mr m lU FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY Of THE AMERICAN MUSEUM Of NATURAL HISTORY i'..: . r' ^ 'id 1ST tec i^r ^?S y I6i nf lea » /^^ ^ '->/-^ft '•■\ *i^^. J ^IX . i "^A ^I'^i ' . Iv 1*0 ?WP^ .15. •■ ■ -^i; y (ly/ > '^'^ c ••> <. . \ f^'\ ^i #■ * ^% \ V 1^ I^^^Si 1-' V/2 A^J^Jf Figs. 156— 1.57 liRAMBI.INi 158—167 T^INNET. 168—171 REDl'OI.R. Hic.s. 172—173 Twite 174 — 179 BUI.I,FINCH. I So Crossiull. Figs. 181—187 Corn-Bunting 188—195 Yellow Bunting 196—197 CiRL Bunting. PI -71 J i'J8 ^ 300 zvF !) ^ soF^ '^ /-^.> ■iaf* Wf^ sd^r J 2\0 •iWl'^ « . if^ «« rx^ ■. t^ %« v^ \X 225 I'lGS. 19''^ ''■'ISts-. -'^00^ ^=-#*a!?^. p '-^^fj. 'i'^ i •^-f^ ■fe 229—232 Ravkn. 233 -236 Carrion Crow. 237-240 HooDKn Crow. 241 -244 Rook. ?!#'*'*('4i. a4T 248 251 255 254 Figs. 245 - 254 Skv-1^.\kk. 255 WOODLARK. BIRDS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND ORDER PASSERES. COMPEETE IN TWO \'OEUMES. By ARTHUR G. BUTLER, M.B.O.U., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.E.S., Corresponding Member of Various Foreign Societies, Author of "British Birds' Eggs, A Handbook of British Ooi^ogy" (Illustrated by the Author). "Foreign Bird Keeping;" "Hints on Cage Birds;" "How to Sex Cage Birds" AND numerous Scientific Works and Memoirs dealing with various hranciiks of Zoology I ILLUSTRATED BY H. GRONVOLD and F. W. FROHAWK, M.B.O.U., F.E.S. VOLUME IL BRUMBY & CLARKE, LIMITED, PUBLISHERS, HULL AND LONDON. k This Vohime contains :- 4 Colored Plates of Eggs. 51 Colored Plates of Birds. 201 Pages of Descriptive Text. 10 P.\GES of Appendix. 4 Pages of Indexes. CONTENTS Those marked thus '. not beiug recognized as British Birds, are not figured. AciDtl/iis ca?!iial>i?ia - Acanlhis /lavirostris - Acanlhis linaiia Acanthis rufcsccns '''Acdon Jainiliaris *Aedon galaclodes Alauda arborea Alauda arviiisis .ilaiida ois/aia j{mpelis garndios *Ashy-Headed Wagtail *-Black-Eared Wheatear Black-Headed Bunting - *Black-Headed Wagtail - *Black Lark Brambling - . - *Braudt's Siberian Bunting Bullfinch - - - - CalandrcUa brachydactyla - Calcarius lapponictis - Carduclis clegajis ^Carpodacus crythrhuis Carrion-Crow - *Cettia cettii - - . *Cetti's Warbler Chaffincli - - - - Chclidon urbica Chough - - - - Chrysoinitris dtyinella Ch>ysomityis spinus - Cirl Btmting - - - *Citril Finch *Coccothraustes vulgaris Common Crossbill - Corn-Bunting - - - Corvus corax - - - Corvus comix - - - Curvus corone - - - Corvus frugilegus Corvus monedula Cotile riparia - - - 85 Si 73 77 207 207 18S i»3 191 IS JIO 203 106 210 195 102 125 57 196 130 69 60 171 20S 20S 97 35 148 6S 65 117 6S 46 52 109 167 175 171 17S 162 Crested Lark - ^Cyaturnla wolfi- '■ Daiilias philo)iuia "Dusky Thrush - ^■'Embiriaa aunxda '^Einbcri^a cia - - - *Eiiiberi"a cioidcs Embcri::a cirl us Embcrisa citrinclla- Embcrisa hortulana - Embcriza nuiaiioccphala - Ewbcriza miliaria '^Eiiibcrisa pusilla '^Embcriza ruslica Embcriza scha'niclus - Fringilla ciclcbs Fringilla tiioiilifriiigilla Garrulus glandarius Golden Oriole - Goldfinch - Great Grey Shrike - ■•'Greater Nightingale Greenfinch *Greenish Willow- Warbler *Grey-Backed Warbler *Grey-Headed Wagtail Hawfinch - - - . Hii undo ruslica *Hirundo ruj'ula Hooded Crow - House-Sparrow *Hypolais polyglolla - Jackdaw - - - - Jay - - - - . Lanius ccllurio - - - Lanitcs excubitor ^Lanius minor - - - *Eanius nubicus - - - 191 204 204 202 117 124 125 117 1 12 121 106 109 126 125 126 97 102 155 2 69 6 204 43 206 207 209 46 32 35 ^75 89 208 162 155 9 6 9 16 C O N T 1-; X T s l.anius fiiviicianus Lapland lUintiiii; *Lesser Grey Shrike - Lesser Redpoll Ligurhnts c/i/oris Linnet . . - . ♦Little Bunting - Loxia bijasciata Loxia cu}-c'i)v.\/ni *Lusciiiio/a sclrwarr:! - Magpie . - - - Martin . . - - *Masked vShrike Mealy Redpoll *Mea(lo\v Hunting ^Mtianocorvplnt iibirica ^A/claiiocoryp/ia ycltoniciisis *Melodiou.s Warbler - MontifringiUa 7iivalis *Motacilla luriiia ^Motacilla borcalis *Motacilla cinorocapilla '"Motacilla »icla)io(cphala Muscicapa atricapilla Muuicapa grisola Muscicapa paiua Nucijraga caryocatactcs Nutcracker . - . Oriohis galbula - Ortolan Bunting Otocorys a/pcslris ^Pallas' Willow-Warbler - Passer doiiicslicus Passer vwyiianus Pastor roscns *Phylloscopus proregulus ^Phylloscopus tristis - ''Phylloscopus viridanus Pica rustica - . . Pied Flycatcher *Pine-Grosbeak - Plectrophenax nivalis- *Pralincola maura Pyrrhocorax gracuius- ',5 130 9 77 43 «5 126 50 52 207 159 35 16 73 124 194 195 208 105 210 209 210 210 25 21 28 151 151 2 121 199 206 89 93 143 206 206 206 159 25 56 134 203 148 ^J'yirlnila oinclcalcr - lyrrhula ciiivpica *Radde's Bush-Warbler - Raven - - - - Red-Backed Shrike - Red-Breasted Flj'catcher - Reed-Bunting - *Red-Ruinped Swallow Rook - . . - Rose-Coloured vStarling - *Rufous Warbler '•■•Rustic Bunting Sanil-Martiu *Sardiniau Warbler - *Saxicola stapasiiia ■'Scarlet Rose-Finch - Serin - - - - Serinus luniulanus - Shore-Lark Short-Toed Lark ■^Siberian Chiffchaflf - ■•'Siberian Stonechat - Siskin - - _ . Sky-Lark - - - - Snow-Bunting - *Snow Finch vSpotted Flycatcher - Starling - - - - Sliinms vulgaris Swallow - - - - *Sykes' Wagtail- *Sy/via mclanocephala Tree-Sparrow - '^'Turdus dubi/ts - Twite - - - - Two- Barred Crossbill Waxwing - - - - nVhite-Winged Lark- ■•'White-Spotted Bluethroat Woodchat Shrike Wood-Lark - - . Yellow-Bunting * Yellow-Breasted Bunting- 56 57 207 167 9 28 126 35 178 143 207 125 38 205 203 60 61 61 199 ig6 206 203 65 I S3 134 105 21 ^39 139 32 210 205 93 202 8i 50 i8 194 204 13 188 112 117 BIRDS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND ORDER PASSERES FAMILY ORIOLID^. THIS famil}^ consists of a tropical group of brightly coloured birds in whicli yellow and black, or scarlet and black, are the prevailing hues. Although in the general form of their heads they somewhat remind one of Starlings, they must not be confounded with the so-called "Orioles" of the New World, which belong to the family IdcridcE or Hang-nests and Troupials, a group of birds linking the Finches and the Starlings, and feeding largely upon seeds and insects. The late Henry Seebohm was of opinion that the Orioles were nearly related to the Crows ; he, therefore, placed the genus Oriolus in his Subfamily Corvince, from which he said that they chiefly differed in their exposed nostrils, although he admitted that the tarsus might perhaps be slightly shorter, and the prevailing colours different ; whilst the sexes also were dissimilar.* In addition to the above distinctive characters, the third primary of the wing (not the fourth or fifth) appears to be the longest, in the Orioles; whilst the * The fact that they hop when on the ground, would hardly serve to distinguish the Orioles from the Crows; for anyone who has watched a Raven, must have been vastly amused by its ungainly hopping in all directions. Vol. II. B 3 The Goloen Oriole. whole character of the nest, which Seebohm often made much of iu his classifi- cation, is quite unlike that of a Crow ; being neatly woven, and slung like a hammock between the forks of a branch : moreover, whereas the eggs of the Crows are usually of some shade of green or blue, heavily spotted and speckled, or blotched and mottled, with various shades of olive or brown, those of the Orioles vary from white to salmon-pink, clearly spotted with blackish-brown, and some- times with lilacine-greyisli shell-markings. The call-notes and songs of the Orioles are bright and melodious ; but this fact would not be a sufficient reason for dissociating them from the Crows ; although our native species of Corvidcr do not shine as whistlers, in their wild state. I think, however, that Howard Saunders was fully justified in adopting the present family for the Orioles. Familx— ORIOL ID^E. The Golden Oriole. Oriolus ga/bula, LiNN. BREEDS in suitable localities throughout Europe south of the Baltic and in Algeria ; passes through Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, and Nubia, on migration ; and winters in North Africa, south-eastwards to Madagascar, Natal, and westwards to Damara Land : stragglers sometimes occur in Madeira, and the Azores. The Golden Oriole is a regular visitor to our shores in spring, the largest number having been seen in the Scilly Islands, and Cornwall ; it has, however, been met with in not a few of the southern and south-eastern counties, and several instances of its breeding with us have been recorded. In 1868, I saw a male specimen of this bird near Linton, in Devonshire, and in July, 1887, I was just too late to see the species in Essex ; Mr. Fitch, of Maldon (whom I was visiting) informed me that the bird had been seen in one of his thickets during the previous O 5 O 2 z O o The Golden Oriole. 3 week. We visited the place iu the hope of discovering a uest, but were unsuc- cessful. In Ireland it has chiefly occurred on the east coast, most of the examples being females, or immature males ; a specimen was recorded as shot in the Faroe Islands, in Maj^ 1893, by Col. H. W. Feildeu. In June, 1906, one was killed by a cat on the Marine Parade at Brighton. Perhaps the nearest point to London at which it has been recognized, was noted in the "Zoologist" for 1892, an example having apparently been seen in Richmond Park. The male of this species is bright gamboge-yellow, the lores, wings (excepting the terminal third of the primary-coverts) and a great part of the tail black ; the primaries, excepting the two outermost, are edged externally, and the secondaries are tipped with j^ellowish-white ; the two central tail-feathers are yellowish at the base, and yellow at the tip, and the other feathers have the terminal third of the outer webs, and borders of the inner webs yellow ; bill reddish-ochreous ; feet leaden-grey ; iris bright red. The female is much duller than the male, greener, and with the black colouring replaced by deep brown ; the throat, breast, and centre of belly whitish ; the throat, breast, and flanks streaked with greyish. Young birds are greener and browner than the female, but otherwise similar ; nestlings have the upper parts olivaceous, spotted with yellow. The Golden Oriole frequents gardens, groves, plantations, thickets, and the outskirts of large woods, especially in the neighbourhood of water ; it seems to prefer the haunts of man, yet is so shy that it rarely remains in view for more than a minute as it flies rapidly, in somewhat Thrush-like, though more undulating fashion, from cover to cover ; choosing ever the densest foliage, as if aware of the perilous brilliance of its plumage : possibly it may slowly be acquiring a hereditary knowledge of the fact that, if but a glimpse is obtained of it, an attempt at least is made to put an end to its life ; or if it fails to comprehend so much, it may inherit a dread of the thunder and lightning which, for generations, have heralded its appearance : birds are not naturally fearful of man ; for even those which have been taught by their parents to dread him, can be generally converted by gentleness and petting : moreover the fact that a grown man can tame a small bird, whereas even the tamest will always show the greatest fear of a little boy, certainly seems to prove that the instinctive dread of the monkey-nature in the latter is deeply implanted in all birds ; j ust as is that of a cat, even though that animal may never have been seen by the bird previously.* • I found that Thrushes, Blackbirds, and Starlings, taken quite young from the nest, and hand-reared, showed the utmost alarm when they caught sight of a cat iu my garden. I find that all birds fear boys much more than girls, but especially when the children are quite }-oung. These facts are entirely opposed to Charles Dixon's theory that everything has to be learned by each individual, nothing being instinctive or inherited. 4 TiiK GoLDRx Oriole. The nest of the Golden Oriole is nsually, though not invariably, suspended between the forking branches of an oak, frequently at a considerable height from the ground, and at the end of a somewhat slender bough. The outer walls are formed of broad-leaved sedges, grasses, strips of bark (often white birch-bark) wool etc., carefully interwoven, and including the branches between which it hangs ; the lining consists of fii:e grasses, sometimes with the flowering heads attached. The eggs, which number from four to five, are shining milk-white, with scattered pur- plish black spots, and occasionall}' a few greyish shell-spots. The season of nidification appears to be from May to June. The call-note of this bird is clear and flute-like, but its alarm-note is a harsh croaking khrr : the song is short but melodious: Seebohm renders it "?( '/■<■(•/, //, vec-o''' The Rev. H. A. IMacphersou states that the males have a cat-like call : he also observes (Zoologist, 1891, p. 467) after noting the fact that the females as they grow older approach the male colouring: — "I do not think that the female of this Oriole would be at all exposed to danger when sitting by bright colours. It is not eas}' to see even a male Golden Oriole in the top of a big oak or elm in the breeding season. The birds crouch close to the boughs if alarmed, and neither they nor their nests are easy to distinguish among the fully expanded leaves." The food of this bird consists largel}' of insects and their larvae, spiders, and the like ; but as the fruit season approaches, its diet somewhat changes, cherries being especially relished b}^ it : in confinement it does well on the usual food for insectivorous birds. Being both beautiful and musical it is much esteemed as a cage-bird, and years ago I asked a friend to obtain nestlings for me ; but perhaps it was as well that he did not succeed in securing me an}', for they seem not to be easy to bring up. Lord Lilford remarks : — " I have found the young very difficult to keep alive for more than a week or two, though I know of instances in which they have been reared with success." I think it extremelj' probable that aviculturists, when tr3'ing to rear insecti- vorous birds, feed them far too well : in the case of large birds like Thrushes, Starlings, or Orioles, I believe that the mixture on which I have always been successful in rearing the two former, would answer well for all three — oat-flour, fine peameal, and sifted Spratt's food (or ground dog-biscuit) ; but in the case of the Orioles, it might be advantageousl}' varied with soaked ants' cocoons, or living ants' cocoons if readil}-- procurable. Some years ago I had a specimen of this bird sent to me ; unhappil}- it was blind in one eye ; whether this affliction affected it or not I cannot say, but, to the day of its death (which occurred about two years later), I found it the dullest Family Laniid.-e. 5 and most apathetic bird I ever kept ; once or twice I heard its clear bright whistle, but as a rule it might as well have been stuffed for all the interest it seemed to take in life. The Orioles in coniinement do not differ from other insectivors in their pas- sionate love of both mealworms and spiders, and a few of either every da}' are not only wholesome, but tend to tame them if they need it. FAMILY LANIID^. THE Shrikes or Butcher-birds form a large and well-defined group of birds of somewhat predaceous habits, strong in their bills, but comparatively weak in their claws, which, nevertheless, they use for striking at and grasping their prey. The mandibles are short and thick, the upper one with curved culmen always with a tolerable well-defiued terminal hook, preceded, on the inferior or cutting edge, by a slight sinus, behind which is a prominent wedge-shaped tooth ; the nostrils are oval, lateral, and basal, and there are well-defiued rictal bristles, as in the Flycatchers. Dr. Hans Gadow greatly extends the family, to include many types, observing that the diagnosis of the Laniidcv * * as given by Mr. Sharpe * * is applicable to Lanius only : he, however, admits that the family, as defined by himself, contains some very aberrant forms, and I think all naturalists will agree that this should not be the case if there is an}' way of avoiding it. Families, Subfamilies, and genera are conveniences, and the more sharply they can be defined, the more convenient they are ; it is far better to have a small and compact family, than a large and heterogeneous one. Dr. Gadow observes in his Catalogue that "The Laniida:, as described in this volume, form neither a group complete in itself, nor are the lines of distinction always drawn closely enough." Most of the Shrikes are inhabitants of the Old World : in Great Britain they are represented by the typical genus Lanius alone — a group which contains alto- gether about forty species, four of which have been obtained on our shores, though only two of these appear to breed with us. 6 The Great Grev Shrike. Some authorities consider the Shrikes to be uearlj^ related to the Crows ; in- deed Seebohni made them a Subfamily close to tlie Corvi)ia, although he admitted that their "exact affinities are very difficult to determine"; he considered that they approached the Crows in the form of their bills, the strong bristles, and short feathers partly covering the nostrils, and in their feet. Howard Saunders, from the position which he assigns to them in liis }ilanual, seems to regard them as more nearly related to the Flj-catchers.* Faiuiiv^LAXIILKl-:. The Great Grey Shrh^e. Lauius txciibilor, LiNN. ORNITHOLOGISTS differ in opinion as to whether this biixl is distinct from Pallas's Grey Shrike (with the single white bar on the wing) : Seebohm con- sidered the two forms as distinct as the Carrion and Hooded Crows, but Mr. Howard Saunders brought forward sufficient evidence to show that they had but little claim to the title of separate species. In his Manual we read : — " Many of the specimens obtained in winter have a white bar on the primaries only, the bases of tlie secondaries being black ; whereas in the typical L. cxcubitor the bases of the secondaries are white, and the wing exhibits a double bar. The form with only one bar is the L. viajor, of Pallas, and, as shown by Prof. Collett (Ibis, 1886, pp. 30-40) it meets and interbreeds with L. exaibiior in Scandinavia, t3'pical examples of both races being actually found in the same brood, while intermediate forms are not uncommon. Where the sexes have been determined, the double- barred bird has generally proved to be a male, and the single-barred a female. Dr. Hartert does not regard L. major as a distinct species. Typical L. excubitor breeds as far east as St. Petersburg, beyond which, in Siberia, L. major * See also Loixl Lilford's iiole at end of account of the Woodchat-Shrike. Great Grey o.^.w.^e i Plate 38 The Great Grey Shrike. 7 becomes the representative form. In tlie valley of Yenesei, the latter meets, but does not interbreed with the whiter winged L. Icncopterus ; the last ranging through Turkestan to vSouthern Russia, where, by its union with the typical Z. cxcubitor, it seems to have produced an intermediate race, known as L. honieyeri.'" The Great Grey Shrike is a tolerably frequent visitor to Great Britain in autumn and winter* : it is also sometimes met with in England in tlie summer ; indeed, on more than one occasion, when out birds'-nesting with a keen old student of nature — Dr. John Grayling, of Sittingbourue, he has called my attention to a specimen of this species, conspicuous by its pied colouring : there is, however, no satisfactory evidence that it has nested in the British Isles, although an ^^% in my collection taken somewhere about the j-ear 1880 by Mr. John Woodgate, at Hadley (Herts.) certainly looks remarkably like that of L. (xcubitoy. The adult male of this species is of a pale bluish ash grey-above, this colour becoming paler on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; forehead, a line over each eye, and the scapulars white ; wing black, with white bases and tips to the flights ; central tail feathers black, outer feathers white, intermediate feathers grading between the two colours ; under surface white ; flanks slightly greyish ; the lores, cheeks, and ear-coverts black : bill black, the lower mandible paler at the base ; feet black ; iris dark brown. The female chiefly differs from the male in its slightly duller colouring, and in having the neck and breast barred with greyish-brown. The young are dull grey above, and dull-white below, the barring of the underparts extending over the bell}- ; the bill and feet are also paler than in the adults. The flight of this bird, as judged by the two or three specimens which I have seeu, is somewhat wild and undulating: in its habits it resembles the common Red-backed species, keeping much to the open countr}^ the outskirts of woods, or to hedgerows ; when noticed it was in each case just leaving a bare projecting branch of a tree ; the first specimen close to a wood in the Stockbury Valley, the second near Dover. The food of the Great Grey Shrike consists of good sized insects, new-born birds, or adult birds of such genera as Parus. or Regiilus, frogs, lizards, slow-worms, mice, etc.: it is more raptorial than the Red-backed Shrike; and, not only some- times hunts down and hovers over its pre}^ but even holds it down on a branch and deliberately picks it to pieces after the manner of a hawk ; though, as a rule, it spits it on a thorn after the fashion of its kind. The nest is usually placed at a much greater height from the ground than that of our common British species, viz :— at from ten to thirty feet, in the forked * More often in the months of October auJ January than in others. 8 The Great Gkev Shrike. branch of an olive, apple, pear, oak, or fir tree ; it is bulk}', and large as that of a Blackbird, and is formed of twigs, Ijcnts, dead leaves, green grass, and moss; the lining consisting of rootlets, wool, hair, and feathers. The eggs number from five to seven, usually five, and vary from creamy to bluish white, with lighter or darker olivaceous spots aud blotches, frequently forming a well-defined zone just above the middle, and accompanied by lilac-grey shell-markings ; sometimes they form a large patch at one end (usually the larger one). Nidification as a rule commences about the middle of May ; incubation lasts fifteen days ; aud, during the rearing of the young, this species is most courageous in their defence, driving away even the Crow-family from the vicinity of its nest. Gatke sa3'S : — " This bird, though very cautious in general, is yet not unfre- qnently caught in the throstle bush ; that, however, such a fate is well deserved, is shown by the discovery of many a poor little Redbreast with its brains hacked out, the work of this ruthless aggressor. I have even on one occasion seen a Blackbird, as it was hastening along over the grass, pounced upon by one of these daring robbers, and succumb, after a short struggle, to the bites of his assailant." Lord Lilford says that about the end of December, 1880, he received a fine young bird of this species alive : it had been taken by means of bird-lime near Glendow, on November 19th ; he kept this bird alive for some months. Herr Mathias Rausch (Gefiederte Welt, 1891, p. 475) observes that this bird is not of the slightest value for aviculture as a singer, for although he both mocks well and sings industriously, he, by his call-notes, makes the other singers crazy with anxiety and fear, and thereby disturbs them in their song. " One can only find it caged in the possession of peculiar fanciers, who mostly aim at completeness, in respect of all birds belonging to this category." * From a long study of birds in confinement, I should imagine that Herr Rausch speaks here theoretically, and not from experience : if the cry of a Shrike in a cage is calculated to terrify a small song-bird in another cage, surely the small song-birds of South America ought to be alarmed by the cries of the Blue-bearded Jay, or even those of the Sulphur Tyrant ; yet they pay no more heed to them than to the calls of perfectly innocent birds : I believe that predaceous species are recognized by sight, more readily than by their voice. I imagine his iiuaiiiuji t" I'l' Hiat tliey kct p all Passcrcs, whcllui iiitticstiiig or not. ,.ACKED ^iHKn\! The Lesser Grev Shrike, The Red-Backed Shrike 9 Family— LAXIID.^.. The Lesser Grey Shrike. Lioiiits )iii>iof, Gjiel. THIS is so rare a straggler, on migration, to tlie English coast, that I hesitated to describe it in the present work. In 1883, Seebohm mentioned that onl}^ four examples had been recorded; and, at the end of i88g, Howard Saunders only enumerated six: it has since occurred at Dorking in 1886; near Bournemouth in 1900; at Docking (Norfolk), in 1902; near Chichester in 1905; near Whitby in 1906, and in Bedfordshire in 1907 : it is therefore, perhaps a pity that a plate of it was not produced ; still if everj^ straggler to our coasts was depicted it would add greatly to the expense of this work. Famtly—LANIID.'E. The Red-Backed Shrike. Lanius coUurio, LiNN. SEEBOHM observes that this species " is a summer visitor to the whole of the continent of Europe up to lat. 64°, with the exception of the Spanish pen- insula, where it is only an occasional straggler to the north-east. In Greece, Asia Minor, and Palestine, it is only found in the pine-regions. Eastwards its breeding range extends through Northern Persia, and throughout Turkestan as far as the Altai Mountains. It passes through Asia Minor and North-east Africa lo Thk Red-Backed Shrike on migration. A few winter in the valley of the Indns ; but the great stream of migration appears to follow the vallej^ of the Nile to South Africa, where it is abundant during our winter in Natal, Damara Laud, the Transvaal, Angola, and the Cape Colony." In Great Britain this bird is common but local ; though most abundant in the southern counties, it has rarely been met with in Cornwall ; in Wales, and the central counties it is not imcommon, yet it is becoming rarer in Norfolk, and in Lincoln- shire is almost unknown ; in the northern counties it is rare, probably increasingly so ; to Scotland it is onl}' a chance straggler, though it has been recorded as breeding in the south-east ; late in May and early in June 1906 several were observed during migration at Fair Isle (Shetlands). In Ireland a specimen was shot in 1878, and others were said to have been seen at the same time. The upper parts of the male are gre}-, excepting the scapulars and back which are chestnut-brown ; the wing-coverts black, margined with chestnut ; wings dark brown, the feathers edged with chestnut ; the two middle tail-feathers black, the rest white on the basal half, black, edged with white on the terminal half; frontal band, lores, and ear-coverts black ; under parts rosy huffish, whiter on the chin and under tail-coverts ; bill and feet black ; iris dark brown. The female is usually quite unlike the male, her upper parts being reddish-brown, slightly barred on the mantle, her under parts buffish-white, barred (excepting in the centre) w-ith brown ; there is no black on the head, but a pale buff streak above the eye. Young birds are somewhat similar to the female, but whiter on the forehead, with ill-defined eye-streak, their upper parts barred, and their feet greyer. The common Butcher-bird reaches us earl}' in May, and usually leaves us again in August or September, although a late straggler has been reported as captured in November ; it is, therefore, probable that only one brood is reared. I have taken fresh eggs as late as the 8th June, in Kent, but not later than the 29th May, in Norfolk ; in the latter county, however, I only met with the nest twice ; it is, therefore, possible that later nests may occur ; the first week in June appears from my dates to be the earliest laying-time in the north of Kent ; perhaps a few nests may be occupied earlier. The nest of this species is most frequentl}' placed in a hawthorn bush, or hedge, but sometimes in the fork of a stunted tree, seldom more than five feet from the ground, and frequently less : the number of eggs is usually five, but sometimes six. Although there is a good deal of difference in the form and tinting of the eggs, the general character of the markings is very characteristic in most specimens laid by this bird : the ground-tint varies from greenish white to creamy buff, and from the latter colour to salmon-pink ; the spots vary from olive to red- The Red-Backed Shrike ii brown, with underlying spots of bluish-ash ; sometimes the surface spots are wholly wanting, the grey markings alone being in evidence ; the spots are usually almost entirely confined to the broader half, rarely to the apical half; and, still more rarely, irregularly scattered over the whole surface ; in most eggs they are largest, and form an irregular zone, just above the middle. In Kent I found the pink variety of the egg extremely rare, indeed I only once succeeded in taking a full clutch of this form by fighting my way edgeways through a dense (six-foot thick) hawthorn hedge, the hen bird chacking away, and making little frantic rushes at my fingers, as I gradually struggled nearer to the prize. In some counties I am told that the pink form is the prevalent one ; it certainly is the prettiest. I found the nests of the Red-backed Shrike most commonly in the neigh- bourhood of Maidstone ; taking tliree in one morning from the forked branches of stunted trees near the river : in such positions it was invariably more solidly built than when placed in a bush or hedge ; in character it is not unlike some nests of the Greenfinch, but deeper ; the outer walls formed of coarse grass-stalks and moss, and the lining of fine bents, wool, and horsehair. As is well-known the name of Butcher-bird has been given to this species owing to the habit which it has, in common with other Shrikes, of impaling its prey upon thorns, in order, it is said, more readily to tear them to pieces : * per- sonally I have never found any of its victims in this unpleasant condition, but hundreds of observers have done so. Its food consists of insects, young and old birds (even up to its own size) lizards, and mice : it seizes its prey suddenly, dropping upon it when unsuspecting an attack ; for, although a migratory bird, the Red-backed Shrike is not very powerful on the wing. The note of alarm and anger, as already hinted, is a harsh chack or char, the call-note a harsh chirp, but the song, though short, is very pleasing. Herr Mathias Rausch says (Gefiederte Welt, 1891, p. 446) "The best singer and mocker among the rapacious birds is acknowledged to be the Red-backed Shrike or Thorn-piercer (Lanius collurio). He is also the commonest and most widely distributed of all, inasmuch as he may be found in a wild state throughout nearly the whole of Europe. Especially good and varied singers are, however, only to be met with in regions rich in birds. I have already owned Red-backed Shrikes, which copied • Considering that my bird swallowed five of the largest cockroaches I could find in succession, without even dismembering them, I think this explanation can hardly be founded on fact: its swallowing capacity is extraordinary, and one wonders, not only how it can get the food down its throat, but where it^manages to stow it all away. The Rev. H. A. Macpherson informed me, however, that he had observed both the present species and the Woodchat, and Great Grey Shrikes, when engaged in devouring insects piecemeal. He had kept all three species in captivity, and was intimately acquainted with their habits in a state of freedom. 12 The Rkd-Backrd Shrike the Nightingale, the Goldeu Oriole, the Quail, the Black-cap, the Garden Warbler, the Icterine Warbler, the Meadow-, and Tree-Pipits, and Song-Thrush perfectly, and portions of the songs of other birds tolerably well. The only pity is that the voice of this bird is so weak, that it is unable to reproduce the song of many other cage-birds kept at the same time, but it always repays one to tend and care for this songster as a cage-bird ; moreover it is easily and cheaply secured, and also kept alive without difficult}'. This bird, however, should especially be secured by such aviculturists as cannot put up with too loud a bird-song, and who make a point of not keeping several birds on account of their dissimilarity of song, for by its song they will at once be satisfied in both respects." Of course this savage though pretty bird should never be turned into an aviary with other birds, as it would undoubtedly murder and devour its companions, even though as large as itself; a flight cage, therefore, is the most suitable home for it : the staple food should consist of egg, pieces of cheese, with the addition of minced raw meat, cockroaches, or other insects, and occasionally a dead mouse or bird : indeed tlie food for all the Shrikes should be almost exactly the same as for most of the Corvincr, but somewhat less varied ; because many of the latter eat fruit, nuts, grain, and even acorns, greedily, as well as the usual soft food. In 1904, Dr. Albert Glinther bred this species from hand-reared birds turned into an outdoor aviary. They built in the second week of May in a holly-bush, four feet from the ground ; the nest was of the usual type and well-built ; it contained five eggs which were incubated for fourteen days, all being hatched between the 5th and 6th June : owing to cold weather all died and were removed by the parents. By June 24th the hen was again sitting on five eggs ; these hatched on the 7th and 8th Jul}^ ; two of these died young but the three others left the nest on July 23rd and were successfully reared. In the following year the same pair built in a basket hung in the same holly-bush : incubation com- menced about June loth ; of the four eggs laid, two were hatched on the 24th, and the young left the nest on July loth, and were successfully reared. It is best to rear this species from the nest; for then it is supposed to become very tame and confiding ; my brief experience of the bird, caught when quite young, aud given to me on the 12th August, 1896, is that it is as wild as any adult bird, and cuts itself all to pieces in its incessant efforts to force its way through the wires of its prison ; from the nature of its food its cage needs constant cleaning, otherwise it .smells abominably ; its note of rage, char, char, is frequently uttered, but nothing else. As it will not now learn its natural song, a few good performers such as the Nightingale, Blackcap, Skylark, Grey Singing-finch, or the Pekin Night- ingale, should be kept in cages near by; in order that it may study their notes. Woe Plate 60. The Woodchat Shrike 13 One advantage in this bird is — that however wild it may be, and however intolerable the odour of its cage may be, the bird always appears to enjoy robust health. Even if one is ill, and perchance no fresh food is supplied to this bird for twenty-four hours, he makes no trouble of that, but only attacks his food more vigorously when the opportunity comes. Moreover, having by foolish behaviour so reduced his wings that he cannot reach his perch, he contentedly passes the night on a box in a corner. These are redeeming points in his character. Family— LANIID. 'E. The Woodchat Shrike. Lanius pomcranus, SpaRRM. HOWARD SAUNDERS observes that "On the Continent the Woodchat breeds as far to the north-east as the line of the Baltic and the valley of the Vistula, bej^ond which it is of accidental occurrence ; while southward it is generally distributed throughout Europe, and in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean is very abundant. Even there, however, it is only a visitor ; arriving about the end of March, or early in April, and leaving again between August and October. Eastward it breeds in South Russia, Turke}-, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Persia ; while in winter it occurs in Arabia, and down the East African Coast to about 5° N. lat., also on the west side to the Gambia and the Gold Coast. Throughout Northern Africa it is abundant in summer, arriving from the southern side of the Sahara in March." To Great Britain this species is an irregular straggler, and principally on migration ; nevertheless about thirty-seven examples have been obtained in various parts of England, chiefly in the southern and eastern counties, one male was seen in May 1903 at Speeton, in Yorkshire, and, on two occasions, it has been recorded as breeding at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight. 14 TiiK WooDciiAT Shrikk The adult male has the middle of the forehead, front of erowu, lores, ear- coverts, sides of neck, and back black ; an elongated white spot above each nostril ; crown and nape bright chestnnt ; lower back grey, shading into whitish on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; wings black, the coverts and secondaries tipped with white, the primaries white at the base ; tail black, tipped with white, the two outermost feathers white at the base, and with white onter web ; the nnder surface white, the flanks washed with bnff; bill black; feet dark brown; iris hazel. The female is duller in colonring than the male, the black parts suffused with rufous. The voung are russet-brown, streaked and spotted above with dark brown and whitish, the wing- feathers broadl}- bordered and tipped with rufous ; the tail also tipped with rufous, the outermost feathers pale ; nnder surface heavil}- barred with brown ; bill yellowish horn-brown ; feet darker horn-brown. Like the Red-backed Shrike, this species hannts chiefly open or thinl}' timbered country ; but in Algeria, from what Dixon says, it appears to frequent the open spaces in forests of evergreen oak ; and Lord Lilford observes (Birds of North- amptonshire, Vol. I, p. 78) " In Southern Spain, where the Woodchat is a very common summer visitor, it is to be met with in all sorts of localities — the outskirts of woods, olive-groves, gardens, and occasionally the great open treeless plains, where the tall thistles alone offer it a perch or look-out station. In general habits it much resembles the Red-backed Shrike, but so far as I know does not attack small birds, which show no fear of it as they do of the former bird." Seebohm, speaking of the food of the Woodchat, says that it " is composed of beetles, grasshoppers, and many other insects, which, like the other Shrikes, it will spit on thorns for the pnrpose of securing them nntil the}- are eaten. It is often seen on the wing, like a Flycatcher ; and when the capture of an insect is made it returns to its old perching place, ever watchful for an object for a fresh sally into the air." The nest of this species is placed in the fork of a low tree ; it is formed of coarse bents and grasses, sometimes intermingled with cudweed ( GnaplialiuniJ and wool ; the lining is either formed of fine grasses and moss, or of the flowers of cudweed mixed with a few leaves and a little vegetable wool. The eggs number from four to six, usuallj^ five, and somewhat resemble those of the Red-backed Shrike, but are usually slightly larger ; the reddish variety which, in the better known species, is local but not uncommon, is ver}' rarel}- met with in eggs of L. potneraHus. Speaking of the Woodchat in Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright (Ibis, 1894, p. 59) says : — " Perched on the uppermost twig of some tree, its shining white breast forms one of the most conspicuous objects in the ornithological landscape in April. On Thk Woodchat Shrike 15 the first appearance of danger, it flies off" to anotlier and more distant tree, and, taking np a similarly elevated position, scans the countr}- ronnd till the danger which had excited its alarm has passed away. It builds here in May and June, constructing a compact and well-formed nest in the fork of a carob or almond-tree. Its aff"ection for, and the courage it display's in the protection of, its young are remarkable. Wary as it is at other times, on these occasions it seems to lose all fear ; uttering piercing cries, it will fly close round the head of the intruder, and actually make a feint of dashing in his face." Howard Saunders saj'S : — "The note usually heard is a harsh laali, kack, ki-ah ; but the male has also a low and rather pretty song in spring, and shows great capacity for imitating the notes of other birds." Seebohm observes: — "Its song is by no means unmusical, and very gentle to proceed from such raptorial jaws.* It reminded me very much of the twittering of a Swallow, or the warble of a Starling. Some of its call-notes, however, are loud and harsh enough ; and I at first thought it was imitating the notes of other birds, in order to attract them within reach ; but inasmuch as the greater number of notes it apparently imitated were of birds far too powerful for it to grapple with, such cannot be the case." Dixon saj'S that he " met with this species (in Algeria) in all parts of the country wherever the vegetation was sufficient to afford it shelter." Herr Mathias Rausch says of the Woodchat Shrike, that in many regions it is somewhat rare, and it costs a good deal of trouble to obtain a good bird. " It sings louder than the Red-backed, or the Lesser Grey Shrike, has moreover a certain roughness in its voice, which somewhat detracts from its imitations, and thus prejudices their distinctness." Possiblj' it was this which led Seebohm to think that the cries of this species were imitations of rapacious birds. The mimicry practised by the Woodchat must, however, be fairly good, inasmuch as it was noticed even in Bechstein's time ; as pointed out by the late Charles W'itchell (Evolution of Bird song, p. 174). Herr Rausch considers that, as a cage bird, the Woodchat belongs to the second order of merit (Gefiederte Welt, 1891, p. 499). Although rarer than the Red-backed Shrike, there is not the least doubt that its song is neither so pure nor so perfect in its imitative power ; and, when one has to keep a species in a separate cage, on account of its domineering, spiteful, or even dangerous character, it is most satisfactor}^ to get something in exchange for the extra trouble required to preserve it in health : therefore, if I already possessed Lanius collurio, I certainly shoiild not covet its rarer relative. * In this respect it does not stand alone: the song of the S. American Blue-bearded Jay is almost as gentle as that of a Mannikin, whilst his cries are shrill, harsh, or gruff. — A. G. B. 1 6 The Masked Shrike. In coutradictiou to the statement of Mr. C. A. Wright respecting the shyness of the Wotxicliat, excepting when defending its young, Lord Lilford's observations are interesting; for he states that the " Woodchat is a very familiar and fearless bird, and seems often to prefer the vicinity of human habitations for its nest. In all its habits this Shrike seems to me to approach closely to the Fly-catchers." Seebohm als j saj'S of L. poiiui-iVtiis (which, however, in common with most Ornith- ologists, he calls L. nt/us) " It is not a wary bird, and, with due precaution, may be quite closely approached." It is, therefore, probable that this species would not be difficult to tame, if kindly treated. Family— L ANIID. 'E. The Maskkd Shrikp:. Laniiis, iin/inna, LrciiT. MALE specimen of this bird was shot at Woodchurch, Kent, on July iith, 1905. Its native country is south-eastern Europe and Asia Minor: it winters in north-east Africa and Senegambia. A Family Ampelid^ i 7 FAMILY AMPELID.55. FORMERLY this constituted a fairly large group, including even such distinct looking birds as the members of the genus Lioi/irix, birds moreover which, in their habits nearly resemble our Accentors : I believe, however, that the relationship of the Liothrix to Accentor is now recognized. Jerdon even included the Tits, as well as the White-eyes and Accentors, in the same family. Seebohm, who only admitted one family for the Passercs, necessarily regarded the present group as a Subfamily " consisting of birds having the wing of a Starling, the foot of a Shrike, and a bill intermediate between that of a Shrike and a Swallow. They are probably most nearly allied to the Shrikes and the Starlings : from the former they may at once be distinguished by the minuteness of their bastard primary, their short tarsus, and their nearly obsolete rictal bristles. Ornithologists are perhaps justified in placing them in a distinct Subfamil}^ in consequence of the shortness of their tarsus, their shorter, wider, and notched beak, and the presence of small bristles which cover the nostrils." (Hist. British Birds, Vol. n, p. i). Although the species of Ainpelis have somewhat the flight of a Starling, they build open nests in the branches of trees ; and, in their actions, somewhat resemble Tits. In all probability they are more nearly related to the Shrikes than to any other group of British birds ; but they are not predaceous like that murderous family, being insectivorous and frugivorous, and they appear to have little idea of song. Of late years Waxwings have been somewhat largely kept as cage birds ; but, in spite of their beaut}-, they are anj'thing but pleasing pets, their lack of vocal merit, and their greediness, which results in a perpetual dirty condition of their cages, are great drawbacks. Vol. II. The Waxwing Family— AMPEL ID. E. The Waxwing. A/nptiis f;ay>///us, LlNN. AN abundant though irregular winter visitor to our islands, the Waxwing, says Seebohm, " is almost a circumpolar bird, breeding in the pine regions of both hemispheres at or near the Arctic circle." "Throughout Central Europe it is a tolerable regular winter visitor. It occurs accidently on Heligoland, and occasionally strays as far west as France, and as far south as Lombardy and Turke}', but has not yet been recorded from Spain or Greece. It winters in South Siberia, occasionally straying as far as Turkestan, Mongolia, North China, and the north island of Japan. In America its winter range extends as far south as Lakes Michigan and Erie ; but it appears to be only an accidental straggler further east, and it is doubtful if it has ever occurred west of the Rocky Mountains." In Great Britain the Waxwing has been most frequently met with in the northern and eastern counties; Mr. Frohawk tells me that in the winter of 1867-S a flock of seven visited a small plantation at Brisley, in Norfolk ; but in England it has from time to time been observed in almost every county, whilst in Ireland it has been but rarely obtained, excepting towards the end of 1903 when a good many visited the island and twenty were shot ; its visits to Scotland have been tolerably frequent, extending even to the islands of Skye, Orkney and Shetland, it has twice been recorded from the Outer Hebrides. The upper surface of the adult male Waxwing is pale rosy-brown, gradually changing to ash-grey on the rump and upper tail-coverts, and into chestnut on the sides of the crest and forehead ; a narrow frontal band, the lores, and a streak from the back of the eye black ; wings and tail almost black, the wing-coverts, the inner webs of the primaries, and outer webs of the secondaries tipped with white, the latter tipped with wax-like vermilion points, the outside webs of the primaries tipped with yellow, joining the white tij^s of the inner webs so as to form \^-like markings; tail feathers broadly tipped with yellow; under surface rosy-brown, shading into chestnut on the cheeks ; a white streak at the base of the lower mandible ; front of throat and chin black ; centre of belly whitish ; under tail- coverts chestnut; bill and feet black; iris hazel. The female is slightly duller, Waxwi;>^., .. ? Plate 61. The Waxwing ig usually without the white tips to the iuuer webs of the primaries, and with smaller wax-like terminations to the secondaries ; the tips of the tail-feathers somewhat narrower. The young are browner, and have no black on the throat. This species appears in the breeding-season to haunt the more open portions of forests of conifers and birch, but chiefly woods of pine, or larch, nesting in colonies. The nest is a large open cup-shaped structure built upon the branch of a tree, upon a foundation of twigs and reindeer moss, composed principally of black hair-lichen, interwoven with slender twigs, bark, moss, and feathers, the latter appearing most prominently in the lining. The eggs usually number from five to six, rarely seven, and are described by Professor Newton, who owns the greater part of the large series acquired by John Wolley (the discoverer of the breeding-grounds of this species) as "delicate sea-green, sometimes fading to French white, but often of a more or less pale-olive, and occasionally of a dull purplish- grey. On this are almost always bold blotches, spots, and specks of deep brownish- black, though sometimes the edges are blurred. Beneath these stronger markings there is nearly always a series of blotches or streaks of greyish-lilac, and among them well-defined spots or specks of yellowish-brown are interspersed. In some eggs the darkest markings are quite wanting, in others the ground is of a deep olive colour." According to Seebohm, who, in 1867, kept a pair of this species in a cage, "They were remarkably silent birds; the only note I heard was a cir-ir-iy-ir-re, very similar to a well-known note of the Blue-Tit. Occasionally this succession of notes was repeated so rapidly as to form a trill like the song of the Redpole." In the summer time the Waxwing appears to be largel}', if not wholly insecti- vorous, crane-flies seeming to constitute its favourite food ; but later in the year it devours great quantities of berries of juniper, privet, guelder-rose, as well as hips and haws : it is especially fond of mistletoe berries. In the winter, when Waxwings are very fat, they are said to be greatly esteemed by the Russians as an article of food. Lord Lilford, in his "Birds of Northamptonshire," speaks of "the chatter of a party of Waxwings passing overhead whilst we were inspecting my aviary in the pleasure-grounds at Lilford," and he adds — " I am well acquainted with the note of the Waxwing from having kept many of them in confinement, a proceeding which I cannot recommend, as they have no merit whatever except their beauty, being dull, quarrelsome, greedy, and filthy to an incredible degree, and in most instances dying from plethora after a short captivity. Hips and haws, currants, raisins, (in fact, small fruit of all kinds) are voraciously devoured by these birds, and appear to be their favourite food, but they will also eat chopped meat, hard- 20 Family Muscicapid^: boiled egg, hemp-seed, bread-crumbs, carrots, potatoes, and ants' eggs ; they drink a great deal, but seldom wash, and I have more than once seen a Waxwing delib- erately eat its own fseces, though it was abundantly supplied with many varieties of food ; none of these birds ever became tame with me, and I shall certainly never bu}' au}^ of them again." Seebohm gives them much the same character : — " They were most voracious eaters, and the cage required cleaning several times a day. They were very active and restless, aud even when perched at rest seemed to be continually moving their heads. If alarmed they would stretch out their necks to almost double the usual length." On the other hand Swaysland (Cassell's Cage-birds, p. 340) says : — " It is easily tamed, and in the aviary is docile and quiet. It should be fed upon German paste, sponge-cake, a little hard-boiled egg, Juniper berries, soaked grocers' currants, or any other soft-skinned fruit." I think it c|uite likely that, associated with birds of its own size in an aviarv, the Wa.Kwing would become far more easily reconciled to captivit3% would eat less, bathe more frequently, aud keep in better health, than m a cage : moreover, I should certaiul}- not recommend either raw meat or grocers' currants to be given to it as articles of food. FAMILY MUSCICAPID^. THIS large family of birds was not even regarded by Seebohm as a distinct Subfamil}', but was included by him in the Turdtna: ; yet it forms a very characteristic group : the bills of Flycatchers are somewhat flattened and broad at the base, compressed and somewhat curved towards the point ; the rictal bristles which, in insectivorous birds serve to prevent the escape of winged insects from the base of the bill, are very strongly developed, and numerous in this family. The Flycatchers, as their name indicates, are rapid flyers, and consequently have long pointed wings ; their e3'^es also are large and full ; they perch mostl}'' on trees, very rarely descending to the earth ; their feet, as might be anticipated, are small, the middle toe being considerably longer than the lateral ones. .f^ ■*>»■• iif Spotted I-lycatcher ?• n Plate 62 The Spo'rrp:D Flycatcher 21 The nests of the Flycatchers are open, and more or less cup-shaped in character ; they are frequently placed in holes or crevices in trees, rocks, or walls ; but some of the species build upon thick branches, or even in the forks of branches ; the eggs of the different species vary considerably in character, some being heavily spotted, and others spotless.* The flight is undulating ; the song low-pitched, and not of great merit ; the food consists mainly of insects, but is supplemented occasionally by a little fruit. Formerly the limits of this group of birds were much more extended than at present ; Jerdon even included the Blue-throats, and expressed it as his opinion that the Tyrants of the New World belonged to the family : vSeebohm observed that — "The Flycatchers inhabit the Palaearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, extending southwards to the Moluccas, but not occurring in the Australian region. Four species are found in Europe, of which two breed in the British Islands, and one is an accidental visitor." The latter, at the time when his "British Birds" appeared, had only occurred here three times, but of late years other examples have been obtained. Family— MUSCICAPIDyE. The Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola, LiNN. HOWARD SAUNDERS states that this species "breeds as far north as Tromso, in Norway, and Archangel, in Russia ; while southward it is tolerably abundant throughout Europe, nesting down to the northern shores of the Mediterranean ; also on the African side, and in Asia IMinor, Palestine, • The little New World genus Polioptila, referred by Dr. Sclater to this famil}-, is said to build in bushes, and to lay white eggs. VOL. 11. G 2 2 Thh Spotted Flycatcher Persia, Turkestan, and Siberia as far as Irkutsk. In winter it visits India, Arabia, and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope." In Great Britain the Spotted Fljxatcher breeds in suitable localities in everjr county, but in England and Wales it is far more abundant, and more generally distributed than in Scotland and Ireland : its distribution in the latter island is certainly local, and it is probable that some counties are unsuited to its requirements. The colouring of this bird is decidedly sombre, its upper surface being brown, slightl}' paler and with dark shaft-streaks on the crown ; the wings and tail darker brown, with paler margins to the wing-coverts and secondaries : its under surface is gre3'ish-wliite ; the breast and flanks slightly buff-brownish, and streaked with brown, as also is the throat ; bill dark brown ; feet black ; iris dark hazel. The female greatly resembles the male, but is somewhat browner and is more heavily streaked on the underparts. The j-oung have buff centres to the feathers of the upper surface, whilst the wing-coverts, secondaries, and tail-coverts are tipped with this colour. The Spotted Flj'catcher haunts the out.skirts of woods, high hedges on the borders of parks and pleasure grounds, plantations of hazel, orchards, and gardens, and in siich places it breeds, usuall}- placing its nest either in a slight depression in the branch of a tree, frequently near the trunk, or on the branch of a fruit-tree trained against a wall ; it has, however, been known to build in crevices of the bark of old trees, in trellis-work overgrown with creepers, and I have taken the nest from the hollow top of a tree stump, from a tall hawthorn hedge, aud one in ni}' collection was taken from a narrow hole in a wall.* The form of the nest varies in accordance with its surroundings ; if placed upon a branch or in the top of a hedge it is circular, if on a fruit-branch trained against a wall, semicircular, aud the nest which I obtained from a hole in a wall was of the exact shape of a small slipper ; the materials of the nest also var}' somewhat, but they generally consist of twigs and roots, or fine grasses, mixed with a quantity of green moss interwoven with spiders' webs, and lined with fine grass, hair, and sometimes two or three feathers. The eggs vary in number from three to six, five being the most usual number, the ground colour being frequently pale pea-green, but sometimes bluish- white, blotched, zoned, mottled or spotted with various depths of ferruginous red- brown ; when the mottling is very dense the egg, excepting in its inferior size and narrower shape, somewhat reminds one of that of the Robin, and when the markings are chiefly represented by a zone near the larger end, it vaguely suggests that of the Greenfinch. * It is said also to have beeu fouud among roots overhangiug water, and in metal gutters on roofs of houses. The Spotted Flycatcher 23 The Spotted Flycatctier rarely reaches us before May ; but, nevertheless is in no hurry to go to nest ; the earliest date at which I have taken its eggs was on the 30th of that month, and they are rarely obtained before June. As proof that birds are sometimes unable to recognize their own eggs, the following fact (already recorded in my Handbook of British Oology) is of interest : On the 4th June, 1S78, I removed three eggs from a rather small nest of the Spotted Flycatcher formed in the hollow top of a tree stump in a small plantation of hazels. I substituted three hazel-nuts for the eggs, and these completely filled the cavity of the nest. On the 8th of June I returned and found the hen sitting: she had ejected one of the hazel-nuts to make room for a fourth egg- Respecting the notes of this species, Seebohm sa3'S : — "It is very widely and popularly believed that the Spotted Flycatcher is not gifted with any powers of song ; but this is an error. His song is heard but rarely, it is true, and is uttered in such a low tone as to be scarcely heard a few yards awa}'. It is given forth both when the bird is sitting at rest and when fluttering in the air after insects. It consists of a few rambling notes, not unlike part of the Whinchat's song. The monotonous call-note may perhaps be best expressed by the letters cf, zt ; it is uttered in rapid succession from one perching-place, and every now and then the tail is jerked to and fro with graceful motion. Sometimes a second syllable is added to the call-note, which then sounds like zt-chick.'" I think that Seebohm is incorrect in this last statement: in 1894 I had a family of young Spotted Flycatchers in my garden for over a week, and I found that their call to their parents was zt-chick, and the answer of the parents was sf. I never heard an adult bird use the longer call. The food of the Spotted Flycatcher in the summer months consists of insects, spiders, and centipedes, but in the autumn it is said to eat the berries of the mountain-ash ; much of its food is obtained on the wing, either by repeated sallies into the air, by hawking low down over the meadows, or hovering in front of old walls, or manure heaps. As this species rarely has eggs before the beginning of June, and usually leaves this country in September, it is not surprising that it is single brooded. Mr. Gumey's experience of the perseverance with which this species adheres to a building site was published many years since in the "Zoologist" ; but never- theless is sufficiently interesting to bear repeating here ; he says : — " About the end of June last, a Spotted Flycatcher began to build a nest over the door of the lodge at the entrance of my grounds. The woman who lives in the lodge, not wishing the bird to build there, destro3'ed the commencement of the nest ; every day for a week the bird placed new materials on the same ledge over the door, 24 Thk Spotted Flycatcher and every day the woman removed them, and, at the end of the week, placed a stone on the ledge, which effectuallv baffled the Flycatcher's efforts at that spot ; but the bird then began building at the latter end of the ledge, from whence it was also driven, and three stones being then placed on the ledge, the bird relin- quished the attempt to build at either end of it, and commenced building a nest on a beech-tree opposite, which it completed, and laid two eggs in it. When the bird was thus apparently established in the beech-tree, the stones over the door were taken away, when the Flycatcher immediately forsook its nest and eggs in the beech, and again commenced building over the door on the part of the pro- jecting ledge, which it had first chosen. The nest was again destro3^ed, and two slates placed over the spot ; the bird contrived to throw down one of the slates from a slanting to a horizontal position, and then began to build upon it. The nest \\'a.s again destro3'ed, and the three stones replaced and kept there a fortnight, after which they were again removed, and, directly they were taken awa}-, the bird again began building. The nest was subsequently destro3-ed several times in succession ; the bird was twice driven awa}' b}^ a towel being thrown at it ; a stone wrapped in white paper was placed on the ledge to intimidate it, but the Fl3'catcher still persevered, completed a nest, and laid an egg- On hearing the circumstances I directed that the perseciition of the poor bird shoiild cease, after which it laid two more eggs, hatched all three, and successfull3' brought off its brood." Some 3'ears since a 3'oung Spotted Fl3-catcher was brought to me ; it had flown against a lan:p, was temporaril3^ stunned, and a lad picked it up without difficulty. I tried to keep it, but it refused to feed, as most birds do after the3' have left the nest, and, although I forced it to eat, it died the next day : perhaps I lost nothing b3' the death of this bird ; for the Flycatchers are not especially suited to cage or aviar3' life, are neither attractive in plumage or song, and are said to be delicate and difficult to keep in health. If reared from the nest they would doubtless eat the usual soft food, but I should expect them to follow the example of the Hirundinidce, eat to repletion and take little exercise. They have been kept, but it may be questioned whether it is worth the trouble.* • In 1SS7, 1895, and 1896 examples were exhibited at the annual Crystal Palace Show, and doubtless others in later years. Pied Flycatche Plate 63. The Pikd Flycatcher 25 Family— ML 'SCICAPID.F. The Pied Flycatcher. Miiscicapa africapil/a, LiNN. RESPECTING the distribution of this species outside Great Britain, one cannot do better than quote Howard Saunders : — " A wanderer to the Faroes, the Pied Fl3'catcher breeds regularly up to 69° N. lat. in Scan- dinavia, 65° in Finland, and about 60° in Northern Russia to the Ural Mountains; southward, in suitable wooded localities, throughout the greater part of Europe, down to the centre of Spain ; and eastward as far as Palestine ; while it has been met with in Northern Persia. In Algeria it is said to be a resident species, its migrations extending to the Canaries, and down the west side of Africa to the Gambia, as well as on the east side to Egypt. In Great Britain this species is far rarer, and much more local than the Spotted Flycatcher, but especially during the breeding season : although nests have from time to time been obtained in many of the southern counties of England, it principally affects the western counties, Wales, and the north, but more partic- ularly the Lake district ; it is said to occur annually in Norfolk, and has occurred in Rutland and Lincolnshire. In Scotland, and especially in the northern counties, it is considerably rarer than in England, and in Ireland it has been very seldom met with. The adult male in breeding-plumage has the upper parts black, greyer on the rump, and browner on the wings ; the forehead, central coverts, outer borders of secondaries, and under parts white ; bill and feet black ; iris dark brown. The female differs from the male in the browner colouring of the upper parts, and all the white areas with a huffish stain. The male after its autumn moult more nearly approaches the female, inasmuch as the black colouring becomes brownish. Young in nestling plumage have the upper parts spotted with buff, and the under parts with dark-brown. The Pied Flycatcher arrives on our coasts towards the end of April, and the first eggs may usually be obtained by about the middle of the following month, although some pairs nidificate several weeks later. Unlike its relative the Spotted Flycatcher, it always nests in a hole, either in a tree, a rock, wall, or bridge, Vol. II. H 26 The Pied Flycatcher (especially when built over water) ; deserted nesting-holes of Woodpeckers or Tits are sometimes utilized : it haunts groves of oak, beech, aspen, or chestnut, in preference to dense wood ; although, according to Dixon, it may sometimes be met with in the latter situation. Lord Lilford saj's that " the nest is generally situated in the hole of a pollard willow, or other tree, often in an old wall ; in fact, very much in the sort of locality that we should look for a nest of the Common Red- start." The nest is somewhat loosely constructed of dry bents, rootlets, and a little moss ; the lining being formed of wool, feathers, and sometimes hair. The eggs vary in number from four to eight, five to six being usual. As Lord Lilford observes " Yarrell records an instance of eight in a nest, but, from my acquaintance with this species in Spain, I should consider that number as very exceptional." The colouring is always a ver}' pale blue and unspotted, there is a slight variation in depth of tint, but otherwise the only modifications in the eggs of this bird are in size and outline, depending much upon the age and condition of health of the parent bird. W. Warde Fowler in his charming "Summer Studies of Birds and Books," gives a most delightful account of the Pied Fl3'catcher, which is well worth quoting in full, if only space would permit ; but I must content myself with an extract : — "On the Continent I have always seen him in just such places as he loves in Wales, among the larger timber of a Swiss mountain-side, or on the forest slopes of the Taunus range. Just as the trout loves swiftly-running streams, or as the Wood-wren is sure to be heard where the oak is the prevailing tree, so there are certain spots which you instinctivel}' feel that this bird ought to have chosen for his habitation, and if you are in the right district you may fairly lay a wager that he will be found there. Such a spot, on the edge of the beech forests of Wiesbaden, will always remain in very clear outline in my memory, for it was there I first heard the song of this bird. It is very seldom now that I hear a song that is quite new to me. If it were not that so many of our songsters sing all too short a time, and that when they tune up one by one for the orchestra of the spring season each instrument touches the ear with the fresh delight of recog- nition, I might feel as much at the end of my tether as the mountaineer who has no more peaks to climb. But this song was not only new, but wonderfully sweet and striking. ' Something like a Redstart's ' say the books, and this is not untrue, so far as it represents the outward form, so to speak, of the song — the quickness or shortness of notes, the rapid variations of pitch. But no one who has once accustomed his ear to the very peculiar tijubre of the voice of either kind of Red- start will mistake for it the song of the Pied Flycatcher. My notes, taken on the The Pied Flycatcher 27 spot, and before I had seen any other description of it, recall the song to my memory — the short notes at the beginning, the rather fragmentary and hesitating character of the strain, and the little coda or iiuish, which reminded me of the Chaffinch, but all this will have no meaning to nij^ readers. There is but one way of learning a bird's song, and that is by listening to it in solitude again and again, until you have associated it in your mind, with the form, and habits, and haunts of the singer." Gatke states that the Pied Flycatcher " visits Heligoland in larger numbers than any of its near relatives. It is especially abundant during the autumn migration, returning from its nesting quarters as early as the beginning of August, if the weather is fine and warm, and the wind from the south or south-east." "Why this bird should migrate before scarcity of food or cold compel it to do so, it is difficult to imderstand ; probably the tendency has been inherited, and points back to some remote period when the summers of Kurope were of short duration. The food of this species consists largely of insects, but it rarely, if ever, pursues them in the air like the Spotted Flycatcher, preferring to watch from the end of a branch, and pounce suddenly down upon them ; it is not, therefore, sur- prising that among the pellets of undigested matter ejected by this, as by other insectivorous birds, wing-cases of small beetles predominate ; it is, however, said to pick flies and gnats from leaves upon which they have settled, and to eat worms. Later in the year, as currants, raspberries, elderberries, etc., become ripe, the Pied Flycatcher is said to add them to its dietary. Far more beautiful than its Spotted relative, and with a much better idea of music, it is no wonder that, where opportunity offers, this species is prized as a cage-bird ; yet I have never seen one exhibited in England ; though in Germany the Pied Flycatcher has put in an appearance at the exhibitions of the "Ornis" Society. Being so much more local in Great Britain than the Spotted Flycatcher, this species is much less frequently obtained at the right age for hand-rearing : when once obtained, however, Swaysland assures us that it is far more easy to keep than the commoner species, and may be turned either into cage or aviary, and fed in the same w'Siy as Warblers, or as the Nightingale. Doubtless the food recommended for M. grisola by Mr. Louis Bonhote (Avicultural Magazine, Vol. I, p. 58) would answer equally well for this species; he says: — "In captivity, they should be fed on ants' eggs, and hard-boiled eggs, mixed in equal parts, and as many mealworms as their keeper can afford to give them. They become very tame, and will rise in the air and catch mealworms as they are thrown to them. In catching a mealworm, they leave the perch and hover in the air, waiting for the mealworm to drop, and catch it as it passes them ; if they should miss it, they 28 The Red-Breasted Flycatcher follow it closely and catch it as soou as it reaches the ground." The Pied Fly- catcher would probably do the latter every time. Familv-MUSCICAPID.-E. The Red-Breasted Flycatcher. Muscicapa parva, Bkchst. WITH respect to the distribution of this species, Seebohm informs us that it "breeds in Germany, Austria, and South Russia as far north as the Baltic Provinces, arriving during the latter end of April, or early in Ma3% and departing again in August or September. Its occurrence in Western Europe is only accidental." " Loche, says that it is found in Algeria, where it may be a rare winter visitor. It passes through Trans3dvania, Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor on migration, and winters in Nubia." "It breeds in the Caucasus, and winters in Persia." His further remarks tend to show that it passes through Turkestan on migration, occurs in the Baikal district, has been obtained in Kam- schatka, and winters in North India and South China. Up to the date of the publication of Vol. I. of Seebohm's " History of British Birds" in 1883, four examples had been shot, and a fifth seen in Great Britain; the first specimen, a female, was killed near Falmouth, on January' 24th, 1863; the second and third were shot, or caught on Trescoe, in the ScilW Isles, in October of the same year; aud a fourth was shot on the 5th November, 1865. On October the 5th, of 1883, too late to be included by Seebohm, a male was shot at Berwick- on-Tweed, and on October 23rd, 1887, a young bird was picked up on Arklow (South) light-ship, near Wexford : since that time other specimens have been obtained: the specimens recorded up to the end of 1890, being thus summed up by Mr. J. H. Guruey ("Zoologist," 1891, p. 136); — "On September 13th, a female Red-breasted Fly-catcher, Muscicapa parva, Bechsteiu, was shot at Cley by Mr. Ogilvie, the eighth on record, Cornwall being accredited with four, Ireland one. :3REASTED FlYCATCHE Plate 6A The Red- Breasted Flycatcher 29 Berwickshire one, and Yorkshire one, which last was shot at Scarborough, October 23rd, 1889, the same day of the month as the Irish example in 1887. Since that date one was shot at Wells in 1900; a specimen is recorded for 1904, a third for 1905, three for 1906, all from Norfolk ; three were seen in Yorkshire in 1907 ; in Cheshire one was seen in June 1903 ; in the Shetlands several were seen and three shot in 1906. It would therefore appear that this little Flycatcher is likely to occur, especially late in the autumn, upon our coasts ; and, inasmuch as one example on an average has lost its life, in addition to those seen, every two years (taking the dates from 1863 to 1907), the importance of admitting the species into the present work will be recognized. This elegant little species has a curious resemblance to our Robin, and Seebohm expresses the opinion that it is " a connecting-link between the Robins and the Flycatchers" ; his description of the bird is so satisfactory that, in the present instance, I shall quote it iu full: — '"The Red-breasted Flycatcher has the general colour of the upper parts, except the crown, nape, and sides of the head and neck which are bluish-grey, olive-brown ; central tail-feathers blackish-brown ; the outer ones white at base, and broadly tipped with blackish-brown ; throat and breast orange-chestnut ; rest of underparts white, suffused on the flanks and under tail- coverts with buff; beak brown, paler at the base; irides hazel; legs, toes, and claws dark brown. The female in general colouration resembles the male, except that the rich orange-chestnut throat is replaced by buff, and the bluish-grey is wanting on the head and sides of the neck. Males of the j'ear scarcely differ from the female, and breed in the following spring in immature plumage (M. mituita). In the second year the chestnut appears on the throat (M. leucura) ; in the third year the chestnut appears on the upper breast (M. parva) ; and in the fourth year it extends also on to the lower breast" {M. hyperythra). "Young in first plumage are spotted on the breast and upper parts, as in all the allied species." I believe that this is by no means the only species which has received a different name for each plumage : I have already noted * that examples of Munia atricapilla which I received in young plumage in 1887, did not acquire the distinc- tive black ventral band until the second moult ; but a more curious change occurred in the spring of 1896, when one of my old examples of Quelea quelea assumed the breeding-plumage of Q. rii!beyiziHaJ ; but the Catalogue of Birds, of the British Museum, regards the Grosbeaks as constituting a third Subfamily (Coccothraitstiiuc). Seebohm agreed with Howard Saunders in uniting the latter Subfamily to the typical Finches ; but, in my opinion, there is more difficulty in distinguishing between some of the foreign Buntings, aud Grosbeaks, than between the latter and the true Finches. I would, in any case, rather err on the side of too much regard for structural differences, than on the opposite side. The F) hio'iUidcr have the tenth primary, which is often well-developed, con- cealed by a longer covert ; it has thus escaped observation aud been asserted to be non-existent ; the bill is hard and conical, aud is (to my mind) better described by the term "beak"; the Finches feed their young from the crop, regurgitating the food when partially- digested : naturally during the breeding season, I believe all are more or less insectivorous, although seed forms their staple food : in confinement, however, many of the Finches will live for many years upon seed alone. The CoccothraiisibuT, or Grosbeaks, of which the Hawfinches are typical, are characterized by a very heavy and powerful beak, with hardly any angle to the chin ; the nasal bones produced backwards beyond the front margin of the eye- socket, (cf. R. B. Sharpe, Cat. Birds, Vol. XII). The Fringillincc, or true Finches, the type of which is our English Chaffinch, usually have a somewhat less powerful beak, with the angle of the chin slightly more defined, but still ver}' feebly shown ; the mandibles almost terminating at the same point ; the nasal bones not produced backwards beyond the front margin of the eye-socket. The E»ib€risi)ur, or Buntings, of which our Yellow Ammer ma}' be considered typical, have a well-marked angle to the chin ; the lower mandible terminating well within the upper one, and not complete!}' closing in the centre of the cutting edge ; the more typical Buntings also have a hard horny knob on the palate, and a compression of the lower mandible to meet it ; they also walk when on the earth, and are largely insectivorous (in which respects the}' approach the Chaffinch and Brambling among the true Finches) : many Buntings, however, are not walking birds. The Fringillida are favourite cage-birds, chiefly on account of the ease with which their food can be provided. ^y X u z il LL The Greenfinch 43 Family—FRIKGILLID.'E. Subfamily— COCCOTHRAUSTIN/E. The Greenfinch. JLigiiriniis ch/ori^, Linn. OF tlie geographical distribution of tlie Greenfinch, Dr. Sharpe says that it inhabits: — "Europe generall}-; the countries bordering the Mediterranean; accidental in Madeira ; extending eastwards in Persia and North-western Turkestan." In Great Britain this conunon and well-known Grosbeak is generally distri- buted, breeding in all suitable localities ; but to the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Shetlands, it is chiefly an autumn and winter visitant, though N. B. Kinnear, in 1907, recorded the fact that it breeds at Stornoway and has probably done so for some time. The Greenfinch varies considerably as regards brilliance of colouring; the birds of the spring immigration being stated to be much paler and brighter in colouring than the resident birds : the latter are largely added to in the autumn, by the advent of immense flocks which arrive in October on our eastern coasts. The adult male above is yellowish-olive, more yellow on the forehead and rump ; greater coverts grey ; primary coverts edged with yellowish ; primaries greyish- brown, edged with yellow ; secondaries with paler outer webs ; tail feathers yellow at the base, blackish at the ends, the central ones largely blackish ; lores blackish ; a broad superciliary yellow stripe ; ear-coverts grey ; sides of face and cheeks yellow, the latter somewhat greyish ; under parts yellow, becoming whitish on the abdomen ; flanks greyish ; beak flesh-coloured, darker towards the tip ; feet horn-brown ; iris hazel. The female is similar in pattern to the male, but slightly smaller, much duller and browner, the feathers of the head and mantle with dark shaft-streaks ; the underparts also are less yellow. After the moult the margins of the feathers are paler, and the 3'ellow less bright ; but in the spring, as with many other species, the tints become purer and more lively. The young are very like the mother bird, but the feathers are somewhat more streaked ; they acquire the adult plumage after their first moult ; but the colouring does not attain its greatest brilliancy in the first year. During the summer months the Greenfinch is a somewhat skulking bird, and 44 Thk Greenfinch chiefly haunts the borders of woods, parks, plantations, shrubberies, gardens, and dense hedgerows ; but in the winter it may often be seen feeding in compau}- with Sparrows, Chaffinches, and Buntings, in stubble-fields, farms, and gardens. Except- ing when feeding its young, the song may frequently be heard ; it is alwaj's bright and clear, and some individuals sing remarkably well, reminding one somewhat of a Norwich Canary ; only, unfortunately the song is always interrupted at the end of a phrase or two by a harsh zshwee>-, and terminated with the same disagreeable note. The call-note is a sound like tirri, or a shrill sharp chirp, somewhat resemb- ling the chink of the Chaffinch ; the call of deiiance is the same as the harsh note introduced into its song ; the call of the young for food resembles that of many Finches — chiwi or chirri. The nest is very frequently placed in hawthorn hedges ; indeed I once found three nests of this bird within a distance of two yards, two of them being only a foot apart, and all three at a height of about five feet from the ground ; it is also commonly placed in clumps of tall furze-bushes ; I have also found it in laurus- tinus bushes, in ivy on walls, in the forks of low trees, chiefly yews and spruce-firs, and a friend found me a nest among the twigs sprouting from the stump of a branch, cut from a tall oak (about eight feet from the ground) this being placed at a greater elevation than any other nest of the species whicli I have met with; Seebohm, however, speaks of the Greenfinch sometimes selecting a site "fift}- feet or more from the ground, in a fork of an elm, or even in a cavity in the trunk." The nest varies considerably, the thickness of the walls being from one to two inches, and usually very firmly, though occasionally' loosely constructed ; the depth of some nests is also double that of others ; as regards materials I cannot do better than quote my own descriptions of eight selected nests from my "Handbook of British Oology"; — "i. — An outer framework of rough twigs and coarse roots, the walls of fine roots and green moss, and the lining of fine reddish fibrous roots. 2. — Of coarse, half-decayed straws, bents, and roots, thickly lined with fine root-fibre. 3. — Of slender withered grass-straws, and a mass of greyish wool, felted together, and lined with a few black horse-hairs. 4. — Of sticks, roots, and moss externally ; of wool, vegetable fibre, and less moss, inwardly, lined with a few black horse-hairs. 5. — Of coarse plaited roots externally ; of finer roots, moss, slender white hairs, and a little wool, matted together inwardly, and lined with a few black horse-hairs. 6. — Of green moss, with a few twigs and roots, and thickly lined with cocoanut fibre and a few black hairs. 7.- — Loosely constructed of green moss and spiders' webs, with a few twigs; lined with vegetable fibre, and a few black hairs. 8. — Of twice the usual depth, (like a nest within a nest) formed of green moss, wool, and fibrous roots, in patches, The Greenfinch 45 which give it an extremely soft and variegated appearance ; a few twigs outside, and a little hair iu the lining." In form the nest is usually a fairly regular cup ; but the nest taken from sprouting oak-twigs, noted above, is shaped like a sabot. The eggs number from four to six, usually five, and vary in ground-tint from greenish to pinkish-white, rarely to pale green, or huffish ; the markings are, more often than not, chief!}' confined to the larger end, and consist of spots, comma- shaped markings, irregular lines occasionall}', and blotches of pitchy browu, or blackish, with underlying spots, and sometimes large blotches of sienna-reddish, or reddish-chocolate. In some eggs the markings are principall}' confined to a zone near the larger end, and sometimes the_y are scattered here and there like fl_v-marks over the entire surface : the form is b}- no means constant, a shortish oval type being common, though all gradations ma}' be found between this and a long almond or even spindle-shaped type. The Greenfinch will pair freely, both in cage and aviary, with the Canary ; and crosses between it and the common Linnet iu a wild state, are probably the most frec|ueut and the best authenticated of the numberless well-known wild hybrids which have been recorded. In confinement the Greenfinch breeds as readily as a Canary, and brings up its young much better, not attempting to pluck them (like that foolish bird) after they have left the nest. It is very pugnacious in the breeding-season, dashing straight at its opponent like a bull at a gate. One year I had a cock Greenfinch in an aviary with a pair of Canaries, and of course, the Grosbeak fancied it could easily dispose of its slim opponent, and take possession of his wife : so, with a harsh defiant zshivecr, it charged blindly at him : the Canary took little apparent notice of the Greenfinch until it was within a foot or two, then with a graceful little curving flight he alighted on its back, and plucked out a beakful of feathers. This manoeuvre was successfully repeated every time that the more powerful bird attacked him ; so that at length the blundering bully came to consider that discretion was the better part of valour. I found that a pair of Greenfinches in an aviary built in an ordinary nest-box hung upon the wires, building and feeding exactly as a Canary would : but not attempting to incubate until the third ^^^ was deposited : they not only batched all their eggs, but brought up their family without one failure. In the winter, especially in severe weather, this bird may readily be caught in the ordinary cage-trap, especially if a decoy bird is placed iu the cage, and a few sunflower seeds upon the platform. The larger Grosbeaks are all fond of these seeds, and it is no uncommon sight in spacious gardens to see the ripe sunflower heads covered with Greenfinches biisily at work extracting every seed. I once knew two old ladies who were great breeders of Canaries : on one VuL. u. N 46 The Hawfinch occasiou I called upon them to try aud obtain a cock bird for breeding purposes; and, seeing that they had paired a Greenfinch and hen Canary in one of their cages, I asked whj- they were trying to breed such ugly unremuuerative mules. They replied that their stock was getting weak, and they always introduced Green- finch blood when their birds were falling off in vigour, aud then bred out the taint, pairing the mules with Canaries. This has been supposed an impossibility; yet it was spoken of as a matter of course. Since then other mules, said to have been bred from hybrids, paired with either parent stock, have been exhibited at the Crystal Palace. Family^ FRINGILLID.'E. Subfamily— COCCOTIIRA USTIN/E. The Hawfinch. Coccotliraustcs vulgaris, PallAS. This extremely ungainly bird is distributed over nearly the whole of Europe; breeding in Russia as far northwards as St. Petersburg, but only visiting Scandinavia in the winter ; its range extends eastwards to Asia Minor, and the Caucasus, and possibly to Northern Persia and Turkestan. On the African Continent a few examples breed in Algeria, and the species has been known to straggle as far northward as Egypt. In Great Britain the Hawfinch is local, but according to the late Howard Saunders has been increasing in numbers for the past Aft}' 3-ears ; he attributes this fact to the increase of market-gardens. Formerly it was rare in Wales and the extreme western counties from Cornwall to Cumberland ; but breeding in suitable localities in most of the counties of England and in Ireland. To Scotland it is still chiefly an accidental winter visitant, though one nest was obtained in 1903 near Newport, in the east of Fifesliire. Although the form of the Hawfinch is anything but graceful, its colouring is Thk Hawfinch 47 rather pleasing : — The adult male has the head of a ciunamon-brown colour, a line round the base of the bill, the lores, chin, and throat, black ; the nape is smoky gre}- ; the back and scapulars dull chestnut, somewhat paler on the rump, and becoming rather j-ellower on the upper tail-coverts ; wings bluish-black, the median coverts white ; the quills with a white patch near the middle of their inner webs, gradually increasing on the inner feathers, and tipped with blue ; the tail-coverts cinnamon-brown, much elongated ; tail feathers black, white at the extremit}' of the inner webs : under surface of body pale Dove-brown, fading to white on the under tail-coverts ; beak in summer bluish-grey, darker at the tip ; in winter brownish ilesh-coloured ; feet flesh-coloured ; iris whitish. The female is duller in colour, with the white markings less pure. The 3'Oung are without black on the throat, or grey on the nape ; the head is also yellower, and the under surface of the body whiter ; the mantle is mottled, and the breast and flanks are barred with dark brown. The Hawfinch is resident with us ; but it is probable that at least some of the young leave our shores at the approach of winter, their places being taken by immigrants from the north : in the autumn they not infrequently fly into the nets of the birdcatchers, and are disposed of at ver}? moderate prices. During the summer months the Hawfinch is an exceedingly shy bird, and is far more frequently heard than seen ; its call-note, consisting of a whistle four times repeated, and drawn out at the finish, being familiar to most frequenters of its haunts ; the harsh Greenfinch-like sound, sometimes mistaken for its call-note, is probably its cr}' of defiance. The song is a ver}' inferior performance of short duration, some- what like that of an inferior Greenfinch. The Hawfinch frequents well-wooded localities, such as forest-clearings, small woods, plantations, shrubberies, heavily timbered parks, where patches of 3'ews or hawthorn and bramble are left to break the monotony of the landscape, and old orchards ; in such places it builds, varying the site of the nest according to the haunt which it frequents ; thus in a wood or clearing it usuall}^ makes its home in some old hawthorn, tangled with blackberry-vines, or in a holl}', or on the branch of a fir, oak, or beech-tree, some fifteen to thirty feet from the ground ; but in an orchard, an old lichen-covered apple or pear-tree is chosen. The nest of this bird most nearly resembles that of a Biillfinch, being very shallow, and alwa3-s formed in a foundation of twigs ; one which I found in course of formation, had the whole of this external structure formed of strongly spined interlaced twigs of hawthorn, from which all the leaves had been stripped, and presented a most formidable appearance ; sometimes, however, the twigs are intermixed with coarse roots and dead plants, and ornamented with lichens ; the 48 The Hawfinch uest itself is built of dead grasses aud bents, and the lining consists of rootlets and hair: altogether it is so large that the Wood-Pigeon has been known to add a few twigs to it, and thus adapt it to its own purposes.* The eggs number from four to six, though five is the usual complement ; they are pale bluish or bufl&sh-green in colour, and vary in pattern between that of the Common- aud Reed- Buntings, the surface spots, blotches, aud streaks being deep pitch-brown, with underlying spots of lilaciue-gre}' : in size and form they correspond pretty closel}' with eggs of the Common Bunting. The flight of the Hawfinch is rapid and powerful, somewhat undulating when the bird is passing from tree to tree, but more direct when long distances are covered. On the wing it often utters a peculiar clicking sound, a kind of tic, which may also sometimes be heard when the bird is caged. The food consists largely of seeds, those of the hornbean being much relished ; but when feeding its young it devours insects, especially caterpillars, and probably buds ; later in the 3'ear peas, cherr^'-kernels, beech-mast, yew-berries, and haws are eaten. In confinement sunflower-seeds, hemp, oats, beech-nuts, canar}-, and millet may be given. Personally I have had but little experience of the Hawfinch as a cage-bird. On September i4tli, 1893, a birdcatcher brought me a specimen which had flown into his nets : he was evidently afraid to handle it, and cautioned me against attempting to touch it without gloves, saying that its bite was frightful and drew blood ; however I soon had the bird in my hand and caged it ; but, although I placed the cage on a high shelf, the Hawfinch never became tame, but so wore the feathers of its wings and tail by its efi^orts to escape, that when after a few weeks of captivity it died, the skin was not worth preserving. I am, therefore, convinced that the Hawfinch should either be turned into a large aviary, or be hand- reared. Speaking of a pair taken from the uest and brought to him in 1880, the late Lord Lilford says : — " My two caged Hawfinches * * readily devoured meal-worms and house-flies, but I imagine that this is an unnatural and acquired taste." In this I think his Lordship was in error, for there can be nothing unnatural in a bird largely reared upon partly digested caterpillars, subsequently eating mealworms. Ripe apples would probably be a welcome addition to its prison-diet ; for, according to Mr. Horatio Fillmer, of Brighton, the Black-tailed Hawfinch is especially fond of fruit. As a pet the Hawfinch has but little to recommend it ; it is not a pretty * When I wrote my "Handbook of British Oolog>" I bad not fouml one finished nest of the Hawfinch; one or two seen subsequeutlj- in Hertfordshire had already been deserted. The Hawfinch 49 bird, is quarrelsome, spiteful, and can on no account be trusted in an aviary with an}' species weaker than itself. It is, moreover, full}' as much trouble to its owner in respect of food as many a far more attractive species : j-et, according to the late Rev. H. A. Alacpherson, it has one merit ; although its own song is insig- nificant, the Hawfinch is not wholl}' destitute of the imitative facult}'. In ni}' friend the late Charles A. Witchell's interesting work on tlie "Evolution of Bird- song," we read (p. 172): "Even so poor a songster as the Hawfinch will imitate when a captive. The Rev. H. A. Macpherson imforms me that they will pick up any soiinds." Nevertheless, when a bird has no beaut}^ of form, and when its colouring is little superior to that of a hen Chaffinch, its song should compensate for other deficiencies ; and, as Major Alexander von Home3'er remarks (Gefiederte Welt, Vol. XX, p. 4S9) the cherry-kernel biter is "not gifted with natural song." It appears to me that, in dealing with British birds, it is far more convenient to introduce the Bullfinches (the so-called Gro.sbeaks) immediately after the true Grosbeaks : in their habits the}- are not dissimilar ; whereas, to place them, as Howard Saunders has done in his " Mauual," between the more slender-billed Finches and the Buntings, seems rather unnatural : I have, therefore, not followed him in this respect. There is not the least doubt that, so far as their habits are concerned, the most typical Finches (that is the members of the genus Fyi>igiIIa) approach far more closely to the Buntings than au}' other species of the Subfamily, and next to I^ri)ioi/ln, I should consider Piisser (in spite of its aberrant nest) to show relationship to the Emberizina: : I speak as an Avicultiirist of course, and do not venture to criticize the classification from a structural standpoint. so The Two-Barred Crossbill Family— FRINGILLID.^. Subfamily— FRINGILLIN.E. The Two-Barred CroSvSbill. Lo\ia bifasctala, C. L. Brkhm. HOWARD SAUNDERS gives the following account of the distribution of this species, aud its claims to be regarded as British seem to be well supported :— It " inhabits the coniferous forests of Northern Russia, and Siberia, as far as the Pacific ; wandering in autumn aud winter to South Sweden, Denmark, Heligoland, North Germany, Holland, Belgium, the North of France, North Italy, Austria and Poland. In our Islands the first recorded specimen was obtained near Belfast, Ireland, on May nth, 1802, and in July or August, 1868, a second was obtained in co. Dublin. A few years prior to 1843, one was killed in Cornwall; in the autumn of 1845, a flock appeared in the ueighbourhood of Brampton, in Cumberland, and ten or eleven were shot, six of them being in female plumage; in May, 1846, two or three were killed from a flock near Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk ; and about the same time the late H. Doubleda}' shot a bird in his garden at Eppiug. Others have been observed in various parts of the United Kingdom." (Manual of British Birds, p. 195.) A male was obtained at Westfield, Sussex, iu 1899, aud a female at Woodchurch, Kent, in 1902. The adult male has the feathers of the upper surface of a rose-madder tint, browner on the back, and inclining to carmine on the rump, the bases of the feathers broadly black ; the wings are black, the greater aud median coverts being broadly tipped with white ; the inner secondaries edged with white at their extremities ; tail brownish-black, with rosy-white edges to the feathers ; under surface rose-madder, whitish on the bell}', becoming quite white towards the vent; beak and feet horn-brown ; iris hazel. The female above is greenish-grey, washed with yellow, and streaked with brown ; the rump is yellow ; under parts sordid yellow, streaked with brown ; the throat and abdomen paler. The j'oung bird is distinctly greyer than the female, more prominently streaked, with narrower tips to the median coverts; the flights and tail-feathers with well-defined greenish- white margins. The American form of this species (known as the "White-winged Crossbill") has, on several occasions, been obtained upon our shores ; but, considering the Tvvo-BA: L. 2. S t^. Plate 70. The Two-Barred Crossbill 51 numbers of American Passeres imported yearly to this country, it would be indeed surprising if some of them did not fall victims to the desire implanted in the hearts of many collectors to secure every strange bird which the}' see ; moreover, quiet and confiding as the Crossbills and Rose-finches are in confinement, they are in some respects far less attractive pets than many other birds ; therefore it is quite conceivable that the owner might weary of them, and give them their liberty. This near relative of our common species, agrees ver}- closely with it in its habits, frequenting and breeding iu forests of conifers, and feeding largely upon the seeds of these trees : in confinement it is said to be very fond of apples ; but I suspect, as is the case with the common Crossbill, it merely chews up and drops the fruit iu order to secure the pips, which these birds eat with great relish. The nest is described by Mr. Dresser, as chiefly differing from that of L. curvirostra iu being smaller and slighter ; the eggs also are said to resemble very closely those of the common species, but are smaller and darker. The song is stated to be superior ; but, as the common Crossbill can hardly be said to have a song worth meutiouing, it need not be especially meritorious on that account ; indeed, Herr Mathias Rausch speaks of the Crossbills collectively (Gefiederte Welt, Vol. XX, p. 396) as of trifling value as cage-birds, on account of their song ; with which opinion Major Alexander von Homeyer (p. 489) agrees. Herr Gatke says that in 18S9 this species "occurred more frequently (on Heligoland) than on any previous occasion. On the 14th of August I obtained a beautiful scarlet-red male, and an old female. On the 1st, i6tli, 18th, 20th, and 22nd of September, from two, five, up to eight males and females were seen daily, accompanied by larger numbers of the common species ; but among all these only one bird in the grey- and black-striped early dress. For my collection I stuffed three fine red old males, a younger yellow male, two old females, and the young bird already mentioned. A large number were consigned to cages by fanciers : some of them having been sold, the rest subsequently died out." 52 The Common Ckossbill Family— FRIXGILLIDrE. Subfamily— FRINGILLIAVE. The Common Crossbill. Loxta iUi'7'iyosira, Lixx. ACCORDING to Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, tliis species inhabits " the gi-eater part of Europe and Northern Asia, to Japan and North China, Himakn-as, North America as far as Mexico. lu Great Britain, the Crossbill is principall}' confined during the summer mouths to the pine forests of Scotland ; though it has bred in several of the eastern counties of Ireland, and in Tipperary, as well as in North Wales and some of the counties of England : here, however, it is most frequently met with during the winter, .sometimes in flocks, though often only in small parties. In colouring this species nearly resembles the Two-barred Crossbill, excepting in the absence of the white tips to the greater and median wing-coverts : perhaps the male is a little less brilliant in colour, and the female a little more orange ; but as these birds vary in these respects with age, it is not safe to speak positively' : one thing is certain — that, in captivity the red colouring is entireh- lost after the first moult; but whether permanently it is not safe to sa_v without experimenting, inasmuch as many birds, notably the American Nonpareil (Cyaiiospiza ciris) lose their red colouring in the same manner ; yet the Nonpareil, at an}- rate if exposed in an airy and sunny aviary for a j-ear or two, and supplied with plenty of insect-food, reproduces the red colouring. The mandibles of the young bird are straight, the lower mandible being covered by the cutting edges of the upper ; but in the adult birds it curves upwards towards the tip, that of the male (in the ordinary variety) barely reaching to a level with the culmen of the upper mandible, on the inside if viewed from above ; that of the female, which has much the longer, less arched, and more slender beak, projecting well above the culmen on the outside. This different crossing of the mandibles in the sexes probably enables the male to feed the female ; otherwise it is difficult to understand its object.* The Crossbill is an irregular migrant ; consequently if food is scarce in the north, it wanders southward to search for sustenance there : in winter the species • Since writing the above, I find that this character is not constant; it would, therefore, be of interest to note whether pairs are ever shot from one nest having their beaks similarly crossed. A.G.B. CO -- 'J) ^ O i: ' 1 ■'- ( -) The Common Crossbill 53 is more gregarious than in summer, tliougli even during the latter season Seebohm tells us that " small parties of males may be seen seeking food in company. The}^ are ver_y earh' breeders ; and fresh eggs are usually found in February and March. Eggs have been taken in April and May; but these are probably laid by birds whose first nests have been destroyed by their numerous enemies, or by heavy falls of snow, and are not second broods, as some ornithologists have supposed. If these birds are successful in rearing a brood, the faniilj^-part}^ appear at once to commence their gipsy life. If they meet a similar family-part}^ the}' appear to fraternise at once, and form the nucleus of a flock, which is some- times seen far from home as early as June, wandering in search of food. It is a very pretty sight to see these flocks feeding upon the berries of the mouutain-ash,* or stripping the larch or spruce trees of their cones. In winter they are exceed- ingly tame, and will allow the observer to approach very near and watch them without showing any signs of alarm. They are very active, and when busily engaged in feeding, place themselves in all sorts of positions, like a Tit or a Willow- Wren. They pass from tree to tree with strong but undulating flight, continually calling to each other. In late winter or early spring the males have a low warbling song, which reminds one somewhat of that of the Starling. The female is said also to sing nearly as well as the male." (Hist. British Birds, Vol. II, pp. 32-33). I have never heard the Crossbill sing, but should imagine that it would not differ greatly from that of the so-called " Pine-Grosbeak " (when recording probably ; for hitherto I have only heard the latter utter a little bubbling chirrup, consisting of six or eight notes) ; in any case it must be a poor song, if we are to trust the judgment of our musical friends the Germans. The call-note, and the only note which I ever heard proceed from the beak of the Crossbill, is cliip, chip; chip, chip; chip, chip; repeated incessantly, from morning to night, with the monotonous regularity of a pendulum : but Seebohm declares that the bird sometimes says tsup, or tsop ; in which I think he must have allowed his imagination to lead him astray, as it certainly has when he likens the cry to those of Chaffinches and Linnets. The horizontal branch of a fir near the trunk, or at a distance from the trunk, or the forking branches of a pine, sometimes not more than five feet from the ground, are occasionally selected as building sites ; but it is stated that apparently the favourite position is almost at the top of the tree, in the centre of the forking branches which thus form a sort of frame in which to support it. ' Hardl}- so earl}' as June though, for I do not remember to have seen these berries really ripe before the first week in August. — A.G.B, Vol. II. P Ci4 The Common Ckosshiu, The nesl itself is built after the pattern of that of the Bullfinch, a foundation of twigs of Scotch fir, enclosing a cup-shaped structure of dr\- grass and lichen; the lining being formed of somewhat finer materials, mixed with moss, wool, or feathers. The eggs number fri)m four to five, but rarely- exceed four ; the}' var_v in colouring from greenish-blue to gre_vish-white, and are spotted, speckled, and sometimes almost streaked with dai-k-brown ; there are also underlj-ing spots of pale reddish-brown, and the larger end is occasionally dusted with greyish. The specimen figured on our plate is from the collection of A. B. Farn, Esc|. Whilst feeding their 3'oung the Crossbill feeds largel}' upon caterpillars, and other larvae, also the chrysalides of a little moth, as well as buds of trees; but later, as the fir- and pine-cones ripen, it extracts the seeds with its powerful man- dibles and feasts upon them. Berries of various kinds are largely eaten, and Seebohm says that the Crossbill is very fund of apples, but this is not strictly correct, for it simply tears the fruit to pieces and drops it, eating onl}' the pips ; I frequently observed the destructive act in the case of a pair of caged Crossbills once in nn' possession, but my birds never ate the pips. Lord Lilford (Birds of Northamptonshire, Vol. I, pp. 205-6) observes: — "We have geuerall_v found the Crossbills ver\- tame and easy of approach, and a flock of these birds, bnsil}' emploj-ed in feeding on the seeds of a snow-laden fir-tree, is a beautiful and most interesting sight. Their actions in quest of food very much resemble those of the suuiller Parrots as they cling to and clamber about the large cones, from which they extract the seeds with wonderful rapidity. In confinement we have found this species, though it soon becomes perfectly tame, invariably very restless, and constantly climbing over all parts of its cage as if seeking to escape. As above mentioned, fir-seeds are the natural and favourite food ; but these birds will readily feed on hemp-seed, and almost any of our common berries." "Although we have found our tame birds ver}' fond of the pips of apples, we never could induce them to extract the said pips from the fruit for themselves."* My own experience of the Crossbill as a cage-bird agrees very closely with the above as regards its disposition and behaviour : the following are mj' notes on this species: In the winter of 1886-7, my friend Mr. J. Johnston gave me a pair of Crossbills, and within a week the cock-bird would take sunflower seeds from my fingers. These birds are quiet but amusing creatures, much like Parrots in their actions. I placed their seed in one of the ordinary tin hoppers to prevent their wasting it, but in two days they had found out how to lift up the lid at * My birds ahvajs did so fioiu the first, though tliey diil not tat Iheni when extracted. The Common Crossbill 55 the top, after wliicli the cock-bird almost invariably took liis seeds out there, clinging head downwards to the wires as he fed : in a few days the Crossbills became accustomed to their cage, and immediately set to work to do all the mischief they could. They tore to pieces perch after perch, so that incessant renewal was necessary ; then they began to tear awaj^ the woodwork of the cage, which was anything but pleasing to me, as it had cost me more money than I could afford to throw awa}^ : moreover, they fought for supremacy, and their bad language at such times was incessant chip-chip-i/iip. At last the chip of beak and tongue was more than I could stand, and I greatly desired to be rid of the dear creatures. I think it likel}- that my Crossbills refused to take the trouble to eat apple- pips, because they were well supplied with sunflower-seed, with which the}- were perfectly satisfied. On the 6tli February, 1S87, I removed the Crossbills from their large wooden-framed flight-cage to a much sujaller metal prison (such is sometimes irsed for Canaries) ; two days later the cock-bird discovered how to open the door ; and, after carefull}' shutting it behind him, flew up to the roof of the greenhouse in which the cage was hung, and amused himself b^^ walking about on the creepers head downwards. It was quite three-quarters of an hour before he could be again secured in his cage, and he used his mandibles to some purpose upon his captor. The door of the cage was now fastened with wire, to prevent another exhibition of the bird's skill as a prison-breaker. On the morning of the 9th the cock-bird died, apparently out of pique, for we could discover no cause for his death, his organs being all in perfect condition ; but possibly he may have been squeezed when captured : the following day the hen had a fit and followed his example. Thus my hope of exchanging my Crossbills for some less destructive species were disappointed. 56 Thk Pixk-Grosbhak Family— FRIXGILLILhE. Subfamily -FR I Mj 11. LLWE. The Pink-Grosbeak. Pyy)linla cmiclcatoy, LiNN. FROM time to time some five and twenty occurrences of this species in Great Britain had been recorded previous to 1900; but, as Howard Saunders says : — " Professor Newton (4th Ed. Yarrell's B. B.) has disposed of all but five as unworthy of belief; while, to my mind, few even of these sifted records are entitled to acceptance." In 1905 a small flock appeared near Hawkhurst in Kent, and subsequently in Ashburuham Park, Sussex ; several specimens being shot. It seems to me that even if the species has been shot here, the probabilit}^ is that (in every case) the examples have either escaped or been freed from confine- ment ; inasmuch as it is not oul}- imported from time to time as a cage-bird, but in my short experience (commencing in Jul}' 1896)* the birds, though wonderfully tame and intelligent, are too powerful and destructive to be trusted with weaker companions, and eat so voraciously that their food makes a distinct difference in one's expenses : they are like most insect-eating finches, very fond of earthworms and green food ; but the quantity of sunflower-seed and hemp which they devour in a day is astonishing, whilst their chief amusement in my aviar}' consisted in tearing ivy to pieces. A man in a hurry to part with such birds would be verj^ likely to turn them loose. There is an interesting account of the breeding of this species in captivity by Mr. W. H. St. Quintin, in the " Avicultural Magazine" 2nd sec. Vol. V, PP- .55-56 (1906). * JI}' frieiiil Mr. J.inies H. I'lciiiiiig, of Ontario, very kindly sent nic hall" a dozen specimens, all of which reached me iu good health. ..'^^p ■>»s 4 .>m-- ' PL\re. 76. The Mealy Redpoll 73 I always purchase my Goldfinches as "Grey-pates"; and as they have plenty of exercise and abundance of nourishing food, ruy birds when adult are frequently mistaken by breeders for "Russians"; when first turned out they always have plenty of hemp and teasel, with groundsel and chickweed ; and there is usually a saucer of soft-food in the aviary : the colours of the male birds are wonderfully pure and brilliant, and the birds themselves are large and well-formed. Mule-breeding between Goldfinch and Canary is easy enough, for I was successful in my first essay ; but between the Goldfinch and other Finches, there is more difficulty (although this species sometimes hybridizes with the Greenfinch in a wild state) especially in the case of the only reality handsome cross — between the Goldfinch and Bullfinch. The variety of Goldfinch known as a " Cheverel " is sometimes preferred for muling purposes ; it diifers from the normal form in having the centre of the throat white. The bird-catchers assert that Goldfinches from different parts of our islands sing differently ; and they call the best singers " Slammers," from a fancied resemblance of part of the song to the words — " Slam-so-witty, slippity-cur," with other rubbish which no bird could whistle. Family— FRIXGILLID.^E. Suhfamilx—FRIXGILLLW-E. The Mealy Redpoll. Acanihis liiiaria, LiNN. SEEBOHM treats the Redpolls as races of one species, but considers that the typical form, A. linaria, and the two extremes, A. ni/csccus and A. Iiorncmanni, are worthy of subspecific rank ; at least that seems to me to be the only construction to be put upon his observations. Howard Saunders, on the other hand, unites A. linaria and A. horncmanni, remarking: — "for the sake of convenience, I propose to treat the Mealy Redpolls under one heading, and to 74 The Mkai.v Redi'oll take our small, dark Lesser Redpoll separatel}-." As this appears to me to be the most reasonable course to pursue, I shall do the same. Dr. Sharpe regards the Lesser Redpoll (.1. n/fi-sciiis) as a subspecies of A. liiiaria, but distinguishes .7. hoi iiema)i):i as a subspecies of A. exiiipe^, the latter being considered a different species from the Mealy Redpoll, on account of its greyer rump. When no two Ornithologists agree as to the limits of various closelj'-related t3-pes, the evidence in favour of these all belonging to one species would seem to be very strong indeed. Nevertheless, as regards Great Britain, the two Redpolls usuall^^ met with are sufliciently distinct to be separately treated. ■- Dr. Sharpe gives the distribution of our Mealy Redpoll as: — "Northern Europe, across Siberia to North America, wintering in more southern localities." To Great Britain this bird is a more or less irregular winter visitor ; Howard Saunders states that it "is a regular winter visitor to Shetland, from September onwards, and the track of its migration appears to be principall}' along the east coast in Scotland, and the north of England, for the bird is rarer, and of more uncertain occurrence on the west side. South of Durham its visits become irregular; in the eastern counties it has occasionally been obtained in spring, and exceptionally in summer ; and in some years large flocks have been noticed down to the Channel ; but in Cornwall it is as yet unknown. In Ireland an example was taken in co. Kildare, in February, 1876." (Manual British Birds, p. 182). An example was shot at Achill Island, co. Mayo, according to F. Coburn, Bull. B.O.U., XII, p. 15. The male Mealy Redpoll in breeding-plumage has the upper parts pale brown, lighter on the back and sides of neck, and streaked with blackish-brown ; the forehead crimson ; the rump greyish white, suffused with rose-pink ; wings dull blackish ; median and greater coverts with pale brown edges and wdiitish tips ; the quills and primary coverts with greyer edges and narrower tips ; tail dark brown, with paler edges to the feathers, the inner webs margined with white ; base of forehead and lores black ; a superciliary streak and a short streak below the eye whitish ; sides of face pale brown, the cheeks slightly rosy ; chin black ; throat and breast rose-pink ; remainder of under parts bufEsh-white, becoming quite white on the under tail-coverts ; flanks streaked with blackish-brown ; beak 3-ellowish horn-colour, darker at the tip and more yellow at the base ; feet dark brown ; iris hazel. The female is slightly smaller than the male, and has a rather broader crown;* * It is the general rule in birds that the sex which tniikls the nest has the broader crown, but if both sexes build, the male usually has the advantage in this respect; he also then has a broader and somewhat shorter bill, with less evenly tapering sides : in the typical Finches the female usually has the broader head, but in the Grass-iinches, the reverse is often the case. The male also has a narrower and somewhat more tapering wing, formed for speed ; so as to enable him to overtake the female. Till': AIkalv Rhdi'oll 75 she is also darker above, more prominentl}' streaked below, and wants the rose- colouring on the rump, the tliroat, and breast. The youug chiefly differ from the female in the lack of crimson on the forehead, and in the more sand}' colouring of the upper parts. In confinement, the crimson and ros}' colouring entirely disappears after the first moult, excepting in large and well ventilated aviaries, when it is sometimes partially retained : this statement also applies to the Lesser Redpoll, the Twite, and the Linnet. In its habits, this and all the Redpolls are much alike, restless, fidgety little creatures, Tit-like in their actions, inquisitive, and mischievous ; but intelligent, and, therefore, easy to teach all kinds of meaningless tricks : principally on account of the last qualification they have become favourite cage-birds with that class of persons which is charmed with what is unnatural. To the true lover of nature a talking bird may be amusing, because it is the nature of many birds to imitate sounds ; but a performing bird is offensive. Seebohm (Hist. British Birds, Vol. II, pp. 118- 119) has some interesting observations on the habits of this species, both abroad and in this country, which are worth noting. He says that in winter they are principally ground-feeders, which we should have expected to be the case from what we know of Linnets and Goldfinches; like which birds they "alight in a flock on a bed of dead thistles," and amuse themselves by picking them to pieces. He also records the fact of their picking seeds from the droppings of horses on the roads ; which is instructive, as showing that they look upon oats and kindred grain as wholesome food ; a fact which aviculture taught me many years ago. The nest of the Mealy Redpoll is usually placed in the fork of a birch-tree at no great height from the ground , it has also been found in grass-tussocks ; it is neatly constructed of twigs, bents, strips of bark, and lichens, or moss ; the lining of willow-catkins, vegetable-down, hair, wool, and sometimes feathers. The eggs number from five to six, and vary in colour from pale greenish to pale bluish, with dark brown surface-spots, and paler red-brown underlying markings. Although there is no satisfactory evidence to prove that the Mealy Redpoll has ever bred in Great Britain, a male in breeding-plumage was observed at Riddlesworth, in July, 1848, and noticed by Prof. Alfred Newton in the " Zoologist" (^p. 2382) ; still this bird may possibly have escaped from an out-door aviary after a few months confinement. The song of this species, if such it can be called, is merely a prolonged trill, such as may be imitated either by vibrating the soft palate as you whistle. 76 The Mealy Redpoll or by using a pea-whistle, and the call-note somewhat resembles that of a Canar\', a kind of tnvcy. The favourite food consists of seed of the birch, but many other seeds are eaten, and in confinement the same food is eaten by the Redpolls as by the Canary ; the most wholesome seeds being Canary, German rape, and oats. Curiously enough, aviculturists do not appear to be aware of the fact that most seed-eating birds are fond of the last-mentioned wholesome and cheap seed, and they quite laugh at the mere idea of offering oats to small birds, imagining that, because the seed is large, it is only suitable for Cardinals or other large birds : this is a curious mistake. In addition to the above, grass-seed, thistle, and teasel, are good for a change, especially during the breeding and moulting seasons. Not being particularly fond of Redpolls in an aviary, I have never purchased the jMealy race; but Henry Stevenson in his "Birds of Norfolk" (p. 229) sa3-s: — " Both the Mealy and Lesser Redpolls, from their tameness and engaging actions, are most desirable additions to the cage or aviary, but iVom their happy contented natures are liable to grow too fat, and like Ortolans, when over-fed, drop off the perch in a fit of apoplex}'. Mr. Charles Barnard, of this city, before mentioned as so successful in breeding the Bramblings in confinement, had a brood of j-oung Mealy Redpolls, hatched off in his aviary at vStoke, in July, i860, a very uncommon circumstance with this species." Of late years the judges at some of our large shows have been very unwilling to award prizes, in the British classes, to birds which do not breed with us ; asserting, in support of their action, that most of these birds have not even been captured upon British soil ; but have been imported as cage-birds direct from Germany. Singularl}' enough, they invariably waive this objection in the case of the Mealy Redpoll, which (though it may be in wild breeding-plumage, and by no means tame) usually carries off the prizes over the heads of the more soberly clad though home-bred Lesser Redpoll. Such inconsistency can only be explained on the supposition that the life-history of the Mealy Redpoll has not been so inti- mately studied as it ought to be by those who have to deal with it upon the show-bench. As Gatke observes : — " The breeding stations of the Mealy Redpoll lie within the Arctic Circle, both in the Old and New World." Speaking of the migration of this species, the same author says that on the 4tli and 5tli November, 1847, "countless flocks" and "innumerable multitudes" visited Heligoland: — "the whole island was literally co\-ered with these birds, so that one might have thrown a stone in any direction one chose, and it was sure to hit birds as long as it con- tinued rolling along the ground." It is during such unusual manifestations of m \ \\ The Lesser Redpoll 77 feathered life, that the bird-catcher gathers iu his harvest, and the markets are gdutted throughout Europe. R I mux -FRIXGILLID.E. Subfamily— FR I N(ULLL\L-E. The LEvSser Redpoll. .■{ciDilhis ra/csci-ns, ViElLLOT. OCCURS iu Western Europe, aud probably breeds iu some of the mountains of the South-West ; one nest having been obtained from the Veglio Alps, in Italy, about 7,000 feet above the sea-level. Iu Great Britain this Redpoll is resident, breeding most freely in the north of England and Ireland, aud iu well-timbered localities in Scotland, more particu- larly iu plantations of birch. This bird is, however, by no meaus restricted to the north of England, or Ireland, during the breeding-season ; its nest having been found in most of the southern counties to the east of Somerset, in the north of which county it has also bred : in Kent, I believe, it breeds regularly, though not abundantl}', every j-ear.* The upper surface, of the adult male in breeding-plumage is ruddy olive- brown, longitudinally streaked on each feather with blackish ; wings and tail darker brown, with pale margins ; innermost secondaries broadly margined; median and greater coverts with broad huffish tips; crown bright satiny crimson iu front; rump washed with rosy-red ; lores and centre of throat black ; sides of head and throat golden olive-brown ; breast rose-red ; sides and flanks golden olive-brown, streaked with blackish ; belly white, stained with huffish ; beak ochreous-yellow, * E. A. Swaiusou (Zoologist, 1S91, p. 357) records the fact tliat this species breeds every year uear Brecon iu Wales. The nest has also beeu fouud in Sussex, Berks, Surre}-, Middlesex, Cheshire, Oxfordshire, Rutlandshire, and the Outer Hebrides. Vul.. 11. X 78 The Lrssek REnrc^rj, dark brown :it the tip of the upper mandible; feet bUickish-bruw n ; iris hazeL The female is slightly smaller than the male, with a broader crown ; upper parts slightl}- darker; rump and breast without rose-red colouration; the under parts also somewhat more streaked than in the uuile. The ^-oung ncarl_v resemble the female, but have no red on the crown. After the autumn moult the rose-colouring disappears, but towards the spring it gradually reappears iu the feathers without a moult : this reproduction of bright colouring does not, however, take place in caged Redpolls, but, where the}' are confined in large well-ventilated sunny aviaries, it does iu the first season. In its habits, haunts, food, and song, the Lesser Redpoll nearly resembles the Meal}' type : its nest, which is placed in the fork of a tree, a hawthorn, or gooseberry bush, a hedge, or a large grass tussock, usually near water, is not unlike a small, neatl}' formed, and very softly lined Linnet's nest ; it is firmly constructed of plant-stalks, roots, moss, and drj'-grass, with hair towards the interior ; the lining consisting of pure white willow-down, wool or occasionally very fine grasses and feathers. The eggs, which number from four to six, are either pale blue, or bluish-white, with dark purplish-brown surface spots, and sometimes short linear dashes and underlying blood-red spots and speckles ; some eggs are spotted nearly' all over, and others principally at the larger end, an imperfect zone of spots is often present at this extremity : there is considerable variation iu size. I have not only seen and heard the Lesser Redpoll in Kent during the breeding season, but have on several occasions flushed the hen bird from her nest ; twice I obtained the nest with six eggs from grass-tussocks growing upon narrow foot- paths through marsh and pools of water, at Alurston,* and once from a hawthorn bush on marshy land, at Kemsley ; the last-mentioned nest was less firm than usual, though compact, the body of it being formed almost entireh' of wool, with an outer thin framework of dried grass and an inner lining of hair.f Lord Lilford (Birds of Northamptonshire, Vol. L P- 196) observes: — "About Lilford these birds appear occasionally in flocks of from Iwenty to fifty or sixty, almost always in very severe weather, and then haunt the alders by the river-sides, their habits and manner of feeding at that season much resembling those of the * I was unforlunate with these two nests; in one of them the egj;s were just ready to hatch, and were so much injured in the attempt to blow them, that I did not preserve them: one egg of tlie second nest also burst, but I saved the remainder. t Jlr. Wharton ("Zoologist," p. S951) also records the discovery of the nest of the Lesser Redpoll in Kent; and many others have, since then, recorded its abundance as a nesting species iu this county. In the "Zoologist" for 1887, p. 42S, Mr. Joseph Vine states that he found two very young birds of this specie.s, dead, but quite fresh, at Highgate, iu September. One of these nestlings was taken in the flesh to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, for identification. lie told me that it could almost have flown, and had probably fluttered out of the nest when alarmed by some marauder. Thk Lesser Redpoll 79 Siskin as above described. Tliey are exceedingly tame, and may be very closely watched as tliey cluster like bees on some hanging sprays, searching for buds, and keeping up an incessant twittering music, pleasant enough, but not by any means so melodious as that of the Siskin." Speaking of the nesting of the Lesser Redpoll in various parts of Norfolk, Henry Stevenson says: — "In these localities, the nests have been mostly found in the apple and clierr}- trees, but Mr. Alfred Newton in a communication to r^Ir. Hewitson (Eggs British Birds, 3rd Ed.) remarks that near Thetford, where it also breeds yearly, the nests are placed ' close to the trunk of the tree in plantations of young larch and firs of no great height,' though he once found one at least sixt}' feet from the ground, and placed near the outer end of a branch." In his "Notes on the Birds of Donegal," (Zoologist, 1891, p. 336) H. C. Hart says of Lesser Redpolls : — " I have noted them in IVIay settling themselves about Glenalla in small flocks, and scattering to breed. About Rathmullan and Carra- blagh they are also frequent in summer. In winter these birds come to roost, with several other species, every night in the plantations round ni}- house at Carrablagh, where there is the best shelter for several miles. ' Very common about Killybegs in the breeding season. Have known four nests in the hedge- rows along the first mile of the Donegal road from here, in the same season.' — (A.B.)." Speaking of the species as observed by him in Wales, E. A. Swainson, of Brecon, says: — "I have noticed it every summer here for some years, but this season (1891) it has been unusually common, and I have often heard its musical little trill and triple flight-note about the alder swamps and adjacent hedges. In June last I found two nests of this bird, placed in honeysuckle growing in tall hedges, each containing fresh eggs. Both nests had the usual lining of white down, but one was peculiar in having a quantit}' of honeysuckle bark-strips inter- woven amongst the grass round the outside of the nest. This beautiful little nest contained four eggs, of a bright blue-green, blotched, two of them very boldly, with reddish-brown." As a cage-bird the Lesser Redpoll is usually a great favourite, chiefly on account of its tameness and a certain amount of reasoning capacity which it possesses, whereby it has discovered, under the pressure of hunger and thirst, that it can pull up with its beak and hold with its claw little pails or waggons con- taining its food or w-ater : it is by no means the only bird which has been taught this senseless trick, but many thoughtless bird-lovers seem to consider that all captives (even birds) ought to be compelled to work for their living. I have seen the process of teaching this bird in all its stages, and consider it anything but kind. 8o The Lesser Redpoll The Lesser Redpoll iu coufiuemeut is for ever fidgeting about on the wirework of its cage, somewhat after the fashion of a Tit : during the breeding season the male and female spend half the day in caressing like a pair of Love-birds ; whilst the song of the male at that season is frequent, but is a ver}^ poor performance, not unlike a feeble Brambliug's song, consisting (as already hinted) of a mere monotonous trill, resembling a distant railwaj'-guard's whistle : this trill is some- times copied by young Canaries, and is considered ruination to their notes. M}- experience of this species in an aviary is that no Finch of its size is so mischievously meddlesome as the Lesser Redpoll ; not onl}' does it rarely breed, but if another bird which happens to be building, leaves its nest for fresh material, the Redpoll immediately flies down and commences to pull it to pieces. On the other hand, Mr. G. C. Swailes, of Beverle3% has been rather succesful in breeding Redpolls. The first Redpolls I ever had, cost me about three shillings for the pair ; but I soon discovered that I had paid at least three times their value, inasmuch as the price asked b_y bird-catchers for equally good birds varied at that time from eight- pence to a shilling the pair : altogether I have had a good man}', and yet never cared much for them : it is true that they very soon grow tame, although never so completely so as Siskins ; but after their first moult iu close confinement all the crimson and rose colouring disappears and never returns, the forehead becoming 3'ellowish ; and even in an aviary it goes after their second moult, so that a ver}- soberly clad, restless, inquisitive little bird, with no proper song, but a large appetite, is all that remains. Herr Gatke's account of a pair of Redpolls which nested in his garden in Heligoland is rather puzzling : he speaks of only discovering the nest in the autumn when the leaves were falling, yet is sure of the identit}^ of the species from the fact that on one occasion he picked up two of the young birds, and restored them to their home amongst the elder branches. Can the Redpolls have been breeding in the autumn ? V ^^^ ^:i> ^y >7; ? XoT- The Twite 8i Favnly—FRLYGILLID.E. Subfamily— FRLXG ILL I l\L-E. The Tamte. Acaiithis /lavuvsh'is, LiNN. ON tlie Continent the Twite, according to Dr. Sliarpe, is generally distributed throughout Europe, west of Russia, and south of the Baltic, breeding in Scandinavia. Howard Saunders observes that it "is found in summer among the islands and along the coast of Norway up to about 70° N. lat., but in Sweden it is scarce even in the sub-alpine districts, and it is somewhat doubtful if it nests in Northern Russia. On migration it visits Denmark and Northern Germany — sometimes passing in large numbers over Heligoland — Holland, Belgium, and France; but it seldom goes far south, and its occurrences in Spain, Ital}^, and Southern Russia, are few and far between." In England during the breeding-season the Twite occurs locally in suitable localities from the midlands northwards; in Wales, according to J. H. Salter, it is almost unknown as a breeding species. A nest was taken at Westward Ho ! in 1904, and a supposed nest of this species in Surrey in 1S94 ; in Scotland and Ireland it is pretty generally distributed, being especially abundant in the west of Scotland, the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands. The adult male in breeding plumage has the feathers of the crown, nape, and back ruddy olive-brown, with blackish centres and paler edges ; the rump rose- red ; wings dark brown ; the median and greater coverts with paler edges, whitish towards the tips; the quills with pale edges; the inner primaries margined, and the secondaries tipped with white ; tail-feathers blackish-brown, the three outer pairs with whitish edges. A superciliary streak, the lores, ear-coverts, and cheeks rufous-brown, the ear-coverts with dusky streaks ; under parts mostly pale tawny- brown, clearest on the throat ; centre of breast and abdomen sordid white, as are the under tail-coverts ; sides of breast and flanks streaked with blackish ; beak pale ochre-yellow ; feet dark brown ; iris hazel. The female has no rose-red on the rump ; and in width of crown and beak differs as does the Linnet. After the autumn moult this species shows less of the dark centres to the feathers, and the beak becomes paler. Young birds nearly resemble the female, but have some- what more dusky beaks; the males, however, show a tinge of rose-reddish on the rump. 82 The Twite The Twite, Mountaiu Linnet, Hill Lintie, or " Yellow-ueb Liutie," as it is variously called, is a frequenter iu summer of the hilly districts and moorlauds of the northern portious of Great Britaiu and Ireland ; but, as winter approaches, it deserts the bleaker regions and wanders in small flocks through the cultivated lowlands in search of seeds of charlock aud other weeds, upon which it feeds : at this season it frequently consorts with the Linnet. Lord Lilford says that his acquaintance with this species is chiefly confined to having often met with it on the moors of Scotland, when Grouse-shooting iu August and September. "At that season it is generally to be met with in small family parties of six or eight, flitting about grassy spots amongst the heather, and feediug on various small seeds. It may be distinguished, even at some distance, from the Common Linnet on the wing b}' its lighter make, darker colour, and sharp call-note. In captivity this species becomes very tame, but has not much to recommend it, as the song, though sweet, is short, broken, and of little power." The call-note has been described as resembling the word hvah-it of which the name Twite is a fanciful rendering ; on the wing it twitters, somewhat in the fashion of the Linnet ; the song, though inferior, is not much unlike that of the same bird. The nest of the Twite is usually built low down iu heather, sometimes even on the ground among grass, or on a rock}^ ledge ; it is also said to occur in bushes, and occasionally in ivy : it is neatly formed of rootlets, or heather inter- mingled with grass-bents, and is lined with wool, hair and feathers, or thistle- down. The eggs number from four to six, usually five, are pale greenish-blue, speckled, spotted, blotched, or streaked with reddish-brown ; they are indistinguish- able from those of the Linnet, though most observers seem to agree in saying that they are more frequently streaked than eggs of that bird. As a matter of fact, if a number of eggs of the Goldfinch, Lesser Redpoll, Twite, and Linnet were indiscriminately mixed, no living Ornithologist could sort them again with any degree of confidence : they all vary in size, depth, and tint of colouring and markings. Although I am satisfied that the Twite could, as easily as other Finches, cimiplete its nest in two or three days provided it was ready to la}-, Saxby has recorded an instance in which both sexes were occupied for eight days in completing one : this is often the case at the commencement of the breeding season,* when the birds are in no special hurry, just as with Canaries in the breeding-cage, but • Nevertheless Mr. Swailes' experieuce recorded on page S3 proves that, iu coufinemeut, the Twite Iniilds as rapidly as the Canary; the uest being built iu two days. The Twite 83 there is no such trifling with the second structure. Although a late breeder, not commencing uidification before the middle of May, the Twite is double-brooded. It is probable, as in the case of allied species, that this bird feeds partly upon small caterpillars, as well as the leaves and unripe seeds of weeds. In con- finement it is passionately fond of soft food. From time to time I have had Twites brought to me by bird-catchers ; and, in 1889, I purchased two males and turned them loose iu one of my cool aviaries: they very soon became fairly tame, but nothing like so confiding as Redpolls ; the}-, nevertheless, sang from the first. Most birds are selfish, but very few are so persistently greedy, and spiteful withal, as Twites : I had some Canaries in the same aviary ; and, as the}' had barely completed their moult, a saucer of egg- food was daily placed in the aviary for their benefit ; no sooner, however, did the Twites discover that egg was good, than they simply took possession of the saucer, savagely attacking every Canary that attempted to come near it until their some- what voracious appetite was sated. In the spring of the following year my Twites began to assume the rosy colouring on the lower back and rump, but before they had fully developed it, they caught septic enteritis from a sick Canary, and, early in June, both of them died. I never cared to purchase others. In the first volume of the " Avicultural Magazine," p. 118, Mr. G. C. Swailes, of Beverley, Yorks., gives the following interesting account of his experiments in breeding Twites in confinement: — "A pair of Twites fAca)ilhis flavirostris) have this season bred and reared young in my small aviary, and as it is, I believe, a rather uncommon occurrence, a few notes may be acceptable ****** The birds are a very interesting pair, both being abnormally coloured — the cock about half white pied, and the hen pure white (the latter may be known to some of my readers, as it has been exhibited at both the Palace and Aquarium shows). They are kept with about half a dozen other Finches iu an aviary quite out in the country. The hen commenced to build on May 14th, and laid her first egg on the 17th, laying altogether five eggs and sitting closely after the third was laid. I did not again look at the eggs, but saw the old birds busy feeding on the 2nd of June and following days. I looked in the nest on the 8th, hoping to find some fine young birds, but the nest contained only one poor starved thing which died on the following day : the weather was very storni}' at the time they were hatched and I think this was the cause of their doing so badly. On the 15th I noticed that the hen had nearly completed another nest, and she laid on the i6th and three following days: having a Redpoll nesting at the 84 The Twitk same time, I gave her two of the Twites' eggs, making up the number for each with infertile eggs ; both birds hatched on the same day ; the two in the Redpoll's nest perished at once, though she is a good feeder, and has reared two broods of her own this season ; the Twite successfully reared hers, and they left the nest un July iQtIi, and arc now very fine birds, but quite normally coloured; this I expected, as I have reared a large number during the past few years from both white, pied, and cinnamon Lesser Redpolls, and have inbred them, but have never liad one vary in the least from the normal colour.* Young Twites are not nearly so precocious as Redpolls ; the}' were a long time before thej' attempted to peck for themselves, and even now (August) clamour to the old ones for food, whereas I have seen j-oung Redpolls a week after leaving the nest shell hard Canary-seed. My birds have no soft food given them, but as much of the flowering top of the dwarf-grass, dandelion, and hard-head tops, thistle, plantain, etc., as the}- wish, and as many aphides off rose, apple, or plum-trees as I can at the time obtain ; infested branches being put in the aviary for the birds to peck them off. The latter, I consider, are very essential for the successful rearing of Finches in confinement, especially for the first few days after they are hatched."! * Neverllieless coutiuuoiis iubreeiling is believed to be the principal cause of albiuism.— A.G.B. t If soft food is given, I do not find aphides to be essential, — A G.B. Linnet 9, $ ik Plate 79. The Linnet 85 Family^FRlXGlLLID.E. SuhJamily^I'RIXGILLLWF. Thf: Linnet. .■Icdiit/ns cniniahinit, LiNN. BREEDS tlirougliotit Europe south of lat. 64° iu Scandiuavia, and of lat. 59° iu East Russia ; it is also resident in North-west Africa, the Canaries, and Madeira ; eastward it extends to Turkestan. In Persia and North India a representative race replaces it, in which the general plumage is more ashy, and the breast of the male more scarlet in colouring. Excepting in the mountainous parts of Scotland, where it appears to be replaced by the Twite, the Linnet is pretty generally distributed throughout Great Britain ; it has, however, been rarely seen in the Shetland Isles. The male Linnet in breeding plumage has a glossy crimson patch from the base of the upper mandible to the centre of the crown ; remainder of head, nape, and sides of neck brown, with an ashy suffusion and darker mottling ; back and wing-coverts ruddy golden-brown, broadlj^ centred with dark brown ; upper tail- coverts dark brown, with broad buffish-white borders ; tail-feathers black, the outer web narrow!}', and the inner web broadly bordered with white ; flight feathers blackish, the primaries with a conspicuous white stripe on the outer webs, and with a broad whitish-ash border along a great part of the inner webs ; secondaries bordered, especially along the outer webs, with ruddy golden-brown ; lores, a streak above and another below the eye, bufhsh ; ear- coverts and sides of face greyish ; chin and throat buffish-white, with small brown streaks ; throat and breast crimson, somewhat suffused with chestnut in j^oungish birds ; bell}^ buffish-white ; flanks tawny brown, with darker centres to the feathers, and sometimes slightly tinted with rose-reddish ; beak greyish horn-brown, paler at the base of the lower man- dible ; feet brown ; iris hazel. In captivity all crimson disappears from the plumage, and both beak and feet become paler and flesh-tinted. The female differs in the absence of all crimson colouring ; the entire upper surface browner, with blackish centres to the feathers, the much more prominent streaking of the under surface, the decidedly broader crown and base of beak, and the considerably narrower white outer margins to the primaries and tail feathers. It also differs remarkably in the form of the wings the distinctions being precisely 86 The LiN"N'?vr what one notices between the sexes of nianj? bntterflies. The different form of the wing in the sexes of birds appears rarely to be noted, the mere length being recorded. The radins and nlua in the male are longer and the depression in front of their junction with the hiunerus deeper than in the female, the primary coverts are less exposed in the male, whilst the second, third, and fourth longer primaries are cmurgiuate in front, in the male ; but only the second and third, in the female ; in the latter sex the primaries are more perfectly graded, whereas in the male the outer edge forms a slight sinus ; the tail differs much in outline, as will be at once seen from the cut. &m Young birds are very like the female. After the autumn moult the feathers of the crown and breast have greyish borders, the crimson being dull and presenting a mottled appearance ; this (in fully adult males) gradually changes to the bright colouring at the approach of spring.* This species, which is variously called the Grey, Brown, or Red Linnet, according to the age or plumage of the specimens so named, during the summer • Seebohm almost alwaj-s explains this change of colouriug, by asserting that the tips of the feathers drop off; but if one obtains a bird in its transition stage the tips are frequently neither dropped nor abraded, although undoubtedly in some species the edges are worn off, whilst in others the colouring alters in the feathers themselves. The Lixnet 87 months haunts commons, hedgerows, plantations, small woods, orchards, and shrub- beries, in all of which situations I have very often found its nest, the latter being most frequently constructed in a furze-bush or hawthorn-hedge, though I have taken many a nest from hazel-branches in a plantation, from evergreen and other shrubs, from tangled bramble, sometimes almost or quite on the ground, from currant and gooseberry bushes, and even from tufts of heather. In size, strength, and materials the nest varies considerabl}-, but it is always tolerably compact, and rarely so large as that of a Greenfinch : among those which I took under the impression that they differed, I selected eight for my collection all of them dissimilar in character, five of these which I took in 1883 I thus described in the "Zoologist" for that year: — "only one had any moss in its con- struction ; this one is somewhat slightly built for the species, but the walls are strengthened with coarse straws, evidently selected from a dung-hill. The second, excepting that it is not so deep, is not at all unlike a small nest of the Yellow Bunting. Its construction is, however, decidedly firmer, and the grasses used in the walls are similar to what one sees in the nest of the Greater Whitethroat. The third nest is untidy, loosely put together, and has blackish straggling roots projecting from the sides. The fourth is unusually deep, and is formed of roots, fibre and wool, with a few white hairs towards the interior. The fifth is very raereed in construction, formed of coarse bleached roots, lined with fine fibre and wool." The eggs number from four to six, five being the usual clutch ; they are either pale bluish-green or pale huffish ; those of young birds being occasionally unspotted, but most eggs spotted, speckled, blotched, and sometimes (though rarely) streaked with reddish- and purplish-brown ; the markings are usually most numerous at the larger end, the dark spots now and then forming a subterminal zone. The flight of this bird is swift and undulating; as it flies it usually twitters; in the autumn and winter when Linnets collect into flocks, often of considerable size, and pass over the fields in search of food, this twittering is especially char- acteristic. The bird-catchers declare that the birds say " fe//, tell, telF'' as they fly, and at a distance from the flock j^ou can understand what is meant by this rendering, but when you get three or four Linnets under a sloping roof in a good sized aviary, and listen attentively as they fly together from end to end, you find that what they really say is — " turra, tit, turra, turra, tiirra!'' The ordinary call of the Linnet is a rather high pitched tivit, twit ; the sexual call is tc-eivy ; the call of the young for food is chkm, chhm, chiivi ; the song, to my mind, has been too much extolled ; it is pretty enough, but there is too much chuckle and too little brilliance in it ; the notes give one the idea of 88 The Lin'nkt whistling througli soap-suds, a clear note escaping at the end of the phrase through bubble and sputter — "c/ii'ck, chick, achock ; chick, chicka-chick ; chick, chick, achoo'' ; moreover, half a dozen Linnets quarrelling sound nearly as well as one Linnet singing. For clearness and vigour not a note in the song of Acanthis ia)i)ial)i)i(t will compare with the joyous, though somewhat monotonous, song of the Chaffinch : of course I am aware that this is rank heresy ; but heresy is often truth. Howard vSaunders observes that "it is the capacity for learning the notes of other birds which makes the Linnet so great a favourite for the cage" : perhaps he is right; but, although I was never without the species until after 1900, since I first began to keep birds, often having as many as six or eight cock Linnets at the same time, I never observed any capacit}' for niimicr}- in an}' of my specimens : even the three males last in ni}' possession, which had been il_ving together in the same aviary for six or seven 3-ears, sang nothing be3-ond their natural wild song. That nestling Linnets will learn a song of another bird if kept separate from examples of their own species, as recorded by Sterland (Vide Charles Witchell's "Evolution of Bird Song," p. 170)* is nt)t remarkable; but it does not account for the caging of many thousands of adult Linnets yearly. Linnets are known to be largely migratory, and Seebohm observes : — " Although the Linnet is a resident in this countrj- it is probable that many, if not most of the birds of the year join the flocks of this species that pass our islands every autumn, and migrate further south with them." The food of the Linuet consists principally of seeds of dock, plantain, dandelion, groundsel, thistle, etc., and it is fond of hemp, oats, and turnip seed. Probably when feeding its young it also eats aphides and small caterpillars. In confine- ment German rape, canary, and oats are the best seeds on which to feed it. Why the last-mentioned very wholesome and cheap seed is so seldom used by aviculturists I cannot understand, unless they imagine that the smaller hard-billed birds are unable to crack it : this, of course, is a very mistaken notion, for most seed-eating birds, including Canaries, are very fond of oats. When hand-reared, Linnets become extremely tame ; but, if the}- are to be kept so, they must be caged separately ; for association in an aviary with other birds, renders them as wild as caught specimens in a few days ; a fact which I proved first in 1886, and have since been able to confirm. It is also a mistake to trust the rearing of caged nestlings to the parent birds; I tried this in 1887, hanging up the cage in a tree near the nest from which I had removed the young. The uld birds are willing enough to feed their young in a cage, but the ♦ 111 inv opinion the Linnt-t nieiuionttl in the same work (p. lyi) as warbling the songs of the Blackcap and Wren, nin.st also have been a nestling when caged. House Sp The House-Sparrow 89 strongest nestlings always fight their way to the front, so that the weaker birds are unable to get sufficient food to sustain life and quickly die. In 1888 I successfully reared two nests of Linnets (nine birds) feeding them at first on egg-food ; and, as they grew stronger, upon scalded German rape ; unfortunately the whole of them died after their moult from inflammation of the bowels. Since then I have been contented to return to my original plan and purchase my Linnets from the bird-catchers. The Linnet occasionally hybridizes in a wild state with the Greenfinch (Vide Stevenson, Birds of Norfolk, p. 220; Seebohm, British Birds, Vol. IL p. 77; Howard Saunders, Manual Brit. Birds, p. 162; Gurne3^ Zoologist, p. 3388; Rev. H. A. Macpherson, Zoologist, 1887, p. 303, etc., etc.) ; and in captivity it has been successfully crossed with several species, including the Canary ; this last-mentioned bastard is not at all difficult to produce, for nu- first attempt resulted in three mules ; but to breed hybrid Linnet-Canaries good enough to carrj' off" prizes at our shows requires judgment and experience. The rarest and most valued examples are those known as clear mules, in which the colouring of the Canary is combined with Linnet characteristics . theoreticall}' these should be most readily produced, when both parents have been inbred for several generations ; albinism, or the absence of dark colouring, being a frequent result of inbreeding. Family— FRINGILLID.-E. Subfamily— FRINGILLINAi. The House-Sparrow. Passer domcsticus, LiNN. THIS scavenger of towns and scourge of the country is distributed over the greater part of Europe, but in Italj^ and on the island of Corsica is replaced by a form to which the name of P. italice has been given ; eastwards it ranges to Persia and Central Asia, India and Ce^don ; westwards it is found in VuL. II. 2 A go Thk House-Sparrow Madeira. lu Africa it occurs from Morocco to tlie Albert Nyanza. It has been introduced iuto Australia, New Zealaud, and the United States, wheie it has increased to such an extent as to be an unbearable nuisance. (Vide Sharpe and Sautiders). Throughout Great Britain and Ireland, wherever man has made his home, the Sparrow has quickly followed liis example, even isolated houses usualh' providing a pretext for the presence of this bird, sometimes to the extent of scores of individuals. The adult nuile Sparrow in breeding plumage has the crown, nape, and lower back slate-gre}-, slightly washed with olivaceous, but the sides of the nape bright chocolate-reddish in continuation of a broad streak from the ear-coverts ; upper back blackish, each feather broadly bordered with dull chestnut ; lesser wing-coverts bright chocolate-reddish ; median coverts black, broadly tipped with white so as to form a prominent bar across the wing ; greater coverts blackish, broadly bordered with dull chestnut ; primaries blackisli-gre}-, all excepting the first with pale chestnut edging to the wider part of the outer web, but the inner primaries with this edge continuous ; secondaries blackish, with chestnut borders, paler and greyer on the inner webs ; tail blackish-ljrowu, the feathers edged with whity-browu ; a narrow white line over the eye ; lores black ; cheeks, and sides of neck white ; throat and chest black, sometimes suffused with chocolate ; remainder of under parts white, ash}^ at the sides, and brownish on the flanks ; beak leaden-black ; feet brown; iris brown. After the autumn moult the male has whitish-ash fringes to the feathers of the head and throat, which appear to be very delicate in texture, and break away in the spring;* the under parts are also more uniformly ashy, the upper parts duller, the wing band yellowish, and the beak becomes j-ellowish- brown. The female is duller and browner than the male ; the broad borders to the feathers of the mantle and back being tawny rather than chestnut ; the superciliarj' line and wing bar less pure and conspicuous ; the under parts browner, with no black on throat and chest. Young birds chiefly differ from the female in their paler colouring ; the beak is dull yellow. In towns the House-Sparrow is a useful bird, inasmuch as it feeds largel}- on oats and other grain which it picks from horse-manure, and which otherwise would render the latter less suitable for garden purposes ; it also acts as a scavenger, eating scraps of all kinds which have been thrown into the gutters, and which if not removed in warm weather would soon become offensive. In very dr}' seasons, * This I do not give on llie aiuhoritv of previous writen-^, aUhoti!,'h Ihey mention the fact, but on the clear evidence of a good skin (in my possession) of a bird wliich died in the middle of its change of plumage. ThF, HouSE-Sl'ARROW 91 wlien caterpillars and aphides, but especially the latter, are abundant, the Sparrow makes itself somewhat useful in the countr_v, although it must be admitted that he drives away many more strictly insectivorous birds who could do the same work far more efficiently. On the other hand both to the gardener and farmer the Sparrow is a positive scourge, completely ruining beds of young carnations, or borders of crocuses and primroses, breaking tender shoots in its ponderous struggles to secure insects, scattering earth right and left over freshly gravelled paths in its search for newly sown flower-seeds ; sampling peas, fruit, and grain of all kinds in abundance. Moreover, even the insects which it devours when feeding its young, onl}' represent a portion of their diet ; whole i^ows of young beans and lettuce are devoured and partly digested by the parents for the same purpose : it must also be borne in mind that even the holding capacity of the ever huugr}' Sparrow is limited, and that it feeds its young from the crop for some days after they leave the nest (as anyone may see, who watches the birds in his garden, or in the thoroughfares of cities and villages) so that there is by no means that incessant destruction of noxious insects during the rearing of a Sparrow's progeu}', which renders the Titmice such enormous benefactors to the fruit-grower.* The 3-oung town-bred Sparrow, instead of being nourished on clean partl}^ digested grain, young vegetables, and insects, has to put up with all kinds of refuse and garbage, and when it leaves the nest and is almost able to peck for itself, I have sometimes been amused to see its mother satisfy its cry for food by scooping up a beakful of mud out of a half-dried puddle and emptying it into its gaping mouth : it is not surprising that we sometimes see city-bred birds with ruffled plumage and dull eyes, almost too ill to get out of the way of approaching vehicles. The nest of the House-Sparrow is placed in any suitable hole or crevice either in buildings, trees, or banks, on projecting bricks amongst ivy growing over walls, on beams in barns against a wall or upright support, in nests of House- and Sand-Martins ; but in nearly all such situations its nest is not characteristic, being either extremely untidy and almost shapeless, or formed like that of most Finches in cup-fashion, though with somewhat less regular walls The more typical nest is built in the branches of trees, hedges, and (according to Dixon) in furze-bushes ; it is a very bulk}' bag- shaped structure, the entrance being either close to, or at the top, so that the light falls more or less directl}' into the cavit}' : this form of nest is also usually built on beams in barns, and I once found a * Heurv Sleveusoii, who quotes an estimate as to a pair of Sparrows (lestro> ing 3,400 caterpillars iu oue week to feed their young, seems not to have been aware of the fact that, only when teaching their offspring to peck, do Sparrows offer insects to them entire. A Sparrow on a fence will feed three or four young iu succession without leaving its i)Ost. 92 The House-Sparrow simply gigantic specimen in a large pail liaugiug on tlie branch uf a tree, the depth of this nest was at least i6-inches, and the width close upon a foot: it was too bulky to carry away and was hardly suitable for a collection, so I left it where it was. But the most marvellous Sparrow's nest I ever saw is one in nu- collection obtained from the forking branches of a large hawthorn, at Kemsley, near Sheppy ; it is roughly circular, saucer-shaped, and altogether has more the character of a Duck's than a Sparrow's nest ; the four eggs in it also all differ, the darkest egg being similar in character to the most richly coloured eggs of the Tree-Sparrow, whilst the lightest is v.'hite with smoky-grey spots and dots crowded chiefly at the larger end, so that it has quite a Slirike-like character, (figs. 142 and 143 are from this nest.) The number of eggs ranges from four to seven, but rarely exceeds six : the colouring both of grouud-tint and marking varies more than in most birds, and as I have selected all the best-marked modifications for illustration on our plate, it would be only a waste of space to describe them ; but it ma}- perhaps be as well to call attention to the fact that the whitest and least boldly marked varieties are found in places to which light has had little access. In 1877 I had clear proof of the unthinking obstinacy of the Sparrow, a pair having built in the roller-box of a sun-blind during dull weather, the pulling down of the blind with the first hot day destroyed the nest ; no sooner, however, was the blind pulled up than the Sparrows set to work and replaced it. This went on so continually and repeatedly that I wrote to the late Charles Darwin, asking him whether he did not think it would be interesting to publish the fact, as evidence of the feeble reasoning powers of this species : his repl}'- dated May 9th, 1877, I still have, with other letters from him. — " My dear Sir, I have been always inclined to think that Sparrows were acute and crafty birds, but j-ou certainly show that they are fools, and if they go on behaving in so idiotic a manner, you will do quite right to expose their conduct in some public journal ! — Yours sincerely, Ch. Darwin." As this unreflecting perseverance under difficulties continued altogether for nearly a mouth, I sent an account to the " Zoologist," 1877, pp. 299-300. The House-Sparrow can hardly be said to have a song, its best performance being little more than a chirrup interspersed with sharp chirps, but often early in the morning you will hear several apparently engaged in conversation c/iow, choiu, chivi, chivi, choiv, chivi, to which the reply is whit! perhaps followed b}' two or three rapid harsh chirps : chivi is the cry of the 3^oung for food, and the adult bird when caught in a trap expresses his rage by indignant chows. I never heard the Sparrow utter any sound like tell, but think the Tree-Sparrow 2, x ih. Plate 81. The Tree- Sparrow 93 uote -wliicli the late Mr. Witcliell renders tell, must be that which souuds to me like c/iov.1. This species is of no interest as a cage-bird, unless hand-reared : a caught Sparrow rarel}^ lives long, is always wild, vicious, voracious, and unmusical ; if haud-reared it has been known to learn and sing the sougs of the Goldfinch, Linnet, Canary, and Skylark. A friend of mine had one which imitated the Canary's song perfectly, but seemed ashamed of its performance, for it always turned its face to the wall and sang quite softly ; it also never sang until the evening when the Canaries had gone to sleep. For feeding caged Sparrows I should recommend sunflower-seed, oats, Canar}', and German-rape ; groundsel- and plantain-heads ; with a few insects and their larvae. Albinism seems to be on the increase in this species, and more particularly in Loudon ; where, if one examines each flock that one passes in a half-hour's walk through the streets, it is not at all unusual to see several pied varieties : there are always two or three among those which collect for crumbs in front of the Natural History Museum. Family— FRINGILLID^. Subfamily—FRINGILLIALF. The Tree-Sparrow. Passer nioiitanus, LiNN. SEEBOHM gives the distribution of this bird as follows: — "The Tree-Sparrow is common, though somewhat local, throughout the Palsearctic Region from the Atlantic to the Pacific up to and, in Europe, slightly beyond the Arctic circle. It appears to be very rare in North Africa, and to be absent altogether from Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Central and Southern Persia, Baluchistan, and India south of the Himalayas ; it is, however, abundant in Turkestan, Vol. II, 2B 94 The Tree-Sparrow. Afgliaiiistau, aud the Himalayas, and is fouud in suitable localities througliout the rest of Eastern Asia, including Japan, Formosa, Hainan, and Java." The distribution of this species in Great Britain is imperfectly known, owing to its general resemblance to the House-Sparrow and its comparative rarit}-, but it is believed to be most abundant in the eastern and midland counties of England, and the eastern counties of Scotland: in Ireland it was not discovered until 1852, but is steadil}' extending its range and increasing in numbers. A colony is said to have existed at Belmullet since 1902 ; another was discovered near Killala iu 1907 ; a pair nested in Co. Derry iu 1906; in Donegal four nests with eggs were found in 1907, and a single bird was seen in Sligo the same year. It is believed that in the autumn the numbers of our resident Tree-Sparrows are largely added to, by flocks of immigrants from the north ; many hundreds arriving on our east coast, in compau}' with Greenfinches, during October and November. The Tree-Sparrow chiefly differs from the House-Sparrow in its slightl}' inferior size, chestnut crown and nape, a white-bordered triangular black patch on the ear- coverts, a second white bar across the wing ; and in the fact that the female scarcely differs from the male. Young birds have the black markings replaced by brown, and the wing bands suffused with buff. During the sunnner months this species iu our islands differs somewhat in its habits from those on the Continent, seeming to avoid towns and the larger villages, and (according to Seebohm) chiefly haunting " the fields and wilder districts away from houses " ; but curiously enough the whole of the nests which I have taken, both in Kent and Norfolk, were fouud in holes in trees within a stone's throw of at least one house, and sometimes at a distance of only a few yards. " On the Continent, however," (says Seebohm) " the bird has so far overcome its shj-ness, and adapted itself to circumstances as to frequent the towns, and is quite as pert and impudent as its congener, which it otherwise resembles in its habits." As a site for its nest the Tree-Sparrow seems to prefer holes in pollard willows when obtainable, and, more often than not, the selected hole is at the top of the stump, though I have also taken it out of a hollow and decayed lateral branch, about five feet from the ground : in Norfolk all the nests I found were in willows ; but in Kent I took one nest from a hole in the front of an old oak- tree facing the road, whilst Lord Lilford says that in Northamptonshire they "are to be found nesting generall}' in small colonies of three or four pairs iu old hollow trees, especiallj^ (in our neighbourhood) decayed ash, willows, and walnuts." Yarrell speaks of the species as building "in the thatch of a barn, in company with the House-Sparrow, not, however, entering the thatch from the inside of the The Tree-Sparrow. 95 building like them (sic), but by holes iu the outside"; whilst Howard Saunders mentions its building " beneath the tiles of roofs, as well as under the coping of old walls and in sea-cliffs"; I have taken it from a hole iu a ruined lime-kiln; and, in the "Zoologist" for 1887, p. 265, I recorded the fact of my finding a nest with six perfectly typical eggs (on May 24 th) in an exposed mole-burrow in a brick-earth cutting at Kemsley, near Sheppy. Nidification lasts from May to August, nests being most abundant in the latter half of May. The nest is usually bag-shaped, consisting of a mere thick lining to the hole in which it is situated ; the top being widely open, so that the light generally falls directly upon the eggs ; the materials are similar to those used by the Common Sparrow — straw, hay, and a mass of poultry-feathers. The eggs number from four to six ; they are rather smaller than those of the House-Sparrow, and var3' nearly as much (perhaps quite as much, if one could obtain a sufficient series to decide the point) ; I have taken them greenish-white, with scarcely perceptible grey speckling; greenish-white, speckled with grey, spotted with two shades of sepia, sometimes with the heaviest markings iu a subterminal zone ; somewhat greyer, mottled and streaked with grey (not unlike an egg of the Pied Wagtail); greyish-white, thickly mottled and blotched with grey, most densely at the larger end, also with one or two blackish dots (not unlike a Titlark's egg) ; dull white, heavily blotched and streaked with vandyke-brown in two shades, and with small grey shell-spots ; similar, but so densely streaked and splashed with brown as almost to bide the ground-colour ; lastly rufous-brown, speckled and streaked, especially at the larger end, with darker brown (resembling a reddish variety of the Tree-Pipit). The darker and more ruddy eggs are mo-t characteristic of the species; but most of those which I obtained from Kentish nests were of the lighter varieties, though the eggs in one clutch sometimes exhibit considerable modification in this respect. It is possible that the colouring of the eggs may have a local significance, inasmuch as Lord Lilford's experience in Northamptonshire led him to the conclusion that the ground-colour, as a rule, was lighter than in eggs of the House-Sparrow ; whilst those which I obtained in Norfolk were usually remarkable for their darker ground-tint, although exceptions did occur. It seems to me more probable that light in some way affects the colouring of eggs; inasmuch as, not only are most eggs which are laid in the dark pure white, but all those which I have found in heavily shaded positions have been pale and little marked, in comparison with those exposed to direct daylight; the lightest eggs of the Tree-Sparrow which I obtained in Norfolk were those taken from the horizontal branch of a willow, where the light only entered imperfectly over one side of the nest- cavity ; those in the top of the stump, which were fully exposed g6 TiiK Trhh-Sparrow to the sky, were deepest iu cuUmriug ; the uest contaiuiug au almost white egg was from the ruined liuie-kilu, and was ahuost as much in the dark as if it had been taken from a Sand-Martin's burrow. Lord Lilford's eggs being taken from holes in full-sized trees, and not from the tops of pollards, were probabl}' but little exposed to light. The Tree-Sparrow is a more active sprightly bird than its commoner relative ; and, although it can hardly be said to have a song,* its chirruping is somewhat more melodious, its chirp is sharper, and the indignant utterance of a recently captured bird is shriller. Although the Tree-Sparrow does not breed so continuously as the House- Sparrow, which in mild seasons appears to rear family after famih' throughout the greater part of the year, there is no doubt that it frequentl}' produces three broods in a season. When feeding its young it eats caterpillars, spiders, and various kinds of insects, as well as leaves and unripe seeds of weeds ; but at other times it appears to confine its attentions principally to different kinds of seeds. On several occasions bird-catchers have offered me Tree-Sparrows at from twopence to threepence apiece ; but the birds looked so vindictive and chirped so savagely that, considering their powerful beaks, I decided not to risk associating them with the other members of my feathered family. Although opinions differ greatly respecting the character of this species, I am satisfied that I adopted the safest course. Stevenson (Birds of Norfolk, Vol. I, p. 209) says : — " In confinement the Tree-Sparrows are certainly the shyest and most untameable of any birds I have ever introduced into my aviary, and even time seems to work but little change in their wild nature, as on the approach of an}' person, whether a stranger or not, they dash about the cage iu a reckless manner, and when exhausted and panting with fright, will creep into any corner or dark spot to escape notice." Lord Lilford observes : — " In captivity the Tree-Sparrow thrives well upon canary- and millet-seed, and becomes very tame."t Swaysland, who has had considerable experience in keeping many of our British Birds, remarks : — " When caught do not place immediately iu an aviar}-, as they would then invariably sulk and behave wildly, frightening the other birds, but rather keep in a small cage until tame." Howard Saunders (Manual, p. 174) says: — " In captivity this species has bred • The late Rev. H. A. Macphersou assured me that the Tree-Sparrow has a very sweet song; a fact vouched for independently by Mr. J. Whitaker and the late Edward Blyth. In 1906 a friend (Mr. Allen Silver) gave me a pair, and I have been looking forward ever since to the pleasure of hearing this "sweet song," but up to the present time only an ordinary sharp chirp has been uttered : I find them, as Stevenson did, exceedingly wild and tempestuous birds. t I should certainly add oats.-r-A.G.B. c H 0 TT.. Plate 82 Thk CiiaI'Kixch 97 with the House- Sparrow." It would, therefore, appear that, if properly treated, this species does become stead}' enough to breed in confinement. I have been told, by Aviculturists who have kept the Tree-Sparrow, that it is not tyrannical in an aviar}' ; it must, however, be borne in mind, that an indi- vidual does not necessaril_y exhibit the characteristics of a species ; even half a dozen specimens may all be of a peaceful disposition (as was the case with my Robins, which never fought with any but their own species). Ou the other hand one vicious Tree-Sparrow, associated with birds weaker than itself, might do much mischief in a verj' sliort space of time : its powerful beak would enable it to kill or maim any smaller or weaker bird without the least trouble. Family— FKIXGILL ID. E. SnbJainiiy—FRIXGILLIN^. The Chaffinch. Fiingilla ccclcbs, LiXN. Although the type of the family FringiUidcc and, therefore, the Finch of Finches, this species and the Brambling differ much in their habits from the other British species of typical Finches (Fringi/Iincr) and one is surprised that any man, having the knowledge of living birds which Seebohm undoubtedly had, should have been content to place forms with Tit-like habits (Siskin, Goldfinch, Redpolls) in the same genus with the true species of Fringilla — birds which have the habits of Buntings. If distinctive structural characters were wholly absent, one could understand it. The Chaffinch is distributed as a breeding species throughout Europe almost up to the North Cape, but in the south of Europe it chiefly haunts the mountains during the breeding season, wintering in the plains. It occurs locall}- in Morocco and Algeria, and winters in Egypt. In zAsia it is said to breed in Palestine, Asia Minor, and Western Persia, and to winter in Turkestan. In Great Britain the Chaffinch is generally distributed ; breeding freel}- in all Vol.. n. C2 98 Thk Chafiixcii wooded or cultivated districts, aud in solitary bushes on the more barren portions of our islands. The fully adult male Chaffinch in breeding plumage has the forehead velvety black, the crown and nape steel blue, the former sometimes tinged with green, the latter somewhat ashy; tlie mantle bright chestnut; lower back bluish ash-grey at base of feathers, sap-green at tips, changing to bright sap-green on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; lesser and median wing-coverts white ; greater coverts black tipped with white ; quills smoky-brown, with narrow dull yellow edges to the outer webs ; two central tail-feathers smoky-brown, remaining feathers blue-black ; the two outer feathers with broad wedge-shaped white patches, that on the outer- most one occupying fully half the feather ; sides of head, throat, breast, and iVont of belly vinous-chestnut, lower belly aud flanks somewhat duller and greyer ; under tail-coverts white ; beak leaden-blackish, paler beneath ; feet dull brown ; iris hazel. After the autumn moult the feathers of the crown have brownish edges, the under parts are slightly paler and the beak is flesh-brown, with dark tip. The female has the crown and back buffish-brown, aud the under parts buffish-grey ; it also appears to be slightly smaller than the male. The young in first plumage are similar to the female, but rather paler : in the first year the}' do not attain their full beauty, the crown being brownish with two dusky longitudinal stripes ; indeed the full sheeny lustre is not acquired until about the third year ; the median wing-coverts also are more exposed in old birds, making the white belt across the wing broader.* Pied examples of the Chaffinch are not ver}' rare, and the white in the plumage certainly increases with age. I caught one in my garden many years ago, aud exhibited it for two years running at the Crystal Palace Bird Show. A second bird presented to me about 1904, developed a white spot on the nape which increased in size with each successive moult. Like the British Buntings, the Chaffinch both runs aud hops ; on the ground it almost invariably either runs or walks ; also during the summer months it is almost exclusively insectivorous ; like the Buntings again, it accustoms its young to taking food from its beak at a much earlier age than do the other typical Finches : its position, therefore, should certainly be at the end of the Subfamily of which it is the type, and immediatel}' before the Einbcrizina. It has even been asserted that the Chaffinch pairs on the wing, but this fable is based upon its violent and impetuous courtship, in which respect it corresponds with the members of the New World genus Sycalis, both sexes sometimes falling to the earth strug- ' I have not seen these \ oiiits uoted in auj- ilcscription, indeed they niav pass for variations to those wlio have not reared Chaffinches from the nest; they are also overlooked by judges at shows, who often give a prize to birds of tlif year (not in full adult colouring). The Chakkixch 99 gling desperately. No sooner, however, is the heu Chaffinch once snbdued than she is treated with gentleness and affection ; pairing frequently takes place on the earth, but sometimes on a branch. In the autumn there is a considerable immigration of Chaffinches, chiefly on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of England, and it would seem that there is a return migration earl}' in the year, as this species passes over Heligoland both in September and March. Early in February the Chaffinch begins to practise his song ; at first this bears no resemblance to the full powerful melody which is eventually developed ; but merely sounds like tsip, tsip, tsip, tioyi-nl, ioi)yi'rI, a sort of liquid bubbling; a little later there is an effort to get in the terminal notes, then by twos and threes the other notes come out weakly; until, by March, the full song is remembered and rings out from the trees and hedgerows ; when perfect it is a full rattling scale, ending variousl}- in different individuals, although the same bird at times varies his terminal phrase : sometimes it is cliuclia c/turr, sometimes fiisi-iar, and frequentl}' ivhcatcar ; the bird-catchers call the birds which use the first phrase " c/iucktvados,'" and those that use the two last " kiss-me dears." In Kent, and I believe in some other counties, the Chaffinch is said to sing — "If we wait another month, we shall have the Wheatear." The call-note of the Chaffinch is, I believe, that described by my late friend Mr. Charles Witchell as "a loud short whistle very rapidly slurred upwards in the interval of about a fifth or sixth. It may be pronounced hvi/." * The call of the }'Oung for food is chizzif, cltizzit, cliizzit ; Mr. Witchell (who, however, renders it cliizzic/c), sa3'S that he has heard the old birds utter the same note. The war-cry undoubtedly is a shrill cliick, chick, with a slight metallic n sound before the k : this cry has been variously written tzviiik, spiiik, pink, bink, and fink ; it is usually uttered twice only by our Chaffinch, but the Madeiran Chaffinch repeats it rapidly four times ; so that it almost leads up to his rather monotonous and poor song, the terminal phrase of which was never uttered by my male example. As the song of the Chaffinch is itself sung in rivalry and as a challenge, there is every reason for believing that it has been gradually evolved from the single note of defiance and not from the call-note. The nest of this species varies exceedingh- ; not, as has been stated, with the deliberate design of the bird to conceal it; for, if such were the case, this pretty' little structure would never be so glaringl}' conspicuous as it sometimes is; but simply from the fact that, like most birds, the Chaffinch uses those materials which are most hand}^ provided that they are capable of being woven into a soft * To 1113- (perhaps less musical) ear, it sounds more like phwit. loo Tin-: Chaffinx'h warm mass. The nest is most freqiieutl}' placed in hawthorn hedges, where mimicry of its environment wonld be absolutely useless ; preference is given to hedges enclosing orchards, but roadside hedge-rows are often utilized, as also those along the margins of woods ; the forks of young fruit-trees and the boughs of old apple-trees are sometimes selected as nesting-sites, and Seebohm speaks of the " lichen- and moss-covered branches of the birch- and ash-trees, far up in the towering branches of the oak, the alder, and the poplar, and on the lowly branches of the holly, more rarely of the yew, and freciuentl}- in the gorse shrubs." I have found it in the yew, but never in gorse. The nest takes from five da^-s to a fortnight to construct, all depending upon whether the bird is ready to la^'. In form it is a small neat cup, slightl}' con- tracted at the top, and tolerably deep ; but curiously enough Seebohm quotes a note h\ a Mr. C. Doncaster on a very aberrant nest seen by him on a thorn tree by the river Derweut, which appears to have been like that made by an English Chaffinch sent to New Zealand, and which has been figured b}' Dixon as evidence that birds do not inherit the design upon which they construct their nests. In the year 1896 I again turned a Canarj- loose in an aviary, and had the pleasure of seeing her prove the fallacy of Dixon's belief, by building a cup-shaped nest in a bunch of fir-twigs, her only pattern being set b}- a Canary on the opposite side of the aviary sitting in the usual square box. The materials of the nest, as already stated, vary a good deal; the normal t\pe being firmly felted together and formed of moss, a few lichens and spiders' cocoons, and lined with rootlets and hair, intermingled, or covered, with a la3'er of thistle- down ; but one of my nests has a rather rough aspect, being constructed of roots and fibre, mingled with fine worsted, and with hardl}- any moss or lichen in the outer walls, but with the usual lining ; others have feathers mixed with the usual materials in the lining. The eggs, four to six in number, are, as a rule, either greenish, or rosy flesh-coloured, the markings consisting of diffused sienna or ruddy brownish patches and streaks, some of which enclose blots, commas, dots, streaks, or hair-lines of blackish-brown ; in some eggs the reddish markings are chiefly massed over the larger end : in others the darker markings form a subterminal zone, whilst in rare instances they are wholly absent, the eggs being bluish, slightly clouded with I'eddish : the rarest t3'pe, of which I have only taken two clutches, is exactly like some eggs of the Bullfinch, clear blue, with grey shell-spots, purplish patches, and almost black surface spots. The Chaffinch certainl}- frequently rears three broods in a year ; nidification lasting from April sometimes to August. The natural food of the Chaffinch in summer, as already stated, consists largely of insects, their larvae, spiders, and the soft foliage and unripe seeds of weeds ; but at The Chaffinch ioi other times it lives chiefl}' upou various kinds of seeds of weeds, and of grain. In confinement it may be kept for 3'ears in health without insect food, but nevertheless a few caterpillars, mealworms, cockroaches, or spiders certaiul}^ are good for it. I think it was about the year 1887 that I took and hand-reared a nest of four young Chaffinches, which eventually proved to be two pairs : the nestlings are not eas}^ to feed, as the}^ always back away from the food, wagging their heads violently from side to side, so that it requires patience and dexterity to pop it into their wide-gaping mouths. My two male birds came into magnificent colour, and sang extremely well, probably learning their song from a ChafSnch which still lived in one of my aviaries up to 1897, though it must now be quite fifteen years of age. This old fellow was a fine Essex bird when I bought him, and a very good singer; and, although he had been unable to fly for two or three years, and his white eye-lashes showed his advanced age, he still sang strongly in the spring : but his chief interest to me lay in the fact that he once took a Canary to wife. In the spring of 1886 the veteran above-mentioned was flying about with other Finches in a small aviary, and one of my hen Norwich Canaries took a violent fancy to him, following him about everywhere : at first he did not seem to reciprocate this feeling, but eventually he began to feed her from the crop. When I noticed this, I placed the two apart in a large flight-cage where they soon paired. The Canary then built and commenced to lay, but I only found the shell of the first egg (which was so exactly marked like that of a Chaffinch that it would have deceived anj^one). Although I found the Finch feeding his wife as she sat in her nest, I felt certain that he must have destroyed her first egg ; therefore, I promptly removed him to another cage. After this the Canary/ laid three other eggs, all more or less marked like the first, and sat steadily upon them for three weeks ; when, knowing that there was no chance of their hatching, I took them away and found that they were all clear.* The idea prevalent in the minds of many naturalists, that the Chaffinch differs from other Fringillida: in not feeding its hen and young from the crop, is probably based upon the fact that it begins to give its nestlings solid food before they leave the nest. This is certainly the case with some, if not all, members of the Sub- family Emberizince. * A frieud of mine was extremely iudignant because I quoted Howard Sauuders' suggestion that the green eggs sometimes laid by Blackbirds may have been the result of a cross between Blackbird and Song- Thrush. He said it was absurd to suppose that the male in any way influenced the colouring of an egg. Is it? I don't know; but I do know that the Canary paired with a Chaffinch laid eggs which could have been mistaken for those of the latter bird, and yet they were not fertile: possibly the colouring of the shell may be the first thing affected ; we absolutely know nothing about the causes of the colours and markings of eggs, and, therefore, have no right to be dogmatic. — A.G.B. Vol. II. D2 I02 TlIK Brami'.ling Family— FR I X(UL L ID. ¥.. Suh/amily -^FRIXGIL L IN^E. The Bramblixg. Frinoii/d iiii>iitijriii<^illii, LiNX. OI"" tlie distribiuiou uf this species Howard vSauiiders says; — "To the Faroes the Brambliug is only an exceptional visitor. On tlie niainhmd it breeds throughont the sub-Arctic pine and birch forests, from Norway to the valle}' of the Amur : wliile on migration it occurs in Japan, China, Northern India, Asia Minor, and the whole of Europe ; but it is only in very severe winters that it pushes its wanderings to the African side of the Alediterraueau. Immense flocks sometimes visit Belgium, Holland, Germany, and Heligoland ; but state- ments that this species has nested in the P3'renees, the Alps, or the Ardennes, are as yet unconfirmed." (Manual of British Birds, p. 177). To Great Britain the Brambling is chiefly a winter migrant, although there is reason for believing that a few pairs have occasionally remained to breed with us. Although pretty generalh' distributed throughout our islands in winter, it appears to be rather more numerous in Scotland than in England, whilst in Cornwall, the west of England, and the south of Ireland, it is rarer than else- where; and in very severe winters it is more abundant, but particularly near beech-woods. The adult male in breeding phnnage has the upper parts blue-black, some of the feathers with tawny margins, the middle of the lower back and rump white ; scapulars and lesser wing-coverts bright tawny ; median coverts white ; greater coverts black, tipped with white, so as to form a prominent bar ; quills smoky black ; the primaries with narrow yellowish white margins, the inner ones with white bases ; secondaries with white margins towards their extremities ; upper tail-coverts black, with ashy tips ; tail black, the outer feathers with a little white at the base of the inner web, and about half the outer web broadly white ; sides of head black ; throat and breast reddish-tawny ; belly white, the flanks spotted with black, and the thighs black behind ; under tail-coverts white, tawny on the vent ; beak blue-black ; feet reddish-brown ; iris hazel. After the autumn moult the feathers of the head and back have broad tawny margins, as also have the tips of the greater wing-coverts and the innermost secondaries ; the quills and o -i- «> O < , -I — a. 2 < CD W^.^%^. ^^^?lj^^ The Bramp.ling 103 tail-feathers have fairly broad yellow luargius ; the feathers of the sides of the ueck have ashy edges ; the sides and flanks are washed with orange-tawny, the black spots ou the flanks are less prominent, and the beak becomes bright ochre- yellow, with brown tip. The female somewhat resembles the male in winter plnmage bnt is altogether dnller, the black of the npper parts being replaced by brown, and the bars on the wings are mnch less prominent. The yonng at first are very like the female, bnt the males qnickly develop their characteristic colonriug. The breeding plnmage of the male is acquired without a moult, and it is said that the change is effected by shedding the tips of the feathers. Although somewhat less active than the Chafflnch, this species is quite as quarrelsome in the breeding season (at any rate in confinement) ; in winter, how- ever, the flocks which travel about through woods and over fields in search of food agree perfectly with one another and with Chaffinches. Speaking of them as observed near Sheffield, Seebohm observes: — "They are remarkable noisy birds, and sit upon the tree-tops twittering to each other until dusk ; they sometimes fly up into the air in a compact mass, and after wheeling round several times again alight. They roost in the yew and holly trees, and a fair proportion of them seek quarters in the ivy." The site chosen by the Brambliug for its nest is usually at a height of from fifteen to twenty feet from the ground in a birch or fir-tree, at the junction of a branch with the trunk; the nest has, however, been found in juniper bushes. In his "Catalogue of Birds of the Dyke Road Museum, at Brighton," j). 126, the late Mr. E. T. Booth says: — "In the summer of 1866, while fishing on the river Lyon, in Perthshire, I had occasion to climb a beech-tree to release the line which had become entangled in the branches, and while so engaged a female Brambling was disturbed from her nest, containing three eggs, which was placed close to the stem of the tree. As I was anxious to procure the young I left her, and ou visiting the spot in about a fortnight the nest was empty, and, judging by its appearance, I should be of opinion that the young birds had been dragged out by a cat. This is the only instance I have ever known of the Brambling attempting to rear its young in Great Britain." In the "Field" for July 23rd, 1864, p. 52, the Rev. J. C. Atkinson recorded the fact of a nest with five or six eggs having been taken at Baldersby Park, near Thirsk, Yorks., by the Hon. Guy Dawnay. The nest is larger and more coarsely made than that of the Chaffinch, beiug formed of white and buff birch-bark, moss, lichens, and spiders' web, and lined with fine grass and feathers. The eggs, five to seven, usually six, in number, are I04 The Braaibling frequently indistinguishable from those of the Chaffinch ; but usually they are decidedly greener, with smaller and less defined markings ; a hen Brambling formerly in my possession, which must have been taken as a cage-bird to South America and liberated there (I picked her out of a batch of newly imported Brazilian Birds) occasionally used to drop an tgg from the branch on which she roosted ; these eggs were greenish-blue, like those of a Hedge-Accentor, but with four or five deep browu spots on sienna-reddish smears towards the larger end ; of course they were always broken when I found them. Like the Chaffinch, this species feeds largely on insects in the summer time, and on various kinds of seed in the winter, it is especially fond of beech-mast, Init also eats the seeds of many noxious weeds, and fruit. On the ground it both runs and hops, but chiefly the former. The call-note is usually described as a harsh chirp, probably referring to the grating zs/nvtro which it utters (in common with the Greenfinch, the Baya and Manyar Weavers, and many other birds) ; if so I have no hesitation in asserting positively that this is its note of defiance, inasmuch as it not only utters it after its song, but when disputing with another bird. I suspect the true call-note to be a sharp iv/t//. The alarm-note according to Seebohm is a hurried zw, ziv, but I have not heard this note from any of the birds which I have kept. The song, which I have frequently heard sung by two of my male Bramblings, is very like that of the Chaffinch without the terminal notes ; as, however, it is generally followed, almost immediately, by the harsh cry of defiance, it would almost seem as if this might represent the ivhcat-car or iissi-car of that species. The scale of the Brambling is rather shorter than in the song of the Chaffinch, and delivered with less vehemence ; but in this respect individuals maj- differ. A pair of Bramblings formed part of the little collection with which I com- menced my studies in aviculture : I kept them with a pair of Goldfinches, a Hedge- Accentor, and one or two other birds, in a large home-made flight cage. These were the worst-tempered Bramblings I ever had, they disputed incessantly, and at first gave the hen Goldfinch a wretched time of it, viciously pecking her whenever she went down to feed near them ; but one day the cock Brambling made a mis- take and pecked the male Goldfinch, which simplj- sprang at him, grasped his body with its claws, and tore a bunch of feathers from his breast. After this both Goldfinches were let alone, but the male and female Bramblings fought incessantly, the hen eventually pecking out one of her husband's eyes, soon after which he died : curiously enough she only survived him a few da^-s. In 1886 I purchased a charming male bird of this species, so gentle and tame that its plumage was always in perfect condition ; it was passionately fond of bath- The Sxow-Finch 105 ing, and sang regularly in the spring : unfortunately I kept this example in a cage, and, at its third moult, all its quills grew out like fans, giving the bird a most wild and uncanny aspect ; indeed it was such an object that I gave it away to some poor child who took a fancy to it. About 1889 I again purchased a Brambling from a bird-catcher, and turucd it iuto a good-sized aviary with other British species : it soon became fairly tame, sang well each spring, and rarely made itself objectionable to its associates ; it lived principally upon seed, but ate a certain amount of soft food and any chance insects which were thrown to it. The plumage of this bird was so perfect that a friend who greatl}' desired to have it for show- purposes persuaded me to let him purchase it. Bramblings have not only bred in confinement, but have been successfully crossed with Chaffinches. The Natural History Museum at Florence contains several hybrids between the Brambling and Chaffinch. These specimens show ample evidence of their origin, and were netted in a wild state by the Italian bird-catchers. Family— FRINGILLID.E. Subfamily— FRINGILLIN.F. The Snow-Finch. lllonli/yingilla nivalis, LlNN. 1 N February 1905, a male was shot at Rye Harbour, Sussex. It has occurred twice at Heligoland, once in the north of France, and several times in Germany. E2 io6 Thk Bi.ack-Headed Bunting Family -I-'RIX(]ILLID.-E. Suhjamily- EMBERIZIA\-E. The Black-Headed Euntixo. Eiiiho'iza ))!c!iiiioiipliaia, ScOP. IN spite of tlic fact that the Black- headed Buutiug has hardly auy claim to be called a British bird, it is necessary to give an account and illustration of it, in order that the confusion existing in the minds of many, respecting this species and the Reed Bunting, may be abolished. Dr. Sharpe summarizes the distribution of this bird as follows : — " Southern Europe from Asia Minor and Greece, westwards to Southern German}^ and Southern France, eastwards to North-western and Central ludia." Howard Saunders says: — "In Greece, Turkey, the Danubian Provinces, Southern Russia, Asia Minor, Pales- tine, and Northern Persia, it is common from the end of April to autumn, after which it leaves for its winter quarters in North-western and Central India." Gatke, speaking of it in Heligoland observes: — "I obtained the first example of this large and handsome Bunting on the 4th of June, 1845 ^ i*^ i'' ''^^i old male in which, singularly, the normal black markings of the head not only extend downwards along the sides of the neck, but the fore-neck also has a long black longitudinal patch. Since that time the species has occurred here about fifteen times, and has been killed in most of these cases." When Seebohm published his History of British Birds, Vol. II, in 1884, only one example of this .species had been obtained, it was shot by Mr. Robert Brazener, on Brighton racecourse, on the 3rd November, 1868. In 1888, Howard Saunders was able to add two occurrences of the Black-headed Bunting (Manual British Birds, p. 197) one recorded by the Rev. J. R. Ashworth (in the "Zoologist" for 1886, p. 73) as having been shot in Nottinghamshire; and the other as having been captured about November 5th, 1886, near Dunfermline, and exhibited at the Crystal Palace Show, February 12th to 17th, 1887, where it was recognized by the late Rev. H. A. Macpherson. It was then purchased by Mr. J. C. Steele, of Beckenham, who exhibited it at the Palace every 5-ear up to 1891, taking a first prize up to 1890. In 1891 it was recognized and labelled as "Black-headed Bunting " by the late Mr. Jenner Weir at the West Kent Ornithological Show ; but, knowing that the carelessness of some popular writers had prejudiced the Black Heade" R-intinc z iV,. The Black-Headkl) Buntixo 107 public mind b}- confounding this species with the Reed- Bunting, Mr. Steele probabl}^ wished to avoid discussion, and, therefore, again entered it for the Palace Show of that year (Februar}' 14th to 19th) as "Bunting-Cock." The bird was then growing old, and was in poor plumage; therefore the judge passed it over: soon afterwards it died, was stufted, and is still in Mr. Steele's possession.* I understand, from a letter received Feb. 6th, from Mr. W. C. J. Ruskin Butterfield, of St. Leonards, that, among some birds in the possession of Mr. Daniel Francis, he recently recognized an example of this species. It was caught in an exhausted condition by one of the Coastguards men at Bexhill-on-sea, on Nov. 3rd, 1894. Mr. Butterfield also calls mj- attention to the occurrence of the large race of the Bullfinch in Yorkshire in 1894 ; but, as I do uot consider P. ■major can ever with certainty be distinguished from large examples of our familiar Bullfinch, I did not think the fact worthy of special notice. It is quite possible that these so-called "Russian Bullfinches" may have been the produce of typical English ones, just as my frequently so-called "Russian Goldfinches" undoubtedly were born of Kentish parents. A male Black-headed Bunting was shot at Little Common, Sussex, in April 1905, and it is recorded as occurring on Fair Isle, in September, 1907. The adult male in the breeding season has the crown, lores, sides of face and ear-coverts black ; the back and rump cinnamon-brown ; wings and tail brown, the former with whity-brown margins to the coverts, and broad pale borders to the innermost secondaries ; the outer pair of tail-feathers with a narrow white edge to the inner web ; a collar at sides of neck and entire under surface bright golden yellow ; beak greyish-leaden ; feet pale brown ; iris hazel. The female is altogether duller — above sandy-brown, with darker streaks ; the rump slightly yellower, the wing-coverts and quills margined with buflish-white ; under surface sordid white, more sandy on the breast and flanks which are also narrowly streaked with brown, belly and under tail -coverts washed with yellow. The young nearly resemble the female. After the autumn moult the male has dull greyish-brown margins to the feathers, and the rump somewhat tinged with yellow, so that it then more nearly resembles the female. Seebohm thus speaks of the Black-headed Bunting : — " In Greece and Asia Minor, it does not arrive until the end of April, amongst the last half-dozen summer migrants. As soon as it comes nest-building commences ; and during the last half of May its eggs are so abundant in the olive and vine region of the Parnassus, that when I was there I had not time to blow more than half of the * A bird said to be this species was exhibited in 1S96: unless my memory deceives me, it was a Reed Bunting. io8 Thk Black-Hhadkd Bunting clutches which I found or saw. One reason may perhaps have been that the nest of this bird was the easiest of all nests to find. The males were so extremely handsome and so very conspicuous that whilst it may perhaps be scarcely correct to say that no other species of bird was so common, certainly no other appeared to be so." Further on, he says: — "the plain joins a steep rocky slope, where the olives are smaller and more scattered, and where clematis and white and pink roses half conceal the stony ground, and dwarf oleanders, pomegranates, figs, almonds, and other shrubs compose a half-wild landscape, the only sign of cultivation being a vine-terrace here and there. This seems to be the paradise of the Black-headed Bunting ; and it is not an uncommon thing to see three or four males perched conspicuou.sly on the top of as many isolated trees, singing in rivalry. When disturbed it seldom flies far, but drops down from its perch, and after a short flight, low and undulating, rises up again to the nearest tree-top, on which it is so anxious to perch that its legs may be seen extended for the purpose long before the desired haven is reached." The nest is usually placed amongst creepers, such as brambles or clematis; but often in rose-bushes ; sometimes in rows of peas or beans, and occasionally on the ground. It is large and loosely constructed of the seed-bearing heads of small flowering plants ; and is lined with dry grass, bents, rootlets, and hair. The eggs number from four to six, usually four ; they are pale greenish-blue, with brown surface spots and grey shell spots ; usually they are most densely massed at the larger end, btit sometimes they are scattered over the entire surface ; they also vary in size, though as a rule both large and small spots occur on the same egg. Jerdon says of this Bunting (Birds of India, Vol. II, p. 378):— "It makes its appearance in the Deccan usually about the end of November: is found in immense flocks, and is very destructive to the crops of jowaree, and other grains. It leaves early in March, and certainly does not breed in any part of India." Tristram states that it breeds in Corfu, frequenting brushwood on the hill sides, and has an agreeable song." According to Seebohm this song ctmsists of only "two or three slight variations of nut a very loud nor yet \-ery melodious note, rapidly repeated, with a slight pause in the middle. The ordinary call-note is a loud clitt, chit, and the call-note of one sex to the other a more plaintive and longer con- tinued tsee-a.'' Howard Saunders says: — "The call-note of the male is a vibrating monotonous chiriririy As a captive, little pleasure can be derived from keeping the Black-headed Bunting in a cage ; doubtless its feeding is simple enough, millet and canary Corn-Bunting j 1%, ? Plate 85 Thk Corx-Bl'xting 109 forming its staple diet, varied in the summer by a few mealworms or cockroaches; when wild it is said to eat grasshoppers; it also eats a little fruit. A caged example is chiefly interesting for the show-bench ; consequently the unfortunate specimen captured in Fifeshire seems to have had a busy life at the hands of his owners. In an aviar}- this species would doubtless l)e more interesting, but it would want watching at first, unless associated with birds as powerful as itself; for some of the buntings are daugerousl}- sportive towards smaller and weaker birds. Family— FRINGILLID.-E. Suhfamily—EMBERIZIN.F. The Corn-Bunting. E)iiberiza miliaria, LiNN. IT would be useless to attempt to improve upon Seebohm's account of the distribution of this species: — "Beyond the British Islands its range extends throughout Central and Southern Europe. It is only found in the extreme south of Norwa}' and Sweden ; and east of the Baltic its northern limit appears to be Riea. It it doubtful if it has ever occurred as far north as Moscow or the Ural Mountains ; but it is very locally distributed in Southern Russia, where it is a partial migrant. It is a resident in the Caucasus and Western Turkestan, and there is an example in the museum at Omsk, said to have been obtained in the neighbourhood. It is a resident in the Canaries and North-western Africa ; but in Egypt and Arabia Petrsea it is only found during winter, whence it probably migrates to Central Europe to breed. It is a resident in Palestine, Asia Minor, and North Persia, as far south as Shiraz." (Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. II, pp. 148-9). In Great Britain the Corn-Bunting is very local in its distribution, being most abundant in well-cultivated grain-producing districts. In the south of England it perhaps deserves its name of "Common Bunting," though it is by no means so abundant as the Yellow Hammer, but northward it is rarer and far more local ; in Vol. H. F2 no The Corx-Bunting Scotland it occurs most generally on the western lowlands during the summer, but becomes much commoner in the Eastern districts during the winter ; westwards its range extends to St. Kilda, and northwards to the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland it is local, but common in suitable districts. In October flocks of Corn-Buntings migrate to our .shores, considerably adding to the numbers of our home-bred birds. The adult male Corn- Bunting has the feathers of the upper surface pale brown, with blackish central streaks , the wing-coverts and innermost secondaries dark brown, bordered with warm buff and with whitish tips ; quills dai'k smoky- brown, the first primary- with j-elluwish margin to the outer web ; tail blackish- brown, with pale edges to the feathers ; lores and a superciliary line buffish-white ; under parts buffish-white, the throat sparsel}' spotted with black, and separated from the cheeks by a moustachial line of dark-brown spots ; breast numerously marked with triangular black dashes, which are somewhat rufescent at the sides ; centre of breast and abdomen whitish, sides streaked with dark-brown ; beak with the upper mandible dark horn-brown, edged with 3-ellow ; lower mandible oclire- 3'ellow ; feet pale flesh-brownish ; iris hazel. The female is slightly smaller than the male, and grej-er in colouring. The young are more richly coloured, the wing-coverts and secondaries more prominently bordered with fulvous, the spotting blacker and the under parts tinged with buff. After the autumn moult the adult birds are generally more rufescent than in summer. Owing to its sombre colouring and its habit of roosting on the ground, this species has sometimes been mistaken for a Lark, and in autumn and winter it is frequently netted in company with Skylarks : possibly for this reason it often receives the name of Bunting-Lark. The Corn-Bunting chiefly haunts open and cultivated districts, more especially where cereals are freely grown. It is not a nervous bird, and I have frequeutl}' stood within a few yards criticizing its ungainlj' figure and miserable apolog}^ for a song as it sat perched upon a scraggy bush, stump, or fence, apparently quite satisfied with its performance : the latter has been variously described ; but, to those not acquainted with the songs of some of the Marsh Troupials of the New World, or the Abyssinian and Rufous-necked Weavers (which have the same character, though more prolonged and varied) the most accurate idea of the discord is conveyed, by saying that it resembles the sound made by crushing broken glass in a mortar. Seebohm describes the song as '' kis, tcis, /ccs, tis-is-is-s-s-r-r-rc,'" Howard Saunders as ''■tk-tic-tccsc,'' Lord Lilford as "tedious and rasping notes." Seebohm observes that "the ordinary call-note of this bird is very loud, and resembles the word tzit ; the note between the sexes is a long drawn-out kaak, and frequently the two notes are heard together tsit-kaak^ The Corn-Bunting hi Tlie Corn-Bunting, in spite of its clums}^ aspect, is very strung on tlie wing, and may be recognized from the fact that its legs hang down as it pursues its undulating flight ; it also frequently sings as it goes. It is very fond of dusting itself in the road after the manner of a Sparrow or Skylark. The nest is either placed in a depression in the ground, in a tuft of grass, ragged-robin, or other low-growing herbage ; in brambles, or freshly-sprouting hawthorn on ground recently cleared ; also in fields of growing corn, peas, or clover : it is large, deep, cup-shaped, and roughly constructed of mingled coarse and fine grass, occasionally (though rarel}-) watli a fragment or two of moss, and sometimes a few roots ; the bulk of the nest really oonsisting of a thick inner lining of fine grass and black horsehair. The eggs number from four to six, five being usual ; the}- frequently resemble abnormally large eggs of the Yellow Bunting ; as a rule they are pale pinky-lilac, but sometimes creamy- white ; the markings are blackish-purple or deep pitchy-brown, with greyish-lavender shell- markings ; they vary considerably in character, either consisting of finely and densel}- scribbled lines, of boldly scrawled streaks, of combined streaks and blots, of broad irregular smears and paler blurred spots, or of partly couiluent blots, sometimes forming a zone near the larger extremit_y of the egg. The time of nidification is from about the last week of Ma}^ to the first week of July, one brood only being reared in a season ; the hen is a close sitter, and rarely leaves her nest until one has almost put foot or hand upon her ; so that apart from the size of the eggs, there is seldom any difficulty in identifying them. During the breeding-season the food of this bird consists very largely of insects and their larvae ; but it has been said to eat both peas and beans, and it is certain that it devours cjuantities of unripe corn : in autumn and winter the Corn-Bunting lives almost exclusively upon grain and various kinds of seeds, in search of which it frequents rick-yards, stubble-fields, and pastures. Although this species is tolerably common in Kent, I do not think I took its nest more than half a dozen times during the seventeen successive years in which I was an enthusiastic birds'-nester ; but as I had a strong objection to trampling down crops on the bare chance of discovering a nest, it is probable that I may frequently have passed within a few yards of a nest of the Corn- Bunting without being aware of the fact. This is not a suitable bird for the Aviculturist, being uupleasing in appearance and voice, as well as voracious ; it is, therefore, rarely caged. It is, however, possible that we underrate the vocal powers of this bird, for in the "Zoologist" for 1887, P- 300, the late Rev. H. A. Macpherson proves that it has some capacity for mimicking the notes of other species; he says: — "When birds'-uesting on the Upper 112 Thk Yellow Bunting Rhine, near Mulheini, I found the Corn-Bunting abuudantl}- established on the lower grounds. During great heat the males sang incessantly (their mates were sitting) perching indifferent!}- on the ground, on low bushes and rails, on the tops of walnut trees, and on tlie telegraph wires. Their song seemed to be identical with the dialect of those I had met with at home, with a single exception. On June 19th, a Corn-Bunting perching on a telegraph wire poured forth a liquid and sweet song, embod3'ing the notes of the Crested Lark, which latter species is resident, though scarce, in that district. That the Reed Bunting has a good ear, and can be trained to sing the Skjdark's song 1 have recorded elsewhere, but I never suspected the Corn-Bunting of a similar capacit}'." Family— I' K /A 'GIL L ID. E. Sub/a iiuiy —EMBERIZIN. E. The Yellow Bunting. Eiiihiviza ci/riinlla, LiNN. THE Yellow Ammer or Hammer, as this bird is generally called (^from the German name Goldammer, which means Golden Bunting)* is generally distributed throughout the greater part of Europe, breeding in Scandinavia as far north as lat. 70°, and in the valley of the Ob, in Siberia, up to lat 64°. To the more northern portions of its range it is only a summer visitor, and it only visits the more southern portions in the winter, but in the temperate regions it is resident ; in winter it occurs southwards through Turkey into N.W. Persia and Turkestan. Although almost unknown in S.W. Spain, it is said to be resident in Teneriffe. Throughout Great Britain tliis species is abundant and generally distributed, breeding everywhere excepting, perhaps, in the Shetlands. * Also locally kuowii as Yellow Yorliug or VoUlriug. ^ V ih: t J... /. ,/■ / / Yellow Bunting *, .' i-c. Plate 96 , The Yellow Buxting 113 The male Yellow Buntiug in breeding plumage appears to vary consideiably iu beauty of plumage, the birds of Mid- Kent appearing almost like a distinct species from those of North-west Kent, owing to the much greater development of yellow on the head. The crown and nape bright Canary-yellow, with an olive- brown streak across the forehead and bounding the sides of the crown ; * or lemon- yellow much more streaked with olive-brown ; remainder of upper parts chestnut, the feathers of the mantle and back with strongly marked black longitudinal streaks ; wing-coverts and inner secondaries dark smoky-brown, bordered with chestnut ; remaining secondaries and primaries sooty-blackish, with more or less yellow margins to the outer webs and slightly ashy tips : two central tail feathers dark smoky-brown, with pale cinnamon-brownish borders ; remaining feathers sooty- blackish, \\-ith very narrow yellowish edging to the outer web ; the two outer feathers with large snow-white wedge-shaped patches on the inner web ; under parts lemon-yellow, an olive-brown streak partly bounding the ear-coverts ; breast and flanks slightly washed with olive and streaked with olive-brown ; beak dark horn-brown on the culmen, becoming more leaden at the sides, lower mandible much paler, especially along the edge and just in front of the chin; feet pale flesh-brown ; iris hazel. The female is much less yellow than the male (excepting in pairs netted in West Kent which, even in breeding plumage, differ compara- tively little) the yellow on the crown represented by irregular mottling ; the chestnut of the upper jarts much less pronounced, excepting on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; whilst the olive-brown streaking of the under parts is more defined. After the autumn moult the feathers of the head have dark tips and the other feathers of the upper parts somewhat ashy margins ; all of which are said to be shed in the spring. The 3'oung nearly resemble females in winter plumage. I have repeatedly tried to get hold of Yellow Hammers in brilliant plumage ; but, living on the borders of North-west Kent, I find that the catchers invariably bring me dull-plumaged birds ; the more intelligent of them have assured me that they have never seen a brightly-coloured male Yellow Hammer in the neighbour- hood, which exactly agrees with my own experience. In the males of North Kent, on the other hand, all the males are especially fine in colouring, the dark markings on their heads being so much reduced as to be indiscernible at a short distance. The Yellow Hammer is abundant in all open country, but more especially iu the better cultivated districts where one sees the males dotted here and there like sentinels on the topmost sprays of the hedges, or sailing with rapid undulating flight down the lanes and country roads ; in wild moorland and commons this bird * Mr. Froliawk has shown me a wonderful .specimen iu which there are uo streaks on head or neck, and the wings are varied with white. — A.G.B. Vol. II. G2 114 I'"'"' Vkllow Bux'Pixg may also be often seen, though at times wheu it sits upon a flowering furze-bush it is overlooked until its ringing song directs one's attention to the performer. The song of the Yellow Bunting is not especially meritorious, though bright and cheering; it consists of a rapid descending scale made up of a repetition ni a sharp note which may be rendered chip or cliink\ and terminating with a double note cluc-chee : it rather suggests the shaking up of shillings between the hands, and has been likened to the words "Give me a little bit of bread and no cheese," though "green cheese" would have been a better interpretation: occasionally the double note is omitted ; but more especially when the bird is beginning to sing in the early spring. Being a late breeder this species continues his song well into the autumn, and often recommences in February. The male call-note is described as (Inch, cliicli, churr. The nidification of this bird commences about the middle of April, and not unfrequently continues up to the end of August : I have myself taken a nest as late as the 12th August with three fresh eggs (Vide "Zoologist" for December, 1883) and eggs have been obtained in September. Tlie nest is usually placed low dowm, though occasionally at a distance of from four to five feet above the ground in a hedge, and (according to Howard Saunders) exceptionally at a height of seven feet. I have often found it in low bushes, but only once in furze ; in low scrub on partially cleared waste ground ; in holes in grassy banks by the road-side ; or under a low dividing hedge between fields ; also at a considerable height (from thirty to forty feet) in a niche in the side of a gravel or chalk-pit surrounded by tufts of plantain and grass. The structure is a loose one, occasionally so much so that, when taken, the outer walls have to be supported to prevent their falling apart ; these consist of coarse straws, dead grasses, and sometimes a few twigs interlaced ; and, in one nest which I took from a hedge, there was an edging of dead chestnut leaves ; the lining consists of fine withered grass-bents, and a few rootlets and horsehairs. The eggs of the Yellow Hammer are extremely variable, both in ground-tint and marking, although most of them exhibit the purplish-black characters which have earned for this bird the title of " Scribbling Lark." In tint they vary from greenish-white, through greyish-lavender, to pale rosy-brownish ; whilst one o^g^, taken by my brother Frank, in Cornwall, was bright sieuua-red, with a single irregular blackish line across one side, and somewhat resembles a rare form of the egg of the Tree-Pipit (Plate HI, fig. 100). On two occasions I have taken the greenish-white egg almost or entirely without markings, the first time I only secured the first egg (as I had to return to town the following day) on the second occasion I obtained a clutch of three ; four elliptical eggs in one clutch were dull The Yellow Bunting 115 greenish-white, one of them with only a few delicate hair-lines, a second with a single additional rectangular line across the lower third enclosing a second shorter club-shaped line, the two other eggs were fairly normal in marking ; another nest of four is slightly tinted with lavender, the markings are mostly fine, and look like tangled silk, mixed with a few thicker streaks of purplish-black, one of these eggs is almost a perfect sphere ; other greenish eggs have extraordinary markings (like written notes in music, oriental letters, or the little men which children sometimes draw on their slates) intermixed with finer scrawlings and patches of lavender ; the lavender tinted eggs chiefly differ in being clouded with a deeper shade of the same colour, often at the larger end ; one egg which I obtained vaguely resembles that of a Chaffinch, being of the same size and with very few linear markings, only the diffused patches are greyish-lavender, instead of looking like blood-stains. The number of eggs in a clutch varies from four to five, four being the commoner number ; if less are obtained in an incubated condition, either the first nest has been destroyed before the completion of the clutch, or one or more eggs abstracted or broken accidentally. During incubation the hen bird sits very close; so that frequentl}' you may almost tread upon the nest in stepping through tangled brushwood; then ffcyrclup! that sound of hurried flight familiar to the birds' -nester, makes you suddenly look to catch a glimpse of the startled bird rounding a bush, or passing over a hedge ; and in a minute 3'ou are crouching down and turning aside the foliage to look at its treasures : often when searching among brambles and hawthorn have I felt my hand brushed by the wing of this bird as it has started from its nest. I am satisfied that three, if not four, broods are reared in a year : the male is said, on good authority, to assist the female in incubation, but in every instance in which I have flushed the bird from the nest, it has invariably been the hen ; indeed the male has always been singing somewhere .close by. It is well-known that the hens of many species as they grow old assume a plumage closely resemb- ling that of the male bird ; therefore, unless a cock of this species has actually been shot, or at least been heard to sing, upon the nest, and its sex proved, I think the statement that it assists the hen in her duties, should be received with a certain amount of hesitation.* The food of the Yellow Hammer in the breeding-season consists largely of insects and their larvae ; also, like all the Buntings, this species devours insects whenever it can obtain them ; but, like all more or less insectivorous birds, it is * This statemeut has, however, beeu so defiuitel}- made, that doubtless the fact has been proved beyoud all question. ii6 TiiK Yki.low BrxTiNT, still fouder of spiders, and this fact should, I think, be taken into account when summing up the virtues and vices of birds. If man would let nature alone, he would find the balance perfect, but he interferes everywhere and makes a mess of it. In autumn and winter the Yellow Bunting feeds largely upon grain and seeds of weeds, wandering over the country in flocks in company with Chaffinches, Bramblings, etc. Although a beautiful bird, the wild caught Yellow Hammer never commands a high price, bird-catchers generally being well satisfied to receive a sliilling for a pair : the fact that the bird is not a fine singer parti}' accounts for this, but the wildness of newly caught specimens is another serious drawback to the popularity of this species ; inasmuch as, after weeks of confinement, it still rattles about its cage whenever it is approached, uttering a whining sort of chirp. An aviary suits it far better. In October, 1888, I purchased a pair from a bird-catcher, and turned them into a large covered aviar}-: in the succeeding spring the}' built a typical nest in an .irbor-vita ; but, as already related previously, a hen Hedge-Sparrow took possession of this nest as soon as it was completed, and subsequently the unhappy Buntings were a long time in deciding upon a new building-site ; towards the end of July they selected a very damp corner on the ground behind a marsh-flag and began to build ; they, however, never finished this nest, but continued to carry about hay and straw in an undecided desultory manner until November, when they finally gave it up as a bad job. Early in 1890, both birds died : possibly they did not receive sufficient insect-food to keep them in good health. Cases have been recorded in which this species has been discovered sitting upon eggs deposited in a slight depression on the bare ground ; there is no doubt that the explanation of such behaviour is — that its nest has been taken. I once removed a nest with three eggs from a hedge, and passing a day or two later saw the bird sitting on a little platform of ivy twigs upon which the nest had been partly supported ; as I approached she flew away, disclosing her fourth egg. X \ •^- The Yki. low-Breasted Buxtixg, Th]'. Ciki, Btxtixg 117 Family— FRlXi UL L ID. F. Suhjaiiiily—FHIBFRIZIA >F. The Yellow-Breasted Bunting. Fiiibcnza autcola, PalLAS. A N immature female was shut at Clc}-, Norfolk, in September 1905. It has occurred at Heligoland, North Italy and south-eastern France. Family- FRFXGILLID.F. Suhfam ily—EMBERIZIN\F. The Cirl Bunting. Eiiibcriza chins, LiNN. THE range of the Cirl Bunting is more restricted than that of the other European species as it does not extend into the northern parts of the Continent. In Central and Southern Europe it is resident, but in Southern Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, it seeks the mountains for breeding purposes. In Belgium and Holland it is said to be rare. It has been found breeding in Algeria, but appears to be chiefly a winter visitor to North-west Africa. Though resident in Great Britain and not rave, the Cirl Bunting is decidedly local, being essentially a southern species. Formerly every work on British Birds which was published, used to assert that this bird was found breeding in all the southern counties from Cornwall to Sussex, being apparently absent from Vol. II. H2 ii8 Tin-: Ciki, Buxtixg Kent ; and even after Mr. Bidwell had reeogni/.ed in my eollcctiou a cluteli of eggs of this species, which I had taken at Iwade, near Sheppy, ou Jnnc 5th, 1877, as being nuqnestionably those of R. cir/us (a fact which, I believe, I promptly recorded in the "Zoologist") the same statement was repeated, until the appear- ance of Howard Saunders' Manual in iicr (used for the Meadow Bunting alone by Gatke), in a generic sense. If two such distinct species as Embcriza chins and E. cia are each called "The Hedge Bunting" b}' well-known writers, the confusion respecting them is likely to be as fruitful of mischief as the incorrect application of the trivial name of Black-headed Bunting to Einboiza ichccnicluis has been in England. The food of this species is similar to that of its congeners ; consisting largely of grasshoppers, beetles, moths, caterpillars, and spiders, during the breeding- season ; but in autumn and winter, of various seeds and grain. In confinement it lives well on the usual mixed seeds, including oats, with the addition of an occasional mealworm, cockroach, or spider. Like most of the British Buntings, the Cirl Bunting (if kept in an aviary) is, as Lord Lilford observes, " dull, silent, and greed}-." Rarely one may hear it sing, once or twice perhaps in the course of a month : it is not, however, an aggressive bird ; and, when it does show itself, makes a pretty addition to a collection of Finches. My late friend, Mr. Phillip Crowley, purchased a pair at the Crystal Palace Show some years ago, and turned them out into his mixed garden aviary, where, I believe, they lived for several years; but one which I had (I think in 1893 or 1894), only survived for about a twelvemonth, dying suddenlj- without apparent cause. ,.^>-.^' UNITING f: 38 Thp: Ortolan" Buxtixg 121 Family— FRINGILLID. E. Subfamily— EMBERIZLW E. Tiiiv Ortulax Buxtixg. Emlio'i'-a hoiiiihuui, LiNX. " T N Scaudiuavia the uortheni limit of its breeding-rauge extends to the Arctic I circle"; "'in the Ural Mountains it is not found further north than hit. 57°." "In Siberia, the eastward limit of its range appears to be the vallc}- of the Irtish, as far as its source in the Altai Mountains ; thence it extends westwards through Turkestan and Persia to Palestine and Asia Elinor. In all these countries it is a summer migrant, and in the two latter it is principally known as passing through on migration, though a few retire to the mountains to breed. This appears to be the case also in Greece and Italy ; but to the rest of Europe, south of the northern limits above mentioned, it is a regular summer visitor. A few remain to breed in North-west Africa, but the majority passes southwards in autumn, and doubtless winters somewhere in West Africa. It also passes through Egypt on migration, and winters in Ab}-ssinia ; a few also winter in North-west India." (Seebohm, Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. II, pp. 153-4)- Although there can be little doubt that several of the Ortolans shot, captured, or seen in Great Britain, have escaped from the poulterer's shops, having been imported from the Continent to supply the tables of the wealthy ; the fact that it is a common species at no greater distance than the north of France, renders its occasional visits to our coasts extremely probable. The first recorded instance of its occurrence was that of an example caught in Marylebone Fields, and figured by Brown in 1776, since which time a good many specimens have been either obtained or seen in various parts of England ; many others in Scotland, and especially from Fair Isle, where a number arrived in May 1906, also one at least from Ireland. The adult male Ortolan Bunting has the head, nape, and upper breast greenish- grey ; eyelid whitish ; lores, a moustachial streak, the chin and fore-throat sulphur- yellow ; back, wing-coverts, and secondaries pale reddish-brown, with blackish central streaks to the feathers ; lower back and rump with barely defined streaks ; the remaining feathers of the wings and the tail brown, the three outer tail feathers, with large terminal patches of white on the inner webs; lower breast, vi.i II I 3 122 TnK Ortolan Buxtixg belly, aud under tail-coverts pale reddish-browu ; beak vinous-brown ; feet reddish clay-coloured ; iris dark brown. The female is altogether duller aud browuer than the male, the head greener and streaked with dark brown. Young birds nearly resemble the female, but are yellower and more streaked below, and onl\' have white patches on the two outer pairs of tail-feathers. After the autumn moult the head and breast of this species are somewhat greener, and the beak paler, more flesh-coloured. According to Hamilton, the Hindostani name for this bird is "Jamjohara." Respecting the habits of this bird when at libert}*, Seebohm remarks: — "I found the Ortolan Bunting breeding on the mountains in the pine-regions both of Greece and Asia Minor. When I was at Valconswaard, we constantly heard its plaintive monotonous song, as it sat perched for a long time on the branch of a tree in the lanes, or in the hedges that surround the fields close to the village ; and in the wilder districts of Norway, when driving in our carioles from Lille- hammer towards the Dovre Fjeld, it was by no means uncommon in the trees by the roadside. It is not a shy bird, and frequently remains for a very long time on the same twig, generally near the top of the tree, especially in the evening, when its simple song harmonizes with the melancholy stillness of the outskirts of the country village." The nest of the Ortolan is formed in the latter half of INIay, being placed in a slight depression "on the ground amongst herbage, under bushes, or in the open fields. It is formed of dry grass strengthened with roots, and is lined with rootlets and hair. The eggs number from four to six, and vary from pale lilac to rosy-salmon, boldly blotched, spotted, aud slightl}^ streaked with purplish-black, chiefly towards the larger extremity, where the markings sometimes form au imperfect zone ; the shell-markings are violet-greyish ; in form they vary much in the same manner as eggs of the Yellow Hammer. The food of this bird does not materiall}- differ from that of the other species of Emberiza, consisting mainly of insects in spring and summer, and of seeds and grain in autumn aud winter. The song of the Ortolan Bunting consists of one melauchol}- whistled note repeated five times, the fifth repetition being prolonged — " Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, /loooo." I have heard it dozens of times, and am absolutely certain that this is a fact. To be sure of a song, it is necessary to make a note of the exact sounds whilst the bird is uttering them ; if you wait until you are Ij'iug in bed in a somnolent condition and attempt to recall a song, you ma}- feel quite positive that you have hit upon the very notes ; you reach over to your pockets and abstract pencil aud paper to jot the phrase down before it escapes 3'ou : later on, 30U compare 3our Thk Ortolan Btntixg 123 production with the original, and discover that you are wide of the mark : there is absolutely no resemblance between the dream and the realit}-. About 1891 a pair of Ortolan Buntings was given to me by Mr. P.J. Lowrey ; and, judging (from my experience of Yellow Hammers and Reed Buntings in captivit}') that this species would be equall}' inoffensive, I turned them out into a large covered aviary with English Finches, and many small Ploceine Finches. At first the Ortolans were quiet enough, their feathers being somewhat abraded (owing to the fact that they had been kept in a cage in some small bird-shop) : no sooner however, had these birds moulted and thus recovered their full power of flight, than they occupied themselves for the greater part of each day in chasing the unfortunate Waxbills and lylannikius all over the aviar}'. Apparently, the Ortolans had no vicious intentions in the pursuit of their weaker associates ; they never actually pecked them, when thev had an opportunity of doing so ; but the}' could not resist the pleasure which the frantic terror of the little Finches evidently gave them : the}' darted up and down the aviary almost with the rapidity of a Swallow, whilst the poor little hunted birds, unable to escape by mere speed, were forced to fling themselves against the wirework and double back to avoid their pursuers. Seeing that it was impossible to keep Ortolans in an aviary containing Ornamental Finches, I now captured my birds and placed them iu another aviary with Redwings, Greenfinches, Chaffinches, &c., here they suddenly dropped all the active habits which had previously characterized them, becoming as dull and listless as other members of their genus : their health, nevertheless, was always perfect, and their plumage tight and glossy. I parted with this pair at the same time as I sold my Redwings, and subsequently they were made use of for show- purposes. In the late autumn of 1894 I selected a male Ortolan from a consignment of Weavers (out of colour) which had just been received from Africa : it had been imported, together with Abyssinian and Russ' Weavers, and with these I kept it in one of my cool aviaries. Like its predecessors, this Ortolan, associated as it was with naturally quarrel- some and powerful birds, was singularly quiet and retiring in its demeanour ; indeed it often seemed to weary of the constant wranglings and strong language of the Weavers, and perched quite low down, or even on the earth ; where, from time to time, it uttered its melancholy little monotonous song : although it never had a chance of securing any insect food, all of which was greedily devoured as soon as it was thrown into the aviary by three specimens of a Cape Weaver SiVcrora fS. capensis ? ) it appeared to find all that it needed for its health in the few dried ants' cocoons remaining in a saucer of soft food, which had already been picked over 124 "^^^ Mkadow Buxtixg by examples of Liolhrix aud Zosferops : it also ate a good mauy oats, in addition to Canary and other seeds. In spite of their usually placid l)ehaviour, this aud all the Buntings are very pretty additions to a mixed aviary ; their plumage being as a rule quite uninjured aud scrupulously clean. Although perhaps not .so passionately fond of bathiug as some of the more typical Finches, the}/ perform their ablutions once or twice each day in a methodical aud business-like manner, which is probably quite as effective as the hurried splashing, characteristic of a Goldfinch or Canary. Family— I'KlNiJILLID. E. Suhfamily—EMBERIZIX. E. The Meadow Bunting. E/iiixrizd iia, LiNN. T WO examples were captured near Shoreham in October i()02, and a third near Faversham in 1905. Brandt's vSiberiax Bunting, The Rustic Bunting 125 Family —FRINCjIL L ID. E. SuhJamily—EMBERIZIN. E. Brandt's Siberian Bunting. Eiiibciiza aoidcs, BraNDT. AN example of tlie Chinese race of this species, said to have been obtained near Flamborough, in October, 1887, was purchased in June, 1888, by Mr. R. W. Chase, of Birmingham : there seems, however, to be some question as to the date of capture ; * and, in any case, it appears to me to have no claim to be called a British species. Eamtly—ERLYGILLID.E. Suhfamiiy-EMBERIZLWE. The Rustic Bunting. Eiiihcriza rusliid, PallAS. AN accidental straggler to our shores, of which the first example was captured near Brighton, on October 23rd, 1867, the second was shot on the Holder- ness coast, Yorkshire, on September 17th, 1881, the third captured at Elstree reservoir, near L'mdon, on November, 1882. A young male was shot at Westfield, Sussex, by a boy in September 1902, a female was recognized at St. Leonards in 1906; another, captured in Northumberland in 1902, was exhibited at the Crystal Palace in 1905, two examples were secured in Scotland in 1905 and one in 1906. It is tolerably certain that nearly all the specimens of this and the following species which are from time to time exhibited at bird-shows, are Continental specimens. * Viiie "Zoologist," 1891, p. 363, «liere this specimeu is staled to liavebccu obtaiiifd in November, 1S86. Vol. U. K2 126 Thk Litti.k Bunting, Thk Reed-Bunting Family-^FRINGILLID. E. SuhJamily—EMBERIZLW E. The Little Bunting. Eiiilia-iza piihilla, PallAS. ONE specinieu was captured uear Brighton, on November and, 1S64; a female was secured in Durham and a male in Warwick in 1902, one was caught by a cat in Scotland in 1903, an example was seen at Eair Isle in 1905, and a female secured in 1906 ; all these examples were met with in (October. At best it can only be regarded as a rare and chance wanderer to Great Britain, although there is no reason why it should not occasionally visit us. Family— FRINGILLID.E. Subfamily— EMBEREZIN.'E. The Reed-Bunting. Eiiibcriza sclianicliis, Linn. FREQUENTLY, though incorrectly, called Black-headed Bunting, Reed Sparrow, Water Sparrow, and Mountain Sparrow; also well-known under the popular name of Black-bonnet, is distributed over the whole of Europe from the North Cape to the Mediterranean, as well as in Western Siberia; but it is only a summer visitor to the more northern parts of its range, and chiefly a winter visitor to the extreme south ; at this season it is also met with in Asia Minor and North x\frica. Races of this species occurring in the south of Europe, Reed-Bunting s tHj. ?. Plate 89. Thk Rhed-Buxtixg 127 iu Siberia, Mongolia, uud China, and a snbspecies in Turkestan and Yarkand, have been distinguished by names ; but none of them occur in Great Britain. The Reed-Bunting is resident with us, and generally distributed throughout our islands, although onh- a chance visitor to the Shetlands. In the autumn there is an extensive immigration from the Continent, which reaches our eastern coasts and the coasts of Ireland in September. The adult male has the head, including the chin, throat, and centre of breast jet black; a white moustachial streak running from the base of the lower mandible to join a white collar continuous with a belt which bounds the black of throat and breast; feathers of back, wing-coverts, and secondaries black, bordered broadly with bright chestnut; lower back and upper tail-coverts bluish-ash, the feathers tipped with chestnut, those of the lower back partly black-centered ; primaries smok3'-brown, with narrow chestnut edges to the outer webs ; tail blackish, the two outer feathers on each side with the greater part of the outer web and a large wedge-shaped patch on the inner web white; remainder of under parts dull white, tinged with bluish-ash and buff, and streaked with black on the flanks ; beak brownish-black, under side of lower mandible much paler; feet brown; iris hazel. After the autumn moult, the feathers of the head, back of ueck, chin, throat, and front of breast, have tawny or brown tips, and the feathers of the lower breast and belly are stained at the tips with buff. In the female the feathers of the head are dark brown with reddish-brown borders ; the lores and a superciliar}^ stripe bounding the ear-coverts pale buff; the throat is white, bounded on each side by a broad blackish streak ; the breast is streaked with brown ; otherwise she is similar to the male, though slightly smaller. The young bird is very like the female. During the summer the Reed-Bunting is essentially a marsh-loving bird, frequenting all moist spots in the neighbourhood of rivers, broads, canals, drains, or streams, wherever rushes, reeds, and the wiry grasses which delight in damp soil abound; in such spots its nest is almost sure to be found by careful searching. At this season the Black-bonnet is always paired, but as autumn approaches it wanders over the country in small flocks, often associating with Corn Buntings, Larks, Pipits, or Wagtails, and wandering through stubbles and rick-yards in search of scattered grain, or waste corners where weeds abound, the ripened seed of which afford them food. But the summer time affords the most satisfactory opportunites for watching the habits of the Reed-Bunting, and Norfolk is one of the best counties in which to study it. As Stevenson observes: — "the broads in this count}- must be looked 128 TnK Rekd-Bunting upon as the chief home of this species, where they (sic) maj- be met with at all seasous uttering their somewhat harsh aud unvaried notes from the tops of the bushes, or whilst clinging to the reed stems ; aud in these localities the nests are built on tlie ground, frequently at the foot of a small bush, placed in a hollow amongst the soft moss that forms the foundation." It was around these broads that I first met with the Reed-Bunting in any numbers ; I had seen individual examples from time to time not far from Canter- bur}', but I never obtained the nest until 1885, when I first met with it on Hickling Marsh on the 13th May, and Mr. Salter sent me a second taken at Dounton, in Salisbur_v, on the 21st May. Curiously enough, although I had never come across it during many vears in which I had birds'-uested in Kent, the mouth after I had secured these two uests, my friend, Mr. William Drake, forwarded a third to me which he had f )und on the saltings at Kemsley, near Sheppy. When at the broads, in June, 1886, I dropped upon a nest (on the 2nd of the mouth) at Mudfleet, contaiuing five entirely unmarked eggs, but these were so much incubated and so brittle that, with the greatest care, I was only able to save two of them. (See Jig. igS.J All my nests were in slight depressions in mossy ground, sodden with wet and not always safe to walk upon, even with bare feet and trousers rolled up above the knees ; indeed I and my companion Mr. O. Jauseu had to walk very circumspectly, part of the marsh here and there being detached and simply floating in a pool of deep water, so that as you put a foot down it would dip under, wetting you frequently to above the ankle. The nests are not con- spicuous, are partly overhung by wiry grass-tussocks or sedge, and might easily be overlooked, excepting for the presence of the birds which causes one to search for them carefully : but to men whose eyes have been trained, as Entomologists, from their boyhood, aud who have been accustomed to recognize and pounce upon tin\' ground insects, a bird's nest is a very large and conspicuous object, however cleverly concealed. Tliis is a very strong argument against the theory as to the cause of mimicry in nature ; for it seems to me absurd to argue that insectivorous birds, whose eyesight is so keen aud quick that they can follow every movement of the tiniest insect on the wing, should, when anxious for food, be deceived b}' the vague resemblance of a conspicuous moth to a dead leaf;* that the powerful vision of a predaceous bird should be utterly unable to detect a sitting bird on account of her subdued colouring, or Iier uest because its walls were decked with lichen. That mimicry does exist we know; that it renders * .^s a matter of fact my own experiments conclusively proved that they were not deceivei.1, hut only slightly puzzled for a moment or two ; the resemblance to an insect being evidently more apparent to the bird than its similarity to a crumpled leaf. The Reed-Bunting 129 objects less conspicuous to the uninterested onlooker, and, therefore, may be iu a measure protective, is probable ; but that it exists with any definite intention, is no more than a guess. Lord Lilford's view as to the site usually selected for the nest of the Reed Bunting coincides with my own limited experience, for he says : — " All the nests which we have met with were situated on the ground, or the crust formed by the roots of the common reed." Hewitson, however, in the third edition of his " Eggs of British Birds," observes : — I have, though rarely, found them at an elevation of two feet or more above the water, and supported by a branch of the common reed, not fixed like the nest of the Reed- Warbler, attached to the pcipcii- diciday stciiis, but supported upon a bunch of them which had been prostrated by the wind." Sometimes the nest is placed in young spruce firs, and it is often found iu herbage on a bank. The materials of the nest seem to vary considerably ; all mine are formed of fine dead grasses and a few bents, or coarser bents with a blade or two of broad-grass ; and are lined with very fine grass and horsehairs, or fine grass alone. Stevenson's nests seem to have been formed of fine bents and lined with the feathery tops of reeds. Lord Lilford's were composed of moss and sedge, with a lining of reed tops, and sometimes a little hair. Seebohm mentions withered leaves of rushes as one of the materials employed, and Howard Saunders speaks of withered flags. The eggs number from four to six, and are of various stone tints var^dng between pale brownish-lavender and olivaceous-buff; blotched, spotted, speckled, and often more or less boldly streaked with purplish-black, the ixnderlying spots appearing a lavender-grey : they have the opaque appearance characteristic of eggs of the Chaffinch, but more nearly resemble one variety of those of the Tree Pipit. The nesting-season usually commences late in April or early in May, though Lord Lilford mentions having taken a full nest as early as March 23rd, and as from two to three broods are reared, nidification must continue until at least the end of July, if not to the middle of August. It has been stated that the male takes part in incubating the eggs, but I have not had sufficient experience of this species to be able to dogmatise on the point. As a rule it is engaged in singing its poor song, while the hen sits near by ; and when the nest is dis- covered both birds try to divert the attention of the intruder by tumbling about, as if wounded upon the earth. The song consists of a few monotonous notes cheo, chco, cheo, chcc, chce, chcc, chee, and terminates with a harsh zshivec ; the call- note is said to be tsclicc, and Mr. Witchell states that he has heard another note, resembling the battle-cr}^ of the Chaffinch. Vl.L. II. 1*3 I JO The Laplaxd Buxtixg The food consists chiefly of insects, their larvse, and small mollusca in snmmer, but of seeds in winter : in confinement, however, very little insect food is necessary to keep this bird in health. In October, 1888, I purchased my first male Reed- Bunting from a catcher. I turned it into my largest covered aviary, where it lived a perfectly inoffensive, though stupid and absolutely silent life until 1891 ; the winter following the death of this bird my man caught a second (in company with Skylarks) which also lived about three years, dying before its spring change of plumage, whilst a third example was given to me and died more quickly. Not one of these three birds ever uttered the slightest sound, nor have others which I have owned more recentl3^ and although fairly tame they all showed a skulking disposition, rarely appearing in the open part of the aviary excepting to feed, and showing none of that somewhat sprightly activity which characterizes this species in its wild state. As an aviary bird, I can, therefore, only recommend this Bunting on account of its quiet beauty of plumage and absolute innocence. Family^FRINGILLID.'E. Subfamily— EMBERIZIN.F. The Lapland Bunting. CahdriKs /(ifpoiiiais, Lixx. INHABITS the greater part of the circumpolar regions, with the exception of Iceland — to which it is only an occasional straggler from Greenland — and Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whence it has not yet been recorded. It is only at considerable elevations, such as the Dovre Fjeld, in Norway, that it is found breeding to the south of the Arctic circle ; but east of the North Cape it is common in Lapland, while in Northern Siberia it is extremely abundant, being, , ■^> o O z — c h =^- z r; 3 '.1 CD Q- D z < < TnK Lapland Buxtixg 131 according to Mr. Seebolim, not only the commonest, bnt also the most widely distributed bird on the tundras. In Asia it migrates further southwards than in Europe, reaching tu about 30° N. lat. in China ; whereas it is rare in the south of Russia and in Northern Italy, and as yet unknown iu Spain. In Central Europe its occurrences are accidental, but further north they are naturally more frequent, and are regular on Heligoland in autumn. In America this species breeds throughout the far mn-th ; wintering iu vSouth Carolina, Kansas, and Colorado." (Howard Saunders, ]\Ianual of British Birds, pp. :; 13-214). To Great Britain this species is an occasional, though not very infrequent visitor ; upwards of forty examples apparently having been obtained previous to 1890, since Selby first recognized the bird, amongst some Larks forwarded to Leadenhall Market from Cambridgeshire, early in 1826. Since 1890 this species has visited us more frequently. In October and November, 1892, J. H. Gurney stated that at least fifty-six were netted and shot in Norfolk. In the following year considerable numbers were seen on the Lincolnshire coast, a good many were recorded as having passed along the downs in February. In November of the same year a flock of from sixty to eighty was seen near Flaniborough by Matthew Bailey, and later a flock of from a hundred to a hundred and twenty by J. Cordeaux. In the Zoologist for 1894, the late Rev. H. A. Macpherson stated that in the southern counties a few had been taken annually for the past dozen years near Dover, but that in November, 1893, only three were caught near Brighton. In 1900 Mr. Patterson reported their annual occurrence in greater or less numbers in Norfolk, and occurrences of the species in Sussex, Warwick, Yorkshire, Scotland, and Ireland have been recorded up to 1907. The male in breeding-plumage has the head, including the throat, and the breast velvety-black ; a broad white superciliary stripe extends backwards over the ear-coverts, and is continued downwards on the sides of the neck ; across the back of the neck is a broad collar of bright chestnut ; the remainder of the upper surface (including the wing-coverts and secondaries) is blackish, the feathers bordered with tawny-buff, or creamy-whitish ; the primaries and tail-feathers deep brown, with narrow ashy margins, the two outer pairs of tail-feathers with elon- gated dull white patches on the inner webs : remainder of under surface creamy- white, with black streaks on the flanks : beak yellow, tipped with black ; feet blackish-brown ; iris hazel. The feuiale is paler above and without the defined collar on the nape, the feathers of the crown have tawny-margins, and a whitish stripe runs down the centre of the head : the ear-coverts are brown, partly edged with blackish ; the cheeks and under surface are creamy white : a black line run- ning below the cheeks to the upper throat, where the feathers are also black, i;,2 TllK TvAPLAXD BUXTINT, though parti}' concealed by broad whitish borders. After the autumn moult all the feathers have pale tawu}- borders, but the distinguishing characteristics of the male are not wholly lost. The young nearly resemble the female, but are mure tawny and more uniformly streaked above. There is always a chance of anyone familiar with the appearance of this species being fortunate enough to observe and recognize it upon our coasts during the autumn or spring migrations : since the completion of Howard Saunders' Manual, numerous examples have been either killed or noticed. Even as late in the year as the iith Ma}-, Mr. John Cordeaux ("Zoologist" 1893, p. 225) observed an adult male in full summer dress on the short herbage on the edge of the Bempton Cliffs, iu Yorkshire. Mr. Cordeaux, who was accompanied by Mr. M. Bailey, of Flamborough, says : — " We both observed it for some little time through our glasses about half a dozen yards awa}-, till it flew down the cliff-face amongst a crowd of Guillemots and other rock birds, and did not after this show itself again. What particularl}- struck me when watching this bird was the intense black of the dark parts as contrasted with the yellow bill, broad white streak over and backward from the eye, and chestnut collar." Judging from Seebolim's account of this species it is, as might be expected, a late breeder, he says : — " In the valley of the Petchora we did not meet with it at Ust Zylma, iu lat. 66°, until the i8th of May; and in the valley of the Yenesay, on the Koorayika, in lat. 66i°, a solitary Lapland Bunting appeared for the first time on the 4th of June — in each case at least six weeks after the arrival of the Snow- Bunting. In both cases I had an excellent opportunity of watching their habits. The first birds to arrive were males, principall}' in compau}- with Shore- Larks ; they passed through on migration for about a fortnight, the latter flocks being almost entirely composed of females. They seem to be entirely ground- feeders, and ran about very actively wherever there was any bare ground ; but before the snow had entirely disappeared the Lapland Buntings had also taken their departure, and we did not meet with them again until we had passed the limit of forest growth. On migration they repeatedly perched in trees, and when disturbed generally sought refuge in a tree. Like the Shore-Lark and the Snow- Bunting, the Lapland Bunting occasionally hops; its flight is quick and powerful, but more undulating than that of the Snow-Bunting. In its song the Lapland Bunting reminds one both of the Snow-Bunting and the Tree Pipit. The notes are not very loud, but are musical, and are continued for some time ; and every now and then a curious note is introduced which sounds like chciig, the consonants, both at the beginning and the end, being pronounced gutturall}', as in German. This note is also frequently repeated alone, and is probably the note of endearment The Lapland Buxtixg 133 between the sexes.* The song is generally' heard when the bird is fl\"ing in the air, soaring like a Lark, and is continued until the bird alights on some grassy knoll or stunted bush, descending with outspread wings and tail. What I take to be the alarm-note of this bird is a plaintive but loud iltct'-up, often heard near its nest. The female has a song almost as rich as that of the male. The Laj^land Bunting is not such a coast bird as the Snow-Bunting, and seeks the swampiest groiind it can find so long as there are dr}' tussocks of grass full of flowers where it can breed; if there are also a few stunted willows or birches upon which it can perch, so much the better. The nest is almost always placed in some hole in the side of one of the little mounds or tussocks which abound on the marsh}- parts of the tundra; it is composed of dry grass and roots, and profusel}- lined with feathers. The eggs of the Lapland Bunting are from four to six in number, and differ very much both in size and colour. They vary in ground-colour from pale gre}' to pale brown, more or less obscured by a profusion of iinderlying blotches and streaks, which var}' in colour from yellowish-brown to reddish- brown ; the overlying markings are generally much fewer, and are principally streaks mixed with a few blotches and spots of dark reddish-brown." (Hist. British Birds, Vol. IL pp. 132, Herr Gatke states that this species, in its character, "is altogether unlike the Snow-Bunting, having nothing of the boisterousness and wilduess of that species, but being of a gentle and quiet disposition. Indeed, I have frequently for 3'ears kept it confined in a cage, and its melodious, if somewhat melanchol}^, tune has given me much enjoyment during many a summer night spent at my desk over these pages. The song of the Snow- Bunting has exactly the same character; but the melodious, flute-like notes are fuller, and the bird in confinement will onlj^ give utterance to them during the first hours of June and July nights. The Snow- Bunting remains, however, so utterly intractable, crying like one possessed when any person approaches its cage, that it is impossible to make friends with it, and one generally ends by once more giving the peevish fellow his liberty. The Lapland Bunting, on the other hand, ceases fluttering after one or two weeks confinement if one keeps renewing its food, and soon becomes so tame that it will take flies from the fingers. It also invariably accomplishes its autumn moiilt to perfection, and in a very short time." (Birds of Heligoland, pp. 385-386.) Stevenson's experience of this species as a cage-bird seems to have been much the same as Gatke's; he says: — "Unlike most birds when first confined in a cage, it seemed perfectly at home, feeding readily on the seed placed for it, and both * If, however, as is now Reuerally believed, the songs of birds are snug in rivalry, this note would probably represent the chink of the Chaffinch, or the zshiveeo of the Greenfinch, and would 1)e a note of defiance.— A. G.B. Vol. II. M2 134 Thk Sxow-Buntixg in its gait and manner of looking np, with the neck stretched out, reminded me of the actions of a quail. In the aviary of Air. J. H. Gurne}-, this bird assumed its full summer plumage in the following spring, and thrived so well in its new abode, that over-feeding was probabl}' the cause of its death in May, 1856, when for the second time, it had acquired the black head and plumage of the breeding season, and was certainl}' a perfect lump of fat when skinned for the purpose of preservation." (Birds of Norfolk, Vol. I, p. 181). The food of this species consists largely of insects in the summer and seeds in the winter; but in confinement it should be treated like the other Buntings. It is undoubtedly the most desirable of all the British Buntings for the aviculturist, and should certainly be freely imported as a cage-bird. Family— FRINGJLLID.E. SiihJaniily—EMBERIZIN^F:. The Snow-Bunting. Plectroplunax niva/is, Lixx.* ACIRCUAIPOLAR species, breeding chiefly in the Arctic regions beyond the limit of forest growth ; or at high elevations further south, excepting in the Faroe Islands and Shetlands where it places its nest little above the sea-level. In winter it migrates southwards to Central Europe, South Russia, Turkestan, North China, Japan, and north America as far south as Georgia. It has been known to visit the Azores, Morocco, IMalta ; and is a rare, but regular, winter visitor to Ital}'. To Great Britain the Snow-Bunting is chiefly a winter visitor, generally reaching the eastern coast of England in October, though rarely in September, and commencing its return migration from March to April. Although rare in England * For this bird the geuus Plectiophaues, liaviiig beeu instituted for the I.apland liuiiling, has been aban- doned. Snow-Bunting s i^. ?. Plate 91 The Snow- Bunting 135 and Ireland, this bird is decidedly commoner in Scotland, where a few pairs remain to breed : the first nest being obtained in the Shetlands by Saxb}-, on Juh- and, 1 86 1. In Jul}', 1886, Messrs. Peach and Hinanian found nest and 3-oung in Sutherlandshire, and in June, 1888, Mr. John Young discovered a nest with five eggs. I believe it was obtained later by Mr. W. R. O. Graut. In 1903 nests were found on the spurs of the Grampians, stretching southwards between Raunoch and Glen Lyon, and in 1905 on a mountain still further south. The adult male in breeding-plumage has the mantle, scapulars, inner second- aries, terminal half of primaries, lour central tail-feathers and greater part of the next pair black ; the outer webs edged with white ; outer feathers mostly white ; centre of lower back and rump black (with white edges to the feathers) but the sides white ; remainder of plumage white ; beak and feet leaden-black ; iris deep hazel. The female has all the black parts of the plumage grej'er, and with pale edges to the feathers, the head and neck mottled with blackish. After the autumn moult the feathers of the upper surface, breast, and flanks are bordered with dull chestnut, which gradually changes to white during the winter, and the beak becomes orange-ochreous tipped with blackish. The young are greyish, with dark centres to most of the feathers, but the wings and tail resembling the autumn plumage of the adults. This bird has received many trivial names, such as— The Lesser Pied Mountain Finch, The Snow-bird from Hudson's Bay, The Tawny Bunting, The IMountain Bnnting, The Lorraiu Bunting ; but its prettiest name (and that by which it is almost as well-known as Snow- Bunting) is Snow-flake. Seebohm writes respecting the habits of this bird as follows : — " The flight of the Snow-Bunting is peculiar, and is something like that of a butterfly, as if the bird altered its mind ever}' few seconds as to which direction it wished to take. It can scarcely be called an undulating flight. The bird certainly does rest its wings every few seconds ; but either they are expanded when at rest, or they are rested for so short a time that the plane of flight is not sufficiently altered to warrant its being called undulating. The Snow-Bunting is almost entirely a ground-feeder, and is consequently continually seen on the ground. These birds run along the snow with the celerity of a Wagtail on a sand-bank ; but the}- can hop as easily as a Sparrow, and I have very often seen them do so. The idea that they seldom or never perch on trees is a mistake, which has no doubt arisen from the circumstance that on the steppes, where they delight to winter, and on the tundra, where the}' breed, there are no trees. In the valley of the Petchora, we had abundant opportunity of seeing them in trees." (Hist. Brit. Birds, Vol. II, pp. 127-128). 136 The Sm 'W-BrxTiNG Lord Lilford observes : — " In the few instances in which, * * * *^ ^ve met with this bird in the highlands of Inverness-shire, we found it exceedingly tame, running about within a few yards of us, and feeding on the seeds of varions grasses which grew by the burn-sides ; in one instance the bird was so confiding that I nearly- caught it with my cap ; but this was no doubt caused by the fact that a Merlin was huntiug over the moss at the moment when the ' Snow-flake,' as this bird is often called, fluttered up at our feet. The call-note of this species is pleasing and musical, and the male has an agreeable song, which, however, I have only heard from a caged bird. In captivity the Snow-Bunting will eat almost any sort of seed, and geuerallv dies of plethora unless strictl}' dieted." (Birds of Northamptonshire, Vol. I, pp. 171-172), Mr. Saxby speaking of them in Shetland, says: — "Seen against a dark hill- side or a lowering sky, a flock of these birds presents an exceedingly beautiful appearance, and it may then be seen how apllj^ the term "Snowflake" has been applied to the species. I am acquainted with no more pleasing combination of sight and sound than that afforded when a number of these birds, backed b\' a dark grej' sky, drop as it were in a shower to the ground, to the music of their own sweet tinkling notes." (Zoologist, p. 9484). The uidification of the Snow- Bunting is late ; most nests being apparently obtainable in June and July, although in Iceland it nests as earl}' as May ; it chooses heaps of stones, crevices in rocks or behind boulders, or piles of drift- wood in which to build. The nest is bulky and constructed of dr}' grass, rootlets, sometimes birch or other twigs, and a little moss : it is lined with down, hair, and a cpiantity of feathers. The eggs number from four to eight; six or seven being (according to Seebohm) a iisual clutch. Both in size and colouring they vary considerabl}', the ground- colour being creamy or greyish-white, or pale greenish, spotted and blotched with chocolate, and occasionally striated with blackish ; the shell-markings are pale reddish-brown and lavender ; most of the markings are usually collected towards or at the larger extremity. The food during the breeding-season consists largely of insects, but at other times all kinds of seed are eaten, as well as corn. John Cordeaux says (Birds of the Humber District): — "The little Snow-flake will find food and thrive in the severest winters, after all our small feathered friends have been driven by frost and snow from the cold and exposed marshes, feeding on the seeds of various grasses picked from the withered bents rising above the carpet of snow. They are nearly always excessively fat." "Roosts generally amongst rough grass on the pastures." During incubation, the male bird is in full soug, its notes being heard both The Snow-Buxting 137 when perched or fluttering in the air, like a Tree Pipit: the song is described as a melodious warble, similar to that of the Lapland Bunting and Shore-Lark; when flocks of this and other species are fl^'ing together they are said to twitter after the manner of other Finches; the alarm note is described as a loud fivcck, and the bird has another note resembling the harsh zslnveco of the Greenfinch and Brambling, but Lord Lilford's observations* prove that this is not the call-note; it is more probably a note of defiance : indeed Saxby probably means this note in his description of "the sudden jarring sound which is uttered by the bird when suddenly directing its course towards a neighbour. That the note in question is sometimes one of anger I have repeatedly observed when two of the birds have been quarrelling over their food." (Birds of Shetland, p. 91.) As a cage-bird, the Snow-Bunting, in spite of Herr Gatke's adverse estimate, is pretty generally admired; and is very frequently' exhibited at shows. Stevenson's opinion of the species certainly differed widely from that of the veteran of Heligo- land, for he says: — "In confinement, I have found the Snow-Buntings very gentle in disposition and extremely affectionate to one another, forming an amiable contrast in both respects to the Brambling Finches. A pair, which were kindly sent me for my aviary in 1862, b}' Mr. Fowler, of Gnnton, near Lowestoft, netted from a very large number at that time frequenting the Gorton beach, attained very nearl}- their full summer plumage, their beaks also, which are yellow in winter, assuming a dark leaden tint. Both these birds, unfortunately, suffered from a diseased state of the feet, which were painfully swollen, and the scutella on the anterior portion of the tarsi and toes were greatly enlarged and ragged. With this exception, the}' lived in apparently good health till the autumn of 1863, when the female wasted away and died, and the male survived his partner only a few weeks." It is certain that the Snow-Bunting ought not to be restricted to a cage, unless it be a ver}' large one: half the charm of this beautiful species consists in seeing it fly: moreover it is only to be expected that a bird accustomed to wander over some of the wildest regions of the earth and sea, should feel stunned and miserable when confined within narrow limits and constantly subjected to inspection in a stuff}' room. An out-door aviary would be the most suitable home for it, and the larger the better. Swaysland indeed states that "as it is a somewhat dull bird, it is not desirable for either cage or aviary," and others have told me that it makes a stupid cage-bird; but Swaysland gives no details; indeed his account of the species inclines one to the belief that he is not speaking from personal experience: in any case its song should atone for everything, for Captain H. W. * Jlr. Harting also (Bird.s of Middlesex, p. 75) likeus the call-note to that of the Liiiiiet. Vol. U. N2 I : t Magpie t. L Plate 97. The Magpie 159 Familx—CORMIK^.. The Magpie. Pica rus/ica, Scor. BEAUTIFUL beyond all our other Crows, the Magpie unhappil_y has so many enemies among game-preservers, that its numbers in some parts of Great Britain have sadly diminished. Its distribution is most clearly defined by Howard Saunders : — " From the North Cape in Scandinavia southward, it is found, more or less plentifully throughout Europe, except in the islands of Corsica and Sardinia ; but it does not occur in Palestine, although found in Asia Minor. Eastward — subject to a variation in the amount of white in the plumage, which has led to the creation of several bad species — the Magpie is found across Asia to India, China and Japan, and also in the northern portion of America from the Pacific to Michigan." In England, Wales and Scotland, this species is still fairly common and widely distributed. In Ireland it is not only abundant, but its numbers are in- creasing. Perhaps the comparative scarcity of this species at the present time in some of the southern counties may be due almost as much to the wholesale de- struction of timber, which has of late years been carried on by land-owners, as to the undoubted enmity which game-keepers show to it. In a wood near Newington, on the Chatham and Dover line, I have often seen several pairs both of this bird and the Jay simultaneously flying iip from their feeding- ground in a small-clearing; but now that wood is converted into pasturage and hop-gardens : and the same may be said of many a once grand hunting-ground for the Naturalist, for miles and miles around that neighbourhood. Alas for Kent, once the garden of England! it is rapidly becoming a mere dreary expanse of wire-fenced fields and hop-poles. The Magpie is chiefly glossy black, showing purple and green reflections ; but the rump is whitish-grey ; the scapulars white, the inner webs of the primaries with a white patch ; the tail with greenish-bronze and purple reflections, and with a purplish-black subterminal band ; abdomen snow- white : bill and feet black, iris dark brown. Female slightly smaller and duller than the male, and with a slightly shorter and heavier bill. Young birds somewhat duller than adults. To see the full beauty of this grand bird on the wing, one must be behind i6o Thk ^I.\i;i'IK it, as with Imoyant l)ul somewhat jerky flight, it floats down some liroad pheasant drive, exhibiting its pied wings and superb tail to perfection ; it, however, rarely remains long in view, its aerial excursions being generally of short duration. AltlKiugh fond of woodland and forest, the Magpie is not strictly confined to tliem. for it often wanders through well timbered valleys, or even over moorland; whilst in the pastures it may not unfrequently be observed upon the backs of feeding cattle, searching for ticks and maggots. Referring to this habit Lord Lilford observes: — "I am assured by an experienced tenant-farmer in our neighbour- hood that he considers this remedy worse than the disease, as the Alagpies in the search for maggots acquire a taste for beef, and cause hideous sores which are difficult to treat." The Magpie is at times both restless and noisy, but chiefly when aware of the approach of man whom it has learnt from sad experience to look upon with suspicion. Naturallj- less shy than the Jay, it would doubtless soon be confiding if mankind would but treat it more gentl}' : it is indeed an ascertained fact, that wherever it is not persecuted, this bird commouly builds its nest close to the habitations of man, and in most conspicuous places. Even where it is not looked upon with favour, this is sometimes the case, for in 1884, I noticed the unmistak- able nest of this species at the top of a lofty elm-tree within a hundred yards of the house in which I was staying, at Upchurch, near Newington, Kent. The tree formed one of a row along the end of a field, and quite close to the main- line of the Chatham and Dover Railway. I also saw the nest close to the little village of Bobbing in a small spinney. Although half afraid to trust one, and ever on the alert, the Magpie often keeps but a short distance ahead as one passes through its haunts, either in the trees above, or on the ground ; at one moment it will be peering and chattering from a branch, the tail rising and falling, or opening and shutting, after the manner of the South American Jays ; now it will drop buoyautl}' down to the scrub, whence it will appear upon the path, and then for a short space flit down the same to rise again to a branch and repeat the whole performance. The Magpie is single-brooded and breeds early, usually' constructing its nest towards the end of March, though sometimes as late as IMa}-, and most frequently placing it in the outer branches, though less often near the highest point of the main stem : sometimes, however, tall, or even low hedges as well as thorn-bushes are selected as a building site. J. B. Pilley, ("Zoologist" 1891, p. 352), observes that, when he was a boy, he and his companions believed that there were two species of Magpies, one building in a tree, the other in a hedge, and he says : — " I can distinctly remember the sorry plight I sometimes presented after climbing The Magpie i6i to tlie top of a high hawthorn hedge to discover the contents of a nest." vS. A. Davies, ("Zoologist" 1892, p. 29), remarks that: — "In Norwaj- they nearly always prefer bushes, if procurable. Whilst travelling in 1890, in the Saetersdal, I observed that— as noticed by Mr. Saunders in his 'Manual of British Birds,' — very often the nests were built under the eaves of the houses. In some cases the peasants had placed large props under the eaves for the nest to rest upon : in others the nest appeared to be built half inside the house, between gaps in the timbers. The Magpie is regarded as a bird of good omen, and it is constantly encouraged as much as possible to nest near the house. In one place I saw, in a low fir-tree close to a house, no less than nine Magpies' nests. I never heard before of Magpies nesting in colonies." Lord Lilford says that in Spain he frequently met with " nests which could be examined without any climbing, and, still more, whose contents were attainable from horseback : " he also, as recorded b}' Howard Saunders, " found several nests in the papyrus reeds of the Anapo, near Syracuse." The nest itself is ver^^ bulk}' and when built openly is alwaj-s roofed over with a basket-like covering of thorny sticks, between which and the nest proper, which is made of the same materials cemented together with mud, there is only a narrow entrance : the cup of the nest is very deep and neatly lined with rootlets. The eggs number from six to eight, rarely nine, and are pale emerald green (or exceptiouall}' fleshy-white) ; a clutch of five in my collection obtained in the village of Bobbing in Kent, in May, 1888, are uniforml}^ flecked all over with short irregular olive markings interspersed with dots of the same colour ; but others have the spotting massed at the larger, or more rarely, at the smaller end, and in some cases there are blotches and streaks of brown among the other markings, and I have seen eggs coloured and marked like those of the Pied Wagtail.* The male bird takes his share in the duties of incubation. The food of this bird consists of snails, worms, insects and their larvae, eggs, 3-oung birds, mice, carrion ; and later in the year, fruit, beech-mast, and acorns, as well as grain when procurable. Early in August, 1879, Mr. Frohawk saw considerable flocks feeding on the fallows in North Devon. The natural note of the IMagpie is a harsh chattering ; but, like some of the other Crows he is a good mimic and, as Swaysland observes, "is easily taught to talk." Lord Lilford remarks : — " In confinement or, more properly speaking, in semi-captivity, the Magpie is a very amusing bird, but his ceaseless chatter is, to our ears, most unmusical and annoying, and his thieving- and hiding-instincts have long been historically famous or infamous. * A variety also noted by Seebohui. Vol. II. '1'2 i62 The Jackdaw Mr. J. Lewis Bouhote, of Cambridge, who has kept all the British Corvida at various times, with the exception of the Raven, writes as follows : — ^" The Magpie is a nice sprightly bird, and when hand-reared is beautifulh' tame ; he seems to be the least pugnaceous of this rather vicious family. His merry rattling note is a nice change from the ordinary croak so frequently uttered." Like all the Crow-famil}', this bird if caged should not be closely confined ; the cage for a Magpie or Jay should be at least five feet in length, over three feet in height and two feet in width ; otherwise the bird does not get sufficient exercise, misses his daily bath and often becomes ragged and unsightly. Fami/v—CORJVD.-E. The Jackdaw. Corv/i.s iiioncdula, LiNN. BREEDS and is resident throughout the greater part of Europe, but does not occur northwards beyond central Scandinavia ; southwards in the Mediterranean basin it becomes very local : it has straggled along the African coast as far as the Canaries. In Asia it occurs northwards in Western Siberia as far as lat. 60° ; but in the valley of the Yenesei, Seebohm only observed it as far north as lat. 56° ; southwards it is common in South Russia, Turkestan, westwards through the Caucasus to Asia Minor and Palestine, aud southwards to Cashmere aud Afghanistan where it breeds, visiting the plains of N.W. India in the winter. In Great Britain it breeds and is resident in most suitable localities ; though on the rock-bound portions of our coasts it is frequently replaced by the Chough ; the two species being very rarely found occupying the same district. In the Outer Hebrides it has not been met with, and to the Shetlands it is only a straggler. Jackdaw, o '. v \ u < The CARRiox-Ckow - 171 and primaries. Hitherto I have kept the birds together in the hope that the Buzzard might recover his lost courage, but I have now arranged to separate them, as I am afraid of the Buzzard being permanently injured." The remainder of Mr. Comyns' notes are more in accordance with general experience, and there- fore, of less interest. Mr. Frohawk saw seven examples of this species at tlie mouth of the Avon (S. Devon) at the end of September, 1895 ; they all kept together and may perhaps have been the old and young of the same family. Fa>,iilv-C0RJ7D.-E. The Carrion-Crow. Corviis iOfoiic, Linn. IN Siberia, according to Seebohm, this species occupies the forest country Ijdng between Yenesay and the Pacific coast, extending northwards in summer almost to the limits of forest growth and south-eastwards to Japan. Westwards he is of opinion that, following the mountain-ranges of southern Siberia into Turkestan, it crossed the Caspian, passed through an equally large colony of Hooded Crows by way of the Caucasus, the northern shores of the Black Sea and the valley of the Danube and keeping to the north of the Alps spread over Germany, the Netherlands, the British Isles, France and Spain. He was able also to prove that this species interbreeds with the Hooded Crow in the valleys of the Elbe and Yenesay (as it is known to do in Scotland) producing many intergrades between the two species, examples of which he presented to the Trustees of the British Museum ; these have been carefully mounted, and form one of the most instructive and attractive cases in the entrance-hall of the Natural Histor}' branch of that Museum at South Kensington. 172 - The Carru)N-Cro\v In Great Britain this species is justly disliked and persecuted, both by shepherds and game-keepers ; yet it is still by no means rare in the well-timbered portions of England and Wales, becoming, however, decidedly commoner in the northern counties, whilst in Scotland it is abundant ; in the islands off the Scotch coast it again becomes scarce and it is doubtful whether it really occurs in the Orkneys or Shetlands. In Ireland it is a very scarce bird. The male Carrion-Crow is glossy black ; purplish above, and with green tints on the head and neck ; the wings similarly tinted ; bill and feet black ; iris brown. The female is perhaps slightly less glossy than the male, but does not otherwise differ in plumage ; her bill ajipears to be longer and more slender than that of the male, which is unusual in the Crows. Young birds are without gloss and the inside of their mouths is pale flesh-coloured. As opposed to the absurd notion that because this species is proved to h3-bridize freely with the Hooded Crow and produce fertile offspring, it cannot be a distinct species, Herr Gatke shrewdly observes : — " The very circumstance, however, that despite pairing having taken place for several thousands of 3'ears, the two colours of the respective species have remained pure and distinct, forms the most striking proof of the specific independence of the two ; for, if the}' had not existed originally as two fixed primary forms, to which the mongrel offspring reverted, though this may have occurred only after several generations, we should at present know neither the one species nor the other in its pure simple colouration, but should meet only with unlimited gradational stages of mixtures of gre}' and black forms." This argument, however, is not unassailable, unless it be claimed that the three Pheasants — P. cuIchicKs, P. /oi-qna/us, and P. vtrsicoloi-, which also interbreed freely and produce endless intergrades are, therefore, not distinct species. It must also be borne in mind that in some cases acknowledged sports of the same species when crossed do not produce intergrades, but from one clutch of eggs reproduce examples of each variety, as has been proved in the case of the Barbaiy Turtle-Dove, the Gouldian Finch, and the supposed fertile hybrid known as the Bengalee. In many respects the Carrion-Crow resembles the Raven, inhabiting similar haunts, whether among the rocky uplands, or in woods and game-coverts. In its predatory habits it is almost, if not cpiite as much dreaded, both by shepherd and game-keeper. Ever seeking for food from dawn till dark, the mischief done b}' a pair of this species in a single season must be enormous. Tliat this bird has some courage seems probable from the fact that it will sometimes dispute with a Gull or even a small Hawk, but it appears soon to weary of resisting a Thk Carriox-Crow 173 combiued attack, otherwise the young chicks of pheasants and partridges would indeed fare badl3^ Lord Lilford observes : — " We have not a word to saj^ in defence of the Carrion-Crow. His habits appear to us to be purely noxious, and neither his personal appearance, voice, or manners in captivity offers anything in extenuation of his natixral evil propensities." The flight of the Carriou-Crow is somewhat laboured, though at times very rapid, its wings regularly beating the air ; when approaching the earth it usually wheels round in circles. On the earth it either walks, or, if in a hurry, leaps forward with half opened wings after the fashion of its kind. The time of nidification of the Carrion-Crow is from the latter half of April to nearly the end of May (a clutch which I purchased from a shepherd, whose boys had just taken them from a nest near the top of an elm-tree at Iwade near Sheppy, consisted of tliree full-sized eggs and one small yolkless one, all of which were quite fresh on May 25th). The nest is bulky and the same structure is believed to be used and added to year after year ; it is either placed in a niche, or on a ledge of rock, or in a tall tree, — oak, elm, or pine ; but in Holland it is said to be built upon the ground. J. B. Pilley, of Hereford ("Zoologist," 1891, p. 352), records the discovery of a nest containing five eggs on the top of a tall hedge, in some meadows near the city. The nest is somewhat flat and formed of dead sticks, twigs, grass-tussocks and roots, with a lining of fur, wool, feathers or other soft materials neatly smoothed down. The eggs number from four to six, five being a frequent clutch, and are sometimes indistinguishable from those of the Raven, but usually they are somewhat smaller; the ground-colour is bluish- green and the markings which vary considerably in density consist of spots, longitudinal streaks and blotches of olive and olive-brown ; some of the markings are frequently almost black and others almost grey. It is believed that this Crow pairs for life. Of the eggs of this species figured on our plate, figs. 233, 234 and 235 are from Mr. Farn's collection, and 236 from that of Mr. Frohawk's ; my own specimens were not varied or characteristic enough to be worth representing. The call is a hoarse croak, but some of the other cries of this species are less objectionable. The food of this bird in summer consists of almost any kind of animal too weak or sickly to defend itself, wounded sheep, helpless lambs, the young of hares and rabbits, moles, young poultry, ducks, pheasants, partridges, and grouse; but he does not confine himself entirely to this diet, he also feeds on mollusca, which he extracts from the shells (as mentioned many years ago by Messrs. Sheppard and Whitear) by carrying them up to a considerable height and dropping them on to a stone; stale fish cast up by the waves, and carrion VUL. II. • ^'2 l■J_^ Till', Carriox-Crow of all kinds are devoured greedil}', as well as insects, their larvae, and grain. In the winter lie is more limited and has to content himself with grain, berries, and such weakly half-starved birds or beasts as he can manage to kill. Mr. O. V. Aplin ("Zoologist," 1883, p. 409) published the following note on the food of this species : — " An old disused bridle-gate .standing near one corner of Clattercutt Reservoir has this season served as a feeding spot for a pair of Carrion-Crows, which reared their young in a tall elm on one side of the pool. One evening in June, after the grass was cut, I found strewn around it the remains of several toads and frogs, and of one partly fledged nestling finch, also a number of broken shells of the eggs of the Wild Duck and Partridge. The state the gate was in showed that it was a much frequented perch, and a tell-tale wing-feather would have named the robber even if he had not hurriedly left an adjacent tree at my approach, and with loud croaks expressed his displeasure at my intrusion on his banqueting hall. I have always tried to defend this fine bird, and was sorry to find such ample proof of its destructive habits. Only a few days ago (October 1883) I counted thirty-two Crows in a stubble-field close to this village, and considering their abundance in this district, it is only a wonder that any game or wildfowl can rear their j'oung at all." Although inclined to a solitary life during the breeding-season* the Carrion- Crow is seen in larger or smaller crowds during the autumn and winter : con- siderable numbers arrive on our eastern coasts in autumn. Seebohm's statement that this bird "makes almost as engaging a pet as the Raven" hardly accords with Lord Lilford's opinion of the Carrion-Crow. The following is Mr. Bonhote's experience, communicated November and, 1896: — " The Hooded and Carrion-Crows are to be strictly avoided ; the latter bird when hand-reared is very tame and can articulate a few words, but has no interesting actions or habits and scarcely moves the whole day. The former bird (Grey Crow) is not only stupid, but dangerous, and is never satisfied till he has the whole aviary to himself, having murdered the other inmates." * This binl lias, however, heeu known to l)iiikl among Rooks, Init Ihey do not appear to appreciate his society. ■gp-^ ■ ^ 5 o - CC a O 3 a. Q UJ Q O O T. Thp: Hoodel) Crow 175 Familx—C0K]'I1K-E. The Hooded Crow. Collins comix, LiNN. " 1 ^OUND throughout Europe east of about loug. 10°, and iu Asia extends I ' north of Turkestan, throughout Asia Minor and Persia into Afghanistan, and through Palestine into Egypt. Examples from the Persian Gulf have the pale slate-grey replaced by nearly white, and have been called C. capcllauns ; but Siberian birds are intermediate in colour, and the Persian birds can only be looked upon as a local race." — Sceboli??!. An autumn and winter visitant to England and Wales, where a few pairs have, from time to time, remained to breed ; whilst in the Isle of Man it is believed to breed regularly. Throughout Scotland and Ireland it is pretty generally distributed, resident and common, interbreeding occasionally with the Carrion-Crow in the former countr}^ and in Wales. The typical Hooded Crow has the head, throat, and front of breast, wings, tail, and thighs black, with purple and green gloss ; remainder of plumage ashy- grey, with the exception of the centre of the upper tail-coverts which is blackish, becoming quite black close to the tail; bill and feet black; iris dark brown. The female is similar in plumage, but browner on mantle and slightly smaller, the bill is larger, but broader when seen from above, and with heavier lower mandible. The young are duller in colour. There is a large migration of Scandinavian Hoodies southwards at the approach of winter, to which fact we owe our seasonal visitation. The late Henry Stevenson in his "Birds of Norfolk," says: — "The Royston or Grey-backed Crow, as this species is also called, visits us in autumn in large numbers, arriving about the first week in October, though occasionally earlier, and leaves again by the end of March or beginning of April. They frequent for the most part the broads and marshes near the rivers, particularly the mouths of tidal streams, and are extremely numerous on the sea coast, where they also gradually collect together towards the time of their departure in spring. It is fortunate for Norfolk that this destructive species leaves us so regularly iu the breeding-season, as no greater enemy to the game-keeper probably exists, neither eggs nor young 176 Thk Hoodkd Crow birds, nor indeed, in some cases, old ones either, being safe from its pr\-ing e\'es and carnivorons propensities. There are, liowever, one or two instances on record of its having remained to nest in this neighbourhood, but not of late j-ears." Mr. Stevenson also quotes the following from vSt. John's "Natural History and Sport in Mora}'," p. 59 : — " It kills newlj'-boru lambs, picking out the eyes and tongue while the poor creature is still alive. It preys on )-oung grouse, partridges, hares, etc., and is vcr}' destructive to eggs of all sorts. In certain feeding spots in the woods I have seen the remains of eggs of the most extra- ordinary variety and number. No sooner does a wild duck, pheasant, or au}' bird leave its nest, than the Hooded Crow is on the look-out, and I have no doubt that a single pair often destroys many hundred eggs iu the course of a season. All birds seem aware of this, and Peewits, Gulls, Redshanks, etc., attack most furiously an\' Crow which they see hunting near their nests. The ' hoody ' is also very fond of young ducks, and destro3-s great numbers. In the mountains it is bold enough to make prize of the eggs of the eagle, peregrine falcon, or osprc}', if the parent birds happen to be driven off their nests." In their "Notes from Redcar" ("Zoologist," 1893, p. 6), speaking of the immi- gration of Hoodies from the 12th to the 30th of October, Messrs. T. H. Nelson, and F. Pilling observe: — "The Hoodies are generally noticed in largest numbers during thick weather in October and November." According to Seebohm this species migrates b}' da\-, and Gatke says : — " In the autumn, and with favourable weather, the migration commences at about eight o'clock in the morning, with flocks of from fifty to one hundred individuals ; the movement soon passes into a stream of flocks, consisting of from a hundred to at least five hundred examples, and continues in this manner, without gaps of any kind, until two o'clock in the afternoon. We can scarcel}^ in a case of this kind, assume that we are dealing with a stream or route of migration which just chances to cross Heligoland, for the movement proceeds in equal magnitude from east to west as far as the eye can reach. More than this, on days when powerful migrations of this kind take place, the migration-front or column has been seen from boats eight miles north of the island to stretch farther to the north, as far as the limits of vision extend; while on the south it reached, simultaneous!}' and in equal magnitude, up the Weser, at least as far as Bremerhaven, as was determined from the steamer which regularly plies between this island and the latter place. We thus get a migration column of at least thirty-six geographical miles in breadth." Herr Gatke proceeds to make many other observations of considerable interest, which it would be well worth our readers' while to peruse, but for which we cannot find space here ; nevertheless, his concluding paragraphs are, we consider, The IIoi.^DED Crow 177 important ; as showing how little the agency of man can affect the extinction of species, so far as it is directed merely against birds, their nests and eggs : — "Finally, I would add one further remark, as regards the position of these Crows in the econom_v of nature. Evcr\'where the protection of birds creates the greatest interest, and man is always put in the foreground as the greatest enemy of the feathered creation. Now, altliough the destruction of song-birds and other snuiU species, as it appears to be carried on in Italy, ought to be resisted by all possible means ; nevertheless all that is offered for sale, in the way of eggs and small birds, in Ital}' during one complete migration period, would scarcel}' equal the quantity of eggs and nestlings destroyed b}- the Hooded Crows during one single summer day. "It is perhaps true that the number of individuals of Hooded Crows becomes nowhere apparent in such prepondering quantity as in Heligoland, in consequence of which their destructive influence is under-estimated ; but if one had the oppor- tunity of seeing the hosts of them which travel past during two months of autumn, in uninterrupted sequence, and return in the spring, as is the case here, where no tree, wood, or hill, impedes the view ; and if one at the same time remembers that all these fellows, impudent as thej^ are cunning, do nothing else during the long summer da3's, from earl}^ dawn to sunset, but plunder the nests of other birds, from the Lark to the Eagle (Dresser), one would indeed wonder that there are still any birds, other than Hooded Crows, left in the world. By all means let us nurture and protect our little bird-friends in every possible manner, more especially bj^ abstaining from destroying an}- small shrubbery or bush, the sole use of which may, perhaps, be that it affords some small songster a hidden nook for its nest; above everything, however, let us aim at compassing the destruction of Hooded Crows unsparingl}', 3'ear in year out, b}' all the means placed at our command." The nidification of this species is similar to that of the Carrion-Crow; in Ireland it commences about the middle of March, but in Scotland later; the nest does not differ from that of C. coroue, and is similarly situated, although it has been found built on the roofs of huts, according to Gray. The eggs are precisel}^ like those of the Carrion-Crow in all their varieties. The cries of this species and of C. coronc are indistinguishable, and the food is the same ; but the Hooded Crow is bolder and even more destructive. Dixon is the only Ornithologist who seems to have a good word to saj- for this Crow; he says: — "I must confess that, in spite of the dark tales of plunder and his questionable mode of getting a livelihood, the Hooded Crow is a favourite bird of mine, and his habits and regular movements never fail to interest me." Vol. J I. Z2 1 78 The Rook Mail}- readers of his life have, doubtless, held similar views willi regard to Jack Sheppard. As a matter of fact tliere appears to be no redeeming point in the character of the Hoodie, he is a scourge when wild and when kept as a pet ; not only useless, but dangerous so long as he is alive : when dead, however, Herr Giitke tells us that the Heligolanders esteem him as an article of food. Lord Lilford sa3's that " the habits of the bird are always abominable, and although, from the accident of its not nesting in our county, we are not exposed to the detriment from this thief to which those dwelling on the other side of the Tweed are subject, we have no plea to urge in defence of the Gre}' Crow, and hold him as a sturdy vagrant to be summarily dealt with at all times and in all places. We should be sorry to c\ten)ii}iatc any bird; but this one could be better spared than any other with which we are acquainted." Fawilx—COR]'ID.E. The Rook. Corviis /nigi/i(;i(s, Linn. IN Western Europe the Rook breeds as far to the north as the Arctic circle, but not so far in the East. It is also found in the summer throughout Central and Southern Europe, being resident in the more southern portion of its range, but migratory in the more northern countries, whence at the approach of winter it retires to Southern Europe, North-east Africa, the Mediterranean islands, and Asia Minor. Eastwards it breeds in Western Siberia and Turkestan, wintering in North Persia, Afghanistan, Cashmere, and N. W. India. In England, Wales, and Ireland the Rook is prett}^ generally distributed in all suitable localities ; in Scotland though rarer and more local, it is rapidly "*^^ O ot en ■«»■ The Rook 179 increasing, occasionally wandering to the Outer Hebrides and now breeding as far north as the Orkneys and Shetlands. The male Rook is black, glossed with purple, most brightly on the upper parts. From the base of the bill is a l^are grey warty patch, extending over the chin and upper part of the throat. Bill and feet black; iris brown. Tlie female is slightly smaller and less glossy than the male. Tlie young bird is still less glossy and has the base of the bill covered, as in the Carrion-Crow, with bristly feathers; it may be distinguished by its more .slender bill and tlie deep flesh- colour of the inside of the mouth, this, however, changes to .slate-colour with age. In England the Rook is a useful bird so long as it can obtain a sufficient quantity of insects and their larvje to support it and its offspring ; but when, owing to protracted drought it cannot obtain these, it becomes somewhat mischievous after the fashion of its congeners. In Scotland, where pastures are somewhat limited, it is dreaded and detested almost as much as the Carrion-Crow. It is certain that when pressed by hunger it will sacrifice weak birds to satisfy its craving for food ; for, as noted in my " Handbook " I have on several occasions witnessed this predatory habit in severe wintry weather. The Rook is essentially a gregarious bird and haunts well-cultivated districts, preferabl}^ where tall trees are numerous and pastures are large ; here he may be seen day after day busily feeding on snails or digging for worms, leather-jackets and other noxious grubs ; in the fallows, whilst he doubtless swallows a little grain, he does incalculable good by destroying wire-worms and larvae of cock- chafers, whilst in the turnip-fields he not onl}' devours such examples of the latter grubs as he can find, but does considerable execution upon the dreaded and destructive caterpillar of a common moth (Agrotis segetuin) . The nests are generally placed in the upper branches of tall trees ; either in copses, plantations, pleasure-grounds, parks, or when planted in rows bounding the margin of a pasture, or forming an avenue over a country road ; but Stevenson rightly says: — "Though for the most part selecting the tallest trees, and placing their nest near the upper branches, they will build also on low Scotch firs, in the most exposed situations," and he adds : — " A still more novel site has also been chosen by a few pairs at Spixworth Park, where, for the last two or three seasons, they have built in the tops of some fine laurustinus bushes, about twelve or foiirteen feet from the ground, and others in a dwarf ilex, close to a flight of stone steps, connecting one part of the garden with the other, yet so low down that the feeding of the young was plainly visible fi^om the windows of the hall." When a rookery is well established, the birds are not easily persuaded to abandon it, excepting for private reasons of their own ; moreover the i8o The Rdok continual noises of a great city do not seem to disturb them at all, as is evident from the fact that Rooks still build and breed in the old trees which have been left standing in the busiest parts of London.* The nest is usually connucuced or repaired early iu March, but after unusualh- mild winters building operations sometimes commence much earlier. After the exceptionally open winter of 1895-6 I saw several young Rooks sitting just outside the nests in which the}- had been hatched as early as the 6th March, whilst I had noticed the Rooks in a rookery close to my house repairing their nests in January, and in Februar}- a pair daily visited m^' garden for worms : a friend of mine living at Dulwich first directed my attention to the early pre- parations for nesting made by these birds, assuring me in January that he had seen a pair of Rooks carrying sticks up to their nest. In the "Feathered World" for April 24th, 1896, Mr. W. N. Rushen says: — "I saw two young Rooks near Wanstead Park, on April 8th, which were as strong on the wing as their parents; and, to be as forward as this, the}- must have left the nest for some weeks." t The structure is usually very compact, formed of strong sticks and twigs, plastered with mud, lined with turf, straw, roots, and sometimes moss, dead leaves, and feathers. The eggs number from three to five and vary considerably both in form and colouring, exhibiting similar forms to those of the Carrion- Crow ; they are, however, noticeably smaller. The ground-colour varies from pale -blue to green, and is lighter or darker iu different nests ; the spotting is olive-brown, fine and sparse, or coarser and thicklj' distributed over the entire surface and sometimes with a few larger deep brown blotches or streaks. Of the eggs figured on our plate, figs. 241 and 242 are from my own collection, and 243 and 244 from that of Mr. A. B. Farn's. When the young first leave the nest they are awkward and weak on their legs, sitting huddled on a branch with their heads well down between their shoulders ; as the wind sways the branch the}- tip forwards, and have to open their short wings to recover their balance ; but, after daily short excursions from branch to branch, the}' gradually gather strength and confidence, until finally they are able to accompany their parents to the fields and get their first lesson in finding food for themselves. To those who have not noticed the methods by which the various species of Crows are taught by their parents, I cannot do better than recommend the admirable account given by Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller in her fascinating book * Sonietinies the nest is said to be placed ou chimneys, ornaments of chnrch spires, and rarely on the ground. t Mr. Rushen was well-known to readers of that paper as one of its most reliable contributors; a keen sludeut and euthusiastic lover of our P.ritish Birds. The Rook iSi entitled "Little Brothers of the Air."* The accuracv of this lady's observations will be at once recognized by all who have carefully studied the habits of birds. The authoress' plea for the Crow, at the end of that chapter of her book, though true in a measure of our Rook, could not be used in defence of the Carrion or Hooded Crows; she says: — "A Crow parent on a foraging ex- pedition is a most unwelcome visitor to the farmer with young chickens, or the bird-lover interested in the fate of nestlings. Yet when I saw the persecuted creature in the character of provider for four hungiy and ever clamorous mouths, to whose wants she is as alive as we are to the wants of our babies, I took a new view of Crow depredations, and could not see why her children should not have a chicken or a bird for breakfast, as well as ours. Poor hunted Crow, against whom ever}' man's hand is raised ! She feels, with reason, that every human being is a deadly enemy thirsting for her life, that every cylinder pointed upwards is loaded with death, that every string is a cruel snare to entangle and maim her — yet whose offspring, dear as ours to us, clamour for food. How- should she know that it is wrong to eat chickens ; or that Robin babies were made to live and grow up, and Crow babies to die of starvation ? The farmer ignores the millions of insects she destroys, and shoots her for the one chicken she takes, though she has been amply proved to be one of his most valuable servants." The note of the Rook is usually carr, but sometimes catv, and one of the birds in a neighbour's rookery, born and reared during incessant rains, seemed to have contracted a chronic cold, for his note was like that of a Golden Eagle, ar-cc-o. The food in summer consists of grain, worms, snails, insects and their larvae, and in dry-seasons or arid localities, of mice, fish, mollusca, young birds, eggs, the maggots in carrion and possibly the flesh itself. Later in the year fruits, beech-nuts, acorns, and berries ; but in winter, when all these are gone, it has to get what it can from refuse heaps or from the scraps cast out from houses ; though, when opportunity offers, it does not scruple to destroy sparrows and other small birds. The Rook is not suitable either for cage or aviary ; ni}- brother had one for some time, but it was anything but an interesting pet. Mr. J. Lewis Bonhote writes: — "The Rook is harmless; but, like the Carrion-Crow, very sluggish in its movements ; scarcely ever uttering a sound. It is also very wild and never attempts to talk, at least that is my experience." f * I'ublished by Houghton, llifflin & Co., Boston and New York. t In the ''Zoologist," for 1SS7, p. 26S, is an account bv Mr. C. R. Gawen of a hand-reared Rook (which was allowed its freedom), building two nests in a rookery, near the house, and feeding two hens, partly on raw meat and bread and milk from the outhouse where he was fed. Good liviuy had made a bigamist of him ! 1 82 Family Alaudidj, FAMILY ALAUDIDJ-:. THE position in which Howard vSannders has phiccd this faniil_y does not strike one as natural : it would certainly- have fitted in better with one's sense of order in Nature, to have seen it placed next to the Motaciilidcc, as in vSeel)ohm's " History of British Birds," and as evidently advocated b}' Dr. Sharpc, to judge by his remarks on the family in the " Catalogue of Birds." It is difficult to imagine that the Larks can be more nearly related to the Crows than to the Pipits, and one wishes that the author of the Manual had in his arrangement borne out vSeebohm's opinion — "The Larks appear to bear the same relation to the Pipits that the Thrushes do to the Warblers," or Jerdon's — "The Larks may be said to grade to the P'inchcs on the one hand, through Jloiifijniioi/Ia and PUciropluvics ; and, on the other, into the Pipits through Corydallar The chief characteristic of the familj- is the scutellation at the back of the tarsus; and it is probabl}' because of tliis peculiarity (and not becanse they are allied to the Crows), that Howard Sannders subordinating his own views, as he sa3-s, " to those of the majorit}- of the B. O. U. Committee re- specting the positions of the Alaiiiiidic and the Coii'ida'' has placed the Larks at the end of the Passcrcs, all the other groups having the i'eet scaled only in front. The Larks are walking birds, building and in man}' species roosting on the ground : with the exception of the more arboreal forms, the}- rarely perch on trees ; and when they do, they select the thicker branches. They do not wash, but dust themselves after the manner of Sparrows or Gallinaceous birds. Their food consists of spiders, centipedes, insects, larvae, and seeds or grain. Larks are powerful flyers, their wings being large and pointed ; the wings of the males are also as a rule stronger and more elongated than those of the females, doubtless to enable them to maintain their soaring hovering flight when singing: as a natural result of this increase of wing-power the sternum is some- what more prominent, giving greater fulness to the chest. By these characters the bird-catchers are enabled to tell the sex of Larks directly they grasp them, the male being, in their own words, "a handful." Colonel Charles Bingham tells me that the sex of a Lark can always be told by the length of the hind claw, which is distinctly longer in the males than in the females. ■X \ -^ O ir - < i^ —J ■=, > ^ CO The Sky- Lark 183 Practically the Aluudida constitute an Old World fainih', one species only occurring in North America, whilst, as Jerdon observes, "They are very sparingly represented in j\Iala3-ana and Australia." Familx- ALAUDID.E. The Sky-Lark. Alauda iDVCiisis, LiNN. FOUND during the summer months throughout the whole of Europe; nesting in Scandinavia as far north as lat. 70°, whilst in North Africa it breeds sparingly as far south as the slopes of the Atlas Mountains, and in the east, in Russia and Siberia, and at high elevations in Japan, the valley of the Amoor, South-east IMongolia, Turkestan and Persia. In winter it visits China, North-west India, Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor, Palestine and Egypt. It has been met with at Madeira, and is reputed to have occurred on Greenland. It has also been introduced into the United States,* New Zealand and Australia. Throughout Great Britain and Ireland, the Sky-Lark is widely distributed, abundant, and \^excepting in the extreme north) resident. The climatic variations of the Sky-Lark have been separated under several distinctive names, such as A. dulcivox, A. japonica, A. caiitarclla, A. liopus, A. blak- istoni, A. giilgiila, A. australis, A. axlivox, A. ivai/crsi, arid A. sala ; but so many intergrades exist that Ornithologists generally are now content to regard them as one variable species. Our Sky-Lark in breeding-plumage has the upper parts golden brown, with blackish centres to the feathers ; edges of greater wing-coverts paler ; the outer- most tail-feather white, with the exception of a blackish streak on the inner web; * Oue e:vample was also shot in the Bermudas, iu 1S50. 184 The Skv-Lakk the sccuiid feather white on the outer web only : inider parts buffish-white, spotted and streaked witli l:)hickish-br(iwu on tlie throat, breast and flanks; bill dark brown above, paler below ; feet j-ellowish-brown ; iris hazel. The female is rather smaller than the male, and has shorter wings, but d(jes not differ in plumage : 3-oung birds have broad buff tips to the feathers. After the autumn moult both sexes are more tawn}^ in colouring. In order to tell the sex of the Sky- Lark, the London bird-dealers take the bird in the left hand with the tail towards them, and with the right hand draw down the wing until the point of the first long primar}' touches the tip of the outer- most tail-feather : the wing of the male being distinctl}- longer than that of the female, the so-called "shoulder" then appears to be much more angular in the former than in the latter se.\. I have seen considerable numbers of birds thus tested, the males being caged and the females returned to the catchers, and I never knew the test to fail : but females are rarely forwarded b}- experienced bird- catchers, most of them being killed at the nets and sold to the poulterers. Although abundant enough on moors and commons, downs, grassy cliffs, and even mountains, the Sky-Lark certainly prefers arable land, pastures, and parks : it seems especially to delight in fields of clover : it shuns all places thickly studded with trees, such as woods, copses, and plantatious, but is almost always to be met with in country cemeteries. Excepting when in pursuit of another iudividual of its own species, the flight of the Sky-Lark does not strike one as being particularly rapid ; it is somewhat undulating, and there is a fluttering motion, even when it is crossing a field, which is ver3' characteristic. The male, when soaring, always commences its upward flight with this butterfly-like hovering action, and sometimes it is continued until it reaches its highest elevation ; at other times it rises obliquel}- and rapidl}', its song the whole time fitting its movements : in its descent it sometimes drops abruptly perhaps for forty or fifty feet, pauses a second and drops again, making perhaps three or four stages in its fall, until, as it nears the ground, it flutters round in a half-circle to the earth ; each drop being accompanied by the finishing shrill 'ivhcc, tvhee, w/icc of its song: often it comes down with a wide graceful sweep. The nest is placed in a depression in the ground, generall}- amongst growing crops, often merely sheltered on one side b}' an overhanging tuft of coarse grass or other vegetation, and sometimes without any shelter whatever ; a singular nest with a kind of lid formed of water-weed, which was pointed out to me by a shepherd in the Isle of Sheppy, is described in my " Handbook." The nest itself is more or less loosely constructed of dried bents and dead grass, and lined with finer grass-stalks. The eggs number from four to five, and sometimes three may The Sky-Lark 185 be found incubated, but it is doubtful whether so small a number ever represents a full clutch : in ground-colour they vary a good deal — white, whity-brown, huffish clay-coloured, or pale olive-green ; generally densely mottled with olive or smok}' grey-brown over the entire surface, but frequently with a denser zone at the larger, and more rarely at the smaller end ; sometimes there are a few scattered streaks and spots of deeper brown. The most aberrant egg whicli I have seen was one lent to me for illustration in my "Handbook" (pi. XI, fig. 11), which bears a curious resemblance to some eggs of the Common Bunting ; it is white with a deep brown patch at the larger end, shading into sieuua and slightly macular along its inferior margin. Although the Sky-Lark pairs in March, nidification does not commence until late in April, nests being most numerous towards the end of ]\Iay ; two broods are reared in the year, the second nest being furnished with eggs late in June or early in Jul)'. Both male and female are very wary in approaching their nest, never descending close to it, but at some distance, whence they may be seen threading their way in the most irregular fashion in and out of the herbage towards it. This is best seen where the nest is somewhat exposed on an open pasture, the niothcr-l)ird wanders about apparently in the most aimless fashion, but constantly approaching the nest until about a foot from it, when she makes straight for it and settles down. By watching patiently through a glass one can thus sometimes discover the nest. The Sky-Lark's soug is so much admired and so well-known that it is hardly necessary to describe it ; it consists mainly of a shaking water-bubble trill, inter- spersed with long drawn notes, and is marvellously exhilarating, considering how little variety there is in it. The bird sings either soaring, or perched on a stump or a thick branch. In the summer the food of the Sky-Lark consists of spiders, insects, their larvae, and worms ; but in winter, and more especially during frosty weather, it gets little else but seeds of grasses, plantain, etc. During the latter season this species is very gregarious in its habits, and consequently immense numbers are netted, the male birds iisually realizing from gd. to is. apiece, according to whether they are disposed of to dealers or private persons ; the females, as already stated, are generally killed for the table. In 1886, I made my first attempt at rearing Sky-Larks from the nest: I obtained seven young birds about eight days old, and at first kept them in a basket of hay ; but no sooner was this opened than these active little things bounded out like grasshoppers, often clearing my shoulders and alighting on the floor behind me. This I considered dangerous, and, therefore, bought a long "Lark- VoL. H. J-!3 1 86 The Sky-Lakk runuer," an elongated cage about two feet in length, by nine inches high, wired in front only. In one corner I fixed a Sedge-Warbler's nest, put ui}' birds in cue ]jy one, keeping my hand over to prevent their jumping out until all were inside, when I covered them with a warm flannel. When they began to get hungry off went the blanket and the whole family tumbled out of bed and stood in a row in front of the door shouting — lec-it, tcc-u, tic-ii ; and after their meal they raced up and down their cage until wear}-, and tlien tumbled back into bed and I covered them up again. They seemed strong and sound, but one by one the}' got cramp and died until I had lost them all. I subsequentl}' purchased a 3'oung male and an old female and at first kept them together, but finding that they did not get on well together I separated them, keeping the male bird in an ordinary- Lark-cage and the female in an aviary where she contented herself with running backwards and forwards continually over about a foot of ground, never fl\ing, excepting when startled, when she flew up recklessly and fell back regardless of consecjuences to the detriment of her plumage. The male turned out a good singer and was so tame that he used to peck and pull at my finger when I put it through the wires ; he was also very intelligent and would claw the wires and look round at a bottle containing watercress, of which he was very fond, evidently asking me to give him some. In July, 1 88 7, I obtained two nestling Sky-Larks and brought them up upon my Nightingale food, and in October they both began to sing, but one of them died the following year ; the other made a grand singer, and used to introduce the song of the Persian Bulbul into the middle of its performance : it lived for several years. In May, 1888, I took a nest of three young Larks when they were only six days old (I first saw them as eggs) and was obliged to take them when I did, as I was then returning home. Although they all had a touch of cramp, I success- fully reared them, but during their autumn moult two of them died ; the third, which was a wonderfully tame little bird, I turned loose in an aviary where it was quite happy ; it used to strut about in a consequential manner with its crest up, and although it was a small bird it sang so well that I felt certain it must be a cock and never examined it ; eventually it settled the point by laying an egg. This bird was very fond of perching upon a branch with the long hind toe and claw hanging straight down over the back of it, but it always roosted on the earth after the manner of its species.* Judging by mj^ own experience of rearing Sky-Larks I am inclined to think that a turf in the cage, with a hole cut in it, and a Whitethroat's nest fixed * Haud-reared hen Sky-I.arks ofleu sing, but I never knew a wild cau>;lit hen to do so. The Skv-Lark 187 therein is an advantage ; the young birds at first sleep in the nest, but as they get older the}- crouch down on the turf, and the moist warmth seems to lessen the tendency to cramp ; but I am sure that another and a more important thing is to give them food containing plenty of egg and moistened ants' cocoons. When adult, two or three mealworms a day, a handful of canar}' and millet-seed once a week, and watercress when obtainable, should be given in addition to the usual soft food. I think it was in the winter of 1891-2 that my man, having nothing else to do, took my nets out and brought me home thirteen Sky-Larks, in addition to a few other birds ; about eight of these proved to be cock birds, and I selected the three best singers as cage-birds ; one of these I finally retained, parting with the remainder to friends. This bird was always tame and healthy : he lived in a two foot "runner," half turfed and half sanded; he was a grand singer, producing the wild song so perfectly, that if you shut 3'our eyes you could imagine his upward flight, and finally his dropping notes as he i-eturned to earth. Towards the end of 1895 he failed to get well through his moult, and one morning I found him dead with his head under his wing. Mr. Seebohm's account of the migration of Sky-Larks as observed by him in Heligoland is exceedingly interesting ; but unfortunately I have not space to quote it here. Speaking of the complaints respecting the diminution of birds, Herr Gatke saj'S : — " To a witness, however, of the enormous passage of migrants, of the myriads of individuals which on autumn nights travel past this island, like the flakes of a snow-storm, not only within the area of the lighthouse, but for miles north and south out to sea, these complaints seem quite incomprehensible. It is surely impossible that the hand of man can exercise any perceptible influence on such enormous migration streams"; and he adds that the number of 15,000 Larks caught in one autumn night does not approximately express a proportion of one for each 10,000 individuals of such a migrant stream. The figures of eggs 245-8 are from Mr. A. B. Farn's collection ; 249 from Mr. Frohawk's, and 250-4 from the author's series. i88 The Wood-Lark Family^ ALA UDID. F. The Wood-Lark. Alaitdn ar/iorca, LlNN. " T N summer the Wood-Lark inhabits the southern portions of Scandinavia, and I Russia below about 60° N. lat., as far east as the Ural Mountains, while in Northern Germany it is common. Southward, it is found in places suited to its habits — especially in Central France — down to the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas ; its numbers being increased by accessions from the north in winter, at which season it also visits Northern Africa and Palestine, and in the latter it is said to breed on the high ground. "^ — Iloivard Saunders. In Great Britain the Wood-Lark is by no means a common bird, and is very local in its distribution ; occurring chiefly on undulating sandy or chalky soil dotted about with small woods, copses, or plantations. It is most frequently to be met with in suitable localities in the southern counties of England and Wales ; six specimens have been obtained on the Scilly Islands ; but has, from time to time, occurred in most of the northern counties. In Scotland it is very scarce, but has once been stated to have bred in Stirlingshire. A few appeared from early in November to about the middle of December, on Fair Isle, in 1906. In Ireland it is principally confined to the east and south. In general colouring the Wood-Lark nearly resembles the Sky-Lark, but can always be distinguished both when perching and on the wing by its short tail. It is also smaller and has a more slender bill ; the bastard primary is much longer ; the blackish centres to the feathers of the iipper surface are wanting on the rump and upper tail-coverts, the primary-coverts have white tips ; central tail- feathers reddish-brown, with dusky centres, outermost feather brown, the outer web dusky at the tip, the inner web with a broad black patch ; remaining feathers blackish, with terminal triangular white spots; a broad buffish-white superciliary stripe extending backwards to the nape ; ear-coverts rufous, with darker upper margin ; cheeks and throat whitish, becoming distinctl}' yellowish-buff on the breast and abdomen ; flanks brownish ; throat narrowly streaked with black ; breast and flanks broadly streaked ; bill dark brown above, paler below ; feet light X •a. < -J D a. O ^". ^-^ > ;> The Wood-Lark 189 horn-brown; iris hazel. The female differs soniewhal as in the Sk3'-Lark ; the wing being deeidedly shorter in this sex than in the male. Yonng l:)irds are more rnfons above, the feathers tipped with buff; below they are more 3'ellow and much more freely spotted with black than in adults. On account of the different character of the nostrils (in this species) which are half exposed and overhung by an operculum, Dr. vSharpe and others have separated it as a distinct genus — Lullula, Kaup, doubtless suggested by the French " IvU-lu," a name given as an indication of its flute-like notes. Col. L. H. I. Irb}', in his " Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar," sa3'S that " on the Andalucian side the Wood-Lark is sparingly and locally distributed during the winter months up to as late as the 21st of April, frequenting scrub where not \&xy thick, a favourite locality near Gibraltar being the Chaparaks (ground covered with brushwood) in the Cork-wood. Well-known to the vSpanish bird-catchers, and highly valued as a cage-bird ; they assured me that the Wood- Lark never remains to nest near Gibraltar, but they arc known to breed near Malaga." The Wood-Lark is onl}' to be found in timbered country; not that it confines itself strictly to the immediate neighbourhood of woods, or clearings in plantations, parks, and groves, although these are its favourite resorts ; for it also frequents commons ; but trees appear to be necessary' to its happiness, and where these do not exist it will not be met with. Although very fond of perching on the branches of trees, the Wood-Lark feeds principally on the ground, where it also roosts and builds its nest. The latter is placed in a depression in the earth, sometimes under a grass-tussock or small bush ; it is more compactl}' built than that of the Sk^^-Lark ; sometimes of couch-grass and a little moss, with finer grass and a little hair for a lining ; sometimes wholly of grass bents, the finer ones forming the lining. The eggs, which in this country are often deposited by the middle of March, are apparently not laid in Central Spain until the beginning of May (Lilford) or in the Parnassus until the third week in that month (Secholiin) : they number from four to five, and are huffish- or greenish-white, spotted with reddish-brown, or brownish-lilac, and with underlying greyer spots : as with the allied species they may either be evenly distributed over the entire surface, or more densely massed at the extremities, or in a zone near the larger end ; as a rule, however, the spots are smaller and less confluent than in eggs of the Sky-Lark, those of the Wood-Lark being generall}' admitted to more nearly' resemble some varieties of those of the Crested Lark. The Wood-Lark is double-brooded, and I have never been out of town cjuite eaidy enough for the first brood. Vol. U. C3 '9' The Wood-Lark The food of this bird is exactly similar to that of the Sky- Lark, consisting chiefly of insects in summer, and seeds in winter. The Wood-Lark's song is ver^' pnre and melodious and b}- man}^ it is con- sidered only second to that of the Nightingale, but it certaiul}' is not so full of variety as the song of that bird ; nevertheless it has the merit of being persevered in throughout the year, excepting during the moulting season ; it is usually commenced, and sometimes completed, from the branch of a tree ; but more frequently the tree only represents the point at which the flight-song begins : the last time that I heard the flute-like music of this bird at liberty, I was down at Dover with mj- old friend Dr. John Grayling, of Sittiugbourne ; we were approaching a wood when, from a tree at the side of the road, we heard the delightful song of a Wood-Lark ; looking up we soon espied him on a branch and were able to identify him without difficulty by his short tail and promineut eye-streak. Presently he soared awaj^ rising at first obliquely and then gradually swinging round, still singing, aud rising until he had reached the height of his ambition, when with wide spiral curves he descended to the earth. The Wood- Lark is said sometimes to sing throughout the night, and it certainlj? does sing well into the " gloaming," which has led rustics at times to confound it with the Nightingale ; but, by careless observers, it is much more generally confused with the Tree- Pipit. Although this bird sometimes soars quite as high as the Sky-Lark this is not its general habit ; moreover it flies more in circles and descends to the earth in a wide spiral, instead of obliquely or b}' jerky drops. As a cage-bird, the Wood-Lark is a great favourite, and I have possessed two adult specimens. On one occasion when driving through a country road in Kent, with woods on either side, a young bird was seen scampering and leaping to get out of our way. The driver pulled up and succeeded in catching it for me; but although it soon fed itself and to repletion, it quickly got cramp and died. Later on, in June 1887, my son aud I caught sight of a slightly older example of this species in a somewhat similar situation and exerted ourselves to catch it, but it made for a tall hawthorn hedge, up which it escaped with such rapidity, that before we could come up with it, the bird was out of our reach. About September, 1894, I was beautifully taken in by an unprincipled bird-catcher : he had told me of a lovely Wood-Lark which he had, and which he described as singing splendidly. One dark night he knocked at my front door and told me he had brought this bird, which I could have for three shillings. I put my hand through the opening at the top of the cage, and took the bird out ; it had a short tail, but (even in the dark) looked somewhat uncann}' ; i y'^ \ -s < o _J UJ O TiiK Crested Lark 191 however, he told me he was quite certain that it was a Wood-Lark, so I gave him the money : he hurried off so quickly that I doubted again ; and, taking it in- doors to the light, I discovered that the bird was a hen Sky-Lark whose tail had been pulled out and had half-grown again. I could not help laughing, but I never bought a bird from that' man afterwards. The egg figured on the plate is from Mr. A. B. Farn's collection. Familx—ALA UDID. E. The Crested Lark. Alanda crisfafa, LiNN. RESIDENT in Central and Southern Eiirope, its northern range extending up to 60° N. lat. in Russia and Sweden ; North Africa, southward to Senegambia and the Niger on the west coast, and from Abyssinia east- ward, through Arabia and India, to North China. To Great Britain this species appears to be a rare straggler : most examples have been obtained in Cornwall, one in summer and the four others in autumn and winter ; one is said to have been caught in the Isle of Wight, and two have been obtained in Sussex. The statements — that one has been taken from a nest in the Isle of Wight, and that it has occurred in Ireland, require verification.* It is also reported from Blackheath and Macclesfield. There are many slight climatic modifications of this Lark, all of which have been regarded either as species or subspecies. Tlie typical form has the upper parts greyish-brown, watli darker centres to the feathers, excepting on the rump and upper tail-coverts, which are sandy-brown ; the long pointed crest has * If a'.l the stories respecting the nesting of birds in the Isle of Wight are to be accepted, it mnst be a very wonderful place ; not only in birds, but in insects, it is reputed to be exceedingly rich in rarities ; I once bad a small New Zealand Jlolh shown to me by a man who assured me that he had caught it near Veulnor. 192 The Crested Lark the centres of the fcatliers darker than elsewhere; the hastard primary is large; the tail-feathers are dark Ijrown, with greyi-sh luargius, excepting the outermost feather whicli is pale brown with buff outer web; and the second feather which has a sandv-buff margin to the t)uter web ; the superciliary stripe is broad, extending far backwards from above the eye, and is buffish-white ; the under parts are principall}- buffish-white, deeper on the flanks and thighs ; sides of throat spotted with blackish-brown ; breast spotted and streaked with dark brown ; flanks slightly streaked ; bill brown, under mandible paler ; feet fleshy horn-brown ; iris hazel. The female has a shorter crest, and is rather smaller than the male, and has a much shorter wing. The young are more rufescent and have blackish sub- terminal bars and pale buff tips to the feathers of tlie upper parts. After the autumn moult the plumage of the Crested Lark becomes more sandy in tint, and the dark centres to the feathers less conspicuous. Col. Irb}-, in his "Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar" gives the following account of this species : — " The Crested Lark is one of the most abundant birds both in Morocco and Andalucia, though never seen in any great numbers together. They arc distributed in pairs on every road-track and open plain, often at intervals of onl}' some twenty yards. Excessively tame and fear- less, they have acquired the name of Curiiicit), from their habit of frequenting roads, to which they resort as much on account of the horse and mule-dung, at which they are to be seen pecking, as for the purpose of dusting themselves ; and they are often to be noticed on the sea-shore, running about like a Sauderling within a yard of the water. They have no song worthy of the name, and are altogether rather vulgar and uninteresting birds. This species is one of those which I could not detect migrating in the slightest degree. The Crested Lark usually commences to lay about the 20th of April, placing the nest in some tuft of grass or under shelter of a small stone or clod of earth — constructing it, like those of other Larks, with bits of grass, bents, etc., lined with hair." Howard Saunders says:- — "The nest, often commenced early in March, is usually placed in some such depression of the dry ground as a hoof-print, or amongst herbage, but sometimes on an old wall or bank of earth, or even on the ridge of a low thatched shed in the fields ; the materials employed being diy grass and roots. The eggs four to five in number, vary from greyish-white distinctly spotted with brown and violet-grey, to greenish-grey mottled with olive- brown ; average measurements '95 by "bS in. Incubation, in wdiich the male takes part, lasts a fortnight. The Crested Lark is a tame and conspicuous bird, The Crested Lark 193 frequenting sandj^ roads — in which it is fond of dusting itself — and running with great rapidit}', while I have often seen it glide beneath a horse wlien at a slow walk, rather than take wing. Its flight is undulating and resembles that of the Wood-Lark. It is not gregarious, and is generall}' seen singly, (U- iu pairs and fauiily parties. The short but rather liquid and melodious song of the male is generally uttered on the ground, though often duriug a short flight, and occasion- ally from a bush ; the note may be syllabled as ' coo-hai.' The young are fed on insects and their larvae, but seeds and grain form the principal food of this species, and in snowy weather it may be seen examining horse droppings, etc." " Manual of British Birds," p. 244. Dixon sa3's that in xA-lgeria he " often saw this bird soar iuto the air for perhaps a hundred yards or so, all the time warbling its simple song." Speaking of it in India, Theobald describes the nest as "a little grass in a hole in the ground, with four ovato-pyriform 3-ellowish-white eggs uuiformly freckled with greyish-yellow and neutral tint." Jerdon says that the " Chendul " "feeds on various insects, chiefly grass- hoppers, and in default of this food, on grains and seeds." In his " Birds of India," vol. II, p. 437, he gives the following account: — "It is not known in Bengal nor iu the Himalayas, nor iu the countries to the eastward. It prefers dry open sandy plaius, or ploughed land, to grass, wet meadows, or cultivation. It rises in the air singing, though not so high as A. guli^iila* nor is its song so flue. In winter it may be seen in small parties, or sometimes iu considerable flocks, occasionally on roads and barren places." From what Jerdon says, the " Chendul " as the Hindoos call the species is much esteemed on account of its song (although Seebohm states that the latter is short and monotonous, not unlike that of a Corn- Bunting) he observes : " It is frequently caged in all parts of the country, and the bird is kept in darkness by several layers of cloth wrapped round the cage ; the custom being to wrap an additional cover round the cage every year. In this state it sings very sweetly, and learns to imitate most exactly the notes of various other birds, and of animals, such as the yelping of a dog, the mewing of a cat, the call of a hen to her chickens, etc., etc." Herr Rausch speaks of the Crested Lark as an original songster, but considers that, as regards its adult wild song it is an insignificant and almost worthless singer. Perhaps Herr Rausch, like Seebohm, may only have heard the bird sing like a Corn-Bunting, aud it is quite possible that the different races of the species vary considerabl}' as regards the excellence of their performance. This we know * All eastern race of the Sky- Lark. — A.GB. VuL. n. D3 194 The White-Winged Lark to be tlie case with PyauviotKs Icucotis the Persian specimens of wliich have a fine variable liquid song, whereas the smaller examples found in N.W. India are very poor singers. Judging b}^ Jerdou's account, the Crested Lark of India can be little inferior to the Mongolian or Tientsin Lark, the song of which, though it contains some harsh scolding notes, is exceedingly amusing and in some of its phrases really fine. My advice to aviculturists would, therefore, be, not to accept Mr. Rausch's decision as final ; but, if the}' desire to keep the Crested Lark, import it from India, or even from Pekin, where according to Pere David (P.Z.S. 187 1, p. 390) it is resident and common, as it also is in Mongolia. In India this bird, according to Jerdon (cf. Cat. Birds, E. Ind. Comp., vol. II, p. 466) " feeds on various insects, chiefly grasshoppers, and in default of this food, on grain and seeds." This supports the statement made by Seebohm : — "The food of the Crested Lark does not differ from that of its congeners. In the spring and summer it is chiefly composed of insects and larvae, and in the autumn and winter of various small seeds and grain." It is exactly what one would expect. In captivity it should have soft food, seeds (Canary and millet), also insects, mealworms, etc. Familx—ALA UDID^. The White AVinged Lark. ilTclanocorypha sidirica, Gmp;l. THIS species was admitted into the British list in consequence of a female having been captured alive near Brighton, on November 22nd, 1869, and exhibited by Mr. G. Dawson Rowley at a meeting of the Zoological Society, held Jan. 27th, 1870. It is a common Russian species; and, by anyone acquainted with the allied Mongolian Lark, is exceedingly likely to have been The Black Lark 195 brought to Eugland, and liberated when the discovery was made that (being a female) it had no song. This species occurred in Sussex in November, 1869, and three examples were shot in Kent in 1902 ; in December, 1907, and January, 1908 a pair were shot in Sussex. Faunlx-ALAUDID.E. The Black Lark. Mcla)iOLoyypha ycltontemis, FoRST. A FLOCK of this species visited the south-east of England in January, 1907, three examples having been obtained. About that time it appears that many, imported from the Continent, were on sale in Leadenhall Market. Larks, Ortolans, and Quails are generally sent over in long " runners," which include perhaps, from sixty to a hundred birds, almost as closely packed together as bullocks in a cattle-truck. The jerking open of the door of one of these runners, or the partial smashing in of its roof during a rough sea, would at once liberate enough birds to form quite a respectable flock. No doubt such accidents do sometimes occur with importations of birds, and thus the British list is enriched by man-assisted immigrants. 196 The Short-Toed Lark Family— ALAl'DID.-Ji. The Short-Toed Lark. Ciila)idixlla bnuhydaityla, LEISL. HOWARD SAUNDERS admits that this species has been "justifiably placed in the geuus Calandrclla, characterized by the absence of crest, a stout conical bill, straight and short hind-toe, and infinitesimal bastard primary." I, therefore, see no advantage in continuing to call it Alaiida. Inhabits Southern Europe in summer and is resident in Spain and Portugal, as well as the Canaries and North-west Africa ; in winter it occurs in North-east Africa and southward as far as xAbyssinia ; eastward it breeds in Persia, Turkestan, and North-west India. To Great Britain the Short-toed Lark is a rare straggler, about nine authenticated instances of its occurrence in England having been recorded, si.x of them in autumn, one in April, and one in July : of these one was obtained on the Scilly Islands, one in Hampshire, four in Sussex, one in Cambridge, and one in Shropshire: in 1890 one caught near Portsmouth was exhibited at the Crystal Palace. In 1904, a female was caught on the Outer Hebrides, and it has occurred once in Ireland. The general colouring of the male in breeding-plumage is pale rufous or sand3'-browu, with dark brown centres to the feathers ; the central tail-feathers are smoky-brown, the remainder blackish, but the two outer feathers have pale huffish patches, similar to the white patches on the tail of the Sky-Lark ; a white superciliary streak; under parts white, suffused with pale buff on the breast and flanks ; a few dark streaks on the sides of tlie neck ; bill dark brown, paler below ; feet j^ellowish horn-brown ; iris hazel. The female resembles the male in plumage, but is peculiar in having both wing and tail longer than in the male. The young have all the feathers of the upper parts tipped and bordered with buff. After the autumn moult the plumage is redder. Colonel Irby ("Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar") says:— "On the Andalucian side. of the Straits the spring arrival commences about the middle of March, and the passage continues for a month later, at which time nests with eggs may be found near Gibraltar. Excessively abundant, as above stated, in / cc Thk Short-Toro Lark 197 the same situations as the Cahuidra ; they prefer falhnv i^round, nesting under shelter of some clod or in au}' sliglit depression of the ground. I never could find the nest, except by putting the old l)ird off." Howard Saunders says: — "During the breeding-season the liird frequents dry and sandy soil, and plains where the herbage is somewhat scanty ; while its tameuess is such as often to cause difficult}' in shooting a specimen for identification withoiit blowing it to pieces, and I have seen a bird cut down with a whip in the road. The male utters his short and feeble song while perched on some clod or low wall, or during a brief, undulating, and somewhat jerk}' flight. In autumn and winter large flocks are formed." The season of nidification, as Seebohm has pointed out, of the Short-toed Lark varies, commencing at dates decided by the conditions of climate in the countries where it spends its summer ; in the warmer regions it begins as early as April, whilst in colder countries nesting operations may be delayed until June. The nest, like that of all its allies, is in a slight depression on the ground, sometimes barely sheltered by irregularities of the soil, but frequently as with other Larks, placed amongst grass or partly sheltered by a bush. It is of the ordinary type, and consists of grass-bents, rootlets, down, and sometimes feathers with a few hairs as a finish to the lining. The eggs as well as the nest are very similar to those of our Sky-Lark, excepting in their inferior size, and (as is the case with that bird) a nest will sometimes only contain a clutch of three ; but I have always considered it probable, when the normal number of eggs is from four to five, as with the Short- toed and Sky-Larks, that the bird has been disturbed in its first nest and has had to build again in a hurry. In colouring the eggs are creamy-whitish freely sprinkled with pale smoky-brown spots and with greyer shell-spots ; these markings are more or less dense in different specimens, sometimes almost concealing the ground- tint and often with a zone of heavier marking near the larger end ; but these variations are common to all the Larks and might almost be taken for granted. Jerdon (cf Cat. Birds, E. I. Comp., vol. II, p. 473) observes: — "This bird appears on the table-land of Southern India in October. It associates in vast flocks, frequenting the bare grass-downs, and is fond of damp spots, as at the edge of tanks, etc. ; it also frequents grain-fields, and almost always retires to them for shelter during the heat of the day ; from whence it does not in general issue again till next morning." In his "Birds of India," vol. II, p. 427, he adds the following facts: — "It feeds almost entirely on seeds ; both runs and hops on the ground, and has a call-note like that of the real Lark's. Towards the end of March in the south. Vol. II. E3 198 Thr Short-Tord Lark April in the north of India, different flocks often nnite into vast troops, containing man}' tliousand birds, and qnite darkening the air, so close do they keep together, even when flj'ing. Great nnnibers are netted in some parts of the conntr}-, or taken by bird-lime, or shot ; for when feeding, they keep close to each other. On one occasion, on the cavalry parade groiind, at Kamptee, I bagged twelve dozen birds after discharging both barrels, and many wonnded birds escaped. They get quite fat about this time, and are really very excellent eating, and they are alwa3'S called Ortolan by Europeans in India. They leave the north of India about the end of April, or beginning of May, and the}' breed in the steppes of Central Asia, Eastern Russia, and also in Northern Africa, placing their nest on the ground at the edge of a scrub or bush, and laying four to six eggs, usually marked with grey and rufous spots, but sometimes, it is said, unspotted yellow- brown." It is probable that, as with all the Larks, insects form a large proportion of this bird's food in summer and seed in winter. Herr Gatke says (" The Birds of Heligoland," pp. 359-360) : — " Formerly, hardly a year passed without this pretty little Lark being observed here at the end of May or June, even though only in ver}- solitar}' instances. In former years, when more favourable conditions of weather prevailed, the bird was seen pretty frequently in autumn, sometimes even as late as November. During the time I have been collecting, it has passed through my hands about thirty times ; and besides that, it has been seen and heard, without being killed, on an equal number of occasions. I kept one of these pretty little birds over a year in a cage ; it had been momeutaril}- stunned by a very light shot which had grazed the back of its head, but recovered ver\' soon, and became extraordinarilj'' tame. It underwent a complete moult in the autumn, managed to get safely through the winter, and sang heartily during the spring ; but died, much to my regret, at the beginning of the summer. Its song was much more like that of a Bunting than a Sk}-- Lark. I fed it on Canary-seed, which, like a Lapland Bunting in a cage hanging by its side, it used to peel* before consuming ; a Shore-Lark on the other hand, which I had had for over ten years in a cage, never did this." * This shaiild have Ijecu tran.slaled "Imsk" (uot iit-el).— A.G.B. UJ if: Thp: Shore- Lark 199 Familx—A LA I DID. E. The Shore- Lark. Olocurvs alpcstris, LiNX. BREEDS within the Arctic Circle bej'ond the limits of forest- growth in the northern portions of the Old and New Worlds ; on migration it occurs throughout the greater part of Europe, though hitherto not recorded from Spain and Portugal ; eastward it is met with in Turkestan, S. Siberia, and N. China. To Great Britain this bird was at one time only an irregular visitor, but since the winter of 1869-70 when there was a considerable immigration to our eastern coasts, its appearance in autumn and winter has been regular ; according to Mr. Aplin, specimens have visited us on the northward migration in spring as late as April 22nd. On the eastern coast of Scotland it has been met with as far north as St Andrews. In 1906 a few visited Fair Isle (Shetlands), from October to December. The adult male of the Shore-Lark has the forehead, a stripe partly en- closing the eye and ear-coverts, and extending over the sides of neck, and uniting with a patch over the chin and fore-throat creamy-white ; the front of the crown and an erectile tuft on each side of the crown, the lores, cheeks, and a belt across the lower throat and breast, black ; ear-coverts creamy, tipped with brown ; nape, mantle, lesser wing-coverts, and upper tail-coverts vinaceous-brown ; wing-coverts tipped with white ; quills smoky-brown, the first primary white externally, the others with ashy-margins ; feathers of the back greyish-brown with black centres to the feathers ; two central tail-feathers coloured like those of the back, the remainder black, the outer feather with white margin to the outer web ; remainder of under parts creamy- white, becoming vinous on the breast, flanks, and thighs; flanks streaked with brown ; bill and feet black ; iris deep brown. The female is smaller, duller, with less black and no erectile tufts on the head, but with dark centres to all the feathers of the upper parts. Young males resemble the winter plumage of the female, but young females show no yellow on the forehead and have black bases to the feathers of the crown. After the autumn moult adult birds have yellow margins to the feathers on the head and nape. 200 The Shoke-Lark In summer the vShore-Lark inhabits the dry sandy plains and rocky liills nf the tundras, only approaching the rivers to drink. Seebohm says that it seems to be entirely' a ground bird, and he never saw it either on a tree or a Inish. Everyone speaks well of the song of the Shore-Lark, for although it is short and not very varied it is full of melod3^ It is sung by the bird not only when on the earth — but, as with the Sky-Lark, much more frequently when the bird is soaring in the air. At such times it is said to atone for the brevity of its song by repeating it over and over again : this is practically what .Uauda arz'i-fis/s does if 3'OU take the trouble to listen to him attentively. The call-note is described as loud and clear. As is the case with all our Larks, this species forms its nest in a slight depression in the earth or among stones ; sometimes entirely unprotected, but at other times under the shelter of rushes. The nest, owing to the country where it is constructed, naturally differs somewhat in its materials from those of the Larks with which we are familiar in England ; externally it is similar, being formed of dead grasses, bents, etc. ; but internally it is lined with willow-down and reindeer hair. The eggs number from four to five, rarely three (the latter probably not representing a full clutch) and chiefly differ from those of the Sky- Lark in tlieir generally more olive tint. To show how easily this apparently conspicuous species may be overlooked, Mr. Fenwick Hole, in the " Field," for Nov. 19th, 1864, recorded the fact of his shooting a pair, of which he only secured one, under the impression that they were common Sky-Larks. He says "I was only led to shoot at them at all from a desire to try my big duck gun at such small objects on the ground ; you may, therefore, judge of my surprise, when picking up the dead specimen, at my double stroke of good luck — firstly, chancing to alight on such a rarity ; and secondly, firing at it at all." Speaking of three speciniens shot out of a flock of about twenty at Lowestoft, in February, 1865, the late Henry Stevenson says: — "The contents of their crops * * * appeared to consist of seeds of Polygonacea and the chrysalis of some small insect." The food of this Lark consists very largely of seeds, although in the summer insects, their larvae, and pupae, as well (doubtless) as spiders are eaten ; it also devours small mollusca and Crustacea cast up on the sea-shore. Being both tame, beautiful, and musical, the Shore- Lark is often caged ; and of late years, it has frequentl}^ been exhibited at bird shows. Herr Gatke observes : — " On account of its pleasing appearance I have kept one of these birds for years in a cage. The song, though by no means loud, is Thk Shore-Lark 201 nevertheless agreeably Lark-like ; its call-note, with which it cheerfully greets me as soon as it hears my step, two large rooms off, is loud and mellow. Most of the birds are peevish in captivit}', and tire themselves by impetuously fluttering against and shaking the bars of their cage ; this is probably due to the fact of one's not being able to avoid selecting the prettily-marked old males for cage- birds. My example, however, which I have kept now for more than ten years, is so tame that it will take flies from the finger, and even allows me to put my hand into the cage and softly stroke its back with my finger. In the spring this bird will accept so-called earwigs, and in the summer flies, but rejects both these insects as autumn approaches. Small and moderately sized moths are always acceptable, and spiders are received with the utmost readiness at all times of the j-ear. Its staple food, however, is Canary-seed, and as much green food as is procurable. Sustained in this manner, the bird keeps in excellent condition, renewing its plumage every autumn to such perfection that it is in no way inferior to a bird living in a state of nature." This is a point which I have always insisted upon, with regard to the treat- ment of Larks — To keep them in condition the grass and other seed which they freely eat when wild, must be represented by Canar3^-seed : they will eat millet, but they undoubtedly prefer Canar}', for if the two seeds are mixed together and supplied iu one pot, the Canary is all consumed before the millet is touched. It is also no uncommon thing for a Lark to husk ever}' seed before swallowing it ; this is done either by fixing it in a convenient crevice and hammering it with the end of the bill, or by giving it two or three blows in the feeding trough ; but a hungry Lark swallows it with the husk on, and probably ejects it as a pellet later, as most insectivorous birds do. When one considers that, during the winter. Larks would be simply starved to death if their lives depended upon insects ; and consequently that they then subsist almost entirely upon seeds of weeds or grain ; it becomes evident that — to feed them in captivity solely on soaked ants' cocoons, yolk of egg, and mealworms, is in the highest degree unnatural. To obtain good singers of any of the Larks you may either hand-rear them, purchase them when recently fledged, that is as "branchers" (the bird-catcher's term for young Larks) or catch them when fully adult ; it matters very little, only hand-reared birds and branchers will be tamer at first than adults (although even these become perfectly tame in a few months) and, in addition to their natural song, will pick up parts of the songs of other birds. ^'3 202 Appendix Appendix. WHEN I was asked to prepare the first volume of this work for the press, I was already busily engaged upon the preparation of two other books, one of which was published about a fortnight before the said first volume appeared, the other being still in hand as I write. It need, therefore, be a matter of no surprise to my readers, that I was unable, for lack of time, to ferret out particulars respecting all the recent accidental visitors to our shores — some of them, doubtless, man-assisted immigrants, or that I overlooked some extra occurrences of visitors alreadj' recorded in British Bird books. Had the admirable articles by the late Howard Saunders, and by Messrs. H. F. Witherby and N. F. Ticehurst been then published, I admit that it would have been better to inclttde all these vagrants (as has been done in the present volume), but, under the circumstances, it was impossible for me to devote the necessary time to elaborate this subject. This has been most ably accomplished in the first volume of that excellent magazine — " British Birds," by the above-mentioned gentlemen. As one reviewer of my first volume considered me very remiss in not bringing the list of chance visitors up-to-date (though each year adds to the list), I propose to remedv the deficienc}' here as far as possible, though it is impossible to keep pace with the constantly published records of occurrences. Family— TURDID^. Subfamih— TURDINyF. The Dusky Thrush. Turdiis dubiiis, BechsT. O NE specimen is said to have been shot near Gunthorpe. Notts., on October 13th, 1905. Appkxdix 203 The Missel Thrush is supposed to have bred on Stornowa}-, Outer Hebrides, since 1902, and is believed to be increasing in Ireland. White's Thrush was again shot in Yorkshire (near Halifax), December i8th, 1902. The Blackbird now breeds in the extreme west of Ireland. The Ring-Ouzel is said to have nested near Osborne, Isle of Wight, in 1906. Family— Ti 'RDID. E. Subfaniily— TL 'RUIN. E. The Black-Eared Wheatear. Saxicola shipazina, LiNN. A male was shot near Polegate, Sussex, on May 28th, 1902, and on May 24th 1905, another was shot near Hoo, Sussex; on the 9th September of the same 3'ear, a third was shot near Pett, Sussex ; a male was shot at Winchelsea on May 2nd, 1907. The name stapazina was given in error, by Mr. Howard Saunders, to the Black-throated species, which should now stand as Saxicola occidoitalis. A male of the Desert Wheatear Saxicola daerti was captured at the lighthouse (Pentland Skerries), on June 2nd, 1906. Family— TURD ID. E. Subfamily— TURDIN.E. The Siberian Stonechat. Pratincola maura, Paix. male was shot near Cley, Norfolk, on September 2nd, 1904. A 204 Appendix A pair of Redstarts built at Spiggie (vShetlands), in Maj', 1901 ; two were observed in October, 1903, and one in September, 1906, at the Skerry Vore Light- house (Outer Hebrides). Messrs. Witherby and Ticehurst record the following occurrences of the Black Redstart in Scotland: — Solway area, one November 17th, 1899; Aberdeen, one ]\Iarch 20th, 1900; Moray, one October 30th, 1903; Flannan Isles — a female June 27th, 1905, and others on November 3rd, 7th, and 8th; Orkney, a male found dead, November 19th, 1905, and one seen near Glasgow. Family— TURDID.^. Subfamily— TURDIN/E. The White-Spottf:d Bluethroat. Cxa)icciila u'i>l/l, BrEHM. A male was picked up close to Dungeness Lighthouse, on October 6th, 1902; a second was obtained near Hastings, on September ist, 1905. The Red-spotted Bluethroat is now a regular visitor on migration to the coast of Norfolk ; it visited Lincolnshire in 1899, 1900, 1903, 1904; Sussex in 1903; Surrey 1904; Yorkshire 1903; Shetlands 1905, 1906. Family— TURDID^. Subfamily— TURDIN^. The Greater Nightingale. Daulias fliilomcla, Bechst. A male was obtained at Smeeth, in Kent, on October 22nd, 1904 ; believed to be imported. The common Nightingale nested in Yorkshire in 1902 and 1904. Appendix 205 A female Orphean Warbler was shot near St. Leonards (Sussex), on October 7th, 1903, and an immature male was found dead near St. Leonards, on September 1 6th, 1905. The Garden Warbler was seen in the Outer Hebrides, in vSeptember 1904, and in the Shetlands, in September 1905. The following should be added to the occurrences of the Barred Warbler : — two males secured at Woodchurch, Kent, on April 24t]i, 1907 ; one in Norfolk, September 13th, 1902; one near Fleetwood, Lancashire, on August 20th, 1898; a 3'oung female at North Cotes, Lincolnshire, on October 17th, 1899, a second on September 20th, 1902, and a third on September 4th, 1905 ; a young bird on Barra, Outer Hebrides, October 29th, 1900. The Dartford Warbler was identified at Wells, Norfolk, on December 1 5th, 1905 ; two pairs nested near Li^dlow, Shropshire, in 1903 ; and it is believed to have nested near Cannock Chase, Staffordshire, about 1870. Fawilx- TURD ID. -E. 5«//rtw//r— 5 J Z I ILY^. The Sardinian Warbler. Svlviii viclanoccpliaUx, GmEL. A male was shot near Hastings, on June 3rd, 1907, and was identified by Thomas Parkin, Esq., F.Z.S. The Fire-crested Wren (male and female), was shot in Breconshire, on February 27th, 1899. A male Yellow-browed Warbler was shot at Fair Isle, on September 25th, 1905, and six were seen in September of the year following; one was captured in the Outer Hebrides, on September 21st, 1906, and a male was knocked down with a stick at Tresco (Scilly), on October ist, 1905. 2o6 ApPEiXDIX Family^ Ti 7^ DILL -E. SuhJaniiiy—SYL J 7IA\ E. PallAvS' Willow- Warbler. Phy/Iosiopus f^ivrcgit/iis. single example of this species was obtained in Norfolk, in October, 1896. A A good many Chiffchaffs visited the Shetlands between April i5tli and 24th, 1904; in May of the same 3'ear one was seen by Mr. John S. Tnlloch at Lerwick, and on Ma}^ 27th, one was killed there by a cat. Family— TURDID.F. Subjaimly -SYL I IIN.E. The Siberian Chiffchaff. Phy//oscop!is tristis, BlyTH. N example was obtained at a lighthonse off the Orkneys in 1902. A" Family— TURDIL)^. Subfamily— SYL I 'IIN.E. The Greenish Willow- Warbler. Phylloscopiis viridaiius, Blvth. T his bird was obtained in Lincolnshire, on September 5th, 1896; a second struck Sule Skerry Lighthouse (Siitherlandshire), on September 5th, 1902. Appendix 207 Two nests of the couiinou Willow-Warbler were fouud and others were seen building in the Shetlauds in May, 1901. The Wood- Warbler was heard on the Isle of Man, in May 1901 and 1905. Fnmtlx - TL ^RDID. E. Sii/^/,u>n/\—S J Z J VLV. E. The Rufous Warbler. Aidon (^alcnimAs, Temm. 'HIS rare species has occurred in Sussex and Devon in the autumn. T Family— TURDID.E. Siih/auiilySYL I IIN^E. The Grey-Backed Warbler. Acdoii fnmiliaris. male was shot at Hythe, Kent, on July 15th, 1907. A Family - TURD ID ^. Subfamily— SYL I IIN^. Radde's Bush-Warbler. Lusciniola sckwarzi, Radde. A specimen was obtained in October, 1898, on the Lincolnshire side of the Humber, by Mr. Haigli. 2o8 Appkndix Family -- Tl 'KDID. E. Su/ifaniuy—SVL I 'ILWF. Cetti'vS Warrlkr. Cetfin ccttii, Marm. male was shot at Battle, Sussex, on Ma}' 12th, 1904. A One example of the Icterine Warbler was shot at Cromer, on September 5th, 1899; one at Blakeney, in September, 1903; one believed to have been seen September, 1905 ; one shot at Cley, in September 1907 : and one seen at Holkham, in September 1903 ; one from the Kentish Knock Lightship, September 1903 ; one shot near Rye, in June 1905 ; one taken at St. Catharine's Lighthouse, Isle of Wight, in September 1905. Family— TURDID^. Subfamily— SYL VIIN^. The Melodious Warbler. Hypolais polyglolla, ViEILL. AN example was obtained at Burwash, Sussex, in 1897 ; a second was shot at Ninfield, on the loth May, 1900; one was shot at the Old Head Light- hoi:se, co. Cork, Ireland, in September 1905 ; the Rev. M. A. Mathew heard two Warblers near Lyme Regis, in May, 1897, and a good many the year following ; he believed them to be Melodious Warblers and that they nested there. The Reed- Warbler was shot on Fair Isle, Shetlands, on September 23rd, 1906, the first record of its occurrence in these islands. The Marsh- Warbler is recorded as breeding in Kent, Sussex, Wiltshire, Surrey and Norfolk. Appendix 209 Au example of the Great Reed- Warbler was shot near St. Leonards, in September, 1903; a male at Bexhill, in May, 1905; one at Christclinrch, Hants, in May, 1900; one seen at Horning, Norfolk, in May, 1906; there is also an example in the Charterhonse collection shot at Godalming (Surrey), in 1858, which had been overlooked by Ornithologists, and a specimen believed to be this species was shot at Tresco (Scilly), but escaped. Specimens (ten), of the Aquatic Warbler have been secured in Hampshire, Sussex, Norfolk, and Ireland, in addition to others seen. Additional records have been published of the shooting of the Alpine Accentor in Hampshire, Surrey, Norfolk, and Cornwall. The Bearded Reedling has been obtained in Rutland, Januar}', 1905, and five were seen near Godalming (Surrey), in 1902 ; one in Hertfordshire, in January, 1905, and it is now believed to be on the increase in Norfolk ; it has once occurred in Scill}'. A company of Long- tailed Tits was observed in 1903 in Lewis (Outer Hebrides), to which islands it was new. The Great Tit has also been recorded from Scotland, and the Shetlands. The Crested Tit was seen near Yarmouth in the autumn of 1888. The Creeper was obtained in Shetland, in December, 1906 ; a Wall-Creeper was shot near Hastings, in December, 1905, and one in Alderney (Channel Islands), in December, 1899. Family— MO TA CILLID. -E. The Grey-Headed Wagtail. j] lot ac ilia 60/ra/is, SuND. THIS race of the Blue-headed Wagtail was obtained originally near Penzance. In 1 90 1 one was caught near Halifax, and in 1903 two were .shot near Willingdon, Sussex. A pair with nest and eggs were obtained in June, 1906, in a marsh between Rye and Lydd. A male was shot at Winchelsea, in May, 1907. Tnr TT H3 2IO Appendix Family— MO TA CIL L ID^. The Black-Headed Wagtail. Motacilla vulauoccphala, LiCHT. A male was shot near Willingdon, on Ma}- ijtli, 1906; it is also a race of M. flaz'a, as are the two followiug. Fa mi ly— MO TA CILL ID. F. SykEvS' Wagtail. Motacilla beema, SykeS. male was obtained at Rottingdean, Sussex, on April 2otli, 1898. A Family— MO TA CILLlDzE. The AvShy-Headed Wagtail. Motacilla cinereocapilla, Sa\'I. T HE first example was shot many years ago near Penzance, and a second at Sheringham, Norfolk (in May?) 1842. I cannot say I have much faith in the distinctness of the above, even as sub- species, from M. /lava, but the tendency amongst Ornithologists nowadaj'S is to split hairs; if it amuses them I do not object. Appendix 211 The Tree-Pipit occurs at Fair Isle, Shetlands, as a bird of spring and autumn passage, according to W. E. Clarke ; it has been observed on Scilly in the autumn. A male of the Red-throated Pipit was shot in Achill, co. Mayo, on May 26th, 1895 ; a second in co. Donegal, on August 9th, 1898, but the latter was considered doubtful ; a young female was obtained at Ninfield (Sussex), on November 26th, 1901. In 1903 four Tawny Pipits were shot in September, at Rye Harbour (Sussex), and a pair on the August following ; another was shot, on the following month at Bexhill ; a female was caught at Yarmouth, in October 1897, and a male at Bodmin (Cornwall), in September 1899. Richard's Pipit has also been met with in Cornwall, North Wales, Scilly and Kentish Knock. A good many occurrences of the Water- Pipit have been recorded : — one from Freshwater (Isle of Wight), in September 1865 ; one in Scill3% May 1903 ; one at Milcomb (Oxford), March 1903 ; one in Norfolk, January 1905 ; one at Littlestone (Kent), 1906, and altogether over a score in Sussex. Index of Birds. 213 Index of Birds. Those marked thus *, not being recognized as British Birds, are not figured. Vol. page Acatithis cannahina .. . . ii 85 Acanthis Jlavirostris .. . . ii 81 Acanihis linaria ii 73 Acantliis rufescens ii 77 Accentor collaris i 133 Accentor modularis .. .. i 129 Acredula caudata i 145 Acrocephalus aq^iaticus .. i 120 Acrocephalus paliistris .. . . i 1 1 1 Acrocephalus phragmitis .. i 116 Acrocephalus itreperus . . i 107 * Acrocephalus turdoides. . .. i 115 *Aedon familiaris ii 207 *Aedon galactodes ii 207 *Aidon galactodes i 105 Alauda arborea ii 188 Alauda arvensis ii 183 Alauda crislata ii 191 Alpine Accentor i 133 •American Robin i 28 Ampelis garrulus ii 18 Anthus campestris i 201 *Anthus cervinus i 201 Anthus obscurus i 207 Anthiis pratensis i 196 Anthus richardi i 204 * Anthus spipoletta i 207 Anthus trivialis i 193 Aquatic Warbler i 120 *Ashy-Headed Wagtail.. .. ii 210 Barred Warbler . . . . i 77 Bearded Reedling i 141 Blackbird i 19 Blackcap i 69 Black Redstart i 44 •Black-Throated Thrush .. i 27 •Black-Throated Wheatear i 33 Vol. n. Vol. /xist *Black-Eared Wheatear .. ii 203 Black-Headed Bunting . . ii 106 *Black-Headed Wagtail .. ii 210 *Black Lark ii 195 Blue-Headed Wagtail . . . . i 186 Blue-Tit i 158 Brambling ii 102 *Brandt's Siberian Bunting ii 125 Bullfinch ii 57 Calandrella brachydactyla . . ii 196 CaUarius lapponicus ■ . . . ii 130 * Calliope camtschatkensis .. i 128 Carduelis elegans ii 69 *Carpodacus erythrinus . . . . ii 60 Carrion-Crow ii 171 Certhia familiaris i 173 *Cettia cettii ii 208 *Cetti's Warbler ii 20S Chaffiuch . . . . ii 97 Chelidon urbica ii 35 ChiffchaflF i 96 Chough ii 148 Chrysomitris citrinella . . ii 68 Chrysoinitiis spmus .. . . ii 65 Cinclus aquaticus i 137 Cirl Bunting ii 117 ♦Citril Finch ii 68 Coal-Tit i 151 *Coccothraustes vulgaris . . ii 46 Common Crossbill . . . . ii 52 Corn-Bunting li 109 Corvus corax ii 167 Corvus comix ii 175 Conius corone ii 171 Coitus frugilegus ii 17S Corvus monedula ii 162 Cotile riparia . ■ Crested Lark . . Crested Tit Cyanecula suecica *Cyanecula wolfi Vol. page ■ ii 38 ii 191 i 162 . i 48 . ii 204 Dartford Warbler Daulias luscinia *Daulias philomela i •Desert Wheatear Dipper •Dusky Thrush i *Emberiza aureola ii * Emberiza da ii *Emberiza cioides ii Emberiza cirlus ii Emberiza citrinella . . . . ii Emberiza hortulana . . . . ii Emberiza melanocephala . . ii Emberiza miliaria .. .. ii * Emberiza pusilla ii * Emberiza rustica ii Etnbtriza schaniclits . . . . ii Erithacus rubecula i 81 56 204 il 137 202 117 124 125 117 112 121 106 109 126 125 126 52 Fieldfare i 14 Fire-Crested Wren . . . . i 88 Eringilla cablets ii 97 Fringilla montifringilla . ■ ii 102 Garden Warbler i 72 Garrulus glandarius . . . . ii 155 Golden-Crested Wren . . . . i 84 Golden Oriole ii 2 Goldfinch ii 69 Grasshopper Warbler .. .. i 122 Great Grey Shrike .. . . ii 6 I 3 214 Index of Birds Vol pane •Greater Nightingale . . . . ii 204 •Great Reed- Warbler .. .. i 115 Great Tit i i47 Greenfinch ii 43 •Greenish Willow- Warbler . . ii 206 •Grey-Backed Warbler . . . . ii 207 •Grey-Headed Wagtail . . . . ii 209 Grey Wagtail i i8j Hawfinch ii 46 Hedge-Sparrow i 129 Hirundo tustica ii 32 *Hinindo rufula ii 35 Hooded Crow ii 175 House-Sparrow ii 89 *Hypolais icteiina i lob *Hypo!ais polyglotta .. . . ii 208 •Icterine Warbler i 106 •Isabelline Wheatear . . . . i 32 Jackdaw ii 162 Jay ii 155 Lanius collurio Laiiius excubitor * Lanius minor * Lanius nubicus Lanius pomeranus Lapland Bunting •Lesser Grey Shrike Lesser Redpoll Lesser Whitethroat Ligurinus chloris Linnet •Little Bunting Locustella luscinioides . . Locustella narvia Long-Tailed Tit Loxia bifasciala Loxia curvirostra 'Lusciniola schwarzi Magpie ii Marsh-Tit i Marsh-Warbler i Martin ii •Masked Shrike ii Meadow.Pipit i •Meadow Bunting ii Mealy Redpoll ii *Melanocorypha sibirica . . ii *Melanocorypha yeltoniensis . . ii •Melodious Warbler . . ii Missel Thrush i 9 6 9 16 13 ■30 9 77 55 43 85 126 126 122 145 5a ii 28 Nightingale i 56 Nucifraga caryocaiactes .. ii 151 Nutcracker ii 151 Nuthatch . . i 165 Oiiolus galbula ii 2 "Orphean Warbler i 68 Ortolan Bunting ii 121 Otocoiys alpcstris ii 199 •Pallas' Willow-Warbler .. ii 206 Panurus biarmicus .. .. i 141 Pal us alcr i 151 Paitis ccrruieus i 158 Parus cristatus i 162 Parus major . . i 147 Parus palustris i 154 Passer domesticus ii 89 Passer tnotitanus ii 93 Pastor roseus ii 143 * Phylloscopus proreguhis . . ii 206 Phylloscopus rufus i 96 Phylloscopus sibilatrix.. .. i 102 Phylloscop2is superciliosus . . i 92 'Phylloscopus tristis .. . . ii 206 Phylloscopus tivchilus .. .. i 99 * Phylloscopus viridanus.. •• ii 206 Pica rustica ii 159 Tied Flycatcher ii 25 Pied Wagtail i 177 •Pine Grosbeak ii 56 Plectrophenax nivalis .. . . ii 134 * Pratincola maura ii 203 Pratincola riibetra i 33 Pratincola rubicola .. ■ ■ i 37 *Pyrrhula enucleator .. . . ii 56 Pynhula europa:a ii 57 Pytrhocorax graculus .. .. ii 148 •Radde's Bush-Warbler Raven Red Backed Shrike Red-Breasted Flycatcher Redbreast •Red-Rumped Swallow Red-Spotted Bluethroat Redstart •Red-Throated Pipit . . Redwing Reed-Bunting Reed-Warbler Rcgulus cristatus . . Regulus ignicapillus . . Richard's Pipit Ring-Ouzel Rock-Pipit •Rock-Thrush Rook Rose-Coloured Starling *Rub3'-Throated Warbler •Rufous Warbler .. •Rufous Warbler . . •Rustic Bunting Ruticilla phcunicut us . . Ruticilla titys Sand-Martin ii •Sardinian Warbler .. .. ii Savi's Warbler i Saxicola cenanthe i *Saxicola dcserti i *Saxicola isabellina . . . . i *Sa.xicola stapazina . . . . i * Saxicola stapazina . . . . ii •Scarlet Rose-Finch . . . ii Sedge-Warbler i Serin ii Seiinus hortutanus .. .. ii Shore-Lark ii Short-Toed Lark ii •Siberian Chiffchaff . . . . ii •Siberian Ground Thrush .. i •Siberian Stonechal . . . . ii Siskin ii Sitta cassia i Sky-Lark ii Snow-Bunting ii •Snow-Finch ii Song Thrush i Spotted Flycatcher . . . . ii Starling ii Page 207 167 9 28 52 35 48 40 201 1 1 126 107 84 88 204 25 207 28 178 '43 128 207 105 '25 40 44 38 205 126 29 33 32 33 203 60 116 61 61 199 196 206 28 203 65 165 183 134 I "5 7 21 ■39 Index of Birds. 215 Vol. piige Stouechat i 37 Sluinus vulgaris ii 139 Swallow ii 32 *Sykes' Wagtail ii 210 Sylvia atricapilla i 69 Sylvia cinerea i 62 Sylvia curruca i 65 Sylvia hortensis i 72 *Sylvia melanocephala . . . . ii 205 Sylvia nisona i 77 *Sylvia orphea i 68 Sylvia undaia i 81 Tawny Pipit i 201 *7 ichodroma muraria .. .. i 176 Tree-Creeper i 173 Tree- Pipit i 193 Tree-Sparrow ii 93 Tros^lodytes parvulus . . *Tuydus atrigularis *Turdus dubius Turdus iliacus 1 Urdus viciula *Turdus migratorius 7 Urdus music'us Turdus pilaris *'l Urdus sibiiicus Turdus torquatus . . Turdus vatius Turdus viscivorus .. Twite Two-Barred Crossbill .. •Wall-Creeper *\Vater- Pipit Waxwini' i Vol. page 169 27 11 2G2 II 19 28 7 14 28 25 17 3 ii 81 ii 50 176 207 ii 18 Wheatear Wliincliat *White-Spotte(l Bluethroat. . White's Thrush Whitethroat White Wagtail •White-Winged Lark .. ., Willow Warl)ler Woodchat Shrike Wood-Lark Wood Warbler Wren I. page 29 33 204 17 62 181 194 99 13 188 102 169 *YelIow-Breasted Bunting .. ii 117 Yellow-Browed Warbler .. i 92 Yellow- Bunting ii 112 Yellow Wagtail i 189 2l6 Index of Egg Plates. Index of Egg Plates. Fig. Bearded Reedling . . . . 68 Blackbird lo-iy Blackcap 3S-41-64 Blue-Headed Wagtail . . 94 Blue Tit 78-81 Branibling .. .. 156-157 Bullfinch 174-179 Carrion Crow . . . . 233-236 Chaffinch 148-155 Chiffchaff 49-51 Chough 214-215 Cirl Bunting . . . . 96-97 Coal-Tit 73-75 Corn-Bunting . . . . 181-187 Crested Tit 82 Crossbill 180 Dartford Warbler . . . . 45 Dipper 70 Garden Warbler .. ..42-44 Golden-Crested Wren ..46-48 Golden Oriole 103 Goldfinch 129-130 Grasshopper Warbler . . 63 Great Tit 71-72 Greenfinch .. .. 120-125 Grey Wagtail 93 PI. Vol 11 iii iii V 2 V 2 vii 2 iv 2 ii I vi 2 V 2 iii I V 2 iii I V 2 ii I ii I ii I ii I iii 1 iv 2 ii I ii I iv 2 iii I Fig. Hawfinch 126-128 Hedge-Sparrow .. ..65-67 Hooded Crow . . . . 237-240 House-Sparrow . . 132-143 Jackdaw 222-228 Jay 216-217 Lesser Whitethroat ••35-37 Linnet 158-167 Long-Tailed Tit . . . . 69 Magpie 218-221 Marsh-Tit 76-77 Marsh Warbler .. ..58-60 Martin 117 Meadow-Pipit loi Missel Thrush . . . . 1-4 Nightingale 29-31 Nuthatch 83 84 Pied Fl5xatcher .. .. no Pied Wagtail 91 Raven 229-232 Red-Backed Shrike 104 loS Redbreast 25-28 Redpoll 168-17 1 Redstart 24 Reed-Bunting .. .. 198-206 Reed Warbler 56-57 PI. Vol IV 2 ii 1 vii 2 iv 2 vi 2 vi 2 ii I V 2 ii I vi 2 iii I ii I iv 2 iii I i I i I iii I iii I iii I vii 2 iii I i I V 2 I vi 2 ii I Fig. Ring Ouzel 18-19 Rock-Pipit 102 Rook 241-244 Sand-Martin .. •• 118-119 Sedge-Warbler .. ..61-62 Siskin 131 Snow-Bunting.. .. 207-209 Song Thrush 5-9 Spotted Flycatcher 111-113 Starling 210-213 Stonechat 21-22 Swallow 114-116 Tree Creeper 88-90 Tree Pipit 97-100 Tree Sparrow .. .. 144 147 Twite 172-173 Wheatear 20 Whinchat 23 Whitethroat .. .. ■■32-34 White Wagtail 92 Willow Warbler ■■ ■.52-54 Woodchat Shrike .. .. log Wood-Warbler 55 Wren 85-87 Yellow Bunting .. 188-195 Yellow Wagtail .. ..95-96 PI. Vol 1 I iii 1 vii 2 iv 2 ii I iv a vi 2 i 1 iii I vi 2 i I iv 2 iii I iii I iv 2 V 2 i I i I ii I iii I ii I iii I ii I iii I V I iii I FINIS. BRUMBY & CtARKE. LTD., PRINTERS. HULI, AND LONDON- :m%