection.

When von Rosenberg in his “Malayischen Archipel”, p. 271, speaks of it as
being “nicht sehr haufig”, there we do not doubt that he must have mistaken some
other large bird of prey for it; especially as there is no specimen obtained by him in
the Leyden Museum. No doubt the movements of this bird will be found to depend
mainly upon the time of production of its favourite diet, the eggs and young of
other birds; and this varies in different localities. Mr. Whitehead has obtained it
in Borneo in June. Other notices are: N. Celebes, November; S. Celebes, October;
Ternate, March (Bernstein h 3) and December (Bruijn h 6)\ Halmahera, Decem-
ber (Bruijn h 6)\ Borneo, October and February (Doria and Beccari, Salvad.
Ucc. Borneo 1874, 5, Whitehead hlO)\ Malay Peninsula, Sept. — Oct. (Wray h9).
In the winter months also it has been noticed to be more plentiful in the Hi-
malayas at an elevation of seven or eight thousand feet than it is during the
hot season (Legge ho), a curious reversion of the usual rule of migration,
namely, that of going to a warmer climate during the cold season, and showing
that food is of greater consequence to birds than is the weather.

GENUS HALIAETUS Say.

The Sea-eagles are of large size; wing very long, tail rounded, “scarcely
exceeding the closed wings” (Legge); tarsus stout, the upper third feathered in
front, the lower two-thirds covered in front with transverse shields; toes mo-
derate; claws semicircularly hooked, grooved below, soles very rugose,
furnished with sharp horny points (adaj)ted for holding slippery booty like fish);
bill large, basally — where covered by the cere — straight, tomia with a slight
festoon. Feeds on mammals, reptiles, fish, carrion. Lays two eggs. Six spe-
cies, migratory and stationary, distributed over most of the tropical and tem-
perate sea-coasts of the world, except those of South America.

15. HALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER (Gm.).

White-bellied Sea-eagle.

a. Falco leucogaster Grm., S. N. 1788, I, 257 (ex Latham).
h. ? Faleo blagrus Daiich, Tr. d’Orn. 1800, H, 70 (ex LevailL).
c. Falco oceanica (I) Temm., PI. Col. 1823, Nr. 49.

Haliaetus leucogaster Vig., Zool. Joiirn. 1824, I, 336; (I) Did., Syn. B. Austr. 1838, pi. 37,
f. 1; (2) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Aquilae 1862, 14; (HI) id., Yalkvogels 1866, 9, 50,
pi. 4, f. 1, 2; (4) Finsch & Hartl., Orii. Centralpol. 1867, (5) Schl., Rev. Accip.

1873, 117; (6) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 307; (7) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 68;
(8) Yidal, Str. F. 1880, 32; (9) Griirney, Ibis 1882, 235; (10) Oates, B. Brit.
Burmah 1883, II, 199; (11) G-urney, Diiirn. B. of Prey 1884, 59; Yorderman,
N. Tijd. Ned. Ind. XLH, 3 (sep. copy); (12^'^) Gruillein., P. Z. S. 1885, 545; (13)

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

41

Styan, Ibis 1888, 232; (14) Sharpe, Ibis 1888, 195; (15) id., ib. 1889, 73; 1890
274; (16) Hartert, J. f. O. 1889, 376; (17) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. 8. 1889, 183;
(18) Horth, Hests and Eggs B. Aiistr. 1889, 7, pi. I, f. 2 (egg); (19) Steere, List B.
Philip. 1890; 7; (20) Oates, ed. Hume’s Hests and Eggs Ind. B. 1890, HI, 161; (21)
Hose, Ibis 1893, 419; (22) Biittik., Zool. Ergebn. Weber’s Keise in Ost-Ind. 1893, IH,
272, 286, 290; (23) Studer, Beis. Gazelle 1889, III, 198; (24) Hagen, Td. Hed. Aard.
Genoots, 1890 (2) VH, 130; (24^‘^) Hickson, Hat. in H. Celebes 1889, 35; (25)
Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 33; (26) Yorderm., H. T. Ned.
Ind. 1895, 318; (27) Blank, Eaun. Br. Ind. B. Ill 1895, 318; (28) M. & Wg.,
Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8 p. 4; (29) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 7.

d. Haliaetus sphenurus (I) Gld., Syn. B. Austr. 1838, pi. 37, f. 2.

e. Ichthyaetus leucogaster (I) Gld., B. Austr. 1848, I, jd. 3; (II) Diggles, Orn. Austr.

1866, pt. 5.

f. Cuncuma leucogaster Gray, Oat. Acc. Br. Mus. 1848, 24; (1) Hume, Str. E. 1876, lY,

422, 461, 462; (la) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56; (2) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 7 — 11,
548, et Agg. 1889, 11; (3) W. Bias., P. Z. S. 1882, 698; (4) id., Ornis 1888, 304;
(5) Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, 11; (6) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1895, 476; (7)
Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1896, XXXYI, 58.

“Kadjawali”, Main, Minahassa, Nat. Coll.

“Koheba laut”, Lembeh Id., iid.

“Bunia”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, iid.

“Kuwajang”, Banggai Id., iid.

For^ further synonymy and references see Salvadori f 2^ f 5.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck c J; Gould, I, d I, e I‘, Schlegel HI; Diggles e U\
North 18 (egg); Einsch & Hartlaub 4; Schlegel 5\ Sharpe 6\ Hume/i; Sal-
vadori f 2\ Legge 7; W. Blasius f 3\ Yorderman 12\ Blanford 27; etc.

Adult. Head, neck and all the under parts white; upper surface of body ashy grey;
primaries and base of tail slaty-blackish; end of tail white for the terminal
90 mm (ca.), (E. Celebes, Nat. Coll — C 14355). “Bill black, base and cere
lead colour; feet very pale yellow (dirty Avhite — Whitehead 15)] iris olive brown”
(W allace).

Young. Above brown, more whitish tawny on the region of the head and neck, darker
on the back, all the feathers edged with paler brown, fulvous or whitish; below
rufous brown and tawny, varied with whitish; tail whitish, terminal third blackish
brown (juv. Minahassa, 9. H. 94, Nat. Coll. — C. 13236).

The following are taken from extreme measurements made by Legge,
Sharpe and W. Blasius (6, 7, f 3) and three adults from Celebes in the Dresden
and Sara sin Collections.

Measurements.

AVing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmeii
with cere

Small

535

240

87

50

Large Q

610

315

107

55

Eggs. Generally 2, white; seen against the light blackish green; often smeared with brown
or yellowish probably from the faeces of the parent bird. Average measurements:
71.4 X 52.6 mm (Oates 20, North 18).

Breeding season. \V est coast of India and Ceylon, October — December (8, f 1, 7)] mouth
of the Hoogly and Nicobar Islands, end of January (20)] North Borneo, a nest with

Meyer & Wigles wortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. Siii, 1S97). g

42

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

nearly fledged young ones on April 12^1^ — hence the eggs were laid at the end of
February or early in March (15)-, New South Wales, first eggs laid in July (18).
Nest. A large mass of sticks, lined with finer ones, situated in a great tree or — where
this is wanting — on a rock (18, 20),

Distribution. India and South China to Ceylon, Laccadive, Andaman and Nicobar Islands;
Siam, Cochin China, Philippines; thi’oiighout the East Lidian Arcliipelago to Ncav
Gruinea, the Admiralty and Solomon Islands; Australia; Tasmania; ? Tonga Islands.
[For exact localities and authorities, cf. Salvadori, f2; and add Cochin China
(Moreau 5), Palawan (Platen f 4, Whitehead 14), Natuna Is. (Hose f 6), Noord-
Avachter Id. (Vorderman 26), Dana Id. (Studer 23)].

In the Celehesian area; — (Forsten 2, Wallace), Minahassa (A^ Duiven-
hode 5, Meyer f la, etc.), Lemheh Id. (Guillemard 12^^^, Hickson 24^'% Nat.
Coll.), E. peninsula (Nat. Coll. 20), S. peninsula (Weber 22); Saleyer Id. (Weber
20)\ Banggai Id. (Nat. Coll. 29).

The original authority for the Tonga Islands appears to he Lesson (Man.
d’Orn, 1828, I, 85). No reliable confirmation of the species haAnng occurred there
has been produced since this date.

Until more eAudence is forthcoming it is advisable to exclude the Cape of Good
Hope from the range of this species. “Le Blagre” of Levaillant, commonly iden-
tified with it, was indicated as an African species, and there is a specimen in the
British Museum from the late Jules Verreaux with the locality Cape of Good

Hope indicated; but, since the country has become better knoAvn, no confirmation

of these statements has come to hand. (See Sharpe 6, Salvad. f 2, Legge 7).

Schlegel (5) points out tLat this Sea-eagle, like lialiastur mdus^ often has
black shaft-streaks in the Avhite adult plumage, and also points out that in their
first plumage the tA;vo species are similar. It is not the case, hoAvever, that
specimens with dark shaft-streaks are peculiar to any special part of the range
of the species.

The White-bellied Sea-eagle is a bird of the sea-coast, though sometimes
found to a distance of 60 miles or so up the mouths of the larger rivers of
Burmah (Oates), and Colonel Legge notes the fact of its breeding at some of
the large inland lakes of Ceylon. Its food consists chiefly of sea-snakes, fish,
cuttle-fish and other marine animals. In Java Mr. de Bocarme (2) remarks
that it j)reys on dead carcases thrown up on the strand at the mouths of rivers ;

and at Pigeon Island off the W. coast of India Hume shot one AAdiile bearing

in its claws the stomach and liver of a Goat, and found the remains of a sheep’s
head, amongst the bones of sea snakes, etc., beneath the nest of another; but
it does not appear to attack mammals when alive, though it has been knoAvn
to carry off Avounded birds.

The normal number of eggs is two. The time of laying varies much, even
in districts not far from one another, as is pointed out aboA^e.

H. leiicogaster has no very close allies. It is easily distinguishable from
other birds of prey in Celebes by its large size, and the adult by its striking
coloration.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

43

GENUS POLIOAETUS Kaiip.

In structure this form is very like Haliaetus, though smaller, but it may
be distinguished by its claws, which are rounded below, and by its shorter,
more rounded wings, which when closed fall considerably short of the tip of
the tail (Legge), and in’ which the and 5^^ quills, instead of the 3"^, are the
longest; the tibial plumes are short, not overreaching the upper third of the
tarsus. There are two species, inhabiting the Indian Region from the Himalayas
to Celebes; they prey chiefly upon fresh-water fish, and lay 3 eggs.

16. POLIOAETUS HUMILIS (Mull. Schl.).

Lesser Fishing-eagle.

Of this species there are two pronounced races, which are said to blend
in Cachar.

q- 1. The typical Polioaetus humilis (Milll. Schl.)

a. Falco humilis (I) M. et S., Verb. Nat. Grescli. Natimrk. Comm., Aves, 1S39 — 44, 47, pi. 6.
h. lehthyaetus nanus Blytli, J. A. S. B. 1842, XI, 202; 1843, XII, 304 (Singaj)ore).

c. Pandion humilis Kaiip, Classif. Sling, u. Yog. 1844, 122; (I) Sclil., Valkvogels 1866, 13,

53, pi. 5 f. 3.

d. Polioaetus humilis Kanp, Contr. Orn. 1850, 73; (1) Wall., Ibis 1868, 14; (2) Sharjae,

Cat. B. 1874, I, 454; (3) Salvad., Ucc. Borneo 1874, 6; (4) Griimey, Ibis 1878,
455 — 458; (5) Hume, Str. F, 1880, IX, 244; (6) Oates, B, Brit. Burmah 1883,
H, 223; (7) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 222; (8J Everett, J. Str. Br. R.
A. S. 1889, 183; (9) Hartert, Xov. Zook 1895, 476.

e. Haliaetus humilis Schl., Mus. P.-B. Aqnilae, 1862, 18.

f. Pontoaetus humilis (1) Blytli, Ibis 1863, 22.

g. Polioaetus humilis subsp. Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 60.

h. Polioaetus plumbeus humilis (1) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 7.

“Kuajan pupusi”, Peling Id., Nat. Coll.

For further references see Sharpe d 2, Salvador! d 5, Oates d 6,

Figures and descriptions. Muller & Scblegel a I\ Scblegel c I\ Sharpe d 2\ Gurney
d 4\ Hume d 5\ Oates d 6\ W. Blasius d 7,

Diagnosis. Size smaller; bill much smaller; foot and tarsus markedly slenderer, though not
shorter (Hume d 5)\ tlie dark band across the end of the tail a little more distinct
(Gurney d 4).

Adult. Abdomen, thighs and under tail-coverts white; all other parts ashy brown,
more chocolate colour on the back and wings; throat and cheeks slightly streaked
with whitish; terminal fourth of tail indistinct dark brown, tip whitish (ad. Peling
Id., V — Yin, 95; Nat. Coll., 0 14497). “Bill and cere dusky lead-colour; feet
pale bluish white; iris light yellow” (Wallace d 1).

Young male. Above broAvn, the feathers margined Avitli fulvous brown; on lower back and
rump varied with white; tail-feathers brown, white at the base and on the inner
web, and indistinctly barred with blackish brown ; forehead, sides of head, hind

44

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

neck and entire under surface wliite, tlie feathers margined on the iu’st-named
parts, on the breast and greater under wing-coverts with very pale ashy brown (from
Sharpe),

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Exposed

Culmen

(T juv. (Sharpe d 2)

350

193

72

Q ad. (W. Bias, d 7)

415

223

74

40

(C 14497) ad. Peling Id

415

215

76

40

Distribution. Cachar, India (Inglis d 5)\ Assam (Brit. Mus. d 2]\ Burmah (Hume d 6)\
Malay Peninsula (Blyth f 1)\ Singapore (Strickl. d 5); Bunguran (Hose d .9); Borneo
(Doria & Beccari, Everett, Platen South Celebes — Macassar (Wallace

d 2]\ Tjamba (Platen d 7); Pehng Island (Hat. OolL).

2. Polioaetus humilis major n. subsp.

Diagnosis, Size larger (wing, generally, 430 — 460 mm, but sometimes 483 mm — Blanford),
bill much larger, foot and tarsus stouter (Hume).

Distribution. “The sub-Himalayan ranges and submontane tracts (occasionally in the cold
season straying some distance into the jiHins) from the borders of Afghanistan to
Suddya in Assam” (Hume, Str. E. 1877 Y, 130).

3. Polioaetus humilis — major.

Diagnosis. Intermediate.

Distribution. The birds of Cachar are said to be intermediate between the typical P.
liwnilis and P. humilis niajm'. (Blanford, Paun. Br. Ind., B. HE 1895, 372.)

This species, like the allied P. ichthyaetus Horsf., probably lives almost
entirely upon fish, caught chiefly in inland waters. In N. E. Cachar Mr. Ingdis
noticed that it was more often to be found in the neighbourhood of rivers than
jheels. In the Malay Archipelago it appears to have been very seldom met
with. Only two specimens, as Prof. AY. Blasius points out, had hitherto been
recorded from Celebes, both of them from the Macassar Peninsula, but another
has now been obtained in Peling Island by the native hunters working for the
Dresden Museum. One specimen from Borneo in the Norwich Museum wus
mentioned by Gurney, Ibis 1878, 458, and not more than three others from
there, we believe, were known to Mr. Everett at the time of compiling his
List (1889). In Java it does not yet appear to have been noticed.

The large race of the Himalayas is stated to build a great nest in trees,
the same pair returning yearly and adding to the structure. The usual number
of eggs is three (Oates, Hume’s Nests and Eggs, III, 169).

The allied P. ichthyaetus (Horsf.) is, as Gurney points out, a larger bird,
having, when adult, the tail white ^).

1) This fonn has often been called P, plumb eus Hodgs., which is a nomen nudum, and of uncertain
application.

2) Polioaetus ichthyaetus (Horsf.).

In giving the distribution of this sj>ecies Oat. B. I, JSS, Dr. Sharpe notes Celebes among other localities,

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

45

GENUS BUTASTUR Hdp.

The Buzzard-eagles are of small-medium size (about as big as a Crow); wing
long, primaries overreaching the secondaries by about one-third of the wing-
length; tail moderate, slightly rounded; tarsus naked (except for the upper
fourth in front), covered with polygonal scales, the, largest in front;
toes rather short; cere large, occupying two-fifths of the exposed culmen, bill
not powerful for a bird of prey. Preys on reptiles, amphibians, insects. Four
si3ecies, among them migratory and probably stationary forms, found from India
and S. E. Siberia to New Guinea; also N. E. Africa.

4- 17. BUTASTUR INDIOUS (Gm.).

Grey-faced Buzzard-eagle.

a. Javan Hawk Lath., Gen. 8}ai. Suppl. 1787, 32.

b. Falco indieus Gm., S. N. 1788, I, 264.

c. Falco poliogenys (I) Teinin., PI. Col. 1825, Nr. 325.

d. Buteo poliogenys Less., Man. d’Orn. 1828, I, 103; (I) Temm. & Schl., Faun. Jap. Aves

1845, 21, pi. VnB (juT.); (2) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Buteones, 1862, 22; (III) id., Yalk-
vogels, 1866, 33, 70, pi. 21, f. 2, 3; (4) id.. Rev. Acc. 1873, 111.

e. Poliornis poliogenys Kaup, Olassif. Sling, u. Vog. 1844, 122.

/'. Poliornis barbatus (Eytonj.

Butastur indieus (1) Sharpe, Oat. B. I, 1874, 297; (2) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 143;
(3) id., P. Z. S. 1877, 689, 757; (4) id., ib. 1878, 612; (5) David & Oust., Ois.
Chine, 18; (6) Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1878, YI, 19 — 21, 497; (7) Salvad.,
Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 11, et Agg. 1889, 12; (8) Kelham, Ibis 1881, 365; (9) Gurney,
ib. 1882, 235; (10) Kutter, J. f. O. 1883, 295; (11) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883,
n, 197; Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 73; (12) Pleske, Bull. Ac. Petersb.

1884, XII, 111; (13) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 253, 545; (14) W. Bias., Ornis 1888,
541; (15) Sharpe, Ibis 1888, 195; (16) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 304; (17) Sharpe,
Ibis 1889, 72; 1890, 274; (18) Everett, J. Straits Br. R. A. S. 1889, 183; (18^<^)
Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, 12; (19) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 63; (20)
Y^’liitehead, Ibis 1899, 42; (21) Steere, Coll. B. Philip. Is. 1890, 7, 5; Seebohm,
B. Japan 1890, 196; (22) Styan, Ibis 1891, 488; (23) Seebohm, Ibis 1893, 52;
(24) Hose, t. c. 418; (25) Tacz., Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. I, 1891, 69; (26) Stejn.,
P. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1893, 624; (27) Grant, Ibis 1894, 503; (28) Bourns & Worces.,
B. Menage Exped. 1894, 33; (29) Everett, Ibis 1895, 32; (30) Grant, t. c. 438;
(31) Blanf. , Faun. Br, Ind. B. IH, 1895, 365; (32) M. &Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden
1895 Nr. 8, p. 4; (33) iid., ib. Nr. 9, p. 1; (34) iid., ib. 1896 Nr. 1, p. 4; (XXXV)
Meyer, Abb. v. Yogelskeletten 1897, Taf. CCXI.

but we do not know upon what grounds this statement was made. As this learned ornithologist omits Celebes
from the range of P. ichthyaetus in his tables showing the distribution of Bornean birds in The Ibis 1890,
274, we conclude that he has since found reason to believe himself to have been in error, especially as no
such bird has been recoi’ded from Celebes of late years. When Hume (Str. F. V, 129), Legge (B. Ceylon, 74),
Oates (B. Br. Burmah, II, 222), and Blanford (Faun. Br. Ind. B. Ill 1895, 370) also make mention of
Celebes as the most eastern bounds of its distribution, it would appear that their statements are founded upon
that of Dr. Sharpe.

46

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

“Sikep sedang”, Minaliassa, Nat. Coll.

“Dandape”, Glreat Sangi, iicl.

“Tagi”, Talaut Islands, iid.

For synonymy and further references see Salvador! 7,

Figures and descriptions. Temminck c J; Temm. & Sclil. d J; Schlegel JIZ, d 2; Sharpe
1] Hume & Davison d; Salvador! 7; Oates 11\ Taczanowski 25\ Blanford
5i; Meyer XXXV, etc.

Adult. Above dark grey-brown, shafts blackish, bases of the feathers drab; head above and
nape blacker, with rufous edges; wing-coverts hazel-brown, a few wliitish terminal
spots thereon; secondaries grey-brown, tips whitish, primaries and primary
coverts blacker, the unexposed parts rufous-hazel, crossed with narrow partially ob-
literated bars; upper tail- coverts broadly tijaped and barred with white ; tail crossed
with about four blackish bands, tip whitish; cheeks and ear-coverts drab, with
black shaft-lines, submalar stripe and one down the middle of the throat blackish;
chin and throat laterally wliite; under parts white, crossed with brace-shaped
bars of rufous-brown, chest nearly uniform rufous-brown; under tail-coverts buf£-
white; under wing-coverts buff-white, with sparing hastate spots of rufous; wing-
below, where it rests upon the body, white, the bars nearly obliterated, distal ends of
remiges blackish {(^ ad. Tomohon, N. Celebes, 9. IX. 94: P. & P. Sarasin.

“Iris golden yellow; bill chrome-yellow at base, rest black; cere chrome; legs
dull chrome-yellow; claws black” (Everett 13).

Female. Similar to the male, but larger.

Young. Differs from the adult in having the under parts white, streaked with rufous-brown
(not barred); the dark stripe down the middle of the throat much reduced or absent;
cheeks and ear-coverts blackish brown (not drab); head above white, saturated with
rufous on occiput and nape, and streaked with blackish brown; feathers of the upper
parts with pale terminal edges, white on some of the wing-coverts juv. Purukan,
N. Cel., 22. XI. 94; P. & P. Sarasin).

“Iris dark yellow; bill black, cere yellow; legs and feet yellow” (P. & P. S.).

Measurements (extremes from small male to large female). Wing 306 — 345 mm; tail 190 — 213;
tarsus 58 — 62.

Eggs. Not positively known.

Distribution. Japan, Ussuriland (25), China, Pormosa, Cochin Cliina, Tenasserim, Malacca,
the Philippines, including Palawan (4, 15, 16), Balabac (29) and Sooloo (13), Borneo,
Labuan, Java, Celebes — Northern Peninsula (Bosenberg, Duivenbode, Biedel
d 4, Guillemard 13, etc.), Siao (Hoedt J 4), Great Sangi (Bosenberg, Hoedt d 4,
Platen 14, Nat. Coll.), Talaut Islands — Salibabu and Karkellang (Nat. Coll.),
Ternate, Halmahera, Morty, Salawatti, Waigiou (cf. Salvador! 7, Oates 11, Kelham
8, W. Blasius 14, Kutter 10).

Count Salvador! includes Burmah (Hume) in his list of localities, but only
Tenasserim is noted for it in Mr. Oates’ and Mr. Blanford’s more recent works.

It is possible to show that this species occurs in the East India Archi-
pelago only as a migrant from China, Ussuriland and Japan during the N. E.
monsoon, the winter in the latter countries. Such Mr. Whitehead considered it
undoubtedly to be in Borneo (17), and Mr. Everett (18) states that “it appears
in Labuan and Northern Borneo in September and remains through the winter.
It is quite the most abundant of the migratory as Haliastur intermedins is of the

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

47

resident birds of prey in those parts of the island”. Mr. Whitehead also marks
it as a migrant in Palawan (20). Abbe David states that it breeds in the moun-
tains near Peking, though it appears not to be plentiful in China (5)\ further
south, it passes through the Lower Aangtse country, as Mr. F. W. Sty an writes,
“on migration in March and April. A good number travel together, and remain
a week or so among the hills on their way; they seem to avoid the plains” (22).
Apparently the species is resident, or some remain to breed, in the Philippines,
an egg, which appears to belong to this species, having been obtained in Min-
danao by Schadenberg and Koch (10). The following recorded dates afford
fairly conclusive evidence that this Hawk descends into the East India Archi-
23elago at the beginning of the cold in the northern hemisphere; whither they
take their departure again with the returning S. W. monsoon.

Locality

Specimens

Time of year

Reference

Luzon , . .

. 5 or more

Nov., Dec., Feb., April, July .

2, 19, 21

Panay . . .

. 1

» »

January

21

Gruimaras . .

. 2

» »

March, December

2, 21

Kegros . . .

. 1

» »

February

21

o

-S

Cebu

. 2

» »

March

5, 21

ft

.s^

Siquijor . .

. 1

» »

February

21

1 ' H
• rH

ft

Mindanao

. 3

» »

October, December, March

10, 21, Dresd. Mus

Basilan . . .

. 1

» »

November

21

Ouyo . . .

. 1

» »

December

2

Palawan . .

. 1

November

4

Sooloo Is.

. 1

December

13

Borneo ....

. 9

October to March ....

17

Malacca ....

. 1

February

8

Tenasserim . . .

. 2

March

6

Talaut Is. . . .

. 8

October, November ....

Dresd. Mus.

Sangi Is. . . .

. 7

October to January ....

14

Great Sangi .

. 1

December

Dresd. Mus.

K.

Celebes . . .

. 4

October, February ....

d4

K.

Celebes . . .

. 1

December

Dresd. Mus.

N.

Celebes . . .

. 6

October, November ....

P. & F. Sarasin

Ternate ....

. 3

November to February . . .

7, 12

Halmahera . . .

. 3

January, April 1®*^ ....

d4

Morty ....

. 1

January

d 4

Salawatti . . .

. 1

• • •

November

d 4

From the above list of about seventy specimens, furnishing all the re-
corded dates which we have been able to find for specimens obtained in these
islands, it will be seen that every one was obtained between October and April,
except Dr. Steer e’s notice from Luzon, the northernmost island of the Philippines,
which furnished one or more in July. Its prey consists probably almost ex-
clusively of reptiles, amphibia and insects which become scarce or quite dis-
apj)ear in the northern jDarts of its range on the approach of winter; hence the
motive for the autumnal migration.

48

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

To explain the returning migration in spring other motives than hunger
must be looked for; it is evident that no diminution of food takes place in
warm climates at this time of the ^ear, but rather the opposite. It is, however,
possible to aigue that the influx of northern migrants overstocks these regions,
rendering breeding there more inconvenient than in more northern climes, which
now also offer a plentiful food supply. This reason goes hand in hand with
another one, the remembrance of, and attachment for, the old breeding quarters.
Many birds will not forsake their nesting spot, as almost every field-naturalist
knows from ex]Derience, even after their eggs or young have been taken and
nest destroyed; and a pair of the same species — probably, as a rule, the same
identical pair^) — return year by year to the same spot, even to the same tree
or bush.

The Grey-faced Buzzard-eagle has as yet been recorded only from the
Northern Peninsula of Celebes, — Gorontalo and the Minahassa. So, likewise,
Tachyspizias soloensis and Ninooc scutulata japonica have been recorded only from
North Celebes. These are also migratory species, which descend in the winter
from China apparently, and reaching North Celebes via the Philippine Islands

1] Some curious cases, sbomng that it need not follow that it is always the identical ijair of parent
birds, which returns to the same spot, are recorded by Seebohm in the case of the Merlin (Falco aesalon).
A pair of these birds was found breeding on a certain bank and were killed; nevertheless for several succeed-
ing years other pairs of these birds always made their appearance and tried to rear their young on the
same bank, though one or both birds were killed off every season (British Birds 1883, I, 38). The only way,
as Seebohm thinks, by which these facts may be accoiinted for, is on the supposition that Merlins have
certain recognised breeding haunts, which are seized upon by a pair out of a party in migration, xmovided
the former owers are not already in j)ossession. This may be the case; but it appears to us more probable
that the birds, which attempted to nest at the spot, were the young which had been reared there some years
earlier and had been expelled from their native haunt by the their parents (or possibly by the more com-ageous
members of the household;, the usual occurrence among birds of prey and probably among other birds.

An interesting case in this connection has l)een communicated to us from personal observation l;y
Mr. W. Schnuse of Dresden. A pair of Storks had nested for a few years on the top of a disused tall chimney
in the village of Walternienburg, Proraice of Saxony. In 1894, three young ones were reared, and the birds
left for the winter. Next spring, two Storks, evidently the j^arents, returned and took possession of the old
nest. A day or two afterwards three other Storks arrived and tried to occupy the nest, and tremendous
fights took j)lace every day for at least a week for its jmssession. The three (apparently the young of the
former year), which roosted at night on an old disused nest on the jjarsonage about 200 yards off, at length
relinquished their eff’orts. It is a pity that no one seems to have taken the trouble to amass facts of this
descrijDtion.

Since the above remarks were made, Prof. Newton’s thoughtful considerations on the question have
appeared (Diet. B. jit. II, 1893, 555), and may well be inserted here. “"WTien we consider the return move-
ment which takes j)lace some six months later, doubt may be entertained whether scarcity of food can be urged
as its sole or sufficient cause, and perhaps it Avould be safest not to come to any decision on this point. On
one side it may be urged that the more equatorial regions which in winter are crowAed with emigrants from
the north, though well fitted for the resort of so great a population at that season are deficient in certain
necessaries for the nursery. Nor does it seem too %iolent an assumption to supj^ose that even if such ne-
cessaries are not absolutely wanting, yet that the regions in question would not sux^jjff sufficient food for both
parents and offspring — the latter being, at the lowest computation, . tvice as numerous as the former — unless
the numbers of both were diminished by the casualities of travel. But on the other hand we must remember
what has been advanced in regard to the jiertinacity %vith \\diich Birds return to their accustomed breeding-
places, and the force of this passionate fondness for the old home cannot but be taken into account, even if
we do not allow that in it lies the whole stimulus to undertake the perilous voyage”.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

49

are content for the most part to pass the cold season there, without going further
south.

The next species, Biitastur liventer — distinguishable by its rufous hazel tail
and yellow bill — is perhaps also migratory, but this species has only been
found in South Celebes. It is not known from China and the Philippines; its
northermost known quarters are Pegu, where it breeds, and hence its wandering
probably takes place by way of Malacca and the chain of islands from Sumatra
eastwards, so reaching South Celebes before any other part of the island. So,
also, Polioaetiis humilis^ likewise a Burmese and Indian species not known in
China or the Philippines, has only been obtained in South Celebes (in two
examples) and at Peling Island. See also Lanius tigrinus and lucionensis.

M8. BUTASTUR LIVENTER (Temm.).

Pufous-tailed Buzzard-eagle.
a. Falco liventer (I) Temm., PI. Col. 1S27, Nr. 438.

h. Buteo liventer Cuv.; (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Buteones 1862, 21; (II) id., Yalkvogels 1866,
33, 69, pi. 21, f. 1; (3) id., Bev. Acc. 1873, 111.

c. Buteo pallidus Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831, 82.

d. Astur liventer Cray, List. Acc. B. M. 1844, 34.

e. Poliornis liventer Kaup; (1) Walden, Tr. Z, S. 1872, ym, 37; (2) Hume, Str. F.

1873, I, 318; (3) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 9; (4) Hume, Str. F. 1875,
HI, 31; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56.

f. Circaetus liventer (Gr. Muller) (1) Kaup, Isis 1847, 267.

Butastur liventer (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 296; (2) Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1878,
VI, 21; (3) Oates, ib. 1882, X, 180; (4) id., B. Brit. Burmah 1883, H, 196;
Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 73; (5) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 207,
208, 233; (6) Everett, J. Straits Br. B. A. S. 1889, 183; (7) Oates, Hume’s
Nests & Eggs 1890, IH, 161; (8) Hartert, Kat. Vog. Frankf. M. 1891, 176;
(9) Yorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1892, LI, 375; (10) Blittik., Zool. Ergebn. Webers
Beise Ost-Ind. 1893, HE, 271; (11) Blank, Faun. Br. Ind. B. LH 1895, 364;
(12) M. Sc Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 1, p. 7; (13) Hartert, Nov. Zool.
1896, 162.

“Buetje”, Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen 5).

For further references see Sharpe 1\ Salvador! e 5; Oates 4.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I\ Schlegel JZ; Kaup/i; Sharpe 7; Hume e 4;

Oates 5, 4, 7; W. Bias. 5; Yorderman 9\ Blanford 11.

Adult. Above greyish brown, more rufous brown on upper tail-coverts and scapulars; shaft-
streaks dark; primary coverts and remiges hazel-rufous, the inner webs of the
latter crossed with about six narrow dark bars, the outer webs for the terminal half
ashy brown; tail hazel-rufous crossed with from two to seven narrow bars — the
basal ones being sometimes absent; throat whitish; under surface drab-bro'svn hke
the face, but mottled on the abdomen with broken cross-bars of white; thighs, under
tail-coverts and under side of wing white, the dark bars of the quills being rather
faint.

“Iris light yellow; eyelids, cere, feet and bill yellow, tip of latter black” ($,
S. Celebes; Platen — Nr. 6738 and others).

Meyer & Wiglesworfh, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 9tii, 1897). 7

50

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Three specimens in the Dresden Museum from Celebes — all of them at the
end of the moult and one in the Sarasin Collection are in this plumage.

Female. Like the male; a little larger perhaps.

Young. Similar to the adult, hut the head above brown, with blackish brown shaft-streaks,
the wing-coverts mottled with whitish, the grey-hrown breast marked to some extent
with whitish transverse spots (cf, 11. Dec. 1891, Macassar: P. & F. Sarasin.

A young specimen of three months’ age described by Mr. Oates (3) had the
bars on the tail very clearly defined.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
cere

a. (673S) 9, S. Celebes (Platen)

b. (C 11205) 5, S. Celebes, 6. DI. 78 (Platen) . . . .

c. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, Macassar, 14. YU. 95 (P. & P. S.)

d. (C 11204) (f, S. Celebes, 8. H. 78 (Platen) . . . .

e. (Sarasin Coll.) (f juv,. Macassar, 1 1 . XD. 94 (P. & F. S.)

305

290

285

285

276

155

162

150

150

146

63

66

65

65

63

21

20.5

20

20

19

Eggs. 2; white, very smooth and comjjact; seen against the light — clear dark green.
Size 46X37 mm ca. (Oates 7).

Nest. Of small sticks, situated in a tree.

Breed.ing season in Burmah. March (7).

Distribution. Pegu (Oates etc. e 2, e 4, 4, 7); Tenasserim (Davison 2); Siam (Grurney ei);
Java (Eeinwardt hi); Timor (S. Muller 5 i); ? Borneo (6 7, e 3, 6)- South Celebes,
— Macassar (S. Muller b 1, Wallace 1, Meyer, Platen 5, etc.); Pare-Pare
(Weber 10)’, Luwu, Gulf of Boni (Weber 10); ? Moluccas (Frankf. Mus. 8).

Ml’. Everett declines to admit this species into his list of the buxls of Bonieo
for want of sufficient evidence, nor have we seen any reference to actual specimens
from that island. If the locality be correctly indicated, there is a specimen in the
Frankfurt a. M. Museum from the Moluccas — apparently the only one as yet recorded
east of Celebes. For the present it should be treated as erroneous; no collector is
mentioned.

There is some reason to suspect that this Hawk will prove to be a partially
migratory species in the East Indian Archijielago. In lower Burmah it is abundant,
and breeds there, laying 2 eggs in March. In Java a note of Mr. de Bo car me
states that it is generally seen in December and January and appears not to
nest in that island. It is fairly abundant in marshes and damp meadow^s; preys
upon frogs, grasshoppers and small birds, also snakes and crabs (b 1, 4). One
specimen from Java in the Leyden Museum is dated May. Five specimens
reported upon by Prof. W. Blasius (5) and another one in the Dresden Museum
were shot by Dr. Platen in February, Alarch and April 1878; and one was
obtained near Alacassar by Aleyer in October, 1870).

Prof. Weber obtained four in the southern Peninsula, one in October, one
in February, and the other two apparently prior to October (10).

1) This specimen, which is in tlie Berlin Museum, was en’oneorisly entered in the Catalogue there as
having come from Manado, although it is labelled ‘'Macassar, Oct. 1871”. This mistake has led to the
locality Manado being recorded for the species in Ibis 1879, 56, which should now be cancelled and Macassar
substituted in its place.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

51

Mr. Everett, who arrived at Macassar on Sex^tember 1894 {13)^ sent
S23ecimens to the Tring Mnsenin and reported it to be common. Drs. Sara sin,
as shown above, obtained a yonng male in December, 1894, but a female in
worn plnmage in July, 1895. It is thus clear that the sjDecies occurs in Celebes
all the year round, though it may be more plentiful in the months of the
northern winter.

This species axDpears to he an inhabitant of the j^lains, and its presence in
the southern Peninsula up to Luwu at the head of the Gulf of Boni is an
interesting fact when contrasted with the occurrence of its fellow-sx)ecies 13. in-
dicus in the north of Celebes, w’'hile the latter is absent in the south. Whether
B. liventer visits S. Celebes on migration or not, there is no doubt that it came
into the island from the south-west, while B. indicus comes to N. Celebes every
autumn from the north-west.

Buteo desertorum Vie ill.

A single sx3ecimen in the Leyden Museum labelled North Celebes (v. Faber,
1883). According to Dresser (Birds of Europe V, 458) the range of this
species is over South-East Europe, Africa and India — the Neilgherries and
Himalayas (Hume, Rough Notes, 270); in winter it has occurred as far south
as Ceylon and Thatone in Tenasserim (VII. — X. orn JB. Sachs. 1886, p. 2), so
that its occurrence in Celebes is well within the bounds of possibility. Faber
collected onlv in Celebes and Sumatra.

GENUS HALIASTUR Selby.

The Brahminy Kite is of medium size, wings long, reaching nearly to the
tip of the tail (Legge); tail moderate, rounded; tarsus short, about one-eiffhth
the length of the wing, upper third feathered, bare part with transverse shields
in front; toes short, claws somewhat small and not much bent. Devours animal
food of almost any description. A single, stationary species, occurring from
India to Australia. Lays 2 eggs.

ty 19. HALIASTUR INDUS (Bo del.).

Brahminy Kite.

This species ranges in great abundance Kom the Indian countries and
Ceylon, throughout the East India Archipelago as far as New Guinea and the
Solomon Islands, to Australia.

As it extends its range from India eastwards and southwards, it diminishes
in size and the dark shaft-streaks on the white plumage of the head, neck and
breast gradually diminish in breadth, until in New Guinea and the neighbouriim-

7*

52

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

islands they quite disappear. In India and Burmah the stripes are broad and
take in some of the web of the feather on either side of the shaft; in Ceylon,
Siam, Malacca and Sumatra the stripes are generally narrower, a further de-
crease is seen in specimens from Java, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, Borneo and
the Philippines, where the streaks appear to be confined to the shafts, which
are very distinct and black, and Javan specimens were named intermedins by
the late J. H. Gurney; a little more East a still further decrease in the dark
shaft-streaks is to be seen in specimens from Sangi, Celebes, Sula, Halmahera,
Obi major, Amboina, Burn, Timor, and North Australia, where the dark shaft
lines are, as a rule, thin and scanty, or are quite absent, leaving the head,
neck and breast pure white; in New Guinea and the surrounding islands. New
Ireland, Solomon Islands and xTru, these parts are, apparently, in general, pure
white, and this most eastern form of the species has received the name girrenera
from Vieillot. But the species is so plentiful throughout its range, and the
transition from the broad-striped specimens of India to the white ones of New
Guinea is so gradual and regular that it is impossible to draw any distinct lines
of demarkation between specimens from neighbouring localities; and any geo-
graphical sections of the whole which have been called by distinct names are,
by definition, only subspecies, or even subsubspecies.

In how far is it practically profitable to distinguish local sections of this
species by name, and what form of nomenclature is convenient? According to
the most prominent present-day definition of ornithologists, species are well-
differentiated groups of individuals which are not connected with one another
by means of a series of intermediate intergrading forms, whereas subspecies
are interconnected by such a series of intermediate forms. Just as a genus is
always known under a single name, so also a species should always be known
under a binomial, and subspecies under trinomials. In the present case of
Haliastur indus, it seems advisable to recognise at least the two extreme forms
of the species, as subspecies, viz: the typical race of India with the broadest
stripes, and that of New Guinea without any stripes. Unhaj)pily, modern rules
of nomenclature make no provision for distinguishing as a subspecies the local
race first described, and we are compelled to speak of both the species as a
whole, and of the typical subspecies, as Haliastur Indus (Bodd.). Granting that
it be worth the trouble to recognise subspecies at all by name, it is certainly
adventageous that one and all should be spoken of under trinomials in order to
distinguish them from species, of which they only represent a part. This might
readily be done by strictly confining the original binomial to the species, as at
present defined, and then adding the word typicus to the typical subspecies
first described, but it is not yet advisable to employ this method, inasmuch as
— until some rule of nomenclature be made to prevent this result — the name
of the writer, who appended the word typicus to the originally described race,
would be likely to be quoted by any one writing down the trinomial hereafter
and the name of the true author overlooked. In referring to such subspecies

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

53

we are, therefore, compelled to attach the vernacular term “the typical”, to the
scientific name of the species, instead of adding a classical trinomial),

Haliastur indus arouses another question in nomenclature. If subspecies
be distinguished by a trinomial, under what form of nomenclature are the forms
which interconnect them to be spoken of? In the present case, if the two
extreme races only of H. indus are treated of as subspecies, the main body of
the species is made up of intermediate forms. Specimens from Java, which
stand in characters about midway between those of India and New Guinea, have
been named intermedins by Gurney; and those of Celebes which are again
intermediate between the latter and those of New Guinea were named H. indus
var. amhiguus by the late Dr. Briiggemann, but the last named, like those
intermediate between intermedins and the typical indus, cannot be regarded
as more than subsubspecies; and if such a subdivision ever come into use
four names must be employed for it. In such a case it is certainly much easier
to remember the facts than the names which are intended to call them to
mind, and the nomenclature employed would defeat its own purpose. There-
fore we prefer to give no long names, but to designate the forms intermediate be-
tween the typical H. indus and H. indus — girrenera in the following manner:
Haliastur indus — girrenera, with the remark that a long hyphen connecting
the names of two subspecies serves to designate the intermediate forms which
connect them^). It does not appear to be advisable to recognise H. indus
intermedins as a third subspecies, since this is not aberrant, but distinctly inter-
mediate between the two extremes of variation in H. indus.

Perhaps in future — when the want becomes sufficiently pressing to neces-
sitate the step — a somewhat considerable change in the nomenclature of the
present day may be effected as follows ; species as at present defined will remain
under their original binomials; subspecies under trinomials; but the degree of
relationship between the interconnecting forms to these subspecies will be dis-
played by the use of numbers — somewhat after the manner of chemical
formulae. Thus, in the case of Haliastur indus — taking four degrees of rela-
tionship into consideration — the typical subspecies will be Haliastur indus
typicus, that of New Guinea H. indus girrenera\ that of Celebes, which may be
supposed to have three times as strong a connection with girrenera as with typunis,
will be represented as H, indus ^ girrenera^-, that of Java being just about
midway in characters as H. indus. 2 girrenera 2', that of Malacca as H. indus 3
girrenera 2. This method could be carried to any degree of refinement, and

1) Since tMs article was written, Dr. Jordan and ]\Ir. Hartert have published some very similar
remarks in the “Novitates Zoologicae” and in “The Ibis”, hlr. Hartert, however, did not hesitate
to append the classical trinomial typicus to the typical form, but he has since decided that a doubling of
the specific name (e. g. Acreilula caudata caudata) is better (Zool. Anzeiger 1897 XX, 41 — 47). It must be left
to a general agreement, which mode of expression be adopted, the one being nearly as good or bad as the other.

2) IiVe are not so sanguine as to believe, that our brother ornithologists will adopt our innovation of
nomenclature, but we trust that future “rules of nomenclature” will also take into consideration cases like
this, and make some proposition which can be generally adopted.

54

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

is certainly less complex than the use of a quadrinomial such as JELaliastur indus
girrenera ambiguus.

Better suited to the ornithological needs of the present day, so long as
mathematical accuracy which may be expressed in numbers is generally im-
possible, are the signs ^ and <^, as explained in a subsequent article. We
use them as follows:

Haliastur indus ^ girrenera means that the specimen so indicated is
more like the typical mdus than girrenera (viz. ordinary birds from Ceylon,
Sumatra etc.);

Haliastur indus girrenera , more like girrenera than indus (Celebes etc.) ;
Haliastur indus -=z girrenera, sharing equally the characters of indus and
girrenera, intermediate (Java, etc.).

Haliastur indus — girrenera.

a. Haliastur indus partim {1} Schl, Mus. P.-B. Aquilae 1862, 19; (11) id. Yalkv. 1866,
pi. 4, %. 4; {3} id., Eev. Acc. 1873, 119-123; {4) Salvad., Ucc. di Borneo 1874,
12; (5) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 366; {6} Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 76; {1} A. Muller,
J. f. O. 1882, 428; Hartert, J. f. O., 1889, 405; Hagen, Td. Ned. Aard.

Genoots. 1890 (2), YII, 130; (9) Yorderman, Notes Leyden Mus. 1891, 122; [10)
M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 238; {11} hd., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 4; Nr. 9,
p. 2; (12) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 7.

h. Haliastur intermedius (Gurney), subsp.; (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 314; (2) Gurney,
Ibis 1878, 460 — 466; (3) id.. Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 79.

c. Haliastur intermedius Gurney; (1) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1875, LX, 142; (2) Salvad., Orn.

Pap. 1880, I, 19; (3) Meyer, Yerh. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1881, 760; (4) Guillem.,

P. Z. S. 1885, 253; (5) id., t. c. 502; (6) id. t. c. 562; (7) Sharpe, Ibis 1889, 74;

(8) Everett, J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 183; (9) Steere, CoU. B. Phthp. 1890, 7;
(10) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1891, 41; (11) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 244, 258;
(12) Grant, t. c. 407; (13) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 33; (14)
Yorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1895, 329, 333; (15) Grant, Bjis 1895, 438; (16)
Everett, Nov. Zool. 1896, 597.

d. Haliastur indus var. ambiguus (1) Briiggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, 45; (2) Biittik.,

Zool. Ergebn. Webers Eeise Ost-Ind. 1893, IH, 271.

e. Haliastur leucosternus Walden; (1) Meyer, Iljis 1879, 56; (2) Joest, Das Holontalo

1883, 105.

f. Haliastur girrenera var. ambigua (1) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 17; (2) W. Bias.,

J. f. 0. 1883, 135; (3) id., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 227; (4) id., Omis 1888, 542.

g. Haliastur girrenera (1) Meyer, Isis 1884, 9.

“Asiare” or “Kasibare”, adult; “Jamba”, young, Talaut Is., Nat. Coll.

“Kasiabe”, Siao, Tagulandang and Euang, “Kasiabeng”, Gt. Sangi, iid.

“Kobeba mera”, Banka Id., N. Cel., iid.

“Kobeba dada puti” i. e. Bird of Prey with white breast, Malay vernacular of Celebes,
Meyer el.

“Bulia”, Gorontalo, Joest e 2.

“Tjangeb", Tjamba, Maros, S. Celebes, Platen f 3.

“Alaij pan”, Peling Island, Nat. Coll.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

55

For further references see Sharpe b 1, c 7.

Figures and descriptions. Schlegel all, a 1, a 3\ Sharpe h 1\ Briiggemann d 1\ Lenz
a 5; Gurney b 2 (specimens described from Sumatra, S. Borneo, Flores, Macassar,
Togian Islands, Amboina, N. E. Australia); A. Muller a 7; Meyer g i; W. Blasius
f3, f4.

Adult. Head, neck, breast and upper part of abdomen white, marked to a greater
or less extent with dark shaft-streaks, which are broad — but narrower than in the
typical H. indus — in the western parts of its range, and gradually become fine and
scanty in the eastern parts ; primaries black, passing into cinnamon-chestnut towards
the bases of the feathers; all other parts cinnamon-chestnut, whitish at the tip
and on the under side of the tail. “Bill bluish white; feet citron-yellow” (Platen
f 3). Iris variable — probably with age: dark chocolate, warm chocolate, olive-
brown, brown, light brown, dull yellow, reddish yellow (Gurney b 2, Sharpe c 7,
W. Blasius f 4).

Young. The white of the adult replaced by cinnamon, whole under surface of this colour.
Measurements after Legge, Salvador! and Gurney. Wing 345 — 406 mm, tail 170 — 241, tarsus
46 — 57, bill from cere 28 — 31. The smallest measurements are generally those of
the most eastern parts.

Distribution of intermediate specimens. Ceylon (Legge a 6); Malacca (Sharpe 5 7); Salanga
(A. Muller a 7); Sumatra (Gurney b 2; Salvad. c 10)\ Bangka (Schl. a 3); Billiton
(Vorderman a 9)] Java (Schl. a 3, Sharpe 5 7); Lombok (Vorderman c 77); Sum-
bawa (Guillem, e 4); Sumba (Meyer c 5); Flores (Gurney b 2); Timor (Wall. 5 7);
Philippines (Schl. a 3, Meyer cl, Steere c 9)] Sooloo Islands (Guillem, c 4)\
Borneo (Schl a 3, Everett c S); Talaut Is. (Nat. Coll, a 10, all)', Great Sangi
(Platen f 4, Nat. Coll.); Siao (Hoedt 5, Meyer 7, Nat. Coll.), Tagulandang and
Huang (Nat. Coll.); Celebes — North (Forsten, Bosenb. a 7, a 3, Meyer el, etc.),
— S. W. Peninsula, Macassar (Wallace 5 7); Maros and Tjamba (Platen f 3),
Tete Adji (Weber d 2); Peling (Nat. Coll.); Sula Besi (Hoedt a 5); Burn (Wallace
5 7); Amboina (Schl. a 5); Obi Major (Guillem, c 4)\ Halmahera (Meyer in Dresd.
Mus.); Austraha (Gurney 5 2, Bamsay).

In the west and east extremes of the range given above normal specimens
of the typical H. indus and of H. indus girrenera respectively occur intermingled
wdth others that are not normal. Thus, in Malacca, Mr. Hume records a speci-
men with the dark streaks as strongly developed as in any Indian specimen
(Str. F. IX, 1880, 120); Colonel Legge, on the other hand, regards the
Malaccan birds as further removed from the Indian than are the Cingalese
ones, which he considers intermediate between the twm. It is very probable
that in Malacca, and elsewhere, an influx of specimens from the north takes
place in winter, for, as is pointed out by Gurney, Abbe David notes a
migratory movement among the birds of Tchekiang and Kiangsi: “il disparait de
ces provinces pendant Ihiver et se retire dans la Cochinchine” (David and
O ust. Ois. Chine, 1 5), but it is not certain to what race the Chinese birds belong.
In Halmahera, Amboina, Celebes, etc. pure white plumage on the head, neck
and breast is common; from Flores, also, such a bird is mentioned by Schlegel
[a 3) and we have recently received an almost typical girrenera from Talaut (a 10).
The most logical way of treating such specimens is to record them under the

56

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

name of the normal subspecies, H. indiis girrenera or the typical indus, as the
case may be; while those which deviate from these subspecies in the same
localities should bear the sign, H. indus — girrenera.

As regards animal food, H. indus seems to be almost omnivorous. Fowls,
fish, lizards, molluscs, crustaceans, large ortho]>tera, refuse of ships, are noticed
by Gould, S chi e gel, Jerdon, Legge etc.; and Fryer observed it catching
bats and Edible-nest Swifts on the wing in front of the great Collocalia caves of
British North Borneo (P. Z. S. 1884, 536). Probably, its feeding habits vary some-
what in different localities; in Ceylon, for instance, although Mr. Layard has
known it to seize a fowl, “this must be a rare occurrence” (Legge), whereas
the more narrowly striped specimens of Java carry off domestic fowls daily
(Bo car me), and in Borneo Mr. Whitehead found it to be a great robber of
chickens. The species builds in trees, and throughout its dominions — from
India to Australia — the ordinary number of eggs laid at a sitting is two.
North and south of the equator the breeding seasons are different, as would
appear from the following:

North of equator.

Locality Season Lggs Autbority

India Jan. — April 2 (or 3) Oates, Nests and Eggs Ind. B. HI, 170.

Biuniah Dec. — Feb. 2 — 3 . Oates, B. Brit. Burinah.

North Ceylon .... Dec. — Feb Parker, Bjis 1883, 193.

South Ceylon .... Feb. — Mch. 2 . . Legge, B. Ceylon, 76.

Labuan Dec. 1873 1 , . Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1879, 323.

South of equator.

Java May — June 2 . . Schl, Yalkv. 10, 51.

Australia (Port Essington) July— Aug. 2 . . Old., B. Austr., text, jd. 4.

It is, of course, not to be supposed that any abrupt difference in the breed-
ing seasons is to be found N. & S. of the equator. In Tenasserim lat. 16® N.,
for instance. Colonel Bingham noticed a jjair breeding, “but the nest, when
examined on the April, was still unfinished”, this being only about a month
earlier than in the case with the species in Java. In such countries as lie in
the more immediate neighbourhood of the equator and which experience no
very great difference of temperature at any time of the year, it may ultimately
prove that the breeding-seasons of the birds are mainly influenced by the cha-
racter of the monsoons — wet or . fine; Legge states that in Ceylon (B. Ceyl.
p. XXIII) birds breed during the rains, the times varying on opposite sides of
the island. The most important condition probably is that the food supj^ly be
at its maximum when the young are hatched.

It will be noticed in the above list that an egg obtained at Labuan was
taken in December, while in Java the species lays in May and June, that is
nearly half a year later; at Lahuan December is the final month of the rainy
season; May in Java is at the beginning of the fine season.

In almost all parts of its range H. indus exists in great abundance. Thus,
it is spoken of as a very common s^Dccies at Macassar (v. Bosenb.), in N. Celebes

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

57

(Meyer), in Ceylon (Legge), “extremely common in Biirmah” (Oates), “exces-
sively common in Tenasserim” (Davison), “everywhere abundant on the strand
in Ceram” (Rihbe); “the most plentiful resident bird of prey in Borneo”
(Everett), “the commonest bird of prey near Batavia” (Vorderman), “the com-
monest and most impudent bird of prey” in Sumatra (Hagen). Owing to its
great numerical abundance, to the expulsion of the young by the j^arents, the
search for partners and for suitable breeding territories well suiiplied with food,
a continuous crowding out of the surplus population of this species doubtless
takes place, and the movement is as nothing to a bird possessing such fine
power of flight. It is, however, naturally a stationary bird, having no call for
migration by reason of its omnivorous habits; consequently, it does not proceed
farther, when forced to make a move, than to the nearest suitable locality; but
this serves to keep up a continuous intermixture of individuals from neighbour-
ing quarters, so as to prevent its becoming marked off into distinct smaller species.
Why, in spreading from the continent of Asia to the islands of the East, H. indus
has gradually lost the black shaft-streaks on the white plumage of the head,
neck, breast and abdomen, so acquiring a pure white on these parts (or — vice-
versa — has acquired black shaft streaks in extending its range from New
Guinea to India [see j). 64 antea^ are questions worthy of consideration, but
the explanation of which must be left to future time, if the development of
this species as a whole has not by then undergone changes, be it that it has
split into sharply separated forms or that it has settled down into one.

GENUS MILVUS Cut.

The Kites are medium-sized birds of prey and well characterized by their
long, forked tail. Wing very long; tarsus and toes short, upper third of the
tarsus feathered, lower part in front transverse-scutate, claws not strongly
hooked; bill rather weak, culmen narrow, compressed, tomia slightly festooned.
Preys on small vertebrates of any description; also, carrion. Three to six
species found in the Old World, including Australia; migratory and stationary;
laying 2—3 eggs.

20. MILVUS MIGRANS (Bocld.).

Black Kite.

The following references bear uj^on what may be called the Indian Kite-
question:

Homeyer, J. f. 0. 1868, 252; Anderson, P. Z. S. 1872, 79; Hume, Str.
E. 1873, 160; Brooks, Ibis 1874, 461; Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 1874, 323 — 326;
Anderson, P. Z. S. 1875, 25; Brooks, Str. P. 1875, 229; Hume, 1. c. note;
Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1878, VI, 23; Oates, Str. P. 1878, YIL, 44; Gurney,
Ibis 1879, 76—82; Brooks, t. c. 282—284; Scully, Str. F. 1879, YHI, 227—229;

Meyer & Wigles worth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 9th, 1897). c

58

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Brooks, t. c. 466, 467; Hume, 1. c. note; Legge, B. Ceylon, 82; Scully, Str. B.
1881, X, 95; Oates, S. F. 1882, X, 181; id., B. Brit. Burmak 1883, H, 202—204;
Seebolim, British B. I, 1883, 80; Gurney, Dium. B. of Prey 1884, 80, 81;
Brooks, B3is 1884, 238; Menzhier, t. c. 311, 312; W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885,
230—232; Brooks, Ibis 1885, 385,386; Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 63, 64;
Zaroudnoi, Bull. Ac. Imp. Mosc. 1889, 755; Oates, Hume’s Nests and Eggs 1890,
HI, 173 — 177; Blanford, Faun. Brit. Ind. B. HI 1895, 374 — 378.

The controversy referred to above, after having lasted over a period of a
quarter of a century and produced written matter enough to fill an octavo volume,
remains almost as far as ever from a satisfactory settlement. It still needs years
of close and accurate observations, agreeing, moreover, better in themselves than
is at present the case, before any decided opinion upon the Indian Kite-
question can be formed. The points in dispute may'- be stated as follows: on
the one side Mr. Hume and others maintain that there are three forms of
Black Kite in India — a big one [M. melanotis T. & S.), a middle-sized one
[M. govinda Sykes) and a small one [M. afftnis Gld.); the other side, which
may be identified with Mr. Brooks’ name, affirms that the middle-sized and the
small Kite of Hume are one and the same, and that the big Kite — and not
this species — is the true MUvus govinda Sykes.

Taking first into consideration the question of transferring the name,
M. govinda^ to the large Kite, we believe that no sound and sufficient reason
can be urged to necessitate this step. The only strong argument in its favour
is, that one of Sykes’ types in the possession of !Mr. Brooks is undoubtedly
a sy)ecimen of the large Kite. But the weight of this argument is counterpoised
by the fact that Sykes was not aware that there were two races of Kite in
India, and that at least one other sj^ecimen said to be a ty]3e is in preservation
elsew^here (see Legge 1. c.) and belongs to the smaller, commoner, race. This
in itself would be sufficient reason for declining to make an inconvenient change
in nomenclature, but, beyond this, though the original description applies equally
well to either form as regards coloration, the accompanying measurement of
the tail (1 1 in.) betoken that it was made from a small specimen of the smaller
Kite. Mr. Brooks urges that the body — 26 in., the only other measurement
given — is that of the large Ivite, but there is reason to believe that these mea-
surements were not made from a freshly killed specimen, but from a skin, in
which case — though that of the tail holds good — that of the body is, of
course, of no value whatever as a discriminative character*). That the desciiption
was made from a skin is proved first from the fact, as hlr. Hume has pointed
out, that Sykes’ paper was written in England; and, secondly, that no naturalist
would be likely to take the measurement of the tail alone of a specimen before
skinning (which can be done equally well afterwards), and neglect to note down
the sex, colours of soft parts and expanse, which cannot be ascertained at any

1) Of two skins of Loriculus stigmatus before us one measures 123 mm and tbe other 187 mm, or half
as long again as the former, though in the flesh no doubt they were about equal in size.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

59

other time. Also, the habits of M. govinda as described by Sykes appear to be
those of the smaller Kite (cf. Legge). Thus, as regards nomenclature, the
smaller Kite has the stronger claim to the name govinda^ under which it is most
commonly known.

' Next, touching the question of the occurrence of two forms of small Kite
in India, or of only one, it would be impossible — without a great quantity of
material and without a much more accurate knowledge of the habits of these
birds in India and elsewhere than can be obtained from the imperfect and, some-
times, conflictory statements of field naturalists — to offer any solution of the
matter in dispute ; nevertheless we would throw into the discussion a fresh ele-
ment, which may not be without effect upon the knotty points concerned.

It should be borne in mind that il£ and the large melanotis only

worthy of subspecific separation from M. migrans of the western Palaearctic
Region. In India the two forms possibly do not intergrade; after most accounts
they differ in habits; the large Kite is a hill-race breeding in the Himalayas,
and, though M. govinda breeds there as well, it would seem possible that this
form generally lays somewhat later than the other, judging from the statement
in “Hume’s Nests and Eggs” 1890, III, 173, 176, that M. govinda usually lays
in the Himalayas in April and May, and M, melanotis from January to the be-
ginning of May. The diff'erences between M. govinda and a supposed smaller
race, occurring in India and generally spoken of as M. affinis^ are by no means
so well made out by the supporters of this view. It is inconceivable that a
race, hardly separable, from M. govinda at the best, should occur' as an indepen-
dant breeding bird intermingled with the latter, and it still remains to be shown
whether a smaller race migrates from Burmah or elsewhere at certain seasons^),
or whether the slight differences of coloration commonly found in larger and
smaller Indian specimens are not the natural accompaniment of a slight indi-
vidual increase or diminution of size. In the cases of govinda and affinis any
movements taking place will be likely to be of a very local character, depending
upon the abundance of food; true migrations are hardly to be expected, as the
bill of fare of Kites is a somewhat broad one, and in warm countries, like
those under consideration, some kind or other of food palatable to it must al-
ways be present. There is evidently a difference at least of size between the
race of Australia and that of Burmah, which is sj)oken of by Mr. Oates and
others as afdnis. As is pointed out below, facts tend to show that the Burmese
specimens lay a somewhat larger egg. The Australian specimens in the British
Museum are also on the whole somewhat more rufous than Indian or Tenasserim
ones. Also Legge points out that his Cingalese specimens of M. govinda differed
as adults from a Macassar example of affinis in the less rufous coloration of
the head, hind-neck, and lesser wing-coverts, and, in youth, in the less rufescent
character of the upjrer-surface tippings; also there are differences between the

1) See Anderson, P. Z. S. 1872, 79.

8*

60

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Cingalese Milvus and the typical Indian M. govinda, — facts pointing to the
stationary habits of these birds. M. govwda^ however, as well as the tyj)ical
migrans, visits Afghanistan in migration (St. John, Ibis 1889, 153).

Thus, we conclude, that there are neither two nor three species of Kite
in India, but two (or three) subspecies, one of which proceeds to further racial
variation in other localities — Ceylon, Celebes, Australia.

For the present it seems best to treat of M, migrans as consisting of four
subspecies — Milmis aeggptius being accounted distinct — viz.:

1. The typical Milvus migrans (Bodd.).

Diagnosis. Size medium (Q wing c. 430 mm); the edges of the feathers of crown and nape
whitish instead of light brown or rufous; abdomen more distinctly ferruginous; usually
little or no mottling or handing on the basal portion of the quills in adults. (Blan-
ford, Faun. Br. Ind., B. Ill 1895, 378.)

Distribution. Europe, K. W. Africa, Asia east as far as Tomsk on the Obi, Turkestan,
Afghanistan.

2. Milvus migrans melanotis (Temm. & Schl.).

Diagnosis. Size large ($ wing 485 — 546 mm); feathers of head edged with tawny or rufous;
usually a conspicuous white patch on wing below at base of quills; abdomen and
under tail- coverts usually much paler than in the next form.

Distribution. East Siberia, Japan, India, Burmah; Borneo (Everett).

3. Milvus migrans govinda (Sykes).

Diagnosis. Size medium ($ wing 430 — 495 mm, Blanford); head as in M. m. melanotis\
plumage browner than in ilf. m. affmis.

Distribution. Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, gradually blending with the next form from Burmah
to Kew Guinea.

4. Milvus migrans affinis (Gould).

Diagnosis. Size small (wing about 400 mm, Australia), plumage more rufous than in M. m.
govinda.

Distribution. Australia, passing into the preceeding fonn in the locahties between Austraha
and India.

These intermediate birds will be contained under the formula M. migrans govinda
— affinis, should a special term for them be thought necessary. For the present we
prefer to take the birds ranging from Austraha to Burmah as one subspecies;

Milvus migrans affinis (Gld.).

a. Milvus affinis (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1837, 140; (II) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 21; (3) Schl.,
Mus. P.-B. Milvi 1862, 3; (IV) Biggies, Om. Austr. 1866, pt. I; (V) Schl., YaUcv.
1866, 30, 67, pi. 20, f. 1; (6) Wall., Ibis 1868, 16; (7) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1874, I,
323; (8) Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1878, VI, 23; (8 bis) Gurney, Ibis 1879,
76 — 82; (8 ter) Hume, Str. F. 1879, YHi, 45; (9) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 82;
(10) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 21; Oates, Str. F. 1882, X, 181(?); (11) id., B.

Birds of Celebes: Balconidae.

61

Brit. Burmali 18S3, II, 202(?); (12) Brooks, Ibis 1884, 238(?); id., ib. 1885, 385(?);
(13) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 230 — 232; (XIV) North, Nests & Eggs
Austr. B. 1889, 10, pi. lY, f. 5, 6 (eggs); (15) Oates, Hume’s Nests & Eggs 1890,
in, 176(?); (16) Buttikofer, Notes Leyd. Mus. 1892, 197; (17) Newton, Diet. B.
1893, 491; (18) Blittik., AYebers Reise in Ost-Ind. 1893, EH, 271; (20) Yorder-
man, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1895, LIY, 329, 332.

b. Milvus migrans pt. (1) Schl. , Rev. Ace. 1873, 126.

c. Milvus govinda? affinis (1) Griirney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 81.

d. Milvus migrans affinis (1) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 598.

“Latjana”, S. AY. Celebes, Platen a 13.

For further references see Salvador! a 10.

Figures and descriptions. Gould a II\ Schlegel a a 3\ Diggles a IV\ North a AZF;
Sharpe « 7; Legge a 9\ Salvador! a 10] Oates all] AY. Blasius a 13] Eyton,
Osteol. Av. 1867 — 75, 3, 7 (sternum).

Adult. Head and neck broccoli brown, marked with dark shaft-streaks; chin, upper
throat and ear-coverts whitish with dark shaft-streaks; rest of upper surface
sepia brown, the feathers margined (on the wing-coverts strongly washed) with the
colour of the head; tail — in young specimens plainly, in old specimens indistinctly
— crossed with numerous dusky bars; under surface bistre brown with dark shaft-
streaks, darkest on the under wing-coverts and lightest on the under tail-coverts and
thighs, longest under wing-coverts grey-brown, with dark bars; primaries black,
washed and mottled with pale brown towards the base of the wing, whitish at the
concealed base of the outer quills (Q, S. Celebes 26. 1. 78: Platen, C 11110, and others).

“Iris brown; cere light yellow; bill black; feet citron-yellow” (Platen a 13).

Younger birds have a more mottled appearance than those fully adult, owing to the pale
margins of the feathers being more distinct and the banding of the tail strongly ex-
pressed.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from cere

a. (6750) 8. Celebes (Platen)

420

315

54

—

b. (Sarasin Coll.) cf, Macassar, 13. YH. 95 (P. & E. 8.)

405

260

54

24

c. (C 11110) Q, Macassar, 26.1. 78 (Platen) ....

437

310

56

—

d. (C 11109) $, 8. Celebes, 5. Y. 78 (Platen) ....

410

265

55

—

e. (Sarasin Coll.) 9? Macassar, 13. YH. 95 (P. & F. 8.)

400

260

53

24

Eggs. Australia; 3; dull white ground-colour, with reddish irregular spots and dots: mean

of two measured 45.5 mm X 37.8 (North a XIV). Bm^mah; usually 3; egg-lining
bright green; shell tolerably smooth and glossless, dull white, marked and blotched
with rust colour, bright in the majority, but pale in a few. Average of 12 eggs:
53 X 4B4 mm (Oates 15).

It would thus appear that the ikustrahan bird usually lays a considerably
smaller egg.

Nesting season in Pegu from the 3'^ week in January to the end of March. Nest composed
of twigs, etc. situated in a tree.

Distribution. Australia (Gould a 1, etc.); Yule Island (D’Alb. a 10)] Duke of York Id.
(Ramsay a 10)] Timor (S. Muller a 3, AYallace a 6)] Sumba (ten Kate a 16)] S.AY.
Celebes — Macassar (8. Muller a F, Bernst. h 1, AYallace a 6, etc.), Tjamba
(Platen a 13)., Tete Adji (AFeber a 18)] N. Celebes — Manado (Eaber in Leyden

62

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

Mils.); Lombok (Yorderman a 20, _ Everett d 1)-, Sumatra (S. Miill. a 5); Singapore
(Davison « S); Malacca (Davison a 8, Hume a 8fer)\ Tenasserim . (Davison a 8);
Cocliin China (Gurney « Burmah (Oates a Hi.

For some reason the Black Kite is very local, rather than rare, in the
East Indian Archipelago. It has never been met with in the majority of the
islands. In Celebes, notwithstanding the amount of collecting done in the
Minahassa and Gorontalo, it had not been found there until 1883, when v. Faber
sent a specimen from Manado to the Leyden Museum. In the southern end of
the south-western Peninsula, as in Timor, S. Muller notes that it is very com-
mon about the mouths of the rivers (a V). Whether it is a migrant from
Australia here, or a resident, there is insufficient evidence to show, but the
latter view is the more probable one, since it aj)pears probable that Australian
birds are a little smaller, and more rufous. The food of this species consists
of any such birds, small mammals, reptiles, fish, etc. as it can catch and kill;
also, carrion.

GENUS ELANUS Say.

The Black-shouldered Kites are of small-medium size and easily distin-
guishable by their coloration — bluish grey above, with most of the iving-
coverts black and white under parts; also by the long, pointed wing, with
the 2“^ primary longest; tarsus with the upper two-thirds in front
feathered, the lower part covered with small polygonal scales; tail
long, very slightly forked; bill compressed in front, the nostrils oval, protected
by the loral bristles. Preys upon insects; also small land-vertebrates. Four species,
two at least of doubtful validity, found in the warmer parts of both the Old
World and America. Eggs 3 — 5.

^ 21. ELANUS HYPOLEUCUS J. Gd.

East Indian Black-shouldered Kite.

a. Faleo melanopterus Horsf. (nec Daud.), Tr. L. S. 1S22, XIH, 137.

Elanus hypoleucus (1) Gould, P. Z. S. 1859, 127; (IIj id., B. Asia vol I, pi. 12 (1860);
(3) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1863, 207; (4) Wall., IbisAs68, 17; (oj Gray, HL. 1869,1,
28; (6) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 36; (T) Schl., Bev. Acc. 1873, 130; (8)
Sharjie, Oat. B. 1874, I, 338; (9) Salvad., Ucc. Borneo 1874, 12; flO) Wald.,
Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 142, 249; (11) id., P. Z. S. 1877, 757; (12) id., ib. 1878, 939;
(13) id., ib. 1879, 69; (14) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56; (15) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ.
Gen. 1879, 173; (16) Sharpe, Biis 1879, 236; (17) id., P. Z. S. 1879, 314; (18)
Gurney, Ibis 1879, 333; (19) Xicholson, ib. 1881, 140; (20) id., ib. 1882, 67;
(21) Yorderman, X. T. Xed. Ind. 1882, XLI, 3; (22) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey
1884, 84; (23) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 253; (24) Everett, J. Str. Branch B. A.
S. 1889, 184; Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 64; (25) Steere, List Coll. B. Phihp. Is.

1890, 7; (26) Hartert, J. f. 0. 1891, 299; (27) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Oiv. Gen.

1891, 42; (28) Biittik. , Zool. Ergebn. Webers Beise in Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 271;

Birds of Celebes: Palconidae.

63

(29) Sliarpe, Ibis 1894, 244, 258; {30) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exp. 1894,
33; {31) M. & Wg., Abb. Mns. Dresd. 1896 Nr. 1, p. 7; {32) Hartert, Nov. Zool.
1896, 177.

h. Elanus intermedius {1) Scbl., Mns. P.-B. Milvi 1862, 7; {II) id., Valkvog. Ned. Ind.

1866, 31, 68, pi. 24, f. 2, 3; Gray, HL. 1869, I, 28.
c. Elanus melanopterus {1) v. Martens (nec Leach), J. f. O. 1866, 9.

Figures and descriptions. Gould 7, J7; Schlegel h II\ Sharpe S; Gurney 18\ Vorder-

man 21.

Male adult. All under j)arts, forehead, sides of head and neck pure white; super-
ciliary streak black; upper wing-coverts (except the longest) black; upper sur-
face, including the two middle tail-feathers, ashy grey, darkest about the intersca-
pulary region; end of quills dusky, below greyer and becoming pure white where
the wing rests upon the sides of the body; the five outer pairs of tail-feathers
white (S. Celebes, January; Meyer, Nr. 1680). “Feet citron-yellow; claws black;
cere yellow; under the eyes yellowish; iris fiery red” (Meyer 14).

Measurements. Wing 300 mm; tail 137; tarsus 38; bill from cere 19.5.

Female. An adult Q in the Sarasin Collection answers to the above description of the male;
size — wing 310, tail 140, tarsus 39, bill from cere 20 mm (Q, coast between Ma-
cassar and Bonthain, l.X. 95: P. & F. S.).

Young (assuming adult plumage). Above grey-brown, with white margins to the feathers,
varied with new feathers of grey (maturity); wing- coverts black and under surface
white as in the adult ((J', Lake Posso, Central Celebes, 19. II. 95: P. & F. Sarasin.
Iris light yellowish brown (Everett).

Distribution. Celebes — Macassar (Wallace 4, 8, Meyer 14), Luwu, Gulf of Boni (Weber 2S),
Lake Posso, Centr. Cel. (P. & F. Sarasin), North Celebes (Forsten b 1), Manado
(Faber in Leyd. Mus.); Java (S. Muller h 1, Forbes 19, 20, etc.); Sumatra (Bec-
cari 15, Modigliani 27)', Borneo (Schwaner b 1, Mottley 3, Treacher 16);
Sooloo Islands (Burbidge 17, 23, Everett 29); Philippines — Luzon (Jagor 10,
Steere 25), Cebu, Zamboanga, Basilan (Everett 11, 12, 13), Mindoro, Negros, Gui-
maras (Steere 25,26), Calamianes (Bourns & Worcester 30).

The adult specimen from Celebes described above does not show a trace
of blaek upon the tips of the under primary coverts, apparent in Gould’s
figure (II) of the type from the same locality, but it is present to a slight ex-
tent in the Sarasins’ adult example, while our four Javan specimens all show
it more or less, as does also Schlegel’s figure of one from this locality (b II).
Perhaps it is lost with age, as one of our Javan specimens has only a trace of it.

The Dresden Museum possesses one adult specimen and the Leyden Mu-
seum five from the West Coast of Sumatra, which have the terminal third of
all the primary coverts and the under side of all the primaries (except a very
small extent about the base of the shafts) black. These specimens differ from
jE. axillaris (Lath.) of Australia in having the two central tail-feathers, not uni-
form dirty white like the other tail-feathers, but of the dark colour of the upper
surface, which is also altogether of a darker grey than in the Australian form.

From E. coeruleus they are distinguishable by the presence of this black on
the under j)rimary coverts and by the black under surface of the primaries.
From FJ. hypoleucus they differ in the same respects, but the constrast of colour

64

Birds of Celebes: Faloonidae.

of the under surface of the j)rimaries is, of course, greater than is seen when
the specimens are compared with E. coeruleus. Count Salvadori identifies his
Sumatran specimens with E. hypoleucus (15, 27 ); it is impossible to do this
with these birds (Nr. 6740, Dresd. Mus.) which we propose to call provisionally
E. coeruleus — aocillaris, an intermediate form.

As specimens of E. axillaris have been reported from Java (Gould II and
Gurney 18), these perhaps belong to the same intermediate form, which may
in fact link together E. coeruleus of Europe — India and E. axillaris of Australia.

Among the 17 examples in the Leyden Museum there is one from Java
which has the wings nearly as black below as the Sumatran birds (q^; Voy.
Diard, Cat. Nr. 6); two others from Java and one from Manado (Eaber) have
the primaries below blackish with the basal part white; another from Banjer-
massing, Borneo, is a true hypoleucus. These form, in fact, transitions between
the Sumatran birds and six others from Java and Celebes, which have the under
wing -coverts and under surface of quills nearly all white and are the true
hypoleucus.

It thus appears probable enough that we have not to do Avith several
species, but Avith a set of subspecies of one form, and that E. hypoleucus is very
closely related to, and probably only subspecifically distinct from, E. coeruleus
(Desf.) knoAvn from S. E. Europe, Africa, India to the Malay Peninsula (Hume,
Str. E. VIII, 45).

The form hypoleucus is a rare, or very local, bird in Celebes, as also,
aj)parently in Borneo: no specimens have been included in the large collections
made of late years in North Celebes, from which locality the single specimen
of Forsten in the Leyden Museum and that more recently obtained by Faber
appear to be the only ones on record; nor aaus it represented in the collection
formed by Dr. Platen near Macassar in 1878.

Its food consists largely of lizards, though doubtless, like E. coeruleus in
Ceylon, it devours coleoptera and rats and mice as Avell (Legge, B. Ceylon, 87).
In India the latter species, like E. axillaris Lath, of Australia, lays three or
four eggs; but, considering its rarity in Celebes, it is probable that E. hypoleu-
cus breeds more slowly than these, if it is stationary there.

Gould (II) remarks that there is not a more distinct and better defined
group of Hawks than those forming the genus Elanus, Avhich occurs both in
the Old and New Worlds. Its occurrence in two species in Australia, and its
absence, so far as is known, in Papuasia and the Moluccas is worthy of note.

GENUS PERNIS Cut.

The Honey-buzzards are of medium size and easily recognised by their
feathered lores; the bill is weak, tapering, not strongly hooked, the culmen
rounded, tomia not festooned, the cere very large, occupying tAVO-fifths of the
exposed culmen, the nostrils oblique, covered posteriorly by an operculum of

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

65

the cere-skin; wings and tail long, the tail slightly rounded; tarsus short, reti-
culate, the upper half feathered in front; toes rather long. Feeds chiefly on
the larvae of Hymenoptera. 3 or 4 species, migratory and stationary, found in
Europe, Africa and Asia as far as Celebes. Eggs 1 — 2.

-f * 22. PERNIS OELEBENSIS (Wall.).

Celebesian Honey-buzzard.

Plates II and III.

a. Pernis cristatus part. (I) Sclil. , Yalkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 39, 73, pi. 26, f. 4; Cray, HL.

1869, I, 26; (2) ScliL, Eev. Acc. 1873, 132, Nr. 16 only.
h. Pernis cristatus var. celebensis (1) Wall., Ibis 1868, 17.

c. Pernis ptilorhyncha (1) Wald, (nec Temm.), Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHI, 36.

Pernis celebensis (1) Wald., t. c. p. Ill; (2) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1874, I, 349; (3) Tweedd.,
Ibis 1877, 287; Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56; (5) Grurney, Ibis 1880, 216; (6) Hume,
Str. E. IX, 1880, 448; (7) Gurney, t. c. 1881, 448; (8) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,
114, 126, 135; (9) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 87; (10) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 545; (11) Newton, Diet. B. 1893, 427; (12) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd.
1895, Nr. 8, p. 4; (13) iid., ib. 1896 Nr. 2, p. 7.

d. Baza celebensis Bosenb. (nec ScliL), Malay. Arch ip. 1878, 271.

“Goheba” v. Schierhrand in Mus. Dresd.

“Koheba”, Manado, Guillem. 10.

Figures and descriptions. Schlegel a J, a 2\ Walden 7, 5; Sharpe 2\ Gurney 5, 7, 10.
Adult. Above Prout’s brown with a purplish gloss; head above black; feathers of the
neck broadly margined with rufous; tail whity brown crossed with about five bands
of black and mottled in the interspaces with wavy lines of bro’wn, a space of about
57 mm separating the terminal and subterminal bands; extreme end of tail whitish;
lores and region around the eye smoke-brown; chin and throat white, marked
with black streaks gathered into black stripes down the middle and at the sides of
the throat; breast light russet striped with black; remaining under parts, in-
cluding under wing-coverts and thighs, white closely barred with sepia-brown; under
side of quills whitish with about seven bars of sepia-brown, broken up at the base.
“Ills hght yellowish brown (“dark brorvn” — M.) ; length in the flesh 620 mm” (Bibbe
and Kuhn, Maros, S. Celebes, Nr. 3920). Another specimen (Nr. 5756 Manado)
closely resembles that described.

Young (first plumage). Back, wings and upper tail-coverts sepia, varied with drab-brown
and white on the greater wing-coverts and scapulars; some feathers of dark Prout’s
brown present in the inters capulary region; tail much as in the adult; head and
neck white, the latter streaked with Prout’s brown, many feathers of the same colour
sprouting on the occiput; in front of eyes smoky grey; under parts wliite, uni-
form on chin, throat, abdomen and under tail -coverts, narrowly streaked with dark
brown on the breast, barred with paler brown on the thighs, barred with rufous on
the axillaries, and very faintly with pale rufous on the anal region and under tail-
coverts. At the flanks the specimen has obtained some of the feathers of maturity
barred with dark brovm and white. (N. Celebes Nr. 14011).

Two other young specimens in the Leyden Museum, apparently rather older
than that described above, have the head clothed with feathers with white bases, and

Meyer & Wigl es wo rtli, Birds of Celeiies (Oct. lOtii, 1897). u

66

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

black centres passing into light bro’WTi at the margins, giving a streaked aj)pearance;
feathers about eye brov^nish slaty, the rest much as in the above, but the white
under surface more abundantly streaked with brown (N. Celebes — Faber in Ley d.
Mus. Nr. 45, 35).

Another specimen, a httle older, has the thighs, belly, axillaries and under
tail-coverts well barred vdth brown; under wng-coverts with sagittate spots of brown
sho’wdng a tendency to form into bars; breast bnffy white, streaked with sepia-brown
(hLnahassa, v. Musschenbr. in Leyd. Mus.).

The specimen in the Leyden Museum figured by Sc hi eg el (a I) is not quite
adult, though more advanced than the iimnatm’e bmd described by Gurney (6)-,
under wing-coverts white, touched up with a few small streaks of dark sepia or httle
bars of faint brownish or rufous; the bars — especially the white ones — on belly,
flanks and under tail-coverts much broader than in adult (Q, Bone, Kosenb. in
Leyd. Mus.).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Mid. toe
vdtli claw

Culmeu.
from cere

a. (3920) ad. S. Celebes (Eibbe & Klilin) . . .

370

270

48

—

b. (5756) ad. Manado, N. Cel

370

250

46

—

22

c. (0 14500) ad. Peling Id. V — YHI. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

370

245

50

70

25

d. (Sarasin Coll.) 9 Kema, N. Cel. 5. X. 93

375

260

—

—

25

e. (14011) iuv. N. Celebes

350

247

50

—

—

Distribution. Celebes, Pehng. — Bone in Gorontalo (v. Eosenberg a 2), hlinahassa fMeyer
1, 4, Guillem a rd 10; etc.), S. Peninsula, Maros (Eibbe & Kiihn); Pelhig Id.
(Nat. CoU.).

This rare Honey-buzzard was known until recently only from the northern
Peninsula of Celebes, but, as is shown above, there is one in the Dresden
Museum from South Celebes and one from Peling Island. There is a fine
series of eleven in the Leyden Museum.

The similarity of the adult plumage of this Honey-buzzard to that of the
adult Celebesian Hawk-eagle, Spizaetus lanceolatus^ was noticed by Schlegel
when figuring the species (a I), and has since been commented upon by other
writers. The resemblance in coloration may, indeed, be spoken of as perfect
(see our plate), as remarkable as that of Xenopirostris polleni and Tplas edwardsi
in Madagascar, where the plumage of one bird is, as Prof. Newton says,
counterfeited in the other, “feather for feather” (Diet. B. p. 574). Gurney,
who knew more about birds of prey than anybody, termed the case of the
Celebesian Pernis and Spizaetus as extraordinary. The young in first plumage
of the Honey-buzzard, now described and figured for the first time, is entirely
different in coloration from its parents, but just like the Hawk-eagle at the
same age! Mr. Wallace has cited a corresponding case seen in two American
Hawks, a Sparrow-hawk and an insect-eating Harpagus (Contrib. Nat. Select. 107;
and Newton, Diet. B. 574) — young like young, and adult like adult. On
an earlier page of this book (p. 26), we have drawn attention to another case
of exactly the same nature — that of the Hawks Spilospizias trinotatus and

Birds of Celebes: Palconidae.

67

Accipiter rhodogaster . The similarity of the adult Honey-buzzard and Hawk-eagle
of Celebes naturally did not escape Mr. Wallace, and he remarks (hi) that
it must be ascribed to the influence of some local peculiarity or to mimicry;
the same explanation of mimicry is advanced by him for the American Harpagus
and Accipiter.

As to the Honey-buzzard and Hawk-eagle, the first suggestion — that of
some local peculiarity — seems to us to be insufficient of itself alone to ac-
count for the production of a striking correspondence in the characteristic
markings of two birds of different habits of life; though soil, climate, food, and
the coloration of surrounding objects are doubtless not without effect upon the
coloration of a bird’s plumage.

Touching the argument for mimicry it is possible to urge that either species
may be benefited by resembling the other: (a) that the weaker Honey-buzzard,
through assuming the dress of the Hawk-eagle, would be avoided by any com-
petitors for the same class of food, suffer less from the persecution of Crows
and other birds, and so enjoy a freer field of action when searching for its
food and attending to its nest; (b) that the Hawk-eagle, from its likeness to
the harmless, insect-eating Honey-buzzard, would be at an advantage in ap-
proaching the Kails, Waterfowl and other large birds and small mammals upon
which it preys.

Apart from anything else, it must be objected to the first argument that
the Honey-buzzard apparently stands alone among the higher animals as a
devourer of wasps’ nests and their contents, and other destroyers of wasps’
grubs are only to be found among small insects (such as Stglops, which deposits
its eggs in the bodies of Hgmenoptera) , which — it need not be said — could
not be afraid of it in the dress of a Hawk-eagle; also, birds of prey are hated
and persecuted by other birds just on account, of their predatory habits, and
it might be well for Pernis celehensis in this respect if it resembled some more
harmless bird. As it is, there is reason to suppose that the Honey-buzzard
is not much molested; in his “Birds of Ceylon” p. 92, Colonel Legge mentions
a specimen of the allied Pernis ptilonorhgnchus which was shot in the fort at
Trincomalie while “associating with Crows, and flying round the barrack-room
at the dinner hour in company with them, on the look-out for scraps thrown
out from the verandahs”. The European Honey-buzzard, however, according
to Naumann and Dresser, is much given to robbing the nests of other birds,
and is vigorously mobbed in consequence.

The second argument which we have set up — that the Hawk-eagle in
the disguise of the Pernis 'would be at an advantage in approaching its prey
— is stronger; but there are reasons which go far to destroy it. In order that
the animals upon which it preys should be rendered indifferent to the appear-
ance of the Spizaetiis.^ it is necessary that the harmless Pernis should be a very
familiar bird and the Hawk-eagle rare. This is not the case. In four of the

9*

68

Birds of Celebes; Ealconidae.

largest collections of Celebesian birds of prey — the I.eyden^), British, and
Norwich Museums, and the Duivenb ode-collection reported upon by Prof.
W. Blasius — Pernis celebensis numbered in all 11 skins, Sp. lanceolatus 22.
There are before us in Dresden 5 of the former and 7 of the latter.

Supposing — which is probably not the case, since birds are better field-
ornithologists than most naturalists — that the birds etc., which suffer from the
frequent depredations of the Hawk-eagle, do not at once discriminate its dif-
ferences from the Honey-buzzard, they will avoid both species with dread; but
it is more likely that the differences of size, structure, flight and general bear-
ing cause the dangerous species to be detected, possibly even before its peculiar
coloration is made out.

Moreover, in the Philij)ines, as will be noticed presently, a Spizaetus,
8. philipjmisis, has been found closely resembling the Celebesian species, though
the bird is unsatisfactorily known, but in these islands Pernis celebensis is re-
presented by the highly variable P, pt%lonorhynclim. Also in Malacca and Sumatra
a Pernis has been described as showing much similarity to P. celebensis, but in
these quarters the Hawk-eagle is S. limnaetiis, which seems to be a very vari-
able species and can by no means be said to match the Honey-buzzard, ex-
cept that, perhaps, the latter possesses the same quality of great variability in
common with it.

Furthermore, a type of plumage, bearing much resemblance to that of the
adult Pernis and Spizaetus of Celebes, is seen in a South American Buzzard,
Buteo melanoleucus Vieill. Spizaetus maucluyti of South America also bears some
resemblance to the Pernis and Spizaetus of Celebes.

If we were to seek for cases of close resemblance among birds of different
genera not occurring in the same locality, we are confident that many might be
found. To mention two: Spilornis holospilus of the Philippines is very like Circus
assimihs J. & S. of Celebes and Australia in its coloration, and Ninosc punctulata
of Celebes to Glaucidium jardini Bp. of S. America. Here the theory of mimicry
is, of course, worthless. Touching the albescent plumage of the young, so
completely different from the adult dress, those who maintain the theory of
mimicry might perhaps here advance the suggestion that the causes, whatever
they may be, by which one species is advantaged by resembling the other were
the same in past ages as today; consequently, when the one was albescent, the
other must needs become albescent too, and when the first assumed its present
adult plumage, the other must needs folio w" it in this variation; while phylo-
genetic reasons here as elsewhere come in to account for the repetition in imma-
ture birds of what had been gone through by their ancestors.

As containing an alternative explanation to that of Mr. Wallace, the
phylogenetic relationship of the two forms, Pernis celebensis and Spizaetus lanceo-

1) Since the publication of Sch leg el’s “Revue”, the number of specimens of P. celebensis has been in-
creased to 11.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

69

latus should be considered. That the plumage of birds sometimes betrays their
descent is about as certain as any thing zoological can be. Tor instance, the
Kingfishers of the genus Pelargopsis have blue rumps, but the Celebesian species
has the rump huff; we have received the latter (one specimen) when not yet adult,
and the rump is strongly washed with blue. The greatest caution is, however,
required in ajDplying this line of argument, for the plumage of the young seems
also to be affected by all sorts of other causes not at all well understood.
There is reason to suppose that the plumage displayed by the young of Pernis
celehensis and 8p. lanceolatus — a white under surface with dark streaks — not
only represents that of an ancestral stock common to both these forms, but
also more or less accurately that of a vast number of other birds of prey. Al-
most all Falconidae, which acquire a transverse-barred pattern of under plu-
mage when adult [Astur, Accipiter, Falco peregriniis etc.), are in the first dress,
assumed on leaving the nest, brown above and white with dark longitudinal
streaks below. The opposite case — of a cross-barred young one developing
into a streaked adult bird — would, we believe, be an unheard-of phenomenon,
though a temporary reversion of the kind sometimes apparently takes place, in
Spilornis (see p. 3) ; as a rule striped birds of prey, like the Falcons, have
young much resembling the females. If these facts have any meaning at all,
they must signify that all these birds are descended from streaked races of Hawks
of past ages, similar in coloration,, perhaps, to the Buzzards and Falcons of the
present day. Consequently there is, at all events, no reason to suppose that
the Pernes and Spizaeti have been developed from a more remote stock of Fal-
conidae than that which is now represented by their first plumage.

We take it that the young plumage, shown on our plate, is very ancient
in type, though how closely similar it may be to the plumage of the ancestor
of Perms and Spizaetus, or how much changed by later infiuences, we have no
opinion. From this common ancestor the present full dress of the Pernis and
Spizaetus of Celebes may have been evolved under one of three conditions:
1. the structural ditferences were first developed and then the evolution of the
plumage proceeded similarly in both and the birds grew alike, or 2. the evo-
lution of the j)lumage proceeded on similar lines while the structural changes
were going on; or 3. the present adult plumage is ancient and had been acquired
before the structural differentiation commenced.

It is difficult to form an opinion as to which of these three explanations
is the more probable; the first may be true or false; there seem to be no me-
thods for testing it, proving, or disproving it. If we look at Plate III of the
young of today, and imagine we are viewing the birds as they were when (adult
at some period of the past, after the structural change had taken place, we may
well wonder why these two birds, structurally so different, should undergo a
great but identical change of coloration. We cannot imagine that two birds
may have undergone such a structural change and have assumed such different

70

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

habits while the causes of the evolution of the coloration have undergone no change.
One feels compelled to seek some natural selective agent to explain why the
coloration did not develop in very different directions in the two birds,
instead of in an identical direction.

The second hypothesis — that the change of structure and the evolution
of the coloration proceeded quietly together through perhaps a long period of
time, — is more accejDtable because it makes a less abrupt and violent appeal to
the imagination, but there seems to be nothing further in its favour.

The third hypothesis — that the present adult dress had been acquired
before ever the structural differentiation into Pernis and Spizaetus (not to sj)eak
of other genera) had taken place — admits of discussion from several jioints
of view.

It is certain (A) that small structural changes may take place without caus-
ing anyj marked changes of the adult coloration: witness many of the King-
fishers, where the type of coloration of the fonr-toed Alcedo may be found in
certain s]3ecies of the three-toed Ceyoo (the more recent form in respect of the
foot) and others, or certain Flycatchers like Siphia, Muscicapula (pis. XIII — XIV)
and others, with one or two types of coloration running through closely- allied
genera, or the Flowerpeckers Acmonorhynchus and Pachyylossa, much alike in
coloration, but the former (the more recent form in respect of the wing) has
nine primaries, the latter the customary ten.

(B) The hypothesis involves the assumption that the land of origin of the
genera Pernis and Spizaetus was ancient Celebes. There is, we believe, a form
of prejudice, against which we ourselves have to struggle, which pre-supposes that
ancient Celebes (whatever sort of island, or islands, or adjunct of Asia it may
have been) has simply been a receiver of birds from other parts, a land for
colonisation, which has kept to itself the bird-forms it received. In the main
this view is very likely right, but it is probable that in some cases Celebes may
have sent out bird-colonists of its own.

The genus Pernis is a link between Celebes and Asia, not being found in
the Australian Region; only one aberrant Spizaetus, S. gurneyi, is found east of
Celebes, and the two genera may, of course, have become differentiated structur-
ally from one another in Celebes as well as anywhere else. There is some-
thing to be said for this view. In the Great Sunda Islands and the Philippines
as far as India, both the Honey-buzzard ( Pernis ptilonorhynchiis) and the Hawk-
eagle (Sp. limnaetus), instead of possessing — as seems to be the case in Ce-
lebes — a fixed adult dress, agree in being wonderfully variable. Now, it appears
that long ages in a given locality, with the same climate, food, dangers, j)rech-
lections and regular routine of habits, and, perhaps, other more hidden influ-
ences, lead to the assumj)tion of a more or less fixed, stable coloration in birds,
as is shown by the species of all tropical islands sufficiently remote from one

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

71

another'); but, when some of these species by reason of overcrowding, a storm,
or other cause, are transported to a fresh locality where the conditions of
existence are changed, the original, fixed coloration becomes disturbed — if
there was originally a useful j)T'n’pose in it, that purpose is now removed, —
variability has free play for the time, and the amount of variation is made
greater and more complicated by the interbreeding of the changing individuals.
On these grounds the Celebesian Hawk-eagle and Honey-buzzard should be
regarded as ancient forms, the variable birds of Borneo, etc. which have not
yet settled down into a fixed tyj^e of plumage of their own, as of more recent
origin. Leaving out of the discussion Pernis tweeddalei of Malacca which is only
known in three or four specimens, the only remaining species of Pernis is our
own Pernis apivorus — very variable and therefore, also recent. Spizaetus,
however, has developed into a number of local species elsewhere than Celebes
viz. tlie Indian Eegion, Africa, S. America. Let it be remembered, that Celebes,
as is shown by some of its mammals as well as by some of its birds, is an
ancient land, zoologically speaking, and that neither Pernis nor Spizaetus (ex-
cept in the aberrant ♦S', gurneyi) pass into the still more ancient Australian Be-
gion, and it will be seen that P. celehensis and S. lanceolatus have some claim
to be regarded as the most ancient members of their genera.

(C) One of the most convincing arguments made use of by Charles Dar-
win in tracing the descent of domestic Pigeons from the Blue Rock Pigeon
(Columha livia) was drawn from the occasional reversion, partial or nearly
complete, of the former to the ydumage of the Blue Rock. If the variable
Spizaetus limnaetus and Pernis pAilonorhynckus are descended from specimens of
S. lanceolatus and P. celehensis which have fiown across from Celebes to Borneo,
or the Philippines and further, similar cases of reversion should be found. Now,
in his Valkvogels Ned. Ind. Schlegel portrays nine specimens of the variable
Spizaetus limnaetus (called by him /S', cirratus) and six of Pernis ptilonorhynckus
(here called cristatus-. pis. VI- VIII and XXV, XXVI), and among them some fairly
good matches to the two forms of Celebes may be seen. About four specimens
of a Honey-buzzard called Pernis tweeddalei^ Hume, have been described from
Malacca and Sumatra; it bears much resemblance to Pernis celehensis^ and it seems
very doubtful if they are more than individual variations of the variable P. ptilono-
rhynchus^ since that bird lives not only on both sides of, but also in the same
localities as the supposed distinct form (cf. Hume 6^ and Str. P. 1887, X pL,
p. 513; Schlegel a J, and Mus. P.-B. Pernes 1862, 2; Schl. ik S. Milll., Verh.
Natuurk. Comm. 1839 — 44, 49, pi.; Kelham, Ibis 1881, 369; Gurney 5, 7). The
little known Spizaetus philippensis^ which seems to be much like the Celebesian
Hawk-eagle (see Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, pi. XXIV), is not unlikely to prove

As an exception the extinct Solitaire (Fczo'phaps) of Rodriguez must be mentioned (see: Newton,
Diet. B. “Solitaire”). This large bird was most variable in structure and colour. It used evidently to get
much knocked about in fighting. The male Ruff, another great lighter, is probable the most variable bird known.
See remarks in Introduction on inherited mutilations of feathers, etc.

72

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

to be an individual variety of the variable S. limnaetus\ Prof. W. Blasins finds
that bird in Mindanao (J. f. O. 1890, 144). It is possible that all these forms
are reversions to the two original forms of Celebes.

To these reasons may be added, (D) that both Femes and Spizaeti lay only
one or two eggs at a sitting and, thus, they are not likely to get crowded out
of a large island, but might exist there with the conditions of reproduction and
destruction at a balance for any required length of time.

In how far these remarks are well, or ill, grounded can, of course, only be
ascertained by a much more thorough knowledge and study of the two genera,
Pernis and Spizaetus^ than has been possible to us; but the case serves to show
— and we believe it is only one in A'^ery many — that, Avhere some striking
similarity betAveen two members of distinct genera occurs, this may be looked
upon as an ancestral character retained, rather than as something acquired hy
the natural selection of varieties of one species, which obtained some advantage
by resembling the other. Whoever has examined young and old specimens of
these birds will find it hard to listen to the supposition, that the parallelism
between the two forms is a fortuitous coincidence, that they are of independent
development, but in our present state of ignorance any one Avho will is per-
fectly free to make this suggestion and hold to it.

The label on a specimen in the Dresden Museum, stating that the stomach
contained Avasps and their larvae, shows that P. celehensis^ like the other species
of the genus, feeds mainly upon hymenoptera, its peculiarly feathered face
protecting it against their stings. The allied P. ptilonorhynclms is found as a
rule to lay two eggs, hut one egg at a sitting is not uncommon (Oates, Hume’s
Nests and Eggs, 1890, III, 181).

23. PERNIS SP.

In the Novitates Zoologicae 1896, 177, Mr. Hartert describes a Honey-buzzard
obtained by Mr. Everett in Saleyer in November, 1895, but Avhich lie Avas unable to identify
Avitli certainty. “A large bird (female), remiges moulting, Aving 440 mm. The Avhole under-
side is huff or ochraceous buff, some of the feathers (older ones) paler, others (the neiv ones)
darker and brighter. The throat is surrounded by an irregular black band, the feathers of
the loAver throat and upper breast have narroAV deep broAvn shaft-lines, but all the breast,
abdomen, flanks, scapulars [axillaries ?] and under Aving-coverts are uniform Avithout a trace
of bars or bands. Upper side dark brown as in most Femes ^ not differing from many
specimens of P. pUlonorhynchus”

Mr. Hartert believes the specimen to belong to the latter species, and not to P. cele-
hensis. It is manifestly immature, but from the description CA'idently differs from the young
P. celeheoisis by its larger size, and the absence of bars on the flanks, thighs and under tail-
coverts. P. ptilonorhynclms (Temm.) is a highly variable species, as is pointed out in the
preceding article, but it may always be distinguished from P. celebensis by its large size, and
the adult — usually at all events — has a long nuchal crest.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

73

GENUS BAZA Hdgs.

Birds of small-medium size, with a nuchal crest, long and nearly square
tail, and moderately long Avings; especially characterized by the edge of the
upper mandible which is furnished AA’ith two sharp points or teeth^);
tarsus short, uj)per half feathered in front, the rest covered with polygonal scales,
much larger in front than behind. Feeds on insects. Lays 3 eggs. About
11 species of a local character, found from India to Australia, and in parts of
Africa.

* 24. BAZA CELEBENSIS Schl.

Celebesian Baza.

a. Falco (Lophotes) reinwardti, partim, (1) S. Miill. & Schl., Yerh. Hat. Comm. 1839 — 44,
37, 38 (young Q only, from Tondano, H. Celebes: Forsten — fide Schl).
h. Baza reinwardtii, partim, (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Femes 1862, 5, Hr. 5 only,
c. Baza magnirostris (1) 'Wall, (nec G-ray), P. Z. S. 1862, 337; (II) Schl, Valkv. 1866,
40, 75, ph 28, f. 4 only (Celebes, Snla); (S) Wall., Ibis 1868, 18; (4) Wald., Tr.
Z. S. 1872, Ym, 36, pt. (Celebes, Snla); (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56.
cl. Baza reinwardti Finsch (nec M. & S.), Hew Guinea 1865, 154 (Celebes).

Baza celebensis (1) Schl., Pev. Acc. 1873, 135; (2) M. &Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896,
Hr. 1, p. 7; (3) iid., ib. Hr. 2, p. 7; (4) Hartert, Hov. Zool. 1896, 162.
e. Baza erythrothorax (1) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1873, 625; (II) id.. Cat. B. 1874, I, 357, pi. X,
f. 2; (3) Briiggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, 46; (4) Gurney, Ibis 1880, 462, 469;
(5) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 114, 135; (6) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 90.
Figures and descriptions. Schlegel e ZZ, I; Sharpe e i, e II] Briiggemann e 3]
Gurney e 4.

Adult male. Above dark brown, blackish on mantle and carj^al region; head and crest
black; face and ear-coverts dark grey; tail broAvn, crossed with three bands of
darker brown — the endmost one much the broadest — and broadly tipped Avith white ;
throat and chest russet-broAvn; a black streak doAvn the middle of the throat; rest
of under surface broadly banded with darker brown and wliite, the markings more
rufous on thighs and under Aving-co verts ; under tail-coverts Avhitish, blotched with
rufous ((^f, Enrekang, S. W. Central Celebes, 7. YIII. 95, P. & F. Sarasin.
Female. Differs from the adult male in having the feathers of the head and neck black
broadly margined with rufous, crest tipped Avith rufous; face and ear-coverts rufous
like throat and breast (not dark grey); the bands on the under parts rufous like the
breast, only a httle browner on flanks; upper parts glossy brown, not so black as in
the male ($, Enrekang, 7. YIII. 95, P. & F. S.).

We at first took this specimen and a similar one before us for the young, but
the presence of some old worn feathers in the Avings sIioavs that it is at least in its
second year.

“Bill lead-colour, black aboAm; feet white; iris yellow” (Wallace).

Young. Like the female, but the banding on the under surface ill-defined.

1) “In the young- bird, the tooth is often single” (Blanford).
Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. lOtii 1S97).

10

74

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae--

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsiis

Culmen
from cere

a. fC 10479) [Q], Celebes

295

195

35

22.5

h. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, S. E. Central Celebes, 7. YUI. 95

323

202

37

24

c. (Sarasin Coll.) c^, S. E. Central Celebes, 7. YUI. 95

300

190

37

24.5

d. (C 14625) ad. [rf], Banggai Id., W-YLtl. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

290

187

36

26

The specimen from Banggai is like the adult male from S. E. Central Celebes
in the Sarasin Collection. As a rule the species of Sula do not differ from those
of Banggai and Pehng. It is possible, however, that when more specimens from Sula
are to hand they will be found to present some points of difference, as is suggested
by the two examples in the Leyden Museum.

The following notes were made there:

a. (I*, Sula Besi (Bernstein),
h. Sida Mangoli (Bernstein).

Similar examples mth grey cheeks and ear-coverts, dark slaty head with black crest ;
throat-streak black, more developed in one (that figured by Schlegel, Yalkv. pi. 28,
fig. 4) than in the other; chest uniform light chestnut-rufous; rest of under surface
banded with the same colour (somewhat browner at sides) and wliite:

c. 9 [?], hlorth Celebes (Forsten),

d. Manado (v. Duivenb.),

e. — , Manado (v. Musschenbr.j,

Tln-ee similar examples, corresponding with a and b in having grey cheeks and
ear-coverts and dark slaty head with black crest; but the bars on the under surface
are not of the same tint as the chest, being browner (hair-brown). Probably
the adult plumage, but in one the first primary on each side is not fully grown:

/’. — , Manado (v. Musschenbr.),
g. — , IMinahassa (v. Musschenbr.).

Two immature (or female) specimens, with cheeks and ear-coverts rufous (or rufous
brown); crown of head rufous with black centres and tips to the feathers; crest 1 lack ;
breast rufous; under surface banded with the same colour, one specimen agreeing
in this respect with the Sula birds, though those appear to be adult; in the other
s^^ecimen (probably the younger) the rufous colour predominates on the under surface,
the white cross-bands being very ill-determined.

Adult males from Sula may, therefore, prove to differ fi’om adult males from
the JMinahassa by having the under surface banded with rufous like the chest, instead
of with hair-brown.

Distribution. Celebes to Sula. — IMinahassa (Forsten « 1, hi, 1, v. Duivenbode 1, Meyer
CO, etc.); S. E. Central Celebes (P. & F. Sarasin 2); South Peninsula (Wallace
c II)\ Banggai Island (Nat. Coll.); Sula Besi and Sula Mangoh (Allen cl, Bern-
stein i, Hoedt 1).

Under the original descri])tion of Baza reinwardti (a 1) there were included
a female specimen obtained near Lake Tondano, North Celebes, by Forsten,
a female from Pontianak, Borneo, and three males — at first erroneously stated
to have come from Manado, but which were afterwards found to have been
obtained in Amboina and Ternate (SchL, Kev. Acc. 1873, 133, Nos. 1, 2 and 42).
These last three specimens belong to a very distinct species and should be

Birds of Celebes: Balconidae.

75

recognised as the true Baza reimoardti as is done by modern authors, since the
plate given (under a 1) represents two of them and the first of the descriptions
is made from one of them. The two specimens from Celebes and Borneo were
then identified by Schlegel and others with the closely allied magnirostris
Gray of the PhilijDpines') (c II); finally the Celebes and Sula Islands’ form was
marked off as a distinct species and named almost simultaneously B. celehensis
by Schlegel and B. erythrothomoo by Sharpe (6, 7). The description of
Schlegel was published in July, 1873; that of Dr. Sharpe received at a
meeting of the Zoological Society of London in June of the same year; but, as
such papers are not published in the Proceedings till October, the priority rests with
Schlegel. In the Catalogue of the Birds of Prey in the British Museum, 1874, the
specimen from Borneo was overlooked except that SchlegePs figure of it was
included in the synonymy of the Cclebesian species. P’or a long time it remained
the only example on record from Borneo. It was identified by Salvadori
(Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 11) with Baza jerdoni Blyth of Malacca, but was named
as distinct B. horneensis by Briiggemann (e 3)- Ultimately Dr. Sharpe re-
ceived 3 specimens from the Baram District of Borneo shot by Mr. Hose, and
the distinctness of the Bornean birds as a species is upheld by him, though
their identity with the Sumati-an form is regarded as possible (Ibis 1893, 554 —
557). The Sumatran bird, according to Sharpe, is the same as B, jerdoni of
Malacca and B, incognita Hume of Tenasserim and Native Sikkim. Mr. Blan-
ford (Faun. Br. Ind. B. 1895 III, 411), who remarks that only one specimen
is known from Tenasserim and one from Sikkim, agrees with Dr. Sharpe in
uniting the birds from Sikkim to Sumatra as one species.

The Celebesian Baza is interesting as a link between Celebes and Sula,
it is also of interest from its being very closely allied to the Philippine, Bornean
and Sumatran species^), but not so with B. reimoardti of the Moluccas and
Papuasia from Burn to New Guinea. It is a rather rare bird in collections;
probably, like its congeners, it inhabits thick forest and preys entirely upon
insects, as Davison observed to be the case with Baza lophotes (Str. F. VI,
1878, 24). Of the breeding of the Bazae next to nothing is known. In
Australia Mr. Earns ay prociu'ed a nest of B. siihcristatus containing three eggs,
and others have been obtained there also. Quite recently Mr. Blanford has
described the nest and 3 eggs of B. lophotes from Tenasserim (B. Br. Ind. 1895
III, 410; North, Nests and Eggs B. Austr. 1889, 15).

A 25. BAZA REINWAKDTI Mtlll. Schl.

Eeinwardt’s Baza.

a. Faleo (Lophotes) Reinwardtii, part. (I) S. Milll. & Sclil, Verb. Natumk Comm. 1839—44,
Aves, 35, pi. 5, fig. 2. ’

1) The type is labelled “June, Island of Manilla, South” by Cuming (Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 555).

The genus has not yet been discovered in Java.

10*

76

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

Baza reinwardti (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Femes 1862, 5, m-s. 1, 2, 4, 7; (II) Valkvogels
Ned. Ind. 1866, 40, 77, pi. 27, figs.' 1—3; (3) id.. Rev. Accip. 1873, 133, pt, (4)
Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 1874, 358; (5) Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 26, 549; f^jW.Blas.,
J. f. O. 1883, 115, 124, 131; (7) Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, 12; (8) Grurney,
Ibis 1893, 339; (9) Meyer, Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1893, Nr. 3, pp.'d, 5; (10) Hartert,
Nov.Zool. 1896, 177, 247, 598; (11) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Oen. 1896, XXXYI, 59.

&. Baza stenozona (1) Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, 169, 189.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvadori 5, 7, 11.

Figures and descriptions. Muller & Scblegel a I, SchlegelJI; Sharped; Salvadori 5.

Adult. Above slate-grey, carpal region, upper tail-coverts, and a short crest blacker, secon-
daries with a subterminal band of blackish, primaries crossed with 4 or 5 bands,
basally obliterated; scapulars and innermost remiges brown; terminal third of tail
black, basal part slate-grey, crossed with three nearly obliterated black bars; face,
throat, and chest grey, paler than on head; remaining under parts white, passing
into rufous cinnamon on middle of abdomen, thighs, and under tail-coverts barred
with brownish grey on breast, sides and abdomen; under wing-coverts wliitisb,
rufous cinnamon about the middle (ad. Ceram: Dr. Riedel — Nr. 6743).

“Iris yellow; cere, mandible, basal half of maxilla fight plumbeous; apical half
of maxilla jet-black; feet wliite, claw's brown” (Everett 10).

Young (just about able to fly). Similar to the adult, but the throat white, with black shaft-
lines; breast cinnamon, the middle portion of the feathers grey; the bars on the under
parts browm and somewhat narrow'er; the feathers of the upper parts browner with
pale edgings; tail broadly tipped with grey. The crest is akeady present (juv. Am-
boina: Dr. Riedel — Nr. 6745).

Immature (apparently assuming adult plumage). Browner above than the adult described from
Ceram; throat whitish, chest greyer, under parts stained with rufous cinnamon and
barred on breast, sides, abdomen, and axillaries with rufous brown (not dark brownish
grey); the terminal black band on the tail only one-fifth of the entire length (Bone-
rate, 1895: P. & F. Sarasin.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from cere

a. (Sarasin Coll.) vix ad. Bonerate

203

37

22

h. (6743) ad. Ceram (Riedel)

287

168

34

21

c. (6744) 9 ad. Buru (Riedel)

318

175

—

20

d. (2963) ad. Andei, N. Guinea (Meyer) ......

292

180

—

—

e. (2964) juv. Andei, N. Guinea (Meyer)

300

175

—

—

f. (5800) ad. loc. incert. (v. Scbierbr.)

316

180

—

21

g. (5801) juv. loc. incert. (v. Scbierbr.)

270

170

—

20

Distribution. Moluccas — Amboina, Ceram, Buru (cf. Salvad. 5), Papuasia — Waigiou,
Salawatti, Mysol, Misori, New Guinea, Kei, Aru ^cf. Salvad. 5, 7), Timor (Wallace,
V. Rosenb. 5], Lombok (Everett 10], Djampea Id. (Everett 10), Bonerate Id.
(P. & E. Sarasin).

Reinwardt’s Baza has to be included in the Celebesian list in virtue of
two specimens from Djampea and Bonerate between Celebes and Flores, the
first collected by Mr. Everett, the other presented to the Messrs. Sarasin when
in Celebes. The latter specimen is remarkable for the length of its tail and
the narrowness of the black terminal portion, and for the rufous brown bars of

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

77

the under surface. It is not fully adult. It differs from Baza rnfa by the colour
of the chest — all grey. By its head, throat, and chest it resembles B. timorlao-
ensis Meyer, but the banding below is different. Mr. Hartert has most kindly
sent us particulars about the Djampea specimen: “after comparing it with the
large series in the British Museum I had not the slightest hesitation in referring
it to B. reinivardti. In my Djam|)ea skin the bars below' are also red -brown
with a grey shade or sometimes even a distinct grey hand along the upper margin,
but we have one from Waigiou in which these bands are of an even purer red-
brown. The terminal band on the tail is broader than in some of our New
Guinea specimens, narrower than in others. The wing of our bird is 322 mm.
Altogether my bird has the darkest under tail-coverts of all in the Tring Museum.
At present I can see no reason for separating it even subspecifically from B. rein-
ivardti, but it wmuld be valuable to get skins from Timor, Flores etc., to see
whether perhaps the ‘Austro -Malayan’ birds differ from those of the Papuan
Islands”.

In the Solomon Islands — Baza gurneyi Bams., in New Britain — B. hismarcki
Sharpe, and in Timorlaut — B. timorlaoensis Meyer, the adult of which is still
unknown!, have been marked off as distinct from B. reinwardti. B. subcristata
Gould of Australia is also nearly allied, and B. rufa Schl. of the Halmahera-
group is likely to cause trouble. The last seems to be distinguishable by its
having the chest grey wmshed with rufous, and the under parts more deeply
stained with that colour, as wmll as having the bands thereon red-brown.

As is pointed out under B. celehensis the habitat of B. reinwardti was origi-
nally stated to be Celebes, and the error was not discovered till Schlegel wrote
'his “Valkvogels” in 1866. This has given rise to much error and mislabelling.
Dr. Finsch in his list of birds in “New Guinea” 1865, 154 indicated Celebes as
a locality of the sx!ecies, but w'as obviously misled by previous Avritings and the
Avrongly labelled specimens in the Leyden Museum. No further proof of the
occurrence of the species in Celebes can be draAvn from three examples of
unknoAvn origin — but included among a lot of Celebesian birdskins — examined
by Prof. W. Blasius {6). There is no certain evidence that this species has
ever occurred in Celebes.

Baza rufa Schl.

A specimen of this Moluccan species in the Dresden Museum, marked as
having come from Celebes (Nr. 2197) is mentioned by Meyer, Z. ges. Orn. 1884,
272. An immature specimen of the same species is similarly labelled “Celebe.s”
(Nr. 2196). Both Avere purchased prior to 1874 of Frank of Amsterdam, and
bear the name of no collector, but only labels affixed by that dealer, determi-
ning them simply as “B. reinwardtii, Celebes”. This indicates that they Avere
bought of Frank Avho got his determinations from the Leyden Museum before

78

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

the distinctness of B. rufa was made out, that is to say before 1866, when B,
remwardti, owing to the original error of Te mm inch and S chi eg el, was
believed to be a Celebesian species. The conclusion to be drawn is, that the
specimens were determined and the locality indicated on what were at the time
sufficiently good hypothetical grounds, but which must now be regarded as al-
most certainly erroneous.

GENUS TINNUNCULUS Vieill.

“The Kestrels differ from the true Falcons by having a shorter bill and a
much smaller and weaker foot, the middle toe without the claw being only
to V4 the length of the tarsus. The tail is longer and the feathers graduated,
the outer rectrices 1 to IV2 inches shorter than the middle pair, and the wing
is shorter. The sexes differ, and the females and young have the upper parts
banded black and rufous” (Blanford). They prey upon mice, insects, birds,
frogs, etc., seeking their booty on the ground, hovering over it, and pitching-
down upon it from above. Lay 4 — 6 eggs. About 15 species, some migratory,
others stationary, scattered over nearly the whole world.

26. TINNUNCULUS MOLUCCENSIS Jacquin. Puch.

Moluccan Kestrel.

a. Falco tinnuneulus (1) S. Miill. (nec. L.), Yerh. Kat. Greschied. Natuiirk. Comm. 18b9--44,
87 (Celebes), 209 (E. Indies); (2) id., Reiz. in Ind. Arcbip. 1857, II, 8 (Celebes).

&. Cresserelle des Moluques (1) Hombr. & Jacq., Voy. Pole Sud, Atl. 1843, pL I, f. 2*
(Amboina); (2) T. & S., Faun. Jap. Aves 1845, 3 (E. Ind.).

Tinnuneulus moluccensis “Scbl.”, Bp., Cons]3. 1850, I, 27 (nomen nndum); Jacqninot et
Pucheran, Voyage an Pole Sud, Zoologie, 1853, vol. HI, p. 47; (1) Wall., Ibis 1868, 5;

(2) Meyer, ib. 1879, 55; (3j Salrad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 37, et Agg. 1889,1, 14;
(4) Gurney, Ibis 1881,469; f5^Meyer, Verb. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1881, 760; ('G^W.Blas.,
P. Z. S. 1882, 700; f7) Sclat., ib. 1883, 51, 194, 200; (8) Meyer, Isis 1884, 9;
(9) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 97; (10) Pleske, Bull. Acad. Petersb. 1884,
112; (11) VC Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orii. 1885, 220; (12) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885,
562; Yorderman, K. T. Ned. Ind. 1886, 7 (sep. copy); Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889,
67; (13) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1889, I, 14; (14) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895,
Nr. 8, p. 4.

c. Falco moluccensis Scbl., Naumannia 1855, 253; (1) id., Mus. P.-B. Falcones 1862, 28;

(II) id., Yalkv. 1866, 6, 47, pi. 1, f. 3, 4, 5; (3) id.. Rev. Acc. 1873, 42; (4)
Rosenb., Malay. Ai’cb. 1878, 271; (5) Yorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1884, 189.

d. Cerchneis moluccensis (1) Sbaiq)e, P. Z. S. 1874, 583; (2) id.. Cat. B. 1874, I, 430;

id., blittb. Zook Mus. Dresden 1878, III, 357; H. O. Forbes, P. Z. S. 1884, 431;

(3) Yorderm., N. T. Ned. Ind. 1895, LIY, 331.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvador! 5, 13.

Figures and descriptions. Hombron & Jacqninot h I\ Scblegel c JJ, c 7, c 5; Sbarj)e J7,
d 2; Salvador! 5; Gurney 4\ W. Blasius <7, 11.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

79

This species ranges from Timoiiaut and the Moluccas as far as Borneo,
but it varies locally within this area, the extremes of difference being found in
Halmahera on the one side, and in Celebes and the Lesser Sunda Islands on
the other, while some of the Moluccas, such as Burn and apparently Amboina
(which furnished the type of the species) are inhabited by birds which seem to
be intermediate. A little consideration will make it clear that there is no good
purpose served by applying trinomials to the forms intermediate between two
races — such names are not only useless and cumbersome, but also misleading
since they bring with them the idea: here the species has developed into a
pronounced race! The only places wLere trinomials may be employed without
damage are where the extreme racial variations are found. In the case of the
present species there is no typical subspecies. The extremes and means, as at
present understood, may be identified in the following manner:

1. Tinnunculus moluccensis orientalis n. subsp.

e. Falco moluccensis {1} SchL, Valkv. Ned. Incl. 1866. 6, 47, pi. I, f. 3 (Halmahera).
Diagnosis. Under surface darker; cheeks fulvoiis-hrown; under wing-coverts pale fulvescent

brown, spotted with black.

Distribution. Halmahera-group : Hahnahera, Morty, Ternate, ? Kaiva, Mareh, Tidore, Batchian.

H 2. Tinnunculus moluccensis occidentalis M. & Wg.

f. Falco moluccensis (I) SchL, Valkv. Ued. Ind. 1866, 6, 48, pi. 1, figs. 4, 5.

g. Tinnunculus moluccensis occidentalis (1) M. & AVg., Ahh. Mas. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 8;

(2) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 162, 178, 589, 597; (3) id. ib. 1897, 159.

“Sikep burik mera”, Minahassa, Nat. Coll.

“Sikep tarak take”, Tondano, N. Celebes, Nat. Coll, (the young of Spilospixias trinotafas
and of Accipiter rhoclogaster are confused with the present hhd under tins name).
“Oopo”, Gorontalo, Joest, Holontalo 1883, p. 106.

“Zere zere”, Tjamba, S. Peninsula, Platen 11.

Diagnosis. Under surface paler; cheeks albescent-grey; under wing-coverts wliite, sparingly
marked with black spots.

Distribution. Celebes, Borneo (Schwaner), Java (Whitehead g 2), Lombok (Yorderman
J 5, Everett g 2), Sumba (Piedel 5, Doherty g 2), Flores, Lett! (?), Timor,
Timbrlaiit {?).

3. T. moluccensis orientalis — occidentalis.

Diagnosis. Connecting links.

Distribution. Amboina, Burn, Ceram, Goram, Peling.

General description;

Adult female. Above russet, the feathers of the head streaked with black, those of the
hack and wings plentifully marked with cross-bars and triangular spots of black;
quills blacldsh with light margins, inner webs barred with russet; tail and upj)er
tail-coverts smoke-grey, the former crossed with a broad subterminal band of black and
marked with 1 — 9 naiTow, more or less obselete, bars; tip whitish; under surface
brownish fawn-colour, throat, thighs and under tail-coverts paler, breast, sides and

80

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

abclonien marked with drop- and arrow-liead spots of black; under wing-coverts
white or ochraceous buff spotted like the under surface.

Adult male. Like the femalej but both above and below less plentifully spotted and banded
with black; tail clear smoke-grey, crossed only by the broad subterminal black band.

“Iris brown; bill greyish blue; cere and skin round the eyes yellow; feet deep
citron-yellow, claws black” (M. 2).

Young. Appears to differ little from the female.

Measurements. Wing 210—240 mm; tail 160; tarsus 43—44; culmen from cere 15—16.

Attention was called as long ago as 1866 by Schlegel to local deviations
of coloration, when it was pointed out that the supposed specimen from Borneo
and two from Timor and Flores respectively agreed with those from Celebes,
while the more strongly coloured race of Hahnahera was also represented in
the Leyden Museum in specimens from the neighbouring islands of Morotai,
Ternate, Mareh, Tidore and Batchian.

In a good series intermediate specimens may occur in localities indicated
for the pronounced races. For instance, we have one from the Minahassa, N.
Celebes, wMch by its dark tawny brown tints approaches three from Hahnahera,
but the under wing-coverts are lighter.

A male from Timorlaut (Nr. 6693) appears to have a somewhat greyer
head and the siDots on the back smaller than in any others, but, as the S])eci-
men is a bad one, it is difficult to form a good judgment of its characters. This
may be a hidden subspecies. Schlegel (c II) mentions that the Flores specimen
also has smaller and fewer sjjots on the upperside.

In Borneo the dark Jaj)anese form of the Common Kestrel ( Tinnunculus
alaudarius) occurs in winter (Everett, List B. Borneo, in J. Str. Branch E. A.
S. 1889, 186), and the same species — probably also the same local form of
it — has been obtained near Luzon at sea (Finsch & Conrad, Verb. Z. B.
Ges. Wien, 1873 June 4). The statement, therefore, of Ilorsfield (Tr. S.

1821, XIII, 135) that F. tinnuncidns belongs also to Java is likely enough to
be true, although his note has always been taken as referring to T. moluccensis.

The food of the Moluccan, like that of the Common Kestrel is pretty
varied. In Celebes Salomon Muller noted that it fed on “mice, small lizards
and birds, grassho^ipers etc.”; v. Eosenberg speaks of it as “ein Hauptinsekten-
jager”; Meyer observed that it preyed on little birds. It is possible for a bird
with so varied a diet as this to remain stationary in a tropical island. As the
numerous dates recorded by Schlegel and others show, the sptecies occurs all
the year round in Celebes, where it is extremely plentiful, and from a note
of Dr. Fischer, recorded by Mr. Pleske, it is present also throughout the
year in Ternate. Consequently, it is not surprising that in these two neigh-
bouring localities distinguishable subspecies have arisen.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

81

GENUS FALCO L.

The true Falcons range in size from small to medium; the wing is long
and very pointed, the secondaries short, not reaching as far as the middle of
the wing; bill well hooked, furnished with a tooth; tarsus short, reticulate;
middle toe as long or longer than the tarsus; tail moderate, square to rounded
in shape. They prey chiefly on birds, catching them on the wing. About
30 species distributed over nearly the whole world. Eggs 3 — 5.

-h 27. FALCO SEVERUS Horsf.

Chestnut Hobby.

Falco severus (1) Horsf., Tr. Z. S. 1821, XIH, 135; (2) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Falcones 18G2,
23; (III) id., Yalkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 4, 45, pi. 2, f. 2, 3; (3^^^) id., Bev. Acc. 1873,
39; (4) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 397; (5) Brliggom., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y,
454; (6) Bourdillon, Str. F. 1876, 354; (7) Hume, Str. F. 1879, YECT, 43, 81;
(8) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1880, 65; (9) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 110; Beid, Str. F. 1881,
X, 4; (10) H. 0. Forbes, This 1881, 140; (11) Oates, B. Brit. Burmab 1883, H,
216; Davison, Str. F. 1883, X, 333; (12) Everett, P. Z. S. 1889, 225; (13) id.,
J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 186; Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 66; (14) Steere, List
Coll. B. Pliilip. Is. 1890, 8; (15) Sharpe, Bjis, 1893, 562; (16) Madarasz, Aquila

1894, 88; Eourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 33; (18) Grant, Ibis

1895, 39; (19) Blanf., Faun. Br. Ind. B. 1895 HI, 423; [20! Hartert, Xov Zool

1896, 256, 533.

a. Falco aldrovandi “Beiiiw.” (I) Temm., PL Col. 1823, Xr. 128.
h. Falco guttatus Gray, Ann. X. H. 1843, XI, 371.

c. Falco rufipedioides Hodgs., Calc. Journ. Xat. Hist. 1844, lY, 283.

d. Hypotriorchis severus (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1844, I, 20; (2) id.. List Accip. Br. Mus. 1848,

53; (3) Jerdon, B. India 1862, I, 34; (4) Blytb, Ibis 1863, 9; (5) Hume’
Bough Xotes 1869, I, 87; (5^^^) Wald., Ibis 1872, 98; (6) Holdsw., P. Z. S.
1872, 410; (6'^^^) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 139; (7) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ.
Gen. 1875, 643, 750; G'A Wald., P. Z. S. 1878, 957; (8) Salvad., Orn. Pap.
1880, I, 33; 1882, III, 507; and Agg. 1889, 14; (9) Gurney, Ibis 1882, 131, 153;
id.. Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 102; (10) Pleske, Bull. Acad. Sc. Petersb. 1884, XH,’
112; (11) Finscb & Meyer, Z. ges. Orn. 1886, 2; (12) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 303;
id.. Ibis 1888, 373; Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 66; (13) Whitehead, Ibis 1890
43; (14) YL Bias., J. f. O. 1890, 138. ’

e. Falco frontatus (I) Scbb, Yalkv. 1866, pi. 2, f. 5.

For further synonymy and references see Salvad. d 8.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I- Scblegel III, el- Sharpe 4-, Legge 5; Sal-
vadori d 8‘, Oates 77; Finscb & Meyer c? 77; Blanf ord 19.

Adult.

Head, neck, cheeks and ear-coverts black; quills and lesser wing-coverts
also black; rest of upper surface slate-colour, palest on the rump, shafts of the
feathers black; chin and throat white, slightly washed with rufous; rest of under
surface dark cinnamon-rufous, almost unmarked with black; under wing- coverts
bke the under surface, but marked with black about the carpal joint; quills and
tail below biownisb giey, obscurely barred with cinnamon-grey towards tbeh bases

Meyer & Wiglesirortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. lltii, 1S07).

II

82

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

(Lotta, Minahassa, 23._ June 1894: Nat. Coll. - C 12237). An adult (f (Macassar,
Wallace in the British Museum) has the bars present on the basal half of the
wings, hut much obliterated; tail, not barred, above blackish slate, below shining
dusky; under surface of body deep cinnamon -chestnut. This description appears to
apply to another specimen — from the bars being perceptible on its tail apparently

a female shot at Lotta N. Celebes 29. May 1893 by our native collectors, now in
the Tring Museum.

Young. Above resembling the adult; below the dark cinnamon-ground colour is plentifully
marked with streaks and spots of black, which take the form of sagittate marks and
bars on the under wing-coverts; the bars on wings and tail below more distinct than
in adults from the same locality (Java, C 10553, S. E. New G-uinea, Nr. 8726).

A young specimen from Celebes (Tweedd. Coll, in Brit. Mus.) does not corres-
pond as regards the tail with the above adult (J* from Macassar, having it barred
with cinnamon as in a young one from Sikkim.

ments.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (C 10568) (J* Calcutta

246

120

35

15.5

h. (C 10552) Java

220

108

32

13

c. (0 10553) juv, Java

217

100

31

12.5

d. (8727) Q S. E. New Guinea

247

112

34

15

e. (8726) cf juv. » » . .

211

98

29

13

f. (C 12237) [$] N. Celebes

245

117

34

15.5

g. (Tring Mus.) [Q] N. Celebes

235

109

32

14

Distribution. Himalayas (Legge 5, Salvad. d 8)\ Bengal (Blyth J 4); Ceylon (9. d 8)\
? Burmah (Oates ll)\ Philipihnes (Cuming d 2), Mindanao (Everett J 7**'»), Negros
(Layard d^'®), Mindoro (Platen in Mus. Nehrkorn), Cebu, Sicpiijor, Tawi-Tawi,
Calamianes, Bomblon, Sibuyan (Bourns & Worcester 77), Palawan (Platen J 12,
Whitehead d 13, Steere 14), Sooloo Islands (Platen d 14)', Borneo (Eischer 5,
Everett 15)', Tenasserim and Malacca (d 8), Java [d 8, Forbes 1^?); South Celebes
Macassar (W allace 4, Beccari 6? 7), North Celebes, Manado {v. Duivenho de
Nat. Coll.); Ternate (Fischer Id); Halmahera Sj ; Ceram (d 8)', Salawatti (d 8)\
Jobi (d 8)', S. & S. E. New Guinea (d 8, dll)'. New Britain (Brown 8).

The range of F. severus appears to be checked and bounded by the oc-
currence of two rival species of Hobby, the Palaearctic F. suhhuteo L. on the
one hand, and the Australasian F. lunulatus Lath, on the other. The ranges
of both of these species overlap that of F. severus, and that of F. lunulatus, in
particular, encroaches far into it; F. severus and F. suhhuteo are found together
in India, where the former, according to Colonel Bad cliff e “is local, while
F. suhhuteo is migratory”; and, to the south, both F. severus and F. lunulatus
have been obtained in New Britain (cl 9) and also in Ceram and Ternate.

Whether F. severus is a migratory species in the East Indian Archipelago,
there is no sufficient evidence to show; probably it is not such. In the cold
season, however, as was noted by Blyth, “it visits the plains of Bengal, where
it is somewhat rare”; in Ceylon it can only be regarded as a straggler according
to Colonel Legge, who believes that it finds its way to that island during the
season of migration. There is no evidence of a similar movement in the East

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae,

83

Indian Islands. More evidence is, however, to be desired, since the closely
similar F.lunulatus occurs also among the same islands; and in Palawan White-
head regards F. severus as a migratory bird (d 13). It is much to be regretted
— as has been already remarked — that the dates when specimens are shot
are so rarely recorded; sufficient of them would enable ornithologists to draw
conclusions as to the stationary or migratory habits of species. In the present
case we have been able to find only the following:

Locality

Specimens

Months

Java . . .

3 . . .

June

Negros . .

..... 1 ...

February . . . .

Mindanao .

1 ...

April

Mindoro

t ...

October

Palawan .

3 or more

Summer and Autumn

N. Celebes

1 ...

May

N. Celebes

1 . . .

June

S. Celebes

1 ...

January

Pinschliafen,

New Gruinea 1 . . .

March

Season Keference

Pine . 2, 10

? . d
? . d 7^'®

? . Platen

? . d 12, d 13, 14

Pine . Nat. Coll.
Pine . Nat. Coll.
Painy d 7
Pine . Mus. Dr.

It wfill be seen that specimens have been obtained in one or other part of
the Archipelago in summer and winter, fine season and wet; hence it is impro-
bable that the species is migratory in the strict sense of the term, and this
condition is what is wanted before local differences can be insisted upon. The
three New Guinea specimens in the Dresden Museum, and four from New
Guinea, Salawatti and New Britain in the British Museum, are of a blacker
slaty above than is usual in Indian specimens and in two before us from Java.
In the coloration of the under surface the New Guinea form agrees with the
Indian one, but the under side of the wing and tail are nearly uniform dusky
brown, only a few bars on the inner webs being present at the base of the
primaries, while on the tail the bars are almost, or quite, completely obliterated.
Indian specimens have the inner web of the quills and tail barred with cin-
namon for almost their entire length, but the barring on the under side of the
tail is less distinct in the adult male than in the adult female or in the young.
In the adult male the tail above is almost uniform dark ashy, with a sub-
terminal black bar; in the adult female it is distinctly barred with black through-
out its length. Young specimens from India have the tail above blackish browm,
not barred; below barred with cinnamon. Javan specimens, young and old,
appear to run midway between those of India and New Guinea, judging from
the two in the Dresden Museum. As to Celebes, the adult male in the British
Museum is not to be separated from New Guinea specimens; and two since
received from our native collectors are apparently similar ones; the young
specimen from Celebes in the British Museum corresponds best, however, with
a young bird from Sikkim as regards the markings on the tail. Javan and
Celebesian birds must therefore be marked as intermediate between the geographical
extreme developments of the species. Birds from the most eastern bounds of the

11*

84

Birds of Celebes: Ealconidae.

range of the species have departed most widely in coloration in a certain direc-
tion, and we think it advisable to distinguish the two extremes — the races
of S. E. New Guinea and of India especially — as subspecies;

1. Falco severus papuanus M. & Wg.

Abb. Mas. Dresd. 1893 Nr. 3, p. 6.

Diagnosis. Adult; above darker; tail nearly black; below darker; remiges and tail below
unbanded.

Young ; wings and tail below obscurely banded, under wing-coverts covered with a
network of black.

Distribution. New Guinea.

2. Falco severus indicus n. subsp.

Diagnosis. Adult: above paler slaty; tail brownish slaty; wings and tail below barred on
the inner webs with pale cinnamon.

Distribution. India (Calcutta: Henderson — 0 10568).

Intermediate forms are known to us from Java (whence the type of the sj)ecies)
and Celebes, and it is probable that the larger part of the East Indies are inhabited
by such.

The legs and feet of Falco severus are stouter and stronger, and the middle
toe and wdngs relatively shorter than in F. subbuteo L., the type of Boie’s genus,
Ifypotriorchis. F. severus thus forms a link between the most typical Falcons
and Hypotriorchis^ wEich genus was separated from them chiefly on the ground
of its possessing a long, thin, middle toe, and slender, somewhat lengthy
tarsus, but these slight structural peculiarities lose all generic worth when it is
seen that they hold good only for the extreme forms.

In India the food of this species is said to consist chiefly of small birds
(Legge P), but it probably preys largely upon insects as well. Mr. de Bocarme
found that the species in Java fed chiefly on Orthoptera, the remains of which,
such as the wungs and legs, are to be seen in abundance on the rocks in
craters to which the bird resorts (2). The specimen obtained in Ceylon by
Mr. Bligh w^as shot while hawking dragon-flies.

Colonel Legge considers F. severus a mountain species; it was found breed-
ing in the Himalayas in 1860 by Col. Bad cliff e, w'ho got young birds unable
to fly; Mr. Thompson gives evidence in Hume’s “Bough Notes” as to its breed-
ing in Kumaon and the Ghurlwal; Mr. Bourdillon is of opinion that it nests in
Travancore in South India — all more or less mountainous provinces, and Mr. de
Bocarme found it among the volcanoes of Java as pointed out above. Never-
theless — as has already been remarked — Blyth observes that it visits the
plains of Bengal in the cold season and, as it has been also shot at Macassar,
it frequents the plains in Celebes too.

In almost all parts of its range F. severus appears to be a rare species. In
Celebes it certainly is so. It was not included in the large collections sent
from Celebes by Dr. Fischer to the Darmstadt Museum, nor in those of

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

85

V. Duivenbode, Riedel and Platen investigated by Prof. W. Blasius; neither
was it obtained there by Meyer during his stay of about twelve months, nor by
Dr. Guillemard during the cruise of the “Marchesa”, nor by the older travellers.
Only three naturalists were more successful, two or more specimens were shot
at Macassar by Mr. Wallace, from whom the British Museum received its two
specimens (? the same); another was obtained at the same place by Beccari.
There is also a specimen from Celebes in the Norwich Museum, as we learn
from Mr. Gurney. The only record of its occurrence in North Celebes appeared
to consist in the single specimen in the Leyden Museum, until two specimens
from Lotta near Manado were sent to us in 1894. Possibly its rarity in collections
has something to do with the difficulty of invading its mountain haunts.

f 28. FALCO PEREGRINUS (Gerini).

Peregrine Falcon.

The Peregrine Falcon has developed some considerable differences of colo-
ration in certain areas of its range and has been divided into five species or
subspecies, as follows :

1. The typical F. peregrinus.

a. Accipiter Falco peregrinus Briss. , Om. 1760, I, 321.

h. Accipiter peregrinus Gerini, Orn. Meth. Dig. 1767, I, 55, pi. 23, 24 (see Seebohm c 7),

c. Falco peregrinus Tunstall, Orn. Brit. 1771, I; (I) Dresser, B. Europe VI, 31, pi. 372

(1876); (2) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 101; (3) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 31;
(4) Scully, Ibis 1881, 416; (5) Gurney, Ibis 1882, 292 — 304, 438; (6) Oates,
B. Brit. Burmah 1883, II, 214; (7) SeeTjohin, Brit. B. 1883, I, 23, pi 3 (egg);
(8) Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 106; (9) Styan, Ibis 1887, 223; (10) Sharpe,
Ibis 1888, 195; (11) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 303; (12) Whitehead, Ibis 1890, 43;
(13) Wiglesw., Aves Polyn. 1891, 1; (14) Styan, Ibis 1891, 489.

d. Falco communis Gm., 1788; (I) SchL, Yallcv. 1866, D, 44, pi. 1, f. 1; (2) id.. Rev. Acc.

1873, 32 pt.; (3) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874,1, 376; (4) Rosenb., Malay. Archip. 1878,
271; (5) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1881, 790; (6) id.. Ibis 1889, 75; (7) Everett, J. Str.
Br. R. A. S. 1889, 186; ('7*'p Ste ere. List Coll B. Philip. Is. 1890, 7; (8) Sharpe,
Ibis 1890, 274; (9) id., Bull Brit. Orn. Club 1892, II, Nov.; (10) Ribbe, Yer.
Erdk. Dresden XXII, 1892, 168; (11) Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 116, 559; (12) Tacz.,
Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1891, I, 77.

For synonymy see Sharpe d 5; Legge c 2\ Salvad. c 3\ Oates c 6\ Seebohm c 7.
Figures and descriptions. Schlegel d J; Dresser c I; Seebohm c 7; Sharpe d 5; Gurney
G 5; etc., etc.

Osteology. Giebel, Z. ges. Naturw. 1858 Y/YI, 43 (hyoid); Magnus, Khioch. 1868 pi. XWI,
in, fig. D (sternum); id., Yogelkopl 1870, ID, 11 (lacrymal); Milne-Edw., Ois.
foss. 1867 — 71, pL 179 — 181 (fragments); Eyton, OsteoL Av. 1867 — 75, pL IDA
(skel), pi. DA, f. 3 (metatars.); pL YIA, f. 5 (pal bones), j)l. YA, f. 4 (pelvis), pi.
ymA, f. 2 (coracoids, etc.), pi lY, f. 3 (base cram); Parker, Tr. L. S. 1875 (2)
I. pi. 25, ff. 12, 13 (vomer); Fiirbringer, Unters. 1888 HI, 6, 103, 104, lY, 23, 131,
YT, 83 (clavicula, etc.).

86

Birds of Celebes; Falconidae.

Adult. Hoadj n6clc and primaries dusky browiij rest of upper plumage slaty grey,
eacli feather crossed with several bars of dusky brown; below white washed with
buff, under side of wdngs, sides, abdomen, thighs and under tail-coverts closely barred
with brown, on the breast a few drop-shaped brown spots; hinder part of cheeks
usually white.

Young, A-bove brown, all the feathers with pale margins; below white, marked from below
the throat downwards with drops and streaks of brown, which tend to form into bars
on the flanks.

Wing

Tarsus

Middle toe

Small (Sumba)

312

43

44.5

Large Q (Spain)

375

53

56

(Gurney c 5).

Distribution. Europe, Africa, Asia, (?) America (see Legge c 5); Philippines (Salvad. c 3,
Steere d Palawan (Whitehead c 10, Platen c 11); Borneo (c 5, d 7, Everett
d 9, etc.); Bangka (c 3); Sumatra (c 3); Java (c 3); Sumha (Mus. Norw. c 5);
(?) N. Celebes (Bosenb. d 4); Ternate (c 3); Ceram (c 3, dlO).

2. Falco peregrinus melanogenys (Gld.).

e. Falco melanogenys (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1837, 139; (II) id., Syn. B. Austr. 1838, pi. 40,

fig. 2; (III) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 8; (4) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874, I, 385; (5)
Gurney, Ibis 1882, 302 — 304; (6) W. Bias., “Braunschw. Anzeiger”, 1886 March 3;
(7) Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, I, 14; (8) North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889,
16, pi. m, f. 4 (egg); (9) Styan, Ibis 1891, 489; (10) Hartert, Nov. Zook
1896, 597.

f. Falco communis (I) Schl, Valkv. 1866, 2, 44, pi. 1, f. 2 (tantum).

g. Falco peregrinus (1) Meyer, Y. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1881, 760.

g^. Falco melanogenys subsp. Gurney, Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 107.

For synonymy see Sharpe e 4; Salvad. e 7.

Figures and descriptions. Gould el, e II, e III; Schlegel f I; North e 8; Sharpe e 4;
Gurney e 5.

Diagnosis. Differs from the typical 'peregrinus in having nape and sides of head hlack;
the black transverse bars on the under surface of adult specimens narrower,
more regular and, generally, closer together; the outer and inner toes apparently
a little longer in relation to the middle toe; size a little smaller.

Measurements. Wing Tarsus Middle toe

Small (Australia) 296 39 48

Large Q (Philippines) 348 51 56 (Gurney e 5),

Distribution. Australia; Tasmania; New Caledonia; New Hebrides ; Fiji Islands, — Yiti Levu;
New Guinea, Aru, New Britain, Jobi, Java, Sumatra, Borneo ,. Philipj)ines (fide
Salvad. e 7); Sumba (Riedel^ 1); North Celebes (Platen e 6); Lombok — seen only
(Everett e 10). It has also been recorded from Cluna [e 9, Rickett, Ibis 1894, 223),
but the bird seems to have been F. ^^eregrinator (cf. Grant i 3).

3. Falco peregrinus ernesti (Sharpe).

h. Falco melanogenys (1) Gurney (nec Gld.), Ibis 1882, 302, 304.

i. Falco ernesti (1) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 545; (2) Grant, Ibis 1895, 438; (3) id.. Ibis 1896, 529.

j. Falco atriceps (1) Eagle Clarke (nec Hume), Ibis 1895, 529.

Descriptions. Under the above references.

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

87

Diagnosis. Blacker than F. p. melcmogenys\ under surface shaded with cinereous; under wing-
coverts and axillaries black, barred with small white lines (Sharpe i 1).

Distribution. Borneo (Pretyman li 1, Hose i 1), Luzon (Whitehead ^ 2], Negros (Keay
y i, Whitehead i 3), Malicollo, NeAv Hebrides (Wykeham Perry i 2). This is
supposed by Sharpe to he the resident form in the East India Islands.

4. Falco peregriims anatum (Bp.).

L Falco anatum Bp., Comp. List B. Eur. & N. xLm. 1838, 4.

l. Falco peregrinus anatum (1) Bidgw. , Man. N. Am. Birds 1887, 247.

Adult. “Chest usually immaculate” (Bidgw. jl).

Young. “More deeply colored, with ground color of lower parts frequently deep ochraceous”
(Bidgw. j 1).

Distribution. “Whole of America south as far, at least, as Chih; eastern Asia?” (Bidgw. ih.).

5. Falco peregrinus pealei Bidgw..

m. Falco polyagrus pt. Cass., B. Calif. 1853, pi. 16 (liinder figure only), (fide Gurney, Bidgw.).

n. Falco peregrinus pealei (1) Bidgw., Landh. N. Am. 1874, HI, 137; (2) Gurney, Ibis

1882, 297, 298; Bidgw., 1. c. note; (3) Gurney, Hiurn. B. of Prey 1884, 106;
(4) Bidgw., Man. N. Am. Birds 1887, 247.

Adult. “Top of head deep slaty, or plumbeous slate, uniform with back; chest heavily spotted
with blacldsh, and dusky bars of remaining under parts very broad” (Bidgw. n 4).

Young. “With lower parts sooty black, streaked with pale huffy, or huffy white; the feathers of
upper parts without rusty margins” (Bidgw. n 4).

Distribution. “Aleutian Islands, west to Commander Islands and south along Pacific coast
to Oregon” (Bidgw. ib.).

Of these five subspecies the three first named only concern the ornithology
of Celebes.

Taking first the tyj)ical F. peregrinus into consideration it appears that the
only authority for the occurrence of this species in Celebes is v. Bo sen berg, who
remarks that it is rare there, but that he got a fine specimen in Kema in the North.
As, however, he adopts the nomenclature of Schlegel, who did not discrimi-
nate between F. peregrinus and melanogengs and had not recognised F. ernesti,
it is not possible to say to which race v. Bosenberg’s specimen belonged; and,
if it is still extant, we do not know in what museum or collection it is to
be found. F. peregrinus has been obtained in islands lying on every side of
Celebes, — the Philippines, Borneo, Sumba, Ceram, Batjan and Ternate, so
that it is impossible that it could fail to occur in Celebes as well, though satis-
factory evidence on this point is wanting. In Ceram Mr. Bibbe found F. com-
munis [? melanogengs or ernesti in parP and moluccensis very plentiful both in the
forest as well as on the coast and mountains. There is considerable reason for
believing that this race is only a winter visitor to the East Indian Archipelago.
It is stated to be a migrant in India, though a good many specimens remain
there throughout the year (c 2) , and Mr. Oates is inclined to regard it as a

88

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

resident in Bnrmah. The southward migration through Gilgit and the Hindoo
Koosh has been observed by Major Scully to take place in October and the
return in April (c 4). About the lower TAngtse Mr. T. W. Sty an speaks of
it as a common resident species, but an influx of specimens from the Xorth
takes place in autumn, hurther south in China it is a common winter visitor,
at Foochow, Mr. De la Touche found it abundant from October to sjjiing. In
North Borneo and Labuan birds of this race, according to Mr. Everett, appear
in the N. E. monsoon, “and are doubtless regular winter migrants, probably from
China (d / ). Mr. M^hitehead, also, reports it to be a winter migrant to
Palawan.

The Australian Peregrine, melanogenys^ is less well understood. It is
known to breed in Australia lajdng two or three eggs in September — October,
the Australian spring fe8j. At this time of year a specimen has been obtained
in Sumatra by Beccari, and Bocarme’s notes show that a form of Peregrine
Falcon breeds in Java, making its nest in trees in the mountain forests; but,
as Schlegel, who published these remarks, did not distinguish the different
races of F. yeregriims by name, it is not certain to which race — if to only one
— Bocarme’s observations refer. Dr. Sharpe believes that Java and Borneo
are inhabited by a peculiar local race of Peregrines [ernesti)\ Seebohm con-
sidered that F. melanogengs breeds in Sumatra and Java as well as AustraHa (c7).
In the lower A'angtse Basin, hlr. F. W. Styan has recorded a pair of F. melano-
genys as breeding there, but the dark form in South China has been identified
by Mr. II. H. Slater with the Indian F. ‘peregrinator Sundev. (; i, i3). Falco
ernesti was observed breeding in Negros by Mr. Whitehead. Any conclusion
as to a possible migration from Australia during the winter of that country —
the months of our summer — cannot be made, owing to the absence in literature
of actual observations and of dates when specimens were shot. The bird is
either decidedly rare in the archipelago, or more difficult to obtain than the
generality of birds of prey.

That F. melanogengs occurs very rarely in Celebes — possibly as a straggler —
is evident from the fact that the only specimen of which there is any record
from this island, is one which Prof. W. B la sins laid before a meeting of the
Naturhistorischen Yerein at Brunswick in 1886, as reported in a newsy>aper
account of the sitting (eO). It is possible, however, that v. Eo sen b erg’s note,
stating that he found F. communis not common in the island (d 4) may concern
this form of Peregrine.

A closer examination of the specimen from Sumba sent by Dr. Riedel
to the Dresden Museum has served to show us that the bird belongs to the
southern race, and not to the northern one with which it was at first identified.
Therefore both subspecies occur on Sumba ( c 5).

Birds of Celebes: Pandionidae.

89

FAMILY PANDIONIDAE.

The family contains only one species, the Osprey, peculiar by its having
the outer toe reversible, and no aftershaft to the feathers. The tarsus is naked
(except at the top anteriorly) and covered with very rugose small scales. The
claws very long, and curved almost to a semicircle; the toes furnished below
with pads covered with small, strong, sharp points or spines, adapted for holding
the fish upon which it preys. Size large medium; wing very long, extending
beyond the tip of the tail. Migratory and stationary. Eggs 2 — 3. Almost cosmo-
politan in range, but varies locally to some extent.

GENUS PANDION Sav.

Description as for the family.

•b29. PANDION HALIAETUS (L.).

Osprey.

The genus Pandion contains only one species, P. haliaetus^ which is almost
cosmopolitan in its range. In the Old World, in America, and in Australia some
differences of size and coloration have arisen, which makes it advisable to adopt
the three subspecies already distinguished.

1. The typical Pandion haliaetns.

а. Falco haliaetus Linn. 1766; (I) Naum., Wg. Deutschl. 1822, I, 241, pi. 16.

б. Pandion haliaetus Less., Man. d’Orn. 1S2S, I, 86; (I) Gld., B. Eur. 1837, pi. 12; (2)

Schl., Mus. P.-B. Aquilae 1862, 22 x^t.; (Ill) id., Valkv. 1866, 12, 52, pt., pi. 3,
f. 3; (4) Newton, Yarrell’s Brit. B. 1871, 1, 34; (5) Schl., Rev. Acc. 1873, 123 pi;
(6) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1874, I, 449; (7) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 7; (VIII)
Dresser, B. Europe VI, pis. p. 139 (1876); (9) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 122; (10)
Gurney, Ibis 1882, 594 — 598; (11) Seebohm, Brit. B. 1883, I, 56, pi. 3 (egg); (12)
Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883, II, 220; (13) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 118; (14,
Gurney, Dhmi. B. of Prey 1884, 112; (15) W. Bias., Oi-nis 1888, 539; (16) Sharpe,
Ibis 1889, 75; (17) Everett, J. Str. Branch R. A. S. 1889, 187; (18) Whitehead,
Ibis 1890, 43; (19) Sharpe, t. c.274; (20) Styan, Ibis 1891, 486; (21) De La Touche,
Ibis 1892, 483; (22) Meyer & Helm, Jhrsb. Orn. Sachsen 1892, 79; (23) Tacz.,
Faun. Om. Sib. Orient 1, 1891, 52; (24) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896 Nr. 2, p. 8.
For synonymy and further references see Sharpe b 6.

2. Pandion haliaetus leucocephalus (Gld.).

c. Pandion leucocephalus (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1837, 138; (II) id., Syn. B. Austr. 1838, pt IH,
pi. 6; (III) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 6; (4) Sharpe, Oat B. 1874, I, 451 (sbsp.);
(5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 56; (6) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 11 and Agg. 1889, 11;

Meyer & Wigles worth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. Utb, 1897). 12

90

Birds of Celebes: Pandionidae.

(7) aurney, Ibis 1882, 595—598; (8) id., Diurn. E. of Prey 1884, 113 (subsp.?);
(9) Meyer, Isis 1884, 6; (10) North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889, 23, pL 5,
f. 1, 2 (eggs); (11) Steere, List Coll B. Philip. Is. 1890, 8; (12) Meyer, Abh. Mns.
Dresden 1893, 3, j). 4.

d. Pandion haliaetus leucocephalus (1) Briiggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 45; (2)

Wiglesw., Ayes Polyn. 1891, 1] (3) Hartert, Nov. ZooL 1896, 178.

For synonymy and further references see Salvadori e 6.

3. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis (Gm.).

e. Pandion carolinensis (Grin. 1788); (I) Audubon, B. N. Am. pL 81 (1831); (2) Griirney,

Ibis 1882, 595 — 598; (3) id., Diurn. B. of Prey 1884, 113 (subsp.?).

f. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis Eidgw., B. N. Ain. 1874, ID, 182; (1) id., Man. N. Am.

Birds, 1887, 254.

Key to distinguish the 3 subspecies;

A. Below purer white than in the other races, breast often unmaculate; “shafts of

the tail-feathers continuously white”: . . . . P. haliaetus carolinensis.

Distribution. “Temperate and tropical America in general, north to Hudson’s
Bay and Alaska” (Eidgw. f 1).

B. B reast always more or less varied with brown:

a. Larger; wing from 437 ((J^) — 528 mm (Q) (ex Griirney h 10]\ crown of

head usually more strongly marked with brown streaks than in leuco-
cephalus-. The typical P. haliaetus.

Figures and descriptions. Naum, a /; Gld. h 7; Dresser h F777;

Sharpe h d; Legge b S*; Gurney h 10] Seebohm b 11] etc. etc.
Osteology. Selenka, Bronn’s Kl. u. Ord., pi. XYI, f. 7 (sternum); Milne-
Edw. , Ois. Foss. 1867 — 71, pi. 179; Eyton, Ost. Av. 1867 — 75,
pi. in,' f. 10 (frons), pi. Y, f. 5 (pelvis); Blanchard, Ost. Ois. 1859,
pi. n, 7, 8; Flirbringer, Unters. 1888, I, 20; III, 102; YI, 81
(shoulder); Giebel, Z. ges. Naturw. 1858, Y/YI, 49.

Distribution. Eimope; Africa; Asia, as far south as Java (^^ with iving
450 mm — Yorderman), Borneo (b 16^ Palawan (bl8), and

the Sangi Islands (b 15)] Celebes (in Dresden Mus.).

b. Smaller; wing 386 — 493 mm; crown of head sometimes nearly, or quite,

imre white: P. haliaetus leucocephalus.

Figures and descriptions. Gould c 2, c 77, c IH] Schl. b III{?)] Gur-
ney c 7] North c 10. Eyton, Ost. Av. 1867 — 75, j)l. I (skel), pi. H,
f. 1 (metatarsus), pi. HI, f. 2 (sternum).

Distrib ution. New Zealand (bll)] Australia and New Caledonia throughout
the intervening islands to Celebes and Sangi (Salvad. c 6)] Banggai
Id. (Nat. Coll.); Talaut Is. (Nat. Coll.); Bawean Islands (SchL b 2)]
S. E. Borneo (b 2)] Philippine Islands — Marinduque (Steere c 11)]
Pelew Islands (Mus. Haml^urg d 2).

The species P. haliaetus may be generally described as follows:

Adult. Head and neck white, witli dark brown centres to the feathers present in greater
or less abundance on the croAvn and liind neck; quills black; all other parts of
the upper surface dull dark brown, the margins of the feathers somewhat paler;

Birds of Celebes: Pandionidae.

91

ear-coverts blacldsli brown continned into a streak down the sides of the neck;
chin and throat white, often marked with brown shaft-streaks; chest brown, some-
times pure white; under wing-coverts nearest the body white, the outermost ones
brown with wliite margins; remaining under parts of body — except the axillaries,
which are spotted with brown — pure white.

Iris yellow; cere blue; feet blue or bluish wliite.

Young. Above darker, richer brown than the adult, all the feathers of the back, upper
tail- and wing-coverts terminally margined with white or fulvous; crown of head
and neck much more saturated with blackish brown than in the adult; numerous
cross-bars — unperceptible in the adult — plainly apparent on the tail of the young.

Distribution of the species. Almost cosmopolitan. Absent in the southern countries of
S. America and in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, except two or three (cf.
D resser h VIII, Newton b 4, Legge b 9, Salvadori c 6).

The American form of the Osprey, P. carolinensis does not further concern
this work; both of the other two forms, the typical Osprey of the Old World
and the smaller Australian bird in our opinion occur in the Celebesian area.

Schlegel and Sharpe include Celebes within the range of the typical form
(ho, h 19); Briiggemann, Gurney, Meyer, Blasius and Salvadori within
that of the Australian form (cl 1, b 10, c 5, h 13, c 6) and Schlegel and
Blasius (h 15) identify the Sangi Islands as a locality for the typical P. h.,
Gurney and Salvadori as a locality for P. h. leucocephalus, — so, also, Meyer
(c9). These conflicting opinions will be answered in the future in one of two
manners — either one or both forms will be found to be migratory visitors to
Celebes and Sangi ; or, the birds inhabiting these islands will be found to
present an interconnected, intermediate race between the northern and southern
Ospreys. If migratory, then the northern race may be expected to occur in
Celebes aud Sangi in the months of our winter and the southern race during
the months of the Australian winter, i. e. in our summer. The northern Osprey
is known to migrate south in autumn, passing the winter south of about 45“
N. lat. (b 22); in Ceylon it is only present during the cool season (b 9), and
this also appears to be the case in Burmah (b 12) and possibly throughout all
countries south of the Himalayas. No record of its nesting in India was known
to Mr. Oates in 1889. In Borneo three specimens of the northern Osprey
have been obtained in December by Mr. Whitehead, who believes it is a
migrant there — i. e. in Northern Borneo (h 16), and it is also marked by him
as migratory in Palawan (b 18). Another was obtained at Sarawak by Beccari
on March 1867 (h7). A fifth mentioned by Schlegel (h 2) was killed
at Pagattan at the S. E. extremity of the island, and has the wing only 420 mm
(“I5V2 French inches”) long; thus evidently — though a male — belonging to
a smaller race. For the Sangi Islands and Celebes the few specimens, which
have been properly dated, run as follows:

12*

92

Birds of Celebes: Pandionidae.

Sangi

a.

Aving 420 nun . . .

h.

cf

>

495 » ...

20. Jan. 1887 (Platen 15)

c.

9

»

.485 » ....

20. Jan. 1887 (Platen 15)

d.

2

.

4. Aug. 1865 (Rosenb. b 5)

e.

2

' Aving 437 — 470 mm ‘

1 9

Talaut

9-

1 wing

435 mm ....

North Celebes

h. cT

»

422 (or 429) mm .

•

10. Oct. 1863 (Rosenb. h 5)

1

430 mm . . .

i-

1

450 — 470 mm (2 or

more

specimens) . March 1871 (Meyer c 5)

Tc.

1

»

450 mm ....

12. May 1893 (Nat. Coll., Dr. M.)

1.

1

420 » . , . . .

•

24. Apr. 1893 (Nat. Coll, Dr. M.)

m.

1

470 » ... .

11. Dec. 1894 (Nat. Coll, Dr. M.)

n.

1

470 » ... .

0.

1

>

450 » ... .

p.

1

430 » ... .

March 1895 (Nat. Coll, Dr. M.)

9-

1

»

426 » ... .

Eeh. 1894 (Nat. Coll, Dr. M.)

East Celebes and Banggai Id.

r.

2

»

430 and 470 mm

s.

1

»

430 mm, Banggai Id. .

May — Aug. 1895 (Nat. Coll, Dr.

Prof. W. Blasius identifies specimen a with h and c as belonging to the
northern race ; but its size would seem to indicate that it belongs to the smaller
one. Our own sj)ecimens of the larger race have winter dates. The other two
were shot in our winter. On the whole the above facts seem to indicate that
the larger form is a migrant, and the smaller a resident in Celebes and Sangi.

A change of disposition in this species, as recorded by Mr. C. Ribbe in
Ceram, also renders it very probable that the southern form is resident in the
Archipelago : “One of the most importunate birds of prey, which 1 met Avith in
the Indies, was Pandion haliaetus] this species, elsewhere, in consequence of
sharp persecution, a very shy bird, Avas bold and impudent on the coast of Ceram,
where I was able to observe it daily. If the fishermen do not look out, it
will steal the fish in their boats; when fishing Avith the line is being done, it
will watch for the moment Avhen the fish is draA\n out, and pitch doAvn upon it.
Once, on a larger fishing expedition in which I joined, it happened that an
Osprey paid for its boldness Avith its life, for it Avas beaten to death with sticks
by the boatmen”. (Jb. Ver. Erdk. Dresden, XXII 1892, 168).

The northern Osprey lays at the end of April or beginning of May (h 11) \
in Australia, the smaller form breeds from July to October {c 10), A northern
bird, staying behind in the East Indian Archipelago, might thus be prevented
from interbreeding AAuth the smaller race. The food of this s^jecies consists
entirely of fish, caught by plunging into the Avater.

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

93

? Gyps sp.

In the Nat. Tdsclir. Ned. Ind. 1876, XXXVI, 381, van Mnsschenhroek mentions
his having encountered a Vulture at Kwandang, North Celebes, without his being able to
identify the species. He suggests Gyps indims.

ORDER STRIDES.

The Owls are nocturnal or crepuscular in habits and are best characterized
by their eyes, which are very large and not placed laterally on the sides of
head as in most other birds, but directed forwards, each eye being surrounded
by a disk of feathers radiating from it. The four toes are placed two in front,
one behind, and the outer one laterally on the foot; the last capable of being
completely turned backwards. The plumage is very soft and fluffy, the most
prevalent tints being brown — rufous brown or yellow-brown, — grey, and
white; and the patterns are often completely broken up, chequered and ver-
miculated. The round, white eggs are usually laid in cavities in trees or rocks.
The larger species prey upon vertebrates of various kinds, some on fish, many
of the small Owls on insects. In size the Owls vary from that of a Lark to
that of an Eagle.

FAMILY ASIONIDAE.

The sternum furnished with a manubrial process; the furcula, not attached
to the keel of the stermun, often consists of but two stylets which do not even
meet one another, the posterior margin of the sternum with two pairs of pro-
jections, one pair on each side, with corresponding fissures between them; the
tarsus furnished with a bony ring or loop bridging the channel holding the
common extensor tendon of the toes (Newton, Diet. B. 672). Basal and second
joints of middle toe subequal in length (Blanford).

GENUS NINOX Hdgs.

Owls of rather small size, facial disk wanting, causing a very Accipitrine
appearance; bill moderate, the nostrils formed by semi-tubular swellings of the
cere placed well forward; wings long; tail long, more than 3 times the
length of the tarsus; toes bristly, rather long, the soles covered with
rough horny points and laterally fenced with stiff bristles; tarsus
feathered to an extent varying in different species. They prey upon insects, small
mammals, birds, lizards. Eggs 2—4. About 30—40 species, one at least of them
migratory, distributed from India and China, to Australia, New Zealand and
Madagascar.

94

Birds of Celebes; Asionidae.

+ * 30. NINOX OCHRACEA (Sehl.).

Ochraceous Hawk-owl.

Plate IV.

a. Noctua ochracea (1) ScliL, jNTed. Tdschr. Dierk. 1866, HI, 183; (2) id., Eev. Noctuae 1873,
22; (3) Eosenb., Malay. ArcbiiD. 1878, 271, 583.
h. Athene ochracea Wall., E)is 1868, 23; Grray, HL. 1869, I, 41; Wald., Tr. Z. S.
1872, yni, 38.

Ninox ochracea (1) Sharpe, Ibis 1875, 258; (II) id., Cat. B. 1875, II, 167, pi. XI, fig. 2;
(3) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 8.

“Totosik”, Lotta, Minahassa, Xat. Coll.

“Keketi”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Xat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Sharpe IT; Schlegel a 1, a 2\ Eosenberg a 3 (ex Schl.).

Adult. Above dark brown with a chestnut wash, more dusky on the head; the underlying
scapulars with large patches of white, chiefly on the outer webs of the feathers;
greater and middle wing-coverts marked on the outer Avebs with a few spots of
white, often concealed; quills brown, outer webs washed mth rufous, the secon-
daries notched somewhat deeply on the inner and slightly on the outer webs with
white, the rpmains of which are perceptible on the outer edge of the primaries; tail
brown hke the quills, marked on the inner Avebs (except on the middle pam) with
notches of Avhite, deepest toAvards the base of the feathers — these A\Eite notches
mark the spaces between obscure bars, of AAEich about seven may be made out on
the middle feathers; — bristle -plmnes of the forehead and lores whitish with
black shafts, Avlnch are continued into fine hah-hke points reaching considerably
beyond tip of bill; above eye. and malar region, Avhitish; under surface taAvny
raw-umber, darkest on the chest and gradually becoming fighter, until on the under
tail-coverts it is buff; under Aving- coverts fight cinnamon marked with brown near
the edge of the Aving, the greater series and inner webs of quills beloAV notched
with Avhite (Lotta, Xorth Celebes, 4. Dec. 1894: Xat. Coll. — C 13865).

“Iris someAvhat dark brown, bill broAAunsh AAMte” (al).

Measurements. Whig 184 mm; tail 108; tarsus 27; middle toe Avithout claAv 22.5; culmen
from cere 14.

A sj)ecimen in the Brit. Mus. measures: whig 200 mm; tail 127; tars. 25 (Sharpe).

Young. Differs from the adult in having the under surface white or Avhitish; throat and
jugulum dark broAvn; upper parts dark brown, AAuthout any chestnut hue (juv. Main,
X. Celebes, Eeb. 1894: Xat. Coll. — C 13240).

ments.

"Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
cere

a. (10439) ad. Gorontalo (Eiedel)

184

108

27

14

b. (C 13865) ad. INEnahassa, 4. XH. 94 (Xat. Coll.) . . .

189

101

26.5

12

c. (C 14357) ad. E. Celebes, V.-VIH. 95 (Xat. Coll.) . .

192

100

27.5

13

d. (C 13240) juv. Minahassa, Eeb. 94 (Xat. Coll.) . . .

178

85

27

12

Distribution. Xorth Celebes: Gorontalo District

Xegri-lama (Eosenb.

a 1) and Gorontalo

(Eiedel in Mus. Dresden); Minahassa (v. Duivenb. a 2, Xat. Coll.); Tonkean, E. Cel.

This little OavI is a someAvhat rare species in collections. It vims discovered
by von Eosenberg at Xegri-lama on the coast of the Gnlf of Tomini in 1863.

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

95

There are now examples in the Dresden, Leyden, British, Tring, and apparently,
Vienna Museums. It is nearly allied to the Little Owl of the Philippines, N.
philippensis Bp., which differs from it in having the upper wing-coverts spotted,
the tail shorter, etc. Another species, showing much similarity in tone of colo-
ration, hut having the under surface marked with cross-bars instead of uniform
or with indistinct stripes, is the NinooB hantu of Burn, figured by Dr. Sharpe
on the same plate with N. ochmcea.

31. NINOX SCUTULATA (RaffL).

Brown Hawk-OAvl.

This species apparently consists of four races. We have not been able to
investigate those of the Indian countries, but accept the views thereon of Schlegel
and Dr. Sharpe, with the corrections of Mr. Hume and more recently of Mr.
Blanford (Bull. B. O. C. 1894 XVIII, p. XLII, Ibis 1894, 526; Paun. Br.
Ind. B. HI 1895, 309). The races may be diagnosed as follows:

1. The typical Ninox scutulata.

Diagnosis. Size mecfimn, wing 197 — 2 JO nun; primary scarcely longer than the 3'''^ and

wliich are about equal in length (Schlegel a I).

Distribution. Lidia and Ceylon, south-eastwards as far as Java and Borneo.

2. Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tick ell).

Diagnosis. “Bather paler, with a greyer head” (Blanford).

Distribution. “Pound in Lidia and Burmah generally, cliiefly in the less damp parts of the
country” (Blanford). The typical form, on the contrary, is believed by Mr. Blan-
ford to belong to those parts where the rainfall is heavier — Malabar, Ceylon, parts
of Bunnali, etc. (Faun. Br. Lid. B. m 1895, 311).

3. Ninox lugubris affinis (Tytler).

Diagnosis. A small race: wing 168 — 193 mm (Blanford).

Distribution. Andaman Islands.

4. Ninox scutulata japonica (T. & Schl.).

Diagnosis. Size large, wing c. 218 — 235 nun; 3'^'^ and 4^’^ primaries about equally long,
or the third a trifle the longest, the 5^^ (according to Schlegel and W. Blasius)
much shorter and nearly equal to the 2“^*. (In our specimens with three exposed
hands on the tail tliis seems to hold good for the 5*^' jirimary, hut in three of our
four with more rufous tails and four exposed hands, the 5*^ is only about 10 mm
shorter than the 3*’'^, instead of about 20 mm shorter, like the 2"'^; in the fourth
example the fifth quill is missing. Prof. W. Blasius measurements (i 3) show
however, that the wing-formula is subject to great variation, the 5‘i» quill being in one
specimen (a female) only 85 mm shorter than the longest, in another specimen 21 mm

96

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

shorter, both examples being from the same locality, Great Sangi, and the specimens
before ns also, most indeed moulting, seem to have no great stability in the qiiill-
lengtbs. We have noticed this in other Owls.)

Distribution. Japan (a I, d 1); Loo-choo Islands (g 4, h8); S. E. Siberia and China from
the Amoor southwards (g 1, h 1, h 9, h 10, i 1)-, migrating in winter to the Phihppine
Islands (Platen i2, Steere y i, Whitehead hi)', Borneo (c 2 g 5)\ Talaut Is.
— Kabruang and Salibabu (Nat. Coll); Sangi Islands (Bosenb., Hoedt el, Meyer
li4. Platen i 1)\ Tagulandang (Nat. Coll); — Celebes, N. Peninsula (Rosenb. el,
Meyer c 3), S. Peninsula, Bonthain (Weber /^ i2); Sula Mangoli (Hoedt e i); Kalao
(Everett 14)-, Ternate (Rosenb. el, Eischer h 5)-, Elores (Wallace f 1).

The following synonymy belongs to the last-named subspecies :

Ninox scutulata japonica (T. & Schl.).

a. Strix scutulata japonica (I) Temm. & Schl., Eauii. Jap. Aves 1845, 28, pL 9 B.

b. Athene japonica Bp., Consp. 1851, I, 41.

c. Ninox japonicus (1) Bp., Rev. Zool. 1854, 543; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. 8. 1872, VHI, 40;

(3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 57; (4) Sharpe, Ibis 1889, 80; id., ib. 1890, 274;
(5) Campbell, ib. 1892, 243.

d. Noctua hirsuta japonica (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Striges 1862, 25.

e. Noctua hirsuta, partim, Schl, Rev. Noctuae 1873, 23 (ex China, Ja23an, Celebes, Sula,

Sangi, Ternate).

f. Athene florensis (1) Wall, P. Z. S. 1863, 488; id.. Ibis 1868, 23.

g. Ninox japonica Sharpe, Ibis 1875, 258; (1) David & Oust., Ois. Cliine 1877, 36;

(2) Blakis. & Pryer, Ibis 1878, 246; (3) Taczan., J. f. 0. 1881, 179; ('5^*0
Gurney, P. Z. S. 1878, 940; (4) Stejneger, Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1887, 401;
(5) Everett, J. Str. Br. R. A. S. 1889, 179; (6) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage
Exped. 1894, 33; (7) Grant, Ibis 1896, 111, 463, 53 J.

h. Ninox scutulata (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1875, H, 156—167 partim; (2) id. (nec Raff!?),

Ibis 1877, 4; (3) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 80, and Agg. 1889, 23; (3^^^) W. Bias.,
Verb. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1883, 22; (4) Meyer, Isis 1884, 14; (5) Pleske, Bidl. Ac.
Petersb. 1884, 114; (6) Hartert, J. f. O. 1889, 373(?); (7) Whitehead, Ibis 1890,

44; (8) Seebohm, B. Japan Emp. 1890, 187; (9) Styan, Ibis 1891, 326, 486;

(10) De La Touche, Bus 1892, 482; (11) Seebohm, Bus 1893, 52; (12) Biittik., Zool.
Erg. Weber’s Reise in Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 272; (13) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1895, 476.

i. Ninox macroptera (1) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 545 — 555; (2) id., J. f. 0. 1890, 145.

j. Ninox lugubris (1) Tweedd., P. Z. S. 1878, 940; Gurney, Ibis 1884, 170; (2) Steere

(nec Tickell), List. ColL B. Philip. Is. 1890, 8.

k. Ninox hirsuta japonica (1) Tacz., Eaun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1881, I, 131.

l. Ninox scutulata japonica (1) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 239; (2) iid.. Abb. Mus. Dresd.

1895, Nr. 8, i). 5; (3) iid., ib. Nr. 9^ p. 2; (^4/ Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 177.

m. ? Ninox scutulata lugubris (1) Eagle Clarke, Ibis 1895, 476.

“Mamejo”, Talaut Islands, Nat. Coll.

“Mawututu”, Tagulandang Id., iid.

Figures and descriptions. Temm. & Schl. a J; Schlegel d 1\ David & Oust, g 1\ Stej-
neger g 4; Meyer h 4; W. Bias, i 1; Shar]3e h 1 pt.

Adult. Above Tandy ke-brown, washed on the head mth greyish, and with rufous on the
back, sides of neck, throat and wings; wing-coverts unspotted, the outer ones dark
purplish brown, the inner ones like back, scapulars Avith concealed white spots; outer

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

97

web of primaries liglit cinnamon-mfous with two or three partially obbteratecl
yellowish bars; tail reddish brown crossed with five dusky bars and terminally margined
with buff; under parts white with long oval light chestnut-brown spots; underside
of wing banded on the inner webs of the feathers with yellowish isabelline, except
on the free ends of the primaries.

“Iris golden yellow; bill dark lead-grey; feet fight yellow” (Platen i T).

Some examples have the head greyer than others, and in the former the chest-
nut stripes on the under surface seem to be a little broader. A greater difference
is seen in the tail. Two before us from Celebes and two from Talaut, generally
greyer and, more broadly striped below, have the tail greyer brown above, crossed
with three exposed black bands and two bands concealed by the upper tail-coverts.
Two from Talaut, one from Sangi and one from Tagulandang are (in two or three
cases) less grey above and less broadly striped, displaying more white below; these
have the tail more rufous brown, crossed with four exposed black bands narrower
than in the other birds, with tlmee or two concealed under the upper tail-coverts.
Two of the greyer birds with three exposed bands in the Sara sin Collection are
females, but we are inclined to regard the difference as one of age rather than of
sex, the greyer birds being probably older. See, also, on sexual differences:
W. Blasius (i3).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (8257) imm. ? Great Sangi (Meyer)

235

132

—

16

h. (0 13056) imm.? Talaut Is. Nov. 93 (Nat. Coll.) . .

226

120

—

17

c. (0 13055) ad. Talaut Is. Oct. 93 (Nat. Coll.) . . .

224

120

27

15

d. (0 13755) ad. Talaut Is. Nov. 94 (Nat. Coll.) . . .

228

120

—

15

e. (C 15258) imm.? Talaut Is. Oct. 95 (Nat. Coll.) . .

233

127

29

17

' f. (C 13455) imm.? Tagulandang, Aug. 94 (Nat. Coll.) .

230

136

—

17

g. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Riuukan, N. Cel. 9. XL 94 .

225

115

25

13

/?. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Kema. N. Cel. 24. X. 93 . .

218

118

25

14.5

Viewed as a species composed of the above four races N. scutulata ranges
from the Himalayas, the Amoor River and Japan (except, perhaps, Jesso — h 8)
southwards throughout India and China to Ceylon, the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Flores, Celebes, Ternate.

This species varies considerably, and naturalists — starting with the assumption
that it is non-migratory — have conferred specific names on specimens killed
in a dozen different parts of its range. The result of Dr. Sharpe’s valuable,
but, from the nature of the difficulties, by no means conclusive, researches (hi)
was that there are only three forms of this bird — two light and one dark.
Mr. Blanford, as shown above, finds a fourth race in the Andamans. Mr.
Hume has recorded the light race of the Andamans from Cachar east of the
Brahmapootra, and it seems open to inquiry whether the Andamans are not
visited in winter by migrant individuals from India, as well as having a station-
ary race of their own.

A single specimen of N. scutulata lugubris^ the type of N. madagascariensis
Bp., is said to have been obtained in Madagascar. Dr. Sharpe expressed the

Meyer Ss WiglesTvortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 14th, 1897). J3

98

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

opinion that the locality was erroneously indicated; Dr. Hartlanb, in his
^‘Vogeln Madagaskars” 1877, says there can be no question as to the correct-
ness of the locality; Mr. Grandidier, however, takes an opposite view and
considers it certainly wrong (Ois. Madag. 1879, I, 126, note). Although we
incline to the latter opinion, it need, nevertheless, create no great surprise that
a lost straggler, migrating southwards from the Himalayas in winter during the
N. E. monsoon, should be aided by it across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar;
just as individuals of migrant North American birds occasionally lose their way
and succeed in reaching the coast of England.

There remains the dark form of Dr. Sharpe, which, following Schlegel
(dl) and Prof. W. Blasius (i 1) , we have split into two differing notably in
the formula of the primaries (see siqyra)^ a larger Eastern or Japano-Chinese
race and a smaller Western or Indian one. Whether these divisions will prove
sufficient, or not, can only be ascertained by means of prolonged investigation
and a much more com]3lete series of specimens and facts than the Dresden
Museum and the various ornithological periodicals and works up to the present
afford; the Eastern race, N. s. japonica, may, however, be shown on good grounds
to be migratory; while the Western one may be a migratory, or a stationary
bird, or the number of stationary birds, slightly differing from all others (f. i.
N. lorneensis [Bp.] Sharpe, Ibis 1889, 80), are perhaps increased at a certain
season of the year by migratory ones. The correct answer to these difficulties
is not likely to influence Celebes, which is visited by N. s. japonica^ judging by
the length of the wing; but it is to be hoped that some careful ornithologist
will see fit to take the matter in hand.

The remarkable denticulate toes of this species and its claws as sharp as
pins are suggestive of a class of food preyed upon that is difficult to hold.
Colonel Legge says that it feeds almost exclusively on beetles, moths and
grasshoppers. It captures insects on the wing (B. Ceylon, 148). The stomach
of a specimen killed in Borneo by Mr. Everett was “distended with beetles,
chiefly Buprestidae’\ another had swallowed a small gecko -lizard (h2). The
Drs. Sarasin found in the stomach of one killed in N. Celebes 9 recognisable
mole-crickets, several cockroaches. With the disappearance of this food at the
approach of winter in Amoor Land, China and Japan, the Owls in these regions
must of necessity migrate southwards ; and, judging from analogies in other parts
of the world, it is probable that the birds from the Amoor, in which Prof.
W. Blasius and Mr. Taczanowski point out some differences (i g 3)^, do not
proceed so far south as the more southern ones of China and Japan. In Japan
it has not yet been recorded with certainty from the northernmost island at all,
but Seebohm states that it is “not uncommon in summer” near Yokohama
and Nagasaki. It is just at this season that it aj>pears to be entirely absent in
the East Indian Archipelago , where , with the exception of the Philippines , we
have only been able to find a single specimen dated between the end of April
and the end of September. On the other hand all the dates recorded of sped-

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

99

mens killed soiitli of the Philippines — over two dozen in number — are in
our winter months. As these specimens may he rather important we give a list
of them.

Locality

Date

Reference

1. Borneo

. April 9. 1896

Sharpe c 4

2. Talaut .

. Nov. 1893

Dresden Mus. (supra)

3. Talaut

. Oct. 1893

Dresden Mus. (supra)

4,5. Talaut (2 sp.) . . • . .

. Nov. 1894

Dresden & Tring Mus.

6. Talaut

. Oct. 1885

Dresden Mus.

7. Sangi

. Oct. 30. 1864

Schlegel e 1

8. Sangi

. Nov. 23. 1865

Schlegel e 1

9. Sangi

. Dec. 5. 1865

Schlegel e 1

10. Sangi

. Jan. 17. 1866

Schlegel e 1

1 1 . Sangi

. Dec. 11. 1886

W. Blasius i 1

12. Sangi

. Jan. 20. 1887

W. Blasius i 1

13. Sangi

. Febr. 1. 1887

W. Blasius ^ 1

1 4. Sangi

. Febr. 3. 1887

W. Blasius il

15. Sangi

. Dec. 18. 1886

W. Blasius i 1

16. Siaa

. Oct. 26. 1865

Schlegel e 1

17. Tagulandang (south of Sangi)

. Aug. 1894

Dresd. Mus.

18. 19. 1ST. Celebes (2 specimens)

. Sept. 24. 1863

Schlegel e 1

20. N. Celebes

. Spring 1871

Meyer

21. N. Celebes

. Oct. 24. 1893

P. & F. Sarasin

22. N. Celebes

. Nov. 9. 1894

P. & F. Sarasin

23. S. Celebes

. AVinter 1888—89

Weber h 12

24. Sula Mangoli

. Nov. 30. 1864

Schlegel e 1

25. Ternate

. Nov. 16. 1879

Pleske h 5.

The following relate to the western

race (the typical N.

scutulata, or borneensis) :

Borneo (3 specimens) ....

. Oct. 1885

Sharpe c 4

Borneo

. March 1886

Sharpe c 4

Borneo

. March 1875

Sharpe /^ 2

Borneo (2 specimens)

, Oct. 1881

W. Blasius h

Borneo

. Jan. 25. 1891

Salv.(A.M.O.G. 1891,42

Except that Mr. Whitehead — to whom ornithologists are indebted for
many useful observations on migration in Borneo — marks N. scutulata as a
migratory visitor to Palawan (hi) , in addition to supplying dates pointing to
the same condition in Borneo, where Dr. Sharpe had already expressed the
opinion that it was a migratory bird (P. Z. S. 1879, 325), there appears to exist
no statement based on direct observations of the migration of this species in the
East Indian Archipelago, where observations on migration have been as yet
generally neglected by all travelling naturalists. In China and Japan this is
happily not so much the case: Mr. Campbell speaks of it as a summer visitor
to Corea (c 5)\ Mr. Sty an as a breeding summer visitant to the Lower A^angtse
Basin (h 9)\ Mr. De La Touche as a species “not uncommon in May” at Foochow,
and “rather common at Swatow in April”, (h 10), thus, presumably, for the mos

13*

100

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

part a passing migrant in South China; in Japan, as Seehohm says, it is rather
common in summer. At this time of year as stated above, we have been able
to find hardly any record of its having been killed in the East Indian Archipelago
(except in the Philippines) ; like Butastur indicus and Tachyspizias soloensis it
now breeds in China and Japan; only to appear again, like those species, in
the Archipelago at the approach of the northern winter.

From the circumstances of this migration and the correspondence of our
Sangi and Palaut birds with Prof. W. Bla sins’ Sangi examples we cannot admit
the right to specific or subspecific rank of N. macroptera^ which is named as
doubtfully entitled to it in his important article on this species (i i-)-

In N. Celebes and Sangi it appears to be only a visitor, at least the above
dates do not permit of any other interpretation than that it breeds from Corea
and Japan to Central China in our summer, passes as a migrant through Southern
China in spring and autumn and sojourns in N. Borneo, Celebes, Sangi, Sula,
Ternate, and perhaps elsewhere during our winter. On the more northerly
Philippines a few may even remain to breed, or these are individuals, left behind
during the seasonal wandering to the customary breeding grounds of the species.

GENUS CEPHALOPTYNX Kaup.

This genus differs from Ninox in having the nostrils j) laced in two
pyriform sack-like swellings of the cere, situated much more basally
on the bill (the distance from the nasofrontal suture to the anterior edge of the
nostrils being about Vs the length of the entire bill from the nasofrontal suture
to tip, whereas in Ninox it is ajDproximately ’A this length), nostrils hidden by
bristle-feathers; culmen round, not compressed; wing somewhat short, se-
condaries extending about Ve of the length; tail short and weak, less
than 3 times the length of the tarsus; tarsus entirely feathered, toes shorter
and stouter, and claws larger than in Ninox, the soles less rugose and not fenced
laterally with bristles. One species in Celebes and one in the Solomon Islands.

+ * 32. CEPHALOPTYNX PUNCTULATA (Q. G.).

Spotted Hawk-owl.

a. Noctua punctulata (I) Quoy & Graim., Yoy. Astr. ZooL 1830, I, 165, Atl. pL 1, f. 1;
(2) Schl., Mils. P.-B. Striges 1862, 29; (3) id. Bev. ISToctiiae 1873, 29.

h. Athene punctulata Gray, Gen. B. 1845, I, 45; (1) Wall., Ibis 1868, 22; Wald., Tr. Z.
S. 1872, VIM, 38; Brliggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 47; Meyer, Bns 1879,
57; W. Bias., J. 1 O. 1883, 135.

Cephaloptynx punctulata (1) Kaiij?, Tr. Z. S. lY, 209; (II) Meyer, Abb. Yogelskel.
1897, pi. coxn.

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

101

c. Spiloglaux punctulata Bp., Bev. Zool. 1854, 544.

d. Ninox punctulata {1) Sharpe, Ibis 1875, 259; (2) id.. Oat. B. 1875, IT, 182; (3) Sclater,

■ P. Z. S. 1877, 108; (4) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 87; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1882,
234; (6) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 546; (7) Sharpe, P. Z. S, 1888, 184; Lister,
t. c, 527; (8) Salyad., Orn. Pap., Agg. 1889, I, 24; (9) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus.
Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 4; (10) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 161; (11) id., ib. 1897.

For further references see Sharpe d 2.

“Totosik’", Manado (Nat. Coll.).

Figures and descriptions. Quoy & Gaimard a 7; Scblegel a 2; Sharpe d 2.

Adult. Above Prout’s brown, with a reddish tinge in it. sprinkled all over with minute light
spots, which take the form of short bars on either web of the tail-feathers and on
the outer webs of the quills; above the eyes from forehead to ear-coverts a stripe
of wliite; a broad hand of wliite extending from below the ear-coverts on the
sides of neck, on throat and chin; chest brown like the hack and spotted or barred
with whitish; remaining under surface more rufous marked with broken bars and
spots of wLitish; thighs, under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts and some
barrmg at the base of the quills hght huffy (Gorontalo — Nrs. 2203, 2204). “Iris
brown” (Guillem, d 6).

Other specimens from the Minahassa are apparently older adults and differ
from the two above described from Gorontalo in having the upper surface darker
and without the reddish tinge, the spots fewer and much less conspicuous; the ab-
domen and the middle part of the body below white, like that described by Dr. Sharpe.
“Iris brown; bill pale yellow-grey; feet yelloAvish” (P. & F. Sarasin).

Young. Differs from the adult in being dark brown l)elow; obscurely spotted with whitish:
thighs brown, indistinctly barred, hinder side and crissum buff; tliroat dark brown,
submalar region and chin whitish; upper surface dark chocolate-brown, unspotted on
mantle and back, spotted as in the adult on the wing-coverts, remiges, rectrices, and
occiput; rest of head almost unspotted: “iris dark sepia” (q^ jnv. Tomohon, N. Cel.
26. IV. 94: P. & F. Sarasin).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (2204) ad. Gorontalo 1871 (Meyer)

160

75

32

18

h. (2203) ad. Gorontalo 1871 (Meyer)

155

68

33

—

c. (C 10793) vix ad. Tondano, VDI— IX. 92 (Nat. Coll).

170

76

—

20

d. (C 10792) ad. Tondano, VDI— IX. 92 (Nat. Coll.) .

173

77

—

18

e. (C 10851) ad. Manado, VID— IX. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

170

77

33

—

f. (Sarasin Coll.) cf ad. Tomohon, 26. DI. 94 (P. & F. S.)

157

76

—

18.5

g. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Kema, 13. IX. 93 (P. & F. S.)

165

77

—

19

h. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Tomohon (P. & F. S.) ...

157

72

—

i. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Tomohon, 16. IV. 94 (P. & F. S.)

166

75

18

j. (Sarasin Coll.) ^ Tomohon, 28. DI. 94 (P. & F. S.)

167

—

17.5

k. (Sarasin Coll.) cf juv. nr. Tomohon, 26. IV. 94 (P.&F.S.)

165

71

—

17

Distribution. Celebes: South Peninsula, Macassar (Wallace hi, Everett 7 Id), Indrulaman
(Everett dl0) \ foot of Mt.Bonthain (Doherty dll)\ N. Peninsula, Minahassa (For s ten
a 2, V. Duivenbode a 3, etc.]] Gorontalo (Meyer).

102

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

This species peculiar, so far as is yet known, to the Island of Celebes
has a near ally in Ninooc (Cephaloptynx!) granti Sharpe of Guadalcanal’ in the
Solomon Islands, which has the mantle unspotted, the under surface much more
distinctly barred, and the fore part of the thighs brown, by which means, as
Dr. E. B. Sharpe points out, it may be distinguished from the Celebesian
species (6^ 7). Another species probably closely allied is the Ninooo odiosa Sclat.
of New Britain, which differs, according to Sclat er and Salvador!, from
C, punctulata in being considerably larger, in having the brown of the upper
surface paler and duller and the spots much larger, and in its wanting the line
of white or fulvous down the middle of the under surface (3,4). A young
specimen in down in the Dresden Mus. (Nr. 13051) shows the same distinguishing
characters, besides it has the whole under surface broadly barred. Although
the genus Ninooo is found from India and Japan throughout the intervening
countries as far as Australia and New Zealand, and also in Madagascar, it
contains many aberrant forms, one of which is the Celebesian N. punctulata,
which served as type for Kaup’s genus Cephaloptynx and now finds its nearest
allies in New Britain and the Solomon Islands. It is quite possible that other
nearly related species may yet be found in the intervening countries as well as
in the great islands to the west of Celebes, but in any case the occurrence of an
Owl in an out-of-the-way part of the world has no real zoo-geographical worth.
Owls, in consequence of their nocturnal habits, of their thick, fluffy plumage
and lightness of weight, buoyant flight, and their powerlessness to bear up
against a strong head-wind, are more liable than most species to distribution
by wind and storms. This may explain the occurrence of Strix jlammea and of
Otus hrachyotus on certain remote islands of the Pacific, as well as their being
distributed over the greater part of the world besides.

Nothing is known of the food or nidification of C. punctulata.

Attention may be drawn to the resemblance of the plumage of this
species to certain neotropical members of the genus Glaucidium — especially
Glaucidmm jardini Bp. of New Granada — but which is much smaller.

GENUS SCOPS Say.

The Scops Owls are of small size, furnished with small “ear”-tufts ; bill
rather weak, cere long (about Vs the entire length of the bill), laterally swollen
to enclose the nostrils; tarsus feathered; toes generally naked (sometimes
feathered above), not bristly; wings rather long; tail moderate, rounded; plu-
mage highly variegated and vermiculated. Feeds on insects and small
mammals. Eggs 4 — 6. Some 25 species, inhabiting the tropical and temperate
parts of all the continents, but absent in Australia.

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

103

33. SCOPS MANADENSIS (Q. G.).

Manado Scops Owl.

The little Eared Owl of Celebes, the typical 8. manadensis^), as the first de-
scribed of a number of local races not worthy of separation as distinct species,
should combine under its specific title, S. manadensis itself and some eight other
subspecies known up to the present as occurring in Celebes, Sangi, the Moluccas,
Borneo, Sooloo, Flores and Madagascar.

d" 1. The typical Scops manadensis.

a. Strix manadensis (I) Qnoy & Graim., Yoy. Astrol. Ois. 1830, I, 170, Atl. pi. 2, f. 2,

b. Otus manadensis (1) Teiiim. & Schl., Faun. Jap. Aves 1845, 26.

c. Ephialtes menadensis (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1845, I, 38; (2) Wall., Ibis 1868, 25 pt. (Celebes

only); (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 40 pt.; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 57; (5) W.
Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135.

d. Pisorhina menadensis (1) Kanp, Isis 1848, 769.

e. Scops menadensis (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 47; (2) Scbl., Mas. P.-B. Oti 1862, 20; (3) id.,

Kev. Noctnae 1873, 12; (IV) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1875, H, 76, pi. YFU, fig. 2; (5)
Briiggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 48; (6) Salvad., Ann. Mns. Civ. Gen.
1876, 644; (7) HartL, Yog. Madag. 1877, 46; (8) Meyer, Isis 1884, 13; (9) Guillem.,
P. Z. S. 1885, 545; (10) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 544; (XI) Meyer, Abb. Yogelskelet.
1892, pi. CLXI, pt. XYI, 31; (12) M. & Wg., Abb. Mns. Dresd. 1895 Xr. 8, p. 5;
(13) nd., ib. 1896 Xr. 1, p. 7.

f. Megascops menadensis. Kanp, Tr. Z. S. lY, 230.

g. (?) Scops siaoensis (1) Schl., Rev. Xoctnae 1873, 13.

“Hot Hot”, Manado, X. Celebes, Xat. Coll.

For further references see Sharpe e IV.

Figures and descriptions. Qnoy & Gaimard a I; Sharpe e IV\ Meyer e 6', e XI (skeleton);

Schlegel e 3, g 1; Brhggemann e 5; W. Blasins e 10.

Adult. General colour above, of head, neck, back and wing- coveils, mummy brown, passing
into a pale dull or drab -brown on q[uills, upper tail-coverts and tail, the whole
thickly and minutely variegated with spots of tawny olive or rufous and with black,
most strongly expressed as streaks about the shafts and broken np into unformed
cross-bars and fine vermiculations on the webs of the feathers; the exposed outer
webs of the scapulars white or huffy Avhite tipped with black; superciliary region
whitish; breast cinnamon variegated with white and with black vermiculations and
central streaks; sides, abdomen and under tail-coverts like the breast, but much
more mottled with unformed bars and spots of white; tarsi — feathered to near the
toes — Avood-brown speckled with black; primaries marked on the outer webs with
pale cinnamon bars of about 4 mm wide and separated by intervals about twice as
broad of brownish (X. Celebes and Sangi, Xr. 8253, 8254, etc.).

Variation. As in some other forms of Scops Owl, broAvner and more rufous individuals of
this race occur, the latter looking hke the former saturated in a rufous dye. A fine
series of thirteen in the Sarasin Collection shoAvs that this difference is not due to

1) This word has been variously spelt, manadensis, menadensis, minadensis, but, not only is manadensis
the original spelling of Q uoy & Gaimard, but also the correct orthography of the town, Manado.

104

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

sex, nor to locality, also tliat it is not to be ascribed to dimorpliisni, since tbe series
shows transitions from greyer, dull brown birds to strong rufous. Young and nestling
specunens of which there are four in the Sarasin Collection and one in the
Dresden Museum — are all of the grey-browm type, and it is therefore extremely
probable that the intense rufous colour is simply a sign of old age.

Young. A young one clothed in nesthng do^\Ti, except for the wings, tail and some feathers of
the breast, has the bars on the outer wehs of the quills white; the upper plumage
more broccoh brown and less rufous, than in the adult; the feathers on the breast
show that tins part is more strongly mottled with white and that the under side is
altogether lighter than in old brnds. In this it resembles a young one of S. magicm
from Ceram and another of S. leucospila from Halmahera — the latter marked —
in the Dresden Museum, which look as though they might have been haunting a
flour-mill, and bear about the same degree of resemblance to their dark rufous parents
that a miller does to his fellow men. Wing 1 52 mm (JSTr. 7755 Manado).

A young one in down is whitish bro'\\m above and below, barred "with dusky
bror\m (rf, Tomohon, 13. YI. 94, P. & P. S.).

Two, a little older, are assuming the mature-looking variegated brown plmnage
on the upper jiarts; the under surface is wliitish, somewhat sparingly marked with
irregular dusky bars (cJ', $, Macassar, 15. IX. 95, ^P. & P. S.).

Measurements (15 specimens not including young ones). Wing 144 — 157, average about 150 mm;
tail c. 80; tarsus c. 25—28; bill from nostril c. 10.5 — 12 (X. & S. Celebes and Gt.
Sangi — Mus. Dresden and Sarasin Coll.).

Skeleton.

8. manadensis

8. rutihis (Mac

Greatest breadth of cranium

. 31.0

nun

34.0 mm

Length of humerus . . .

. 44.5

51

Length of ulna

. 47.5

»

57

Length of metacarpus. . .

. 24.5

25

Length of principal digit

. 16.8

19

Length of femur ....

. 32

35

Length of tibia

. 46.5

»

54

Length of tarso-metatarsus .

. 25.0

30 *■

Greatest breadth of sternum

. 17.5

21

Height of crista sterni

5.2

8 »

Length of coracoid . . .

. 20.5

22

(ex Meyer e XI and Milne-Edw. & Grandid., Hist. Xat. Madag. 1876, XT IT,
pi. 40 A, and texte 1879, XII, 134.)

Distribution. Celebes: — IMinahassa (Q. & G. a I, Porsten e 2, Meyer c 4, etc.); Macassar
(Wallace c 2, e IV, P. & P. Sarasin); Kandari, S. E. Peninsula (Beccari e 6)\ —
Siao (v. Duivenbode e 3); Great Sangi (Meyer e 8, Platen e 10).

The specimen from Siao in the Leyden Museum, the only one as yet loiown from
that island, is smaller than any specimen as yet recorded from Celebes and Sangi, viz: wing 126
(4 in. 9 lines Prench), measured straight wth compasses, Schlegel’s usual method, as against
144 mm (measured over the wing) of the smallest specimen in the Dresden Museum, being
1 8 mm smaller. S. manadensis, however, varies in size and it occm’s in Great Sangi, between
which island and Celebes Siao lies, so that it is rather more probable than not, that the
type of S. siaoensis comes within the limits of variation of size characteristic to the species.
A greater amount of variation in size is shown amongst specimens of S. leucospila of Batcliian
and Halmahera, the wing of the type (Batchian) measm’es (159 mm) those of three specimens
from Hahnahera in the Dresden Museum measm'e 192 mm, 191 and 179 (young).

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

105

2. Scops manadensis albiventris (Sharpe).

h. Scops manadensis Wall. l% Wald, c 2, c 5, pt.

i. Scops albiventris f J ) Sliarpe, Cat. B. 1875, H, 78, j)l. Ylii, fig- 1.

Diagnosis. Differs from the iypical S. manads7isis in having a distinct wash of grey on the
upper surface; cheeks greyish white; helly white with very scanty cross markings
and lines (Sharpe ih.).

Distribution, Flores (Wallace).

3. Scops manadensis rutilns (Pucher.).

j. Scops rutilus (1) Pncher., Pev. Zool. 1849, 29; (2) Sharpe, Oat. B. 1875, D, 80; (3)

Hartl., Yog. Madag. 1877, 44.

Scops manadensis Hartl. (nec Q. & Gr.), Faun. Madag. 23; G-randid., Bov. Zool. 1867,
255, 321; Milne-Edw. et G-randid., H. N. Ois. Madag. 1876, j)l. XL, XL A (skelet.),
texte 1879, 133.

L Scops madagascariensis Grandid., Bev. Zool. 1867, 85.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe j 2; Hartl. j 3.

Diagnosis. Differs from the typical S. manadensis in having the inner hning of the quills
nearly uniform, -with only a few broad bars of yello-wish white near the base of the
feathers; whereas in the typical S. ^nanadensis the whole -wing is narrowly barred with
fulvous for its whole extent; upper surface of the latter more stellated, the spots
being more yellowish in appearance (Sharpe e IV).

Observation. We do not think that Dr. Sharpe’s diagnosis will be found to answer for all
cases; the under side of the remiges displays much variation, it is the paler (in oui’
opmion yomiger) birds in which the wing below is most markedly barred; one or two
of the rufous specimens have no bars thereon at all except at the base, and there
is a freckled appearance towards the tip. For some osteological differences see Meyer
under e XZ, and table supra p. 104.

Distribution. Madagascar.

4. Scops manadensis capnodes (Gurney).

Scops capnodes J. H. Gurney, of Anjouan Island in the Comoro Group has been recently
separated as a species from 8. 7'utilus of Madagascar (Bhs 1889, 104). Plumage much
darker, also less mingled with wlhte, the pale portion of the scapulars (white m sis,
hght rufous m a seventh Madagascar specimen, compared) much less extended, absent
in one specimen; -wing a httle longer; lower portion of tarsus bare.

Observation. The remaining three races of 8. ^nanadensis may be usually distinguished from
the foregoing by theh’ larger size; Whig 165 — 195 as against 130 — 165 mm, but
individuals sometimes overstep these hmits.

5. Scops manadensis magicus (S. Mull.).

m. Strix magica S. Mull., Yerh. Xat. Geschied. Xatuurk. Comm. 1839 — 44, 110 (Amboina).

71. Otus magicus (1) Temm. &Schl., Faun. Jap. Aves 1845, 25 (Amboina, Celebes).

0. Scops magicus fijBp., Consp. 1850, 1, 46; (2) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Oti 1862, 22; (III) Sharpe,
Cat. B. 1875, II, 70, pi. Y; (4) Bruggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 47; (5)
Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 73, 76; Agg. 1889, I, 22.

1) Can this be a young individual?

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes {Oct. iiai, ISO").

14

106

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

]). EpMaltes leueospila (1) Wall., ftis 1868, 25, 27 partim (Celebes).

For synonymy see Salvacl., ib.

Diagnosis. General plumage of a yellow tint, both above and below; ruff and ear-coverts
ocbraceous buff; no white, but yellowish, on the scajjulars; no perceptible collar round
bind neck; entire upper surface very strongly banded mth fulvous (Sharpe ml).

Observation. According to Salvadori’s key, specimens, agreeing with the following two sub-
species in having the upper surface darker than the lower, occur, but such may be
distinguished from these other subspecies b}^ the markings of the under surface being
scantier, but broader.

Distribution. Amboina; Ceram (m 2).

Observation. There are two specunens of a Scops in the Leyden Museum, mentioned by
Sc 111 eg el as having the “teinte generale d’un roux fonce tres ardent”, which are
stated to have been obtained at Gorontalo by Forsten: a third in the Darmstadt
Museum, also from Celebes, was collected by Dr. Riedel probably at Gorontalo like-
wise. Both S chi eg el and Brliggemann agree in separating these from S. mana-
densis., and in recording two fomis of Scops Owl from Celebes. Dr. Sharpe only
allows the island one race, and that the tyjiical S. manadensis. Briiggemann found
his Celebesian S. magicus perfectly identical with a Hahnahera specimen; Schlegel
his two with one from Ternate. On the other hand we now consider these rufous
birds from Celebes to be simply old examples of the local race (see supra).

6. Scops manadensis leucospilus (Gray).

q. Scops leucospilus (Gray), (I) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1875, II, 72, pi. VI; (2) Salvad., Orn.

Pap. 1880, I, 72, 74; (3) Pleske, Bull. Ac. Petersb. 1884, 522.

r. Scops bouruensis (I) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1875, II, 73, pi. WI, f. 2 (fide Salvad.).

Diagnosis. Differs from S. m. magicus in having the markings of the under sm-face more

finely diffused and numerous; and from S. m. morot&nsis in being paler and having
the scapulars spotted with white, not rufescent white (Salvad. ib.).

Distribution. Batchian, Hahnahera ; Ternate; Bum fq 2, q 3).

7. (?) Scops manadensis morotensis (Sharpe).

s. Scops morotensis (I) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1875, II, 75, pi. 'VHI, f. 1; (2j Salvad., 0. Pap. I,

72, 76; Agg. 1889, I, 22.

Diagnosis. Like S. m. Uucospilus, but darker; the spots on scapulars rufescent white
(Salvad. ib.).

Distribution. Morty; Ternate (s 2).

Observation. Mr. Pleske considers on good grounds that tins form is identical with Uuco-
spilus. Although it is not advisal)le to unite them until more material from Morty
Island is forthcoming, it appears to us very probable that what is called morotensis
are only old sj)ecimens of leucospilus. As three specunens in the Dresden Museiun
of the typical manadensis, magicus^ and Uucospilus -with more or less remains of
nestling domi show, as does also a specimen figured by Dr. Sharpe (pi. VI), the
young of these owls have a remarkably pale, blanched, appearance; hence and fr’om
specimens before us we conclude that the more saturated, rufous, coloration is a sign of
greater age. Of the four sj)ecimens of morotensis in the British Museum the three
labelled “Molucca Islands” may, of course, have come fr’om Morty, or from one of
the neighbouring islands, winch have furnished Uucospilus, Three specimens of the

Birds of Celebes: Asionidae.

107

latter in the Dresden Museum from Halmaliera afford interesting gradations of plumage ;
the first {(f juv.) is one of the blanched buds above mentioned with remains of nest-
ling down, the second [(f) is a normal leiicospilus with white on the scapulars, the

tlm-d marked Q — is altogether darker and more rufous and has the outside of

the scapulars marked with pale rufous as in the normal morotends] The second stands
midway hetw’een this and the first.

8. Scops manadensis brookii (Sharpe).

t. Scops brookii (1) Sharj)e, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club I^r. IT, 1892, p. IVj id., Ibis 1893, 117 ■,
(II) Hose, t. c. 417, pi. XI.

Diagnosis. “Differs from 8. houruensis and all its alhes in having the triple hand on the
head and hind neck white instead of ochraceous, the pattern being the usual
one of the group, viz., a white occipital spot; a second, larger one, on the nape; and
a third on the hind neck forming a broad cervical collar (Hose t III], The broad
band on the side of the crown, extending to the ear-tufts, is also white. The tihial
joint has a large patch of chestnut barred with black”.

Distribution. Borneo.

9. Scops manadensis sibutuensis (Sharpe).

■u. Scops sibutuensis (1) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 244.

Diagnosis. Differs horn 8. manadensis “in liavhig all the marldngs of the upper surface
very fine and not all over as in that species. The quills have also more bars in the
Celebesian bud than in the species from Sibutu”.

Distribution. Sibutu, Sooloo Islands.

Observation. Both the characters inchcated by Dr. Sharpe as discriminative for this form
are subject to great variation in the typical 8. manadensis.

To these subspecies should perhaps be added 8. mantananensis Sharpe of
Borneo (Ibis 1893, 117, 559: 1894, 244).

The little Eared Owl, S. manadensis^ presents a case of the faunistic rela-
tionship of Celebes and the suiTounding islands with Madagascar. For a long
time S. rutilus Piicher. of that island was regarded as identical with 8. mana-
densis of Celebes and Flores as has been already pointed out, and we do not
believe that it is always possible to distinguish them, though Dr. Sharpe con-
siders them distinguishable by means of the different aspect of the inner lining
of the quills. In six specimens in the Dresden Museum the number of spots
on the outer web of the first primary ranges between six and eight. The Flores
bird 8. alhiventris Sharpe, is also separated from the typical Celebes form of
manadensis \ but one before us does not answer to Dr. Sharpe’s diagnosis
excep>t that the belly is whiter than in almost any from Celebes. The breast
of this example is more tawny brown and less boldly streaked with black.

The typical 8cops manadensis is highly variable. It would be an error
to suppose that the fact that 8. rutilus is not more than subspecifically distinct
from 8. manadensis lends aid to the theory of a former land-connection between
Celebes and Madagascar in bygone ages: such aid must be sought for in allied

14*

i

108

Birds of Celebes; Asionidae.

genera — not in the almost perfect identity of two species, which points to

another cause. 8. rutilus is possibly a recent immigrant to Madagascar one

that was carried out to sea by a storm at night from anywhere within its range
and, somewhat aided by the strong and continous S. E. tradewind, flying, as
all birds do, at an angle with the wind (though it must of course travel much
quicker) had the good fortune to reach as the nearest land Madagascar. (See
for the winds in the Indian Ocean, which very well explain such a case, the
Atlas of the Indian Ocean, published by the “Deutsche Seewarte” 1891 pi. 21.)
According to Gatke (“Yogelwarte Helgoland” 1891, 72) a bird may even fly
a geographical mile in a minute (!?), the distance from Celebes or the small Sunda
Islands to Madagascar, therefore, would require between 17 and 18 hours (70 de-
grees of 15 geographical miles each). As a bird will scarcely be able to re-
main on the wing for such a time without rest, it could only in exceedingly
rare cases reach Madagascar from its eastern quarters, through there are various
intermediate islands of small size. There are no other cases known of such a
similarity between birds of the East Indian Archipelago and Madagascar. Owls,
for reasons already given, appear to be especially liable to distribution in this way.

Nothing is known of the habits of manadensis. The Madagascar race
preys on mice, small birds, lizards and large insects; a similar diet, with the
addition of bats, is described by Colonel Legge for 8, mimitus of Ceylon
(B. Ceylon, 144).

Scops mantis (T. & Schl.).

This species is noted by v. Rosenberg as occurring in Celebes (Malay.
Archip. 1878, 271), but, as Prof. W. Blasius remarks, it is obviously taken
from Gray’s Hand-List (I, p. 46, Nr. 477) without any special new proof of
its presence there (cf. W. Blasius, J. f. O. 1883, 125). Rosenberg has often
rendered his statements untrustworthy by a similar proceeding, as is now
generally known.

1) As an excellent parallel to the occurrence of Scops manadensis in Madagascar may be cited Prof.
Konig’s discoveiy of Glaucidium siju Cab. of Cuba in the Canary Islands (J. f 0. 1890, 336 — 340), a single
specimen of which was killed on Adeje, August 1889 by Don Ramon Gromez, who informed Prof.

Konig that he met with it after strong winds in the S.W. part of the island at a height of 1074 feet.
Prof. Konig remarks : “Altogether it looks as if African continental forms are entirely absent in the Canaries,
while more and more of such from the New World are always being discovered. And does it not seem mani-
fest that this most striking immigration of American types is to be traced to the air-currents which pass from
America across the sea? . . . The prevailing TOnds . . , which are rarely or hardly ever directed from the
African Continent towards the island-group, blow on the other hand (probably indeed with some constancy)
from the New World across the great stretches of the Atlantic Ocean and continue as far as the Old.”

Bh-ds of Celebes: Strigidae.

109

FAMILY STRIGIDAE.

The sternum is without a manubrium; the furcula formed by the clavicles
is perfect, there is only one notch on either side in the hinder margin of the
sternum; the ring on the upper part of the tarsus in front is present^), but re-
duced to a cartilaginous loop; the second joint of the middle toe is considerably
longer than the basal joint, the claw thereof is pectinated; the facial disk is
very perfect, the radiating feathers on either side meeting to form a sort of
ridge or “hog -mane” over the forehead and base of the culmen; the disk is
surrounded by a well-defined ruff of stiff feathers.

GENUS STRIX L.

Now that Photodilus has been removed from the Barn Owl section in virtue
of its not having the clavicles united and of its having two processes on the
hinder margin of the sternum (cf. Newton, Diet. B. 673), the genus Stnw is the
only one of the Strigidae and may be recognised by the characters given for the
family. There are five species. The range of the genus is almost cosmopolitan.
3 — 4 white eggs are laid. The birds prey chiefly upon small mammals.

34. STRIX FLAMMEA L.

Barn Owl.

Although the Barn Owl, Strix flammea^ and its races have been most ahly discussed
hy Dr. Sharpe in the Catalogue of Birds, II, 291 — 303 and in Eowley’s Ornithological
Miscellany, I, 269 — 298; II, 1 — 21, it would he hardly possible to dmde this cosmopolitan
species into subspecies wliich would answer to all the peculiar conditions of the case. This
work must be left to the ornithologist of the future, supposing he fulfil the ideas concerning
the necessity of trinomial nomenclature with all its consequences. In Celebes and Sangi Sti’ix
flammea presents a great differentiation, and it was named as a distinct sj)ecies by S chi eg el
after its discoverer, Eo sen berg. It is not easy, however, to point to any difference between
it and the Javan form of 8. flammea [javanica Gm.); though some, as a rule, are to be found.

-h 1. Strix flammea rosenbergi (Schl.).

a. Strix flammea sp. (1) S. Miill.. Verb. Nat. Comm. 1839 — 44, 87; (2) id., Eeizen 1858, D, 8.
h. Strix rosenbergi (1) Schl., Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk 1866, III, 181; (2) Wall., Ibis 1866,
26, 27; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIII, 41; (4) Schl., Eev. Noctuae 1873, 16
(Celebes tantum); (5) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 146; (6) Briiggem., Abb. Yer.
Bremen 1876, V, 48; (7) Schl., Notes Leyd. Mus. 1878, I, 50; ('S)Eosenb. , Malay.
Archip. 1878, 271, 583; (9) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 57; (10) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,
135; (11) Meyer, Isis 1884, 6, 14; (12) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 546; fiJyl W. Bias.,
Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 235; (14) id., Ornis 1888, 556; (15) Biittik., Zool. Erg.
Weber’s Eeise Ost-Ind. 1893, III, 272; (16) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 161.

c. Strix flammea (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1875, II, 293; id., Eowl. Orn. Misc. 1866, I, 297; II, 14.

d. Strix flammea rosenbergi (1) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 5.

1) Has been supposed to be absent Newton, Diet. B. 1894, 672).

no

Birds of Celebes: Strigidae.

“Ngiong”, Minaliassa, Nat. Coll.

“Wada-Watonga”, N. Celebes, Gorontalo ?, Rosenb. h 8.

“Karin”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen h 13.

Descriptions. Scblegel b 1, b 4\ Sbarpe c I; Brliggemann b 6\ Rosenberg b S;
W. Blasins b 13, b 14.

Adult. Above drab-brown, each feather finely verniicnlated with white and having a spot of
white in the blackish middle-ground of the end of the feather; shoulders and wing-
coverts tawny bnfi, coarsely vermiculated towards the ends of the feathers with
dusky brown and white and tipped with spots of white as on the back; quills and
tail-feathers above paler than the back, tins colour is gathered into five distin-
guishable dusky bars on the tail and into several imperfect ones on the quills, the inter-
mediate spaces coarsely speckled and vermiculated with drab -brown, dull tawny and
whitish; facial disk greyish white, in front of eyes dark brown; facial frill varied
with feathers of raw umber with dark centres, of pure white and of white tipped
with dark brown or rufous, the last-named being prevalent under the chin; breast
buff, the feathers furnished with a small terminal spot, and some mth broken terminal
margins, of dusky; the remaining under-parts and under wing-coverts ochra-
ceous buff, each feather marked with one or more small spots of brown (N. Cel. C 104' 7).

“Iris dark brown; bill whitish; feet greyish yellow” (Platen 5).

Variation. This Owl varies to a considerable extent. The general tint above of the spe-
cimen described is the brownest among a number of specimens, and the bars on the
are the least decided. Other specimens are much greyer above, ranging from a tail
moderately darker grey to , much blacker grey; four exposed bars on the tail and one
concealed under the coverts are sharply defined; the wliite spots are more or less
numerous. The ruff round the face is usually varied with wliite feathers, sometimes
tawny with umber brown tips to the feathers; the under parts are darker or paler
ochraceous buff, the blackish spots variable in number and size.

Two specunens from Batavia in Java (Nr. 5909 and 2202) have the under surface
more barred and the spots on the back more conspicuous. These differences are
slight, when seen in the actual specimens, and not sufficient in themselves alone to
justify even the subspecific separation of the Celebesian Owl from the Javan one
{Strix javanica Gm.), but we do not unite them as it remains to be seen ivhat a
greater quantity of material will prove.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from

cere

Mid. toe
without
claw

a. (C 10417) — North Celebes

360

150

82

28

50

b. (8266) — North Celebes . . .

340

150

77

28

43

c. (8267) — Great Sangi

336

155

75

26

41

cl. (C 10852) — North Celebes

340

150

78

27

—

e. (C 13355) — North Celebes, May 91 (C.) . . .

355

140

—

28

—

f. (C 13864) — North Celebes, Dec. 94 (C.) . . .

345

145

—

26

—

g. (Sarasin Coll.) (J', Kema, N. Cel., 1. XI. 93

335

153

—

28

—

h. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, Tomohon, N. Cel., 28. III. 94

348

156

—

29

—

i. (Sarasin Coll.) cf, Kema, Nov. 93

340

150

—

28

—

j. (Sarasin Coll.) (J', Tomohon, 31. PEI. 94 . . .

355

150

—

29

—

k. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, Maros, S. Cel., 22. I. 96 . .

335

150

—

—

—

For comparison: S. javanica Gm.

(5909) — Batavia (v. Schierbrand)

360

160

81

26.5

49

(2202) — Batavia

343

150

73

26.5

—

Birds of Celebes: Strigidae.

Ill

Distribution. Celebes, Sangi. — Great Sangi (Meyer h 11^ Platen h 14). Celebes, 1ST. Penin-
sula: Minaliassa (v. Diiivenbocle h4^ b 10, Meyer b 9, etc.); Gorontalo Distr.
(v. Rosenberg &i); S. Peninsula: Macassar (S. Muller a 1, a 2, Wallace b 2,
Weber b 15, Everett b 16)', Tjainba Distr. (Platen bl3), Maros (P. & F. S.);
Pnclrulainan (Everett b 16).

Schlegel has identified a young female from the Philippines with 8. rosenbergi,
but the only Barn Owl known from there at present is Btrix Candida Tickell,
which is perfectly distinct, and SchlegePs indication therefore requires further in-
vestigation.

Prof. Blasius (h 13) calls attention to the great difference between this
form and the typical Strix jiammea. “It does not appear to me to be correct
to account this form, as Sharpe has done (cl), simply a variety of Stnx
jiammea. The stouter bill, tarsus and toes, the bristly feathering of the
lower half of the tarsus, the rusty brownish upper surface of the tail crossed
with four bands with vermiculate markings between them, the darker quills
without any clear cross-banding, the darker coloration of the plumage in general
and the peculiar character of the spots with which it is marked, which are
very accurately described by Briiggemann (h 6), — all this gives the bird a
thoroughly different character”.

Wallace (s. Mai. Arch.) also has called especial attention to the much
greater size and strength of this species as compared with Btrix javanica. We
would point out, however, that one of the specimens from Batavia in the
Dresden Museum is as large as our biggest Celebesian ones (see p. 110).

The earliest notice of this Barn Owl appears to be one of Sal. Muller,
who speaks of a species of Barn OavI as resorting to old temples (!), caves, etc.
near Macassar (a 1, a 2). Mr. AV allace obtained it at this place in 1856 in
bamboo thickets. In the stomach of one of their specimens the Drs. Sarasin
found a Bat. These animals abound in Celebes.

1 2. The typical Strix flammea.

e. Strix flammea (1) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 177.

Diagnosis. Size much smaller; bill, tarsus, toes and claws much weaker; remiges light cin-
namon-rufous, with about 4 well-defined vermiculate bars of grey and dusky; dusky
without ,grey on the inner Avebs; upper parts much paler, the AA^hite s]3ots smaller
and more elongated.

Wing c. 270 mm; tail 115; tarsus 57; middle toe without cl. 30; bill fr. c. 18.
Distribution. Not clearly defined. In the Celebesian Province: Kalao Island between Elores
and Celebes (Everett e 1).

Quite recently Mr. Hartert has recorded “typical Strix flammed' from the
area included in this work. It may possibly be a migrant there from the Indian
countries, but it is more likely to prove a resident. It is, as shown above, very
different from Strix rosenbergi. S. Candida is about the same size, but has a very
long slender tarsus, bare for its loAver third, and much longer, stouter toes.

For fuller particulars about S. flammea, see Sharpe (cl) and the principal
Avorks on European and Indian ornithology.

i

112

Birds of Celebes: Strigidae.

^ * 35. STRIX INEXPECTATA Schl.

Unexpected Owl.

Strix inexpectata ScliL, Notes Leyden Miis. I, 1878, 50; J. f. O. 1879. 426; W. Bias.

J. f. 0. 1883, 124. ' ’

Description. Differs as follows from S. rosenbergi. Wing short, the point of it overreaching
the secondaries by only 45— 55 mm (20— 24 lines Drench) as against 95— 115 mm in
that species; the secondaries crossed with 7, the first primary with 8 and the others
with 9 narrower black bars; under surface of the wing darker (silvery grey), the
bars indistinct and quite obliterated on the first primary ; tail crossed with nine bars;
tarsi covered with downy feathers down to the toes, which are somewhat shorter
and much more slender than in 8. rosenbet'gi] upper parts very bright rufous,
unmixed with grey and marked with smaller white spots; below deep tawny rufous
as in the darkest specimens of 8. rosenbergi] face darker, as in 8. castanops and

8. novaeliollandiae (“light chestnut, the feathers in front of the eye black, the loral

plumes also slightly tipj)ed with black” — Sharpe, description of 8. castanops^ Cat.
B. n, 305). (Ex Schlegel.)

Measurements. Wing 258 mm; point of wing 45 — 55; tail 122; tarsus 68; middle toe 36
(converting the French lines of Schlegel to millimeters).

Distribution. North Celebes.

This sptecies is only known by one specimen in the Leyden Museum, ob-
tained by van Mnsschenbroek in the Minahassa. A very good species, the

nine bars on the tail and the tarsi feathered down to the toes easily distinguish-

ing it from the other Owls occurring in the Celebesian area.

> 36. STRIX CANDIDA Tick.

Grass Owl.

Strix Candida (1) Tickell, J. A. S. B. IT, 1833, 572; (II) Jerd., 111. Ind. Oin. 1847, pi. 30;
(S) id., B. Ind. I, 1862, 118; (IV) Gld. , B. Asia pi. IS (1872); (5) Sharpe, Cat.
B. II, 1875, 308; (6) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 46; Hume, Str. F. VI,
1878, 27; (8) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1882, 335; (9) Davison, Str. F. X, 1883, 341;
(10) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883, H, 168; (11) E. P. Bamsay, Tab. List Austr.
B. 1888, 2; (12) North, Nests & Eggs Austr. B. 1889, 24, pi. VI, fig. 5; (13) Tristr. ,
Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 68; (14) Oates, ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs 1890, LH, 95; (15)
Steere, List Coll. B. Philipp. 1890, 8; (16) Wiglesw. , Av. Pol}m. 1891, 4; (17)
Biittik., Zook Erg. Webers Beise Ost-Lid. 1893, HI, 272; (18) Bickett & H. Slater,
Ibis 1894, 222; (19) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 33.
a. Strix longimembris (1) Jerd., Madras Journ. 1839, X, 86.
h. Scelostrix Candida Kaup; (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 145.

c. Strix amauronota (1) Cab., J. f. 0. 1866, 9; 1872, 316.

d. Strix pithecops (1) Swinh. , Ibis 1866, 396, 397.

e. Strix walleri (I) Diggles, Orn. Austr. j)t. VH, ph (1866).

f. Strix oustaleti (1) Hartl., P. Z. S. 1879, 295; (2) Sharpe, ib. 1882, 335.

For further references see Sharpe 5, f 2\ Oates 10,

Figures and descriptions. Jerdon II] Gould IV] Diggles el] SharjDe 5] David &
Oust. 6] Davison 9] Oates B?, 14 (egg); North 12 (egg).

Birds of Celebes: Strigidae.

113

Adult. Much like S. flammea in coloration (see description of S. flammea rosenberg% aniea\
hut easily distinguishable hy its much more slender tarsi (girth of tarsus a little above
the foot 23 mm, as against 34 mm in rosenbergi], lower tliird hare; under surface
white, washed with huff on the chest, narrowly fringed with brown on the frill, and
sparsely marked with small brown spots on the lower parts (Cebu, Oct. 1879
Nr. 8269). Bill and cere pinky white; legs and feet bluish brown; irides deep brown;
claws horny, tinged with hhiish (Davison 9).

Nestling. The young of S. Candida is taAvny, of 8. flammea white (Grid. IV). Covered with
long filamentous down of a dull orange-huff colour; the feathers of the upper parts,
ns far as developed, of a dark brown colour, spotted near the end of the shaft of
the feathers with white, the basal parts of the dorsal plumes bright orange (Sharpe 5).
Measurements, ad. ‘Wing 335 mm; tail 135; tarsus 84; hill from gape 48; total length
in the flesh 376; expanse 1155; weight 14 oz. (Davison 9).

Egg. India — 4 or 5. Pure white, with very little gloss, and of a more elongated oval
than those of 8. flammea: 42 X 32.5 mm (Hume 14)\ Australia — wlfite, hut have a
slight bluish tinge; oval, rather swollen about the centre: 43 X 32 (North 12).

Nest. Little or none, at most a httle grass scattered and smoothed dovm in the midst of
heavy grass-jnngle; always on the ground. — India (Tickell 14).

Breeding season. October — December: India (Hume 14).

Distribution. India (Jerdon 5, IF, etc.); Tenasserim — Tonghoo (Lloyd 7, 10)\ 8. China
(Rickett 18)] Formosa (Swinh. II, G); Phihppines — Luzon (Jagor c I, SteereJd);
Cebu (Meyer, Mus. Dresd. , h i); Siquijor (Steere 15)\ Calamianes (Bourns &
Worcester 19)\ Celebes — Luwn, Gulf of Boni (Weber 77); Australia — Queens-
land and New South Wales (Higgles e I, Ramsay 17); Fiji Islands — Viti Leva
(Kleinschm. f 1, 16, Parr S).

The right of this species, the Grass Owl of Indian naturalists, to be included
in the Celebes list rests upon a single specimen obtained by Prof. Max Weber
in the Luwn District at- the head of Gulf of Boni in February, 1889 (Biittik.
17). This discovery helps to fill up a gap in the anomalous distribution of the
species; and it may also be expected to turn up in other localities, where there
is plenty of jungle-grass, between India and Australia. Hitherto its occurrences
in widely isolated localities have led to an increase in its synonymy; as Sharpe
remarks, “on a Philippine specimen being discovered, it was named S. amauro-
nota by Prof. Cabanis; and in the same year Mr. Swinhoe found it in For-
mosa and called it 8. pithecops. Shortly after, it turned up in Queensland, only
to be named Striv walleri by Mr. Higgles; and now its last appearance, in the
Fiji Islands, has gained it the additional cognomen of 8. oiistaleti” (f ^)-
Dr. Sharpe believed these unexpected occurrences to be accounted for by its
migrations, but it is now known to be a breeding species in Australia as well
as in India. The distribution of Owls offers many peculiarities, which set all
zoo-geographical boundaries at naught. Its possible causes — the nocturnal ha-
bits of these birds, the lightness of their plumage, and their liability to be
carried by winds — are mentioned more fully elsewhere (p. 108).

Though very like jS. flammea in general coloration, Candida differs much

jVIeyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. IStii, 1897).

114

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

in habits, living, as Jerdon says, almost exclusively in long grass, for which
its lengthy tarsi are well adapted, and its nest is made on the ground. Gould
(IV) remarks upon the difference in coloration of the young of the turn species,
those of the Grass-Owl being tawny, of the Barn Owl white.

A Parrot may be recognised among other birds by its large hooked bill,
covered at the base by a cere, by its toes placed twm in front and two behind,
the fourth one being reversed, — these two characters being indeed shared by
the Owls; the foot is used on occasion as a hand in which it raises its food
towards its bill; the bill, the upper mandible of which is moveable, is made
use of in climbing, which it does much, though heavily; its food is generally
of a vegetable character, fruits, seeds, nuts, etc., but some species eat insects
also. The colours are generally bright, and all tints are found, including pure
red, blue, and yellow, but green (especially Parrot-green) is the commonest
colour. As to size, the Parrots number amongst them some of the smallest
birds, with a body scarcely larger than a Humble Bee, while the largest attain
the dimensions of a Paven or small Eagle. The tongue is thick and fleshy, or
sometimes brushy or fringed ; as is well knowm some forms are clever at imitat-
ing human speech.

The Parrots lay white eggs, 2 — 10 in number (Finsch), depositing them in
holes chiefly in trees; the young are hatched helpless and naked. For further
particulars: cf. Finsch, Papageien 1867, I, pp. 1 — 238; Salvador!, Cat. B. XX
Psittaci 1891, pp. 1, 2.

“Bill much compressed, generally longer than deep, not notched, and
smooth; culmen rounded and narrow; low'er mandible rather long wdth the gonys
narrow, straight, and obliquely slanting upwards, not flattened in front and with
no keel-like ridge; upper mandible with no file-like surface on the under sur-
face of the hook. Tongue brushy. Cere broader over the culmen and gradually
becoming narrow'er along the sides of the bill. Tail graduated or rounded,
sometimes even, rarely longer than the wings, generally shorter. Wing acute,
with the three first quills generally the longest. Range: Australian Region
(except New Zealand, but including Polynesia)” — Salvador!, Cat. B. XX, 11.

ORDER

FAMILY LORIIDAE.

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

115

GENUS EOS ¥agl.

Lories of about the size of a Turtle-dove (Salvadori), with a rather long —
about V4 length of the wing — strongly-graduated tail, the outermost rectrice
being about 4 cm shorter than the middle ones; wings moderately long, the
three outermost primaries terminally narrowed, 2“^ and 3'''^ the longest, secon-
daries short, the outermost reaching about half the wing-length; bill orange -red;
plumage chiefly red, black and blue; wings chiefly red, or red and black (ex-
cept in E. fuscata) by which Eos differs from Lorius, in which the wings are
green. Salvadori recognises 11 species; they range from Talaut through the
Moluccas to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, occurring also in the Te-
nimber Islands and in Ponape, Caroline Islands.

^ * 37. EOS HISTRIO (St. MtilL).

Ped-and-blue Lory.

Under this species-name we include three subspecies, viz: — the typical^)
E. histrio (Mull): Sangi; E. kistrio talautensis M. & Wg.: Talaut; E. histrio chal-
lengeri Salvad. : Melangis.

- 1. The typical Eos histrio (MiilL).

a. Psittaca indiea coccinea Briss. , Orn. 1760, lY, 376, pi. 25, f. 2.

h. “Perruche des Indes Orientales” (I) D’Aubert. , PI. Enl. 143.

c. Psittacus histrio MlilL, S. N. Suppl. 1776, 76.

d. “Lori Perruche violet et rouge” Buff.; (I) LevailL, Perr. 1801 — 5, pi. 53.

e. Psittacus indicus Gm. , S. N. 1788, I, 318.

f. Psittacus coccineus Lath., 1790; (I) Shaw, Gen. Zool. 1811, VIII, 461, pi. 68.

g. Lorius coccineus Steph. ; (1) Schh, Mas. P.-B. Psittaci 1864, 128; (2) id., Bev.. Psitt.

1874, 58.

h. Eos indiea (1) Wagh, Mon. Psitt. 1832, 557; (2) Wall., P. Z. S. 1864, 290, 295; (3)

Garrod, P. Z. S. 1873, 465, 634; 1874, 587.

i. Eos coccinea Sclat. , P. Z. S. 1860, 227; Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 268.

j. Domicella coccinea (1) Finsch, Papag. 1868, II, 800 (nec Talaut); (II) Bowley, Orn.

Misc. 1878, III, 123, pi. 98; (3) Meyer, 1. c. remarks; Meyer, Ihis 1879, 55; (4)
Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 263.

k. Eos histrio Gray; (1) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 563; (2) Salvad., Oat. B. 1891, XX, 21

(Sangi); (III) Mivart, Loriidae 1896, 23, pi. VU, figs. 1, 3.

l. Lorius histrio Koch; (1) Brliggem. , Ahh. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 41, 101; Fischer, ib.

1878, 538, note.

on. Domicella histrio (1) Bchnw., J. f. O. 1881, 167; Consp. Psitt. 103; (II) id., Yogelb. 1883,
t. XXXI, f. 1.

“Sumpihi”, Siao and Great Sangi, Nat. Coll, in Dresden Mus.

For further synonymy and references see Salvadori k 2.

b The Sangi bird, as the first known from an exact locality, has the best right to this title, Levail-
1 ant’s plate (d I) is not sufficiently accurate to represent the differences between it and the Talaut form.

15*

116

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

Figures and descriptions. Eowley^ II\ Miyart k III\ Levaillant d J; Sliaw /■/; Eclinw.
mll\ Wagl. /^I; Finscliyi; Briiggem. ll\ Eeiclieiiow ml\ W.Blasiiis k 1\
Salyadori k 2.

Adult. Poppy red; vertex (but not forehead and occiput), ear-coverts, hind neck,
mantle, shoulders, breast and long tibial plumes bright hyacinth -blue;
scapulars, tips of greater wing-coverts and of quills together with the
exposed outer webs and tips of primaries black; numerous feathers on the
red abdomen and under tail-coverts tipped with blue or black; tail dusky
washed with violet, the inner webs red (Great Sangi — ISTr. 1898).

“Iris orange-yellow; bill orange-red; feet dark grey” (Platen k 1).

In the young in certain parts of the plumage the blue is replaced by red, and
the red by blue. Two young “males” described by BiTiggemann have the whole
head above and nape violet-blue, mth some red tipped feathers on forehead and
nape; mantle carmine-red changing into violet; the black of the back and wings
more extended than in adult, the small upper wing-coverts tipped with black;
the red feathers of the under surface irregularly tipped with violet, the coloim of
the breast band; rump dark carmine red (brownish red in adult). Similar young
males are mentioned byBriiggemanni^nj and Prof. W. Blasius (kl). Iris light
brown; bill orange-yellow; feet grey (Platen k 1).

An immature bird from Siao (5. 711. 93) has the entire head above and neck
poppy-red varied with violet feathers on the occiput and neck; under surface from
breast dowmvards violet, washed with red, most strongly on the sides and middle of
body where it is almost as much red as blue; red of rump rather darker than that
of head. This specimen appears to be intermediate, passing into adult plumage
(0 12588).

Variation of the young. It is in this species very puzzling. Of six specimens before us three
(2 Talaut, 1 Tagulandang) have the crown, occiput and nape blue (in one mixed with
red), the under parts in the Tagulandang bird and one of the others red, mixed vuth
blue or dusky, in the third blue, mixed Avith a little red. The mixture of colours is
not caused by entme feathers of different tints, but the indiAudual feathers are parti-
colom’ed. These specimens we take for birds in first plumage.

A second stage is that shown by the young example from Siao described above,
vdth tbe under surface blue mixed with red, but the crown, occiput and nape red
like the forehead (instead of blue). Some (old?) blue feathers are intermingled on
the crown and nape, and there are a few blue feathers sprouting on the vertex, as
well as red ones here and elsewhere on the head.

A young specimen, slightly more advanced tOAvards maturity, has the under
parts (except the thighs and flanks) almost uniform red, the blue breast-band only
just commenced on the sides of the breast, the entire head above red, except for a
few blue-tipped feathers (apparently old ones) on the vertex, and some new blue
feathers are sprouting there (0 15296).

In the next stage there is a narroAv breast-band and a narroAv blue band on
the vertex (0 13436).

These specimens therefore seem to prove the folloAAung:

First, the young has the head aboA^e, except the forehead, blue; the under parts
varied Avith red and dusky blue. Next, the entire head und under parts change by
moulting into red. Finally, the blue breast-band and A'ertex is acquired; at first it
is narroAV, afterAvards broader.

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

117

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from, cere

a. (Nr. 1898) ad. Git. Sangi

175

135

20

23

b. (Nr. 3329) ad. Sangi Is

161

124

19

20

c. (Nr. 3328) ad. Sangi Is

178

136

20

24

d. (Nr. 3327) ad. Sangi Is

154

134

18

20

e. (Nr. 3833) ad. Siao Is

161

120

19

21

f. (C 12588) juv. Siao Is

152

105

19

20

Four additional adult specimens from Siao (June — July 1893) have wing 164 to
165 mm, tail ca. 135; five other adults from Glreat Sangi (July) have wing 159 — 172.
Distribution. Glreat Sangi (Forsten ^ 2, Wallace h 2^ Meyer ^ 3, Fischer /i: 2, Platen
j 4\ Siao (Hoedt, v. Duidenhode g 2, Meyer y 5, 2).

^ 2. Eos histrio talautensis (M. Sc Wg.).

n. Domicella coccinea (1) Finsch, Papag. 1868, PE, 800 (ex Talaut).

0. Eos indica (1) Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes 1889, 155.

‘p. Eos histrio (1) Salvad., Cat. B, XX, 1891, 21 (Saha).

q. Eos histrio talautensis (1) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 240; (2) iid., Ahh. Mus. Dresd. 1895,

Xr. 9, p. 3.

r. Eos histrio variety talautensis (1) Mivart, Loriidae 1896, 24A.

“Sanxpiri”, Talaut, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. As shown elsewhere (q 1), the Talaut bird differs from the typical form of Sangi
as follows:

Talaut

More red on the wings.

Secondaries red, with a black terminal
edging 2 — 5 mm wide, narrowest in old
individuals.

Wing-coverts in the adult almost uni-
form red, a black tij) only on isolated
feathers of the greater or middle series.

The 1. primary narrowly edged on
its basal half, the 3. primary broadly,
with red.

Sangi

More black on the wings.

Secondaries red with a black terminal
edging, 7 — 12 mm wide, narrowest in old
individuals.

The greater wing-coverts tipped with
black, forming a band across the wing;
a second band is generally formed by
black tips to the midde coverts.

The first 3 primaries externally black
or the 1. only very narrowly edged with
red, the 4. as broadly edged with it as
the 3. in the Talaut birds.

Measurements (9 adults from Kahruang, Xov. 2"*^ — 5^'‘, 2 adults from Salibabu, Oct. 29^^,
and 6 adults from Karkellang, autumn 1896). Wing 163 — 171; tail 117 — 136;
culmen from cere 19.5 — 21 mm. One immature: wing 157, tail 110.

Nearly all of these specimens are moulting, but the majority still retain their
old primary quills. The moult probably lasts from September to December.

Distribution. Talaut Is. — Kahruang, Safibabu and Karkellang (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. and
Tring Museums).

Observation. The first mention of an Eos in the Talaut Islands was made by von Kosen-
berg in a communication to Dr. Finsch; again Dr. Platen (G-efied. Welt 1887,
263) speaks of its existence in Talaut, remarking that this is the habitat of the birds
seen in captivity in Sangi and Manado. Dr. Hickson saw the bird in plenty in

118

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

Talaiit, and the good series obtained by our native hunters confirms the opinion of
its abundance there.

In his beautiful Monograph of the Lories Dr. Mivart shows that he has
misgivings as to the vahdity of the Talaut race, inasmuch as he supposes that the
differences described as racial fall within the scojpe of individual variation of the
form of Sangi. Probably extremes meet — otherwise the Talaut bmd would come
under the definition of species, not subspecies — but we have not yet found such
extremes. 15 adults from Talaut and 5 adults from the Sangi Islands before us can
be correctly sorted by a glance at the wing-coverts and tips of the secondaries, with-
out looking at the labels, and these are only about one-half of those examined by us.

3. Eos histrio challengeri (Salvad.).

s. Eos indica (1) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1878; 578; id., Voy. Chalk B. 1881, 115; (3) Murray,

Voy. Chalk, Narr. 1885, I, 2, 669.

t. Eos challengeri (1) Salvad., Cat. B. XX, 189 J, 22 (type examd.); (II) Mivart, Loriidae

1896, 25, pk VII, f. 2.

Diagnosis. Very much like E. histrio^ but much smaller, and with the blue colour on the
breast less extended and more or less mingled with red (Salvad. ol). Feet black;
bill orange; eyes red, or hght brown in the male (Murray n 1). Wing 152; tail
102, tarsus 17 mm.

Distribution. Melangis, Xanusa Islands (Murray o 1).

Observation. Wlien the “Challenger” was dredging off the Xanusa Islands on 10‘^ Febr.

1875, some natives came off in a boat from the southern island bringing with them
four specimens of this parrot. Tlmee of these are now in the British Museum, one
of which we have examined. They appear to be the only birds yet known from these
islands, and we question whether they are adult.

The Red-winged Lory, Eos histrio, afifords an interesting case of dififeren-
tiation into races within short distances, and it affords food for considering
whether such variations may have occurred per saltum or by imperceptible gra-
dations, and what may have been the cause. Such simple examples may con-
tain perhaps a more ready answer to these difficult questions than the more
complicated ones often attacked by students of evolution. It should be borne
in mind, however, that “per saltum” and “gradually” are really vague terms;
what one person may call a “jump”, another may call a “gradation”.

The genus Eos, comprising Red-winged Lories as distinguished from the
typical Lorius in which the wings are green, ranges, according to Professor
Reichenow and Count Salvadori, from the Solomon Islands through Papuasia
to the Moluccas, occurring also in the Tenimber group and on the islands lying
between North Celebes and Mindanao. The latter authority includes within the
range of Eos the remote island of Ponape or Puynipet in the West Carolines,
the habitat of Eos rubiginosa (Bp.), which occurs on the island, as Dr. Finsch
observed, in great numbers, doing much damage to the plantations of the colo-
nists. The occurrence of Eos in localities north and east of Celebes, and its
absence in this country as an indigenous species is somewhat remarkable; in
the neighbourhood of Manado specimens of Eos histrio have indeed been

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

119

obtained, but these, according to Meyer’s experience, as a rule show signs of
having recently been in captivity in their worn tail-feathers, etc., and are to
be regarded as specimens brought over from Sangi (or, as Dr. Platen affirms,
Talaut) in the boats of the natives, and which have escaped.

At Manado “there seldom arrives a boat without bringing some living birds
or the like” (Meyer j 3)\ and the locality Halmahera once stated to be the
home of this species was most likely recorded on the ground of examples
having been bought or of escaped birds shot there. The species as Mr. Wallace
remarks is also brought over to Ternate, and Meyer saw a j^air even in Cebu
in the Philippines (j 3).

To a similar cause, perhaps, is due the labelling of an example of Eos
riciniata and two of Lorius garrulus in the British Museum as from Celebes,
species belonging to the Halmahera group as shown by Count Salvador! (Cat.
B. XX, 29, 41).

Eos histrio was first recorded from its true habitat, the Sangi Islands, by
Forsten; later it was again obtained there by Mr. Wallace, and in the year
1871 in numerous examples by Meyer, and later again by Dr. Fischer.
Writing in 1887 Dr. Platen remarks that it is by no means a common bird
in Great Sangi, but that, in consequence of the ever-widening extent of the
cocoa-nut plantations, it has retired more and more into the mountainous interior
of the country, and the caged examples both here and those brought to Manado
are derived from the neighbouring Talaut Islands (j 4) \ but it is perhaps not
impossible that the time of year of Dr. Platen’s visit — the rainy season —
may have had something to do with their scarcity near that part of the coast
where he collected. The' Talaut Islands, as mentioned above, were first noted
as a locality for Eos histrio by von Rosenberg. Flere the sjoecies was recently
found in great abundance by Dr. Hickson, who confirms Dr. Platen’s state-
ment in remarking that it is comparatively rare in the Sangi Islands. An
observation of much interest to ornithologists is recorded by Dr. Hickson
in his account of his visit to the Saha Islands (Saka of the Dutch maps), two
small islands, the one about three-quarters of a mile in diameter, the other
about half as large, lying three or four miles, apparently, from the coast of
Salibabu, one of the larger islands of the Talaut group. “My attention was
called to these islands by a flock of lories, consisting of many hundred indivi-
duals, which flew from the main island to the larger of them as the sun was
setting on the previous evening”. This is one of the rare instances on record
of a local species in these parts of the tropics voluntarily crossing a stretch of
sea between one island and another, though indeed the birds probably only
flew to their roosting place.

The circumstance, that wider excursions as a rule do not aj^pear to occur
frequently in these islands, tends to offer a contradiction to the opinion of
writers of pessimistic views that the struggle for existence is distressingly severe.
At all events the fact that birds of many families in the tropics become diffe-

120

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

rentiated into peculiar species in islands lying within sight of one another, in
many cases being protected against overcrowding by laying only one or two
eggs, does not lend any support to such a view.

According to the assurances of the best native hunter formerly in Dr. Meyer’s
service, Eos histrio in Sangi, like Eos riciniata (Bechst.) of Ternate, lays either
two eggs or only one; in the latter case the young one produced is said to be
bigger (j 3). The allied E. rubiginosa of Ponape nests in holes in trees, laying-
only one egg (Finsch, J. f. O. 1880, 284).

Eos histrio, according to Mr. Wallace (Geogr. Distr. I, 420), obliges us
to place the Sangi Islands with the Moluccas instead of with Celebes; and this
strange connection seems to be warranted by some other facts I

GENUS TRICHOGLOSSUS Vig. Horsf.

The species of this genus vary in size from that of a Lark to that of a
Turtle-dove, the upper surface chiefly parrot-green; remiges below black or
shining dusky grey; crossed with a band of yellow or red (not seen in the
species which inhabit Celebes and Sula, except as an occasional remnant); tail
strongly graduated; breast usually barred. About 16 species, ranging from
Australia to jN'ew Caledonia and the New Hebrides, west through the Papuan
Islands and the Amboina-group (but absent in the Halmahera-group), to Sula,
Celebes, Timor.

+ * 38. TRICHOGLOSSUS ORNATUS (L.).

Ornate Lory.

a. Psittacus ornatus (1) Linn., S. N. 1766,1, 143 (ex Seba, Briss.); (II) Shaw, Gen. Zool.
1811, yiLL, 416, pi. 60; (3) M. &S., Yerh. Natuurk. Comm. 1839-44, 90, 182; (4)
S. MlilL, Eeizen Lid. Archip. 1858, pi H, 12; Eeinw., Eeis. Ind. Archip. in 1821,
1858, 592.

h. La Perruche Lori (I) LevailL, Perr. 1801, pi. 52.

Trichoglossus ornatus (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1846, H, 411; S. Mlill., Eeiz. Ind. Arch.

1858, n, 69; (2) Eosenh, J. f. O. 1862, 60 (Sula); (3) id., N. T. Ned. Ind. 1862,
XXV, 139 (Sula); (4) Wall, P. Z. S. 1864, 291, 295; (5) Schl, Mus. P.-B. Psittaci
1864, 112; (6) Finsch, Papag. 1868, H, 842; (7) Finsch & Conrad, Y. z.-b. Ges.
Wien 1873, 2, 15; (8) Schl, Mus. P.-B. Eev. Psitt. 1874, 49; (9) Salvad., Ann.
YIus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YH, 645; (10) Brllgg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 42; (11)
Eosenh., Malay. Archip. 1878, 274; (12) Meyer, Bus 1879, 53, 145; (13) Salvad.,
Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 299; (14) Eclinw., J. f. O. 1881, 160; id., Consp. Psitt. 1881,
96; (XV) id., Yogelb. 1878-83, pi. YIH, fig. 7; (10) W. Bias., Ztschi-. ges. Orn.
1885, 220; (17) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 544; id.. Cruise “Marchesa” 1886, 180;
(XVIII) Yleyer, Yogel-Skelett. 1884, jd. LXX; Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 230;
(19) Salvad., Cat. B. 1891, XX, 61; (20) Biittik., Z. Erg. Weber’s Eeise Ost.-Ind.
1893, in, 273; (21) YI. & Wg. , Abh. YIus. Dresd. 1895 Nr. 8, p. 5; (22) fid., ib.
1896 Nr. 2, p. 8; (23) Everett, Nov. ZooL 1896, 161; (XXIV) Ylivart, Loriidae
1896, 119, pi. XXXIX; (25) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1897, 159, 165.

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

121

“Parkitje” (from the Dutch), Minahassa, Meyer 12.

“Kerut”, inland name, Minahassa, Meyer 12.

“Ulolito”, Gorontalo, Rosenb. 6, 11] Joest.

“Dorra”, Tjamha, S. Celebes, Platen 16.

“Burong nuri”, Bonthain, S. Celebes, Ribbe & Kiihn in Mus. Drescl.

“Koloje”, Tonkean and Balante, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

"Kaleki”, Peling and Banggai, Nat. Coll.

For synonymy and further references see Salvad. 19.

Figures and descriptions. Mivart XXIV\ Shaw a II] Levaillant 6 I] Reicbenow. XV, 14]
Meyer NFZZJ (skeleton); Finscb 6] Briiggemann iO; W. Blasius 16] Salvadori 19.

Adult male. Head above and ear-coverts hyacinth-blue; occiput poppy-red with dusky
blue tips to the feathers; on side of neck from behind the ear-coverts a band of
gamboge-yellow; all other upper parts parrot-green, some large, concealed, sub-
terminal yellow spots on the feathers of the mantle, terminal fourth of the tail-feathers
— except the two middle ones — yellow-red below where concealed by the under
tail-coverts, etc.; cheeks and chin poppy-red; throat and breast poppy-red with
broad terminal margins of dusky blue, giving a barred appearance; rest of under
surface parrot-green becoming yellow-green on the lower abdomen and under tail-
coverts, and chiefly gamboge -yellow on the sides; metacarpal edge parrot-green,
under wing-coverts yellow; basal part of tail-feathers red (C 1028, Limbotto,
N. Celebes, Aug.).

“Bis orange; bill light coral-red; cere dark brown; feet greyish green” (Platen 26').
Bis blacldsh blue and black; bill yellow-orange and red with black ; feet greyish green
and greenish (Ribbe & Kllbn).

Female. Like the male, probably not smaller, the smallest wing-measurement (122 mm) of
14 examples in the Dresden Museum being that of a (^.

Young. Red feathers of occiput nearly absent; parrot-green of abdomen much varied with
yellow; dark bars on chest narrower than in adult; some feathers on cheeks margined
with yellow (Minahassa, Nr. 3999).

Measurements. The wings of 17 specimens vary between 119 — 134 mm. Measurements of the
smallest and the largest specimens; tail 75 — 84; tarsus 16; cubnen fr’om cere 19 — 20.5
(C 1031, Nr. 1947).

Skeleton.

Length of cranium . .

. . . 43 mm

Length of tibia

. 42 mm

Greatest breadth . .

... 23 »

Length of tarso-metatarsus .

. 15

»

Length of humerus . .

... 27 »

Length of sternum ....

. 43

Length of ulna . . .

... 29 *

Greatest breadth of sternum

. 22.5

»

Length of radius . .

... 27 »

Height of crista sterni . .

. 14

Length of maims . .

... 38 >>

Length of pelvis ....

. 43

»

Length of femur. . .

. . . 29 »

Greatest width of pelvis . .

. 22

Egg. Mdiite, 25 X 17 mm (Meyer 12).

Breeding season. Near Manado, February f 22 j. As Finscb remarks, the Trichoglossidae nest
in holes in trees, laying 2 — 4 eggs.

Variation. Cases of xantbocbroism in this Parrot are apparently not rare. Specimens dis-
playing a completely or partially yelloAV plumage are mentioned by Brliggemann
(11), Meyer (12) and Guillemard (17). (As to xantbocbroism in parrots see Meyer,
Sitzb. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1882, 517.)

Distribution. Celebes, Togian Islands, Buton. North Peninsula — Minahassa (Forsten 5,
Wallace 19, etc.); Gorontalo District (Rosenb. 8, Meyer 22); Banka and Mantebage

Heyer & Wiglesworti, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 15th, 1897).

122

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

Island (Nat. Coll); Togian Islands (Meyer 12]\ E. Celebes — Balante and Tonkean
(Nat. Coll); 8. E. Peninsula — Ivandari (Beccari 5); Baton (8. Muller 5, 4, 5);
West Celebes (Doherty 25); 8 outh Peninsula — Bontbain (Weber 20, Eibbe & Klilin
in Dresd. Mus.); Macassar (Bernst. <S, Wall. 19); Boni (Mus. Leyd. 5); Tjamba (Platen
16); 8nla Islands — Peling and Banggai (Nat. Coll).

Von Rosenberg first recorded the 8ula Islands as a locality for this species
on information of one of the native chiefs of the islands (3), hnt there was no
evidence in proof of the correctness of this till specimens were obtained by our
native hunters in Banggai and Peling. The hunter Kamis Birahi, who accom-
panied Bernstein, Wallace, v. Rosenberg and Meyer on some of their
journeys, and who visited 8ula, informed Meyer that T. ornatus did not occur
in 8ula.

It has not been recorded from 8angi, but Meyer received a specimen from
Siao not differing in ydumage from those of Celebes (M8. note), though this may
have been from caj)tivity.

As Dr. Finsch remarks Celebes forms the north-westernmost boundary
of the genus Trichoglossus (the Wedge-tailed Lories) viewed as composed of Prof.
Reich enow’s subgeneric groups Glossopsittacus, Charmosyna, Oreopsittacus, Neo-
psittacus and Trichoglossus. Two of Prof. Reich enow’s groups are fui’ther sub-
divided by Count 8alvadori (Cat. B. XX, 1891): — Charmosyna into Hypo-
charmosyna, Charmosynopsis, Charmosyna; and Neopsittacus into Psitteuteles, Ptilo-
sclera and Neopsittacus, but the last named genus, according to Salvadori, does
not belong to the Loriidae at all, but to the Cyclopsittacidae. The Blue-headed
group of Wedge-tailed Loris, to which T. ornatus belongs, ranges, as Count
Salvadori shows, from Celebes throughout most of the intervening islands to New
Caledonia and the New Hebrides, occurring also in the Lesser Sunda Islands and
Australia. Curiously enough it is absent, so far as is yet known, in the Hal-
mahera group, just as it is in Sangi.

The Blue-headed Lory of Celebes is a very distinct species, differing from
all its fellows in having the cheeks, chin and throat red instead of blue, and the
quills below uniform shining brownish smoke-grey, instead of having only their
distal part of this colour and their basal part orange-yellow or red. Its nearest
allies appear to be T. massena Bj). of 8. E. New Guinea, New Britain and
the neighbouring islands as far as the New Hebrides, and T. cyanogrammiis
Wagl. of Western Papuasia as far as Burn.

Although confined to Celebes, T. ornatus, like some of the Trichoglossi of
Australia, is by no means a strictly sedentary bird in the island, where it is
the commonest parrot. Meyer found it at all times and everywhere in the
Minahassa from January till July; at Limbotto in August; near Gorontalo in
September; on the Togian Islands in August; in South Celebes in October and
November. About the end of March, 1871, it suddenly appeared in crowds in
the neighbourhood of Manado, The Trichoglossi feed largely on the dews of
fiowers, using the tongue in a licking manner (Finsch, Papag. II, 816); fruit

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

123

also would appear to form a large part of their sustenance. T. ornatus feeds,
“according to the season, on all possible fruits ; in captivity they prefer bananas
above everything, but also like rice” (Meyer 12). In S. Celebes Ribbe & Kuhn
found in its stomach the fruits and the seeds of trees. The local movements
of the species are most likely regulated by the time of ripening of fruit, or
of flowering of certain trees. Gould observed, as Dr. Finsch points out
(1. c. 815), that certain Trichoglossi are more or less birds of passage: “a few
species seem to make periodically settled wanderings from the South, where they
breed, to the North, when they gather themselves into countless flocks, which,
hasten through the air with rushing speed like a cloud in regular evolutions and
accompanied by deafening cries”; but, as the author adds, nothing is known
about similar migrations, if such there be, among the insular species.

“T. ornatus smells, as all the allied parrots do, very agreeably of hyacinths”
(Meyer 12). It is kept as a pet by the natives of Celebes, but also used as
an article of food.

f 39. TRICHOGLOSSUS FORSTENI Bp.

Forsten’s Lory.

Trichoglossus forsteni (1) Bp., Oonsp. Av. 1850, I, 3 (ex Temm. in Mus. Lugd.); (2) Finsch,
Papag. n, 1868, 826; (3) Rchnw., J. f. 0. 1881, 157 (Consp. Psitt. 23) syn. emend.;
(4) G-nillein., P. Z. S. 1885, 502; (5) Salvad., Cat. B. XX, 1891, 51; (VI) Mivart,
Loriidae 1896, 93, pi. XXIX; (7) Hartert, Nov. Zool 1896, 176, 572.
a. Trichoglossus immarginatus (1) Blyth, J. A. 8. B. 1858, XXVII, 279.

For further synonymy and references see Salvadori 5.

Figures and descriptions. Mivart IT; Finsch 2; Beiclienow 5; Salvadori 5.

Adult male. jAbove parrot-green; entire head, face, throat and mantle j)iirple blackish
blue, the forehead and cheeks striated with brighter blue, the feathers of the mantle
with concealed red spots; around neck (not throat) a collar of greenish yellow;
breast, sides, and under wing-coverts vermilion; abdomen blue-black; flanks,
thighs, and under wing-coverts greenish yellow, barred with parrot-green; remiges
below black, a band or patch of yellow across the basal part of the inner webs:
“bill red, yellow at tip; feet olive-green” (Guillemard 4). Wing 141 mm; tail 110;
tarsus 17; bill from cere 18.5 (cf uat. coll., Djampea Id., Dec. 1895: Everett, 0 14861).
Sex. The sexes are closely similar in coloration (Finsch 2).

Distribution. Sumbawa (Forsten 2, Guillemard 4); Djampea between Flores and Celebes
(Everett 7).

This Lory, previously known only from Sumbawa, was found recently to be
common on Djampea Island by Air. Everett, whose specimens were compared
with the type of the species by Mr. Hartert who remarked that they were
perfectly identical, but later found some slight differences (see below). It is one
of a group of eleven known species, with the head and cheeks blue or dusky
(or for the most part of these colours) and having a yellow — in one case a red
— band across the base of the remiges; they are found from Australia to

16*

124

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

Timor^) and Sumbawa in one direction, and from New Caledonia to the Moluccas
in another. The present bird seems to be related to T. haematodes (L.) of Timor
and to T. novaehollandiae (Gm.) of Australia, the former differing by its yellow
breast and green occiput, the latter by its much brighter blue tints. T. mit-
chelli G. E. Gray, of which Prof. Mivart gives a good figure, appears to stand
«till closer to For s ten’s Lory, but it evidently is easily distinguishable by having
the head and middle of the abdomen dusky green, instead of purplish blue-black.
The distribution of this form is as yet unknown.

Mr. Hartert (7) says that two males received by him from Sumbawa “have
not such a broad blue patch behind the pale greenish band on the hind neck
as all those from Djampea have”^).

-f * 40. TRICHOGLOSSUS MEYERI Tweedd.

Meyer’s Lory.

This species is known in two forms in the northern and southern Peninsulas
of Celebes, respectively:

1, The typical Trichoglossus meyeri.

a. Trichoglossus flavoviridis part. (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 337; 1861, 295 (Manado).

b. Trichoglossus meyeri (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1871, YIII, 281; (II) id., Tr. Z. S.

1872, yni, 32, pi. IV ; (3) Schl., Eev. Psitt. 1874, 50; (4) Salvad., Ann. Mus.
Civ. Gen. 1875, VII, 646; (5) Brliggeni., Abli. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 42; (6) Meyer,
Ibis 1879, 54; (7) Rchnw., J. f. 0. 1881, 156; Oonsp. Psitt. 1881, 92; (VIII) id.,
Vogelb. 1878-83, t. XI, fig. 3; (IX) Meyer, Vogel-Skelett. 1881-82, t. XXIV; (10)
W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 125, 134; (11) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 544; (12) Platen,
Gefied. Welt 1887, 206, 230; (13) M. & Wg., Abli. Mus. Dresd. 1895 Nr. 8, p. 5;
(14) iid., ib. 1896 Nr. 1, p. 7.

c. Psitteuteles meyeri (1) Salvad., Oat.B. 1891, XX,63; (II) Mivart, Loriidae 1 896, 125,pl.XLI.
“Parkitje lolaro” (Mangrove Paroquet), Manado, Meyer b G\ Guillem, h 11.

Figures and descriptions. Walden b II, b 1\ Mivart c II\ Beichenow 6 VIII, b 7; Meyer
b IX (skeleton); Salvadori h 4, cl] Briiggem. h 5.

Adult male. Parrot-green; feathers of mantle with yellow bases; head above golden-olive,
yellower on forehead; ear -coverts bright yellow; feathers of lores, cheeks and
chill barred with ochraceous and tipped with dull green; below yellow Mth a light
greenish wash, each feather broadly bordered with parrot-green, abdomen and under
tail-coverts strongly washed with green; under wing-coverts light yellow-green,
at the metacarpal edge grass-green; quills below uniform shining brownish smoke-
grey; tail below deep ohve-yellow ((;f Eurukan, 3. IV. 94: P. & F. S.). “Iris cherry-
red; feet greyish blue; bill orange-red” (Meyer h 1].

1) In recording the habitat of the allied T, haematodes (L.) Count Salvadori mentions only Timor.
Other writers add Wetter (Schl., Rev. Psitt. 1874, 48), Samao (Rchnw., Consp. Psitt. 1881, 98) and Suniba
(Meyer, Verb. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1881, 762; Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 586), but these localities appear to
have been intentionally omitted in the Catalogue of Birds, in anticipation of the occurrence of local diiferences
of plumage in these islands. This caution appears to be fully justified ; the two specimens from Sumba in the
Dresden Museum differ from two others of unknown origin in being much larger, and in having the under wing-
coverts yellow instead of flame scarlet.

2) Since this was written Mr. Hartert has named the Djampea birds T. forsteni djampeanus (Nov. Zool.
1897, 172).

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

125

Female, Differs from the male in having the head above much darker and duller — viz.
brownish green with a suggestion of purplish therein in certain lights (Q Eurukan,
3. lY. 94, R & E. S.).

Younger. Crown of head more yellow-green, scarcely yellower on the forehead; yellow of
under surface greener; inner margin of quills yellowish; some of the same colour
spread out on the inner webs of some of the inner primaries. A trace of green
barring near tip of tail {Nr. 1746). Bill dark.

Distribution. North Celebes — Manado (Wallace a 1, Meyer 5 7, v. Duivenb. 5 5, etc.);
Eurukan — 3000 ft. (Platen 5 12, P. & R S.); (?)Gorontalo (Brit. Mus. c7); Central
Celebes between Lake Posso and Mapane (P. & P. S. 5 14).

f'’ 2. Trichoglossus meyeri bonthainensis (Meyer).

d. Trichoglossus meyeri var. bonthainensis (1) Meyer, Isis 1884, 16; (2) Salvad., Cat. B.

1891, XX, 64 note; (III) Mivart, Loriidae 1896, 127, pi. XLI, figs. 2, 3.

Figures and descriptions. Mivart, Meyer, Salvadori 11. cc.

Diagnosis. Key to the two subsiDecies:

1 , The subterminal bars on the feathers of lores and cheeks broader and ochraceous
in colour; the green bars of the under surface narrower. The typical T. meyeri.

Distr. North Celebes.

2. The subterminal bars on feathers of lores and cheeks narrower, dull apple-green;

the green bars of the under surface broader; the yellow bases of feathers of mantle
less developed T. meyeri bonthainensis.

Distr. Mt. Bonthain, S. Celebes. (Eibbe & Kuhn.)

ments.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (Nr. 1745) Manado

108

67

13

14.5

5. (Nr. 1747) Manado

103

63

12

14.5

c. (Nr. 1746) imm. Celebes

101

57

12.5

13.5

d. (Sara sin Coll.) ad. Eurukan, 3. IV. 94 ... .

102

63

13

15.5

e. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Eurukan, 3. IV. 94 ... .

101

58

12

14

f. (Sarasin Coll.) (y' juv. Eurukan, 4. X. 94 . .

102

61

—

14

g. (Sarasin Coll.) juv. Centr. Celebes, 23. II. 95 . . .

101

62

11.5

13.5

h. (Nr. 6007) Bonthain, S. Celebes (type of bonthainensis)

106

68

13

15.5

The type-sjoecimen of bonthainensis remains up to the present the only one
on record from any part of South Celebes.

The group of small Gree^ VCedge-tailed Lories of the subgenus Psitteuteles,
according to Count Salvadori, is found in one species in Australia, one in the
Timor group, one in Celebes and one in Sula. It is curiously absent in the
Moluccas and Papuasia, as also in Sangi. In the latter islands, the genus )Eos,
which is absent in Celebes, occurs, but Tiichoglossus „ which is represented in
two species in Celebes is not found there at all, or at least it has not yet been
discovered there. Perhaps these facts have a certain relation to one another,
it may be suggested that one species ousts the other from this or that locality
by seizing the food they both eat. In Amboina and elsewhere nearer to the
eastern centre of development of the parrot tribe, however, both a species of Eos
and of Lorius and a Blue-headed Trichoglossus occur together.

126

Birds of Celebes: Loriidae.

Count Salvadori’s excellent keys for the determination of the Green Wedge-
tailed Lories of the snbgenus Psitteuteles and the Blue-headed ones of the sub-
genus . Trichoglossus awake the attention to an interesting fact. In Celebes the
members of both subgenera have the underside of the quills uniform shining
brownish smoke-grey; in all parts of Australasia where they occur both sub-
genera have the basal part of the quills crossed by a band of bright colour- — ■
yellow usually, but in two cases — one in each subgenus — red. The circumstance
is, of course, suggestive of a common cause, but a difficulty to the maintaining
of this opinion is presented by the fact that the Trichoglossus^ which has the red
band, does not occur in the same locality as the Psitteuteles with the red band,
but one (T. rosenbergi Schl.J on Mysore Island in Geelvink Bay, New Guinea,
and the other (Ps. chlorolepidotus) in Australia. M^e are, however, from the
following circumstance able to conclude at least on good hypothetical grounds
that the Celebesian forms are of a more recent development than the Australasian
ones : three young specimens and one female of T. megeri described above ditfer
from the old ones amongst other points in having some amount of yellow on
the inner webs of some of the inner remiges, in one case very obviously the
remains of a wing-band; in two or three immature specimens of T. oimatus
also (Nrs. 3999, 6580) we find a trace of the yellow band on one or two feathers
of the secondaries, but not in any adult specimens, nor in other specimens not
quite adult. This appearance indicates that T. megeri and ornatus are sprung
from two forms which possessed a yellow wing band’). There is thus reason
to suppose that the Trkhoglossi of Celebes are a development more recent than
those of Australia. For this reason no one can very well advance the suppo-
sition that the Australasian forms came from Celebes, but on the other hand it
will generally be felt that this is some sort of evidence that Celebes was origi-
nally colonised by Trichoglossi from Australasia, and then for some unknown
reason they lost the wing-band in Celebes.

Trichoglossus megeri finds its nearest ally in T. jlavoviridis Wall, of the
Sula Islands, which shares with it the peculiarity of having no coloured band
on the under side of the wing. As already mentioned Count Salvadori’s work
shows that this group of Wedge-tailed Lories does not occur further East; and
the single species inhabiting the Lesser Sunda Islands, T. euteles Temm. (a form
which will perhaps have to be broken np into several subspecies) differs markedly
from those of Celebes and Sula. The first notice of T. megeri was made by
Mr. Wallace, who obtained a specimen in Manado, but the skin was destroyed
and the author identified the bird doubtfully with flamviridis of Sula (a 1). In
1866 a specimen was sent to the Leyden Museum by van Duivenbode, but
apparently not recognised as new by Schlegel; five years afterwards numerous
specimens were obtained in the Minahassa and recognised as new by Dr. Meyer;

1) Young specimens of Charmosyna pulchella Grray also have a very j)lain yellow band at the base of
the secondaries and inner primaries, which disappears in the adult.

. Birds of Celebes ; Loriidae.

127

it was named T. meyeri by Lord Walden. Wallace believed the species to
be rare in Celebes, in consequence of the competition of the abundant T. oviiatus^
which does not occur in Sula; like T. ornatus ^ however, it makes considerable
local movements, depending no doubt on the time of flowering or fruit-bearing
of certain trees, and at the end of April, 1871, T. meyeri appeared in the
neighbourhood of Manado in flocks (as did also about the same time T. ornatus,
Loriculus stigmatus and L. exilis)^ and could always be procured till the 18^^ of
May, after which date it became scarce. Dr. Platen appears to have found
both T. ornatus and meyeri plentiful at Rurukan (3000 ft.). Of the latter he
writes that it is never kept in captivity like T. ornatus, though both will feed
on broken biscuit and powdered canary seed. T. meyeri is of a much quieter
and gentler nature than ornatus, perhaps the cause of its not being cared for
as a pet (h 12). A tame female of T. meyeri in Dr. Platen’s possession laid
an egg in November. The breeding season of the species in freedom is unknown.

f * 41. TRICHOGLOSSUS FLAVOVIRIDIS Wall.

Yellow-green Lory.

Trichoglossus flavoviridis (I) Wall. P. Z. S. 1862, 337, pi. XXXIX; id., 1864, 295, 292 pt.;
(2) Finscb, Paj)ag. 1868, D, 849; (3) Wald., Ann. N. H. 1871, Vm, 281; (4)
Sclil., Rev. Psitt. 1874, 49; (5) Rclinw., J. f. O. 1881, J56 (Oonsp. Psitt. 1881, 92);
W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 125.

a. Psitteuteles flavoviridis (1) Salv., Oat.B.XX, 1891, 63; (II) Mivart, Lor. 1896. 123, pl.XL.
For further references see Salvadori a 1.

Figures and descriptions. Wallace J; Mivart a II] Pinscb 2; Reichenow 5; Salvad. al.
Adult. Green; head olive-yellow; nape with a dusky collar; face, cheeks and chin dusky
green, each feather margined with yellow; face, neck, breast, and upper part of
the belly bright yellow, each feather narrowly margined with dark green, producing
a regular scaly appearance; belly, vent and under tail-coverts yellowish green
with green edges to the feathers; the interscapulary feathers with concealed
yellow bands; quills dusky black underneath; tail-feathers beneath ochre-yellow;
bill orange-red; orbits bare, yellow; feet lead-colour; iris orange. Total length 216 mm;
wing 122; tail 81; bill 18; tarsus 13 (Salvad. a Ij.

Distribution. Sula Islands (Allen J) — Sula Besi (Hoedt 5); Sula Mangoli (Bernst. 5).

This species is the only member of the Loriidae known to occur in the Sula
Islands, being very nearly related to T. meyeri of Celebes, from which it differs
in having the head yellow, the chin and a nuchal collar dusky, and the yellow
of the breast without any greenish tint. It was first obtained by Wallace’s
assistant, Allen, who appears to have found the species abundant. The islands
in which he collected were the southern and eastern ones of the group, i. e.
Sula Mangoli and Sula Besi. Ten specimens from these islands were subsequently
sent by Hoedt and Bernstein to the Leyden Museum in 1864. As already
noticed, the occurence of closely allied species in Sula and Celebes, and the
non-occurrence of the subgenus Psitteuteles, so far as is known, in the Moluccas
a little further east, is of interest in questions of geographical distribution.

128

Birds of Celebes: Cacatuidae.

FAMILY CACATUIDAE.

“Sternum complete; orbital ring completely os.sified, with a process bridging
the temporal fossa (Garrod, P. Z. S. 1874, 594); nostrils open in a cere
not much swollen, generally naked but sometimes feathered; bill very deep, deeper
than long, with the upper mandible generally much compressed; hook of the
upper mandible nearly perpendicular, except in Licmetis^ and with a file-like
surface underneath; tarsus short; head always crested; as a rule only the left
carotid present” (Salvadori, Cat. B. XX, 101). Coloration uniform.

Five genera found in Australia, two thereof passing into Papuasia, and
one of the latter, Cacatua, further to the Philippines, Celebes, and the Lesser
Sunda Islands.

GENUS CACATUA YieilL ex Briss.

Map V.

The species of this genus are of rather large size — from that of a Jack-
daw to a Paven almost — and are well characterized by their white or rosy —
(in one case deep rose-coloured) plumage, their crests, and perpendicu-
larly-hooked bills. Fuscin, a colour which, when overlaid with psittaco-
fulvin, gives jDarrot-green , is absent in the Cockatoos (Krukenberg). The
genus Cacatua is composed of 15 species, which, as shown in the following-
article, fall into three natural groups, with a distribution from Australia to
Lombok, Celebes, the Philippines, Moluccas, the Papuan Islands to the Solo-
mon group.

-f' 42. CACATUA SULPHUREA (Gm.).

Sulphurous Cockatoo.

According to Mr. Hartert (Nov. Zool. 1897, 165) this form embraces three
subspecies. They are:

1. The typical Cacatua sulphurea.

a. Psittacus sulphureus (1) Gm., S. N. 1788, I, 330 (ex Briss. and Edwards); (^2) S. Miill,

Verh. Natimrk. Comm. 1839 — 44, 90, 182; id., Peizen Ind. Arch. 1857, 12; (3)
Puss, Fremdl. Stuhenvog. 1881, IV, 655 — 658.

b. Psittacus cristatus (1) LabilL, Voy. a la Pecherche de la Perouse 1791 — 92, II, 301.

c. Cacatua sulphurea (1) Vieill., N. D. 1817, XYII, 10; (2) ScliL. Mus. P.-B. Psitt. 1864,

137, pt. ; (3) Fraser, P. Z. S. 1865, 227; (3^‘^) Sclil., Ned. Tdschr. Dierk. 1866,
111,319,321; (4) Garrod., P. Z- S. 1873, 460, fig. 6 (carotids), 461, 465, (5) id., ib. 1874,
587, 588, 591, 595; (6) Scbl., Pev. Psitt. 1874, 66; (7) Salvad., Ann. Mns. Civ.
Gen. 1875, VII, 644; ('Sj Brliggem., Abb. Ver. Bremen, 1876, V, 37; (9) Posenb.,

1) Many authors spell this -word '‘hulfurea7\ but this is not the original spelling of G-inelin, nor in-
deed the more correct.

Birds of Celebes: Cacatnidae.

129

Mai. Arcliip. 1878, 275; (10) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 44, 145; (11) Krukenberg, Yergl.
physiol. Studieii 1882, n, 2. Ahth., 29, 33, 35; (XII) Meyer, Yogelskelette 1881—82,
t. XYIII; (13) VY. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1886, 195; (14) W. Marsh., Z. Yortr.
Die Papag. 1889, 31; (15) Salvad., Cat. B. XX, 1891, 121; (16) Blittik., Z. Erg.
Weber’s Beise Ost-Ind. 1893, ID, 273; (17) M. & Wg., Abh. Mns. Dresd. 1895,
Xr. 8, p. 5; (18) iid., ih, 1896, Xr. 1, p. 7; (19) Hartert, Xov. Zook 1897, 164.

d. Plyctolophus sulphureus (I) Lear, 111. Parrots 1832, pi. 4; (II) Selby, Xat. Lihr., Parrots

1836, 129, pi. 14; (3) Xitzsch, Pterylogr. 1840, 146; id., Engl. Ed. 1867, 102.

e. Psittactts sulphureus minor vel moluccensis (I) Bourjot, Perr. 1837 — 38, pi. 80.

f. Plictolophus sulfureus (1) Einsch, Papag. I, 1867, 296 — 300, pt., II, 1868, 942; (II)

Echnw., Yogelbilder, 1878 — 83, t. lY, f. 1.

g. Plissolophus cristatus (1) Echnw. (nec. L.), J. f. 0. 1881, 29 (Consp. Psitt. 1881, 29).
“Katella” or “Catala”, Grorontalo Disk, Eosenh. d 1, 9.

“Gatalla” and “Cacatua puti” (malay), Meyer 10.

For further synonymy and references see Salvad. 15.

Figures and descriptions. Lear d I\ Selby d II\ Bourjot el] Eeichenow f II] Meyer
c XII (skeleton); S. Mhller a 2] Schlegel c 2] Garrod e 4, c 5 (anat.); Einsch
f 1] Salvad ori c 15.

Adult (^. White, with a light wash of sulphur-yellow, especially strong on the under surface,
under side of wings and of tail; crest (85 mm), ear-coverts and basal part of
the remaining feathers of head deep sulphur-yellow. (The mantle and wings
above of tliis and of 8 other specimens are nearly white without any yellow wash to
speak of, but this hue seems to fade through exposm-e, as it may be found at the bases of
the feathers and on the lower back and upper tail-coverts under cover of the wings. —
Kwandang, Xorth coast of Celebes, — Xr. 3536). Iris of adult red (Meyer 10).
Female. Like the male, but with a smaller bill.

Young. The yellow of the plumage much less intense than in the old ones; iris dark —
either black or brown (Meyer 10).

According to Einsch the nestlings of the white Cockatoos are clothed in long
white down (Papag. I, 272); the same author mentions a young one of the Elores
species, wliich is very closely related to the Celebesian one, in which the yellow

feathers of the ear-coverts were in process of develojiment (1. c.

297) 1)

■

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
ft'om cere

a. (Xr. 3536) (J' Kwandang, X. Cel

236

110

19.5

39

b. (Xr. 3535) Kwandang, X. Cel

235

116

20

40

c. (Xr. 3537) § Paguatt, Tomini Bay

232

114

19

35

d. (C 1331) Q Paguatt, Tomini Bay

235

116

—

34.5

e. (C 1329) Q Paguatt, Tomini Bay

230

114,

—

35.2

f. (C 1325) (L' Paguatt, Tomini Bay

243

122

—

37

g. (C 1330) $ Kwandang, X. Cel

221

110

—

35

h. (C 6590) ? Gorontalo Distr

230

110

—

38.5

i. (Xr. 3538) ? Corontalo Distr

243

113

—

40.5

j. (Sarasin Coll.) Q Buol, X. Cel,, 15. YLLL. 94 . .

237

115

—

34

k. (S arasin Coll.) (Y Maroneng, Gulf ofMandar, 18. YHI. 95

234

110

—

39

1) The entire series of this genus in the British Museum are, without exception, marked by Count Sal-
vad ori as adult!

ileyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 16th, 1897).

17

130

Birds of Celebes: Cacatuidae.

Distribution. Celebes and Buton — Tomini (Forsten c 2), Paguatt, Tomini Grulf (Eosenb.
c 6, Meyer c 10], Posso, Tomini Gulf (Meyer c 10), Kanclari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari
G 7), Buton (Labillarcli^re hi, S. Mliller a 2), Maros, S. Celebes (Weber c 16),
Mandalli, W. Coast (Meyer c 10), Maroneng (P. & E. Sarasin), Dongala and Ta-
waya, W. Coast (Doherty c 20), Kwandang, IST. Coast, and the small islands in
Kwandang Bay (Meyer c 10, Eosenb. c 6, c 9), Biiol (P. & E. Sarasin).

2. C. sulphurea djampeana Hartert.

Nov. Zool. 1897, 164.

h. Caeatua sulphurea (1) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 176.

Diagnosis. Exactly like the ty2Jical C. sulphurea of Celebes, but with a smaller beak
measured straight from the outer margin of the cere, where maxilla and mandible
meet, to the tip — in two examples 24 mm, in one only 23.5, as against 27 mm in
females from Celebes (Hartert 1. c.).

Distribution. Djampea Island (Everett h 1).

3. C. sulphurea parvula (Bp.).

For synonymy, etc. cf. Salvador!, Cat. B. XX. 1891, 120.

Diagnosis. Similar to the typical C. sulphurea of Celebes, l)ut the ear -coverts paler and
much less yellow (Hartert).

Distribution, Lomhok, Sumhawa, Elores, Semao, Timor.

Observation. We cannot regard hlr. Hartert’ s division as conclusive; if one were only to
investigate closely enough further racial pecuharities would no douht be found.

The distribution of Caeatua sulphurea in Celebes is a remarkably interrupted
one. In the Minahassa it is unknown as a wild bird, as it is also at Macassar
and Maros in the South; this also appears to be the case at Gorontalo, though
it is to be met with on the coast of the gulf at Paguatt and Posso, as also
twenty miles from Gorontalo at Kwandang on the north coast, and again
further west at Buol. At Posso, on the south shore of the Gulf of Tomini,
Meyer first met with it in large flocks; but on the same coast further east at
Todjo it was not then to be found, neither does it appear to occur on the
Togian Islands^). Labillardiere in one of the early French voyages was the
first to notice it at Buton Island; afterwards Salomon Muller saw it in large
numbers there: “Before nearly all the houses we saw Cockatoos and other species
of parrots fastened by a small double ring of buffalo-horn or cocoa-nut on one
foot to sticks, etc.”; Psittacus sulphureus was most abundant, in much smaller
numbers Ps. ornatus and Ps. setarius (P. platurus). A good reason for this
peculiar distribution is not easy to find, but the data known are scanty and
insufficient and may partly rest on observations of local movements and if more
facts were to hand, a different sketch of distribution of the species might
perhaps be drawn up.

The distribution of the genus Caeatua is likewise somewhat anomalous. The

1) The species is included in the list of Togian birds collected liy Meyer in 1871 (10), but this indi-
cation is a mistake.

Birds of Celebes: Cacatuidae.

131

fifteen species comprising the genus, as recognised by Count Salvadori, are
placed by Prof. Eeichenow in his Conspectus Psittacorum in two subgenera,
— the characters of which were first clearly shown by Dr. Sclater in 1864
(P. Z. S. 1864, 188) — recognisable by possessing a long, recurved crest of
narrow feathers, or a crest of broadened feathers generally decurved, respectively.
Each of these subgenera consists of two sections, the characters of which are
well pointed out hy Eeichenow.

Dr. Finsch makes a different division of the genus Cacatua in his key to
the species, gathering the species into two groups distinguishable by having 1.
the nostrils and cere naked and the bill black, or 2. the nostrils and cere
feathered and the bill light.

To our mind the genus shows itself to be composed of 3 natural groups:

1. Bill large, black; cere and nostrils naked; crest long, of narrow
feathers, curving upwards at the extremity:

C. galerita (Lath.): Australia, Tasmania.

C. triton (Temm.) : New Guinea and the islands close by; Aru.

C. citrinocristata (Fraser); Sumba.

C. parvula (Bp.): Timor, Semao, Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok.

C. sulphurea (Gm.) *. Celebes; Buton.

2. Bill comparatively small, white or horn-colour or yellowish;
cere and nostrils feathered; crest of short broad feathers, de-
curved — in one case (C. leadheateri) lengthened and recurved:

C. sanguined Gld.: N. Australia.

C. gofjini (Finsch); Timorlaut.

C. ducorpsi J. & P. : Solomon Is.

C. ggmnopsis Sclat. : Australia.

C. haematuropygia (P. L. S. MillL): Philipiiine and Sulu Islands.

C. roseicapilla Yieill, : Australia.

C. leadheateri (Vig.): S. Australia.

3. Bill large, black; cere and nostrils naked; crest of very long
broadened feathers, more or less decurved:

C. alba (P. L. S. Mull.): Halmahera Group.

C. ophthalmica Sclat.: New Britain.

C. moluccensis (Gm.): Ceram, Amboina.

To these points it may be added that in C. galerita of Grou]3 1, and in
C. leadheateri of Group 2, the oil-gland has been found to be present; in C. alba
of Group 3 it is generally absent, or reduced to a small membranous mamilla
(Garrod 5, Nitzsch h 3). It is stated by Garrod that the oil-gland has not
been found in C. sulphurea^ but, according to Nitzsch, it is present.

It has been stated that Meckel found a right carotid artery of reduced

17*

132

Birds of Celebes; Cacatuidae.

calibre in Cacatua sulphurea (4, 5) \ in a specimen of that species dissected by
Garrod ‘‘the left only was j)resent, as in C. cristata (r= alha)^ C. leadheateri and
C. galerita^' (5), In all other Parrots examined by Garrod the two carotids
were present; and that author remarks that the genus Cacatua, like the Passere^i
and many others, has lost its right carotid, and in this respect has departed
most from the ancestral type.

Judging from the fact that three of the five genera of Cacatuidae recoe-
nised by Count Salvadori are confined to Australia, and that the other two
(though 3Iicroglossus is perhaps rather Papuan than Australian) also occur there,
and that five of the fifteen species of Cacatua proper are peculiar to Australia and
the other ten distributed interruptedly between Australia and the Philippines, it is
evident that unless proof to the contrary is found Australia should be looked upon
as the chief region of development of the family. Elsewhere no two species of the
genus Cacatua are known in the same locality. It would appear that, by reason
of competition, no island is able to harbour more than one species of a section
of the genus Cacatua; and the suggestion, that one species has crowded out
another of another section affords perhaps the most reasonable ground to account
for their anomalous distribution.

Gould says that in Australia C. sanguinea and C. galenta are often seen in
company. This, of course, primarily denotes that their food is the same, and
that there is plenty of it; if there were not sufficient for both, one species
would soon become impatient of the other’s company.

As Krukenberg discovered, the yellow colour of the crest of C. sulphurea
and of some other Cockatoos is due to the presence of pure psittacofulvin, the
same pigment, which when laid over a darker gTound pigment (fuscin) — not
present in the Cockatoos, — gives the colour known as parrot-green. The
yellow pigment was also found by him in the apparently white feathers of
C. sulphurea, a circumstance which led him to suppose that the young feathers
are yellow and lose the yellow effect as they become full grown, by reason of
the distribution of the pigment over a wider area, and of the action of light
(11)\ but this is not the case as is shown by sprouting feathers in skins before
us. Light, however, certainly exercises a blanching effect upon them. The
nestling of other species is clothed in long white down, as Finsch states;
that of C. sulphurea is unknown. Prof. Marshall expresses the opinion that the
delicate red and yellow tones of the plumage of Cockatoos is due to the fine
epithelial dust cast off by the powder-down feathers — which are highly deve-
loped in Parrots — acting like a powdery pigment on the contour feathers (14).
But this is not the case in C. sulphurea, where the powder-down feathers are
white and the dust cast off of the same colour. The white Pigeons of the
genus Mgristicivora are saturated with a similar yellow, which soon fades after
death on exposure to the light, leaving the birds white. Such is also the case
with the salmon-colour with which the white breast of the Moleo is tinted.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

133

Nothing' is known of the breeding of C. sulphur ea in freedom, but in cap-
tivity cases are on record of its laying two or three eggs at a sitting (Fraser 3^
Russ a 3).

FAMILY PSITTACIDAE.

“It is extremely difficult to define the Psittacidae by positive characters.
They are separated from the Stringopidae by having a complete sternum, from
the Nestoridae, Loriidae, and Cgclopsittacidae by the file-like surface on the pala-
tine portion of the hook of the bill, and from the Cacatuidae by the absence
of a crest (except in NymphimsT — Salvadori, Cat. B. XX, 137. The family
ranges almost all over the Avarmer parts of the world.

Count Salvadori recognises 6 subfamilies of Psittacidae^ one of which",
the Palaeornithinae, is represented by several genera in the Celehesian area. In
this subfamily the tail is soft, sometimes very long and graduated, sometimes
short and square, or Avedge-shaped; the furcula is present (except in the genera
Agapornis and Psittacula), the left carotid is normal, like the right one running
in the hypoapophysial canal; orbital ring ahvays incomplete; sides of the head
feathered, if naked, only immediately round the eyes; bill moderate, or very
strong, deeper than long (in Loriculus long and thin), smooth, mostly red, some-
times black, or yelloAv; sexes generally different. Australian, Oriental and
EthiojAian Regions — cf. Salvadori, t. c. pp. 137, 386.

GENUS PRIONITURUS Wagl.

The Racket-tailed Parrots are easily recognisable when adult by the two
middle tail-feathers, the shafts of Avhich are })rolonged beyond the others and
tipped Avith a spatule of ordinary feather-construction; tail — except for the
tAvo middle feathers — square. The general colour is yellowish parrot-green;
the under surface of the remiges Avhere they rest upon the body verditer-blue,
elseAARere black or blackish. Nine species and races have been described; they
inhabit the Philippines, the Celebesian Province, and, possibly, Burn.

* 43. PRIONITURUS PLATURUS (YieilL).

Blue-billed Racket Parrot.

Plates V and VI.

a. Psittacus platurus (1) “Temm.”, Vieill., N. Diet. N.H. 1817, XXV, 314 (Nouvelle Cale-
donie!); (2j Russ, Fremdl. Stubenvbg. 1881, 491.
h. Psittacus setarius (1) Temra. , PI. Col. 1824, 15 (Timor!); (2) Miill. & Sclil., Verb
Natiuu'k. Ooiiim. 1839—44, 90, 107, 182 (Butou); S. MlilL, Reiz. Ind. Archip.
J857, n, 12.

134

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

Prioniturus platurus (1) Wagl., Mon. Psitt. 1832, 523; (2) Wall, Bis 1860, 141; (3) Wald.,
Tr. Z. S. 1872, WIT, 32; Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YII, 645; (5)
Briiggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 39; (6) Lenz, J. f. O. 1877, 362; (7) Meyer,
Ibis 1879, 49, 145; (8) Rclinw., J. f. O. 1881, 255 (Consp. Psitt. 1881, 143); (IX) id.,
Yogelbild. 1878—83, t. XXYII, f. 5; Meyer, Isis 1884, 6; (X) id., YogelskeL 1884,
t. LXYII; (11) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 543; (12) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885,
212—219, figs.; (13) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 219, 231; (14) W. Bias., Ornis
1888, 559; (15) Salvad., Oat. B. XX, 1891, 415; (16) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd.
1895 Xr. 8, p. 5; (17) iid., ib. Xr. 9, p. 2; (18) iid., ib. 1896 Xr. 2, p. 8; (19) Grant,
Ibis 1895, 466; (20) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 160.

e. Psittacus spatuliger, mas. (I) Bonrjot, Perr. 1837 — 38, pi. 53.

d. Prioniturus wallacei Gld., MS.; (1) Gray, List Psitt. B. M. 1859, 18; (2) ScliL, Dierent.

1864, 70.

e. Prioniturus setarius (1) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1860, 223, 226; (II) Gld., B. Asia, YI, pL 12

(1862); (3) Wall, P. Z. S. 1864, 284, 293.

f. Eclectus platurus (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Psitt. 1864, 45; (2) id., Bev. Psitt. 1874, 22.

g. Pionias platurus fij ^’iiiscb, Papag. 1868, II, 395.

“Kring-kring”, Minabassa, Bosenb. g 1.

“Ili-ili”, Gorontalo, Bosenb. g 1.

“Kulli-kuUi” or “Kelik-kelik” (Xat. Coll), Minabassa, Meyer 7.

“Cacatua birotti”, Malay name, X. Celebes, Meyer 7, Guillem. 11.

“Bawan buzar”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen 12.

“Kelean”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Xat. Coll

“Tulik”, Peling and Banggai, Xat. Coll.

“Urili”, Talaut Islands, Xat. Coll

“Kulili”, Siao, Xat. Coll

For further synonymy and references see Salvador! 15.

Figures and descriptions. Gould e 2; Temminck b 7; Bonrjot c 7; Beichenow IX;
Meyer X (skeleton); Sclater e 1; Einsch g 1; Salvador! 4, 15; Briiggemann 5;
W. Blasius 12.

Adult male. Head, neck and under surface yellowish parrot-green, the yellow predonunant
on the under tail-coverts; on crown a spot of poppy-red; occiput lilac; feathers
of lower neck above interscapular region tipped with deep orange, forming a collar;
wing-coverts greyish pea-green, the lesser series lilac; rest of upper surface
dull parrot- green, almost grey-green on mantle and scapulars, tertiaries margined
with yellow, lower back touched up with lilac; tail-feathers except the 2 middle
ones dark blue for the terminal 2,5 cm; the two middle tail-feathers green,
the shafts produced naked for 40 — 55 mm beyond the rest of the tail, but having
both webs left at the tip, forming a small pear-shaped spatule dark blue, green
towards its base; quills and tail below verditer blue, changing to beryl- green
according to the light, the former black near the shafts, which are themselves black
(Minabassa — Xr. 1942). Iris dark brown; feet greyish blue, claws grey; bill bluish
grey or whitish (X. Celebes — Meyer 7): iris brown; cere black; bill horn -grey
black; feet lead-grey (Tjamba — Platen 12).

Adult female. Above entirely dark parrot - green ; below yellow -green, inclining to orange
on the tips of the under tail-coverts ; tail as in the male, but the bare shafts (21 mm)
of the rackets shorter (Xr. 3983).

Young male (of 2^^^ year ?). Wants the red spot on the crown, the yellow-green of the hind-
neck and orange collar of the adult male; the two middle tail-feathers only about

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

135

15 mm longer than the others, the webs of the projecting portion much narrowed,
hut not formed into rackets. Tliis specimen is an abnormal one, apparently; on the
left side of the head, the lores, superciliary region, ear-coverts and cheeks are
lilac, like the occiput, on the right side the same parts are parrot-green; some of
the lilac colour also appears on the left side of the lower neck, but not on the right
(Manado — ISTr. 6089). In a nearly adult specimen (Nr. 6088) a little hlac appears
on the right ear-coverts, but not on the left.

Young (of 1®* year ?). Like female, but the two middle tail-feathers only projecting as much
narrowed tips about 10 mm beyond the others; the blue terminal portion of the
other tail-feathers less broad than in the adult; rump, upper tail-coverts and the
basal part of the tail-feathers on the right side strongly washed with greyish blue
(N. Celebes — Nr. 6090). Feet blue-grey (Platen 12],

These 2 young dresses may perhaps point to a tendency in young birds to
develop blue tints.

Variation. We have paid much attention to the geographical variation of this species, with
the usual result in such cases — that of discovering how little we really know about
it. The bird certainly varies locally to a considerable extent, but its division into
subsjDecies should be left to the future and not undertaken by the uninitiated, among
whom we include ourselves. In certain localities it is possible to point to some
differences :

1. Mainland of Celebes.

In adult males the occipital patch is lilac or light grey-blue, the broad green
cervical collar is strongly stained with orange on the mantle, the racket-feathers
(differing greatly with age) are long-shafted and comparatively large-headed; lesser
wing-coverts at the carpal bend washed Avith the lilac of the occiput. Measurements:
Aving 170— 192 mm 1); tarsus 19; tail (Avithout the rackets) 80—100; culmen from
cere 21 — 23.

2. Peling and Banggai Islands.

Adult males from these islands have the patch on the occiput and carpal bend
of a someAvhat brighter and clearer blue (less grey) than on the mainland of Celebes ;
the lower half of the cervical collar is deep orange; the rackets are small, the shafts
thereof comparatively short, the size is small: Aving in 5 adult males 167 — 176 mm.

3. Eastern Peninsula, Celebes.

Two adult males from here take a somewhat intermediate position betAveen the
Peling form and that of N. & S. Celebes, though on the Avhole being more like the
latter. Their size is rather small: wing 166, 171 mm.

4. Lembeh Island.

Taa'^o adult males from this island, close to the coast of N. Celebes, have the
occij)ital patch and carpal bend somewhat brighter blue than in our mainland bii'ds,
and the collar above the mantle purer orange. The orange part of the collar is less
bright than in the Peling form, the back is greener and less grey, the rackets are
larger. Wing 176, 186 mm.

1) This represents the extremes of size in 24 specimens. The females do not appear to be smaller
than the males.

136

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

5. Talaut Islands.

Adult males from this group have the patch on the occiput and carpal bend
light bright blue (Cambridge or flax-flower blue — E,idgway IX, 14), purer even
than in the Peling form, and this tint is a good deal more extended on the lesser
wing -coverts near the carpus; cervical collar above the mantle deep orange; size
rather large: wing in 14 examples of different sex and ages 177 — 194 mm.

6. Sangi.

The locality is recorded by Brliggemann (5) alone; he describes the collar
as purer green, with the yellow part over the mantle brighter than in birds from
Celebes, the size large: wing ca. 190 mm.

7. Siao.

Schlegel (f 2) considered the collar above the mantle to be brighter and the
spot on the crown broader i) than in Celebesian males. There are two males in the
Leyden Museum from Siao, examined by one of us; of these one certainly has a
lighter and brighter collar than males from Celebes, the other — perhaps not fully
coloured — is like the latter. Three young specimens from Siao in the Dresden
Museum measure: wing 172 — 187 mm.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

50.0 mm

Length of tibia

51.0

mm

Grreatest breadth of cranium .

28.0

Length of tarso-metatarsus . .

19.0

»

Length of humerus ....

4-2.0

l!>

Length of sternum ....

48.0

»

Length of ulna

51.0

Grreatest breadth of sternum .

27.5

»

Length of radius

50.0

Height of crista sterni . . .

16.0

Length of manus . . . . .

54.0

»

Length of pelvis

54.0

Length of femur

36.0

»

Grreatest breadth of j)elvis . .

28.0

»

Distribution. Celebes and the neighbouring islands: Minahassa (Wallace 2, e 5, 75, Meyer 7,
etc.); Gorontalo District (Eosenb. /*2, v. Duivenb, /’2, Meyer 7); Togian Is.
(IMeyer 7); Lembeh Islands (Xat. Coll.); Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari 4); Buton
S. Miill. h 2, f 1)\ S. Peninsula (Wallace 2, e 5, 75, Platen 72, etc.). — Siao,
Sangi Is. (v. Duivenb. f 2, Nat. Coll.); (?) Sangi Islands (Fischer 5, 74); Talaut
— Karkellang Id. (Nat. Coll.); (?) Bum (Hoedt f 2)\ Peling and Banggai Is.
(Nat. Coll.).

Schlegel records a young female of tliis species killed by Hoedt in the Bay
of Bara on the North-east coast of Burn; we are unable to form an opinion as to
this occurrence.

The Backet-tailed Parrots of the genus Prioniturus range from the Philip-
pines, including Palawan and Sooloo to Celebes and possibly Bum. Nine
distinct forms have been described, two or three of them being local races and
only -worthy of subspecific distinction. P. platurus may fairly be regarded as
the most highly differentiated of the grouj). The adult male excels its com-
23atriot in Celebes, P. flavicans^ by having two patches of colour, a red and a
lilac one on its green head, whereas the male P. flavicans has a blue head

1) Varies with age, and the shape thereof dej>ends much upon the manner of prei^aration of the skin.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

137

above with a red patch thereon. P. mrticalis Sharpe (Ibis 1894, 248, pi. VI),
discovered by Everett in the Sooloo Islands, and P. montanus Grant (Ibis
1895, 466), discovered recently by Whitehead in the mountains of Luzon, are
allies of P. flmicans. We take P. platurus for a highly-differentiated form of
P. luconensis of Luzon, and P. flavicans as an offshoot of the other Philippine
form represented by P. discurus. The young birds are all green, the adult P.
luconensis is also all green, and it is therefore, we believe, of a more ancestral
character than the adult male P. platurus.

The young of this species resemble the young of flavicans in coloration,
but they may be readily distinguished by certain differences between the two
forms pointed out by Sclater (el), Briiggemann (5) and W. Blasius (12):

Prioniturus platurus Prioniturus flavicans

Under tail -coverts: Elongated; in adult as long as the rectrices, Comparatively short.

in young a httle shorter.

Cere round nostrils: Naked Feathered.

Under hill: . . . With a strong indentation on either side The cutting edge much

near the end, the cutting edge at the end more even,
projecting upwards.

Colour of hill: . . Horn-greyish blue Horn-white. (Platen).

Prof. W. Blasius adds that P. platurus has a shorter but stouter upper bill,
as well as its being of a different colour, but this statement we are unable to
confirm from the specimens in the Dresden Museum, in which the upper man-
dible varies much in size. P. platurus is altogether rather the smaller bird.

The Racket-tail-feathers of Prioniturus, Merops, etc. present facts of interest
to students of evolution, and they will be found discussed in our Introduction.
(See figures thereof plates V, VT and VIII.)

According to Meyer P. platurus is solely an inhabitant of the low-lands
and P. flavicans of the mountains of Celebes; but this view must be modified
since Dr. Platen obtained both species in Rurukan at over 3000' (Coll. Nehrk.)
and the Drs. Sarasin both at Tomohon, P. platurus in April, P. flavicans at the
end of May. They may, however, shift their ranges at different seasons.

“The bird flies much during the night, and can often be heard crying on
the wing over one’s head. It feeds in the night on the fruits of gardens and
fields, and is fond of Indian corn, rice, and fruits like Tansa’ [Lansium domesticum
Jack.), ‘pakawa’(?), etc. During the daytime it is seldom to be met with in the
plantations, but is to be seen flying very high and crying loud, seldom alone.
It makes its nest in hollow trees. On trees it does not move much, but sits
quietly. If one is shot down from a group the others do not stir, but lie,
concealed by their green plumage, between the leaves, just as I have noticed
in the case of other Parrots. The natives of the Minahassa assert that, if the
‘kulli-kulli’ is taken by surprise in the rice-fields, it becomes confused, or terrified,
falls down, and then can easily be caught” (Meyer 7, and in Gould’s Bds. of

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celefies (Oct. IStli, 1897). jg

138

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

N. GuinGa pt. VI, 1878). SpGcimens in captivity in Enro]3e were unknown to

Di. Enss (a 2)^ and Dr. Platen failed to obtain living specimens (1^)-

S. Miiller saw it in captivity in Bnton (12) and Meyer once had a tame

specimen at Manado, but it appeared to be very unhappy in its cage (7).

* 44. PRIONITURUS FLAVIOANS Cass.

White-billed Packet Parrot.

Plate VI.

Prioniturus flavicans (1) Cass., Pr. Acad. N. Sc. PMlad. 1853, YI, 73; (2j Sclat., P. Z. S.
1860, 223, 226; (III) Gould, B. Asia YI, pi. 13 (1862); (4) Wall., P. Z. S. 1864,
284, 293; (5) Briiggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 40; (6) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877,
363; (7) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 51, 145; (8) Eclinw., J. f. 0. 1881, 255 (OonsiJ. Psitt.
143); (IX) id., Yogelb. 1878—83, t. XXYD, f. 4; (lOj Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885,
543; (11) W. Bias., Ztsclir, ges. Orn. 1885, 212, 213—218; id., ib. 1886, 83; (12)
Platen, Gefied. Y^elt 1887, 219, 231; (13) Bias., Ornis 1888, 560; (14) Salvad.,
Cat. B. XX, 1891, 416; (15) Sharpe, Bus 1894, 248; (16) Grant, Bus 1895, 466;
(17) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Xr. S, p. 5.

a. Prioniturus discurus (1) Wall. (nec. Y.), Ibis 1860, 141.

b. Eclectus flavicans (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Psitt. 1864, 45; (2) id.. Eer. Psitt. 1874, 23.

c. Pionias flavicans (1) Pinsch, Papag. 1868, II, 399.

“KuUi-Kulli” and “Cacutua birotti” (Malay), Minahassa: — not distinguished by the natives
from P. <platurn8 (Meyer 7).

Por further synonymy -and references see Salvadori 14,

Figures and descriptions. Gould III, Eeichenow IX, 8; Sclater 2; Briiggemann .9;
Lenz 6; Schlegel 6 7; Pinsch c 7; W. Blasiiis 77; Salvadori 14.

Adult male. Parrot-green, darkest on the wings, lighter on the sides of bead and face;
breast oclnaceous gi’een washed with golden, deeper and brighter on the bind
neck, forming a sort of collar; pileum cerulean blue; in the middle of it on the
crown a large patch of poppy-red; abdomen, flanks and under tail-coverts
yellower green than the back; under wing-coverts bright green; the two middle
tail-feathers above green, bearing long rackets, with black spatules; the other
tail-feathers green, black at the ends and on the inner webs; tail below glossy
vercliter blue, changing with the light to a brighter blue; wing below also verditer blue
on the inner webs, black at the ends and near the shafts of the feathers; first
primary edged with bluish green on the outer web above (C 11008 — IMinahassa,
Aug. — Sept.). "Bns grey-brown; bill horn-Avhite ; feet blue-gTey" Elaten in Mus.
Xehrkorn, Xr. 892).

Adult female. Like the male, but without the red spot on the croAAm, and the blue of the
pileum less extended; the racket-feathers equally long (lengdh of naked shaft with
spatule 86 mm). (Mnahassa, Aug. — Sept. — 0 11009). Peet ash-gi'ey (Platen in
Mus. Xehrk.).

Young male (in second year?). Like the female, but the blue of the head less extended; one
or two red feathers on the croAvn; the racket-feathers not yet properly formed, onl}'
25 mm longer than the other rectrices, and the shaft narrowly Avebbed (Xr. 6085).

Younger, Only a little blue on head, the blue-tipped feathers with a few green ones mter-
mixed (Xr. 6086),

Birds of Celebes; Psittacidae.

139

First plumage. Tlie young ones are quite green (Meyer 7).

Measurements. Wing 183 — 195 mni (14 specimens); tail 95 — 104 (without the rackets); tarsus
19; cuhnen from cere 22| — 25.

Distribution. North Celebes, the Togian Islands and (?) the Sangi Islands. — Minahassa
fForsten 2, b 1, Wallace a 1, Meyer 7, etc., Platen 12)\ Banka Id. (Nat. Coll,
in Dresd. Mus.); Lembeh Id. (Nat. Coll); Grorontalo District — Limhotto (Meyer 7);
Gorontalo (Eiedel in Dresd. Mus.); Togian Islands (Meyer 7); (?) Sangi Islands
(Brllggem. 5),

Observation. Brllggemann (5) received a single specimen, marked “Sangir (J*”, amongst
31 specimens from Dr. Fischer and Dr. Biedel. It presented some slight differences
of coloration, though, as the author remarked, these might have been due to im-
maturity. Further evidence should he obtained before the Sangi Islands be admitted
as a habitat of P. flavicans or of a local form of it. It would be a matter of no
surprise if these islands or at least some of them should be found to harbour races
of both P. flavicans and platuriis.

That P. flavicans on the mainland has only been found in the northern Penin-
sula up to the i)resent is remarkable.

This Backet-tailed Parrot is, to our mind, by no means so highly differen-
tiated a species as P. platurus., and the nearest affinities of it and its near
allies, P. verticalis Sharpe (Bull. B. O. C. 1893, X, Nov. 28) of the Sooloo Is-
lands (similarly marked, but differing in the shades of red and blue on head and
greenish on under surface) and P. montanus Grant of Luzon are not difficult
to find. The female and immature male of P. flavicans differ from the adult
P. discuriis (Vieill.) — both male and female — of the Philippines in little,
except that the Celebesian form is a good deal larger, the blue of the crown
less pale, and the underside of the quills and tail paler and greener. The
adult male of Prioniturus flavicans has the addition of a poppy-red patch on
the crown of the head ; it is therefore most likely that P. flavicans is derived
from a form similar to P. discurus — or, rather, its ancestor — the adult male
of which in Celebes has become larger and obtained the addition of a red patch
on the head. This view appears to us more plausible than the converse hy-
pothesis, that P. discurus is descended from P. flavicans, and that the adult
male of it does not attain to its full development in the Philippines.

The genus Prioniturus has a very restricted range over the Philippines and
the Celebes group exclusive as far as is known of Sula, though it may occur
on Burn and in this case no doubt also on Sula.

The known forms from the Philippines, except perhaps P. verticalis and
montanus, have a simpler, less specialized appearance than the two Celebesian
ones. Over the greater part of the former occurs P. discurus (V.) and on
Luzon P. luconensis Steere and montanus also, whereas Mindoro, Palawan and
Sooloo have forms and species of their own: P. mindorensis Steere, P. cyani-
ceps Sharpe, P. suluensis W. Bias, and P. verticalis Sharpe, the two last
on different islands of the Sooloo group. A better knowledge will perhaps
prove that there are further differences amongst the specimens from the different
islands of the Philippine group.

140

Birds of Celebes: Psittaoidae.

GENUS TANYGNATHUS Wagl.

This genus is always distinguishable from Prioniturus by its strongly gradu-
ated, almost wedge-shaped tail, as well as by its larger size and larger, broader
bill. The colour is chiefly yellowish parrot-green, relieved on some of the
upper parts by blue, occasionally by yellow and black, but no red, except on the
bill, where it is found as a rule, though sometimes in the male alone. Wing below
dusky, more shiny where it rests upon the body. There are four well distin-
guished species, of which some seven additional local forms have been described.
Range: from the Philippines to Celebes and Sumba, through the Moluccas as
far as N. W. New Guinea and the Tenimber Islands.

* 45. TANYGNATHUS MUELLERI (Miill. ScliL).

Celebesian Green Parrot.

This Parrot varies geographically in size. In Sangi, following a general
rule there, the birds are very large, always exceeding the dimensions of those
of the mainland of Celebes. In Talaut they are somewhat smaller, small indi-
viduals from there being occasionally, though very rarely, equalled or exceeded
in size by large ones of Celebes, w'^hile large individuals are similar to Sangi
birds. We prefer to group and label the forms as follows:

i 1. The typical Tanygnathus muelleri.

а. ? Psittacus sumatranns (1) Raffl., Tr. Z. S. 1822, Xm, 281.

б. Psittacus muelleri Tenim. in Mus, Leyd.; (1) M. et S., Verb. Xatiuirk. Cuiimi. 1839—44,

108, 182 fBiiton); S. Miill., Reiz. Ind. Arcliip. 1858, n, 69, 70; Russ, PreiiKll.
Stubeuvog. 1881, 452.

c. Tanygnathus sumatranns (I) Souance, Icon. Perr. 1857, pi. 46; (2) Briiggem., Abb.

Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 38.

d. Tanygnathus muelleri (1) Bp., Consp. Av. 1850, I, 5; (Il'j Souance, Icon. Perr. 1857,

pi. 45; (3) Wall., P. Z. S. 1864, 286, 294; (4) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VUI, 31
fpt. excl. Samar, Sangi); (5) Garrod, P. Z. S. 1874, 587; (6) Salvad., Ann.
Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, ATI, 644; (7) Meyer, Bus 1879, 47, 145; (8) Salvad., Orii.
Pap. 1880, I, 135; (9) Krukenb., A^ergl. jibjsiol. Studien 1882, 213; (10) Rcbnw.,
J. f. O. 1881, 245; Consp. P.sitt. 1881, 133; id., AMgelb. 1878—83, t. XXVIt,
1 9; (XII) Meyer, Vogclskel. 1883, t. XLV; (13) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 542;
(14) ^Y. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 209; (15) id., Ornis, 1888, IV, 556; (16)
Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes 1889, 59, 86 (Talisse); (17) Salvad., Cat. B. XX,
1891, 430; (18) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Reise Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 273; (19)
M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 5; (20) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, j)- S;
(21j Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 160.

e. ? Psittacus leucorhynchus (Ij Reinw., Reiz. Ind. Arcbip. in 1821, 1858, 592 (Tondano).
/■. Tanygnathus albirostris (1) Wall., P. Z. 8. 1862, 336 (Celebes, Sula); 1864, 286, 294;

(2) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1868, 262; 1871, 494; (3) Rcbnw., J. f. O. 1881, 246; Consp.
Psitt. 1881, 134; (4) Dallwitz, J. f. 0. 1885, 103; (5) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885,543.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

141

g. Electus muelleri (1) ScliL, Miis. P.-B. Psitt. 1864, 48; (2) id., N. T, D. 1865, HI, 185,
pt. ; (3) Pinsch, Papag. 1868, II, 357; (4) id. et Conrad, Verli. z.-b. Ges. Wien
1873, 2, 14 (sep. copy); (5) ScbL, Pev. Psitt. 1874, 25; (6) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877,
361; (8) Joest, Das Holontalo 1883, 106.

“Olia”, Gorontalo, Joest g 8.

“Cacatua idiu”, Malay name, Meyer 7.

“Danga”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen 14.

“Kaleak”, Natives near Manado, Nat. Coll, in Miis. Dresd.

“Keja”, “Kejak” or “Keak”, E. Celebes, Peling, and Banggai, Nat. Coll.

For further synonymy and references see Salvador! dl7.

Figures and descriptions. Sonance c? ZZ, cl] Beiclienow d XI] Meyer d XII (skeleton);
Pinsch g 3] Briiggeniann c 2; Salvador! d 6, d 17] W. Blasins d 14.

Adult male. Head, neck, mantle, scapulars, upper tail-coverts, and entire under
parts yellow-green, brighter on the head; lower back and rump bright turquoise-
blue; wings j)arrot-green, the lesser coverts and some of the inner median coverts
margined broadly with blue, darker than that of the rump, the other wing-coverts
and tertiaries margined with yellov-green ; tail above parrot-green, yellowish at the
tip; tail below golden olivaceous, shafts below white, above blackish; quills below
shining brownish mouse-grey (Tjamba, S. Celebes, April 1878 • — C 10423). ‘‘Iris
light yellow; cere brovuiish; bill coral-red, point hghter; feet grey-brown (Platen).
Another old male (Mus. Nehrkorn) labelled by Dr. Platen, Rimukan, has: “bill
sealing-wax-red (lackrot); cere grey-black; feet yellow-brown.”

Adult female. Like the male, but duller and greener; mantle and scapulars parrot-green
like the wings ; little or no trace of blue tips to the lesser wing-coverts (Lunbotto —
C 1904). “Bis light yellow; bill horn-wliite; cere grey-black; feet yellow-brown”
{Q Rurukan, Platen in Mus. Nehrkorn).

The female may be at once distinguished from the old male by its green mantle
and scapulars, and white bill, tliough in some females (perhaps very old ones) tins
may assume a reddish colour.

Young male. Head duller darker green than in the female, otherwise like it; lower back
and rump didler blue than in the old male. “Iris light yellow; cere bro'svnish; bill
light red; feet brown-grey” (Tjamba, 25*’^ April, 1878 — Platen C 11206).

Measurements. Wing (34 simcimens) 196—212 mm; tail 121, 137 (largest- and shortest-
vinged specimens); culmen from cere 30— 34J; tarsus 19—21. Pemales as a rule
are a trifle smaller than old males, and the bill is smaller.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

62.0 mm

Length of tibia

56.0

mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

CO

Length of tarso-metatarsus

19.0

Length of humerus ....

46.6

Length of sternum ....

50.2

>>

Length of ulna

55.5 »

Greatest breadth of sternum .

32.2

»

Length of radius

52.0

Height of crista sterni .

15.7

Length of manus

59.0 »

Length of pelvis

60.7

Length of femur

39.6 »

Greatest breadth of j^elvis

28.7

»

Distribution. Buton (S. Muller b 1)] S. W. Peninsula — Macassar (Wall, d 3, dl7, Con-
rad g 4), from Maros to Tanette (Meyer J 7, Weber d 18), Tjamba (Platen d 14)]
N. Peninsula — Minahassa fPorsten g 1, Wall, d 3, d 17, Rosenb. g 5, etc.), Goron-
talo District (Rosenb. g 5, Meyer d 7), Lembeh Id. (Meyer), Tahssi Id. (Guillem.
d 13, Hickson d 16)] Banka, Manado tua, and Mantehage Is. (Nat. Coll); Togian
Islands (Meyer d 7); 8. shore of Gulf of Tomini — Posso and Todjo (Meyer d 7);

142

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

East Celebes (Nat. Coll.); Pebng and Banggai (Nat. Coll.); Sula Islands — Sida Besi
and Sula Mangoli (Allen f 1, d 17, Beriist. g 5, Hoedt g 5).

Observation. We are unable to find that this subspecies differs in North and South Celebes
and Buton, and the Islands Banka, Manado tua and Mantehage off the Minahassa,
the size is equal in all parts of the island; there is considerable difference in coloration
between the old male and the female or young male, and old male specimens vary
amongst themselves in the same locahty (Manado), having the blue tint of the rump
lighter or darker, etc.

2. Tanygnathus muelleri sangirensis M. & Wg.

h. Eclectus muelleri, partim, (1) Schh, N. T. D. 1865, m, 185.

i. Tanygnathus muelleri, partim, (IjWM,, Tr. Z. S. 1872, Ym, 31; (2) Salvad., Ann.

Mus. Civ. Gen. 1876, IX, 53; (3) Echnw., J. f. 0. 1881, 245 (Consp. Psitt. 133);
(4) Meyer, Isis 1884, 6; (5) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 556; (6) Hickson, Nat. in
N. Celebes 1889, 155; (7) Salvad., Cat. B. XX 1891, 431 (Sangi).

y. Tanygnathus muelleri sangirensis (1) M. & Wg., J. f. O. 1894, 113.

“Kakatua”, Great Sangi, Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.

Diagnosis. Like the typical T. muell&)'i, but much larger; wing 226—235 mm as against 205,
the average size in Celebes.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cero

a. (C 12696) ad. [<^] Gr. Sangi, 21. YH. 93

226

143

23

33

h. ^C 1184) imm. ry’ Gr. Sangi

235

145

24

35.5

c. (C 12695) [$] Gr. Sangi 25. YH. 93

231

137

—

31

d. (Mus. Tring) [Q] Gr. Sangi 14. YH. 93

227

130

—

29.5

e. (C 1180) juv. Gr. Sangi . . , ,

230

134

22

31

Distribution. Great Sangi (Meyer, Nat. Coll, and Leyd. Mus.).

3. Tanygnathus muelleri — sangirensis.

k. Tanygnathus muelleri sangirensis (1) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 239; (2) iid., Abb. Mus.
Dresd. 1895 Nr. 9, p. 2.

“Areaa” or “Area uwawi”, Talaut, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Intermediate between the Celebes and Sangi forms.

Measurements. Wing (19 examples) 210 — 227 mm; tail c. 140 mm; culmen from cere
c. 32 mm.

Distribution. Talaut Islands: Kabruang and Karkellang (Nat. Coll.).

Observation. There is, as a rule, more blue on the vfing-coverts about the bend of the wing
in Talaut and Sangi birds than in those of Celebes, but this character varies much
in different individuals and with age.

It is curious that no form of T. muellen has been found on Siao or the other
islands between Celebes and Sangi. It can hardly be that the islands are too small
to support two forms of Tanygnathus, T. megalorhynchus bemg there already, for
Kabruang and Karkellang in the Talaut group are inhabited by three species of this
genus, and the former island seems to be but little larger than Siao.

Miiller’s Green Parrot has two very close allies in T, everetti, Tweecld.

of Samar, Panay and Mindanao, and T. hurhidgei Sharpe of the Sooloo Islands.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

143

These three species form a group, which stands nearer to T, luconensis (L.) of
the Philij^pines than to the other members of the genus. T. luconensis differs
chiefly by having the head above blue when adult. At first sight it appears as
if a certain interest attaches to the fact that now and then young birds of
T. muelleri show traces of a blue head; we have found this in a specimen from
Sangi, in one from East Celebes, in one from Banggai. It may be a hint that
the blue-headed form represents an earlier stage in the development of T. muelleri.
But the young of the blue-headed T. luconensis has the head green and the bill
red like the adult; it therefore seems to suggest that a form like T. muelleri was
an early stage in the development of T. luconensis! It is just possible that two
stages in the phylogenetic history of the race is betrayed by the young of the
two species, but it seems quite unsafe as yet even to attempt to interpret the
meaning of the facts.

The question of the significance of the red or white bill in this sj^ecies —
points which have led to its being split into two — must, we think, undoubtedly
be answered according to the conclusion of Prof. W. Blasius — a conclusion
at which indeed we had independently arrived from over 60 specimens examined
— that the white-billed individuals are females or young males, the red-
billed individuals are old mdules (d 14). Occasionally females, as Briiggemann
says, acquire a reddish bill (c 2). In 1871, in order to solve the question whether
the white- and red-billed Parrots were one and the same species or different
ones, Meyer procured a very large series of specimens and came to the con-
clusion that the bill of the young bird is white, and gradually assumes a red
colour as the bird grows older, and deep red with age; but it was not then
known — as, indeed, it seems to have escaped ornithologists generally up to
the present — that the female closely resembles the young. Dr. Hickson
arrived at a somewhat different conclusion: “My boys and I shot a great many

of these birds, partly to settle this vexed question and partly for food, and I
found without exception that those with scarlet bills w^ere males and those with
white bills were females” (d 16). We do not know Avhether Dr. Hickson was
aware that the young male is like the female in coloration, but his observations
taken together with those of Meyer and others of Dr. Platen made on the
spot (h 2), and of the Drs. Sarasin, and with the fact that in Zoological Gardens
two or more cases are known of examples, which arrived with a white bill, but
acquired a red bill subsequently (see Finsch ^3, W. Blasius dll., Salvadori
d 17)., all serve to prove that females and young males have white bills (some-
times reddish), and old males red bills ^).

Little is known of the habits of this Parrot. A living one, which was in

ij A series of 37 specimens, collected in Aug.-Se]3t. 1892 for the Dresden Museum (though not sexed)
vary as follows: 5 with the yellow-green scapulars and mantle of old males have the hill very deep crimson;
2 or 3 others with the yellow-green colour less strongly developed (younger males) have the hill red ; 2 others,
getting yellowish green on the shoulders, have the hill white (immature males); the remainder haA^e generally
a parrot-green hack and white hill (females and young males).

144

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

Dr. Meyer’s possession at Manado, fed on rice and bananas, and was generally
unintelligent, idle, quiet, or grumbling (d 7). In North Celebes the species is
very common, and Dr. Hickson sjDeaks of their resorting to the lower branches
of the trees towaids sunset, and keeping up a constant chattering noise until
past midnight. Does it feed in the night like Prionitwus platurus'l In South
Celebes (Ijamba) it appears to be much rarer, as Dr. Platen’s graphic description
shows. ANhen one is on the watch in the woods of South Celebes, or passing
through them as noiselessly as possible, Muller’s Parrot, anxiously avoiding open
places and keeping by jDreference in the darkness of the wood, may often be
seen, usually alone, more rarely in twos or threes, as it flies past with its heavy
flight and disappears apparently without leaving a trace in the crown of a thick-
leaved tree. On remaining quiet and keeping the spot in sight, it is noticed,
often not until after a lapse of half an hour or more, that the birds, which
during this time have been sitting perfectly motionless and gazing at us, at last
become lively and go about their daily duties, without however letting a sound
be heard. In freedom they make the same quiet and serious imiDression as in
captivity, never excite the attention of the hunter, but on the other hand contrive
through motionless behaviour to be so deceptive that the eye passes them over
without notice, even when such a bird is sitting openly on a bough. A single
time my Malay hunter informed me as something remarkable, that he had seen
a flight of six exam23les of this Parrot. As to its breeding, I could unfortunately
learn nothing, for the nesting j)laces are all to be found amongst inaccessible
steep cliffs, and besides the natives show no interest whatever in caj)turing and
rearing such birds” (h2).

f 46. ? TANYGNATHUS LUCONENSIS (L.).

Blue-headed Green Parrot.

a. Psittacus lucionensis Linn., S. N. 1766, I, 146 (ex Brisson).
h. Eclectus luconensis (1) Pinscli, Papag. 1868, H, 362.

e. Tanygnatlius luzonensis (1) Briiggem., Abh. Ver. Bremen, 1876, V, 38; (2) Koch, Verz.
Yogelb. aus Cel. u. Sangliir, Pebr. 1876, \\ (3) Salvad., Ann. Mns. Civ. Glen. 1876,
IX, 53.

Tanygnatbus luconensis (1) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1871, 479; (2) Meyer, Isis 1884, 6; (3) Salvad.,
Cat. B. XX, 1891, 424.

d. Tanygnathus lucionensis (1) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, IV, 559.

For synonymy and references see Salvador! 3.

Adult male. Parrot-green, yellower below and on hind neck, mantle and uj^per tail-coverts;
crown and occiput light cerulean-blue; feathers of the lower back tii)ped with
paler (turquoise-) blue; wing- coverts blue, broadly bordered with dark golden
ochraceous, the greater series green, with terminal part blue and light green and
yellow-brown margins, the primary coverts without these marguis, the least series
(bend of wing) black, ti]oped with blue and golden ochraceous; wings below shining
dusky; tail beloAv yellow shaded with olive (Bataan, Luzon — Xr. 3993). Wing 190;
tail 124; tarsus 19; culmen from cere 31 mm.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

145

Young male. Like tlie adult, but with only a trace of blue on tbe head; the mantle parrot-
green; the back darker blue, which colour is much more extended; the wing-coverts
dark parrot-green, — darkest at the edge of the wing, — bordered with dark golden-
ochraceous (Luzon — Nr. 3988).

Distribution. “Philippine Islands including Palawan and Mantanani (small island to the
North-west of Borneo) and also the Sooloo Islands” (Salvad. c 5); Sangi (Fischer 1).

Observation. This species is included in the avifauna of the Oelebesian province in virtue of
six specimens in the Darmstadt Museum labelled by Dr. Fischer as coming from
the Sangi Islands — most likely Great Sangi — and recorded by Briiggemann.
Like Prof. W. Blasius we see no reason why the indication Sangi should be con-
sidered as possibly erroneous, though confirmatory evidence of the occurrence of this
widely-spread species, or a local race of it, in Great Sangi — where it was not ob-
tained byHoedt, v. Eosenberg, van Duivenbode, Meyer , Bruijn, nor Platen
— would be welcome.

This species varies a good deal in size, specimens from the Sooloo Islands and
Talaut being the largest yet recorded. They also vary in coloration: the two spe-
cimens described above from Luzon — especially the young one — have the blue on
the back well developed; in three from Cebu (adult and young) tliis part is parrot-
green without any blue; one from Palawan {(^ juv.) has only a slight trace of blue;
in two from Mindanao (q^, $, immature) it is better developed, though not so strongly
as in the Luzon specimens, from which they further differ slightly in other points.
Briiggemann’s Sangi specimens have “the hind part of head scarcely washed with
bluish; rump sea-blue; lesser wing-coverts blackish green with light green borders,
the greater ones dark green bordered Avith greenish yellow. Wing 187 — 195; tail
119 — 127 mm. From the above series (of six), Avhich contains different degrees of age, it
may be seen that the blue on the head increases in intensity and extent with age,
while the same colour on the rump disappears more and more, and at last (through
attrition of the feathers [!]) becomes quite lost” (7).

The Sangi brnds seem from the description to correspond with those of Talaut,
as far as the intense blue of the head and pure green back of fully adult birds is
concerned.

Only a large series of specimens from all the different islands can prove whether
these differences of coloration are bound to the locahty.

^ * 47. TANYGNATHUS TALAUTENSIS M. & Wg.

Talautese Blue-headed Green Parrot.

a. Tanygnathus luzonensis (nec Linn.) (1) M. &Wg,, J. f. 0. 1894, 239.

Tanygnathus talautensis (1) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 9, p. 2.

“Area rusipang”, Karkellang, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Similar to T. luconensis but larger, the head above and ear-coverts cerulean-blue,
sharply cut off from the olivaceous yellow of the neck, becoming green on forehead
and loral region; malar region washed with blue (ad. Karkellang — C 13766, type
of species; and others).

Young. The occiput only washed with blue ; the vsdng-coverts green, scarcely any blue shoAving,
the green-yellow edgings lighter than in the adult, the carpal region green, not black
(Karkellang — C 15265).

Measurements. (20 specimens not including young ones) wing 202 — 222 mm, average 210 — 215;
tail 115 — 142; bill from cere c. 33.5 — 39; tarsus c. 20.

Meyer & Wigles wortli, Birds of Colelaes (Oct. ISth, 1807).

19

146

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

Distribution. Talaiit Islands — Kabruang and Karkellang (Hat. Coll.).

Observation. Tins species is a large and handsome local race of the Blue-headed Green
Parrot, T. luconensis, of the Philippines from Avhich it is easily distinguishahle, accord-
ing to oin experience hy its much larger size and fine blue head. Philijopine specimens
measured hy ns have the wing 174—189 mm, hut Salvadori (Cat. B. XX, 426) re-
cords the wing as being 190—201 mm. Specimens from Manila and Sooloo indeed
evidently attain to the dimensions of average T. tcdautensiSj as the wing of one from
Sooloo is given hy Salvadori as 211 mm, tail 132 mm, but we prefer not to make
T. talautensis a subspecies, with these forms as the necessary connecting links, since
we do not heheve that Philippine birds ever acquire such a blue head as those of
Talaut. Possibly the Sangi birds mentioned in the preceding article will he found
to affect this question.

- 48. TANYGNATHUS MEGALORHYNCHUS (Bodd.).

Big-billed Green Parrot.

Under several forms this bird ranges from Talaut to the Moluccas, Sumba,
Timorlaut, and New Guinea. In the Southern Moluccas and in Timorlaut,

respectively, the birds have been struck off as species, T. affinis Wall, and

T. siibaffinis Sclat. The rest have been called T. megalorhynckus by Salva-
dori, but the Sumba birds were separated as a subspecies by Meyer. Those
from Djampea seem to be intermediate. There seem to be other local variations,
as well as much individual variation, but the question demands greater study
than we feel disposed to devote to it, and the following method of nomenclature
will answer our purpose.

1. The typical Tanygnathus megalorhynchus.

a. Psittacus megalorhynchos (1) Bodd., Tab! PL Enl. 1783, 45,

b. Perroquet a bee couleur de sang, (I) Levaill., Perr. 1805, pi. S3.

c. Psittacus macrorbynchus (1) Gm., S. N. 1788, I, 338; (JI) Shaw, Gen. Zool. 1811, 1 1 1 ,

2, p. 530, pi. 79; (3) Beinw., Eeis. n. Ind. Archip. in 1821, 1858, 592.

d. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1864, 285, 294; (2) Meyer, J. f. 0. 1873,

405; (3) Brliggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 37; (4) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ.
Gen. 1876, IX, 52; (5) Meyer, Bowl. Orn. IMisc. 1878, m, 127; (6) id._, Biis 1879,
48; (7) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 121); Agg. I, 1889, 30; (VIII) Bchnw., Yogelh.
1878 — 83, t. XI, f. 6; (9) Meyer, Yerh. z.-h. Ges. Wien 1881, 762; Isis 1884, 6;
(10) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, lY, 557; (IJ) Hickson, Nat. in X. Celebes 1889, 158;
(12) Salvad., Cat. B. XX, 1891, 426.

e. Eclectus megalorhynchus (1) Schl., N. T. D. 1866, HI, 184; (2) Finscli, Papag. H, 1868,

351; C^) Schl., Bev. Psitt. 1874, 23 pt.

‘-‘Kalea”, Sangi Islands, v. Bosenb. e 2.

“Karea”, Gt. Sangi and Siao, Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.

For further synonymy and references see Salvadori d 12.

Figures and descriptions. Levaillant h 1\ Shaw c II\ BeichenoAv d VIII] Pinsch e 2]
Salvadori d 7, dl2\ W. Blasius dlO.

Male. Head, neck, and sides of breast yellow j)arrot-green ; sides and under wing-
coverts deep yellow, the greater series sulphur-yellow with dusky bases; rest of

4

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

147

under surface of body greenish yellow; wings above dark blue, tbe lesser coverts,
the smaller scapulars adjoining them, and some of the middle and greater coverts
furtiiest from the edge of the wing, black ; some of the lesser coverts and the scapulars
broadly tipped with blue, the middle and greater coverts broadly bordered with deep
yellow, the terminal part of some of the primaries green, the tertiaries green bordered
with yellow-green, the longer scapulars green Avith a black spot surrounded by blue
about the end of the shaft; quills below shining broAvnish smoke -grey; lower
back and rump turquoise -blue; upper tail-coverts yellow apple-green; tail
parrot-green, yellowish at tip; below golden, shaded with olive (Tabukan, Sangi,
Nr. 13268).

“Iris light yelloAv; bill sealing-Avax red; feet grey-greenish” (Platen dlO).

Female. Has the bill smaller than the male (Sal v ad. dl2']\ feet grey-green (d 10).

Young. Has the scapulars and upper wing-coverts not so black and more greenish, and the
yellow edges of the same paler (Salvad. d 12).

jments.

1 Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (Nr. 13268) Sangi

255

147

23

50

h. (C 12693) ad. Gr. Sangi, 23. VH. 93

266

165

—

51

c. (C 12692) imm. Gr. Sangi, 18. VH. 93

248

152

—

49.5

d. (C 12694) ad. Gr. Sangi, 17. YII. 93

248

153

—

46

e. (Mus. Tring) ad. Gr. Sangi, 26. VH. 93

255

160

—

46

f. (Mus. Tring) ad. Gr, Sangi, 25. YH. 93

244

142

—

45.5

g. (C 12589) ad, Siao, 6. YH. 93

255

160

—

50

h. (C 12590) juA^ Siao, 8. YH, 93

247

158

—

45

i. (Mus, Tring) ad. Siao, 4. YH. 93

255

160

—

44.5

k. (Mus. Tring) ad. Siao, 5. YH. 93

239

146

—

44

/. (Mus. Tring) ad. Siao, 7. "YH. 93

244

158

—

48

m, (C 13431) ad. Tagulandang, 1. YHI. 94

262

162

—

51

n. (C 13432) juv. Tagulandang, 7. Viii. 94

244

150

— -

42

0. (C 13435) ad. Gunungaih, Tagulandang, 25. YHI. 94.

256

150

—

51

p. (C 13434) ad. Gunungapi, Tagulandang, 27, YHI. 94,

257

160

—

49

q. i^C 13433) ad. Biarro, 4. IX. 94

252

150

—

50

r. (Mus. Tring) [q^] Mantehage, lY. 93

250

150

20

46

s. (C 12265) [Q] Mantehage, 27. lY. 93

250

145

24

43

t. (Nr. 13266) Manado, Celebes

245

145

23

54

u. (Nr. 13267) (Q ?) Manado, Celebes

236

143

—

46.5

V. (Nr. 1949) (2?) New Guinea

245

149

21

43

w. (Nr. 3436) ($?) Moluccas

237

145

20.5

45

tail 130 — 155; bill from cere 43 — 53 mm.

Distribution. North Celebes — (?)Manado (v. Musschenbroek d 5), (?)Tondano (HeinAvardt
c 5); Mantehage or Mantrau Id. near Manado (Meyer d 5, d d, Nat. Coll.); Biarro and
Tagulandang (Nat. Coll.); Sangi Islands — Siao (Hoedt e 3, Nat. Coll.); Grreat Sangi
(Wall, dl, Bosenb. e3, Hoedt e 3, Meyer, Fischer d 3, Bruijn(i4, Platen d 10,
Nat. Coll.); Talaut Islands — Saha (Hickson d 11); Karkellang and Kabruang (Nat.
Coll.); Hahnahera Group — Halmahera, Obi, Moor, Tidore, Motir, Ternate, Batchian,
Makian, Morotai, Weeda; Western Papuan Islands — Sorong, Mysol, Salvatti, Ba-
tanta, Waigiou, Guebeh; W. coast of N. New Guinea (Salvad. d 7, d 12).

19*

148

Birds of Celebes; Psittacidae.

2. Tanygnathus megalorhynclms sumbensis (Meyer).

/. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus var. sumbensis (1) Meyer, YerL z -b Ges Wien 1881
XXI, 762.

g. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus (1) Salvadori, Cat. B. XX. 1891, 428 footnote.

h. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus sumbensis (1) Hartert, Xot. Zool. 1896, 588.

Diagnosis. Under wing-coverts greenish yellow, instead of deep yellow; under surface greener

than in the tyj)ical form.

Distribution. Sumha (Eiedel f 1. Doherty hi).

3. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus — sumbensis.

i. Tanygnathus megalorhynchus (1) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 176.

Diagnosis. Intermediate (C 15857 — 58).

Distribution. Djampea Island (Everett).

Observation. Mr. Hartert [h 1] considers these specimens more like the t}y>ical form, we
more like sumbensis-., probably an intermediate position will not be far wrong.

The first notice of the occurence of this Parrot in Celebes was made in 1821
by Eeinwardt, who simply mentions that Psittaciis ornatus, Ps. macrorh^nchos
(i. e. megalorhynchus) and Ps. leucorhynchus were the three species of Parrot met
with by him at Lake Tondano, but he may have perhaps misnamed the red-billed
muelleri: macrorhynchos. In 1871 it was found by Meyer on Mantehage, a
small island north of Manado about 8V2 miles off the coast, — not in the Togian
Islands as stated by Count Salvadori (d 12). Again in 1879 two specimens
were sent to the Dresden Museum from van Mu ssc he nbroek with the locality
“Menado” attached in that gentleman’s writing. In the Sangi Islands the species
abounds (d 5)-, it is also, according to Dr. Hickson, not uncommon in the Ta-
laut Islands. As was remarked by Meyer in 1879, T. megalorhynchus appears
to be a species which is extending its range.

The Sumba birds have all greenish yellow under wing-coverts, instead of
deep yellow, by which means the two forms may most readily be distinguished;
also the under surface is greener — not so decidedly yellow-green, as in speci-
mens of the typical form. Seen from above the two forms are not to be
distinguished.

T. megalorhynchus with its allies, T. affinis (Ceram group) and suhaffinis
(Timorlaut) forms a very well marked section of the genus Tanygnathus^ with
great bloated-looking red bills, inhabiting the Moluccas, some of the Papuan
Islands, etc. T. megalorhynchus with its blue wings and strongly contrasted colours
on the wing-coverts appears to be the most highly differentiated form of the
three. The connection of this section with the other members of the genus
appears to be through T. affinis of Bum etc. and T. luconensis of the Philipjjines.
T. luconensis., though much smaller, has like the megalorhynchus group its bill
red in both sexes and in the young (upper mandible red, lower orange in adult,
according to Salvadori), and the coloration of the wings shows much similarity
to T. ajfnis', the head of the adult T. luconensis is, however, blue or grejdsh

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

149

lilac. In immature specimens of T. ajjims (Nrs. 3437, 3438), wliich are assuming
the green head of matiuity, considerable traces of blue may be seen on the
crown. This appearence perhaps gives a hint that T. luconensis represents an
earlier stage of development. The genus Tanygnathus has its chief centre in the
Celebes-Philippine province.

GENUS LORICULUS Blytli.

Map VI.

The TiOrikeets are of small size — from that of a Blue Tit to that of a
Lark — , the general colour yellowish parrot-green, with the rump and upper
tail-coverts always red (accept in L. tener): the tail is short, half the length of
the wing, or less; the first three primaries longest and almost subequal; tail
below and wing below (where it rests upon the body) verditer-blue ; bill rather
long, and not much hooked, longer than deep; the reversed toe nearly equal to
the middle (third) one in length. 23 species and subspecies have been described,
with a range from India as far as New Guinea and the New Britain group.

^ * 49. LORICULUS EXILIS Sc hi.

Green Lorikeet.

Loriculus exilis (1) Sclil., Ned. Tdsclir. Dieik. 1866, III, 185; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872,
YUT, 32; (3) Schl., Rev. Psitt. 1871, 60; (IV) Ilowl., Om. Misc. 1877, II, 243,
pi. LIX; (5) Meyer, op. cit. 233, 244 — 247; (6) Rosenb., Malay. Arclfip. 1878, 274,
593; (7) Meyer, Rjis 1879, 52; (VIII) id., Vogelskel. 1882, t. XXII; (9) W. Bias.,
J. f. 0. 1883, 134; (10 j Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 544; (11) Salvad., Cat. B. XX,
1891, 521; (12) M. & Wg., Abli. Miis. Dresden 1896 Nr. 1, p. 4.
a. Coryllis exilis (I) Piuscli, Papag. 1868, II, 729, pi. 5; (P^^) Frenzel, Mtsclir. Ver.
Scliutze Vogelw. 1880, 8, 11, 22; (II) Rclinw., Yogclb. 1878 — 83, t. XY, f. 6;
(3) id., J. f. O. 1881, 226 (Oonsp. Psitt. 114); (4) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 206, 230.
h. Psittacus exilis (1) Russ, Freindl. Stubenvog. 1881, ID, 817.

“Tintis kitjil” (little Lorikeet), Malay name, Manado, Meyer 7.

Figures and descriptions. Rowley IF; Rclinw. all] Meyer FJ/I (skeleton) 5\ Schlegeli;
Finscb a 1] Guillemard 10] Salvadori 11.

Adult. PaiTot-greeu, with a yellowish wash, the wings darker and duller; rump and upper
tail-coverts, which reach to the end of the tail, poppy-red, the bases of the feathers
yelloAv; tail above green, like the Avings, the feathers — except the tAvo middle ones
— tipped with greenish yelloAv; under surface yelloAver green than the upper; on
the middle of the throat a lengthened spot of poppy-red, the parts siuTOunding
it washed with A^erditer-blue or beryl-green; under side of Avings and tail bright
A’erditer-blue, the outer webs and tips of the primaries and the inner wehs near the
shafts black, the least series of under AAung-coverts green, the middle series blue
washed A\dth green (Manado, Nr. 14030). “(y: Eyes yelloAv; feet orange-yelloAV some-

AA'hat reddish; hill coral-red" (Meyer 7, Platen a 4). “Q : iris hrownish” (Platen a 4).
Young. Without the red spot in the throat (Finsch): bill broAAmish yelloAv; feet and cere

150

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

yellowish; iris light brown (Platen a 4)\ another example jiiv. : hill orange-red,
cere and feet yellow-brown, iris orange (Platen, Nehrkorn in lit.).

According to Dr. Gnillemard (10) the female is without the red spot on the
throat, though the two sexes of species were at first (after a specimen with a red
throat-spot determined as Q by von Eosenberg) stated to be identical by Schlegel
and Pinsch. The five specimens in the Dresden Museum have all a red spot on the
throat, but the sex is not marked, so that they do not help to decide what is the
truth of the matter. A jmung male, sent by Platen to Mr. Nehrkorn, with an
orange-red bill has no spot. Dr. Guillemard’s birds may have been young females.

A specimen marked Q in the Sarasin Collection has a small spot of red on
the throat.

Measurements.

Wing

Tan

Tarsns

Oulmen
from cere

a. (Nr. 14030) Manado

69

31

8

7.5

b. (Nr. 1935) Manado

67

34

8.5

c. (Nr. 1742) Manado

67

31

8

7.5

d. (Nr. 14029) Manado

66

—

8,5

7.5

e. (C 1160) Manado

65

32

8

—

f. (Sarasin Coll.) O, Eurukan, 12. IV. 95

69

30

8.5

7

Skeleton.

mas.

fern.

mas.

fern.

Length of cranium . .

23.0

24.0 mm

Length of tibia . . .

23.2

23.0 mm

Greatest breadth of do.

13.8

14.3

>

Length of tarso-metat. .

7.8

7.7

Length of humerus . .

14.8

14.8

)>

Length of sternum . .

21.5

22.0

»

Length of ulna . . .

17.5

17.6

Greatest breadth of do.

12.7

12.4

>

Length of radius . . .

16.2

15.9

»

Height of crista sterni .

8.0

8.0

Length of manus . . .

21.4

21.7

»

Length of pelvis . . .

21.7

22.8

Length of femm- . . .

16.1

16.0

»

Greatest breadth of do.

11.4

11.5

»

Distribution. North Celebes — Tulabulo and Paguatt, Gorontalo ProGnce (Eosenberg
i, 5, 6)\ Manado, Minahassa (Meyer 2, 5, 7, Guillem. 10)\ Eurukan, JVIinahassa
(Platen a 4, P. & F. Sarasin).

This minute Parrot ranks with L. aurantiifrons Schl. of Mysol and New
Guinea as the smallest species of the genus Loriculus, It was first discovered
by von Eosenberg, who obtained five specimens in a garden at Tulabulo,
N. E. of Gorontalo in 1864. In 1871 it was found again by Meyer at Manado;
in the month of March only a single pair was met with, but in May it suddenly
appeared in large flocks, frequenting the mangrove bushes near the sea-shore,
and about a hundred specimens were obtained by the natives with blowpipes.
The contents of the stomachs of specimens examined appeared to be composed,
as far as Meyer could make out, of the juices of flowers; but doubtless it eats
fruits as well, as von Eosenberg states (1), since no animal can live upon
honey alone, from the fact that it contains no albumen (Marshall, Papag.
1889, 21). Some tame specimens belonging to Dr. Platen were fed on a soft
milk food, consisting of finely powdered biscuit, flavoured with bananas or sugar
water. The Ceylonese species L, indiciis feeds on the juices of both fruits and
flowers (Legge, 182). At Eurukan at a height of over 3000 ft. Dr. Platen
appears to have found L. eocilis in plenty, and he mentions that both this bird

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

151

and L. stigmatus breed twice a year, viz. in February and August, and always
prefer the sugar palms , the dead lower leaf-stems of which offer them con-
venient nesting holes (a 4). Like other members of the genus, L. eocilis is
of a very affectionate disposition, as was shown by Dr. Platen’s tame specimens
at Rurukan.

The nearest known ally of L. eoeilis is L.floscidus Wall, of Flores, which
differs from the Celebes form, as Count Salvador! shows, in being larger (wing
76 mm), in having the nape tinged with orange, the tips of the tail-feathers
yellowish, stained with red, and in wmnting the area of verditer-green surroun-
ding the red spot on the throat. The presence of this wash of verditer or beryl-
green on the throat of L. escilis suggests a relationship with L. vernaEs of India, a
species which appears to have more ancestral, or fewer recent, characters than
other members of the genus; and on the same part of the throat a bluish tint,
much like that in L. eooiUs^ is found in the male of L. vernaUs and is, sometimes
also apparent in the female ; but in this species the red spot on the throat is
not developed.

The genus is more specially considered under the heading, L. stigmatus.

In respect of its bill L. exUis is the most strongly differentiated form of
its genus. The under mandible appears at first sight deformed, the edge of it
is hollowed out at the sides, the terminal part is then sharply curved up and
lengthened, fitting into the hollowed-out upper bill like an incisor tooth, Avhich
prevents the bill from shutting, and at each side a semicircular hole is formed.
This construction of the bill is perhaps connected with some jDeculiarity in its
feeding; the same formation is seen on a less pronounced scale in the black-
billed L. amahiUs of the Moluccas and L. aurantiifrons of New Guinea and in
some of the other black-billed species, also in the orange-billed L. pusillus Gray
of Java and in L. jlosculus Wall, of Flores. The resemblance is strongest in
the last case. The orange-billed species have in general the under mandible
with a straight cutting edge.

* 50. LORICULUS CATAMENE Schl.

Sangi Lorikeet.

a. Loriculus amabilis (part.) Wald., P. Z. S. J871, 333 (Sanghiij; id., Tr. Z. S. 1872, Ym,
26 (Tweedd. Orn. Works 1881, 131).

Loriculus catamene (1) Sclil. , Ned. Tdsclir. Dierk. 1871, lY, 1\ (2) id.. Rev. Psitt. 1874, 62;
(III) Row!., Oru. IMisc. 1877, II, 236, pi. LYII juv., Q); (4) Meyer, t. c. 233,
237; (5) id., Glefied. Welt 1887, 264; (6) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, lY, 560; (7)
Salvad., Cat. B. XX, 1891, 537.

h. Coryllis catamenia (1) Rclinw., J. f. 0. 1881, 230 (Cousp. Psitt. 118); id., Yogelb. Nacktr.
1883, Nr. 52.

c. Fsittacus catamene Russ, Fremdl. Stubenvog. 1881, 805.

d. Coryllis catamene (1) Platen, Defied. Welt 1887, 263.

152

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

“Lusint”, Great Sangi, Platen d 1.
“Lunsihi”, Great Sangi, jSiat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. EoAvley III\ Schlegel i; Keiclienow h 1\ Platen d 1;
W. Blasins 6] Salvaclori 7.

Adult male. Bright parrot-green, lighter and washed with yellowish on the under surface;
sinciput (a short cap), lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts (winch
extend beyond the tip of the tail) poppy-red; a spot of the same coloim on the
middle of the throat; under tail-coverts — longer than the tail — scarlet,
the extreme edges of the feathers yellow-green; the exposed outer webs and
ends of quills above green, the inner webs black; the inner webs, as far as they
rest upon the sides of the body, bright verditer-hliie, the external part of the feathers
black; under wing-coverts varied with yellow-green and verditer-hlue (Great
Sangi: — Mus. iSTelirkorn, Nr. 1299). “Iris yellow or orange-red; bill black;
cere brownish yellow; feet yellow-orange or orange” (Platen 6).

Adult female. Like the male, hut the head all green, without the cap of poppy-red; the
under tail-coverts yellow -green with scarlet intermixed (Great Sangi: — Mus.
Nehrk., Nr. 1300). “Iris brovm or light brown; hill black; cere brownish yellow;
feet yellow-orange or orange” (Platen 6).

Young male. Like the adult female; not a trace of red on the head; the under tail-coverts
approaching those of the adult male in intensity of colour (W. Blasius 6). Iris
light brown; hill black.

Young female. In two young females the red throat-sjDOt is much less developed than in the
adult of both sexes; the upper tail-coverts red, the ends of them reaching far short
of the tip of the tail ; the under tail-coverts gTeen-yellowish with rather broad reddish
tij}s: in one with the shortest ujiper tail-coverts the bill is yellovdsh; in the other
dark brown. Iris brown CW. Blasius G).

ments.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (Mus. Nehrk. 1299) Great Sangi

82

45

9

10

h. (Mus. Nehrk. 1300) $, Great Sangi

84

42

9

10

c. (Nr. 1740) 0^ Great Sangi

80

41

9

—

d. (0 12699) ad. Great Sangi, 15. VH. 93 ... .

85

43

9.5

11

e. (Mus. Tring) [Q] ad. Great Sangi, 17. YH. 93 . .

84

40

—

10

f. (C 12698) hum. Great Sangi, 17. YH. 93

83

38

—

10

Distribution. Great Sangi Island (Hoedt 1, III, Meyer 4, Platen d 1, 6, Nat. Coll.).

This little Parrot is only known from the principal island of the Sangi
Group, where it was first discovered in 1864 by Hoedt, who apparently only
obtained one specimen, the type, an adult male. A few more were procured
by Meyer in the year 1871. Dr. Platen, during his residence in the island in
1886 — 87, ^btained a fair number of sj)ecimens, forwarding to Mr. Nehrkorn,
to whom w^e are indebted for the loan of the two described, as many as thirteen
carefully labelled examples, which are discussed by Prof. W. Blasius (6‘j; but
the species according to Dr. Platen is not particularly j)lentiful. The nearest
known ally of L. catamene may be seen in L. Wall, of Halmahera and

Batchian, which corresponds with it in all the principal details of coloration and
in having the upper tail-coverts in the adult bird longer than the tail. The

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

153

Sangi Lorikeet may be distinguisbed by its larger size and also by its scarlet
under tail-coverts. These are, however, almost entirely yellow-green in the young,
much as in L. amahilis both young and old; this species has the under tail-coverts
of a uniform green. This might appear to indicate that L. amahilis represents
an earher race, which develoj^ed scarlet under tail -coverts in Sangi. But
L. amahilis has also developed some red colouring in its plumage, and, indeed,
in a place where it is not found in L. catamene, viz: on the metacarpal edge
and in the females at the bases of the feathers of the forehead. Therefore,
whoever would argue that one species is directly descended from the other,
must admit that the red has become lost in one place and developed in another.
It is possible that a species with red on both the metacarpus and under tail-
coverts remains to be found, since there is a female sj)ecimen (apparently a
cage-bird) in the British Museum, labelled Halmahera and doubtfully referred
to L. amahilis by Count Salvador!, which has red on both of these parts. The
question can be raised whether the male of the form from which L. amahilis
developed , had a red cap or not. The fact that the young males of L. stigmatas^
quadricolor^ sclateri, and — in all probability — amahilis^ acquire the red carpal edge
and L. catamem the red under tail-coverts, at an earlier age than the red cap,
which is never produced in L. sclateri, render the opinion plausible that the
ancestral form of L. amahilis and catamene was without a red cap, and so was
more like the L.flosculus and exilis of to-day. These species are marked as of
an earlier development in our genealogical tree of the genus (p. 163), a position
which receives further confirmation from the fact that the young female of L.
catamene is known to have the under tail-coverts nearly all green, a spot of red
on the throat and a yellowish bill (AV. B Iasi us 6)^ so corresponding in nearly
every detail of coloration with the mature L. eooiUs and Jlosciilus.

* 51. LORICULUS SOLATERI Wall.

Sula Lorikeet.

In Sula the birds of this species have a more orange, in Peling and Banggai
a redder back, and the following nomenclature may be employed for these
two races:

4 1. The typical Loriculus sclateri.

a. Loriculus sclateri fl) AVcall., P. Z. S. 1862, 336, pi. XXXVni; 1864, 287, 294; (2J

Schl., Mils. P.-B. Psitt. 1864, 132; (3) id., Ned. Tdschr. Drk. 1866, II?, 186; 1871,
IV, 8; (4) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, Vm, 32 (Om. Works 1881, 136); (5) Sclik,
Eev. Psitt. 1874, 61; (6) Meyer, Bowl. Orn. Alisc. 1877, II, 233, 251; id., Ibis 1879,
52; (7) Kosenb., Malay. Arcbip. 1878, 274; (8) Sclat., List A^ert. An. 1883, 326;
(9] Tristr., Oat. Coll. B. 1889, 76; (10) Salvad., Oat. B. XX, 1891, 533; (11)
AI. & Wg., Abb. AIus. Dresd. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 9.

b. Coryllis sclateri Finscb, Papag. 1868, II, 697; (1^^^) Frenzel, Altsscln. Ver. Scbtz.

3Ieyer & Wiglesivortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 18th, 1897). 20

154

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

Yogelw. 1880, 12, 23; (2) Echnw., J. f. O. 1881, 230 (Consp. Psitt. 118); (3)
id., Yogelb. ISTaclitr. 1883, ISTr. 51.

c. “Loriculus wallacei G. E. Gray” (!), (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1872, IX, 398,
399; id., Orn. Works 1881, 125.

Figure and descriptions. Wallace a J; Einscli h 1\ Salvad. a 10.

Adult. Parrot-green, quills and tail darker, under surface lighter ; mantle and back golden-
orange, many feathers tipped with scarlet-vermilli on ; rump and upper tail-coverts
bright dark poppy-red; a patch on the throat and the metacarpal edge of
the same colour; under wing- coverts yellowish green washed with blue, the longer
ones verditer-hlue; tail helow, inner webs of secondaries, and inner webs
of primaries, as far as they rest upon the sides of the body, bright verditer-blue
(Sula Besi — Teijsman 1877 — 0 14519).

“Bill black; cere and base of the upper mandible yellow; feet yellow; iris
yellow” (Wall, a I).

Young. Green colour duller; the patch on the back is dull orange, throat-spot small, red;
the carpal edge greenish yellow (Sula Besi — Teijsmann — 0 14518).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

a. (Xr. 1999) ad. ? Sula Islands

90

40

10

13

h. (Mus. Petersb.) ? Sula Islands

87

—

11

14

c. (C 14519) ad. Sula Besi

91

37

11

12

d. (C 14518) juv. Sula Besi

89

—

—

12.5

D istribution . Sula Besi in the Sula Islands ( A 1 1 e n a J, Bernstein a 5, H o e d t «■ 5, Teijsman);
(?) Celebes — Bone and Xegri lama, Gorontalo Province (Eosenberg a 3, a 5, a 7).

Observation. Sula Besi is, up to the j)resent, the only island in the Sula group from wliich
this form is known. There are now 25 specimens in the Leyden Museum, many of
which were obtained by Teijsman in 1877. Its apparent absence from Sula
Mangoli is surprising.

2. Loriculus sclateri ruber M. & Wg.

Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 9,

“Sinsin” or “Sinsing” of the natives.

Diagnosis. Like the typical form, but the mantle deep scarlet, and the feathers of the
forehead red, except at the' tips; the red of tlie rump scarlet like the mantle.

Size. Wing ca. 90 mm; tail 40; tarsus 12.5; hill from cere 11 — 12.

Distribution. Peling and Banggai (Xat. Coll.).

Observation. The young (and perhaps the females) are without red on the forehead and have
but little red or orange on the mantle, but the green seems to be brighter than in
the young from Sula Besi.

Mr. Biittikofer had tile great kindness to compare this form with the 25
specimens from Sula Besi in the Leyden Museum and found that it had more red
on the forehead and mantle than the bulk of the specimens from that island; one
specimen, however, which he sent .us for comparison was almost as red on the mantle
as the new race, though the tint thereof was more orange; a second specimen had
red on the forehead, though less extensive than in adults from Peling and Banggai.
There are a number of small intermediate islands between these and Sula, and it
appears pretty certain that these will furnish birds which intergrade with both races.

Birds of Celebes; Psittacidae.

155

L. sclateri is one of a little group of three local forms — L. sUgmatus
(S. Miill.) of Celebes, L. quadricolor (Wald.) of the Togian Islands and L. sclateri
(Wall.) of Sula, Pehng andBanggai; it is, therefore, perplexing to find two properly
labelled specimens (with sex and dates when obtained) in the Leyden Museum
stated to have been killed at Bone and Negri lama in North Celebes by von

Bosenherg, and in the case of the second specimen on the very day when a

specimen of sUgrnatiis was obtained by him there (5). The record of L. sclateri in
Celebes is very probably due to specimens escaped from confinement, for the Loriculi
are much valued by the natives as pets and transported from place to place. If
not, we can only conclude, in view of the highly “local” character of L. sclateri
and its allies, that the specunens in some way got mislabelled.

The nearest known ally of L. sclateri is L. quadricolor of the Togian Islands,
from which the former differs chiefly in that the adult male has the head green,
like that of the female, whereas the adult male of i. quadricolor^ as also of
L. stiq/matus, catamene and amabilis, has the additional ornament of a red cap.

The commencement (or a relic, as the case may he) of this red cap is indeed

seen on the forehead of L. sclateri ruber, and sometimes to a small extent in the
typical form. Mr. Wallace has indicated (a I) the base of the upper man-
dible as yellow, but this does not seem to be the case in adults, though the
young have much of the bill yellow.

The yellow supposed to be at the base of the bill, and the absence of the
red cap appear at first sight to entitle L. sclateri to be regarded as an earlier
stage of develojDment from which L. quadricolor and stigmatus, and thence, perhaps,
also L. amabilis and catamene may have been differentiated. But much may be
urged against such an assumption: it seems much more probable that sclateri,
quadricolor and stigmatus were severally differentiated in Sula, Togian and Celebes
from a form formerly spread over all three localities, and that in Togian and
in Celebes and not in Sula the males acquired a red cap, in all cases under-
going the variation independently of one another. That such analogous varia-
tion may take j)lace appears to be undeniable; thus L. indicus (Gm.) of
Ceylon, a local form of the wide-spread L. vernalis of India to the Malay
Peninsula, and L. apicalis So nance of the southern Philippine Islands have
both developed a very similar red crown, quite independently as far as can
be seen.

In the genus Loriculus certain gToups of species occur, and one such is what
we call the stigmatus-gxou]}, [consisting of L. stigmatus, quadricolor and sclateri,
another is that formed by L. catamene and amabilis, another is presented by the
birds inhabiting the Philippines. The amabilis-growp has affinities with L. eccilis
of Celebes, as has been shown, by the shape of the bill and the tail-coverts
prolonged beyond the tip of the tail. L. exilis has nothing to do with the
Philippine species, but as is remarked elsewhere, with the more southern forms,
L.Jlosculus of Flores and L, pusillus of Java, Avhich share to a great extent its
peculiarly shaped bill and lengthened tail-coverts. As to the stig?natus~gi:o\i])

20*

156

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

it may not be api^arent at first sight whether it links on to the amaUlis-^owY>
and thence to L. eocilis and the forms of Flores and Java, or on to the Philippine
species. L. honapartei Sonance of the Sooloo Islands comes most into question
among the latter birds, for, though its allies have yellow bills, this form some-
times has a black bill (in the adult, as we believe), while the bills of others
were indicated by Dr. Gnillemard as “red”, “brown-black”, “brownish”, “very
dark yellow” and by Everett (Ibis 1893, 249) as “dull orange, clouded and
tipped with black”. These, we believe, are younger birds, since young specimens
of L. stigmatus, catamene and amahilis are known to have yellowish bills, and we
do not share the opinion, which Count Salvadori expresses (Ibis 1891,
48 — 51), that the labels of Dr. Guillemard’s specimens are not correct.
L. honapartei has “a rather long bill, and the exact style of plumage of the
red-billed L. apicalis. The blue cheeks of the female also betray its real affi-
nities with L. apicalis and the other Philippine species”.

The adult males of L. amahilis and of L. honapartei both agree with the
adult males of the stigmatus-^owp in having the bill black, a red patch on the
throat and a red cap (absent in L. sclateri). But the key to the answer of the
question, whether the stigmatus-^YOup has its closest affinities with L. amahilis
or with L. honapartei^ is to be found in the females. The females of the stig-
maft«5-group have a red patch on the throat, no red on the crown and no blue
on the sides of the face ; the females of the ajnahilis-^xowp likewise have a
red patch on the throat, no red on the crown or blue on the face; the female
of L. honapartei, on the other hand, has a red crown and blue cheeks, but no
red patch on the throat. There is thus an almost perfect parallelism in the
coloration of both male and female of the stigmatus- and amahilis-^mwps, sex for sex,
and this is further borne out by some points of similarity in the general pattern
of plumage, such as the abruptly marked-off red cap of the males (absent in
sclateri) and the red metacarpal edge (absent only in L. catamene) ; the bill also
agrees best in these two groups. The evolution of the sexes of L. honapartei
is not on a parallel with that of the stigmatVfS-^xowp] the males of the two
groups agree, but the females do not. The fact should not be overlooked
that the adult males of birds usually differ from the females in having some
character, or characters, superadded to those of the female, as, for instance,
the possession of an additional patch of colour, a crest, spurs, a song; in such
cases the young of hoth sexes very frequently resemble the female, and the
female here may be reasonably regarded as having retained the dress of an
earlier stage in the history of the race, whereas the dress of the male has been
further developed. This rule is well illustrated by the genus Loriculus, in which
the immature males much resemble the old females, the quite young birds having
a still simpler dress. We therefore look to the females of the stigmatus- and
amahilis-gYOWp^ for indications of the relations of these species and infer that they
are sprung from a race with a red spot on the throat, but with no red cap.
Such a race is seen in L. exilis of Celebes and in L. floscuhis of Flores, and these

Birds of Celebes; Psittacidae.

157

species — though, no doubt, somewhat changed — may perhaps be regarded
as more ancient types.

^ * 52. LORICULUS QUADRICOLOR Tweedd.

Togian Lorikeet.

Lorieulus quadricolor (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. bl. U. 1872, IX, 398; id., Tr. Z. S. 1872, Viii,
109 (Orn. Works, 1881, 125, 207); Meyer, J. f. 0. 1873, 404; (2) id., RowL Orn.
Misc. 1877, n, 233, 251,252; (3) id.. Ibis 1879, 52, 145, 146; (IV) Salvad., Cat.
B. XX, 1891, 534.

a. Coryllis quadricolor (1) Bclinw. , J. f. 0. 1881, 231 (Consj). Psitt. 119); id., Vogelbild.
1883, 55.

Figures and descriptions. Salvador! IV\ Walden I; Reichenow a 1.

Adult male. Like the adult A. sdateri, but with the addition of a scarlet sinciput; the inter-
scapulars and back golden orange, without the orange-red tinge in the middle; the
rump and upper tail-coverts of a darker red (ex Salvador! and Walden).

Adult female. Like the male, hut without the scarlet sinciput; the feathers of the forehead
prohahly with scarlet bases.

Young. Like the female, but with the metacarpal edge greenish yellow, instead of red.

A specimen in the Dresden Museum marked young male evidently corresponds
well with one so labelled in the British Museum (specimen c of the Catalogue), but
which Count Salvador! Avrongly believes to be a nearly adult female (the bases of
the feathers on the forehead being red) as in very many cases the young males cor-
respond with the old females. This is the case with its nearest ally L. stigmatiis.
Measurement. (Xr. 6031) juv. Togian Id. Wing 90, tail 41, tarsus 10, culmen from cere 11 mm.
Distribution. Togian Island, Togian group in the G-ulf of Tomini (Meyer 7, 3).

Only six specimens of this Parrot were collected by Meyer, three of which
are in the British and one in the Dresden and the other tw^o in the Berhn
Museum. They were shot near the village of Togian on the chief island of
the group in the Gulf of Tomini in the month of August, 1871. L. quadricolor is
intermediate in coloration between L. stigmatus of Celebes and L. sclateri of
Sula. The Banggai Peninsula, the eastern limb of the mainland of Celebes,
jutting out between the Togian and Sula Islands, was pointed to by Meyer in
1877 as preserving the answer to the following problem: “It would be a very

interesting point to ascertain which species lives there; for if it be L. stigmatus^
the two allied forms L. sclateri and L. quadricolor will prove to be insular
forms derived from a parent stock, L. stigmatus^ both changed in a somewhat
similar manner, perhaps through the same (say ‘insular’) conditions, but not
quite in the same manner. If, on the other hand, the species which inhabits
Banggai should prove to be not L. stigmatus^ it would certainly be of interest
to know whether it is L. sclateri or L. quadricolor^ or (as is possible) a form which
is intermediate between these two” (2).

The collections from the Eastern Peninsula made by native hunters in 1895
for the Dresden Museum proved that L. stigmatus occurs there, and that there-
fore L. quadricolor and sclateri are insular forms, though perhaps not derived from
L. stigmatus as it is at the present day.

158

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

* 63. LORICULUS STIGMATUS (Mull. ScU.).

Celebes Lorikeet.

a. Psittaeus (Psittacula) stigmatus {1} Miill. & Schl., Verb. Natiiurk. Comm. 1839—43, 182.

Loriculus stigmatus Bp., Eev. Zool. 1854, 155; Wall. , P. Z, S. 1864, 287, 294;
(3) ScliL, Dierentuin, 1864, 70, fig.; (4) idi., Mus. P.-B. Psitt. 1864, 131; (5) Wald,
Tr. Z. S. 1872, ym, 32; (6) Scbl., Bev. Psitt. 1874, 60; (7) Salvad, Ann. Mus.
Civ. G-en. 1875, YII, 645; (8) Briiggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 41; (IX)
Bowley, Orn. Misc. 1877, II, 254, pi. LX; (10) Meyer, t. c. remarks 233, 234, 250;
(11) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 363; (12) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 51; (W) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 543; (14) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 218; (15) Salvad, Cat. B. XX,
1891, 535; (XVI) Meyer, Yogelskel. 1892, pt. 18, 44, t. OLXX; (17) Biittik,
Z. Erg. AYeber’s Beise Ost-Ind 1893, in, 273; (18) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden
1895, Xr. 8, p. 6; (19) fid, ib. 1896, Xr. 1, p. 7; (20) fid, ib. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 9;
(21) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 160; (22) id., ib. 1897, 165.

h. Nanodes stigmatus (1) S. Mull., Beiz. Ind. Arcbip. 1858, pt. II, 69, 71.

c. Coryllis stigmata (1) Finscb, Papag. 1868, n, 694; (P^^) Erenzel, Mtsscbr. Yer. Scbtz.
Yogelw. 1880, I, 10; (II) Bclinw., Yogelbild. 1878—83, t. XY, 17; (3) id., J. 1 0.
1881, 231 (Consp. Psitt. 119); (4) Platen, Gefied. AYelt 1887, 206, 230.

“Tindito”, Gorontalo, v. Bosenb. c I; Joest.

“Tintis (Meyer 12) or “Tientis” (Guillem. 13), Manado.

“Tintis”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Xat. Coll.

“Bawan kidjill”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen 14.

For further synonymy and references see Salvador! 15.

Figures and descriptions. Bowley IX\ Beicbenow c //; Meyer XVI (skeleton); Scblegel 5;
Einscb el; Brliggemann 8; Meyer 10\ Lenz 11; AY. Blasins 11; Salvador! 15.

Adult male. Parrot -green, yellower green on tbe under surface, tbe interscapulary region
with a slight tinge of orange; sinciput, a patch on tbe throat and tbe meta-
carpal edge bright poppy-red; rump and upper tail-coverts crimson, much
darker than the cap, tbe basal part of tbe feathers yellowish green; under wing-
coverts yellowish green, tbe greater series verditer-blue, quills and tail beloAv
verditer-blue, tbe ends and exposed outer part of tbe quills black (Xr. 1931 — Xortb
Celebes).

“Iris fight yellow; bill black; cere and feet orange” (Platen 14).

Adult female and immature male. Like tbe adult male, but without tbe red sinciput (Xr. 1932).
In tbe old female and young male the feathers of tbe forehead sidewards as far as
tbe neighbourhood of tbe eyes possess a red basal half, showing tbrougb plainly, so
as to give tbe forehead a reddish colour (W. Bias. 14). Iris of female brown
(Platen c 4).

First plumage. Like the adult female, but without tbe red bases to tbe feathers of tbe fore-
head; throat without any red patch, a yellowish space occupying tbe spot where it
appears later; carpal edge greenish yellow (Xr. 1933 — X. Celebes). A young one
about a fortnight old was quite green, except its light yellow shoulder-edges; under
parts fighter green ; nape fight orange-tinged ; the red of the upper tail-coverts already
23erfect; bill yellow; feet yellowish brown (Aleyer 10).

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

159

Eggs. ‘’The eggs collected by Dr. Platen at Purukan, the most highly situated village in
the Minahassa, are almost spherical and extremely thin -shelled. Measurements:
19x17 mm” (Nehrkorn MS.). Colour white.

Nest and breeding season. “Breeds twice a year, viz: in February and August, and always
prefers the sugar -palm, the lower withered leaf-stems of which afford it convenient
nest-holes; Coryllis stigmatus lines the nest-holes some centimeters high with shreds
of leaves” (Platen c 4).

Measurements. Wing (14 specimens, N. Celebes) 93 — 100 mm; tail 40 — 45; tarsus 10 — 11.5;
culmen from cere 11 — 11.5. The longest- and shortest-winged specimens (Nrs. 1931,
1741) are both adult males. A young yellow-billed specimen (Nr. 1933) is one of the
largest, wing 98 rom.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

33.8

mill

Length of tarso-meta tarsus . .

11.5 mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

18.3

»

Length of digitus III . . .

19.0 »

Length of humerus ....

22.4

»

Length of sternum ....

33.5 »

Length of ulna

25,6

»

Greatest breadth of sternum .

20.0 »

Length of radius

23.4

»

Height of crista sterni . . .

11.8 »

Length of manus

30.0

»

Length of coracoideum . . .

18.8 »

Length of metacarpus . . .

16.8

»

Length of scapula

24.0 »

Length of digitus j^rmcip. .

13.3

»

Length of clavicula ....

12.0 »

Length of femur

22.5

»

Length of pelvis

30.5 »

Length of tibia

31.5

»

Greatest breadth of pelvis . .

18.0 »

Length of fibula

14.0

»

(Meyer XVI).

Distribution. Celebes, Minahassa (Fo

rsten

a 1,

4, Wallace 2, 15, Posenberg

6, etc.)',

Lemheli, Mantehage and Banka Islands (Nat. Coll.); Gorontalo Province (Forsten
a 1, 4, Posenh. 6, Meyer 10, 12) ] Paguatt, N. coast of Gulf of Tomini (Posenb. 6);
Posso, S. coast of Gulf of Tomini (Meyer 10, 12)\ E. Celebes — Tonkean (Nat. Coll.)
Macassar, 8. Celebes (Wallace 2, 15)\ Tjamba, 8. Celebes (Platen 14)', Luwu
(Weber 17); Tawaya and Dongala, W.' Celebes (Doherty 22).

L. stigmatus has been found in most parts of the Northern Peninsula of Celebes
as far as its base at Posso, and in the Eastern Peninsula; it has also been recorded
from two or three spots in the 8outh-western Peninsula, though Meyer remarked
that it was less plentiful here than in the north (10). In all probability, therefore,
it exists in Central Celebes as well. It was not obtained in the south-eastern jDart at
Kandari by Beccari, nor was it observed by the earlier travellers in Buton Island.

This Lorikeet is a common bird in North Celebes, ranging from the sea-
coast high into the hills. Dr. Platen found it breeding at the village of Pum-
kan (over 3000 ft.). Meyer observed that it lived singly or in pairs, not in
flocks; it is — like Loriculus eocilis, Trichoglossus ornatus and T. meyeri, — not a
strictly stationary bird, but in the habit of making local movements, regulated,
no doubt, by the time of ripening of certain fruits. In the beginning of March,
1871, it was especially plentiful near Manaclo. It feeds on soft fruits, such as
bananas and the like, and is therefore to be found in the plantations near the
villages (10). In captivity Dr. Platen found it ate readily canary-seed and
biscuit, which L. exilis rejected until the food was bruised and made up into

160

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

a sort of pap with, bananas or sugar-water. A tame bird of Meyer’s when at
Manado was very fond of tea.

The Loriculi according to Dr. Frenzel (see Mtsscbr. des D. Vereins znm
Schutze d. Vogelwelt 1880, No. 1, 15) are much superior to the other dwarf
Parrots in intelligence. The above-mentioned example was taken very young
and was in the possession of M e y er and his wife for a long time in Celebes,
and evinced a great affection for the latter. “It followed my wife everywhere
in the house, and did not rest till it was near her, then, without help, climbed
up from the ground to her shoulder or her head. It loved best to take food
from her mouth, and licked up tea from her lips. When we took our tea in
the afternoon, and the little bird only heard the rattling of the cups, it became
much excited, and did not rest until its cage was opened and it could come
near the table ; it then took the tea out of a small basin or a spoon. W^hen in
its cage, and my wife passed by, it clapped its wings till she let it out. When
we left Manado for a fortnight on a boat-tour, ... a neighbour reported that
it had been melancholy all the time. When it saw my wife again, it became
much excited; this I observed myself. Being placed in the same cage with the
smaller Loriculus exilis, it always bit it; they could not remain together. But
with the larger Trichoglossiis meyeri it became anxious; nevertheless it attacked
the bird as much as possible” (Meyer ./^). During a second and longer absence
of Meyer and Mrs. Meyer from Manado, the bird, though properly cared for,
died; it was reported to have cried incessantly, and at last was found dead.
“The man in whose care it was, had seen and knew exactly how we had treated
the bird; it therefore did not die on account of wrong or improper food, etc.
I will not decide whether the explanation (of our neighbour) that it died from
sorrow was the right one or not ; at all events it was an amiable lovely bird for
whose death Ave mourned. . . . But the case serves to shoAV that even these small
Parrots are very sagacious and attractive creatures” (10). Although far exceed-
ing the Dwarf Parrots (Psittacula) in trustfulness and affection for their OAvner,
they do not possess the same inseparable attachment as these for one another;
on the other hand, they are quarrelsome AA^hen together, and Dr. Frenzel
mentions a case of a young male of L. galgulus belonging to Dr. Russ Avhich
bit an old male to death, AARile three in his oaaui possession Avould not let one
another eat in peace, so that separation Avas necessary, or two of them Avould
have been starved (op. cit. p. 16).

The genus Loriculus.

Map VI.

In 1877 Meyer (10) gave a key shoAAung the geographical distribution of
the genus Loriculus. The accompanying key is based upon this, modified accor-
ding to Salvadori’s treatment of the genus and to recent discoveries.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

161

The Geographical Distribution of the genus Loriculus.

India and Bunnah

Ceylon

Andamans

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Borneo

Java

Flores

Luzon

CS

p-t

i/T

o

llo

!zi

Samar, Leyte

Cebu

Mindoro

Siquijor

S. Phihppines

1 Sooloo

Sangi

Celebes

Togian

c5

w

Peling, Banggai

Halmahera, Batchian

Mysol

O

*3

<D

Fergusson Id.

Duke of Yoi'k Id.

1. L. rernalis. .

2. L. indicus . . .

3. L. galgidus ') . .

4. L. pus'ilhis . . .

5. L. floscuhis . .

6. L.pMlippemis .

7. L. regidns . . .

8. L. worcesteri . .

9. L. chrysonotus .

10. L. mindorensis .

11. L. siquijorensis .

1 2. L. apicalis . . .

13. L. honapartei . .

1 4. L. catamene . .

15. L.exdis . . .

1 6. L. stigmakis . .

17. L. quadrleolor

18. L. sdateri . . .

19. subsp. riiber

20. L. amabilis . .

21. L. aurmiMfronn .

22. subsp. fueedd

23. L. teller . . .

4c

*

*

*

*

.

4<

*

4c

4c

;

4c

:

4c

’

4c

■

4c

4c

4c

■

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

4c

*

1

4c

4c

In a key showing the geographical distribution of the Loricidi, like the
above, it is not possible to arrange all the s]3ecies according to their nearest
affinities, since the genus is composed of two main branches, each comprising
about half of the species, but it is sufficient to show that the birds are spread
almost without interruption from India throughout the East India Archipelago
to New Guinea (South-east) and the Duke of York Island in the New Britain
Group, continually presenting new forms as one proceeds from point to point
across this area, and it is pretty certain that still more species are to be dis-
covered here.

Did the genus arise in the Asiatic Continent and spread its range south-
eastward to the Papuan Subregion, or did it proceed from New Guinea, where

1) Prenzel mentions a pair witli blackisli \vings, wbioh be supposes to be the sign of a local race,

a snpi)osition highly probable in consideration of the distribution of the species,

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celetea (Oot. 2’2n<i, 1807).

21

162

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

parrots abound, to India, or did it range in earlier times, when the whole was
one mass of land, throughout the then Eastern Continent and was more or less
differentiated, split into species, after the formation of the Archipelago?^)

The conclusion seems unavoidable — and this remark is made after carrying
the matter in mind for a period of about five years — that Loriculus (in some
cases at least) extended its range by flight across the sea.

In addition to this we must state, as necessary to the following argument,
that emigrants get altered more than stayers-at-home. It may in a cer-
tain sense be compared to the axiom of Euclid: “If unequals be added to equals,
the wholes are unequal”, the unequal condition in the zoological case being
the new conditions of existence for the colonists.

Further, it may be stated that there is much reason to assume that the
plumage of young birds is often ancestral in character. In proof of
which it could hardly be possible to point to a better case than the racket
tail-feathers of Prionitiirus^ which in the young clearly show an initiatory stage
of development (see plates with figures and remarks thereon in our Intro-
duction), and other good cases among Celebesian birds are the blue back in
the immature Pelargopsis melanorhynchus^ the traces of a yellow wing-band in the
young Trichoglossus meyeri^ the Kestrel-like plumage of the young of the Hawks
Accipiter rhoclogaster and Spilospizias trinotatus^ the identical young plumage of
the Hawk-eagle Spizaetus lanceolatus and the Honey-buzzard, Pernis celehensis.
In many cases among birds the female shows a minor differentiation than the
male, for instance, again, Prioniturus \ very rarely a higher one (Turnioc). As
Gadow remarks (New'ton’s Diet. B. 1893 p. 100): “Instances, too well known
to be repeated here, show clearly how the changes of bygone ages of the an-
cestors are recajiitulated in the yearly moult of the growing individual until with
maturity its present stage of perfection is reached”. The very utmost caution
should, however, be used in making use of this principle, for all sorts of disturb-
ing side-influences forbid of its acceptation as thorough-going: sometimes, for
instance, as in some of the Kingfishers, the young display no differences from
their parents, sometimes the differences seen in them seem to be of a special
protective or other character rather than ancestral, sometimes the mother’s influence
preponderates though her characters may be more recent than those of the father
(for instance, in the genus Edoliisoma), sometimes, when the male seems to be
the less differentiated, the young take after him ( Tumioj), sometimes the male young
one is like the father, the female young one like the mother (for instance,
Monachalcyon, Cittura, Edectus). It is excessively difficult to form an opinion as
to whether the dress of a young bird is ancestral in character or not; one feels
justified in doing so only when the young throws back very plainly to some
form which is existing to-day.

1) We do not take into consideration tlie possibility, that tlie genus spread out east and west from one
of the central island groups, as tliere apiaear to be no indications foi' sucli a supj)osition.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

163

This appears to occur in many cases in the genus Loriculus and affords a
reason for the construction of the accompanying genealogical tree:

Lm'iculus vemalis (India to Malacca)

L. imsillus (Java) L. mcliciis (Ceylon) L. sp. (Sumatra, Borneo)

/ L. flosculus (Flores) 1
\ L. exilis (Celebes) J

Loriculus sp. (Celebes-Halmaliera

I L. sclateri (Snla) j

' L. quadricolor (Togian)

( L. stigmatus (Celebes) j

L. amabilis
(Halmahera)
Tj. catamem

L. aurantiifroiis
{New Gruinea)-

L. tener

(Duke of York)

L. chrysonotus
L. regulus
L. philippensis
L. mindorensis
L. siquijorensis
L. worcesteri
L. apicolis

CO

.3

L. bonapartei (Sooloo Is.

L. galgulus ?
(Borneo, Sumatra etc.)

A glance at the above genealogical tree will show that L. vernalis^ the
“Stammform”, to which we hypothetically trace the different species of the genus,
is supposed to have given rise to tAvo main branches, as Avell as to a brief off-
shoot, L. indicus of Ceylon, which has not been differentiated further. Hitherto, by
several authors, the genus has been divided for practical purposes — as an
aid to the determination of the sjDecies — into tAvo groups, characterized by
the possession of an orange-coloured or a black biU.; but it would be an error

to suppose that on this difference alone the genus can be divided into two

natural groups. In the young of the black-billed L. catamene^ stigmatus^ sclateri^
and amabilis the bill is knowm to be yellowish or whitish at first, in the black-
billed lu. galgulus it is dull yellow, shaded with dusky (Davison), and is stated

by Guillem ard to be “red”, “very dark yelloAv” etc. in specimens of the black-

billed Ij. bonapartei^ a species in which we suspect the quite black bill to be
present only in old birds. Furthermore, the black-billed L. bonapartei and pro-
bably L. galgulus are really as far removed as possible from the other black-
billed species, and the former at all events should be placed at the extreme
end of the other branch of the genealogical tree, notwithstanding the fact that
there is a considerable resemblance between the adult males of L. bonapartei
and L. stigmatus. The ontogenetic reasons on which this division of the genus
rests are the following:

In addition to having a general colour of parrot-green, all the Loriculi,
Avith one exception, possess a red rump and upper tail-coverts, a character
assumed Avith the first lAnmage^), and which may, therefore, be regarded as of

’) The youBg L. galgulus has only the edges of the feathers red (Salvadorii,

21*

164

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

long standing. The exception is L. tener of Duke of York Island in the New
Britain Group, in which the rump and ujjper tail-coverts are greenish yellow.
The differences of plumage, which show that the genus is composed of two
main branches originating in a form like L. vernalis, or even a form like the
female of L. vernalis, which most likely represents a lower stage than the male
adult, are the following:

The throat-spot. All the members of the left or, as we will call it,
the southern branch of the genealogical tree possess a spot or patch of colour
on the throat in one or both sexes, and in the higher forms even in the young.
In the adult male of L. vernalis it is bluish (nearly or quite absent in the
female); in L. pusillus of Java it is yellow (in the female, as in the male —
according to Finsch; paler — ■ according to Salvadori; absent — according
to Beichenow), in L. flosculus and exilis it is red (whether present or absent
in the female there is insufficient evidence to say); in the seven remaining
species it is present as a red spot like that of L. ftosculus in both male and
female, and makes its appearance at an early age in the young, in the first
plumage being sometimes, if not always, yellowish in colour.

In the species on the right or northern branch of the “tree” the throat-
spot is always absent in the young and in the females; in the adult males alone
it is developed as a final addition to their coloration in the form of an extensive
patch of red on the throat.

In the male L. galgulus Dr. Frenzel observed from living examples that
“first the blue spot on the crown shows itself, next the orange-coloured, trian-
gular spot on the nape makes its appearance, and lastly the beautiful scarlet
on the breast (and throat) appears; the change of coloration goes on very
slowly and the bird is not in full dress till the third year” But in

the higher members of the southern branch the colour on the throat is among

the first characters — not the last — to make its appearance. Since young

specimens of L. stigmatus^ amdbilis., sclateri, and catamene with yellowish bills

display it to some extent, it may prove to be present as yellow if not red in

these birds from the time they leave the nest.

Thus, in the southern branch the throat-spot appears to be a
somewhat ancient character, in the northern branch it appears to
be the most recent acquisition of the adult male.

The coloration of the crown. The two groups again present a contrast
in regard to the coloration of the crown. In the members of the left or
southern branch, the females of all the species may broadly be said never
to possess any special colouring on the head (in the females of L. stigmatus,
quadricolor., sclateri, amabilis and aurantiifrons the green feathers of the forehead have
reddish bases). In the adult males of the latter species (except sclateri) and
in L. catamene a sharply defined red sinciput is produced '’yq.' aurantiifrons yellow) ;
in the simpler species, L. exilis^ flosculus (as far as known), imsillus and vernalis
no sign of a red crown is to be seen in either sex, neither does it occur in

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

165

the immature males which gain it when adult; these resemble the females
when young. It is the latest character to be assumed in the ontogenetic deve-
lopment of the male individual as it gradually acquires the markings of the
perfect bird, and it would, therefore, appear that the red sinciput is
the latest acquisition in the phylogenetic development of this
branch of the species.

In the members of the right or northern branch of the tree the process
is strongly contrasted with this. Not only do the males possess red on the
crown (except L. galgulus in which there is a blue spot on the crown, but we
have found some traces of red in a young sijecimen), but also the females
(except, again, L. galgulus) have red crowns — sometimes confined to the fore
part of the head, sometimes extended to the nape, ' — and the immature males
generally — probably always — resemble the females. Only the very young
birds are quite green on the head, so bearing much likeness to L. vernalis^
female. In this group, therefore, one may conclude that the red crown is
a character of rather long standing.

Ontogenetic and 'phylogenetic development. As may be gathered from
the above, the development of the plumage of the two branches of the Lori-
culi starting in common with a first plumage of green with a red rump and
upper tail- coverts, afterwards proceeds on two quite different lines. It is
known that in L. amahilis and stigmatus., two most highly specialized species of
the left branch of the genealogical tree, a yellowish or whitish beak and a
yellowish spot on the throat is found in the quite young bird (in stigmatus first
“light yellow and then orange-yellow”, according to Briiggemann 8). A now-
existing species with a yelloAV patch on the throat and a yellow bill is the
simply coloured L.p>usillus of Java, which therefore may be the not-much-changed
ancestor of L. amahilis and stigmatus and its fellows. L. amahilis and stigmatus
in the next stage of their immature development become like L. jiosculus and
exilis, in that the yellow spot changes into red, but the bill now or soon after
loses its pale colour and becomes black, and the carpal edge and the bases of
the feathers of the forehead show a red tinge; so that, though the young-
bird has still much in common with L. exilis, the parallelism in coloration is
not perfect. The females do not develop their coloration beyond this stage,
which is also the dress of the young males before they acquire the red sinciput,
and the same characters are found in the females and immature males of four
species — L. stigmatus, quadricolor , sclateri (the male of which never acquires
a complete red cap) and amahilis. These considerations afi'ord some ground for the
supposition that these four species are descended from a common ancestor a
good deal resembling the adult males of L. flosculus and eosilis in coloration.
The young female of L. catamene corresponds still more closely with L. exilis
and fioscidus.

The ontogeny of the plumage of the species of the northern branch of
Loriculus proceeds by the young birds [L. regukis, L. philippensis) first of all

166

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

assuming a plumage not unlike tkat of the immature, or female, bird of L. ver-
nalis. This young form in both sexes (as is known in, at least, four cases^)
develops into a bird like the adult female of its species, viz., a bird with a red
crown of greater or less extent, and blue cheeks and chin. As the male becomes
adult, it loses the blue on the cheeks and chin, and the red on the head gene-
rally undergoes some change in extent and tint, and the extensive patch of red
on the breast appears. All the females have a general likeness among them-
selves, and an immature male of one species before us, L. apicalis (Nr. 6012)
corresponds remarkably well with the female of another, L. clirysonotus (Nr. 1739).
There is, therefore, reason to suppose that the Philippine species, including L
honapartei of Sooloo, are sprung from a common ancestor much like their females.

L. galgulus of Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra and the south part of Malacca is
a very aberrant and puzzling form, differing in the adult male from the males
of this branch in having a blue spot on the crown and no red there, and in
the female from the females in wanting the blue on the face and red on the
crown, yet it appears to belong to this branch of the Loriculi from the fact
that the female has no red spot on the throat and that the male, like the
Philippine males, develops a large patch of red here as a final adornment.
We place it provisionally not far from L. honapartei^ in virtue of its black bill
and that a young S]Decimen from captivity and showing traces of xanthochroism
before us offers one or two red feathers, tipped with greenish yellow, on the
crown: but we doubt if further research will prove this position to be its
true one.

The grounds given for regarding the Loriculi as consisting of two main
branches ■ — a left and a right one as shown in the above genealogical tree
— may be briefly restated as follows:

Left (soiitliern) branch:

1. The females of the more specialized black-
billed forms have a spot of colour on the
throat.

2. The males of the black-billed species assume
the throat-spot at a very early age.

3. The females are without a red crown.

A. In the black-billed adult males only, a
red sinciput makes its appearance.

5. The ontogeny of the plumage of the more
highly specialized species tends to show that
they sprang from forms hke the simpler
ones — green, with red rump and tail-
coverts, a yellow or red spot on the throat,
but no red on the crown.

Bight (northern) branch:

1. The females have no spot on the throat.

2. Young males have no spot on the throat;
a large patch of colour here and on the
chest is the last thing to make its appear-
ance in the male pliunage.

3. The females possess a red crown.

4. The immature males have a red crown
hke that of the females.

5. The development of the Philippine races
appears to betoken that they come imme-
diately from a ' form hke their females —
green, with red rump and tail-coverts, no
spot on the throat, but with a red crown
and blue chin and cheeks.

1) L. regulus, philippemis, siquijorensis (fide Steere), apicalis.

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

167

According to tlie above methods of reasoning, therefore, the genus Loriculus
consists of two branches and one aberrant s]3ecies of uncertain position, L.gal-
gulus. The two branches by their young throw back to a form resembling
L. vernalis of the Indian countries, and the more highly-differentiated sj)ecies of

the southern branch hv their females and immature males throw back to the

«/

simpler species of their branch, which seem to stand nearest to L. vei'nalis.
L. vernalis should, therefore, stand nearest to the ancestral type. From the
postulate, that colonists get most changed, the Indian countries should, therefore,
be the original habitat of the ancestral type, which became more and more
changed as it proceeded to the Philippines on the one hand, and to Java,
Celebes, Halmahera, New Guinea, on the other.

The alternative explanations should now be examined. It may be argued
in the first place that the reverse of all the above process has taken place, —
that the complex species of New Guinea, Halmahera, and Celebes were the
original forms and extended their range westward, gradually losing their speci-
alizations of plumage until they became simplified into the modest-looking
L. vernalis of India. There is the more reason for advancing this argument, as
a retrograde development, or at least a change from more complex differentia-
tions of structure and colour to simpler ones, may certainly take place. Species
may have a culminating point set to their evolution beyond which they cannot
develop, and having attained this they turn again into less specialized forms
till they die out, — not from external causes, but because their vitality is ex-
hausted and their career is over. As it is with the individual, so it may be
with the species, the genus, the family, and so on. The very centre of the
parrots in the Old World is at the present time (and may always have been)
Australia and the eastern j)art of the East Indian Archipelago ; Wallace looks
upon the Oriental region as the land of origin of the Psittacidae^ but this is
far from being proved in any way, and Reichenow, for instance, offers reasons
for making the hypothesis of the eastern origin just as plausible. At all events
one has in either case to deal with mere probabilities, as proofs will be want-
ing till palaeontological facts allow men to abstain from speculations. (Compare
Fiirbringer’s remarks in his fundamental “Untersuchungen” pp. 1116, 1287 and
1293). If the “Staminform” of Loriculus originated in New Guinea or the
neighbourhood and spread from there westward, the ontogenetic characters,
which are treated above as remnants of the phylogenetic development of the
genus, must have another meaning, which we cannot explain. The argument
that Loriculus spread its range from Papuasia to India, though it has this in
its favour that the genus issued from the countries which are the richer in
Parrots, fails, however, to account for the existence of the branch found in
the Philippines and Ceylon, in which the ontogenetic development differs from
that of the southern branch to which the Papuan species belong.

The third alternative explanation is that Loriculus ranged from India to

168

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

Papuasia when the whole was one undivided mass of land, and developed into
distinct species when it became isolated by the breaking up of this ancient
continent into the present archipelago. The family of the Psittacidae is in all
probability an old one, existing at least from Miocene times. Unfortunately our
knowledge of fossil Psittacidae is utterly defective as yet. Only Psittacus ver-
reauoci M.-E. of the Lower Miocene of Allier proves that in a milder climate
Europe was then inhabited by parrots. Extinct species or genera from other
quarters (the Mascarenes, Seychelles, Comoros, and West Indies — from
Rodriguez probably allied to Eclectus) are more or less subfossil only. As Prof.
Flirbringer says fp. 1574):

“The palaeogeography of birds, as based on real finds, still stands on utterly
weak legs: only single spots here and there of the earth have as yet been in-
vestigated, and discoveries, available for the phytogeny of the bird-class, are
restricted to very few localities in Europe and North America. However the
geography of living forms allows of some conclusions. Every ornithologist knows
the brilliant reasonings of Wallace, the genial conclusions, attained by this author
as to the early history of the distribution of birds. Whom d’o they not cap-
tivate, whom do they not induce to make some steps on the same route? Their
formal value cannot be too highly appreciated. But sober investigation knows,
that nearly everywhere only probabilities come into question here, nay, to a
great extent even possibilities only, which may be controverted by other, not
less justified supj)ositions. Very many families may have originated in the
oriental region, but more cannot be said now-a-days. Our conclusions as to
the distribution of land and water and as to other separating barriers offer
some probability only for the caenozoic era; as to the condition before the
Eocene we can only make suppositions. And at this period all suborders and
gentes of the lower and the far greater number of those of the higher birds
very probably were already defined. If someone were to assert that there was
a nearly universal distribution of all the various chief-types at this period when
the climate was everywhere fairly uniform and explain their later localisation
in one region or the other by secondary extinction in the others — no one
could offer sure counter-proofs. The possible decisions pro and contra, based
upon the present geographical and morphological conditions, have nothing more
than a greater or less degree of probability.” Further p. 1572: “That in the
beginning of the Eocene higher birds were already represented, proves, that the
beginnings of the specialization of the subordines and gentes in view at least
already took place at the end of the cretaceous period. It is even very possible
that this occurred still earlier, for no one can assert that merely with these
poor finds in our hands we already possess the typical forms of those times;
the upper cretaceous, especially in its marine deposits, probably contains a
great variety of such types as yet undiscovered.” And p. 1109:

“Already the Eocene shows us forms which appear to be built after the
specialized type of the now-living bird-divisions . . . The variety of Eocene

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae.

169

birds is extremely large and authorizes us to suppose that, what has been found
till now from this period, only represents a very small part of the bird-life,
already • very richly developed in those times. In the Miocene the similarity
with the living fauna is further increased . . . and in some cases one can refer
the fossil forms even to living genera . . . This similarity with the present
time increases much more in the pliocene and quaternary times, when not only
living genera but also recent species are represented . , . During tertiary
times the present geographical distribution was regulated. Eocene and Miocene
with their tropical and subtropical climate still offer in our latitudes birds,
which now only live in the tropics or their nearest neighbourhood ... At
the same time towards the end of the cretacious period and in the course of the
Eocene and Miocene the continental separations and connections took place (e. g. the
separation of Australia from the oriental region at the end of the cretacious pe-
riod . . .), which . . . were of predominant influence on the distribution of birds.”

The foregoing deductions show that there is no reason why the genus Lo-
riculus could not have existed from miocene times; by the argument it is assu-
med that it existed when New Guinea was terrestially joined on to Asia, and
ranged over this continent now broken up. The line of reasoning may then
be as follows: There exists in all organic beings a tendency to develop in a
certain direction, a tendency which is better able to assert itself under isolation.
We have already been induced to draw the conclusion that the appearance of a
similar red crown in L. indicus of Ceylon and L. apicalis of the Southern Phi-
lippines, and the production of two considerably similar — but not nearly re-
lated — birds in the adult males of L. stig7natus and L. honapartei^ may be
ascribed to a tendency to develop red on certain parts. Thus, under long
separation L. stigmatus of Celebes may have become in virtue of this tendency
from a beginning like L.vernalis first like L.pusilhis of Java and have been
changing ever since with time in a definite direction; L. pusilhis, more recently
isolated in Java, may have only reached its first simple stage of differentiation,
but what L. stigmatus now is, or the like, L.pusilhis may once become, so far
at least as local influences allow.

Such or a similar palaeogeographical explanation of the distribution of Lo-
riculus meets, however, with many difficulties, which we abstain from detailing,
as we here are on too hypothetical grounds. We have only wished to bring
before the reader some proofs of our endeavours in searching for the truth, which
perhaps future ornithologists studying this case will attain, where we end more
or less with a query, though we are inclined to look on our first explanation
of the genesis of the species of the genus Loriculus as the most reasonable one.
We bear, however, in mind, that the facts of geographical distribution and of
variation of species are far too complicated to be mastered at the present time;
much more knowledge than that of the present day is required to find the clue
which will be satisfactory to the critical mind and the impartial judgment of
the naturalist.

Meyer & Wigles wortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 20th, 1S07).

22

170

Birds of Celebes; Psittacidae.

GENUS AP.ROSMICTUS J. Gd.

This handsome genus is easily distinguished from all the other Parrots
occurring in the Celeb esian area by its long tail, as long or longer than the
wings and strongly-graduated, the outermost feathers not reaching much more
than half the length of the tail; fourth primary longer than the first; the reversed
toe with the claw about as long as the middle toe without the claw; bill red
or mostly red; principal colours red, blue, and green. Eight species ranging
from Australia and Papuasia to the Moluccas, Sula and Peling.

+ * 54. APROSMICTUS SULAENSIS Rchw.

Red-and-hlue Parrakeet.

Plate VII.

a. Platycercus dorsalis var. (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 335, 337; 1864, 282, 293 (Sula).

/>. Platycercus dorsalis (1) SchL, Ned. Tdsclir. Drk. 1866, 184 (Sula); (2) id., Eer. Psitt.
1874, 38 (Sula).

c. Platycercus amboinensis {1} Pinsch, Papag. 1868, IT, 250 (Sula).

Aprosmictus sulaensis (1) Echnw., J. f. 0. 1881, 128 (Consp. Psitt. 64); {2} id., Yogelb.
1878-83 Nachtr. Nr. 16; (S) Salvad., Om. Pap. 1882, lit, 515; {4} id., Cat. B.
XX, 1891, 492; M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1896 Nr. 2, p. 8.

“Kakas”, Peling, Nat. Coll.

Adult. Entire head, neck, and under parts deep popfiy-ved, tlie under tail-covei’ts witli
broad mesial streaks of duslry blue; carpus, mantle, back and tail dark blue,
brightest on the rump, duskier and more ’sdolet according to the light on the tail;
the tail-feathers below black, all except the two middle ones tipped with red; wings
dark parrot-green, a band of this colom’ jDassing across the blue of the upper mantle;
metacarpal edge and under wing-coverts blue, slightly mixed with green; re-
miges below shining dusky. Bill reddish; feet blacldsh (ad. Peling, V — VI 1 1, 1895,
C 14758).

Younger. Differs from the adult in having the cervix and upper mantle green like the wings,
the bill varied with reddish and dusky (Peling, C 14514).

Measurements. (3 examj)les in the Dresden and 2 in the Tring Museum from Peling) wing
182 — 190 mm; tail ca. 190 — 195; tarsus ca. 20; bill horn cere ca. 20.

Bistribution. Sula and Pehng. Sula Islands — (Allen ai); Sula Mangoli (Bernstein and
Hoedt b i, b 2); Peling (Nat. Coll, m Dresd. & Trmg Mus.).

Observation. This, and three closely-allied Parrots, may be distinguished as follows:
a. Inters capulary region blue in adult.
a . Tail below black.

A. dorsalis (Quoy & Graim.): Distrib. — N.W. New Guinea and the
surrounding western Papuan Islands (Salvad.).

//. Two outer tail-feathers broadly edged with red.

A, amboinensis (L.): Distrib. — Amboina and Ceram (Salvad.).

r

Birds of Celebes: Psittacidae. 171

b. Witli a green space on the mantle, or interscapulary region green with blue
margins in adult.

a". Larger (wing 215 — 230), the outermost tail-feathers broadly, the next two
pairs narrowly edged with red.

A. burumsis Salvad.: Distrib. — Burn.

b". Smaller (wing 175); the tail-feathers not edged with rosy, only tipped
there wth.

A. sidaensis Bchw. : Distrib. — Sula Islands and Pehng.

The Sula form of this Parrot was first discovered, either in Sula Mangoli
or Sula Besi or in both islands, by Mr. Wallace’s assistant, Allen, and
W allace observed that the Sula birds possessed a reddish bill, whereas in
those of New Guinea it is black with the base of the upper mandible red.
Schlegel’s specimens from Sula Mangoli, from the collections of Bernstein and
Hoedt, did not confirm the validity of the differences pointed out, the three
first sent to the Leyden Museum all had black bills with some red at the base
of the upper mandible. The perfect red bill seems to be a sign of maturity.

The discovery of this handsome species on Peling Island, which is separated
from Celebes by a strait of less than 20 kilometers, and its absence on the
mainland (so far as is known) , is a curious circumstance. It is one of those
facts which have led us to consider as probable the opinion that the Peling and
Sula groups are the remains of one large island, which has been broken up in
comparatively recent times. The genus Aprosmictiis finds its maximum develop-
ment in New Guinea, but the eight species recognised by Count Salvadori
range from Eastern Australia to Peling.

The Burn form, which probably stands nearest to that of Peling and Sula,
is larger and has a broad red border on the inner web of the outer tail-feathers.

Compared with Tanygnathis^ Prioniturus and Loriculus, Aprosmictiis occupies
a somewhat remote position; it differs chiefly by its shortened reversed toe, by
its long, graduated, broad- feathered, blue tail, and by its general coloration of
red and blue.

ORDER PI CL

The Woodpeckers form a part of the heterogeneous group of birds com-
bined under the term Picariae, perching-birds which are neither Birds-of-Prey,
Parrots, Passeres, nor Pigeons. They include the Woodpeckers, Cuckoos,
Hornbills, Toucans, Trogons, Boilers, Swifts, Humming-birds, King-
fishers, Bee-eaters, and others. Some of these birds contrast as strongly
with others as do the long-acknowledged Orders ; for instance, the Woodpeckers

22*

172

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

differ frorn tiie Swifts, the Hornbills from the HQUiming-birds as greatly as do
the Accipitres from the Parrots or the Passeres from the Pigeons. In the
"‘Catalogue of Birds”, the sections of the Picariae are titled Suborders ; in the
Fauna of British India, Birds” voL III, Mr. Blanford prefers to treat them as
Orders. We have employed the latter term for this work. The Pici are
represented by the single

FAMILY PICIDAE.

Woodpeckers in life attract attention chiefly by their habit of clinging and
climbing on the stems and branches of trees, pecking away the bark and wood,
often making thereby a loud hammering, in search of the insects and their
larvae on which they feed, or in forming the cavities in Avhich they may even-
tually breed. The eggs laid therein are glossy white ; the young in first plumage
are known sometimes to resemble the male, when the sexes differ in adult
plumage. The birds have no song, properly so called, though in the breeding-
season they may utter peculiar notes. The well-known “drumming” made at
this season by some species is caused by the bird striking a dead branch and
then suffering the vibrating wood to beat against the tip of the hill. The flight
is weak and undulating. In size the Woodpeckers vary from the dimensions
of a Wren to those of a Crow; the most common colours are gveen, black,
white, ochraceous, red, and yellow; pure blue is, we believe, absent.

A Woodpecker has a zygodactyle foot — the outer (fourth) toe being-
reversed, a character which at once distinguishes it from certain Passeres^ such
as the Nuthatches, Tree-creepers and Tits, which share to some extent its habits;
the claws are curved to a semicircle (circa) , are very narrow and deep. The
bill is strong, straight, or nearly so, often sharpened laterally at the tip to a
chisel-like point; the “tongue is very long, worm-like, provided with a pointed
horny barbed tip, capable of great protrusion , the hyoid cornua extending
backwards over the skull (except in Sphyropicus and XenopicusY’ (Hargitt, Cat.
B. XVIII, 2); the occipital foramen appears to he placed well under the skull;
the skin of the neck fits closely, so that in skinning the skull often cannot be
passed through it; the keel of the sternum is low, the manubrium is furnished
posteriorly with two processes on either side. There are twelve tail-feathers,
which in the true Woodpeckers are stiffened and spiny, and used to support
the body in clinging and climbing; in the Piculets ( Picumninae) and Wrynecks
(lynginae) the tail-feathers are soft and ordinary, and these forms are distinguished
as Subfamilies. For further particulars see Marshall, “Spechte”, 1889;
Hargitt 1. c., Blanford 1. c., and others.

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

173

GENUS lYNGIPICUS Bp.

The Pygmy Woodpeckers are about the size of a Sparrow; the bill about
as long as the head tapering to a point ; the wing rather long, the first primary
very small, about 74 the length of the second, the 3’'^, 4*“^ and 5^^ are the longest;
the reversed fourth toe is longer than the third toe; the tail is short, about
Y2 the length of the wing, the lateral rectrices normal and not much stiffened,
the middle feathers and to a less extent the adjacent feathers pointed and stiffened.
Hargitt recognised 18 species ranging from India, E. Asia and Japan to the
Philippines, Celebes and Flores, and one aberrant species with a wide range
in Africa.

4 * 55. lYNGIPICUS TEMMINOKI (Malh.).

Tern min ck’s Pygmy Woodpecker.

a. Picus temmincki (1) Malh., Pev. Zool. 1849, 529; (II) Malh., Picidae 1861, I, 155,
pi. XXXyi, fig* 3 Q ; (3) Brliggem., Ahh. Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 49; (4) Bosenb.,
Malay Archip. 1878, 275 (Tiinincki err.).

h. Yungipicus temmincki (1) Bp., Consp. Vol. Zygod. 1854, 8; (2) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872,
41, 111; (3) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Oiv. Cen. 1875, YII, 647; (4) Meyer, Ibis
1879, 57; (5) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 206.

lyngipicus temmincki (1) Hargitt, Ibis 1882, 49; (II) Gould, B. Asia YI, pi. XXY,

Q (1882); (3) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 546; (4) Marshall, Die Spechte 1889, 64;
(5) Hargitt, Oat. B. XYIH, 1890, 335; (G) M. & Wg. , Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895,
Xr. 8, p. 6; (7) iid., ib. 1896, Xr. 1, p. 8; (8) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 159; (9)
id., ib. 1897, p. 158.

“Tatangkul kokie”, Manado Distidct, Xat. Coll.

“Tukang ketjil”, Malay, near Manado, Xat. Coll.

For further synonymy and references see Hargitt 4.

Figures and descriptions. Gould 77; Malherbe all, a 1\ Walden b 2\ Salvador! h 3\
Hargitt 7, 5.

Adult male. Mantle, back, and . scapulars dusky olive-green, barred with huffy; rump
uniform buff; upper tail-coverts and tail darker buff, barred with bistre-brown;
wing-coverts and quills darker dusky olive-green, marked with rather large huffy
white spots on the outer webs of the coverts near their ends, notched with huffy on
both webs 7 of the quills nearly meeting so as to form bars about 8 miu apart; head
above and ear-coverts olive; lores, a supra-orbital stripe, sub-orbital and
malar stripe, and a nuchal patch, huffy white; a collar behind ear-coverts,
not quite meeting at the nape, scarlet-vermilion; chin and throat slate-grey, the ends
of the feathers white; under surface bistre-brown, the margins of the feathers paler
and fulvous — whitish on the sides and flanks, — giving a broadly streaked appearance;
under wing-coverts white, olive about the metacarpal edge; quills below ohve,
more broadly barred with white than above (near Manado, [q^] Aug.- Sept. 1892,
0 10856).

“Iris brown [“dull crimson”, Doherty 5j; bill greyish brown; tarsus dull ohve”
(Guillem. 5).

b Hargitt speaks only of the outer webs of the quills as being spotted with white.

174

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

Adult female. Similar to the male, hut without the scarlet patches on the sides of the occiput
(Manado, Q, Mch. 1871, 0 473, 474).

Some specimens present a much more handed appearance on the back than others.
This may be a matter of age, the more uniform specimens being probably the younger.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostr.

Tarsus

a. (C 10856) [(y'J ad. near Manado ........

76

30

13.5

13.5

h (C 5157) [cf] ad. Manado

75

33

12.5

c. (0 5158) [Q] ad. Manado ....

75

38

—

d. (0 474) Q ad. Manado

79

40

13.5

e. (C 473) Q ad. Manado

79

39

13

14

f. (Sarasin Coll.) 9, Tomolion, 5. IV. 94

76

35

13

14

g. (C 14907) cf, Indrnlaman, S. Cel., Oct. 95 (Everett)

79

34

15

14

li. (Sarasin Coll.) cf. Macassar, 27. VTTT 95 ... .

79

35

14

14

i. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, Macassar, 11. VI. 95 ....

85

39

15

14.5

Eg’g and breeding habits unknoum.

Distribution. Celebes — South Peninsula (Wallace h 2, 4, P. & P. Sarasin, Everett 8)\
Minahassa (Eosenb. a 4, Meyer h 4, Fischer a 3, G-uillem. 5, etc.).

This little Woodpecker has as yet only been recorded from the northern
and southern extremities of Celebes. Hargitt makes no mention of differences
in the southern birds, such as are found in the other Celebes Woodpecker,
Microstictus fulvus, in its southern quarters, neither have we been able to detect
any, and there can be little doubt that I. temmincki will be found to range all
over the island. Most writers speak of it as a rare species; it was not found
to he so by Meyer near Manado, nor, a23parently, by our native collectors in
August and September, 1892, when five specimens were obtained in the same
neighbourhood. Dr. Platen met with it among the orange and coffee planta-
tions near Eurukan (3000 ft.). Nothing has been recorded of its habits. The
allied I. canicapillus (Bl.) of Tenasserim is said by Davison (Str. F. VI, 125)
to frequent old clearings, moderately thin jungle, groves of trees, etc., but to
avoid, as a rule, dense forest or bamboo jungle. /. gpnnophthalmus of Ceylon
and South India is said to live in the highest branches of trees (Legge, B.
Ceylon, 187). “Its powers of flight, afforded by its long wings, are considerable”.

The nearest known ally of I. temmincki is /. ramsayi Hargitt of the Sooloo
Islands. With one exception the genus lyngipiciis is confined to the Oriental
Eegion, but, like Pelargopsis, it crosses Wallace’s line between Bali and Lom-
bok, a species being found in the latter island, Sumbawa, and Flores.
I. temmincki send. I. ramsayi are, unlike the rest, “above olive -brown” — we
should add with a strong wash of green in the former — “strij)ed or barred
with white”; the remaining Oriental forms are “above black and white, the
white uniform or barred”, but I. ramsayi^ in the coloration of its under surface,
betrays affinity to J. aurantiiventris (Salvadori) of Borneo. /. temmincki ai:)pears
to be one of the most distinct members of the genus. The single sj)ecies
occurring elsewhere outside the Oriental Eegion is I. olsoletus, which ranges.

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

175

according to Hargitt, from N. E. Africa to Equatorial Africa, westward to
Senegambia, a remarkably wide distribution for a genus the species of which
are so narrowly located elsewhere. This is an aberrant form, though Edward
Hargitt considers it a true lyngificus. It is very far removed in characters
from I. temmincki. A few remarks on the distribution of the East Indian
Woodpeckers will be found under Microstictus fulvus. As is well known to
ornithologists, no species of Woodpecker is known east of the Molucca Straits,
the family being entirely absent from the Australian region, through occurring
elsewhere all over the world — except in Madagascar and the Pacific Islands —
from about the Arctic Circle, south to South Patagonia, the Cape, Flores and
Celebes (see Marshall, Spechte, 1889, 42, 43).

GENUS MICROSTICTUS^) Harg.

A genus of four species restricted to Celebes and the Philipjjines. In size
about equal to a Turtle Dove; exposed culmen not longer than the head;
nostrils feathered; tip of upper mandible chisel-edged; third toe longer than the
reversed fourth toe ; tail nearly as long as the wings, the individual rectiices ter-
minally narrowed, and stiffened like whale-bone; first primary half as long as
the second; 4^^, 5*^ and 6^^ subequal and longest.

+ * 56. MICROSTICTUS FULVUS (Q. G.).

North Celebesian Slate-and-fawn Woodpecker.

o. Picus fulvus (I) Quoy & Graim., Yoy. Astrol. 1833, text, 228, Atl. pi 18, fig. 2 ((^);

(2) Posenb., Malay Arcliip. 1878, 275 (hiilvus); (3) Joest, Das Holontalo 1883, 105.
h. Hemilophus fulvus (1) G-ray, Gen. B. II, 1846, 439; (II) Eclib., Haiidb. Picinae 1854,
385, t. 644, f. 4302—03.

c. Dryopicus fulvus (I) Malb., Picidae 1861, I, 53, pi. XIY, fig. 1 cf, 2 Q.

d. Campethera fulva (1) Gray, HL. 1870, II, 193; (2) Briiggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876,

Y, 48.

e. Mulleripicus fulvus (1) Wald., Tr. Z. 8. 1872, YIH, 41 pt. (Manado); (2) Garrod,

P. Z. 8. 1873, 630; (3) Lenz, J. f. O. 1877, 366; (4) Meyer, Bns 1879, 57, 145;
(5) Guillem., P. Z. 8. 1885, 546.

f. Alophonerpes fulvus (1) ? 8alvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YII, 646; (2) W. Bias.,

Ztsclm. ges. Orn. 1886, 87; (3) Marshall, Die 8pechte 1889, 58 (Borneo err.).
Microstictus fulvus (1) Hargitt, Oat. B. XYHT, 1890, 490; (2) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd.

1895, Nr. 8, p. 6; (III) Meyer, Abb. YogelskeL 1897, pi. COXXm
“Burong tukan” (Carpenter Bird). Malay name, Minaliassa (Meyer e 4, Guillem, e d,
Nat. OolL).

“Bumerkukor” (Meyer) near Manado.

1; Mr. Hartert (Xov. Zool. 1897) would reinstate tire name Lichtenstemipicusy intended by Bonaparte
for the Philippine form, M. funebris, but by the Rules of Nomenclature, Hargitt was justified in rejecting
it, since it has, Ave believe, never been described. Hargitt’s Microstictus (type, apparently, M. fulvus of
Celebes) has been properly diagnosed (Cat. B, XVIII, 7, 489).

176

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

“Tatankul” — near Tanawangko, Meyer, — or “Tatankiil Sela’’, ;ji[at. Coll, Mnaliassa.

“Tukan besar”, Malay, Minaliassa, Nat. Coll.

“Bitu-bitua”, Gorontalo, Joest a 3.

“Widi-widua”, Mosenb. a 2.

For further synonymy and references see Hargitt 1.

Figures and descriptions. Quoy & Gaimard a I; Eeiclib. h II; Malherbe c I; Blasius
f 2; Hargitt 1.

Adult male. General colour above dusky slaty, becoming dark bistre-brown on the upper
tail-coverts and tail-feathers, the shafts of which are wliity-brown in jalaces,
both shafts and webs pure bistre towards the tip; entire front part of head, in-
cluding forehead, croAvn, sides of head, and malar region, as far as a hne drawn
about 5 mm behind the eye, red (yellowish crimson) ; remaining parts of the head
and hind neck slaty hke the back, but each feather furnished with a small tip of
wliite. Chin and throat broccoh-brown , speckled with minute white tips to the
feathers; remaining under parts huffy clay-colour; tail below broccoli-brown
washed with tawny-olive towards the tip; under wing-coverts slaty, touched vdth
clay-colour (Banka Id. off N. Celebes, 16. Y. 93 — C 12275). “Iris light yellow;
bill black; feet greenish grey” (Guillem, e 4).

E. Hargitt remarks that the red immediately behind the eye is developed in
very old males only. This appears to be the case in our specimens also, though- one
or two which must be old, judging from their bills, have no red behind the eye.

Adult female. Similar to the male, but without red on the head, this colour being replaced
by dusky slaty grey like the hind head, speckled with smaller white tips (Banka Id.
19. V. 93 — C 12276, Manado, C 5156).

Immature [female] . Like the adult female, but with the crown and most of the forehead red';
under parts browner (N. Celebes, C 3600). Obs.: Hargitt was evidently quite right
in describing a similar specimen as a young female. His opinion is fully confirmed
by two immature specimens of the next species from East Celebes; they are casting-
off the old worn red feathers on the top of the head and are acquiring new ones
of slaty with whitish spots, as in the adult female. The young therefore resembles
the male more than the female.

Fledging male. Differs from the above plumage (as described 1) m having the red patch on
the forehead and crown more marked and richer in colour; the under parts more of
a sandy grey; the tail-shafts lighter and the under surface of the tail greyer (Hargitt).

Measurements (12 specimens). Wing 176 — 189 mm; tail 150—172; tarsus 30 ca. ; bill 28.5
(Q ad. and Q ? imm.) — 36 (q^ ad.)

Egg and nest. Two, seldom three, eggs in a hole of a dead tree (Meyer e 4).

Distribution. Celebes, Northern (and S. E.?) Peninsula: — Lembeh, Banka and Mante-
hage, — Is. off the Minaliassa (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); hBnahassa (Meyer e 4,
Guillem, e <7, etc.); Gorontalo District (Meyer e 4, Joest a 3); Togian Islands
(Meyer e 4); (?) Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari f4).

Touching the occurrence of this form in the 8. E. Peninsula, Prof. W. Blasius
(Z. ges. Orn. 1885, 239) remarks: “As at this place the southern /S'^rej?toa#a-species :
albicolUs occurs, it would be very remarkable if the Alophonerpes- (Microstictus) species
were not also the southern wallacei^’’ Blasius’ opinion is strengthened by the dis-
covery of AI. icallacei in Central and East Celebes.

Next to nothiing has been recorded of the habits of M. fulvus: Meyer

remarks that it feeds on tree insects, on white ants, caterpillars, etc., as all

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

177

Woodpeckers. Lives in pairs. If the male and female lose each other, the
male knocks and the female follows the sound”.

The genus Microstictus is, as Hargitt shows, peculiar to Celebes and the
Philippines, being represented in the latter islands by two species, M.fuliginosus
(Tweedd.) of IMindanao and Samar (Steere) and M.fimebris (Valenc.) of Luzon,
Marinduque and Cagayan. These forms differ widely from M.fulviis in colo-
ration, being unicolorous above and below, but they [M.funehris at least) seem
to possess no structural differences and might almost be described as small
melanistic races of M.fulvus.

The genus Microstictus is most nearly related to Memiloghus^ the single
species of which, M. imlverulentus^ was found by Hargitt to range from the
Himalayas to the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.

The geographical distribution of the Woodpeckers, as a family, is of high
interest. “It is similar”, writes Marshall (Spechte, p. 42), “to that of the Cats,
Dogs, Martins and Squirrels; the Woodpeckers are wanting, like these, in Mada-
gascar and in by far the greatest part of the Australian Legion, where in con-
trast to the mammals mentioned they occur further in Celebes’), as they also,
likewise in contrast to these, are found in the West Indies. In two parts of
the earth they have attained a remarkable development, a great richness in
original, well marked genera and beautiful species, namely in tropical America
and in India, a fact which stands in the closest connection with the increased
diversity and greater richness of the forests. In America their range extends
from Port Famine in the south to beyond the Polar circle in the north, and
under the equator from the strand to 14,500 feet above the sea-level in the
Andes. They are found in the islands off the coast of Chili and western North
America, on most of — perhaps all — the West Indies and Bermudas, but are
wanting on Juan Fernandez, Mas a fuero, as also in the Galapagos Islands
and in the Bahama Group at least as breeding birds. In the Old World they
reach on the AVest coast from 70” N. to the Cape, but are found in the islands
of the Atlantic only in Great Britain, in the Azores and the Canaries. In the
eastern half they are met with from about the Polar Circle as far as Celebes
and the Philippines, are wanting, however, in the islands east of a line drawn
from Cape Navarin along the east coasts of Kamtschatka, the Kurile Islands,
the Japanese Archipelago and the Loochoo Islands as far as Cape Engano in
Luzon”.

As compared with other Picariae in the East Indies the AVoodpeckers
correspond best as regards their distribution with the Bucerotidae; also to some
extent with the Phaetiicophaemae. All three groups — excepting one genus -of

1) Prof. Marshall is, however, iii error in excluding Celebes from the range of the Squirrels, four
species being known from the island, three of which are peculiar, and none occur farther east; also a species
of Paradoxurus and one of Viverra belong to it. Two other families of mammals, unknown in Madagascar
and in the Australian Region — except in Celebes — might be added, viz, the Apes, and the Oxen, though
the first are of course confined to the warmer parts of the globe.

Meyer & Wig'leswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 21st, 1SU7).

23

178

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

Buceros of good flying- powers in marked contrast to its fellows — are absent
from tbe Australian Region ; all three, also, are absent from the Sangi Islands,
a circumstance which speaks for their recent volcanic upheaval. As in the case
of the Bucerotidae^ Celebes has two Woodpeckers, one rather large, the other
a small one, which, moreover. And their nearest allies in the Philippines with
Sooloo. The Bucerotidae greatly enforce Mr. Wallace’s view of the former
land -connection of Borneo, Sumatra and Malacca and of the earlier separation
of Java from them, and a certain amount of similar proof is brought by the
Woodpeckers. As Hargitt shows in his Catalogue the same species of the
following Himalayan or tropical genera are peculiar to Malacca, Sumatra and
Borneo, whereas Java has its own peculiar species of them, viz.

On the other hand several other Himalayan genera extending into the Sunda
Islands are represented by identical species in Java, Borneo, Sumatra and Ma-
lacca, viz. Tiga^ Chrgsocolaptes, Hemilophus (ranging to the Himalayas in one
species), Thriponax (also in the Philippines) and Igngipiciis (most species of which
are local, but one, I. auritus Eyt., has the above range extending further to
Cochin China). Microptenms^ an Indo-Chinese form connects the Malay Penin-
sula, Sumatra and Java by a subspecies of the Indo-Siamese M. phaeoceps^ while
Borneo has its own peculiar species. The wide-spread Dendrocopus of Europe,
Asia, N. America and southern S. America also has a species in Malacca, Su-
matra and Java, but is wanting in Borneo. The two last-named genera are,
however, more likely than the others to have extended their range by migration,
because they belong to a more northern area — especially Dendrocopus. Of
particular interest is the reoccurrence of the South and Central American genus
Picumnus in the Oriental Region from the Himalayas and China south to Su-
matra.

To account for the distribution of the Woodpeckers Wallace suggests a
Central Asiatic origin, whence they spread to South America by way of North
America, and developed into great diversity of form under the favourable con-
ditions of the Neotropical forests (Geogr. Distr. II, 303). Tristram has urged
a circumpolar origin. Marshall sjjeaks for their evolution in the New World
from the Passerine branch, and their gradual spread into the eastern Palaearctic
Region, whence, as in North America, they were driven southwards by the
glacial period, to work their way in many cases north again as the cold mode-
rated. This view contains, perhaps, the fullest explanation.

Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo
Chrysophlegma (2 sj^.)')
Gauropicoides
Lepocestes
Miglyptes (2 sp.)

Hemicercus

Miglyptes (1 sp.)
Hemicercus.

Java

Chrysophlegma (2 sp.)

absent

absent

1) Sumatra and Malacca have each a peculiar species.

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

179

Marshall by no means makes it clear, however, why Celebes should have
been colonised by its two Woodpeckers “at a much later time” than the other
Sunda Islands. The two Celebesian species are very distinct from the other
members of their genera in the Philippines and the Bornean Province, and they
should be regarded as very long separated from the rest. On the other hand,
as has been shown, the species of many genera in Java, Borneo and Sumatra
are identical with, or but little different from, those of Malacca and S. E. Asia.
These, therefore, may be considered either to have more recently invaded these
islands by flight, or to have been recently cut off in them by the submergence of
land. Though their wings are of good size, Woodpeckers do not appear to attempt
long flights, except, perhaps, the Colaptes of America, in which it is, as
Malherbe says, rapid and prolonged; the keel of the sternum is shallow and the
pectoral muscles, judging from the birds’ appearance on the wing, are feeble,
and the habits of the family only call for flight in launching themselves from
one tree to another, or in making their way at a low elevation to the next
wood. Their absence in New Guinea and Madagascar, where, as Alarshall
points out, there can be no lack of suitable insect-food, and in the islands of
Polynesia, where indeed insects are very scare, prove them, as might be expected
from their flight and habits, to be birds to which a narrow sea-passage is a
formidable barrier. On the whole, evidence is in favour of the view that Mi-
crostictus and lyngipicus reached Celebes at a time when Borneo, Sumatra and
Java were united to the Asiatic continent and when Celebes itself and the
Philippines were also nearly or quite in touch with the continent. Submergence
then put a sufficient barrier between it and Celebes, while new forms from the
north subsequently invaded the other countries and gave the Philippines, Borneo
and Java an avifauna so much richer in Picidae than that of Celebes.

* 57. MICROSTICTUS WALLACEI (T wee del.).

Wallace’s Slate-and-fawn Woodpecker.

a. Alophonerpes fulvus (1) Cab. & Hein, (nec Q. & Gr.], Mas. Hein. IV, pt. 2, 1863, 107;

(2) 7 Salvad., Ann. Mns. Civ. Gen. 1875, VH, 646; (3) Tristr., Cat. CoU. B. 1889,
102; (4) Heine & Eclinw., Noinencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 216, pt.

b. Mulleripieus fulvus (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 41.

c. Mulleripieus wallacei (1) Tweedd., Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1877, XX, 533; (2) id.. Collected

Orn. Works 562, 667; (3) P. & P. Sarasin, Z. Ges. Erdk., Berlin 1895, 327.

d. Alophonerpes wallacei (I) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 209, 236, pi. XI, (f, $.

e. Mierostietus wallacii (1) Hargitt, Cat. B. XVHI, 1890, 491.

Microstictus wallacei (1) Biittik., Zool. Erg. AVeber’s Eeise in Ost-Incl. 1893, 273; (2)
M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (3) iid., ib. Nr. 2, p. 10; (4)

V Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 159; (5) id., ib. 1897, 158.

f. Lichtensteinipicus wallacei (1) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 164.

“Bantinotto”, Tjainba District, Platen d I.

“Sumboli”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

23*

180

Birds of Celebes: Picidae.

Figure and descriptions. W. Blashis d I\ Tweeddale c 1\ Hargitt el.

Adult male. Differs from the adult male of M. fulvtis in having the red of the head carried
much further hack, so as to include the occiput and entire sides of head; the tail
much darker (Bias, d I, Hargitt e 1, Indrulaman, Oct. 95, Everett — 0 14901).
Iris light yellow; bill black; feet lead-grey (Platen d I).

Adult female. Differs from the adult female of 3L fidvus in having the ground-colour of
the chin and throat wood-hrown, upon which the white tips of the feathers stand out
much less distinctly than on the broccoli-hrown; tail much darker, “brownish dusky
above and below, the shafts nearly black above , their under side dusky, with smoky
wliite bases”. Bis, etc. as in male. (W. Bias, d 1, Hargitt el] Tjamba, 24. V. 78
— C 10425).

Young male. With less red on sides of face than in adult male; malar stripe red;
lores, orbital region and fore parts of ear-coverts unspotted dusky grey, a few
feathers under eye tinged with crimson; groimd - colour of chin and throat more
dusky, the spots more rounded and very minute; chest and breast of a more dingy
buff colour, many of the feathers with dusky shaft-streaks; shafts of tail-feathers
browner, and their bases very much paler (ex Hargitt).

Immature [female]. Head above red; in other respects like the adult Q, (Tonkean, E. Cel.,
y — "SHH. 95 — 0 14460 — moulting.)

Measurements (12 specimens). Wing J 78— 192 mm; tail 145 — 172; culmen 37 — 45; rictus
43 — 52; tarsus 30 — 33 (W. Blasius dl)] bill from nostril c. 30 — 46 mm.

Distribution. Celebes: — Southern Peninsula (Wallace c 7, el, Platen cfJ, Weber 7); Luwu
at the head of the Gulf of Boni (Weber 7), Lembongpangi, S. Centr. Celebes
(P. & E. Sara sin c 3, 2)\ Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll. 5); ? Kendari, S. E.
Peninsula (Beccari a 2)] Dongala, W. Celebes (Doherty f 1).

Observation. This Woodpecker is now knomi fr-om South, Central, West and East Celebes
and will very likely prove to be the species of all parts of the island except the
North Peninsula, where it is represented by il£ fidvus. It was probably this species,
rather than if. fulviis, that Beccari found in S. E. Celebes. There seem to be no
differences of colour in M. ujallacei from different parts of its range, and transitions
towards M. fidvus are not yet known, so that the two may be regarded as species,
though they may turn out later as subspecies of a single form.

ORDER COCCYGES.

Two families are placed in this order or suborder by Shelley (Cat. B.
XIX, 209) and Blanford (Faun. Br. Ind., B. Ill, 1895, 203), viz. the Cuckoos
(Ciiculidae) and Touracos (Musophagidae), an African family. In the former the
outer toe is always reversed, and the oil-gland nude; in the Touracos the outer
toe is reversible, the oil-gland tufted (Shelley) and “the bill of nearly all the
species is curiously serrated or denticulated along the margin” (Newton, D.
B. 982).

On the order Coccyges Mr. Blanford remarks: “This is distinguished from
all other zygodactyle groups, except the Parrots, by possessing the ambiens
muscle, a character to which a very high importance was attached by Garrod,
and by the deep plantar tendons being arranged as in Gallinaceous birds, and

Birds of Celebes; Cuculidae.

181

only differing in arrangement from the Passerine plan by being connected by
a yincnlnm; the flescor longus hallucis leads to the hallux alone, the fieocor perforans
digitomm serves the other three digits. The palate is desmognathons ; basiptery-
goid processes are wanting”. Pesemblances to the Gallinae and the Opisthocomus
have been pointed out by Huxley and Garrod; an important point of diffe-
rence is that the young of the Gallinae run about and feed themselves as soon
as they are hatched, but the young of the Coccyges are hatched naked and
helpless, in which they resemble the Pigeons more.

FAMILY CUCULIDAE.

The best external clues to the recognition of a Cuckoo-form are, perhaps,
furnished by the zygodactyle foot (the outer toe reversed), the claws usually
weak, the bill decurved and usually weak, with the nostrils exposed (except in
'I or 3 genera, Dasylophus^ Lepidogrammiis)^ the tail-feathers 10 in number
(except in Crotophaga and Guira, which have only 8) and often long and
broad. The following anatomical and pterylological characters are noted by ana-
tomical writers; Palate desmognathons; hasipterygoid processes absent; caeca
present; both carotids present; contour-feathers without any aftershaft; dorsal
feather-tract divided between the shoulders, and enclosing a lanceolate naked
space on the back; oil-gland present, but nude; young hatched naked, and not
passing through a downy stage before acquiring feathers. Shelley recognises
6 subfamilies, of which three, Cucidinae, Centropodinae^ and Phoenicophainae occur
in Celebes, and Scytkrops is entitled to be regarded as a fourth subfamily.

SUBFAMILY CUCULIME.

The true Cuckoos may be recognised, as Shelley points out, by their long,
ffat wings which do not fit closely to the body, and the longest primaries over-
reach the secondaries by more than the length of the tarsus or bill. The tail
rarely exceeds the wing in length [Coccystes^ Cacomantis and Surniculus are excep-
tions. They are parasitic in their habits, at least in most cases.

GENUS HIEROCOCCYX 8. Mull,

A genus which hardly differs from Cuculus except in having the wing less
pointed, the secondaries being about % to V4 wing-length, instead of
only about V2 as in Cuculus, and the tail-feathers crossed with four or
five dark bands, instead of having them (in the adult) black with spots of
white at intervals against the shafts of the feathers. Six species are recognised
by Shelley, ranging from East Siberia and India to Celebes. One of them, H.
sparverioides, has been observed to build its own nest and brood on its eggs,
but it has also been recorded as parasitic, like, so far as is known, its fel-
loYv-species.

182

Birds of Celebes; Cuculidae.

^ ^ * 58. HIEROCOCCYX CRASSIROSTRIS Tweedd.

Blunt-winged Cuckoo.

Hierococcyx crassirostris (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. N.H. 1872, 305; (II) id., Tr. Z. S. 1872,
Vm, 116, pi. 13; (3) Meyer, J. f. O. 1873, 405; (4) Platen, G-efied. Welt 1887^
219; (5) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 239; (6) M. & Wg., Ahli. Mns. Dresd. 1895,
Xr. 8, p. 6.

a. Cuculus crassirostris fl) Briigg., Abh. Ver. Bremen, 1876, V, 59.

“Kokokuk” (meaning simply a Cuckoo), Tondano, Xat. Coll.

Figure and description. Walden II, I; Shelley 5.

Adult. Head, neck, ear-coverts, and cheeks rather pale slate-grey; upper surface
dark rufous brown, the margins of the wings mottled ’svith russet, the rump and upper
tail-coverts redder and obscurely tipj>ed with grey like the head; metacarpal joint
white; tail rufous brown, brighter than the back, tipped with white and crossed wth
three or four broad bands of black, the interspaces on the more lateral feathers chiefly
white or wliite mingled with rufous, the middle feathers all rufous hrovui with a broad
terminal hand of black and a black spot indicating another band with a small sjjot
of white adjoining; under surface white, thickly barred with slaty black on chin
and throat, with purer black across chest, breast, sides and flanks; under tail- and
wing-coverts white, the latter with a brown spot here and there at the edge of wing
and on the longer series; quills below broccoli -brown, white towards base (near
Tondano, Aug. — Sept. 1892 — 0 10796).

“Bill black, at base of lower mandible yellow; hare skin round the eyes gold-
yellow; feet gold-yellow”. Other adult specimens (all marked q^) for the loan of one
of which we are indebted to Mr. Xehrkorn, while the others are in the Sarasin
Collection, are like the above. “Iris brown; hill black, below yellow -green; orbits
and feet light yellow” (Burukan, 2. XI. 84 — Platen in Mus. Xehrk. Xr. 931).

Immature. Differs from the adult in having the head above brownish slaty; neck and upper
surface chestnut (i. e. hghter and redder), some remains of dark bars on the tertiaries
above; below huffy — not pime — white, plentifully barred with blackish brown,
except on under wing- and tail-coverts (Minahassa — Xr. 2207). This is like fig. 2
of Lord Walden’s plate, but the under surface is more thickly barred. As Captain
Shelley points out, the tail in this figure conveys a wrong impression, the two nuddle
feathers being lost; there is no white except at the tip on the middle tail-feather
(there is only one remaining) of our specimen, though the shaft is pale at one spot.

Young. A younger specimen in the Xehrkorn Coll. (Xr. 930 — Burukan, 10. XI. 84: Platen)
differs from that described in being still paler rufous brown above, with the mantle
indistinctly spotted; below still more thickly barred with black. “Lis brown; bill
brown, below yellow-green; orbits and feet fight yellow”.

Measurements,

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (C 10796) ad. Tondano

208

170(c)

24

21

b. (Mus. Xehrk. Xr. 931) ad. Burukan

203

177

24

—

c. (ib. Xr. 930) juv. Burukan

198

170

23

19

d. (Xr. 2207) juv. IVLnahassa

200

175(c)

23

20

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Kema, 23. X. 93

208

180(c)

25

20

f. (Sarasin Coll.) vix ad. Loka, S. Cel., 31. XI. 95 .

202

—

24

19.5

(7. (Sarasin Coll.) rf ad. Matanna-Tomori, 7. HI. 96

216 •

—

26

20

Birds of Celebes; Cuculidae.

183

Distribution. Celebes; — North Celebes (Meyer i, Faber in Drescl. Mns., Fischer at),
Enrukan (Platen); nearTondano (Nat. Coll. inDresd. Mns.), Mount Klabat (Platen 4),
Kema (P. & F. S.); Matanna-Tomori , Central Celebes (id.); Loka, S. Celebes (id.).

This Cuckoo is the most aberrant member of the genus Hierococcycc^ differ-
ing, as Capt. Shelley points out in his key to the species, from the other
forms in having the under surface of the quills not distinctly barred, except
at the base, a point which also distinguishes it from Cumlus. The bill is ex-
ceptionally stout and large ; the middle tail-feathers display one or two isolated
white spots against the shaft, a peculiarity well developed in Cuculus^ but not
seen in Hierococcyos except in the present case. The wing of H. crassirostris is
also less pointed that in H. sparverioides, the ends of the secondaries reaching
V7 of the wing-length as against 7a in Ih© latter species, and about in Cucu-
his. This form cannot be regarded as a local differentiation of one of the
wider-spread members of the genus, it appears to be an independent develop-
ment of a stock now not existing anywhere else.

The bird was first discovered by Meyer in 1871 and was only known
from North Celebes; it would appear to be partial to the hills. Thus, Dr. Platen
met with it at Eurukan (3000 ft.) and on the slopes of Mt. Klabat, and we
have recently received a specimen from near the high-lying lake of Tondano,
while the Sara sins’ specimen from near Loka was killed at about 4500 ft. alt.

The tail-feathers of this sj^ecies are more than usually instructive in their
bearing upon the question of changes of coloration provoked by exposure to light.
The outermost pair in an adult before us are white barred with black; the
white on the next pair, especially on the outer web, is discoloured with rufous
brown, giving the appearance that the black had become washy and had “run”,
soaking into the white, with the result of a rufous browm colour. On the third
pair this process is more advanced, especially again on the more exposed outer
web, which is now rufous browui, with little isolated pools of white close up to
the shaft, showing where the white bars should be, and with the black bars no
longer reaching to the external edge of the feather, but blackest near the shaft
and then gradually seeming to melt or become diluted until they pass into the
rufous brown of the rest of the web; on the inner webs, however, the black
and white bands are ’well separated, particularly towards the base of the feathers.
On the fourth pair the same thing is seen still more advanced, thre black bars
on the outer webs being further reduced, but on the inner w’ebs the black and
white colours are well separated. On the fifth or middle pair (Cuckoos have only
ten tail-feathers) where both ’webs are exposed, the black and white colours
are converted on both webs into an almost uniform rufous brown, except at the
tip of the tail which is white, the broad terminal band of black, a minute pool
of white higher up, and some signs of a black spot (the larger half of which
is on the inner web), wLile the shaft partakes of the colours through which it
passes; nevertheless, on raising the upper tail-coverts and looking at the base

184

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

of the feathers, it is seen that here, where they are not exposed, they are

white and black, and entirely white at the extreme base.

-b 59. HIEKOCOCCYX SPARVERIOIDES (Vig.).

Large Hawk-cuckoo.

a. Cuculus sparverioides (1) Vigors, P. Z. S. 1831, 173; (II) Gould, Cent. Himal. B. 1832,

pi. 53; (3) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 63.

Hierococcyx sparverioides (1) Bp., Consp. Av. 1850, I, 104; (2) Hu me, Str. P. HI, 1875,
80; (3) Hume&Davis., Str. F. 1878, 157; Oates, B. Br. Burm. 1883, H,
108; (5) A. MiilL, J. f. 0. 1885, 157; (6) Oates, ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs Ind.
B. 1890, H, 384; (7) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 232; (8) Tacz., Faun. Orn. Sih.
Orient. II, 1893, 694; (9) Kickett, Ihis 1894, 222; (10) Bourns & Worces., B.
Menage Exped. 1894, 35; 07^ Blank, Faun. Br. Ind. B. HI, 1895, 211; 02^M.&Wg.,
Ahh. Mus. Dresden 1896, Xr. 1, pp. 1, 4; (13) Grant, Ibis 1896, 559.

b. Cuculus strenuus (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1856, 96; (II) id., B. Asia VI, pi. 42 (1862).

G. Hierococcyx strenuus (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 28; (2) Everett, J. Str.
Br. B. A. S. 1889, 171.

For further synonymy and references cf. Shelley 7.

Figures and descriptions. Gould all, h II] David & Oustalet a 5; Oates 4] Shelley 7;
Taczanowski 8] Blanford 11] etc.

Young. Above blackish brown, the feathers edged and obscurely barred with tawny-olive,
more buff-brown, streaked with blackish brown on hind neck; head above very dark
grey, ear -coverts rather lighter, lores whitish; tail grey -brown with tlmee exposed
blackish bands and two under the ujDper tail-coverts, tip bro-wnish white; under parts
white, washed with buff, becoming buff -brown on flanks, the whole broadly striped
with blackish brown, taking a more sagittate form on the flanks; cliin blackish;
remiges beloAV dusky, barred with light clay-buff: “feet yellow; eyehds and iris
yellow; bill black, below greenish”. — Wing 234 mm; tail c. 200; tarsus 25; bill fr.
nostr. 16.5. (Q, Gunong Masarang, X. Celebes, 16. IX. 94; P. &F. Sarasin.)

Adult. “Has the lores whitish; crovm, nape and sides of head and neck ashy, varying from
rather pale to blackish, passing into the colour of the back wliich with the remainder
of the upper parts is rich brown Avitli a purplish gloss; quills barred with white on
the inner webs; tail above brown, pale brownish grey below, tqjped with white or
rufous white, and crossed outside the coverts generally by 3, sometimes by 4, black
or dark brown bands, the last the broadest, and the last but one the narrowest and
separated from the last by a narroAV space; beneath the cliin is dark ashy, with a
white moustachial stripe on each side ; throat wliite, more or less streaked with ashy
and rufous and passing into the more rufous upper breast, which also has ashy shaft-
stripes; lower breast, flanks and abdomen white, more or less suffused ivith rufous
and transversely banded with brown; vent, lower tail-coverts and edge of wing white”
(Blanford 11).

Measurements. Wing 216 — 254 mm; tail 210 — 235; tarsus 26,8; bill from gape 35.6 (Blan-
ford 11).

Eggs and breeding habits. According to observations by Miss Cockburn in the Xilghiris (6)
tliis Cuckoo builds its own nest of tivigs hke a Crow’s and hatches its eggs. These
are three in number, white, with a few touches (sometimes wanting) of light brown.
A similar observation by Mi'. E. H. Morgan, the nest containing 4 eggs, is recorded

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

185

(6). Mr. Hodgson observed tlie young of tin's species being fed by other birds, and
states that it is parasitic in its breeding-habits [6J.

Distribution. India, S. E. Siberia, and China, south to Malacca (7, 8, 11)\ Philippines —
Luzon (fide Grould hi, 7), Oalainianes (Bourns & Worcester 10), Palawan (Platen
c 2), Negros (Whitehead 15); Labuan (Treacher c 5); Java (Diard in ScliL, Mus.
P.-B. Ciicuh 1864, 15); Minahassa, Celebes (P. t% E. Sarasin 12).

A single immature sjoecimen of this Cuckoo, described above, was obtained
in North Celebes by the cousins Sarasin in September, 1894. It is probably
only a rare winter visitor to the island from China, or S. E. Siberia, where
David (a and Go die w ski (8) remark upon its presence in summer. Few
specimens have as yet been obtained in other parts of the Archipelago.

It is distinguishable from H. crassirostris by its having the wing below
banded (except towards the tip), as well as more pointed and longer, the bill
smaller, the 3 exposed bands on the middle tail-feathers all complete ; the banded
wing also serves to distinguish it from H. fugax, as well as its larger size.-

4 60. HIEROCOCCYX FUGAX (Horsf.).

Horsfield’s Hawk-cuckoo.

a. Cuculus fugax (1) Horsf., Tr. L. S. 1821, XIH, 178 (Java).
h. Cuculus lathami (I) J. E. Gray, 111. Ind. Zool. 1834, pi. 34, fig. 2.

Hierococcyx fugax (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 104; (2) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Heine 1862, IV,
28 (Hiracococcyx); (5) Salvad., Cat. TJcc. Borneo 1874, 65 (Hieracococcyx) ; (4) id.,
Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. XIV, 1879, 185; (5) Hume & Davison, 8tr. F. VI, 1878,
157; (6) Kelham, Ibis 1881, 391; (7) Wrdl Ramsay, ib. 1884, 333; (8) A. Muller,
J. f. 0. 1885, 157; (9) Blittik., Notes Leyd. Mus. 1887, 28; (10) Sharpe, P. Z. S.
1887, 442; (11) id.. Ibis 1890, 10; (IP^^) Everett, J. Str. B. R. A. S. 1889, 171;

(12) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 236; (IS) Sty an. Ibis 1891, 325, 484; (14)

Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. 1891, XXXH, 45; (15) Baldamus, Leben europ. Kuck.
1892, 133; (16) Hagen, T. Ned. Aard. Genoots. 1890 (2) VH, 136; (17) Bourns
& Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 35.

c. Cuculus hyperythrus (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1856, 96; (II) id., B. Asia 1856, VI, 431 (Shanghai);

(2) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 64.

d. Hierococcyx pectoralis (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 27 (Philippines); (2)

Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 161; (3) id., P. Z. S. 1878, 946; (4) Steere, List Coll.
B. Philip. Is. 1890, 12.

e. Hierococcyx sparveriodes (I) Schrenck (nec Vig.), Reis. Amuilande, Vog. 1859, 257, pi. 10.

f. Hierococcyx hyperythrus (1) C. & H., Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 30; (2) Wrdlw. Ramsay,

Ibis 1886, 157; (3) Seebohm,. B. Japan. Emp. 1890, 171.

g. Cuculus asturinus (1) Brligg., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 101; (2) W. Bias., J. f. 0.

1883, 153.

Figures and descriptions. Gould c J/; J. E. Gray hi’, Schrenck el; Briiggemann g P
B1 asius g 2; AV. Ramsay Shelley 12.

Female, not quite fully adult. Above slaty grey, some feathers round neck white, the longest
scapulars white barred with ashy; primaries slaty black, tipped with a narrow rim
of white; some of the secondaries blacldsh brown, barred with rufous; upper tail-
coverts blackish brown, tipped with rufous brown; tail-feathers rufous brown

Jleyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celeljes (Oct. 21st, 1S97).

24

186

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

crossed with 5 black bars, tbe subterminal one much tbe broadest; in front of eye
wlnte; cbin slaty grey; under surface white, chest washed with rufous, breast and
sides streaked here and there with brown; under wing-coverts white with a few

streaks of brownish; quills below sliining dusky, barred on the inner webs except

towards free end of wing — with white, which gradually increases in extent until at
their bases the quills are all white. Wing 200 mm; tail 160; tarsus 22; mid. toe
without claw 23; hill from nostril 16.

“Bill black, below yellow-green; orbit yellow-green; feet hght yellow; mis brown”
(Platen in Mus. ISTelirkorn, specimen from Eurukan, 1ST. Celebes, 28. I. 85).

Adult. Uniform slaty grey above.

Young. Upper surface barred all over with rufous and brown (except head, which is getting
smoky grey); tail, tail-coverts and secondaries as in the above -described Q ;
under surface strongly washed with rufous and marked with broad streaks of rich
brown (Q Mindoro; Platen in Mus. Nehrkorn, Nr. 2485).

Distribution. Lower Amoor (Maack e I); Japan (Seehohm f 3)] China (Gld. cl, c II,
Styan 45); Philippines (Cahanis d 1, Everett d 3, Maitland-Heriot f 2, Steere
d 4, B. & W. 47); North Celebes — Gorontalo (Eiedel g 1)', Eurukan (Platen in
Mus. Nehrk.); Borneo (Everett IP'% 44, Fischer, Schwaner 5^'*, 44); Java (Horsf.
f/ 4); Sumatra (Beccari 4, Klaesi 9, Modigl. 44); Singapore (Kelham 6); Perak,
Malacca (Wray 10); Salanga (A. Mlill. S).

In his Catalogue of the Cuckoos (12) Ca2ot. Shelley includes under the
title Hierococcyjo fuffaoc three forms, H. fugax, H.hgpergthrus^) and H.nisicolor, which
have been commonly treated by other authors as distinct. According to Major
Wardlaw Earn say H. hyper gthrus has the “rufous (of the under surface) darker,
uniform, or nearly so”, inhabits Japan, Amoorland, China, and the Philippines,
the young birds being found in Borneo and Malacca, and perhaps Sumatra and
Java in winter; H. nisicolor the “rufous paler, mixed with white” and ranges
from the Himalayas to Tenasserim, descending perhaps into the Malay Peninsula;
H. fugaoo is a species which in maturity retains a plumage like H. hyperythms
juv.; its distribution is not definitely stated (f2). We conclude that a stationary
race breeding in the East India Islands is intended; but, if so, Alajor Earn say
is in error in applying to it the name H. fugax Horsf,, since that bird has a
grey, not a brown, back (al). Capt. Shelley finds the type to be an adult of the
large series of examples comprehended by him under the title H. fugax^ a grey-
backed species when adult, under wdiich the types of H. nisicolor and hyperythms
are also included.

Not taking into further consideration IL nisicolor, of which Hume & Davison
say that “of course it cannot be confounded with fugaoo which has a very much longer
bill” (5) and the distinctness of which is upheld by Blanford in his recent work, it
appears to us highly probable that Major Earn say’s opinion as to the distinctness
of H, hyperythms, subsj)ecific at least, from H. fugaoo, the resident form of the East
Indies, is correct. Mr, EA^erett discovered breeding on Kini Balu: “I

found this species laying in the nest of Cididcapa ceylonensis on the 29^^" April. The

1) The type of C. hyi^erythrus in the Britisli Mnsenin is labelled Manila.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

187

egg was creamy white, slightly spotted with pale yellow-brown and grey, forming
a complete zone at the larger end: axis 0.9 inch, diam. 0.65” (11). Major
Ramsay appears, however, not to be in the right in holding the resident
form to be a brown-backed species when adult, resembling the young Chinese
birds; although Dr. Sharpe 1. c. does not mention whether Mr. Everett’s adult
S23ecimens had grey backs, it appears that they had, since there are such specimens
from him, and other collectors- in Borneo, in the British Museum (12), as shown
in Shelley’s series. We do not of course venture to separate in any way
this stationary form from H. hyperythrus, without examining more material than
the one or two specimens consulted by us, but desire to call attention to the
fact that a certain Cuckoo visits Amoorland, Japan and China in summer, passing
over, but not remaining in the Lower Yangtse Basin in migration, as Mr. Sty an
believes (13) — which may, or may not, be identical with one known to breed
in Borneo. In any case a new and close comparison Avould be desirable, as
the questions of migration and the differentiation of new forms are interestingly
involved in such cases as this.

Only two specimens of this species are as yet known to us from Celebes. i

The first was named as a new species, C. asturinus, by Briiggemann, but Prof.

W. Blasius, after a careful examination of the type, came to the conclusion
that it is identical with C. hyperythrus said fuyctiV (see: ^2). The second is the
female kindly lent to us by Mr. Nehrkorn and described above. It was shot
at Rurukan (3000 ft.) in the Minahassa in January 1885 by Dr. Platen, and
was most likely a migrant individual from Japan or China.

GENUS CUCULUS L.

In the true Cuckoos the bill is moderate, the nostrils round, in a slightly
tubular formation of skin; the wing is longj and pointed, the secondaries only
about 72 the wing-length; the feathers of the rump and ujjper tail-coverts very
thick, the latter about the length of the tail; tail graduated; feet delicate,
yellow in colour (except in C. pallidui; (Lath.) and sonnerati Lath). Ten species
are recognised by Shelley (1891), inhabiting Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia.

61. CUCULUS CANORUS (L.).

Common Cuckoo.

The races of the Common Cuckoo appear to be two or three in number,
one of which, a somewhat small Eastern one, occurs in Celebes and other islands
of the East Indies probably on migration. Two races of G. canorus are :

^ 1. The typical Cuculus canorus.

a. Cuculus canorus Linn., S. K 1766, I, 168; Dresser, B. Eiuope V, 1878, 199, pi. 299;

Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 245; etc.

24*

188

Birds of Celebes; Cuculidae.

For synonymy see Slielley 1. c.

Distribution. Europe, N. A^frica, A.sia as far east as India, migrating in winter soiitli to tlie
Cape, S. Persia, S. India, as a straggler — Ceylon.

Diagnosis. Larger, wing 203— 226 mm (8.0 in. — 8.9 in., Legge, B. Ceylon 222); tlie bars
on tlie under surface usually a very little narrower.

2. Cuculus canorus canoroides (S. Mil 11.).

b. Cuculus canorus (1) Horsf., Tr. Z. S. 1821, Xm, 179 (Java); (P‘^) Wald., Tr. Z. S.

1872, Vm, 115, pt. (Celebes); (2) Swinli., P. Z. S. 1871, 395 (China); (3) Hartl.
&F., P. Z. S. 1872, 100 (Pelew); (4) Einscb, J. Mus. G-odef. 1875, Vin, 12 (Pelew);
(5) Hume, Str. E. 1875, IH, 78 (Pegu); [6) id., Str. F. 1876, lY, 288 (Andamans
and India); (7) David and Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 65 (China); (8) Finsch, P. Z.
S. 1879, 12 (Duke of York Id.); (9) Oates, B. Biit. Brmnah 1883, 103 (Burmah);
(10) Styan, I\As 1887, 230; 1891, 325, 484; (11) Seebohm, B. Japan. Emp. 1890,
169 (Japan); (12) Shelley, Cat. B. 1891, XIX, 245, pt. (Japan, Xew Guinea, etc.);
(13) Baldamus, Leben europ. Kuck. 1892, 17, 18 (? Celebes); (14) Seebohm, Bus
1893, 51 (Loochoo Is.j; (15) Hose, t. c. 414 (Sarawak); (16) Bourns & Worces.,
B. Menage Exped. 1894, 35.

c. Cuculus canoroides (1) S. Miill., Verb. Xatimrk. Comm. 1839—44, 235 (in part?); (2) Gld.,

Handb. B. Austr. 1865, I, 614; (3) Blyth, Bus 1865, 31, 40; (4) Salvad., Orn.
Pap. 1880, I, 328; Agg. 1889, 48, and 1891, 217; (5) W. Bias. & Xehrk., Verb,
z.-b. Ges. Wien 1882, 417; (6) W. Bias., .1. f. 0. 1883, 115; (Tj Pleske, Bull.
Acad. Petersb. 1884, 116; (8) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 565, 624; (9) W. Bias.,
Ornis 1888, 306, 565; (10) id.. Ibis 1888, 373; (11) id., J. f. 0. 1890, 145; (12)
Whit eh d.. Ibis 1890, 46.

d. Cuculus optatus (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1845, 18; (II) id., B. Austr. 1848, lY, pi. 84; (3)

Baldms., Leben europ. Kuck. 1892, 127 (pt. ?j.

e. Cuculus canorinus (1) ?Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, lY, 35; (2) Salvad., Cat. Dec.

Borneo 1874, 67; (3) ?Tacz., J. f. 0. 1881, 186; (4) ?Deditius, J. f. 0. 1886,
540; (5) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 169; (6) Baldamus, Leben eur. Kuck.
1892, 126.

/'. Cuculus striatus (Ij Swinh. (nec Drapiez), Ibis 1861, 259, 340 (in part;; ?f2j David &
Oust., Ois. Cliine 1877, 65.

g. Cuculus intermedius (nec Yahl) (1) Seeb., B. .lapan 1890, 169 partini?; (2) M. & Wg.,
J. f. 0. 1894, 241; (3) iid.. Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895 Xr. 9, p. 3; (4) Hartert, Xov.
Zool. 1896, 159, 176, 552.

“Dandape” (ad.) or “Parapaa”, “Mengantagota" (juv.) Talaut, Xat. Coll.

Distribution. ?East Siberia (e 3, e4)] China Swinh. b 2, David 7j; Japan (b 11, bl2);
Burmah (Hume bo, Oates b 5); India (Hume b 6)\ Andamans (Hume 6 6)] Philip-
pines (Platen c 9, c 11, B. & AY b 16)', Borneo (c 4, e 5); Great Saugi (Platen c .9);
Talaut Is., Karkellang and Kabruang (Xat. Coll, g 2, g 3)', Celebes — Xorth (Meyer
b 7*'*); South (Everett g 4); Saleyer, Djampea and Kalao (Everett g 4)\ Bali
Doherty g 4); Pelew Is. Heinsohn b 3, h 4); Halmahera, Ternate, Batchian, Alorty,
Amboina, AYaigiou, Aru, Xew Guinea, .lobi, Duke of York Id., Xcav Britain, X.
Australia (Salvad. e 4, Shelley b 12)', Malacca, Singapore, Java, Dahat Id., Timor
(Shelley b 72).

Diagnosis. Smaller, wing 190 (or less) to 220 mm (specimen in Coll. Salvad. c4); the bars
on the under surface usually broader and blacker ; wing below with one or two fewer
white bars.

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

189

Adult. Above slate-grey, paler on sides of face, throat and breast; wings shining
dusky brown; tail black, browner on basal part; marked at intervals of about 1.5 cm
with small Avliite spots at the side of the shaft, groAving larger towards the outer
feathers where they are in displaced juxtaposition, tip of tail white; under surface
of body buhy AA^hite, darkest on under tail-coverts, marked with transverse bars of
blackish sepia (except on under tail -coverts wliich are transverse- spotted) of about
2 rmn breadth; quills beloAv barred AAuth Avhite on basal tAvo-thirds, the inner ones
uniform white at the base (ad. Karkellang, Talaut, Autumn 1896; Nat. Ooll. 0 15302).

Young. Upper surface uneA'enly barred AAutli rufous broAvn and black, the broAvn bars also
Avell developed on the tail and as notches on either web of the quills above; beloAv
white, Avashed Avitli cinnamon about the throat and chest, and barred all over Avith
sepia (Karkellang, Sept. 1896, 0 15304).

Second year. On moulting the rufous plumage, the bird assumes a dress resembling that of
the adult, but broAvner and darker, all the feathers of the iipjAer i^arts being edged
AAuth AAdiitish (Talaut Is. C 15300, Autumn 1896; C 13080 and 0 13787, Nov. 1894
— three specimens in transition-plumage).

Eggs. Elongated oval, a shade narrower at one end; ground-colour ]3ure AAliite, AAuth a shght
gloss, very sparsely marked, chiefly toAvards the larger end, AAuth minute specks and
tiny lines of dingy olive-broAvn and very p;de inlcy purple or purplish grey. 22.6 X
15.2 mm (Oates).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
Tarsus featliers
of forelid.

a. (0 1857) Maiiado (March)

h. (0 1860) Manado fMarcb)

201

195

170

165

20 i —

19 1 16

In. summer the Common Cuckoo, C. canorus^ is spread from the British Islands .
to East Siberia, China and Japan, varying so little that the majority of ornithologists
speak of birds from the East, as from the West, simply as C. canorus. South-eastern
examples, hoAveAer, run a little smaller in size and are slightly different in the
markings on the under surface. TIume seems to have first recognised the
presence in India of tAvo races of the Cuckoo in the small and large individuals
Avhich occur there in Avinter; speaking of a specimen from the Andamans he
says; it “is precisely similar to a great numher of others that I have obtained
in India, and A\Eich in common Avith most other Indian ornithologists I haAn
alAvays called canorus. These s^^eciinens differ only from others obtained in
India, and from European ones, in their slightly smaller size, and possibly a
shade slenderer bills” (h 6). The first specimen from Pegu, brought to notice
by Hume ("6 Avas also undersized, and Oates finds likeAvise that birds of
smaller size (Aving 8 in.) than the European Cuckoo, but not otherAvise differing,
are the rule there [h 9). As in India, they appear, says Mr. Oates, to be
merely Aviuter visitors to Burmah, though a feAv may breed there. In China,
as SAvinhoe, DaAud, and Styan remark, the Cuckoo is a summer Ausitor, and
it is most probable that birds from there, or from the territories rather
further north, are those Avhich pass into Burmah in Avinter. It should be noticed
that neither David & Oustalet in Chinese sjDecimens, Seebohm in Japan-
ese ones, nor Shelley in those of either country, find differences betAveen

190

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

them and European specimens (h 7, b 77, b 12)^ though Sty an (b 10) has since
remarked that “the common Cuckoos of Kiiikiang are nearly all of a small pale
race, with very narrow bars on the under parts”. Hume and Oates also treat
of them under the name C. canorus, and it may be doubted whether an attempt
to discuss under a separate trinomial so slight a departure from the typical form
is well advised. In the East India Islands, Salvador! and other naturalists
carefully hold the eastern form apart under the name canoroides^ though the
Italian ornithologist at the same time calls attention to its very close resemblance
to the typical form.

Capt. Shelley (Cat. B. XIX, 252) identifies what Count Salvador! appears
to us to call C. canoroides with a different species, “C. intermedius Vahl”; and
Salvador! (Orn. Pap., Agg. 1891, 217) apparently acquiesces in this determi-
nation, overlooking the fact that Shelley catalogues several specimens of C. ca-
norus from his own especial province, the Moluccas and New Guinea, as well
as several of '"‘C. intermedius^\ From Sal va dor i’s remarks we conclude that he
was in possession of specimens of the small south-eastern race of the former
bird only. '•'C. intermedms'\ according to Mr. Blanford (Faun. Br. Ind., B. IH
1895, 208) — here called C. saturatus, — may be distinguished in adult plu-
mage from C. canorus by the much darker upper parts, “pure blackish ashy”; the
edge of the wing pure white; the size always smaller and the bill a little
stronger.

Shelley speaks of the bars as “jet-black”; in canorus as “more dusky”.
The bars on Salvador i’s canoroides are dusky (“nigricans”), and very little
broader than in the topical canorus, and the wing 200 mm, in one case 220 mm,
as in a good-sized specimen of C. canorus.

To the differences pointed out by Oates and Blanford it may be added
that “C. intermedius’’’ (Shelley, partim) appears to have a very distinct cry.
Colonel Tytler (Ibis 1868, 202, under C. himcdayanus) speaks of it as a
peculiar call of “Goog, goog, goog”, as heard by him between Simla and
Mussurie; Seebohm, who shot the bird in Siberia, as “a guttural and hollow-
sounding “hoo” (Ibis 1878, 326); Major Marshall saw the bird (called C. hima-
layanus) as it was uttering “the deep booming notes sounding something between
the notes of the Hoopoe and Green Pigeon” (Ibis 1884, 410). Sw inhoe’s
C. monosyllabicus (Ibis, 1865, 545), with a cry “like the two notes of canorus run
into one”, is probably the same; but the species spoken of by Major Scully
as C.striatus (Str. F. 1879, VIII, 254) would appear from its cry rendered by
the natives of Nepaul as “Kaifal j>akyo” to be C. micropterus Gould, whose
note according to Oates resembles the word “bho-kutha- kho”.

The form, with the monosyllabic call, should, apparently, as Mr. Blan-
ford shows, be called Cuculus saturatus Hodgs. It has been supposed to occur
in Celebes, but we believe erroneously, the eastern form of C. canorus, w’hich
visits the East Indies in winter, having been confused with it.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

191

As to C. canoTus itself, we incline to the opinion that there are two
eastern races of it, a more northern one, pale and with narrow bands below,
inhabiting Siberia and (wintering in ?) China (see Sty an, supra, and Tacza-
nowski, ‘Tanne Orn. Sib. Orient.” 1893, II, 685 — here called C. canorus bore-
alis (Pall.)), and a race with broader, blacker bands, C. canorus canoroides, the
subject of the present article, which visits the East Indies in winter and pro-
bably inhabits more southern latitudes than C. c. borealis in summer. This view
seems to coincide with the opinion of Mr. Hartert, who has most kindly looked
into the question for us and, after carefully examining the material at Tring
and seeing that in the British Museum, informed us that the birds from South
Celebes, Talaut, and the Lesser Sun-da. Islands “cannot, I think, be the eastern
C. canorus’\ They are, we believe, the more south-eastern, C. c. canoroides.

The following data apparently show that the Common Cuckoo occurs only
as a winter migrant in the East Indies south of the Philippines, though the
facts to hand are insufficient and the collecting season varies in different localities.

Japan: Summer visitor (Seobolim b 11).

China: Summer visitor (Swinh. f 1., b 2, David b 7, Sty an b 10).

India: Winter (Hume b 6),

Andamans: Nov. (Hume b 6).

Burmah: Aug. to Eeh. (Oates h 9).

Philippines — Mindanao: 1 in summer 1889 (Platen c 11).

Borneo: “Occurs on migration on the coast" (Hose h 15).

Talaut Island: 11 sjDecimens, Autumn (Nat. Coll, in Mus. Dresd. & Tiingj.

Grrcat Sangi: Jan. 25^^ (Platen c 11.).

Celebes: March and April (Meyer and Nat. Coll., Dresd. Mus.).

Ternate: Oct., Nov., Dec. (Bruijn e 4, Eischer c 7).

Amboina: Nov. (Bruijn c 4, Platen c .5).

Waigiou: Oct., Nov. (Gruillem. c 8).

Am: Dec. (Gruillem. c S).

New Griiinea: Sept. 18*^ 1877 (D’Alb. e 4).

New Britain: “The eastern representative of our European Cuckoo was repeatedly
observed and collected by me from November till January, as well as in New
Britain as round about Cape York" (Einscli, C. cuculoides, hlitth. Orn. Yer.
Wien 1884, 92; Yog. Siidsee-Inseln 1884, 12).

? North Australia: Jan. (Glould d II, c 2).

On the breeding of the Cuculinae compare the articles on iEudynamis melano-
rhyncha and Cucidus saturatus.

^62. ? CUCULUS SATURATUS Hdgs.

Himalayan Cuckoo.

a. Cuculus intermedius (1) Seeb. (nec Yahl), B. Japan 1890, 169, pt.?; (2) Oates, Hume’s
Nests and Eggs Lid. B. 1890, H, 381; (3) Shelley, Oat. B. XIX, 1891, 252, partim;

Wiglesw., Av. Polyn. 1894, 10, partim; 9 (3) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s
Reise 1893, HI, 275; (6) Oust., Nouv. Arch, du Mus. 1893, 136.

192

Birds of Celebes: Cucnlidae.

h. Cuculus striatus “Draijiez”') (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. OuciiK 1864, 7, ? partini; (2) Swinh.,
P. Z. S, 1871, 395 ?; (3) Hume, Str. F. 1874, 190; (4) Oates, B. Br. Bmanah
1883, n, 105 ; (5) id.. Ibis 1889, 355—359; (6j Everett, J. Str. Br. Pv. A. S. 1888, 170.

c. Cuculus himalayanus auct. (nec Yigors, P. Z. 8. 1831, 172 — fide Blanford 7, 2).

d. Cuculus monosyllabicus (1) Swinli., Ibis 1865, 545.

e. ? Cuculus peninsulae (1) Stejn., Bull. U. S. Yat. Mus. Yr. 29, 1885, 227.

Cuculus saturatus Hodgson, (1) Blanf., P. Z. S. 1893, 315—319; (2) id.. Faun. Br. Ind.

B. HI, 1895, 207.

Descriptions. Oates h 5; Blanf. 2.

Adult. Wlieii similar to C. canoriis, except that the upper parts are much darker, pure
blackish ashy, the lower parts are generally pale buff with the black bands broader
and more regular, and the edge of the wing pure wlnte. The size is always smaller,
and the bill a little stronger. The young pass through two stages, in neither of
which is there a white nuchal spot” (Blanford).

Changing plumage. In the first plumage the back is blackish with wliite margins, in the
second blackish, barred with dark rufous (Oates & Blanf). We have Wo specimens
from Talaut m such a “first” plumage, which are eHdently passing dmectly into the
adult dress, the grey feathers of that plumage Ijeing intermixed with the others on
the head, neck, and tlmoat. We have described these as second-year birds in the
former article.

In their rufous stage Mr. Oates distinguishes C. canorus as being pale rufous ;

C. saturatus dark rufous, with coarse bars ; C. poliocephalus chestnut, dehcately barred.
Distribution. East Siberia from the Yenesei ? (Scebohm a 1] to Kamtschatka ? (Stejneger

e 1)\ China (Swinh. h 2)\ Setchuan (Oust, a 6)\ ? Japan (Seebohm a J); India (Oates
b 4, Blanf. 2); Pegu and Tenasserim (Oates b 4)\ Andamans and Yicobars (Davison
b 3, B,. Gr. W. Banisay a 5, Oates a 5); ? Sumatra (Shelley a 3); ? Java (Shelley
a 3, Schl. b i); Borneo (Everett b 6, Schl. b 7); ? Pliihppines (Shelley a 3); ? Pelew
Islands (Hartl. & Finsch « 4); ? Celebes — Manado (Shelley a 3] — Macassar
(Wall, a 3, Weber a 5)’ ? Batchian, Morty, Flores, Thnor, Yew Gruinea, Y. Australia
(Slielley a 3).

We include this form of CAckoo doubtfully in the Celebes avifauna on
the authority of Capt. Shelley, and Mr. Biittikofer; Shelley notes 3 spe-
cimens in the British Museum from Manado and one from Macassar, as well
as one specimen of the Common Cuckoo, C. canorus, also from Manado. These four
Alanado specimens are from the Tweeddale Collection, j)i’esumably the identical
four from Meyer mentioned by Lord Walden (Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIII, 115), who
remarks that “without the example in full plumage it would have been difficult
to say whether the other three did not belong to C. canoroides Muller”.
Shelley now finds them identical with the form he terms “C. intermedius" , and
a specimen obtained by Prof. Weber at Macassar is likewise found to be
“(7. intermedm£'‘ by Biittikofer, though what intermedius''’ is we confess we
do not know. It seems to be composed of C. satmatus and of two races of
C. canorus. Notwithstanding its near affinity to C. canorus, numerous observers
- — Swinhoe, Seebohm, Marshall, Tytler, Kittlitz, David — agree in

iSTot of Drapiez, according to Seebolini (a 1) and Blanford l.

1

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

193

finding that C. saturatiis has a different cry, a note which may be syllabilised
as “ho o”, resembling somewhat the cry of the Hoopoe.

“Like all the Cuckoos”, says Sw inhoe (bS), “these birds in China are
only summer visitants”, an observation confirmed by David (b 5), and by God-
lew sky in the Baikal country, Dauria, Ussuriland and the coasts of the Sea of
Japan. So, likewise, according to Seebohm, it — if indeed this species is
intended — visits all the Japanese Islands in summer. It is known as a breed-
ing bird in the Himalayas, but in no other part of India as far as Mr. Oates
is aware (2); in the winter it visits the low-lying Lucknow division (Reid,
Str. F. 1887, X, 451), and Mr. Oates considers that it is probably only a winter
visitor to Pegu and Tenasserim (a 6). Davison (a 4) did not hear it in the
Andamans in December and January, but first noticed its cry on March 14*^ in
the Nicobars ; probably, we should think, like C. canorus, only the male utters
this cry in the breeding season, for there are specimens from the Andamans in
the British Museum obtained in December, January and February (4). Here,
therefore, also it would appear to be a winter visitant.

S chi eg el records the dates of 12 specimens ascribed to C. striatus killed
in the Moluccas and Timor in the winter months; it appears, therefore, that
part of the birds, which visit China, Japan and Siberia in summer, make their
way to these islands in winter. Nevertheless some, apparently, remain in the
East Indies and even breed there; one of Schlegel’s specimens (Nr. 44) is dated
“Ternate May P* 1861”, another is a “young one, with red bands, taken from
the nest in Java (voyage of S. Muller, Nr. 30)”. The following note of Mr. de
Bocarme suggests that it is in the mountains, not in the plains, of Java that
the species breeds: “In February and in March this Cuckoo descends in Java
from the mountains; it is to be found in the bushes and even in the Rhizo-
phores by the sea-shore. The male is then mute. It is during these two
months that this species moults; at a height of more than seven thousand feet
and thereabouts, in a European temperature, every part of the forest resounds
with the voice of this bird, which is never to be heard but wdien perched on
the top of the highest trees” (b 2 ).

C. saturatiis is parasitic in its habits, but Capt. Hutton, writing in Hume’s
“Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds” (2), says that “when the young bird is old
enough to leave the nest, the foster-parents feed it no longer, and it is then
supplied by the old Cuckoo, or at all events by one of the same species. This

I have myself repeatedly witnessed At Jeripance, below jMussurie,

I have seen the young Cuckoo sitting for hours together on a branch waiting
for the return of the adult bird, which continued every now and then to bring
supplies of caterpillars wRerewith to satisfy the apparently insatiable appetite
of the nestling, until at last both would fly off to another spot. To satisfy
myself that it was really this Cuckoo that fed the young, I shot one in the very act,
and found it to be no other than our sumrner visitant, Cucuhis intermediusr

^Jleyer tc- Wigles wortli, Birds of Celebes (Got. 22mi, 1S97). 25

194

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

Notwithstanding the careful work of Mr. Oates (h7), the present Cuckoo
is most unsatisfactorily understood owing to the great difficulty of distinguishing
the supposed species or subspecies, and a fresh comparison of the Himalayan
birds should be made with those of China, Japan and the N.W. parts of the
East Indies.

GENUS CHRYSOCOCCYX Bole.

Small Cuckoos of about the size of a Sparrow, easily recognised by the
metallic green, bronze, or coppery on the upper parts, and, when
barred, on the bars of the under parts. The bill and feet are dark in colour

— brown, leaden, or blackish; the wing is rather pointed, the secondaries
falling short of the tip by about the wing-length, the first primary is rather
short, about V2 the length of the second. The African species — 4 in number

— have the under surface of the wing barred and are separated from those of
India, the East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand by Capt. Shelley, the latter
forms having a single oblique band across the wing below (Chalcococcyx),

\ 63. CHRYSOCOCCYX MALAYANUS (RaffL).

Little Bronze Cuckoo.

a. Cuculus malayanus {1} Baffles, Tr. L. Soc. 1822, XIH, 286.

Chrysococcyx malayanus (1) Horsf. & Moore, Cat. B. Mas. E. I. Co. 1856 — 58, 706.
h. Chrysococcyx minutullus {1} Gould, P. Z. S. 1859, 128; {11] id., B. Austr. Siippl. 1859,
pL 56.

c. Lamprococcyx minutullus (1) Cab. & Hein., Mas. Hein. 1862, W, 15, note; (2) Gld.,

HB. B. Austr. 1865, I, 625.

d. Chrysococcyx hasalis (1) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 62, partini; (2) Sharpe, Tr.

L. Soc. 1877, (2) I, 320; (3) W. Bams., Tweedd. Orn. AVorks Index 1881, 656;
(4)^? Steere, List Coll. B. & M. Plhlipp. Is. 1890, 12.

e. Chalcococcyx malayanus (1) AVald., P. Z. S. 1878, 945; (2) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891,

298; (3) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 247, 258; (4) M. & AYg., Abb. Mas. Dresden 1896,
Nr. 1, p. 8; (5) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 159, 572.

/■. Lamprococcyx malayanus (1) Hume, Str. F. 1878, AT, 503; (2) North, Pr. L. Soc. N.
S. AV'. (2) IX, 39 (1894).

g. Chalcites minutullus (1) Bams., Tab. List 1888, 15.

For further synonymy and references cf. Shelley e 2.

Figure and descriptions. Gould 6 ZZ, c 2; Shelley e 2.

Adult. Above glossy bronze-green, an obscure subterminal band across the middle tail-
feathers, bases of the feathers on forehead white; face and under parts wliite, the
feathers of lores, supercihary region and ear-coverts with dark tips, the entire mider
parts, including the under wing-coverts barred with glossy bronze-brown; tail below
with the outermost pah of rectrices crossed with four bands of black and wliite,
next pair hazel on the inner web with three dark bars and a white spot at the tip,
outer web brown, third and fomdli jiahs hazel on the inner web with a terminal
white or whitish spot and a subterminal blackish band, passing on to the outer webs
which are brown, middle pah beloiv grey-brown, with a dark subterminal band;

Birds of Celebes; Cucnlidae.

195

remiges below grey-brown, passing on the inner webs where they rest upon the
body hito pale cinnamon and into white at the base ; bill and feet black ; “iris reddish,
rim of the eyehds cherry-red” ((f, Macassar, 22. June, 1895; P. & F. Sarasin).
Young, Aboye browner and less glossy than the adult, the edges of some of the feathers pale;
below wliite -without bars, becoming greyer on breast and tlu’oat, and brown on sides
of head; under wing-coverts and much of the mner webs of the remiges buff-white,
the former slightly barred, a few sagittate bars on sides, flanks, and under tail-coverts;,
tail much as in the adult, but hardly a trace of bars (except the subterminal one)
on the second feather from the outside (Sosso, S. W. Central Celebes, 11. Aug, 1895;
P. & F. Sarasin).

Measurements (3 adults, S. Celebes). Wing 91 — 94 mm; tail 55 — 61; tarsus c. 14.5; bill
from nostril 10 — 11.

Eggs. See North f 2.

Distribution. Malay Peninsula (Maingay, etc, e 2); Sumatra (Raffles a 1); Borneo (Motley,
etc. e 2); Philippines — Mindanao (Everett e f), Negros (Steere d 2), ? Basilan
(Steere d 4), Sooloo Is. (Everett e 3); Celebes — Macassar (P. & F. Sarasin e 4,
Everett e o), ludrulaman (Everett e d), Sosso, S. W. Central Celebes (P. & F. S.
e 4); Sumbawa (Doherty e 5); Flores and Timor (Wallace e 2); N. W. and N.
xlustraha (Gould c 2, e 2, Ramsay ffl); New Guinea and Solomon Islands (fide
Shelley e 2).

This Cuckoo Avas first found in Celebes in June and July, 1895, at Macassar
by the cousins Sarasin, and again in August at Sosso in South-west Central
Celebes — four examples being obtained in all; later in the same year two
more were sent to the Thing Museum by Mr. Everett from Macassar and
Indrulaman near the Peak of Bonthain Without making a careful comparison
of specimens from other parts of the range of the species, it is not possible to
form an opinion as to whether it is migratory or a resident form in Celebes.
The distinction of the East Indian and Australasian forms of Chrysococcyx is not
easy. The present species may generally be known by its small size, the wing,
according to Capt. Shelley, not exceeding 97 mm, but equally small measurements
may sometimes be found in other species, for instance C. hasalis. C. poedluriiti
Gray of North Australia, New Guinea and the Moluccas is more thickly banded
beloAv, the dark bands being % the width of the intervening Avhite spaces, the
second lateral tail-feather besides the subterminal band displays two spots only
to represent the bars on the inner web in malayanus; C. plagosus (Lath.) has
only the subterminal band on the second tail-feather, and the bands below are
broader; this species is found by Shelley to inhabit Australia and parts of
Papuasia. C.hasalw (Horsf.) has recently been recorded by Mr. Hartert from
South Celebes and shoAvn to differ by the characters given beloAv.

; 64. CHRYSOCOCCYX BASALIS (Horsf.).

Larger Bronze Cuckoo.

a. Cuculus basalis (1) Horsf., Tr. L. Soc. 1821, XHT, 179.

Chrysococcyx basalis (1) Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1846, XV, 54.

25*

196

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

h. Chrysococcyx lucidus (nec G-m.), (I) Gould, B. Austr. 1848, TSf, pi. 89.

c. Lamproeoccyx basalis (1) Gould, HB. B. Austr. 1865, I, 626; (2) Salvad., Orii. Pap. I.

1880, 349.

d. Chaleococcyx basalis (1) Slielley, Cat. B. 1891, XIX, 294; (2) Hartert, Xoy. ZooL

1896, 159.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvador! c 2; Shelley d i.

Figure and descriptions. Gould 7; I, c 1\ Salvador! c 2; Slielley d1.

Diagnosis, “The longer whig (this Q has it 97 mm long), both webs of the second rectrix
from the outside being rufous for the basal two-thmds, the rather broader and paler
bands of the breast, a superciliary whitish hne, and a broad dark line from the eye
along the sides of the neck distinguish this species without difficulty from Ch. mcdayamis*'’
(Hartert d 2).

Distribution, “Australia, Aru Islands, Timor, Plores, Lombock, Java; re-occurring in
Malacca’’ (Shelley d 1)\ South Celebes (Everett d 2).

A female specimen of this Cuckoo was obtained by Mr. Everett on
Alount Bonthain in 1895, It had not previously been recorded from Celebes.
Two of the points of difference between it and C. malayanus found by Mr.
Hartert do not seem to us to hold good, namely the size is only that of a
large example of C. malayanns, and a whiti.sh superciliary stripe is found in that
bird as well. The geographical distribution of the two birds is very similar,
and we have noticed that nearly all the specimens in which the sex has been
ascertained is male in C. malayanus and female in C. basalisl

GENUS CACOMANTIS S. Milll.

Small Cuckoos, about the size of a Lark, with long tails, usually longer
than the wing, strongly graduated, the outermost feathers being from about '/b to
V:( the tail-length; wing moderately pointed, secondaries about the length of the
wing, first primary nearly as long as the secondaries, a broad band of white
across the wing seen from underneath. The genus is found in about
10 species from India to Australia and Fiji. C. passerinus of India is known
to be parasitic.

+ * 65. CACOMANTIS VIRESCENS (Brtlgg.).

Rufous-bodied Cuckoo.

m Cacomantis sepulchralis (1) Wald. (iiec. S. Milll), Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 116; (2) Meyer,
Ibis 1879, 69.

b. Cuculus virescens (1) Brugg., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 59.

Cacomantis virescens (1) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 274; (II) Meyer, Yogelskel. 1892,
XkTH, p. 47, t. CLXXIH; (3) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Reise in 0.st-lnd. 1893,
TIT, 276; (4) M. & Wg. , Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 6; (5) iid., ib. 1896,
Nr. 1, p. 8; (6) iid., ib. Nr. 2, p. 10; (7) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 159; (8) id.,
ib. 1897, 164.

Birds of Celebes: Guculidae.

197

“Burong-pangil-udjan” i. e. “Rain-caller” (Meyer a 2)^ or “Burong socangge” (ISTat. Coll, in
Mus. Dresd.), Malays of tlie Minahassa.

“Embis” (Meyer), or “Koko imbantik” (ISTat. Coll.), Natives of the interior of the Minahassa.

“Sinde”, Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

“Tokulat”, Baiiggai, iid.

Figure and descriptions. Walden ai; Briiggemann Shelley 2; Meyer cJJ (skeleton);
M. & Wg. 6.

Adult. Head and hind neck greenish slate-grey, becoming greener on the upper hack,
and dark slaty on the rump and upper tail-coverts; wing brownish glossed
with bronze-green; metacarpus white, partly concealed; tail black, glossed with
purple, the tips of the feathers white, the inner webs of some of the outer ones
slightly notched with white; cheeks, chin and throat grey, paler than the head;
all the other under parts, including under wing- and tail-coverts, deep cinnamon-
rufous; wing below with a broad white band running across the inner webs of the
quills near their base (N. Celebes, between Manado and Arakan, C 10876).

Young in first plumage. Very different from the adult: above black, the feathers margined
and barred with cinnamon-brownish, taldng a more striate form on the head; under
13 arts barred with white and black, the black predominating ; under wing- coverts
white, with a few black bars and transverse spots; remiges below dusky blackish,
with a broad huff- white hand across the middle of them; on the outermost quill a
whitish spot only; tail black, barred or notched with cinnamon-rufous, the bars
mostly not reaching down to. the shaft : “iris sepia; feet above greyish, below yellowish;
hill above black, below reddish grey” (rf, Kema, 27. Oct. 93, and iuv. Tomohon,
30. Apr. 94: P. & E. Sara sin).

Immature in changing plumage. Half in young, half in adult dress; the adult coloration
prevails on the under surface, though the rufous is browner and on the breast some
of the feathers show vermiculate bars, often ohscm-e; wings as in the young; head,
hack and tail with adult and young feathering mingled together (E. Celebes, V. — VHT.
95 : C 14437).

The young of C. viresems is easy to distinguish from that of C. merulimis by
the under side of the wing, which is notched with rufous-cinnamon all along the
inner webs in the latter; the predominating colour of the former is dusky black, of
the latter cinnamon.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostr.

a. (C 10876) ad. near Manado, VIH. — IX. 92 ... .

115

138

16

10.5

h. (C 1865) ad. Manado, HI. 71 • •

1 1 1

136

14

—

c. (C 1866) ad. Manado, HE. 71

118

—

17

—

cl. (10875) ad. near Manado, VIH. —IX. 92

111

132

16

—

e. (C 5185) imm. Manado

112

134

15

18

f. (C 5184) imm. Manado

111

124

16

11

g. (C 14695) ad. Banggai, V.— VIH. 95

106

128

13.5

10.5

h. (Sara sin Coll.) q^, Tomohon, 16. W. 94 .' . . . .

122

143

—

11

i. (Sarasin Coll.) Kema, 15. IX. 93

108

127

—

11

j. (Sarasin Coll.) imm., Kema, VIH. 93

107

130

—

—

/.'. (Sarasin Coll.) q^, Mapane N. Centr. Cel., 28. II. 95

109

130

11

1. (Sarasin Coll.) Loka, S. Ceh, 8. IX. 95 . . . .

114

130

—

11

198

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium . .

. . 35.4 nun

Greatest breadth of do. .

. . 15.0

»

Length of humerus .

. . 23.0

Length of ulna . . .

. . 23.3

Length of radius . . .

. . 22.0

Length of manus .

. . 23.0

Length of metacarpus

. . 12.0

»

Length of digitus princ. .

. . 11.5

Length of femur . .

. . 15.7

Length of tibia . . .

. . 25.5

»

Length of fibula . . .

. . 7.0

y>

Length of tarso-metatarsus .

. 15.6

mm

Length of digitus IH . .

. 18.0

Length of sternum . . .

. .20.0

%

Greatest Ineadth of do. . .

. 15.0

Height of crista sterni . .

. 8.0

/>

Length of coracoidemn .

. 16.0

Length of scapula ....

. 19.0

Length of clavicle ....

. 18.0

»

Length of pelvis . . .

. 25.0

Greatest hreadtli of do. . .

. 15.0

e i, Meyer al, a 2, Fischer b 1, etc.); Mapane,

Tonkean, E.
6, Everett 7);

Distribution . Celebes : — Minahassa (Wallace

K Centr. Celebes (P. & F. S.): Liiwu, 8. Centr. Celebes (Weber 5);
Celebes (Nat. Coll.); Banggai (Nat. ColL); 8. Celebes (P. & F. 8.
W. Celebes, Tawaya (Dolierty 8).

The nearest ally of this small Cuckoo appears to he Cacomantis aeruginosus
Salvad. of Burn, Ceram, Goram and Amboina, a form which Count 8alvadori,
with two specimens from Bum before him, at first identified with it (Ann.
Mus. Civ. Gen. 1876, VIII, 373), but afterwards separated (op. cit. 1878, XIII,
458) on the ground that C. aeruginosus differs in the rufous chestnut of the
under parts being more intense, but less j)ure and infixed with grey, and extending
more towards the chin (Orn. Pap. 1880, I. 336).

Capt. Shelley (1891) again unites the two forms; but, in holding them
distinct, we accept Salvadori’s more recent view (Orn. Pap., Agg. 1891, 218).
It may be pointed out that the Celebes form seems to have a shorter wing and
longer tail than C. aeruginosus-.

C. virescens: wing ca. 114; tail ca. 135.

C. aeruginosus: wing ca. 120; tail ca. 114.

C. merulinus differs in having the upjjer plumage paler, the grey of the
throat carried over on to the upper breast; remainder of body below rufous
buff, not cinnamon -rufous, the inner webs of the tail-feathers regularly barred
with white, most strongly so on the outer feathers (Shelley); in C. virescens the
bars are reduced to some inconspicuous notches.

By the grey of the throat being spread on to the breast and by the inner
webs of the tail-feathers being barred, or deejDly notched, with white, C. assimilis
Gray of the Moluccas (var. major Salvad.) and Papuasia may readily be
distinguished.

We have seen a s|)ecimen from Mr. Nehrkorn’s collection, Nr. 1758,
Sooloo Islands (Platen), with a deep rufous throat, breast and under surface,
wing 123, tail 150 (ca.) mm; “Iris braun, Schnabel schwarz , Basis, Augenring
und Fiisse gelblich”. This appears to be a new species, unless it is C. sefulchralis
which Shelley unites with C. merulinus. Dr. Sharpe (Ibis 1894, 247, 258)
records from Sooloo C. merulinus only.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

199

The first notice of the occurence of a Cacomantis in Celebes was made by
Walden, in reference to three specimens obtained by Meyer in 18/1, though
in the British Museum there is a specimen of earlier date killed by W allace
at Manado. The cry of the bird, according to Meyer, is til, tii, tututii, like
a flute. It has recently been sent from various parts of Celebes and from
Banggai by other collectors. Feeds on insects.

The nest referred to by Meyer as that of this species must doubtless be
that of some other bird, very possibly that of one into whose care its eggs are
usually given. The parasitical habits of the genus Cacomantis have been established
in the case of at least three species — C. passermus (Yahl), C. flahelliformis
(Lath.) and C. pallidus (Lath.) and, apparently, C. (S co p.}, cf. Oates,

Hume’s Nests and Eggs Ind. B. II, 385; North, Nests and Eggs B. Anstr.
1889, 243, 244; Baldamns, Leben europ. Kuckncke, 1892, 134 — 138.

^ 66. CACOMANTIS MERULINUS (Scop.).

Buff-bellied Cuckoo.

a. Cuculus merulinus (1) Scop., Del. Elor. & Eaim. Insubr. 1786, 89.

Cacomantis merulinus (1) Cab. & Hein., Mus. Hein. Hb I, 1863, 21; (2) Salvad. , Oat.
Ucc. Borneo 1874, 64; (3) Slielley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 268 pi; (4) Bilttik.,
Zool. Erg. Weber’s Beise in Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 276; (5) Hose, Bns 1893, 414; (6)
Styan, ib. 433; (7) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 247, 258; (8) G-rant, ib. 520; (9) id.,
Ibis 1895, 262, 466; (lOj Blanf., Fann. Br. Ind. B. HL, 1895, 218; (11) M. & Wg.,
Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (12) Brant, Bjis 1896, 474, 560; (13)
Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 551, 586; (14) Knschel, Orn. klb. 1895, 156; (15)
Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1897, 164.

h. Cacomantis lanceolatus (S. Mull), (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 53; (2) Meyer,
Il3is 1879, 146.

Descriptions. Shelley -3; Blanford 10\ etc.

Adult. liike the foregoing species, C. virescens (Briigg.), but paler above, the grey of the
throat spreading over the breast; remaining under parts bufl, not cinnamon-rufous;
tail-feathers regularly barred with wlnte on the inner webs, whereas in C. virescens
the bars are reduced to inconspicuous notches ((^f, Macassar, 10. July 95: P. &
F. Sarasin).

"Iris orange-red; bill red-brown; feet yellow"’; wing 104 nun; tail 105 (Platen
in Mus. Nehrkorn — Nr. 1759 — Palawan).

Young. Above cimiamon, with broad stripes of dusky on head and neck, taking the form
of bars on back and imiermost remiges; on the other remiges and the tail-feathers
the cinnamon develops into deep notches , extending as bars across the outer
tail-feathers; under parts paler cinnamon, striped with dusky on tlnoat and breast,
taking the form of sagittate bars lower down and on under wing-coverts; remiges
below notched on the inner webs (slightly so on the outer ones) with cinnamon,
becoming uniform cinnamon-buff on the basal part of the feathers (Q, Macassar,
19. July 95: P. & F. Sarasin).

Immature (assuming adult dress). Head, neck, and throat chiefly clothed with the grey
plumage of the adult, but with cuinamon feathers with dark centre - stripes of the
young intermixed; wings and tail barred with cinnamon and dusky as in the young.

200

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

but two or tlir66 foutliors of tliG uclult in tlio tuil j buck, broustj uiicl bolly with young
and adult plumage intermixed, the adult iDredominating above (q^, Macassar 10 July 95 •
P. & R Sarasin).

Measurements (2 ad., 2 juv. Celebes). Wing 102— 106 mm; tail 103—113; tarsus c. 17; bill
from nostril c. 12.5.

Egg. Cf. Kuscbel 14: Java.

Distribution. The Indian countries, to Malacca, Java, Bali, and Sumba, S. China and Hainan,
south throughout the Philippines to Borneo, and Celebes (see Salvador! 2, Shelley .5,
Blanford 10, Styan 6, Grant 12, Hartert 13).

In Celebes — Macassar (Wallace 3, Weber 4, P. & F. Sarasinli); ? Togian
(Meyer b 2)\ W. Celebes, Tawaya (Doherty 15).

Among the two hundred and more specimens in the British Museum included
by Capt. Shelley under the name C. merulmus , there is one marked: “cf ad.
Macassar (A. R. Wallace)”. This appears to be the specimen which was in
the hands of Lord Walden in 1872 (hi), when he remarked that it appeared
to belong to the group of which C. merulmus is typical. This determination
has recently been confirmed by Mr, Bhttikofer, who records two specimens
obtained by Prof. Weber at Macassar, and is further proven by four specimens
obtained by Drs. P. and F, Sarasin at the same spot. Still further east Shelley
records a specimen from Ternate, but this indication is not accepted without
query by Count Salvadori (Orn. Pap., Agg. Ill, 1891, 218).

Shelle)^ remarks that (7. merulmus appears to consist of three races: viz.
“C. merulmus (Scop.), a pale bird with the grey of the head and throat sharply
defined and with clear regular white bars across the inner webs of the tail-
feathers. C. threnodes Cab., a rather darker bird with a deeper rufous buff
colour on the breast. C. sepulchralis (S. Mull.), with the up23er parts nearly
uniform, the notches on the outer webs of the tail-feathers shaded with rufous
and the white bars on their inner webs nearly obsolete”. From the last-named
form, writes Mr. Btittikofer (4), C. meridinus “should certainly be separated.
It is distinguishable from C. sepulchralis by its smaller size (wing maximum
103, tail maximum 108 mm), further by the very pale ash-grey colour of head,
nape, sides of neck, chin, throat and upper chest, which colour extends on to
the upper breast in certain individuals, and by the very pale ochre-yellow colour
of breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts”.

Mr. Hartert is of opinion that C. threnodes may also have to be separated
again from C. meridinus.

GENUS COCCYSTES Glog.

In this genus, the species of which are about the size of a Turtle-dove, the
tail is much longer than the wing, and the occipital feathers are length-
ened so as to form a crest. Bill moderate, nostril a slightly projecting,
oval formation of skin; wing short, secondaries about Vi its length, tail strongly

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

201

graduated, the outermost feathers rather more than V2 ils length, the upper tail-
coverts very long, nearly V2 Hi© length of the tail. Shelley recognises 6 species
and 2 subspecies, inhabiting Southern Europe, Africa and tropical Asia as far
as Celebes and the Philij^pines. At least two of the species are known to be
parasitic in their breeding-habits. As Mr. Blanford remarks: “It is possible
that Coccystes may 23rove, when the anatomy and pterylosis are examined, to
belong to the Phoenicophamae‘\

+ 67. COCCYSTES COROMANDUS (L.).

Eed- winged Crested Cuckoo.

a. Le Coueou hupe de Coromandel (I) Briss., Orn. 1760, lY, 147, j)! XIa, f. 1.

b. Cuculus coromandus (1) Linn., S. X. 1766, I, 17:1.

c. Le Coueou a collier blauc (I) LevailL, Ois. dAfr. 1806, Y, 213.

d. Oxylophus coromandus (1) Jerd., Madr. Jrn. 1840, XI, 272.

Coccystes coromandus (1) Horsf. & Moore, Cat. B. Mus. E. I. Co. 1854, 693; Bulger,
Ibis 1869, 159; (3) Swinb., P. Z. S. 1871, 394; (4) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo
1874, 67; (5) Hume, Str. F. 1875, HI, 82; (6)' Briigg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876,
Y, 465, 531; (7) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 61; (8) Hume & Davison,
Str. E. 1878, YI, 162; (9) Tweecld., P. Z. S. 1878, 946; (10) Scully, Str. F. 1879,
YHI, 257; (11) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 249; (IP^^) Yidal, Str. F. 1880, IX, 55;
Butler, t. c. 389; (12) Muller, J. f. 0. 1882, 406; (IS) lY. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,
122, 155; (14) Oates, B. Brit. Binmab 1883, II, 117; (PP^) Davison, Str. F. X,
1883, 360; (15) Blittik., Notes Leyd. Mus. 1886, IX, 29; (16) Norman, Ibis

1888, 400; ,0“/ Hartert, J. f. 0. 1889, 370; (18) Everett, J. Str. Br. E. A. S.

1889, 173; (19) Sharpe, Ibis 1890, 12, 282; (19’’^^^) Hagen, T. Ned. Aard. Oenoots.
1890 (2) YH, 137; (20) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 214; (21) Oates, Hume’s
Nests and Eggs Ind. B. 1891, H, 391; (22) Styan, Ibis 1891, 317, 325, 484; (23)
Yorderman, Nat. Tdsclm. Ned. Ind. 1892, LI, 380; (24) Hose, Ibis 1893, 415;
(25) Bourns & lYorces., B. Menage ExjDed. 1894, 35; (26) Blanf., Faun. Br. Lid.
B. 1895, IH, 227.

/■. Coccystes coromandus var. fuliginiventer (1) Swinb., Biis 1867, 227.

For further synonymy and references see Shelley 20.

Figures and descriptions. Brisson a LevailL c I\ David & Oust. 7; Scully 10\
Legge 11] Oates 14] Shelley 20] Yorderman 23] Blanford 26.

Adult. Head above, including nape and ear-coverts, brownish black, a long crest blue-black ;
on bind neck a white collar; mantle greenish black, passing into glossy bottle-
green on the scapulars, inner quills and lesser wing-coverts; the other wing-
coverts and quills light hazel, the latter dull brownish at the ends; rump and
upper tail-coverts black glossed with blue and green; tail blue-black, the extreme
tips of the feathers, chiefly on the outer webs, Avliite; chin, throat and sides of
neck, upper breast, and under Aving-coverts cinnamon washed Avith rufous
f chestnut-buff or yelloAvish ferruginous); loAver breast and sides white, slightly
AAmshed Avith the colour of the throat; thighs, flanks and abdomen broAvnish grey,
becoming brovniish black glossed with blue and tijAped Avith light broAvn on the under
tail-coverts; wing below cinnamon (Borneo, Nr. 7118).

“Iris brown; bill black, at the base someAvhat bluish white; orbits grey-blue,
feet lead-blue” (Hart. 17).

Aleyev & Wi gleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Get. 22»d JSi)7).

26

202

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

Sexes. The male and female closely resemble one another.

Young. The nestling differs from the adult in having most of the feathers of the upper parts
tipped -with rufous, the collar being shaded mth rufous; the tail-feathers broadly
tipped with pale sandy buff, the throat huffy white like the chest, and the undei’
tail-coverts rufous buff (Shelley 20).

Measurements. Wing 155 (Q)— 173 imn (cf); tail 229—254; tarsus 25.4; cnlmen 28—30
(Shelley 20).

Egg. Very broad oval; fine and glossy. Moderately pale, blue, somewhat greemsh, without
any spots or specks. 26.6 X 23.2 mm (Oates 21). Apparently parasitic in-
breeding habits.

Distribution. India, west toKumaon, south to Trichinopoly (Norman 16)-, Ceylon (Legge 11):
Pegu (Oates 14)\ Tenasserim (Feilden d); China (Swinh. fl, 3, David 7, Styan 22);
Siam (fide Shelley 20); Cambodia (Monhot 20); Salanga (A. Mull. 12); Malacca
(Davison 8, 20^ Hartert 17); Penang (Horsf. & Moore 1); Singapore (Charlton
16); Sumatra (S. Mull. 4, Klaesi 15, Hartert 17); Bangka (van den Bossche 4,
Blittik. 15); Java (Horsf., Knhl, v. Hasselt 4, Yorderman 23); Borneo — North,
West, South, Central, and North-west (Wallace, Everett, etc. 4, 16,18,19,20); Phihp-
pines — Mindanao (Everett .9, 20), Siquijor and Palawan (Bourns & Worcester

25); Celebes — Minahassa (Eischer 6, 13).

«

A single example of this Cuckoo was shot on 18*^ October 1873 by Fischer
at a height of 4000 ft. on Mount Lokon not far from Manaclo in the IMina-
hassa. Only one specimen, as far as we can ascertain, was known from the
Philippines xarior to 1894, the bird having been shot by Mr. Everett at Zam-
boanga in Ylindanao in March 1878, but Messrs. Bourns & W^orcester after-
wards obtained the species in Siquijor and Palawan. Everett considers it rare
in Borneo, where, up to 1890, he had only met with Bvo specimens; so, too,
Dr. Yorderman remarks that it is scarce in Java (23).

There is reason to believe that Coccystes coromandus is only a winter visitor
to the East India Islands. Mr. Styan (22) marks it as a summer visitor to
the Lower Ymngtse division of China; Capt. Feilden (5) speaks of it as “the
commonest Cuckoo at Thayetmyo, Tenasserim, .... arriving in the beginning
of the rains (April) and the young birds do not leave till October”; in Tipperah
and Sikkim further north, as well as in Tenasserim, Mr. Oates (21) records
two cases of a female ready to lay being shot, but both in Sikkim and Lower
Pegu it has been found in December as Avell (20). Jerdon (11) says it is
found in Bengal “only during the rains” (the months of our summer). In Ceylon,
on the other hand, it is, according to Colonel Legge, a -winter visitor, “arriving
about October and departing again in A23ril”; also in South India, Avhere it has
very rarely been obtained, it may prove to be only a winter visitor. Thus Mr.
L’idal’s specimen from the South Konkan was killed 2’"^ January, 1880 (IP^^),
and one from Kotagherry, Nilghiris (Miss Cockburn) in the British Museum
is dated Dec. 5*^ (20). The following are all the dates we find recorded from
the south-eastern parts of its range:

Malacca: July (20).

Salanga; Jan. 5*h 15^h March 7*’^ (12).

Birds of Celebes; Cuctilidae.

203

Sumatra: 2, sometime between Oct. — Mcli. (15).

Java; February (23).

Borneo: Dec. 20*^ (4), Dec. 29*^ (19).

Celebes: October 18^^ (6).

Mindanao: March (9).

Many more observations are, of course, wanted before a decided opinion
can be formed that the birds which visit China and Tenasserim in summer are
the same individuals as those found in the East Indies in winter. In all pro-
bability such is the case. Mr. Hose (24) remarks that it “occurs on migration”
on the Sarawak coast of Borneo, and, as regards Celebes, we are inclined to
regard the species as a rare winter migrant, perhaps only a straggler.

C. coromandus is most likely entirely parasitic in its breeding habits. Thus,
Capt’. Eeilden has shot a young one out of a brood of young Quaker Thrushes
(Alcippe) and has found an egg, apparently of this Cuckoo, in the nest of
that bird. Its food consists of hairy caterpillars, “beetles, grasshoppers, Man-
tidae, and other large insects” (Legge 11, Hartert 17).

The nearest ally of this Cuckoo is the Coccystes glandarius (L.) of “Southern
and Central Europe, as far east as Persia, wintering in Africa” (Shelley), from
which C. coromandus may be readily distinguished by the white collar across its
hind neck and by the absence of large terminal spots of whitish on the wing-
coverts. It is of some interest to note that these spots are to be seen to some
extent in the immature C. coromandus.

GENUS SURNICULUS Less.

A genus of three small Cuckoos of about the size of a Lark, easily recog-
nised by their general plumage of black and resemblance to a Drongo
(Dicrurus). The tail is about as long or longer than the wing, in two species
forked, the outer feathers taking a lateral curl as in adult Drongos; in 8. velu-
tinus it is square; the outermost rectrix is short, about % the length of the
tail. Across the base of the wing below is a white band. The genus is found
from the Himalayas to the Philippines, Batchian and Java. Davison (Str. F.
1878, VI, 159) observed a young one of /S', luguhris in Tenasserim being fed
by a Drongo; it is supposed, as Blanford says, to deposit its eggs in the nests
of these birds.

^ 68. SURNICULUS MUSSCHENBROEKI A.B.M.

Van Musschenbroek’s Drongo-cuckoo.

Surniculus musschenbroeki Meyer, Eowl. Orn. Msc. 1878, HI, 164; Salvad., Ann.
Mus. Civ. Gen. 1878, XHI, 461; (3) id., Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 357; (4) Shelley,
Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 230; (5) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 159, 165.

Description. Meyer 1.

Adult. Black, glossed with blue, on the wings with green; under wing-coverts and quills

26*

204

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

below sbiniiig duskyj a narrow band of wbite across tlie basal third of the secondaries
(except the inner ones) and of the primaries (except the three or four outer ones),
a deep, narrow notch of white on inner web of first primary at half length; tad
Dronp-like, the outermost feather short, about | the length of the tail, with about
4 white spots near the shaft, the two temunal ones extending into obscure bars;
tibio-tarsal feathers behind white and woolly; one or two of the longest under tail-
feathers just tipped with white: bill black; feet (m skm) brown. Wing 136 mm;
tail c. 145; tax’sus c. 16; bill from nostril 15.5 (type, [Q ad. Batchian: Meyer —
Nr. 1972.

Distribution. Batchian (Meyer i); South Celebes — Indrulaman (Everett 5); North Celebes
(Hose, in the British Museum).

The t}T^)e of this species, which Avas obtained by one of Meyer’s hunters
in Batchian, remained the only specimen known for more than twenty years,
w^hen the species was rediscovered by Everett on the foot-hills of the Peak of
Bonthain, and two males in perfect plumage Avere sent to the Tring Museum.
They differ in no important ^aoints from the tjyxe.

Capt. Shelley recognises three species of the genus Suriiiculus, viz. S. luyu-
hris (Horsf.) ranging from India and Ceylon to Borneo and Java, S' velutmis
Sharpe knoAAm from half a dozen islands of the Philipj)ine group (see Grant,
Ibis 189b, 559), and S. musschetihi'oeki from Batchian and, as Ave noAv see, N. & S.
Celebes. The last is nearly related to 8. lugubris^ Avhich differs by having the
under parts glossy black-broAvn , instead of glossy blue-black, the under tail-
coA^erts are transversely marked AAuth Avhite and the white bars on the outer-
most tail-feather are well marked. 8. velutimis has the tail square.

When writing the history of the Cuckoos of Celebes for this work (about
three years ago) Ave remarked Avith surprise upon 8iirniculus and Chrysococcyx
as not liaA'ing yet been found there, but the labours of Mr. Everett and of
the Drs. Sarasin have noAv brought the discovery of both in the south of the
island, the latter genus in tAvo species.

A specimen from Mr. Hose, marked “cf, October 1895: Bantik, Celebes”,
and sent by Dr. Sharpe to the Dresden Museum for comparison Avith the type,
has a much larger Avhite patch on the middle of the occiput and the AAdiite
bars on the outermost tail-feather less obliterated than in the type. Everett’s
2 specimens from S. Celebes differ in much the same Avay, but it is hardly
probable that these are racial characters. The Aving of Hose’s specimen
measures 127 mm.

GENUS EUDYNAMIS Vig. Horsf.

In the Koels, which are about the size of a Turtle-dove, the bill is strong
and almost perpendicularly decurved at the tip; the feet are large, the
middle toe Avithout the claAV being as long as the tarsus : the Aving is moderately

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

205

long, the tail as long as the wing, rounded, the outermost feathers about ®/4 the
length of the longest. The sexes are dissimilar in coloration, the male black,
the female spotted or barred with tawny-brown and black. Six species are
recognised in the Catalogue of Birds , they range from the Himalayas to
Australia.

These Cuckoos are probably all parasitical; the Indian sj)ecies deposits its
eggs in Crows’ nests, and in Borneo Whitehead found that the nest of a Mynah
was used for this purpose.

* 69. EUDYNAMIS MELANORHYNCHA S. Mull.

Black-billed Koel.

Eudyiiamis melanorhyncha (1) S. MlilL, Verb. Natimrk. Comm. 1839 — 44, 176; (2) G-ray,
Gen. B. 1847, IT, 464; (3) Bp., Consp. At. 1850, 101; (4) Cab. & Heine, Miis.
Hein. 1862, IV, 55; (5) Finscb, Hew Guinea 1865, 159 (Celebes tantnm); (6)
Blytb, Ibis 1866, 364; (7) Wald., Ibis 1869, 344; (8) Gray, HL. 1870, H, 221;
(9) AVald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, A^HI, 53, 112; (10) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875,
650; ('ll; Briigg., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 59, 406; (12) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877,
371 ; (13) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 69, 146; (14) id., Isis 1884, 18; (15) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 550; (16) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn, 1886, 96; (17) id., Ornis 1888, 566;
(18) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 82; (19) Heine & Rcbw., Homencl. Mus. Hein.
1890, 200; (20) Sbelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 327; (21) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus.
Dresd. 1895, Xr. 8, p. 6; (22) ud., ib. 1896, Hr. 2, p. 8; (23) Hartert. Xov. Zool.
1897, 164; (XXIV) Meyer, Abb. v. Vogelskel. 1897, pi. CCXXYIH.
a. ? Eudynamis fascialis (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 339; (2) Blytb, Ibis 1866, 364; (3)
Wald., Ibis 1869, 345; (4) Gray, HL. 1869, H, 221.
h. Cuculus melanorhynchus (1) Scbl., Mus. P.-B. Cucuh 1864, 20.

“Kao”, blinabassa, Malays (M. 13).

“Kororeke” or “Kembaluwan”, Minabassa, inland names (M. 13).

"Kaku burr”; bepatic y>base, and
“Konil”, mature plumage (Guillem. 15],

“Koukou werreng”, inland near Manado, or
“Kouo itam”, Nat. Coll. Mus. Dresd.

“Kuow maitem”, Tonbean, E. Celebes, iid.

“Totaal mapok”, Peling, iid.

Descriptions. S. Muller 7; Cabaiiis & Heine 4\ Walden 7, 5; Salvador! id; Brligge-
mann ii; Guillemard io; Blasius i6‘; Sbelley 20.

A. ') Adult male. All over glossy blue-black. .Bill black; feet black; iris bright red (15,,

(N. Celebes, C 3583, and others),

B. Male nearly adult. Above like the adult, but with some old dull feathers of blackish

brown in tail, together with new ones of blue-black; under surface from chest down-
Avards very dark olive rvitb slight greeiusb reflexions (N. Celebes C 3584).
a Younger male. Abor^e like the adult, but all the quills dusky, except the innermost ones,
which are blue-black; under surface from chest downwards Avood- brown (or pale

1) The letters A, a, etc. are us^d to indicate individuals of opposite sexes of corresponding age, A being
the fully adult male, a the fullj^ adidt female, £ and b the next stage of the two sexes, and so on.

206

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

ciniiainoii), closely mottled witli sooty, tlie flanks and under tail-coverts almost entirely
of this colour (near Manado, C 10872).

D. Male with earliest appearances of adult plumage. Head, hind neck, and some sprouting
feathers in the tail blue-black; rest of upper surface very dark glossy green, the
quills with blue reflections; a pale stripe from rictus to side of neck; chin and throat
hlacldsh, passing into brownish green on chest; rest of under surface sooty brown,
varied Avith cinnamon, especially on the breast and upper abdomen (Manado, 0 1844).

Three other [cf] specimens, apparently slightly less developed, have the tail,
like the hack, very dark green, with greenish or bluish reflections; the cinnamon
colour greatly predominating on the under surface and the long rictal stripe of white
varied with cinnamon or brown broader and more distinct.

E and e. First plumage and Q]. Above dark glossy green, uniform, ajaproaching to black
on the head, chin and throat dusky; rictal streak of fulvous white passing into the
cinnamon-brown of sides of neck; under surface cinnamon, each feather crossed with
two or three fine brace-shaped bars of dusky (C 5181 and three others). In one the
bars on the under surface are quite absent (C 1843). Tail-feathers of the two others
obscurely barred with dark cinnamon (0 263, C 1845). Bill in C 5181 dark horn-
brown, under mandible paler; in C 263 and 1845 darker horn; in 1843 black.

Nestling, Plumage uniform above, apjaarently similar to the above, and below similarly
cinnamon with brace-shaped bars (Tomohon, 15. IV. 94: P. & F. Sarasin).

c. Female with earliest appearances of adult plumage. Head, neck and mantle bluish black, as
in male with earhest appearance of adult dress (see sufpra)\ hack and wing-coverts
varied with somewhat obscure bars of rufous brown (cinnamon-hazel); wings composed
of old dusky feathers, uniform as in the young, and of noAv ones (some of them
sprouting) crossed with cinnamon-hazel and black bars, the black ones a httle the
broadest; tail similarly composed of new feathers — some of them growing — barred
with cinnamon-hazel and black, one old feather is dusky with the cinnamon markings
very obscure; chin and throat black, sHghtly touched up with whitish brown; rictal
streak white; under surface fulvous cinnamon, crossed Avith narrow brace -shaped
blackish bars. Bill blackish horn-colour (near Manado, C 10869).

From the circumstance that the third and fourth quills of one AAung and .the
third and fifth of the other are old feathers, hut are nevertheless considerably marked
with imjoerfectly- formed bars of cinnamon in their basal two-tliirds, AA^e. infer that
this specimen may be a second-year bird passing into its third phase of dress. The
quills, in Avhat we take to be young specimens in first plumage, are uniform, but
perhaps our four young ones are all males. Another [Q] specimen (C 266), appa-
rently of the same age as the above is someAvhat more melanistic in character.

b. Female a little older. Like the last, hut AAuth no remains of a younger dress. Head,
neck and mantle bluish black; rest of upper surface evenly barred Avith cinnamon-
hazel and black; chin and throat black; below fulvous cinnamon, finely barred Avith
dusky (near Manado, C 10871).

a. Adult female. Like the last, hut Avith the head, neck, chin and throat cinnamon -hazel
Avith dusky edges to most of the feathers, giving a someAAliat streaked appearance;
the cinnamon -hazel bars of the uxaper surface much broader than the black ones
(§, Kema, 7. Aug. 93: P. & F. S.). In C 3581 the bill is dark horn-colour, the under
mandible paler; in 0 10870 almost all black.

Three other specimens afford transitions betAveen the immature stage b and the
adult stage a (N. Celebes, 0 265, 5183, 264).

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

207

Measurements.

'VVing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill fro]
nostril

a. (0 1848) ad. [(^f] Manado, March 1871

210

210

30

18.5

b. (0 3581) ad. [9] N. Celebes, 1877

186

192

32

18.5

Distribution. Celebes — Minabassa (Forsten hJ, Meyer 9, Fiscber 11 etc.)] Gorontalo
(Forsten b 1, Meyer 15); Talissi Island (Guillem, io); Banka, Leinbeh and Mante-
bage Islands (Nat. Coll.); Togian Islands (Meyer 13); Macassar (Wallace 20); West
Celebes (Doberty 23)] E. Celebes, and Peling (Nat. Coll.); Sula Islands (Allen al, 20).

Brilggemann (11) records a specimen as having come from Sangi, but this
would a^Dpear to be a mistake, since that island has a race of Eiidynamis of its own,
E. mmda?iensis sangirensis W. Bias.

In the foregoing sketch of the several stages of dress passed through by
this Cuckoo a conclusion has been arrived at identical with that of Capt.
Shelley, but differing radically from those of Lord Walden, Brilggemann,
Dr. Gnillemard, and Prof. WC Blasins. According to Shelley the adult
male “is all over bine-black, the adult female above chestnut evenly barred with
olive-black, . . . under parts (except chin and upper throat) buff, with numerous
narrow wavy black bars”; Brilggemann, on the other hand, states that the sexes
are alike both in size and colour, and what Shelley describes as the adult female
is held by him, Walden, Blasins and Gnillemard to be the first stage of
immature dress. That these authorities are in error is shown by the nestling
obtained by the Drs. Sarasin, as also, by the specimen described by ns as
c [9] with earliest apj>earances of adult plumage, to which attention may
be drawn. Plere the new and growing feathers are barred with black and
rufous brown, wLile the old worn feathers, which were about to be cast off,
are of that more uniform brown appearance belonging to the fledgeling, but
supposed by these authors to belong to a more advanced stage. As a great
series before ns in almost every phase of dress show, the young of both sexes
are at first apparently just alike in coloration, but commence to deviate in the
second stage, becoming more and more different as they approach maturity.
Dissimilarity of the sexes is one of the characteristics of the genus Eudynamis.,
elsewhere, as Indian ornithologists well know.

There is a remarkably close resemblance between the old female of this
Celebesian Cuckoo and the young of the wide-spread Centrococcyoo hengalensis
also a species occurring in Celebes. The young dress of E. melanorhyncha
recalls the uniform coloration of the upper surface of Coccystes coromandiis.

The only specimen as yet known from the Sula Islands is a male, appa-
rently partially affected by albinism, which was obtained by Mr. Wallace’s
assistant, Allen, in Sula Besi or Sula Mangoli, and was named as distinct on
account of its smaller size. This distinction is not found to hold good by
Capt. Shelley, and until more specimens for comparison are forthcoming it
should be regarded as identical with E. melanorhyncha. Shelley’s opinion is
confirmed by an example from Peling, resembling the birds of the mainland.

208

Bii'ds of Celebes: Cucailidae.

Meyer has described the Black-hilled Koel (13) as “shy and lively in
its actions. Roosts in the darkest spots^ in trees, where it can hardly be
detected. If danger threatens, or if it hears a particular noise which frightens
it, it communicates its alarm from afar to others; and it is no fable that the
natives are warned by the bird hours before — if, for instance, a troop of
horsemen approaches, or an official with his attendants. The native therefore
often makes his preparations according to this bird’s behaviour; hearing it in the
forest he will always be cautious. But its cry at night he consults as an oracle,
and converses with the bird by imitating its cry and interpreting it. If he hears
it at night near a house he augurs the death of a man”.

“I found mostly nutmegs in its stomach. Before nutmegs were cultivated
in the Minahassa, which is only during the last few years [prior to 1871], the
bird fed on different fruits, chiefly Avaringuis, but noAV nearly altogether on
nutmegs, Avhich it SAA^alloAA^s whole for the sake of the rind; the nutmeg itself
is found uninjured in the crop or stomach; and the bird contributes greatly to
the distribution of this spice. It damages the plantations very much. It is said
to seek its food at night”.

Meyer learnt that it lays its eggs in other birds’ nests, but could not ascertain
in which, and the cousins Sarasin have recently produced proof of its parasitic
habits through the young one described above, Avhich was “brought in a nest
which the boy ascribed (in our opinion, however, incorrectly) to Enodes
erythrophrys’\ Many interesting facts on the breeding of Eudynamis honorata (L.)
in India are recorded in Hume’s “^7ests and Eggs of Indian Birds” (Oates, ed.
1891, II, 392 — 397); this species always deposits its eggs in Crows’ nests, usually
that of Corvus splendens. So, too, in Burmah E. malayana Cab. & Heine lays
its eggs, says IMr. Oates, in the nests of Crows; and Dr. Tiraud states that
in Cochin China the eggs are also placed in the nests of Mynahs (B. Brit.
Burmah II, 120). E. mindanensis also makes use of a Mynah’s nest (Whitehead,
Ibis 1888, 410). It will therefore A^ery probably be found that in Celebes
Corvus enca is one, perhaps the most usual, foster-parent of E. melanorhyncha.

In India the Cuckoo sometimes pays dearly for her imposition: Corvus cid-
minatus, writes Mr. Anderson, “is easely duped, while her cunning congener,
C. splendens, is fully aware of the deception”. Colonel Butler records a case
of a female specimen being mobbed to death by crows, and of a male (which,
as Mr. Anderson says, frequently accompanies the female Avhen she is about
to deposit her egg), being so harried by two CroAvs that he Avas able to take
it by hand. Naturalists, Avho believe in protective mimicry, may Avonder that
the males of Eudynamis are black corAune-looking birds, Avhile their females, to
Avhom a deceptive resemblance to the Crows might be of value, differ greatly
in coloration.

The young are black, as Mr. Whitehead states in the allied E. mindanensis
(Ibis 1888, 410, Expl. Kini Balu 1893, 145\ and Capt. Shelley in E. honorata^
resembling the adult males instead of, as is much more usual among birds, the

Birds of Celebes; Cuculidae.

209

female, or of being different from either. Mr. Whitehead to account for it
makes the following plausible suggestion: “the ’Phow‘ (E mindanensis) lays its
eggs in the nest of the Yellow-mottled Mynah (Gracula javanensis). The young
Cuckoo, being black, does not differ from the young Mynah, and so the deception
is carried on until the young bird can take care of itself . Much has been
written on the resemblance of the eggs of Cuckoos to those of the birds in
whose nests they are placed, and with good reason; but mimicry, if it be so,
of the young of its foster-mother by the young Cuckoo brings another phase of
the question before us. It is very conceivable that this resemblance is of ad-
vantage to the young Cuckoo. The clever Corvus splendens of India apparently
recognises the imposture and abandons the Cuckoo, as Mr. Hume has observed,
when it leaves the nest; nevertheless the philoprogenitive instinct in birds is so
, irresistible that their discriminative powers often appear scarcely to come into
play at all. Those which have hatched the young Cuculus canorus^ do not think
to restrain themselves from attending to his wants; “the actions of his foster-
parents“, writes Prof. Newton, “become, when he is full grown, almost ludi-
crous, for they often have to perch between his shoulders to place in his gaping
mouth the delicate morsels he is too indolent or too stupid to take from their
bill” (Diet, of B. 120). Corvus splendens, however, is fully aware that Eudynamis
is in the habit of imposing her eggs upon her; the species in whose nests
C. canorus places her eggs do not, perhaps, discover that they have been cheated,
but rear the young Cuckoo as a surprisingly fine-grown offspring of their own.
Were the Cuckoo the most insignificant of the brood in point of size, as well
as being so anomalous in structure — this is the case with Eudynamis in the
nest of Corvus — it would run more risk of neglect, and a special adaptation
of plumage might be an advantage to it. The dwarf pig of a litter is, if we
are not misinformed, often devoured by the mother.

The origin of the habit of laying their eggs in the nests of other birds
probably dates very far back among the Cuckoos; there is reason to suppose
that the habit runs through all the genera (except Coccyzus) of the subfamily,
Cuculinae, as defined by Capt. Shelley (Cat. B. XIX, 210) embracing forms
differing greatly in coloration and considerably in structure. Thus, Dr. Baldamus
(Leben der europ. Kuckucke, 1892) cites cases of parasitism in the genera,
Cuculus, Hierococcyoc , Cacomantis, Heteroscenes-), Lamprococcyx (Chalcococcyx),
Eudynamis, Urodynamis^) , Scythrops, Coccystes. Prof. Newton, further, speaks
of species of Surniculus, Phoenicophaes and Zanclostoma as parasitical (Diet, ol
Birds 1893, 125), but we venture to express a doubt in regard to the two last-
named genera, wTich Shelley places in an other subfamily, Phoenicophaeinae,
inasmuch as Phopodytes (Zanclostoma) tristis and viridirostris are known to build
their own nests (Hume, Oates ed. t. c. 397, 399).

H. sparverioides is apparently only partially parasitical.

-) Treated by Shelley as identical with Cuculus.

Perhaps only partially parasitical (cf. Finsch, Mitth. Orn. Ver. Wien 18^4, VIII, 126).

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 23rd, lS97j. 27

210

Bii’ds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

The corresi)ondence in habits between 'Eudynamis and Cuculus is further
displaced by the circumstance that the young CroAvs, AA^hich have the misfortune
to find themselves in the same nest Avith the Eudynamis^ are sometimes ejected,
probably , as Mr. Hume says, “by the young Cuckoo; I haAm found the latter
in a nest AAuth three young C^i’oaa^s, all freshly hatched, and a AA-eek later have
found the young CroAVS “missing” and the young Cuckoo thriving”. Mr. Hume
was of opinion that the CroAvs’ eggs were not destroyed by the mother Cuckoo;
Colonel Butler, on the other hand, says, ‘Vhen the hen birds lays she often
turns some of the Crow’s eggs out of the nest, as I have several times examined
CroAvs’ nests and found three or four eggs one day, and on examining them a
day or tAvo later have found some of the Crows’ eggs missing and Coels’ eggs
in their place”. There is some reason to suppose that the Common Cuckoo,
C. canorus, sometimes turns out one or more of the foster-parent’s eggs (NeAvton,
Diet. 121).

Capt. Huttons obseiwations on the old Cuculus feeding a young

one after leaving the nest have already been quoted from Hume’s great Avork;
so, too, as has already been indicated, in the case of the present genus Hume
has a similar obseiwation : “I have never seen CroAvs feeding fully hedged Coels
out of the nest, Avhereas I have repeatedly Avatched adult female Coels feeding-
young ones of their own species” (Nests and Eggs 1891, H, 393). There is,
according to Prof. Newton, no evfidence Avorthy of consideration that the female
of C. canorus takes any interest “in the future Avelfare of the egg she has
foisted upon her Adctim, or of its product”; the obseiwations of Mr. Hume and
Capt. Hntton, nevertheless, render it certain that tAVO Cuckoos at least, and Ave
suspect all j>arasitic birds, are not totally devoid of sympathetic instincts for
the wants of young members of their oAvn species; though, whether the indivi-
duals observed looking after the young Cuckoos Avere their identical mothers or
not, there it no evidence to shoAV.

70. EUDYNAMIS MINDANENSIS (L.).

Philqipine Koel.

AVhile the preceding species, E, melanorphyncha of Celebes and Sula, is
readily distinguishable by its black bill from other members of the genus Eudy-
namis^ the distinguishing characters of the remaining species, Avhich are spread
out from India and S. China across the Archipelago to Ncav Guinea and Australia,
are by no means so strongly pronounced. Especial care, too, is called for in
considering the Avestern forms, OAAung to the circumstance that — in certain
parts at least — - the species are not perfectly stationary. Thus, the sj)ecies
spoken of as Eudynamis maculata by SAvinhoe P. Z. S. 1871, 394), David
& Oustalet (Ois. Chine 60) and De La Touche (Ibis 1892, 480) is only a
summer \isitor to South China; and Mr. M^hitehead remarks: “I never heard

Birds of Celebes: Oiiculidae.

211

or shot an adult bird [of E. mindanensis in Palawan] after the middle of August,
when it no doubt migrates to Borneo and other islands, as most of the birds
in Labuan are seen after September during the N.E. Monsoon” (Ibis 1888, 410).

In the Sangi Islands an Eudynamis occurs which Prof. W. B la si us has

separated as a variety of E. mindanensis. ' It may be doubted whether E. minda-

nensis itself is entitled to more than subspecific separation (i. e. whether indivi-
duals of it do not intergrade with E. honorata or E. orientalis)\ for the present,
however, it appears best, in view of the want of sufficient data and material,
to treat it as a species, composed of the following two subspecies:

1. The typical Eudynamis mindanensis.

a. Cuculus mindanensis (1) Linn., S. N. 1766, I, 69 (ex Brisson).

h. Eudynamis mindanensis {1) Cab. & Heine, Mas. Hein. 1862, lY, 52; (2) Wald., Ibis

1869, 340, ? pt.; (3) id., Tr. L. S. 1875, IX, 162; [4] Sharpe, ib. 1877, 2^1'^ser.I,
320,351; (5) Tweedd., P.Z.S. 1877, 543, 691, 823; 1878, 946; 1879, 70; {6)'W. Bias.,
Ornis 1888, 306; Ibis 1888, 373; (1) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 173; (8)
Whitehead, Ibis 1890, 46; (9) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1890, 138; (10) Steere, List
Coll. B. Philip. Is. 1890, 12; (11) Shelley, Oat. B. XIX, 1891, 321; Hartert,
J. f. O. 1891, 298; (13) Whitehd., Exj)l. Kini Bala 1893, 145; (14) Sharpe, Ibis
1894, 247, 258; (15) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exp. 1894, 35; (16) Glrant,
Ibis 1895, 115; 1896, 123, 474.

c. Eudynamis malayana Sharpe, Ibis 1888, 198 (fide Whitehead).
cl. Eudynamis orientalis (1) Whitehead, Ibis 1888, 409.

Descriptions. Oabanis & Heine hi] Tweeddale h 5] Shelley h 11.

Adult male. Entirely hlack, glossed vith blue. “Iris bright crimson; bill greenish grey;
feet darker greenish grey” (Everett b 5).

Adult female. Above dusky, glossed with olive, the head and sides of neck streaked with
rufescent hrown, the rest of the upper surface spangled (several sjDots on each feather),
and the quills and tail rather narrowly barred, with the same colour or a rather
paler shade; chin and throat pale tawny, the bases and margins of the feathers
black; remaining under parts paler barred with dusky. The bars on the wings
and tail do not quite reach to the shaft. “Iris bright crimson; bill and legs greenish
plumbeous” (Everett b 5),

Young. “The young of both sexes are black, like the adult male. The only signs of the
female plumage in one young female were on the secondaries, winch, on the inside
of the wing, were slightly harred with hrown. Another young female had two or
three brown feathers on the hack, the wings being dull black” (Whitehead cl 1).
Distribution. Philippine Islands — Luzon (Everett b o), Mindoro, Mindanao, Basilan,
Samar, Marinduque, Guimaras (Everett b 5, Steere b 10, Meyer b .3), Xegros
(Everett b 11), Palawan (Whitehead d 1, b 8, Platen b 6), Sooloo Islands
(Platen b 9).

'h 2. Eudynamis mindanensis sangirensis (W. Bias.).

e. Eudynamis niger (1) Briigg., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 57.

f. Eudynamis nigra (1) Eischer, op. cit. p, 538.

g. Eudynamis sp. nov. ? (1) Salvad., Atti Ac. Torino 1878, 1188.

h. Eudynamis mindanensis ('I) Meyer, Isis 1884,6, 17; (2) W. Bias., “Braunschweig. Anz.”

27*

212

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

11. Jan. 1888, ISTr. 9, p. 86; id., Euss’ Isis 1888, 78; (3) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX,
1891, 321 (Sangi).

k. Eudynamis mindanensis var. sanghirensis (1) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 566 — 569.

l. Eudynamis mindanensis sanghirensis (1) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 241; (2) iid., Abli. Miis.

Dresd. 1895, Xr. 9, p. 3.

“Buago” (5^, “Liaga” Q or “Paparapa”, Talaut, Xat. Collin Mus. Dresd.

“Kuwao maitung” “Kuwao” [$] Tagnlandang, iid.

Descriptions. Brhggeniann e 1\ Mej^er h 1\ W. Blasins k 1,

Adult male. Bill broader and stronger, tbe ildge of tbe culmen considerably more rounded;
tlie plumage with greener reflexions than in tbe typical E. mmclanerms (W. Blasius kl).
Witbout Pbilippine specimens for comparison we quote Blasius' diagnosis.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen
from cere

a. (C 1852) [(;;f ad.] Siao

200

192

35

33

h. (C 1853) ad.] Siao

201

190

30

30.5

c. (C 1851) [Q] Gt. Sangi

199

185

33

34

d. (C 1856) [Q juA".] Gt. Sangi

183

180

31.5

30.5

Burtlier adults (4 (^f, 4 $ ?) measure: wing 189 — 202; tail 186 — 196; bill from
nostril 18.5 — 20.5 mm. Tbe birds were sliot early in Xovember (Kabruang) or at
tbe end of October (Salibabu), and sereral are in moult.

We bare since received many more specimens from Talaut and Tagnlandang.
Observation. Tbe specunen d from Sangi and two others from Talaut are in tbe same 2?base
of 2)liimage as that described as “c [Q ” in our article on tbe foregoing species;
namely they were losing old worn feathers of uniform dusky brown or black in tbe wings
and tail, while new feathers barred with black and liglit rafous Ijrowii Avere in a
growing condition when tbe birds were Idlled.

Distribution. Sangi and Talaut Islands — Great Sangi (Fischer f 1, Ueyer h 7, Platen k 1),
Siao (Meyer hi), Tagnlandang and Huang (Xat. Coll.); Kabruang, Salil)abu and Kar-
kellang (Xat. Coll. / 7 in Dresd. and Tring Mus.).

The bill of this species Avould appear to get paler Avith age, that of
E. mdanorhyncha blacker.

This form has never been found in Celebes; Bruggemann’s sj^ecimens —
3 of AAdiich were at first supt)osed by him to have come from Manado — Avere
obtained, as Fischer afterAvards 23ointed out, in Sangi (iDresumably Great Sangi).

Attention has been clraAvn to Mr. Whitehead’s remarks (antea p. 209)
upon the species in Palawan, Avhere it lays its eggs in the nest of the A^elloAv-
mottled Mynah (Gracula jamne7isis), and AAXere it is belieA ed by him to migrate
to Borneo and other islands during the X^. E. monsoon.

O

SUBFAMILY CENTEOPODINAE.

These Cuckoos, or Coucals, vary from medium to large size and are
recognisable by the long, nearly straight, hind claw, resembling that of a Lark,
and by the shafts of contour-feathers of the head, mantle and breast, Avhich are
spinous and thickened. The nostril is a linear slit covered by a sort of oper-

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

213

culum of skin; and there is a row of stiff bristles above the eye. The tarsus
is naked, except quite at the tibial joint; tail graduated, longer than the wing.
The birds seem to be adapted to a life on the ground in jungle and scrub; they
are not parasitic in their breeding-habits.

GENUS CENTROCOCCYX Cab. Heine.

Ill these Coucals the toes are not longer than the tarsus and the hind
(first) toe with the claw is longer than the middle toe and claw.
The bill is shorter than the head and considerably hooked; the contour-feathers
of the head, mantle and breast are dense and close, with thickened pitch-black
spinous shafts ; wing short and blunt, 4*^ to 6*^ quills longest, secondaries shorter
by about Ve the wing-length; tail strongly graduated, longer than the wing by
Vs or Vi, the outermost rectrix about half the length of the tail. The sexes
are similar in coloration, but the right testis only of the male is present; it is
smaller than the female and broods on the eggs, while only the female has
been as yet observed to utter call-notes. The young are quite different from
the parents, covered with spines as fledgelings, then assuming a barred plumage.

4- 71. CENTROCOCCYX BENGALENSIS (Gm.),

Lesser Coucal.

a. Cuculus bengalensis f V Gfni., S. N. 1788, I, 412 (Bengala).

&. Cuculus javanensis (1) Diiiiiont, Diet. Sc. Nat. 1818, XI, 144,

c. Centropus affinis (1) Horsf., Tr. Z. S. 1822, XIII, 180 (Java); (2) Bernst., J. f. 0. 1859,

185; (3) id., ib. 1860, 269; (4) id., X. T. X. I. XXI, 1860, 27—49, pi. I (anat); (5)
Sclat., Ibis 1861, 48, note (Java, Malacca, India); (6) Tristr., Oat. Coll. B. 1889,
85 (Java, Sumatra).

d. Centropus lepidus (1) Horsf. 1. c. (Java).

e. Centropus bengalensis (1) Stepli., Gen. Zool. 1826, XW, 213; (2) David & Oust., Ois.

Chine 1877, 59 (Formosa, Hainan); '(3) Oates, Str. F. 1877, Y, 146 (Pegu); (4)
Gammie, t. c. 385 (Sikkim); (5) Hume & Davis., Str. F. 1878, YI, 171 (Tenasserim) ;
(6) Bingham, Str. F. 1880, IX, 169 (Tenasserim); (7) Styan, Ibis 1887, 230
(Foochow); (8) Shelley, Cat. B. 1891, XIX, 352; (9) De La Touche, Ibis 1892,
480 (S. China); (10) Styan, ib. 1893, 433 (Hainan); (11) De La Touche, Ibis 1895,
336; (12 j Blank, Faun. Br. Ind. B. HI, 1895, 243.

f. Centropus dimidiatus (1) Blyth, .1. A. S. 1843, XH, 945; (2) Swinh., Ibis 1860, 360

(Amoy, Hong-Kong).

g. ? Centropus rectunguis (1) Srickl, P. Z. S. 1846, 104; (2) Schh, Mus. P.-B. Ciiculi 1864,

67 xA (India, Formosa and E. India Islands); (3) Shelley, Cat. B. XTX, 1891, 343
(Malacca, Sumatra. Borneo).

/?. Centropus medius (1) Bj)., Consj). I, 1850, 108 (Amboina, Java), (ex S.Mull. MS.); (^2^ Wall.,
P. Z. 8. 1863, 23 (Burn, Ceram, Gilolo).

i, Centropus lignator (1) Swinh., Ibis 1861, 48 (Formosa).

j. Centrococcyx lepidus (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, lY, 109 (Java); (2) Hartert,

J. f. O. 1889, 372 (Sumatra); (3) Heine & Bchnw. , XomencL Mus. Hein. 1890,
204 (Java, Borneo).

214

Bii-ds of Celebes: Guculidae.

k. Centrococeyx affinis (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 110 (Java); (2) Wald.

Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 56 60, 112 (Java, Celebes, Flores); (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 70

(Celebes); (4) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 132 (Celebes); (5) Meyer, Isis 1884, 6,’ 18
(Siao, Sangi, N. Celebes, Halinahera, Ceram); (6) G-nillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 504 (Sum-
bawa), 551 (H. Celebes, Liinbe); (7) Sharpe, Ibis 1888, 198 (Palawan); (8) White-
head, Ibis 1890, 47 (Palawan); (9) Heine & Echw., HomencL Hein. 1890, 204 (Java).
L Centrococeyx bengalensis (1) Cab. & Hein., Mus..Hein. 1862, IV, 111 (Nepal); (2) Wald.,
Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 59 (India, Burinah); (3) Hume, Str. P. 1875, JH, 84 (Upper
Pegu), 324 (Tenasserim); (4) id., Str. F. V, 1877, 28 (Cachar); (5) Ball, S. F. TO,

1878, 208 find. Penin.); (6) Cripps, t. c. 266 (E. Bengal); (7) Hnme, S. F. VTh’

1879, 55 (Malacca — Singapore); (8) Kelham, Ibis 1881, 395 (Malacca, Singapore);
(9) Oates, Str. F._ X, 1882, 196 (Pegu); (10) A. Miill., J. f. O. 1882, 410 (Salangaj;

(11) Oates; B. Brit. Burmah, 1883, H, 127 (India, Bnrmah, Tenasserim, China, Siam,
Cochin China); (12) Davison, Str. F. X, 1883, 361 (Wynaard); (13) Hume, ib. XI,
1888, 78 fManipur); (14) Heine & Echw., Xomencl. Hein. 1890, 204 (Nepal); (15)
Oates, ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs 1891, H, 406 (India); (16) Munn, Ibis 1894, 56;
(17) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 241; (18) iid.. Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 6;
(19) iid., ib. Nr. 9, p. 3; (20) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (21) iid., ib. Nr. 2, p. 11.

m. Centrococeyx moluccensis (1) Cab. & Heine (ex Bernst. MS.), Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 113
(“Tinor”, Tidore or Timor; Ternate); (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 57, 59 (Ternate).
71, ? Centrococeyx rectunguis (1) Cab. & Heiiie, Mus. Hein. IV, 114; (2) Biittik., Notes
Leyd. Mus. 1887, 32 (W. Sumatra); (3) Hagen, T. Ned. Aard. Genoots. 1890 (2),
TO, 137.

0. Centropus viridis (1) Swinh. (nec Scop.), P. Z. S. 1863, 266 (S. China, Formosa); (2) id.,
Ibis 1870, 235 (Hainan); (3) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 257 (Sula Is.), (fide W. Bias.,

p. 14).

p. Centrococeyx javanensis (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 58, 60 (Java, Malacca, Banjer-

massing, Celebes); (2) id.. Ibis 1872, 367 (N. Borneo); (3) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo
1874, 76 (Borneo, etc.); (4) id., Ann. Mus. Civ. 1875, VH, 651 (Celebes); (5) Sharpe,
Ibis 1876, 34 (Borneo); ,(6) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. 1879, XIV, 1S8 (Sumatra);
(7) Nicholson, Ibis 1881, 141 (Java); 1883, 241 (Sumatra); (8) W. Bias., Ztschr!
ges. Orn. 1885, 263—270 (S. Celebes); (9) id.. Ibis 1888, 374 (Palawan); (10) id..
Onus 1888, 306 (Palawan), 570 (Sangi); (11) Everett, P. Z. S. 1889, 226 (Palawan);

(12) id., J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 175 (Borneo, Palawan); (13) Sharpe, Ibis 1890,
14 (Labuan), 282 (Himalayas — Celebes); (14) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1890, 140 (Sulu Is.);
(15) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. 1891, (2) XH, 46 (Sumatra); (16) Vorderman, N. T.
Ned. Iiid. 1891, 217 (S. Sumatra); 1892, 383 (Java); (17) Hose, Ibis 1893, 416
(Borneo); (18) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Eeise Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 276.

q. Centrococeyx medius (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YUL, 57, 58 (Amboyna, Ceram); (2)

Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 375 (Moluccas), Agg. 1889, 52 and 1891, 220; (3)
Pleske, Bull. Acad. Petersb. 1884, 117 (Ternate).

r. Centropus bengalensis var. affinis (1) Briigg., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 61 (N. Celebes).

s. Centropus bengalensis var. javanensis (1) Briigg. 1. c. (N. Celebes).

t. Centropus moluccensis (1) Echnw., J. f. 0. 1877, 218 (Celebes); (2) W. Bias., ib. 1883, 122.

u. Centropus celebensis Beddard (nec Q. & G.), P. Z. S. 1885, 183, 184 pterylogr.

V. Centropus javanensis (1) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1879, 328 (Borneo); (2) id.. Ibis 1879, 246

(Borneo).

w. Centropus javanicus (1) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 354; (2) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 247;
(3) Grant, t. c. 520; (4) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 35; (5)

Vorderm., N. T. Ned. Ind. 1895, LIV, 329, 333; (6) Clarke, Ibis 1895, 476; (7)

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

215

Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1895, 475; (8) id., ib. 1896, 552, 562, 572, 575, 586, 595;
(9) G-rant, Ibis 1896, 474.

X. Centropus bengalensis lepidus (1) Hartert, Kat. Mus. Senckenb. 1891, 150 (Java); (2)
id., Ornis 1891, 122.

“Burong kussu-kussu” (Bird of the bigli grass), Manado, Meyer k 3; Nat. Coll., Dresd. Mus.
“Totombarang”, inland name, Minahassa, Meyer k 3.

“Kuluket”, Gruillem. k6 or “Koloket”, Nat. Coll., Dresd. M., inland name near Manado.
“Kalukku”, Maros, S. Celebes, Platen p 8.

“Arooa” or “Aeroota”, Talaut, Nat. Coll.

“Karoko”, Balante, E. Celebes, iid.

For further synonymy and references see Salvad. p 3, q 2\ Cab. & Heine j 1, k 1, 1 1, m 1,
n 1] Slielley e 8, tv 1.

Descriptions. Hume & Davison e 5; David & Oustalet e 2] A. Muller 110] Oates 111]
Salvador! q 2] 5Y. Blasius p 8] Sbelley e 8, tv 1] Blanford e 12.

Adult male. Head, neck, mantle and all the under parts black, glossed with greenish
on the upper parts and chest, more sooty on the lower under parts; the shafts of
all the feathers spinous and stiff, jet black; wings cinnamon-rufous, the ends of the
primaries, the inner secondaries and scapulars brown with a slight gloss; back sooty;
upper tail-coverts and tail black glossed with bronze-green; quills below purer
rufous than above; under wing-coverts cinnamon-rufous, slightly varied with brown
(N. Celebes, C 3579). “Iris dark brown; bill black; feet slate-grey” (Platen q) 8).
Nearly adult male. Differs in having the gloss on head, neck and chest blue-black; mantle,
like inner quills, deep reddish brown contrasting Avith the neck, shafts Avhitish; back
and rump black, barred Avith Avood-broAA'ii; upper tail-coverts glossed with bluish, tail
Avith bronze-green, terminally filnged Avith rufous and an imperfect bar of the same
on some of the lateral feathers (Maros, S. Celebes, 16. H. 1878, C 12081).

Adult female. Like the adult male, but much larger, the gloss on the head and neck possibly
a shade bluer (S. Celebes, Eeb., C 12082).

Nearly adult female. Like the nearly adult male, but not cj^uite so far advanced in coloration:
many of the feathers in the black plumage of head, neck, and underparts Avith some
part of the shaft white (usually the tip, sometimes the middle); under parts black
varied Avith pale fawn-colour alongside the AAdiite portion of the shaft (Nr. 7093).
Younger female. Head and hind-neck black as the last, but most of the feathers with part
of the shafts and the adjacent part of feather fulvous white, forming a narroAv streak;
beloAv pale cinnamon-taAAmy Avith pale shafts, barred with dusky on the sides and thighs,
and varied Avith some lilack feathers barred Avith taAvny ; Avings and tail still much as

in adult; upper tail-coAnrts barred with taAvny broAAUi. (Near Manado, C 10873.) Bill
blackish horn-colour, paler at the base.^)

First plumage [male and female] ^). Head and neck taAAmy-cinnamon, the sides and bases of
the feathers black, giving a streaked appearance; on mantle, back and wings the black

ij This specimen does not uphold Prof. W. Blasius’ view (p S, p. 270) that the change of coloration
in this species very likely takes j)lace on the head and body — not Asdngs and tail — A\dthout moulting, as

it is obviousty moulting, but the foi’mer specimen (Nr. 7093) with the same particoloured appearance below

does not show any trace of moulting. We, however, take this simply for the ordinary second plumage. A
nestling of C. sinensis in the possession of Mr. D e La Touche, bought August, 1886, assumed the adult
plumage in the following summer ; it began to show in patches in the early spring, but unfortunately Mr. D e
La Touche does not say whether the feathers were moulted or not (Ibis 1892, 480).

2; Mr. Oates makes the unexpected statement that the adults in winter plumage are clothed like young
birds in first plumage (I 9, I 11). We have specimens in the ordinary adult dress from Celebes, Talaut, Sangi,
Tagulandang and Ceram dated January, February, March, Ai>ril, May, June, July, August, October, November.

216

Birds of Celebes: Cacnlidae.

(here dusky) and tawny- cinnamon take the form of bars of about equal width; tail
glossed with green and barred narrowly with tawny -cinnamon; below fawn-coloin,
almost clear of bars along the middle line of the under surface, more tawny and
barred with dusky on the sides, flanks, under wing- and tail- coverts (Minahassa,
Aug.— Sept, 0 10874, ib. Aug.— Sept 10795; Gt. Sangi 0 1516). Bill light yellow
horn-colour, blackish at base of upper mandible.

Nestling about a fortnight old. Like the last-described in all respects, except that the tawny-
cinnamon bars on the tail-feathers, which are just making their appearance, are about
as broad as the black ones. Li the full-grown tail-feathers of the above specimens
they are only about 1/4 the vudth of the black bars (Ternate, 0 788).

Two unfledged nestlings taken by the Drs. Sara sin in K Celebes are covered
with spines almost comparable to those of a Hedgehog, but from the tip of many
of them issues a single, long, white hair or fibre, particidarly on the nape and shoulders
(Kema, 21. Aug. 1893; P. & P. Sarasin).

Eggs. “White, glossy, somewhat hard-shelled, fatty to the touch, in form elliptical; 32 — 33 X
23.5 mm” (Hehrkorn MS., 2, collected by Dr. Platen at Purukan, Mnahassa,
11. May 1886).

Nest. “Shaped like an egg, about 10 inches liigh and 8 inches in diameter. The entrance,
5 by 4, midway between top and bottom. Composed of elephant -grass and the
surrounding grasses are bent down and incorporated in the structure. The egg-
chamber and sides neatly lined with thatch-grass. The walls about 1 inch thick”
(Oates 1 15).

Number of eggs 2 or 3; Mr. Inglis in Cachar generally found 6.

See, also, Bernstein’s admirable description: J. f. O. 1859, 185.

Measurements. The female is usually considerably larger than the male. Prof. W. Blasiiis
(p 8) records the following:

Males: length in the flesh 345 — 370; expanse 410 — 455 mm,
Females: length in the flesh 390 — 430; expanse 505 — 520 (Platen).

Females

AVing

Tail

Tai'sus

g. South Celebes (Platen)

174

212

41

South Celebes (Platen) .

172

227

42

f. South Celebes (Platen)

180

239

43

h. South Celebes (Platen)

176

231

42

A‘.^) South Celebes (Platen)

183

235

42

Males

AVing

Tail

Tarsus

a. South Celebes (Platen)

154

209

39

h. South Celebes (Platen)

159

203

38

e. South Celebes (Platen)

156

201

38

c. South Celebes (Platen)

158

207

39

cl. South Celebes (Platen)

157

191

38

Hume records the following measurements taken in the flesh (e 5) \
Adult males from various locahties, from Johore to Suddhya. (Assam):

Length

323 — 330 mm; expanse 404 — 437; wing 133 — 140; tail 171 — 196; tarsus 37 — 39; bill
from gape 28 — 48; hind toe claw inside 18 — 24.

1) The label of this was lost. The letters are those given by Prof. W. B la sins.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

217

Adult females. Length 362 — 380 mm; expanse 463 — 476; wing 165 — 173; tail
213 — 218; tarsus 41 — 43; hill from gape 32; hind toe claw inside 23 — 28.

“And the bills are not only longer, hut markedly stouter as a body than those
of the males.”

From the careful measurements of Hume, Blasius, and Salvador! 5^, who
independently obtain similar results, it is obvious that Mr. Oates’s statement, that
“the female is of about the same size as the male” (111), is not correct; so, too, the
measurements of Oapt. Shelley (e 8, w 1), wliich suggest an equal size of the sexes,
are misleading.

Variation. It is of interest to note that the males and females of South Celebes measured
by Blasius and Platen are respectively much larger than the males and females
of Malacca — India measured by Hume; while Salvadori’s Moluccan specimens are
still larger than those of Blasius.

Distribution. India — Himalayas from Hepal to Sikkim and Assam (e 8, e 4, 11)] Central
India (Ball 15, etc., eS); South India — Wynaard (Davison 112)] Travancore
(Bourdillon e 8)] Kliasia Hills (Chennell e 8, G-riffith tv 1)] ManqDur (Hume
113)] Upper Pegu (Oates 13)] Biu’mah (Oates 111)] Tenasserim (Davison e o,
Bingham e 6) ; South China (Swinh. o 1, De La Touche e 9)] Formosa and Hainan
(Swinh. 0 1, 0 2, David e 2)] Siam (fide Oates 111, Tweedd. Coll, e 8)] Cochin
China (fide Oates 111)] Salanga (A. Miill. 110)] Malacca (Davison e 8, Hume U7,
Kelhain 18)] Penang (Brit. Mus. e 8)] Bunguran (Hose tv 7); Singaj)ore (Davison
e 8, Hume I 7, Kelhain I 8)] Sumatra (Beccari 6, H. 0. Forbes 7, ? Klaesi
n 2, ModigI 115)] Banka (v. d. Bossche^ 2)] Java (Horsf. el, cl 1, H. O. Forbes
p 7, Vordernian 7(5, etc.); Bah (Doherty tv 8)] Lombok (Vorderman, Doherty
'W 5, tv S); Sumhawa (Forsten g 2, Griiillem. k 6)] Satonda and Sumha (Doherty
w 8)] Flores (Wall, e 8)] Tunor (Wall, g 2, e 8)] Borneo (Schwaner g 2, Mottley
Doria & Beccari 3, etc.}; Phihppine Is. (B. & AV. w 4, Whitehead w 9)] Palawan
(Whitehead k 7, k 8, Platen 71 7d); Sooloo Is. (Gruillem. 0 3, Platen it 14)]
Talaut Is. (Kat. Coll); Great Sangi and Siao (Meyer k 5); Tagulandang (Hat. Coll.);
Celebes — Lemheh Id. (Guillem, k 6)] Banka and Menado tua (Hat. Coll., Dresd.
M.); hlinahassa (Meyer k 2, k 3, Beccari p 4, etc.); Gorontalo (Forsten g 2)]
Balante, E. Cel. (Kat. Coll.); Kandari, S. E. Penin. (Beccari 7? 4); Luwu (Weber
p 18)] Palopo (P. & F. Sarasin); Macassar (Wall, e <S, W ohQx p 18)] Maros AVater-
fall (Platen 71 S, W ohev p 18)] Amhoina, Ceram, Bui'u, Halmahera, Ternate, Tidore,
Batclnan (Salvad. q 2).

The Coucal, or “Lark-heeled Cuckoo”, now under consideration has been
split up by various authorities — by Cab an is and Heine into 5, by Walden
into 6, by Shelley into 2 species, but upon grounds which are very unsatis-
factory. Cabanis and Heine laboured under the disadvantage of having
insufficient material, each form being represented in only one or two specimens;
but two of the species recognised, C. lepidiis Horsf. and C. affinis Horsf.,
are, as A¥. Blasius has now satisfactorily proved (p 8), the male and female of the
same species. By Shelley two races, C. hengalensis and C. javanicus, hardly
distinguishable at the best, are recorded as occurring together in the same
months of the year in the hill-country of N.E. India, in Pegu, and in Formosa.
Were the means of distinction employed by Shelley allowed, both could also
be recorded from Celebes. AVhat is worse, Shelley is divided in his own mind

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 23rd, 1897). 28

218

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

on the subject of this troublesome species; to wit, Davison’s Tenasseriin
specimens are included under C.javanicus, but Hume’s remarks relating thereto
are planted in the synonymy of C. hengalensis\ in the sketch of the distribution
of C. hengalensis the author draws a line at the Burmese countries, though
including in the synonymy records by Hume and Davison, Bingham, and
Kelham of its plentiful occurrence in Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula and
Singapore; Cabanis and Heine’s two specimens of C. lepidus from Java are,
moreover, included in the sjmomymy of both the species recogmised by Shelley.
Authors, on the whole, are generally agreed in uniting specimens from neighbour-
ing localities with which they are acquainted; Sc hie gel alone has grouped them
together as one species, a decision -which Biittikofer (n2) rightly declines to
undo. Thus Hume (e 5) says: “It may be that the Javan bird is distinct, but
certainly all those that Ave have seen from the Malayan Peninsula have been
identical AAuth those from various parts of India and Burma”. Shelley crosses
the bridge from the Malay Peninsula to Java, a§ S cl a ter had done thirty
years earlier (c2), and the soundness of AA-hich had been again indicated by
A. Muller in 1882 (1 10).

In another direction Caj)t. Shelley agrees Avith Mr. Oates (111) and the
Abbe David & Dr. Oustalet (e 2) as to the identity of the birds from South
China, with others of India; though he terms the race C. javam'cics, and the
other authors C. Jmigalensis . In the East Indies birds of the different Great
Sunda Islands are very rightly, as it appears to us, united by Shelley as one
species Avith those of the Moluccas, the identity of Avhich AAuth C. javanensis had
been already indicated by Salvadori (q 2) and Meyer (1c 5).

With a large series of 22 specimens from Celebes, and further specimens
from Tagulandang, Great Sangi, Siao, Talaut, Ceram, Halmahera, Ternate,
4 labelled “Moluccas”, 4 or 5 Java, and 1 Sumatra before us, Ave are able to
lend support to this AueAv.

It is certain that, as a species, C, bengalensis ranges from the Himalayas
and South China throughout the intermediate ‘ countries to the Moluccas.

The question next suggests itself : does this species tend to develop any ex-
treme forms of coloration or size in special points of the area oA^er Avhich it is
spread, or is it to be regarded as “one harmonious Avhole”? Before a ncAV
species can arise, isolation of some description is necessary; in other words, a
group must be prevented by some cause or liking from interbreeding with the
rest of the species before its complete separation by colour or structure can
take place. An intergrading local race or subspecies Avill, hoAvever, always
be likely to come to a head, if Ave may use the expression, at special centres
in the range of a species of uninterrupted distribution, especially if it be
stationary. During inigTation, many birds undoubtedly get lost and do not
alAAwys find their Avay back to the ]3lace of their birth; such, settling in other
localities, may interbreed Avith the indiAuduals of the species found there and act
as a check on the differentiation of local races.

Birds of Celebes; Oucnlidae.

219

In some parts of its range — perhaps in all — C. l)engalensis is not a
strictly stationary species. Thus, in Cachar, Mr. Inglis says “this Concal arrives
about the beginning of June and departs at the close of the rains; breeds from
June till September” (I 4)\ in Upper Pegu Mr. Oates found it “during 9 months
of the year rather an uncommon bird” (13)\ in East Bengal Mr. Cripj)S “can-
not recollect ever having noticed this species in the cold weather”, but has ob-
served it from the beginning of May (I 6). Mr. Gammie remarks that it has
increased largely of late in Sikkim. It is resident in South China, according
to Swinhoe (o 1)] resident in Hong-Kong, a straggler to Amoy (f2)\ seden-
tary, according to David and Onstalet, in Hainan and Formosa (e 2)\ “plen-
tiful” as Kelham says (18) “at all seasons throughout Perak, Larut, Port
AVellesly, Johore, and all the Settlements”.

It is not, therefore, surprising that in the East Indies, as the measurements
of Hume, W. Blasius and Salvadori tend to show, the species should differ
slightly in size from those found from Malacca to India; but there appears to
be sufficient stir going on within the species as a whole to prevent the deve-
lopment of any well marked local differences of coloration. In Malacca, Su-
matra and Borneo a form, which we believe to be only an occa,sional variety
of this species, has the under wing-coverts black, and is separated by Capt.
Shelley as a distinct species, C. rectmigxds})

AVhat is known about this species is not yet sufficient for deciding whether,
and where, trinomials might be judiciously conferred, and this must be left to
the future, when the form is better known.

;Mi*. Gammie gives an excellent description of its habits in Sikkim.
“Among the grassy scrub, up to 3500 feet,^ it is now abundant, where, only a
few years ago, it was rarely to be found. In the earlier part of the rainy
season its odd, monotonous notes are to be heard in every direction. I am not
sure that the male calls, but have shot the female — as I found by dissection
— when calling. It has a call of a double series of notes: [whoot, whoot,
whoot, whoot ; then often a pause of four or five seconds, kurook, kurook, kurook,
kurook. The whoot is ventriloquistic, sounding as coming from a distance of
six or eight yards from the bird. Before calling, it seats itself about five feet
from the ground, then you see it draw its neck and body together, slightly puffing-
out its body-feathers, raising its back and depressing its tail, and for every whoot
there is a violent throb of the body as if the bird was in great pain, at the
same time the motion of the throat is scarcely perceptible and its bill is closed.
Then, as if greatly relieved, it stretches itself out, the feathers fall smooth, and
with open mouth and throbbing throat comes the kurook without the slightest
attempt at ventriloquism. When searching for the caller one must take no notice

It can hardly be Centropus rectunguis Strickl, since that species has “a deep blue tint on the
head, neck and breast'’, and no mention is made by Strickland of black xinder xving-coverts; but these,
and a bright gloss of “green on the head, back and lower breast” ai’o the chief means of distinguishing
C. rectunguis Shelley.

28*

220

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

of the whoot hut wait for the kurook. It feeds almost entirely upon grass-
hoppers and frequents the open, scrubby tracts only. I have never once seen
it in larger forest”.

In South Celebes in the month of February Dr. Platen found it a quiet
and rather shy bird, appearing and disappearing in a mysterious manner before
the traveller, as he moved through a hot treeless grass-plain, where the growth
is taller than a man. “It hies, on being disturbed or when danger threatens,
quickly downwards, then horizontally for a distance, to raise itself as quickly
again and cling to another grass-stem, where it looks out for its prey. This
species, too, feeds, like our German Cuckoo, without damage to its health, on
hairy caterpillars; for on every dissection the walls of the stomach were found
covered with brown-black caterpillar hairs. The bird presents the peculiarity
that the male is much smaller than the female” ( p 8).

Two remarkable discoveries in connection with this species were made and
fully described by Bernstein (c 2, c 3, c 4), namely, the male is always to be
found hatching the eggs by day (what share, if any, the female took in the
work he could not ascertain), and it possesses only the right testicle, the left
one being entirely wanting. It should further be borne in mind that the male
is the smaller, weaker bird, and that, as Mr. Gammie’s observations tend to
show, it apparently leaves the female to do the “singing”.

The young of this species, and we believe of all Centrococcyges^ in its tirst
plumage is wonderfully like the adult female of Enclgnamis melanorliyncha^
though it may, of course, be at once distinguished by its nostrils, which are
feathered above, by its long Lark-like hind claw, and by the peculiar spinous
character of the feathers of its head, neck and body.

This similarity is not kept up between the adults of C. hengcdensis and the
adult male of E. melanorhyncha^ though both may be said to have developed
in a melanistic direction ‘), the latter being entirely black, and C. hengalensis
and its relations black with rufous wings and back. What is unusual about
the case is that the young Centrococcyoo resembles the adult female of Eudynamia
melanorhyncha and not the young of that species, which is black, but Mr. White-
head gives reasons {gnteap. 209), why the plumage of the j Eiidynamis (E.
mindanensis) may have been specially modified to make it resemble the black
young ones of its foster-parents. Centrococcyoo^ not being a parasitical Cuckoo,
has no need of such an alteration in its young. This type of plumage is shared
by the young of some other Ciiculinae^ such as Cuculus, Cacotnantis, Hierococcyoc\
Urodynamis, and it may have a deej) phylogenetic significance.

The long Lark-like hind claw of Centropus suggests at once that it is a
terrestial bird; and, if we mistake not, the high course grasses in Avhich it lives

>) It is wortliy of note that Centropus appeax’s to have strong tendencies toxvai’cls albinism. The Di’esden
Museum contains two pei'fect albinos of C. virklis, one perfect albino each of C. ateraUms, and C. goliath, one
partial albino of C. hengalensis, and several such of C. ateralhus.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

221

have to do with the curious sjjine-like character of the shafts of its contour-
feathers. This grass (“Kussu kussu” Clirysopogon aciculatus Fr.) grows taller than
a man and is so sharp that great care must he used in passing through it or
hands and face get badly cut. Similar considerations have led us to examine
the outer webs of the primaries, in anticipation that a change might have been
wrought by frequent brushing against the stems of the jungle-grass as the bird
flew in and out amongst it; but there is nothing remarkable about them, unless it
be that the outer webs of the longest primaries are narrowed rather suddenly in
their terminal third (more so than in other Cuckoos before us), while the third,
fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh — ^ the longest — are all very much of a length,
forming a remarkably blunt -tipped wing. The same condition obtains among
other birds in other members of the subgenus Centrococcyx ( C. eurycercns, C. viridis)^
in the subgenus Centropus (C. senegalensis) ^ and — though less distinctly — in
the subgenus Poliphilns (P. phasianus); but not in Nesocentor (N. menebiJd) and
Pyrrhocentor (P. celebensis)^ in which the shafts of the contour-feathers are less
spiny in character and suggestive of somewhat different habits of life. The
interesting point is that in the former subgenera the narrowest part of the outer
web of the longest quills is usually some distance from the tip, whereas just
before the tip the web becomes a shade broader again. The case should be
considered in connection with the racket-feathers of Prioniturus.

GENUS PYRRHOCENTOR Cab. Heine.

These Coucals may be distinguished by their having the culmen longer
than the head, the hind toe and claw shorter than the middle and
reversed fourth toe and claws, the wing very blunt and round, the j)ri-
maries (6*’^ to 8*^ longest) very little longer than the secondaries, the tail half
as long again as the wing, the contour-feathers of the head, neck, and breast
with stifFened shafts, not dense and close, but on the other hand loose and
open. The young are not known, immature birds hardly differ from the adults.
About 5 species are known, inhabiting the Philippines, Celebes and Kangean.

* 72. PYRRHOCENTOR CELEBENSIS (Q. G.).

Brown Coucal.

iwo geographical races of this highly local species have been distinguished:
they are:

-F 1. The typical Pyrrhocentor celebensis.

a. Centropus celebensis (I) Quoy & Gaim., Voy. Astrol. Zool. 1, 1830, 230; Atlas Aves
1833, pi. 20; (2) Gray, Gen. B. II, 1846, 455; (3) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 108; id.,
Consp. Yol. Zygod. 1854, 5; (4) Finscli, NeAv Guinea 1865, 160; (5) Briigg., Abh.
Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 60; (6) Shelley, Gat. B. XIX, 1891, 365, pt.; Hartert,
Kat. Senkenb. Mus. 1891, 150. '

222

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

h. Centropus Meolor (1) Lesson, Tr. d’Orn. 1831, 137; (2) BlytL, J.. A. S. B. 1843, XU,
946; 1845, XIY, 203; (3) Puclier., Eev. Zool. 1852, ‘472; HartL, J. f. 0. 1855,
421; (5) Gray, P. Z. S, 1860, 359 (Gilolo!); (6) id., HL. 1870, H, 214; (7) ScliL,
Mus. P.-B. Cuciili 1864, 73; (9) Bosenb., Malay. A rob. 1878, 275(?).

c. Pyrrhocentor bicolor (1) Cab & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1862, IV, 117; (2) Salvad., Orn.

Pap. 1880, I, 365; (3) Heine & Bchnw. , Xomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 205.

d. Pyrrhocentor celebensis (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHi, 55; (2) Salvad., Aoin. Mus.

Civ. Gen. 1875, YH, 650; (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 70, 146 pt.; (4) W. Bias., J. f.
O. 1883, 136; (5) Beddard, P. Z. H 1885, 170, 172, 180, 187; (6) Guillem.,
t. c. 551; (7) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges, Orn. 1886, 98; (VIII) Meyer, Yogel-SkeL
XYIH, 1892, 47, pi. CLXXH; (9) Yorderman, X. T. Xed. Ind. 1893, LH, 190,
191; (10) M. & AYg. , Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 6; (11) ? Hartert, Xov.
Zool. 1896, 160.

6. ? Pyrrhocentor celebensis celebensis (1) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1897, i). 160, 164.

“Koun-Koun” (Quoy & Gaim. a I] or “Kung-Kung” (Xat. Coll., Drcsd. Mus.) near Manado.

“Kuwo”, native Malay name, Meyer 3.

“Unguno”, Gorontalo, Joest, Das Holontalo 1883, 106.

“Ungung-gungo”, Bosenb. h 9.

Figures and descriptions. Qiioy & Gaimard a J, Meyer d VIII (skeleton); Pucker an
h 5; Cabanis & Heine e J; Briiggemann a 5\ Salvadori 2: Beddard d 5
(pteryl. etc.); W. Blasius d 7; Shelley a 6.

Adult. Head, neck, throat and breast wood-bromi, darker above, below, more

drab-colour on head, jjassing on the rest of upj)er surface, wings, and tail into
Mars- and walnut-brown; under tail-coverts, flanks and thighs of the same colour
passing into wood-brown on the lower breast. Bill black, horn-broAvn at tij). Li
some specimens, it is yellowish white at the tip and over jiart of the lower mandible.

Adult male and female. Ahke in coloration, the latter is jaerhaps a tri^de larger.

Immature. Differs httle from the adult. The head, neck and breast is washed more strongly
with a rufous tint, so that the colour here contrasts less strongly with that of the
rest of the body, and across the thi’oat a rufous collar is x)ercex>tible (Manado,
C 5186, Limbotto Q, C 1814).

Lord Walden remarks: “In P. celebetisis, the fully adult bird loses the bright
yellow-rufous chin-, tln’oat-, neck-, and breast-plumage of the younger bird. These
parts become very pale fulvous and contrast with the dai’k chestnut of the remaining
lower region. . . . The young bird is bright rufous throughout” (1).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (C 1827) Q ad. Limbotto, July

182

280

50

30

b. (C 1801) Q ad. Limbotto, .duly

179

270

—

26.5

c. (C 1813) Q ad. Togian Is., Aug

183

275

46

—

d. (C 1814) 9 imm. Limbotto, July

159

224

—

23

e. (Salvad. 2) $, Manado, July

190

275

—

—

f, (Sarasin Coll.) (J’, Kema, 20. YLH. 93

183

280

45

28

g. (Sarasin Coll.) (J', Kema, 13. LX. 93

—

270

—

25

li. (Sarasin Cod.) (J', Kema, 10. XI. 93

173

250

47

28

i. (Sarasin Coll.) Tomohon, 8. X. 94

175

295

—

24

j. (C 1810) (J*, Manado, March

173

261

43

25

li. (Salvad. 2) q^, Manado, Jrdy

170

250

—

—

Birds of Celebes : Oucnlidae.

223

We ai-e also aBle to coBipare 32 other specimens, sex not indicated. One
displays a white feather on the hack, — partial albinism.

Skeleton (VIII).

Length of cranium . . .

. 70.0 mm

Greatest breadth of do. . .

. 28.0

»

Length of humerus . . .

. 39.0

Length of ulna ....

. 31.5

Length of radius ....

. 28.7

Length of manus ....

. 33.0

V

Length of metacarpus . .

. 17.5

Length of digitus prhicip. .

. 14.0

Length of femiu ....

. 48.0

Length of tibia ....

. 66.0

Length of fibula ....

. 22.8

Lengtli of tarso-metatarsus .

. 45,0 mm

Length of digitus HI . .

. 41.0

»

Length of sternum

. 27.7

Greatest breadth of do, . .

. 25.5

Height of crista sterni . .

. 7.0

Length of coracoideum . .

. 28.7

Length of scapula . . .

. 38.0

»

Length of clavicula . . .

. 28.0

Length of pelvis ....

. 50.0

Greatest breadth of do. . .

. 29.0

Distribution. Minahassa (Yoy. Astr. a /, Meyer d .3, Fischer a 5, etc.)\ G-orontalo (Forsten 7,
Meyer d 3)] Togian Is. (Meyer d 3)\ (?) Bonthain Peak, S. Celebes (Doherty fide
Hartert el].

Variation. The female from the Togian Islands in the Dresden Mnseirm corresponds with
adults from North Celebes in coloration, but the bill is yellowish wliite at the end,
the under mandible bemg enth-ely of this colour exccj)t towards the base, where it
becomes blacldsh. The feet are also paler. Several specimens fr’om Celebes itseK
also offer some amount of pale colour on the bill. Hartert finds his specimens from
Bonthain somewhat different.

2. Pyrrhocentor celebensis rufescens M. & W'g.

Abh. Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 2, p. 1 1 ; Hartert, Nov. ZooL 1897, 160, 164.

“Kung-kung'*, Tonkean, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Differs from the ty}ncal form in liawng the face, neck, throat and breast light
cinnamon-rufous, instead of wood-brown; head above clearer brown ; mantle and wing-
coverts redder brown.

Measurements. Wing 175 — 185 mm; tail 265 — 325; tar-sus c. 46; bill from nostril 26 — 31.

Distribution. Eastern and Southern Peninsulas, Celebes; Tonkean (Nat. Coll.), Macassar
(Wallace a 6, Doherty); Tanette, Mandalli, Maros (Meyer d 3]\ (if the same)
Dongala, W. Coast (Doherty).

Observation. Seven specimens of this well-marked race were obtained by native collectors at
Tonkean in the eastern part of the E, Peninsula. Meyer (d 3) when in Celebes
remarked: “the South Celebean specimens appeared to me, when I first saw them,
somewhat more brilliantly coloured than those of North Celebes, but afterwards, when
I compared the skins in the cabinet, I could find no difference.” There are now no
sj)eeimens from the south in the Dresden Musemn, but hfr. Hartert has recently
recei\ ecl two from the low country north of Macassar, which “are hardly different
from P. c. rufescens", and two skins from Dongala on the west coast which “resemble
very much the co-tyj)es of P. c. rufescens", but “are a little paler and less rufous
above where they look more like P. c. celehensis". A third skin from Dongala was
aberi-ant. It still remains to be proved therefore wlietlier these birds are intermediate:
P. celebensis — rufescens, or what.

The genus Pyrrhocentor ^vas established in 1862 by Cahanis and Heine
for this species and P. imirufus C. & H. (c 1), with the former for type. To

224

Birds of Celebes; Cnculidae.

these P. melanops (Lesson) of the Philippine Islands, P. kangeanensis Vorclerm.
of the Kangean Islands, and a new species of Prof. W. Blasins (not yet
described) from Mindoro may be added. The genus Vyrrhocentor, like Centro-
coccyx and some others, is not admitted as distinct in Shelley’s Catalogue of
the Cuckoos, where all the Centropinae are grouped together in the single genus
Centropus] it appears to us nevertheless to be worthy of distinction as a genus
for the following reasons:

Compared with Centropus hengalensis and Centropiis senegalensis we find
1 . that the contour-feathers are different in character ; in Pyrrhocentor the shafts
are fine though stifi", the barbs also are long and unconnected, hairlike for the
most ]3art of the feather; in Centropus and Centrococcyx the shafts are spinous,
and the barbs have not such a hairlike appearance; 2. The’ primaries are
different, the outer webs being rather suddenly narrowed in their distal half in
Centropus and Centrococcyx, whereas in Pyrrhocentor the outer webs are propor-
tionally broader, and the narrowing is slight and proceeds gradually from base
to tip. The relative lengths of the primaries taken from specimens in which
all the feathers appear to have obtained their normal length are as follows^):

I

II

m

IV

V

VI

vn

VIII

IX

X

Pyrrhocentor celehensis ....

70

101

122

141

148

153

152

151

149

145

Pyrrhocentor sp. (Mindoro). . .

62

87

113

124

134

135

136

138

136

131

Centrococcyx hengalensis (a) .

74

115

130

135

135

136

133

123

120

111

Centrococcyx hengaUnsis (h) .

60

92

no

117

117

117

113

106

103

97

Centropus senegalensis ....

80

106

125

130

130

130

129

124

119

114

In Pyrrhocentor, as the above figures show, the first, second and third quills
are relatively shorter than in Centropus and Centrococcyx-, the maximum length
is obtained from the sixth to the eighth feather, instead of the fourth to the
sixth; the Aving is still blunter, the quills seem weaker. The bird has all the
appearance of being a very feeble flyer'). Consequently it is of the more \Mue
in questions concerned with the geographical distribution of birds. 3. The hind
claw of Pyrrhocentor is much shorter. 4. The young of Centrococcyx and Cen-
tropus is rufous brown above barred with black; we have seen large numbers
of Pyrrhocentor, but never one differing greatly from the adult. What the
nestling is like is as yet unknown; if it is rufous barred Avith black this phase
of plumage Avould appear to be of very short duration.

The nearest knoAvn ally of P. celehensis is V'orderman’s recently described
P. kangeanensis of the Kangean Islands, a group lying betAveen JaAm and Celebes,
though much nearer to the former island than to the latter. This form is much
larger than P. celehensis and has the chestnut colour on the under parts of that

1) Measurements taken from the base of the first primary.

It was not sent to us by our hunters from the islands of Mauado tua, Mantehage, Lembeh, and
Banka, six or eight miles from the coast of Celebes. In N. Celebes it is very common.

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

225

species replaced by an umber tint, and the back and the tail not red-brown, but
umber-colour (Vor derman ^).

Meyer found this bird very frequent during his residence from January
till July in the Minahassa; he also met with it in South Celebes in September
and October where it had previously been found, but not recorded, by Wallace.
Platen does not seem to have come across it there, neither did Prof. Weber,
the Drs. Sarasin, nor Mr. Everett send any specimens home from the south.
Meyer remarks (3) that it makes a nest of brush-wood, like a Pigeon’s nest,
in trees in the deep forest, and feeds on fruits such as waringui, nutmegs, etc.;
but this is much in need of confirmation; observations on its habits are wanting.
When von Posenberg says that it is a bird which frequents by preference
the high grass and bush and consigns its eggs to other birds he appears to have
had CentrococcyoG hengalensis and Eudynamis melanorhyncha in view, as well as
this species.

SUBFAMILY PHOENICOPHAINAE.

In the Catalogue of Birds this subfamily is distinguished by its short rounded
wing, which fits close to the body, and (from the Centropodinae) by the claw
of the hind (first) toe being ordinary, not lengthened and Lark-like. In the
more typical forms the nostril pierces the horn of the bill unprotected by any
formation of skin. The bill is generally large and weak, the tail very long,
broad and graduated. The genera seem to stand much nearer to the Centro-
podinae than the Cuadinae^ or Scythropinae.

GENUS PHOENICOPHAES Yieill.

The Malkohas are birds about the size of a Magpie; the bill is large,
very high and bloated at the base, compressed at the tip, yellow,
green, or particoloured in hue, the nostril small, linear to round in
shape, placed low down on the maxilla j ust above the tomia, the nasal
canal running obliquely upwards; a row of stiff bristles over the eye; much
of the face naked; feet rather small, the middle toe longer than the fourth by
the length of its claw; wing very blunt, primaries overreaching the secondaries
only by about half the length of the tarsus; tail IV2 times the length of
the wing, or more, the outermost rectrix only about half the tail-length.
'Ihere are seven species, ranging fi'om Ceylon and Malacca to Celebes, and
several of them have been distinguished as distinct genera, but on very slender
grounds, depending on the shape of the nasal aperture. They feed principally,
as is known from a few forms, on insects or fruit.

Meyer & Wigl esw o rth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 25tli, 1897).

29

226

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

* 73. PHOENICOPHAES CALORHYNCHUS Temm.

Blue-tailed Malkolia.

In the Southern Peninsula of Celebes this well-marked sj)ecies has the head
of a lighter grey than in the birds of the north and east of the island and has
been subspecifically distinguished therefrom. The two known races are:

4- 1. The typical Phoenicophaes calorhynchus.

a. Phcenicophaus calorhynchus^) (I) Temm., PI. Coll. 1825, pi. 349; ("5^ Less., Man. d’Orn.

1828, n, 128; (3) Cnv., Pegne An. 1829, I, 456; (4) S. Miill., Yerli. Natnurk.
Comm. 1839 — 44, 234, note; (5) Blytli, J. A. S. B. 1845, XIV, 199; (6) Gray,
Gen. B. 1846, II, 459; (7) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 98; id., Oonsp. Yol. Zygod. 1854,
5; (8) J. & E. Yerr., Pev. Zool. 1855, 356; (9) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Ciicuh 1864, 48;

(10) Einsoli, Xeii-Gninea 1865, 159; (11) Wall., Malay Archip. 1869, I, 429; (12)

Gray, HL. 1870, H, 205; (13) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YJJl, 52, fig. 5, head; (14)

Brfigg., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 57; (lo) Lenz, J. f. O. 1877, 371; (16)

Posenb., Malay. Arch. 1878, 275; (17) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 67; (18) Gnilleni.,
P. Z. S. 1885, 549; (19) Hickson, Nat. m X. Celebes 1889, 255; (20) Tristr.,
Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 83; ('XXJj Meyer, ikbb. von Yogelskel. 1897, idI. CCXXIX.

b. Melias calyorhynchus (1) Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831, 132.

c. Zanclostomus calorhenchus (1) Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1842, 1098, 28.

d. Phcenicophaus melanogaster (1) Blytli (nec YieilL), Cat. B. Mns. A. S. B. 1849, 75.

e. Ehamphococcyx calorhynchus (1) Cab. & Heine, Mns. Hein. 1862, lY, 65; (2) Sharpe,

P. Z. S. 1873, 605, fig. of head; (3) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YH,
649; (4) Cab. & Pchnw., J. f. O. 1876, 324 (Ceram!); (5) Salvad., P. Z. S. 1877,
195; (6) id., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 392; (6^^^) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 136; (7) id.,
Z. ges. Orn. 1886, 95; (8) Hein. & Pchnw., Xomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 201] (9)
Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 396; (10) Hartert, Kat. Y. Mus. Senckenb. 1891, 149;

(11) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 6; (12) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 11.
“Wakeke” or “Bakeke” (Meyer a 17), “Burong hakeke” or Makekeke” (Nat. Coll.), nearManado.
“Koko-ondo” or “Tontonhara” (Meyer a 17], inland name, hPnahassa, meaning Foreteller-bird

by daytime (“Geloofvogel bij dag” — Dutch).

^‘Aluii”, Gorontalo (Posenb. a 16).

“Djee”, Tonkean and Balante, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

Figures and descriptions. Temminck « 7; Meyer a XX7 (skeleton); Walden a 75 (head fig.);

Sharpe e 5 (head fig.); Bruggemann « 71 (juv.); Cabanis & Heine e l] Shelley e5.
Adult (North Celebes). Head above as far as nape dark mouse-grey; neck, mantle,
scapulars and wing-coverts (except the greater series) chestnut; chin, throat and
breast paler (burnt sienna or hazel); lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, ab-
domen, sides, under wing-coverts, flanks and thighs slaty, paler below, but
passing into black on the under tail-coverts; wings and tail glossy dark violet-
blue; the greater wing-coverts similarly coloui’ed, but often broadly fringed mth
dark chestnut where they approximate the chestnut scapulars and median coverts
(Manado, C 5177). Bill, tip white, then a black space about 10 nun Avide, the rest

1) The name of this species has been variously spelt Plmnicojihmus , Phoetiicophaeus , Phcenicophaus,
Phcenicophaes, calyorhynchus, calorhynchus, callirhynchus, calorhenchus.

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

227

yellow, except about tlie nostril wliere it is red; under mandible red. “Iris reddish
brown; tarsus black” (Gruillem. a 18),

Sexes. Alike in coloration.

Young. Head above rust-red, the bases of the feathers grey. Hectrices about 40 mm longer
than in the adult bu’d, proportionally narrower and not rounded off broadly, but more
gradually pointed. Bill considerably smaller. Upper mandible ohve-yellow, without
a black space before the tip, but washed out olive-green, the tip itself blackish.
Under mandible dirty red, along the ridge and at the tip yellowish (Brilggem. a 14).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

CuLmen

a. (C 1837) ad. Manado — March

181

316

43

46.5

b. (C 3575) ad. H. Celebes

180

321

42

44.5

c, (C 3577) ad. H. Celebes

180

330

42

45

d. (C 3572) ad. H. Celebes

174

325

42

44.5

e. (C 5176) ad. d' Manado

185

310

42

44.5

f. (C 5177) ad. Q Manado

185

312

41.5

40.5

Nest. “Makes a nest of Bvigs, like a Pigeon” (M. a 17)\ fmther observations would be welcome.
Distribution. Celebes — Minahassa (Wallace id, Meyer a 17, Platen 8, Guillem, a 18, etc.)]
Gorontalo (Porsten a 9, Bosenb. a 16, Meyer a 17)] Togian Islands (Meyer 17)]
E. Peninsula, Tonkean and Balante (Hat. Coll); Ussu, S. E. Cel. (P. & E. Sarasin);
Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari 3).

^ 2. Phoenicophaes calorhynchus meridionalis M. & Wg.

f. Phcenicophaus calorhynchus (1) Wall., Malay Ai’chip. 1869, I, 340.

g. Ehamphococcyx calorhynchus (1) W. Bias., Z. ges. Orn. 1885, 262; (2j Platen, Gefied.

Welt 1887, 218; (3) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 396 (Macassar); (4) Biittik.,
Zool. Erg. Weber’s Beise 1893, HE, 275.

h. Ehamphococcyx calorhynchus meridionalis (1) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Hr. 2, p. 1 1

i. Phoenicophaes calorhynchus meridionalis (1) Hartert, Hov. Zool. 1896, 160; id., ib.

1897, 160, 164.

“Zanissere”, Tjamba Distr., Platen g 1.

Diagnosis. Head above as far as the nape pale mouse-grey, instead of dark mouse-grey.

“Iris blood-red; feet and orbits black” (Platen 7).

Observation. We have been able to compare over 70 examples from Horth Celebes and 11
from the East with 6 from the South, and find that the grey of the head is always
darker in birds from the Horthern Peninsula, but no other difference is apparent.
Hot one of these specimens is in the young plumage described by Brliggemann. The
sexes are not only ahke, but the young bird undoubtedly assumes the adult dress at
a very early age.

Measurements.

a.

fC

12077)

ad.

b.

(C

12080)

ad.

c.

(C

12075)

ad.

d.

(0

12079)

ad.

e.

(0

12078)

ad.

r

(0

12076)

ad.

S. Celebes, Tjamba,
cf S. Celebes, Tjamba,
S. Celebes, Tjamba, 15,
Q S. Celebes, Tjamba,
Q S. Celebes, Tjamba,
Q S. Celebes, Tjamba,

4. V. 78. .

10. IV. 78 .
VI. 78 . .

10. IV. 78 .
7. IV. 78 .
19. IV. 78 .

I Wing

Tail

200

345

202

313

174

315

180

310

188

327

193

328

Tarsus

Oulmen

41

46

44

46

41

41.5

44

46

42

45

43

45

29*

228

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

Distribution. South and West Celebes: Macassar (Wallace f g 3\ Doherty i 2\ Tjamha
Distr. (Platen g 1^ g 2), Loka, Luwu and Palopo (Weber ^ 4), Indrulaman (Everett
i I)] W. Celebes, Dongala (Doherty i 2).

Spechnens from East Celebes are similar to those of the North, hut seem to he
a shade darker. A specimen from 8. E. Celebes in the Sarasiii-Collection (Ussu,
20. II. 96) is also dark in coloration, and wants the ivory-white tip to the uj>per
mandible, a condition which we have not seen in any specimen from the rest of the
island. A female from West Celebes was found by Hartert to belong to the
southern race.

This species has been placed in the special snbgenns Rhamphococcyx of
which it is the only species and peculiar to the Island of Celebes. Its nearest
ally knoAvn is Rhinococcyx^ a snbgenns represented by one species only, R. cur-
virostris [Shaw and Nodder , of Java. The nostril oi Rhamphococcyx is an elon-
gated slit parallel to the gape, and the eye is surrounded by a bare space of
smooth bluish grey skin ; the nostril of Rhinococcyx is placed in a groove termi-
nating in a widened, some’svhat pear-shaped, orifice, and the bare space, which
occupies most of the side of the head is red in colour and rugose in character,
looking as through formed of rudimentary feathers, which sprout, but do not
come to perfection. Rhinococcyx is again, as Dr. Sharpe has pointed out (Tr.
Z. S. 1877, 321), closely allied to Dryococcyx, a snbgenns in which the nostril
is a small circular hole, situated in a deep perpendicular groove, which sepa-
rates the lores from the upper mandible; it is known only by one species from
the island of Palawan.

Urococcyx^ recently distinguished by C'apt. Shelley in the Catalogue of
the Cuckoos (pp. 368, 398), was held to have round nostrils not placed in a
groove, but Count v. BeiTepsch (Nov. Zool. 1895, 72) has shown that in the
species found in Borneo the nostril is oval; these forms are very like Rhino-
coccyx curvirostris in coloration, and in Capt. Shelley’s system they come be-
tween Rhinococcyx and Dryococcyx, and consist at present of three species, one, U.
erythroynatkus^ inhabiting Sumatra, the Natnnas and Malacca as far as Tenasserim;
one TJ. bor?ieensis (Bp.', Borneo; while the habitat of the other, U. aeneicauda
(J. and E. Verreanx), was nnknowm until quite recently, when it was found
in Mentawei Id. off the W. coast of Sumatra by Modigliani 'Salvadori, Ann.
Mns. Civ. Gen. 1894, 590).

Sharpe (e 2) remarks on P . calorhynchus \ “to the \Y\\.e Phoenicophaes^ it is allied
by the shape of the nostrils, but differs in its smooth face and feathered lores”.
Lord Walden had already called attention to this supposed affinity fa 13)^ but
it appears to ns that the very different type of coloration places the typical
snbgenns Phoenicophaes ^ which is confined to Ceylon, in a position of much
more remote relationship to Rhamphococcyx, Urococcyx, Rhinococcyx and Bryococcyx,
which form a closely related group of subgenera, or, according to Count
V. BeiTepsch, the well marked sjiecies only of one genus, Phoenicophaes.

These forms, as indeed the whole of the Phoenicophaeinae, are of special

Birds of Celebes: Caculidae.

229

interest in questions concerned with the geographical distribution of animals.
Among birds which appear to be stationary and settled, it is usual to find new
species in localities separated by a narrow reach of sea or other geographical
barrier; among the Phoemcophaeinae these barriers are often the means of sepa-
rating forms which some authorities have distinguished as genera. Thus, Rhampho-
coccyx is confined to Celebes, Rhinococcyx to Java, Bryococcyx to Palawan,
Rhoenicophaes s. str. to Ceylon, Dasylophus to Luzon and Marin duque (Steere),
Lepidogrammus to Luzon, Hyetornis to Jamaica, each of which genera Capt.
Shelley finds to be represented by a single sjDecies; Coua with 12 species is
peculiar to Madagascar.

The subfamily Phoenicophaeinae forms an important link between Celebes
and Asia, no member of it being known from the Moluccas or any other part
of the Australian Region. Owing to their structure and their habits the
Phoenicophaeinae appear less likely than any Celebesian genera yet considered to
have spread their range by flight over wide stretches of sea. The wing is very
short and rounded, the tail very long; the length in the flesh of specimen “a”
(antea) of Phoenicophaes calorhynchus meridionalis was found by Dr. Platen to be
550 mm, the wfing is only 200 mm; Legge shows the wing to be only one-third
the total length in the Ceylon species, P. pyrrhocephalus (B. Ceylon, 256); and
Shelley’s measurements prove that the same condition obtains throughout the
subfamily, the total length being always more than twice, and often more than
three times that of the wing.

It appears that these birds are rarely or never seen on the wing in the
sense of taking long flights — at least this is the case with the Indian and
East Indian forms. Davison remarks of Rhopodytes tristis: “Its flight is weak,
and it relies more for its safety on the dense and impenetrable character of
the places it prefers to frequent. It has a marvellous capacity for making its
way through dense cover” (Str. F. VI, 163); and on the next page he remarks
that the habits of R, sumatranus are similar. Urococcyx ?nicrorhinus in Borneo
was found by Mottle y to conceal itself among the brushwood and when disturbed
to take only very short flights (Oates t. c. 125). Rhinortha chlorophaea, accor-
ding to Davison, resembles Rhopodytes in all its habits (S. F. VI, 166). Legge
speaks of the w^ay in which Zanclostomus in Ceylon makes off, threading its way
quickly through the most tangled underwood, but in places where it is common
it may often be seen flying across roads. Phoenicophaes when flushed in the
jungle flies up to high branches and quickly gets out of danger, taking short
flights from tree to tree. Meyer found that Phoenicophaes in Celebes “does
not fly away even after being shot at; it sits quiet if a bird by its side falls
down; but I always got the impression that it is the fright which rivets it to
the spot^). It flies quickly, or rather glides or slides through the foliage” (a 17).

1) “Once” continues Meyer, in a different connection — “some one told me, at Remboken, on the
shoies of the Tondano lake, that several years before such a bird flew, crying very loudly, over the village,

230

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

This gliding motion through the crowns of the trees is compared by Platen to
the spectacle afforded at sea by a wandering troop of porpoises: “it is not flying
nor hopping, but rather a rhythmical diving and disappearing in and out of the
green, and it is impossible to form any approximate notion of the number of
individuals” (Gefied. Welt 1887, 218). It will readily be imagined how this
gliding mode of travelling is due to the parachute-Hke action of the great tail;
the superior facility for settling afforded by this organ to the common
Magpie (Pica caudata) is obvious^).

From their structure, therefore, these birds appear less capable than usual
of sustained flight, and from observations on their habits it is found that they
do not make use of their wings for this purpose; consequently there seems to
be so much the less reason to suppose that their distribution took place by
flight across the straits which separate their habitats.

As Shelley shows, the sexes of all the Phoenicophaeinae are similar in co-
loration, except, perhaps, in Bhmortha. P. calorhynclms follows the rule, and
the young, as is often the case in genera in which the male and female are
alike, assumes the adult plumage at a very early age. Young birds, according
to Briiggemann, who alone seems to have received specimens, have the tail-
feathers narrower and longer than in the adult, and the head rusty instead of
grey. In this — the form of the tail-feathers — and in having a line of
yellow along the ridge of the under bill they call to mind Bhinococcpx of Java.

Facts concerning the food of the Celebesian form are scanty; Meyer found
that it feeds on insects; probably, however, its food — as its bill suggests —
consists of fruits as well; Legge has found such to comjDOse the chief diet of
Phoenicophaes and Zanclostomus in Ceylon, through insects were discovered in
the stomach as ‘ well, and Davison remarks that Bhinortha chlorophaea feeds
“apparently entirely on insects”, and a similar fare with the addition of small rep-
tiles is ascribed by Oates to Bhopodytes tristis (Oates, B. Brit. Burmah II, 121,122).

SUBFAMILY SCYTHROPINAE.

This subfamily of the Cuckoos contains but a single species, Scythrops
novaehollandiae^ one of the largest Cuckoos, with a body as big as that of a
Crow and a much larger bill and tail. Its plumage is Cuculinc — brown upper
surface, grey head, neck, and breast, and faintly barred under parts; it differs
by its enormous bill, which is furnished on the basal half with a
shallow groove by the side of the culmen and a second groove lower

and that all the inhabitants became frightened as to what might happen”! A distmctive fire which took place
in the village next day was associated by the natives with this nnusual behaviour of the “Foreteller-bird of
the dajdime”.

1) De Bocarme says that Jthinococcyx in Java is in the habit of sitting couched upon foliage supported
by its tail and half oj>en wings, but not grasping any bough with its feet ;S chi eg el, Cucuh 19).

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

231

down above the nostril. The nostril is oval, cartilaginous above, situated
at the base of the maxilla; the wing is long and pointed, longer than the tail,
the 3"'^ quill longest, slightly exceeding the 4*^, the secondaries hardly reaching
more than half the length of the wing. A partial migrant. Probably parasitical.
Feeds on insects, seeds.

GENUS SCYTHROPS Lath.

Descrij)tion as for the subfamily.

74. SCYTHROPS NOVAE HOLLANDIAE Lath.

Channel-bill.

Scythrops novae-hollandiae (1) Lath, Ind. Orn. 1790, I, 141; (II) Temm. , PL Col. 1824,
290; (III) Yieill. & Oiid., G-al. Ois. T, 1825, 27, p. 39; f'JFj Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831,
128 pi. 23, f. 1; (V) Lafresn., Mag. de Zool. 1835, pi. 37 (juv.); (VI) Kiister,
Orn. Atlas 1838, pt. 15, j)!. 4; (6’‘‘^) Sal. Muller, Wieg. Arch. 184G, XII, 116; (VII)
Old., B. Austr. 1848, lY, pi. 90; (8j Wall., Ibis 1860, 147; (.9) id., P. Z. S. 1863,
485; (10) Schl, Mus. P.-B. OucuK 1864, 36; (11) Old., Handb. B, Austr. 1865, I,
628; (XII) Biggies, Orn. Austr. 1866, pt. lY, pL; (13) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YBI,
27, 51; (13'>^^) Bosenl)., Malay. Arch. 1878, 275; (14) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 67; (15)
Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1S80, I, 372, a,nd Agg. 1889, 52; 1891, 220; (16) Finsch, Mtth
Orn. Yer. Wien 1884, YBI, 93; (17) Meyer, Isis 1884, 18; (18) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 549; (19) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1S85, 208, 260; (20) Ramsay, Pr. L. Soc.
N. S. W. 1886, 1094; (21) North, ib. 1887, 410; id., ib. 1888, 1780; (22) Rams.,
Tab. List 1SS8, 15; (23) Cox & Hamil., Pr. L. Soc. N. S. W. 1889, 416; (24) Tristr.,
Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 82; (25) North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889, 248, pi. YII, fig. 3
(36) Shelley, Cat. B. XIX, 1891, 330; ^27^ Baldamus, Leben d. Kuclmcke
1892, 154; Newton, Diet. B. 1893, 84, 125 note; /'XXFJJP‘0 Meyer, Yogel-
skel. pt. XIX, 60, t. CLXXXY (1894); (29) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 241; (30) iid.,
Abh. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 6; (31) Hartert. Nov. Zool. 1896, 159, 243;
(32) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1896, 69.

a. Australian Channel -Bill (I) Lath., Syn. Suppl. 1801, n, 96, pi. 124; (II) id., Gen. Hist.
1822, n, 300, pi. 32.

h. Scythrops australasiae (I) Shaw, Gen. Zool. 1811, YHI, 2, 378, pi. 50.

c. Cuculus praesagus (1) Reinw., MS. fide Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 97; (2) Reinw., Reiz. Ind.

xArchip. in 1821, 1858, 592.

d. Scythrops novae-hollandiae var. praesagus (1) Brugg., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 56.
“Laebukua”, Talaiit (Nat. Coll.).

“ITlaato", Bone, Gorontalo Distr. (Rosenb. 13^*'^).

“Kapureh” near Manado (“Purej” — Nat. Coll.).

“Krok”, JMinahassa (Meyer 14).

“Uriah”, Tjamba Distr., S, Celebes (Platen 19).

“Alo puti”, Bonthain, S. Celebes' (Rib be & Kiihn).

For further synonymy and references see Salvad. 15; Shelley 26.

Figures and descriptions. Latham a 7, a II; Shaw h I; Temminck II; Yieillot III;
Lesson IV; Lafresnaye F; Kiister F7; Gould F77; Diggles XII; Meyer
XXF777^'« (skeleton); SalvadoriI5; W. Blasius 21^ North 25 (egg); Shelley 26.

232

Birds of Celebes: Cuculidae.

Adult, Upper surface (except head and neck) dark drah, the feathers of hack, upper tail-
and wing-coverts broadly teiininated with blackish brown, terminal portion of quills
hlacldsh brown; tail crossed by a broad subferminal band (70 mm wide) of black, the
lateral feathers marked on the inner webs with narrow bars of black, longest on the
outermost pair, but generally not reacliing to the shaft, the interspaces chiefly filled
Avith pale cinnamon, tip of tail white, broadest (ca. 30 mm) on the lateral feathers;
entire head and neck uniform cinereous, a little paler on chin and throat, be-
coming light grey with a pink wash on the breast, on which are very faint traces
of bars; rest of under surface with a Avash of buff, the bars becoming more
distinct, especially on the flanks and under tail - coverts , Avhere they are light drab-
broAvn (nr. Manado, Aug. — Sept. 1892, 0 10868). “Iris cherry-red; skin round eyes
cherry-red; bill Avhity grey, darker at root; feet lead-grey” (Platen 19).

In another specimen, probably older, marked Celebes — Riedel, Ur. 14009, the
bars on the under surface are discernible only on the flanks, thighs and under tail-coverts.

Sexes. They are similar in plumage (Shelley 26). Prof. W. Blasius (19) believes that the
male has “a very considerably longer bill, with the point more strongly curved; a
larger size in general, the colour of the upper surface somewhat darker, the barring
of the under surface scarcely perceptible”. Mr. Hartert draws attention to a female
which is larger than a male specimen (31).

Young. The cinereous of head, neck and breast of adult is chiefly occupied Avith feathers
of pale cinnamon; back, wing-coverts and tail-coverts broadly terminated Avith
pale cinnamon, usually preceded by a subterminal bar of blackish; ends of Avings
pale cinnamon and white; the hroad Avhite tip of tail Avashed Avith the same colour,
the lateral tail-feathers mottled with bars of pale cinnamon and black on the outer
as well as the inner webs; under surface deeper buff colour, the bars of drah-
broAvn very distinct (N. Celebes — Riedel, Ur. 14010). “Iris light broAAUi; skin round
eyes cherry-red; bill Avhity grey, not darker at the base” (Platen 19).

A someAvhat older immature bird differs from the above in that the cin-
namon tips of the feathers are feAver, narroAver, and paler, being almost pure Avhite
on the quills and tail (Celebes, C 3580).

Egg. Dull white, with faint washed-out ihnldsh spots and minute dots, also some of a
yellowish brown tinge. Size 38x27 mm (Uorth 25),

Breeding season in Australia. Uovember (Uorth 25).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

I Bill from
Tarsus nostril
I (straight'

a.

(C 10868) ad. Manado, Aug. — Sep. 92

362

280

45

75

h.

(14009) ad. Celebes

378

293

41

73

c.

(C 11207) Q ad. S. Celebes, 31. March 93 ....

350

281

44

66

d.

(C 3580) juv. Celebes

348

275

41

52.5

e.

(14010) juv. Celebes

315

257

—

45

e'.

(Sarasin Coll.) Q, Kema, Sept. 9 ’

355

277

41

66

f-

(13082) imm. Salibabu Id. 29. X. 93

356

288

—

62

9-

(C 7400) ad. Ceram

354

270

—

71

h.

(C 7401) ad. Ceram . . . ,

342

265

—

69

i.

(C 7403) ad. Ceram

320

253

—

58

J-

(C 7402) ad. Ceram

320

255

—

68

k.

(C 7399) Q ad. Aru

366

276

68

1.

(C 10562) 5 Makisa

345

266

55.5

m

(Mus. Uehrk. Ur. 3821) juv. Australia

313

270

— ■

—

Birds

of Celebes:

Cuculidae.

233

Skeleton.

Length of cranium . . . .

118.0

mm

Length of tarso-nietatarsus

48.0

mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

44.5

»

Length of digitus I . . . .

26,5

»

Length of humerus . . . .

91.0

»

Length of digitus H . . .

38.0

»

Length of ulna . . . . .

89.0

»

Length of digitus HI . . .

52.0

/>

Length of radius

82.0

y>

Length of digitus IV . . .

51.0

■»

Length of manus

88.0

»

Length of sternum . . . .

60.5

»

Length of metacarpus . . .

43,7

»

Greatest breadth of sternum .

51.0

y>

Length of digitus I . . . .

17.0

Height of crista sterni . .

18.5

Length of digitus II ... .

40.5

»

Length of coracoideum . . .

46.5

»

Length of digitus HI

13.0

»

Length of scapula . . . .

60.0

»

Length of femur

64.5

»

Length of clavicula . . . .

47.0

»

Length of tibia

86.4

>>

Length of pelvis . . . . •.

83.5

»

Length of fibula

40.0

» 1

Greatest breadth of pelvis

45.0

»

Distribution. “Universally clistribiited over tlie whole continent of Australia” (North 21, 25]\
Tasmania (North 21); S. E. New Guinea, New Britain, Duke of York, Kei, Am
(Riedel 17), Ceram, Bum, Ohi major, Batchian, Ternate (cf. Salvad. 15); Celebes
— Minahassa (Eorsten 15, Reinw. e 2, Meyer 14, Guillem. 18), Gorontalo (Rosenb.
IS'”®), Macassar (Wallace 26), Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen 1.9); Flores (Allen 9, 15)]
Talaut — Salibabu Id. (Nat. Coll. 29).

This Cuckoo, the Channel-bill of Latham and of Australian ornithologists,
is remarkable at once as being the largest of all the Cuckoos, and for the pe-
culiar structure of its great bill. Prof. Newton (2S) remarks that “its system-
atic position has often been disputed — its large and curiously grooved bill
inducing some to refer it to the Bucerotidae (Horn bills), while its zygodactyle
feet caused others to place it among the Ramphastidae (Toucans)”. Count
Salvadori (15) believes, that it might be made the type of a distinct sub-
family constituted by Bonaparte; this Ave have adopted. The development of
its plumage also affords points of interest; the immature bird presents certain
analogies to the young of other Cuckoos of less aberrant structure, but the
manner in Avhich the cinnamon colour is confined to a single, large, ill-defined
spot at the tip of the feathers of the upper surface seems to be peculiar to it.

Gould remarks that in New South Wales it is migratory, arriving in Oc-
tober and departing again in January (VII, 11). Of late years no one in
Australia ap]3ears to have paid further attention to the subject, except that
Mr. North mentions it as a straggler in Cumberland County, N. S. W., and in
iasmania (21). As Count Salvadori remarks, this migration is probably di-
rected towards the equator, and that the species wanders to New Guinea from
Australia, and during its migration extends its way to the Kei Islands, Moluccas,
Celebes and the islands of the Timor Group. This conclusion does not, how-
ever, appear to be entirely correct, at least as regards the Miirahassa, Celebes,
where, as we are informed by Mr. Cursham, it is present all the year.
Meyer found the bird very common in the Minahassa from January till July,
and was informed that “during the east monsoon, Avhen it is very dry (May till
November), the bird cries much”. It is a breeding species there as well as in

Meyer & Wi gl es worth, Birds of Celebes (Got. 25tli, 1897).

30

234

Birds of Celebes: Ouculidae.

Australia, as is shown by von Eos enb erg’s statement that he once came into
possession of an egg now in the Leyden Museum, which fell from the oviduct of
a specimen killed by one of his hunters (13'"^^), and a native told Meyer that
he had once taken a young Sc^throps, together with a young Crow out of a
'Crow’s nest. The bird is often to he seen along with Crows (14),

The plumage of the species in all localities appears to he very similar and
stable; in dimensions of wing, hill and tail, however, it is an unusually variable
bird. Probably, as Prof W. Blasius remarks, the bill in the male is larger
than in the female.

In Celebes it flies in large flocks, and feeds on fruits, such as the waringui
(14). Gould mentions large insects as its food. Latham says that “in the
croj) and gizzard the seeds of the red gum and peppermint trees have been
found . . . exuviae of beetles also”.

It is probably parasitical, but positive evidence on this point is still wanting.
In Gould’s Handbook an amusing account of the behaviour of a young Scpthrops
is given. Immediately it was put into the aviar)' it showed signs of hunger by
opening its mouth, and had its wants promptly and carefully attended to by a
Laughing Jackass (Dacelo gigas).

ORDER BUCEROTES.

The order contains the single family of the Hornbills, “a very natural and
in some respects an isolated group, placed by Prof. Huxley among his Coccg-
gomorpha4' (Newton), furnished with a bill of large or very large size, supported
internally by a bony cellular structure, usually furnished at the base with a
peculiarly shaped casque, and having a normal foot — three toes in front and
the hallux behind. In size they vary from that of a domestic Pigeon to that
of a Turkey; the plumage is usually of a pie-bald character, the tints being
abruptly located, and the colours displayed are few, chiefly black, white, and
various browns, while blue and red (except on the bare parts of the skin) are
absent; in this they differ from the Toucans. The upper eyelid is provided
with a row of stiff lashes; the wing is of moderate length, 11 primaries, the
outermost one small and often curiously attenuated, the secondaries long; tail
long, consisting of 10 feathers. Food: fruit and seeds, “the bigger species also
capture and devour a large number of snakes, while the smaller are great
destroyers of insects . . . They breed in holes of trees, laying large white eggs,
and when the hen begins to sit the cock plasters up the entrance^) with mud

1) Sometimes before ever the eggs are laid.

Birds of Celebes; Bncerotidae.

235

or clay, leaving only a small window throngh. which she receives the food he
brings her during her voluntary imprisonment” (Newton, D. B. 437).

For anatomical characters see Grant, Cat. B. XVII 1892, 347; Blanford,
Faun. Br. Ind., B. Ill 1895, 140; Gadow, Bronn’s Kl. n. Ord. VI, 4, Av. II,
p. 234 (1893).

FAMILY SUCEBOTIDAE.

Map VII.

The characters as for the order. The family is divided by Elliot and
Grant into two subfamilies, Bucorvinae (or Bucoj'acinae) and Bucerotinae, the
former contains only one genus confined to Africa and distinguishable from all
other Hornbills by its long tarsus, twice as long as the middle toe and claw,
the latter with about 20 genera, belonging to the Indian countries, the East India
Archipelago, and Africa, having a short tarsus about equal to or shorter than
the middle toe and claw.

GENUS RHABDOTORRHINUS M.&¥g.‘)

The small Celebesian Hornbill is somewhat bigger than a crow, the bill
very large, not furnished with a prominent casque, but in the adult the culmen
is drawn up into a high sharpe ridge covering more than the basal
two-thirds of the bill, with three parallel longitudinal ridges on the
side of the maxilla; some transverse ridges occasionally at the base of the lower
mandible; the nostril broad oval, situated at the base of the maxilla between
the two lowest ridges and partially protected by feathers. The genus consists
of a single species, in which the sexes are different, the female being black,
the male having a yellow face and throat (changing to white after death with
time and exposure of the skin).

* 75. RHABDOTORRHINUS EXARATUS (Temm.).

Lesser Celebesian Hornbill.

a. Buceros exarhatus “Reiiiw.” (I) Temm., PI. Ool. 1823, II, 91, pi. 211 (Q); (2) Wagl,
Syst. Av. Buceros 1827, Nr. 15; (3) Less., Man. d’Orn. 1828, II, 107; (4J SchL
Verb. Natimrk. Comm. 1839—44, Aves 23; (5) Beinw., Eeis Ind. Ai-clnp.
in 1821, 1858, 592; (6) Gray, HL. 1870, H, 128.
h. Buceros exarhsetus (1) Blytli, J. A. S. B. 1847, XVI, 997.

c. Buceros exaratus (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1847, H, 400; (2) Blytli, Cat. B. Mns. As. Soc.
1849, 44; (2^'^) Gray, P. Z. 8. 1860, 356 (Moluccas!); (3) SchL, Mus. P.-B. Buceros
1862, 10; (4) Pinsch, New Guinea 1865, 162; (V) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHE,
47, pi. V; (G) Brilgg., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 56; (7) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877,
370; (8) Bosenb., Malay. Arcbip.1878, 274; (9) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 65; (9^^^) Salvad.,

1) qa^d'ditos = striatus, v qiyog — nasus.

30*

236

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 401; (10) W. Bias., Ztsclir. ges. Orn. 1885, 249; (11) Hickson,
Nat. in N. Celebes 1889, 20; (XII) Meyer, Yogelskel. 1892, pt. XYH, 43, pi. CLXIX.

d. Hydrocissa exaratus (1) Bp., Csp. 1850, I, 90; (2) Dubois, Bull. Mus. Belg. 1884, HI, 210.

e. Anorrhinus exaratus (1) Bp., Consp. Yol. Anisocl. 1854, (2) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,' 136.

f. Hydrocissa exarata (I) Elliot, Monogr. Bucerot. 1878, pp. XIX, XXHI, XXYHI, fig.

bead [enarhatus— qtt.), pi. 46, text; (2) Tristr., Oat. Coll. B. 1889, 95; (3) Heine &
Bchnw., Nomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 169; (4) Hartert, Kat. Mns. Senckenb. 1891, 139.

g. Penelopides exaratus (1) Grant, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 376; (2) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 164.

Rhabdotorrhinus exaratus (1) M. & Wg., Abb. Mns. Dresden 1895. Nr. 8, p. 6; (2) iid., ib.

1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (3) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 11.

“Karaka” (Meyer c 5), “Karkar” (Nat. Coll.), native Malay name, Minabassa.

“Karokok”, Alfurons, N. Minabassa (M. c 9).

“Kerek-kerek”, Tondano, Minabassa (M. c .9).

“Hele-hele” (Eosenb. c 8).

“Tolo-tolo", Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen c 10).

•‘Tahutahu”, Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

Figures and descriptions. Teinminck a J; Walden c F; Elliot /■/; Meyer c All (skeleton);
Briiggeinann c 6\ W. Blasius c 79; Grant g 1.

Old male. Sides of head including forehead, superciliary region, ear-coverts,
cheeks, chin and throat pale lemon-yellow (soon fades into white); all other parts
black, on back and wings strongly glossed with green; a Ioav casque on hill, reach-
ing to within 20 mm of the tip, rather sharply ridged along the culmen and furnished
on the sides with 3 additional ridges and furrows (Manado, 0 8119). “Iris red-
brown; orbit citron-yellow” (Platen e 10).

“Iris crimson, eyelashes black, orbit bright crimson; feet black, soles ochreous;
bill i^ale horn-colour, casque dull ferruginous” (Doherty g 2).

Younger male. Like the adult, but the hill much smaller and the casque with its ridges and
furrows imperfectly formed. In the old male and female the upper and lower man-
dibles do not close, except at the basal part and at the tip; in the young bird tlie
edges seem to meet properly all along the bill fPaguatt, Sept., C 8J17).

Adult female. Like the male, but the sides of the head, chin and throat, like the rest of
the plumage, black; size generally a little smaller (Manado, Nr. 7708). “Iris red-
brown; orbit black” (Platen c 10\.

Measurements. Males — wing 218 — 252 mm; tail 180 — 222; rictus 88—102; length in the
flesh 480 — 570; expanse 670 — 800; from tip of wing to tip of tail 150 — 170.

Females — wing 205— 233 mm; tail 176—203; rictus 83 — 98; length in the flesh
450—500; expanse 650 — 760; from tip of wing to tip of tail 140 — 155 I'Blasius and
Platen c 10).

Skeleton (juv.).

Length of cran. fr. sut. nasofr.

40.0

nun

Length of tarso -metatarsus

45.0 mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

38.7

Length of digitus IH . . .

44.0

Length of humerus ....

64.0

»

Length of sternum ....

55.0 ^

Length of ulna

88.0

%

Greatest breadth of sternum .

34.4 >

Length of radius

81.0

Height of crista sterni . . .

10.5

Length of manus

59.0

»

Length of coracoideum . . .

40.0 >

Length of metacarpus . . .

34.5

»

Length of scapula

48.0 >

Length of digitus principalis .

21.0

»

Length of clavicula ....

30.5 »

Length of femur .....

54.5

Length of pelvis

55.0 »

Length of tibia

79.5

»

Greatest breadth of pehus (pub.)

35.0 »

Length of fibnla

28.5

»

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

237

Egg. Von Rosenberg, to whom a rotten egg of this species was brought, describes it as
rough-shelled, dirty white, and of the size of a Pigeon’s egg (c 8).

Nest. Meyer (c 9) was informed that “it makes its nest in hollow-trees or between wood^
and lays two eggs”; but particulars as to Avhether the female is walled in with mud
by the male are wanting.

Distribution. Celebes — Minahassa (Reinwardt ad, Forsten c 5, etc.); Lembeh Id. (Nat.
Coll.); Paguatt, Gulf of Tomini (Meyer c S); Mapane (P. & P. Sarasin 2); Tonkean,
E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.); Macassar (Wallace g 1)\ Tjamba (Platen c 10)\ Tawaya,
W. Celebes (Doherty g 2).

Mr. Elliot (I) adds “Malacca” as a locality of this species with Meyer’s name
as collector, and Dr. Dubois likewise records a specimen, or specimens, in the
Brussels Museum as ha\dng been obtained by Meyer in Malacca. Meyer never did
any collecting in Malacca, and the notice of this locality rests upon mislabelling due
to other hands than his.

The genus Hydrocissa was, as Mr. Elliot says iBucerot. pi. XI, text),
proposed by Bonaparte (d 1) for various species “not nearly related beyond
the fact that they belong to the same family”. Mr. Elliot and Mr. Grant agree
in placing them in three distinct genera, two of which, Anthracoceros and Ano-
rrhinus were made by Reichenbach a little prior to Bonaparte, the first con-
taining his Hydrocissa mo?wceros, pica and violacea (synonyms of A. coronatus) and
malayana^ while Hydrocissa galerita is the type of Anorrhimis^ a genus which
Grant finds to be represented by this species alone. The sixth and last species
of Bonaparte’s Hydrocissa^ H. eocarata of Celebes, is thus alone left in the
genus. By Rule 5 of the Stricklandian Code Elliot would be fully justified
in allowing the generic name Hydrocissa to stand for eocarata^ no type of the
genus having been at first specified by Bonaparte, though monoceros stands first
in the list, were it not that four years later Bonaparte in his Conspectus Volu-
crum Anisodactylorum, p. 2, distinctly signifies monoceros as his type by placing
that species (with its synonym, pica] alone in the genus Hydrocissa and by
relegating exaratus to the genus Anorrkinns Rchb., thus making it unlawful for
any subsequent author to transfer the name Hydrocissa to any other part of the
original genus (see Rules of ZooL Nomencl. 1863 § 5). Grant, therefore, rightly
makes Hydrocissa a synonym of Anthracoceros-, but, as we cannot agree with him
that Buceros exaratus belongs to the Philippine genus, Penelopides, Ave find it
necessary to give it a new generic name, Bhabdotorrhinus.

R. exaratus, the sole species of this genus, has in Elliot’s opinion “no ally
in the family, and is remarkable for its crest-like casque, hardly to be distin-
guished from the maxilla, and is moreover peculiar for the lateral grooves run-
ning its entire length. It ... is jDi'obably the sole survivor of a subgroup of
this family” {(/'/).

Penelopides has a small, smooth, somewhat tubular-looking epithema, and the
basal part of the bill is furnished Avith a thin side-plate on one or both man-
dibles, Avhich is notched or ribbed, as is sometimes the case in the loAver man-

238

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

dible of R. eocaratus. A broad band of rufous occupies more or less of the
middle of the tail in Fenelopides] in Rhahdotorrhinus it is uniform black.

Very little has been recorded of the habits of this species. Meyer (c 9 )
observed: “These birds live in pairs together. Their flight is heavy and slow.
They feed on fruits, such as the waringuin (Urostigma) \ and large flocks are often
to be seen together on high fruit-trees. A common bird, not restricted to the
north-eastern parts of Celebes. [A MS. note says they were rare until May
and then became very plentiful.] I also found it in Paguatt, in the Gulf of
Tomini, in September”. The cousins Sara sin got it at Mapane, N. Central Celebes,
and the native hunters working for the Dresden Museum killed a specimen with
strongly developed ridges and furrows at the base of the lower mandible in East
Celebes; Wallace and Platen obtained it also in the Southern Peninsula, but
it was not sent by Beccari from S E. Celebes nor by Meyer from the Togian
Islands. No Hornbill has been recorded from the Sangi Islands. Observations
on the wanderings of the species in the island are altogether wanting; such is
also the case as regards their breeding habits. As Mr. Oates remarks (B. Brit.
Burmah II, 91) the breeding female of all species of Bucerotidae as far as is
known is walled in by the male with mud, etc., a narrow opening only being
left, through which the male provides his mate with food. A. D. Bartlett
made the surprising discovery on a species in 1869 (P. Z. S. 142; Flower,
ib. 150; Murie, ib. 1874, 420 — 425) that the bird (B. corrugatus) has the habit
of ejecting a sack like a fig, formed of the epithelial lining of its stomach, filled
with undigested fruit. The power of throwing up this sack was supposed by Mr.
Bartlett to be possessed only during the breeding season by the male, which
thus transfers at a lump the whole contents of his stomach to his imprisoned
female; but actual observations in confirmation of this interesting view appear
to be still entirely wanting (cf. Newton, D. B. 437). Mr. Whitehead says
the food is brought by six or seven other birds (Expl. Kini Balu, 50).

Bingham gives (Str. F. VIII, 459 sq.) interesting observations as to the
plastering-up of the female in the nesting cavity by the male before she has
begun to lay. The object of this curious process is regarded as a protective
one, though it is not exactly known against what foes; the natives of Ceylon
attribute it to the bird’s fear of monkeys (Horsf. & Moore, Cat. B. Mus. As.
Soc. 589; Legge, B. Ceylon 274), as does also Mr. Whitehead in Borneo
(Expl. Kini Balu, 1893, 50). In New Guinea and elsewhere, where monkeys
are absent, the male also walls in the female. Bernstein (J. f. O. 1861, 116,
117) ascertained from personal observation that the female of Rhgtidoceros pli-
catus, the only species found east of Celebes, is similarly plastered up by the
male, and is of opinion that Pteromys and the larger species of Sciurus are more
dangerous foes to it than monkeys could be. After sitting for a time, the female
loses nearly all her quills and tail-feathers and becomes incapable of flight, and
Mr. Gammie remarks on Aceros nepalensis (Hodgs.) in Sikkim that she “is

Birds of Celebes; Bucerotidae.

239

said not to leave the nest from the time of her entrance till she comes out
with her young ready for flight, a period of about three months^ (Oates,
Hume’s JSTests & Eggs III, 79).

GENUS CRANORRHINUS Calb. Heine.

The size of an Eagle; bill very large, narrow and decurved, yellow, with
a transversely ribbed plate at its base, a large and high smooth epithema, in shape
somewhat like the crest of a Grecian helmet, covering the basal half of the
culmen and the crown; the nasal aperture round, situated in the crevice formed
at the junction of the casque with the maxilla, and concealed by bristles;
throat, cheeks, and periocular skin naked; first primary more than half the
length of the wing and not greatly attenuated. Sexes dissimilar. The type of
the genus is C. cassidix. Three other species included therein by Elliot and
Grant are aberrant, and a greater uniformity of generic division might be
obtained by restricting this genus to C. cassidix.

4- * 76. CRANORRHINUS OASSIDIX (Tenim.).

Greater Celebesian Hornbill.

a. Buceros cassidix (I) Temm., PL Col. 1823, H, 66, pi. 210(0^); (2) Wagl., Syst. Av.

Biiceros 1827, Nr. 3; (3) Less., Man. d’Orn. 1828, H, 105; fIV) Griff., An. Kingd.
1829, H, 434, pi.; (5) Less., Tr. d’Om. 1831, 253; (VI) Schl. & Miill., Verb.
Natiuirk. Comm. 1839 — 44, Aves, p. 24, pi. 4(9); (7) Gray, Gen. B. 1847, H, 399;
(8) Beinw., Peis Ind. Arcliip. in 1821, 1858, 591; (9) Sclat., Ibis 1859, 113; (10)
Scbb, Mns. P.-B. Buceros 1862, 9; (11) Einscb, Neu Guniea 1865, 162; (12) Wall.,
Mai. Arclup. 1869, I, 364, 429; (12^‘^) Marshall, Scbadelbocker der Vog. (Nied.
Archiv Zool. I) 1872, 33, 41, pi. XI, fig. 10; (13) Brliggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen
1876, Y, 56; (14) Bosenb., Mai. Arcbip. 1878, 273; (15) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s
Beise in Ost-Lid. 1893, PH, 275.

b. Calao (Cassidix) cassidix (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 90.

c. Rhyticeros (Cassidix) cassidix (1) Bj)., Consp. Yol. Anisod. 1854, 3.

Cranorrhinus cassidix (1) Cab. & Hein., Mns. Hein. 1862, lY, 173; (2) AYald., Tr. Z. S.
1872, YPH, 47, fig. 1 — 4; (3) Lenz, J. f. O. 1877, 370; (IV) Elliot, 1878, pp. XT Hi,
XXIX, XXXYI, pi. XYI text; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 65, 146; (6) W, Bias., J.
f. 0. 1883, 136; (7) id., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 254 — 260; (8) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 54; (9) id.. Cruise Marcbesa 1886, II, 188; (10) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887,
219; (11) Hickson, Xat. in X. Celebes 1889, 255; (12) Heine & Bcbw., Xomencl.
Mus. Hein. 1890, 170; (13) Hartert, Kat. Senckenb. Mus. 1891, 140; (14) Grant,
Cat. B. 1892, XYH, 377; (15) M. & Wg. , Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7;
(16) nd., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 11; (XVII) Meyer, Yogelsk. 1894 pi. 190, 192—4.

d. Buceros (Cranorrhinus) cassidix (1) Gray, HL. 1870, H, 129; (2) Dubois, Bull. Mus.

Belg. 1884, PH, 192.

“Alo”, Tondano (Beinw. a J, a 10).

“ Burong-taun” (Year-bird), Minabassa (Meyer 5).

"Uwak” (Meyer 5 and Nat. Coll.), native name, Lotta, Minabassa.

240

Birds of Celebes: Buoerotidae.

“Ngak”, Tonkean, B. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

“Ahlo”, Grorontalo (Bosenb. a 14).

“Pankao”, Tulabello, Grorontalo Distr. (Eosenb. a 14).

“Alo”, Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen 7).

Observation. It is curious, considering the great diversity of language in Celebes, that the
native name for this bird is the same in Tondano, Gorontalo and Tjamba, that is
from the north to the south.

Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I; Griffith a 4; Schlegel & Muller a VI; Elliot
IV; Marshall (skull in section fig.); Walden 2; Lenz 3; W. Blasius 7;
Grant 14; Meyer XVII (skel.).

Adult male. Head, where not covered by the casque, and nape dark chestnut; ear-coverts
and entire neck light golden ochraceous; tail white; rest of plumage black, with
a green gloss on the upper surface (Gorontalo, C 12173). Iris hght brown to red;
feet black, soles of the feet grey; claws black; bill yellow, base brownish, vuth dark
brown bands; chin brownish red; round the eyes deep blue; throat hght blue, Avith
a dark blue patch in the middle. The casque is smooth in hfe; and the Avavy un-
eveness in dried specimens is only in consequence of its shrivelling up after death
(Meyer 5).

Dr. Guillemard (8) AAu-ites: “Iris bright orange; feet black. Length of adult
male about 104 cm; Aveight 5 lb. 3 ozs. Bill orange -yelloAv; the basal plaques dull
red anteriorly; casque dull red; base of throat cobalt-blue, marked Avdth two patches
of black and one of dark blue”.

The colours of the soft parts in a fine adult male in the Sarasin Collection
are indicated as follows: “iris yelloAv-red; skin of cheeks white and Prussian blue;
throat- sack Avhite-blue, across it in the middle a broad Prussian blue band, behind
this on either side a black streak; feet black; bill velloAv horn -red” ■, Kema,
19. Aug. 93: P. &F. S.).

Adult female. Like the adult male but smaller, and AAuth the plumage of the head and neck
black like the body. Casque yelloAv.

It is likely that the ribbed plates at the base of the bill are renewed yearly,
and that the number of ribs increases Avith age. A belief that one rib is added to
the bill-plates each year has given rise to the name by Avhich the bird is knoAvn in
the Minahassa, “Burong-taun” or Year-bu’d (Meyer d, Blasius 7).

Young male. Like the adult female, but Avith the black plumage of the neck varied AAuth
tawny and some of the bases of the black feathers are of this colour; naj)e varied
Avith chestnut feathers; casque as in female, but lower; bill shorter, base furnished
with a thin covering without ribs (Manado, Nr. 8106).

Another specimen is like the last, but has the bill rather larger, and only here
and there a tawny feather in the black neck. Tliis may be a female, as some sprout-
ing feathers in the neck are black, none taAAmy (Lotta, C 12091).

Measurements. Males (3 specimens) — length in the flesh 850 — 920 mm; expanse 1300 —
1400 (Platen 7); (9 specimens) Aving 400 — 470 mm; tail 270 — 328; rictus 175 — 230
(B1 as. 7, Dresden Mus. and Sarasin Coll.).

Females (9 specimens) — length 700 — 830 mm; exjAanse 1000 — 1270 (Platen 7);
wing 354 — 394; tail 234 — 283; rictus 165 — 185 (Bias. 7).

Eggs. IJnknoAvn.

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

241

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

252.0

mm

Length of tarso- metatarsus .

63.0 mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

60.3

Length of digitus I . . . .

52.0

»

Length of humerus ....

123.0

»

Length of digitus II . . .

63.0

»

Length of ulna

188.0

Length of digitus HI . . .

76.0

»

Length of radius

166.0

»

Length of digitus IV . . .

73.0

»

Length of manus

112.0

Length of sternum ....

105.0

»

Length of metacarpus . . .

67.0

Greatest breadth of sternum .

63.5

Length of digitus I . . . .

21.6

Height of crista sterni . . .

25.0

»

Length of digitus H . . .

44.0

»

Length of coracoideum. . .

65.0

Length of digitus HI . . .

20.0

y>

Length of scapula ....

88.0

Length of femur

93.0

Length of clavicula ....

65.0

»

Length of tibia

127.0

Length of pelvis

111.0

»

Length of fibula

100.0

Greatest breadth of jielvis

64.0

»

Nest. Rosenberg (a 14) states that the female is walled-in with mnd into the nesting-cavity
by the male, bnt he does not seem to write from personal observation. Meyer (5)
says that the nest is built on the tops of the highest trees.

A female before us has the quills worn in a remarkable way, as if she had
performed incnbution under the conditions observed in Africa, India, Java etc.
Distribution. Celebes — Minahassa (Reinwardt « J, a S, a 10^ Rorsten aid, etc.); Goron-
talo (Rosenberg a 14, Meyer 5); Lembeh Id. (Nat. Coll.); Togian Islands (Meyer 5)]
Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.); Macassar (Wall, a .9, a 12, 14)] Tjamba, S. Celebes
(Platen 7), Maros and Luwu (Weber a 15).

Cranorrhinus cassidioc of Celebes is the type of the genus originally made
for it and C. cornigatus of Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo by Cab anis & Heine
in 1862. Though C. cornigatus is retained in the genus by Elliot and by
Grant, it is a very different sj)ecies, both as regards coloration and form of
casque. The nearest ally of C. cassidix is C. leucocephalus of Mindanao and the
small island of Camiguin off the north coast of Mindanao, a species differing
chiefly from C. cassidix in having a narrow band of black at the end of the
white tail, the casque laterally corrugated, not smooth, and the ribbed plate on
the side of the bill present only on the mandible. It is interesting to note
that the tail of C. cassidix is sometimes tipped on a few feathers (young
June, Tjamba, C 12174), or spotted near the tip, with black; in one adult
male in the Dresden Museum one of the two middle rectrices has a long streak
of black on its terminal third. Prof. W. Blasius, with his usual exactitude
of observation, remarks that such spots were not present in the nine adult
females from South Celebes examined by him; nor are they to be seen in the
females in the Dresden Museum. A female of Rhgtidoceros plicatus from Ceram
has an outer rectrix on the inner web margined with black of irregular width
throughout its length (C 12175).

In his great work on the Hornbills Mr. Elliot appears to have attached, if
anything, a too great value to the shape of the epithema and not enough to the
coloration of the plumage, for the casque appears to be the most variable
character in the family and has been modified into all sorts of shapes, whereas
the general types of plumage are probably much more stable. The genus

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oot.26Bi, 1807).

31

242

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

most nGcirl^' filliGd. to CvdYiOTThinus is niiqiiGstio]ia.bly HhyticlocsYos ^ tlie mcnibGi's
of which correspond with Cranorrhinus cassidix very closely in general coloration,
much better than do Cranorrhinus corrugatus and waldeni\ indeed the latter are
as much entitled to generic distinction from C. cassidix as are the species of
Rhgtidoceros. Rhgtidoceros occurs both west and east of Celebes, the four species
having the followung distribution: jR. undidatus from Cachar and Pegu dowui
the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo and Java; B. siibniJicoUis with much
the same distribution but not known in Java; B. narcondanii from the small
island of Narcondam in the Bay of Bengal about 170 miles due S. from Cape
Negrais; and B. plicatns (with its subspecies ruficollis) ranging from the Moluccas
over New Guinea to the Solomon Islands (Grant, Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 382 sq.).

It is instructive to see how the conclusions deduced from the geographical
distribution of the members of one family may be partly undone, partly con-
firmed, on considering that of another family. The Bucerotidae, like the Phoeni-
cophaeinae, consist of many narrowly located genera; were the generic distinc-
tions as finely drawn as in the Phoenicophaeinae several more generic names
would have to be bestowed.

Map VII. Distribution of the Hornbills of the East Indies.

os

Nr, of specie!
in genus

Indo-Oliiua

Tenasserim

Malacca

Sumatra

Borneo

.T ava

Philippines

Celebes

Moluccas

1. Buceros

2

t

t

t

f

rldnocef)'os . . .

,

*

•X*

*

sylvestris . . .

•

.

*

2. Dichoceros ....

1

f

t

t

t

3. Hydrocorax . . . .

3

,

t

4. Anthracoceros . . .

5

t

t

t

?

t

1

Sooloo

convexus ....

.

.

*

*

*

malayanus . . .

*

*

montani ....

.

.

Soolou

5. Qymnola&mus . . .

J

Pal a wan

6. Penelopides ....

6

•

t

7. Bhabdotorrhinus . .

1

.

A

f

8. GranorrMnus . . .

4

t

t

J*

r

t

t

cassidix ....

/

■X

leucocephalm . .

.

/

.

.

corrugatus . . .

•

*

*

ivaldeni ....

,

,

,

*

9. Bhyfidoceros . . . • .

4

t

t

t

t

f

t

,

,

t

muhdatus . . .

,

*

*

*

*

*

■7T

subruficoUis . .

*

*

M

•X-

plicatus ....

.

.

,

,

. ^

10. Anorrhinus ....

1

«

t

t

t

r

J 1. Bereftiicornis ....

1

.

t

t

t

t

12. Bhinoplax ....

1

t

t

.t-

?

t

.2

OS

CS

p

0-t

?

I ^

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

243

The range of the Phoe^iicophaeinae ceases at Celebes, and the Celebesian
snbgenns Wiamphococcyx finds its nearest ally in the Javan snbgenns Phinococcyw ;
the Bucerotidae have a species, ranging from the Moluccas to the eastern bounds
of Papuasia, whose nearest ally is found in Java, Borneo, Sumatra and the
Asiatic countries to the west; while the two species of Celebes show affinity to
the Philippine species. On the other hand the Hornbills, like the Coucals,
lend very interesting proof to Wallace’s view of the recent simultaneous separa-
tion of Borneo, Sumatra and Malacca — not Java, Sumatra and Malacca, as
might have been expected from the proximity of these islands. (See map VII).
In view of the fact that three genera are peculiar to this section of the East
Indies, one to Celebes, one to Palawan, two to the other Philippines, and that
most species of the East Indies have a very restricted range, it is puzzling to
find that Bhytidoceros is represented by one species only in all the islands between
Halmahera and the Solomons, and is continued in a closely allied species,
B. suhrujicollis from Borneo to the Indo-Chinese countries; in other words Bkyti-
doceros has only become differentiated into two species between British Burmah
and the confines of Papuasia, while other Bucerotidae have become changed into
eleven genera and 26 species in half the distance.

An easy way of getting over this difficulty — and, as it would appear,
most probably the true way — is on the supposition that, while Bhytidoceros
has extended its range by flight, most of the other East Indian Hornbills have
become located in their several habitats by terrestrial changes, resulting in the
production of barriers of sea over which the birds do not venture to fly. On
examining the wings of the Hornbills a very curious structure of the primary
quills is seen in most species. The first and second are very much attenuated
and so weak that they are obviously of no use in flight: it would be of interest
to know, indeed, whether they are freely extended in flight, or concealed under
the larger quills. All the genera of the East Indian Hornbills are represented
in the Dresden Museum, and w’e find that this modification of the quills is most
pronounced in Anthracoceros, though nearly as well seen in Penelopides and Phab-
dotorrhinus; it is also found to a greater or less extent in Buceros, Dichoceros^
Hydrocorax, Gymnolaemus^ Cranorrhinus^ Rhmoplax. It is not seen in Anorrkinus
and Berenicornis] but in these two genera the wing is shorter and blunter than in
most others, and does not appear adapted for sustained flight; Davison observed
that the flight of Berenicornis — a contrast to other Hornbills — is noiseless
(Str. E. VI, 104). With these two exceptions, the first primary has all the
appearance that it is gradually dwindling away; it is probably an effect of
disuse, combined with wear and tear of some kind^). In Bhytidoceros plicatus
and undidatiis the first primary is strong and not noticeably attenuated and may
be of some service in flight; lo. B. suhrujicollis it is attenuated about as much as

1) As we believe caused by attrition, due to tbe position of the outennost remex underneath the ad-
jacent reniiges in the wing of these clumsy fliers.

31*

244

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

in CvcinovThinus cdssidix. On the whole the wings suggest that Hhytidocevos is
more given to flying than the other genera. The following actual observations on
the flight of the Bucerotidae tend to prove this. Prof. Newton in his “Dictionary
of Birds” (1893, 435) states that Tickell in his manuscript “Birds of India”
(in the library of the Zoological Society of London) “divides the Hornbills of
that country into two genera only, Buceros and Aceros, remarking that the birds
of the former fly by alternately flapping their wings and sailing, Avhile those
of the latter fly by regular flapping only”. Anthracoceros coronatus may be taken
as typical of the former class, as is shown by Legge’s corresponding observa-
tion: “when flying it proceeds with rather quick-flapping of the wings, and then
sails along with them outstretched, its long tail and motionless primaries giving
it a singular aspect ... It usually does not take long flights; when it does the
momentum of its huge bill and heavy neck are such as to cause it on alight-
ing to topple forward before gaining its equilibrium” (B. Ceylon, 1880, 274).
Davison observed the same mode of flight in Dichoceros bicomis (Str. F. VI, 99),
so, also, Bourdillon in the same species (Str. F. IV, 387), in Anthracoceros
conmxus^ here called Hydrocissa alhirostris (t. c. p. 101), and in Ptilolaemus tickelU
(p. 104). Berenicornis flaps regularly, but “keeps in small parties about the
lower trees and undergrowth” (p. 106).

As to Rhinoplaoo vigil, Hartert (J. f. O. 1889, 367, 368) remarks that it is
“a bad flier, even worse than Buceros rhinocerod\ On Cranorrhinus corrugatus in
E. Sumatra Dr. Hagen (T. Ned. Aardrijk. Genootschap 1890, (2) VII, 139) has
published the following observations; it has “like all Hornbills a heavy clumsy
flight, accompanied by a peculiar ringing whizzing noise. After about each
kilometer of the way (they flew daily from the sea-side to their roosting-trees
inland) they rested for some minutes on suitable tall tree-tops. The resting-
places are flxed points, and, if they are not scared, the birds may be expected
with tolerable certainty every evening at the appointed time”. It is thus seen
that at least seven of the eleven genera of the Bucerotidae of the Indian countries
and Great Sunda Islands have poor powers of flight: Anthracoceros, Buceros,
Dichoceros, Ptilolaemus, Berenicornis, Bhinoplax, Cranorrhinus.

The flight of the wide-spread Phytidoceros appears to he in marked contrast
to these.

Davison writes of Phytidoceros suhrujicollis and undulatus: these species “are
remarkably strong on the wing, and morning and evening, where they occur,
numbers may be seen flying far overhead, sometimes at such a height that they
look not bigger than Crows. The strokes of their wings are accompanied by
a peculiar metallic or resonant swish^) which can be heard at an incredible
distance. One is often made awnre of these birds flying far overhead by the

1) Bernstein (J. f. 0. 1861, 114) tries to explain the noisj'^ flight hy the movement of the air in the
large air sacks, an explanation which appears to us very far-fetched; neither does Mr. 0. Grant’s
explanation (0. B. XYII, 347 note) appear satisfactory. In our opinion the sound need not he explained in
any other way than the noise caused hy the flapping of the wing of many other large birds.

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

245

sound of their wings, and on looking up, the birds are seen at such an im-
mense height as to he only just distinguishable” (Str. F. VI, 113).

Our artist, Bruno Geisler, has furnished us with the following valuable
notes on Hhytidoceros: “During my five-years’ travelling and collecting in Ceylon,
Java, and German New Guinea I had the opportunity almost daily of observ-
ing the flight of Hornbills, especially of Rhytidoceros in the last country. Al-
though the bird is not common, its presence is perceived at long distances by
its noisy flight. With powerful strokes they pass over the virgin- forest in the
morning, usually in pairs, to certain fruit-trees, causing thereby a resounding
noise which may be compared to the cutting of half-rotten wood with a big
saw. On my frequent boat-trips to the Huon Gulf (New Guinea), when sailing
not far from the coast, I was able to watch with ease the extended flight of
this bird. Often there were a pair, more rarely a larger number (which then
always flew in single file at intervals of about 3 m) flying onward at a height
of 100 — 200 m above the forest, and in spite of the great distance the beating
of their wings could still be heard. In like manner, wFen on the mountains,
enjo5dng the splendid view of the flat coast-land, I have seen the birds flying
over wide stretches until they vanished in the distance from my keen sight.
On several occasions I had the opportunity of watching the birds come over
the fore-lying hills, and then, describing a great bow from a height of about
500 m, they settled upon the trees on the coast. In settling they swoop down-
wards on outstretched wings with a loud whizzing noise towards the bough in
view, always, how^ever, just before reaching it, they make a curve rising up to
their seat, when the male often gives utterance to a loud ‘go go — gagaga’ — as
if of satisfaction. In the silent virgin-forest the noise of their flight brings to
mind a locomotive-engine in quick motion. That the flight, although it cannot
be called laborious, nevertheless taxes the birds’ energies very much, may be
seen from the circumstance that after a long flight the bird always settles with
open bill and perceptibly out of breath.

After the breeding-season an interesting spectacle is afforded by the assembly
on the common roosting-tree. After sundown all that have been scattered in
the neighbourhood come singly, in pairs, or in groups, some approaching from
a height, some bustling out of the thick forest to the tall, free-standing tree.
Received with all sorts of ejaculations by those already arrived, the suitable
sleeping-places are sought for amid frequent quarrels; and, especially on moon-
light nights, the company rarely ceases its somewhat noisy conversation.”

From the observations of Davison and Geisler the flight of Rhytidoceros
appears to be so superior to that of the other Hornbills in the East Indies that
the wonder is — not that Rhytidoceros ranges from N.W. India to the Solomon
Islands without presenting new forms at every zoo-geographical step like other
Hornbills, but that the ranges of its species are not even wider than is the
case. At all events there is good reason to believe that the anomalous distribu-

246

Birds of Celebes: Bucerotidae.

tion of this Hornbill is a consequence of its fine flying-powers and habit of
flying at great heights.

The habits of the Celebesian Cranorrhims, which is rather nearly allied to
Rhytidoceros, are thus described by Meyer “As one looks down on a forest
from a high point, it appears to swim over the green foliage more majestically
than any other bird of Celebes. Its flight is heavy, slow, and noisy, and audible

from far away. Its cry is very lond, and not immediately to be distinguished

from that of the Black Ape of Celebes^). They are often seen in pairs together.
If the female is shot, the male returns to the spot after having flown away
frightened by the shot; and therefore frequently male and female can he pro-
cured. On a tree they are very active, jumping from branch to branch; they
are fond of fighting and are generally aggressive birds”. Rosenberg (a 14)
once obtained a female owing to this propensity, it being knocked down
stunned by another of its sex. “They feed on forest fruits”. Layard observed
that Anthracoceros coronatus, in order to obtain its food when attached to a
branch, “resorts to an odd expedient — the coveted morsel is seized in its

powerful bill, and the bird throws itself from its perch, twisting and flapping

its wings until the fruit is detached; on this the wings are extended, the des-
cent arrested, and the bird regains its footing”. A tame specimen had the

parrot-like habit of using its bill in regaining its perch (Legge, B. Ceylon 274).
In many Hornbills, especially in old examples, the cutting edges of the bill do

not meet for a considerable space between the tij) and the basal part.

The head of nearly all Bucerotidae plays ethnographically a great role
throughout the East Indian Archipelago, as Mr. Pleyte has recently shown (Rev.
d’Ethn. 1885, 313 and 1886, 464). Wilken (Med. Ned. Zend. gen. 1863, 133)
remarked on the present species in the Minahassa, that a head-hunter, who has
the intention of carrying out his dreadful work, fixes on his head half the head
of a Buceros^ and, after having been successful, he jauntily sticks an entire head
of Buceros on his crown for every human head obtained in his expedition
(cf. also Meyer’s notes in “Negritos” vol. IX Publ. Ethn. Mus. Dresden 1893,
p. 9). The same author tells us that the Macassars and Bugis bury the head
of this bird unter the chief pole of a new house (Bijdr. taal, land en volkenk.
Ned. Ind. 1889, 110).

1) Bernstein (J. f. 0. 1861, 115) says of the Java species that it roars like a vdld beast.

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

247

ORDER CORACIAE.

There is little agreement among systematists as to the value of the Bee-
eaters, Kingfishers, Rollers, Goatsuckers, and Swifts, as orders or families of the
Avian System. We prefer to take the three first groups as families of the Co-
raciae, placing the Goatsuckers and Swifts in a difi“erent order, the Macrochires^
though it is possible that the Rollers (for instance, Eurystomus) may have certain
affinities wdth the latter. In the Coraciae the bill is strong, often very large or
long, the palate desmognathous, the wdng short to moderately long; in the
Macrochires the bill is generally very small, soft, and weak, the gape very deep
and wide, the palate aegithognathous, or schizognathous, the wing very long.

FAMILY MEROPIDAE.

In the Bee-eaters the hill is long, thin, sharp, and slightly decurved; the
foot has three toes in front and one behind, the tarsus is short, not longer than
the hind toe and claw; the tail of moderate length, square, or forked, or with
the two middle rectrices prolonged and with the projecting ends attenuated; the
secondaries and inner primaries with a heart-shaped tip. The colours are very
bright, green being most prevalent, also blue, black, yellow, red, and mixed
hues occur. The birds breed in holes in the ground, laying white eggs; their
food, consisting of Hymenoptera and other insects, is, we believe, generally, if
not always, captured on the wing. The family is found in the temperate and
tropical parts of the Old World.

For anatomical particulars: see Beddard in Dresser’s “Monograph of the
Meropidae”, Introduction; and Sharpe, Cat. B. XVII 1892, 41, etc.

GENUS MEROPS L.

The typical Bee-eaters have the two middle tail-fea,thers of the adult length-
ened and terminally attenuated, the wing is moderately long and pointed, the
first primary very minute, the second the longest. Their powers of flight are
great. Green, or yellow-green, is the most characteristic colour, except in two
or three African species in which carmine-red predominates. Seventeen species,
with a range nearly over the whole of the Old World, are admitted in the
Catalogue of Birds, vol. XVII.

248

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

^ 77. MEROPS ORNATUS Lath.

Australian Bee-Eater.

Plate VIII.

Merops ornatus (1) Latli., Ind. Orn. Suppl. 1801, p. XXXV; (II) Grid., B. Austr. 1840, II,
pi. 16; (3) Jukes, Voy. “Fly” 1847, 157; (IV) Beiclib., Hb. sp. Orn. Meropinae
1852, 68, t. 446, f. 2233—34; (5) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 335, 338; (6) ScbL, Miis.
P.-B. Merops 1863, 4; (7) Grid., HB. B. Austr. 1865, I, 117; (8) Brugg., Abb.
Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 49; (9) Macleay, Pr. L. Soc. X. S. W. 1876, I, 37; (10)
Sbarpe, J. Linn. Soc. Zool. 1879, XIV, 686; (11) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 57, 145; (12)
Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 401; Agg. 1889, 52; Appendice 1891, 222; Meyer,
Verb. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1881, 763, 769; (14) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 135; (15) Meyer,
Isis, Dresden 1884, 6, 19; (16) Sbarpe, Report Voy. “Alert” 1884, 21; (16^‘^)
Pleske, Bull. Ac. Petersb. 1884, 117; (XVII) Dresser, Monogr. Merop. 1884 — 86,
51, pi. XIV; (18) Gluillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 503, 546, 566; (19) Rams., Pr. L. Soc.
X. S. W. 1886, 1097; (20) id., ib. 1887, 166; (21) Xortb, t. c. 441; (22) Rams.,
Tab. List 1888, 3; (23) Cox & Hamib, ib. 1889, 401; Xortb, t. c. 1024; (25)

id., Xests & Eggs Austr. B. 1889, 34; (26) Meyer, Ibis 1890, 413; (27) Buttik.,
Xotes Leyd. Mus. 1891, 210; (28) Sbarpe, Oat. B. XVH, 1892, 74; (29) Meyer,
Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1893, Xr. 3, p. 11; (30) Xewton, Diet. B. 1893, 30; (31) M. &
Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 7; (32) iid., ib. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 11; (33)
Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 570, 586, 595; (34) id., ib. 1897, p. 164.

a. Guepier Thouin ou a longs brins (I) Levaill., Hist. Xat. Griiepiers 1807, 26, pb 4.

“Kerikeri”, near Manado (Xat. Coll, in Mus. Dresd.).

“Tomonsi bowula”, Peling Id. (iid.).

“Tumpiliwarata”, Karkellang, Talaut (iid.).

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvador! 12\ Dresser XVII] Sbarpe 28.

Figures and descriptions. Grould II] Dresser XVII] Levaillant a I] Reicbb. IV]
Wallace 5] Salvador! 12] Meyer 15] Xortb 21 (egg), 25 (egg); Sbarpe 28.

Adult. Head above, neck, mantle, and upj^er wing-coverts yellow-green, passing into
yellow-cbestnut on occiput and nape; and becoming blue-green on tbe scajaulary
region; lower back and rump turquoise-blue; darker on upper tail-coverts;
wings rufous bazel, outer webs of tbe primaries green, tbe primaries and secondaries
broadly tipped with black, tertiaries green, washed with blue; tail black, waslied with
green and blue on tbe exposed webs, tbe shafts of tbe two middle feathers produced
much beyond tbe others, with extremely narrow webs which widen sbgbtly at the tij)
into a sort of spatule; lores, suborbital region and ear-coverts black; below
this a malar stripe of turquoise-blue; chin ocbre-yellow, more chestnut on upper
throat; across loAver throat a broad black band; breast and sides yellow-green,
passing into light blue on tbe under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts and most
of under side of quills pale rufous, becoming more dusky towards the ends of
quills (ad. Tabukan, Gt. Sangi: Meyer — C 2441).

Sexes. Alike in coloration (28).

Young. Differs from tbe adult in wanting tbe black band across tbe throat, in having tbe
general j)l™iage grey-green varied with tips of i^ale blue, instead of yellow-green,
and in having tbe middle tail-feathers without lengthened spatules; bill shorter
(Manado tua, Apr. 93, C 12206; Mantebage, Apr. 93,' 0 12207; Xat. Coll.).

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

249

Observation. A specimen in the Dresden Museum (Nr. 6870) “Moluccas” without a black
]3atch on the throat has, nevertheless, very long spatules 40 — 50 mm. Another, in
which the black throat-bar is very imperfectly formed (0 1855 — Sangi), has spatules
of 45 mm length. In others, which are in adult plumage, the spatules vary much
in length (0 2213 — Manado = 16 mm; 0 2215 — Manado = 33 mm). Specimens
Avith the crown varied with pale blue-tipped feathers amongst the green ones, have
spatules of all lengths (in C 12203 — Mantehage = 8 mm; 0 2220 — Togian $ 1 spat.
= 13 mm, the other 25 mm; 0 2030 — Manado = 20 mm; 0 2218 — Manado =
19 and 21 mm; 0 2221 — Manado = 27 mm; 0 2212 — Manado = 41 mm; 0 1855
— Sangi = 45 and 47 mm; 0 2224 — Manado = 72 mm). In several of these cases
the two middle rectrices have not attained their full growth, and the spatules rest
upon the other rectrices, not reacliing to their tip.

It may be seen that the blue feathers in the croAvn of specimens 2224 (spatule
72 mm), 1855 (spatule 45 mm), 2212 (spatule 41 mm), and others are worn and old,
Avhereas the yellow-green feathers are fresh and perfect, showing that the birds are
assuming a green crown. It might be inferred that these are all immature specimens
in process of assuming the adult dress, and that the length of the spatules varies
greatly in different individuals. After full consideration we find that this view must
be rejected; specimens 1855 and 2224 are among those with the very longest bills
in a large series, being about 5 mm longer than in young specimens, and it is in-
conceivable that such a bird as 2224, with one old spatule 72 mm long and a new
one sprouting, can be a young bird. The primaries — such as are remaining — are
old and very much Avorn, as if the bird had been engaged in incubation in its nesting-
hole in the sand; we take it for a very old female and infer that in the breeding
season the croAvn and under-parts in this sex are strongly Avashed with blue, much
as in the young. Unfortunately, no positive observations on this subject have been,
so far as AA^e are aware, yet made.

Measurements. Wing 106 — 116 nun (Manado, ad. 0 2211; Sangi, ad. 0 2441 and others);
tail, Avithout spatule, 78 mm ca.; bill 26 (juv.) — 31 (ad.).

Eggs, 4 or 5 (Grid. 7). Beautiful pearly white; circa 21.6 X 18.3 mm (Australia — North
25); “23 X 20: The eggs of &X\ Meropidae are spherical, very glossy and Avhite, when
not dirtied by rotting matter in the nest, in Avhich case they often appear clay-yellow,
like the eggs of the Podicipedidad'’ (Nehrkorn MS.).

Nest. “The eggs are deposited and the young reared in holes made in the sandy banks of
rivers or any similar situation in the forest favourable for the purpose. The entrance
is scarcely larger than a mouse-hole, and is continued for a yard in depth, at the
end of which is an excavation of sufficient size for the reception of the four or five
beautiful pinky- white eggs” (Australia — Gould JJ, 7).

Breeding season. In New South Wales October, November, December (North 25).

Distribution. Throughout Austraha as far as known; New Guinea; NeAV Britain; west to
Talaut and Sangi; Celebes and Lombok i).

For exact localities cf. Salvador! 12, adding Karkellang, Talaut (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. and
Tring Mus.); Great Sangi (Fischer 8, Meyer 15); Siao (Nat. Coll.); Peling (iid.);
Samao (f. Biittikofer 27).

Observation. Dr. Sharpe omits Java — as it appears to us Avith good reason. Borneo is
included in its range by Mr. Dresser; but Mr. Everett omits it from his list of
Bornean Birds (J. Str. Br. B. As. Soc. 1889).

J-j As to specimens from Timor, Lombok etc. see below.
Meyev & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 27tli, 1897).

32

250

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

Although there is reason to believe that some few individuals of this Bee-
eater remain throughout the year in some or, perhaps, all of the East India
Islands in which it occurs, it is in the main a migratory bird, visiting Australia
in September, breeding there, and returning northward again in Eebruary.
Dr. E. P. Pam say (19) speaks of it as more nearly approaching truly migratory
species than any other Australian bird, and, though we believe that field obser-
vers will still have a great deal to tell on the subject of migration, it is certain
no form illustrates the phenomenon of coming and going with the seasons in
this region so strikingly as the present conspicuous bird. Gould terms it
strictly migratory, arriving in New South Wales in August and departing north-
ward in March (II). In the Mudgee District, N. S. W., Cox & Hamilton
write (23) that it arrives by September 25*^ or later, commences to nest at once,
and eggs may be taken from November till the end of December; it leaves in
Eebruary, a few remaining till March. AVhen the “Fly” was in the Torres Straits,
Jukes was able to observe the passage of the bird on its journey from xAustralia
to New Guinea, and also its return-journey: “While we were in this neighbour-
hood (near Mount Egmont Island in Torres Straits) about the end of Eebruary,
great flocks of the Bee-eater which is common in Australia (Merops ornatus)
were continually passing to the northward. The white pigeons, also \)Carpo-
phaga luctuosa = bicolor or spilorrhoa\ were going in the same direction in
numerous small flocks . . . The Bee-eaters go as far to the southward as Sydney
during the summer of New South Wales, but we never saw the white pigeons
much to the southward of Torres Strait. In September, 1844, they were coming
thickly from the northward to Endeavour Strait, and they seem to return in
March” (3).

Macleay (9) had a similar opportunity during the cruise of the "Chevert”
in 1875 of watching the flight of M. ornatus across the Torres Straits: “It seems
to commence its annual migration southwards as early as August. Throughout
the early part of September, I observed, or heard, scattered flocks of from
twelve to twenty of them passing the ship at all hours of the day and night,
and making direct for the mainland near Cape York. They flew low, and
with anything but a steady flight. I imagine their migration is a very slow
and painful affair, for it is generally the month of November before they reach
their breeding grounds on the Murrumbidgee”.

Not all individuals make this transit to Australia, however. In German New
Guinea our artist, Bruno Geisler observed (29) that individuals are always
to be found, but, at the beginning of the year only, flocks of 20 to 30 occur.
Sharpe (10) records Lawes’ discovery of its nesting in South-east New Guinea,
where, as in Australia, it lays its eggs in sand; and Mr. North (21)
describes some eggs procured by Parkinson in New Britain, remarking that
they are like Australian ones, but smaller. Dr. Ramsay (ILHI) has also remarked
that “specimens from Port Denison (N. E. Queensland) are somewhat smaller

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

251

than those from New South Wales”; nevertheless North’s subsequently recorded
measurements of Australian specimens (25) do not bear out his former statement:
New Britain 21,6 x 19.5 mm, a set from Buldery (N. S. W.) average ca.
21.6x18.3 mm. Count Salvadori (12) was led by North’s remarks doubt-
fully to refer the New Britain birds to Merops salvadorii Meyer, a species, whose
validity is still to be proved.

Turning to Celebes and the Moluccas, it appears that this Bee-eater occurs
here almost but not quite, entirely in the months when it is absent in
Australia — that is, in the Australian winter. Meyer (11) writes; “M. ornatm
Lath, is only numerous during the east monsoon (April — October). Near Ma-
nado in May, on the Togian Islands in August”. Fischer (16^^^) says: “this Bee-
eater does not occur as a stationary bird, but appears in Ternate in the months
March, April and May”. Nevertheless Count Salvadori (12) was able to re-
cord two specimens killed in Halmahera in December, though the remaining 62
of his series from New Guinea and the Moluccas are dated from March to
September. It would thus appear that a few remain behind in the islands
throughout the year; whether they breed there or not is not known.

Notwithstanding that this species is such a thorough migrant it appears
very possible that it is undergoing differentiation into an eastern and a western
race. Mr. Dresser has the following remarks on its variations: “Specimens
which I have examined vary somewhat in intensity of coloration and especially
as regards the amount of blue in the plumage. A specimen in the Tweed-
dale Collection from Port Albany has the crown, scapulars, and back slightly
tinged Avith turquoise-blue; and one in the British Museum, a female from
Dorey, has the abdomen washed with blue and is labelled Merops caeruleseens ,
[See our remarks, antea^ on the probable breeding plumage of the female.]
Another example in the British Museum, a female from Lombock, is peculiar
in having a tolerably broad band of blue below the black pectoral band . . .
I can endorse Mr. Wallace’s remarks [5] that specimens from the Sula Islands
agree with those from Ternate in having more browm on the head and less blue
on the breast than the Timor and Lombock specimens”. Meyer [15) has since
separated specimens from Sumba as a subspecies, M. ornatus sumbaensis. Twm,
apparently second-year birds, have more blue on the throat beloAv the black
cross-band than any of over 60 other specimens in the Dresden Museum from
Celebes, Sangi, the Moluccas and New Guinea; in two others the amount
of blue is inconsiderable. Hartert (33) enumerates specimens from Sumbawa,
Sumba, and Lombock, some with and some without blue on the throat. This
character consequently seems not to be of a positive nature. There can be little
doubt that the Sumba birds correspond with those from Timor and Lombok,
whose differences struck Mr. Wallace. It would be of much interest to know*
whether specimens from West Australia haA^e more blue beloAA" the black collar
than those of Noav South Wales, or other differences, for if M. ornatus sumbaensis

32*

252

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

be a valid subspecies, there is strong reason to suppose that it will be found
to make its way to Australia by a different route from that of the great body
which crosses Torres Straits in September and February. We suspect that all
the birds of the Lesser Sunda Islands — Bali to Timor — may be identified with
M. ornatus siimbaensis and that they make their way in due season by way of
Timor and Rotti to N.W. Australia across the Timor Sea, which is not without
a few small islands and reefs to serve as resting places.

As in Prionitiirus, the bare shafts of the lengthened middle tail-feathers of
adults are not the result of the wear and tear undergone by these feathers
between the yearly or half-yearly moult of the species. But it is obvious that
the webs of the feathers, and, especially, of the two long central tail-feathers,
must get damaged and worn down considerably in a bird which burrows a sort
of mouse-hole a yard deep in sand; the tail-feathers in particular will be rubbed
and bent about, when the bird turns round in its nesting cavity at the end of
its hole. In two or three specimens before us (C 2224, Nr. 13590, C 12205),
the spatules seem to have suffered from this cause. In adult specimens, however,
the spatules grow out of the shaft perfectly formed; the above men-
tioned specimen, C 2224, with one old spatule of 72 mm is getting a new one,
the bare shaft of which is 30 mm long, while about 10 mm more of bare shaft
at the base is still enclosed in the sheath out of which it is growing (see
Plate VIII). In birds of the year the tail is square and simple, and it appears
that in young specimens of the second year, as in Prmiitimis, the middle tail-
feathers are not greatly longer than the lateral ones, and the projecting part is
usually not bare of web, but simply much narrowed and hollowed out a little
behind the tip. Those with very long bare spatules are without doubt older birds.
The case of the Bee-eaters, like that of Priojiiturus, where we have discussed
the matter more fully, appears to be a remarkable illustration of the inheri-
tance of mutilations, an effect of wear and tear, continually repeated throughout
countless generations, being ultimately reproduced in the offspring, the successive
ontogenetic changes in which betray the gradual result wrought by the attrition
of the sand on its more remote, and less remote, ancestors A

1) It is very possible that the peculiar heart-shaped double tips of the secondaries and of all the pri-
maries (except the longest) owe their formation to the same cause. Has Merops the habit of supporting itself
on its opened wings when it clings to the steep sand-bank in which it commences to digits nest? Mr. Bruno
Greisler, who observed Merops breeding in a river-bank in Java informs us that this is the case. House
and Sand Martins also do so and it is of sj)ecial interest to observe that tlie same curious quill-formation
obtains in them as weU. If our supposition is correct, the pressure on the feathei'S and the oscillation of the
body of the pecking bird will force the ends of the webs apart from the shaft on one or Imth sides of it,
forming a little notch, just as is seen if the tip of a perfect quill be tapped gently with the finger or rubbed
on blotting paper or other rough substance. It is important to observe that the double-tips of the quills in
Merops and other birds are arranged in w^hat Mr. Keeler wmuld term "Successional Taxology”: — in the
inner secondaries the outer web of the feathers has the shorter tip, in the middle of the wing the tips are
about equal, in the outer secondaries and primaries the inner w^eb has the shorter tip; in other words, where
one tip is more exposed to friction than the other, it is shorter; w^here they are equally
exposed, they are equal. Moreover, in the middle of the wdng the secondaries have a very square appear-
ance, as if they had been truncated Iiy some means. We conceive that the wings of Merops are much less

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

253

The present species, like M. apiaster of Europe, deserves its name of Bee-
eater. Gould remarks that its food consists of various insects, chiefly Coleo-
ptera and Neuroptera\ Cox & Hamilton observed that it is very destructive to
bees. The same writers mention that it will plunge into water for a bath.

, 78. MEROPS PHILIPPINUS L.

Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Plate VIII.

a. Le Grand Guepier des Philippines (I) Briss., Orn. 1760, IV, 560, pi. 43; (II) Daubent.,
PI. Enl. YI, pi. 57.

Merops philippinus (1)1^., S. N. 1767, lAVald.; r^jBlyth, J.A.S. 1846, 369; (III) aid.,B. As.
1855, I, pi. 36; (4) ScliL, Mas. P.-B. Merops 1863, 2; (5) Beavan, Ibis 1867, 318;
(6) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 42; (7) Meyer, J. f. 0. 1873, 405; (8) Finsch
& Conrad, Verb. z.-b. Ges. Wien 1873, 2, 8 (sep. copy); (9) Salvad., Oat. Ucc.
Borneo 1874, 89; (10) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 72; (11) Hume, S. F. V,
1877, 18; (12) Hume & Davis., ib. VI, 1878, 67, 498; (13) Ball, ib. VH, 1878,
203; (14) Oripps, t. c. 258; (15) Tweedd., P. Z. S. 1878, 107, 282, 340, 709; (16)
Meyer, Ibis 1879, 57; (17) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 306; (18) Vidal, Str. F. IX,
1880, 49; (19) Bingh., t. c. 152; (20) Butler, t. c. 381; (21) Xicbolson, Ibis 1881,
143; (22) Kelliam, t. c. 378; (23) Eeid, Str. F. X, 1881, 21; (24) Davis., t. c.
1883, 350; (25) A. MvilL, J. f. 0. 1882, 396; (26) Oates, B. Brit. Burraab 1883,
H, 66; (27) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135; (28) Vorderman, Xed. Tdsclm. Xed.
Ind. 1883, 47; (XXIX) Dresser, Monogr. Merop. 1884, pp. XVH, 55, pi. XV;
(30) A. Milll, J. f. O. 1885, 155; (31) Guillem.. P. Z. S. 1885, 503; (32) Hume,
Str' F. XI, 1888, 42; (33) Hartert, J. f. O. 1889, 364; (34) Everett, J. Str. Br.
E. A. S. 1889, 164; (34^*^) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 97; (35) Steere, List B.
and Mamm. Plidipp. 1890, 9; (36) Oates, Hume’s Nests and Eggs 1890, HI, 63;

(37) Hartert, J. f. O. 1891, 296; (37^‘() Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1891, 47;

(38) Sharpe, Cat. B. XWI, 1892, 71; (XXXIX) Meyer, ..Vogelskel pt. XVH,

1892, pL OLXH; (40) Mann, Ibis 1894, 60; (41) Blittik., Z.’Erg. Weber’s Eeise
Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 274; (42 j Oust., Nouv. Arch, du Mus. 1893, 138; (43) Steere,
Bus 1894, 417; (44) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 34; (45)

Vorderm., N. T. Ned. Lid. 1895, LIV, 333; (46) Clarke, Ibis 1895, 474; (47)
Blanford, Faun. Br. Ind., B. HI, 1895, 111; (48) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd.
1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (49) Sharpe, Br. B. 1896, II, 57; (50) lesse. Ibis 1896, 190,
195; (51) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 550, 595.

h. Le Guepier a queue d’azur ou le Guepier Daudin (I) LevailL, N. Hist. Guepiers 1807,
49, pi. 14.

c. Merops javanicus (1) Horst., Tr. L. S. 1821, XHI, 171.

d. Merops daudeni (1) Cuvier; (2) Hume, Str. F. II, 1874, 162; (3) id., HI, 1875, 49.

e. Merops philippinus var. celehensis (1) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, II, 239; 1886, 88,

violently used than is the tail of the Woodpecker, for the rectrices of the latter have "the webs tapering off
to whalebone-like spines, which are used as a powerful prop to the bird during its pecking and excavating
work. At the same time it should be pointed out that a somewhat similar form of quills occurs in some other
birds, such as Carduelis, where a corresponding cause for their formation cannot, perhaps, be supposed.

254

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

"Burong langir” (bird of high flight), Minahassa (Meyer 16).

“Tguru”, Macassar and Tjainha (Platen e 1).

For further synonymy and references see Dresser XXTX] Sharpe 38.

Figures and descriptions. Danhenton all] Levaillant b I] Gronid JJI; Dvesser XXIX\
Meyer XXXIX (skeleton); Legge 17 \ Oates 2d; W. Blasiiis el] Sharpe 38]
Blanford 47.

Adult. Above olive-green, scapulars washed with greyish blue; quills — double-tipped —
green, broadly tipped with blackish (except the innermost ones) washed with greyish
bine on terminal part; rump and upper tail-coverts glaucous blue; tail duller
greenish blue, the two middle rectrices much longer than the others, the projecting
part much narrowed, but never bare of web, extreme ends slightly widened; above
eyes and on forehead at base of bill a streak of turquoise -blue; a submalar
streak of the same coloim; between them inch lores, subocular region and ear-
coverts black; chin ochre-yellow; throat rufous hazel; upper breast yellowish
green, becoming buffy ohve-grey on the sides and abdomen; under tail-coverts very
pale greyish blue; under wing-coverts and quills towards their bases rufous
(§ Macassar, Platen. 25. I. 78, — 0 5367). “Iris blood-red; bill and feet black.”

Sexes. Alike (Sharpe 38, Legge 17).

Young. The two middle tail-feathers very httle longer than the others; all the feathers of
the green parts of the upper surface narrowly margined with greyish or bluish; the
reddish on the throat much less pronounced; the blue supraloral and malar streaks
wanting (Macassar, Oct. 1871, Meyer, C 226J). “Iris dull red, or brownish red”
(Legge).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail with-
out spat.

Bill from
nostril

a. (0 5367) Q ad. Macassar

130

95

—

b. (C 3511) imm. N. Celebes

128

98

32

c. (0 2263) imm. Limbotto, N. Cel

125

99

31

d. (C 3512) inun. H. Celebes

123

95

30

e. (C 3512) imm. Manado

128

90

—

f. (C 2261) juv. Macassar

125

95

27

g. (Schliiter) imm. S. Celebes

130

96

34

h. (Schliiter) imm. S. Celebes

126

91

—

Six specimens from the Philippines

121-131

90-100

29-35.5

C 2264 (f ad. Singapore, Dec

132

94

33

C 4853 unm. Calcutta

124

90

32

C 6152 ad. Kupang, Timor

133

91

36

Skeleton.

Length of cranium (fr. sin. nasofr.) 20.5

mm

Length of fibula ....

. 14.0

mm

Greatest breadth of do.

. 1 7.7

Length of tarso-nietatarsus

. 10.0

Length of humerus .

. 29.7

Length of sternum . . .

. 34.0

Length of ulna

. 37.7

Greatest breadth of do. . .

. 17.6

Length of radius ....

. 35.5

»

Height of crista sterni . .

. 10.0

Length of manus ....

. 30.5

Length of pelvis ....

. 26.0

»

Length of femur ....

. 18.0

»

Greatest breadth of do.

. 18.0

Length of tibia ....

. 28.0

■»

Eggs. Usually 4 or 5 (Hume 36). Spherical, very glossy and white. 23.5 to 24.5 by

20 mm (Nehrkorn MS.). 20.8 — 24.6 X H — 21.6 (Hume 36).

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

255

Nest. “Breeds in holes in banks. The holes are rarely less than 4 feet deep, and I have
knovni them to extend to 7 feet Coften over 7 feet — Bingham XXIX]. In diameter
they vary from 2 — 2|- inches” (Hume 36).

Breeding season. On the Irrawaddy at the end of April (Oates 36)\ Nerbudda Biver, India,
by the April (Huna 5&); Mahaniiddy Biver, India, in May (Blewitt 5^); Lahore,
Punjauh. in June (Marshall 5^); Kaukarit Biver, Tenasserim, in April and May
(Bingham 36).

Distribution. Almost all parts of India (Dresser XXIX] Legge 77); Ceylon (Legge 77);
Andaman Islands (Beavan 5); Nicobar Islands (Blyth 2, Davison d 2); Burmah
(Oates 26)] Tenasserun (Bingham 75, XXIX, etc.)] South China (David 75); Cochin
China (D. & O. 10] Pierre 38)] Malay Peninsula (Cantor 38, Davison 38, etc.)]
Singapore (Kelham 22, etc.)] Sumatra (Baffles 9, Hartert 33, Modigl. 37^^^)]
Java (Horsf. 9, Boie 9, H. 0. Forbes 21, Vorderman 28, etc.)] Bali (Doherty 51)]
Lombok (Yorderman, etc. 9, 45, 51)] Sumbawa (Guillem. 57); Flores (Wall. 38)]
Timor (Wall. 34^^% 38), Biedel in Dresden Mus.); Celebes — Macassar (Meyer 7,
16, Conrad 8, Platen el], Tjamha (Platen el). Pare Pare (P. & F. Sarasin 48),
Maros and Luwm (Weber 41), Limhotto in Gorontalo Distr. (Meyer 16), Minahassa
(v. Musschenhr. & Faber in Dresden Mus.); Borneo (Schwaner, etc. 4, 9, 34)]
Philippine Islands (Cuming 9, Everett 15, 38, Steere etc. 35, 43, 44, 46).

In addition to these locahties Mr. Nicholson (21) records two specimens
captured at sea by AL. H. O. Forbes in the Indian Ocean a long way east of the
Maidive Islands, viz. one, on Nov. 7*^, in 3°26'N. by 17° 48' E. (misprint, appa-
rently, for 77° 48' E.); the other, on Noa^ 9^’’, in 1°24' N., by 76° 43' E.

In his excellent article on this Bee-eater, Ylr. Dresser proves from ample
quotations from the observations of naturalists that it is in the main a migratory
species. The results arrived at may be briefly recapitulated with one or two
additional observations as follows:

Oudh and Kumaon: Hot season (May — Sept.), but not in any numbers (Irby).

N. W. Provinces: Arrive November; scarce, June; all gone July, August (Bingham).

East Bengal: Arrive in February, breed in July and August, after Avhich they dis-
appear (Cripps).

Lower Bengal: Chiefly, or only, during the rainy season (summer), (Blyth).

Chota Nagpur: Hot season (Ball).

Central and East India: Cool season.

Calcutta district: B.ainy season — June to August; never very plentiful (Munn 40).

India, W. Coast (Virgola): numbers in January, by April not one to be seen (Bingham).

Cejdon; Arrives in September, leaves m March — April (Legge).

Pegu; Constant resident, but in the rains comparatively fcAv (Oates). Breeds in thou-
sands on the Irrawaddy in Aj)ril — May (Jerdon).

Tenasserim: Partially migratory; appears after the rains and vanishes by the end of
May following (Bingham).

South China: Summer visitor (David & Oustalet).

Singapore: Arrwes in September; no mention of its occurrence except during the wet
season (Kelham).

Celebes: In the Minahassa jflentiful only in the dry season during the east monsoon
(April— Oct.); rare in the west monsoon (Oct. — April) (Meyer).

256

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

From the Philippine Islands Lord Tweeddale (15), Meyer {16), Dr. Sharpe
(38) and Dr. Steere (35) record dates sufficient to show that it occurs there all
the year round; in all probability, however, its numbers fluctuate with the season.

This species appears to be much rarer in Celebes than M. ornatus. Large
numbers of the latter have been sent to the Dresden Museum in two collections
formed by native hunters in April — May and August — September, but not one
of M. philippinus was. among them; neither does it seem to have been obtained
there by Wallace, Forsten, S. Muller, v. Rosenberg, Fischer, Everett,
or Doherty. The Celebes form was separated in 1885 by W. Blasius as
var. celehensis, on the ground that it differs in wanting a sharp boundary be-
tween the red-brown throat on the remaining underparts, and by having a
darker, much more olive-brown back and head, and the blue colour of the
body much less' developed (el). Four specimens from South Celebes before
us (two of them already discussed 1. c. by Prof. W. Blasius) bear out these
conclusions; but four others from North Celebes do not, but are like ones from
the Philippines and elsewhere, though the North Celebes birds before him were
included under var. celehensis by Blasius, and an adult female from S. W. Celebes
in the Saras in Collection does not seem to differ from a specimen from Luzon.
The validity of the subspecies is not found admissible by Dresser fXXZXj or
by Sharpe (38) \ and, in view of the migratory habits of the species as a whole,
and the evidence of the specimens before us, we think it hardly possible that
the differences pointed out can be of a racial description.

Birds of the year, as already remarked, have the central rectrices but little
longer than the lateral ones; but, as Legge says, after arriving in Ceylon in
September they quickly acquire the adult tail (17). The narrowed feathers
grow out of the sheath perfectly formed from the first, but in this species they
never appear to attain to the same length and bareness often found in M. or-
natus , and, as compared with that species , are in a less advanced state of
development. This may have to do with the circumstance that M. philippinus
makes a larger, though usually much deeper nesting-hole; it is described as
being 2 to 2V2 in. in diameter, or as large as that of a rat, while that of
M. ornatus is said by Gould to be like a mouse-hole. “The egg-chamber”,
says Major Bingham (XXIX.) “is proportionally larger than that of the smaller
species [M. vwidis], and is, unlike theirs, sometimes lined with a little grass, a
few feathers, or the wings of white ants.”

Perhaps its greatest known breeding-quarters are the banks of the Irra-
waddy. We do not know of any record of its nesting in the East Indies,
though it occurs in the Philippines and perhaps in Celebes and elsewhere all
the year round.

M. philippinus preys, according to Jer don on wasps, bees, dragon-flies, bugs,
and even on butterflies (XXIX), which it captures on the wing. All observers
seem to have been struck by its rapid, soaring, flight, whence its name in North
Celebes, “Burong langir” — the bird which flies up very high.

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

257

The nearest ally of M. 'philippinus is perhaps M. ornatus^ which is placed
next to it both by Dresser and by Sharpe. Both are migratory and one may
be broadly said to represent the other according __ as they occur north or south
of the equator, and it is conceivable that their ditferentiation into two forms
may have been influenced by the circumstance that the breeding seasons in
India and Australia are separated by an interval of half a year.

GEMUS MEROPOGON Bp.

This genus has the two middle tail-feathers prolonged and attenuated as
in Merops, but is easily distinguished by its possessing a gorget of broad, lengthy
feathers, and by a very different wing-formula : the first quill is about half the
length of the longest, the second equal to the sixth, the third, fourth and fifth
the longest. It is most nearly allied, apparently, to Npctiornis, which has the
tail square, and a curious groove along the ridge of the culmen. Meropogon
is known only by one species from the Minahassa, North Celebes.

79. MEROPOGON FORSTENI Bp.

Forstens Bee-eater.

Meropogon forsteni (1) Bp., Consj). J850, I, 164 (ex Temm. MS.); (2) Beichb., Hb. spec.
Orn., Merops, 1851, 80; (3) Bp., Consp. Vol. Anisodact. 1854, 8; (4) Wall., Ibis
1860, 142; (5) id., Malay Ar chip. 1869, I, 429; (6) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VUE,
42, 111; (VII) Gld., B. Asia I, pi. 39 (1873); (8) Meyer, J. f. O. 1873, 405;

PEartlaub in Neumayer’s Anleitimg 1875, 475; id. ib. 2“^ed. 1888, 395; (8^^^)
Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YD, 655; (9) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 58; id.,
Yogelskel.pt. 1, 1879, 3, pi. Y; (11) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135; (HU) Dresser,
Monogr. Merop. 1884, 15, pi. lY; (13) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 230; (14) Sharpe,
Cat. B. XYD, 1892, 41, 87; (15) Meyer, Yogelskel. 1892, pt. XYD, 34; (16)
M. & Wg., Abli. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7; (17) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 4.

a. Merops forsteni (1) Schl. , Handl. d. Dierk. 1857, 310; (2) id., Dierent. 1872 p. 53 fig.; (3)

id., Mus. P.-B. Merops 1863, 8; (4) Finsch, Neu Guinea 1867, 160; (5) Meyer,
J. f. O. 1871, 231; (6) v. Mnsschenbr. , N. T. Ned. Ind. 1876, XXXYI, 382; (7)
Rosenb., Malay. Archip. 1878, 272.

b. Pogonomerops forsteni (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1860, H, 132, note.

c. Nyctiornis (Meropogon) forsteni (1) Gray, BDL. 1869, I, 98.

d. Nyctiornis forsteni (1) Brligg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 49.

Figures and descriptions. Gould FZJ; Dresser XJJ; Meyer X, 15 (skeleton); Schl. a 5;
Walden 6\ Brliggemann d 1\ Sharpe 14.

Adult. General colour above, including wings and the two lengthened middle rectrices,
j)arrot-green, becoming dull bluish on the narrowed projecting part of the two middle
rectrices, the ends and shafts of the remiges blackish; the lateral rectrices rufous
cliestnut, the outer webs of the outermost ones and the outer margins of the others
green; forehead, crown, cheeks, chin, throat and chest dark hyacinth-blue, the
gorget-feathers much elongated, broadened, and pendant; remaining parts of head
and neck dull maroon; abdomen, flanks and sides dusky, Avashed with green;

Meyer & AVigleswoi'th, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 27thj 1897). 33

258

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

under tail-coverts liazel margined with green; under wing-coverts silky whitish;
basal part of quills below fawn colour. (Minahassa, v. Musschenbr. Nr. 1973).
cf, “Iris brown; bill black; feet blacldsh grey” (Platen — fide Nehrkorn in lit.).
Sexes. Similar in coloration.

Nest. A burrow in the ground (see below).

Measurements,

a. (1973) ad. Minahassa

h. (2208) ad. “Celebes” (Frank)

c. (C 13896) Q ad. Purukan, 24. lU. 94 (P. & F.

d. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Purukan, 16. ITT. 94 .

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ^ Purukan, 18. ITT. 94 . .

f. (Sarasin Coll.) § ad. Purukan, 16. IV. 95 .

In specimen, 6, the tail is square, but the

Skeleton.

Wing

Tail

(lateral

rect.)

Tarsus

Bill fi'oj
nostril

115

107

11.5

34

114

105

11.5

36

117

108

11

36

117

114

—

37.5

113

109

—

37.5

118

110

—

38

two middle rectrices are wanting^).

Length of cranium . .

. . 69.0 mm

Length of tibia

26.0

mm

Grreatest breadth of cranium . 20.5 »

Length of tarso-metatarsus

11.8

»

Length of humerus . .

. . 31.8 »

Length of sternum ....

34.4

Length of ulna . .

. . 39.5 »

Greatest breadth of sternum .

12.5

»

Length of radius .

. . 36.7

Height of crista sterni . . .

11.0

»

Length of manus . . .

. . 30.3 »

Length of pehfis

24.0

»

Length of femur . .

. . 18.6 »

Greatest breadth of pelvis

18.7

Distribution. Minahassa, Celebes:

Tondano (Fors

ten a 3\ Purukan (P. & F. Sarasin),

near

Purukan and Langowan

(Meyer a 5, .9)

, Mt. Klabat fPlaten 75), Mt.

Masarang

(P. & F. S.j.

This beautiful Bee-eater, one of the chief treasures of the Celebesian Ornis,
was discovered in 1840, by F'orsten, who obtained a single male near Tondano
at an elevation of 2000 ft. Subsequently, it was sought for in vain by Wallace
and von Posenberg, and doubt was felt as to its Celebesian origin, but in
1871 it was rediscovered by Meyer in the rich virgin forest of the high country
near Purukan, and on the way from Langowan to Panghu, places in the neigh-
bourhood of the Tondano lake. The bird appeared to be not rare, but restricted
to certain localities. Since this, specimens have been sent to Europe by Fischer
and van Musschenbroek; while Dr. E. Oustalet, as Mr. H. E. Dresser says,
purchased several examples from a plumassier, by whom they “would have
been cut up for plumes, had not Mr. Oustalet fortunately rescued them from
so sad a fate” CX.II). Dr. Platen (13) describes his encounter with a troop
of twenty or thirty specimens of this rare bird near a swampy pool in the virgin
forest on the S. W. side of Mount Klabat ; they shot past him noiselessly on
motionless extended Avings , to vanish quickly, and return again, Avhen several
fell to his gun. Unfortunately they Avere moulting. One of Platen’s specimens
in the Nehrkorn Museum is dated 13, I. 89; thus Ave knoAV Avhen the species
moults. What is known of Forsten’s Bee-eater tends to prove that it is a
forest-haunting bird of sociable habits, and so far it has been recorded only

1) By a lapsus calami Di’. Shai’pe states that the Meropidae haA"e “ten rectrices” (Cat. B. 41).

The proper number is twelve.

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

259

from a considerable altitude (2000 ft and more) , where the several points of
its discovery are almost within sight of one another.

The Sara sins paid much attention to this species and succeeded in dis-
covering its breeding habits. They write (in lit. 13. July, 1895) : “On 16*^ April
we received nestlings when at Tomohon. The hunter described the nest as
follows: On the earth-embankments round the small crater-lake on Mt. Masa-
rang was a small entrance-hole, which led into a passage of over a meter long,
this opened at the end into a chamber the size of a cooking-pot, filled with
remains of food (ejectamenta), elytra of beetles, insects’ wings, etc. He brought
a great mass thereof back, of which we send yon two glass cylinders full. In
this mass he found 2 young ones ; one must have been dead already for a long
time, for it was full of maggots and yet not turned out of the nest, the other
was alive and bored continually into the mass of ejectamenta, in order to hide
itself. Remains of egg-shells were also in the nest. We had already often
remarked that all examples oi Meropogon had clay and dirt on the crest-feathers;
this manifestly comes from its flying into holes in the ground”.

As to the food of the species, shown by the ejectamenta sent by the Drs.
Sarasin, Dr. Heller found: “The bulk of the insect-remains is formed of

fragments of Hgmenoptera , and indeed these consist principally of the wings,
clypei, single segments of the body and the pollenigerous tarsi of a species of
Apis (probably ivclica F.), also of the wings and clyj)ei of a species of Dielis
(perhaps Lep.). Besides other Hymenoptera -XGmdAn.% not to be deter-

mined at once, remains of beetles are tolerably abundant, for instance^ of
Euchlora (a form almost as big as a Cockchafer), Macronota sp., Glycyphana
regalis Volk, and others”.

Touching the generic characters and nearest affinities of Meropogon^ Lord
Walden remarks (6): “this species has the first primary half the length of
the second, which is a little shorter than the third. The third and fourth are
longest and equal* ).. The fifth is somewhat shorter than the third and fourth
but longer than the second. In the structure of the wing therefore it differs
from both Merops and Melittophagus , but agrees with Nyctiornis^). The grooved
culmen of Nyctiornis is not present; but a shallow channel extends from the
base of the maxilla, on both sides of the culmen, for two-thirds of its length ....
The rectrices are truncated as in Nyctiornis^ but the middle pair are elongated,
as in Merops, and closely resemble in form and proportion those of M. philippinus.
The feet are those of the family, 'I'he elongated pectoral plumes resemble
in character those of Nyctiornis. Altogether M. forsteni may be regarded as a
link uniting Nyctiornis to Merops, but most nearly allied to Nyctiornis^’.

1) It would be more correct to say the third, fourth and fifth about equal aud longest, the first about
half their length, the second equal to the sixth. A feather must have been missing in Walden’s example.

2) In Merops the first primary is abortive, and the second and third more or less nearly' equal and
longest. Lord W a 1 d e n remarks that the MeUttophagus, which most nearly resembles M. forsteni in the
graduation of the quills and the form of the rectrices, the middle pair excepted, is 31. hullochoides Smith.

33*

260

Birds of Celebes: Meropidae.

Comparing the skeleton of Meropogon forsteni with that of Merops philippinus,
Meyer (15) points out that: in M. forsteni the crista sterni does not rise sharply,
there is a fenestra (no incisiira) intermedia, occipital protuberance less strongly
expressed, processus orbitalis posterior more strongly developed, 7 ribs (in
philippinus 6).

In the genus Merops the nearest known ally of Meropogon is probably
Merops breweri of Gaboon, West Africa, between which species and Ngctiornis
athertoni of India as far as Siam and Tenasserim, M. forsteni is placed by
Dresser and by Sharpe; but we cannot agree with Mr. Wallace that M. breweri
is the “only near ally” of Meropogon (5) and Mr. Wallace himself a]3pears to
have abandoned this opinion in his later work “Island Life" (1880, 430). Its
nearer allies are no doubt Ngctiornis athertoni and amictus.

The geographical distribution of East Indian Meropidae affords an interesting-
case almost parallel with that of the Hornbills. East of Celebes, as has been
shown, there occurs only one Hornbill, a species, ranging from the Moluccas
to the Solomons, belonging to a genus of exc emotion ally good ffying-powers, which
has in all probability extended its range by flight. In Celebes and the countries
to the w^est occur numerous genera of Hornbills with weaker wings and, con-
sequently, poor powers or indolent habits of flight; and these genera are of
narrow geographical range. Similarly, among the Meropidae there is found to
the east of Celebes only one Merops^ M. ornatus^ a species belonging to a genus
which, like the wide-spread Hornbill, Rhgtidoceros^ is excellently fitted, by the
form of its quills and habits of flight, to making its way on the wing to new
territories. Many species of Merops are migrants, and M. or?iatifs maizes its way
^ annually from Celebes eastward to Australia. It cannot, therefore, be doubted
that this species extended its range by flight; it is indeed conceivable, as has
been already remarked, that some members of M. philippinus^ visiting the East
India Islands about the equator during the cold season, made their way to the
south, instead of returning north, and so became gradually adapted to a different
breeding season, thus cutting themselves off from all intercourse with the stock
from which they sprang. Meropogon and Ngctiornis correspond with the ill-flying
species of Hornbills, and, like them, extend to Celebes, but no further. Actual
observations on their flight are still rather a desideratum, but their wings are
much blunter and more rounded than that of that genus, and they appear to be
of much quieter habits of flight than Merops. Thus Hodgson writes of N. ather-
toni-. these birds “seek the deepest recesses of the forest, and there, tranquilly
seated on a high tree, watch the casual advent of their prey, and having seized
it return directly to their station. They are of dull staid manners, and never
quit the deepest recesses of the forest” (Dresser, p. 9). Dr. Hagen refers to
Ngctiornis amicta in Sumatra as a bird which “sits quiety and motionlessly on a
bough af)ove us" (T. Ned. Aard. Genoots. 1890, 2. ser., VII, 141). This should be
contrasted for a moment with Dr. Jer don’s account of M. philippinus-. “the flight
of this Bee-eater is very fine and powerful, now dashing onwards with rapid

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae. ^

261

strokes, and a velocity that can beat that of a dragon-fly, having captured which,
it flaps along in more measured time, now and then soaring with outspread
wings”; or with Col. Legge’s: “the Blue-tailed Bee-eater congregates in large
flocks on the wing, dashes to and fro for hours together, ascending to a great
height in pursuit of its prey, and keeping up its not unpleasant notes without
intermission” (Dresser, pp. 59, 60). Other observers write similarly. The genus
Merops is consequently as valueless as Rhytidoceros for questions connected with
geographical distribution; Nyctiornis and Meropogon, on the other hand, may well
be species which by reason of their habits have remained quietly settled in their
peculiar habitats since subsidences of land took place and the sea gradually
worked its channels. Like as was seen to be the case among the ill-flying Horn-
bills, Borneo, Sumatra and Malacca have one species of Nyctiornis, viz. N. amictus^
in common; while Celebes has its own peculiar genus, Meropogon^ a form perhaps
of equal value with the Hornbill, Rhabdotorrhinus. To make the sequence per-
fect, Java and the Philippines should also each harbour a corresponding genus;
it is, of course, still possible that such will be found there.

FAMILY ALCEDINIDAE.

Perhaps the best means of distinguishing a Kingfisher (except from the
Bee-eaters) is furnished by its foot, which is small and feeble with the anterior
toes united for the greater part of their length, only the distal phalanx (circa)
and the claw being free, the inner toe small, in one genus quite abortive, in
others absent. The bill is straight, usually pointed, in a few genera having a
terminal hook to the culmen, often very long, never appreciably shorter than
the large head, the nostrils linear, exposed, more or less covered above with
a membranous operculum, and situated in the side of the maxilla, often over-
reached by the frontal plumage. The wing is generally short and rounded, but
sometimes of a fair length; the tail variable; the legs very short and weak.
Blue is the most characteristic colour, occurring as it does — though not in all
genera or species — in very pure and brilliant tints; rufous, purple, brown,
black, white, and green are also frequent colours, but pure red and especially
pure yellow are very rare. The smallest Kingfishers of the genus Ceya; are
less than a Sj)arrow in size, the largest, Dacelo, as large as a Crow. The family
is cosmopolitan in its distribution.

For some anatomical peculiarities see Blanford, Faun. Br. Ind. B. HI,
1895, 118; Cunningham, P. Z. S. 1870, 280.

The Kingfishers prey upon fish, insects, reptiles, etc. — some genera ex-
clusively on fish. They have the habit of watching for their prey. They nest
in holes, usually in the ground, and lay white eggs.

262

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

The Celebesian area is very rich in Kingfishers, having 7 genera, two of
which, Ceycopsis and Cittura^ are peculiar to it.

GENUS ALCEDO L.

With four toes, the inner one about as long as the hallux; tail very short,
shorter than the bill; hill long, straight, rather slender and narrow, higher than
broad at base across the nostrils; wing short, the 2“^, 3"^' and 4^^ quills longest,
but little shorter, secondaries about % their length. Birds somewhat larger
than a Sparrow, with the rump and much of the back bright blue, the head
barred with blue and black.

Sharpe recognises 10 species, distributed “over the greater part of the
Old World, excepting Australia and Polynesia. Absent in the New World”.
There are three species in Celebes, one probably a migrant.

-f 80. ALOEDO ISPIDA L.

Common Kingfisher.

Alcedo ispida Linn., (I) Naum., Vog. Deutschl. 1826, V, 480, pi. 144; (II) Gld., B. Eur.
1837, n, pi. 61; (III) id., B. Gr. Brit. 1870, U, pi. 10; (IV) Sharpe, Monogr.
Alcedin. 1870, I, pi. I; (V) Fritzscli, Yog. Eur. 1871, pi. XIV, fig. 1 ; (6) Shelley,
B, Egypt 1872, 164; (7) Hume, Str. F. 1873, I, 168; (VIII) Dresser, B. Eur.
1875, Y, 113, pi. 290; (9) Newton’s ed. Yarrells Brit. B. 1881, H, 443; (10) Liehe,
J. 1 O. 1883, 286; (11) Seeb., Hist. Brit. B. 1884, H, 341; (1V<^) Sharpe, Ibis 1886,
166; (12) St. John, Bdis 1889, 157; (12^'^) Seeb,, B. Japan. Emp. 1890, 175; (13)
Sharpe, Ibis 1891, 110; (14) id.. Oat. B. XVH, 1892, 141; (15) Sclat, Ibis 1892,

, 573; (16) Meyer & Helm, -Ib. Orn. Beob. Sachsen YI, 1892, 85; (17) Seeb., Ibis

1893, 51; (18) Newton, Diet. B. 1893, 485; (19) Grant, Ibis 1894, 409; (20)
Bourns & Worces. , B. Menage Exp, 1894, 34.

a. Alcedo bengalensis Gm., (1) ? S. MillL, Eeiz. Lid. Arch. 1858, H, 8; (II) Gld. , B. Asia

1862, I, pi. 53; (III) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin. 1870, 11, pi. 2; (4) Swinh., P. Z. S.
1871, 347; (5) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 92; David & Oust., Ois. Chine
1877, 74; (7) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 64; (8) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, I, 292; (9) Salvad.,
Orn. Paj). 1880, I, 407; (10) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (11) Guillem., P. Z. S.
1885, 504, 547; (12) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 307, 570; (13) Everett, J. Str. Br.
P. A. S. 1889, 158; (14) Sharpe, Ibis 1890, 18, 283; (15) Whitehd. , t. c. 45;
(15bis) Oates, Hume’s Nests & Eggs 1890, HI, 1; (16) Styan, Ibis 1891, 325, 483;
(17) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1891, 47; (18) De La Touche, Ibis 1892, 479;
(19) Hose, ib. 1893, 408; (20) Munn, ib. 1894, 56; (21) Everett, ib. 1895, 30.

b. Alcedo ispida bengalensis (1) Taez., Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1891, I, 194; (2) Hartert,

Nov. Zool. 1894, 480; (3) id., ib. 1896, 550, 571 ; (4) id., ib. 1897, p. 160.

For synonyms and references see Sharpe 14.

Figures and descriptions. Naumann J; Gould /J, III, a II] Sharpe IV, 14; Fritzsch F;

Hume 7; Dresser VIII; Legge a 8; Salvad. a 9.

Adult, General colour above greenish blue, greener on the mantle, each feather on head
above and hind neck crossed with a suhterminal bar of pale blue, wing-coverts tipped

Birds of Colebes: Alcedinidae.

263

with the same colour; a line clown middle of back, rump turquoise-blue, becom-
ing more cerulean on the uj)per tail-coverts; tail duller blue; malar stripe
continued to shoulder, greenish blue Avashed wdth brighter blue; ear-coverts cinna-
mon-rufous, paler on sides of neck; chin and throat white, Avashed with buff, rest
of under surface cinnamon-rufous, darkest on the breast (Manado, Celebes, March
1871 — Nr. 6288).

Adult female. Similar to the male, but rather duller and greener, and distinguished by having
the basal half of the loAver mandible red (Sharpe 14).

Young. Similar to the adults, but much more dingy in colour, and ahvays recognisable by
the ashy colour which overspreads the fore neck and breast, all the feathers being
edged Avith dull ashy (Sharpe 14).

Measurements. (Nr. 6288) ad. Manado, Celebes, wing 70, tail 31, bill from nostril 32, tarsus
9 mm.

Eggs. 5 to 7; rouncbsh oval, pure Avhite (unbloAAm pinkish], very smooth and glossy; 19 — 22
X16.5 — 18.3 mm (Dresser VI1I\ Hume a 15^^^).

Nest. Digs a hole in a bank, usually OA^erhanging Avater, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, arid
D/2 fo 3'/2 feet deep, a nest of ejected fish-bones gradually formed at the end
(Dresser, etc.).

Breeding season. In Europe commences in April (Dresser VIII) \ in India, .lanuary or
March to June, varying according to locahty (Hume a Calcutta district, July

and August (Munn 20).

Distribution. Nearly the Avhole of Europe as far as about 60° N. ; North Africa (in part only
in winter); across Northern Asia as far as the Japanese Islands, throughout China,
the Burmese countries and the Indian Peninsida (Meyer & Helm 76‘; Sharpe 14)',
Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Java, the Phihppines (Salvad. a 9, B. & AV. 20, Everett
19, a 21)', Talautls. — Karkellang (Nat. Coll.,; Great Sangi (Hoedt, Platen a 12)',
Siao (Hoedt a 12); North Celebes — Manado (Meyer a 7), Kema (Guillemard a 11)',
Halmahera; Ternate; Timor (Salvad. a 9).

The Common Kingfisher has rufous ear-coverts, thus distinguishing itself^
from the closely allied A. moluccana, in which the ear-coverts are blue like the
cheeks and sides of the head. In Flores, Dr. Sharpe (14) finds the Common
Kingfisher has a little blue before and behind the eye, and separates it as a
subspecies, jioresiana. Hartert says the two forms intergrade.

In uniting in one species, A. ispida, the 395 specimens of this form in the
British Museum from all parts of Europe, Asia and the East Indies, Dr. Sharpe
(14) has done a stroke of work for Avhich ornithologists, troubled to know
under what name to speak of specimens from this or that locality, Avill be grate-
ful. There is now perhaps too strong a tendency to regard A. ispida as consist-
ing of tAA"o races, a larger and typical western, and a smaller eastern (A. ben-
palensis) subspecies; for differences probably exist between specimens from se-
veral different localities. Thus, Dr. Sharpe separates the Flores bird (jioresiana),
Mr. Hume that of Sindh (sindiana), Keichenbach that of the Sunda Islands
(var. sowrfmea), Seebohm that of Japan, China and South Siberia (bengalensis).
The Kingfisher is the more puzzling in not being a thorough-going migrant; in
the West it is known to visit Corsica, Malta and North Africa in winter; in the
East it is a summer migrant in the northern Japanese Islands, a resident in the

264

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

southern ones (Seebohm 12^% a resident about the Lower Yangtse (Styan a 16\
apparently so in Ceylon {a8)\ but, according to Mr. Whitehead it is a winter
migrant to Borneo and Palawan, arriving in Palawan on its way south about
the middle of September (a 14, a 15), and such we believe it will he found
to be in the Sangi Islands and in Celebes, where specimens have been recorded
only by Meyer (March) and Guillemard. The time is not yet ripe for
splitting up A. ispida into subspecies, even if it is ever desirable to do so.

-f 81. ALCEDO MOLUOOANA (Less.).

Blue-eared Kingfisher.

a, Alcedo ispida var. moluecana (1) Lesson, Yoy. Coquille I, pt. 1, p. 343 (1826?).
h. Alcedo ispida var. (1) Lesson, Man. d’Orn. 1828, II, 89.

c. ?Alcedo bengalensis (1) S. Miill., Yerh. Katuurk. Comm. 1839 — 43, 87, 110; id., Peize Incl.

Arch. 1858, II, 8.

d. Alcedo ispidioides (1) Less., Conipl. Buff. 1837, IX, 345; (2) Salvad. , Ann. Mus. Civ.

Gen. 1875, YH, 652; (3) id., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 408; Agg. 1889, 53; (4) W. Bias.,
P. Z. S. 1882, 703; (5) id. & Xehrk., Yerh. z.-h. Ges. Wien 1882', 418; (6) W. Bias.,
J. f. 0. 1883, 136, Xr. 36; (VII) Meyer, Yogelskel. pt. YII, 1884, p. 45, pi. LXHI;
(8)'W. Bias., Ztschi’. ges. Orn. 1886, 92; (9) Grant, P. Z. S. 1888, 192; (10)
Sharpe, Oat. B. XYH, 1892, 152; (11) Meyer, J. f. 0. 1892, 258; (12) M. & Wg.,
Ahh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Xr. 8, p. 7; (13) iid., ib. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 11; (14) Hartert,
Xov. Zool. 1896, 175, 244.

e. Alcedo moluccensis (1) Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1846, XY, 11; (II) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin.

1870, 21, pi. 4; (3) Wald,, Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIII, 45; (4) Brilgg., Ahh. Yer. Bremen
1876, Y, 55; (5) Posenh., Malay. Archip. 1878, 271; (6) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 64;
(7) E. L. C. Layard, ih. 1880, 299; (8) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 547, 566; (9)
Tristr. , Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 90; (10) Cab. &Pchw., Xomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 163.

f. Alcedo minor moluccensis (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Alcedin. 1863, 8; (II) id.. Yog. Xed. Lid.

Alcedin. 1864, 5, 44, pi. 1, fig. 4, 5; (3) id., Pev. Alcedin. 1874, 3.

g. Alcedo ispida ispidioides (1) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 571.

h. Alcedo ispida moluecana (1) Hartert, Xov. Zool. 1897, 160, 163.

“Kikis wowolean” (Kingfisher which fives on the river-side), iVLnahassa, Meyer e 6.

“Radja oudang biru” or “Pasa biru”, Minahassa, Xat. Coll, in Mus. Dresd.

“Sunti”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, iid.

“Singtobu”, Peling, iid.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe d 10.

Figures and descriptions, Sharpe e II, d 10] Schlegel f II] Meyer d FJ7 (skeleton); Sal-
vador! d 3] W. Blasius d 4, d 8.

Adult. Similar to Alcedo ispida, but with the ear-coverts blue, like the cheeks, not cinnamon-
rufous; the blue of the upper surface purer, not greenish blue (more campamda-blue
instead of turquoise-hlue or fight cerulean), (Banka Id., X. Celebes, 15. Y. 93, C 12258).
Iris hroAvn; tarsus bright red; hill black in the mal^.

Female. The females have the base of the lower mandible orange (Guillem, e 8).

Young. Upper surface blacker, the blue bars on the head being narrower, and the scapulars
blackish; the blue of the hack, rump and upper tail-coverts paler; basal part of man-
dible pale (X. Celebes, C 3615). “The young bird differs. from the adult in having

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

265

the foreneck and chest obscured by dusky margins to the feathers; the scapulars are
blackish slightly washed with blue” (Sharpe 10). A young male (Dresden Mus.
Nr. 6280) is without rufous on the lores, like a specimen (?$) from Ceram.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostr.

Tarsus

a. (C 12258) ad. [(;y^] Banka, Celebes J5. V. 93 . . .

73

31

31

9.5

h. (C 2316) 2 Manado, Feb. 71

73

31

32.5

9.5

c. (C 3615) [(5'] juv. N. Celebes

74

34

31.5

9

d. (Nr. 6284) Q Gorontalo, July 1871

72

31

35.5

9.5

e. (Nr. 6279) — Manado, Mch. 1871

73

33

31

9.5

f. (Nr. 6282) [(J'J ad. Manado, Mch. 1871

72

31

34.5

9

g. (Nr. 6281) juv. Manado, Mch. 1871

76

32

28

—

li. (Nr. 6280) cf juv. Gorontalo, July 1871

66

28

21

8.5

i. (Nr. 6278) [Q] ad. Gt. Sangi

74

32

33

9.5

j. (C 12614) [cfj ad. Siao, 2. VD. 93

75

31

32.5

9.5

k. (Nr. 6283) Q Watubella

75

31

29.5

9.5

m. (C 7379) [Q ?] Ceram

74

31

32.5

9

n. (C 9956) ad. cf New Britain, 25. Y. 86 . . . . .

74

32

32

9

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

61.5 mm

Length of tibia

24.5 mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

17.5

»

Length of tarso-metatarsus . .

9.0 »

Length of humerus ....

25.0

Length of sternum ....

24.5

Length of ulna

31.0

»

Greatest breadth of sternum .

18.0 »

Length of radius

29.0

»

Height of crista sterni . . .

7.0 »

Length of manus

23.0

Length of pelvis

22.5 »

Length of femur

16.7

»

Greatest breadth of pelvis . .

17.0 »

Distribution. Great Sangi (Meyer, Dresden Mus.); Siao (Nat. Coll.); Lemheh and Banka
Is., off N. Celebes (Nat. Coll., Dresden Mus.); Celebes: — Minahassa (Wall, d 10,
Meyer e 6, Guillem, e 8, etc.), Gorontalo (Forsten/i, Bosenb. f 3), South Celebes
(Doherty hi), East Celebes (Nat. Coll.), Peling (Nat. Coll.), Sula Islands (Hoedt
f 3) — Sula Besi (Bernstein f 3), Djampea and Kalao (Everett d 14)\ Burn,
Amblau, Amboina, Banda, Ceram, Goram, WatubeUa, Obi, Hahnahera, Batchian;
Mysol, Salawatti, New Guinea — East Cape, New Britain, Duke of York Id., New
Ireland, Solomon Islands (cf. Salvad. d 3)-, Eergusson Id. (Meek d 14).

As Dr. Sharpe remarks (e II) this bird seems to be the representative
species of Alcedo ispida in the Moluccas. It will probably be found to be
stationary, and A. ispida a migrant. II a r ter t says it is connected with a form
of A. ispida by intermediate forms.

Very little is known of the habits of A. moluccana^ but they appear to be
the same as those of the common Kingfisher. Mr. Wallace (e II) says it
frequents the banks of streams and eats small fish; Meyer (e 6) found it in
Celebes at all times and everywhere near the sea-shore and rivers; Mr. E. L. C.
Layard (el) found it only on the sea-shore in New Britain. The Common
Kingfisher of Europe is often to be met with on the sea-shore, where it feeds
largely on shrimps and prawns (e II).

Meyer & Wi glesvvortli, Birds of Celebes (Got. 2Stli, 1897).

34

266

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

:^82. ALCEDO MENINTING Horsf.

Malayan Kingfisher.

Alcedo meninting (1) Horsf., Tr. L. 8. 1821, XIH, 172; (II) Temm., PL Col. 1823, Hr. 239,
fig. 2; (III) Peicfib. , Hb. sp. Orn. Alceclin. 1851, 4, pi. 394, fig. 3050 — 51; (4)
8 chi., Mus. P.-B. Alceclin. 1863, 9; (V) id., Vog. Ned. Ind. Alcediu. 1864, 6, 44,
pi. 3, fig. 2, 3; (5^'^) id., Bevue Alcedin. 1874, 5; (6) 8alvacL, Oat. IJcc. Borneo
1871, 93; (7) id., Ann. Mus. Civ. G-en. 1875, VH, 652; (8) 8harpe, P. Z. 8. 1879>
329; (9) Yorderman, Nat. Tdschr. Ned. Ind. 1882, XLI, 185; (10) Oates, 8tr.
F. 1882, X, 188; (11) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 115; (12) id., Ztsclir. ges. Orn. 1886,
94; (13) id., Ornis 1888, 307; (14) Yorderman, N. T. Ned. Ind. 1891, L, 434;
(15) id.. Notes Leyd. Mus. 1891, 124; *(75; Hartert, Ornis 1891, 121; (17) 8harpe,
Ibis 1894, 246, 258; (18) Everett, Ibis 1895, 30; (19) Yorderm., N. T. Ned. Ind.
1895, LIY, 334; (19^'^) Blanf., Faun. Br. Ind. B. IH, 1895, 125; (20) Kuschel,
Orn. Mb. 1895, 156; (21) M. &Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (22) iid.,
ib. Nr. 2, p. 11; (23) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 550.

a. Alcedo asiatica (I) 8ws., Zool. Illustr. 1821, I, pi. 50; (II) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin.

1870, 25, pi. 5; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 45; (4) Brugg., Abb. Yer. Bremen
1876, Y, 55; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 64; (6) Oates, B. Brit. Burmab 1883, II, 73;
(7) Gruillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 255; (8) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 159; (9)

Wbitebead, Ibis 1890, 45; (10) Oates ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs 1890, HI, 6.

“Sunti”, E. Celebes, Tonkean, Nat. Coll.

“Tengkesi mosoni”, Pehng, iid.

The following authors more especially discuss local variations of this species:

On the typical Alcedo meninting.

b. A. meninting (1) Hume, Str. F. 1878, YT, 83, 84; (2) Sharpe, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 157.

On Alcedo meninting rufigastra (AVald.).

c. Alcedo meninting (1) Beavan, Ibis 1867, 319 (Andamans).

d. Alcedo rufigastra (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1873, XH, 487 (Andamans); (2) id..

Ibis 1874, 136 (Andamans).

e. Alcedo asiatica (1) Hume, Str. F. II, 1874, 174, 494.

f. Alcedo beavani (1) Hume, Str. F. lY, 1876, 287, 383 (Andamans); (2) Sharpe, Cat. B.

XYH, 1892, 160 (Andamans).

On Alcedo meninting rufigastra (Wald.),
or a hardly distinguishable continental form, Alcedo meninting beavani (Wald.).

c). Alcedo beavani (1) Wald., Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1874, XIY, 158 (the name has special
reference to Beavan’s specimen from Maunbhoom); (2) id.. Ibis 1875, 461 (Burmah);
(3) Hume, Str. F. YI, 1878, 84, 499 (Tenasserim); (4) id., ib. YHI, 1879, 468, note
(Sikhim); (5) id., ib. IX, 1880, 247 (Cachar); (6) id., ib. X, 1882, 188 (Pegu); (7)
Sharpe, Cat. B. X’\HI, 1892, 160 (India to Cochin China; Celebes i); (8) Gurney,
P. Z. S. 1895, 339 (Ceylon); (9) Blanf., Faun. Br. Ind. B. IH, 1895, 124.

1) Other writers have hitherto identified specimens from Celebes simply as A. meninting. Dr. Sharj>e
accepts their determination and includes Celebes as a locality of the typical form, treated by him as a species
for itself. The specimens from Celebes personally examined by him in the British Museum are, however,
referred to A. heavanil

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

267

For further synonyms and references to the species see Sharpe h 2, g 7.

Figures and descriptions. Sharpe a II, h 2, f 2, g 7\ Temminck JJ; Swainson a I\
Eeichh. IZI; Schlegel V, 4; Walden d 1] Hume b 1, el, f 1, g 3.

Adult male. Like A. moliiccana, but smaller; feet smaller and more delicate, inner toe more
reduced, claw of inner toe slightly overreaching the base of the terminal joint (claw
not counted as such) of middle toe, whereas in 'moliiccana it reaches to the middle
of it; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts cobalt; the blue of the other parts of upper
surface more violet-blue ; under surface chesnut cinnamon-rufous (Banggai Id. Y. — Ym.
95, 0 14728).

Adult female. In some parts of its range — probably in all parts — the under bill of the
female is red or rufous.

“ The adult female does not differ from the male as is usually asserted ; but the
blue cheeks and ear-coverts are not assumed so quickly as in the male. Traces of
ferruginous are visible in these parts until the bird is aged” (Oates a 6, Pegu).

Young. “The young bird differs in having cheeks and ear-coverts ferruginous: in males the blue
on these parts is quickly assumed, in females very slowly and some trace of ferrugi-
nous in these latter is generally present” (Grorontalo, Riedel — 0 11097).

“Young birds able to fly have the bill black with the tip white; the legs pale
red and the iris dark brown. One young bird, probably a male, has the whole plumage
just as bright as the adult male, and the cheeks and ear-coverts blue” (Oates 10).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Exp.

Culmen

Tarsus

a. (W. Bias. 12) [rf] Grorontalo '. .

65

28

36

b. (W. Bias. 12) [§] Gorontalo

65

29

39

c. (Petersb. Mus.) [(^ juv.] Gorontalo

61

27

—

8.5

d. (C 11097) [9 juv.] Gorontalo

60

20

24

8.5

e. (C 14728) ad. Banggai, Y. — YHI. 95 (Hat. Coll.) .

64

26

39

8.5

f. fC 14593) ad. Peling, Y. — YIH. 95 (iid.)

61

26

37

7.5

g. (C 14441) ad. Tonkean, E. Cel., Y. — YHI. 95 (iid.) .

64

28

38

8.5

/^. (Sarasin Coll.) § Macassai*, 15. XH. 94 ... .

62

24

36

8.5

Egg3. 4 to 6; very glossy and round, white; average size 19.5 X 17*5 (Pegu — Oates
a 6, a 10] ; glossy white; rather rounded, 20 X ^6.5 mm (Labuan — Low 8). 21 X 17mm
(Nehrkorn MS.).

Nest. A nest of this species described by Mr. Oates was in the steep bank of a ravine in
thick forest. G-allery about one and a half feet long, terminating in a small chamber.
Eggs laid on the bare soil (a 10).

Breeding season. Pegu, July (Oates a 6).

Distribution of the species. Southern and Central India to the Eastern Himalayas (Sharpe
g 7, Beavan g 1, Hume g 4, g 5, etc.); Burmah (Oates a 6, g 6)‘, Tenasserim (Da-
vison g 5); Andaman Islands (Beavan cl, E. Gr. W. Eamsay dl, el, Davison
el, g 7]\ Cochin China (Brit. Mus, g 7); Malay Peninsula (Wall, a II, Davison h 2)\
Salanga (A. Mlill. 12)\ Penang (Cantor 6, Wall, b 2)\ Singapore (Davison g 7, etc.);
Sumatra (Eaffl. 6, Wall, b 2, etc.); Banka (Bossche 4)\ Billiton (Yorderman
14, 15)] Borneo (S. Miill. etc. 6, a 8); Palawan (Whitehead a 9, Platen 13)] Balabac ^
(Everett 18)] Sooloo Islands (Gruillem. a 7, Everett 17)] Celebes: — Grorontalo
(Eiedel 12, Eosenb. 5**'), Togian Islands (Meyer a 6), Tonkean, E. Celebes (Hat.
Coll,), Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari 7), Macassar (Wallace all, 6, g 7, P. & E.
Sarasin), Peling and Banggai (Hat. Coll.); Java (Horsf. 1, etc.); Lombok (Wall.
all, b 2, Yorderman 19).

34*

268

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae,

This species varies considerably for a Kingfisher in different parts of its
range and is split up by Dr. R. B. Sharpe into two species, viz. A. heavani
Wald., of the Andaman Islands, India and Burmah as far as Bankasoon (South
Tenasserim) and Cochin China, occurring again in Celebes; A. meninting Horsf.
ranging from Bankasoon down the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, Java
and Lombok. Mr. Blanford g 9) follows Dr. Sharpe

These two supposed species intergrade, as far as we can make out, between
Burmah and Malacca, and either a system of subspecies should, if possible, have
been created, or, as in the case of A. ispida, the badly understood local races
might have been embraced' under one name. The forms, which Dr. Sharpe
brings together under the name beamni^ Mr. Hume would unite as one with
meninting or separate into two or three; of the South Indian birds he
writes: “it must be understood clearly that this is not heavani [of the Andamans\
but a form lying on the other side of asiaticu’' (Str. F. IV, 383), and later
again: “I believe this ought to be separated as a distinct species” (Str. F. X.
1883, 352 note). Specimens from the Andaman Islands run to another ex-
treme of coloration, but in Pegu and Tenasserim an intermediate form of A.
meninting occurs which “is very close to, and runs into” the typical A. heavani
(g 3, g 0). Dr. Sharpe finds that the Indian variation repeats itself in Celebes;
the fact is curious, but few specimens have been obtained in the island and
more material may possibly serve to show that it differs. Three specimens from
Borneo and one from Java in the Dresden Aluseum are more violet in hue
than those before us from Celebes, Peling, and Banggai, and the hills of the
former seem to be broader — in one case much longer and the wing shorter
than in the Celebesian birds ; also the reduced toe ajDj^ears to be smaller.
Schlegel remarks on Rosenberg’s three specimens from Gorontalo that the
colours of the upper surface incline strongly to green (5 the specimens in
our hands do not confirm this statement, but show bright blue tints.

On the habits of this bird in Pegu Oates writes (a 6): “This species is
restricted to the dense forests, where the ground is broken uj) by nullahs and
ravines. I think it always darts on its prey from a perch and does not hover
in the air”. In the Andamans its habits appear to differ; “it keeps exclusively
(as far as I have observed)”, says Davison, “to the salt water creeks, occasion-
ally venturing out to the fishing stakes at the mouths of the creeks. Its voice
is weaker, and not nearly so shrill as that of A. hengale7isis (A. ispida); it feeds
on small fish, after which it plunges, keeping under water for some considerable
time” (el).

GENUS PELARGOPSIS Glog.

The members of this genus are about the size of a Turtle-dove; the tail
is longer than the bill, rounded; the bill about twice as long as the head, large,
the culmen straight, flattened along its ridge; wing moderate, 3“^ and 4*^ quills

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

269

longest, the I®*" a little more than 7s their length; inner toe as long or longer
than the hallux, longer than the tarsus. About 5 species, with numerous local
races, ranging from India to the Philippines, Celebes and Flores.

+ ♦ 83. PELAEGOPSIS MELANORHYNCHA (Temm.).

Celebesian Stork-billed Kingfisher.

a. Alcedo^ melanorhyneha (I) Temm., PL Coll. 1826, pi. 391, Livr. 66; (2) ScliL, Handb.

d. Dierk. 1857, 306; (2) id., Miis. P.-B. Alcedin. 1863, 15; (IV) id., Vog. Ked.

Ind. Ijsvogels 1864, 10, 47, pi. 2, fig. 1; ? (5) id., Pev. Alcedin. 1874, 8.

h. Dacelo melanorhyncha (1) Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831, 246 (Java!); (2) Finscli, Keii Gruinea
1866, 160.

c. Halcyon melanorhyncha (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1846, I, 79; (2) Bp., Oonsp. 1850, I, 155;

(3) Cass., Cat. Hale. Pliilad. Mus. 1852, 10; (4) Wall., Ibis 1860, 142; ? (5) id.,

P. Z. S. 1862, 335, 338; (6) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 92; (7) Bosenb., Malay. Archip.
1878, 271; (8) Pelz. u. Lorenz, Ann. k. k. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 1886, I, 258.

d. Hylcaon melanorhyncha (I) Reichb. , Hb. spec. Orn., Alcedin. 1851, 18, pi. 399, f. 3074.

e. Rhamphalcyon melanorhyncha (1) Bp., Consp. Yol. Anisocl. 1854, 10.

Pelargopsis melanorhyncha (1) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1870, 62; (II) id., Monogr. Alcedin.
1870, pp. XXyn, 95, pi. 29; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 45; (4) Salvad.,
Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, 13; (5) Brligg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 55; (6)
Meyer, Ibis 1879, 64, 146; (7) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 136; (8) Guillem.,
P. Z. S. 1885, 547; (9) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1886, 92; (10) Cab. & Rchnw.,
Xomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 165; (11) Sharpe, Oat. B. XYH, 1892, 97; (12) M.
& Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 7; (13) Hart., Xov. Zool. 1897, 163;
(XIV) Meyer, Abb. r. Yogelskel. 1897, pi. H, CCXY.

“Radja ndan puti” (White king of the Crabs), Minahassa and the islands off the coast,
Meyer Xat. Coll.

■‘Bua-Buaa”, Bosenb. c 7, ? Gorontalo.

Figures and descriptions. Sharpe II (imm.), 7, 11] Meyer X7F (skeleton); Temmincknl;
Beichb. d J; Schlegel a IV, a 3,

Adult. Head, neck and body above and below cream-colour, becoming darker, buff, more
on abdomen; cheeks, around eye, and forehead drab, the feathers bordered with
cream-colour; scapulars, wings and tail drab with green and bluish reflections,
changing with the light; inner webs of quills below buffy white, the colour spread-
ing out over the under side of the wing towards the base of the feathers (Banka
Id., X. Celebes, 20. Y. 93 — C 12254). Iris yellowish brown, feet red-brown; claws
and bill black (M. 6).

Sexes. Alike.

Immature. Like the adult, but entire head above and cheeks pale smoke-grey; darker
towards the forehead, with darker centres to the feathers; lores, ear-coverts,
middle of mantle, scapulars, wings, tail, and the longer upper tail-coverts
brown, much darker than in the adult, with greenish or bluish reflections ; back and
rump pale blue (!) upon a buff ground; breast and sides of neck barred with faint
drab-colour; bill shorter than in the adult, black, horn-colour at extreme tip (near
Manado, Aug.-- Sept. 1892, C 10865).

270

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

a. (C 12254) [(L'] ad. Banka I., 20. Y. 93

154

101

69

15

h. (0 12255) [(^] ad. Banka I., 18. Y. 93

153

—

64

15

c. (Nr. 6245) ad. Manado

145

87

68

16

d. (Nr. 6244) ad. Manado, Mcli. 71

147

91

65

—

e. (Nr, 3809) ad. N. Celebes

151

92

65

15

f. (0 12253) [Q] ad. Manado tua Id., 15. lY 93 . . .

149

87

62.5

15

g. (0 10866) inun. near Manado, Aug. — Sept

145

87

63.5

15.5

h. (C 10865) imni. near Manado, Aug. — Sept

152

94

59

16.5

The wing-lengths of 5 additional specimens from Lembeh Id. and the Mina-
hassa fall within the above measurements.

In the young specimen h the tarsus and tihio-tarsal joint is curiously padded
below with thick porous, yellow skin. This is not seen in the older birds, and in
this specimen it is about to he cast off. Probably the young have the habit of resting
on them “heels”, and these calosities serve as a protection to them^).

Eggs. Unknown. Always two in number (M. 6).

Distribution. Celebes and the Sula Islands: — Manado tua & Banka Is., off N. Celebes (ISTat.
Coll, in Dresden Mus.), Lembeh Id. (Gruillemard S, N. Coll.), Minahassa (Wall, c 4,
Meyer d, etc.), Gorontalo Distr. (Bosenb. a 5), Pogoyama, Gulf of Tomini (Guillem. 8),
Paguatt and Posso, Gulf of Tomini (Bosenb. ao), Togian Islands (Meyer 6j]
Kandari, S.E. Celebes (Beccari 4), Tawaya, W. Celebes (Doherty 18), Sula Besi and
Sula Mangoli (Allen c 5, Bernst. a 5 — if identical).

This Kingfisher is, as Dr, Sharpe remarks (J), the most distinct sp>ecies of
the genus Pelargopsis. The black bill and the absence of blue on the back
of the adult bird at once distinguish it from the other members of the genus
Pelargopsis , about ten in number, which range from Ceylon and India as far as
the Philippines and Flores and have all red bills and blue backs and rumps.
Nevertheless, the young of P . melanorhyncho has, as shown above, alight
blue back, which, it would seem, is soon lost — proof that P.melano-
rhyncha is derived from a form with a blue back. 'Fhe young of other
species do not differ appreciably in coloration, as far as is known, from the
adults. Hartert (13) says that some of his specimens from West Celebes have
a small red spot at the base of the maxilla; there is a tendency to redness at
the extreme base of the bill in one or two of our specimens from the Mina-
hassa. P. melanorhyncha was separated by Beichenbach as a subgenus on
the ground of a supposed difference of structure of the bill. Like Dr. Sharpe
and others, we do not find that its bill differs in any impjortant particular from
those of others of its genus, except in colour. In the Celebes Province Pelar-
gopsis has undergone the greatest modification, it has lost the blue on the back
and rump and acquired, apparently, its black bill there.

Similarly Eudynamis melanorhyncha of Celebes and Sula has a black bill,

1) See Munn, Ibis 1893, 58, for a similar pad in the young Pelargopsis gurial, and Griinther, ib. 1890,
411 in lynx torquilla.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

271

though everywhere else the bill of Eudynamis is whitish. In Celebes, too,
the Lories, Trichoglossus ormtus and Psitteuteles meyer% and in Sula Psitteuteles
fiovoviridiSf have lost the band of bright colour across the base of the wing
below, so that the whole of underside of the quills is uniform dusky shining
smoke-grey.

The nearest ally of P. melanorhyncha after P. dichrorhyiKha, appears to us
to be P. gigantea Wald. — by no means a gigantic member of its genus —
of the southern Philippines, a form regarded by Sharpe as a “subspecies” of
P. leiicocephala of Borneo. P. melanorhgncha may perhaps be regarded as a
somewhat recent immigrant to the Celebes Province — not as one of the an-
cient types of the country; because 1. its modifications are slight as compared
with those of the Bee-eater, Meropogon, for instance, wdth its nearest ally, Ngc-
tiornis of India to Borneo, or of the Hornbill, lihabdotoirhimis, with Penelopides
of the Philippines; 2. members of the genus are known to be birds of good
flying powers; 3. a form of Pelargopsis^ P. floresiana^ treated by Sharpe as
only subspecifically distinct from other forms ranging from India to Java and
Borneo, makes nothing of Wallace’s line betw'een Bali and Lombock, being
found in Flores^); 4. the circumstance that P. melanorhgncha throws back, when
young, to the other members of the genus in having a blue back seems to be-
token that the adult plumage is not very ancient.

Touching the last point, a few general remarks on the plumage of the
Kingfishers will be found further on under Cegcopsis fallacc. On the habits of
this species Meyer (6) notes briefly that it is “on riversides rather rare; al-
w^ays in pairs together. On the 26^^ of February I shot on the river Tamum-
pat, near Manado, a female; and the male flew for hours up and down the
river, crying for its mate; every half hour it passed my resting-place. It has
a very quick arrow-like flight, feeds on large and small fishes, and always lays
two eggs”.

P84. PELARGOPSIS DIOHRORHYNCHA M.&Wg.

Red-and-black-billed Kingfisher.

Plate IX.

Pelargopsis dichrorhyncha (1) M. & Wg., Abb. Mas. Dresden 1896, Kr. 2, p. 12; (2)
Hartert, Kov. Zool. 1897, 163.

“Bukaka mawuti”, Banggai, Kat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Similar to P. melanorhyricha^ but with more pr less of the culmen and base of
the maxilla and most of the under mandible red, the rest black; size somewhat larger.
Measurements. Wing 151 — 161 mm; tail c. 100; bdl from nostril 67 — 73; tarsus c. 17.
Distribution. Peling and Banggai Islands (Kat. Coll.).

The Stork-billed Kingfisher of Celebes has been recorded from Sula by
AVallace (P. Z. S. 1862, 335, 338), Schlegel (Mus. P.-B. Rev. Alced. 1874, 8)

1) Dr. Sharp e is of opinion that this species crossed the strait by flight (Monogr. p. XLl),

272

Birds of Celebes; Alcedinidae.

and Sharpe (Cat. B. 1892 XVII, 97). Mr. Wallace speaks of the base of the
bill as red. A comparison of them with P. dichrorhyncha is desirable, as Sula
birds generally have much more in common with those of Peling than with
those of Celebes.

This Kingfisher is easily distinguishable from that of the mainland of Ce-
lebes by its dichromatic bill, but the distribution of the two colours red and
black thereon is subject to much individual variation; in one or two specimens
in the Dresden Museum the entire upper mandible is black except at the base,
in another example more than half of it is red; the under mandible seems to
be always red for at least the basal half, sometimes the terminal fourth only
is black.

The type and co-types, which were obtained by our native hunters in Peling
and Banggai between May and August, 1895, are in the Dresden and Tring
Museums.

GENUS CEYX Lac.

SmaU. Kingfishers, similar to Ceycopsis^ but having only three toes, the inner
(second) toe being absent.

About 18 species in the Indian and Papuan countries.

4- ♦ 85. OEYX‘) WALLAOEI Sharpe.

Sula Three-toed Kingfisher.

a. Ceyx lepida (1) Wall, (iiec Temm.), P. Z. S. 1862, 338; (2) Finscli, Neu-Griiiiiea
1866, 161, pt.

Ceyx wallacii (1) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1868, 270; (II) id., Monogr. Alcedin. p. 129, pi. 45
(1868); (3) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 417; (4) Sharpe, Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 182.
h. Dacelo Wallace! (1) ScliL, Beviie Alcedin. 1874, 34.
c. Dacelo cajeli (1) Schl., Ked. Tdschr. Dierk 1866, m, 339, pt. (Soula).

Figure and descriptions. Sharpe 1, II, 4.

Adult. Above black; head and nape spotted with cobalt, more on the nape, each feather
having a mesial stripe of brighter blue; cheeks and wing-coverts streaked with
bright cobalt; back very rich shining cobalt; the uppper tail- coverts slightly
tinged with ultramarine; scapulars black; quills and tail-feathers blackish, the
inner web of the former light rufous towards the base; throat whitish; loral spot
and the whole of the under surface deep orange; a patch at the sides of the
the uppper breast black; “bill and feet coral-red; iris dark” (A. P. Wallace).
Measurements. Total length 141 mm, cuhnen 36, wing 63, tail 25, tarsus 7.6 (Sharpe 4).
Distribution. Sula Islands (Allen a I) — Sula Besi (Bernstein b 1), SulaMangoh(Hoedt b 1).

This little three-toed Kingfisher was first obtained by VIr. Wallace’s assis-
tant, Allen, in Sula Besi or Mangoli, where further specimens were obtained
in 1864 by Bernstein and Hoedt.

1) “Ceyx” — a substantive of masculine gender.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

273

Its nearest ally is Ceyx cajeli Wallace of Burn, which differs chiefly in
having the cheeks and ear-coverts black, and the back silvery blue, instead of
cobalt (Sharpe), and a shorter bill. This form is reported by Schlegel to have
been observed in Sula, but this rests no doubt upon an error of identification.

The genus Ceyoo^ as Dr. Sharpe points out, consists of two divisions, “the
rufous-backed section and the blue-backed section”, which “have distinct
ranges, the one being Indo-Malayan, and the other Austro-Malayan” (Monogr.
p. XLI). Elsewhere (p. XXIX), the author further divides Ceyoc into four
groups : —

1. The C. tridactyhis-^XQvc^ with red bills and lilac plumage, corresponding

to the rufous-backed section;

2. C. lepidus-^o\x]) with red bills but blue plumage;

3. C. soUtarius with a black bill, to which C. gentianus Tristr. may now be

added;

4. C. philippensis (= C. cyanipectus Lafr.) with a blackish upper and orange

lower mandible, to which several recently discovered species may be
added, if C. argentatiis Tweedd. and jiumenicolus Steere do not con-
stitute a fifth group for themselves.

The present species, Ceyoo ivallacei belongs to the second, or Ceyoo lepi-
dus-^xowp.

After a comparatively brief study of the genus Ceyx under the excellent
guidance of Dr. Sharpe’s great “Monograph of the Alcedinidae” and his more
recent Catalogue of the Kingfishers, it may seem presumptuous to criticise his
conclusions; yet it may well be asked why the genus Ceyx is put into one
subfamily, the Daceloninae^ and the genus Alcyone into another, the Alcedininae?

The differences between the extreme members of these two groups, Dacelo
or Melidora and Alcedo^ are most interesting and important, and in 1892 Dr.
Sharpe maintains his subdivisions of 1870; the Alcedininae are stated to be
distinguished by a “bill long and slender, and perceptibly keeled, habits mainly
piscivorous”; the Daceloninae have the “bill more or less depressed; culmen
rounded or flattened, sometimes even grooved. Habits mainly insectivorous or
reptilivorous” (Cat. B. XVII, 93). Yet in the earlier work, the close correspond-
ence of Alcyone cyanipectus with Ceyoc philippinensis is commented upon; “Count
Salvadori, who has paid much attention to these birds, stipulates for their
both being placed in the genus Alcyone] but I would rather keep them in the
genus Ceyoc^ because we should then have plumage as an additional generic
character” (p. VII) ; later Major Ramsay and Dr. Sharpe decided that Alcyone
cyanipectus is the male and Ceyoc philippinensis the female of the same species
(Ibis 1884, 332, pi. IX) a view which received full confirmation from Messrs.
Bourns and Worcester (Ibis 1895, 404), though at one time (Ibis 1895, 112)
doubted by Mr. Grant, but afterwards also consented to by him (Ibis 1896,
471). Ihey are now placed by Sharpe in the genus Ceyx^ by Grant in the

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 28th, 1897). o::

274 Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

genus Alcyone. Observations on the habits of Ceyx are scanty; they were still
scantier at the date of appearance of the ‘Monograph’, and onr leading Alce-
dinist was induced to conclude that Ceyx differed more widely from the Alce-
dininae than now appears to be the case: ^'Alcyone is a fish-eater and partakes
of the characteristics of true Alcedo\ . . . Ceyx^ on the other hand, is a forest-
loving genus, living away from the water, feeding on insects, and bearing affinity
towards Halcyon'' (ib. p. VIII). Notes that have since appeared in “Stray Fea-
thers” and elsewhere tend to show that, while Ceyx avoids broader waters, it
is generally to be found by small streams — sometime, indeed, dried up ones
— in deep forest or jungle. Legge (B. Ceylon, 304) says Ceyx tridactylus sub-
sists on diminutive fish and small aqueous insects; a writer in Hume’s “Nests
and Eggs of Indian Birds” (Oates ed. Ill, 14) says: “as far as I have been able
to ascertain, it is entirely a fish-eater, though it may also devour water-insects,
small prawns, etc. I have never seen any remains of insects in its stomach”.
Other observers — De Bocarme, and Wallace — testify to the insectivorous
and crustacivorous habits of species in Borneo and Java (Sharpe, p. 120) while
Ceyx cajeli — and, therefore, probably its near ally C. wallacei — was observed
by Wallace to feed on water-insects and small fish fSharpe, p. 127). From
this it appears certain that Ceyx must be set down as a semi-piscatorial bird,
in habits a link between Alcedo and Halcyon.

Further, in plumage the genus Ceyx is a link between Alcedo and certain
Daceloninae. Dr. Sharpe has called attention to the close resemblance borne
by the female Ceyx cyanipectus [Ceyx philippmensis., Monogr. p. 113) to Alcedo
TRoluccana., and remarks that Lesson erroneously referred Ceyx solitariiis to Al-
cedo meninting. Altogether, the plumage of the blue-backed section of Ceyx
is distinctly Alcedinine. The red-backed section on the other hand, especially
Ceyx rufidorsus (= euerythrus Sharpe), recalls — save for the absence of the
blue rump — the peculiar plumage of the wide-spread Halcyon coromanda
{Callialcyon. Compare, Sharpe, pi. 41 with pi. 57). Thus Sharpe remarks;
“the link towards Halcyon seems to be in the lilac-backed section of the genus
Ceyx with the lilac -backed section of the genus Halcyon, where the tail is
rather shorter than in most of the other members of the genus” (Mon. p. XLVl .
In plumage, as in habits, the two sections of the genus Ceyx appear to unite
the Alcedininae and Daceloninae.

The question now suggests itself: did Ceyx arise from Halcyon and Alcedo
from Ceyx, or was the reverse the order of development, or, as might also be
thought possible, did both Alcedo and Halcyon take their origin from Ceyx, the
one from the blue-, the other from the lilac-backed section of it? Perhaps
Dr. Sharpe, following up his conclusions of 1870, and students of the King-
fishers in the future will be able to read as from a book the past history of
the family, undoubtedly impressed upon their plumage and structure, but at
present hidden from ornithological knowledge. One small token we believe

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

275

ourselves able to point to, wMch goes to confirm the conclusions arrived at by
Dr. Sharpe from other lines of reasoning — namely, that Dacelo and Melidora “are
the most ancient form of Kingfisher extant”, while ^'Alcedo, the most special-
ized type of the family Alcedinidae^ . . . belongs to a more recent development”
(Mon. p. XLIV). This seems to be indicated by the immature plumage of
Ceycopsis fallax of Celebes, which, as Sharpe says (p. XII), presents “a
recognisable link between the Aethiopian Ispidinae and the Malayan Ceycei\
and further on again (p. XLI) “it unites the characters of the two groups of
the genus Ceyx^ which converge from opposite sides upon its flanks, as one may
say; for it is red in general plumage, but has a bright blue back”. We pass
on, therefore, to the consideration of this interesting Celebesian species, the next
in our list.

GENUS CEYCOPSIS Salyad.

xA genus peculiar to the Celebesian area; small Kingfishers about the size
of a Sparrow, recognisable by their having the inner toe much reduced, shorter
than the hallux (shorter also than the tarsus and less than half the length of
the middle toe); bill red, about half as long again as the head, rather flat, at
the base across the nostrils about as broad as it is high; tail small, shorter than
the bill; wing rather short, 2’"^, 3’’^ and 4*’' quills longest, D* a little shorter.
Two closely allied species, inhabiting Celebes and Sangi respectively.

4- * 86. CEYCOPSIS FALLAX (ScliL).

Fallacious three-toed Kingfisher.

Plate X.

a. Dacelo fallax (1) ScliL, Ned. Tdschr. Dierk. 1866,111, 187; (2) id.. Revue Alcedin. 1874,

32; (3) Rosenb., Malay. Arcliip. 1878, 272, 584.

Ceycopsis fallax (1) Salvad., Atti Acc. Sc. Torino 1869, 447; (II) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin.
1870, pp. Xn, XXIX, XLI, XL VI, 135, pL 48; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YID,
49, 112; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 63, partim; (5) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 136; (6)
Guillem., P. Z. S. 1886, 548; (7) id.. Cruise “Marchesa” 1886, D, 198; (8)
W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 572, partim; (9) Sharpe, Cat. B. XVLE, 1892, 190; (10.)
Hartert, Nov. ZooL 1896, 158; (11) id., ib. 1897, 163.

b. Ceyx fallax (1) Gray, HL. 1871, HI, 227; (2) Brtigg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 55;

(3) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 92.

•‘Eadja udang mera ketjil”, Minabassa, Nat. Coll.

Figure and descriptions. Sbarpe II, 9\ Scblegel a 1, a 2, Bruggemann h 2.

Adult. General colour above dark reddish hazel: bead above including nape brownish
black spangled with bright ultramarine-blue, each feather having a subterminal spot;
on middle wing-coverts a few spots of a rather lighter colour, lores ferruginous;
ear- coverts and cheeks also ferruginous, but washed with purple of a magenta
tint into which the blue of the head-spots passes on the sides of the crown; lower
back and rump whitish turquoise-blue, becoming azure-blue on the upper tail-coverts;
quills am] tail dusky; chin and throat white; feathers of ear-coverts continued

35*

276

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

into a whitish hand on sides of neck; remainder of under surface rufous,
darkest and more ferruginous on sides of breast, palest and more orange-rufous on
the middle parts of under surface, on under wing-coverts, and edge of wing; middle
of abdomen lightly washed with lilac; inner edge of quills below towards their base
dull rufous vinaceous (near Manado, Aug.— Sept 1892, 0 10867). “Iris brown; hill
brilliant coral; feet bright coral red” (Guillem. 7, Rosenb. a 1).

The lilac tint mentioned in Dr. Sharpe’s description (9) of male (?) does not
extend on to the lower back of this example. In adults according to Schlegel
(al), the rufous of the under surface passes into whitish on the abdomen. This
also does not seem to be the rule; on the other hand the lower breast is washed
with lilac in some adults.

Female. According to ]\Ir. Hartert (11) the female is of a much darker and less rufous
brown above.

Immature. A younger specimen has the blue spots of the head duller and less sharply
defined, and of a more magenta tint on towards the nape, under surface and rump
and upper tail-coverts without any lilac tint; the wing-coverts browner, some obscure
spots of purplish blue on the middle series; bill pale greenish horn-coloim, blackish
on basal part of ridge of upper mandible (Minahassa, ISlr. 1903).

Young. A specimen kindly lent to us by Mr. Pleske is like the last, but with scantier blue
tips to the feathers of the head, those on the nape of a paler more lilac purple;
breast somewhat darker (H. Celebes — 1889). The young are lighter reddish above,
have less blue on the head, and want the lilac wash on the lower breast, the upper
mandible is dusky (Lembeh, March 1895, C 14206, 1 4210). Schlegel, after von Rosen-
berg, describes the bill of the young as “noiratre” (al)\ Dr. Guillemard shot a
specimen with the bill slate, lower mandible red On referring to Sharpe’s recent
Catalogue, we find that the bright red bill is a character of the adult in the Ceyx
genus; that of the young of C&yx hournsi is of a duller red than in the adult, of
C. malajnaui more dusky, whitish horn-colour, of C. melamiriis horny wliitish, of
C. dilhuynni (nestling) blackish horn-colour, of C. tridactyhis paler, dusky at base of
both mandibles.

Eggs and breeding habits. Unknown.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (C 10867) ad. near Manado

56

22

9

28.5

h. (Nr. 1903) imm. Minahassa

58

24.5

9

29

c. (Tring) ad. Lembeh, 3. III. 95 (Nat. hunters) . . .

59

22

—

29

d. (C 14207) ad. Lembeh, 21. II. 95 (Nat. hunters) . .

60

26

—

29

e. (C 14208) ad. Lembeh, 27. II. 95 (Nat. hunters) . .

59

—

8.5

—

f. (Tring) ad. Lembeh, 6. III. 95 (Nat. hunters) . . .

54

—

8.5

—

g. (C 14209) ad. Lembeh, 3. m. 95 (Nat. hunters) , .

57

21.5

9.5

30

h. (Tring) ad. Lembeh, 16. III. 95 (Nat. hunters) . . ,

57

—

9.0

30.5

i. (Tring) ad. Lembeh, 4. ID. 95 (Nat. hunters) . . .

57

22

—

30

j. (C 14206) juv. Lembeh, 11. III. 95 (Nat. hunters) .

58

—

—

27.5

k. (C 14210) juv. Lembeh, 1. III. 95. (Nat. hunters) . .

58

—

—

27.5

Distribution. Celebes: — Minahassa (v. Duivenbode a 2, Meyer 4, Guillem. 7); Lembeii Id.
(Nat. Coll, in Mus. Dresden and Tring); Gorontalo Distr. (v. Rosenb. a 2, Meyer 4);
Dongala.and Tawaya, W. Celebes (Doherty 47); South Celebes, Maros (Meyer 4),
Indrulaman (Everett 10).

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

277

Variation. The specimens from Lemheh vary somewhat individually, some having the bases
of the blue-tipped feathers of the head rufous, others most of them dusky, the latter
specunens, with one exception (c)^ have the scapulars duller and browner. These
differences are shared by the two immature birds, there being one of each, distinguish-
able as young by their partially dusky and shorter bills and absence of blue spots on
the wing -coverts. The more red or dusky colours are probably differences of a
sexual nature.

This little Kinufisher was not discovered until 1863 — 1864, when von
Eosenberg obtained the first specimens in the Province of Gorontalo; it is
still a rare species in collections. Meyer remarks (4): ‘T got this species near
Manado, near Gorontalo, and at the waterfall of Maros, in South Celebes; but
I did not procure many specimens, perhaps for the reason that it lives in the
forest and is a small species. In May a living specimen was in my possession
at Manado. The colours of this little species are very delicate. It is the
loveliest Kingfisher of Celebes”. One of Dr. Guillemard’s specimens was,
curiously enough, shot on the sea- coast at Wallace Bay, N. Celebes, ‘‘on the
lonely beach frequented by the Maleos (Megacephalon maleo) described by
Wallace in his ‘Malay Archipelago’” (I, p. 413).

In the foregoing article on Ceyoo ivallacei attention was drawn to Dr. Sharpe’s
remarks pointing out the interesting position occupied by Ceycopsis fallaoc. In
the structure of the foot it is a connecting link between Ispidina (with Myioceyoo)
of Africa and Madagascar and Ceyx of India and the East Indies ; in plumage it is
a connecting link between the red-backed section of Ceyoo of India to the
Lesser Sunda Islands, Borneo, and the Philippines, and the blue-backed
section of Ceyoo of Papuasia and the Moluccas to Sula and the Philippines.
Further, from the extreme members of the red-hacked divisions of Ceyoo and
of Ispidina to the blue-backed divisions of the same genera a gradual transition
from the plumage of Callialcyon to that of Alcyone and Alcedo is seen. The
little Ceycopsis fallax occupies a middle position. It appears to us that, when
growing into adult plumage, the bird develops towards the Alcedo-tjpe^ rather than
in the opposite direction, since the blue spangles on the head become brighter,
bluer, better defined, and extended further back on the hind neck. A future
worker on the Kingfishers will no doubt find more such indications ; the present
one is a hint — if it does not mislead us — that the blue-backed, Alcedo-
like Ceyces are derived from the red-backed ones '). T'hat is to say, the Ceyces^
which are now found betwmen the Philij)pines and the Solomon Islands, appear
to be descended from those now known from India to the Philippines. .

It is hardly possible to say hetwmen which red-backed and which blue-
backed Ceyoo Ceycopsis fallaoo most immediately lies; wm should place it between
the red-backed Ceyoo melanurus of Luzon and the blue-backed C. loallacei of Sula;
Myioceyoo of M^est Africa has also a good deal in common wdth it; but other
ornithologists may think differently as to its nearest affinities.

1) The young of Ispidina leucogaster has most of the crown ferruginous (Sharpe, Oat. 194].

278

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

Ceycopsis has four toes — the inner one very minute — Ceyoc has three; it
may insult the convictions of many anatomists if called upon to admit that a
bird with four toes may be intermediate between two sections of a genus with
three; still more outrageous seems the assumption that Alcedo with four toes can
be descended from Ceyoc with three. We do not, of course, suggest that such
is the case ; but once undoubtedly Ceyx had four toes and the second of Ceycopsis
was much larger than it is now.

It is possible that a future worker on the Kingfishers of the genera Alcedo^
Alcyone^ Ceyx, Ceycopsis^ Ispidina and Myioceyx will come to the conclusion that
the red and the blue types of plumage in these genera have persisted since all
agreed in having four toes; that since then the small inner toe has become
completely aborted in both the red and most of the blue forms in the East
Indies, except Celebes, where the process as seen in Ceycopsis is not quite
complete. In any case Ceycopsis may be regarded as a rather ancient form. We
do not know how it got to Celebes, but its ancestors appear to be the red
forms of Ceyx of the islands to the west and the Indian countries.

It is a mystery why the second toe in certain Kingfishers has become aborted,
and we are at a loss to make a suggestion for the explanation of the fact.
Can there be a reason in their habits or their mode of life?

* 87. CEYCOPSIS SANGIRENSIS M. & Wg.

Sangi Fallacious Kingfisher.

Plate X.

a. Ceycopsis fallax (1) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 63 partim; (2) id., Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (3)
W. Bias., Oriiis 1888, 572 jiartim.

Adult. Similar to Ceycopsis fallax of Celebes, but with the blue spots of the head above
much larger and continued further dovm the hind neck, the spots on the sides of
occiput almost running into one another, and blue like those of the head, not magenta;
the spots on the middle and greater vdng-coverts larger, magenta; mantle washed
with magenta; bill longer and differing in shape — not so much narrowed in its
terminal third or so much broadened at its base; size a little greater (Tabukan,
Great Sangi, Meyer in Yienna Museum 1877, Kr. II i).

Immature (with a dusky horn-coloured bill). Just hke the adult, but with none of the feathers
of the mantle tinted with magenta, the blue on the head and neck a trifle darker
and the ear- coverts less strongly washed with magenta (Tabukan, Great Sangi,
Meyer — Kr. 6225).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

a. (Yienna Mus.) ad. Gt. Sangi .

60')

28

33

9

b. (Kr. 6225) imm. Gt. Sangi

62

25.5

31

9

Distribution. Tabukan, Great Sangi (Meyer a 1, a 2), where it appears to be plentiful.

1) The ends of the quills are frayed, so that 1 or 2 mm should he added to make up their original length.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

279

The most important points of ditference in this form of Ceycopsis appear
to be the differently shaped bill, and the large size and great extent on the
sides and back of the nape of the blue spots or bars of the head; on the sides
of the nape, in fact, they blend into almost continuous blue. Ceycopsis is a
peculiarly Celebesian genus, as remarked above.

GENUS HALCYON Sw.

This large genus has been split into eleven, chiefly by Cabanis & Heine
and Bonaparte, and it contains indeed a number of forms which might per-
haps be allowed subgeneric distinction, but for the present Dr. Sharpe has no
doubt done useful work in gathering them together, though it might be puzzling
to distinguish all members of the genus by his key.

These Kingflshers are of medium size, from the size of a Lark to that of
a Thrush. The tail is longer than the bill; the inner toe, the hallux, and the
tarsus are of about equal length with one another. Compared with Pelargopsis^
Halcyon may be recognised by its flatter bill and rounded culmen ; measured
at a level with the anterior end of the nostril the bill is as broad as it is deep;
in Pelargopsis it is very much narrower than deep; on the other side of Halcyon
may be j)laced Dacelo and Sauromarptis of the Australian Legion, in these
the bill is very broad, the length from the nostril being only 2 to 2V2 times
its width, as against 3 — 4 times in Halcyon^ or sometimes over 4 times in
Pelargopsis.

Mr. Blanford (Faun. Br. Ind. B. Ill, 1895, 119) recognises Halcyon (con-
taining H. pileata)., Callialcyon (H. coromanda) and Sauropatis {H. chloris, also
H. sanctd) as distinct genera; in the first-named the primaries are white at the
base and the bill is red; the bill is also red in Callialcyon^ but in Sauropatis it
is black on the upper mandible and on the terminal part of the lower. In
Sauropatis it should be added that the first primary is nearly as long as the
second and third and about equal to the fourth; in Callialcyon., as in typical
Halcyon, it is shorter — the tip about half way between the secondaries and the
wing-tip. Sharpe (1892) recognises 53 species oi Halcyon, inhabiting Africa, the
warmer parts of Asia to Australia.

88. HALCYON COKOMANDA (Lath.).

Buddy Kingfisher.

This species ranges from the Himalayas, East China, and Japan, south to
the Philippines, Celebes, Java, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands^). It
varies locally. The Celebes form has received a name, and it may, apparently,
be allowed to stand as a subspecies without causing confusion.

1) It is absent, accoi’ding to Blanford, in tlie Indian Peninsula.

280

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

^ Halcyon coromanda rufa (Wall.).
a. Halcyon, rufa (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 338.

h. Dacelo coromandeliana (1) ScliL, Y. Ned. Incl. Ijsvogels 1864, 24, 56 (Celebes, Siilaj.

c. Dacelo rufa (1) Finscli, New Gruinea 1866, 160.

d. Halcyon coromanda (I) Shkrpe, Monogr. Alcedin. 1870, 155 (Celebes), pi. 57, front figm-e

(type of H. rufa)] (2) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 548; (3) Hickson, Nat. in N.
Celebes 1889, 90; (4) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 9, p. 3 (Talant).

e. Callialcyon’) rufa (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 44; (2) Salvad., Ucc. Borneo 1874,

102; (3) id., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, YU, 653; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 62, 146;
(5) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 136; (6) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (7) W. Bias.,
Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885, 246; (8) id., ib. 1886, 90; (9) id., Ornis 1888, 572.

f. Dacelo coromanda (1) ScliL, Eevue Alcedin. 1874, 17 (Celebes, Sula, Sangi).

g. Halcyon coromanda var. rufa (1) Briigg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 54.

h. Halcyon coromanda rufa (1) Stejn., Pr. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1887, X, 403; (II) Meyer, Abb.

V. Yogelskel. 1897, H, pi. CCXYI.

i. Halcyon^) rufus (subsp. Celebes) (1) Sbarpe, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 221.

j. Callialcyon coromanda rufa (1) M. & Y^g., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7; (2) iid.,

ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 12.

“Kadja udan mera” (Bed King of tbe Crabs), North Celebes, Meyer e 4.

“Radja udan mera besar”, near Manado, Nat. Coll.

“Bengkah mahamu”, Siao, Nat. Coll.

“Sumpotito”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen e 7.

‘‘Sangkul”, Peling, Nat. Coll.

“Pisawato”, Karkellang, Talaut, iid.

Figures and descriptions. Sbarpe ^ZJ, i 1\ Meyer A II (skel); Wallace a 1\ W. Bias, e 7.
Adult [(J']. General colour rufous, darker above, cbestnut-red on tbe ’wings and tail;, from
crown to scapulars, wing-coverts, upper flanks, upper tail-coverts, middle
tail-feathers and outer webs of tbe others, cheeks, ear-coverts and sides
of neck washed with magenta, especially strongly on mantle and scapulars; lower back
and rump pale silvery blue; under surface orange-rufous, much darker and slightly
washed with magenta across the lower throat, forming a sort of ill-defined collar
(near Manado, Aug. — Sep. — C 10862). Iris dark-brown; bill, feet, and claws
red (M. e 4).

Sexes. Similar.

Immature. Like the adult, but with a weaker magenta wash on the upper smlace, seen
only on hind head and nape, lower mantle, scapulars, upper wing- and tail-coverts;
the blue of the rump darker, azure; the feathers of the cheeks, throat and breast
terminally frmged with bromi, forming wavy cross-bars; bill red (near Manado, Aug.
till Sept. — C 10863).

1) The genus Callialcyon was made by Bonaparte in 1850, Consp. Avium, 156. The type oi Enio-
mothera of Horsfield (1820), mentioned as Halcyon coromanda by Sharpe, is not specified in the original
text (Tr. L. S. XIII, 173), and Ceyx tridactylus, as the first species of the genus, has the best claim to the name.
Callialcyon differs notably from Halcyon in arrangement of primaries, coloration, shortness of tail,

2) The genus Halcyon was made by Swains on in 1820 (Zool. Blustr. pi. 27; Classif. B. 1837, II, 335).
Since writing his “Monograph of the Kingfishers” between 1868 — 70, it appears that Dr. Sharpe has made a
mythological discoA^ery. Swainson conceived Halcyon to be one of the forms of Alcyone’s name, Aeolus’s
daughter, who was changed into a Kingfisher, though Canon Tristram doubts it (Ibis 1893, 215). From his
recent Catalogue of the Kingfishers it appears that Dr. Sharjje has found Halcyon to be a person of the
male sex, presumably a lover of Alcyone’s, though Alcyone has hitherto always been accounted the faithful
Avife of Ceyx.

Birds of Celebes; Alcedinidae.

281

Young. Two young specimens — perhaps a fortnight ont of the nest, with the hard white
points for hrealdng the egg still left on the tip of the upper bill, are like the adults;
in one specimen (? cf — C 12583) the magenta wash is more strongly developed
than in many adult birds, hut a shght shade darker; in the other (? $ — C 12581)
this colour is less strong than in its fellow of the same age. The blue of the
rump a trifle darker in the latter, hut both are intermediate between adults with the
darkest and palest rumps. Feathers of under surface from chin to middle of
abdomen terminally fringed with dusky brown, more broadly than in the older
immature bird; bill whitish yellow, in the second specimen dusky horn- colour in
places. The shape of the maxilla is noteworthy from the manner in which it overlaps
at the tip and is bent dovm, and the mandible also is peculiar from the keel-shaped
prominence along the middle. This calls to mind somewhat the shape of the bill in
Melidora. The adult bird has no hook and no noteworthy keel. Feet and claws
j)ale brown (Siao — Nat. OolL).

Observation. In Museum- specimens the bright red of the bill fades in com’se of years into
ochraceous huff, or some still paler tint.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (Nr. 6179) ad. Manado

114

75

1 16

49

h. (Nr. 1906) ad. Minahassa

114

71

17

49

c. (Nr. 6181) ad. Manado

118

—

16

49

d. (0 10862) ad. near Manado, YIII. — ^IX. 92 . . . .

116

70

16

47.5

e. (C 10864) ad. near Manado, YIII. — IX. 92 ... .

115

—

16.5

49.5

f. (0 10863) imm. near Manado, YIII. — IX. 92 ...

4FP-

16.5

49

g. (0 10507) ad. Siao

118

72

16

46

h. (0 12582) ad. Siao, 28. YI. 93

117

74

15

47

(C 12581) juv. Siao, 9. YII. 93

^4

15

21

j. (C 12583) juv. Siao, 23. YI. 93

97

29

16

21

/f. (Nr. 6180) ad. Gft. Sangi /

115

72

15.5

46

1. (C 13868) ad. Ylinahassa, 17, XII. 94

114

71

18

48

m. (C 14201) ad. Lemheh Id., 26, II. 95

121

71

17

48

n. (C 14202) vix ad. Lembeh Id., 12. m. 95

126

69

17

43

0, (Sara sin Coll.) imm. hlinahassa, 17. II. 94 . . .

-126

71

17

49

p. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Macassar, XII. 95 . . . ' .

121

69

—

50

g. (Sarasin Coll.) cf ad. Macassar, XII. 95 ....

118

70

16.5

51

r. (C 14590) ad. Pehng Id., Y.— YIH. 95

no

68

15

—

s. (C 14591) ^rix ad. Peflng Id., Y.— YIH. 95 ... .

114

70

16

45.5

t. (G 14592) ad. Peling Id., Y.— YIH. 95

115

68

—

48

u. (C 13780) vix ad. Karkellang, Talaut, XL 94 . . .

127

75

16.5

45

Variation. In Celebes the young on leaving the nest has the rich magenta hue of the upper
parts as strongly developed as in the adult; the tarsus (as is usual in bh’ds) attains
its full length at a much earlier age than the hill, vsdng and tail.

Immatime specimens, as we take them, which are only recognisable by the impure
red of the hill — a certain amount of duskiness being present at its base — lose
the magenta tint of the young almost completely (it is most pronounced on the tail)
and are shnple cinnamon-rufous above.

In the adult bird the magenta tint is again developed and is very rich.

The blue tint on the rimip varies independently of age in specimens from the

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 29tb, 1897). gg

282

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

same locality killed at tlie same date; silvery- or j)Gc>'rl-blue is the commonest colour,
but it may be found as deej} as azure.

We are not prepared to maintain that the bird varies locally in any part of
the province specially treated of in this work. More material from Talaut is, of
com'se, desirable.

Three adults from Borneo of the fomi conceived by Sharpe as C. coi'omanda
(Lath.) are a little smaller than those of Celebes, having wing 105 — 110 mm; bill
42.5—45. One from Palawan, Q scarcely adult, is large, wing 124 mm; bill 48;
tarsus 17 (Nv. 12533).

The Bornean race is distinguishable from that of Celebes by the rather darker
magenta of the uj^per surface, and by its slightly smaller size; our immature Palawan
bird has no magenta w'ash above, the under surface ochraceous buff instead of
orange-rufous.

Egg of the species. White, 28 — 29 X 26—27 mm (Nehrkorn MS.).

Egg and breeding habits in Celebes unknown.

Distribution. Celebes, Sula, Sangi and Talaut Islands: — Mnahassa (Kosenb. f 1, Meyer
e 4, Gruillem. d 2, etc.); Lembeh Id. (Nat. Coll.); Gorontalo Distr. (Bos. fl, Meyer
e 4)\ Togian Islands (Meyer e 4)\ Macassar (Wallace el, il, P. & P. Sarasin);
Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen e 7); Pehng (Nat. Coll.); Sula Besi and Mangoli
(Allen a 1, Bernst. & Hoedt f i); Tahssi Id. (Hickson d 5); Siao (v. Duivenb
f 1, Nat. Coll.); G-reat Sangi (Hoedt f 1, Platen e 9, Meyer); Karkellang, Talaut
(Nat. Coll.).

Without sufficient material from other parts of the range of the species
we are obliged to confine our studies to the subspecies of the Celebesian
Province. On the variation of the species Dr. Sharpe (il) makes the following-
instructive note: “The ordinary form of H. coromandus from the Himalayas,
Manchuria and Japan is rather pale. The insular forms are darker and richer
in colour, especially the one from the Andamans. Specimens from Borneo are
rather smaller; but the only race deserving of subspecific separation seems to
me to be the bird from Celebes, which Mr. Wallace called Halcyon rufa”.

The beautiful Kingfisher, C. coromanda, appears to be on the whole a sta-
tionary species, though probably migratory in the most northern parts of its
range. Seebohm writes (B. Japan. Emp. 173): “it is said to be only a summer
visitor to Yezzo, but to be a resident in the other islands of the Japanese group”.
Sharpe (il) records IG specimens from Sikkim dated from March to November,
but not in the cold season. It appears to be no common bird on the continent
of Asia; in India it must be extremely scarce, judging from the remarks of
Jerdon quoted by Sharpe (d I) and from the circumstance that the volumes
of “Stray Feathers” contain no mention of its occurrence, excej^t in Sikkim; in
1874 (II, 494) Mr. Hume was able to compare “some forty Sikkim and Tenas-
serim birds” with others from the Andamans. Blanford (Faun. Br. Ind. B. HI
1895, 135) records it from “the Lower Himalayas up to about 5000 feet, in
Eastern Nepal, Sikkim and farther East”. Oates says it is one of the rarest
Kingfishers in British Burmah; Davison found it “by no means a common species
anywhere” in Tenasserim. From China until the last few years no specimen

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

283

had been recorded; in “Ibis” 1889, 446; 1891, 484, Mr. Styan was able to refer
to a single specimen killed at the month of the Yang-tse, and to another from
Manchuria now in the British Museum.

Meyer writes that in Celebes it is “generally found in bamboo brushes near
rivers, generally several together. It is not a rare bird, hut is not to be pro-
cured without great patience. In the stomach I found fishes, ants, etc.”
Davison (S. F. VI, 75) saw it most plentifully in Tenasserim on the coast,
though it was also to be met with by inland creeks; in the Andamans Hume
(S. F. II, 170) remarked that it affected the gloom of the mangrove swamps,
and never visited the clearings or the open coast; in Labuan Whitehead speaks
of it as a swamp-loving species, frequenting the beds of Nipa palms near the
coast (Ibis, 1890, 20).

Callialcyon coromanda is most likely an ancient form. We agree with Dr.
Sharpe in regarding it as the nearest existing Haley on-ioxm having affinity to
the red-backed group of Ceyoo^ and it is of some interest to observe that the
distribution of that group and of C. coromanda is somewhat similar; namely,
neither pass into the Australian Region; but Callialcyon occurs also in China
and Japan, where Ceyoo does not. The close similarity of the young Callialcyon
to the adult must not he cited as a token of antiquity; though it is hardly
reasonable to regard the slightly differing local races of Callialcyon as very
ancient, the young nevertheless appear to resemble their parents more closely
than they do one another. In other words, the influence of the parents is
superimposed upon the ancestral qualities, and obscures them — to what extent
we do not know. The young Callialcyon described by Sharpe (i 1) appears to
correspond with a pale race, while our two from Siao seem by comparison as
if saturated with a deeper rufous tint below and with magenta above. All,
however, agree in having the under parts crossed with wavy lines of dusky
brown.

In view of its slight differentiation as a subspecies, it appears hardly
possible to regard C. coromanda rufa as other than a recent immigrant to the
Celebesian Province from some part of the Sunda Islands or Philippines. The
next species. Halcyon pileata^ which has the same distribution, is a much more
thorough- going migrant than C. coromanda now is. We conceive that this species
may have relinquished the habit of migration in comparatively recent times.

4 89. HALCYON PLLEATA (Bodd.).

Black-capped Kingfisher.

a. Aleedo pileata (1) Bodd., Tabl. PL Eiil. 1783, p. 41; (2)y. Musschenbr., K. T. Ked. Ind.

1876 XXXVI, 377.

h. Halcyon atricapilla (Gm. 1788), (I) Gould, B. Asia 1860, I, pi. 45; (2) Jerd. , B. Ind.

1862, 226; (3) Hume; Str. F. 1874, H, 168; 1876, lY, 287.

36*

284

Birds of Celebes; Alcedinidae.

Halcyon pileata (I) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin. 1868, 169, pi. 62; (2) Armstr., Str. F. 1876,
IV, 306; (3) Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1878, VI, 75, 499; (4) Legge, B. Ceylon
1880, 301; (5) Vidal, Str. F. 1880, IX, 49; (6) Bingh., t. c. 154; (7) Butler,
t. c. 382; (8) Kelham, Ibis 1881, 380; (9) Oates, B. Brit. Bnrmah 1883, H, 83;
(10) Onillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 548; (11) Biittik., Xotes Leyd. Mns. 1887, 38; (12)
Taczam, P. Z. S, 1888, 462; (12^^^^) Hartert, J. f. 0. 1889, 365; (13) Everett,
J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 160; (14) Whitehead, Ibis 1890, 45; (15) Steere, List
B. Philipp. B. 1890, 11; (15^^^) Hagen, T. Xed. Aard. Genoots. 1890 (2) VH, 144;
(16) Styan, Ibis 1891, 317, 325, 483; (17) Stejn., Pr. U. S. Xat. Mns. 1891, XIV,
495; (18) De La Touche, Ibis 1892, 479; G^'^Hose, Ibis 1893, 409; (20) Styan,
t. c. 433; (21) Hart., Xov. Zool. 1894, 480; (22) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage
Exped. 1894, 34; (23) Everett, Ibis 1895, 30; (24) Blank, Faun. Br, Ind. B. HI.
1895, 133.

c. EntomoMai) pileata (1) Oah. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1860, H, 155; (2) Salvad., Cat. Hcc.

Borneo 1874, 102; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 154; (4) David & Oust., Ois.
Chine, 1877, 75; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 61; (6) Tacz., J. f. 0. 1881, 180; (7)
W. Bias., ib. 1883, 124, 147; (8) id., Ornis 1888, 307; (9) Vorderman, X. Tdschr.
Xed. Ind. 1889, XLIX, 423; (10) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1891, 48; (11) Tacz.,
Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1891, I, 192.

d. Dacelo pileata (1) Schh, Mus, P.-B. Alcedin. 1863, 27; (II) id., Vog. Xed. Ind, Ijsv. 1864,

22, 54, pi. IX, fig. 2; (3) id., Eevue Alcedin. 1874, 18.

e. Halcyon pileatus (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. XVIH, 1892, 229.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe e 1.

Figures and descriptions. Gould b I\ Sharpe J, e 1\ Schlegel d II\ Hume 3\ Legge 4\
David & Oust, c 4; Oates 5; Taczanowski c 11‘, Blanford 24.

Adult. Above bright French-blue; entire head, including malar region and nape, and
wing-coverts black; chin, throat and a broad collar round the neck white,
passing into cinnamon -rufous on lower breast, abdomen, and under tail- and wing-
coverts; remiges and tail below black, the primaries for their basal half or more
Avhite, forming a broad patch.

Wing 124 mm; tail 80; tarsus 14, hill from nostril 53. (Main, Minahassa,
16. Feb. 1894: Xat. Coll. — C 13241).

“Bill deej) red; mouth pale red; eyelids pinkish plumbeous, covered with white
feathers, except on the edges where they are black; feet dark red, brownish in front
of the tarsus; claws dark horn-colour; iris dark brown” (Oates 9). Length 280 mm;
culmen 61; wing 127; tail 86; tarsus 14 (Sharpe I, el).

Adult female. Does not differ in colour from the male. Length 280 mm; culmen 61; wing 130;
tail 76; tarsus 13 (Shai’i^e ib.).

Young. Birds of the year have the black of the upper parts and the blue of the hack and
rump less pure, and the sides of the chest and breast, as also the feathers of the
hind -neck collar, marked with crescentic tippings of blackish brown; but in some
examples the latter part is striated with brown instead of barred. These crescentic
marldngs appear to remain until the bird is fully aged, as they are present in many
specimens which have the upper surface in beautiful adult feather (Legge 4). Bill
shorter, yellow-brown in colour (Styan 16). Irides bluish grey; legs and feet dark
red-hrown; soles pale red; hill dark brown, except at extreme tip of lower mandible
for about 0.25 in. from tip, the sides and angle of gonys, the gape and one-third of
upper mandible from tip gradually coming to a point on ridge of culmen, winch

*) E^itomobia — iiomen nudum.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

285

is of a very pale yellowish orange. Length 190 mm; wing 89; tarsus 16; hill 44.5
(Hume & Davis. 5).

Eggs. 6; a little more oblong than those oi Alcedo ispida, shell less smooth and less glossy,
somewhat rough in certain places; colour pure and transparent white. Average size:
33.6X28.5 mm (Taczanowski 12).

Nest. A single nest of this species found by Mr. Kalinowski in Corea was formed in the
perpendicular sandy wall of a ravine, at a height of 4 meters. Hole like that of
A. ispida, entrance elliptical, tunnel a meter deep, nearly horizontal and curved, widened
and deepened at the bottom, lined with a thick bed of the bones of frogs and lizards,
intermingled with the remains of large insects. The nest appeared to have done
service for several years iTaczan. 12).

Abbe David writes (c 4)\ “Je I’ai trouve nichant sur un grand arbre des
montagnes de Peldn"’ [?].

Breeding season. Corea, summer (Taczan. 12)', Yangtse, young birds leave the nest in July
(Styan 16).

Distribution. Bengal and the Lidian Peninsula (Jerdon b 5, Yidal d, Butler 7); Ceylon
(Layard 4); Burniah (Beavan c 2, Oates .9); Tenasserim (Briggs c 2, Davison 5,
etc.): Andaman Is. (Beavan c 2, Hume .3, etc.); Nicobar Is. (Hume 5); Malay
Peninsula (Cantor c 2, Kelham 8, etc.); Singapore (Kelham 8, Davison el)]
Sumati-a (Kreling c 2, Klaesi 11, Hartert 32*'*, Modigl. e 10)', Borneo (Wall, c 2,
Doria & Beccari c 2, Everett, etc. 75); Bunguran, Natuna (Everett 27); Celebes,
Minahassa (v. Musschenbroek a 2, c 5, c 7, Gruillem. 10, Nat. Coll.); Philippines
— Balabac and Basilan (Steere 15), Tawi Tam (Bourns & Worcester 22), Balabac
(Everett 25), Palawan (Whitehead 74, Platen c 6'); Cambodia (Mouhot e 7); Siam
(Schomburgk c 2, Conrad e 7); Cocliin China (Day c 2, Oustalet c 4); Hainan
(Styan 29); Cluna (David c 4, Styan 75, De La Touche 7S); Corea (Kalinowski 72);
Askold Id. (Taczan. c 5); Japan — Nipon (Stejneger 77).

This species, the Black-capped Kingfisher of Indian naturalists, has hitherto
been recorded only twice from Celebes, first by van Musschenbroek who
states (a 2) that one was shot by his son between Manado and Tanabwangko
in November, which was sent to the Leyden Museum (c 5, and again in

1885 it was found near Kema, 20 miles from Manado, by a native hunter left
there to collect by Dr. Guillemard, by whom two immature and one adult
birds were obtained. Dr. Guillemard has overlooked van Musschenbroek’s
notice, which is thus confirmed. The Dresden Museum has recently received
two further specimens from Celebes obtained the first at Likoupang, 10. Febr.
1894, the other at Manado, 24. March, 1895. This Kingfisher, like Alcedo
ispida, is a migTatory species, and in all probability the Celebesian specimens
obtained were winter migrants from East Asia. In proof of this statement we
tabulate the following observations:

Corea: “rather common in summer, nests, and leaves the countrv for the
winter” — Taczanowski 12.

China: “disappears at the end of summer, retiring to Cochin China” —
David & Oustalet c 4. “Summer visitant to the Lower Yangtse
Basin”. “Comes annually to breed in the Ymngtse Valley” — Styan

286

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

“Not uncommon at Foochow in spring and from the end of August
to the beginning of October. It occurs also sparingly in winter” —
De La Touche 18.

Tenasserim: the numbers vary according to the season. “In January and
February excessively numerous along the higher portions of the Pakchan;
on going over the same part of the river in May, not a single bird
was to be seen” — Davison 3.

Sumatra: during the rainy season (October — January) a very common bird
which one hardly ever sees at other seasons — Hagen

Palawan: “a winter migrant, arriving about 2 Sept.” — Whitehead M

In addition to these observations attention should be drawn to the numerous
dates of the specimens in the British Museum recorded by Dr. Sharpe (e 1)
viz: India, 5 specimens, December and January; Burma 8, December, January;
Tenasserim, 45, September to April; Malay Peninsula, 25 (some without dates;,
October to March, but one also in August; S. E. China, 3, January. Only one
specimen was known from Ceylon at the time of publication of Legge’s great
work, “which must have been a straggler driven to the coasts of Ceylon by the
northerly winds of December”' So, too, only a single specimen is as yet known
from Japan, a recent addition to the avifauna of that country (17). The migra-
tory habits of the species serve to explain these occurrences.

It is an interesting question why this species is migratory, while Callialcyov
coromanda, which has very much the same range, is stationary except in the
northern parts of its range. The latter species, as Dr. Sharpe has shown,
now appears to be undergoing subdivision into many species or subspecies within
itself. At one time, we may suppose, it was a migrant like H. jnleata, but has
gradually become almost completely stationary. H. jiileata is perhaps beginning
to settle down in the same way, as its occurrence in South China in summer
and winter and in the Malay Peninsula in winter and summer tends to show.
The successful multiplication of the southern residents and their gradual spread-
ing would prove a destructive agent to wandering habits on the part of others
of the species.

The long Northern Peninsula of Celebes presents a remarkable boundary
to species migrating from East Asia to warmer quarters for the winter. This
has already been noticed in the case of several species. It is unusual for
migrant Asiatic species to pass beyond this boundary into the Moluccas. Nor
is this to be wandered at. The Celebes Sea is shut in like a basin with the
long wall of North Celebes for its southern border, and the Sangi chain of
islands between Mindanao and the Minahassa on the east. Kingfishers, being
heavy birds of strong but nervous flight, heading their way straight, apparently,
like a bolt towards a given mark, will be little likely to wander away from
the path thus made geographically easy for them. This may explain why
Callialcyon coromonda is not found east of the Celebesian Province.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

287

The present Kingfisher appears to be omnivorous in its food. David
never saw it fishing in China, but found it to be especially partial to beetles
(Cantharidae and Mylabridae)\ the nest already noticed, found by Kalinowski in
Corea, was bedded with the bones of frogs and lizards; in the Malay Peninsula
Kelhain, who has seen it dart down with a splash into the water and catch
a frog, found that it fed there upon frogs, small fishes, and crabs (8).

90. HALCYON SANCTA Yig. Horsf.

Sacred Kingfisher.

Halcyon sancta flj Yig. & Horsf., Tr. L. S. 1826, XY, 206; fllj Grid., B. Austr. 1840, II,
pi. 21; (III) Higgles, Orn. Austr. 1869, pi. 2, fig. 2; (IV) Sharpe, Monogr. Alceclin.
1870, 239, pi. 91; (5) Finsch, Journ. Mus. G-odef. 1875, YIH, 50; (6) Briiggem.,
Ahli. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 54; (7) E. L. & L. 0. Layard, Ibis 1882, 503, 543; (8)
Finsch, Yog. der Siidsee 1884, 8, 24 (Mitth. Orn. Yer. Wien 1884, 55, 95); (9)
Bams., Pr. L. S. X. S. W. 1886, 2. ser. I, 1086; (10) id.. Tab. List Austr. B. 1888,
3; (11) Cox & Hamil., ib. 1889, lY, 401; (12) Xorth, Xests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889,
37; (13) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 161; (14) Wiglesw., Aves Polyn. 1891,
13; (15j Sharpe, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 267; (16) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 242
partini; (17) Madarasz, Aquila 1894, 99; (18) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1896,
XT. 2, p. 12; (19) Hart., Xov. Zool. 1896, 551, 571, 595.
a. Todirhamphus sanctus Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 156; Beichb., Hb., Alcedin. 1851, 33,
t. 418 fig. 3131—33; (3) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 338; (4) Old., Hb. B. Austr. 1865,
I, 128.

h. Sauropatis sancta (1) Cab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1860, H, 158; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872,
YIH, 44; (3) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 104; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 62, 145;
(5) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 476; (6) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (8) Griiillem.,
P. Z. S. 1885, 548, 568, 627; (9) W. Bla.s., Ornis 1888, 575; (10) Salvad., Orn.
Pap. Agg. 1889, I, 58; (11) Yorderman, X. Tdschr. Xed. Ind. 1891, 440; (12) id.,
Xotes Leyden Mus. 1891, 124.

c. Dacelo sancta (1) Schl. , Mus. P.-B. Alcedin. 1863, 35; (II) id., Yog. Xed. Ind. Alcedin.

1864, 27, 59, pi. X, f. 1; (3) id., Bevue Alcedin. 1874, 26.

“Dadubatang bahewa’y Karkellang, Talaut.

‘“Saika anej”, Kabruang, Talaut.

“Bengka budia”, Great Sangi.

“Sisakomang kadio”, Siao.

“Bengka”, Tagulandang and Biarro.

“Kiskis posiposi”, Manado tua.

“Tengkesi ise ise”, Tonkean, E. Celebes.

“Tengkesi mosoni”, Banggai.

The above native names have all been communicated to us by our native
hunters there.

For further synonymy and references see Salvadori h 5, b 10] Sharpe 15.

Figures and descriptions. Gould J/; Beichb. all] Schlegel c II] Biggies IZ7; Sharpe
IV, 15] Salvad. b 5] Bamsay 9] Xorth 12 (egg).

Adult. Head above, mantle and scapulars bluish sage-green, shading off on the sides
of the occiput into verditer-hlue, the colour of the back, rump and upper tail-
coverts; wing-coverts, quills and tail duller blue, inner webs and ends of quills

288

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

blackish; lores orange-rufous; under surface and a broad collar around hind
neck white, pure on chin and throat, washed with orange-rufous on the other parts,
most intensely on the collar, flanks and abdomen; malar stripe, ear-coverts,
continuously with a broad line around neck bordering the blue-green of
the head, blackish; upper edge of mantle blackish; on sides of neck and breast
some faint dusky bars (probably remains of immature plumage) (Siao, 15. VI. 93
0 12612). Iris brown; tarsus dull green; bill black, basal half of lower mandible
white (Gruillem. h 8).

Young. Like the adult, but duller in colour; breast and collar barred with dusky; wing-
coverts margined with pale fawn-colour; lores and margins of feathers of fore-
head pale cinnamon (Glreat Sangi, 22. YII. 93 — C 12708).

Measurements.

"Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (Nr. 8177) ad. Kahndong, N. E. Celebes, April 1871

90

56

11.5

32

b. (C 12612) ad. Siao, 15. YI. 93

86

55

11.5

33.5

c. (C 12613) juv. Siao, 3. YH. 93

89

55

—

d. (C 12708) juv. Gr. Sangi, 22. YII. 93

93

60

12.5

33.5

e. (Nr. 8174) imm. Gr. Sangi

89

56

—

32.5

f. (Mus. Berol.) ad. Togian Is. Aug. 71

90

61

12.5

34.5

g. (Mus. Berol.) § ad. Togian Is. Aug. 71

89

55

—

31

h. (C 13090) imm. Kabruang, 2. XL 93

96

59

—

38.5

Other specimens are dated: 3 Siao — June till July; 1 Sangi — July (Nat.
Coll.); Tagulandang and Biarro — September; Manado tua — May; Talaut —
autumn; E. Celebes and Banggai — May to August.

Eggs. Usually 5; pearly white; average of five measured 26.2x22.1 mm (North 12),
25x21.5 mm (Nehrkorn MS.).

Nest. In Australia — eggs deposited on the decaying wood in a hollow branch, or hole of
a tree, usually an Eucalyptus (North 12), the hollow spouts of the gum — and boles
of the apple-trees (Angophm'ae) generally selected (Old. II, a 4)\ usually a hole 12
to 18 inches long dug in the arborial nest of white Ants (Eamsay 7F); in New
Caledonia — nests in holes, sometimes dug by itself in banks, or in hollow trees,
often at a considerable altitude from the gimmd (Layard 7).

Breeding season. Australia — commences in October and lasts till December (Grid, a 4),
commences in September (North 72), eggs to be had from the beginning of October
to November 20th in the Mudgee District, N. S. W. (Cox & Hamilton 77); New
Caledonia — nesting season from November to January (Layard 7).

Distribution. All parts of Australia and Tasmania (E. P. Eamsay 10, etc.); Islands of Torres
Straits (h 5)\ Norfolk Island (Grray h 5, Lay. 7)i); New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands,
and New Hebrides (Lay. etc. 14)\ ? Tonga Islands — Vavao (Yerr. c 3, 14); Pelew
Islands (Semper 5); Papuasia from the Solomon Is. and New Ireland to New
Guinea, Waigiou, Aru, Kei (Salvad. b 5); the Moluccas from Banda, Ceram and
Burn to Halmahera (Salvad. bo); Sula Islands (Allen a 3, Hoedt c 3); Togian
Islands (Meyer b 4); Celebes — Macassar CWall. b 2, 15); Gorontalo (Eosenb. c 3);
Minahassa (Meyer b 4, Guillem, b 8); Manado tua, Biarro and Tagulandang (Nat.
Coll); Sangi Is. — Siao (v. Duivenb. c 3, b 9, Nat. ColL in Dresd. Mus.); Great
Sangi (Platen b 9, Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); Karkellang and Kabruang — Talaut

1) According to Sliai’ije the sj)ecies inhabiting Lord Howe’s Island and Horfolk Island is H. vagans.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

289

Is. (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. and Tring Mus.); Soutli Borneo (h 3, 13)] 8. E. Sumatra
C. Buxton Id); Banka (Yosinaer c 5); Billiton ;Yorderinan b 11, h 12, Walter
15)] Mendanao, near Billiton — NB. not Mindanao (Yorderman b 12)] Java,
Lombok, Timor, Timorlaut (Salvad. b 5, b 10)] Bali and Sumbawa (Doherty 19),

This Kingfisher is, very probably — if not a migrant to Celebes — increas-
ed in numbers by migration to the country during the Australian winter,
though it occurs in the Province throughout the year. Few specimens have
been obtained on the mainland of the island; in 1874 there was only one
example from Celebes in the I.eyden Museum, viz. from Gorontalo, and we can
only find notice of one specimen from South Celebes, shot by Mr. Wallace
near Macassar. Meyer met with it only at Kalinaong in the N. E. Minahassa
and gained the impression that it is a rare bird. The only other ornithologist
who has recorded it from Celebes appears to be Dr. Guillemard, who obtained
a female specimen at Manado, but we have several from our native hunters
labelled Tonkean, E. Celebes. It seems to be more common on the smaller
islands. In June and July oiir hunters seem to have found it rather plentiful
in Siao, but less so in Great Sangi in July, judging from the proportion of
specimens recently sent to the Dresden Museum. Prof. W. B la si us records four
young specimens killed by Dr. Platen’s hunters on Great Sangi in July and
August, and we have examined a number of specimens from Talaut, Tagulan-
dang, Banggai, etc.

In Australia it is known to be a migvant form, though here, as in the
tropical parts of its range, a few seem always to be met with. Thus Gould
writes (a 4): “It is a summer resident in New South Wales and throughout
the southern portion of the continent, retiring northwards after the breeding-
season. It begins to disappear in December, and by the end of January few
are to be seen: solitary individuals may however be met with even in the depth
of winter. They return again in spring, commencing in August, and by the
middle of September are plentifully dispersed over all parts of the country”.
In the Mndgee District Cox & Hamilton observe that it arrives early in Sep-
tember, and it has been noticed there as late as March PL Dr. Sharpe records
one from North Australia in July, where we suppose it is always present.

In the East Indies — except the S. E. parts — the great majority of pro-
perly dated specimens in collections have been obtained when the species is
away from the southern parts of Australia, i. e. between March and the end of
September, though here and there individuals killed at other times of the year
are recorded, showing that the migration to the South east and to Australia is
not thorough.

Thus Schlegel records a specimen from Sula, 27*’' November, and Count
Salvador! one from Halmahera, December, and specimens were obtained by
our hunters in Talaut in November.

This bird, like others, sometimes goes astray in its migrations. During

Meyer Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 30th, 1897). or.

290

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

Dr. Fiiisch’s cruise in the South Seas a specimen flew on board in 15® S. by
157® E. “The nearest land 300 sea-miles to the north-west was South-east Id. of
the Louisiade Group, to the north-east, circa 330 sea-miles, Eennell Id. of the
Solomon Group, due west we lay 690 sea-miles from the coast of Australia
and east 570 miles from Esperitu Santo in the New Hebrides. This most re-
markable and certainly very rare case of flying astray on the part of a bird
fitted apparently with such moderate powers of flight calls for so much the
more wonder, as we had had very unsettled weather on the preceding days,
with heavy storm and squalls from north-west to north-east in all directions
of the compass” (8).

In view, perhaps, of the migratory habits of the species Count Salvadori
has accepted the localities Tonga Islands and Pelew Islands without query; we
question the first, since it rests only upon the evidence of that unreliable

authority, Verreaux, and, as to the second, Einsch is of opinion that Semper’s

label recording a specimen from the Pelew Islands may be erroneous, since
the species was not obtained there by Kubary during his Vj% years’ collecting
in the islands (5), but, after having made inquiries, we have found out that
Semper collected birds only on the Pelew Islands and not on the Philippines
and that there is no reason whatever to doubt that locality. The birds in question
may have been stragglers to these localities.

Notwithstanding the amount of collecting done of late years in North Borneo
by Everett, Whitehead and others, this species has only been obtained in
the south of the island. We infer that the bird reaches this part of Borneo
from the chain of islands running from Smnatra to Timor and Timorlaut. In
West Australia birds apparently differ from those of East Australia, but in what
way we cannot say, for Gould (a A) says the former are “a trifle larger in
all their measurements; but otherwise y>resent no differences of sufficient impor-
tance to warrant their being considered as distinct”; whereas Dr. E. P. Ramsay

(9) says they are “slightly smaller and of a clearer blue on the back than our

N. S. W. specimens, with a narro^v, well-defined white collar and nuchal spot.
Wing 93 mm, bill from nostril 38, total length 178”' From these measure-
ments it would appear that the word “smaller” may be a lapsus calami, “larger”
being intended. As in the case of Merops ornatus, we suspect — should differ-
ences be proven — that specimens from Sumatra to Timor and S. Borneo will
be found to have more in common with West Australian than with East
Australian, Papuan, Moluccan and Sangi birds, and that the former migrate
across the 'I'imor Sea, the latter across Torres Straits; but this opinion we utter
with all reserve.

The haunts of this Kingfisher are very varied: “the most thickly wooded
brushes, the mangrove forests which border, in many parts, the armlets of the
sea, and the more open and thinly timbered plains of the interior, often in the
most dry and arid situations far distant from water” (Gould a 4).

Birds of Celebes: Aleedinidae.

291

Its food is similarly various; Gould speaks of mantes, grasshoi)pers,
caterpillars, lizards, and very small snakes; E. P. Ramsay (IV), and Cox &
Hamilton (11), unlike Gould, have seen it plunge into the water also and
take fish.

A very near ally of this species is H. vagans of New Zealand, which Dr.
Sharpe speaks of as “a large and richly coloured island race of H. sanctus'\
Another closely related form is H. chloris, the next species on our list, from which,
as kSalvadori remarks, it is easily distinguishable by its much smaller dimensions,
and by the fulvous colour of the cervical collar, and of the under parts (h5),

91. HALCYON OHLOKIS (Bodd.).

White-collared Kingfisher.

This plentiful species is distributed from the coasts of the Red Sea and
India south and east as far as the Pelew Islands, the Solomon Islands, the New
Britain Group , and perhaps even the Fiji Islands. According to Dr. R. B.
Sharpe’s recent researches (Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 272 — 283), a tendency to be-
come differentiated into local forms finds expression in many different localities
within this vast range, yet the differences are such that — locality unknown —
it is certain that an adult specimen could not be determined as this or that
form by means of a description alone, to say nothing of younger specimens.
Moreover, “here and there”, as Dr. Sharpe says, “is to be found a specimen
which seems to be intermediate between the races ; and as several of the latter
appear to be migratory, it is quite possible that some of them hybridize with
the resident birds of the countries which they visit”. Instead, therefore, of
treating these supposed races as being several distinct species and subspecies,
as Sharpe has done, we cannot help thinking that the whole should have been
viewed as one species, H. chloris, which perhaps branches out into numerous
subspecies. Working ornithologists are well aware that it is much easier to
make a new species than to “kill” an old one — especially so long as the
author of it is living — and most inconvenient in this way are species which
are entitled only to rank as possible subspecies Naturalists either entirely ad-
mit their validity as species or entirely ignore' them, and the result is confusion
and mutual di^srespect for the other’s judgment. Would the former only con-
sent to attach a trinomial or some other token to indicate that the variation
in the species comes to a particular head there, this stumbling-block would
be done away; it would then become understood that he who employs the
simple binomial speaks broadly of the species as a whole, while he who
employs some special additional sign refers thereby to some particular section
of the species. That the best way to do this latter is to employ the tri-, quadri-,
quinqui-, etc.-nomials suggested by American ornithologists we do not believe:
when the need for it becomes sufficiently pressing, it is to be hoped that some-
much briefer, simpler method will be found.

37*

292

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

"W e have paid great attention to this species and have before us at this
moment a series of 80 skins from the Celebesian area alone, not to speak of
a great number of others which have passed through our hands in the Last
few years, yet we do not feel able to say anything about it, except that it
varies individually in the same localities to a very great extent, both in size,
in the size and form of the bill, in the different shades of blue and green of
the upper surface, and in the presence or absence of bars on the under sur-
face; moreover, as soon as the bird can fly, it wears the adult dress and even

experienced ornithologists might take such, before they are full grown, for a
smaller species or subspecies.

The typical Halcyon chloris.

a. Aleedo chloris (1) Bodd., Tab! PL Enl. 1873, p. 49; (2) Bosenb., Malay. Arcliip.

1878, 272.

b. Aleedo collaris (Scop.), (I) Kittl., Kiipfert. Yog. 1833, I, 10, pi. 14, fig. 1.

c. Halcyon collaris (1) Swains., Zool. Illustr. 1820, I, pi. 27.

d. Halcyon chloris (1) Gray, Gen. B. 1846, I, 79; (II) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin. 1870, 229,

pi. 87; (3) Hume & Davison, Str. F. 1873, I, 451; (4) Briiggem. , Abb. Yer.
Bremen 1876, Y, 53; (6) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 367; (6) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1879, 332;

(7) Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 161; (8) Whitehead, Ibis 1890, 45; (9)

Steere, List Coll. B. Philipp. Is. 1890, 11; fX) Sharpe, Oat. B. XYH, 1892, 273,
pi. YII, fig. 3; (11) Butt., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Beise in Ost-Ind. 1893, IH, 275;
(12) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 242; (13) Stiider, Gazelle-Beise 1889, IH, 198; (14)
Hartert, Ornis 1891, 121; (15) Bourns & AYorces, B. Menage Exp. 1894, 34;
(16) Yorderm., X. T. Xed. Ind. 1895, LIY, 335; (17) Hart, Xov. Zool. 1895, 474;
(18) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7; (10) iid., ib. Nr. 9, p. 3;
(20) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 8; (21) iid., ib. Nr. 2, p. 12; (22) Blittik., Notes
Leyden Mus. 1896, XYIH, 172; (23) Hart, Nov. Zool. 1896, 158, 175, 562, 571,
586, 595; (24) id., ib. 1897, 158; (XXV) Meyer, Yogelskel. 1897, pi. OCXYI.

e. Halcyon forsteni Bp., Consp. 1850, 157 (ex Temm. MS.); (2) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 93;

(III) Sharpe, Monogr. Alcedin. 1870, 235, pi. 89; (4) id., Oat B. XYH, 1892, 279.

f. Todiramphus forsteni (1) Beichb., Hb. spec. Orn., Alcedin. 1851, 30.

g. Cyanalcyon forsteni (1) Bp., Coiisp. Yol. Aiiisod. 1854, 9, Nr. 313.

/?. Dacelo forsteni (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Alced. 1863, 37; (II) id.. Yog. Ned. Ind. Alced. 1864,
29, 60, pi. XI, f. 1; (3) Eiiisch, Neu Guinea 1865, 161.

i. Sauropatis forsteni (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 44; (2) Meyer, Bus 1879, 62.

j. Todiramphus collaris (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 318.

k. Sauropatis chloris (1) Oab. & Heine, Mus. Hein. 1860, H, 160; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S.

1872, 'NHH, 44; (3) Salvad. , Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 103; (4) id., Ann. Mus. Oiv.
Gen. 1875, YII, 653; 1876, IX, 53; (5) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 61, 146; (6) Salvad.,
Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 470; (7) lY. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135; (8) Kutter, ib. 1882, 171;
1883, 301; Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6, 19; (10) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 256,
504, 547, 568; (11) W. Bias., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 244; 1886, 90; (12) id., Ornis
1888, 307, 573; (13) Salvad., Orn. Pap., Agg. 1889, I, 57; (14) Hickson, Nat. in
N. Celebes 1889, 90.

l. Dacelo chloris (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Alcedin. 1863, 32; (II) id., Yog. Ned. Ind. Alcedin.

1864, 26, 58, pi. X, f. 3, 4; (3) id., Bev. Acc. 1874, 21.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

293

m. Halcyon meyeri siibsp. {!) Sharpe, Oat, B. XVII, 1893, 282.

n. Halcyon sancta (nec Vig. & Horsf.) (1) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 242, pt; (2) iid.,

Ahh. Mas. Dresden 1895, Xr. 9, p. 3.

“Saika”, Talaut, Xat. Coll.

“Bengka ngake”. Great Sangi, iid.

“Sisakomang”, Siao, iid.

“Sisakomang koke”, Siao, immature, iid.

“Eadja ndan him”, (Blue King of the Crabs), Malay name, Minahassa, Meyer k 5.

“Kikiskatanaan”, Alfurous, hlinahassa, M. k 5.

“Kiskis”, Minahassa and the islands off the coast, Xat. Coll.

“Kiss-kiss”, Talissi, Hickson k 14.

“Doo”, Gorontalo?, v. Rosenberg a 2.

“Tjiki”, Tjamba, Macassar, and Maros, S. Celebes, Platen k 11.

For further synonymy and references compare Salvador! k 6, k 13 and Sharpe d X.

Figures and descriptions. Kittlitz h J; Swainson c I\ Sharpe d II, d X, e III, e 4\ Meyer
d XXV (skeleton); Schlegel I II\ Hume d 3\ Briiggemann d 4\ Salvador! /t 5;
W. Blasius klV, Schlegel h II (H. forsteni).

Fiirhringer (Untersuchungen 1888, pi. IH, fg. 250, pi. IV, fg, 37) has figured
some parts of the skeleton.

Adult. Genei-al colour above greenish blue, becoming more cerulean on sides of head and
nape, wing-coverts, quills, and tail; lores fulvous white; subloral region, ear-
coverts, continuously with a narrow band round neck, black, on the ear-
coverts washed with blue; entire under surface, a broad collar and a very
small nuchal mark above the black band white (X. Celebes, C 3618).

The white nuchal spot is not noticeable in most specimens.

Iris brownish; bill black, below reddish white (M. f 5). Iris brovm; bill black,
basal half of under bill yellow- white ; feet black (Platen f 11).

Sexes. Similar in colour (Sharpe d X).

Young. Similar to the adult in coloration, recognisable as young by the small bill — in this
specimen further by the mng and tail not yet full grovm. Tlie bill is short (from
nostril 29 mm), the extreme tq) white, and decurved, it is also less broad, width
where the first submalar feathers sprout 15 mm, as against 17.5 in an adult. This
specimen is of a strong green tint above and slightly barred below; those
described by Briiggemann below are of a fine blue colour above, and not bruTed
below (o^ juv. Macassar, 11. IX. 95: P. & F. Sarasin).

Two s]3ecimens. “Bill almost as broad as in the adult, but only 28 mm long,
dark horn-grey, the tips of both mandihles white. Upper mandihle strongly hooked,
also the tip of the under mandible somewhat turned downwards. Feathers of the
head still entirely enclosed in the silver-white sheaths. So too on the back, the
wings, and under surface many sheaths are still noticeable. Wing 79 mm. Above
fine blue. Below pure white, in one specimen with shght traces of blacldsh
borders on the feathers of the breast” (Br tig gem. d 4).

Briiggemann rightly remarks that the form of bill in the young bird is of
.special interest and fully confirms the views to which Sharpe has given utterance
in his excellent review of the genetic affinities of the Kingfishers.

The young vary in tint from bright China-blue to verdigris-green, just as do
the adults. We believe a white nuchal spot is always present, though it is often
completely concealed and probably often not seen in life. There is often nothing to
distinguish the young but their smaller bill, and just this point is likely to lead them

294

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

to bo taken for a smaller race. For a long time we took a small series of specimens
from Talant for a race of the small H. scinctoj (n 1^ n 2 jj then with an increased
series of about 25 specimens we labelled it with a ? “small race of cfetom”; finally,
having studied the young and found every possibly transition between specimens with
bills of 30 to adults with bills 47 mm in length, it appears obvious that the small
specimens are simply young ones which have not yet attained their full size.

ments.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

North Celebes, 10 adults ..........

105-114

66 c.

33.5-40.5

13 c.

North Celebes, 2 imm

104, 105

65, 68

33.5-38

S. Cel., Tanette, 1 ad.. Sept., Maros, $ ad., Nov. 1871

109-114

62-65

35, 35

Manado tua and Mantehage Is., 4 imm., April 1893

108-112

65 c.

33.5-41

Banka Id. off the Minahassa, 2 ad.. May 1893 . .

105, 106

63,70

37.5-42.5

Siao, 1 ad., June 1893 . . •

114

68

40

—

Siao, 2 imm., June 1893

104, 105

62,64

34, 36

Great Sangi, 3 ad., July 1893

104-111

68-69

37-41

Togian Is., ad., $ ad., August 1871 ....

103, 106

65, 65

37, 37

Talaut Is., Kabruang, 0 ad., Salibabu, 2 ad., Oct.-Nov. 93

IIO-IIS

68-75

43-46

Talaut Is., Kabruang, 4 imm., Nov. 1893 ....

108-113

66-73

38-43

East Celebes, Peling and Banggai — 33 examples

102-119

—

36-47

—

Young and immature specimens.

Karkellang, 12, Kabruang, 1, late autumn 93,91,96

90-104

54-65

30-38

13 c.

E. Celebes and Peling, 5 juv.. May— August 1896 .

101-105

—

34-37

—

Eggs. Mindanao: 4 in number; 28.7— 31 .2 x 23.1— 24.0 mm; pure Avhite, .smooth, glossy,
short oval, or somewhat ovate, fine-grained with pores only slightly indicated
(Kutter k S); Labuan: 3, pure wliite; 29.2 — 30.5 X 24.1 — 25.4 (Sharpe d 6).

Nest. In holes in trees, or in a termites’ nest (Kutter /t S). The Sarasin Collection contains
a fragment of the rotten stem of a tree with a hole of about 45 mm diam. through
it, apparently pecked out by the bird, and the lining of the nest, consisting only of
a small quantity of vegetable fibres and grasses (Tomohon, orig. label lost).

Breeding season. hCndanao, March and April (Kutter); Labuan, nest found March 22"'^
(Low d. 6).

Distribution. In the Celebes Province: — Talaut Is. (Nat. Coll. Dresden & Trmg Museums)
Great Sangi (Bruijn k 4, Platen k 12, Nat. ColL); Siao (Hoedt I 3, v. Duivenb. I 5;
Nat. Coll.); Tagulandang, Euang (Nat. Coll.); Talissi (Hicks, k 14) \ Banka, Mantehage,
Manado tua and Lembeh (Nat. Coll.); Minahassa (Meyer ko, etc.); Gorontalo
(Eosenb. 13, etc.); Togian Is. (Meyer k 5, -ml); E. Celebes (Nat. ColL); Kandari,
S. E. Peninsula (Beccari k 4]\ South Peninsula (Wall, k 2, Platen k 11, Meyer k 5,
Weber d iTy, Peling and Banggai (Nat. ColL); Sula Islands — Sula Besi (Wall.
j 1, Bernst. I 3).

As is commonly supposed to be the case with excessively numerous species,
this Kingfisher is subject to ’\ery considerable individual variation — for a
Kingfisher indeed, in which family the species are very stable, the individual
variation of H. chloris may be termed great. A couple of hundred specimens or
more of this species from the Celebesian area have passed through our hands in

Birds of Celebes: Alcedioidae.

295

the last few years and it has on several occasions received close attention from
us. The result is, as already indicated, that we are unable to point to a single
local race or subspecies; if local variation exists, it is entirely swamped by the
individual variation, and the racial development could only be ascertained by long
investigation on hundreds of specimens and by so determining the average
individual of this or that spot. Some of the more prominent points of variation
in the Celebesian area are: the bill-length from 30 mm (young — but not appearing
so) to 47 mm, its width noticeably different, the culmen sometimes slightly re-
curved ; the white nuchal spot, sometimes large, sometimes present only on the
basal part of the feathers and concealed, the tips being blue; the colour of
the ear-coverts - — blackish, or strongly washed with blue or green; the colour
of the upper surface varying, as already pointed out, from bright China -blue to
verdigris-green. At one time we thought the Talaut race ran larger in size
and in size of bill than in Celebes, a larger series has, however, shown that
this is not the case; at another time we thought that Talaut possessed two races
— a large and a small one, but later investigations simply go to prove that the
small one is young and not full-grown. Dr. Sharpe has broken up H. chloris
into many species and subspecies: were his views to be adopted, not only H.
chloris, but also H. armstrongi Sh., H. forsteni Bp., H. solomonis Salvad., H.
humii Sh., H. meyeri Sh. and perhaps others would apparently have to be ad-
mitted into this work — all from the Celebesian region. H. liwmii we hold
simply for young, H. armstrongi, H. solomonis, and H. forsteni for individual
variations.

In some of the Moluccas Dr. Sharpe finds that specimens with black ear-
coverts joining a very broad black nape-band are prevalent, but does not find
it possible to draw a line of division between them and others from the same
or neighbouring islands. Most of the Moluccan examples in the Dresden
Museum have a slight wash of blue on the car-coverts; on the contrary those
of Timorlaut are without colour on this part, being simply black.

In Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo there can be no doubt that the typical
Moris intergrades with ff. armstrongi of the Burmese countries; Sharpe records
both forms from the two latter localities, and there is no reason to believe that
they separate themselves at a given season by migration.

Again, in Acheen, Sumatra, Dr. Sharpe records both the typical chloris and
H. humii of the Malay Peninsula and Siam at the same date.

Count Salvadori questions the identity of specimens from the Pelew Islands
with H. chloris \ a specimen from there in the Dresden Aluseum is remarkably
green on the head, mantle and scapulars, but not more so than one from Timor-
laut, where much bluer specimens also occur.

We unite Halcyon forsteni with this form of H. chloris, believing, like Count
Salvadori f/r that it is only a melanotic variety of it. The feathers of the
under surface of the type of forsteni which we have seen, are muddled with

296

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae,

greenish black, not regularly barred as shown in Sharpe’s (e III) figure of it.
The head, back, and scapulars of this specimen are very green. It is worthy
of note that those specimens from the Celebes Province which are greenest
above most usually have the breast barred with dusky, while those of the bluest
upper surface are generally pure white below.

Sharpe has separated the two specimens from the Togian Islands in the
British Museum as H. meyeri, a subspecies of H. humii^ on the ground of their
possessing black ear-coverts and nuchal collar, a wash of fulvous on the sides
of the body, and the bill upturned at the tip in a very conspicuous manner.
After examining the two specimens from Togian (Meyer) in the Berlin Museum,
kindly forwarded to us for the purpose by Prof. Peichenow^ we find ourselves
unable to admit the racial distinction of Togian birds; the bill in these two
examples does not incline upward more than in many specimens from the main-
land of Celebes, the ear-coverts of the female are blue, of the male washed
with blue, the sides are indeed slightly fulvous, but this is also seen in some
Celebesian specimens. The blue of the upper surface does not differ from that
of some specimens from Celebes. Whether the greener-backed birds also occur
in Togian, as they do in Great Sangi, Talaut and elsewPere, remains to be as-
certained. H. chloris in the East Indies may be compared to the Sparrow in
Europe, so far as variation is concerned.

GENUS MONACHALCYON Echl).

These Kingfishers are of rather large size, and may be recognised by their
having the tarsus as long as the middle toe without the claw; the 4*"*^ and 5^^
primaries are longest, the 1®* shorter than the secondaries; the bill is red,
conical, deeper than wide across the nostril, the length from the nostril less
than 3 times the width; the tail is long, about 3 times the length of the bill
from the nostril, rounded. The typical forms of Celebes are forest-haunting
birds. Four species, one in Flores.

* 92. MONACHALCYON MONACHUS (Bp.).

Blue-cowled Kingfisher.

The typical form of this species inhabits the Northern Peninsula of Celebes
and has a China-blue head. In the Eastern Peninsula a form with a black
head occurs. From Western Celebes Mr. Hartert has described a bird which
is treated by him as a subspecies of the typical form, but further proof is
required before the very different black-headed ilf. capucinus can be brought in
as a third subspecies. The young of the typical monachus is known to be like
the adult; the young of M. capucinus is not known.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

297

4 1. The typical Monachalcyon monachus.

a. [Dacelo princeps Forsten in lit.].

h. Halcyon monachus [(1) Grray, Gen. B. I, 1846, 79, pt. (clescr. null.)]; (2) Bp., Oonsp.

1850, I, 154; (3) Cass., Oat. Hale. Philacl. Mus. 1852, 8; (4) Wall., Ibis 1860,

142; (5) Briiggem., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 50.

c. Dacelo monachus [(1) Gray, List Eissirostr. Br. Mus. 1848, 53, pt. (clescr. null.)]; (2)

Blyth, Oat. B. Mus. As. Soc. 1849, 46.

d. Monachalcyon princeps (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 43; (2) Salvacl., Ann. Mus. Oiv.

Gen. 1875, YH, 653, pt.; (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 60; (4) Salvacl, Orn. Pap. 1880,
I, 503; (5) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 135.

e. Halcyon princeps (1) Oass., Oat. Hale. Pliilad. Mus. 1852, 8.

f. Paralcyon princeps (1) Bp., Oonsp. Yol. Anisod. 1854, 9.

g. Dacelo princeps pt. (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Alced. 1863, 24, pt.; (II) id.. Yog. Heel. Incl.

Alced. 1864, 20, 53, pL 7, tig. 1, 2 (only); (3) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 89; (4) SchL,

Bevue Alced. 1874, 16.

Monachalcyon monachus (I) Sharpe, Monogr. Alced. 1870, 255, pL 98, figs. 1, 2 (only); (2)
Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 367; (3) Beichnw., J. f. O. 1883, 122; (4) GuilL. P. Z. S.
1885, 547, pt.; (5) Tristr., Oat. Ooll. B. 1889, 94; (6) Heine & Bchnw., Homencl.
Mus. Hein. 1890, 168; (7) Sharpe, Oat. B. XYH, 1892, 294; (8) M. & Wg., Abh.
Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 2, 13; (9) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 562.

h. Actenoides homhroni (1) Beichnw. (nec Bp.)., J. f. O. 1877, 218.

i. Monachalcyon monachus monachus (1) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

“Eadja udan kapala hiru” (King of the crabs with blue head), Minahassa, Malay, Meyer d 3,
Nat. Ooll.

“Kikis tambo”, Minahassa, Alfiirous, Meyer d 3.

Figures and descriptions. Sharpe I, 7; Schlegel g II, g 1\ Briiggemann h 5.

Adult male. General colour above green-olive, tail, upper tail-coverts and outer webs of
primaries washed with vercliter-blue ; entire head, including ear-coverts and malar
region, dark Oliina-blue, paler on sides; chin and throat white; remaining under
parts orange- cinnamon-rufous, continuous vdth a narrow collar round neck darker
and redder, scarcely meeting behind; under wing-coverts pale huffy cinnamon.
Bill red (near Manado, Aug. — Sept., 0 10860, March, Nr. 6148).

Young [male]. Two specimens, about a fortnight out of the nest, are just hke the adult male,
but with the breast crossed with wavy lines of dusky; the lores and forehead touched
with cinnamon; bill short, tip a little bent down, horn-brown, yellowish in places,
especially towards tip (Manado tua Id., 8. lY. 93, C 12257, Lotta, Minahassa, 14. lY. 93,
0 12256).

Female. Like the adult male, but with only the upper part of head blue — malar region,
ear-coverts, sub- and supra-orbital region, lores, and bases of feathers of forehead,
cinnamon-rufous like the under surface, but darker except above the eye; chin and
throat wood-brown (Manado, March, 0 2286). Three other specimens, marked female
(0 2285, Nr. 6152, 6151) have a greater or less amount of greyish blue on the malar
region, ear-coverts and under the eye.

Observation. Prom the circumstance that the specimen (Nr. 6151) with most blue on the
sides has a somewhat shorter and more immature-looking bill, we believe that the
young female will be found to resemble the male, having the entire sides of the
head blue, but that in the adult female these parts gradually become cinnamon-
rufous, whereas the old male hardly differs from the young. Briiggemann (b 5)

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 30th 1807). 3g

298

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

was certainly in error in stating that this species appears in two different dresses
according to the season, the first dress described being that of the adult male, the
second of the female. We have specimens in both dresses killed in March and again
six months later in August — September, and further properly sexed examples described
or remarked upon by Schlegel (g 1)^ Salvadori and Sharpe (7)^ prove that

the differences are of a sexual nature.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

a. (Nr. 6148) ad. Manado, Mch, 1871 (M.) ....

146

113

37

—

h. (C 10860) [(T’] Manado; Aug., Sept. 1892 (N. C.)

149

119

38.5

20

c. (C 2282) vix ad. Manado, Mch. 1871 (M.) . . .

141

—

36

—

d. (Nr, 6153) [Q] ad. Manado

146

—

38.5

21

e. (C 2286) $ ad. Manado, Mch. 1871 (M.)

142

121

39

21

f. (C 2285) Q ad. Manado, Mch. 1871 (M.)

150

117

40

21

g. (Nr. 6152) § ad. Manado, Mch. 1871 (M.) ....

144

113

39.5

—

h. (Nr. 6151) 9 Manado, Mch. 1871 (M.) . . .

144

116

37

—

i. (Nr. 6150) Q ad. Manado . . . ,

147

—

39

—

j. (C 10859) [Qj Aux ad. Manado, Aug., Sept. 1892 (N. C.)

143

114

37

—

k. (C 12256) juv. Lotta, Msa., 14. IV. 93 (N. C.) . . .

122

58

28

20

1. (C 12257) juv. Manado tua Id., 8. IV. 93 (N. C.) .

120

59

26

19

m. (C 14192) [([f] ad. Lembeh Id., Feb. 1895 (N. C.) . .

146

110

40

21

n. (C 14193) ad. Lembeh Id., Mch. 1895j(N. Od- •

Ml

110

35

—

Observation. In old examples the bill apj>ears to be thinner as w

ell as

longei

’, being a little

more narrowed at the sides near the base and the ridge of the culmen sharper.

Eggs. 3; white and transparent; 30 X 25 mm (Meyer d 3).

Nest. In a white ants’ nest the size of a gourd. Half of the ants’ nest destroyed by the
bird, cavity for the eggs six inches in diameter, entrance two inches in diameter
and nine inches long. The nest was still jiartly inhabited by the ants (Meyer
d 3). Two other eggs of tliis species were found by Meyer lying on tlie ground
and dirty.

Breeding season. The above nest was found in the Minahassa, March 17^^. The young liy
— as shown by the two specimens in the Dresden Museum — at the end of March
or in April.

Distribution. Celebes, Northern Peninsula: Minahassa (Forsten (/ i, Wallace /> 4, 7,
Posenb. g 4, Meyer d 3, etc.)] Gorontalo Province fPosenb. g 4)\ Manado tua Id.
and Lembeh Id. (Hat. Coll, in Dresden Mus.).

y- 2. Monachalcyon monachus intermedius Hart.

Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

Diagnosis. Differs conspicuously from the typical form of N. Celebes in having the head of
a much deeper blue, and Avith a distinct, though faint, greenish tinge ; the tail a little
less washed Avith blue; the breast and abdomen a shade lighter than in the most
males of the typical form, the bill apparently a little thicker. Wing about 142 mm;
tail about 127; beak 50 (Hartert).

Distribution. Western Celebes — Tawaya (Doherty).

Observation. A single specimen, a male, was obtained by Mr. Doherty at the above spot.
Mr. Hartert had the great kindness to bring this specimen, together with the only

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

299

known female of M. caimcinus^ to Dresden at the meeting of the German Orni-
thologists’ Union 1897, and he agrees with us that, while M. capudnus may be allowed
to stand as a good species, easily distinguishable by its greenish black head, the form
intermedius should rank only as a race of M. monachMs typical.

As Wallace and Meyer remark (b 4, d3) M. motiachus lives, not near
river-banks, but in the forest, and Wallace noted that it is insectivorous in
its habits, feeding on coleoptera, gryllae^ etc. {!). The bird appears to moult
about August, as shown by a specimen in the Dresden Museum (C 10860).

Touching its relationship with other genera Sharpe considers (Monogr.
p. XLV) that Monachalcyon “shows no direct affinity to any existing genus, and
the only place I can assign to it is in the vicinity of Tanysiptera ... It is
very probably derived from the same parent-stock, and, being isolated in the
island of Celebes, has been modified into its present form”. The author also
remarks (p. XVIII) that in form of bill Monachalcyon seems intermediate between
Tanysiptera and Halcyon, being in general plumage not far removed from the
cinnamon group of Haley ones. We differ in so far from Dr. Sharpe as to
think that Monachalcyon may be described as a small-billed and long-tailed
Halcyon, and that its nearest existing allies are the long-tailed Halcyones of the
Philippines, H. homhroni of Mindanao and H. lindsayi and moseleyi of Luzon and
Negros. The first-named species has indeed been confounded with M. monachus
by so experienced an ornithologist as Prof. Peichenow (3). In his recent
Catalogue of the Kingfishers (Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 296) Dr. Sharpe includes
CaridonaoD fidgidus of Flores and Lombok in the genus Monachalcyon, and, like
Hartert, we acquiesce in this view, though this species has a rounded culmen
(in M. monachus the ridge is rather shaiqDj, and the tail much more graduated,
the outermost feather being only Vs the length of the tail instead of about % as
in M. monachus, and it is said to haunt low woods and thickets, while M. monachus
is a forest bird. It differs moreover so greatly in coloration that it may prove
to be less nearly related to Monachalcyon than are the nearest members of Hal-
cyon, H. homhroni and its allies.

93. MONACHALCYON CAPUOINUS M.&Wg.

Black-cowled Kingfisher.

Plate IX.

Monachalcyon capucinus (1) M. & Wg., Abb. und Ber. Mus. Dresden 1896, Nr. 2, p. 12; (2)
Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 160.

a. Monachalcyon monachus capucinus (1) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

“Bukaka daka daka”, Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.).

Diagnosis. Differs from M. monaehus of North Celebes by having the head and face black
(instead of China-blue), the tail olive-green (not washed -with blue), the remiges dusky
olive-green (not washed with blue), the remaining upper parts clearer olive-green, the

38*

300

Birds of Celebes; Alcedinidae.

whitish of the chin and throat not extending so far down towards the jugulnm (type
[cf] Tonkean, East Celebes, May— Aug. 1896: Eat. Coll. — C 14761).

Wing 150 mm; tail 115; bill from nostril 41; tarsus 21.

Pemale. Eike the male, hut the superciliary region, face and ear-coverts ferruginous, below
the eye blackish and at the base of hill varied with blackish; hack a shade yellower
ohve; “eye brownish grey, bill orange [redj , feet orange- brown”; wing 146 mm;
tail 120; tarsus 22; hill from nostril 42 (Q, Macassar, July 1896: W. Doherty in
the Tring Museum).

Distribution. Eastern and Southern Peninsulas of Celebes: Tonkean (Eat. Coll.), Macassar
(Doherty).

At the time of writing only two specimens of this species are known, the
type, a male in the Dresden Museum, and a female from Macassar in the Tring
Museum most kindly lent to us for comparison by Mr. Hartert. Possibly the
head of the latter is not quite so deep black as in the male, the middles of
the feathers having a stronger sea-green tint and being more powdery-looking.
The feathers appear to be fresher than in the type, the more powdery look is
probably transient and the head might get blacker with wear. The back is a
shade yellower olive. These differences are so small that they will probably
be more than bridged over by individual variation. There is a gloss of blue-
green on the head of the male, hardly perceptible except on the cheeks and
ear-coverts, and the concealed middles of the feathers are greyish — not
clear black. It would be a matter of much interest if this w'ell-marked form
should prove in other parts of Celebes to pass into the typical M. monachus by
imj)erceptible gradations. Air. Hartert, as shown above, has described a form
from Tawmya, West Celebes, which he considers intermediate (cf. supra). It
differs from M. capucinus by having a deep blue , or deep greenish blue, cowl,
and a wash of blue on the tail.

The Eastern Peninsula of Celebes is separated from the Northern Peninsula
only by the 40 miles or so of width of the Gulf of Tomini, but by land the
distance is much greater than from the Southern Peninsula. It can therefore
call for no great surprise, if the fauna of the Eastern Peninsula proves to have
more in common with the Southern than with the Northern Peninsula. Besides
M. capucinus^ other characteristic southern forms wdiich have been found in the
Eastern Peninsula are Microstictus ivallacei and Pprrhocentor celehensis rufescens.
The specimens of Phoeuicophaes are more like the northern individuals: some
other birds are not yet known from other quarters of Celebes.

T 94. MONAOHALCYON PRINOEPS Rchb. )

Juvenile Cowled Kingfisher.

a. [Dacelo cyanocepliala Forsten in lit.]
h. [Dacelo monachus Temm. MS. Leyd. Mus.]

For a long time this species was held by Schlegel, Sharpe, and other ornithologists to be the
yonng of ilf. monachus. It was recogiaised as distinct by Temminck and Forsten, but the names chosen

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

301

c. [Halcyon monachus pt. (1) Glray, Gen. B. I, 1846, 79 (descr. null.).]

Monachalcyon princeps (I) Beiclib., Handb. Alced. 1851, 38, t. 425, fig. 3157; (2) Salvad.,
Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1875, VII, 653 part, (descr. of young); (3) M. &Wg., Abb.
Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7.

d. Dacelo princeps pt. (1) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. Alced. 1863, 24; (II) id., Vog. Ned. Ind. Alced.

1864, 20, 53, pi 7, fig. 3; (3) id., Bevue Alced. 1874, 16.

e. Monachalcyon monachus pt. (I) Sharpe, Monogr. Alced. 1870, 255, pL 98, fig. 3; (2)

Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 547.

Halcyon cyanocephala (1) Briigg., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 51.

g. Monachalcyon cyanocephalus (1) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 60; (2) Sharpe, Cat. B. XVII, 1892,

295; (3) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

h. Monachalcyon cyanocephala (1) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135.

Figures and descriptions. Reichb. /; Scbl. d II^ d 1\ Sharpe el, g 2\ Briiggem. f 1.

Adult male. General colour above dark bistre -brown, the mantle, wing-coverts, scapulars
and upper tail-coverts terminally bordered with cinnamon; entire head and nape,
ear- coverts, and malar region, cyanine-blue; lores cinnamon, the forehead also
slightly touched with cinnamon; neck cinnamon, the feathers crossed with a sub-
terminal bar of dusky, the colour of their basal parts; under parts white, washed
with cinnamon on breast, sides and under tail-coverts, and crossed from the upper
chest downwards with somewhat broad brace-shaped bars of brown, broadest on the
sides; under wing-coverts and inner webs of quills below towards their basal
part cinnamon, the former marked with a few brown bars ([q^J Gorontalo, Nr. 8186).
Bill very pale horn, darker about the middle of the upper mandible.

Immature [male]. Like the adult male, but the under surface and under wing-coverts more
broadly and plentifully barred with brown; the cinnamon margins to the feathers of
the u]3per surface of a more rufous cinnamon tint and preceded by a subtenninal
dusky line passing into the brovm of the back (Gorontalo, Nr. 8185).

Adult female. Differs from the form described as the adult male in having a stripe of pale
cinnamon stretching from the lores above the eye to the ear-coverts and a similar
stripe from the rictus below the eye to the ear-coverts, with a blue strqie between
them; the under surface more plentifully barred. “Iris brown; bill horn-yellow-brown;
feet brown” (Burukan, Q, 5. XI. 84: Platen in Mus. Nehrkorn, Nr. 916).

An adult female in the Sarasin Collection, killed in the breeding-season, had
the “bill yellow, above greyish, also below at the sides; iris dark brovm; feet yellow-
grey” (Q Burukan, 26. HI. 94, P. & P. S.).

Young female. ’With cinnamon suiierciliary and malar stripes as in the adult female, the malar
stripe more extended and broader, the ear- coverts black, the bars on the breast
narrower and more irregular. Bill shorter, blackish m colour, tip wlntish ( Q , Tomohon,
7. VI. 94: P. & P. Sarasin). See, also, Briiggemann f 1.

Young male (just about able to fly). Like the adult male — without the superciliary and
. malar stripes of the female; a little cinnamon on the lores; bill much smaller and
shorter than in the adult and with a shght hook at the tip, terminal third yellowish
white, basal part blacldsh horn (Q, Tomohon, 27. IH. 94: P. & P. S.).

by these authors were never published. Its distinctness was again pointed out by Dr. Briiggemann in 1876
(f IJ, who gave the present species Forsten’s MS. name cyanocephala, but in 1851 Eeiohenbach had
already figured and described it as M. princeps from a specimen in the Dresden Museum. It appears that in
calling this form princeps and the foregoing species monachus Reichenbach and Bonaparte misapplied
Forsten’s and Temminck’s unpublished names, but this, though a little to be regretted, does not call for
further comment.

302

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

BiU from
nostril '

Tarsus

a. (Nr. 3688) ad. [cj'] Celebes (type of M. princeps) . .

114

88

18

h. (Nr. 8186) ad. [q^] Gorontalo

120

96

34

17

c. (Nr. 8185) vix ad. [c;y^] Grorontalo

115

90

33

18

d. (Nr. 3687) ad. [(^f] Manado ....

114

85

34.5

e. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Rurukan, 26. III. 94 . . .

117

85

31

18

Eggs. “The two eggs of this species sent to me by Dr. Platen from Rurukan in the Mna-
hassa are, like those of all Alcedidae, white, yet without gloss ; the shell very delicate.
They measure 33 X 25.5 mm“ (Nelirkorn MS.).

Distribution. Celebes, Northern Peninsula: Minahassa (Forsten dl, d II, v. Rosenberg
d 3, f 1, etc.); Grorontalo District (Riedel in Dresd. Mus.).

A.S in tli6 casG of M. monachus tliG two diffei’Gnt drosses, which we have
described as of a sexual character, have been treated by Brug’g'eniann (f Ij
as seasonal dresses. Specimens, the sex of which have been ascertained, are very
scarce, but through the kindness of Mr. Nehrkorn we have been able to
describe an adult female with two cinnamon strijjes on the sides of the head.
The specimen figured by Schlegel (d II) has also two stripes on the sides of
the head and is marked Q juv. The Drs. P. & F. Sarasin, when in Celebes, paid
much attention to this question, and sent home an adult female ready to breed,
a quite young female, and a male just out of the nest. They and the two
above prove that the male has a complete blue cowl, covering the head, face,
ear-coverts and nape, while the female has a cinnamon superciliary and a similar
malar stripe, and these sexual differences — as is known to be the case in some
other Kingfishers — exist from the very first. The example described by Dr.
Sharpe in the Catalogue of Birds should be an adult female.

The plumage of this species has a curiously immature appearance which
led to its being treated of as the young of Monachalcyon monachus, until its
distinctness was pointed out by Briiggemann in 1876 (fl). Chief among its
differences are the relation of the primaries to one another; in the present
species the third is nearly as long as the fourth and fifth and longer than the
sixth, in M. monachus the sixth is equal to, or longer than, the third. M. prin-
ceps, too, is altogether a much smaller species.

The plumage of Monachalcyon princeps appears to be ancient in character.
Dr. Sharpe, speaking of it as the young of the foregoing species, remarks
(Monogr. 1870, p. XVIII, XLV) that it very much resembles the young of
Tanysiptera (compare Monograph, plate 98, M. monachus — fig. on the left, with
plate 101, Tanysiptera doris and plate 106, T. hydrocharis) . The adult Tanysiptera
has of course made a vast departure from this plumage. Again M. princeps
has much in common with Halcyon lindsayi of Luzon and H. homhroni of Min-
danao, though, while M. monachus most closely resembles H. homhroni, the present
species bears most likeness to H. lindsayi.

Birds of Celebes: ' Alcedinidae.

303

GENUS CITTURA Kaup.

This genus is peculiar to the Celebes Province. Size medium; the bill very
broad and flat, much broader than deep, in length from the nostril twice its
width or less (in C. saiigirensis sometimes a little more), in colour red when
adult; the tail is long, about 3 times the length of the bill, strongly graduated,
the outermost feathers little more than half the length of the tail ; the tarsus
is scarcely shorter than the middle toe without the claw; the P* primary is
about equal to the secondaries, the 3"^, P’" and 5^^ the longest. Two species.
Sexes slightly different.

^ * 95. CITTURA CYANOTIS (T emm.).

Broad-billed Kingfisher.

a. Dacelo cyanotis (I) Temm., PL Col. pi. 262, 1824 (Sumatra!); (2) Less., Tr. d’Orn. 1831,
248 (Sumatra!); (3) Gray, Gen. B. 1846, I, 78; (4) id.. List Pissirostr. Brit. Mus.
1848, 52; (5) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 154; (6) id., Consp. Vol. Anisod. 1854, 9, Nr. 113;
(7) Wall., Ibis 1860, 142; (8) ScliL, Mus. P.-B. 1863, 22; (IX) id., Vog. Ned.
Indie, Alced. 1864, 18, 51, pi. 6, fig. 1, 2; (10) Pinsch, Neu Guinea 1866, 160; (11)
Gray, HL. 1869, I, 89; (12) Schl, Pev. Alcedin. 1874, 14; (13) Posenb., Malay.
Archij). 1878, 271.

Cittura cyanotis (1) Kaup, Verb. nat. List. Ver. Hessen 1848, 68 (Pamilie d. Eisvogel 8);
(II) Peiclib., Hb. spec. Orn. Alcedin. 1851, 38, t. 429, f. 3170; (HI) Sharpe,
Monogr. Alcedin. 1868, pi). XX, XXXVH, 301, pi. 119; (4) Wall., Malay Anchip.
1869, I, 413; (5) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHI, 44; (6) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ.
1875, VH, 654; (7) Brliggem., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, Y, 54; (8) Lenz, J. f. 0.
1877, 368; (IX) Powley, Orn. bPsc. 1878, HI, 131 — 143, pi. XOIX; (10) Meyer,
1. c. remarks; (11) id.. Ibis 1879, 63; (12) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 136; (13) Meyer,
Isis, Dresden 1884, 19; (14) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 548; (15) W. Bias., Ztscbr.
ges. Orn. 1886, HI, 90; (16) Tristr., Oat. Coll. B. 1889, 95; (17) Heine & Pcbw.,
Nomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 168; (18) Sharpe, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 292; (19) M.
& Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 7; (20) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, 23. 13; (21)
Hart., Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

“Kikis talun”, Minabassa, Alfurous name, Meyer 70, 11.

“Radja udang utan”, Malay near Manado, Nat. Coll.

“Bulu bebek”, Minabassa, Guillem. 14.

“Bukaka memejang”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

.Figures and descriptions. Temminck a I\ Scblegel a IX\ Sharpe III ((y'), 18\ Powley
IX (2); Peicbb., JJ; Salvad. 6\ Brllggemann 7; Lenz 8\ Meyer 70; W. Bla-
sius 15.

Adult male. General colour above raw umber washed Avitb olive, becoming buff on the outer
webs of the scapulars, hazel-chestnut on the rump and tail, and washed with orange-
rufous on the head above and na2)e; a narrow line above and below the eye,
continuous with a broad stripe on the sides of the occiput, dark marine-blue;
the tips of the feathers of the supraorbital region, continued above the blue stripe,
ochraceous buff, the bases dark blue, dusky black at the extreme base; wing- coverts
dark marine-blue, where concealed by the scapulars black, quills dusky, the inner

304

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

ones washed mth pale russet; entire under surface pinldsh and vinaceous buff,
becoming ocbraceous buff on the cheeks and ear-coverts, where some of the feathers
are particoloured, being marine-blue on the upper web and helping to form the blue
stripe on the sides of the occiput; metacarpal edge pinkish buff; under wing-
coverts of the same colour, but blackish near the metacarpal edge (Manado, 0 2293).
Iris rosy red; bill and feet dark red; claws blackish brown (Meyer 11).

Adult female. Like the male, but with the wing-coverts, superciliary stripe and parietal patch
black or blue-black instead of blue, the superciliary line of feathers, continued above
the parietal patch, tipped with silver-white or pearl-blue (Manado, Nr. 6199, 0 2299;
5 ad. Pinogo, Bone Valley, 9. Jan. 1894: P. & P. Sarasin).

Young male. Besembles the adult male in coloration. Bill black (Meyer 10, 11).

Young female. Resembles the adult female; wing- coverts more wood-brown, the inner ones
black; bill black, shorter than in adult (Manado, Nr. 6198). “Las rose-colour; feet
red-brown; bill red-brown, in part black” (Kema, 16. Aug. 93: P. & F. S.).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

a. (C 2293) [cf] ad. Manado

101

95

28

14.5

h. fC 2292) [ry’] ad. Manado

100

98

14.5

c. (Nr. 6196) [(J’J ad. Manado

98

93

28

- —

d. (Nr. 6197) [(J’] imm. Manado

100

94

24

14.5

e. (C 2304) [Q] ad. Manado

100

95

28

15.5

f. (C 2299) [5] ad. Manado

100

92

27

14.5

g. (C 2301) [Q] ad. Manado

103

96

28

—

/?. (C 2298) [Q] ad. Manado

100

—

28.5

—

i. (Nr. 6199) [$] ad. Manado

103

88

27.5

—

j. (Nr. 6198) [Q] juv. Manado

96

—

21 ca.

—

k. (C 14198) [O] ad. Lembeb Id. 28. H. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

99

97

31

15

1. (C 14199) [Q] ad. Lembeb Id. 2. IH. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

104

98

28

—

r«.(C 14200) [o'] ad. Lembeb Id. 26. D. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

99

94

29

—

71. (Sarasin Coll.) Q ad. Pinogo, 9. I. 94

99

88

28

—

0. (Sarasin Coll.) $ vix ad. Ussu, S. E. Celebes 20.11.96

96

85

28

14

p. q. r. (14444 — 46) [Q Q , rf juv.] Tonkean, E. Cel. (N. C.)

100-105

92-101

—

—

Observation. Of 1 9 other specimens recently sent to the Dresden Museum from the Manado
District by our native hunters, 6 bad the superciliary stripe of light pearl-blue-tipped
feathers, and black lesser and middle wing-coverts, the remaining 13 bad the super-
ciliary tips ocbraceous and the ear-coverts and wing-coverts deep blue, the difference
— a sexual one — being well-marked, as in those now before us.

Eggs and breeding habits unkno’wn.

Distribution. Celebes — Northern Peninsula: bluiabassa (F or s ten « S, Wallace a 7, v. Rosen-
berg a 12, Meyer 10, 11, etc.), Gorontalo Distr. (Rosenb. a 12, P. & F. S. 15); E. Ce-
lebes (N.C.); Lssu, S. E. Celebes (P. & F. Sarasin); Tawaya, W. Celebes (Doherty 21).

This Kingfisher was for a long time known only from the northern arm of
Celebes, though further explorations in the island have now shown that it has
a wider range.

It has recently been found in West Celebes by Doherty, at Tonkean, East
Celebes, by our native hunters, and in S. E. Central Celebes by the Drs. Sarasin.
Our two females from East Celebes and the Sarasins’ female from the South-

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

305

east have the silvery tips of the long superciliary stripe longer than in females
from the north, and seem to present' a slight racial departure.

As to the habits of [this species: “It lives”, says Meyer (10^ 11), “like
Monachalcyon princeps, only in the forest, not on river-sides ; and it is not
at all a rare bird, according to my experience. It likes to sit dreaming alone
on branches of trees. Its cry is, five or six times one after another, kebekek.
In the stomach I found insects, crabs, worms, etc”.

“Male and female are easily to be distinguished, viz. from the colour of
the wing-coverts and the sides of the head, which is blue in the male, black
or bluish black in the female; the male has no white superciliary spots. Even
the young ones, which were alive in my possession, show this difference”.
Among the Kingfishers the same condition obtains in Monachalcyon, possibly in
some species of Halcyon in Western Polynesia (Wg., Aves Polyn. 16), and to
some extent in some species of Ceryle,

The only other species of the genus Cittura is C. sangirensis Sharpe of
the Sangi Islands, an important link between Celebes and those islands, distin-
guishable by its larger size, black frontal band and malar region at the gajDe and
by its mauve ear-coverts, sides of neck, and chest. Both sexes of this species,
too, resemble the female of C, cyanotis in having a pearl-blue or silvery line
of feather-tips over the eye, but the male has blue wing-coverts, the female
black ones, as in the sexes of C. cyanotis. Perhaps, as Meyer has remarked
(10), allied species are still to be discovered somewhere in Borneo or the
neighbourhood .

Of the two, C. sangirensis may perhaps be the one more likely to have
varied in a lesser degree from the ancestral type. The female of C. cyanotis,
which may probably be regarded as of a more ancient type than the male,
partakes of the coloration of C. sangirensis not only in the jooints mentioned,
but in having usually a wash of phlox-purple about the ear-coverts and throat,
and it has been confused with C. sangirensis by Lenz (8) and Guillemard
(14). Mr. Keeler, too, believes that the colour of the basal part of feathers
of birds in general have a phylogenetic value ; if this be so, C. cyanotis should
be sprung from a bird with a black or dark crown and malar region, but a
pale chin (^as it still has). C. sangirensis has the forehead, a broad eyebrow,
occipital side-patch, malar and subocular region black ; in this respect, therefore,
it is possible that it should be regarded as the more ancestral form.

-h 96. CITTURA SANGIRENSIS Sharpe.

Sangi Broad-billed Kingfisher.

Cittura sanghirensis (1) Sharpe, P. Z. 8. 1868, 270, pi. 27 (II) id., Monogr. Alcedin.

1868, 299, pi. 118 cf ; (3) Newton, Ibis 1869, 215; (4) Salvad., Ann. Mas. Civ.

Gen. 1876, IX, 53; fVJ Eowley, Orn. Misc. 1878, IB, 132, pL (Q); (6J Meyer,

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Oct. 30th, 1897). on

306

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

ib. 136 — 140, remarks; {1} id., Ibis 1879, 63; (VIII) id., Yogelskel. 1882, 21, pi.
XXVI; (9) id., Isis, Dresden 1884, Abb. I, 6, 19; (10) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn.
1886, 91; (11) id., Omis 1888, 576—578; (12) Tristr., Cat. ColL B. 1889, 95; (13)
Sharpe, Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 293.

a. Dacelo saiighirensis (1) Finsch, pt. in Sharpe JI; (2) Grray, HL.B869, I, 89; (3) Schl,
Mus. P.-B. Bev. Alced. 1874, 14.

5. Cittura cyanotis pt. (1) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 368.

“Bengka kehu”. Great Sangi, Xat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Sharpe I, II, 13\ Bowley F; Meyer VIII (skeleton), 6;
W. Blasins 11,

Adult male. Head above russet, washed vdth orange-riifous, passing into raw umber on
hind neck and middle of back; outer webs of scapulars light cinnamon, passing
into the colour of the back; upper tail-coverts and tail dark cinnamon-rufous;
a frontal band, a j^atch at base of lower bill, continuous vdth the sub- and
supra-orbital region black, becoming very dark marine-blue on the sides of the
occiput; above this a long superciliary line of pearly Avhite-tipped feathers; wings
dusky black; wing-coverts very dark marine-blue; chin and upper throat wliite;
ear-coverts, sides of neck, and a broad wash across the upper chest light
phlox-purple; remainder of under surface buff, washed with cinnamon-rufous on
lower flanlcs and tail-coverts; edge of wing and under wing-coverts white, but
black next to the edge of wing (Gr. Sangi — Xr. 6193). Bill sealing-wax red; iris
hght red; feet red-brovm (Platen 11).

Adult female. Like the male, but the j)arictal stripe and mng-coverts black, with little or
no blue colouring in it (Bias. 11\ Gr. Sangi — 0 12703, 12704).

Young male. Like the adult male; hill shorter, red-brown: — Platen (Gr. Sangi, Xr. 6192),
with very small pale tips to the wing-coverts (Bias. 11).

Young female. Like the adult female; bill shorter, a little hooked at tbe tip, red-brown: —
Platen (Bias. 11\ Gr. Sangi, Xr. 6195}.

Iris and feet of young as in adult (Platen 11 \.

Observation. A sj>ecimen from Siao before us does not differ from those of Great Sangi.

ments.

AMng

Tail

Bill from
nosti’i]

Tarsus

a. (Xr. 6194) [cf] ad. Gr. Sangi

113

101

35

16.5

b. fXr. 6193) [cf] ad. Gr. Sangi

108

98

34

16

c. (Xr. 6191) (cf] vix ad. Siao

110

98

34.5

16

d. (Xr. 6192) [rlf] juv. Gr, Sangi

108

100

29.5

16.5

e. (0 12703) [O] ad. Gr. Sangi, 21. VH. 93

114

100

35

17

f. (0 12704) [Q] ad. Gr. Sangi, 13. VH. 93 ^) ....

107

94

35

—

g. (Xr. 6195) [Q] juv. Gr. Sangi _

103

55

25

15.5

Thirteen adults measui-ed by Prof. Blasius (11) vary as follows: wing 106—117;
tail 97 — 109; culmen 39.5—45; tarsus 16 — 18 mm; length in the flesh Hlaten)
260—270.

1) This specimen is moulting. A number of other species appear to moult in July in the Sangi Islands.

Birds of Celebes: Alcedinidae.

307

Skeleton.

Length of cranium . . .

. 78.0

mm

Length of tibia

38.0

mm

Breadth of cranium . . 25.6 & 27.5

»

Length of tarso-metatarsus

16.2

»

Length of humerus . . .

. 83.6

»

Length of sternum ....

25.5

»

Length of ulna ....

. 44.0

»

Greatest breadth of sternum .

21.0

»

Length of radius ....

. 40.5

Height of crista sterni .

7.8

y>

Length of manus ....

. 29.4

»

Length of pelvis

29.0

»

Length of femur ....
Egg and breeding habits unknown.

. 22.6

»

Greatest breadth of pelvis

23.0

Distribution. Sangi Islands — Great Sangi (Hoedt a 5, t. Dnivenb. a 3, Meyer 6, 9,
Bruijn 4, Platen 11, Nat. Ooll. Mns. Dresd.); Siao (Meyer 6, 9).

This species apj^ears to be fairly abundant in Great Sangi, but scarce in
Siao, where it has only been obtained as yet by Meyer’s hunters. It is a
handsomer species than its near and only known ally, Cittura cyanotis of
Celebes, from which it may be easily distinguished by its black frontal band,
black malar region, light phlox-purple ear-coverts and chest, and larger size.
Its coloration, as pointed out in our article on that species, appears to be of a
more ancestral type.

Cittura ranks low as a form of Kingfisher, and the bill of the young is of
interest, partaking as it does more of the Melidora-tj])(d than does that of the
adult Cittura, and it lends further confirmation therefore to Dr. Sharpe’s views.
The bill of the young Cittura is dark in colour, a little hooked at the tip, and
very flat towards the base, the nostrils being situated at the inner edge of a
rather fiat ledge, with the ridge of the culmen standing up high between them;
the bill of the adult is red, without a hook, and fairly round at the sides, the
ridge of the culmen less raised. In his notable “Monograph” Sharpe writes,
p. XLIV : “Turning ... to Melidora we seek the links which may still be left us on
the globe whereby to connect forms apparently so different, and at once seize upon
Cittura as the nearest approach to this extreme form; for here is also seen the
grooved bill, although the maxillary hook is absent”. The probable significance
of the little maxillary hook in the young Cittura, and of the dark colour of its
bill, that of Melidora being black — thus become apjoarent; but the shape of
the bill about the nostrils does not seem to point to a form like Melidora, but
more likely to a lost ancestral form of both. Melidora is confined to New Gui-
nea, Dacelo to Australia and New Guinea, and the insectivorous Kingfishers in
general “have their greatest development in the Austro-Malayan subregion, while
the piscivorous Kingfishers are found all over the globe, except Oceania”
(Sharpe, j)- XL VII). In considering the geographical distribution of the King-
fishers it may be of importance to observe that the countries which have pre-
served for us what appear to be the most ancient Kingfishers are tenanted by
ancient faunal and floral tyj>es in general. Up to the present palaeontology
has brought no evidence of the existence of the lower forms of true Kingfishers
in other parts of the globe; as Prof. Newton remarks (Diet. B. 1893, 489),

39*

308

Birds of Celebes: Coraciidae.

“the only fossil referred to the neighbourhood of the Family is the Haley ornis
toliapicus of Sir R. Owen (Br. Foss. Mamin, and Birds, p. 554) from the Eocene
of Sheppey — the very specimen said to have been previohsly placed by Konig
(Icon. foss. sectiles, fig. 153) in the genus Lariis’\ Mr. Lydekker (D. B. 281;
also considers this fossil to be Larine in character. Prof. Z it tel, besides, men-
tions (Hdb. d. Palaeont. 1890, III, 852) uncertain remnants of Alcedo in the
Eocene of Paris and of Ceryle’iA the bone-caves of Brazil. Under these circum-
stances there is no telling what palaeontology will have to say on the subject
in the future, and it may be hazardous to form an opinion from our present
very scanty knowledge.

FAMILY CORACIIDAE.

In external appearance the Rollers are very like a Daw or Jay. The best
means of distinguishing them at sight from such corvine Passeres is furnished
by the nostril, which in the Coraciidae is elongated and covered above by an
operculum of skin, on to which the plumage of the forehead extends, while in
corvine birds the nostril is a. roundish hole screened by long bristles. Anato-
mically, of course, there are important differences: the Rollers have both caro-
tid arteries, the skull is desmognathous, the deep flexor tendons of the foot
become fused before branching off to the four toes (see Beddard in Dresser’s
Mon. Corac.). The Broad-billed Rollers (JEiurystomus) are again very like the
Broad-bills (Eurylaemi)^ but the form of the nostril is sufficient for their
distinction. ,

According to Gadow, the Rollers are distinguishable from the other mem-
bers of the order Coraciae (Motnotidae, Alcedmidae, Meropidae, and Upupidae) by
having 14 cervical vertebrae, the s]fina interna being wanting; from the King-
fishers and Bee-eaters the Rollers differ in the form of the bill and foot, the
bill being decurved, stout, and with a pendant tip or hook, the foot having the
anterior toes free, or free from the basal joint, instead of having the third and
fourth toes united down to the penultimate joint. In Merops the carotid-arrange-
ment is different — the left one only being present.

The Coraciidae breed in holes in trees and lay white eggs.

GENUS CORACIAS L.

Bill nearly as long as the head, black or blackish, decurved, the tip over-
lapping the under mandible, compressed, much deeper than broad, nostril elon-
gated, with a membrane above covered with the plumage of the forehead; some
stout bristles above the gape; tarsus about as long as the hind toe and claw;
wings moderate, 2”^ 3"^^, and 4*^ quills longest; tail moderately long, square (in

Birds of Celebes; Coraciidae.

309

some species with the outeimost rectrices lengthened so as to form a deep fork).
In size these birds are about equal to a Jay, The chief colours are blue and
green. Dresser recognises' twelve species inhabiting Africa, Europe and South-
ern Asia, the genus being absent in America and the Australian Eegion and,
curiously enough, absent in the Great Sunda Islands, excepting Celebes.

* 97. CORACIAS TEMMINCKI (Vieill.).

Celebesian Holler.

a. Le Eollier Temminck (Ij LevailL, Ois. Farad. Holliers.’1806, III, Supf)!. p. 46, fig. D.

b. Galgulus temmincki (1) YieilL, N. Diet. 1819, XXIX, 435; (2) id., Enc. Meth. 1823, 869.
Coraeias temmincki (1) Wagler, Syst. Av. 1827, 215; (2J Gray, Gen. B. I, 1846, 62; (3)

id., List Ooraciae Br. Mus. 1848, 33; (4) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 167; (V) Rchb.,
Hb. Merop. 1851, 51, t. 434, fig. 3187; (6) Gray, P. Z. S. 1858, 189 (X. Guin.);
(7) id., Oat. B. Xew Guin. 1859, 189; (8) Oab. & Hein., Mus. Hein. 1860, H, 118;
(9) Gray, P. Z. 8. 1861, 433; (10) Wall., Ibis 1864, 41; (11) Blyth, ib. 1866, 345,
346; (12) Einscli, Xeu Guinea 1866, 160; (13) Schl. , Mus. P.-B. Coraces 1867,
138; (XIV) Gld., B. Asia pi. 56 (1869); (15) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 75; (16) Wall.,
Malay Arcbi]D. 1869, I, 337, 429; (17) Sharpe, Ibis 1871, 184; (18) Wald., Tr. Z.

S. 1872, VIH, 43; (19) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Oiv. Gen. 1875, VII, 655; (20) Briigg,,

Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 49; (21) Rosenb., Malay. Archip. 1878, 271 ; (22) Meyer,
Ibis 1879, 59; (23) Salvad., Om. Pap. 1880, I, 512; (24) Wall., Island Life 1880,
433; (25) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 135; (26) id., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 242; 1886,
IH, 88; (27) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 546; (28) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 205;
(29) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 98; (30) Heine & Bcliw., Xomencl. Mus. Hein.
1890, 157; (31) Sharpe, Oat. B. XVII, 1892, 26; (32) Biittik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s
Beise in Ost-Ind. 1893, 274; (XXXIII) Dresser, Mon. Corac. 1893, 49, pi. XHT;
(34) Xewton, Diet. B. p. 794 (1894); (35) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus>. Dresden 1895,

Xr. 8, p. 7; (36) fid., ib. 1896, Xr. 1, p. 5; (37) fid., ib. 1896, Xr. 2, p. 13;

(38) Hart., Xov. Zool.' 1896, 158; (XXXIX) Meyer, Abb. v. Vogelskel. H, 1897,
pi. COXIV.

c. Eollier d’Urville (I) Quoy & Gaim., Voy. Astro!., 1830, Atl. pi. 16.

d. Coraeias papuensis (1) Quoy & Gaim., op. cit. text, 1830, 220; (2) Sclat, Pr. Linn.

Soc. 1858, 155.

e. Coraeias pileatus (1) Bp., Consp. Vol. Anisod. 1854, 7, Xr. 210 (ex Beinw. MS.); (2)

Beinw., Beis Ind. Archip. in 1821, 1858, 592.

Eurystomus pileatus (1) Gray, P. Z. S. 1860, 346 (Moluccas).

“Tokkakak”, (“Tonkaka”— Guillem. 27), Manado District, Mantehage, Lembeh and Banka
Is., Xat. Coll, in Dr. Mus.

“Kapala biru” (Blue head), Malay, Minahassa, Meyer 22.

“Pateh rokos”, Minahassa, Meyer 22.

“Lungun-geii”, ?Gorontalo Distr., Bosenb. 2T.

“Patjujung Dapo”, Tjamba Distr., S. Celebes, Platen 26.

“Djohak”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Xat. Coll. in Dr. Mus.

Figures and descriptions. Dresser XXXIII; Gould XIV; Meyer XXXIX (skel);
Levaillant a I; Beichb. V; Quoy & Gaimard c I; Briiggem. 20; W. Bias. 26;
Sharpe 31.

310

Birds of Celebes; Coraciidae.

Adult. Mantle, back, scapulars, and innermost quills sage-green, in certain bgbts
oliye-green, and touched on the borders of the feathers with verditer-blue; entire
head above, including supra-orbital region, and upper tail-coverts Nile-blue, with
a strong turquoise-blue gloss; wings, tail, and rump hyacinth-blue glossed with
purple, the ends of quills and tail-feathers more dusky, the concealed inner webs —
when seen held vertically with the light falling on them — bright dark bronze; ear-
coverts and subocular region brownish bronze; under parts, continuous with
a broad collar around hind neck, dusky blue, washed on the under parts with
mauve -purple, and becoming violet-blue on the under tail-coverts, the hackle-
feathers on chin touched with pale-blue, on throat with light violet; under wing-
coverts, and most inner webs of quills below, and tail below, hyacinth-blue
glossed with purple, the outer webs, the adjacent part of the inner webs, and the
ends of the quills blackish, or dusky bronze, when the bird is held in an inclined
position, bill lowest, with the light falling on it. (Near Manado, Aug.- Sept. 1892,
0 10857). Iris brown; bill black; tarsus duly brownish black (Gluillem. 27).

Observation. The coloration of the wings of this species is of much interest. The wings
appear to be to some extent metallic; at all events the purplish blue is seen more
widely spread on their under surface in certain lights. On the upper surface they
are purplish blue, except on a narrow portion of the inner webs, probably always
covered by the superjacent feathers where they are bronze or blacldsh, according to
the light; on the under surface the converse is seen — where they are blue above
they tend to bronze below, where they are bronze above they are blue
below. The hues of demarkation of the tints, however, do not correspond above
and below, nor are the colours on many quills — especially on the inner ones —
sharply separated, but tend to blend with one another.

Sexes. Alike, but the female less brilliantly coloured (Meyer 22 — Limbotto, July, C 2191).

Young. Similar to the adults; bill much shorter, but otherwise like; the collar of dusky blue
round the hind neck much narrower; the pale blue of the crovm greyer and slightly
washed with brown, the tips of the feathers brownish giving an indistinct barred appear-
ance, the pale blue hackle-feathers of the chin extending fiudher down on to the
throat (N. Celebes, C 3597; near Manado, Aug. — Sept. 1892, 0 10858). Lis light liazel;
bill black; feet yellow-brown (Platen 26 — (J' j^v.). See, also, "W. Blasius 26,
description juv.

Measurements (8 specimens). Wing 175 juv. — 190; tail 127 — 144; bill from nostril 23.5 juv.
— 31 ; tarsus 22 juv., 23 ad.

Eggs and Nest. Unknown.

Breeding season. One of the young specimens in the Dresden Museum, killed Aug. or Sept.,
appears. to be about six weeks old; hence the eggs woidd have been laid in June or
July. Prof. W. Blasius’s (26) young specimens from South Celebes, killed May 13*^,
must have been the j>roduct of an egg laid at least as early as March.

Distribution. Celebes: — Minahassa (Beinwardt e 2, Forsten 13, v. Bosenberg 13, etc.);
Banka, Lembeh and Mantehage Is. off the Minahassa (Nat. Coll., Mus. Dresd.);
Grorontalo District (Bosenb. 13, Meyer 22]', Tonkean, Et Celebes (Nat. Coll in Dresd.
Mus.); Kandari, S. E. Peninsula (Beccari 19]', near Macassar (Wallace 16, 31,
Everett 38]', Tjamba, S. Celebes (Platen 26]', Kadjang, S. Celebes (Weber .92);
Bulekomba, S. Celebes (Everett 38].

The habitat of the species was recorded by Quoy & Gaimard (d 1) as

New Guinea, which for a long time remained an uncertain locality for it, but

Birds of Celebes: Ooraciidae.

311

Salvador! (23) considers it indubitable, as we do too, tbat no species of tbe
genus Coracias occurs in New Guinea and that the indication of Quoy & Gai-
mard is, therefore, wrong. The S2:>ecies seems to be strictly confined to Celebes,

In North Celebes this is a common bird. It follows the hoe of the field-
labourer, says Platen (28)^ examining the freshly broken ground for booty,
always pursued and attacked by the greedy Crow, C. enca. Meyer (22) remarks
that it “usually flies singly ; but after feeding, several play together. They
frequently sit on dead twigs and look out for grasshoppers and other insects;
then suddenly rushing upon their prey they return to their perch. Cry tschirrr”.
In South Celebes Wallace found it a rare bird; Platen and Weber, too,
obtained each but a single specimen. Wallace (16) observes that “it has a
most discordant voice, and generally goes in pairs, flying from tree to tree,
and exhibiting while at rest that all-in-a-heap appearance and jerking motion
of the head and tail which are so characteristic of the great Fissirostral group
to which it belongs. From this habit alone the kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers,
trogons, and South American puff-birds, might be grouped together by a person
who had observed them in a state of nature, but who had never had an oppor-
tunity of examining their form and structure in detail”.

Later in the same work '16) Mr. Wallace remarks that “the Celebes
Poller is an interesting example of one species of a genus being cut off from
the rest. There are species of Coracias in Europe, Asia, and Africa, but none
in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, or Borneo. The present species seems
therefore quite out of place ; and what is still more curious is the fact, that it
is not at all like any of the Asiatic species, but seems more to resemble those
of Africa”. These views appear also to be those of no less an ornithologist
than Dr, Sharpe who places [31) C. temmincki between C. olivaceiceps Sharpe
of South Africa and C. cyanogaster Cuv. of Senegambia. Mr. Dresser (XXXIII)
does not enter into the question of its affinities, but places it last in the genus
next to C. cyanogaster. In our opinion C. temmincki has nothing to do with the
latter species, which was placed with other African forms in a different genus
by Bonaparte on account of its Swallow-tail, and it is very questionable
whether C . olivaceiceps can be regarded as a nearer ally than C. afftnis Me Cl ell.
of India. In a later work (24) Mr. Wallace cites C. temmincki as a Hima-
layan form in Celebes, a designation Avhich has at least an equal right to ac-
ceptance with his earlier view of the African affinities of the species.

In that the range of the genus is bounded to the east by the Moluccan
Straits, Coracias conforms to the general rule found among Asiatic forms in
Celebes. Its absence in Borneo, Java, Sumatra and Malacca is an enigma. It
may be suggested that the genus was once represented in these countries, and
has become extinct there; or it may be thought possible that an ancestral form,
a migrant like C. garrulus^ accidentally straggled to Celebes, and settled in
Africa, varying in the same direction in both places; or half a dozen other

312

Birds of Celebes: Coraciidae.

hypothetical explanations may be suggested, which would, however, not bring the
problem to a solution in the present deficient state of our knowledge.

GENUS EURYSTOMUS Yieill.

Diff’ers from Coracias by its shorter, broader hill, broader than deep across
the nostril, not black in colour, but yellow or chiefly red (in the young duskier) ,
the nostril a long, linear slit; no rictal bristles; the toes united for their basal
joint; wing rather long and pointed, the 2“"^ quill a little longer than the
1 and About seven or eight species, ranging from India to Australia and

New Zealand; also Africa, and Madagascar.

98. EURYSTOMUS ORIENTALIS (L.).

Indo-A ustralian Broad-billed Boiler.

As a species this bird ranges from the Himalayas and Amoorland in the
north to Australia and, occasionally, to New Zealand in the south. It varies,
of course, individually, like everything else that lives, and also to some extent
racially, but both questions are very improj^erly understood. The two chief
authorities of the present day on the Boilers, Dr. Sharpe and Mr. Dresser,
are not in unison on the racial question: Dr. Sharpe (P. Z. S. 1890, 551;
Cat. B. XVII 1892, 36, 38) would have it that there are three species and one
subspecies; Mr. Dresser (Ibis 1891, 91 — 102, Mon. Corac. 1893, 70, 76) main-
tains the more generally accepted view^ of two species — a northern and a
southern one. We prefer to avoid this troublesome question with the remark
that Dr. Sharpe is probably wrong^) and Mr. Dresser probably not entirely

1) We bave paid considerable attention to Dr. Sbarpe’s views. Treating bis three species and one
subspecies as four races of SJ. orientalis, tbe following should be their geographical ranges:

1. The typical E. orientalis (Linn.), tbe stationary resident form of tbe East Indies from Cacbar and tbe

Burmese countries to tbe Great Sunda Islands (Sharpe) as far as Talaut ()Na.t. Coll, id), Sangi, Celebes
(Mus. Dresd.), Peling (ffat. Coll.) and Halmabera (Salvadori).

2. E. orientalis calonyx (B. B. Sharpe), a more northern, migi'atory form, ranging from the Himalayas,

where some examples at least appear to be stationary in places, though in Terai below Kumaon
it is said by Mr. Thompson to arrive in April, breed in May, and leave in Jidy and Angust
(P. Z. S. 1890, 552), to “Amoor-land, Manchuria, and Northern China in summer, apparently wintering
in Tenasserim and the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo” (Sharpe), Labuan, Java, Keeling Island,
Ceylon, Sangi (Dresser, Ibis 1891, 101), Celebes (Dresser, and in the Dresden Museum).

3. E. orientalis laetior K. B. Sharp e), “Southern India and Ceylon” (Sharpe), apjDarently a resident in Ceylon

but very rare (Legge, B. Ceylon, 286), believed by Bonrdillon (Str. E. 1876, IV, 382) to be a
visitor only to Travancore, S. India.

4. E. orientalis australis (Swains.), apparently a more or less regular migrant, ranging from Celebes

(Sharpe), Sula (Sharpe) and Bmui (Salvad. Orn. Pap. I, 1880, 504) to Papuasia, Australia —
where, in the Victoria basin, “it arrives early in spring, and, having brought forth its progeny, retires
northwards on the approach of winter” (Gould, Handbook B. Austr. I, 120); in N. S. W. earliest
arrival observed by Caley (Tr. Z. S. XV, 202) on October 3r4, 1809, disaj^pearing early in February.
Most plentiful about Christmas. — “Occasionally reaching to Kew Zealand” (Sharp e), four examples
being known to Buller, stragglers killed recently on the West coast at the time the species visits
Australia {B. New Zealand, 2n<i. ed. 1888, I, 118).

Birds of Celebes: Coraciidae.

313

right, and we think that other writers in a similar position to ours would also
do well, in order not to involve themselves and others in more perplexity, to
disregard the variations of this species and to speak of it simply as E. orientalis^
until some one has thoroughly taken the whole matter in hand and shown what
these variations really mean, The following references bear upon the occurrence
of E. orientalis in the Celehesian Province.

Eurystomus orientalis (L.).

a. Eurystomus pacificus (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 339; (2) Legge, B. Ceylon, 1880, 285;
(III) Dress., Mon. Oorac. 1893, 75, pi. XIX.

Eurystomus orientalis (1) ScliL, Mas. P.-B. Ooraces, 1867, 139, 140; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S.
1872, Yin, 43; (3) Briigg., AMi. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 49; (4) Salvad., Ann.
Mus. Civ. Gen. 1876, IX, 53; (5) Bosenb., Malay. Ar chip. 1878, 271; (6) Meyer,
Ibis 1879, 60; (7) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 508; (8) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,
135; (9) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (10) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 546; (11)
W. Bias., Ztsclir. ges. Orn. 1886, 89; (12) id., Ornis 1888, 579; (13) Hickson, Nat.
in X. Celebes 1889, 90; (14) Dresser, B3is 1891, 101; (15) Biittik., Zool. Erg.
Weber’s Beise in Ost.-Ind. 1893, 274; (16) M. & Wg., J. f. O. 1894, 242; (XVII)

Two other forms, 11. crassirostris S cl. of New Griiinea and the New Britain Glroup, and E. solomonensis
Sharpe of the Solomon Islands, are veiy nearly related to, but appai’ently do not intergrade with,
the races of E. orientalis. E. orientalis australis and E. crassirostris occur in New Griiinea together.

We give a key to Sharpe’s supposed subspecies of E. orientalis, based upon the keys of Sharpe
and Salvadori, and specimens before us:

a. Paler = E. orientalis australis.

b. Brighter, head more dusky.

b' Terminal half of tail black.

b” Head darker; blue colour of imderparts more intense = E. orientalis laetior.
g" Colours less intense = the typical E. orientalis.
c' Terminal half of tail distinctly shaded with purphsh blue = E. orientalis calonyx.

It should be observed that hard and fast lines cannot be drawn between subspecies — by definition
they intergrade — and the above key is specially applicable only to the individuals from certain geographical
areas in which the subspecies may be said to come to a head. Thus specimens from North China, where they
are found in summer, appeal' from Sharpe’s remarks (Ibis 1893, .562) to be always determinable as E. orien-
talis calonyx; at this time of the year the race which stays nearer the equator in the Sunda Islands and
breeds there, is supposed by him to be the typical E. orientalis — at least nine specimens sent by Mr. Everett
to Dr. Sharpe — date not stated — all proved to be of this race, but we have elsewhere recorded calonyx,
as well as orientalis and intermediate specimens, from Peling in summer (Abh. Mus. Dr. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 13).
Those which migrate to Australia in summer are of the race, E. orientalis australis. In Celebes, and doubtless
in many other quarters, such as Burmah, S. India, the Philippines, Hahnahera, a confusion of forms is found
— at all events we cannot detect any well-defined races there. It vdll have been noted that three (!) of
Sharpe’s foiu’ subspecies of E. orientalis have been recorded from Celebes; moreover many of the 40 specimens
in the Dresden Museum from there, Peling, Talaut and Sangi belong neither to the typical orientalis nor to
orientalis calonyx, but are intermediate between the two, and such was the case with two of Mr. Dresser’s
five specimens from Celebes. We understand Sharpe to be of opinion that these specimens of Dresser’s are
intermediate between E. orientalis and australis (Cat. B. XVII, 34, footnote).

Among other things it should be borne in mind that the adults found in North China in summer are
in full breeding plumage; probably they are duller in colour in winter and more like the typical orientalis.
That this is so is shown by a specimen in the Dresden Museum from Great Sangi (C 838); it is moulting, and
the new secondaries are washed with dark purj)lish on the external edges to their ends, while two or three
old feathers are dull dusky, and the blue is not seen for the terminal inch of their outer webs, but only on
the more basal part. The purple-blue is also just perceptible on the outer edges of the tail to its very tip,
though indeed it would never be so conspicuous as in Sharpe’s figure of calonyx.

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Nov. 1st, 1897).

40

314

Birds of Celebes: Coraciidae.

Dresser, Mon. Corac. 1893, 67, pis. XVII, XYIII; (18) M. & W g., Abh. Mus.
Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 8; (19) iid., ib. 1895, Xr. 9, p. 4; (20) ikl, ib. 1896, Xr. 2,
p. 13; (21) Hart., Xov. ZooL 1896, 176; (22) id., ib. 1897, 159.

b. Eurystomus australis (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. XYH, 1892, 36.

“Hendingo-Opo”, Gorontalo?, Bosenb. 5.

“Tjetje”, Malay name, X. Celebes, Meyer 6.

“Kokotaka”, Talissi Id., Hickson') 13.

“Poopoopung”, Siao, Xat. Coll. Mus. Dr.

“Atera”, Talaut, iid.

For full synonymy and references see Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 503 (E. pacificus) and 508
(E. orientalis), Agg. 1889, 60; Sharpe, Cat. B. XVII, 1892, 33, 36 (E. laetior, E.
australis)., 38 (E. calonyx); Dresser XVJI, a III (E. mientalis).

Figures and descriptions. Dresser XVII, a III] Gould, B. Aiistr. H, pL 17 (E. pacificusj]
Sharpe L c. pi. H, fig. 1 (E. orientalis), fig. 2 (E. calonyx)] Legge a 2] Salvad.,
11. cc.; Meyer, Mittli. Z. Mus. Dresden 1875, I, 19; W. Bias. 11] etc.

Skeleton. Eyton, Blanchard and Ftlrbringer have figured the skeleton or parts of it.

Adult. General colour above brownish French -green, becoming dark olivaceous seal-brown
no top and sides of head, chin, and sides of neck, washed with bluish on the scapulars,
innermost quills and iq^per tail-coverts; around orbital region and forehead blackish;
wing-coverts strongly washed with cerulean-blue; quills black washed on their
outer webs with cyanine-blue (except the innermost ones which are concolourous with
the scapulars), the primaries crossed about their middle length by a broad band of
pale blue, not seen on the outer web of the first prunary; tail black, w^ashed with
cyanine-blue, most strongly towards its basal part; on throat an ill-defined patch of
French-blue washed with mauve; under-jiarts, from breast downwards, light sea-
green, the blue tint in it being strongest on the abdomen; quills below (excep)t for
the band of pearl-blue) black, the inner webs hyacinth-blue for the most part (Great
Sangi, 0 838). “Iris liglit browui; bill sealing-wvax red, ti]^ black; feet l)rown-red"
(Platen 12).

Sexes. Similar.

Young. Differs from the adult in being duller in colour and in having a black bill, and in
W' anting the bright blue patch on the throat, w'hich is gTeenish, a little duller than
the abdomen (Sharpe).

Measurements (8 adult specimens: Celebes and Great Sangi — 5 dated April, Jidy). Wing
180 — 194; tail 96 — 105; tarsus 17; bill from nostril 16.5 — 18 mm.

Eggs. India. Very broad oval, pure wPite and faintly glossy; 34 — 36X 29 — 29.5 mm (Oates,
Hume’s Xests and Eggs Ind. B. HP, 37); Australia (E. australis), twm or three m
number, dull white, rather glossy, sometimes variable in form: 36.8x26.7 oblong,
34x27.9 roundish (Xorth, Xests and Eggs Aiistr. B. 35 pi. XIV fig. 1); three,
sometimes four eggs, beautiful jiearly wFite, considerably pointed at the smaller end
(Gould.).

Nest. Breeds in holes in trees: no nest, eggs laid on a few chips of rotten wood — India
(Bourdillon in Oates, 1. c.); no nest, eggs laid on the dust formed by the decayed
wmod — Australia (Bam say in Xorth 1. c.).

Breeding season. In South India nest found March 17^^^ and April 20*^, in the Himalayas,
May (Oates); . in Austraha, October (Xorth); from September to December (Gld.,
Handb. B. Austr. I, 120).

t Dr. Hickson remarks: “my boj^s called this bird ‘Kokotaka’, but Meyer [says that the native name

is ‘Tjetje’.” In N. Celebes ‘Tokkakak’ (= ‘Kokotaka?) is the name for Coracias temminc7>i.

Birds of Celebes; Coraciidae.

315

Distribution of the species. From the Himalayas and Amoor-land southwards to Ceylon, the
islands of the Bay of Bengal, throughout the East Indies and Paj)nasia — except
the Hew Britain and Solomon G-roups — to Victoria and South Australia, occasion-
ally wandering to Hew Zealand.

On the habits of E. orientalis^ the Broad-billed Holler, in Celebes Meyer
writes: “This bird sleeps in the morning, and searches for food at midday; in
the evening it flies after beetles. It is to be seen 'near river-banks, where it
sits a long time quietly on a branch of a tree over the water, and can easily
be shot, not being a shy bird”. Similarly its mode of life is described by
Morgan in Malabar (Str. F. 1874, II, 531), by Oates and by Davison in Burmah
and Tenasserim (B. Brit. Burm. II, 71; Str. F. VI, 72), by VChitehead in Borneo
This 1890, 21), by Gould in Australia. Hartert (J. f O. 1889, 364), when in
Assam, watched the bird performing plays of flight above high forest during the
hot hours of midday after the manner of the Holler. On the whole, however, the
bird may be put down as of a sedentary disposition and almost semi-crepuscular in
habits. But that it has fine powers of flight is shown indirectly by the shape of its
wings, and directly by its occasionally straggling to Hew Zealand, a distance of up-
wards of 1000 miles from the nearest point of Australia. It preys upon insects —
chiefly, though probably not solely, beetles — caught on the wing or on the ground ;
a tame specimen kept by Blyth acquired a great liking for plantains (B. Ceylon,
286). It is, as Gould remarks, a very bold bird at all times, particularly so during
the breeding season ; as is too often the case, however, boldness is accompanied
by cruelty, and it is said, writes Gould, to take young Pavrots from their holes
and kill them, an observation confirmed by E. P. Hamsay, who remarks that
“they not unfrequently fight with, and dispossess the Dacelo gigas, and I have
seen them take the young of the bird and throw them out of the nest” (Pr. L.
Soc. N. S. Wales VII, 46). Its note is described by Aleyer as kiak, kiak, by
Whitehead as kick, kick, “sounding somewhat like the noise made by coach-
men to horses” (1. c.); it is also said to have a single, full, deep-toned whistle
fLegge, 1. c.).

The plumage in the genus Eurgstomus is remarkably similar to that of
Coradas. The two genera are remotely related, hence the type of plumage is
probably very ancient. It is interesting in this connection to observe that the
sexes are alike and that the young hardly differ from them.

Eurgstomus orientalis appears to be a species in process of undergoing diffe-
rentiation into numerous smaller ones, a process which is not yet complete in
most quarters. As the bird is migratory both in its northern territories and in
Australia there can be no doubt that its distribution has taken place by flight.
The genus Eurgstomus also occurs in Madagascar and tropical Africa, being-
represented there by three species nearly related to one another, but very distinct
from E. orientalis-, they are jffaced in a different genus, Cornopio by Cabanis &
Heine {^Mus. Hein. II, 119) and Heine & Heichenow (Homencl. Mus. Hein.

40*

316

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

157). It is therefore most likely that these African and Madagascar forms and
the Indo -Australian E. orientalis are sprung from ancestors belonging to some
part of Asia, Africa, or Madagascar — at all events not to Australia. E. orien-
talis, we may suppose, reached the East Indies by migration in winter from its
northern haunts. Pursuing their way southwards, instead of northwards, some of
them have become adapted to the different breeding-season and different period
of migration of birds in Australia, and under this separation from the northern
birds have begun to develop racial differences, such as we find in the typical
Folco peregrinus and the Australian F. peregrinus melanogenys, and much more
strongly pronounced in the Australian migrant Merops ornatus and the Indian
migrant M. philippinus or in the Australian migrant Halcyon sancta and the East
Indian resident Halcyon chloris, Ewystomus crassirostris of the New Britain Group
and New Guinea and its surrounding islands, and E. solomonensis do not appear
to intergrade with E. orientalis which occurs in some of the same localities as the
former, this being the resident form, the other, perhaps, solely or mainly a
migrant. In the Great Sunda Islands, and the Burmese countries it is the opinion
of Dr. Sharpe, that a resident form, distinguishable from the migrants from
the north is coming into existence, but in some localities — among them Celebes
— it appears that resident birds and migrants from north and south occur
together and that a certain amount of interbreeding takes place, rendering exact
nomenclature impossible.

We may pause for a moment to think what theories on former physical
geography a naturalist in the distant future might build up, when these races
of E. orientalis may be supposed to have become resident and well differentiated
species in India, the East Indies, Australia and New Zealand!

ORDER MACROCHIRES.

The Goatsuckers and Swifts, which catch their insect-prey on the wing
(except Steatornis wEich feeds on fruit) and possess an enormous gape reaching
to beneath the eyes or further, but a minute and weak bill, very long wings,
small feet and tarsi.

The tail-feathers are 10 in number ; there are also 1 0 primaries in both
(see, also, Hartert, Cat. B. XVI; GadoAV in Bronn’s Kl. & Ord.; Blanford,
Fauna Br. Ind., Birds III, 162).

FAMILY CiAPRIMULGIDAE.

The Goatsuckers are crepuscular or nocturnal in habits, wearing a nocturnal
plumage — soft, with the pattern broken up and vermicnlate, without bright

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

317

pure tints, such as pure blue, yellow or red, but chiefly brown, grey, and dusky
colours; often with “recognition marks” of white on the throat and tail. The
bill is small and soft, the nasal aperture membranous and tubular, the gape
very wide, reaching below the eye. Five subfamilies of the Caprimulgidae may
be distinguished ; their differences are pointed out below (p. 325) under
Lyncornis macropterus.

GENUS CAPRIMULGUS L.

The true Goatsuckers may be recognised by their having a row of strong
bristles above the gape directed forwards ; no ear-tufts , a rounded tail with
white patches on the outer rectrices of the male (usually absent in the female).
Outer toe with four phalanges, claw of middle toe pectinated. The genus is of
almost cosmopolitan distribution.

99. CAPRIMULGUS MACRURUS Horsf.

Horsfield’s Nightjar.

Mr. Hartert’s careful researches on the Goatsuckers offer proof that C. ma-
crurus as a species should be viewed as made up of two subspecies, i. e. the typical
macrurus ranging from Malacca to southern Australia (Ramsay) and C. macrurus
alhonotatus (Tick.) of N. India; while the territories from the foot of the Himalayas
to Tenasserim produce intermediate forms. These latter might be distinguished
as C. macrurus — alhonotatus.

■Fl. The typical Caprimulgus macrurus.

a. Caprimulgus macrurus flj Horsf., Tr. Linn. Soc. 1821, XHI, 142; (II) Gld., B. Austr.
1848, n, pi. 9; (3) id., Handb. B. Austr. 1865, I, 100; (4) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo
1874, 117; (5) Briigg., Abli. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 464; (6) Salvad., Orn. Pap.
1880, /, 528 (pt. — non ex India); (7) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 115, 122, 136; (8)
Ramsay, Tab. List 1888, 2; (9) North, Nests and Eggs Austr. B. 1889, 29; (10)
Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1889, I, 62; (11) Sharpe, Ibis 1890, 22, 283, 288;
(12) Everett, J. Str. Br. R. A. S. 1889, 153; (12’''^) Hagen, T. Ned. G-enoots. 1890,
(2) VII, 142; (13) Hartert, Kat. Vogels. Senckenb. Mus. 1891, 120; (14) id.. Cat. B.
XVI, 1892, 537 (pt. non ex Tenasserim, Burma); f'iojid.. Ibis 1892, 281 — 283; (16)
Hose, ib. 1893, 406; (17) Mad., Aquila 1894, 97; (18) Bourns & Worces., B.
Menage Exp. 1894, 34; (19) Blanf., Eaun. Br. Ind. B. HI, 1895, 188, pt.; (20) Hart.,
Nov. Zool. 1896, 175, 562, 593; (21) id. Tierreich, 1897, I, 54 (typicus).
h. Caprimulgus salvadorii (I) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1875, 99, pi. XXII, fig. 1.

For further synonymy and references see Salvadori a 6, a 10\ Hartert a 14.

Figures and descriptions. Gould a II, a 3; Sharpe b I; Salvadori a 6\ North a 9 (egg);
Hartert a 14.

Adult male. Upper surface pale brown, finely vermiculated with greyish, especially on the
top of the head; centre of crown longitudinally streaked with brownish black; an
indistinct fulvous band across the hind neck; back and rump marked with deep

318

Birds of Celebes: Caprirnulgidae.

brown; scapulars and wing-coverts with more or less bright buff patches, the
former mostly velvety brownish black; first ]3rimary deep brown, a large spot on
the inner web and a broad white patch across both webs of the next three pri-
maries, often an indication of a white spot on the fifth quill; secondaries deep
brown, with narrow interrupted rufous bars, the two outer pairs of rectrices
largely tipped with white, these tips varying in extent, being generally about 2 inches
(50 mm) in length; chin and sides of throat rufous brown, finely barred with
blackish brown; throat with a very large white spot, bordered at the lower part
with deep black; abdomen rufous buff, barred with brown. Total length about
292 mm; wing 180—198 (about 190 on an average); tail 142—160; tarsus 17.8,
feathered in front for almost its whole length (Hartert a 14). Iris blackish brown;
bill black; feet and claws reddish brown (Gould 3).

Adult female. Differs from the adult male in having the outer web of the first primary
spotted with rufous, in having pale rufous marks on the primaries instead of white
ones, in the tips to the outer rectrices being less in extent and tinged Avith buff or
rufous, speckled with broAvn on the tip of the outer web (Hartert a 14).

Young. The markings less developed, the young male lias the wliite patches on the primaries
and rectrices tinged Avith rufous and less in extent. The nestling is covered Avith
huffy doAvn (Hartert a 14).

Distribution. Almost the whole of Australia (Ramsay 8); jN'cav Britain; Aru; Hew Guinea;
Waigiou; Halmahera; Obi; Ceram; Burn; Celebes — Gorontalo; Timorlaut; Timor;
Lombok; Java; Borneo; PalaAvan; ? Philqipines ; Sumatra; Malacca (Salvad. a 6,
a 10, Brilggem. a 5, Everett a 12, Hartert a 14, a 15)', Saleyer and Djampea
(Everett a 20)', SumbaAAm (Doherty a 20).

2. Caprimnlgus macrurus albonotatus (Tick.).

c. Caprimulgus albonotatus (1) Tick., J. A. S. B. 1842, XI, 580; (2) Jerd., B. Ind. 1862,

I, 194; (3) Hume, Str. E. 1875, HI, 45; (4) id., ib. 1878, VI, 58; (5) Hartert,
Cat. B. XVI, 1892, 540 (subsp.) partim; (6) Blanford, Fauna Br. Ind. B. Hi;, 1895,
1 88, pt.

d. Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus (1) Hartert, Ibis 1892, 282; (2) id. Tierreich, 1897, 1,54.

Diagnosis. Differs from the typical macrurus in lieing altogether a larger bird (Aving 229 mm,

against 197 — 203 in macn'urus), both above and beloAv altogether a fighter coloured
and more huffy bird, Avith broader Ailiite or huffy or creamy Avhite margins to the
scapulars and wing feathers, and Avith the whole loAver parts comparatively unifoi’m;
Avhereas in macrurus the breast is much darker and contrasts strongly AA'ith the much
paler abdomen (Hume c 4).

Variation. Specimens from the plains of Xorth-Avestcrn India are very fight coloured; the
markings paler broAvn (than in the typical macrurus), the scapulars less brilliantly
marked, the dark spots on the croAAUi less numerous, narroAver, and more confined to
the middle of the croA\m; wings very long; loAver parts very strongly tinged Avith pale
sandy rufous. AVing 203 — 218 mm; tail 165 — 178 [as against 180 — 198 and 142 — 160
respectively in the typical macrucus], (Hartert c 5).

Distribution. India throughout the Himalayas at low elevations, in the North-west Provinces,
Bengal, Chutia Nagj)ur, and Raipur, and m Burma (Blanford).

3. Caprimulgus macrurus — ^ albonotatus.

e. Caprimulgus nipalensis [Hodgs., Icon. ined. in Mus. Brit.], (1) Hartert, Ibis 1892, 283.

f. Caprimulgus macrurus (1) Hume, Str. F. 1878, VI, 58; (2) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883,

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

319

II, 20; (3) id., ed. Hume’s Nests & Egg. Ind. B. 1890, IH, 45; (4) Hartert, Cat.
B. XVI, 1892, 537, pt.; (5) id., Ibis 1892, 282, 283 (intermediate forms).
g. Caprimulgus albonotatus (1) Oates, B. Brit. Burmab 1883, II, 19, ? pt. ; (2) Hartert,
Cat. B. XVI, 1892, 541 (ex Mont. Himalaya).

Distribution. Himalayas, mountains of Burmab and Assam, Tenasserim, Siam and China.
Variation. On comparing good series of birds from Tenasserim, Burmab, and Assam it
has been found that in the latter localities many intermediate phases between the
typical macrurus and macrurus albonotatus occur, so that it is impossible to draw
any line between the two forms. Specimens from the foot of the Himalayas also
may be regarded as intermediate between the true albonotatus and macrurus (after
Hartert f 5).

“Specimens from Borneo”, says Mr. Hartert, “are very dark and small: . . .
specimens from Waigion and Arn are perfectly similar to those from North Borneo;
they belong to the very daiA blackish island-form”.

Egg (of the species). Australia — 2 in number, hght rich cream-colonr, fading to whitish
after being emptied, clouded all over with fleecy markings of pale slaty lilac, which
appear as if beneath the simface of the shell; 28 X 21 mm (Bams ay a 9)\ West
Java — 2, elliptical, faint white tending to yellowish, marked with scattered spots,
mostly not large, of reddish grey-brown and ash-grey, the latter in particnlar nnmerous
towards the blunt end, though not forming an appreciable circlet; 28 — 30 X 21—22
(Bernstein, J. f. 0. 1859, 182); Tenasserim — 2 in number; somewhat cylindrical
ovals; shell very fine and smooth, excessively close-grained, very thin; delicate creamy
pink, everywhere rather thinly spotted, streaked, clouded, and marbled with very
pale, somewhat brownish purple, and very pale subsurface-looking inky grey; (ten
specimens) 29 — 33 X 20 — 23 mm ^H nine f 3).

Nest. None — the eggs are laid upon the bare ground: Australia (Bams, a 9)\ Tenasserim
(Bingham f 5); Java — a slight depression, upon a few bamboo-leaves (Bern-
stein 1. c.).

Breeding season. Tenasserim — March, April (Bingham f 3).

The right of C. macrurus to be included in the Celebes avifauna rests upon
two specimens, obtained by von Bosenberg or Biedel in Gorontalo. These
latter were determined by Briiggemann, who pointed out that Lord Walden’s
specimen of a Caprimulgus obtained by Meyer in Celebes apjoeared to be
identical wutb them. In this Briiggemann was in error; Meyer’s specimen
has since been made the type of a distinct species, Caprimulgus celebensis Grant.
Mr. Everett obtained C. macrurus in Saleyer and Djampea. A nestling from
the latter island shows that the species breeds there.

It is probable that C. macrurus is not strictly stationary; the Nightjars feed
upon insects, which become scarcer at certain seasons, when local movements
on the part of the birds will probably take place. Such, in particular, should
be the case in the southern parts of Australia. Like the Owls, the Celebes
Nightjars appear to have nothing to say on the question of the former distribu-
tion of the land and water round about; like them they appear from their
nocturnal habits to be specially liable to be carried across straits of the sea by
winds, and if in addition the species has migratory tendencies its range will be
likely to become all the Avider. Whereas, for instance, one finds two distinct

320

Birds of Celebes: Oaprimulgidae.

species of the Woodpecker Microstictus, one occurring in North, the other in
South Celebes, the two subspecies of Caprimulgm macrurus^ which appear to be.
of about equal value, are found one in India, the other in the East Indies
and Australia.

^ * 100. CAPRIMULGUS CELEBENSIS Grant.

Celehesian Nightjar.

Plate XI.

a. Caprimulgus sp. (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIII, 115.
h. Caprimulgus manilensis (1) Hartert, Cat. B. XYI, 189?, 544, partim.

Caprimulgus celebensis (1) Grrant, Ibis 1894, 519; (2) Hartert, ib. 1896, 371; (3) idi. Tier-
reicb 1897, I, 53.

“Trio”, Lembeh (Nat. Coll.).

Diagnosis. This species, with its Phili]ij)hie ally C. manilensis^ differs, according to Hartert,
from C. macrii7ms chiefly in the smaller extent of the white spots on the primaries
and of the white tips of the lateral rectrices, especially in the latter (white tips of
two outer pairs about 25 mm broad, in mam'U7''iis about 50 mm). Abdomen brownish
buff, barred with dark brown, but not so regularly as in C. macruniSj the broader
buff tips of the feathers producing a more spotted appearance.

Measurements. Total length 305 mm; wing 180; tad 147; tarsus 20; mid. toe with claw
26.7; culmen 21.6; longest rictal bristle 35.6 (Grant 7).

Distribution. Celebes (Meyer a 7, b 7, 7); Lembeh Id. (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.).

A single specimen of this species now in the British Museum was obtained
by Meyer in Celebes — probably in the Minahassa — iu 1870 — 1871. It
was not immediately determined by Lord Walden, and Bruggemann having
received the foregoing C. maa'urus from Gorontalo expressed the opinion that
Meyer’s example would prove to be the same, but he apparently overlooked
Walden’s determination of the specimen as manilensis in a subsequent work
(a 1). Walden’s decision was confirmed by Mr. Hartert, but Mr. Ogilvie
Grant who has recently had occasion to compare the Celehesian specimen with
Philippine ones, remarks: “How the bird from Celebes came to be identified
with C. manillensis^ G. E,. Gray, by both Lord Tweeddale and Mr. Hartert
I am at a loss to understand, for two more totally distinct species of Goatsucker
can hardly be imagined. In the Celebes bird the rictal bristles are much longer
and stouter than in any other species of Caprimulgus ^ and extend far beyond
the end of the culmen, the longest ones being about once and a half the length
of the culmen from its base, and more than twice as long as the exposed part
of the culmen. This character alone is sufficient to distinguish the Celebes
bird at a glance, for in C. manilleiisis the bristles are very much finer and are
very little longer than the culmen. The example from Celebes (apparently not
quite adult, the primaries being tij^ped with buffj is most nearly allied to
C. andamanicus Hume, the two outer tail-feathers being rather narrowly tipped
on both webs with white, the white extremity being less than an inch in length ;

Birds of Celebes: Oaprimulgidae.

321

the white spots on .the inner webs of the primaries are small, but clearly
defined”.

A second specimen was killed on Lembeh Island in March, 1895, and sent
to the Dresden Museum; we give a figure of it. We find Mr. W. H. Ogilvie
Grant’s statement as to its distinction from C. manilensis couched in too
energetic language ; instead of — as his words might lead the reader to suppose
— belonging almost to two different genera, the two forms seem to us to be
so closely allied as almost to endanger the specific distinction of C. celebensis,
and to awake a doubt as to whether it may not ultimately have to be reduced
to the rank of a subspecies.

101. OAPRIMULGUS AFFINIS Horsf.

Allied Nightjar.

Caprimulgus affinis (1) Horsf., Tr. L. S. XIH, 1821, 142; (2) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1863, 212;

(3) Walden, Tr. Z. 8. 1872, YlH, 114; (4) Salvad., Oat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 115;

(5) Tweedd., P. Z. 8. 1877, 691; (6) Yordernian, Nat. Tdscbr. Ned. Ind. 1883,
XLH, 54; (7) Guillem., P. Z. 8. 1885, 504; (8) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 112;
(9j Everett, J. Str. Br. B. A. 8. 1889, 153; (10) Vorderman, Notes Leyden Mus.
1891, 25; (11) id., N. T. Ned. Ind. 1891, L, 448; (12) Hartert, Ibis 1892, 280; (13)
id.. Cat. B. Xyi, 1892, 549; (14) Bllttik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Eeise Ost-Ind.
1893, in, 292; (15) Yorderm., N. T. Ned. Ind. 1895, LIY, 336; ^76'; Hart., Nov.
Zool. 1896, 158, 549, 570, 595; (17) id., ib. 1897, 163; (18) id., Tierr. 1897, I, 50.
a. Engoulevent des Roseaux (1) Hombr. & Jacq., Yoy. Pole 8ud 1846, pi. 21, fig. 2.

h. Caprimulgus arundinaeeus (1) Bp., Oonsp. 1850, I, 60; (2) Jacq. & Pucher., Yoy. Pole

8ud, Teste 1853, 93; (3) 8alvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 116.
e. Caprimulgus faberi (1) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 20 (fide Hartert).

For further synonymy and references see Hartert 13.

Descriptions. Hombron & Jacqninot a 1\ Walden 5; Yorderman 6\ Hartert 73;
Meyer c 7.

Adult [male]. Ground-colour above, including upper surface of tail, broccoH-brown, thickly
vermiculated, sprinkled, and spotted with sepia, clove-brown, and black, the crown,
nape and mantle being most strongly marked — not streaked — with black, the
scapulars marked with broken spots of light cinnamon; first four primaries blacldsh
brown, outer webs paler, across their middle length a broad white hand, only seen
on the inner web of the first quill, on both webs of the other three; remaining
quills (except the innermost ones which share the colour of the back) and greater
wing-coverts brownish black barred with tawny- cinnamon, the bars being some-
what broken up with black; outermost tail-feather white, base of inner web barred
with hlack and pale tawny-cinnamon; the next, white, mottled with bars of black
and light tawny- cinnamon towards its hase, most extensively on the inner web; general
colour of under surface pale cinnamon, closely sprinkled and barred with broken
markings of dark sepia on throat and breast, and rather regularly marked with
narrow bars of sepia on the remaining under parts; under tail- coverts uniform
cinnamon-whitish; on each side of throat a white patch (Java, Nr. 8898).

Adult female. Differs from the male in having no white whatever on the tail, the rectrices
being banded with pale rufous grey and dark brown, paler on the tips (Hartert 73).

Meyer & Wigl es worth, Birds of Celebes (Nov. 1897). ..

322

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

Variation. Tlie spots on th.e tliroat vary in size in botli sexes and are sonietimes almost
confluent, often not pure wliite but buff, tliis latter colour being apparently a
sign of immaturity, as also is the buff colour of the white patches on the primaries
(Hartert 13).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

BiU from
nostril

a. (Nr. 8898) Java

167

98

18

7

h. (Nr. 13732) Sumatra (type of C. faberi) -

166-67

107

—

—

Egg and breeding habits. Unknown^).

Distribution. Sumatra (Eaffles 13, Faber cl); Java (Horsf. 1, Yorderman 6)\ Bilhton
(Yorderman 10, 11); Banjermasin, S. Borneo (Hombron b 2, Mottley 2, 4, 9)\
Celebes (Meyer 5, 13, Everett 16, Doherty 17); Lombok (Wall. 3, 4’ 13,
Doherty 16); Sumbawa (Guillem. 7, Doherty 16); Flores (Weber 14); Timor
(Wall. 13).

A single specimen only of this species obtained by Meyer was the sole
proof of its occurrence in Celebes till September, 1895, when a second was
killed at Macassar by Everett and determined by Hartert (16) as a perfectly
adult male. Later two further specimens were obtained by Doherty in West
Celebes. Meyer’s example is now in the British Museum and is marked by
Hartert as immature.

The nearest ally of C. affinis is C. griseatns (Wald.) of Luzon, a rare bird
in collections, which will j^robably prove to be only subspecifically distinct from
C. ajyinw when the intermediate localities have provided ornithologists with spe-
cimens. Walden (Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 326) speaks of this form as intermediate
in dimensions between C. affinis and C. wonticola of India and South China to
Tenasserim, but not yet known, apparently, from the intermediate Malay Penin-
sula. C. monticola is, however so much bigger than the other two that it is
hardly likely that it will be found to intergrade with them.

GENUS LYNCORNIS J. Gd.

Distinguishable from Cajmmiilgus by having no rictal bristles, no white on
the tail-feathers ; the parietal plumage lengthened so as to form “ear-tufts”.
Outer toe with four phalanges, claw of middle toe pectinated. Hartert (1897)
recognises 6 species ranging from X. E. India to New Guinea.

“ 102. LYNCORNIS MAOROPTERUS Bp.

Celebesian Eared Nightjar.

Plate XI.

Lyncornis macropterus [Temm., Mus. Leyd.] , (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 62; (2j Wall., Bus
1860, 141; (3) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 605; (4) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 47,

i) Dr. Kutter (J. f. 0. 1882, 175) says that the egg of C. griseatus of the Philipj>ines is very similar to
that of C. affinis said to he described by Baron Kbnig-Warthausen under C. hisignatus (J. f. 0. 1868, 373).

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

323

112; (5) Eosenb., Malay. Arcbip. 1878, 271; (6) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 136; (7)
Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 549; (8) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 114; (9) Hartert, Oat.
B. XVI, 1892, 605; (10) M. & Wg., Abb. M. Dr. 1895, Xr. 8, p. 8; (11) iid., ib. 1896,
Xr. 1, p. 5; (XII) Meyer, Yogelsk. 1897, pi. OOXID; (13) Hart., Tierr. 1897,1, 25.
a. Oaprimulgus macropterus (1) Scbl., Handl. d. Dierk. 1857, I, 223; (2) Finscb, Xeii-Gninea
1866, 162.

“Tulio”, ? Gorontalo, Eosenb. 5.

'‘Trio”, Gorontalo Distr. (or Manabassa), Guillem. 7.

“Kokotaka”, Minabassa, Xat. Coll.

“Burong malas”, Malay, iid.

“Burong malam” (Evening-bird), Malay, Manado, Meyer MS.

Figure and descriptions. Meyer XII (skel.); Bonaparte 1; Hartert 9.

Adult [nearly]. General colour above brownish black, more dusky on tbe wings, tbe whole
varied with cinnamon and light tawny-olive ; entire bead above very finely vermiculated
with black and russet, marked with large scattered shield-shaped spots of sooty black
narrowly bordered with russet; behind the head the feathers broadly fringed with
tawny-olive, forming a collar; hind neck, mantle and middle of back sooty black,
somewhat vermiculated with cinnamon on the mantle and back; rump, upper tail-
coverts and tail more strongly speckled and vermiculated with cinnamon, five or six
narrow broken bars of which colour are discernible on the tail ; on the scapulars and
inner quills the cinnamon tint prevails over the black, scapulars marked with some
large shield -shaped spots of black; quills dusky, speckled with tawny-olive in the
form of ill-defined bars; uj)per wing-coverts speckled with russet; superciliary
region, ear-coverts, malar region and chin, black, barred with russet; across
the throat a broad white band; upper breast and sides of neck black, the
feathers fringed with russet; below this a broad band of almost clear cinnnamon;
remaining under parts cinnamon, brokenly barred and speckled with black, the
bars being well formed on the flanks; under wing-coverts barred with blackish
and cinnamon (near Tondano, Aug. — Sept. 1892, Xat. Coll. — C 10794). Iris brown;
bill reddish brown; feet clear brown (Guillem. 7).

Variation. The species varies considerably; in six other specimens before us the cinnamon
bars on the tail are much broader and better defined than in that described, and the
upper surface paler — more or less. One specimen (0 12868) is almost entirely
without spots on the cromi; this is perhaps the oldest. The white patch on the
throat also varies in extent.

Sexes. Apparently similar.

Measurements (7 specimens). Wing 252 — 262 mm; tail 151 — 161; bill from nostril 7—8;
tarsus 17.5 ca.

Egg. “On 4*^^ April, 1895, a hunter brought us in Tomohon a female and a completely
smashed egg, winch he had found lying simply on the ground. The fragments showed
a reddish white colour with rather dark red-hrown spots” (P. & E. Sarasin 11).
Distribution. Celebes, Xorthern Peninsula: — Minahassa (Wallace 2, 9, v. Musschen-
broek, etc.), Gorontalo Distr. (Eiedel, Mus. Dresd., Guillemard 7).

Mr. Wallace sjoeaks of this species as abundant about Manado, where it
appears soon after sunset, chasing insects with rapid evolutions. Guillemard
found it especially plentiful near Likoupang on the north coast, and v. Eosenberg,
whose notes have special reference to Gorontalo, mentions it as veiy common,
particularly by river-banks. Nevertheless it has escaped many collectors, and

41*

324

Birds of Celebes; Caprimulgidae.

iias not boon rocordod from any part of Colobos but tbo Northorn Peninsula.
It is closely related to tbe Pbilippine s]3ecies of Lyncovnis^ especially L.minda-
nensis, its nearest neighbour, which, however, as Mr. Hartert shows, differs in
having the abdomen much more evenly barred. Should L.macropterus prove to
be confined to North Celebes, it might be reasonably inferred that the species
is a recent immigrant from Mindanao.

The genus Lyncornis is known to range from Burmah to Java, Celebes and
the Philippines, occurring again in Salawntti and New Guinea.

Although the Goatsuckers of Celebes appear to have nothing important to
say on the past conditions of this island, the geographical distribution of the
Goatsuckers of the world in general affords several points of interest. In 1866
(P. Z. S. 127) Sclater divided the Caprimulgidae into 3 subfamilies:

1. Podarginae^ most typical of x\ustralia, in which the genus Nyctihius of

South America to Jamaica and Mexico was included;

2. Steatornithinae, the frugivorous Cave-goatsucker of S. America from Guiana

to Peru;

3. Caprimulginae^ the typical Goatsuckers, of which S. America is by far

the richest in genera, after which comes Africa.

Later, Gar rod's anatomical researches led him to the conclusion that
Steatornis should be sej>arated as a family for itself (P. Z. S. 1873, 534; Coll.
Papers, 186). In 1885 (P. Z. S. 153), Beddard divided the Caprimulgidae into
four subfamilies: 1. Steatornis \ 2. Podargus and Batrachostomus \ 3. Aegotheles\
4. Caprimulgus, Chordeiles^ and Nyctidromus. This anatomist differs in so far from
Gar rod as to conclude that ^'Podargus, Batrachostomus imd. Aegotheles are much
nearer to Steatornis than to Caprimidgus, but should be placed in an intermediate
position”. Becently Hartert has separated these groups of forms into three
diflPerent families with subfamilies as follows :

1. Caprimulgidae.

a. Caprimulginae , chiefly South American, 11 pecuhar genera being fonnrl in

America and Jamaica, 3 in Africa, 1 in the Oriental Eegion and New Gruinea,

1 in the Austrahan Eegion, while J ( Caprimulgus) is common to all, though

sparsely re]Dresented in the direction of Australia.

b. Nyctihiinae, tropical parts of S. America to Jamaica and Mexico. (Sclater has

23laced this subfamily in Hart erf s Podargidae.)

2. Podargidae.

a. Podarginae, two genera, the one confined to Australia and Papuasia, the other

to the Oriental Eegion from the Himalayas to Java and the Philippines.

b. Aegothelinae, confined to Australia and Papuasia, vfith one species m New

Caledonia.

3. Steato-rnithidae.

South America from Gruiana to Peru.

Although we should prefer to recognise one family of five subfamilies,
rather than three families with two subdivisions as Mr. Hartert does, — for
the Nyctibiinae connect the Caprimulgidae with Podargidae, from which again the

4

Birds of Celebes: Oaprimulgidae. 325

Steatornithidae^ according to Mr. Beddard, are not far removed — it is never-
theless well to be made aware of the differences which separate the several
groups. Some of these differences may be recapitulated as follows:

Caprimulginae

Nyctihiinae

Fodarginae

Aegothelinae

Steatornithinae

Phal. in outer toe

Four

Five

Five

Five

Five

Claw of middle toe

Pectinated

Not pectinat.

Not pectinated

Not pectinated

Not pectinat.

Oil-gland . . .

Pres, (small)

Present?

Absent

Absent

Present

Powd.-dwn. patches

Absent

Present

—

—

—

Syrinx ....

Tracheo-

bronchial

—

Approximates
bronch. structure

Tracbeo-bron-

chial

Bronchial

Stern., nr. of incis.

One pair

Two pairs

Two pairs

Two pairs?

One shallow
pair

Palate ....

Aegitho-
gnathous ')

Schizognath.

Desmognathous

Desmognatb.?

Desmognatb.

Biceps-slip . . .

Present

—

Absent

Absent

Absent

Pem.-caud. muscle

Present

—

Present

Present

Absent

Caeca

Present

—

Present

Absent

Present

Food

Insectivorous

Insectivorous

Insectivorous

Insectivorous

Frugivorous

Eggs

Coloured

—

Pure white

Do., or palely
striated

Pure white

Nest

None, eggs
laid on
ground

Flat, of small
sticks on horiz.
branches

In hollow trees

In caves

In external appearence the Podarginae are very like the Ngctibiinae\ struc-
turally they differ in at least one very important point, i. e. the structure of
the palate. Nevertheless in this respect also the two subfamilies approach one
another more nearly than the other Cajmmulgidae’. “we have almost a transition
to the Desmognathous structure in Ngctibins” (Huxley, P. Z. S. 1867, 456).

It is remarkable that Australia, the part of the world almost the most
remote from South America, should furnish the link, Podargus^ between the
South American forms Ngctibius and Steatornis, which would otherwise be best
separated as families for themselves. The distribution of the Oaprimulgidae may
be compared with that of the Struthiones. But it seems to have taken place
at two distinct epochs; — an earlier one when the dispersal of the main groups
took place, and a later one which determined that of the subfamily, Caprimid-
ginae. The latter group from its great richness in genera, may be supposed to
have been longer in America than elsewhere, the various structural modifications
being a matter of time. The Palaearctic Begion possesses only the cosmopolitan
genus Caprimulgus, which most likely entered it from America in comparatively
recent times; while Lgncornis and Eurostopodus and the peculiar Caprimulginae of
Africa seem to have proceeded south and become isolated after an exodus from
America at an earlier period.

1) cf. Hartert, Ibis 1896, 370.

326

Birds of Celebes: Caprimulgidae.

The Caprimulgidae are again of interest, as Mr. Hartert shows, from the
high development of protective coloration seen in them. “The colours of the
Caprimulgidae . . . vary much according to the surroundings, and especially in
relation to the soil. So, as a rule, we find yellow, butf, and isabelline-colonred
species in sandy deserts and desert-like localities, darker species in more wooded
countries, and richly coloured ones in tropical forests. But even the same
species varies much, according to the soil that it frequents, and therefore several
species readily form more or less well-defined local races, often well worthy of
snbspecific rank. In many cases, of course, as usual, we do not understand
the reasons why a certain form is differentiated, because we have so little
knowledge of the influence of climate, the amount of rainfall, the surroundings,
and the food” (Ibis 1892, 275).

The need for protective coloration in so defenceless a bird as the Goat-
sucker which rests on the bough of a tree, or on the ground, in the day-time
and seeks its insect-food at night, is manifest. Its curious habit, also, of sitting
along the bough, instead of across it like other birds, is no doubt a protective
measure. Its plumage of dark brown and grey varied with all sorts of patches,
s]30ts and vermiculations is admirably adapted to conceal it when lying length-
ways on a bough covered with lichens, moss, brown bark and the moving sha-
dows of leaves. So long as it remains thus at rest it is an inconspicuous ob-
ject; the white outer tail-feathers, wing-band and throat-patch of many species
of the Caprimulgidae are then hidden by overlying feathers or by its resting-place
below, but so soon as it takes to wing these white patches must at once become
striking marks. They exemplify particularly well the “recognition markings” of
W allace.

It is a curious fact that the Owls, also nocturnal birds, are on the whole much
like the Goatsuckers in coloration. In their case, too, protective coloration may
be reasonably urged to account for the fact, though they are not at all defence-
less birds like the Goatsuckers. It is well known how a troop of Sparrows
delight in mobbing an Owl in the day-time, as indeed also an escaped Parrot,
Canary, or such like, and for the destruction of Birds of Prey and Crows one
of the most irresistible lures is an Eagle Owl, which, when seen fastened in
the open, will have a bad time from the beaks and claws of the diurnal Birds
of Prey and Crows, if these are not shot down as they come by the hunter
under cover close by. The plumage of the Owls, likewise resembles that of
the Goatsuckers in being soft, and their flight is likewise noiseless, a fact ex-
plained in the case of the Owls by the need they have of approaching their prey
without being heard. In the case of the Goatsuckers this explanation does not
suffice — nor indeed does it in the case of the insectivorous Owls. The Goat-
suckers, as a rule, like their allies the Swifts, catch their insect-prey on the
wing, but the flight of the Swifts is rushing and loud.

Quiet flight therefore cannot be of any vital importance; a wide mouth.

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

327

speed, and dexterity in turning seem to be the only essentials. It may also
be added that insects are much less sensitive to sound than birds and mammals,
or have quite different perceptions of it. The cause may be quite different.
The manifest influence of light, shelter, and exposure on the plumage will be
found referred to many times in earlier and later pages (Loriculus^ Hierococc^os
crassirostris, Graucalus, Coracias); the converse of sunlight (darkness) must of
course also have effect, and in the soft glossless plumage of the Owls and Goat-
suckers it may be that we see the influence of the want of light upon the
feathers of birds. Night falls upon other birds also, but these are then sleeping
and their vital energies are less active or otherwise employed.

FAMILY CYPSELIDAE.

The Swifts are diurnal birds of aerial habits, taking and devouring their
insect-food on the wing. The bill is small, the nostrils membranous, the gape
deep and wide, extending to below the eyes, the palate aegithognathous ; the
secondaries are much reduced, the primaries very long, 3 — 4 times the length
of the secondaries or more; there are said to be no median wing-coverts; the
legs are very short. The keel of the sternum is very high, the posterior margin
unnotched. Three subfamilies have been distinguished — all occurring in the
Celebesian Province: the Cypselinae with the three anterior toes consisting each
of three phalanges, the tarsus feathered; the Chaetiirinae with the tarsus bare
and the toes normal, i. e. the middle one with 4, the outer with 5 phalanges ;
the Macropteryginae with fenestra in the hinder margin of the sternum, and the
tail extending about to the tips of the wings and deeply forked.

GENUS CYPSELUS*) 111.

The typical Swifts may be recognised by the toes which are naked and
all directed forwards. Hartert (1892) recognised 16 species, of cosmopolitan
distribution. Many of them mignatory. They usually breed in holes in buildings
or rocks, not forming a nest, laying white eggs.

^ 103. CYPSELUS PACIFICUS (Latli.).

Australian Swift.

a. Hirundo pacifiea (1) Lath., Ind. Orn. Suppl. 1801, 58.

h. Cypselus australis (1) Gld., P. Z. S. 1839, 141; (II) id., B. Austr. 1848, II, pi. 11; (III)
Biggies, B. Austr. 1877, p. 20, pi. 20.

1) Tbe generic name Micropus of Meyer & Wolf (Taschenb. 1810, 280) antedates Cypselus of Illiger
(Prodr. 1811, 230) by a year. By rule 10 of tbe Stricklandian Code the name Micropus is to be rejected,

328

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

c. Cypselus vittatus (I) Jard. & Selb., 111. Orn. 1843, IV, pL 49; (2) SwinL, Ibis 1860,

48, 429; 1861, 254, 328; (3) id., ib. 1863, 253; (4) id., P. Z. S. 1863, 2Q3; (5) Blytb'
Ibis 1863, 263.

Cypselus paeificus (1) Blytli, J. A. S. B. 1843, XIV, 212, 548; (2) ScL, P. Z. S. 1865, 599;
(3) aid., HL. B. Austr. 1865, I, 105; (4) Swinb., Ibis 1870, 89; (5) Blytb, ib!
161; (6) Jerd., ib. 1871, 355; (7) Tacz., J. f. 0. 1872, 351; [8] Swinb., Ibis 1874,
435; (9) Salyad., Ucc. Borneo 1874, 119; (10) Hume, Str. F. 1875, 14, 43; (11)
Swinb., Ibis 1876, 331; (12) Hume & Davis., Str. F. 1878, VE, 48; (13) Salvad.,
Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 534; (14) Hume, Str. F. 1880, IX, 246; 1882, X, 185; (15)
Oates, B. Brit. Burmab 1883, H, 1; (16) Ramsay, Tab. List 1888, 3; (17) Seeb.,
B. Japan 1890, 177; (18) Tacz., Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1891, I, 168; (19) Pleske,
Mel. Biol. Ac. Petersb. 1892, XH, pt. 2, 294; (20) Oust., Xouv. Arcb. Mus. 1893,
138; (21) id., ib. 1894, 112; (22) Styan, Ibis 1894, 334; (23) Blanf., Faun. Br.
Ind. B. 1895, HI, 167.

d. Micropus paeificus (1) Stejn., Bull. U. S. Xat. Mus. Xr. 29, 1885, p. 321; (2) Hartert,

Kat. V. Mus. Senckenb. 1891, 119; (3) id.. Cat. B. XVI, 1892, 448.,

e. Apus paeificus (1) Hartert, Tierreicb 1897, I, 86.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvad., 75; Hartert d 3.

Figures and descriptions. Gould & JJ; Jardine & Selby cl; Biggies hill; Hume 10;

Salvador! 13; Oates 15; Hartert d 3; Taezanowski 18; Blanford 23.

Adult. Seal-brown, tail darker; across tbe uropygium and flanks a broad white band with
dark shaft streaks, tbe feathers of tbe ujaper surface narrowly fringed with white;
chin and throat white with dark shafts streaks; remaining under j>arts brown,
paler than the upper surface, each feather broadly fringed with white (Ussm-i, Q,
25. V. 1884 — 0 10426). Irides brown; eyelids pinldsh grey; bill black; inside of
mouth fleshy; feet pinkish; claws dark horny (Oates 10).

Measurements.

1

AVing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

from gape

a. (C 10426) Q ad. Ussuri, Manchuria

... 190

S3

11

18

b. (C 10509) ad. Cape York, Australia.

. . . 181

76

—

19 c.

c. (Xr. 2572) juv. ? Siao, Sangi

... 167

72

—

19 c.

Eggs. China: 2 in number; pinldsh Avhite until blovm, then becoming unj)olished white.
Average 20.5 X 17.8mm (Swinh. 8). 20 X 16 mm (Xehrk. MS.). See, also, Tacz. 18.

Nest. In holes and crannies of the rocks, a shallow saucer, nearly 4 inches in greatest
breadth, of refuse -straw and a few bits of catkins and feathers, all strongly aggluti-
nated with a gelatinous matter, doubtless the bird’s saliva. Another nest, perhaps
the accumulation of six years, consisted of six nests one placed above another and
strongly glued to it (Swinh. S).

Breeding season. China, breeding in numbers, June 22“^.

Distribution. Southern Siberia from the Yenesei to Japan (Seeb ohm 77); Tibet (Bonv. & Pr.
d’Orl. 20); X. "W. India from Upper Assam, Cachar and the Khasia Hills (Jerdon
6, 15) east to China (Swinh. c 2) and Formosa (Swinh. c 5), south to Burmah (Oates
15); Tenasserim (Davison 12); Malay - Peninsula (Blyth etc. 9); Sangi Islands — Siao
(Meyer in Dresd. Mus.); Xew Guinea (Salvad. 75); as far as Victoria and South
. Australia (Ramsay 75).

having been previously used by Linnaeus for a plant-genus (Syst. Nat. 1766, II, 580). Zoologists are divided
in opinion as to the admissibility of such names into zoology, and, until a general agreement as to nomen-
clature has been arrived at, we prefer not to allow Micropus to replace the familiar name Ct/pselus.

Birds of Celebes; Cypselidae.

329

There is in the Dresden Museum a single S23ecimen, killed by Meyer’s
hunters in Siao, which we somewhat doubtfully identify as a young one of this
species. The only other known species it could belong to is C. leuconyx Blyth,
“as yet only known from the Himalayas and rocky hills of Central India, but”,
says Mr. Hartert, “further investigation will probably add more to the know-
ledge of its distribution”. Of this form Hume (10) remarks it is altogether
a much smaller bird: wing 150 to 158 as a maximum; the under surface with
much narrower and less marked white fringes than in 'pacijicus\ the whole of
the feet (not the claws, as has been erroneously stated) very pale-coloured, al-
most albescent in some specimens. In C.pacificus Hume finds the wing varies
from 178 to 190. The specimen from Siao — wing 167 mm — is thus inter-
mediate between C. leuconyx and C.pacificus in size, but, since leuconyx is said
not to exceed 158 mm in the wing, the smallness of the Siao specimen seems
only to be explained on the ground that it is a young specimen of the larger
species. The white fringes on the under surface are hardly noticeable, but the
ends of most of the feathers are worn off.

Swinhoe found this species to be only a summer visitor to China, arriving
in the spring and going south in the winter. Taczanowski records its migra-
tions in S. E. Siberia. Its range extends to South Australia, where, as Mr.
Hartert remarks, it is probably a winter visitor. Gould also 50 years ago
believed that such would j>rove to be the case.

Australian ornithologists, so far as we have been able to ascertain, have
not made any further observations on this interesting subject, except that Cox
and Hamilton record it as seen among flocks of Chaetura caudacuta.^ a Swift with
a similar range, observed in New South Wales from December to AjJiil and in
July and August (P. L. S., N.S.W. 1889, 2“^^ ser., IV, 399).

GENUS CHAETURA Steph.

The Pin-tailed Swifts are easily distinguished by the shafts of the rectrices
which project beyond the webs as sharp, strong spines. The toes have the
normal number of phalanges, the tarsus is naked.

About 30 species, of almost cosmopolitan distribution.

* 104. CHAETURA OELEBENSIS (ScL).

Steel-blue Pin-tailed Swift.

Plate XII.

a. Chaetura gigantea var. celebensis (1) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1865, 608; J. f. O. 1867, 130.
h. Hirundinapus giganteus {1} Wald, (nec Temm.), Tr. Z. S. 1872, YIH, 46.

c. Chaetura gigautea (1) Eosenb., Malay. Arcliip. J878, 271.

d. Hirundinapus celebensis (1) Salvad., Ann. Mas. Civ. Hen. 1878, XII, 320; (2) W. Bias.

J. f. 0. 1883, 114.

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Nov. 1st,

42

330

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

Chsetura celebensis (1) Hartert, Oat. B. XVI, 1892, 476; (2) W. E. Clarke, Ibis 1894,
533; (3) id., Ibis 1895, 474; (4) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896, Xr. 1, p. 5.

Adult. Deep steel-black, back and rump with purple gloss; two white spots on the sides of
the forehead; sides of the abdomen and under tail-coverts white. In size similar to
C. gigantea] — total length nearly 229 mm, wing 203, tail 71, tarsus 16.5 (Hartert 1).

Female. A specimen in the Sarasin Collection marked “O juv.” (but we cannot see any
signs of immaturity) answers to Mr. Hartert’s description of the species, except that
the lores are reddish brown, not white: wing 208 mm; tail 63; tarsus 16; bill from
nostril c. 6 (Q, Tomohon, 29. III. 95: P. & E. S.).

Distribution. X. Celebes — Manado (Leyden Museum, a 7, d 1]^ Tomohon (P. &E. Sarasin);
Philippines - — Xegros (Keay 2).

Only two specimens of this species were known for a space of thirty years.
The name of the collector has not been recorded, but they are stated by
Sclater and Hartert to have come from Manado. The latter remarks that they
belong to a very distinct species. Next it was recorded from Negros by Mr.

W. Eagle Clarke, and in March 1895 a third Celebesian specimen was ob-
tained by the Sarasins. The nearest ally of C. celebensis is Chaetura indica

Hume of India and Ceylon, occurring also in the Andamans in summer as

well as in winter (Hume, Str. F. II, 156). This has the white spots on the
lores, but differs from C. celebensis in the smoky brown — not steel-blue —
colour of its under surface. C. gigantea, which ranges from the Malay Penin-
sula to Java, Borneo and Palawan (Hartert), is similar to indica^ but wants the
white spots on the lores. It is strange that birds of such grand flying- powers
as these Swifts should seem to have such restricted ranges, but the difficulty of
shooting them is no doubt very great.

Chaetura caudacuta (Lath ), however, ranges from Kamtschatka to Tasmania,
and has occurred as a straggler in Great Britain. This species also must needs
pass over Celebes on its way south to Australia, which it visits during the
winter of the North. It has also been observed in Australia in the southern
winter months, July and August (Cox & Hamilton, P.L.S., N.S.W. 1889, 399).

Chaetura is interesting for its curious spined tail. Hartert remarks that
in C, gigantea and in C. indica (and, of course, in its ally C. celebensis) “the rec-
trices' are very acute and run into a very long spine, whereas in C. caudacuta^)
and C. nudipes they are rounded and the spine is only half as long”.

C. caudacuta may be at once distinguished from C. celebensis by its white
throat. Another species with a white throat is C.picina Tweedd., for a long
time known only by one specimen from Mindanao.

b The secondaries in Giould’s plate of this species in the “B, Austr.” are drawn wrong — much
too long.

Birds of Celebes: Oypselidae.

331

GENUS COLLOCALIA 6. K. Gray.

The Edible-nest Swifts are birds of small to almost the smallest size (not
regarding the long wing) , furnished wdth a square tail of ten normally shaped
feathers, bare tarsus and toes with the ordinary number of phalanges. They
are cave-dwellers. Some of the species form their nests entirely of their own
glutinous saliva, others make use of various materials, but probably use saliva
for securing them and attaching the nest. Two white eggs. The number of
spgcies is uncertain; in 1897 Hartert recognised 14 and some subspecies. They
range from India to Australia and occur on some of the islands of the Indian
and Pacific Oceans.

4^ 105. COLLOCALIA FUCIPHAGA (Thunb.).

Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet.

Mr. Hartert (1892) separates as a subspecies C.fuciphaga (Me Clell.)

of the Himalayas. The present article relates only to the more typical forms.

iS/z.

a. Hirundo fuciphaga (I) Thunb., Act. Holm. 1772, XXXHT, 151, pi. lY.

b. Hirundo vanieorensis (I) Quoy et Qaim., Yoy. Astro!., Zool. 1830, I, 206, pi. XH, f. 3.
e, Collocalia unicolor (Jerd.), (1) Hume, Str. E. 1876, lY, 374; (2) Oates, ed. Hume’s

Nests & Eggs Inch B, 1890, IH, 28.

d. Collocalia nidifica (1) Gray, Gen. B. I, 1845, 55; (2) Bernst., J. f. 0. 1859, 112 — 118;

(^5^ Bosenb., Malay. Arebip. 1878, 271; (4) Salvad., Atti Ac. 8c. Tor. 1880, XY, 344.
Collocalia fuciphaga (1) Bp., C. B. 1855, XLI, 977; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. 8. 1872, YTH, 46;
(S) 8alvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874, 120; (4) id., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 544; (V) Meyer,
Yogelskel. pt. Y, 1883, 36, pi. 46, fig. 2; (6) Pryer, P. Z. 8. 1884, 532—538; (7)
Einscb & Meyer, Ztsebr. ges. Orn. 1886, 14; (8) Pryer, Auk 1888, 335; (9)
Lucas, Auk 1889, 9, 11; (10) 8alvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, I, 63, EH, 224;
(11) Everett, J. 8tr. Br. B. A. 8. 1889, 152; (12) Wiglesw., Av. Polyn. 1891, 17;
(13) Yorderman, Nat. T. N. Ind. 1891, L, 450; (14) id.. Notes Leycl. Mus. 1891,
125; (15) Hart., Oat. B. XYI, 1892, 498; (16) Brns. & Wore., B. Menage Exp.
1894, 35; (17) Hart., N. Z. 1895, 472; (18) Grant, Ibis 1895, 461; (19) Blank, E.
Br. Ind. B. HI, 1895, 176; (20) Hart., Ibis 1896, 369; (21) id., Tierr. 1897, 1, 67 pt.

e. Collocalia vanieorensis (1) Gray, B. Trop. Is. 1859, 4; (2) Wiglesw., Av. Polyn. 1891, 18.
/'. Collocalia fusca err. (1) Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes 1889, 49, 91.

For further synonymy and references see 8alvadori 4, 10 \ Hartert 75; Wiglesw. e 2.
Figures and descriptions. Quoy & Gaim. b 7; Meyer V (skeleton); 8alvadori 4; Hartert
75; Blanford 19.

Adult. Upper surface dark sooty broAvn with very little gloss; bead, wings and tail darker
and more glossy; feathers in front of the eye whitish with dark brown tips; lower
surface brownish grey with darker shaft-stripes; under wing -coverts blacldsb brown.
Total length about 114 mm; bill at base 3.8; wing 112 — 119; tail 56 (Hartert 75).
Young. Similar to the adult (Hartert).

42*

332

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

Skeleton.

Eggs.

Length

of cranium
Grreatest breadth of cranium
Length of humerus
Length of ulna . .

Length of radius .

Length of manus ,

Length of femur .

Nilghiris, S. India -

23.0 mm
12.5 »

8.4 »

12.0 »
11.0 »
27.2 »
12.5 »

usually 2 in number

Length of tibia 19.0 miu

Length of tarso-metatarsus . . 9.5 »

Length of sternum 16.0 »

Grreatest breadth of sternum . 1 1.0 »

Height of crista sterni . . . 9.0 »

Length of pelvis 16.5 »

Grreatest breadth of pelvis . . 14.5 »

dull, almost wholly glossless white, as a

rule slender elongated ovals, almost cylindrical, sometimes absolutely cyhndrical; at
times slightly pyriform: 20 — 22.8 X 13.5 — 14.7 mm, average size 21 X 13.7 (Hume
c 2); 20 — 22 X 13.5 mm (ISTelirkorn MS.). The eggs are similarly described by
other writers.

Nest. Composed of the saliva of the bird — in India mixed with moss and feathers (Hume
c 2), in Borneo mixed, apparently, ultli the substance of a gum-like Alga (Pryer
6, 8). Breeds in caves, usually in vast colonies.

Distribution. Prom India south-east to Hew Caledonia and the Hew Hebrides, and from
Ceylon and the Andamans east to the Marianne and Caroline Islands (see Salvad.
4, 10, Wg. 12, e 2). Recorded from Celebes: Macassar CWallace) by Walden (2)
and Hartert (15).

The members of the genus Collocalia are, like all Swifts, birds of great
hiring -j)owers , and, as is usually the case Avith such they do not conform to
the geographical hounds Avhich may be drawn for ill -flying species or for sp»ecies
sedentary for other reasons, nevertheless it is found that several species have
very restricted ranges, AvLile others, C. francica and C . esculenta ^ are, like the
present species, widely distributed. The Collocaliae are, apparently, restricted
to districts where there are rocks and caves suitable for them to roost and breed
in ; these they haunt in common with bats. From the thick deposits of guano
on the floors of some of these caves it is evident that they have been in use
for a long period; in a caA'^e in Ceylon the guano-deposit Avas, as Colonel
Legge Avas informed, 30 feet thick, and Pryer mentions (6) that a pole thrust
doAvn 18 feet into the deposit on the floor of the great cave “Simud Putech”
of North Borneo did not reach the bottom. This cave is described by Daly
(P. Z. S. 1888, 110), as being from 850 to 900 feet in depth, coated AAdth a
layer of guano of from 5 to 15 feet deep. The birds are remarkable for their
adhesiveness to any selected roosting or nesting spot; in certain parts the species
are migratory visiting their breeding-caves and leaving them regularly; and
Davison describes a case (Str. F. II, 159) AALere “a large number of these
birds had taken up their sleeping quarters against the roof of a shed on Viper
Island, Port Blair, occupying about a square yard of the surface; this place
they continued to occupy till the shed Avas destroyed, AA'hen, of course, they
disappeared; but after a time another shed Avas built exactly on the same site,
and as soon as the roofing was completed back came all the Collocalias and
re-occupied the same spot on the roof of the neAv shed as they had occupied
in the old”. The same excellent observer describes the attempts of a pair.

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

333

continued for nearly a week, to fix scraps of moss, the commencement of their
nest, on the painted ceiling of a room, “but failed to get a single piece to stick,
and so at last gave it up as a bad job”.

The nests are chiefly formed of the saliva of the birds more or less inter-
mixed with feathers and sometimes with moss. The high value (as an aphro-
disiacum) set upon them by the Chinese for soup is well known, and it is said
that nests of the purest quality — the white ones — are worth their weight
in silver'). According to Mr. Daly, the white nests of C. fuciphaga are those
which are gathered before the bird has commenced to lay any eggs, and which
are composed of clear transparent mucilaginous matter, with very few feathers
mixed up with them. The next quality is the red or grey nest, partly mixed
with feathers and in which eggs are sometimes found; the least valuable are
the black nests, which are much mixed with feathers and sometimes contain
hedgiings. The black nests have been supposed to belong to different species
or varieties, but Mr. Daly says these nests are those which have been “over-
looked at the previous gathering and have darkened or deteriorated from expo-
sure to water and to the atmosphere of the caves. The partial decomposition
of the mucous matter renders them the least valuable”.

Bernstein (d 2) has called attention to the enormous development of the
salivary glands in these birds, especially the glandulae sublinguales. Their great
size is attained only during the time that the birds are building their nests,
“after this, even during the laying of the eggs, they atrophy and appear but
little bigger than those of other birds. At that time (the building time) they
appear, when the bill of the bird is opened, like two large pads at the side of
the tongue. They secrete in quantities a thick, adhesive slime . . , resembling
gum-arabic . . . which can be drawn out of the mouth in somewhat long threads.
If the end of such a thread of slime is placed on the point of a bit of stick
and the latter is then turned slowly on its axis, in this manner the whole mass
of saliva for the moment present can be drawn out of the mouth and even out
of the orifices of the glands”. As Bernstein found from some tame specimens
the supply of saliva stands in direct relation to the quantity of food supplied:
“it was A^ery small, AA"hen the birds had gone hungry a few hours”. Bernstein
came to the conclusion that the giue-like substance of the nest Avas formed
solely by these secretions of the bird, and believed that the feathers seen in
the nest are such as have been caught and stuck by this adhesAe matter when
half dry. Nevertheless, chemical analysis ultimately proved the presence also,
in addition to the bird’s saliva, of a gumlike substance from an Alga in the
nests of C. fuciphaga obtained by Fryer in North Borneo (8). That C. fuciphaga
should employ such foreign substances sometimes or always is not surprising,
since some other Collocaliae are known to make use of moss, lichens, etc., as
does C, fuciphaga itself in India (c 2).

1) In 1896 there were imported into China 3,600 000 edible hirds-nests.

334

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

4 106. COLLOCALIA ESCULENTA (L.).

White-bellied Swiftlet.

a. Hirundo esculenta (I) Linn., S. N. 1766, XII, 843.

Collocalia esculenta (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, Vm, 46; (2) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 65; (3)
Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 540; (4) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 549; (5) Hickson,
Xat. in X. Celebes 1889, 49, 91; (6) Salvad., Orn. Pap. Agg. 1889, 63; (7) Hartert,
Cat. B. XVI, 1892, 509; (8) Tristr., Ibis 1892, 296; (9) Biittik, Xotes Leyden Mus.
1892, 194; (10) M. & Wg., Abb. Mns. Dresden 1895, Xr. 8, p. 8; (11) iid., ib. 1896,
Xr. 2, p. 14; (12) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1896, XXXVI, 73; (13) Hartert,
Xov. Zool. 1896, 158, 175, 243, 570; (14) id., Tierreich 1897, I, 70.

b. Collocalia hypoleuca (1) Gray, P. Z. S. 1858, 170, 189; (II) id., Cruise “Curagoa”, B.

1873, 356, pin, fig. 1; (3) Eosenb., Malay. Ar chip. 1878, 271; (4) Salvad., Atti
Ac. Sc. Tor. 1 880, 346.

c. Collocalia viridinitens (1) Gray. Ann. and Mag. X. H. 1866, XVH, 120.

d. Collocalia sp. (1) Biittik., Xotes Leyd. Mus. 1891, 210.

“Tetekek”, Peling, “Tepede”, Banggai (Xat. Coll.).

For further synonymy and references see Salvad. 5, Hartert 7.

Adult. Above glossy dark bluish green, tail and outer webs of quills bluer, inner webs
of latter dusky, rectrices, except the two middle ones, with a large patch of Avhite
on basal half of the inner webs ; bases of loral plumes white; chin and sides of
face dark mouse-grey; throat, breast and sides mouse-grey with white margins,
these margins increasing in width on the lower parts, so that the abdomen is pure
white; under tail-coverts — the longest uniform hlue-black, the shorter ones blacldsh
green, broadly bordered with white, the .shortest uniform wliite; under wing- coverts
blackish, fringed with white (Minahassa — Xr. 821). Bill and feet dark brown
(Platen, Mus. Xehrkorn).

Sexes. Alike.

Young. Xot so glossy above, but otherwise similar to the adult (Hartert 7).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
gape

Tai’sus

a. (Xr. 821) ad. Minahassa (Eaber)

94

44

8.5

—

b. (Xr. 820) ad. Minahassa (Eaber)

85

35

8

—

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Tomohon, 12. X. 94 ... .

97

40

—

7.5

A series of 17 from Peling and Banggai were very small: wing 69 — 90 mm,
average 80.

Eggs. Amboina. Elliptic and white, like the eggs of all Cypselidae and Trochilidae. Size
17.5x11 mm. They are sunilar to a series of Humming-hirds eggs, the shells of
which, however, are somewhat more delicate (Xehrkorn MS.). Always 2 in a clutch
(Hartert).

Nest. A nest in the Sarasin Collection “is built entirely of hchens and was stuck fast on
a rock with saliva. In form it resembles perfectly the ordinary edible nests. Of
these we saw many, as we were retimiing along the coast from Mahbagu back to
Kema. As is known the harvesting of these nests is a monopoly of the king of
Bolang Mongondo’* (P. & E. Sarasin in lit.). By Mr. Everett “on Xovemher 2'^'^
a colony was found breeding in a cave near Indrulaman. The nests were not edible,
but consisted of moss, rootlets, and little twigs, agglutinated and fixed to the walls
of the cave with saliva" (Hartert 13).

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

335

Breeding season. Dr. Hickson {5) found this species and G. fuciphagahvo.QdLmg in countless
numbers in two caves at Tanjong Aros, Talissi Island, Hortli Celebes on August
28*^. In Amboina Dr. Platen collected quantities of eggs on July 23’^'^, 1881.
Distribution. Celebes — Talissi Island (Guillem. 4, Hickson 5], Strait of Lembeh (Meyer 2),
Minabassa (P. & F. Sarasin), Macassar (Wallace 1, 7), Maros (Duillem. 4), Bontbain
(Everett 15) ; Peling and Banggai (Hat. Coll.); Moluccas and Papuasia as far as the
Solomon Islands (Salvad. 4, 6) to Cape York, Australia (Harter t 7).

This species has a more southern range than C. fuciphaga^ from which it
may be distinguished by its white abdomen and somewhat smaller size.

As is proved by the thickness of the guano deposits (see preceding ar-
ticle) these birds have evidently tenanted certain caves for enormous periods,
and it is not surprising that this species seems to vary locally or even
“troglodytically” ; for instance the specimens from Peling and Banggai examined
by us were very small.

J 107. COLLOCALIA FRANCICA (Gm.).

Little Grey-rumped Swiftlet.
a. Hirundo francica (1) G-m., S. N. 1788, I, 1017.

Collocalia francica (1) G-ray, List B. Br. Mus. 1848, II, Fissirostr. 21; (II) M.-Ed. & G-r.,
Ois. Madag. 1879, 198 pi. 72 — 5; (3) Hart., Cat. B. XAT, 1892, 503; (4) Blank,
F. Br. Ind. B. HI, 1895, 178; (5) Hart., H. Z. 1896, 175; (6) id., Tierr. 1897, I, 68.
h. Macropteryx spodiopygia (Tj Peale, U. S. Expl. ExjDcd. 1848, 170, pi. 49.
c. Collocalia spodiopygia (I) Cass., IJ. S. Exi^l. Exped. 1858, 184, pi. 12, f. 3; (2) Finscb
& HartL, Orn. Centralpol. 1867, 48; (3) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1880, I, 546; (4) id.,
Agg. O. P. 1889, 63; (5) Wiglesw., Av. Pol}ni. 1891, 18.
d Collocalia terrae-reginae (I) Gould, B. New Guinea 1875, IV, pi. 38.
e. Collocalia infuscata (1) Salvad., Atti Ac. Sc. Tor. 1880, XV, 348.

For further references cf. Finscb & Hartlaub c 2\ Milne-Edwards & Grandidier II]
Salvadori c 5, c 4] Wiglesworth c 5] Hartert 5.

Figures and descriptions. Gould cl I] Peale h J; Cassiu c I] M.-E. & G. II] F. & H. c 2;
Salvadori c 3] Hartert 5; Blanford 4.

Diagnosis. Distinguishable from C. fudphago, by its having a grey or dusky white band
across the rump, from C. esculenta by its having no white on the abdomen, and by
its larger size.

Measurements. Wing 111 — 114 mm; tail 53 (Hartert 5).

Skeleton see Milne-Edwards & Grandidier II.

Eggs and nest cf. Finscb & Hartlaub c 2; Hume, Nests and Eggs Ind. B. Oates ed.
HI, 35.

Distribution. Burmab, through the Philippines and the East Indian Islands to North Australia,
east as far as Fiji and Samoa, west to Mauritius and Bourbon (cf. Hartert 5). —
In the Celebesian area: Djampea Island (Everett 5).

Quite recently Mr. Hartert was able to record two fully feathered nestlings
and a number of nests and eggs from Djampea between Celebes and Flores,
which he ascribes to this species. It has not as yet been recorded from the

336

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

mainland of Celebes. The Dresden Museum recently got specimens from
Mindanao. The species is a puzzling one, and varies in a way that is likely
to cause little satisfaction to trinomialists.

GENUS MACROPTERYX Sw.

The subfamily Macropterygiiiae consists only of the present genus. Its ap-
pearance is perfectly Cypseline, but it is easily recognisable by its long forked
tail, the outermost rectrices reaching as far as the ends of the wings; the toes
are ordinary, the tarsus bare and very short, about as long as the hind toe
without the claw. The superciliary plumes are long, forming tufts. There are
two fenestrae in the sternum posteriorly. Its nidification is very peculiar, resem-
bling most that of the Goatsucker, Batruchostowus (see below). Dive species have
been recognised by Hartert, ranging from India to the Solomon Islands.

k * 108. MACROPTERYX WALLACEI (J. Gcl.).

Cejebesian Crested Swift.

a. Dendrochelidon wallacei (1) Gld., P. Z, S. 1859, 100; (II) id., B. Asia I, pi. 23 (1859);
(3) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 339; (4) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1865, 616; J. f. 0. 1867, 140;
(5) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 65; (6) Bosenb., Malay. Ai-cbip. 1878, 271; (7) W. Bias.,
J. f. 0. 1883, 125; (8) Heine & Bclinw., Nomencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 190.
Macropteryx wallacei (1) Pinsch, Neu Guinea 1866, 162; (2) Walden, Tr. Z. S. 1872,
VHI, 45; (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 65, 146; (4) W. Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 136; (5)
Guillem., P. Z. 8. 1885, 548; (6) W. Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Om. 18S5, 246; (7) id.,
ib. 1886, 95; (8) Hickson, Nat. in N. Celebes 1889, 91; (9) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B.
1889, 112; (10) Hartert, Cat. B. XVI, 1892, 515; (11) Blittik, Zool. Erg. Weber’s
Beise Ost.-Ind. 1893, IH, 275; (12) M. & Wg. , Abb. Mus. Dresden 1895, |Nr. 8,
p. 8; (13) ud., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, pp. 5, 9; (14) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 13; (15) Hart.,
Nov. Zool. 1896, 175.

h. Dendrochelidon klecho var. wallacei (1) Briigg., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 55.
“Peapatta”, Gorontalo, Bos. a 6. “Burong padang” (Knife-bird), Malay, Manado, Meyer 5.
“Pavas”, Manado, Guill. 5. “Pavas”, Talissi, Hicks. 8. “Pisok besar", Banka, Nat. Coll.
“Eewata”, Tjamba, S. Cel., Platen 6. “Biding”, Tonkean, E. Cel., Nat. Coll.

“Papingis”, PeHng; “Tepede babasar”, Banggai, Nat. Coll.

Figure and descriptions. Gould all, a I, Guill. 5 (young); W. Bias. 6“; Hart. 10\ Biitt. 11.
Adult male. Head above, wing-coverts, exposed webs of quills, and tail, shining
blackish blue, varied on crown Avith bronze-green, and passing into bronze-green with
blackish blue margins on most of the feathers on hind neck, mantle, and sca-
pulars, which again shades off into the dark grey of the back, rump, and upper
tail-coverts; the longest tertiary coverts lighter grey; ear-coverts dull dark
chestnut, face black glossed with green; a A^ery narrow superciliary stripe of grey;
under parts from chin downwards dark grey, becoming AAdiitish tinged with buff and
fulvous on abdomen and shaded Avith greenish on sides of breast; under wing-
co verts dark brown, Avashed with bluish at metacarpal edge (Minahassa [(^] —
C 3499). Iris brown; feet grey; claws blackish; bill black (Meyer 3).

Adult female. Like male but the ear-coA-erts greenish steel-blue, not chestnut (Hartert 10\.

Birds of Celebes: Cypselidae.

337

Young. The under surface marked irregularly with huff feathers, which are white at the
base , and tipped with brownish black; the tertials are white, and the primaries and
secondaries strongly tipped with that colour (Guillem. 5).

Changing plumage. Young birds assuming the adult dress have a curious appearance. The fea-
thers of immaturity are pale brown, tipped with white, with subterminal black bars, those
of the upper parts are dull blackish brown with buff-brown edges; these are mixed
with the grey or glossy blackish feathers of maturity (cf juv. Palopo, 22. I. 95: Sar.).
Variation. A series of specimens from E. Celebes, Pehng and Banggai prove to be more
bronzy on the head and wing -coverts than others from North Celebes, which show
stronger tints of steel-blue; still two examples from the latter locality do not differ
from the specimens in question.

Measurements. Wing 171 (juv.)— 190 (adult); tail 92 (juv.) — 124 (adult); rictus 19.5—20.9;

tarsus 8.0 circa (W. Blasius 6, and specimens Dr. Mus.).

Eggs and nest. Unknown.

Distribution. Celebes Province — Southern Peninsula: Macassar (Wallace a 10), Tjamba
(Platen 6], Luwu and Boni (Weber U), Palopo (P. & F. Sarasin); Northern Penin-
sula: Minahassa (Wallace 10, Meyer 3, etc.), Talissi Id. (Hickson 8), Banka Id.
(Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.), Togian Islands (Meyer 5); E. Peninsula, Tonkean (Nat.
ColL); Peling and Banggai (iid.); Sula Islands (Allen a 3, 10).

This species is most nearly related to M. longipennis (Bafin.) = klecho
Horsf., which ranges from Tenasserim to Java and Borneo. M. wallacei differs
by its larger size (wing about 178 as against 165 mm), the bluer — less green
— tint of the upper parts, the lighter grey of the under surface, and in the
male adult the darker chestnut of the earcoverts (Biittik. 11, Hartert 10).

The genus Macropteryo) is separated as a family, Dendrochelonidae, by Lucas
(Auk 1889, 8), and as a subfamily of the Cypselidae by Hartert, who regards
it as an approach to the Caprimulgidae. Among the Swifts it seems to be related
to the Chaeturinae, also marked off as a subfamily in the Catalogue of Birds.
In the typical Swifts, Cypselinae, the front toes contain each only three plalanges;
in Chaetura and Macropteryx the normal numbers — five in the outer toe, four
in the middle toe — are seen. In their peculiar nesting-habits, the Macroptery-
ginae offer, as Hartert remarks, a striking correspondence with the curious
nidification of the Goatsucker, Batrachostomus. Bernstein seems to have been
the first to discover the nidification of Macropteryx, and his admirable obser-
vations (J. f. O. 1859, 184) on M. klecho in Java remain unsurpassed in fullness
and interest. “It chooses”, he says, “a free-standing branch, high in the crown
of a tree, to build its nest on. If the choice of such a spot is remarkable for
a member of the family of the Cypselidae, the relations in size between the bird,
nest, and egg are far more remarkable. The nests, by its more or less semi-
circular form and the manner in which the component materials are bound
together, calls to mind to some extent the nests of the Collocaliae-, it is however
much smaller and flatter than these. The nests measured by me were in depth
about 10 mm by 30 — 40 mm broad against 50 mm in those of the much smaller
C. nidifica [esculenta Horsf.). The nest is always found on a horizontal branch,
usually not more than an inch thick, which at the same time forms the hinder

Meyer & Wigleaworth, Birds of CeleTaes (Nov. 1st, 1897).

43

338

Birds of Celebes: Oypselidae.

wall of the nest; here it is fixed so as to form at the side thereof a somewhat
fiat, longish, semicircular saucer, just large enough to contain the single egg.
The walls of the nest are extremely thin, and delicate, scarcely thicker than
parchment. They consist of feathers, some few bits of tree-lichens and small
pieces of bark, which materials are glued together with a sticky vehicle, without
doubt, as in the Collocaliae, the saliva of the bird; occasionally in these birds
also the salivary glands swell remarkably at the time of reproduction. The
smallness and fragility of the nest does not allow of the brooding bird sitting
thereon. On the contrary, as I have repeatedly observed, it sits on the bough and
covers the nest and the egg in it with the belly alone. The latter, with a length of
25 mm and a maximum breadth of 19 mm, answers perfectly to the size of the bird.
It it of regular, perfectly oval form, so that it is not possible to make out with cer-
tainty a sharp or a blunt end. Its colour is a very pale sea-blue, which colour
gets paler after blowing the egg, and then white, with faint tinges of blue.
According to my observations the bird rears two broods a year, one immediately
after the other, but rarely makes use of one and the same nest for this purpose.
With such a low rate of reproduction, it can cause no surprise that this bird,
though probably occurring all over Java, is nowhere very plentiful”. The nest
of Macropteryx coronatus (Tick.) is very similarly described by Hume (Oates
ed. Hume’s Nest and Eggs Ind. B. IH, 36). The nest oi Batmchostomus hodgsoni
(Gray) is described in the same work (p. 40) as a circular pad barely 3V2 inches
in diameter, about ^/4 inch thick. This is placed on the upper surface of a hori-
zontal bough, and receives one white egg. In this case, apparently, there would
be nothing to prevent monkeys and other marauders from helping themselves to
the white egg, but that Batrachostomus is a nocturnal bird and doubtless is sitting
upon the nest all through the day.

The genus Macropteryx, is most strongly represented in the Oriental Eegion,
but ranges from India to the Solomon Islands.

Macropteryx mystacea (Less.). Gray (HL. 1869, I, 65) mentions Celebes
as a locality for this species, which ranges from Halmahera to the Solomons, and
Rosenberg (Mai. Arch. 271) repeats this indication, doubtless derived from Gray
(see W. Blasius, J. f. O. 1883, 125). There appears to be no proof of this species
having ever been found in the Province.

Macropteryx comata (Temm.). As Salvadori points out (Cat. Ucc. Borneo,
1874, 124), Cassin indicates (Cat. Hirund. Mus. Philad. 1853, 15) individuals of
this species from Celebes and Timor. The localities are repeated by Gray (1. c.),
by von Rosenberg (1. c.) “Celebes”, and by Hartert (Cat. B. XVI, 518); but in
the case at least of Celebes no evidence of their correctness has been produced.

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

339

ORDER PASSERES.

To this order belong pre-eminently the Song-birds, the males of the majo-
rity of which have the habit in the breeding season - — in many cases at other-
times of the year also — of uttering a sequence of notes almost always pleas-
ing to the human ear (and doubtless still more so to the singer and his part-
ner), though a few, such as the Crows, have no song properly so called, while
some birds belonging to other orders, such as, for instance, the common Fowl
and the Redshank, have a very appreciable form of song. The Passeres number
some 6000 species, ranging in size from the most minute to the Raven and
Lyre-bird. The great majority of them feed upon insects and other inverte-
brate organisms, seeds and fruits, some few occasionally on carrion, and occa-
sionally (Laniidae^ Corvidae) on small birds and other small vertebrates. As
architects they are the most skilful nest-builders in the bird-world, and those
which breed in holes as a rule (if not always) form a comfortable lining thereto,
wherein they differ from certain “Picariae”, such as Merops, which do not line
their nesting-holes. The young are hatched blind and naked.

There is no difficulty in distinguishing the Passeres from other groups of
birds, except from certain Picarian forms, such as the Swifts, which approach
the Swallows in external appearance and habits, and the Rollers, which are of
a corvine appearance, or the Broad-billed Rollers, which resemble the Pury-
laemidae. For the distinction, of the Passeres^ avian anatomists attach most
importance to the toes and their flexor tendons, to the palatal bones, and to
the syrinx.

The toes are normal, that is, there are three in front and the hallux behind,
and the hallux is served by a free flexor tendon, not united to the flexor tendon
of the three anterior toes, except in the Eurylaemidae^ which are now commonly
allowed to rank as a distinct suborder, or order.

The palate is aegithognathous (as it is indeed also in certain Picarian
forms). “In the true aegithognathous structure the vomer is broad, abruptly
truncated in front and deej)ly cleft behind, so as to embrace the rostrum of the
sphenoid; the palatals have produced postero-external angles, the maxillo-palatals
are slender at their origin, and extend obliquely inwards and backwards over
the palatals, ending beneath the vomer in expanded extremities, not united
either with one another or with the vomer” (Newton, D. B. p. 2).

The syrinx has received great attention especially from Garrod and Gadow.
The former used it as the diagnostic for forming two main groups of the
Passeres^ viz.

43*

340

Birds of Celebes; Pittidae.

Acromyodi: “in which the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx are fixed to the
ends of the bronchial semi-rings”;

Mesomyodi: “in which the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx are fixed to the
middle of the bronchial semi-rings” (Oates, Faun. Br. Ind. B. I. p. 5).

Gadow makes a somewhat different division:

Anisomyodae: in which the muscles of the syrinx are not bilaterally sym-
metrical, hut either entirely lateral, or purely dorsal, or ventral;

Diacromyodae: in which the muscles of the syrinx are bilaterally symmetrical,
being inserted in the dorsal and ventral ends of the bronchial rings
(Bronn’s Kl. & Ord. 1893, VI, pt. 4, II, p. 272).

FAMILY PITTIDAE.

The Pittas are Passeres of terrestrial habits and may be easily recognised
by their long tarsi, short tails (about as long as the tarsus or a little longer),
and brilliant coloration; glossy green, deep velvety -black, turquoise and other
blues, and pure red being common tints.

The formation of the syrinx led Garrod to refer the Pittas to his Meso-
myodian Passeres. As Prof. Newton remarks, “this in itself was an unexpected
determination, for all the other birds of the group, as then known, inhabit the
New World, where no Pittas occur”. Dr. Gadow makes the Pittas a family
of the Clamatores-^Qcticm of his Anisomyodian Passeres, the other families of this
group being American and one small one of three species, the Xenicidae, New
Zealandian. In the opinion of Gadow the Pittidae form a transition from the
Clamatores to the Subclamatores (consisting of the single family Eurylaeinidae).

The bill is about as long as the cranium, without rictal bristles, the nostril
oval; there are 10 primaries, the 1®*" large, about as long as the secondaries;
12 rectrices. The sexes are similar in coloration.

GENUS PITTA Vieill.

The family Pittidae consists of about 50 species, which fall into a number
of sections, but it is doubtful if more than two of them should be separated
generically, viz. Anthocincla which has long “ear-tufts” and a longer more com-
pressed bill, found in a Burmese species, and Melampitta of New Guinea, which
is entirely black and has the frontal plumes short, erect, and the tail longer
(cf. Sclater, Cat. B. XIV, 1888, 412; Oates, Faun. Br. Ind. B. II, 1890, 387).

^ * 109. PITTA OELEBENSIS Mull. Schl.

Celebes Bed Pitta.

Pitta celebensis (1) M. & S., Verb. Natuiirk. Comm. 1839 — 44, Aves, Pitta, p. 18 (ex Forsten
in litt.); (2) Gray, Gen. B. I, 213 (1846); (III) Westerm., Bijdr. t. d. Dierk. 1854,

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

341

I, 46, Pitta, pi. 3; (4) Schl., Handl. Dierk. 1857, 254; (5) Wall., Ibis 1860, 142;
(VI) Schl., Vog. Ned. Ind. Pitta 1863, 17, 31, pi. 4, fig. 4; (7) id., Mus. P.-B. Pitta
1863, 6; (8) Wall., Ibis 1864, 105; (9) Finscli, Neu Guinea 1865, 167; (10)
Gray, HL. 1869, I, 296, Nr. 4377; Wall., Malay Archip. 1869, I, 366; (11)

Schl., Bevue Pitta 1874, 10, pt.; (12) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. 1875, VII, 663;
(13) Briiggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 64; (14) Meyer, Bowley’s Orn. Misc.
1877, n, 327; (15) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1877, 99; (XVI) Gld., B. New Guinea IV,
pi. 34 (1878); (17) Bosenb., Malay. Archip. 1878, 272; (18) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885,
552; (19) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 102; (20) Sclat., Cat. B. XIV, 1888, 436; (21)
Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 119; (22) Hartert, Kat. Mus. Senckenb. 1891, 107; (23)
Whitehead, Ibis 1893, 505; (XXIV) Elliot, Monogr. Pitt. pt. HI, 1894; (25)
M. &Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 13; (26) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 18;
(27) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1897, 163.

a. Brachyurus celebensis (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 255; (II) Elliot, Mon. Pitt. 1863, pi. XVH;
(3) id.. Ibis 1870, 418.

h. Erythropitta celebensis (1) Bp., Consp. Yol. Anisod. 1854, 7; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872,
Yin, 62; (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 126; (4) Platen, Gefied. Welt 1887, 218; (V)
Meyer, Yogelskel. I, 1892, 33, t. CLXI.

“Mope” (= Grandfather), Minahassa, Meyer h 3.

“Mupu sava merah”, Minahassa, Guillem. 18.

“Tenge-tenge”, [? Gorontalo], Bosenb. 17,

“Tagongong”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Gould XVI [immature^)]; Westermann JZ7; Schlegel VI\
Elliot a II, XXIV, a 5; Meyer h V (skeleton); Muller & Schlegel 7; Sclater 20.

Adult. Head above chestnut with a vertical stripe from forehead to occiput glaucous blue;
mantle, back, scapulars and lesser wing-coverts dull Erench-green , changing
with the light; remaining uj>per-parts dull blue, two or three wing-coverts near the
carpal edge partly white forming a concealed spot; bastard-wing and primaries
black, the latter greyish at their distal ends, a white speculum formed by the second,
thu'd and fourth quills; lores, ear-coverts, chin and upper throat rufous
isabella-colour, touched with blue on the ear-coverts and above the eye; jugular
collar black, passing narrowly round hind neck; a broad pectoral collar below
the last cerulean- blue, passing narrowly round liind neck, on sides of chest and
body greenish, broadly bordered on the breast with a black band; remaining
under-parts deep scarlet; under wing-coverts drab, the axillaries tipped with
white (ad. near Manado, Aug. — Sept. 1892: Nat. Coll. — C 10886, cf ad. Burukan,
21. YH. 8-1, Platen in Mus. Nehrk., Nr. 947).

Iris greyish brown (M. h 3) or pale oHve (Wall. 8) or ruddy brown (Guill. 7S);
bill black, feet greyish black, dusky lead-colour, pinidsh slate or grey [h 2, 8, 18,
Platen).

Young in changing plumage. The vertical stripe buff, a patch on the jugulum buff-white
bordered below with black; remaining under-parts isabella-colour, washed with darker
brown on the breast, sides and ear-coverts, paler and washed with scarlet on the
abdomen; a few blue feathers of the pectoral collar present and others of deep
scarlet on the abdomen; upper surface much as in the adult; bill short, most of
under bill and terminal part of upper yellowish white (Mantehage Id., 22. lY. 93:
Nat. Coll. — 0 12199).

1) The -white spot on the jugulum is a sign of immaturity, though it may also he common in adult

females.

342

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

Measurements. Adults — wing 103—109 mm; tail 41 ; tarsus 38 c.; bill from nostr. 14.5—16;

immature — wing 101; tarsus 36; bill fr. nostr. 12.5.

Skeleton. *

Length of cranium fr. sin. nasofr.

25.9

mm

Length of fibula

23.3

mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

18.5

Length of tarso-metatarsus

38.0

»

Length of humerus ....

30.2

2>

Length of sternum ....

33.5

»

Length of ulna

35.6

>

Greatest breadth of sternum .

20.0

Length of radius

32.8

»

Height of crista sterni . , .

11.0

»

Length of manus

31.0

»

Length of pelvis

33.0

»

Length of femur

28.5

Greatest breadth of pelvis . .

20.5

»

Length of tibia

49.0

»

Distribution. Celebes — Minahassa (Eorsten 1, Wallace 5, 20, etc.); Bolang-Mongondo
(P. &F. Sarasin); Gorontalo (Posenb.il); Mantehageld. (Nat. Coll); Togian Islands
(Meyer h 5); Tonkean, E. Celebes (Nat. Coll.); Tawaya, W. Celebes (Doherty 57);
Maros, S. Celebes (Wallace id'"®); Segeri, S. Celebes (Meyer h 3).

The Red Pitta of Celebes seems to be a somewhat rare bird in the south
of the island. Writing on its habits Meyer has remarked (h 3)\ “Although not
so difficult to procure as the Black-headed, it is nevertheless a bird which it
is not easy to get a shot at, being very quiet in the day-time and seldom
calling except in the morning and evening its ‘tiiuuu tschui’. In the evening
the cry ‘oppo’ (origin of the native name) is heard, with which the male and
female call one another, the notes sounding melancholy and protracted. ‘Oppo’
means, in the language of the country, ‘grandfather’; and the natives tell the
tale, that once a child, which had gone with its grandfather into the forest,
got astray and was transformed into a bird, which now always calls for its
grandfather”.

Pitta celehensis only runs on the ground, and is very shy and watchful;
it glides noiselessly through the leaves; and as its back is green it can only
with difficulty be detected. To approach it one must creep through the densest
brushes; and without imitating the call of the bird its pursuit would be in vain.
But if the hunter imitates the cry he can draw the bird almost to the muzzle
of his gun. During the day-time they go singly, in the evening in pairs together.
The nest is to be found in brushes near small pools.

The bird digs a hole in the slope of the river-bank, and builds its nest
therein of wood and leaves, lined with cotton or hairy plant-materials (for in-
stance, from Arenga saccharifera Lab.). It lays two eggs. . . . This Pitta feeds
on beetles, small caterpillars, etc.”

Dr. Platen and v. Rosenberg likewise mention the quiet, concealed habits
of this bird. The latter describes its nest, or that of P.forsteni, as being alwavs
placed upon the ground and formed of leaves and moss, lined with fine grass-
stalks.

Pitta celehensis is one of a group in which Mr. Whitehead has recently
(23) enumerated 12 species, and P. inspeculata M. & Mg. should now be added:
“a very compact group, all the species having brown or black-and-brown

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

343

throats, beneath which is a pectoral band of shining greyish blue, sometimes
flanked with green, and divided by a black band or otherwise from the bright
scarlet breast”.

The group is distributed as follows:

Habitat

* *«»
O

HO

CO

53

O

HO

53

S

S

1

o;

53

HO

s

ai

P.caeruleitorque.

P. palliceps

P. celehensis

P. rubrinucha

P. rufiventris

P. cyanonota

P. machloU

P. pnschi

P. loriae

Authorities

Luzon ....

*

*

Sola! er, R. G. W. Ramsay

Tam Tawi . . .

*

Bourns & Worcester

Tablas, Sibuyan .

*

Bourns & Worcester

Oalamianes . .

*

Bourns & Worcester

Panay, Griiimaras

>f^

Bourns & Worcester

Masbate . . .

*

Bourns & AVorcester

Siquijor . . .

*

Bourns & AA^orcestor

Mindoro

*

Steere

Palawan . . ,

>K

>k

• .

Sharpe, W. Bias., Everett

Balabac . . .

*

Everett

Zamboanga . .

*

Sclater

Gnimaras .

Steere.

Marinduqiie .

*

Steere

Samar ....

*

Steere

Basilan ....

-

Sclater, R. G. AV. Ramsay

Mindanao . . .

5k

Shai'pe, Steere, M. & AA^g.

Sooloo ....

*

Sharpe, AA^. Blasius

Talant ....

5k

M.&Wg.

Great Sangi . .

5k

Sclater, M. & Wg.

Siao

5k

Brligg., Schleg., M. & Wg.

Celebes ....

>k

M.&Wg.. Schlegel

Burn ....

5k

Salvadori, Sclater

Batchian . . .

*

Salvador!, Sclater

Ternate . . .

5k

Salvadori, Sclater

Halmahera

5k

•

Salvadori, Sclater

Guebeh ....

5k

Salvadori, Sclater

Dammar . .

.

5k

.

Salvadori, Sclater

Obi

5k

Salvadori, Sclater

Papuan Islands .

•

5k

Salvadori, Sclater

S. E. Hew Guinea

5k

E. P. Ramsay, Salvadori

Su-a-u Island b .

• •

.

5k

Salvadori

Cape York . .

• 1 •

• •

•

5k

•

Salvadori

It will be observed that the distribution of the Philippine species appears
to be somewhat mixed up as regards Luzon, Mindanao and Palawan, and a re-
examination of specimens with special regard to age and sex might prove in-
structive. P. erythrogaster is very possibly the female or young male of propinqua.

1) An island near Soutli Cape, New Guinea,

344

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

P. celebensis is most like its nearest neighbour P.palliceps Briigg. of Siao,
which has a much paler chestnut head, the black hand below the blue pectoral
collar absent, or nearly so, and the hill longer; P. ruhrinucha Wall, of Burn
has no black band below the blue, and also a scarlet patch on the nape. These
three species agree in having a broad pale blue vertical stripe, hut this often
appears in specimens of P. macMoti and we find signs of it in most individuals
of P. inspeculata and in P. cyanonota. Whether these signs are the last remnants
of a character in process of undergoing obliteration, or whether they indicate a
new character coming into existence — a character most advanced in develop-
ment in the Celebes, Burn and Siao birds — may possibly he ascertained some
day. In Pitta inspeculata we are able to point to a character which is undoubt-
edly becoming obliterated.

+ * 110. PITTA PALLICEPS Briigg.

Siao Bed Pitta.

a. Pitta celebensis pt. (1) Schl. , Mus. P.-B. Bev. Pitt. 1874, 10 (Siao).

Pitta palliceps (1) Bruggem., Abb. Yer. Bremen 1876, V, 64, t. II, f. 7, 8, 9 (bill); (2)
Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. 1876, IX, 54; (3) Meyer, Bowley’s Orn. Misc. 1877,
II, 327, 328; (4) id., Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (5) Sclat., Oat. B. XIV, 1888, 436;
(Q) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 602, 637; (7) Whitehead, Ibis 1893, 505; (VIII)
Elliot, Mon. Pitt. pt. Y, 1895, pi.

“Lihange mahamu”, Siao, Xat. Coll.

Figure and descriptions. Elliott VIII] Briiggemann i; Sclater 3.

Adult. Like Pitta celebensis, but the head and neck much paler, more yellow-chestnut, not
bordered below with black across the hind neck, the vertical stripe apparently less
developed; the secondaries green fike the back, this colour extending half over the
rump; the blue pectoral band not fringed below with black feathers, though the
bases of these are black and a dark border may be seen; bill somewhat long and
thin (Siao, 8. YD. 93: Xat. Coll. — C 12619).

Young in first plumage. Young -Bobin- like (Erythaca): above greyish ohve-brown, with a
greenish wash on the back and wings, tail and the outer edges of some of the quills
greyish blue; lesser wing-coverts blackish; under-parts, including sides of neck and
breast with pale huffish centres to the feathers, creating a mottled appearance; lower
abdomen and under tail-coverts buff; on jugulum a buff cross-patch bordered below
with blackish; the two white specula near the carpal edge and on the quills well
developed; both mandibles yellowish white at tip (juv. Siao, 28. VII. 93: Xat. Coll.
— C 12621).

Observation. In the type specimen Briiggemann makes no mention of green secondaries,
and these, therefore, do not perhaps present a stable point of difference between this
form and celebensis.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostrils

a. (C 12619) ad. Siao

103

39

39

16

h. (C 12621) juv. Siao . . . '

94

34

39

12

c. (C 13527) ad. Tagulandang, Aug. 94

109

40

39

15

d. (C 13528) ad. Tagulandang, Aug. 94.

107

40

41

16

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

345

Distribution. Siao (Hoedt a 1, v, Duivenb. ai, Fischer i, Nat. Coll, in Dresden Mus.);
Tagulandang (Nat. Coll.).

This form of Red Pitta is confined, so far as is known, to Siao and Tagu-
landang, two of the southern islands of the Sangi Group. The habitat of the
type, originally indicated as “Sangir”, has now been fairly satisfactorily settled
as being Siao. Only 12 specimens in the Leyden, Darmstadt and Dresden
Museums are on record, the majority being in immature plumage. P. palliceps^
as Meyer has elsewhere (3) remarked, is undoubtedly only an insular variation
of P. celehensis\ the Great Sangi bird is somewhat further removed and resembles
rather more closely P. erythrogaster of the Philippines ; nevertheless P. palliceps^
in virtue of its pale head, absence of all signs of a black ring round the hind
neck, and of its similar blue pectoral collar and throat, is undoubtedly an
approach towards P. caeruleitorques of Great Sangi. In fact the four forms afford
regular transitions, just as do their respective habitats, and it is highly probable
that Siao and Sangi served as stepping-stones and halting-places and became
colonised by Red Pittas from Celebes or from Mindanao. In which direction
this emigration took place may possibly be understood when the meaning of
the disappearing (or growing) white speculum and vertical stripe of blue among
other characters has been correctly interpreted.

As Prof. W. Blasius remarks P.palliceps is the only known species peculiar
to Siao, unless indeed Scops siaoensis should prove to be distinct from S. mana-
densis, but further research will no doubt bring to light some peculiar forms.

^ * 111. PITTA CAERULEITOKQUES Salvad.

Sangi Red Pitta.

Pitta caeruleitorques (1) Salvad., Ann. Mns. Civ. Gen. 1876, IX, 53; (II) Rowley, Orn.
Misc. 1877, n, 324, pi. LXIV; (3) Meyer, t. c. p. 327, 328; (4) Salvad., Atti
Ac. Sc. Tor. 1878, Xm, 1187; (V) Gld., B. New Guinea, pi. 32 (1878); (6) Meyer,
Isis, Dresden 1884, 6; (7) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 601; (8) Sclat., Cat. B. XIV,
1888, 433; (9) Whitehead, Ihis 1893, 505; (10) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894, 246;
(XI) Elliot, Mon. Pitt., pt. IV, 1895, pi.

Figures and descriptions. Rowley II; Gould V; Elliot XI; Salvadori 7; W. Blasius 7;
Sclater 8.

Adult. Like P. celebensis ad., hut the head above and neck much paler yellowish chestnut
— almost ferruginous, and without any blue vertical streak, the lower neck bordered
against the mantle with a fringe of China-blue, like that of the pectoral band, with-
out any intermediate black wing; the green parts of the upper surface somewhat
greyer; throat and face darker and more russet; under parts similar, but the black
band below the pectoral collar nari’ower (adult, Great Sangi: Meyer — Nr. 1910).
“Iris brown; bill black; feet blue-grey” (Platen 7).

Another specimen (1909) has the upper surface slightly bluer than in that taken
for comparison.

Measurements (2 ex.). Wing 98, 101 mm; tail 36 c.; tarsus 38; bfil from nostril 15.5, 16.
Distribution. Great Sangi (Meyer II, Bruijn 7, 4, Platen 7).

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Not. 2nd, 1897).

44

346

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

Pitta caeruleitorques is intermediate between P. palliceps of Siao and
P. erythrogaster of Mindanao and other Philippines, the former differing by its
vertical stripe of pale blue, its greener back and absence of a blue collar above
the mantle and of a black bar below the pectoral band, while P. erythrogaster
has the pectoral band green, with only a small amount of blue in the middle
of it and no black bar below, the blue and green tints of the upper surface
much brighter, and the head above not uniform, but showing two dusky streaks
on the sides of the crown. When Count Salvadori speaks of P caeruleitorques
and erythrogaster as the only two Red Pittas with a blue, cervical collar, he is
not strictly correct, since this character is sometimes well developed in P. cele-
bensis. It occurs again in the since described P. propinqua (if that species be
really distinct from P. erythrogaster) and in P. inspeculata.

Prof. W. Blasius points out that in the specimen obtained by Dr. Platen
the speculum on the primaries is developed only on the 3’"'^ and 4*'^ quills. This
is also the case in the two adult examples in the Dresden Museum (and indeed
the white is only seen on the inner web of the 3"^ quill, but on both webs of
the 4:^^), but an immature specimen has white on the inner web of the 2"^ on both
webs of the 3^^^ and 4*^ and a trace on the 5*^. In P, celebensis, palliceps , erytkro-
gaster and propinqua it is seen on the inner web of the 2“^ and on both webs
of the and 4^^, so that it appears certain that the speculum in P. caeruleitor-
ques has undergone reduction. In the next article this matter is examined a
little more fully.

+ * 112. PITTA INSPECULATA M.& Wg.

Talaut Red Pitta.

Pitta inspeculata (I) M. & Wg., J. f. O. 1894, 245, pi. Ill; (2) iid., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895,
Nr. 9, p. 6; (III) Elliot, Mon. Pitt., pt. Y, 1895, pi.

“Angkaruii” or “Antarawuwung”, Kabruang, Sahbabii and Karkellang, Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. M. & Wg. 7; Elliot III.

Adult. Head and neck ferruginous chestnut, rather darker on the sides of crovui and of
forehead, washed with bluish grey on middle of forehead, orbital region and cheeks;
upper surface China-blue, a brighter fringe bordering the chestnut of the hind
neck; bastard-wing and primaries black, the inner primaries washed externally
with blue, no speculum; chin and throat dusky brown, forming into black upon the
jugulum; pectoral collar Cliina-blue all round, continuous with the blue of the
mantle; remaining under parts deep scarlet; the sides bordering the wing blue;
under wing-coverts slaty black washed with blue; longest under tail-coverts
blue; quills and tail below sliining black. (Type — ad. Kabruang, 7. XI. 93:
Nat. Coll. — C 13174.)

The type is without any sign of a white speculum on either the primaries or
against the metacarpal edge, though in a few other fully coloured specimens a small
white spot or spots may be found on searching for such on the fourth primaries and
near the metacarpal edge; a narrow black bar below the pectoral blue is also some-
times present.

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

347

Immature. Like tlie adult, but the throat and jugulum black varied with a few white or pale,
fawn-feathers, chin mostly cinnamon; a few pale fawn feathers on the abdomen;
shoulder greenish tawny-ohve; mantle varied with greenish olive; a small speculum
formed by a white spot on the inner web of the 3^^ guill and on the outer web of
the 4*^^, just present also on the inner web. (Imm. co-type, Kabruang, 7. XI. 94;
Xat. Coll. — C 13175.)

Distribution. Talaut — Karkellang, Kabruang and Sahbabu (Xat. Coll, in Dresd. and Tring
Museums).

The type and co-types of this species were obtained by native hunters sent
out on behalf of the Dresden Museum; the species must be rather plentiful, six
specimens being obtained in Kabruang and five in Salibabu. This was at the
end of October and beginning of November, when the birds were moulting. Two
large series were obtained in 1894 and 1896 in the larger island of Karkellang.

P. inspeculata is the only known Ked Pitta in wKich the two specula on
the wing are absent. Prom Pitta celehensis it differs by its back being blue, not
green, by its wanting the blue vertical stripe, and rather broad black bar on
the breast. It is most like P. cyanonota of Ternate and Guebeh in colour, but
has the head darker chestnut, the blue of the back more intense, a cervical
collar of brighter China-blue, not seen in cyanonota^ the throat darker and the
jugulum black ; there is an entire absence or slight indication only of a black band
below^ the blue pectoral collar. In respect of the blue cervical collar it agrees
with P. caeruleitorques of Sangi and P. erythrogaster and propinqua of the Philip-
pines, but is easily recognisable from the two last by its entirely blue upper
surface and pectoral collar, and from caeruleitorques by its darker head, blue
upper surface, blue sides, as well as middle, of the pectoral collar, and by
the reduction or absence of the black band below it.

Pitta inspeculata is perhaps the most interesting member of the Ked Pittas
in virtue of the disappearance of the two white specula — on the primaries
and against the carpal edge. An examination of the speculum on the primaries
of the Eed Pittas brings to light some interesting facts. We give a table show-
ing the variation of the quill-specula of all the Eed Pittas in the Dresden
Museum at the time of writing (July 1894):

Species

Specimen

Distribution

2 “dp.

3rdP.

4tlip.

5tbP,

Eemarks

out. 1 inn.
wet)

out. jinn,
■wet)

out] inn.
web

out. 1 inn.
web

1. P. mackloti ad. .

Hr. 13306

X. Gruinea

*

4^

*

4c

*

2. P. mackloti Q ad. . .

Xr.l890

X. Duiaea

*

*

*

4c

4c

3. P. mackloti § ad. . .

Xr.l891

X. Guinea

*

*

4c

4c

Just seen on 5**^ inner.

4. P. mackloti ad. . .

Xr.l893

Jobi . .

*

*

4c

4c

4c

Just seen on 3^*^ outer.

5. P. mackloti ad. .

Xr.l896

X. Guinea

4c

4c

4c

Indicated on 6^^ outer.

6. P. mackloti ad. . .

0 1417

X. Guuiea

*

*

4c

.

Just seen on 5^^.

7. P. 77iackloti cf ad. .

0 1431

Jobi . .

*

*

4c

4c

8. P. mackloti $ ad. . .

0 1426

X. Guinea

,

*

4c

4c

4c

Large,

9. P. mackloti 9 ad. . .

C 1414

X. Guinea

•

*

4c

4c

4c

•

44*

348

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

1

Species

1

Specimen

Distribution

2ndP.

3rdP.

4tbP.

5tbp.

Bemarks

out ion.
web

web 1

out.|inn.

web

out,|inn.

web

10. P. macldoti ad. . . .

0 1432 '

Jobi . .

4

*

*

4c

4c

1

1

* 1

Large.

11. P. mackhii ad. . . .

C 1435 1

Jobi . .

t

•

*

*

4c

4c

4c

12. P. macldoti ad, . .

0 1423

N. Guinea

.

*

*

4=

4c

4c

.

On 3^'^ & 5^^ out. small.

13. P. mackloU ^ ^id. . .

0 1416

N. Guinea

4

.

*

* 1

4c

4c

«

On 5*^^ inner shgbtly.

14. P. macldoti ad. . .

C 7105

Aru . .

.

.

*

4=

4c

.

•

Moulting.

15. P, macldoti imm. .

0 1425

N, Guinea

•

4

*

4=

4c

«

.

16. P. macldoti inmi. .

C 1428

N. Guinea

4

*

*

*

4c

4c

4c

17. P. macldoti § unin. .

C 9962

N. Britain

,

*

*

*

4c

•

.

18. P. mackloti imm. .

Nr. 1897

N. Guinea

4=

*

4c

4c

4c

19. P. mackloti Q imm. .

Nr. 1895

N. Guinea

.

*

*

4c

4c

4c

Small on 5*^.

20. P. mackloti $ imm. .

Nr. 1892

N. Guinea

4

4^

4:

4c

4:

4c

Small on 5*^^^.

21. P. mackloti (f imm. .

Nr.l894

N. Guinea

*

4c

4c

4c

4c

22. P. rufiventris ad. .

m. 13304

Bat j an , .

.

*

4c

4c

•

23. P. rufiventds ad. . .

Nr. 6990

Moluccas .

-

4=

4c

4c

4c

4c

On 5*^ bilat. unequal.

24. P. rufiventi'is ad. . .

Nr. 1888

Halmahera

.

*

4

*

4c

4=

4c

4c

Small on 2°^ and 5^’^inn.

25. Pitta juv

—

‘"Moluccas”

*

*

*

.

26. P cyanonota ad. . .

Nr.l889

Ternate .

•

4

*

4c

4c

.

Moult., formula doubtf .

27. P, cdehensis ad. . . .

0 10886

Oelebes .

.

*

*

4c

4c

-

.

Large.

28. P. celebemis ad. . . .

CM 0879

Oelebes

*

*

4=

4c

4c

.

29. P. cdebensis ad. . . .

Nr. 1908

Oelebes .

•

*

*

*

4c

4C

4c

.

Very small on 5*’^

30. P. cdebensis ad. . . .

Nr. 1907

Oelebes

.

*

*

4t

4c

4c

4c

Large.

31. P. celebensis Q ad. . .

P.&F.S.

Oelebes

*

*

*

4c

4c

.

Indicated on 5*^ outer.

32. P. celebensis imm. . .

C 12199

Oelebes

»

*

*

*

4c

4c

.

.

Indicated on 5‘^ outer.

33. P. pallic&ps ad. . . .

C 12619

Siao . .

.

*

4c

*

4c

4c

•

•

34. P. paUiceps juv. . .

C 12621

Siao . .

.

*

4=

*

4c

4c

4c

•

35. P. erytlirogaster ad.. .

Nr. 6988

Philippines

•

4c

4=

4c

4c

4c

•

Just seen on 5*^^ inner.

36. P. erytlirogaster ad.. .

Nr.3243

Luzon . .

*

*

4:

4c

4c

•

1 Just seen on 2"'^ outer.

37. P. erytlirogaster O ad.

UT, 13503

IVIindanao .

*

4^

*

4c

4c

•

38. P. propinqua ad

K, 12845

Palawan .

•

*

*

4=

4c

4c

•

39. P. caenileitarques ad. .

Nr. 1909

Great Sangi

■

•

4^

4c

4c

•

40. P. caerideito-rques ad. .

Nr. 1910

Great Sangi

.

•

*

4c

4c

•

41. P. caeruleitarquesQ.imm.

C4185.

Great Sangi

*

4^

*

4c

4c

•

On 5*^ just indicated.

42. P. inspecidata ad. . .

013174

Talaut . .

Speculum quite absent.

43. P. inspecidata ad. . .

0 13119

Talaut . .

Spec, quite abs., moult

44. P. inspecidata ad. . .

0 13116

Talaut . .

Spec, quite abs., moult

45, P. inspeculata ad. .

C 13120

Talaut . .

A small spot.

46. P. inspeculata ad. . .

,0 13118

Talaut . .

A spot on left wing only

47. P. inspeculata ad. . .

0 13117

Talaut . .

.

•

•

4c

•

•

A minute spot.

48. P. insqjeculata imm.

013175

Talaut . .

•

•

■

>

4c

4c

•

Very small on 4*'^ inner

Further specimens subsequently received from Talaut prove that the white
speculum is not always better developed in young individuals.

The above tables show first that the quill- speculum in the Ked Pittas is
very variable , and indeed it is imj)ossible to indicate all the slight differences
in size and shape of the spots in specimens from the same locality and on the
right or left wing of the same individual; secondly that Papuan, and, apparently,

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

349

also Moliiccan, specimens generally have none of the speculum on the second
quill, but on the 3""^, 4*^ and 5^^^; thirdly that Celebesian and Philippine speci-
mens generally have none of the speculum on the 5^’^ quill, but on the 2“^
3’’^ and 4^^. As several exceptions to this rule are shown above, a few Papuan
specimens having the speculum commencing on the second quill, as in Celebes
birds, and a few Celebes bii’ds having it carried on as far as the fifth quill, as
in Papuan ones, we must, apparently, infer that the speculum, was originally,
larger than at present and embraced a part of the 2"^, 3’'^ 4*’", 5*^ and, judging
from Nr. 5, 6'^’" quills; and that on the 6*^" it is now almost entirely lost, while
Papuan birds have further lost it almost for good on the 2"^, and Celebes and
Philippine ones on the 5^^. It appears likely enough that at one time the
white was more extended, for the speculum appears almost throughout the
varied genus Pitta ^ and in some forms, such as P. sangiratia and P. cyanoptera
(members of different groups), the white occupies the whole of the ten prima-
ries except the basal portion and ends of the feathers and inner web of the
tenth. In other species, such as the beautiful P. granatina and ussheri of Borneo
and P. forsteni of Celebes, the speculum has completely disappeared.

Some species, as Mr. Whitehead remarks, have increased the amount of
white on the primaries, at least in P. atricapilla, muelleri and sangirana it is more
extended in the adult than in the young.

The adult P. caeruleitorques of Sangi seems to have lost it on both the 2’^^
and 5^^", while in the adult P. mspeculata of Talaut it is found only as a small
spot on the fourth quill or is entirely wanting on all of them. In one imma-
ture P. mspeculata a moderate speculum still makes its appearance, and in the
immature palliceps and caeruleitorques it seems to be a good deal more extended
than in the adult; this is not the case in immature Papuan specimens. — It
seems certain that there once existed in the Red Pittas and in many of their
fellows, and, apparently, still exists, a tendency to lose the white speculum;
but what causes set the process of obliteration at work must be a matter of
conjecture. We believe, however, from the existence of volcanoes there, that
Sangi and Talaut are not fragments of a former continent, hut have been
upheaved from the sea, and therefore colonised by flight, or through the agency
of winds or sea-currents; and when Pitta got there, it is perhaj)s more likely
that it would vary than if it had stayed at home, and the obliterating process
of the speculum, if nearly latent before, might be brought to greater activity.

It is possible that a melanising influence exists in Talaut, but this is very
doubtful. The Talaut Oriolus is melanotic, and the Dicaewm is darker than its
nearest allies. On the other hand the black borders on the wing of the Eos
are narrower than in Sangi.

Pitta cyanonota Temm. Two specimens of this species of Ternate and
Guebeh purporting to have come from Celebes are in the British Museum, but

350

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

the habitat is very rightly queried by Sclater (Cat. B. XIV, 435). No collectors’
names are mentioned, and there can be little doubt that the labels are erroneous.

Pitta rufiventris Cab. & Heine. The same remark applies to a young
specimen of this bird labelled “Celebes” in the same collection (1. c. p. 434).

t pitta FORSTENI Bp.

Celebes Green Pitta.

a. Pitta melanocephala (1) Miill. & ScM. (nec Wagl.), Verb. Natuiirk Comm. 1839—44, Aves,

Pitta, p. 19 (ex Porsten MS.); (2) Gray, Gen. B. I, 214(1846); (III) Westerm.,
Bijdr. t. d. Dierk. 1854, I, 46, Pitta, pi. II; (4) Schl., Hand!. Dierk. 1857, 254;
fVJ id.. Yog. Ned. Ind. 1863, 5, 30, pi. H, f. 1; (6) id., Mas. P.-B. Pitta 1863, 4;
(7) Pinscli, Neu-Giiiiiea 1865, 167; (8) Sclil., E.ev. Pitt. 1874, 9; (9) Eosenb.,
Malay. Arcliip. 1878, 272; (40) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 598.

b. Braehyurus forsteni (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 256; (II) Elliot, Mon. Pitt. 1863, pi. XXIV;

(3) id.. Ibis 1870, 419.

c. Melanopitta forsteni (1) Bp., Consp. Vol. Anisod. 1854, 7; (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872,

ym, 62; (3) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 126; (4) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 132; (5) Platen,
Gefied. Welt 1887, 218.

Pitta forsteni (1) Wall, Ibis 1864, 106; (2) Gray, HL. 1869,1, 295, Nr. 4363; (3) Wald.,
Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 189; (4) Eowley, Orn. Misc. H, 1877, 331, note; (V) Gould,
B. New Guinea IV, pL 30 (1879); (6) Sclat., Cat. B. XIV, 1888, 442; (7) White-
bead, Il3is 1893, 490, 499; (VIII) Elliot, Mon. Pitt. 1895, pt. V, pi; (9) M. & Wg.,
Abb. Mas. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 13.

“Mopo idiu” (Green Grandfather), Minabassa, Meyer c 3.

Figures and descriptions. Goald F; Elliot b II, b 3, VIII\ Westermann a III, Scblegel
a F; Sclater o; Whitehead 7.

Adult. Entire bead all round, neck and upper throat glossy velvety-black; upper
surface glossy green, showing bright yellow, malachite or dark ohve tints according
to the light; sides of neck, jugulum, breast and sides of body bluer green,
similarly variable; primaries, bastard-wing and concealed portion of secon-
daries black; exposed portion of secondaries and innermost primaries,
greatest wing-coverts and tail green, darker than the back; lesser wing-coverts
and upper tail-coverts metallic silver-blue; abdomen and under tail-coverts
deep scarlet; a patch of black separating the abdomen from the breast; entire
under side of wing and tail shinmg black, (rf ad. Eurakan, 17. I. 83: Platen
in Mus, Nehrkorn, Nr. 946; Q ad. on the Gunung Sudara, Minabassa, 15. X. 93:
P. & E. Sarasin Nr. 105). “Iris dark; bill black; legs grey” (Sarasins, MS.).

Measurements (6 ex. in the Sarasin Collection, and 4 Dresden Mus.). Wing 116 — 126 mm;
tad c. 40 — 47; tarsus c. 39 — 44; bill from nostril c. 16 — 17.

Nestlings. Two in the Sarasin Collection are partially covered with pin-feathers, those along
the sides of the body pale fulvous, the rest lead-colour. The arrangement of the ten
primaries and twelve rectrices is well seen. “In stomach: remains of insects” (4. June,
1894: P. & E. S.). The mother and the nest accompanying.

Eggs. “Dr. Platen found on May 6^^, 1886, a nest with 2 eggs near Eurukan in the Mina-
hassa. They differ from one another:

Birds of Celebes; Pittidae.

351

a, has dark brown surface spots on a white ground;

&, light brown ones on a hke ground.

Both eggs measure 30 X 23.5 mm. In the delicacy of the markings they differ little
from other Pitta-eggs’’’ (Nehrkorn, MS.).

Nest. The nest obtained by the Sara sins with the above two nestlings is a most curious
object. In shape a cylinder, closed at one end, or a large pocket, about 22 cm long
by about 12 in external diameter. “According to the statement of the finder, the
nest was situated on the ground; it represents a moss cylinder, open in front, and
shut off by a tree-stem behind” (P. & P. S.). The side which seems to have lain on
the ground is composed almost entirely of dark vegetable-fibres, the upper surface
and sides chiefly of moss; the dark fibres form the internal structure.

Distribution. North Celebes: IVCnahassa (Forsten a 1, a 6, Meyer c 3, etc.), G-orontalo Distr.
(Biedel in Dresd. Mus.).

The Green Pitta of Celebes is a rare bird in collections, and is known only
from the Nortbern Peninsula of the island. It was not obtained by Wallace
or von Rosenberg; Meyer found it a difficult bird to shoot and met with
it only near Manado in December, 1870, and once again later, and Platen ob-
served both it and P. celehensis beneath the underwood in the forest near Rurukan.
In the stomach the Sarasins found insects.

P. forsteni is well distinguished from P. sangimna of Great Sangi, P. muelleri
of Borneo and P. atrica}nlla of the Philippines by its primaries being entirely
black like the rest of the wing, instead of, as in these three species, white with
the basal part and distal ends black. In respect of the -wing P. forsteni more
nearly resembles P. nomegiiineae M. & S. and its allies of the Papuan group,
hut these birds, having the black of the throat carried further down on to the
jugulum, the sides of the abdomen blue or washed with blue, and a different
gTeen on the breast, seem to be rather further removed. In P. mafoorana Schl.,
as in P. forsteni^ no white speculum is seen ; in P. nonaeguineae and rosenhergi
it is very small. The variation of the quill-speculum is much more striking
than in the Red Pittas, it seems to be undergoing, or has already undergone,
obliteration east of Celebes, but to be on the increase north and west. The
group, numbering 11 or 12 species (see Sclater 6*, Whitehead 7), ranges
from the Himalayas to New Guinea and North Australia.

4 * 114. PITTA SANGIRANA (SchL).

Sangi Green Pitta.

a. Pitta atricapilla sanghirana (1) Schl., Ned. Tdsclir. Dierk. Ill, 1866, 190.

Pitta sanghirana (1) Elliot, Ibis 1870, 411; (2) Salvad. , Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. IX, 1876,
54; (III) Rowley, Orn. INIisc. H, 1877, 329, pi. LXV; (4) Meyer, t. c. 330; (5)
W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 597; (6) Sclat., Cat. B. XIY, 1888, 440; (7) Whitehead,
Ibis 1893, 499.

h. Pitta atricapilla pt. (1) Schl., Rev. Pitt. 1874, 5 (Sangi).

“Kopau”, Great Sangi, Nat. Coll.

For further synonymy cf. W. Blasius 5.

352

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

Adult. Similar to P. forsteni^ but the green above and below darker, tbe blue on tbe wing-
coverts, upper tail-coverts and rump (where it is more extended) darker, upper ab-
domen black, tbe lower abdomen and under tail-coverts scarlet, primaries white, tipped
about 20 mm broad on the P*, about 2 mm broad on the inner ones — with black,
and with the bases of the feathers black (ad. Great Sangi, 31. YIE. 93: J^at. Coll.
— ISTr. 12700). Iris bromi; bill black; feet blue-grey or grey-reddish (Platen 5).
Immature. Head above and under-parts rufous isabella-colour, almost buff on chin and
throat, sides of the body green, breast varied with green; neck and nape blacldsh;
back and mantle green, nearly as in adult; wings chiefly broccoli-brown, no silver-
blue on the lesser coverts; the white on the primaries much less extended than in
the adult, the first quill black, the wliite commencing on the inner web of the second
(Gt. Sangi: Meyer — Hr. 1916).

Nestling. Much more dusky than the immature bird: head all round neck and chin black,
throat varied with buff; upper surface dusky bottle-green; uropygium bluish;
upper tail-coverts brighter blue; the white on the quills distributed as in the
immature bird, rest of the quills and tail black, under-parts brownish, paler on
abdomen, bill black, yellower towards the gape, and the tips of both mandibles
yellowish: wing 92 mm; tail 25; tarsus 40; bill from nostril 11 (Great Sangi, 16. VH.
93: Hat. Coll. — 0 12702).

Measurements (23 adults: W. Blasius 5). Wing 102 — 111 mm; tail 34 — 45; culmen 21 — 24.5;
tarsus 39 — 43.

Distribution. Great Sangi (Posenberg «. 7, /; 7, Hoedt and v. Duivenbode 6 7, etc.).

A fine series of 25 examples of this species obtained by Dr. Platen and
his hunters passed into the hands of Prof. W. Blasius in 1888, who, after
pointing out that the white on the quills is least extensive in young birds and very
variable in extent in fully coloured individuals, remarks that P. atricapiUa'LeBS.
of the Philippines, one of its nearest allies, is smaller and has a very much
lighter, almost yellowish green tint on the back and under-parts. P. muelleri (Bp.)
of Sumatra and Borneo is lighter green above, lighter and bluer green below,
has the lesser wing- coverts and the tail-coverts slightly more silvery and paler
blue, the black on the abdomen less extended, and the bill, apparently, smaller.
Whether these differences are bridged over by individual variation we have
insufficient material to judge; if such is the case, then sangirana^ muelleii and
the typical atricapilla should be reduced to the rank of subspecies.

Unlike P. forsteni in Celebes the present species seems to be rather plentiful
in Great Sangi, and it is curious that 20 of Dr. Platen’s 25 examples were
males and only 3 adult females. Though very difficult to approach under
ordinary circumstances, it is well known to East Indian hunters that by imitating
the call-note the bird can be drawn almost to the muzzle of the gun. Perhaps,
in the case of our species, the male bird answers better to the call of the hunter.

115. PITTA OYANOPTERA T emm.

Chinese Blue-winged Pitta.

Pitta cyanoptera (I) Temm., PI. Col. pL 218 (1823); (II) SchL, Yog. Hed. Ind. Pitta 1863,
9,32, pi. 4, fig. 1; (3) Salvad., Cat. Ucc. Borneo 1874,235; (4) W. Bias., “Braun-

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

353

schweig. Anzeigen” (newspaper!), 3. Marz 1886; (5) Sclai, Oat. B. XIV, 1888, 420;
(6) Sharpe, Il3is 1889, 442; (7) Whitehead, 1. c. notes; (8) Everett, J. Str. Br.
R. A. Soc. 1889, 147; (9) Sharpe, ih. 1890, 281; (10) Oates, ed. Hume’s Xests
& Eggs Ind. B. 1890, H, 283; (11) Oates, Faun. Brit. Ind. B. H, 1890, 392; (12) Hose,
Ibis 1893, 403; (13) Whitehead, t. c. 494; (14) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 421, 544.

a. Brachyurus cyanopterus (I) Elliot, Mon. Pitt. 1863, pi. IV.

b. Pitta moluccensis Vj Oates, Str. F. V, 1877, 149; (2) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877,

144; (3) Hume & Davis., Str. F. VI, 1878, 240; (4) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah
1883, I, 415.

For synonymy and further references see Salvador! 5; Sclater 5.

Figures and descriptions. TemminckJ; Schlegel JJ; Elliot a I\ David & Oustalet h 4,
71; Sclater 5.

Adult. Head above isabella-colour, with a black vertical stripe; face, sides of head, and
neck black; hack, scapulars and inner quills olive-green variable in different
lights; upper wing- and tail-coverts glossy intense campanula-blue; bastard wing
and secondaries black, the latter edged with bluish; primaries white, their bases
and the ends of the outer ones black; tail black, tipped with bluish; throat white;
under parts cinnamon-buff; middle of abdomen scarlet, paler on under tail-
coverts; under wing-coverts black (Baram, X.W. Borneo, Xr. 13305). Iris black;
bill dark brown; legs pale pink (Whitehead 7).

Sexes. Said to be similar.

Young. They have the coronal streak broader, and the feathers of the crown are narrowly
margined with black; wing-coverts dull blue, the other parts less bright than in the
adult (Oates 77).

Eggs. “Both the eggs in my collection were collected by Oates in Pegu. They belong to
two different clutches, of which the two fellow specimens were in the former See-
bohm collection (now British Museum). The larger example measures 30 X 22.5 mm,
has a wliite ground, with washy lilac-grey subjacent, and a few small dark brown
superjacent spots. The eggs have resemblance with those of Chibia JioUentotta^
brevio'ostris and laemosiicta. Nr. 2 is considerably smaller and measures 26 X 21 min.
The large brown smlace spots are vermiform and evenly distributed over the whole
egg. Dates: Nr. 1, June 27*''', 1877; Nr. 2, June 20*'*', 1878” (Nehrkorn MS.).
Hume (b 1) describes the eggs as “far more thickly marked and richly coloured
than those of any other Ground Thrushes with which I am acquainted”. Davison
found as many as 6 in a nest; Oates says 4 — 6.

Nest. A huge structure of sticks, leaves and roots, bound together with earth, placed on
the ground in an open place or against the root of a tree; globular in shape, the
entrance at one side close to the ground (Oates b 4).

Distribution. Arakan (Blyth 5, Oates b 4)\ Pegu (Oates b 4); Tenasserim (Beavan 5,
Davison b 5); Corea (David b 2); South China (Swinhoe 5, David b 2); Siam and
Cambodia (Brit. Mus. 5); Malay Peninsula (Moore, Wallace 5, etc.); Sumatra
(Raffles etc. 5); Borneo (Whitehead, etc. 8); Celebes — Minahassa (Platen 4);
?Java (Temm. 5, Elliot 5); ? Luzon (Mus. Turin 5).

This P/lfa is a migrant; there is, therefore, nothing very surprising in the

discovery of an example at Rurukan in the Minahassa by Dr. Platen in 1884 — 85.

Burmah and Tenasserim are known as its breeding-grounds, from where it dis-
appears, except from S. Tenasserim, in the winter or dry season (cf. Davison b 3,
Oates b 4, 11^ Hume&./). On Tega Island, Borneo, Mr. John Whitehead

Meyer &, Wiglesworti Birds of Celebes (Nov. 3rd, 1897|. 45

354

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

met with it in numbers duriug April 1886, but in the following year Mr. Everett
sent a collector to that island, where he procured numbers of Pitta muelleri, and
no P. cyanoptera. A¥hen Mr. AVhitehead visited the island there were no
P.muellen to be seen. This species (cyanoptera) is fairly plentiful in Labuan
in some seasons; at other times it is not to be met with (7). Mr. Whitehead
remarks that this species “takes flight more often when alarmed than P. ussheri
or any other species of this genus that I have met with”, as might indeed be
expected in a form given to making especially long journeys on the wing.
Its absence or rarity in the Philip jjines is instructive; its route of migration,
like that of Lanius tigrinus, seems to be a southern one. In some quarters it
seems to occur all the year round; according to Mr. Hose (12)^ this is the
case in the Baram District of Borneo, and, according to Mr. Oates, in Southern
Tenasserim.

Davison (h 3) makes the following remarks on the habits of this bird:
“This species is fond of perching on trees; you may continually see them high
up upon high trees calling vociferously. They are not at all wild or shy birds;
they feed freely on ants and their larvae, all insects, grubs, and land shells. I
never noticed this or any of its congeners coming to the water to drink. This
and the closely-allied P. megarhyncha seem to frequent most commonly thin tree
jungle, where there is not much underwood, and the mangrove swamps, but
they also occur abundantly in gardens and jDlantations. They both have a fine
clear- double note, which may constantly be heard in the morning and evening
wherever they occur. They are decidedly noisy and often call all day, and
on moonlight nights a great part of the night also”.

P . megarhyncha Schl., which this excellent field naturalist cites as a close
ally of the present species, is recognisable, as Hume shows (Str. F. VI, 242),
by its much longer, slenderer and excessively straight-culmened bill, the duller
and darker brown of the head, the absence of the black vertical stripe, the
narrower black collar, etc. P. nyrnpha T. & S. of China and Formosa, P. hrachy-
lira (L.) of India and Ceylon to Tenasserim and P. irena of Timor, Sula, Boano
near Ceram and Ternate are distinguishable at a glance by their having the
blue of the wings confined to the lesser coverts, and turquoise, instead of cam-
panula-blue, and the white on the primaries restricted to a speculum.

^ 116. PITTA IRENA T emm.

Buft-browed Pitta.

a. “Breve irene” (I) Temm., PL Col. 591 (1836).

b. Pitta crassirostris (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 188, 335, 339 (Sula); (2)idi., Ibis 1864, 104,

106; (3) Finscli, Neu Guinea 1865, 167; (4) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 295, Nr. 4348;
(5) Sclat. , Cat. B. XIV, 1888, 427.

c. Pitta braehyura (I) Sclil. (nec Linn.), Vog. Ned. Ind. Pitt. 1863, 13, 33. pi. 3, fig. 2, 3;

(2) id., Mus. P.-B. Pitt. 1863, 1 1; (3) id., Pev. Pitt. 1874, 14.

Birds of Celebes: Pittidae.

355

Pitta irena Temm., (1) Salvad., Orn. Pap. II, 1881, 391; (2) Sclat., Cat. B. XIV, 1888,
^427; (3) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 133 (1890); (4) Wliitelid., Ibis 1893, 497.
“Lihange”, Tagulandang, Xat. Coll.

For further synonymy and references cf. Salvador! 1, 3.

Figures and descriptions. Temininck a I\ Schlegel c 1] Wallace b 7; Salvador! 1,
Sclater. b 5, 2, Whitehead 4.

Adult. Entire head, hind neck, chin and middle of throat hlack; superciliary
stripe from forehead to nape deej) huh; upper surface changeable ohve-green;
lesser wing-coverts and tail-coverts turquoise-blue; primaries black, tips
greenish, a white speculum formed on the 2*^^ to 6*^ quills; secondaries edged ex-
ternally with bluish green; tail black, tipped with green; under-parts deep buff,
darker on the breast and sides; abdomen dark red, the bases of the feathers black;
crissum and under tail-coverts more scarlet: wing 117 mm; tail 41; tarsus 39;

bill from nostril 15.5 (ad. Tagulandang Id., Aug. 1894, 0 1352G). Bill black, base of

lower mandible horny, feet pale horn or flesh-colour, iris dark (Sula — Wallace b 2).
Distribution. Timor (S. Muller c J); Tagulandang Id. between Celebes and Sangi (Nat,
Coll.); Sula Besi and Sula Mangoli (Allen & 7, [6 o, Hoedt c 5); Ternate (Bern-
stein c 2, Bruijn 7); Boano off Ceram (Hoedt c 3, 7). (S. Muller c I states that

he met with it also in Samao near Timor),

This species presents another of those cases in which two leaders in orni-
thology handle the same subject in different manners. The Sula bird is said
to have a thicker, more compressed bill than that of Timor (we do not find
that Timor birds are otherwise smaller, judging from one before us), and
Mr. Wallace’s name crassirostris is allowed to stand for the Sula form by
Mr. Sclater, while Count Salvador! finds no sufficient grounds for its separa-
tion as a species. It appears likely enough that the peculiarities of the Sula

bird are not great enough to warrant its position as a distinct species, hut that

occasional individual variation connects it with Ternate and other examples.
The occurrence of this species on Tagulandang is comparable to the presence of
Columba alhigularis there.

-f * 117. PITTA VIRGINALIS Hart.

Djampea Buff-browed Pitta.

Pitta virginalis (1) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 174, 182.

Description. Hartert, 1. c.

Diagnosis. Differs from Pitta irma by having the deep buff superciliary stripe about twice
as broad; the chin black for about 10 mm only as against about 25 mm in P. ire)ia\
size a little smaller.

Measurements. Wing 103—109 mm; tail 38—39; tarsus c. 38; bill from nostril c. 15
(Hartert 7, and Q Djampea, Dec. 1895: Everett — 0 14864).

Distribution. Djampea (Everett).

This was the only Pitta found by Mr. Everett on Djampea Island; none
w^ere sent from Kalao or Saleyer, where they certainly also occur. It belongs
to the same grouj) as P. irena of Timor and the Moluccas to Sula and Tagu-
landang, P . concinna of Lombok and Elores, P. maria of Sumba , and P. vigorsi

45*

35G

Birds of Celebes: Hirundinidae.

of Banda and Timorlant. P. irena^ concinna and maria are distinguishable by
having much more black on the chin and throat, P vigorsi by having no black
here, and by other points (cf. Hartert, hiov. Zool. 1896, 175, 585).

FAMILY HIRUNDINIDAE.

The Swallows are birds of aerial habits, taking their insect-food on the
wing. For the rest, they may he best recognised by the small, flat, triangular
bill, and by their possessing only nine primaries. They belong to Gadow’s
Diacromgodine group of Passeres in virtue of the arrangement of the muscles
of the syrinx.

The family belongs both to the Old and New Worlds. There are only a
few species in Australia and Papuasia, and these seem to have got there by
flight. The genus Hirundo only is represented in Celebes.

GENUS HIRUNDO L.

The true Swallows, with a flat, triangular bill; the tail forked to nearly
square; the wing long, the flrst and second quills the longest and the secon-
daries about half their length; the secondaries with double, or heart-shaped,
tips; the tarsus small and bare, about as long as the hind toe and claw; the
plumage with a metallic gloss on the upper surface. “They all construct nests
of mud lined with feathers, some making their nests cup-shaped, while others
add a long tubular entrance. The eggs in some species are speckled, in others
white without any marks” (Oates). By their nidiflcation, as well as by their
other habits, they show a certain amount of correspondence with some Swifts,
for instance, Collocalia^ differing herein from other Passeres,

Two species in Celebes, one a migrant, and both widely distributed else-
where, and doubtless birds which have extended their range by flight over sea.

118. HIRUNDO RUSTICA L.

Common Swallow.

The Common Swallow is almost cosmopolitan in its range, extending north
to about the j)olar circle, south in winter to the Cape, North Australia, and
South Brazil; absent in the Pacific Islands^), and New Zealand, and apparently
in Madagascar. Within this area it varies considerably and has been divided
into a number of species. Sharpe recognises five races or subspecies, other

1) Except the Pelew Islands, from where there is a specimen in the British Museum, fide Sharpe, Oat.
B. X, 137, a record OYerlooked by Wiglesworth in “Aves Polynesiae”. Schmeltz (Ethn. Abth. Mus. Godef.
1881, 391) speaks of Hirundo rusUca and Chelidon urlica as occurring at Yap in the Carolines, but no refe-
rence to actual specimens is made, though they may have been in the Museum Oodeffroy.

Birds of Celebes: Hirundinidae.

357

writers make other subdivisions. What is necessary to know is where the
extremes of variation in particular directions are found; the intermediate forms,
which probably compose the larger half of the species can then be indicated
by hyphens connecting the names of the races between which they lie. Thus, in
Japan Dr. Sharpe seems to have discovered the summer head-quarters of one
extreme, in Europe another extreme is found, i. e. the typical H. rustica with
the black breast-band unbroken: “there is never any difficulty in recognizing
birds from Japan as unmistakeable H. gutturalis with the hreast-band completely
divided [by the chestnut of the throat breaking through itj; and I have never
seen an intermediate or doubtful specimen from the Japanese Islands”. Cele-
bes and the other East Indies are without doubt the winter habitat of the true
H. rustica gutturalis^ and one of the Celebes specimens before us may be thus
identified. Further, Sharpe records the typical rustica from Malacca, the Phi-
lippines and Batchian • — a record overlooked by Count Salvador! — and
from Palawan and Borneo (Ibis 1888, 200; 1893, 561) and with Mr. Wyatt
later from Celebes, Ilalmahera, Bum and Amboina (Mon. Hirund. pt. XVII,
1893); other specimens from Celebes, Java, Luzon, etc., after the finding of
these authors, do not admit of such positive identification, but are intermediate
between the tyj)ical and the Japanese races like three others from Celebes and
elsewhere before us. These are best indicated as H. rustica — gutturalis, a less
clumsy method not being possible with the present system of nomenclature.
The following literature relates to the occurrence in the Celebes Province of:

' Hirundo rustica gutturalis (Scop.) and H. rustica — gutturalis.

a. Hirundo gutturalis (Scop.), (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, TDI, 65; (2) Meyer, J. f. 0. 1873,
405; (3) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. G-en. 1876, IX, 55; (4) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 128;
(5) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1881, II, 1; (6) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6, 22; (7)
Sharpe, Oat. B. X, 1885, 134; (8) W. Bias., Ztsclir. ges. Orn. 1886, 108; (9) id.,
Ornis 1888, 580; (X.) Sharpe & Wyatt, Mon. Hirund. pt. XYH pi. (1893).
h. Hirundo rustica (1) Bosenb., Malay. Arcbip. 1878, 271; (II) Sharpe & Wyatt, Mon.

Hirund. pt. XYH pis. (1893); (3) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Hr. 8, p. 8.
Figures and descriptions. Sharpe & Wyatt a X, h II\ Salvadori 5; Sharpe 7;
W. Blasius 8.

Adult male (II. rustica gutturalis). Above glossy steel blue-black; wings and tail dusky,
the rectrices, except the two middle ones, furnished with a large spot of white on
the inner webs 5 — ^10 mm from the tip, the outermost rectrices much lengthened and
narrow, forming a deep fork; forehead, chin, and throat chestnut, on sides of
neck a blue-black collar, broken through on the upper chest by the coloiu of the
throat; under surface light pinkish buff (Macassar, Jan. 1873 — 0 510). Wing
114 mm; tail (middle rectrices) 42; tail (outer rectrices) 93; tarsus 10, rictus 15.
Sexes. They are similar (Sharpe).

Immature. Like the adult, but the head above dusky brown; chin, throat, and forehead at
base of upper bill cinnamon; a broad pectoral collar dusky glossed with blue -black
(Macassar, rf, Jan. 1873 — 0 571: apparently, H. rustica — gutturalis).

Eggs. North India and Afghanistan — H. rustica — 3 — 6 in number; white to pale salmon-

358

Birds of Celebes: Hii’undinidae.

pink, spotted and speckled with brownish red and inky purple: size 17.8 — 21.3X12.7
— 14 mm (Oates ed. Hume’s Hests and Eggs Ind. B. 1890, H, 184). The eggs of
H. gutturalis not differ from those of rustica, are only a little smaller (Ne hr korn
MS.).

Nest. An open, saucer-shaped, or half-saucer-shaped, structui’e of mud, fixed upon or against
a beam or such like under cover, lined with feathers, etc. It is doubtful whether
this species breeds in Celebes.

Distribution in the Celebes Province. Great Sangi (Bruijn’s Coll, a 5, a 9)\ Minahassa
(Meyer a 4, Biedel a 8)\ Togian Islands (Meyer a 4); Southern Peninsula of Celebes
(Meyer a 4).

H. gutturalis is recorded by Salvadori from most of the East India Islands
as far as the north coast of Australia, by Sharpe (a 7) from the Pelew Islands,
by Seebohm (Ibis 1890, 102) from the Bonin Islands, where t\vo specimens
were observed for one day only, one being shot.

Taczanowski (Faun. Orn. Sib. Orient. 1891, I, 173) records this race as
far north as Kamtschatka. Hartert has recently noted its occurrence in the
Natuna Islands and Sumba (Novitates Zool. 1894, 480; 1895, 471; 1896, 585),
Bourns and Worcester in several additional islands of the Philippines.

Specimens captured at sea near the East Indies are recorded by Sharpe
(a7), by Einsch & Conrad (Verb. z.-b. G es. M ien, 1873, p. 1 sep. copy),
by the “Challenger” (see a X), and there is a specimen in the Dresden Museum
taken by Meyer in the China Sea more than 100 miles west of Borneo, end
of April, 1872. Though in the main a migrant, it is possible that some indi-
viduals of this species remain to breed in the East Indies. It was obtained by
Meyer on the Togian Islands in August, and it has been recorded from Am-
boina in May, Tifore in August, Ne\v Guinea in .lune (a 5, a 7).

Only two Swallows are known from Celebes, the present species and H.
iavanica, which latter may be distinguished by the absence of the black pectoral
collar and by its brownish grey- — not white and huffy — under surface; also it
does not acquire the long forked tail of H. rustica, having the outer rectrices
only a little (in the adult about 10 mm) longer than the middle ones.

^ 119. HTRUNDO JAVANICA Spairm.

Java Swallow.

Hirundo javanica (I) Sparrm., Mus. Carls. 1789, H, pi. 100; (II) Temm. , PL Col. 1823,
pi. 83; (2^^^) Bernst., J. f. 0. 1859, 267; (3) Wall., Bus 1860, 147; (4) id., P. Z. S.
1862, 340; (5J Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHI, 66; (6) Salvad., Oat. Ucc. Borneo 1874,
126; (7) Hume, Str. E. 1876, IV, 374; (8) Hume & Davison, ib. 1878, VI, 43;
(9) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 128, 146; (10) Hume, Str. E. 1879, VHI, 47, 1880, IX, 120;
(11) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 597; (12) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1881, H, 3; (13) Davison,
Str. E. 1883, X, 345; (14) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 6, 22; (15) Pleske, Bull.
Ac. Petersb. 1884, 121; (16) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 261, 419, 552; (17) Sharpe,
Cat. B. X, 1885, 142; (18) Bamsay, Tab. List 1888, 2; (19) W. Bias., Omis 1888,
308, 580; (20) Everett, J. Str. Br. R. A. S. 1889, 134; (21) Hartert, J. f. 0. 1889,

Birds of Celebes; Hirundinidae.

359

354; {22) SalvacL, Orn. Pap. Agg. 1890, 69; (23) Steere, List. Coll. B. & M.
PhilijDp. Is. 1890, 16; (24) Wliitelieacl, Ibis 1890, 49; (25) Sharpe, t. c. 280;
(26) Oates, eel. Hume’s Hests & Eggs Incl. B. 1890, II, 186; (26’>‘‘^) Oates, Eaun.
Br. Incl. B. 1890, H, 279; (27) Yorderman, Hat. Tdsclir. Hed. Incl. 1891, L, 451;
(28) id., Hotes Leyden Mus. 1891, 125; (29) Hartert, J. 1 0. 1891, 294; (30)
Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. Oen. 1891, (2) XH, 49; (XXX^‘^) Sharpe & Wyatt, Mon.
Hirund. j)t. XY, pi. (1892); (31) Hose, Ibis 1893, 399; (32) Blittik., ZooL Erg.
Weber’s Eeise Ost-Ind. 1893, IH, 277; (33) Sharpe, Ibis 1894, 256, 259; (34)
Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exp. 1894, 42; (35) Yorderm., H. T. Heel. Ind.
1895, LIY, 336; (36) Hartert, Hov. Zool. 1895,471; ^^57^ Orant, Ibis 1895,455;
(38) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Hr. 8, p. 8; (39) iid., ib. 1896, Hr. 1, p. 9;
(40) iid., ib. 1896, Hr. 2, p. 14; (41) Hart., Hov. Zool. 1896, 595; (42) Blittik.,
Hotes Leyden Mus. XYILL, 1896, 174; (XLIII) Meyer, Abb. Yogelskel. 1897,
H, pi. CCXIH.

a. Hirundo frontalis (I) Quoy & Graim., Yoy. Astrol. Zool. 1830, I, 204, pi. 12, f. 1.
h. Hirundo domicola (1) Jerd., Madr. Journ. 1844, XIH, 173; (2) id., B. India 1862, I, 158.

c. Hypurolepsia domicola (I) Grid., B. Asia, I, pi. 32 (1868); (2) Hume, Str. E. 1874,

H, 155.

d, Hipurolepsis javanica (1) Oates, B. Brit. Burmah 1883, I, 308.

“Pisok”, near Manado, Manado tua, Lembeh, and Banka Islands, Hat. Coll.

“Laloa”, Tonkean, E. Celebes, iid.

For further synonymy and references see Salvaelori 12 and 22; Sharpe 17] Sharpe &
Wyatt XXX.

Figures and descriptions. Groulcl c J; Sharpe & Wyatt XXX''*'*; Sparrm. J; Temminck II
(fig. pess.); Quoy & G aim ar el a J; Meyer XL/ZI (skel.); Legge 11] Salvador! 12]
Sharpe 17] Oates d 1.

Adult, x^bove black, glossed with greenish hlue, wings and tail dusky; forehead, cheeks,
chin, throat and upper chest hazel, darker on the forehead; under surface smoke-
grey with darker shaft streaks, under wing- coverts, flanks and under tail-
coverts browner, the terminal part of the last black, tipped with whitish; quills
below hair-brown, the shafts pale (Macassar, $, Jan. 1873 — C 512). Iris brown;
bill and feet black (Guillem. 16).

Sexes. They are alike.

In some specimens the under surface is browner and darker, and the forehead
and throat darker, being chestnut; this ajapears to be a sign of age or the breeding
plumage.

Young. Like the adult, but the forehead dusky broAvn Avith paler margins to the feathers
— not chestnut; head above dusky brown; chin, throat and upper chest very pale
hazel; middle of abdomen whitish (H. Bohol Q, Oct. 1877 — C 5403, Banka IcL,
Celebes, 12. Y. 93 — C 12283).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Bill from
nostril

Tarsus

a. (C 512) (X Macassar

104

48

6

10

b. (C 12282) ad. Manado tua, 9. lY. 93

103

45

6

—

c. (C 12283) juv. Banka Id

103

44

5.5

9.5

d. (C 1854) imm. Great Sangi

106

48

5.5

—

e. (C 6818) X ad. Burn, 27. HI. 82 (Biedel) ....

106

48

6.5

—

f. (C 15696) ad. Timorlaut, May 1883

98

46

6

—

q. (C 5403) juv. Bohol, Phihppines

101

41

6

—

360

Birds of Celebes: Hirrmdinidae.

Others from East Celebes and elsewhere do not differ in size; in two the Aving
is 110, 111 mm, hut about 103 seems to he the average.

Egg. India: closely resembles that of H. mstica, hut is decidedly smaller; moderately broad
oval, slightly compressed towards one end, ground-colour pink- white, very finely
speckled and spotted, thinly at the small, more densely at the large end, Avith
different shades of dull purple and hroAvnish red: 2 to 5 to a sitting: 16.3 — 19.6
X 12.2 — 14.5 mm (Hume 2d). “Examples in my collection from Celebes and Borneo
resemble those of our nistica, are, however, smaller and measure 17.5 X 13 mm”
(Nehrkorn MS.). So, also, two specimens in the Sarasin Coll. (8. Sept.).

Nest. A deep half-saucer. Of mud containing many fresh-water snail-shells, well lined with
fine black hair-like vegetable fibres, a few feathers, a small piece of cotton (Kema,
H. Celebes, specimen collected by Drs. Sarasin). In India various writers (26)
mention a thick bed of feathers only as forming the lining of the nest; Mr. Theobald
(26) speaks also of vegetable down, and CoL Legge ("Aj of “feathers, threads, small
pieces of rag”, and other things it may chance to pick up. Its habits of nidification,
therefore, apjAear to differ somewhat between India and Celebes, as is not surprising
in a case Avhere migration and intermixture of individuals do not appear to be
the rule.

Breeding season. IsTorth Celebes — July (Sarasin MS.); South India — 2 broods in
succession from February to April (Davison 2d); April to June (Wait 2d); Ceylon
— April to June (Legge 11) ] Tenasserim — lays in the second Aveek of April
(Theobald 26).

Distribution. South India and Ceylon (Legge 11); Andamans (Hume c 2); Tenasserim
(Davison S, Theobald 2d); Malay Peninsula (Hume 10, etc.); Sumatra (Wallace 17,
Hartert 21, Modigl. 30); Billiton and Mendanau (Vorderman 27, 28); Borneo
(Wallace, Mottley, etc. 20); Palawan (Everett 20, Whitehead 24); PhilijAiunes
— Mindoro, Samar, Hegros, Basilan, Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat, Cebu, Mindanao
(Steere, Platen, etc. 29); Sooloo (Gruillem. 16); Great Sangi (Meyer 14, Platen 19);
Lembeh, Manado tua and Banka Is. (Hat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); Celebes — North
Peninsula (Wallace 3, Guillem. 16, Sarasin); E. Peninsula (H. C.); South Peninsula
(Wallace 5, Meyer 9, Weber 32); Togian Islands (Meyer 9); vSula Islands
(Allen 3, 17); Hatuna Is. (Hose 36); JaAm, Lombok, Timor (Salvad. 12, Sharpe 17);
Timorlaut (Riedel, Mus. Dresd.); Ternate, Morty, Batchian, Bum, Amboina,
Matabello (rect. Watubella), Kei, Salawatti, HeAv Guinea, Jobi, Am, Yule Id., Duke
of York Id. (Salvad. 12); Islands of Torres Straits (Sharpe 17); Cajje York, Austraha
(Ramsay 18).

The Java SAvallow seems to be a stationary species. Davison (13) speaks
of it as a resident and very common about the Nilghiris, Bourdillon (7) as
“a resident travelling but little” in the Travancore Hills. Hume believes it to be
a migrant to the Andamans, hut it is known in literature as a breeding species
in South India, Ceylon, Tenasserim, Billiton, Borneo, Java, Celebes, Duke of
York, and doubtless elsewhere. Sharpe (17) says that “specimens from Tra-
vancore are much duller beneath than any other birds yet examined, and those
from South-eastern New Guinea and Torres Straits are palest beloAV . . . but
light-bellied examples are found in Borneo and other localities”. These may
be incipient subspecific distinctions, but the bird appears to he darker in

Birds of Celei)es: Hirundinidae.

361

its mature dress. One from Timorlaut in the Dresden Museum is especially
dark below.

H. javanica is easily distinguishable from H. 7'ustica by its wanting, when
adult, the long forked tail of that species, by the absence of the black pectoral
collar and by the brown tint of its under surface,

The nearest relative of H.javanica is H. neoxena of Australia. This form
is larger and has a longer tail. It is a migratory bird in Tasmania and New
South Wales, as Gould observed (Handbook I, 108), according to whom it
was also found in New Guinea by Wallace. This record is of course in the
highest degree probable, though no confirmation of it has been found since.

The Java Swallow is a familiar bird in the Minahassa. In sending the
above-described nest the Drs. Sarasin write: “This comes from our house at
Kema, nearly every room of which was at first tenanted by a pair of Swallows.
Where it could be managed we left the pretty creatures in peace, but in the
library we were obliged to remove the nest. The birds, however, are hardly to
be driven away; they were always making renewed attempts to take possession
of the old spot. It seems, besides, that every pair claims a room or a closet
for itself and will not put up with the presence of another. The song of these
birds is very melodious and agreeable, albeit gentle; it calls to mind the soft
babbling of a little brook”.

Bernstein (2) and Davison (26) write similarly on the adhesiveness of
these birds to their old nesting-spot; the latter says: — “about a week after
the first brood have flown the old birds begin to remove the topmost feathers
of the nest, replacing them by fresh ones. Three eggs are then again laid,
and a second brood reared. After this brood have flown, the old birds still
continue to occupy the nest at night, or, more correctly, to occupy the edge
of the nest, for they do not get into it, but merely sit close together on its
edge. The same nest is occupied the following year, the upper feathers being
removed and replaced by fresh ones. Should the nest have been destroyed a
fresh one is built on the same site”.

The wonderful attachment of birds for house and home should always be
remembered in connection with the vast return wave of migratory birds to their
summer nesting-haunts, a wave which cannot be compared with one of the sea
driven blindly before the wind, but a living wave wherein, we may suppose,
that each of the myriad old and, perhaps, young individuals composing it,
is striving towards a particular spot, hundreds or, may be, thousands of miles
away. Here, as we know, they are generally to be found in due season.

In his “Neu Guinea” 1866, 162, Dr. Finsch marks Hirundo nigricans
Vieill. as occurring in Celebes, but no confirmation of this statement has come
to hand. Petrochelidon nigricans ranges from New Guinea and Kei to Australia,
a subspecies also occurring in Timor and Flores.

Meyer & Wigl es wo rth, Birds of Celebes (Nov. :3rd, 1897).

46

362

Birds of Celebes: Musoicapidae.

FAMILY MUSOICAPIDAE.

The Flycatchers form a large family of small birds, varying in size from
that of a Wren to that of a Lark, of which SharjDe as long ago as 1879
recognised 69 genera, while Newton (1893) is prepared to admit some 60. Many
of these afford such near approaches to other families, viz. to the Turdidae,
Lafiiidae, Sylviidae and Campophagidae^ that their discrimination is often a matter
of great difficulty, or is even impossible. They may he distinguished from the
Campophagidae by not having a dense Cuckoo- or Pi'geon-like plumage on the
rump, and the nostrils not hidden, though some bristles from the forehead pro-
ject over them; compared with the Sglviidae the Flycatchers have, as Seebohm
and Oates point out, a mottled plumage when young, whereas the nestling
Warbler is like its parents, but more brightly coloured; the young Turdidae
(sometimes the adults) have a mottled or squamose plumage of the type of the
young Flycatcher, but the Thrushes seek most of their food on the ground and
their toes and tarsi are longer and stronger, and the nostril is exposed, not
overlapped by any hairs from the forehead (Oates); the typical Laniidae may
be recognised by their strong bills, with a hook with a notch and a “tooth”
behind it, but the prominence of this character fades away in other forms,
and there seems to be no perfect criterion for distinguishing them from the
Flycatchers.

In the Muscicapidae the bill is generally broad and weak, furnished with
a small notch near the tip, the gape fenced with bristles, a few projecting from
the forehead over the nostrils; the first primary varies from very minute to
about half the length of the wing, 3^^ — 5^^" the longest; tail of 12 feathers, rounded
or square, the middle feathers sometimes lengthened; tarsus and toes rather
small and weak. They feed on insects taken on the wing, and nest in holes,
or form cup-shaped nests in the open.

The Muscicapidae are absent in the New World. The Ethiopian and
Australian Legions are richest in genera, though nearly equalled by the Oriental
Legion, the proportions being 22, 21, 20 in the Catalogue of Birds (Sharpe,
vol. IV), but a large proportion of those occurring in the Oriental Legion are
found in other regions also. In this family Celebes might have been expected
to display strong Australian affinities; it has, however, none, since the two
Australian genera, Rhipidura and Gerggone, occurring in Celebes pass on much
further into the Oriental Legion, and for this and other reasons their distri-
bution can in most cases only be accounted for on the supposition of flight
across sea-channels. Monarcha and Mgiagra are links between Djampea, the Sangi
Islands, etc. and the Australian Legion, though the species, or subspecies have
most likely got there by flight. Zeocepkus talautensis has its nearest affinities in
the Philippines, to which the genus was hitherto believed to be restricted. The
remaining genera of Flycatchers in Celebes — not counting a migratory Musci-

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

363

capa — are typically Oriental, and do not occur in the Australian Region,
though in some of the Lesser Sunda Islands. They are: Siphia, Stoparola, Hypo-
thymis^ Muscicapula^ and Culicicapa; these are all absent on the eastern side of
the Molucca Straits. The Long-tailed Flycatchers, Terpsiphone^ of the Ethiopian
and Indian Regions as far as the Lesser Sunda Islands, have not yet been found
in Celebes.

GENUS MUSCICAPA L. after Briss.

The typical Flycatchers are small birds of plain plumage — chiefly brown
above and streaked with brown below, or black and white; the wing is long,
much longer than the tail, the secondaries about l^ie wing-length, the first
quill very minute, the second one long, as long or longer than the fifth; bill
rather small, with scanty rictal and frontal bristles ; tarsus shorter than the
middle toe and claw, blackish in colour. The more typical species are Palae-
arctic and migratory.

120. MUSCICAPA GRISEOSTICTA (Swinh.).

Chinese Flycatcher.

a. Muscieapa hypogrammiea (Gray), (1) Finsck, Hen Guinea 1865, 168; (2) W. Blasius,
J. f. O. 1883, 115.

h. Butalis hypogrammiea (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YlII, 66.

c. Butalis griseosticta (Swinh), (1) David & Oust., Ois. Chine 1877, 122.

Muscieapa griseosticta (1) Sharpe, Oat. B. IV, 1879, 153; Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1881, II,
80; (3) W. Bias., P. Z. S. 1882, 706; (5) Pleske, Bull. Ac. Petersb. 1884, 123;
(6) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 632; (7) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 311; (8) Everett,
J. Str. Br. R. A. S. 1889, 127; (9) Salvad., Agg. Orn. Pap. 1890, 81; ("idj Whitehead,
Ibis 1890, 49; (11) Styan, Ibis 1891, 322, 349; (12) Hartert, J. f. O. 1891, 294;
(13) De La Touche, Ibis 1892, 408, 424; (14) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage
Exp. 1894, 40; (15) Grant, Ibis 1895, 441; (16) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895,
Hr. 8, p. 8; (17) iid., ib. 1895, Hr. 9, p. 4; (18) iid., ib. 1896, Hr. 1, p. 9; (19)
Hart., Hov. Zool. 1896, 156; (20) Grant, Ibis 1896, 540.

d. Muscieapa manillensis (Bp.) (1) Sharpe, Ibis 1888, 200.

“Monotaroda” or “Manudorio”, Talaut, Hat. Coll.

“Burong pohon”, Minahassa, iid.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe 7; Salvadori 2.

Descriptions. Sharpe 7; Salvadori 2; W. Blasius 5; David & Oust. cl.

Adult male. Above grey-brown (almost hair-brown; Ridgway), the feathers of the head
above with darker middles, the wing-coverts with paler edgings, the inner secondaries
with whitish edgings; remiges and terminal part of tail blackish brown; under parts
white , streaked with ' grey-brown on the breast, sides, jugulum and sides of throat ;
supraloral region and around the eye whitish, in front of eye duskier; under wing-
coverts dark fawn: “iris dark sepia; bill black, base of under mandible yellow; legs
and feet black” : P. & F. S.

Measurements. Wing 83— 87 mm; tail c. 50; tarsus 14; middle toe and claw c. 15.5; bill

46*

364

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

from nostril 8 ((f, Mt. Loka, N. Celebes, c. 1400 m, 8. X. 95; Sarasin Coll.;
and others).

Female. Like the male in coloration.

Young (moulting). Differs from the adult in having a few (remaining) feathers on the scapulars
each with a single large white suhterminal spot, some of the upper tail-coverts tipped
with white, the greater wing-coverts broadly edged with white: “iris dark sepia; legs
black-brown; feet below yellowish; bill black, under mandible at the base yellow”
(cf, Eurukan, X. Cel., 16. X. 94: Sarasin Coll.).

Nest and eggs. Unrecorded.

Distribution. China; Formosa; Philippine Is. (Salvad. 2, Bourns & Worcester 44,
Whitehead d 1, 10, Platen 7, Everett 15, 20); Talaut Islands (Xat. Coll. 17);
Celebes (al); — X. Peninsula (P. & F. Sarasin 16, Xat. ColL, Mus. Dresd.); S.
Peninsula (P. & F. Sarasin 18, Everett 19); Morty, Halmahera, Batchian, Tidore,
Amboina, Ceram, Xew Guinea (Salvad. 2); Ternate (Fischer 5); Waigiou and
Mysol (Guillem. 6).

A migratory Flycatcher — apparently the eastern representative of the
European M. grisola — the breeding-grounds of which seem to be North China,
the winter quarters the chain of East India Islands which form a coast-line to
the Pacific. Abbe David remarks that it is very abundant in summer in all
China, passing Pekin twice a year — in May and dime and in August and
September, and, as Air. Sty an observed, it passes through the Lower Yangtse
Basin in May and August. It nests, therefore, apj^arently north of Pekin. Its
descent into its winter quarters is probably made by way of Formosa and the
intermediate small islands to the Philippines. Mr. AVhitehead observed it to
be “a winter migrant to Palawan, arriving about the 10*"^ September”, and we
find no dates to show that any remain in the East Indies in summer').

For a long time its right to be included in the Celebes list rested only upon
the fact that the island is marked as a locality for it in Finsch’s “Neu-Gui-
nea”, 168; whence Gray’s similar indication seems to be drawn (Handl. I, 321);
but from general reasons it was certain to occur there. Positive evidence was
furnished by the Saras ins, who got seven specimens in the hill-country of
the Minahassa in September; October and November, 1894, and one from Mt.
Bonthain in October, 1895; Mr. Everett also got it on the foot-hills of Mt.
Bonthain in 1895 sometime after September 28‘^ and a specimen was killed
in March, 1895, and sent from the Minahassa by our native collectors. One
specimen was obtained by the same in the Talaut Islands in November, 1894,
but in the autumn of 1896 it seems to have visited these islands in greater
force, 14 specimens having been then shot and sent to the Dresden Museum.
Some of these are now at Tring.

1) Dr. Fischer’s note, therefore, that it occurs all the year round on the Island of Ternate (5), must
be regarded as erroneous and misleading, and for similar reasons some of his observations on other species
fall to the ground.

Birds of Celebes: Muscioapidae.

365

GENUS MUSCICAPULA BlytJi.

These small Tlycatchers differ from Muscicapa by their shorter, blunter wing,
the second primary being shorter than the fifth, and the secondary quills rela-
tively much longer than in that genus, being about Vs the length of the wing;
and the sexes are different in coloration. The species M. hyperythra stands
perhaps nearer to the genus Siphia than it does to M. ivestermanni. The genus
is Oriental.

^121. MUSCICAPULA WESTERMANNI Sharpe.

Little Malay Pied Flycatcher.

Muscicapula westermanni (1) Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1888, 270; (2) id., Ibis 1888, 385; (3) id..
Ibis 1889, 196; (4) Everett, J. Str. Br. R. A. S. 1889, 128; (5) Sharpe, Ibis 1890,
276, 286, 291; (6) Vorderm., N. T. Ned. Ind. LI, 1891, 389; (7) Grant, Ibis 1894,
506; (8) id.. Ibis 1895, 442; (9) id.. Ibis 1896, 464, 540; (10) M. & Wg., Abh.
Mas. Dresden 1896, Nr. 1, p. 9; (11) Hart., Nov. Zool 1896, 156, 541, 548, 561,
569, 595; (12) id., ib. 1897, 158.

Descriptions. Sharpe 1 (9); Vorderman 6 (cf).

Adult male. Upper parts, face, and ear-coverts glossy black; a broad superciliary
stripe extending to the sides of the nape white; inner greater wing-coverts and
a broad outer edging on the three inner remiges white; the five lateral pairs of
rectrices white at then- base for about their length in the outermost, increasing to
about V4 iiiiddle pair white at base only; chin, throat, and

under j>arts white; thighs blacldsh; remiges below dusky, the inner edges, where
they rest upon the body, whitish: “iris grey; feet blacldsh; bill black” — Doherty 75
((d* ad. Erelompoa, N. W. from Loka, S. Celebes, c. 1300 m, 3. XL 95: P. &.
F. Sara sin).

Female. Above dark bluish grey, with a slight tinge of brown on the head, stronger on
the lower back and rump, inclining to russet on the upper tail-coverts; wings dusky
with bistre-brown edgings to the feathers (paler on the greater coverts), lesser coverts
bistre; tail-feathers brown, externally rufous-brown; lores and cheeks whitish,
tinged with buff, on the ear-coverts jaassing into the grey of the upper parts;
chin, throat, and under j>arts greyish white; thighs brown: “iris dark” (Q, Lompo-
batang, S. Cel., c. 2400 m, 6. XL 95; P. & E. Sarasin).

Young (male). Remiges and tail black and white as in the adult male; remaining iqaper
parts dull tawny, with black edges and bases to the feathers; below greyish white,
the feathers of the breast and throat (faintly) barred with dusky (Bonthain Peak,
S. Celebes, c. 1300 m; Sarasin Coll).

Measurements (2 cfd', 1 $ ad. — South Cel.). Wing 54 — 55 mm; tail c. 40; tarsus c. 15;

middle toe and claw c. 13; bill from nostril c. 7.

Nest and Eggs. “The nest was placed in a creeper in the big forest, at about 40 feet from
the ground; it was quite a small pile of moss, deep, and lined with fine wlnte roots,
a very pretty bit of work, and contained one small fawn-coloured egg. They would
most probably have laid two eggs, after the manner of most species in these latitudes”
(Whitehead 5).

Distribution. Tenasserim (fide Grant 7); Perak (Wray 7); Borneo (Whitehead 2, 5, 4, 5);
Philippines — Luzon and Negros (Whitehead 7, S, 2); S. Celebes — Bonthain

366

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidaev

Mountains (P. & P. Sarasin 10, Everett 11, Doherty 15); Java (Vorderman 6,
Doherty 11); Bah (Doherty 11); Loinhok (Doherty and Everett 11); Sumhawa
(Doherty 11).

Since its discovery in Perak in 1888 much has been learnt about this little
sioecies, and it is now known to range from Tenasserim to the Philippines,
Celebes, and Sumhawa, It seems to inhabit only the high mountain-regions.
In Java Doherty got it at 9000 — 10 000 feet; in Borneo, according to White-
head, it ranges from 4000—9000 feet; in Celebes it has as yet been found only
on the lofty Peak of Bonthain and the mountains abutting on it. It was found
here by the Sarasins and by Everett at about the same time, and that it
breeds here in the latter half of the year is shown by quite young specimens
in both collections.

It hears, sex for sex, some resemblance to Lalage which may be regarded
as a distant relative of very large size. From M. hgperythra, its fellow-inhabitant
of the hills of these parts, it differs not only by its coloration, but by its smaller
feet and claws, which are blackish in colour, by its smaller first primary, and
flatter bill. It is closely allied to M. melanoleuca (Hodgs.) of the Himalayas and
E. India, the female of which, according to Sharpe and Grant, is much browner
above, but the males appear to be exactly similar.

122. MUSOICAPULA HYPERYTHKA (Blyth).

)')\ Bufous-breasted Blue Flycatcher.

Plate XIII.

a. Dimorpha superciliaris (nec Jerd.), (1) Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1842, XI, 190.
h. Museicapa hyperythra (1) Blyth, J. A. S. B. 1842, XT, 885.

Muscicapula hyperythra (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. IV, 1879, 206; (2) id., Ibis 1888, 385; (3)
Everett, J. Str. Br. E. A. S. 1889, 127; (4) Sharpe, Bus 1890, 276, 291; (5) id..
Ibis 1893, 551; (6) Hose, t. c. 396; (7) Grant, Ibis 1894, 505; (8) M. & Wg., Ahh.
Mus. Dresd. 1895, Xr. 8, p. 9; (9) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 156, 548, 561, 569, 595;
(10) id., ib. 1897, 158.

c, Cyornis hyperythrus (1) Oates ed. Hume’s Nests & Eggs Ind. 1890, H, 2; (2) id.. Faun.
Br. Ind. B. 1890, H, 15.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe 1, Oates c 2.

Descriptions. Sharpe 1, Oates c 2.

Adult male. Above dark slaty blue; alula, remiges and tail blackish; supraloral stripe
extending above the eye wliite; lores and base of forehead, malar region,
angle of chin, and ear-coverts blackish, washed with slaty blue; throat and
breast orange-rufous, paling into whitish on abdomen and under tail-coverts; thighs
olive, washed with slaty blue; sides washed with ohve and rufous; under wing-coverts
whitish, edge of wing slaty blue (q^ ad., Masarang hills, N. Cel., 16. VH. 94: Sarasin
Coll.).

“Legs and feet very pale silvery to fleshy pink, the terminal joints of the toes
and the claws slightly brownish; bill black; iris deep brown” — Hume.

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

367

Male, scarcely adult. Like the adult male, but somewhat greyer above; the wings in changing
plumage, for the most part resembling those of the female; the abdomen less clear
whitish (Lompohatang, 8. Cel. c. 2500 m; Oct. 1895: Sarasin OolL).

Female. Above olive, tinged with grey, tail and wings externally bistre-brown; lores, base
of forehead, around the eye, and throat isahelline, inclining to orange-rufous on
the breast and under wing-coverts; abdomen whitish, olivaceous on the sides, flanks,
and thighs: “bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet reddish grey” (Q, summit-
region of Mt. Klabat, N. OeL, end Sept. 1893: Sarasin Coll.).

Young. Above warm dark brown, blacldsh on head, the feathers everywhere with broad
mesial streaks of tawny; wings and tail blackish brown with warm brown edgings;
below tawny, whitish on throat and abdomen and under tail-coverts, the feathers on
sides of throat, breast, sides and flanks margined with dusky: “bill above black-brown,
tip yellow, below yellow and brown; iris dark brown; legs reddish yellow; feet yellow”
{(f, summit-region of Mt. Klabat, 25. Sept. 1893: Sarasin Coll.).

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill

fr. nostr.

a. (Sarasin Coll.) cf ad. Mt.Masarang, N. Cel., 16. VH. 94

60

40

19

7

h. (Saras. C.) cf ad. Mt. Lokon, N. Cel., c. 1200m, l.VH. 94

60

38

18.5

—

c. (Sarasin Coll.) Q, Mt. Klabat, end Sept. 93. . . .

57

34

18

6

d. (Sar. C.) (3fvis ad. Lompobatang, S. Cel. c. 2500m, Oct. 95

66

45

20

7

The female is evidently smaller than the male. The specimen from S. Celebes
is very large. Oates’ measurements of Indian specimens are equal to those of N.
Celebes.

Nest and eggs. Nest a deep cup of moss and moss-roots, placed under the roots, etc. of a
tree: eggs 4 or 3, j>ale greyish or brownish white, finely freckled and mottled, chiefly
at the large end, with dingy brownish red: 17.3 X 11.2mm (Hodgson cl).
Distribution. India (Oates etc. c 2)\ Malay Peninsula (fide Sharpe i); Sumatra (Wallace 7);
Borneo (Whitehead 2, 5, Hose 6); W. Java (Wallace 1); Bali (Doherty ,9); Lom-
bok (Doherty and Everett 9); Sumbawa (Doherty S); Celebes — North (P. & F.
Sarasin 8), South (Everett 9, P. & F. S., Doherty 10).

This little Flycatcher is very like a Siphia, sex for sex. The white supra-
loral stripe of the male is its most striking distinguishing character: it is much
smaller than Siphia and has also a smaller bill. The credit of its discovery in
Celebes belongs to the Saras ins, who got it at high elevations in the Mina-
hassa in 1893 — 94. It was also found by Everett and Doherty and — in one
young specimen — by the Sarasins on the lofty Bonthain Range in the south
of the island. In India, Borneo, Bali, Lombok, and Sumbawa, it is knowm
only from the mountains, or from mountainous countries; and it is evident that
it is purely a hill-species. It is probably most nearly allied to M. hodgsoni (V err.)
of Indo-China, the male of which wants the white eyebrow.

GENUS SIPHIA Hdgs.

The Celebesian species of this genus are, when adult, blue or olive above,
and chiefly orange-rufous below; some forms from other parts have the rufous
confined to the region of the throat. The wing is longer than the tail, the

368

Birds of Celebes; Muscicapidae.

secondaries about ^5 as long as the primaries, the second primary hardly ex-
ceeding them; the rictal bristles are well developed, reaching to within the ter-
minal third of the culmen, the bill from the nostril about half as Ions as the
tarsus, the tarsus about as long as the middle toe and claw^ The sexes gene-
rally differ somewhat in coloration; the young are mottled. The genus ranges
(cf, Sharpe) from India to Timor and the Philippines.

f 123. SIPHIA BANYUMAS (Horsf.).

Blue-and-rufous Flycatcher.

Plate XIV.

It has been shown by Mr. Hartert (f 1) that this form differs racially in
Borneo and in Celebes, the females in the former country having white lores
and the males showing some less striking divergences from Celebes birds.
Hartert identifies the Borneo birds with those of Java; unfortunately the female
of the latter seems never to have been described, and it is not yet certain that
the Celebes birds are distinct from, and those of Borneo identical wuth, those of
Java. Probably neither are quite the same as the latter, but, until this is known
to be the case, it may be preferable not to commence to break up the species.

a. Museicapa banyumas (1) Horsf., Tr. L. S. 1821, XHI, 146; (IT) id., Zool. Eesearches in

Java 1824, pi. 38.

h. Museicapa cantatrix (I) Teinm., PI. Col. 1823, pi. 226 (rf only, fide Sharpe).

c. Niltava banyumas (1) Cray, Gen. B. 1846, I, 264; (2) Briigg., Ahh. Yer. Bremen 1876,

Y, 68.

d. Cyornis banyumas (1) Bernst., J. f. 0. 1859, 265 (Nat. Tdschr. Ned. Ind. 1860, XXH,

19); (2) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, YHI, 117 (?pt. not Borneo); (3) Salvad., Cat.
Ucc. Borneo 1874, 130 (?pt.); (4) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 137; (5) Yorderman,

Nat. Tdschr. Ned. Ind. 1886, XLY, 362; (6) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889, 202 (?pt.).

Siphia banyumas (1) Sharpe, Cat. B. lY, 1879, 449 (?pt.); (2) Nicholson, Ibis 1882, 68;
7(3) Everett, P. Z. S. 1889, 226; 7(4) id., J. Str. Br. B. A. S. 1889, 132; 7(5)
Sharpe, Ibis 1890, 276; Hartert, Kat. Senckenb. Mus. 1891, 96 (?pt.); (6^^^) id.,
Ornis 1891, 120; 7 (7) Hose, Ibis 1893, 398; (8) Bllttik., Zool. Erg. Weber’s Eeise
in Ost-Ind. 1893, HI, 277, 286; (9) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 9;
(10) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, pp. 5, 9.

e. Siphia rufigula (err.), (1) Meyer, Ibis 1879, 128.

f. Siphia omissa (1) Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 71, 157, 171, 172; (2) id., ib. 1897, 158.
“Siongsiong”, near Tondano, Nat. Coll.

For further synonymy and references compare Hartert f and see Salvador! d 3\ Sharpe 1.
Figures and descriptions. Horsfield a II\ Temminck b I; Sharpe 7; Yorderman d 5.
Adult male. Above, including tail and exposed edges of quills, China-blue on a dark ground,
duskier on the crown; forehead, superciliary region, and lesser wung-coverts
much brighter blue; lores, chin, malar region, sides of throat, and ear-coverts
slaty black, washed with blue posteriorly; throat and under surface dark orange-
rufous, paler on under wing-coverts and middle of abdomen; wings and tail below
shining dusky, paler on the inner webs of the quills, washed with buff on the inner-

Birds of Celebes: Muscioapidae.

369

most ones Tomohon, N. Cel. G. lY. 94, Sarasin Coll.). “Iris grey-brown; bill
black; feet violet-grey” (Platen in Mus. ISTelirkorn, Purukan, 21. lY. 85).

Adult female. Above and below mncli as in tbe male, but the blue above duller, with a
wash of olive on tbe bead and neck; differs chiefly by not having the lores, orbital
region, chin, and submalar region black or blue-black, but orange-rufous, like the
under parts, only paler ; ear-coverts olive-brown, with pale shafts, slightly washed with
blue posteriorly (Q, Loka, S. Cel., 11. X. 95: Sarasin Coll.).

The colour of the lores is whiter (i. e. very little tinged with rufous) in some
specimens than in others, it generally extends narrowly across where forehead and
bill meet, but not so in one example (or two) of those consulted for this article.

Young. Above dark brown, each feather with a spot of tawny-cinnamon, narrowly bordered
with black; on the head these spots take a more striate character; the rufous feathers
of the under -surface fringed with black, giving a streaked appearance (Tondano,
Aug. — Sept. 1892 — Nat. Coll.: C 10812).

)ments.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostr.

a. (Sarasin Coll.) (Y ad., Tomohon, N. Cel., 6. lY. 94 .

74

54

19.5

9

h. (Sarasin Coll.) (Y ad., LakePosso, Centr.Cel., 12. H. 95

74

55

17.5

9.5

c. (Sarasin Coll.) ad., Loka, S. Cel., 6. X. 95 . . .

78

62

19

11

cl. (C 10808) [(f] ad., Tondano, N. Cel., YLH.— IX. 92 .

75

56

17.5

9

e. (C 1 0809) [cf ] ad., Tondano, N. Cel, YHI.— IX. 92 .

75

57

—

9.5

f. (Sarasin Coll.) $, Tomohon, N. Cel., 6. lY. 94 . .

73

53

19

9.5

g. (Sarasin ColL) Q, Tomohon, N. Cel., 21. XI. 94. .

72

55

18

9

h. (Sarasin Coll) Q, Burukan, N. Cel. 24. XI. 94 . .

73

55

18.5

10

i. (Sarasin ColL) $, Loka, S. Cel., 11. X. 95 . . . .

72

55

18

9.5

j. (C 1081 1) [Ql, Tondano, N. Cel, YLH.— IX. 92 . .

73

—

—

9.5

k. (C 10810) [$], Tondano, N. Cel, YHI.— IX. 92 . .

74

55

—

10

1. (C 14916) (J' ad., Saleyer, Nov. 95 (Everett). . . .

74

57

19.5

9.5

w.(C 11065) [(J’] ad., Java (v. Schierbrand) ....

76

63

18

— ,

n. (C 11066) [(J*] ad., Java (v. Schierbrand) ....

77

61

18

10

Observation. Lord Walden’s statement that Celebes examples are undistinguishable from
those of Java is confirmed by the above series, so far at least as the males are con-
cerned, except that the Javan birds seem to have less black on the elfin and sides of
the throat. They are not darker (but, if anything, paler) blue above, they do not
show a tiny white spot on the throat, nor is there a different distribution of the
colour on the throat — differences observed by Mr. Hartert in the Siphia from
Borneo. The female of 8. hanyumas is stated by Sharpe and Hartert to have
white lores, but this statement relates to the female from Borneo, and we are not
aware that this is the case in the typical form from Java. The male I from Saleyer
is paler below than those of the mainland; black of chin narrow.

Eggs. Java: 2 in number; dirty white, sometimes partaking of a yellowish, sometimes of a
greenish tint, slightly glossy; spriifided with dirty red spots which blend to some
extent Avith the ground-colour, most plentiful at the large end which* appears in
consequence as if marbled with rusty; size 21 X 15 mm (Bernstein cl).

Nest. ComjAOsed chiefly of the horse-hair-like threads of the Areng palm, some few roots,
a little moss, bits of leaf; well built, in shape a half-sphere. Twice found among
the ferns and other parasites on the stem of an Areng palm, once in the crevice
formed by the boughs of a very mossy tree (Bernstein c 1).

Meyer & Wigles worth, Birds of Celebes (Xov. 4th, 1897).

47

370

Birds of Celebes: MuscicapLdae.

Distribution. Java (Horsfield a 1, Bernstein d 1, etc.); Saleyer (Weber 8, Everett f 1);
Celebes: — South Peninsula (Weber 8, P. & E. Sarasin 10, Everett fl), Central
Celebes (P. & E. 8. 10], W. Celebes (Doherty f 2), N. Peninsula (Meyer d 2, Eischer
c 2, etc.); ?Palawan (Everett 3, 4)\ ?Borneo (Doria & Beccari, etc. d 3, 4)\ ?Labuan
(Low 4); PSumatra (Raffles d 3)\ PPenang (Wallace 1).

This Blue-backed Flycatcher appears to he a species which has recently
extended its range, and in Celebes it may probably be regarded as a slightly
modified colonist from Java.

It is related to S. 2)hUippinensis Sharpe of the Philippine Islands, a species
which Lord Tweeddale, while noticing certain differences, did not venture to
separate. In this form, as Dr. Sharpe shows (TT. Linn. Soc. 1889, I, 324), the ab-
domen and under tail-coverts are white, instead of orange-rufous. In the allied
>8. djampeana the sexes are said by Mr. Hartert to be much alike and the Q
hardly to differ from the cf of the Celebes birds except by the slightly larger
bill and darker, almost entirely black, ear-coverts and malar region. Siphia
rufigula (Wall.) of Celebes is also somewhat similar, but may easily be dis-
tinguished by its white abdomen and under tail-coverts and the absence of black
on its chin. In some of his excellent field-notes on Javan birds Bernstein {d 1)
writes as follows on the habits of Siphia bamjiimas: “It inhabits by preference
the groves and shrubs around villages at some elevation not far from the hill-
forests, as also the coffee plantations and the forests themselves, though it is
seen far less plentifully in their depths than along their borders. On the plains
on the contrary it belongs to the birds of rarer occurrence. Sitting upon a
prominent bough it watches attentively for insects, which it catches very cleverly
on the wing, and then, turning back to the perch it had left or to another
bough, devours them. Its .song is rather simple, and when Temminck (b I)
describes it as excellent he is not well informed”. In Celebes it also seems
to be a hill species; Platen sent it to Mr. Nehrkorn from Rurukan, 3000 feet;
the Sarasins got it in the same neighbourhood, also at Lake Posso; they,
Weber and Everett about Mt. Bonthain, Doherty at 4000 and (5000 ft. in
W. Celebes. Our native collectors recently obtained a number of specimens
near Tondano, 2000 ft. No specimens have as yet been recorded from the low-
lands of the island. Hose obtained the Bornean race only at a height of
2000 feet on Mount Dulit, whereas Siphia nigrogidaris “is the usual low-country
form of Blue Flycatcher” in Borneo. Siphia rvfigida of Celebes has, on the
other hand, apparently been obtained only in the low country of Celebes.

The curious mottled plumage of the young corresponds with that of the
young Musdcapa grisola of Europe. From this type the adult Muscicapa has
departed less widely than the adult Siphia.

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

371

124. SIPHIA DJAMPEANA Hart,

Djampea Blue-and-mfous Flycatcher.

Plate XIV.

Siphia djampeana Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 172. •

Male. Differs from S. hanyumas from Java, Celebes and Saleyer by ba^dng the upper tliroat
white where it meets the black of the chin and submalar region, the black here
almost imtinged with blue and broader than in 8. hanyumas [(f ad. Djampea, Dec.
1895: Everett, C. 14868).

Female. Like the male, but the white on the throat ahnost completely absent (Q vix ad.
Djampea, Dec. 95: Everett, 0 14869).

Measurements. Wing 78 — 81 mm; tail 67 — 69; tar-sns 18 — 19; culmen 17 (Hartert).
Distribution. Djampea Island between Celebes and Elores (Everett).

This is one of the numerous additions made by Mr. Everett to the avi-
fauna of the Celebesian Province in the latter months of 1895. A good series
of specimens was obtained. The most curious point about the bird seems to
be that the female is much like the male, or still more like the male of Siphia
hanyumas, from which it is not easily distinguished. The female of S. hanyumas
is a simpler bird. Altogether S. djampeana seems to present a more advanced
stage of evolution.

f * 125. SIPHIA KALAOENSIS Hart.

Kalao Blue-and-rufous Flycatcher.

Plate XIV.

Siphia kalaoensis Hartert, Nov. Zool. 1896, 172.

Male. Above like 8. djampeana and hanyumas, from which it differs by having the breast
and middle of the throat white. The abdomen is i^ale orange-rufous, whiter on the
under tail-coverts. The black on the chin and sides of throat broad, and shghtly
tinged with blue (cf, Kalao, Dec. 1895: Everett, C 14899).

Female. ‘-LAe the male, except that the breast is strongly washed with orange-rufous and
that the under tail-coverts are coloured like the abdomen. The female is, therefore,
practically indistinguishable from the male of >8. djampeana, but the breast is paler”
(Hartert).

Measurements. Wing 76—78 mm; tail 65—68; tarsus 19—20; culmen 16—17. The female
is a little smaller, wing 72 mm fHartert). Mr. Hartert evidently measures the tail
from its extreme base; we take it from the oil-gland, wliich gives a result of about
8 mm less for this species.

Distribution. Kalao Island between Celebes and Flores (Everett).

This is an interesting species. Mr. Hartert draws attention to the increase
in white on the under parts of the Flycatchers from Celebes and Saleyer as they
range to Djampea and Kalao. It is greatest in the male of Kalao, the female
of the Kalao race is like the male of the Djampea race, the female of the

372

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

Djampea race like the male of that of Saleyer and the mainland of Celehes.
The females of these birds seem to show a lower organisation in this genus,
the males a more advanced stage; if this he so, S.hanyumas is obviously indi-
cated as the ancestral form of S. djampeana and the latter of kalaoensis. See,
pp. 160 — 169, Loricidus.

•+ *126. SIPHIA RUFIGULA (Wall.).

Lowland Blue-and-rufous Flycatcher.

> a. Cyornis rufigula (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1865, 476; (II) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIII, 66, pL
Vn, fig. 3.

SipMa rufigula (1) Blytli, Ibis 1866, 372; (2) Sharpe, Oat. B. IV, 1879, 454; (3) M. &
Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 9; (4) Hart, Nov. Zool. 1897, 159.
h. Niltava rufigula (1) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 326, Nr. 4887; (2) Bosenb., Malay. Ai-cliip.
1878, 273.

Figure and descriptions. Walden a II\ Wallace a 1\ Sharpe 2.

Adult male. Dark ashy blue; throat and breast bright rufous, becoming pale on the belly
and pure white on the under tail-coverts; front of the eye and ear-coverts blackish;
under wing-coverts rufescent white; quills and tail-feathers dusky, ashy-margined ; iris
dark; bill black; feet nearly wliite (Wall, a 1).

Total length 132 inin; vung 69; tail 57; tarsus 16.5; culinen 11.4 (Sh. 2).
Female. Very different from the male: brown above, and without the black face. UpjDer
parts grey-olive, greyest on head, brightening into brownish chestnut on the upper
tail-coverts and outer edges of the rectrices; wing-coverts and quills dusky with
warmer brown tq3s and edges; lores, orbital region, chin, throat, and breast
orange-rufous, j>aler on chin and throat; cheeks and ear-coverts darker, passing posteri-
orly into the grey-olive of the nape; abdomen and under tail-coverts white;
sides and thighs olivaceous; under wing-coverts broAvn-buff: bill dark brown; legs,
feet, and claws yelloAvish in the sldn. AVing 60 mm; tail 40; tarsus 17; bill from
nostril 8 [Q, Mapane, Oentr. Oel. 28. H. 95; Sarasin Coll.).

Mr. Hartert was so good as to compare this specimen with those at Tring
and to confirm its identity.

Distribution. Celebes: Minahassa — Manado (AVallace a 1, 2); Mapane, southern shore of
the Gulf of Tommi (P. & F. Sarasin 3); Macassar (Doherty 4).

For thirty years a single male specimen of this species in the British
Museum was the only one definitely known, then a female was obtained in
Central Celebes by the cousins Sarasin, and latterly a male and a female in
the Southern Peninsula by Doherty. About the same time a pair and a male
of a bird much resembling the female of S. rufigula were sent by Everett and
Doherty from the Peak of Bonthain to the Tring Museum, and Mr Hartert
soon became aware that he had to do with a lowland and a mountain species.
The differences of /S', honthaina from the female of S', rufigula are recapitulated
from Hartert’s notes in the next article; the male of S. rufigula looks quite
different by reason of its blackish lores and ear-coverts and dark ashy blue
upper parts.

Birds of Celebes; Muscicapidae.

373

It appears to be nearly related to philippinensis Sh., a considerably larger
form: wing 79 as against 69 mm (Sharpe). S. hanyumas of Celebes may be
distinguished by its entire under surface of orange-rufous and by its black chin
and sides of throat.

Among the Muscicapidae there is no species connecting the Australian Region
with Celebes, since Australian forms which reach Celebes pass on into the other
Great Sunda Islands, the Philprpines, or further. This is of interest from the
fact that the Australian Region rivals Africa in the question as to which area
possesses the greater number of peculiar Muscicapidine genera. Celebes viewed
as Australasian ground might be expected to have a share of the peculiar
Australian ITy catchers. On the other hand several Oriental genera connect
Celebes with the countries to the west, without passing into the Moluccas on
the east. Siphia is one of these, its range being from the Himalayas and East
China to Celebes, Java, and Timor.

^ * 127. SIPHIA BONTHAINA Hart.

Mountain Flycatcher.

Siphia bonthaina (1) Hart., Rov. ZooL 1896, 157; (2) id., ib. 1897, 158.

Male. “Above olive, quills margined with rufous -brown on the outer webs and with light
brown on the inner webs. Tail deep chestnut, more brownish on the tip ; upper tail-
coverts of the same colour. A large spot over the lores; from the base of the bill
to the middle of the eye pale ochraceous. Chin, throat, and breast light ochraceous.
Abdomen white, bases of feathers slate -colour. Under tail -coverts white with an
ochraceous shade; under wing-coverts very pale brownish. L. t. about 110 mm; wing
65; tail 47” (Hartert 1).

“Iris deep chestnut; feet slaty grey, soles pale reddish; bill black” (Doherty 2).

Female. “Has the wing only 61 mm, the tail 45 mm, and the chin, throat, and breast are
very much paler than in the male” (Hartert 1).

Distribution. Mountains of Celebes; Bonthain, c. 6000 ft. (Everett, Doherty),

At the time of writing, the only specimens of this species known are three
— two males and a female in the Tring Museum. They bear much resemblance
to the female of the lowland 8. rujigula^ and may probably be regarded as re--
presenting a lowly organised species in respect of coloration. Mr. Hartert,
who has carefully established the validity of this form, writes in lit.: “The
upper side of 8. bonthaina is olive (without any greyish tint in it), while it is
olive-grey in the female of rujigula. The tail of 8. bonthaina is chestnut through-
out, while it is deep brown with chestnut outer margins in rujigula Q”.
He adds {2)\ “The wing of 8. rujigula is decidedly shorter, measuring only
57 mm^). The tarsus of 8. rujigula is much shorter 16 mm (19 to 20 in 8.
bonthaina) .

1) In the Sarasins’ example 60 mm.

374

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

GENUS STOPAROLA Blytli,

These Flycatchers are distinguishable by their grey-blue or verditer colo-
ration, the males differing from the females by their black lores. The wing
formula is very like that of Siphia, from which it differs chiefly by the bill,
w^hich is shorter, though equally broad at the base, and the tarsus is also relative-
ly a little shorter. The plumage of the rump and flanks seems to be of a
softer and thicker character. The male has a sweet song (Legge, Sarasins).
The genus is found from Afghanistan to the Phili]3j)ines, Celebes, and Java.

-P * 128. STOPAROLA SEPTENTRIONALIS Btitt.

North Celebesian Blue Flycatcher.

Plate XV.

Stoparola septentrionalis (1) Biittik., Notes Leyd. Mus. 1893, 169; M. & Wg., Abli. Mus.
Dresden 1895, Nr. 8, p. 9; (3) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 1, p. 5.

Description. Blittikofer 1.

Male. Yerditer-blue, paling into wliitish on the abdomen and white on the under tail-covcrts.
Forehead and superciliary stripe, and upper throat bright pale blue; lores jet-black;
angle of chin at the gonys blackish; remiges and tail dusky, washed externally with
the verditer-blue of the back; wing and tail below dusky, the under wing-coverts
(except the outer ones) and the inner edges of the remiges white: bill black, legs
and feet dark in skin (ry’, Mt. Lokon, N. Cel., 1. VII. 94: Sarasin Coll.).

Female. Like the male, but without the black lores (though the feathers here have black
bases), the bright superciliary stripe hardly at all pronounced, and there is less bright
light blue on the forehead and upper throat; the blue on the upper surface, throat,
and breast a shade darker and duller (§, Tomohon, 4. VI. 94: Sarasin Coll.).

Nestling. Bemiges and rectrices (half-grown) as in the adult; head and neck blackish, each
feather with a tawny subterminal spot; remaining upper parts dull liluish grey with
duller tawny spots; under parts whitish washed with tawny, brighter tawny on breast,
all the feathers with U-shaped margins of blackisli: bill yellowish, brovuier above ((J' ?.
Tomohon, 13. XI. 94: Sarasin Coll.).

Measurements.

Wins

Tad

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (Sarasin Coll.) (J* ad. Tomohon, 3. V. 94 .... 70 53 16 8

b. (C 13898) rf ad. Tomohon, 6. V. 94 (P. & F. S.) . . 71 51 16 8

c. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Mt. Lokon, 1. VII. 94 ... 74 55 16 —

d. (Sarasin Coll.) (L* ad. Mt. Masarang, 25. IV. 94 . . 73 54 — 7.5

e. (Sarasin Coll.) Q Tomohon, 8. I\^. 94 j 71 52 15.5 8

f\ (Sarasin Coll.) Q Tomohon, 4. VI. 94 | 70 50 — 7.5

g. (Sarasin Coll.) Q. Tomohon, 18. X. 94 j 69 48 — 7.5

Nest. Of small roots, moss, and fibres, lined with hair-like vegetable fibres; stated by the
finder to have been situated in grass: in shape a flat hemisphere, the cup 45 mm
diam. by 35 deep, the walls about 35 thick (see plate: Tomohon, 8. June 1894:
Sarasin Coll).

Distribution. North Celebes — Minahassa, Tondano (von Bosenberg 1), Manado District
(v. Duivenbode 7), Tomohon, Mt. Masarang and Mt. Lokon (P. & F. Sarasin).

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

375

Mr. Biittikofer remarks that as to colour this sj)ecies may be best com-
pared with 8. mdanops (Vig.) of India, from which it differs in having the inner
web of the tail-feathers black instead of blue, and in its size being much smaller.
A note of von Rosenberg’s says it is “frequently seen in brushwood and low
trees, living upon insects”.

With this species and the next was made the interesting addition of another
Oriental Flycatcher-genus to the avifauna of Celebes, a Muscicapidine form not
known in the Australian Region. The genus ranges from the Himalayas as far
as Afghanistan, east to South China, the Philippines, Celebes, and Java.

The Saras ins have added much to what is known of this sj)ecies. They
obtained a nice series of specimens, with the sex properly ascertained, showing
the difference between the male and the female; also a nest containing the two
nestlings shown in the plate. Like its near relation, 8. meridionalis Biittik. , of
South Celebes, it appears to be an inhabitant of the hill-country.

* 129. STOPAROLA MERIDIONALIS Btitt.

South Celebesian Blue Flycatcher.

Stoparola meridionalis (1) Biittik., Notes Leyden Mas. 1893, XV, 170; (2) id., Zool. Erg.
Weber’s Reise in Ost-Ind. 1893, LEI, 278; (3) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 158; (4)
id., ib. 1897, 158.

Male. Similar to S. septenirionalis , but larger, of a darker and duller blue, especially on
the throat and breast; the bright light blue on the forehead, superciliary region and
upper throat less extensive: “iris deep chestnut; feet black; beak black” (Doherty 4);.
((V, c. 6000 ft. on Lompobatang, S. Cel., 14. X. 95, Sarasin Coll.).

Femalo. Similar to the male, but the lores not black, being blackish with blue tips to the
feathers; size a little smaller (Q, Bonthain Peak, 6000 ft., Oct. 95: Everett —
C 14887).

Young. Above tawny, with black edges to the feathers and blackish bases; Avings and tail
blackish washed with verditer-blue, as in the adult, wing-coverts tq^ped with tawny;
under parts tawny on breast, paler on throat and abdomen, with marginal U-shaped
bars of blackish, almost completely absent on under tail-coverts ; under wing-coverts
buff-white (cf juv., 1200 m, near Loka, S. Cel., 13. X. 95; Sarasin Coll).

ments.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (Sarasin Coll.) (V, Lompobatang, 14. X. 95 ...

79

66

17

8

b. (Sarasin Coll) Loka, 11, X. 95

81

60

17

8

c. (C 14886) (3f., Bonthain Peak, X. 95 (Everett) . . .

8J

62

17

d. (C 14887) Q, Bonthain Peak, X. 95 (Everett) . . .

76

55

17

8

e. (Sarasin Coll.) (J' juv. near Loka, 13. X. 95 . .

77

56

—

7

Distribution. South Celebes: Macassar District (Teijsmann 7); Mt. Bonthain and its neigh-
bourhood (Weber 2, Everett 3, P. & F. Sarasin, Doherty 4).

This species is as yet definitely known only from high elevations, 4000 to
10 000 feet, on the Bonthain mass of mountains. The Drs. Sarasin write;

376

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

“We heard the bird singing on the topmost point of Lompobatang, on the tall-
est tree in South Celebes. The song is very melodious”. It and S. septentrio-
nalis are evidently only geographical races.

GENUS HYPOTHYMIS Boie.

The Blue Flycatchers may be distinguished from all the foregoing by their
having the tail as long as the wings; the wing is more rounded, the second
primary shorter than the secondaries, which are about Vs the length of the
wing, the 4*V 5^^ and 6^^ primaries the longest. The bill is moderately large,
the culmen from the frontal suture almost as long as the cranium; the rictal
bristles large and strong, the longest reaching nearly as far as the tip of the
bill. The genus is found from the Himalayas as far as the Philippines, Celebes,
Sula, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

' * 130. HYPOTHYMIS PUELLA (Wall.).

Long-tailed Blue Flycatcher.

a. Muscicapa coerulea (1) S. MiilL (nec Grin.), Verb. Natum-k. Cormn. 1839 — 43, 91; id.,
Reiz. Ind. Ai’chip. 1858, H, 1.5.

h. Myiagra puella (1) Wall, P. Z. S. 1862, 340 (ex Gray MS.); (2) Gray, HL. 1872, I,
328, ISTrs. 4931, 4932; (3) Briigg., Abb. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 68; (4) Rosenb,,
Mai ay. Arcliip . 1878, 273.

Hypothymis puella (I) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VIH, 66, pL VII, bg. 2; (2) Salvad., Ann.
Mus. Oiv. Gen. 1875, VH, 656; (3) Lenz, J. f. 0. 1877, 373; (4) Sbarpe, Cat.
B. nV 1879, 277; (5) Meyer, Il3is 1879, 128, 146; (6) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883,
117, 137; f7) Meyer, Isis, Dresden 1884, 25; (8) Bias., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1885,
278; 1886, 112; (9) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 553; (10) Tristr., Cat. Coll. B. 1889,
197 (Sula Is.); (11) Heine & Rchnw. , l^omencl. Mus. Hein. 1890, 35; Bllttik.,
Zool. Erg. Weber’s Eeise Ost-Lid. 1893, IH, 278; (XII'^‘'^) Meyer, VogelskeL, I,
1894, t. CCIH; (13) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 8, p. 9; (14) iid., ib.
1896, Nr. 1, p. 9; (15) iid., ib. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 14; (16) Hart., Nov. Zook 1896, 157;
(17) id., ib. 1897, 157, 162.

c. Myiagra azurea (1) Pelz. (nec Bodd.), Verb. z.-b. Ges. AVien 1873, April (fide Bias. 6).

“Rui” (Meyer 5) or “Ruirui” (Nat. Coll.), Minabassa — a name taken from its call-note.
“Ting-kuikui”, Tonkean, E. Celebes (N. C.).

“Tangkui”, Banggai (N. C.).

Figures and descriptions, Walden/; Meyer A//*'*'*’ (skeleton); Wallace h 1\ Brilggemann
h 5; Sbarpe 4.

Adult male. Campanula-blue; brightest on tbe bead, lores, cbin and lesser Aving-coverts,
duller and greyer on lower back and breast, passing almost into olive-grey on tbe
abdomen, flanks and under tail-coverts ; exposed webs of wings and tail blue like tbe
back, beloAv dusky obve-grey; on forebead and cliin at base of bill a narrow edge
of black; under wing-coverts wliitisb (Kema, (T', Eebr. 1873: C 743, Meyer).

Iris blue (Meyer 5, Platen 8) — eyelids blue, iris dark (Wall, hi) — iris
brown (Guillem. 9 — tbe differences in tbe statements of tbe collectors may be of a

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

377

sexual nature); feet blue, lil^e tlie belly; claws black; bill blue, like the head; even
the bones are blue (M, 5).

Female. Like the male, but somewhat greyer and duller (Manado — 0 755).

Nestling. Glrey; belly and breast white, bead grey (Meyer 5).

Measurements (23 specimens — Manado, Togian Is., Banka, Manado tua, Mantehage). Wing
67 — 77 (Manado, 0 742 and 0 744); tail 74 — 84: tarsus 16 — 16.5; bill from nostril
8.7 — 9.5. Average length of wing 72 — 73 mm.

Skeleton.

Length of cranium ....

35.0

mm

Length of tarso-metatarsus . .

17.5

mm

Greatest breadth of cranium .

15.0

»

Length of digitus I . . . .

12.0

»

Length of humerus ....

18.0

»

Length of digitus H . . . .

10.0

»

Length of ulna

22.0

>

Length of digitus HI . . .

15.0

»

Length of radius .....

20.0

Length of digitus IV

12.0

»

Length of maims

18.0

Length of sternum ....

19.0

Length of metacarpus . . .

10.0

»

Greatest breadth of sternum .

12.5

»

Length of digitus I . . . .

3.0

»

Height of crista sterni .

6.4

Length of digitus H . . . .

8.5

»

Length of coracoideum . . .

16.0

Length of digitus IH . . .

2.5

Length of scapula

20.0

»

Length of femur

15.5

Length of clavicula ....

15.0

>

Length of tibia

24.0

»

Length of pelvis

12.0

»

Length of fibula

9.0

»

Greatest breadth of pelvis .

15.0

»

Eggs. Unrecorded.

Nest. Cup-shaped, the size of a Chaffinch’s, rather loosely built of moss and coarse straw-
like strips of dead grasses or wood, ornamented externally with a few large seeds,
lined with fine root-fibres. Placed on the twigs of a tree. Height 50, breadth 65,
breadth of pocket 52, depth of pocket 38 mm (Manado, Hr. 83: Meyer).

Breeding season. This nest was taken in March, 1871, and contained two nestlings. The
number of eggs is, therefore, probably only two, which were laid in this case in
February.

Distribution. Celebes: — Minahassa (Wall. 4, M. 5, etc.); Manado tua, Mantehage, Lembeh,
Banka oh the Minahassa (Hat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); Hill-forests between the
Minahassa and Mongondo (P. & F. Sarasin); Grorontalo Histr. (Meyer 5); Togian
Islands (Meyer 5); Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari 2); W. Celebes (Doherty 77);
Centr. Celebes, Mapane (P. & F. S. 14)\ E, Celebes (H. C.); small island off Buton Id.
(S. Muller a 7); S. Peninsula (Wallace 4, Platen 8, etc.); Palopo at head of Gulf
of Boni (Weber 12)\ Peling and Banggai Id. (H. C.); Sula Islands (Allen & 7, 4, 11).

%

The common Blue Flycatcher of Celebes and Sula is a very distinct form
most nearly allied to H. (Meyer) of Great Sangi. H. rowleyi differs in

having the upper parts much darker blue and the under surface uniform bluish
cinereous, and in its much larger size. H. occipitalis (Vig.), the range of which
is given by Sharpe (Cat. B. IV, 276; Ibis 1890, 276) as from Tenasserim to
Flores, Borneo, and the Philippines, is easily distinguishable by its black pectoral
collar and black nuchal patch; this form appears to be only subspecifically
distinct from H. azurea (Bodd.) of Burmah and India. From its well marked
differences K. puella might be regarded as a rather ancient inhabitant of Celebes.

The genus Hypothymis forms another connecting-band between Celebes and
the Oriental Pegion, no Flycatcher of this genus being known in Australasia,

Meyer ifeWiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Nov. 4«i, 1897). 40

378

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae,

not counting the Lesser Sunda Islands. H^puella is further of interest as an
inhabitant of both Celebes and Sula. The type of the species is from Sula,
and the birds from these islands are said by Sharpe to be “a little deeper
azure-blue than the Celebes birds”, but neither he nor Wallace find them
separable. Neither are there any apparent differences in those from Peling and
Banggai, nor are any differences to be seen in specimens from the islands off
the coast of the Minahassa and in the Gulf of Tomini.

+ * 131. HYPOTHYMIS ROWLEYI (A.B.M.).

Sangi Blue Flycatcher.

a. Zeocephus rowleyi (1) Meyer, Rowley’s Ornithol. Miscellan. 1878, III, 163; 2 j id., Isis,
Dresden 1884, 6.

Hypothymis rowleyi (1) Sliarpe, Oat. B. IV, 1879, 278; (II) Grould, B. New Guinea II,
pi. 20 (1882); (3) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 581.

Figure and descriptions. Gould II: Meyer a 1\ Sharpe 1.

Adult. Above dusky China-blue, brightest on supra-loral region, lesser wing-coverts and mantle;
the quills washed externally with greyer blue; under parts from chin down-
wards bluish French-grey, darker on the sides of the breast, paler and washed with
huff about the anal region; quills and tail below dusky smoke-grey, the inner webs
of the quills whitish. Bill — in dry specimen — hlacldsh, under mandible paler;
feet and claws greyish. Wing 96 mm; tail 92; tarsus 21; bill from nostril 9.5
(Tabukan, Great Sangi — Nr. 2956, type: Meyer).

Distribution. Great Sangi (Meyer).

Remarks. The type of this Flycatcher in the Dresden Museum remains up to the present
the only specimen on record. It is much larger than H. pueUa of Celebes: wing
96 mm as against 77 maximum; the upper surface is of a much darker blue, and
this colour is not carried on to the chin, throat and chest, which are uniform with
the rest of the under surface. It differs, moreover, in the form of the hill from
II, puella^ the nostrils being more deeply sunk in larger cavities, between which the
ridge of the culmen stands up more strongly. In this respect, it appears to he a
connecting hnk between Hypothymis and Zeocephus cyamsce^is Sharpe of Palawan,
a species a good deal similar in coloration ; but distinguishable by its black lores and
black line along the forehead and chin at the base of the hill, by its larger hill and
longer tail.

The type of H. o'owleyi wms found by one of Meyer’s hunters near the village
of Tabukan on Great Sangi. Up to the present no Blue Flycatcher has been dis-
covered on Siao or the other Sangi Islands, and it is probable that the nearest
relations of H. rowleyi may still he found — there, or elsewdiere. At present its
nearest affinities appear to be with H. puella of Celebes and Sula, while Stoparola
panciyensis also deserves consideration as an ally.

Hypothymis manadensis (Q. G.\ This species, as Oustalet has shown (Bull. Soc.
Philom. Paris, Dec. 1877), is from New Guinea — not Celebes. It is the same as
Monarcha dichrous Gray (cf. Sharpe, Cat. B. IV, 273, 421; Salvadori, Orn. Pap.
n, 29).

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

379

GENUS RHIPIDURA Vig. Horsf.

The tail of the Fan-tailed Flycatchers is much longer than the wing, gra-
duated, the feathers broad; the 4**" and remiges are longest, the second about
as long as the secondaries ; the bill is moderate, thickly beset with rictal and
frontal bristles, reaching nearly to the tip of the bill ; the tarsus is (always?)
longer than the middle toe and claw. Biittikofer (1893) recognises 75 species,
ranging from Australia and New Zealand as far as the Himalayas and many
islands of Polynesia, as well as throughout the East India ArchijDelago.

4 * 132. RHIPIDURA OELEBENSIS Biitt.

Southern Fan-tailed Flycatcher.

Ehipidura celebensis (1) Blittik., Notes Leyden Mas. 1893, XY, 79; (2) Hart., Nov. Zool.
1896, 167, 173, 182, 585.

Adult [male]. Crown, hind neck, fore part of mantle, lesser wing-coverts, and
thighs dark earthy brown; quills and greater wing-coverts seiha-hrown, edged
with the colour of the crown; remaining upper surface, including forehead,
rufous; tail blackish, exposed webs iron-grey, basal part — except on outermost pair
— red, tips white, broadest on outermost pair, on the outer webs of which the white
runs some distance towards the base; lores, sides of face, throat and chest
black, the chest bordered below with white-tipped feathers; malar streak from chin
to sides of chest white; chin white; remaining under-parts white, tinged with
fulvous on flanks, vent, and under tail-coverts; inner edge of quills below ashy
whitish. Bill dark brown, white at base of lower mandible, feet dark brown. Wing
66 mm; middle tail-feathers 85, outermost 62; tarsus 20; culmen 13 (ex Buttik.).
“Iris dark brown; bill dark brown; mandible ochreous dark brown towards the tip;
legs pale grey” (Everett 2).

Distribution. ? South Peninsula, Celebes — Macassar (Teijsmann); Djampea and Kalao
(Everett 2),

This Flycatcher was described from a single specimen in the Leyden Museum.
Mr. Biittikofer remarks that it is “very closely allied to R. semicoUaris M. & S.
from the Timor group, but easily distinguished by the darker tinge of the earthy
brown parts of the upper surface and the broader black band across the lower
throat and chest . In R. tcijsTnunni of South Celebes the tail is cinnamon-red,
with the terminal third sepia-brown, and across the chest there is only a narrow
bar of black, not bordered with white below.

The nearest ally of R. celebensis at present known is R. sumbensis Hart.,
to which Mr. Hartert allows only subspecific rank, though he has not shown
that the two forms intergrade. In three skins of the latter no differences of
colour could be detected by Mr. Hartert, but they were not well prepared
specimens; they proved to be considerably larger in size. Mr. Hartert queries
the label “Macassar” indicated as the locality of Mr. Bilttikofer’s type, and it
is indeed strange, if the bird occurs there, that it should have escaped Wallace,

48*

380

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

Meyer, Platen, Weber, the Sarasins, Everett, Doherty etc. Teijsmann
visited Salej'er, but we do not know that he was ever on Djampea or Kalao.

M^r. Hartert s male from Kalao was found to be identical with Teijsmann’s
specimens by Mr. Biittikofer.

h * 133. RHIPIDURA TEIJSMANNI Btitt.

Teijs man’s Fan-tailed Flycatcher.

Ehipidura teysmanni (1) Biittik, Notes Leyden Mns. 1893, XV, 80; (2) id., Zool. Erg.
Weber’s Eeise in Ost-Ind. 1893, m, 278; (3) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 157; (4) id.,
ib. 1897, 158.

Description. Biittikofer 1,

Adult. Crown, sides of bead, neck and upper part of mantle olive-brown;
forehead, back, rump, flanks, thighs, upper and under tail-coverts and
basal two-thirds of all the tail-feathers cinnamon-red; terminal third of
tail sepia-brown, fringed towards the tip with cinnamon-red, and tipped with ashy
fulvous, most broadly on the outermost feathers; upper wing-coverts sepia-brown,
edged with olive-brown; primaries septia-brovn, secondaries olive-brown, the exposed
webs of all, except first primary, fringed with cinnamon; chin and upper throat
pure white; a rather narrow black bar across the chest; under parts cinnamon;
pale whitish fulvous on middle of breast and abdomen; under wing-coverts
fulvous; quills below very broadly edged on the inside with vinaceous. Bill blackish,
wliitish at base; feet pale brown. Wing 69 mm; middle tail-feathers 80, outeimost
60; tarsus 19; bill from front 12 (ex Biittik. i). “Iris very dark chestnut-brown;
feet pale purplish; beak blackish, pale at base of mandible” (Doherty 4).

An adidt male differs from Mr. Biittikofer’s description by having the breast
below the black jugular collar greyisli olive, in tlie middle inclining to buff, and only
about the teraiinal fourth of the tail is dull sepia, or blacldsh ((d*, Loka, S. Cel., 6.
X. 95: P. & F. Sara sin).

Young. More suffused with cinnamon-red than the adult, especially on the outer edges of
the wings and on the flanks. Black jugular collar absent; the cinnamon-red loral
patch nearly absent; nnder parts darker cinnamon, stained with brown on the breast;
chin and throat greyish white [(^ Loka, 10. XI. 95: P. & F. S.).

Distribution. South Peninsula of Celebes — (?) Macassar (Teijsmann 7), Mt. Bonthain
(Weber 2, Everett 5, P. & F. Sarasin, Doherty 4).

This Flycatcher was recently described by Mr. Biittikofer after a single
specimen obtained by Teijsmann and labelled at Macassar (but in all probability
from the mountains); and two others killed at I.oka, 4000 feet, were subse-
quently sent to the Leyden Museum by Prof. Weber. In the Loka neigh-
bourhood it w'as found by the Sarasins, Everett and Doherty. It appears
to be a very distinct species. Mr. Biittikofer remarks that R. riififrons from
Australia may be considered its nearest ally. From this latter as well as from
the other species of the group [with forehead, back, and base of tail cinnamon-
red], it differs principally in the red of the basal piart of the tail being much
more widely distributed, fully occupying the basal two-thirds and being as plainly

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

381

visible on the under surface as on the uj)per, while in all the other species
the tail, when closed, hardly shows any red region bhyond the under
tail-coverts”.

In his careful description Mr. Biittikofer remarks: “The shafts of the
tail-feathers have the color of the accomj)anying parts of their webs, but the
red of the basal part runs, though not very far, into the black terminal third”.
This seems at first sight to show that the red pigment is on the increase and
is supplanting the black. Were the black, on the other hand, to encroach into
the red it might be inferred with some degree of reason that the extent of red
on the tail had once been greater than at present. But it may be that a con-
tradiction to this is presented by the young, which is more sufiused with
cinnamon-red, and this colour is seen all along the shaft to the tip of the tail
and dimly against the blackish web alongside the shaft for its terminal fourth.
The young plumage of birds is often supposed to be more ancient than the adult
plumage; if so, the tail of R. teijsmanni is increasing in blackness on its distal
end, and the cinnamon is receding towards the base. But such questions are
hardly for the present generation.

The genus Rhipidura is unquestionably Australasian in type. Of Mr.
Buttikofer’s 75 species 62 belong to the Australian E-egion, including the
Lesser Sunda Islands. The remaining range from the Philippines, Celebes and
the other Great Sunda Islands to the Himalayas. The Papuan Islands — 24
species, and the Lesser Sunda Islands — 10 species — are by far the richest
in forms, and it is here, possibly, that the genus originated. We infer that
its distribution took place mainly, if not- entirely by flight, from the fact that
numerous species are found in the volcanic islands of Central and North-west
Polynesia, and that of two Indian species Mr. Biittikofer places one between
species of New Guinea and Fiji, the other betw'een species of New Guinea and
the Solomon Islands. Consequently the genus cannot be taken into consideration
on the question of the former distribution of land and water in the East Indies,
nor can the two Celebesian species be regarded as trustworthy links between
Celebes, Timor and Australia, though like Cacatua sidphurea and Circus assimilis
they probably reached Celebes from those countries.

On R. teijsmanni the Sara sins write: “It is very plentiful on the whole
Peak of Bonthain up to great elevations, 1500 m and more, and indeed a
characteristic bird. It flies in pairs and quietly allows itself to be watched. The
tail is carried spread out, like a fan”.

Rhipidura lenzi W. Bias. The habitat of this species was originally indicated
by Lenz (J. f. O. 1877, 374) as North Celebes, and in 1883 it was found to
be new and was described by W. Blasius (J. f. O. 1883, 145). The correctness
of the habitat was questioned by Meyer (Isis 1884, 26), and the same year

382

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

the species was recorded by H. O. Forbes from Amboina (P. Z. S. 1884, 431), and
later again mentioned from the same island by Biittikofer (Notes Leyden Mns.
1893, XV, 92). These two Amboina specimens are somewhat smaller than
W. Blasins’s type, and it may be doubted where that bird really came from,
though Amboina or the neighbourhood are the most probable localities (cf. also
Salvad. , Agg. Orn Pap. 1890, 77).

GENUS ZEOCEPHUS Bp.

A Philippine genus of Flycatchers, now known also from Talaut. The bill
is very large, the culmen from the cranial suture about as long as the cranium,
and longer than the tarsus, the rictal bristles large ; wing rather long, the second
quill about as long as the secondaries: the tail long, as long or longer than
the wings, the two middle feathers more or less produced. The Talaut bird
and one of the Philippine species are of a cinnamon-rufous colour, another
form is greyish bine. The feathers of the head are rather short and velvety.

i * 134. ZEOCEPHUS TALAUTENSIS M.&Wg.

Talaut Ferruginous Flycatcher.

Plate XVI.

Zeocephus talautensis (1) M. & Wg., J. f. O. 1894, 243; (2) iid., Ahli. Mas. Dresd. 1895,
Nr. 9, p. 4.

“Tabaheo”, Talaut, Nat. Coll.

Adult. Above and below deep orange-ferruginous, somewhat the darkest on the under sur-
face; tail duller; chest, and ear-coverts tinged with chestnut; inner webs of quills
dusky for about their terminal half. Bill and feet in the sldn leaden black (type,
Sahbabu, “(y'” 28. Oct. 1893, Nat. Coll. — 0 13162).

Younger. Like the adult, but below much paler; the lower hreast and abdomen whitish; the
head above washed with brown ; tail-feathers darker, passing into dusky for about the
terminal 10 mm of the 3 middle pairs, shafts dark brown. Under bill greyish horn-
colour (Kabruang, 11. XL 93 — 0 13160).

Measurements. Wing 88 — 95 mm; tail 82 — 95; bill from nostril 14.5 — 15.5; tarsus 17 mm c.
Distribution. Talaut Is. — Kabruang, Salibabu and Karkellang (Nat. Coll, in Dresd. and
Tring Museums).

Numerous examples of this Flycatcher were obtained by our native collectors
in Talaut on three expeditions in 1893, 1894 and 1896. They were killed in
the autumn or late autumn, and at this time, when the rainy season is commenc-
ing, the birds moult. Zeocephus has hitherto been known only as a Philippine
genus, and Z. talautensis sjoeaks for the Philippine character of its habitat, also
shown by other species; though again other Talaut species have their nearest
affinities in Sangi and elsewhere.

The present species may be distinguished from Z. rufus (Gray) of the
Philippines — Luzon, Panay, Negros, Marinduque, Mindoro, Mindanao, Basilan,

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

383

Sooloo, Tablas, Eomblon, Sibuyan, Cebu (Steere, Platen, Everett, Bourns &
Worcester, etc.) — by its having, when adult, the two middle tail-feathers
produced only about 5 mm beyond the others, instead of about 35 mm, and by
its brighter and more orange plumage. The paler immature bird, which we
have received from Salibabu as well as from Kabruang, resembles the young of
Z.rufus (separated as Z . cinnamomeus by Sharpe), but differs, as shown (1)^ in
certain points.

GENUS MONARCHA Vig. Horsf.

Structurally similar to Zeocepkus^ but the tail much shorter than the wing,
and the middle pair of rectrices not lengthened, the bill somewhat smaller, the
culmen from the suture about as long as the tarsus and barely as long as the
cranium. The genus is found from Australia as far as Talaut, Sangi, Sula,
Djampea, and Timor.

4-* 135. MONARCHA COMMUTATUS Brtigg.

Sangi Grey-and-rufous Flycatcher.

Plate XVI.

a. Monarcha commutata (1) Briiggem., Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, V. 68.
h. Monarcha inornatus partim (1) Salvad., Orn. Pap. 1881, II, 14 (Celebes).

Monarcha commutatns (1) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 120, 156, 161; (2) Meyer, Isis, Dresden
1884, 6, 22; (3) id., Ztscbr. ges. Orn. 1886, 24; (4) W. Bias., Ornis 1888, 580, 641;
(5) M. & Wg., Abb. Mas. Dresd. 1896, Nr. 2, p. 14.

“Tarumisi kaooraneng”, Siao, Nat. Coll.

Descriptions. W. Blasins 7; Meyer 2; Bruggemann a 1’

Adult. Uj^per surface, throat and upper chest slate-grey, slightly washed with olive-
grey; remaining under parts dark orange-rufous; forehead and chin at the
immediate base of bill blackish; wings and tail dusky, the exposed jaarts of the
feathers washed with the colour of the upper surface. Bill lead-colour with patches
of silvery, tips whitish (Siao, 25. YI. 93: Nat. Coll. — 0 12623).

Young. Wings and tail fulvescent; front and chin less black; fore-neck below sensibly
tinted with cinnamon (Meyer 2 — Great Sangi). It is not impossible that this may
be racially distinct from the Siao form.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

a. (Darmst. Mus. type ex 2) ad. N. Celebes? ....

86

79

17—18

b. (Dresden Mus.) ad. Siao

87

80

18

—

c. (C 12623) ad. Siao, 25. YI. 93

82

72

18

13.5

d. (C 12624) ad. Siao, 27. YI. 93

—

73

18.5

13

e. (C 12622) ad. Siao, 18. YI. 93

87

74

18.5

13

Distribution. Sangi Islands: Siao (Meyer 2, Nat. Coll, in Dresden and Tring Museums),
Great Sangi (Meyer 2); ? Celebes — near Manado (Fischer a 1, 1).

384

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

X

The type M. commutatus was indicated to have come from Manado, but
it now appears most certain that the specimen was mislabelled and it probably
came from Siao. The locality Great Sangi rests at present only upon a young
specimen in the Dresden Museum, which, as Meyer has already said (2), may
possibly prove to be not perfectly identical with the Siao birds. Siao, there-
fore, is as yet the only positively ascertained locality for the species or race.
Here it seems to be not uncommon, as our native collectors were able to send
us the full complement of five specimens asked for. In Great Sangi, the bird
was obtained neither by our native collectors nor by Dr. Platen.

As compared with adult specimens of M. inornatus — one from Aru, two from
(?) the Moluccas, four from Peling and Banggai, two from Djampea, and a large
series from Talaut — M. commutatus is distinguishable by the somewhat darker grey
of its plumage and its blacker edge of forehead and upper corner of chin.
Prof. W. Blasius rightly remarks that it seems to be a darker and larger variety
of inornatus \ individuals appear, however, to vary a good deal in size. It is
difficult to know how to treat of such a form as this; it might be preferable
to view it as a subspecies of M. inornatus^ but that species is involved in much
obscurity at present as regards its local variations, and its treatment as species
and subspecies must be left to the futiu-e.

The genus Monarcha is typical of the Australian and what Wallace terms
the Austro-Malayan subregions. The occurrence of a form of M. inornatus in
the Sangi Islands is a link between them and the Moluccas and Papuasia, but
the wide distribution of this species tends to show that is has spread its range
recently by flight, and is has, therefore, nothing reliable to say for a former
land-connection between Sangi and the Moluccas.

The plumage of this bird has a curious resemblance to that of the adult
male Monticola solitaria.

136. MONARCHA INORNATUS (Garn.).

Grey- and-rufous Plycatcher.

a. Muscicapa inornata (I) Grarnot, Yoy. Coquhle, Zool. Atl. 1826, pi. 16, fig. 2.

b. Drymophila cinerascens (I) Temm., PI. col. 1827, pi. 430, fig. 2.

c. Monarcha cinerascens (1) Wall., P. Z. S. .1862, 335, 341.

Monarcha inornatus (1) Sharpe, Oat. B. lY, 1879, 431; (2) Salvad., Orn. Pap. H, 1881,
14; Agg. 1889, 71; (3) Tristr., Oat. Ooll. B. 1889, 201; (4) M. & Wg., J. f. 0. 1894,
244; (5) iid., Ahh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Nr. 9, p. 4; (6) iid. , ib. 1896, Nr. 2, ji. 14;
(7) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 173, 241.

“Tabaheo mawora”, Talaut, Nat. Ooll.

“Tangkuis”, Peling; “Tangkuisi”, Banggai (Nat. Ooll.).

For full synonymy see Salvador! 2.

Figures and descriptions. G-ariiot a I\ Temminck 5 J; Sharpe 1, Salvador! 2.

Adult. Like Monarcha commutatus (see antea), hut the grey of the upper surface, throat,
and chest, paler — the last-named parts olive-grey as against almost mouse-grey.

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

385

Distribution. Talaut Is. — Karkellang and Kabruang (Nat. Coll.); Peling and Banggai
(Nat. Coll.); Sula Islands (Allen c l, 1, 5); Djampea (Everett 7); Timor (Wallace 1)
and the Moluccas (Salvadori 2) to Aru, New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands and
Duke of York Island (Salvad. 2],

Observations. A specimen from the Sula Islands in the British Museum and another from
the same locality in the Tristram Collection are identified with this species by
Dr. Sharpe and Canon Tristram.

Latterly a score of specimens collected in Talaut in the autumn of 1893,
1894, and 1896 have been sent to the Dresden Museum, and curiously enough they
do not agree with the Sangi race, M. commuiatiis, but are like the Eastern form.

A few specimens from Peling and Banggai are more suffused with chestnut-
rufous below and paler grey on the head and face than those of Talaut, Djampea,
Aru, and others labelled “? Moluccas”.

Two from Djampea are darker grey on the throat and breast than one
from Aru.

Salvadori includes Meyer’s M. gedvinldanus and fuscescens in the synonymy
of M. inornatus, a species winch might some day perhaps be split up into 20 geo-
graphical races with three or more names attached to each — ■ if any good purpose
were served by so doing. Individual variation in this species seems to be confined
witluii somewhat narrow limits.

It may safely be assumed to have spread its range by flight. Its absence on
the mainland of Celebes is very curious.

y * 137. MONARCHA EVERETTI Hart.

Djampea Black-and-white Flycatcher.

Plate XVII.

Mouarcha everetti (1) Hart., Nov. Zook 1896, 173, 182.

Adult male. Ui)per surface, including face, throat and jugulum black, glossed mth
steel-blue; rump and upper tail-coverts, body below, under wing-coverts
and remiges where they rest upon the body white; thighs black, with some
white tips to the feathers; tail black, white at the concealed base, the lateral
feathers white for the terminal half, the white decreasing to a tip of a few m7Ti in
the 4**^ pair and disappearing on the middle pah (cf, Dec. 1895, Djampea Id.:
Everett — C 14871).

“Iris dark brown; bill and legs fight blue; claws dark grey” — Everett 1.

Immature [male]. Mantle cinereous grey (H. 1).

Measurements. “Length about 14 cm; wing 66 — 69 mm; tail about 70 — 72; tarsus 19; culmen
16—17” (Hartert 1).

Female. Entirely different from the male: “Above cinereous grey, slightly washed with
brown. Lores whitish. A spot behind the eye pale whitish grey. Wings dark
brown, inner webs white towards the base. No white on rump and upper tail-coverts;
tail as in the male. Under surface whitish, washed with pale orange-rufous, especially
on the breast; abdomen almost white. Thighs pale brownish, under wing-coverts and
axillaries dirty white. Iris chocolate; bill pale lead-blue, black at apex; legs dark
slate-blue; claws blackish” (Hartert).

Distribution. Djampea Island beLveen Celebes and Flores.

Meyer & Wiglesworth, Birds of Celebes (Xov. 4«i 1897).

49

386

Birds of Celebes: Muscieapidae.

Tliis, as ]Vtr. Hartert points out, is a vory distinct species, belonging to
Gould’s genus Piezorhynchm, “if that genus can be separated from Monarchd!\
He adds that in this genus “the female always differs from the male”; but it
would seem that the word “generally” should have been used here. Sharpe
(1879) admits the genus Piezorhynchus, with 20 species in the Australian Kegion,
said to be distinguishable from Monarcha by the velvety character of the plu-
mage of the head; Salvador! (1881) unites it with Monarcha.

GENUS MYIAGRA Yig. Horsf.

Bill moderately long, very broad and flat, across the nostrils about twice
as broad as deep, rictal bristles well developed; wings longer than tail, the
second primary about equal to the secondaries in length; feet small, the middle
toe and claw shorter than the tarsus. The genus' is found from Australia to
the Lesser Sunda Islands and the small islands to the south of .Celebes, the
Moluccas, and many groups of Polynesia.

A 138. MYIAGRA RUFIGULA Wall.

Timor Broad-billed Flycatcher.

Myiagra rufigula (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1863, 485, 491; (2) Pelz., J. f. 0. 1875, 51; (3)
Sharpe, Cat. B. 1879, IV, 382; (4) Sclat., P. Z. S. 1883, 55; (5) Biittik., Notes
Leyden Mus. 1892, XIV, 197; (7) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 171, 585.

Adult male. Above dark lead-grey; entire head above, nape, and ear-coverts blackish
leaden, with a greenish gloss, on forehead next the hill paler; chin, throat, and
chest ferruginous; remaining under parts white, washed with hufp, more strongly at
the sides and on the under wing-coverts; remiges and tail blackish, the latter
bordered above with the lead -grey of the back, the remiges with browner grey;
paler below, especially where they rest upon the body ((^f, Bonerate Id., 20. IH. 96:
P. & F. Sara sin).

Female. Differs horn the male in having the head, nape, and ear-coverts similarly glossed
with greenish, hut less dark leaden — very little darker than the back, — the
ferruginous of the chin, throat, and chest hghter. The outermost tail-feather wliitish
along the outer web, and it and the next rectrix incline to brownish white clistally.
“Iris dark brown; -bill black, mandible pale blue, with black tip; legs and claws
greyish black” — Everett 7 (C, Bonerate, 20. HI. 96: Sarasin Coll.).
Measurements (4 specimens). Wing 66 — 69 mm; tail 63 — 66; tarsus c. 17.5; bill fi’om
nostril c. 8.5.

Distribution. Timor and Samao (Wallace I, 5); Sumba (ten Kate 5, Doherty 7);
Djampea and Kalao (Everett 7); Bonerate (P. & F. Sarasin).

This Broad-billed Flycatcher was discovered first by Everett in December,
1895, and then by the Saras ins in March, 1896, in the above mentioned small
islands between Celebes and Flores, which are included in the Celebes Province
in this work. The type came from Samao.

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

387

The genus Myiagra is an Australasian type, most plentifully represented in
Papuasia and the Melanesian Islands. The present species is probably most
nearly related to M. fulviventris Sclat. of Timorlaut, which ditfers by its fulvous
belly and under wing-coverts. M. albiventris (Peale) of Samoa has, as Hartert
points out, black lores, a larger bill and less rufous below, so distinguishing itself
from this Tenimber form.

GENUS CULICICAPA Swinh.

These little Flycatchers have the bill as broad and flat as Myiagra^ but
more pointed and triangular, the rictal bristles are large, nearly as long as the
bill. The tail is square, shorter than the wing, the quill-formula much as in
Myiagra \ the middle toe and claw slightly shorter than the tarsus. They are
well characterized by their principal colours of yellow and yellow-olive, and
the sexes are similar. Only two species are known, with a range from the
Himalayas to the Philippines and Celebes.

^ 139. CULICICAPA HELIANTHEA (Wall.).

Wallace’s Yellow Flycatcher.

a. Muscicapa helianthea (1) Wall., P. Z. S. 1865, 476; (2) Gray, HL. 1869, I, 321; (3)

Rosenb. , Malay. Arcbip. 273.

b. Myialestes helianthea (I) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VHI, 66, pi. 7, fig. 1; (2) Brilggem.,

Abh. Yer. Bremen 1876, Y, 68; (3) Wallace, Island Life 1880, 433; (4) Guillem.,
P. Z. S. 1885, 552.

Culicieapa helianthea (1) Salvad., Oat. XJcc. Borneo 1874, 135; (2) Sharpe, Oat. B. lY,
1879, 370; (3) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895, Yr. 8, p. 9; (4) fid., ib. 1896,
Nr. 2, p. 14; (5) Grant, Ibis 1896, 543; (6) Hart., Nov. Zool. 1896, 157, 171;
(7) id., ib. 1897, 158; (8) Grant, Ibis 1897, 227.

c. Xantholestes helianthea (1) Sharpe, Tr. Linn. Soc. 1877, (2) I, 327.

d. Xantholestes panayensis (1) Sharpe, Tr. L. Soc. 1877, (2) I, 327.

e. Culicieapa panayensis (1) Sharpe, Oat. B. lY, 1879, 371; (2) Steere, List Ooll. B. & M.

Philipp. 1890, 16; Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exped. 1894, 41; (4) Grant,
Ibis 1894, 506; (5) id., ib. 1895, 443.

“Koko intiwoho”, Manado Distr., Nat. Ooll.

“Tangkui mosoni”, Banggai, Nat. Ooll.

Figure and descriptions. Walden h Wallace a 1\ Bruggemann b 2\ Sharpe 2.

Adult. Above ofive-green-yellow, darkest on the crown, becoming bright yellow on the
rump; quills and tail-feathers blackish, the outer webs fringed with greenish
ochre; lores yellow; ear-coverts yellower than the crovm; chin, throat and
remaining under parts lemon-yellow, purest and lightest on chin, throat, under
wing-coverts and flanks, dirtier on the breast and sides (Lotta near Manado, 8. Y. 93 :
Nat. Ooll. — 0 12279).

“Iris dark brown; maxilla dark sepia, mandible ochraceous orange; legs and
claws light sepia, soles of feet yellow” — Everett 6.

Sexes, Similar in coloration (Brilggem. h 2, Hartert 6).

49*

388 Birds of Celebes: Musoicapidae.

Measurements (7 examples). Wing 58 (Q) — 63 mm; tail c. 50; tarsus c. 13; bill from
nostril c. 6.5.

Distribution. Oelebesian and Philippine areas: Celebes — Minabassa (Wall, a 7, 2, G-uilL,
P. &P. Sarasin, Nat. Coll.); South Peninsula (Everett 6, Doherty 7); Banggai
Island (Nat. Coll.); Saleyer Island (Everett 6). Philippines — Luzon, Panay,
Negros, Tawi-Tawi, Tahlas, Bomblon, Sibuyan, Giuimaras, Masbate, Siquijor, Palawan
(Moseley, Steere, Bourns & Worcester, Whitehead 7, e 2, e 3, e 4, e 5, 5, 8).

Until the last year or two this little Elycatcher was known only from the
northern province of Celebes, the Minahassa; hut it has now been discovered
south as far as Saleyer and east as far as Banggai, and Mr. Ogilvie Grant
has found the bird in the Philippines to be identical, so adding a broad area
to its range in the north.

The wide-spread C. ceylonensis (Swains.) ranging from the Himalayas to
Ceylon, Java, and Borneo differs in having the entire head and throat ashy grey,
and C.helianthea was separated from it nominally by Dr. Sharpe as a different
genus (c 1), but no generic characters were pointed out, and later the author
reunited them wdth Culicicapa.

Mr. Wallace mentions C.helianthea as a Himalayan type in Celebes; the
genus, however, is as much Sundan as Himalayan. To the east Culicicapa is
not known in the Australian Begion, and, like nearly all the other Flycatchers
of Celebes, it seems to suggest the probability of the former connection of the
island with Asia, and separation by the sea from Australasia.

GENUS GERYGONE J. Gd.

The position of this genus seems to be between the Muscicopidae and Syl-
viidae. The sexes are similar in coloration and the young are probably very
like them, though at least one species (G.hmnneipectus) has brownish edgings to
the feathers of the breast. The tarsus is rather large, much longer than the
middle toe, by which it ap^^roaches the WTxrblers; the bill is more Flycatcher-
like, of moderate size, about U/2 times as broad across the nostril as deep, the
nasal area is membranous, the aperture long oval apparently, the rictal bristles
few and rather small; wing longer than tail, the 3’'^, I'"'* and 5^^* quills the longest,
the second equal to, or a little longer than the secondaries. The genus is
pre-eminently Australasian, but occurs west as far as Borneo.

F * 140. GERYGONE FLAVEOLA Cab.

Drab-and-yellow Flycatcher.

Gerygone flaveola (1) Cab., J. f. 0. 1873, 157; (2) Meyer, t. c. 404; (3) Salvad. , Ann.
Mns. Civ. Gen. 1875, YH, 665; (4) Sharpe, Notes Leyden Mus. 1878, I, 29, part.;
fVJ id.. Oat. B. W, 1879, 214, part., j)l. V, fig. 2; f3J W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1883, 117,
125; f7J Guillem., P. Z. 8. 1885, 263, i3t., 414, pt.; fSJ Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ-

Birds of Celebes: Museicapidae.

389

Gen. 1891, XXXII, 53; (9) Davison, His 1892, 100; (10) Sharpe, Ibis 1893,
561; (11) Biittik, Xotes Leyden Mus. 1893, XV, 174, 175; (12) id., Zool Erg.
Weber’s Reise Ost-Ind. 1893, m, 278; (13) M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresden 1896,
Xr. 1, p. 10; (14) Hart., Xov. ZooL 1896, 157, 171; (15) id., Xov. Zool. 1897,
158, 162.

Figure and descriptions. Sbarpe F, Oabanis 7.

Adult. Above drab, washed with obve, bead greyer, edges of quills paler; lores dusky
whitish; ear- coverts drab, washed with yellow; under surface, including sub-
malar region, sulphur -yellow, darker and brighter on throat, paling down into
yellowish white on the under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts almost pure white;
inner edges of quills whitish; inner edges of lateral pairs of rectrices whitish
near tip: “Iris crimson or red-brown; beak black, in one, evidently younger bird, the
base of the mandible is pale” (Doherty 15)] feet blackish (15). (Macassar, (^,
January, 1873: Meyer — 0 491.)

Sexes. Similar {Q ad. 0 448).

Measurements.

a. (C 491) ad. Macassar, I. 1873

b. . (0 449) (f ad. Macassar, I. 1873

c. (0 448) Q ad. Macassar, I. 1873

d. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Loka, S. Cel., 21. X. 95

e. (Sarasin Coll.) ad. Macassar, 19. VH. 95

f. (Sarasin Coll.) (f ad. Macassar, 16. YH. 95

g. (Sarasin Coll.) — Lake Posso, Eeb. 95 . . ,

character is probably due to their being in Avorn jplumage”.

Distribution. Celebes — Macassar (Meyer 1, in Berlin and Dresd. Mus., P. & F. Sarasin);
Bonthain Mountains (P. & F. Sarasin, Everett 14, Doherty 15); Luwu at the
head of the Gulf of Boni (Weber 12)] Kandari, S. E. Celebes (Beccari 5); Lake
Posso, Central Celebes (P. & F. Sarasin); Dongala and Tawaya, W. Celebes
(Doherty 15).

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Bill from
nostril

56

40

18.5

6.5

54

38

17.5

6.5

54

39

17.5

7.0

52

37

17

6.5

52

38

16.5

6.5

52

37

—

7

54

40

7

two examples from

Saleyer

This Avas one of Meyer’s discoveries in South Celebes. No specimens
of this species have as yet been obtained in North Celebes, and the bird is
someAvhat rare in collections. It is most nearly allied to G. salvadorii Biittik.
of Borneo, or perhaps to the Sooloo form, in Avhich Dr. Guillemard points
out some distinguishing characters. The Borneo form Avas at first united by
Dr. Sharpe Avith G.flaveola, but, in separating it as G. salvadorii, Mr. Biitti-
kofer (11) calls attention to its smaller size, the sides of the breast olive-brown
instead of yellow, its av an ting the Avhitish lores and the yelloAAush wash on the
ear-coverts, the upper surface a shade darker, the white near the ends of the
inner webs of the tail-feathers forming much larger spots.

Another ally is Salvadori’s Gerygone modiglianii of Sumatra (8), which
Sharpe considers identical Avith Davison’s G. pectorahs of the Malay Peninsula
(Ibis 1892, 99; 1893, 119, 561) and which, in his opinion, is questionably distinct
from the Bornean form of Biittikofer. From G. flaveola, as Salvador! points

390

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

out (8), G. modigliami differs in having a distinct dusky collar on the sides of
the neck, the upper surface darker, the yellow below a little clearer, a distinct
subterminal black band on the tail. G. sulfurea Wall, of Solor near Flores
differs by its smaller size, a broad median black band across the tail-feathers,
with a large white spot at the tip of the inner web (Sharpe).

The genus Gerygone^ as may be seen from Count Salvadori’s great work,
is absent, so far as is known, from the Moluccas. The genus is divided by
Sharpe into two, Gerygone and Pseudogerygone, the latter with the secondaries
of somewhat increased length — an unsatisfactory character, we think, whereon
to base a genus. Taking the two together as one genus, Gerygone ranges from
the Malay Peninsula through the Sunda Islands and Philippines, to Australia,
New Guinea, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, New Zealand and the Chatham
Islands, as shown by Sharpe. From their richness in species it may be sup-
posed to have arisen in New Guinea or Australia, whence it seems to have
spread its range by flight.

Gerygone is placed among the Muscicapidae by Sharpe, who rightly re-
marks that it is one of those genera which evince a great likeness to the
Warblers. It is in fact almost, if not quite, impossible to draw a line between
the Flycatchers and Warblers. Gould, who left the family to which it belongs
doubtful, says that “their food consists of insects of the most diminutive size,
such as aphides, gnats and mosquitos. They mostly frequent the thick umbra-
geous woods, where they flit about under the canopy of the dense foliage, or
sally forth into the open glade like true Flycatchers” (Hb. B. Austr. 1865, I, 265).

GENUS PRATINCOLA K. L. Kocli.

The Chats are treated as a family, Sawicolidae^ by many authors; by Oates
(Faun. Br. Ind. B. II, 1890, 57) as a subfamily of the Turdidae, We do not
know how Pratincola can be separated from the Flycatchers, all that can be
said for it is that its bill is less wide and its feet larger than in most of the
Muscicapidae. Bill shorter than cranium, across the nostril about as wide as deep;
nostril roundish, the feathers of the forehead impinging to its base; rictal bristles
moderate, two or three frontal bristles reaching over the nostril; chin-feathers
with hairy ends; 2“*^ primary about as long as the secondaries; tip of wing-
formed by the 3^^ — 6*^ primaries; tail rounded, shorter than wing; tarsus longer
than middle toe and claw. Sexes dissimilar. Range : Europe, Africa, Asia, as
far as Celebes and Flores.

^ 141. PRATINCOLA CAPRATA (L.).

Indian Pied Bush-chat.

a. Motacilla caprata (1) Linn., 8. N. 1766, I, 335.

b. Saxicola caprata (1) S. Mali., Yerh. Natuurk. Comm. 1839 — 44, 87; (2) id., Reizen Ind.

Archip. 1858, II, 8.

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

391

Pratincola caprata (1) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872, VUI, 63; (2) Salvad. , Ucc. Borneo 1874,
252; (3) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1875, IX, 193; (4) Cab. & Bchw., J. f. 0. 1876, 319;
(5) Salvad., P. Z. 8. 1877, 194; (6) Tweedd., P. Z. S. 1877, 696, 761; 1878,710;
(7) Sharpe, Oat. B. lY, 1879, 195; (8) Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 431; (9) Salvad.,
Orn. Pap. PC, 1881, 420; (10) Scully, Ibis 1881, 440; W. Bams., Tweedd.

Orn. Works 1881, Aj)p. 657; (11) Yorderni., X. Tdsclir. Xed. Ind. 1882, XLH, 65;
(12) Davison, Str. P. X, 1882, 307; 1889, 389; (13) W. Bias., Verb. z.-b. Ges.

Wien 1883, 75; (13^‘^) Oates, B. Br. Burmab 1883, I, 281; (14) Marshall, Ibis

1884, 415; (15) 0. Swinh. & Barnes, Ibis 1885, 124; (16) W. Bias., Ztschr, ges.
Orn. 1885, 277; (17) Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 506; (18) Dresser, Ibis 1889, 86;
(20) St. John, t. c. 163; (21) Badde & Walter, Ornis 1889, 61, 168, 172, 221,
256, 259, 266; (22) Tristr., Oat. Ooll. B. 1889, 143; (23) Dresser, Ihis 1890, 342;
1^24; Oates, Faun. Brit. Ind. B. II, 1890, 59; (25) id., ed. Hume’s Xests & Eggs
Ind. B. H, 1890, 41; (26) Steere, List Coll. B. & M. Pliilipp. Is. 1890, 16; (27)
Biittik., Xotes Leyden Mus. 1891, XHI, 211; (28) Hartert, Kat. Mus. Senckenb.
Yog. 1891, 3; (29) id., J. f. 0. 1891, 201; (30) Biittik., Xotes Leyd. Mus. 1892,
197; (31) id., Zook Erg. Weber’s Beise Ost-Ind. 1893, IH, 277, 293; (32) Grant,
Ibis 1894, 505; (33) Bourns & Worces., B. Menage Exp. 1894, 39; (XXXIV)
Dresser, B. Eur. SuppL I, 1895, 33, pi. 6-11; (35) Grant, Ibis 1895, 441; (36)

M. & Wg., Abb. Mus. Dresd. 1896, Xr. 1, p. 12; (37) Hart., Xov. Zool. 1896, 150,

166, 555, 580, 593; (38) id., ib. 1897, 155, 161.

“Tjingan”, Tjamba Distr., Platen 16.

For further synonymy and references see Sharpe 7.

Figure and descriptions. Dresser XXXIV\ Sharpe 7, Yordermanii; Oates 24.

Adult male. Black; wing-coverts nearest the body for about two-thirds across
the wing, rump, upper and under tail-coverts and anal region white.
“Iris brown; bill and feet black” (^, Tjamba Distr., S. Celebes, 30. lY. 78: Platen
— C 5376). Wing 67 mm; tail 55; tarsus 22; bill from nostril 8.

Female. Hair-brown, paler below, almost wood-brown on abdomen, lores, chin, and malar
region; the middles of the feathers darker; lower rump, upper tail-coverts and
under tail-coverts white, tinged with buff; tail black; wing-coverts blackish, with
pale brown edges, some of the concealed inner greater and middle coverts mostly white;
remiges brown, edged with wood-hrown; under wing-coverts whitish brown; bill
blackish; legs and feet black ($, Lake Posso, Centr. Cel., 15. H. 95: Sarasin Coll.).

Young. Mottled all over like a young Bobin: above fulvescent edged with darker brown;
head blacldsh brown, streaked down the centre of the feathers with deep fulvous;
wing-coverts and quills edged with fawn-colour; under-parts fulvous, slightly
varied with dark edges to the feathers of the hreast (Sharpe 7).

Eggs. Di. Platen obtained eggs of this bird near Burukan in the Minahassa, which are
somewhat paler than those of our rubicola. An egg in my collection collected by
Oates in Pegu, 20. lY. 81, corresponds with them, is only a trifle smaller, but simi-
larly coloured” (Xehrkorn MS.).

Usually four in number, often three, occasionally five. Bather broad ovals, some-
what pointed , delicate pale bluish green, speckled, mottled and streaked with brownish
red, densest at the large end. They vary enormously in size, viz: 15,2 — 19.5 X 11.2
— 16.3 mm; average (50 specimens) 17 X 14 mm (India, Hume 25).

Nest. Usually a shallow, somewhat saucer-shaped pad, composed of soft grass, fine roots,
and lined with the same, hairs or other soft material ; generally placed on the ground
in a hole or impression (25).

392

Birds of Celebes: Muscicapidae.

Bistribution. Transcaspia (Radde 21, 18, 25); 8. E. Persia (Blanford 7); Afghanistan
(St. John 20)\ Baluchistan (Blanford 7); BGmalayas and India (Hume etc. 24, 25'y,
Arrakan (Blyth); Burmah (Oates Tenasserim (W. Kamsay and Davison

24]', Java (Horsfield & Wallace 7, Vorderman A); Lombok (Wallace 7,
etc. 57); Sumhawa (G-uillemard 17); Sumha (ten Kate 30, Doherty 57); Flores
(Wallace 7, Weher 51); Tunor (Wallace 7, ten Kate 27); Samao (ten Kate
27); Saleyer Island (Everett 57); Celebes — 8. Peninsula (8. Muller hi, b 2,
Wallace 7, Weher 31, Platen 16, etc.), West Celebes (Doherty 55), Central
Celebes — Lake Posso (P. & F. Sara sin 36), K Peninsula — Eurukan (Platen fide
Nehrkorn); PBorneo (Brunsw. Mus. 15); Philippines — Luzon, Panay, Cebu,
Negros, Bohol, Mashate, Siquijor (10^>^, 26, 33, 29)', PPalawan (Hartert 29).

Ceylon and Southern India are inhabited by a Stonechat, P. bicolor Sykes,
which seems to be only a subspecies of P.caprata. According to Legge, the
typical form differs from P. hicolor by its smaller size, the smallness of its bill,
the more glossy and intense hue of the black of its upper surface and breast, “and
there is generally, more especially in Malay specimens, more white on the rump”
(8). The Indian female is described by Oates as having the upper tail-coverts
ferruginous; they are almost white in Celebes. P. caprata was originally described
from Luzon. This bird seems to be a resident in the East India Islands, and one
that has established itself there in recent times. Platen got its eggs in North
Celebes, Everett in the South. It ranges down the chain of islands from Java
to Timor, but its occurrence in Borneo still remains to be fully established, for
the two specimens from Verreaux in the Brunswick Museum do not afford
sufficient proof. It is a rare species in Celebes and the eggs in the Nehrkorn
Collection are the only evidence of the presence of the bird in the north of
the island, therefore it requires specimens of the bird itself to establish its
occuiTence positively; in the south it seems to be rather more plentiful. Five
or six of the Philippine Islands have produced examples, liUzon the largest
number. It (or a form of it) is, as Mr. Oates remarks (24), a resident species
throughout the whole of India and Burmah, except the southernmost pa,rt of
the Peninsula (where P. hicolor replaces it) and portions of Tenasserim. In
Turkomenia, however, Drs. Eadde & Walter record it as a summer visitant.
It has been stated to occur in New Guinea, in virtue of a specimen in spirit
obtained during the voyage of the “Gazelle” ('^j, but Count Salvador! (5,9)
is, we should think, probably quite right in regarding the label as erroneous.

The genus Pratincola, according to Sharpe, ranges, as remarked above,
over the whole of Europe, Africa and Asia extending into the East Indies as
far as Celebes and Flores. P. caprata is a very distinct species, the bird most
like it being, perhaps, P. albofasciata (Eiipp.) of Abyssinia, which has a white
patch on the sides of the neck.

ORDER ACCIPITRES.

The diurnal Birds of Prey: Hawks, Eagles, Falcons, the Osprey, Vultures;
distinguishable hy the rigid, hooked, and sharply pointed hill; po-werful, hooked
claws; three toes in front and the fourth behind (except in the Osprey, in which
the outer toe is reversible); usually of great powers of flight; 11 primaries;
plumage often varied in coloration, but of sober tints: brown, black, white, grey,
rufous, and purplish being found, but pure yellow, blue, red, bright green, and
metallic tints are wanting. The Accipitres usually build a nest of sticks; the
eggs are white or whitish in ground-colour, in many genera very handsomely
varied with markings of rufous or brown; the young are hatched helpless and
clothed with down.

FAMILY FALCONIDAE.

Containing all the Birds of Prey, except the Osprey (which is distinguished
from them by its having the outer toe reversible and pterylologically by its
having no aftershaft to the feathers) and the Vultures (which have the head
and neck bare, or clothed in down).

GENUS SPILORNIS G. R. Gray.

• Birds of Prey of medium size (about as large as a Raven), stout and com-
pact in form, wings moderate; bill not denticulate; a broad nuchal crest;
tarsi naked (except the upper fourth anteriorly), reticulated with hexa-
gonal scales; toes short; under parts marked with transverse sjDots or
bars of white; food: chiefly reptiles and amphibians ; number of eggs laid: one
or two. The genus contains about 12 species of a local and stationary character,
distributed from the Himalayas and South China to the Andaman Islands, Celebes
and Sula.

* 1. SPILORNIS RUFIPECTUS J. Gd.^)

Russet-breasted Serpent-harrier.

Under this specific name we include two weR-pronounced geographical races,
1 . the typicdl Spilovnis vufipectus of the mainland of Celebes, 2. Spilovnis vufipectus

1) The abbre'^'iation of the autlior’s name at the head of eacli article is taken from the Berlin ‘"Liste
der Autoren” (1896), though the form adopted does not always meet with our approval.

Meyer & Wigleswortli, Birds of Celebes (Oct. Itii, 1897).

1

2

Birds of Celebes: Palconidae

sulaensis of the Sula group, and 3. the individuals inhabiting the Peling group,
which are intermediate between these two races. For the treatment of this,
and of similar cases, the following method of nomenclature may be adopted
without prejudice to ornithology,

1. The typical Spilornis rufipectus.

a. Spilornis rufipectus (1) Grould, P. Z. S. 1857, 222; (II) id., B. Asia, I pi. IX (I860);

(3) Wall., P. Z. S. 1862, 338, pt. ; (4) id.. Ibis 1868, 16, 21-, (5) Wald., Tr. Z. S. 1872,
VIII, 35; (6) Sharpe, Oat. B. I, 1874, 291; (7) Salvad., Ann. Mus. Civ. G-en. 1875,
Vn, 643; (8) Briigg., Abh. Ver. Bremen 1876, V, 46; (9) Gurney, Ibis 1878, 96,
102; (10) W, Bias., J. f. O. 1883, 135; (11) Gurney, List Diurn. B. of Prey 1884,
17; (12) W. Bias., J. f. 0. 1885, 403; (13) id., Ztschr. ges. Orn. 1885, 222; (14)
Guillem., P. Z. S. 1885, 544; (15) Hickson, Nat. in X. Celebes 1889, 89; (XVI)
Meyer, Vogelskel H 1892, 27, t. OLVH; (17) Butt., Zool. Erg. Webers Beise 1893
HI, 271; (18) Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 552; (19) M. & Wg., Abh. Mus. Dresd. 1895
no. 8, p. 3; iid., ib. 1896 no. 1, p. 7; (21) iid., ib. 1896, no. 2, p, 7; (22) Har-
tert, Xov. Zool. 1896, 161; (23) id., ib. 1897, 159.

b. Cireaetus bacha celebensis (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Buteones 1862, 27; (2) Kosenb., Malay.

Archip. 1878, 271.

c. Cireaetus -rufipectus (I) Schl., Yalkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 37, 72, pi. 23, figs. 1 — 3; (2) Gray,

HL. 1869, I, 15; (3) Schl., Bev. Accip. 1873, 114.

“Kokodschi”, Tjamba, S. Celebes, Platen a 13.

“Berna” (albescent young), Tjamba, Platen a 13.

“Bulifea-mohengo”, Gorontalo Distr., N. Celebes, v. Bosenberg h 2.

“Kiokkiok”, near Manado, Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.

“Boina”, Balante, E. Celebes, Nat. Coll.

“Sikep utang besar”, Lembeh Id., Nat. Coll.

Figures and descriptions. Gould II, 1; Schlegel c I\ Meyer XFJ (skeleton); Sharpe 6.
Diagnosis of race. Wing relatively longer than in 8. rufipectus sulaensis (see, table of mea-
surements), remiges below greyish white, broadly tipped and barred with blackish.
These bars coalesce on the secondaries and base of primaries, enclosing spots of
wliite, mottled with brown.

Old female. Upper surface dark brown, glossed with purple; sides and top of head,
crest, and throat black, ear-coverts washed with grey; hind neck dusky, the
margins of the feathers here and there, and on the crest, fulvous brown; secon-
daries and some of the upper tail-coverts tipped with white; carpal edge
spotted with white; tail above pale brown, tijjped with whitish, and crossed with
four broad black bands — the basal one rather indistinct; breast mummy-brown;
remaining under-parts — including under wing- and tail-coverts — darker, the
lower breast spotted, the sides, abdomen, thighs and under tad-coverts closely barred
with white; under side of wing broadly barred and spotted with white (Manado,
Nr. 6682).

Younger female. Like the above, but the brown of the upper plumage paler and duller
without so much purple gloss; hind neck pale brown, without (or with only a few)
yellow-brown margins here and on the crest, the black feathers of which are more
or less broken up with yellowish white; tail crossed with three black bands, the

Birds of Celebes : Balconidae.

3

basal one indistinct; breast much paler and more of a dark wood-brown tone (8. Ce-
lebes; Platen — C 10707).

Male. Similar to the female, but the white bars of the under parts more sharply defined
and extending further towards the breast (whereas in the female they fonn sooner
into disconnected spots) ; the brown bars on the under tail-coverts narrower ((^ vix
ad. 8. Celebes — Platen, C 10708; 3 cfcf Sarasin Coll., N. &

8. Celebes).

“Pus gold-yellow; periocular skin and cere green-yellow; bill blue-black; feet
lemon- (or gold-) yellow” in both sexes (Platen a 13).

Female in albescent immature plumage. Head, crest and neck fulvous white with dark
brown shaft-streaks; the upper parts display a varied jfiumage of sepia and fulvous
brown, the feathers in general having dark centres and pale bases and margins; pri-
maries and secondaries tipped with wliitc; tail pale brown above, white below,
and crossed with 5 to 6 indistinct dark bands, tip white; whole of under sur-
face huffy white, streaked from the breast downwards with dark brown, which often
spreads out in a washy manner in lighter brown over much of the feather. In this
specimen the cross-harred feathers of maturity are sprouting at the flanks (8. Celebes
— Hr. 6683).

A male in albescent plumage recently obtained by the Drs. 8arasin at
Kema, Aug. 1893, corresponds with the above, description of the female; ear-
coverts and suhocular region black; under surface purer white, with fewer and smaller
brown streaks, here and on the upper surface not showing a general wash of rufous
apparent on comparison in the other specimen. “Iris yellow; legs and feet yellowish
grey; bill black, at the base blue” (8arasin). A second male is much more rufo-
fulvous in general tint than the other (Macassar, 12. IX. 95: 8arasin Coll.).

A specimen in the Leyden Museum (X. Celebes — Faber, 1883) is half in
albescent plumage, half in adult. Wings and tail as in albescent specimens; under
wing-coverts white, some tipped with rufous brown; back, breast, abdomen and thighs
much as in §

First plumage. The full-fledged young of this species is not known, but in the cases of
SjjUornis hacha (Java), 8. cheelcc (India) and 8. spilogaster (Ceylon), young birds of
each in the first stage of dress have been described or figured (8chlegel, Yalkv.
N. I. pi. 22, f. 3; 8harpe, Cat. B. I, 287; Legge, B. Ceylon 1880, 62; Bernstein,
J. f. 0. 1860, 425), from which it will be seen that the first plumage often — perhaps
always much resembles that of full maturity. Whether young birds always assume
this mature-looking dress on first leaving the nest, and then lose it and put on the
immature albescent plumage, and finally recover the adult type of coloration , or,
whether the members of the genus are dimorphous when young — both mature-
plumaged and albescent individuals existing from the nest, — are questions upon
which opinion is divided, and facts, unfortunately, are as yet insufficient to allow of
their being answered. The albescent type of immature plumage probably occurs in
all species of the genus. Specimens in this dress are figured by Sc hie gel in the
cases of 8. backa, 8. rufipectus and 8. siilaensis [h 7; c I\ Schh, Yalkv. pi. 22, f. 3);
similar immature birds of 8. davisoni Hume, 8. rutherfordi Swinh. and 8. cheela
Lath, have been described (Hume, Str. F. H, 148; Bingham, ib. IX, 144; Oates,
B. Brit. Burmah, II, 194; Sharpe, Cat. B. I, 287), and there is a Q specimen of
8. holospilus Yigors from Mindanao in this plumage in the Dresden Museum
(Xr. 13822), Gurney considered this to be the second plumage (8)^ Schlegel and
Colonel Legge express the opinion that it is a more or less frequent variation of

1*

4

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

dress assumed in the nest itself. Longitudinal streaks on the feathers of birds appear
to represent a more original, less highly differentiated plumage than do cross-bars;
this is shown by the fact that almost all birds of prey, which when adult acquire a
cross-barred under-side, have this region streaked or drop-marked when immature.

If Grurney’s view, that the pale, streaked specimens of Spihrnis are in the
second plumage, he correct, the curious case would he seen of a species regularly
reverting from a higher stage of dress to a lower one and, subsequently, re-acquiring
the more highly differentiated coloration.

As pointing to the probability that both albescent, streaked individuals and also
dark, spotted ones exist from the nest in the case of Spilornis, Colonel Legge points
out that of the Booted Eagle (Nisaettis pennatus) both dark and light young ones
have been taken out of the same nest; but the case is not strictly a parallel to that
of Spilornis^ inasmuch as K pennatus has two different phases of adult dress, a light
and a dark one, and, when dimorphous pairs of young ones have been found, they
are said to be sprung from a light male and dark female, or vice-versa (B. Ceylon, 62).

The albescent plumage is found in both sexes.

Skeleton. Length of cranium .

Length of fibula

. 84.0

. 76.0

mm

Greatest breadth of

cranium 42.0 »

» » tarso-metatarsus . .

Length of humerus .

97.0 »

» » sternum

. 61.0

»

» » ulna . . .

110.0 »

Greatest breadth of sternum .

. 35.5

»

» » radius . .

Height of crista sterni ....

. 13.5

»

» » manus . .

87.0 »

Length of pelvis

. 72.0

» » femur . .

» » tibia . . .

65.0

105.5 »

Greatest breadth of pelvis . .

. 31.5

»

(Siao, Sangi in Mus. Berol. XYII.)

Nidification. Unknown.

Distribution. Celebes. South Peninsula CW allace a 1, Guillemard a 14, Platen a 13, W eber
a 17, etc.)’, Central Celebes — Luwu Distr. (Weber a 17, P. & F. Sarasin a 20)\
S.E. Peninsula — Kendari (Beccari a 7); E. Peninsula (Nat. Coll, a 21)\ N. Peninsula
(Forster hi, v. Duivenbode c 3, etc,)', Talissi Id. (Hickson a 15)-, Lembeh Id.
(Nat. Coll, in Dresd. Mus.); Siao — known only from skeleton (Meyer a XVI).

2. Spilornis rufipectus sulaensis (Schl.).

d. Circaetus sulaensis (I) Schl., Yalkv. Ned. Ind. 1866, 38, 72, pi. 23, figs. 4 — 6; (2) Gray,

HL. 1869 I, 15.

e. Spilornis sulaensis (1) Wall. Ibis 1868, 16; (2) Sharpe, Cat. B. 1874,1, 292; (3) Gurney,

Ibis 1878, 102; (4) id. Diurn. K of Prey 1884, 17; (5) Sharpe, Ibis 1893, 552.

f. Circaetus rufipectus sulaensis (1) Schl., Mus. P.-B. Bev. Accip. 1873, 114.

Figures and descriptions. Schlegel d I’, Sharpe e 2.

Diagnosis. Wing relatively shorter than in the typical 8. rufipectus (see table); under-side
of quills greyish white, passing into blackish at the distal ends, and crossed by three
or four well-marked bars of blackish, much narrower than those of the typical form.
These bars do not coalesce on the basal half of the quills in the same manner as in
that form, but pass separately across the wing.

Distribution. Sula Islands, SulaBesi and Sula Mangoli (Allen Bernstein & Hoedt c J, ei).

In the Leyden Museum are seven specimens — 3 ad., 3 Q ad. and 1 Q juv.
albescent — from Sula. The males have the breast paler; on the lower breast and

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

D

abdomen the white bars are broader and the brown ones narrower, and the barring
on the lower breast is better defined than in the other sex; under tail- coverts white
'in one specimen slightly barred towards the tip). The females of Sula have the
under tail- coverts barred and in regard to the barring of the under surface would
aj)pear to resemble the males of Celebes, but there are only one or two males
with the sex satisfactorily ascertained in the Leyden Museum for comparison.
The female of Celebes is more spotted below.

3. Spilornis rufipectus sulaensis.

g. Spilornis sulaensis (1) M. c^'iWg., Abh. Mus. Dresden 1896 no. 2, p. 7.

“Alaji Kabut”, Peling; “Alaji”, Banggai, Nat. Coll.

Diagnosis. Intermediate between the typical 8. rufipectus and 8. rufipectus sulaensis^ but on
the whole more like the latter race.

Distribution. Peling group between Sula and B. Celebes: — Peling and Banggai (Nat. Coll.).

Measurements.

"Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Culmen
from cere

(Nr. 668'') [Q] North Celebes

370-5

250

79

28

(Nr. 2199) [Q] North Celebes

340-4

250

74

26

((7 846) [Q] N. Celebes, March 1871 (Meyer).

. • . •

360

240

75

—

(G 10844) [Q] N. Celebes, Aug. — Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

344

230

74

27

[C 10845) [5] N. Celebes, Aug.— Sept. 92 (Nat. Coll.) . .

353

236

74

27.5

(Sarasin Coll.) cf, N. Celebes, 20. Oct. 93 (P.

&B. S.) .

340

230

78

25.5

fSarasin Coll.) N. Celebes, 6. Oct. 94 (P. & B. S.) .

342

242

78

27

(Sarasin Coll.) juv., N. Celebes, 5. Aug. 93 (P. &F. S.)

337

230

73

27

((7 14247) [cf] Lembehid. March 95 (Nat. Coll.). . . .

337

218

73

25

[C 10708) South Celebes, 6. May 78 (Platen) . . .

330

215

75

28

((7 10707) South Celebes, 12. March 78 (Platen) . .

325

220

73

27.5

(Schlliter Coll.) $, South Celebes (Platen)

• . « .

344

229

72

—

(Sarasin Coll.) cf, South Celebes, 21. Sept. 95 (P. &P. S.)

322

223

74

29

(Sarasin Coll.) (f juv., S. Celebes, 12. Sept. 95

(P. &F. S.)

332

232

70

26

(Sarasin Coll.) O, Centr. C., Palopo, 21. Jan. 95 (P. &B. S.)

328

—

72

28

((7 1429S) [Q], East Celebes, May-Aug. 95 (Nat. Coll.). .

363

236

78

—

(Norwich Mus.) ad. Macassar (Wallace). .

345

—

71

—

(Norwich Mus.) ad. Macassar (Wallace)

L/OTnimi"

345

—

71

(Norwich Mus.( (8^ ad. Macassar (Wallace)

nicated

338

69

(Norwich Mus.) ad. Macassar (Wallace) .

by Mr.

345

—

76

(Norwich Mus.) imm. N. Celebes (Meyer) .

/"i

345

—

71

(Norwich Mus.) vix ad. N. Celebes (Whitely)

(jrurney .

355

—

76

—

5 adults, Peling Id., V— VTH. 95 (Nat. Coll.)

312-38

.

_

4 adults, 2 juv. Banggai Id., VI. 95 (Nat. Coll.). . . .

305-25

—

—

—

(Norwich Mus.) Sula Islands .....

314

221

73

27

(Norwich Mus.) Q juv., Sula Islands . . .

305

220

72

26

As will be found more fully explained under the heading: Saliastur indus, a long connecting hyphen
[e. g. S. rufipectus — sulaensis) is used in this work to indicate the connecting forms between subspecies; or,
where it may be safely said that such individuals have stronger leanings to one subspecies than to the other,
the sign > or <, respectively [S. rufipectus >> sulaensis) indicating that the affinities are more with the typical
form, or {S. rufipectus sulaensis) with the latter form.

6

Birds of Celebes: Balconidae.

The fine series of this Serpent-harrier before ns displays great variation in
tint; on the breast, for instance, from pale russet to dark Vandyck-brown. The
darkest examples are probably the oldest. The specimens from North Celebes
are, with one exception, darker than those of the southern peninsula, and
Mr. Gurney writes that the specimen from Kema (N. Celebes) in the Norwich
Museum “is decidedly darker than our four from Macassar, especially on the
breast”. Two in the Leyden Museum from Pare-Pare near Macassar do not
appear to differ from those of the north, and Mr. Hartert remarks (a 22) of
some fresh specimens from the southern i^eninsula in the Tring Museum that
the breast is much paler in some examples, darker in others. None of the
southern examples before us appear to be old birds. The birds from Peling
and Banggai vary in the same way, — one is Vandyck-brown on the breast,
most of the others much paler.

Outside the Celebes Province a very near ally of 8. rufpectus is found
in Dr. Sharpe’s recently described Spilornis raja (Bull. B. O. C. 1893, no. X;
Ibis 1893, 552, 569), a specimen of which was sent by Mr. Edward Bartlett
from Kuching, Sarawak. This is said to be most like the Sula race, but differs
in having the white bars of the breast, abdomen and axillaries strikingly narrower.
From Sharpe’s measurements it would appear to have the wing of the Sula
form (viz. 309 mm), but a shorter tail (178 mm).

The food of Serpent-harriers consists chiefly of frogs, snakes and other Eep-
tilia. The Indian species lay one or two eggs; most usually only one.

The genus Spilornis is an imjDortant one in questions of geographical dis-
tribution. Owing to the small number of eggs laid, the species do not suffer
from overcrowding; and there a23pear to be no causes for its ever shifting its
quarters. The genus is a 2>^i’ely Indian one, and is not found further east than
the Sula Islands; and the close connection of these islands with Celebes is shown
by the fact of their possessing the same sf>ecies, which also — if identical —
occurs on Siao in the Sangi Islands.

Attention might here be called to the close similarity of the plumage of
CircAis assimilis Jard. & Selby to certain species of this genus, especially Spil-
ornis holospihis Vig. of the Philippines.^) Mimicry is here out of the question,
as C. assimilis does not occur in the Philippines, and the similarity must be
taken as pointing to kinship of the two genera (see below under Circus assi-
milis and Pernis celehensis).

GENUS CIRCUS Lac.

The Harriers are of slender form, with very long wings, tail, and tarsus,
and somewhat short and not ^powerful toes. A more or less well developed
facial ruff extending from behind the ear-coverts across the throat:

1) Of. also Sptlortiis imnaye7isis Steere (List B. Philip. Is. 1890 p. 7'.

Birds of Celebes: Falcomdae.

7

bill somewhat weak, with a blunt festoon: tarsi naked (except at the top
anteriorly), clad in front with transverse shields, elsewhere with small
reticulate scales. Food: amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, etc. Eggs
2 — 4 in number. About 18 species, migratory and stationary, distributed over
the greater part of the wmrld.

2. CIRCUS ASSIMILIS Jard. Selby.

Allied Harrier.

Circus assimilis (I) Jard. & S elby, 111. Orn. 1826, I, pl.51 t}pe examd. i) ; (^2)ScliL, Mus.P.-B.
Circi, 1862, 9; (III) id., Yalkv. 1866, 29, 66, pi. 20, f. 2, 3; (4) Walden, Tr. Z. S.
1872, Vin, 37; (5) Sharpe, Cat. B._ 1874, I, 63; (6) aurney, Ibis, 1875, 225; (7)
id., Diurn. B. of Prey, 1884, 23; (8) W. Bias., Ztscbr. Gles. Orn. 1885, 205, 234; (9)
North, Nests & Eggs B. Austr. 1889, 1, pi. H, f. 4 (egg); (10) Biittik,, Webers
Eeise in Ost-Ind. 1893 IH, 272; (11) M. & Wg. , Abb. Miis. Dresden 1896 no. 1, p. 7;
(12) Hartert, Nov. Zook 1896, 163.

a. Circus jardinii Old., P. Z. S. 1837, 141; (I) id., B. Austr. 1848, I, pi. 27; (2) S. Miill.,
Beizen Ind. x4.rch. 1857, II, 8; (3) Old., Handb. B. Austr. 1865, I, 60; (4) Sell I,
Bev. Acc. 1873, 50.

h. Spilocircus jardinii (1) Kaup, Isis, 1847, 102.
c. Strigiceps jardinii (1) Bp., Consp. 1850, I, 34.

“Bokan buri”, S. Celebes, Platen 8.

For further references see Sharpe 5.

Figures and descriptions. Jardiiie & Selby J; Gould a J, a 3; Schlegel ZZJ; North 9
(egg); Kaup b Sharpe 5; W. Bias. 8.

Male, nearly adult. General colour above brownish ash, darker on head; forehead, ear-
coverts and crowni with rufous margins to the feathers; secondaries juire ashy,
banded with dark brown — indistinctly on the inner web; wing-coverts, scapulars
and upper tail-coverts marked with short bars or large spots of white, wliich are
more indistinct and ashy on exposed parts of the plumage; shoulder rufous; tail
above ashy, below white, crossed with seven bars of blackish and terminally margined
with wdiite; under surface — including^ imder wing- and tail-coverts and tliighs —
cinnamon-rufous, lighter on the tliighs and abdomen, and spangled all over with
wdiite spots arranged Wo and two at short intervals on the opposite webs of the
feathers. “Iris sulphur-yellow; cere and bill bluish grey (cere pale yellow —
Wallace); tip of bill black; feet citron-yellow” (Platen). Nr. 6735, Tjamba, May).
Old. CroW'ii of head, cheeks and ear-coverts tawny-rufous, with blackish mesial streaks
to the feathers ((y. Lake Posso, 14. Feb. 95, P. & F. Sarasin).

Female. Like the male, but larger.

Young. Above broAvn with fulvous margins to the feathers; upper tail-coverts wHte
washed with rufous and having dark browm centres; tail sepia-brown tipped with

1) The type of Circus assimilis J. S. in the British Museum is immature and not normal, differing
from all other specimens there of this species in the coloration of the wings and tail. The tail is nearly uniform
brownish ashy with a rufous wash at its sides, marked with 3 or 4 imperfect bars of brown towards the base,
followed by a clear space, with an imperfect terminal bar. Upper tail-coverts white, a few of the longer ones
with a bar of brown towards the tip.

8

Birds of Celebes: Falconidae.

tawny-buff and crossed with six bands of black; below pale tawny-buff, lightest on
abdomen and thighs, and streaked with dark brown on breast and under tail-coverts
(ex Sharpe).

Eggs. 2 or 3, white, with a bluish green tinge on the inner surface; 51— 52 X 38— 39 mm
(Australia — A. J. North 9). Uniform white, a little smaller than those of C.
rufiis of Europe: 49—51 x39 — 39 mm: Nehrkorn, MS.).

Nest. Elat, of small sticks and twigs, lined with green leaves; usually placed among the thick
branches of a low tree (Australia).

Breeding-time in Australia. Sept. — Nov.

Measurements.

Wing

Tail

Tarsus

Oulmen
from cere

a. (Sarasin Coll.) ^ ad. Lake Posso, Central Celebes,
14. H. 95 (P. & E. S.)

375

235

84

20

6. (C 10709) vix ad. S. Celebes, 16. IV. 78 (Platen) .

390

260

93

19

c. (C 10710) Q vix ad. S. Celebes, 25. V. 78 (Platen) .

425

275

98

20.5

d. (Nr. 6735) ty*, S. Celebes, 6. V. 78 (Platen) ....

385

250

93

—

e. (C 11293) [$] New South Wales

435

280

101

21

f. (C 11092) [$] juv. Australia

437

280

107

22

Distribution. N. Celebes — hlinahassa (Riedel 6 4), Gorontalo District (Forsteii2, Rosenberg
6 4), Central Celebes (P. & E. Sarasin 11), S. Celebes (S. Muller 2, 6 2, Weber 10,
Platen 8, Everett 12]\ Australia — apparently throughout (Ramsay 5); Tasmania
(Norwich Mus. 6).

This well-marked Harrier is remarkable for its distribution, occurring, as
it does, in Celebes and Australia and, so far as is yet known, on none of the
intervening islands. To the north and west of Celebes, the Chinese Circus spilo-
notus Kaup is found in the Philippines and Borneo, and, according to Mr. Eve-
rett and Mr. Whitehead (J. Straits Br. R. A. S. 1889, 180; Ibis, 1890, 43),
this species is “a regular winter migrant” to Borneo and Palawan. East of
Celebes, a Harrier (C. spilothorax, Salvad. & D’Alb.) has been discovered at
Yule Island in the Papuan Gulf, South New Guinea, corresponding closely in
coloration with C. maillardi Verr. (C. macrocelis Newton) of Madagascar and
Reunion and with C. woyi Gurney and C. gouldi Bp. of New Caledonia and
Australia, respectively (Salvad., Orn. Pap. I, 71); but neither this species, nor
C. spilonotus^ have anything to do with C. assimilis.

The similarity of the adult plumage of this Harrier to that of certain
species of Spilornis is worthy of notice. The type of coloration may be
ancient. It should be remarked that Gurney, whose arrangement of the
Falconidae we follow, places the subfamily Circinae much nearer to the Circae-
tinae (containing Spilornis) than has been the custom with most other authors (7).

C. assimilis is, we believe, a stationary species in Celebes, though we have
only been able to collect the following few dates of occurrence there ranging
from Eebruary to November:

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Distribution of the genus Cacatua

Warner &D ebe s' Geo^.E stab \ L oip sic.

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Distribution of the genus Doriculus

IVa^ner&Bebes' Geogr.TSstabi-Leipsi

1. Loricidus vemalis. (2. L. indictis, not on map). S. L. galgidus. 4. L. piisillus. 5. L. floscidus. 6. L. philippensis. 7. L. regidus. 8. L. worcesteri.

9. L. chrysonotus, 10. L. mindorensiH. 11. L. siquijorensis. 12. L. apicalis. 13. L.hoyiapartei. 14. L. catamefie. 15. L. exilis. 16. L. stigmatus.

17. L. quadricolur. 18. L. sdateri. 19. L. sclateri ruber. 20. L. arnabilis. 21. L. aurantiifrons. 22. L. anrantiifrons meeln. 23. L. tener.

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Distribution of the Bucerotidae

'\'\a^ner&Debes'Geo^.Es’taT3t.Leip.si

Plate I

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes

Spilospizias trinotatus {Bp.)

imm.

(

Meyer & Wiglesivorth: Birds of Celebes

Blate II

Spizaetus lanceolatus Temm.&SchL

ad.

Pernis celebensis {Wall.)
ad.

Meyer & Wiglesivorth: Birds of Celebes

Plate III

Spi^aetus

lanceolatus Temm.&Schl. ■

jiir.

Pernis celebensis {Wall.)

pw.

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes

Blate IV

Ninox ochracea (Schl.)
ad. et juv.

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes Plate

Prioniturus platurus (Vieill.) 1. mas juv., 2. imm., 3. mas imm., 4. fern. ad. moulting, 5. mas ad.

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Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes Plate VI

l. — S. Prioniturus flavicans Cass. 1. fem. ad., 2.-3. mas mouUmg 4. Prioniturus platurus {yieill), mas ad.

= .^-v. '

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Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes

Plate VII

Aprosmictus sulaensis Rchw.

Meyer & Wiglesworih: Birds of Celebes Plate VIII

r

CO

I

o- ■

4. Merops ornatus Lath,, 1. ad. perfect, 8. ad, moulting, 4, juv. perfect, 2. Merops philippinus L., ad. moulting.

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Meyer & Wiglesiuorth: Birds of Celebes

Plate IX

Pelargopsis dichrorhyncha M.&Wg
Monachalcyon capucinus M.&Wg.

Meyer <& Wiglesivorih: Birds of Celebes

JPlate X

‘ii.

1. Ceycopsis fallax {ScJiL)

2.-3. (7. sangirensis M.&Wg., 2. ad., 3. juv.

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes Plate XI

Caprimulgiis celebensis Grant
Lyncornis macropterus Bp.

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7

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes

Plate XII

Chaetura celehensis {Sdat)

fern. juv. & mas.

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Meyer & Wiglesivorth: Birds of Celebes

Plate XIII

Muscicapula hyperythra-^ [Blyth)
mas, fern, et juv.

Meyer & Wiglesivorih: Birds of Celebes

Plate XIV

1. Sipliia hanyumas [Korsf.)

2. Siphia djampeana Hart.

3. Siphia kalaoensis Hart.

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WtTMuitd

Meyer & Wiglesworth: Birds of Celebes

Plate XV

Stoparola septentrionalis Biltt.

mas, fern, et juv.

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Meyer & Wiglesivorth: Birds of Celebes

Plate XVI

1. Monarcha commutatus Brilgg. 2.-3. ZeoceyPius talautensis 3I.(&Wg., 3. ad. et 2. jnv.

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Meyer & Wiglesivorth: Birds of Celebes

Plate XVII

Monarcha everetti Hart.
Pachycex^hala teijsmanni Biitt.
Pachycephala everetti Hart.

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PUBLISHED BY R. FRIEDLANDER & SOHN, BERLIN.

A. B, MEYER

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